Lahav III: the Iron Age II Cemetery at Tell Halif (Site 72) [1 ed.] 9781575068596, 9781575062846

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POB 275 Winona Lake, IN 46590 www.eisenbrauns.com

Borowski

Eisenbrauns

The Iron Age II Cemetery at Tell Halif (Site 72)

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

In 1965, excavation work for a new swimming pool at Kibbutz Lahav discovered the first in a series of tombs from an Iron Age cemetery on the hillside south of Tell Halif. In 1972, as bulldozers worked to widen the road along the hill’s lower flanks, three additional burial caves were exposed, and in the years that followed, various explorations identified still more tomb sites along the ascending slopes. With the initiation of the Lahav Research Project’s excavation and survey work at Tell Halif in 1976, the cemetery area was designated as Site 72, and in 1977, in company with a LRP summer campaign at the site, another three tombs were excavated. Now, based on further reconnaisance and reinvestigations at the cemetery by Oded Borowski in 1988, Lahav III provides a comprehensive study of the Site 72 cemetery remains. Although the tombs are, in general, typical for the period, their architecture illustrates a significant range of variations and adaptations. Pottery from sealed deposits dates use of the cemetery to the Iron II era, from ca. 900 to 675 B.C.E., and the tomb population thus mirrors the dating of Iron Age occupation on the tell. The volume also explores the cultic associations and customs reflected in the burial processes. Lahav III is the third volume in the LRP series of final reports.

The Iron Age II Cemetery at Tell Halif (Site 72)

The Iron Age II Cemetery at Tell Halif (Site 72)

Lahav III

Lahav III

Lahav III

Oded Borowski Reports of the Lahav Research Project Excavations at Tell Halif, Israel

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Lahav III

The Iron Age II Cemetery at Tell Halif (Site 72)

r e p o r t s o f t h e l a h av r e s e a rc h p ro j e c t

Excavations at Tell Halif, Israel Series Editor: Joe D. Seger Volume I.

Pottery and Politics: The Halif Terrace Site 101 and Egypt in the Fourth Millennium b.c.e. Volume II. Households and the Use of Domestic Space at Iron II Tell Halif: An Archaeology of Destruction Volume III. The Iron Age II Cemetery at Tell Halif (Site 72)

The Lahav Research Project is sponsored by

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

The Cobb Institute of Archaeology Mississippi State University

and is an affiliated project of The American Schools of Oriental Research

L a h av III The Iron Age II Cemetery at Tell Halif (Site 72)

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Oded Borowski

Winona Lake, Indiana E isenbrauns 2013

© 2013 by Eisenbrauns Inc. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America www.eisenbrauns.com

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Borowski, Oded. Lahav III : the iron age II cemetery at Tell Halif (Site 72) / Oded Borowski.     pages cm. — (Reports of the Lahav Research Project excavations at Tell Halif, Israel ;     Volume III) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-57506-284-6 (hardback : alk. paper) 1.  Halif Site (Israel)  2.  Excavations (Archaeology)—Israel—Halif Site.  3.  Cemeteries—Israel—Halif Site—Antiquities.  4.  Iron age—Israel—Halif Site.  5. Israel—Antiquities.  I. Title. DS110.H285B67 2013 933′.49—dc23 2013022873

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48–1984.♾™

Table of Contents Series Editor’s Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Author’s Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Tell Halif—Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii Chapter 1   Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 2   Cultural and Historical Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 A.  The Location of the Cemetery  4 B.  The Date and Architectural Profile of the Cemetery’s Tombs  4 C.  The Burial Population  6 D.  Burial and Cultic Customs  7

Chapter 3   The Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 Chapter 4   Notes on Special Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 I. Abbreviations 73 II. Authors 73

Plate Description Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

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Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Series Editor’s Preface This volume is the third in a series of reports on archaeological investigations of the Lahav Research Project (LRP) at Tell Halif, located near Kibbutz Lahav in southern Israel. LRP research has focused widely on stratigraphic, environmental, and ethnographic problems related to the history of settlement at and around Tell Halif from prehistoric through modern times. The project was initiated in 1975 with sponsorship by the University of Nebraska at Omaha and since 1983 has received its primary support from the Cobb Institute of Archaeology at Mississippi State University. During all field seasons, efforts have also been assisted by consortia of other American academic institutions. Along with all participating field staff, these institutions are recognized in the Series Editor’s Preface in Lahav I (pp x–xi). Support in Israel was received from the W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research and the Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology, both in Jerusalem, and from the Joe Alon Center for Regional and Folklore Studies at Kibbutz Lahav. Throughout, the LRP has been affiliated with the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR) as one of its approved projects. LRP investigations at Tell Halif have continued through three phases (I–III) embracing twelve seasons of field excavation between 1976 and 1999. A fourth phase (IV) directed by Oded Borowski under Emory University sponsorship was initiated in 2007 and has since completed three additional field seasons. Throughout Phases I–III, financial support by participating consortium institutions was supplemented by generous gifts received as private contributions from staff members, subscribers, and worker participants. Patrons and major donors are recognized in the Editor’s Preface to Lahav I (pp. xv–xvii), and the support of all contributors and participants is acknowledged on the project’s Digmaster Web Site at www.cobb.msstate.edu/ dig/. We are sincerely grateful to this very large group of individuals for their participation in and support of LRP work. At the same time, we also recognize that none of the project’s work could have been accomplished without the help of the members of Kibbutz Lahav. With warm encouragement and much material assistance, Lahav’s members provided a supportive and congenial base for the team’s field research through all of the past three and a half decades. This third report in the series focuses on the investigation of Iron II period tombs at Site 72 in the Lahav Forest on the hillside flanking Tell Halif to the south. It embraces work by LRP personnel during three separate periods of investigation. The first was in April 1972 when, as Archaeological Director at the Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology in Jerusalem, I was called upon by Avram Biran, then director of the Israel Department of Antiquities, to mitigate three tombs (T1–3) exposed during efforts to widen the roadway along the hill’s lower slope. The second set of investigations took place in 1977 during the course of the second LRP excavation season at the site. This work, in three additional tombs (T4–6), was supervised by Oded Borowski. Finally, during a sabbatical year in 1988, Borowski revisited six other tombs (T8 and T16–20) along the adjacent slopes. These were among an additional 18 tombs and caves that had been variously identified and/or opened in the interim, some of which were investigated by the late David Alon for the Israel Department of Antiquities (now Israel Antiquities Authority) in 1976. Borowski’s restudy of these six are also included in this report.

viii

Series Editor’s Preface

The1972 emergency excavation work was conducted on weekends between April 5th and 19th with the support of the members of the Gezer excavation team that was at the same time involved in a spring campaign at Tell Gezer. Participants joining me in this effort included Karen Seger and Linda Ginsburg (now Tufts) as Area supervisors; and Anne Arenstein (now Sarenson), Mitchell Allen, and Jeanne Jaggard as members of the excavation and recording crew. Photography was by Theodore A. Rosen. (See Israel Exploration Journal 22:2–3 [1972]: 161.) The work conducted by Borowski during the 1977 LRP excavation season was assisted by John M. Wade as Area Supervisor with various students and volunteers serving as crew members. Photography was by the late Patricia O’Connor-Seger. Borowski’s explorations in 1988 were primarily an individual effort, with occasional assistance by members of Kibbutz Lahav, especially Vered Philip. Photography was by Borowski (See Atiqot 25 [1994]: 45–62). With a few exceptions, this set of Site 72 tombs had all been disturbed either by intrusions for bedouin burials, bulldozing activity for road work, natural collapse, and/or other investigation efforts. Thus, in most instances, it was not possible to apply all of the usual regimen of field methods designed for LRP work. However, while there was only minimally significant depositional stratigraphy internal to the several tombs, careful recording protocols were observed in all instances, especially with regard to architectural details and with regard to the material culture and artifactual data present. Nonetheless, some unevenness in the details reported for each of the several units was unavoidable. Fortunately, the structural characteristics and artifact repertories in these tombs clearly demonstrate their Iron Age construction and mainly Iron II period use. Their study will thus provide a significant compliment to evidence of Iron II period occupation on the tell as articulated in our Lahav II volume.

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Joe D. Seger Cobb Institute of Archaeology February 2013

Author’s Foreword The main goal of the excavator is to analyze and publish finds so that the information gained can be available and used by others. At times (as in the present case), there is a long gap between excavation and publication, but as the saying goes, “All is well that ends well.” And so, here are the fruits of labor of many individuals—archaeologists, volunteers, surveyors, artists, and others. The completion of the following report was made possible in part by a fellowship from the W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research in Jerusalem, where I served as Annual Professor (2005–2006), and by a research leave granted to me by Emory University in Atlanta, GA. I thank them for their support. I would like also to thank Joe D. Seger, Director of the Lahav Research Project, who helped in the preparation of the manuscript and in editing the volume. Special thanks are due to Kibbutz Lahav and the Joe Alon Center for their continuous support of all who were engaged in the recovery of the materials. In addition, I would like to thank the archivists and curators of the Israel Antiquities Authority and the director and staff of the Hebrew Union College Nelson Glueck School of Archaeology in Jerusalem who helped me retrieve materials needed for the present report. I would like to thank the Israel Antiquities Authority also for permitting the use of photographs, drawings, and plates used in earlier publications of some of the materials. There is much more work to be done at the Iron Age cemetery of Tell Halif, and I hope that the day will come when this task will be accomplished.

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Oded Borowski February 2013

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List of Figures 1.1 1.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 3.38 3.39 3.40 3.41 3.42 3.43 3.44

Map of the Tell Halif cemetery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2 Tombs 1–3. View along the Lahav Forest roadside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3 Tomb 1. Plan and sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11 Tomb 1. General view showing entrance steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12 Tomb 1. View of benches and repositories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13 Tomb 1. General view of pottery on the floor of the main chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13 Tomb 1. Pottery on the floor opposite the entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14 Tomb 1. Close-up of pottery group opposite the entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   14 Tomb 1. Pottery group on the floor at back of main chamber below Bench B . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15 Tomb 1. Pottery group on floor in southwest corner of main chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15 Tomb 2. Plan and sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17 Tomb 2. General view into tomb from entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18 Tomb 2. View of benches with human bones on the floor of the main chamber . . . . . . . . . . . .  18 Tomb 2. Close-up of human bones below Bench B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19 Tomb 2. Close-up of zoomorphic figurine in situ below Bench C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19 Tomb 2. Overview of pottery and bones on the floor of the main chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  20 Tomb 2. Close-up of pottery on the floor in the northwest corner of the main chamber . . . . . . . .  22 Tomb 3. Plan and sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  22 Tomb 3. View into main chamber with pottery at foot of entrance steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23 Tomb 3. Bone handles and iron blades (see pl. 9:1–5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23 Tomb 3. View of remains on Benches A and B next to Repository D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  24 Tombs 4–6. General view on the lower hillside of Site 72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  27 Tomb 4. View of blocked entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28 Tomb 4. Plan and sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  29 Tomb 4. Exterior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  30 Tomb 4. Interior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  30 Tomb 4. Interior view of tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  31 Tomb 4. View of late burials below backslope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  31 Tomb 5. Entrance with displaced blocking stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  35 Tomb 5. Late Roman oil lamp from main chamber floor (pl. 10:1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  35 Tomb 6. Plan and section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  36 Tomb 6. Exterior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  37 Tomb 6. Benches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  37 Tomb 6. Interior view toward entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  38 Tomb 6. Cooking pot H77.T6.6, No.1 in situ. (pl. 10:2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  39 Tomb 6. Pottery on floor of main chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  39 Tomb 6. Pottery in northwest corner below Bench 6003 with Rimmon bowl in situ . . . . . . . . .  41 Tomb 6. Rimmon bowl H77.T6.16, No. 1 (pl. 11:5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  41 Tomb 6. Dipper juglet H77.T6.5, No. 1 (pl. 10:10). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  41 Tomb 8. Plan and sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  43 Tomb 8. Quarrier breach, West bench, and repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  44 Tomb 8. Entrance with blocking stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  44 Tomb 8. Interior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  45 Tomb 8. Benches and repositories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  45 Tomb 16. Plan and sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47 Tomb 16. Exterior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  48

List of Figures 3.45 3.46 3.47 3.48 3.49 3.50 3.51 3.52 3.53 3.54 3.55 3.56 3.57 3.58 3.59 3.60 3.61 3.62 4.1a 4.1b

xi

Tomb 16. Raised section in antechamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  49 Tomb 16. Burial chamber bench and repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  49 Tomb 17. Plan and sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  51 Tomb 17. Exterior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  52 Tomb 17. East Bench, Southeast Repository, and South Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  52 Tomb 18. Plan and sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  54 Tomb 18. Entrance with blocking stone at side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  55 Tomb 18. Interior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  55 Tomb 18. Bench with repository at left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  56 Tomb 19. Plan and section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  57 Tomb 19. Exterior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  58 Tomb 19. Interior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  58 Tomb 19. Interior view to the rear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  59 Tomb 20. Plan and sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  61 Tomb 20. Exterior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  63 Tomb 20. Interior view of entrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  63 Tomb 20. Ossuaries below South Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  64 Tomb 20. Beads from Tomb 20. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  65 Tomb 20. Scaraboid stamp seal photo (660/20:5 Obj. No. 67) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  69 Tomb 20. Scaraboid stamp seal drawing (660/20:5 Obj. No. 67) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  69

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List of Tables 1.1. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8. 3.9. 3.10. 3.11.

Tell Halif Tomb Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1 Tomb 4 Locus List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  33 Tomb 4 Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34 Tomb 5 Locus List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  35 Tomb 6 Locus List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  40 Tomb 8 Pottery Baskets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  46 Tomb 8 Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  46 Tomb 18 Pottery Baskets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  56 Tomb 18 Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  56 Tomb 20 Ossuary Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  62 Tomb 20 Pottery Baskets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  65 Tomb 20 Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  66

Tell Halif—Stratigraphy

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Stratum Period Date I Modern Arab 1800–1948 c.e. II Early Arab–Crusader 700–1500 c.e. II Roman–Byzantine 200–700 c.e.  (Gap) Early Roman 100 b.c.e.–200 c.e. IV Hellenistic 300–100 b.c.e. V Persian 500–300 b.c.e.  (Gap) Late Iron II 680–500 b.c.e. VIA Iron II 700–680 b.c.e. ------------------------------------- DESTRUCTION ------------------------------------VIB Iron II 800–700 b.c.e. VIC Iron II 850–800 b.c.e. VID Iron II 900–850 b.c.e. VII Iron I 1200–900 b.c.e. VIII LB IIB 1300–1200 b.c.e. IX LB IIA 1400–1300 b.c.e. ------------------------------------- DESTRUCTION ------------------------------------X LB IB 1475–1400 b.c.e. XI LB IA 1550–1475 b.c.e.  (Gap) MB II 2000–1550 b.c.e.   (Gap, traces) EB IV (Site 101) 2200–2000 b.c.e. XII EB IIIB2 2400–2200 b.c.e. XIII EB IIIB1 2450–2400 b.c.e. XIV EB IIIA2 2500–2450 b.c.e. ------------------------------------- DESTRUCTION ------------------------------------XV EB IIIA1 2600–2500 b.c.e.  (Gap) EB II 2900–2600 b.c.e. XVI EB IC (Site 101, 301) 3000–2900 b.c.e. XVII EB IB (Site 101, 301) 3100–3000 b.c.e. XVIII EB IA (Site 101, 301) 3200–3100 b.c.e. XIX Chalcolithic 3500–3200 b.c.e.

Chapter 1

Introduction The Iron Age cemetery at Tell Halif is situated southwest of the tell across a narrow valley on the northeast slope of the hill range facing the tell (Map Ref. 1373/0879). The tombs were hewn in the limestone bedrock in several tiers, starting at the bottom of the hill and going up the slope (fig. 1.1). The full extent of the cemetery is still unknown.

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Table 1.1  Tell Halif Tomb Designations Tomb Designation  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Excavator’s Designation #1 (Seger) #2 (Seger) #3 (Seger) #4 (Borowski) #5 (Borowski) #6 (Borowski) G (Goethert) Robbed East Robbed West Unexcavated West Unexcavated East Arensburg West Arensburg East Byzantine DA 1 (David Alon) DA 2 DA 3 DA 4 DA 5 DA 6 DA 7 DA 8 DAR 1 DAR 2

Not all tombs in the cemetery have been numbered.

Elevation 450.36 451.14 451.16 458.96 456.87 456.56 454.76 455.18 453.51 456.54 456.51 458.44 459.50 466.48 466.00 465.28 465.72 465.52 466.09 467.94 473.81 474.20 466.15 465.07

2

Introduction

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Figure 1.1.  Map of the Tell Halif cemetery.

The first excavation of an Iron Age burial cave belonging to this cemetery was conducted in 1965 by Avraham Biran and Ram Gophna following its discovery during construction work at Kibbutz Lahav in the winter of 1964 (HA 1964; Biran and Gophna 1965; 1967; 1969; Biran et al. 1970). The cave was found undisturbed and its blocking stone was found in situ. Some of the finds were quite unique—such as a bronze oil lamp (with a loop handle) (Biran and Gophna 1969: 32, fig 7:7, pl 6:1; Biran et al. 1970: 156, fig. 13, pl. 38A) and two iron double-pronged forks (Biran and Gophna 1969: 32, pl. 6:2; Biran et al. 1970: 166, pl. 38B). At the time of the 1965 excavations, it was observed that another cave had already been destroyed during the construction activity and that other cave openings were visible in the area. Thus, the existence of an Iron Age cemetery belonging to the settlement at Tell Halif was reported. A second salvage excavation was carried out in 1972 for the Department of Antiquities and Museums (now the Israel Antiquities Authority) by Joe D. Seger (HA 1972; Seger 1972). This work was necessitated by the discovery of three burial caves (Tombs 1–3) during road construction work along the lower slopes (see fig 1.2). In 1973, Baruch Arensburg initiated an effort (Tombs 12–13) to retrieve skeletal remains from recent Arab burials (Goldstein et al. 1976), and this work was supplemented by investigations in 1974 by Rolf Goethert (Tombs 7, 12) and in 1976 by David Alon (Tombs 16–18, 20). In 1977, Oded Borowski excavated Tombs 4–6 for the Lahav Research Project (Seger and Borowski 1977; Borowski 1977b; 1977c; 1978).

Introduction

3

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Figure 1.2.  Tombs 1–3 along Lahav Forest roadside.

Additional work was carried out by Borowski in 1988 under permit No. 660 from the Department of Antiquities and Museums. The work involved Tomb 8 and Tombs 16–20, some of which were originally explored by Alon in 1976 (Borowski 1992a; 1992b; 1993; 1994). Not all the tombs whose openings are visible have been explored. The goal of this report is to assemble the materials from the Tell Halif Site 72 cemetery in a single volume. Accordingly, chapter 2 will provide a general summary of cultural and historical observations regarding the cemetery’s use. However, since the work was carried out during several periods, by a number of different excavators, and under a variety of circumstances, the presentation of the data from individual tombs in chapter 3 will be divided into three parts corresponding to the major periods of investigation.

Chapter 2

Cultural and Historical Observations A.  The Location of the Cemetery The Site 72 cemetery at Tell Halif is located on the hill-slope southwest of the mound (see fig. 1.1). It is outside the limits of the settlement, in adherence to the biblical custom, which is described in numerous references to burials (for a detailed discussion, see Bloch-Smith 1992: 114–21). Although the location of the gate of the Iron Age city of Tell Halif has not been identified with certainty, there are topographic indications that point to a location at the southwest end of the tell, directly across from the cemetery. If indeed this was the location of the gate (or one of the gates), the cemetery was in a very convenient location along the road that came up to the city from the Shephelah and passed on to the east.

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B.  The Date and Architectural Profile of the Cemetery’s Tombs The ceramic assemblages from the tombs of Site 72 give clear indication that the cemetery as a whole was in use from the 10th to the 7th century b.c.e., and most intensively in the 8th century b.c.e. All the tombs in this cemetery can be classified as Judahite (for this tomb-type, see Bloch-Smith 1992; Yezerski 1999). However, there are many variations on the basic plan, and each tomb presents something different (see the list of variants below). These differences include variations in the size and shape of the forecourts; the size, number, shape, and height of steps; the sizes of entrances; the size and shape of the blocking stones; the number and shape of the benches and repositories; the presence of headrests and of lamp depressions and niches; and the quality of workmanship. These are improvisations on a basic theme in a way reminiscent of variations in the architecture of “the Four-Room House” and its sub-types. As shown by Yigal Shiloh (1970; 1973), the concept of the four-room house involved a basic house floor-plan that was modified for various reasons to produce two- and three-room houses with features derived from the original design. This same pattern can be observed in the modifications of the Judahite tombs at Halif. However, contrary to Stanislao Loffreda’s suggestion that the differences in tomb-types were the result of evolutionary changes that started in

Cultural and Historical Observations

5

the Iron Age I, it appears from the Tell Halif cemetery that most of the types listed by Loffreda were in use contemporaneously (1968). It is of course not possible to determine the reason for all these variations. They might have been due to outside influences, ethnic grouping, special needs relating to social status, availability of family resources, or simply individual taste. Other reasons for variation most likely included topographic and geological considerations. Unfortunately, the poor state of bone preservation did not permit the study of physical differences within the tomb population, a study that might have helped clarify ethnic origin and its relationship to the differences in tomb plans. As noted above, the tombs at the Tell Halif cemetery all have elements that identify them as Judahite, but not every tomb features every possible component. The following list indicates the variant features for each tomb. Tomb 1 (fig. 3.1) 1.  Indirect entrance. 2.  One of the benches is carved arcosolium-style. Tomb 2 (fig. 3.9) 1.  Semi-circular repository. 2.  Northeast and northwest corners are rounded. Tomb 3 (fig. 3.16) 1.  Two lamp niches. 2.  Two arcosolium-style benches. 3.  Two repositories with square openings and barrel-shaped interior. Tomb 4 (fig. 3.22) 1.  Sloping back instead of a bench. 2.  One lamp depression in the North Bench. 3.  Southwest Repository carved into both south and west walls and unfinished.

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Tomb 5 (fig. 3.27) 1.  Indirect entrance. Tomb 6 (fig. 3.29) 1.  Three arcosolium-style benches. 2.  Lamp niche in each sidewall. 3.  Stone pillow on each bench. 4.  Lamp depression in each pillow. 5.  Two rectangular repositories. 6.  Parapets along the edge of each bench. 7.  Fine workmanship. Tomb 8 (fig. 3.38) 1.  Niche in the middle of the third step. 2.  Pedestal-like features on each side of entrance. 3.  Dividing walls between the rear bench and repositories, with a window in west dividing wall. 4.  Rectangular repositories, one of which is bell-shaped. 5.  Arcosolium-type benches. 6.  Fine workmanship, similar to Tomb 6. Tomb 16 (fig. 3.43) 1.  Trapezoidal anteroom with a low podium.

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Cultural and Historical Observations 2.  Burial room with one bench. 3.  Lamp niche with a rim in anteroom. 4.  Lamp niche in burial room. 5.  Bell-shaped repository. Tomb 17 (fig. 3.47) 1.  Blocking method with two stones. 2.  Arcosolium-type benches. Tomb 18 (fig. 3.50) 1.  One low bench. 2.  One bell-shaped repository. Tomb 20 (fig. 3.58) 1.  Triangular feature with a circular depression probably for a lamp. 2.  One lamp niche in the upper part of West Wall. 3.  Arcosolium-type benches. 4.  Round cover (rolling) stone.

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C.  The Burial Population Who was buried in this cemetery? The location of the cemetery makes it obvious that it was used primarily by the inhabitants of Tell Halif. Archaeological comparisons and textual sources (see discussion in Bloch-Smith 1992, especially pp.  147–51) clearly suggest that the tombs at Halif belong to a family tomb-type. Accordingly, we can presume that within each burial cave the entombed were related. Grave goods, including jewelry and other objects of personal adornment, also make it certain that people of both genders were buried in the cemetery. Unfortunately, all skeletal remains were very badly decomposed, and no more definite demographic details could be assessed. With a few exceptions, the grave goods were all similar to those listed by Elizabeth BlochSmith as typical for bench tombs of the 10th–6th century b.c.e. (1992: 75–80, 101, 144, table 9). The Tell Halif tombs contained numerous black perfume juglets, oil lamps, and personal items. No female figurines were found in any of the tombs, but one horse-and-rider figurine was recovered from Tomb 2 (pl. 4:1; see also chap. 4.A). This figurine, together with other vessels, hints at contacts with the lowlands of the Beersheba Valley. Some of the grave goods provide information concerning the economic condition of the population, as well as clues to its relationships with other regions through trade and other exchanges. Most of the artifacts seem to be household items. These include a repertoire of domestic vessels, including cooking pots, plates, bowls, jars, jugs, juglets, and lamps. Since no evidence for Iron Age pottery production has been found at Tell Halif to date, such items must have been purchased in regional markets or from itinerant potters and peddlers (on pottery dispersal, see Wood 1990). However, there are other items present that point to lively trade from reaches beyond the immediate region and more widely into the Near East. These items include all of the metal objects—that is, jewelry (earrings, bracelets, anklets, and rings), knives, arrowheads, and pitch-

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forks, along with a single bronze lamp. There is no evidence that any of these objects, which were made of silver, bronze, and iron, were produced at the site. In addition, some finer ceramic vessels, including Cypro-Phoenician juglets (pl. 7:2) and other items showing coastal influence, were imported to Tell Halif. These also found their final resting place in the cemetery, together with cowrie shells that originated in coastal environments. Of special note are the scarabs, scaraboids, and amulets discovered by Biran and Gophna (Biran et al. 1970: 168–69). These reveal clear connections with Egypt. Although these objects all come from the early burial phase in just one tomb, other indications of connections with Egypt might also have been present in other tombs that were subsequently disturbed, as exemplified by the scaraboid seal recovered from Tomb 20 (fig. 4.1). The assemblage of materials from the Site 72 cemetery at Tell Halif suggests that this site may also have shared somewhat in the Beersheba Valley economy. In her study of the Stratum II pottery at Beersheba, Lily Singer-Avitz notes: “Beersheba served as a road-station for the Arabian international trade caravan.” She adds, “Most 8th century sites in Judea . . . yielded no vessels similar to the coastal plain group or the ‘Edomite’ group [found at Beersheba]. In an examination of parallel strata in the Beersheba Valley sites, however, a picture similar to Beersheba emerges” (1999: 55, 56). Examination of the totality of grave goods at the Tell Halif cemetery thus indicates that the population buried there was not insular but enjoyed a certain degree of wealth expressed in the presence of imported objects.

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D.  Burial and Cultic Customs The disturbed state of most of the tombs makes it very difficult to reconstruct any of the burial rituals or activities that took place in the tombs. However, using the burial tool-kit described by Bloch-Smith (1992: 144 and passim), some observations related to the burial process can be made. As already mentioned in other publications (Biran et al. 1970: 167–68; Bloch-Smith 1992: 147–51), burials in bench tombs involved the initial placement of the body of the deceased on one of the bench platforms. Subsequently, after the decomposition of the body and/or when the bench was needed for another burial, its remains were placed in a repository. Grave goods left with the deceased were placed in the repository at the same time. The existence of an antechamber in Tomb 16 (fig. 3.43) suggests that pre-burial activities were performed there. Preparation of the body may have taken place in this space, and the low podium could have been utilized for this purpose. For burials in other tombs that lacked such space, the process must have taken place elsewhere, most likely outside the tomb. The many jugs and pitchers found in several of the tombs suggest that liquid, probably water, was used in certain aspects of the burial process. Most logically, this involved cleaning the body for purification purposes. Although no remains of textiles were found, the possibility that bodies were wrapped in cloth is strongly suggested by the presence of fasteners such as fibulas and toggle pins (pl. 16:9). Several of these were found in Tomb 20, and although none were found in other tombs, this might be attributed to plundering. Of course, the bodies could have been wrapped without fasteners.

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8

Cultural and Historical Observations

Grave goods of a personal nature were left with some individuals. These included objects of adornment such as earrings, rings, bracelets, anklets, beads, etc. (pls. 16:13–23; 18). These and other objects left in the tombs also marked economic status, social standing, and profession. Among these are objects excavated by Biran and Gophna, including the bronze lamp and the two iron double-pronged forks (Biran et al. 1970: 156, fig. 13, pl. 38A and 166; pl. 38B). Most lamps found in the tombs were likely used for lighting, as can be surmised by the soot residues found in several of the lamp niches. However, depressions found in T6 and T20 suggest that in some cases lamps were placed near the deceased, an activity that might have been part of a cultic ritual connected to religious beliefs. The excavators of the cemetery at nearby Tell ʿEitun also suggest that lighting lamps was part of the burial ritual (Ussishkin 1973: 44–45). The large number of cooking vessels found in many of the tombs probably also served special functions related to the activities surrounding the burial process. In general, the use of the two-handled cooking pots, labeled by Miriam and Yohanan Aharoni as “deep cooking pots,” seems to have been supplemented by the vessel-type they termed “jug” (1976: 76, 84). It is notable that none of the tombs yielded examples of the shallow type cooking pots that were otherwise very common in Iron Age II domestic contexts (Aharoni and Aharoni 1976: 76). Because of their form, the shallow cooking pot is commonly associated with the cooking of soup, stew, and gruel, while the deep cooking pot is mostly associated with boiling, especially water. Although no soot or smoke discoloration was noticed on any of the cooking vessels from Tombs 1 and 2, several of the cooking vessels in Tomb 3 have soot on their bottom. The logical conclusion—supported also by the discovery of many pitchers—is that significant quantities of water were used in the burial ritual, some of which were heated. Since there is no evidence that fires were built inside any of the tombs, the heating activity was probably done outside the tomb. Excavators at the cemetery of Tell ʿEitun also observed that the bottoms of many cooking pots were covered with soot. In addition, they noticed that the ceilings of the arcosolia in Tomb 1 were covered with soot, but that no charred bones were found (Ussishkin 1973: 45). It was concluded that fire was lit in the arcosolia as part of a ritual similar to that described in 2 Chr 16:14 for the funeral of King Asa: “They laid him on a bier that had been filled with various kinds of spices prepared by the perfumer’s art; and they made a very great fire in his honor” (ESV). However, this suggestion is opposed by Zioni Zevit, who maintains that the biblical description is of a custom reserved for royalty (2001: 242). On the other hand, the large number and variety of bowls found in the tombs seem to point in the direction of food gifts and/or consumption. All of the various bowls and plates seem to be for individual use. Because none of the burial remains were left undisturbed, their provenance does not give any clue as to whether they were used by the mourners or were left for the dead. No food remains were recovered to enable any assessment of the possible contents of the vessels. Dipper juglets were also found in several of the tombs. However, only one tomb (T6) yielded storage jars, one of which had a dipper juglet inside (pl. 10:6–7, 9). The recovery of only two storage jars is surprising. However, the discovery of a dipper juglet inside one jar explains the relationship between these two vessel types. Given this evidence, the fact that dipper juglets were found in several tombs where storage jars were not is puzzling. It is possible that in most cases when storage jars were used, they were subsequently removed. This also suggests that storage jars did not play any direct role in the ritual and that, with the exception of Tomb 6, the needed libation or anointment liquid was simply brought into the tomb in the dipper juglets.

Cultural and Historical Observations

9

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The notion that anointment and other substances were brought into the tombs in juglets is also supported by the large number of the small black juglets found in all of the tombs. The size of the black juglets suggests that the substance they contained was precious, most likely ointment and/or perfume. Perfumed ointment could have been used in the rituals and processes of preparing the body, and perfumes could have also been employed by the participants to overcome the foul odors that filled the tomb. The use of spices or perfumes in the ritual of burial is mentioned in 2 Chr 16:14; and the use of ointment and perfumes in the preparation of the body for burial is mentioned in Mark 14:8; 16:1; and John 19:40. Although the dates of these texts are later than the period represented at the Tell Halif cemetery, we can presume that the rituals they portray reflect old standing customs.

Chapter 3

The Tombs A.  Tombs 1–3 (1972) In early 1972, as a result of road construction around the southwest flank of Kibbutz Lahav, three Iron Age tombs were discovered. Between April 5 and 19, Joe D. Seger conducted a salvage excavation at the site for the Department of Antiquities and Museums and the Hebrew Union College Biblical and Archaeological School.1 Two of the tombs (T1 and T2) had been disturbed in antiquity; the third (T3) was intact and contained more than 200 whole vessels and badly decomposed bones (Seger 1972). More vessels were found in Tombs 1 and 2, all dating between 950 and 750 b.c.e. Other finds include 2 iron blades with bone handles, several metal bracelets, a silver earring, and a zoomorphic figurine. All tombs in this group are of the Judahite type with three benches along the walls and two repositories in the back corners opposite the entrance. Displaced skeletal remains were found in the repositories and on the floors (HA 1972).

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1.  Tomb 1 (figs. 3.1–8) Tomb 1 was excavated between April 6 and 15, 1972 (see fig. 1.1). Part of the entrance and the roof above it were demolished during the construction work that led to its discovery. Most of the archaeological work concentrated on the removal of the bulldozer dump (L. 1000) and then on the retrieval of the vessels from the floor of the elongated burial chamber. Tomb 1 is oriented east–west. Unlike most of the other burial caves examined in this cemetery, which have direct entry through one of the narrow walls, this tomb had an indirect entrance located in the east end of its long, North Wall (figs. 3.1, 3–4). Although the entrance opening was demolished, four stairs leading down marked its location. The stairs are 40–44 cm high and 50 (top)–30 (bottom) cm wide. They are flanked on the left (E) by a 0.25–0.30 m wide, floorto-ceiling wall constructed of worked fieldstones. On the right of the third step from the top and 1.  Participating in the work along with Joe Seger were Karen Seger, Jeanne Jaggard, Lynda Ginsberg, Ann Arenstein, Richard Haas, and Mitchell Allen. This expedition followed a previous salvage effort occurring a month earlier, when some caves were discovered during road construction into Kibbutz Lahav on its north side. These caves yielded a few sherds from the early Byzantine period. EB and earlier sherd materials and some architectural traces were discovered in probes above the caves, but further exploration of these remains was not pursued at the time. For more details, see Dessel 2009.

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The Tombs

Figure 3.1.  Tomb 1. Plan and sections.

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12

The Tombs

Figure 3.2.  Tomb 1. General view showing entrance steps.

level with the bottom step is a podium (70 cm × 30–35 cm), which is attached to the bottom of Bench C. Across from it and attached to the bottom of Bench A protrudes another similar podium (40 cm × 25–35 cm × 25 cm). The tomb is rectangular, 5.30  m long from the fieldstone wall to the back of Bench B, and 3.00 (E)–4.05 m (W) wide. The width in the west includes Benches A and C. The chamber is 1.95 m high in the center. There are three benches along the walls: Bench A is carved arcosolium-style in the South Wall; Bench B is along the West Wall; and Bench C is carved along the North Wall. Bench A is about 2 m long and 1 m wide; Bench B has similar dimensions. Bench C is 2.15 m long × 0.90–1.05 m wide. The benches are 85–90 cm above the floor.

The Tombs

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Figure 3.3.  Tomb 1. Benches and repositories.

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Figure 3.4.  Tomb 1. Pottery on floor of main chamber.

The tomb has two circular repositories, one in the southwest corner (D) and one in the northwest corner (E). Repository D is 0.95–1.00 m in diameter and 1.30 m deep; Repository E is 1.10 m in diameter and 1.35 m deep. Forty-six whole, restorable, and partially restorable ceramic vessels were discovered, in addition to miscellaneous sherds. They were found in two main locations (fig. 3.4). The majority lay on the floor in the southeast corner between the steps and the South Wall (figs. 3.5–6). A second group was found on the floor between the two podiums and Bench B (figs. 3.7–8). The finds included 1 two-handled cooking pot (pl. 1:1); 8 one-handled cooking pots with round bases (pl. 1:2–9); 11 black perfume juglets (3 shown on pl. 1:10–12); 10 lamps ( 4 shown on

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The Tombs

Figure 3.5.  Tomb 1. Pottery on floor opposite entrance.

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Figure 3.6.  Tomb 1. Close-up of pottery on floor opposite entrance.

pl. 2:13–16); several red and pink, large and small jugs and pitchers (pl. 1:13–19); 1 red cup, 1 plate (pl. 2:12); and 11 larger and smaller bowls (pl. 2:1–11), two of which have two pinched handles (pl. 2:6, 9). As indicated by the comparanda below, the ceramic assemblage of Tomb 1 is typically 8th century b.c.e. Judahite, with parallel forms at Tell Beit Mirsim Str. A, Beersheba Str. II, Lachish Level III, and Halif Str. VIB. A few forms (pls. 1:10; 2:6, 9) suggest an earlier use of the tomb, while other forms (e.g., pl. 1:5) suggest that use continued into the early 7th century b.c.e. Some forms (e.g., pl. 2:7, 10, 12) indicate coastal influences.

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Figure 3.7.  Tomb 1. Pottery on floor at back of main chamber below Bench B.

Figure 3.8.  Tomb 1. Pottery on floor in southwest corner of main chamber.

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Comparanda Two-handled cooking pot: •  pl. 1:1—Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 11:9); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.4:1–3, 5) One-handled cooking pots: •  pl. 1:2–3, 6–8—Tell en-Nasbeh, N cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 18:2, 6); Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, pl. 5:6–7); Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 62:112); Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 12:22) •  pl. 1:4—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 17:12); Beersheba, Str. V (BS I, pl. 54:12); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.18:13) •  pl. 1:5—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 66:3); Tell Halif, Str. VIA (B&H, fig. 14:20) •  pl. 1:9—Tell en-Nasbeh, N cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 18:5); Beersheba, Str. V (BS I, pl. 54:13; BS II, fig. 22:15) Black perfume juglets: •  pl. 1:10—Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 8:7)

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•  pl. 1:11–12—Tell en-Nasbeh, N cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 21:1); Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 9:19) Lamps: •  pl. 2:13—Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 11:3) •  pl. 2:14–16—Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 10:2–3) Jugs and pitchers: •  pl. 1:13—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 16:2) •  pl. 1:14—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 16:3) •  pl. 1:15—Tell en-Nasbeh, N cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 18:1); Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 16:4); Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 7:16); Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 66:2) •  pl. 1:16–17—Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 6:9) •  pl. 1:18—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 76:14) •  pl. 1:19—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, pl. 5:5; BGG, fig. 7:14) Plate: •  pl. 2:12—Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.12:6) Bowls: •  pl. 2:1—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 21:8) •  pl. 2:2—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 21:14); Beersheba, Str. III (BS I, pl. 56:10) •  pl. 2:3—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 24:15) •  pl. 2:4—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 59:55) •  pl. 2:5—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 24:14) •  pl. 2:7—Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 4:6); Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 11:17) •  pl. 2:8—Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 11:15) •  pl. 2:10—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 25:1) •  pl. 2:11—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pls. 24:6; 25:11) •  pl. 2:6, 9—These two have two pinched handles: (BS II, fig. 26:17) similar to two bowls from Tomb 5 at Tell en-Nasbeh (TN, pl. 21:10–11)

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2.  Tomb 2 (figs. 3.9–15) Tomb 2 was excavated between April 6 and 17, 1972 (see fig. 1.1). Part of the entrance and the roof above it were demolished during the road construction work that led to its discovery. Most of the archaeological work concentrated on the removal of the bulldozer dump (L. 2000) and then on the retrieval of the vessels, objects, and human bones from the floor of the elongated burial chamber. Tomb 2 is oriented north–south. It has a direct entrance from the north, with three steps, one outside and two inside its rectangular chamber (fig. 3.9). The outside step is a carved depression 15 cm deep and almost square (40 cm × 45 cm). The second step, which is the first inside the chamber, is a rounded triangle (70 cm × 30 cm) about 50 cm deep. The third step is 18 cm deep. The floor slopes gently from the bottom of the lowest step toward the rear bench. The main chamber is 1.65–1.80 m high. The rectangular tomb is about 5.50 m long (including Bench B in the rear) and 4.00 m wide (including Benches A and C, and Repositories G and F on the sides). On both sides of the steps, on the northeast and northwest, the corners are rounded. The tomb has three benches, with Benches A (E) and C (W) carved arcosolium-style in the respective walls. Bench A is 2.25 m

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The Tombs

Figure. 3.9. Tomb 2. Plan and sections.

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The Tombs

Figure 3.10.  Tomb 2. General view into tomb from entrance.

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Figure 3.11.  Tomb 2. Benches with human bones on floor of main chamber.

long and almost 1.00 wide; Bench C is close to 2.00 m long and 1.00 m wide. Bench B is in the rear between Repository F in the southeast corner and Repository G in the southwest corner. It is 1.85 m long × 1.50–1.75 m wide. The benches are raised 0.85–1.00 m above the floor (fig. 3.10). Repository F is circular, 1.15–1.35 m in diameter, partially carved between Benches A and B and partially in the walls of the southeast corner; it is 85–90 cm deep. Repository G, which is carved partially between Benches B and C and partially into the walls of the southwest corner, has a semicircular shape, with the straight line carved at the end of Bench B and the circular portion in the corner (see fig. 3.9). It is 1.40–1.50 m wide and 1.10 m deep. Skeletal remains were discovered on the floor of the main chamber along Bench B and up to Bench A. The largest concentration of ceramic vessels in the tomb was found on the floor in the southeast corner north of the skeletal remains (figs. 3.11–3.12). Another large group of

The Tombs

19

Figure 3.12.  Tomb 2. Human bones below Bench B.

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Figure 3.13.  Tomb 2. Zoomorphic figurine in situ below Bench C.

vessels was found on the floor in the northwest corner. A few objects were found on the floor below the north end of Bench C. The latter included a fragment of a glass bracelet (pl. 3:19), a bronze bracelet (possibly a child’s; pl. 3:20), an iron bracelet (pl. 3:21), and a zoomorphic figurine (pl. 4:1; fig. 3.13; also see chap. 4.A). In addition to two collections of sherds, the ceramic repertoire includes 3 cooking pots, 1 small one-handled (pl.  2:19) and 2 two-handled (pl.  2:17–18); 5 (one small) one-handled cooking pots (pl. 3:1–5); 3 dipper juglets (pl. 3:6–8); 3 black perfume juglets (pl. 3:9–11); 1 decanter (pl. 2:20); 2 rimmed bowls (pl. 3:12–13); 2 plates (pl. 3:14–15); 3 (one carinated) bowls (pl. 3:16–18); and 3 (one with a disk base) oil lamps (pl. 3:22–24). The ceramic assemblage of Tomb 2 is heavily 8th century b.c.e. Judahite, although some of the forms (e.g., pls. 2:18; 3:10, 24) might have continued into the 7th century. Parallels are found at Tell Halif in Str. VIA in Field III. As indicated by the comparanda below, parallels for

20

The Tombs

Figure 3.14.  Tomb 2. Pottery and bones on floor of main chamber.

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Figure 3.15.  Tomb 2. Pottery on floor in northwest corner of main chamber.

8th century forms are extant at Beersheba, Lachish, Bethel, Tell Beit Mirsim, and Tel Batash. The disposition of the finds suggests very strongly that the tomb was disturbed in antiquity (figs. 3.14–15). Comparanda Two-handled cooking pots: •  pl. 2:17–18—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 19:5–9); Tell Halif, Str. VIB-A (B&H, figs. 11:9; 14:17); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.4:1–3, 5) One-handled cooking pots: •  pl. 2:19—Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.4:4) •  pl. 3:1—Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, figs. 26.4:10; 26.23:5) •  pl. 3:2—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 17:12); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.23:4)

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21

•  pl. 3:3—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 62:108) •  pl. 3:4—Beersheba, Str. VII (BS II, fig. 22:15–16) •  pl. 3:5—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 17:14) Dipper juglets: •  pl. 3:6—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 18:18) •  pl. 3:7—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 18:17) •  pl. 3:8—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 18:22); Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 9:21); Beersheba, Str. IV (BS I, pl. 55:14) Black perfume juglets: •  pl. 3:9—Bethel, Iron I (Bethel, pl. 61:13); Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 8:2, 6) •  pl. 3:10—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 18:9); Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 8:7); Tell Halif, Str. VIA (B&H, fig. 14:27) •  pl. 3:11—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 18:7); Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 12:26) Decanter: •  pl. 2:20—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 64:17); Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 12:23); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, figs. 26.13:2; 26.18:19) Bowls: •  pl. 3:12—Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 11:13); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.3:18) •  pl. 3:13—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 22:11) •  pl. 3:16—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 4:6) •  pl. 3:17—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 24:1) •  pl. 3:18—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 24:5) •  Plates: •  pl. 3:14—Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 11:18) •  pl. 3:15—Timnah, Str. III (Batash II, pl. 14:2) Lamps: •  pl. 3:22—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 11:3) •  pl. 3:23—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 10:2–3) •  pl. 3:24—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 15:6, 8); Tell Halif, Str. VIA (B&H, fig. 14:18–19); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.5:7)

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3.  Tomb 3 (figs. 3.16–19) Tomb 3 was excavated on April 6, 1972 (see fig. 1.1). Initial efforts were concentrated on the removal of the bulldozer dump (L. 3000). This was followed by the removal of ceramics and other objects in L. 3001. Tomb 3 is oriented north–south (fig. 3.16). It has a direct entrance, 75 cm wide, opening into the elongated burial cave through the North Wall. All traces of a forecourt, if there had been one, were removed by the bulldozing operation. Three steps lead down into the chamber. The first two run from side-wall to side-wall (1.75–1.95 m) with treads 25–40 cm wide, while the bottom step is only partial, stretching just 1.40 m from the East Wall toward the center. Its tread is 25 cm wide. The chamber is 4.80 m long (including the rear Bench B) and 4.00–4.30 m wide (including Benches A and C, and Repositories D and E). The floor slopes down from the foot of the bottom step toward the rear bench (fig. 3.17). The height of the burial chamber is 1.80 m at the bottom step and 1.95 m at the foot of Bench B. There are two lamp niches in the cave,

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22 The Tombs

Figure 3.16.  Tomb 3. Plan and sections.

The Tombs

23

Figure 3.17.  Tomb 3. Main chamber with pottery at foot of entrance steps.

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Figure 3.18.  Tomb 3. Bone handles and iron blades (pl. 9:1–5).

one in each of the side-walls. The niche in the East Wall (23 cm × 17 cm × 20 cm; see fig. 3.16 Plan and Section B–B) is located 1.55 m from the northeast corner of the room and 1.50 m up from the floor. The niche in the West Wall (18 cm × 15 cm × 25 cm) is located 1.50 m from the northwest corner. The benches are 0.90–1.00  m above the floor. Benches A (E) and C (W) are carved arcosolium-style. Bench A is 1.95–2.00 m long and 1.05–1.10 m wide; Bench C is 1.95–2.05 m long × 1.05–1.20 m wide. Bench B, at the rear of the chamber, between Repository D in the southeast corner and Repository E in the southwest corner, is 1.95 m long × 1.10–1.25 m wide. Both repositories have square openings and circular interiors. Repository D is 1.05 m × 1.05 m wide and 0.75 m deep; Repository E is 1.00 m × 1.10 m wide and 0.70 m deep. Skeletal remains were found on each of the three benches and on the main chamber’s floor (figs. 3.17, 3.19). The ceramic finds in Tomb 3 include 2 two-handled cooking pots (pl.  4:3–4); 16 onehandled cooking pots of different shapes and sizes (pl. 4:5–13; 5:1–7); 3 dipper juglets (pl. 5:8– 10); 6 perfume juglets (4 black and 2 pink) (pl. 5:11–16); 20 one-handled pitchers and jugs of similar shape but in different sizes with flat disk bases, some with a slight ring base, some with decorative appliqués on the rim and body (pls. 5:17–24; 6:1–6, 8–11, 13); 1 decanter (pls. 6:7,

24

The Tombs

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Figure 3.19.  Tomb 3. Remains on Benches A and B next to Repository D.

12; 7:1); 1 Cypro-Phoenician juglet (pl. 7:2); 1 strainer jug (pl. 7:3); 1 two-handled jug with a long, wide neck and thick rim (pl. 7:5); 2 one-handled jugs of different size and shape, one of which has a flat bottom and trefoil mouth (pl. 7:4, 6); 13 rimmed bowls with either disk or ring bases (pl.  7:7–19); 3 plates (pl.  8:1–3); 6 disk-bottom bowls (pl.  8:4–9); 3 bowls with knob handles (pl. 8:10–12); 8 small bowls (pl. 8:13–20); and numerous lamps (pl. 8:21–28), at least four of which have a disk base. Five of the lamps were located at the edges of the steps along the walls, suggesting by their location that they were placed there to provide light for the entrants. Objects found among the deposits in the tomb included 3 iron blades (pl. 9:3–5), 2 bone handles (pl. 9:1–2), 1 silver earring (pl. 4:2), half of a ballista stone (not illustrated), and a fragment of a bronze ring (not illustrated). The ceramic repertoire of this tomb also indicates a long period of use between the mid10th and mid-7th centuries b.c.e., with the heaviest concentration in the 8th century. Some forms of the vessels are early (pl. 5:11–12) and other forms exhibit coastal influence (pls. 5:6; 8:13, 18). The strainer jug on pl. 7:3 is a hybrid between Philistine and local forms; it is a variant of a similar, unstratified vessel from Tel Batash (see in comparanda below).2 This strainer vessel is a possible indicator for the early use of the cemetery and an example of coastal influence on the ceramic repertoire. The presence of at least 21 one-handled jugs/pitchers (pls. 5:17–24; 6:1–13) suggests use during a very long period. As indicated in the comparanda, several of them (pl. 5:17–24) show similarities to vessels from Ashdod (Area D, Str. 4) and from Tomb 5 in the North Cemetery at Tell en-Nasbeh, indicating coastal influence and an early date for the use of the cemetery (possibly 9th century b.c.e.). Other pitchers, such as the one on pl. 6:3, suggest later, early 7th century b.c.e. use (compare with Arad in Singer-Avitz 2002: fig. 20:J8). Other vessels, such as some of the lamps with higher raised bases (pl. 8:25–28), also indicate use of the cemetery in the early 7th century b.c.e.

2.  Batash II, pl. 11:19.

The Tombs

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Comparanda A selection of ceramic finds from Tomb 3 includes:

Two-handled cooking pots: •  pl. 4:1—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 19:6); Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 5:13); Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 11:9); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.4:1–5) •  pl. 4:2—Beersheba, Str. V (BS I, pl. 54:12–13) One-handled cooking pots: •  pl. 4:5—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, pl. 5:8) •  pl. 4:6—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 64:12–13); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.4:10) •  pl. 4:7–8—Beersheba, Str. III (BS I, pl. 56:8); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.23:5) •  pl. 4:9—Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.4:4) •  pl. 4:10—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 64:15) •  pl. 4:11—Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 12:22) •  pls. 4:12–13; 5:1–2—variants of Tell en-Nasbeh, N Cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 18:6); Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, pl. 5:6–7) •  pl. 5:3—Beersheba, Str. V (BS I, pl. 54:13); Beersheba, VII (BS II, fig. 22:13) •  pl. 5:4—Beersheba, Str. V (BS I, pl. 54:14); Beersheba, Str. VII (BS II, fig. 22:16) •  pl. 5:5—Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 12:22) •  pl. 5:6—Ashdod, Str. 3b-3a (Ashdod I, fig. 37:22) •  pl. 5:7—Beersheba, Str. VII (BS II, fig. 22:15) Dipper juglets: •  pl. 5:8—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 18:21) •  pl. 5:9—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 18:22) •  pl. 5:10—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 18:11) Black perfume juglets: •  pl. 5:11—Tell en-Nasbeh, N Cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 17:5); Bethel, phase 4b (Bethel, pl. 61:13) •  pl. 5:12—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 8:3) •  pl. 5:13–14—Tell en-Nasbeh, N Cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 15:2); Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 8:7) •  pl. 5:15–16—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 18:5) One-handled jugs/pitchers: •  pl. 5:17–24—no direct parallels •  pl. 6:1–2—no direct parallels; both vessels have a trefoil mouth •  pl. 6:3—no direct parallel; vessel has a high ring base, somewhat twisted double-stripe handle from shoulder to bottom of rim, with a funnel-shaped trefoil mouth with a strainer bottom (see chap. 4, p. 70) •  pl. 6:4, 7—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 68:13) •  pl. 6:5–6—variants of Tell en-Nasbeh, N Cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 19:3–8) •  pl. 6:8—Tell en-Nasbeh, N Cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 18:1) •  pl. 6:9—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 16:4) •  pl. 6:10—variant of Tell en-Nasbeh, N Cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 19:5) •  pl. 6:11—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 16:4) •  pl. 6:12–13—no direct parallel3 3.  All of these vessels are similar in function to Ashdod I, fig. 36:18.

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26

The Tombs

Decanter: •  pl. 7:1—Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, figs. 26.13:2; 26.18:19) Cypro-Phoenician juglet: •  pl. 7:2—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, pl. 5:2; BGG, fig. 9:15–16) Strainer jug: •  pl. 7:3—Timnah, unstratified (Batash II, pl. 11:19; see chap. 4, p. 70) Two-handled jug: •  pl. 7:5—no direct parallel One-handled jugs: •  pl. 7:4, 6—no direct parallel Rimmed bowls: •  pl. 7:7—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pls. 20:1; 22:4) •  pl. 7:8—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 5:10); Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 11:13); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.3:18) •  pl. 7:9—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 20:3); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.3:16) •  pl. 7:10—Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.42:5) •  pl. 7:11—Timnah, Str. II (Batash II, pl. 32:3) •  pl. 7:12—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 20:4) •  pl. 7:13—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 24:2) •  pl. 7:14—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 22:8) •  pl. 7:15—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 25:23–24) •  pl. 7:16—variant of Tell en-Nasbeh, N Cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 21:4, 9) •  pl. 7:17—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 23:10) •  pl. 7:18—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 21:9) •  pl. 7:19—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 24:10–11, 13) Plates: •  pl. 8:1—Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.3:13) •  pl. 8:2–3—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 21:8) Disk-bottom bowls: •  pl. 8:4–9—Variants of Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 21:12) and Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 4:1, 3, 5) Bowls with knob handles: •  pl. 8:10–11—these two-handled bowls are variants of Tell en-Nasbeh, N Cemetery, Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 21:10–11; see also BS II, fig. 26:17) •  pl. 8:12—no direct parallels Small bowls: •  pl. 8:16, 20—Disk bottom, see Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 11:15) •  pl. 8:17–19—Rounded, see Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 3:4); Timnah, Str. II (Batash II, pl. 54:2); Tell en-Nasbeh, N Cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 23:4) •  pl. 8:13–15—Carinated with a rounded base, see Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 3:6); Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 11:17) Some of the forms (pl. 8:13, 18) show coastal influence. Lamps: •  pl. 8:21–23—wide rim and round base, see Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, figs. 10:2–3; 11:13) •  pl. 8:24—wide rim and flat base, see Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 10:4) •  pl. 8:25–28—wide rim and a flat, raised base, see Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 10:6–7); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.5:7–8)

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Figure 3.20.  Tombs 4–6 along lower hillside of Site 72.

B.  Tombs 4–6 (1977) (fig. 3.20) In 1977, the Lahav Research Project (LRP) conducted its second season of excavation at Tell Halif under the directorship of Joe D. Seger. One of the objectives of the season was to continue exploration of the ancient cemeteries adjacent to Tell Halif. Investigations were accordingly conducted both at Site 66 in the Late Roman–Byzantine cemetery4 on the north side of the tell and again in the Site 72 Iron Age II cemetery to the south. The author served as supervisor for both projects, assisted by John Mark Wade. The work at Site 66 was carried out between June 21 and June 28, 1977. Three locations designated T-1, T-2, and T-3 were investigated but with very limited results (Borowski 1977b). However, efforts at the Site 72 cemetery were more productive, where three additional tombs (T4, T5, and T6) were explored (fig. 3.20). All of these had been disturbed in antiquity as well as in more recent times.

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1.  Tomb 4 (figs. 3.21–26) The excavation of Tomb 4 was carried out between June 29 and July 7, 1977 (see fig. 1.1). Although the tomb was found sealed with cobble- and boulder-size stones (fig. 3.21), it soon became evident that the tomb had been reused and resealed in recent years. The front part of the tomb’s entrance had collapsed, leaving a keyhole-shaped opening (fig. 3.23). The entrance area and the main chamber of the tomb were covered with layers of brown, wind-blown, and white, water-laid silt (fig. 3.22 Section A–A). On and within the silt, several groups of articulated skeletons and disarticulated burials belonging to the late reuse phase of the tomb were un­covered (see pp.  31–32 below; fig. 3.26). Below these, other disarticulated remains from the original Iron Age period of use were found. 4.  Previous work at this site was conducted by Ram Gophna and Amos Kloner. See Gophna and Sussman 1974, and Kloner 1984. For other work and finds in this cemetery, see also Borowski 1977c.

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The Tombs

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Figure 3.21.  Tomb 4. Blocked entrance.

Investigation of the tomb concentrated on two main parts: first, the entrance (L. 4001), and then the main chamber (L. 4002). The entrance area includes an outer ledge, a forecourt, and an entryway that has four steps. The ledge is 75 cm long × 40 cm wide with a 35 cm step down into the forecourt (fig. 3.24). The forecourt is 70–75 cm long × 95 cm wide, leading to the entryway, which is 45–56 cm wide × 54 cm long. The step-down into the entryway is 57–60 cm. There is a 10-cm-deep niche in the face of the first step, 17 cm wide × 22 cm high. The second step has a tread 23–26 cm deep and is 51 cm wide, with a step-down of 30–35 cm; the third step is 22–29 cm × 90 cm, with a step-down of 28–30 cm; the fourth step is 27–36 cm × 90 cm, with a step-down to the chamber floor of 21–23 cm. Tomb 4 is oriented east–west. The main chamber (L. 4002) is rectangular, with a back wall that slopes forward. It has two side benches (N and S) and two circular repositories (NE and SW). The chamber is 2.06 m long. Including Benches 4004 and 4005, it is 3.71 m wide at the east end and 4.13 m at the west end. The main chamber itself is 2.21 m high near the entrance, 2.08 m near the backslope, and 1.53 m at the West Wall. Along the North Wall are Bench 4005 and Repository 4009. The bench is about 1.00 m wide × 1.90 m long, and its height from the floor is 87 cm. Like the benches in Tomb 6 (see pp.  36–38 below), it has a depression on one end although it does not have a “pillow.” The depression is 15 cm × 13 cm, and is 3 cm deep. It is located near the east end at 4 cm from the outer, south edge of the bench. The repository starts at the west end of the bench and is carved into the back wall. It is barrel-shaped, 1.20 m in diameter and 82 cm deep. Bench 4004 and Repository 4006 run along the South Wall. The bench is 0.93–1.07  m wide × 1.63 m long, and its height from the floor is 90 cm. Unlike the North Bench, it does not have a round depression. Repository 4006, located at the west end of Bench 4004, is partially carved in the bench and partially in the back and South Walls (fig. 3.22 Plan). It is 1.06–1.25 m in diameter. Its depth of just 40 cm suggests that it was never completed. The lower third of the back West Wall (L. 4007) slopes forward and is flanked by the two repositories described above (fig. 3.25). This backslope is not a bench but probably the

29

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The Tombs

Figure 3.22.  Tomb 4. Plan and sections.

unfinished juncture of the West Wall with the floor (fig. 3.22 Section A–A). It appears that work was stopped before the hewing of the right angle between the wall and the floor was completed. The backslope is 2.04 m across, and its pediment is 80 cm wide in the south, 64 cm in the center and 90 cm in the north. The tomb in general exhibits very poor workmanship and seems to have been put into use before being completed.

30

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Figure 3.23.  Tomb 4. Entrance (exterior).

Figure 3.24.  Tomb 4. Entrance (interior).

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31

The Tombs

Figure 3.25.  Tomb 4 interior.

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Figure 3.26.  Tomb 4. Late burials below backslope.

During silt removal, several layers of secondary burials were recovered. The most recent one (L. 4003) contained skeletons of three adults. One of these was still well articulated, while the other two were in a pile next to the West Wall. The disarticulated bones had obviously been pushed away to make room for the third and final burial. These last remains were placed on top of the silt, after which the tomb was sealed for the final time (fig. 3.26). Other groups of bones were recovered from elsewhere throughout the tomb—from both benches, in the repositories, on the backslope, and on the floor of the main chamber (L. 4008). The bones recovered from the North Repository (L. 4009) included 2 animal skulls (sheep or goat) and 1 human skull of a child about 6 years old. The group recovered from the floor (L. 4008) and from the backslope (L. 4007) included remains of 3 adult skeletons. Grave goods associated with the L. 4003 burials included beads and rings that seem to be recent Bedouin artifacts. The other secondary burials

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also seem to have been of Bedouin, although perhaps not as recent. However, no evidence was found to enable any certain dating of the secondary burials.5 Below the silted layers, one semi-articulated adult skeleton was found along with a group of whole and restorable vessels dating to Iron Age II. This assemblage was located on the floor on the east end next to the lowest step and the North Bench (L. 4010). The skull was resting on the floor facing the North Bench with the leg bones among the whole vessels. This suggests that the individual may have been pushed off the bench fairly soon after interment. The dating of this skeleton to Iron Age II, specifically to the end of the 8th century b.c.e., is based on the ceramic assemblage found with it (see pl. 9 and comparanda below). This included 1 whole jug (pl. 9:6) and 2 jug fragments (pl. 9:7–8), 2 black perfume juglets (pl. 9:9–10), 2 dish fragments (pl.  9:11–12), 1 bowl (pl.  9:15), and 1 oil lamp (pl.  9:18). Four other bowls (pl. 9:13–14, 16–17) and 2 more lamps (pl. 9:19–20) were recovered from elsewhere in these lower deposits. Although not as numerous, materials recovered from the Iron Age phase of this tomb’s use are very similar to those from the other tombs in the cemetery. In addition to the pottery, these include fragments of iron and copper metal (see Table 3.2). Two of the lamps, which have raised disk bases (pl. 9:19–20), strongly suggest continued use of the tomb into the early 7th century b.c.e. (see comparanda).

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Comparanda One-handled jug: •  pl. 9:6—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 17:12); Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 12:21); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.23:L4) Jug fragments: •  pl. 9:7—Beersheba, Str. III (BS I, pl. 56:15) •  pl. 9:8—Timnah, Str. III (Batash I, pl. 26:12) Black perfume juglets: •  pl. 9:9—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 9:19) •  pl. 9:10—Bethel, Iron II (Bethel, pl. 65:11); Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 9:18) Plates: •  pl. 9:11—Whole dish with disk base, Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 21:4); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.3:13) •  pl. 9:12—Dish fragment with a thick rim, Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.3:12) Bowls: •  pl. 9:15—Whole rimmed bowl with ring base, Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, figs. 26.3:21; 26.42:5) •  pl. 9:16—whole round bowl with flat bottom, Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 4:4) •  pl. 9:17—fragment of a similar bowl, Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 4:4) •  pl. 9:13—fragments of rimmed carinated bowls, Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 20:1); Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 5:11) •  pl. 9:14—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 22:9) Lamps: •  pl. 9:18—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 10:2) •  pl. 9:19—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 10:6); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.5:7) •  pl. 9:20—Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.5:8) 5.  Eight boxes of bones from L. 4003 and one box of bones from L. 4009 were given to the Department of Antiquities and Museums (now Israel Antiquities Authority) in Jerusalem for study and analysis.

33

The Tombs Table 3.1.  Tomb 4 Locus List Locus

Description

Basket

Date

4001

Entrance

S72.T4.1

6/30 6/30 7/12 7/12 7/23

4002

Main Chamber

S72.T4.2 S72.T4.3

6/30 7/11 7/12 7/23

S72.T4.4

7/2

S72.T4.5

7/3 6/30

4003.1 Silt layer below L. 4003 with grave goods, above L. 4004

S72.T4.6 S72.T4.8

7/4 7/5

4004

South bench and material lying on top

S72.T4.7

7/4 7/23

4005

North bench and debris above it

S72.T4.9 S72.T4.10

7/5 7/5

S72.T4.12

7/5 7/23

S72.T4.11

7/5

4003

4006

Three late burials on top of silt

South repository and material within, below L. 4003

7/12 7/23

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4007

4008

Backslope and material above it

Material from the center of the tomb; 3 adult skeletons and material surrounding them

S72.T4.13

7/6

S72.T.4.15

7/7 7/12 7/23

S72.T4.14 S72.T4.16

7/6 7/7 7/12

4009

North repository and material S72.T4.17 within, including 2 animal skulls

4010

Material from NE corner, containing 1 adult skeleton (disarticulated), probably from Iron II

S72.T4.18 S72.T4.19 S72.T4.20 S72.T4.21 S72.T4.22 S72.T4.23

7/7 7/12 7/23 7/7 7/7 7/7 7/7 7/7 7/7

MC

Figure Fig. 3.21 Fig. 3.23 Fig. 3.24 Fig. 3.22 Plan and Section A–A

Fig. 3.25 Fig. 3.22 Plan and Section B–B 1995 1996 Fig. 3.26

Fig. 3.22 Plan

2221 2224 2233

Fig. 3.22 Plan and Section B–B

Fig. 3.25 Fig. 3.22 Plan

2222 Fig. 3.25 Fig. 3.22 Plan and Section B–B 2256

NS UD/NS

No pottery Lithic Obj. 132 Lithic Obj. 131 Iron II, NS Iron II No pottery Lithic Obj. 150

2805

2223

Field Call Analysis Iron II, NS

Fig. 3.25 Fig. 3.25 Fig. 3.22 Plan and Section B–B

No pottery No pottery Iron II Metal Obj. 160 Iron II Iron II Lithic Obj. 159 Metal Obj. 171 Metal Obj. 154 Iron II Lithic Obj. 169 Iron II

No pottery Iron II, Byz, 1 Arab Metal Obj. 192 Iron II, Byz(?), NS

Iron II Iron II Iron II Iron II, Juglet Iron II, Lamp Iron II, Jug

34

The Tombs Table 3.2. Tomb 4 Objects Obj. No.

Basket

Locus

Object

Date

MC

131

S72.T4.4

4003

Stone beads+ metal ring

7/2

1996

132

S72.T4.4

4003

Stone, glass beads+ring

7/2

1995

150

S72.T4.8

4003.1

Stone slate

7/5

2085

154

S72.T4.11

4006

Metal (iron)

7/5

2233

159

S72.T4.11

4006

Stone bead

7/5

2221

160

S72.T4.10

4005

Metal (iron)

7/5

2223

169

S72.T4.13

4007

Ballista

7/6

2222

171

S72.T4.11

4006

Metal (copper)

7/5

2224

192

S72.T4.16

4008

Metal (iron)

7/7

2256

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2.  Tomb 5 (figs. 3.27–28) Tomb 5 was investigated between June 29 and July 1, 1977 (see fig. 1.1). The work was limited in scope. The cover-stone was found lying in the forecourt above the ledge (fig. 3.27) suggesting that it had been disturbed, but the tomb apparently had not been entered in recent years. After initial cleaning at the entrance, it was noticed that the roof had collapsed, a situation that made further work dangerous. An oil lamp (pl.  10:1; fig. 3.28) was recovered from the floor near the entrance. It was dated to the Late Roman period, suggesting that the tomb was in secondary use during this period. This lamp is very similar to one found by R. Gophna and V. Sussman at the Site 66 Roman cemetery at Tell Halif, which they identified as belonging to the “factory lamps” type (Gophna and Sussman 1974: fig. 4:9). This type was prevalent at the end of the 2nd and mainly during the 3rd century c.e. E. C. Lapp refers to it as the “Northern stamped” variety (1997: 56–60, figs. 36–39). Despite the existence of the Site 66 Late Roman– Byzantine cemetery on the northern side of the tell, the reuse of Tombs 5 and 20 indicates that part of the Iron Age II cemetery was also employed for secondary use during this later period. This was possibly due to population explosion or to a lack of resources to hire tomb hewers. On the other hand, since some of the openings of the Iron Age tombs were probably visible, their reuse may simply have been opportunistic. Although the exposure of Tomb 5 was very limited, it appears that its layout is similar only to that of Tomb 2. Instead of having a direct approach to the main chamber in the short wall at one end of its main axis, its entrance is on the north side at a right angle to the main chamber running east–west. Except for the single oil lamp, no other pottery or objects were retrieved from this tomb. 3.  Tomb 6 (figs. 3.29–37) Tomb 6 was excavated between July 3 and 6, 1977 (see fig. 1.1). It apparently had been robbed in antiquity. No blocking stone was found. The entrance (L. 6007) and the main chamber (L. 6001) were silted in with wind-blown material. The silt accumulation sloped down from the top of the entrance, where it was 1.53 m deep, to the back of the tomb next to the West Bench

35

The Tombs Table 3.3.  Tomb 5 Locus List Locus 5001

Description Entrance area

Basket

Date

S72.T5.1 S72.T5.7

6/29 6/30 7/1

MC

Figure

Field Call Analysis

Fig. 3.27

No pottery

Fig. 3.28

Roman oil lamp

Figure 3.28 (above).  Tomb 5. Late Roman oil lamp from main chamber floor (pl. 10:1).

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Figure 3.27 (left).  Tomb 5. Entrance with displaced blocking stone.

(L. 6005), where it was 47 cm. Cracks in the ceiling and the collapse of roof pieces seem to have been the result of root activity from trees planted on the slope in recent history. Tomb 6 is oriented east–west. Entrance 6007 has four parts: a ledge, a forecourt, an entryway, and a step (figs. 3.29–3.30). The ledge is 1.17 m long × 40–60 cm wide; it has a 22 cm step-down to the forecourt, which is 1.13 m long × 70 cm wide. The entryway opening is 60 cm long × 56–58 cm wide × 67 cm high. A step-down of 55 cm leads to the one step inside the chamber. This step is 60 cm long × 26–30 cm wide. It is centrally placed at 90 cm from the North Wall and 84 cm from the South Wall. The step-down to the chamber floor is 30 cm. The main chamber (L. 6001) is rectangular, with a length of 4.30 m (5.50 m including the width of the rear West Bench) and a width of 2.20–2.25 m (4.20 m including the widths of the North and South Benches). Its height near the entrance is 2.03 m, and in front of the back (W) bench, its height is 1.98 m. The main chamber is flanked by three arcosolium-shaped benches and has two repositories in the back corners (figs. 3.31–32). The North Wall of the chamber contains an oil lamp niche (17 cm × 18 cm × 14 cm) located 1.75 m from the East Wall and 25 cm below the ceiling. Soot was still visible at the back of the niche, indicating that the lamp was placed in it with the wick facing inward. The South Wall also contains an oil lamp niche (16 cm × 20 cm × 13 cm), likewise with some soot still visible. It was located 1.80 m west of the East Entryway Wall and 1.59 m above the floor.

36

The Tombs

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Figure 3.29.  Tomb 6. Plan and section.

The North Bench (L. 6003) starts at 2.14 m from the East Entryway Wall and is recessed in the wall, arcosolium-style. It is 2.10 m long × 1.10 m wide and has a parapet on the outer edge 9–12 cm wide and 3 cm high. The height from the floor to the top of the parapet is 86 cm. On the east end of the bench, there is a pillow-like rise, which is 26 cm wide and 10 cm high. It slopes down from east to west. At the side of the “pillow” next to the outer edge, there is a depression 15 cm in diameter and 3 cm deep. This was probably used for placing an oil lamp. The height from the bench to the arcosolium ceiling is 1 m, and the latter is recessed 21 cm lower than the main chamber’s ceiling (fig. 3.32). A small amount of pottery, including a cooking pot (pl. 10:4; fig. 3.33),6 was recovered from this bench. Repository 6002 is located at the juncture of the North and West benches. It is rectangular, 1.04 m east–west × 1.09 m north–south and reaches a depth of 1.10 m. Beneath pieces of recent roof collapse, some bones and several pottery fragments were found. 6.  This cooking jug is similar to those on pl. 1:2–4, 6–8.

37

The Tombs

Figure 3.30.  Tomb 6. Entrance (from exterior).

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Figure 3.31.  Tomb 6. Benches.

The South Bench (L. 6006) starts at 2.22 m west of the East Entryway Wall and is also recessed arcosolium-style. It is 2.10 m long × 1.02 m wide. It has an 8–10-cm-wide and 3-cmhigh parapet similar to the one at the North Bench (L. 6003). The height from the floor to the top of the parapet is 95 cm. On the east end of the bench, there is a pillow-like rise, which is 16 cm high and 8–13 cm wide, sloping down east–west. At the side of the “pillow” next to the outer edge, there is a depression 13–14 cm wide and 2 cm deep. The height to the arcosolium ceiling above the bench is 0.97 m, which is 0.19 m below the ceiling of the main chamber (fig. 3.31). No bones, pottery, or any artifacts were found on the bench. Repository 6004, located at the junction of the South and East Benches, is also rectangular, 1.05 m long × 1.00 m wide. It reaches a depth of 1.08 m. Some bones and pottery were on the floor of the repository (see p. 38 below).

38

The Tombs

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Figure 3.32.  Tomb 6. Entrance (from interior).

The West Bench (L. 6005) was located along the West Wall between Repositories 6002 and 6004. It is 2.15 m long × 1.10 m wide. Its features are like those of the other benches with a parapet, pillow, and lamp depression. The height from the floor to the top of the parapet is 92 cm. The parapet is 8–12 cm wide and 3 cm high. The “pillow” that is on the south end of the bench is not very pronounced, with a width of 15 cm. At its east side, there is a depression, as on the other benches, 14–16 cm wide and 2 cm deep. The height of the arcosolium ceiling above the bench is 96 cm, which is 20 cm lower than the main ceiling (fig. 3.31). No bones, pottery, or artifacts were found on the bench. The tomb is a product of fine workmanship, and it is obvious that symmetry was an important element in its construction. The soft limestone exhibits tool marks of two kinds, one made by a pick and the other by an adze. A sizeable collection of whole and restorable vessels was found on the floor of the main tomb chamber, and smaller groups were recovered from the two repositories. A restorable cooking pot (pl. 10:4) was found on Bench 6003. There were no remains on the other two benches. In Repository 6002, the pottery included only fragments of bowls (pl. 11:2, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14) and platters (pl. 11:1, 4). In Repository 6004, the assemblage included 1 two-handled jug (pl. 10:3); 2 bell-shaped thick-rimmed bowls, each with two loop handles (pl. 11:12–13); and the disk bases of 2 other bowls (pl. 11:15–16). On the floor in the main chamber, groups of vessels were found in two principal locations. In the northeast corner, just inside the entryway next to the step, were 2 storage jars (pl. 10:6–7), with a dipper juglet found inside the larger one (pl. 10:9). Also with them were 1 large platter (pl. 11:3) and 1 bowl with a sculpted pomegranate (“rimmon”) in its center (pl. 11:5; figs. 3.35– 36). This latter is a unique vessel (see chap.  4, pp.  71–72, and Borowski 1995). Another group of vessels was found on the floor next to the North Wall, below the east end of Bench 6003. It included 3 oil lamps (pl. 11:17–19), 1 small pilgrim flask—probably for ointment or perfume (pl.  10:8)—and 1 dipper juglet (pl.  10:10; fig. 3.37). A whole two-handled jug was

The Tombs

Figure 3.33.  Tomb 6. Cooking pot in situ (pl. 10:4)

39

Figure 3.34.  Tomb 6. Pottery on floor of main chamber.

found on the north side of the step, next to the wall (pl. 10:2). Other vessels were recovered from scattered locations elsewhere on the floor (pls. 10:11–14; 11:9–10). The total ceramic collection from this floor included 2 storage jars, 2 dipper juglets, 4 black perfume juglets, 3 lamps, 1 jug, 2 rimmed bowls, 1 small pilgrim flask, 1 platter, and 1 rimmon bowl. These vessels clearly date the use of the tomb to the late Iron Age II (see comparanda below). The two lamps with raised disk bases (pl. 11:18–19) probably represent the last phase of use of the tomb, suggesting a terminal date in the early 7th century b.c.e.

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Comparanda Two-handled jugs: •  pl. 10:2—a small variant of pls. 1:1; 2:18; 4:3 and similar to Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 5:13) •  pl. 10:3—similar to pl. 4:3–4 One-handled cooking pot: •  pl. 10:4—similar to pl. 1:2–4, 6–8 Storage jars: •  pl. 10:6—a hybrid vessel that contains elements present in an amphora from Timnah, Str. III (Batash I, pl. 22:20) •  pl. 10:7—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 66:7); Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, figs. 26.14:10; 26.37:8) Pilgrim flask: •  pl. 10:8—very similar to the “bottle jug” from Tell en-Nasbeh North Cemetery, Tomb 5 dated to 1200–900 b.c.e. (TN, pl. 20:4); however, the Halif vessel is not as convex; probably used for holding ointment or perfume Dipper juglets: •  pl. 10:9—Tell en-Nasbeh, N Cemetery Tomb 5 (TN, pl. 17:10); Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 8:12) •  pl. 10:10 (fig. 3.37)—similar to pls. 3:7; 5:9 Black perfume juglets: •  pl. 10:11—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, figs. 9:18; 11:12) •  pl. 10:12–13—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 9:19) •  pl. 10:14—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 18:5); Tell Halif, Str. VIB (B&H, fig. 12:26)

40

The Tombs Table 3.4.  Tomb 6 Locus List

Locus 6001

Description Main Chamber

Basket S72.T6.1 S72.T6.2

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S72.T6.3 S72.T6.4 S72.T6.5 S72.T6.6 S72.T6.7 S72.T6.8 S72.T6.9 S72.T6.10 S72.T6.11 S72.T6.12 S72.T6.13 S72.T6.14 S72.T6.15 S72.T6.16 S72.T6.17 S72.T6.18 S72.T6.19 S72.T6.20

Date

MC

7/3 7/4 7/4 2072 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/5 7/5 7/5 7/4 7/4 7/4 7/7 7/7 7/23

Figure

Fig. 3.35 Fig. 3.33 Fig. 3.34 Fig. 3.31 Fig. 3.32 Fig. 3.29 Plan and Section A–A

6002

North Repository

S72.T6.21

7/5 7/7 7/23

6003

North Bench

S72.T6.22

7/5 7/7 7/23

6004

South Repository

S72.T6.23

7/6 7/7 7/23

6005

West Bench

7/7 7/23

Fig. 3.31 Fig. 3.29 Plan and Section A–A

6006

South Bench

7/7 7/23

Fig. 3.31 Fig. 3.29 Plan

6007

Entrance

7/7 7/7 7/23

Fig. 3.30 Fig. 3.32 Fig. 3.29 Plan and Section A–A

Fig. 3.31 Fig. 3.29 Plan and Section A–A Fig. 3.31 Fig. 3.29 Plan and Section A–A Fig. 3.31 Fig. 3.29

Field Call Analysis Iron II, Byz Iron II, few Byz Infant bone Iron II, perfume juglet Iron II, dipper juglet Iron II, jug Iron II, jug Iron II, pilgrim flask Iron II, perfume juglet Iron II, lamp Iron II, lamp Iron II, platter Iron II, jar Iron II, jar Iron II, dipper juglet Iron II, jar Iron II, Rimmon bowl Iron II Iron II, bowl Iron II, lamp Iron II, perfume juglet

Iron II

Iron II

Iron II

41

The Tombs

Figure 3.35.  Tomb 6. Rimmon bowl in situ among pottery in northwest corner, below Bench 6003.

Figure 3.36.  Tomb 6. Rimmon bowl (pl. 11:5)

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Platters: •  pl. 11:1—Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni, fig. 26.3:12); Arad, Str. VII and VI (Arad, fig. 10:B6) •  pl. 11:3—a large variant of pl. 11:1 Pomegranate bowl: •  pl. 11:5 (fig. 3.36)—see chapter 4, pp. 71–72 Bowl fragments: •  pl. 11:2, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14—all of the bowls are wheel burnished, with red surface (2.5YR 4/6 [2 bowls]; 2.5YR 5/6 [3 bowls]; 2.5YR 5/8 [1 bowl]) Bell-shaped two-handled bowls: •  pl. 11:12–13—this bowl-type with two loop handles is not very common. Closest parallel is from Lachish, Level III (Zimhoni figs. 26.31:3; 26.57:9) Lamps: •  pl. 11:17—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 10:1–4) •  pl. 11:18—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 10:6) •  pl. 11:19—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 10:7)

Figure 3.37.  Tomb 6. Dipper juglet (pl. 10:10)

C.  Tombs 8, 16–20 (1988) Between January and April 1988, under a permit from the Department of Antiquities and Museums, Oded Borowski returned to the Site 72 cemetery to do research on additional tomb sites. This work involved six tombs (T8, T16–20).7 Tomb 8 was well known to archaeologists and others and had been open for some time; however, it had not been excavated. The opening to Tomb 19 was also visible, and while it proved to be an unfinished tomb, it needed to be cleared of debris. The four other tombs (T16–18 and T20) had been previously investigated by 7.  Thanks are due to the late David Alon, the Department of Antiquities and Museums (now the Israel Antiquities Authority), Emory University, the Cobb Institute of Archaeology at Mississippi State University, the Joe Alon Center and its staff, and Kibbutz Lahav members and volunteers for their help and support.

42

The Tombs

David Alon. Tombs 16 and 17 needed only to be cleaned up and photographed, while Tombs 18 and 20 still contained debris and warranted further excavation. Although all of these tombs had apparently been opened and looted in antiquity, pottery and other materials indicate that only Tomb 20 was reused in the Roman period. Tomb 8 had been broken into by accident, probably by lime quarriers, and was reused for burial in a very limited way by recent Bedouin. Pottery analysis otherwise shows that, like the other tombs in the cemetery, the tombs described here were used mostly in the 9th–8th centuries b.c.e. and possibly also, to a very limited degree, at the beginning of the 7th century. No later Iron Age forms were found. Because of the various other intrusive activities in these tombs (i.e., by tomb robbers, quarriers, Bedouin, and archaeologists) no useful stratigraphic data remained.

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Tomb 8 (figs. 3.38–42) Tomb 8 is located on the lower part of the slope near the modern road, just above Tomb 1 and east of Tomb 9 (see fig. 1.1). This tomb had been accessible through a breach in the west side, while its original entrance had remained sealed and undetected from the surface. Access to this tomb was apparently gained during lime quarrying, which created a secondary opening (fig. 3.39). The miners broke in through the West Wall of the tomb just above the bench. They rummaged through the tomb and then apparently used the Southeast Repository for depositing flint nodules they extracted from the lime. Bones belonging to an adult’s arm were found at the boundary between the West Bench and the quarry site under a layer of crushed, hard-packed limestone. A child’s burial was found at the top of the Southwest Repository in the silt that had washed in. No associated pottery or other MCs were found with this burial, but from its stratigraphic position, it is very likely that it was of recent date. Tomb 8 is a typical Judahite burial cave, built on a north–south axis, with a rectangular forecourt (0.98–1.08 m × 93–96 cm × 28 cm) and a typical narrow entrance (63 cm × 66 cm × 36 cm) (figs. 3.38, 3.40–3.41). It was sealed with a rectangular blocking stone (61 cm × 70 cm × 20 cm). The blocking stone was not big enough to completely cover the entrance, and additional stones were piled up against its outer face inside the forecourt. Four steps lead down into the chamber. The first is the highest, 52 cm high × 66 cm long × 23 cm wide. The second and third steps are each 30 cm high × 75 cm long × 22 cm wide. The fourth step is 11 cm high × 94 cm long × 24 cm wide. The third step has a depression in its middle (14 cm × 10 cm × 2 cm deep), resembling those for placement of oil lamps, but its location seems very awkward for this purpose. The rectangular main chamber (3.80 × 2.00 × 1.90 m) was filled with loose dirt and silted, hard-packed lime. All three benches are carved in the walls arcosolium-style (fig. 3.42), with the tops of the arcosolia 28 cm below the tomb’s ceiling. The East Bench is 1.79 m long × 1 m wide. It is situated 0.94–1.01 m above the floor and 78–83 cm below the arcosolium. It runs smoothly to the edge of the Southeast Repository. The West Bench is 1.79 m long × 0.97–1.02 m wide. It is situated 96 cm above the floor and 89 cm below the arcosolium. The South Bench is 1.85 m long × 93 cm wide. It is situated 85 cm above the floor and 59–81 cm below the arcosolium. At each end of the bench there is a wall separating it from the repository. The wall on the east end is 30 cm thick, and the one on the west end is 18 cm thick at the top and bottom, narrowing to

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The Tombs

Figure 3.38.  Tomb 8. Plans and sections.

43

44

The Tombs

Figure 3.39.  Tomb 8. Quarrier breach, West bench, and repository.

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Figure 3.40.  Tomb 8. Entrance with blocking stone (from exterior).

14 cm in the middle. This West Wall has an arched opening (41 cm × 36 cm) through it between the bench and the repository, which enables access into the Southwest Repository (fig. 3.42). The dividing walls are a unique feature. Parallels were not found in any of the other tombs excavated in this cemetery. The repositories, located in the corners opposite the entrance, have rectangular openings similar to those in Tomb 6 (Seger and Borowski 1977) and are bell-shaped. In the Southeast Repository was found a sediment deposit just a few centimeters deep. Its dimensions at bench level are 96 cm (N–S) and 92 cm (E–W). At the bottom, they are 1.17 m (N–S) and 1.07 m (E–W). The East Wall of the repository is carved 17 cm deeper into the chamber’s wall; thus, it is not flush with the rear of the bench. Its height in the center (ceiling to base) is 1.61 m. The depth below the East Bench is 1.07 m.

45

The Tombs

Figure 3.41.  Tomb 8. Entrance (from interior).

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Figure 3.42.  Tomb 8. Benches and Repositories.

The Southwest Repository was found completely filled with soil. The top layer, made of ponded silt (ca. 8 cm deep), contained the bones of a young person but no pottery or other MC evidence. Below this, the repository was filled with layers of brown silt, white crushed-powdered lime, and broken flint nodules. At the bottom, pottery was found in a mix with pulverized bones. The repository’s dimensions at bench level are 96 cm (N–S and E–W), and at its bottom, 1.06 m (N–S) and 1.10 m (E–W). Unlike the Southeast Repository, its West Wall is flush with the rear of the West Bench. Its height in the center (ceiling to base) is 1.79 m. Its depth below the West Bench is 1.10 m. On each side of the entrance, there are pedestal-like features, one in the northeast corner (68 cm × 35 cm × 40 cm) and a second in the northwest corner (51 cm × 41 cm × 42 cm) (fig. 3.41). These features are very similar to those discovered at an Iron Age tomb near Tell

46

The Tombs Table 3.5. Tomb 8 Pottery Baskets Basket 660/8:1

Date 4/11

Field Call Iron II (7th cent.)

Provenance Main Chamber

660/8:2

4/14

Iron II

SE Repository

660/8:3

4/14

No pottery

SW Repository

660/8:4

4/14

No pottery

SW Repository

660/8:5

4/15

Combined w/ 660/8:6

SW Repository

660/8:6

4/16

Iron II (7th cent.)

Table 3.6. Tomb 8 Objects Obj. No.

Description

Basket

Material

070

Bead

660/8:1

Stone

071

Bead

660/8:1

Faience

072

Bead

660/8:6

Glass

073

Bead

660/8:6

Bone

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ʿEitun, with a slight difference: the pedestals at ʿEitun were carved in a primitive style to resemble lions (Edelstein et al. 1971). The excavators of the ʿEitun cemetery suggest that the pedestals were used for placing oil lamps. Others suggest that the tomb functioned as a cult place (Zevit 2001: 242–47, 248–49). In spite of the deteriorated state of Tomb 8, evidence of fine workmanship, very similar to that of Tomb 6, could be discerned. Pottery was recovered from the main chamber and both repositories. This included fragments of plates (e.g., pl. 12:1), carinated bowls with knob handles (pl. 12:2–3), carinated bowls with everted or thickened rim (pl. 12:4–7), ring and disk bowl bases (pl. 12:8–9), a cooking pot (pl. 12:10), jar necks and handles (pl. 12:11–12), oil lamps (pl. 12:13–14), and perfume juglets (pl. 12:15–17). All of these date to the 9th–8th century b.c.e. In addition to fragmentary skeletal remains, 4 beads made, respectively, of stone, faience, glass, and bone were recovered. Comparanda Plate: •  pl. 12:1—Lachish, Level III (Tufnell, pl. 79:46–48) Bowls: •  pl. 12:2–3—carinated with knob handles, Lachish, Level III (Tufnell, pl. 81:99); Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 4:7) •  pl. 12:4–7—carinated with everted or thickened rim, Lachish, Level III (Tufnell, pl. 80:59); Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, figs. 4:1–3, 5; 5:9–11) Cooking pot: •  pl. 12:10—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 60:78, 82) Jug necks and handles: •  pl. 12:11–12—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 64:10)

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The Tombs

Figure 3.43.  Tomb 16. Plan and sections.

47

48

The Tombs

Figure 3.44.  Tomb 16. Entrance (from exterior).

Lamps: •  pl. 12:13–14—Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 10:4–5) Perfume juglets: •  pl. 12:15–17—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pls. 69:16–17; 72:21–22)

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2.  Tomb 16 (figs. 3.43–46) Tomb 16 is located in what seems to be the second or third tier of tombs in the cemetery and was first explored by D. Alon in 1976 (see fig. 1.1). The tomb is on a northeast–southwest axis and thus far is the only tomb in this cemetery known to have two rooms: a large antechamber, and a small burial chamber (fig. 3.43). Like other tombs in this cemetery, Tomb 16 has a forecourt with a stepped entrance and a blocking stone. Its burial chamber has one bench and one repository. The forecourt is 1.02 m deep and quite large, 1.58–1.75 m (E–W) × 1.54 m (N–S). Next to the entrance, there is a rectangular groove in the floor, 85 cm (E–W) × 40 cm (N–S) and 7  cm deep, for the footing of the blocking stone. The blocking stone is very large, 1.00  m long × 76 cm wide × 26–28 cm thick. The entrance itself is also quite large, measuring 93 m × 84 cm (fig. 3.44). Four steps lead down from it into the antechamber. The first step is 58 cm high. To its right (SW), there is a small niche serving perhaps as an auxiliary step. The main second step is 12 cm wide × 36 cm high and slopes down a little. The third step is 37 cm wide × 16 cm high and juts out a little (8 cm) to the left (NE). The fourth step is semicircular and protrudes southward from the north wall-line. It is 63 cm long × 12 cm high. At its widest point, this tread measures 19 cm. Unlike other tombs, Tomb 16 has a large, trapezoidal antechamber, 3.87 m long × 1.70 m wide (NW)–2.90 m wide (NE). The chamber is 1.81 m high. In the southeast corner, there is a low podium (15–19 cm high) measuring 1.48–1.94 m × 1.25–1.36 m (fig. 3.45). The chamber

49

The Tombs

Figure 3.45.  Tomb 16. Raised section in antechamber.

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Figure 3.46.  Tomb 16. Burial chamber bench and repository.

has one oil lamp niche near the ceiling in the Northwest Wall. Located 1.45 m north of the southwest corner, the niche is 20 cm high × 16 cm wide with a semicircular brim around it. The burial chamber is at a right angle off the left side of the antechamber. The entrance to the burial chamber is through a trapezoidal-shaped opening, located at the northeast corner of the antechamber. It is 78 cm (top) to 97 cm (bottom) wide × 1.65 m high. The dividing wall is 23–26 cm thick. A step 10–14 cm high leads up into the room. The burial chamber is 1.63–2.08  m long (NW to SE) with a bell-shaped repository hewn into the wall in the back (NE) corner (fig. 3.46). The room is 1.75 m high × 1.90 m wide. A single bench is located along the northeast wall directly opposite the entrance from the antechamber. The bench is 2.17 m long × 76 cm wide and stands 51–61 cm high. Though significantly eroded, an oil lamp niche

50

The Tombs

(22 cm × 14 cm) with a raised rim can still be discerned in the East Wall above the bench. It is located near the ceiling, 50 cm southwest of the northeast corner. The repository in the northeast corner is round, bell-shaped, and hewn back into the East Wall. The bench runs to the west edge of the repository. At this level, the repository opening is 1.45 × 1.38 m in diameter. At its bottom, the repository narrows to 92 × 94 cm. On its outer, west side, the repository wall is very thin, 7–10 cm wide, and has a hole, probably created unintentionally, between it and the burial chamber. From the bench to its bottom, the repository is 96 cm deep. Its total height to the room ceiling is 2.10 m. That the repository was cut into the wall suggests that it was hewn during a second phase of the tomb’s use (see also T18). This may indicate that Tomb 16 was originally intended for the burial of a single, probably prominent person and only later was modified to be used for additional burials. Pottery found in Tomb 16 includes whole, restorable, and fragmentary bowls with flaring walls (pl. 13:1), bowls with everted or thickened rims with ring or disk base (pl. 13:2–3), a chalice base (pl. 13:4), fragments of jar and jug necks (pl. 13:5–8), and a juglet body (pl. 13:9). As indicated in the comparanda below, the whole assemblage dates to the 8th century b.c.e. Comparanda Bowls: •  pl. 13:1—flaring walls, Lachish, Level III (Tufnell, pl. 79:16–17); Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 59:38) •  pl. 13:2–3—everted or thickened rims with ring or disk base, Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 59:58, 65) Chalice base: •  pl. 13:4—Lachish, Level III (Tufnell, pl. 83:164); Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 4:8) Jar and jug necks: •  pl. 13:5–8—Lachish, Level III (Tufnell, pl. 84:189–90); Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 6:3)

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3.  Tomb 17 (figs. 3.47–49) Tomb 17 was also excavated by D. Alon in 1976. It is located just 4 m northwest of Tomb 16 (see fig. 1.1). Tomb 17 is a typical Iron Age II Judahite tomb with a narrow entrance and a burial chamber with three benches and two repositories (fig. 3.47). It has two blocking stones. Its forecourt was not excavated. The tomb is oriented roughly northeast–southwest. The roof of the entrance is broken, but the entrance itself was not damaged (fig. 3.48). There is one step outside the entrance proper, while three additional steps lead down into the burial chamber. The first step is 77 cm long × 58 cm high. Its tread is well worn at its center. The second step slopes downward. It is 0.64 m long × 24–28 cm wide × 26 m high. The third step also slopes downward and is broken in the center. It is 52 cm long × 20–25 cm wide × 34 m high. The fourth step juts out 25–33 cm into the chamber. It is 60–74 cm long × 37 cm high. The entrance is 77 cm wide at the top, 70 cm in its center at the top of the first step, and narrows to 52 cm at its bottom at the third step. It was blocked by two stones. A larger stone (78 cm × 71 cm × 15 cm) blocked the entrance, while a smaller one (67 cm × 49 cm × 20 cm)

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The Tombs

Figure 3.47.  Tomb 17. Plan and sections.

51

52

The Tombs

Figure 3.48.  Tomb 17. Entrance (from exterior).

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Figure 3.49.  Tomb 17. East Bench, Southeast Repository, and South Bench.

was placed horizontally over the cavity created by the first step. This blocking method is unique within the cemetery. The burial chamber is 1.85–2.18 m high. Its standing pit is 1.90 m wide × 3.70 m long. There is no evidence of oil lamp niches. The three benches are hewn into the walls arcosolium-style. The West Bench is 1.84 m long × 0.95–1.07 m wide and stands 85 cm above the floor and 1 m below the ceiling. The East Bench is 1.75 m long × 90–96 cm wide and stands 82 cm above the floor and 1.03 m below the ceiling (fig. 3.49). The South Bench is 1.90 m long × 0.97–1.06 m wide and stands 82 cm above

The Tombs

53

the floor and 97 cm below the ceiling. There is no evidence of headrests or other features on the benches. There are two circular repositories opposite the entrance, one in the northwest corner (1.04 × 0.99 m in diameter and 1.00 m deep) and the other in the southeast corner (95 cm × 92 cm in diameter and 98 cm deep). At the corners with the benches, 26 cm-thick walls separated the repositories from the standing pit. Pottery vessels recovered in Tomb 17 include 3 jugs, 2 with round bases (pl. 13:10–11) and 1 with a disk base (pl. 13:12); 5 black perfume juglets (3 shown on pl. 13:13–15); and an oil lamp with a disk base (pl. 13:16). This assemblage dates the tomb to the late 8th and the early 7th century b.c.e. Comparanda Jugs: •  pl. 13:10–11—round bases, Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, figs. 6:3; 7:10); Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 62:112) •  pl. 13:12—disk base, Tell Beit Mirsim, Stratum A (TBM III, pl. 16:3); Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 7:16) Black perfume juglets: •  pl. 13:13–15—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pls. 68:20; 69:16–17) Lamp: •  pl. 13:16—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 15:5); Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 10:7)

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4.  Tomb 18 (figs. 3.50–53) Tomb 18 is located northwest of Tomb 17, slightly lower on the same tier (see fig. 1.1). It was partially cleared in 1976 by D. Alon and excavated completely in 1988. The tomb’s features include a forecourt, a narrow stepped entrance, and a rectangular burial chamber with one bench and a repository (fig. 3.50). The tomb is oriented roughly north–south. It is entered through a forecourt 1.76 m long × 1.33 m wide × .66 m deep. The southeast corner of the forecourt could not be excavated because of a large pine tree growing there. The tomb’s blocking stone (78 cm × 65 cm × 25 cm) was found standing along the East Wall in this same corner (fig. 3.51). The entrance to the tomb is through a narrow 18-cm-long opening, which is 54 cm wide (fig. 3.52). The ceiling of the entrance had collapsed, so the original height of the opening was not preserved, but from the height of the blocking stone, it can be assumed that it was not higher than 80 cm. Two steps lead down into the chamber, each 60 cm high. The upper step had been modified by the addition of a large stone, 17 cm thick, to serve as a threshold. This stone was propped up in the front by a smaller stone. The lower step is trapezoidal, 20 cm wide × 54 cm long at the edge of the upper step and 40 cm at its outer edge. The burial chamber is 3.80  m long, including the rear bench, and 2.20  m in maximum width. Its height is 1.86 m. There is only one bench, which is attached to the rear (S) wall. The bench is 2.20 m long × 1.75 m wide and rises just 34 cm above the floor (fig. 3.53). The height of the chamber at the edge of the bench, from floor to ceiling, is 1.86 m. The ceiling above the bench is 1.57 m high in the front and 1.47 m in the back. There is only one bell-shaped repository carved in the southeast corner. Its opening is round, with a diameter of 1.30–1.35 m. Its

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54 The Tombs

Figure 3.50.  Tomb 18. Plan and sections.

55

The Tombs

Figure 3.51.  Tomb 18. Entrance with blocking stone at side.

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Figure 3.52.  Tomb 18. Entrance (from interior).

depth from the level of the bench is 86 cm, and its total height from the bottom (center) to the ceiling is 1.80 m. Tomb 18 is very much reminiscent in plan of the tomb excavated in 1965 by Biran and Gophna (Biran and Gophna 1969: fig. 2; Biran et al. 1970: figs. 2–3). However, the bench is very low in comparison to benches in other tombs in this cemetery. The repository is very similar to the one in Tomb 16; it is cut into the wall and might have been added as a later modification after the completion of the original tomb. No traces of lamp niches were observed. Overall, the workmanship is very good.

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The Tombs

Figure 3.53.  Tomb 18. Bench with repository at left.

Table 3.7.  Tomb 18 Pottery Baskets Basket

Date

Field Call

Provenance

660/18:1

3/12

Iron II

Main chamber

660/18:2

3/13

Iron II, Rom (1)

Main chamber, rear bench

660/18:3

3/14

Iron II, Rom (1)

Top of repository

660/18:4

3/17

Iron II, Rom (1)

Repository

Table 3.8.  Tomb 18 Objects

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Obj. No.

Description

Basket

Material

068

Arrowhead

660/18:4

Iron

069

Nail/rod

660/18:4

Iron

Pottery excavated in the main chamber and repository includes a variety of bowls (pl. 14:1– 7), 5 jars/jugs (pl. 14:8–9, 13–15), 6 black perfume juglets and fragments (pl. 14:10–12), and 2 oil lamps and fragments (pl. 14:16–17). As comparisons indicate, this assemblage dates to the 8th and early 7th centuries b.c.e. In the pottery assemblage, 3 Roman-period sherds were found, 1 in the chamber and 2 at the top of the repository. They might be intrusive from the Roman period reuse of Tomb 20 (see pp. 60–62 below), which is located not far upslope from Tomb 18. In addition, the repository also contained a few bones, an iron arrowhead, and an iron nail or rod. Comparanda Bowls: •  pl. 14:1–7—Tell Beit Mirsim, Stratum A (TBM III, pls. 21:9–11; 22:11; 24:26); Lachish, Level III (Tufnell, pl. 80:75); Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pl. 59:42)

57

The Tombs

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Figure 3.54.  Tomb 19. Plan and section.

Jars and jugs: •  pl. 14:8–9, 13–15—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 14:6); Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 6:3); Beersheba, Str. III (BS I, pl. 56:8), Str. II (BS I, pl. 62:107, 112–13) Black perfume juglets: •  pl. 14:10–12—Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, figs. 8:1–3, 8–10; 9:18) Lamps: •  pl. 14:16–17—Tell Halif, Cave A (BGG, fig. 10:4, 6)

5.  Tomb 19 (figs. 3.54–57) Tomb 19 is unfinished and seems never to have been used. However, the tomb was left in a state that enables us to follow the sequence of tomb hewing (see pp. 59–60 below). The tomb is located northwest of and slightly upslope from Tomb 18 and northeast of and downslope from Tomb 20 (see fig. 1.1). Tomb 19 shows preliminary construction work, including the shaping of

58

The Tombs

Figure 3.55.  Tomb 19. Entrance (from exterior).

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Figure 3.56.  Entrance (from interior).

several elements characteristic of Judahite tombs of the Iron II period, such as a forecourt, a narrow entrance, and a burial chamber. All features exposed were rough and unfinished (fig. 3.54). The tomb is oriented roughly north–south and is entered through a roughly-cut forecourt 94 cm long × 1 m wide × 60 cm deep. The rectangular entrance (64 cm wide × 50 cm high) is 30 cm long. It has a raised threshold made of a large rock (57 cm long × 29 cm wide × 22 cm thick) that was placed to serve as a curb or barrier (fig. 3.55). One step, 46 cm high, leads down to the chamber. The main chamber, like the rest of the tomb, is unfinished (fig. 3.56). The walls, ceiling, and the floor are only roughly cut and badly shaped. The overall width of the chamber is 1.70 m at the entrance and 1.50 m at the rear (S) wall. The length of the chamber is 3.86 m. An attempt

59

The Tombs

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Figure 3.57.  Tomb 19. Interior (view to the rear).

was made to start forming a bench on the west side and to deepen the standing pit. The bench is 35 cm high and the height to the ceiling above it is 86 cm. The height of the chamber at the entrance is 1.15 m, and in the rear it is 1.25 m. The unfinished rectangular standing pit is 1.77  m long along the East Wall and 1.35  m along the bench to the west. The pit is 1.15 m wide at its north end toward the entrance. At this end there is a channel-like depression in the middle, angling northward; the depression is 83 cm long × 26 cm wide × 21 cm deep (fig. 3.57). This seems to have been the start of work to deepen and extend the standing pit all the way to the entrance. There were no traces of repositories or lamp niches. No pottery, bones, or artifacts were found. From observations made in Tomb 19 we can suggest that the process of tomb construction included the following steps: 1.  A roughly shaped forecourt was dug to enable the cutting of the entrance to the tomb and removal of excavated material. 2.  An entrance was cut and a stone was placed to protect the entrance threshold from being damaged during the cutting of the main chamber and the removal of quarried material. It would also have served as a barrier, preventing dirt and rainwater from coming in while tomb cutting was in progress. This stone could be replaced as needed and then finally removed completely when the tomb was finished. 3.  The main chamber was carved out by first creating a space large enough to work in and then enlarging it in all directions to the desired limits. In Tomb 19, it seems that the first limit to be reached was the rear wall, after which work continued toward the sides. The work in Tomb 19 progressed farther to the west than to the east. 4.  The main chamber would be deepened and its height to the ceiling established, perhaps by exposing a harder rock layer that was then smoothed. In Tomb 19, this step was not completed, and the final ceiling level was never established. It is possible that, because of the fractious nature of the rock formation, this effort had to be abandoned.

60

The Tombs 5.  After finishing the main chamber, it can be presumed that efforts to carve the benches and repositories would also be completed. As seen from other tombs in this cemetery, there were several different floor plans that could be followed, and other features like lamp niches, etc. could also be cut.

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6.  Tomb 20 (figs. 3.58–61) Tomb 20 was previously investigated by D. Alon but was not completely excavated (see fig. 1.1). It had been originally hewn and used during Iron Age II but was modified and reused in the Roman period. Tomb 20 contains characteristic Iron Age II Judahite features, including a forecourt, a narrow stepped entrance, a burial chamber with three benches carved in the side and back walls, and two circular repositories in the back corners (fig. 3.58). To the latter period belong the entrance doorframe, its blocking stone, and three stone ossuaries. The forecourt is 1.88 m long × 1.20–1.50 m wide and at least 1 m deep. Its north limit was not reached because of a large pine tree growing there. The original entrance was reshaped in the Roman period, when a large rectangular stone (1.05 m wide × 98 cm high × 29 cm thick) with an almost-square opening in the middle (57 cm wide × 47–50 cm high × 27 cm through) was placed there, forming a window-like entryway (fig. 3.59). The bottom of the stone “frame” rests on a large boulder, 24 cm thick, which raises its opening to the level of the original entrance. Two steps lead down into the chamber. The upper tread is very narrow and 36 cm high; the lower tread is 69 cm wide × 1.26 m long and is 53 cm high (fig. 3.60). A cork-like blocking stone (63 cm wide × 54 cm high × 35 cm thick) was used with the secondary entrance. The tomb is on a roughly north–south axis. The burial chamber is 5.20 m long × 4.35 m wide, including the benches, and the main chamber is 1.85 m high. The East Bench is 1.96 m long × 1.05 m wide; the West Bench is 1.87 m long × 1.10 m wide; and the South Bench is 1.92 m long × 1.10–1.16 m wide. These benches are carved into the walls arcosolium-style. The height to the ceiling above the benches is 92 cm above the West Bench, 85 cm above the East Bench, and 89 cm above the South Bench. The West Bench has a feature at its northeast corner that seems to have been made especially for an oil lamp. It is triangular, 30 cm on a side, with a circular depression, and 15 cm in diameter at its center. In the West Wall, just below the ceiling at 1.75 m from the entrance, there is a lamp niche 15 cm high × 8 cm wide × 7 cm deep. Two barrel-shaped repositories were located in the back corners opposite the entrance. The Southeast Repository is 95–97 cm in diameter and 1.15 m deep; the Southwest Repository is 0.97–1.04 m in diameter and 1.13 m deep. Both repositories yielded badly decomposed bones, ceramic vessels, and other objects, including beads, rings, and metal arrowheads (see table 3:11). Three stone ossuaries with accompanying lids were found inside the tomb (fig. 3.61). These obviously belong to the second Roman period of use. The dimensions of the ossuary boxes are given in table 3.9. A tentative match between boxes and lids was made on the basis of stone-type, workmanship, and dimensions. Lids 1 and 2 are gabled, while Lid 3 is flat. Lid 1 is 71 cm long × 45 cm wide × 13–16 cm thick and has a spine-like raise running lengthwise and corner acroteria. Lid 2 is 73 cm long × 45 cm wide and has a spine-like rise in the middle, with acroteria 20 cm high at the corners and at the center of the long sides. Lid 3 is 66 cm long × 40 cm wide. It is flat and has

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The Tombs

Figure 3.58.  Tomb 20. Plans and sections.

61

62

The Tombs Table 3.9.  Tomb 20 Ossuary Dimensions No.

Width

Length

Height

Thickness

1

0.45 m

0.72 m

0.32 m

0.05 m

2

0.49 m,

0.76 m

0.29 m

0.07 m

31

0.41 m

0.68 m

0.31

0.06 m

a.  One of the walls of Ossuary #3 is partially broken.

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three ridges running lengthwise. The middle ridge is 20 cm high and the side ridges are 20 cm and 17 cm, respectively. The ossuaries and their covers are very similar to those excavated at the Late Roman cemetery of Tilla, located at the bottom of the slope north of the tell (Gophna and Sussman 1974; Kloner 1984), as well as those from the Roman–Byzantine cemetery at Horvat Rimmon (Kh. Umm er-Rammamin), located about one kilometer south of the tell (HA 1976; Kloner 1993). Also found inside this tomb was a large, round, freestanding stone 80 cm long × 76 cm wide × 13 cm thick. It is possibly the original Iron Age II blocking stone. Since it is smaller than the openings of the two repositories, it could not have served as a cover for either of them. Because of the brittle nature of the rock into which the tomb was cut, many of the tomb’s features, such as the benches, are in a bad state of preservation. The ceiling above the entrance is broken through, possibly as a result of tomb-robbing in antiquity. Because of looting and other disturbances through time, the stratigraphy was confused. It was hard to determine whether objects found in certain locations—for example, in the repositories—belong to the first or second period of use. Their dates had to be determined by typological comparisons. The pottery repertoire of the first phase of use is characteristic of the Iron Age II (8th century b.c.e.) and includes large and small bowls with flared, straight, or carinated walls and everted or thickened rims (pl. 15:1–9); cooking pots (pl. 15:10–12) and juglets; cooking pots (pl. 15:13); a decanter (pl. 15:14); and oil lamps (pl. 15:15–17). Some of the vessels are from the Hellenistic period (pl. 15:19–20) and others from the Late Roman–Byzantine period (pl. 15:18, 21–22). Several thick, badly fired, large sherds were found, possibly belonging to a clay ossuary or bathtub coffin (for this burial method see, Bloch-Smith 1992: 36, 189). Comparanda First phase: Iron Age II –8th century b.c.e. Bowls: •  pl. 15:1–9—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pls. 21:4, 12; 22:3, 12; 24:10, 12, 25); Lachish, Level III (Tufnell, pls. 79:16–17, 56; 80:63) Cooking pots: •  pl. 15:10–12—Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pls. 62:105–6; 64:12–13) •  pl. 15:13—Tell Beit Mirsim, Str. A (TBM III, pl. 19:5) Decanter: •  pl. 15:14—Lachish, Level III (Tufnell, pl. 87:275); Beersheba, Str. II (BS I, pls. 62:102; 64:17)

63

The Tombs

Figure 3.59.  Tomb 20. Entrance (from exterior).

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Figure 3.60.  Entrance (from interior).

Lamps: •  pl. 15:15–17—Tell Halif, Cave A (B&G, fig. 6:4, 6–7)

Later phases – Hellenistic period Juglets: •  pl. 15:19–20—Bethel (Bethel 1968: pl. 72:6); Beth-Zur (Beth-Zur 1968: fig. 29:8). (Late Roman–Byzantine period) Cooking pot: •  pl. 15:18—Bethel (Bethel 1968: pl. 75:3) Lamps: •  pl. 15:21–22—Tell el-Fûl (Lapp 1981: pl. 80:6)

64

The Tombs

Figure 3.61.  Tomb 20. Ossuaries below South Bench.

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In spite of its disturbed state, Tomb 20 yielded the largest and most varied collection of object finds from within this group of tombs (see table 3.11). Most notable were the following: Seal.  A simple, perforated, primitive-looking stone scaraboid seal (fig. 4.1). Arrowheads.  Five complete (pl. 16:10–12) and 4 fragments (pl. 16:2–5) of iron arrowheads. They are all very similar to arrowheads discovered at Tell Halif in Field III Str. 6B (end of 8th century b.c.e.). Nails/spikes.  Two iron nails or spikes (pl. 16:6–7). They were found in the Southeast Repository and might have been used in wooden coffins, possibly in the Roman period. Knives.  Four fragments of iron knives, two belonging to the same object (pl. 16:1) and the other two possibly making up a second knife. Both knives had long hafts, with protruding rivets for attaching wooden or bone handles. Pipe/haft.  A hollow bronze object (pl.  16:8), which might have been used as a haft for a spearhead. Earrings.  Six earrings, five made of silver (pl. 16:13–17) and one of bronze (pl. 16:18). They were found in the Southeast Repository. The silver earrings have a semicircular suspension pin and a hollow, crescent-shaped, granulated body. A similar “leech-shaped” earring is known from New Kingdom Egypt (Andrews 1991: 111; fig. 91g). The bronze earring is oval and has an open end for hanging from the earlobe. Rings.  Four complete rings—one of iron (pl.  16:20), one of silver (pl.  16:22), and two of bronze (pl.  16:21, 23)—and one fragment of an iron ring (pl.  16:19) were found in the Southeast Repository. Beads.  A large number of beads made of different materials (stone, faience, carnelian, glass, and bone) in various shapes (fig. 3.62). Miscellanea.  Three iron and bronze fibula or clasp fragments found in the Southeast Repository; as well as 2 cowrie shells; 1 bronze toggle pin (pl. 16:9); 1 bone cosmetic wand; 1 worked bone, possibly a needle; 1 limestone palette or weight, and 1 possibly metal chain.

65

The Tombs Table 3.10.  Tomb 20 Pottery Baskets Date

Field Call

660/20:1

Basket

2/15

Iron II, Rom

Forecourt

Provenance

660/20:2

2/15

Iron II, Rom

W&E benches, SW Repository

660/20:3

2/15

Iron II, Rom

SE Repository

660/20:4

2/26

Iron II, Rom

SE Repository

660/20:5

3/2

Iron II

Main Chamber

Figure 3.62.  Beads from Tomb 20.

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The presence of a number of complete and fragmentary iron arrowheads in Tomb 20 and elsewhere in the cemetery suggests that some of the entombed were war casualties, buried with their weapons or with the arrows that caused their death. This probably represents some who perished in the destruction of Str. VIB at Tell Halif at the end of the 8th century b.c.e. This scenario agrees with the evidence from the tell indicating that the city was rebuilt and reused during Str. VIA by survivors and/or relatives of the former inhabitants.

66

The Tombs Table 3.11. Tomb 20 Objects

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Obj. No.

Description

Basket

Material

001

Arrowhead

660/20:3

Iron

002

Arrowhead tail

660/20:3

Iron

003

Arrowhead tail

660/20:3

Iron

004

Arrowhead

660/20:3

Iron

006

Nail (?)

660/20:3

Iron

007

Knife (2 pieces)

660/20:3

Iron

009

Pipe (broken)

660/20:3

Bronze

013

Fibula fragment

660/20:3

Bronze

015

Fibula fragment

660/20:3

Bronze

016

Fibula fragment

660/20:3

Iron

017

Worked bone

660/20:3

Bone

018

Glass fragments

660/20:3

Glass

019

Earring

660/20:3

Silver

020

Earring

660/20:3

Silver

021

Ring

660/20:3

Iron

022

Ring

660/20:3

Irom

023

Ring

660/20:3

Bronze

024

Ring

660/20:3

Silver

026

Toggle pin

660/20:2

Iron

027

Cosmetic wand

660/20:2

Bone

028

Bottle fragment

660/20:2

Glass

030

Earring

660/20:2

Bronze

032

5 beads

660/20:2

Glass

033

Weight/Palette (?)

660/20:4

Limestone

034

Arrowhead

660/20:4

Iron

035

Arrowhead

660/20:4

Iron

036

Arrowhead fragment

660/20:4

Iron

037

Arrowhead fragment

660/20:4

Iron

038

Knife (?) fragment

660/20:4

Iron

039

Knife (?) fragment

660/20:4

Iron

040

Ring fragment

660/20:4

Bronze

041

Earring

660/20:4

Silver

043

Earring

660/20:4

Silver

044

Earring

660/20:4

Silver

045

Cowrie shell

660/20:4

Shell

046

Cowrie shell

660/20:4

Shell

047

Nail

660/20:5

Iron

048

Ring

660/20:5

Bronze

049

Chain (?)

660/20:5

Metal

050

Needle (?)

660/20:5

Bone

051

3 black beads

660/20:3

Stone

67

The Tombs Table 3.11. Tomb 20 Objects

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Obj. No.

Description

Basket

Material

052

6 elongated beads

660/20:3

Faience

053

9 red beads

660/20:3

Carnelian

054

2 dark tear-shaped beads

660/20:3

Stone

055

2 white tear-shaped beads

660/20:3

Glass

056

6 white lentoid beads

660/20:3

Bone

057

10 white round beads

660/20:3

Bone

058

20 small round beads

660/20:3

Glass

059

14 lentoid medium beads

660/20:3

Glass, bone, shell

060

8 large round beads

660/20:3

?

061

53 dark round beads

660/20:3

Glass

062

76 dark large lentoid beads

660/20:3

Glass

063

1 large cylindrical bead

660/20:3

Glass

064

1 dark seal-like bead

660/20:3

Glass

065

1 dark square bead

660/20:3

Stone

066

5 assorted beads

660/20:3

Faience, glass, bone

067

Scaraboid stamp seal

660/20:5

Faience (?), stone (?)

Chapter 4

Notes on Special Finds

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A.  Horse and Rider Figurine (pl. 4:1) Work in Tomb 2 yielded a zoomorphic figurine of a quadruped, of the so-called horseand-rider type, although it does not have a rider figure. It is solid, 110 mm long from nose to rear, 136 mm high from head to foot, and 56 mm wide across the chest. Its left ear, right hind leg, and tail are missing. The figurine is handmade, the body is crude, and the head has applied “button” eyes. According to T. A. Holland’s general classification, this figurine represents type D.I “Horses without Trappings” (1977: 122, 140; for parallels, see Holland’s fig. 7:10–17). In his work on the materials from K. M. Kenyon’s excavation in Jerusalem, Holland lists this type of figurine under D.I.a with parallels from Tell Arad (1), Ashdod (2), Beth Shemesh (4), Gezer (1), Gilʾam (1), Tell Jemmeh (1), Lachish (1),1 Tell Beit Mirsim (6), Tell en-Nasbeh (1), Ramat Rachel (2), and Samaria (2) (1977: 133, fig. 5). In general, this type of figurine is dated from the second half of the 8th to the mid-7th century b.c.e., and its geographical distribution is confined with a few exceptions to southern Palestine, west of the Jordan (Holland 1977: 148). A similar pattern of dating and distribution applies to figurines with both horse and rider. These were found in Cisjordan in burials dated from the 8th to the 6th century b.c.e. at Beth Shemesh, Lachish, and Khirbeth el-Qôm, while in Transjordan they were found only in Amman and Meqabelein (Bloch-Smith 1992: 102). Both the geographical distributions and the dates correspond very well with the provenance of the figurine found in the Halif Site 72 cemetery. The figurine from Tell Halif should be assigned to the later period of use both of the cemetery in general and of Tomb 2 in particular. The tomb context in which the figurine was discovered lends support to the suggestion that such figurines may have had a cultic role. As argued by a number of scholars, this figurine type might be connected to the solar cult, a feature of the cult of Yhwh (see Bloch-Smith 1992: 101).

B.  Scaraboid Seal (fig. 4.1) A simple, perforated, primitive-looking scaraboid seal made of faience or stone was discovered in Tomb 20. Its dimensions are 20 mm long × 18 mm wide × 10 mm high. It depicts what seems to be a four-legged animal standing beneath an angle-shaped line, possibly repre1.  More horse figurines from the latest excavations at Lachish were published by R. Kletter (2004).

Notes on Special Finds

69

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Figure 4.1a. Scaraboid stamp seal photograph. Object 67.

Figure 4.1b. Scaraboid stamp seal drawing. Object 67.

senting a shelter (a house or a shed). This seal seems to have been locally made. It is different in style from the majority of seals prevalent in Judah during this period. Most Judean seals contain the name of the owner, a patronymic, and possibly a title and/or an artistic depiction of any of these. Cave A, which was excavated by Biran and Gophna, yielded several seals, which were different from the Judean seals and were either imported or locally made (Biran et al. 1970: 168–69). Based on style, these seals indicate connections with Egypt and/or the coastal plain.

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Notes on Special Finds

C.  Special Pottery Vessels While the majority of the vessels discovered in the Tell Halif cemetery represent common household vessels typical of the local region during Iron Age II, some vessels stand out because they are imports or because they exhibit foreign influences. These include several vessels with Phoenician or coastal origin or influence (pls. 2:6, 9, 12; 3:18; 7:2; 8:3) and others belonging to the Samaria ware group (pl. 2:7, 10).2 Several other vessels also deserve special comment, as noted below.

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1.  Strainer Jugs (pls. 6:3; 7:3) The vessel on pl. 6:3 is a delicate jug, 24.5 cm high, with a globular body (13 cm wide), a ring-base (diameter 7.5 cm), and a long and narrow neck, 3.5 cm wide. It is topped by a thick rim with a double-strand handle extending from its trefoil mouth to the shoulder. It was found in Tomb 3. Inside the mouth, there is a pierced, strainer-like blockage that was used to strain liquids poured into it. As decoration, there are three bumps below the handle and three incised horizontal lines on both the neck and the upper body. No exact parallels exist, but vessels with similar characteristics are known from Arad (Singer-Avitz 2002: fig. 20:J8), Beersheba (SingerAvitz 1999: fig. 10:25), and Kh. Marjameh (Mazar 1995: fig. 22). The strainer vessel from Kh. Marjameh was found in a stratum the excavators believe was destroyed in 722 b.c.e. The jug from Arad was found in Stratum VII of the 7th century b.c.e., while the one from Beersheba comes from the 8th-century-b.c.e. Stratum II and might exhibit Edomite influence (Singer-Avitz 1999: 36). Pl. 7:3 shows another vessel with a strainer, also from Tomb 3. It is a hybrid between Philistine and local forms and is reminiscent of the so-called Beer Jug. The vessel is 15  cm high, with a body 10 cm wide and a base 5.5 cm in diameter. It has a 5-cm-wide mouth, a 1-cmhigh rim, and a 3.5-cm-wide neck. The strainer opening is 4 cm long and 4–4.5 cm wide, with five holes in two rows making the strainer. The body of the vessel is decorated with three dark stripes (2.5YR 3/2 dusty red) and two light stripes (2.5YR 6/6 light red) in between. The top of the vessel has a dark (dusty red) stripe under the rim and two light red stripes on the rim, with another dark stripe in between. This jug is a variant of a similar, unstratified vessel from Tel Batash (Batash, pl. 11:19), except that the body of the Batash vessel is rounder. A large fragment of a strainer jug with a round body was also found in Tomb 1 at Tell ʿEitun (Ussishkin 1973: fig. 9:4). The strainer vessel at Halif is a possible indicator of the early use of the cemetery and an example of coastal influence on the ceramic repertoire. 2.  Amphora (pl. 10:6) Of the two storage jars found in Tomb 6, one—an amphora—is an unusual form without an exact parallel. This vessel has an elongated globular body with a long, wide neck. It has a 2.  I would like to thank Dorot Prof. S. Gitin, Director of the W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, for his help in identifying these forms.

Notes on Special Finds

71

folded rim and two loop handles drawn from its carinated shoulder to the middle of its body. It has a ring base. The jar seems to be a hybrid, incorporating elements that appear in a coastal jar type from Beersheba Stratum II (Singer-Avitz 1999: fig. 8:17) and Batash Stratum III (Mazar and Panitz-Cohen 2001: pl. 22:20). This jar thus provides another indicator of Halif’s connection with coastal areas.

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3.  Rimmon (Pomegranate) Bowl (pl. 11:5; figs. 3.35–36)  3 Excavations in the northwest corner of Tomb 6 unearthed a group of vessels one of which is unique: a shallow bowl dubbed “the Rimmon Bowl” (figs. 3.35–36). It is made in the Samaria ware tradition and is red-slipped and wheel-burnished inside and out. It has a flat bottom with a diameter of 17 cm and a thin wall (0.5 cm thick) with a rim 2 cm high. At its center is a hollow, sculpted pomegranate, 5 cm high, with a well-formed symmetrical body 6 cm wide. The pomegranate body has dimples, giving it a realistic look. At its top, it has a five-petal crown (calyx), with a 1 cm wide hole in the middle. The form is hollow, opening through a second hole 1.8 cm wide at the base of the vessel. A fragment of a similar vessel was discovered in a cultic context at Tel Ekron-Miqne (Building 350) in Stratum IB (7th century b.c.e.). However, unlike the Tell Halif bowl, its pomegranate is not open at the bottom (Ben-Shlomo 2005). Another very similar pomegranate form was discovered in Tomb 3 in the North Cemetery at Tell en-Nasbeh, but this object was not attached to a bowl or any other vessel (Badé 1931: pl. 13:3). Although this Tell en-Nasbeh tomb was originally used in the Iron Age II (900–700 b.c.e.), the excavators assigned the pomegranate to the secondary phase of burial use in the Hellenistic period because they believed that it “ha[s] sprung from a higher cultural environment” (Badé 1931: 13). Of course, at the time, the excavators did not have the benefit of later discoveries, such as the ceramic pomegranates in the temple at Tell Qasileh Stratum X (end of 11th to beginning of 10th century b.c.e.) (Mazar 1980: fig. 46; pl. 38:1–2). Pomegranate-shaped vessels were also discovered in Beersheba and might have been produced either under Edomite or Assyrian influence (Singer-Avitz 1999: 36–37, fig. 10:27–32). Also reminiscent of the Pomegranate Bowl from Tell Halif is a round-base bowl with a protrusion in the center discovered in Tomb 1 at Tell ʿEitun (Ussishkin 1973: fig. 9:7; 1974: fig. 9:5). This bowl “is made of well levigated clay, and is covered with greenish-grey slip inside and out. In the centre of the bowl is a round protuberance, which thickens towards the rim and is perforated” (Ussishkin 1974: 122). Although the protrusion is not shaped like a pomegranate, it is hollow and seems to have been used in a manner similar to that of the Halif Pomegranate vessel. The cemetery at Tell ʿEitun is generally dated to 10th–7th century b.c.e., contemporary with the Halif Site 72 tombs. The pomegranate is a fruit tree native to Syria–Palestine (Num 13:23; Deut 8:8; Joel 1:12; Hag 2:19), and its fruit was always considered a symbol of beauty (Song 6:7). Pomegranates as a decorative element were used in the ancient Near East throughout history. During the Iron Age, the pomegranate was a common motif in many cultic objects such as kernos rings, staffs, and hanging decorations. Biblical tradition describes the garments of the high priest as having 3.  For an earlier report of this object, see Borowski 1995.

72

Notes on Special Finds

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decorations in the form of pomegranates (Exod 28:33–34; 39:24–25), and the biblical descriptions of the Solomonic temple mention the pomegranate as a major decorative element (1 Kgs 7:20, 42; 2 Chr 3:16; 4:13; Jer 52:22–23). The many seeds contained in a pomegranate made it a symbol of fertility (Jacob and Jacob 1992: 808; Gilbert 1995: 157) and, in turn, a symbol of life that, at times, was manifested in its depiction as the “Tree of Life” (Trever 1962). While the Rimmon Bowl may have been placed in the tomb in a related capacity, it is not clear how it may have been used in any of the rituals that took place there.

Bibliography I. Abbreviations Arad Ashdod I Batash II Bethel Beth-Zur B&G BGG B&H BS I BS II HA  1964  1972  1976 TBM III TN Tufnell Zimhoni

Singer-Avitz 2002 Dothan and Freedman 1967 Mazar and Panitz-Cohen 2001 Kelso 1968 Sellers 1968 Biran and Gophna 1969 Biran et al. 1970 Blakely and Hardin 2002 Aharoni 1973 Herzog 1984 An Iron Age Burial Cave at Kibbutz Lahav. Hadashot Arkheʾologiot 11: 24–25. Lahav (Tel Halif). Hadashot Arkheʾologiot 43: 18. H. Rimmon. Hadashot Arkheʾologiot 59–60: 41. [Hebrew] Albright 1943 Badé 1931 Tufnell 1953 Zimhoni 2004

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II. Authors Aharoni, Y. 1973 Beer-Sheba I. Excavations at Tel Beer-Sheba, 1969–1971 Seasons. Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University. Aharoni, M., and Aharoni, Y. 1976 The Stratification of Judahite Sites in the 8th and 7th Centuries b.c.e. BASOR 224: 73–90. Albright, W. F. 1943 The Excavation at Tell Beit Mirsim, Vol III. The Iron Age. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 21–22. New Haven. Andrews, C. 1991 Ancient Egyptian Jewelry. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Badé, W. F. 1931 Some Tombs of Tell en-Nasbeh Discovered in 1929. Berkeley, CA: Palestine Institute Publication. Ben-Shlomo, D. 2005 Personal Communication. Biran, A., et al. 1970 An Iron Age Burial Cave at Tel Halif. Israel Exploration Journal 20: 151–169, figs. 1–13, pls. 36–38.

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74

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Biran, A., and Gophna, R. 1965 Notes and News: Tell Halif. Israel Exploration Journal 15: 255. 1967 Tel Halif. Revue Biblique 74: 77–78, pl. 16a. 1969 An Iron Age Burial Cave at Tel Halif. Eretz Israel 9: 29–39, pls. 4–6. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. [Hebrew] *135 English. Blakely, J. A., and Hardin, J. W. 2002 Southwestern Judah in the Late 8th Century b.c.e. BASOR 326: 11–64 Bloch-Smith, E. 1992 Judahite Burial Practices and Beliefs about the Dead. Sheffield: JSOT Press. Borowski, O. 1977a A Corinthian Lamp at Tell Halif. BASOR 227: 63–65. 1977b Halif 1977, Site 66 Cemetery Excavations and Site 72 Cemetery Excavation. Lahav Research Project, 1977 Season, ed. J. D. Seger. Omaha, LRP. 1977c News from the Field: Tell Halif-Biblical Rimmon. Biblical Archaeologist 40: 99. 1978 Tell Halif: A Report on the Excavations at the Iron II Cemetery. Lahav Newsletter 10: 1–2. 1992a The Iron Age Cemetery at Tell Halif. Eretz Israel 23: 13*–20* (Biran Volume). Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. 1992b The Iron Age Cemetery at Tell Halif. Qadmoniot 95–96: 89–92. [Hebrew] 1993 Halif, Tel; The Iron Age Cemetery. Pp. 559–60 in The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, Vol. 2, ed. E. Stern. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. 1994 Finds from the Iron Age Cemetery at Tel Halif, 1988. Atiqot 25: 45–62. 1995 The Pomegranate Bowl from Tell Halif. Israel Exploration Journal 45: 150–54. Dessel, J. P. 2009 Lahav I: Pottery and Politics: The Halif Terrace Site 101 and Egypt in the Fourth Millennium b.c.e. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. Dever, W. G., and Lance, H. D. 1978 A Manual of Field Excavation. New York: Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion. Dothan, M., and Freedman, D. N. 1967 Ashdod I. The First Season of Excavations, 1962. Atiqot English Series 6. Jerusalem. Edelstein, G., Ussishkin, D. et al. 1971 The Necropolis at Tell ʿAitun. Qadmoniot 15: 86–90. Gilbert, A. S. 1995 The Flora and Fauna of the Ancient Near East. Pp. 153–74 in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, Vol. 1, ed. J. M. Sasson. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Goldstein, M., et al. 1976 Pathology of Bedouin Skeletal Remains from Two Sites in Israel. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 45: 621–40. Gophna, R., and Sussman, V. 1974 A Jewish Burial Cave of the Roman Period at the Foot of Tel Halif. Atiqot 7: 69–76 [Hebrew)], 11* English; pl XXIV. Herzog, Z., et al. 1984 Beer-Sheba II: The Early Iron Age Settlements. Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University. Holland, T. A. 1977 A Study of Palestinian Iron Age Baked Clay Figurines, with Special Reference to Jerusalem: Cave 1. Levant 9: 121–55.

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Jacob, I. and Jacob, W. 1992 Flora. Pp.  803–17 in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 2, ed. D. N. Freedman. New York: Doubleday. Kelso, J. L. 1968 The Excavation of Bethel (1934–1960). Cambridge, MA: American Schools of Oriental Research. Kletter, R. 2004 Iron Age and Post-Iron Age Artifacts/Section B: Clay Figurines. Pp. 2058–83 in The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973–1994), vol. 4, ed. D. Ussishkin. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University/Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology. Kloner, A. 1984 The Cemetery at Horvat Thala. Eretz Israel 17: 325–32, pls. 40–43. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. [Hebrew] 14* English. 1993 Rimmon, Horvat. Pp. 1284–85 in The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, vol. 4, ed. E. Stern. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society and Carta. Lapp, E. C. 1997 The Archaeology of Light: The Cultural Significance of the Oil Lamp from Roman Palestine. Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Religion, Duke University. Lapp, N. L. 1981 The Third Campaign at Tell el-Ful: The Excavations of 1964. Cambridge, MA: American Schools of Oriental Research. Loffreda, S. 1968 Iron Age Rock-Cut Tombs in Palestine. Liber Annuus 18: 244–87. Mazar, A. 1980 Excavations at Tell Qasile: Part One; The Philistine Sanctuary: Architecture and Cult Objects. Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. 1995 Excavations at the Israelite Town at Khirbet Marjameh in the Hills of Ephraim. Israel Exploration Journal 45: 85–117. Mazar, A., and Panitz-Cohen, N. 2001 Timna (Tel Batash) II: The Finds from the First Millennium bce. Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem/The Institute of Archaeology. Seger, J. D. 1972 Tel Halif (Lahav). Israel Exploration Journal: 22: 161. 1980 Lahav Research Project Field Operations Guidebook. Omaha, NE: Unversity of Nebraska at Omaha. Seger, J. D., and Borowski, O. 1977 The First Two Seasons at Tell Halif. Biblical Archaeologist 40: 156–66. Sellers, O. R., et al. 1968 The 1957 Excavation at Beth-Zur. Cambridge, MA: American Schools of Oriental Research. Shiloh, Y. 1970 The Four-Room House: Its Situation and Function in the Israelite City. Israel Exploration Journal 20: 180–90. 1973 The Four-Room House: The Israelite Type-House? Eretz Israel 11: 277–85. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. [Hebrew] Singer-Avitz, L. 1999 Beersheba – A Gateway Community in Southern Arabian Long-Distance Trade in the Eighth Century b.c.e. Tel Aviv 26 (1): 3–74.

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Bibliography

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2002 Arad: The Iron Age Pottery Assemblages. Tel Aviv 29: 110–214. Trever, J. C. 1962 Pomegranate. Pp. 840–41 in The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. New York/Nashville: Abingdon Press. Tufnell, O., et al. 1953 Lachish III: The Iron Age, Text and Plates. London: Oxford University Press. Ussishkin, D. 1973 Tombs from the Israelite Period in Tell ʿEitun. Excavations and Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Shmuel Yeivin. Y. Aharoni. Tel Aviv, Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University: 31–47, VIII–X. [Hebrew] 1974 Tombs from the Israelite Period at Tel ʿEton. Tel Aviv 1: 109–27, pls. 21–24. Wood, B. G. 1990 The Sociology of Pottery in Ancient Palestine: The Ceramic Industry and the Diffusion of Ceramic Style in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Sheffield, England: JSOT Press. Yezerski, I. 1999 Burial-Cave Distribution and the Borders of the Kingdom of Judah toward the End of the Iron Age. Tel Aviv 26: 253–70. Zevit, Z. 2001 The Religions of Ancient Israel: A Synthesis of Parallactic Approaches. London: Continuum. Zimhoni, O. 2004 The Pottery of Levels III and II. Pp. 1789–1899 in The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish (1973–1994), vol. 4, ed. David Ussishkin. Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University.

Plate Description Conventions The line drawings of pottery that follow in Plates 1–16 are referenced throughout this volume by plate numbers (arabic) followed by a colon and the item number (also arabic), e.g., pl. 3:5. Line drawings are all at a scale of 1:5 unless otherwise noted. The conventions for pottery descriptions are those developed for the Lahav Research Project by Joe D. Seger based on earlier work at Gezer (see Dever and Lance 1978: chap. V). Details of this system are presented in Appendix 27 of the Lahav Research Project Field Operations Guidebook (Seger 1980). Descriptions of ceramic vessels and sherds are presented in the following pattern:

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.

(1)  Technique: (Handmade, Wheelmade, etc.) (2)  Ware Paste: a.  Color (of sherd section in a fresh break measured using the Munsell Soil Color Charts, [Baltimore, MD]). b.  Inclusions (sometimes called temper or grit) referenced by five standard type groups as observed by the naked eye): 1.  “Sand”— appearing as sand particles; a subgroup of this category, involving larger particles, is noted as “wadi gravel.” 2.  “Lime”— appearing as white chalky limestone particles. 3.  “Ceramic”— appearing as angular red or black particles of ground-up pottery (sometimes called “grog”) 4.  “Crystal”— appearing as angular translucent, or as sparkling particles. 5.  “Organic”— appearing in the fabric as straw, or as remnant patterns of straw, or as black carbon deposits. Indications as to the size (small, medium, large) and to the frequency of appearance (few, some, many) of inclusions are provided according to established standards. c.  Firing (described according to the remnant carbon discoloration at the center of the sherd section) as either “no core,” “light grey core,” “grey core,” or “dark grey core”). d.  Hardness (measured on a threefold scale as “soft,” “hard,” or “metallic” referenced to Moh’s Scale scratch tests). (3)  Ware Surface: (Interior) a.  Color (Munsell). b.  Treatment (“wash,” “slip,” “burnish” [including type and decoration], “paint” [including type, either “oxide” or “organic”], and color [using Munsell], etc.). c.  “As paste” (the color and appearance are the same as the paste). (Exterior) Same conventions as Interior.

Thus, e.g.,

Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/4 light brown; some medium to large lime; grey core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 2.5YR 5/6 red slip, burnished on rim.

Object descriptions also follow conventions developed for the Lahav Research Project as presented in Appendix 27 of its Field Operations Guidebook (Seger 1980).

78

Plate Description Conventions

Object descriptions are presented in the following pattern: A. Composition: Material or materials from which the object is made; Ceramic materials are further described using the pottery conventions. B. Color: Color or colors using Munsell charts. C. Dimensions: Measurements in millimeters, i.e., mm. D. Condition: Explicit statement of the completeness and stability of the object. Thus, e.g., Composition: Bone. Color: 7.5 YR 6/4 “light brown.” Dimensions: 20 × 6 × 2 mm. Condition: top broken off; very fragile.

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Where appropriate, Israel Department of Antiquities (now Israel Antiquities Authority) registration numbers are also given for pottery items and objects, for example, IDA 74-255.

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Plates

Plates 80

Plate 1

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No. Object  1 Cooking pot  2

Cooking pot

 3

Cooking pot

 4

Cooking pot

 5

Cooking pot

 6

Cooking pot

 7

Cooking pot

 8

Cooking pot

 9

Cooking pot

10

Juglet

11

Juglet

12

Juglet

13

Jug

14

Jug

15

Jug

16

Pitcher jug

17

Pitcher jug

18

Pitcher jug

19

Pitcher jug

Reg. No./Description H72.T1.10, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 7/4 pink; some small-large limestone, few ceramics; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior) as paste. (Exterior): slip 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow. H72.T1.24, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/4 reddish brown; some small limestone, sand; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior) as paste. (Exterior): 2.5YR 6/6 light red. H72.T1.22, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some limestone, crystal; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 10R 4/6 red. H72.T1.1, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some small limestone; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T1.6, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; few small crystal; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red. H72.T1.4, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 5/4 brown; few limestone, some sand; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red. H72.T1.35, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some smallmedium limestone; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red. H72.T1.39, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 5/4 light brown; some small limestone, many small-medium ceramics; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste, red slip traces. H72.T1.9, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; sand; possible gray core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T1.19, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible, hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): 10YR 4/1 dark gray, vertical hand burnish. H72.T1.25, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR4/1 dark gray; inclusions not visible; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 10YR 2/1 black, vertical hand burnishing. H72.T1.36, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): 7.5YR 3/0 very dark gray; slip 7.5YR 2/0 black, vertical hand burnish. H72.T1.32, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some small– large lime, crystal; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR5/6 red in neck. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red. H72.T1.38, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some smallmedium lime; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T1.7, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; some small-medium, few large lime; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T1.47, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 7/4 reddish yellow; some small– medium; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 2.5YR 5/8 red, horizontal wheel burnish on lower part of jug, vertical hand burnish on neck. H72.T1.47, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; many small-medium lime; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): same as paste, as exterior at rim. (Exterior): 2.5YR 6/6 light red, horizontal wheel burnish on lower part of jug, vertical hand burnish on neck. H72.T1.3, No. 1 Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; many small-large lime; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T1.18, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; many smallmedium lime; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 10R 4/4 weak red.

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Plate 1 81

82

Plate 2

No. Object  1 Bowl  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13

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14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Reg. No./Description H72.T1.74, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/8 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior above carination. Small bowl H72.T1.17, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 6YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior above carination. Bowl H72.Tl.12, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; few small to medium lime, some sand; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/6 red, wheel burnish. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/6 red, wheel burnish. Bowl H72.T1.15, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 4/4 weak red. (Exterior): as interior. Small bowl H72.T1.13, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Two–handled H72.T1.15, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some small to medium bowl lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 4/8 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior above carination. Small bowl H72.T1.40, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10R 4/6 red, burnish. (Exterior): as interior above carination. Small bowl H72.T1.3, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; fine levigated; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior) as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Two–handed H72.T1.15, No. 3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; few small to medium bowl lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 4/8 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): slip as interior above carination, but not burnished. X mark incised on bottom. Small bowl H72.T1.15, No. 4; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; many small to medium lime, sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR red 5/8 on rim. (Exterior): same above carination. Small bowl H72.T1.48, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 7/3 very pale brown; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 6/8 light red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior, no burnishing. Plate H72.T1.11, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/8 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. Lamp H72.T1.14, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Lamp H72.T1.42, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; sand; no core; Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Lamp H72.T1.16, No. 1; Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T1.16, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Lamp H72.T1.28, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10YR 7/2 light gray. (Exterior): as interior. Cooking pot H72.T2.25, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 4/6 red; many small to large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10R 5/4 weak red. (Exterior): as interior. Cooking pot H72.T2.24, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; many small lime, few ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Small cook- H72.T2.27, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; many small to large ing pot lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Decanter H72.T2.11, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; some lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste, slip, burnished.

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Plate 2 83

84

Plate 3

No. Object  1 Cooking pot  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

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18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Reg. No./Description

H72.T2.28, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 6/4 light brown; few very small crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Cooking pot H72.T2.23, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 6/4 light brown; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste; slip traces. Small cook- H72.T2.17, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10YR 6/1 gray. (Exterior): as interior. ing pot Cooking pot H72.T2.26, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown. (Exterior): 7.5YR 7/4-6/4 pink. Cooking pot H72.T2.38, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 4/6 red; small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown. Dipper juglet H72.T2.31, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 6/4 light brown; many small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T2.32, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: many small to large lime; not visible; hard. SurDipper juglet face: (Interior): whitish weathering. (Exterior): 2.5YR 6/8 light red. Dipper juglet H72.T2.2, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: some small to medium lime; not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 6/6 light red. (Exterior): 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow, vertical burnish. H72.T2.86, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 6/2 light brownish gray; sand; not visible; Juglet hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): 10YR 3/1 very dark gray, vertical hand burnish. H72.T2.29, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. Juglet (Exterior): 10YR 3/1 very dark gray, vertical hand burnish. H72.T2.16, No. 1;  Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10YR 5/1 Juglet gray. (Exterior): 10YR 3/1 very dark gray. H72.T2.8, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some small to medium Bowl lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T2.9, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Bowl Paste: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; some small to medium lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 6/8 light red. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T2.22, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; some small lime; Plate no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T2.21, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; some small lime; hard. Surface: (IntePlate rior): slip 5YR 6/1 reddish yellow, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior, no burnish. H72.T2.4, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/1 reddish yellow; few small lime; no core; Bowl hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste, wheel burnish stripes. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T2.14, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; many small to medium lime; Bowl not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior) 10R 5/8 red. (Exterior) as interior, weathered. H72.T2.12, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 7/4 very pale brown; not visible; hard. Bowl Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 6/6 light brown, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste, as interior above carination. H72.T2.2, No. 7; Composition: Glass. Color: Iridescent blue-green. Dimensions: 26 mm x 80 mm. Bracelet Condition: much patina, fragile. (frag.) H72.T2.3, No. 4; Composition: Bronze. Dimensions: 44 mm round. Condition: good. Bracelet H72.T2.4, No. 5; Composition: Iron. Dimensions: 70 mm round. Condition: fair, partially corroded. Bracelet H72.T2.7, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; sand, few small lime; Lamp no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T2.36, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; not visible; no core; Lamp hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T2.20, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; few small lime; no core visible; Lamp hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste.

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Plate 3 85

86

Plate 4

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No. Object Reg. No./Description  1 Horse and H72.T2.1, No. 8; Technique: Handmade. Paste: small to large lime; gray core; hard. Surrider figurine face: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow.  2 Earring H72.T3.3, No. 3; Composition/Color: Silver. Dimensions: H. 14 mm, W. 10 mm, Th. Top 1 mm, bottom 2 mm. Condition: good.  3 Cooking pot H72.T3.155, No. 1 (IAA 74-1343); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 4/4 red; some small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste, potter’s mark on handle.  4 Cooking pot H72.T3.284, No. 1 (IAA 74-1344); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste.  5 Cooking pot H72.T3.152, No. 1 (IAA 74-1255); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; some small lime and sand; no Surface: (Interior): 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): as interior. core; hard.  6 Cooking pot H72.T3.178, No. 1 (IAA 74-1262); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10YR 7/3 very pale brown. (Exterior): as interior.  7 Cooking pot H72.T3.277, No. 1 (IAA 74-12640; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some small lime and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as exterior. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red.  8 Cooking pot H72.T3.137, No. 1 (IAA 74-1294); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste.  9 Small cook- H72.T3.3, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; many small crystal; no ing pot core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 10 Small cook- H72.T3.223, No. 1 (IAA 74-1319); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; some ing pot medium ceramic; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): 2.5YR 5/6 red, vertical hand burnish. 11 Small cook- H72.T3.285, No. 1 (IAA 74-1320); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; some small ing pot lime; hard. Surface: (Interior): as exterior. (Exterior): 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow. 12 Small cook- H72 T3.6, No. 1 (IAA 74-1299); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10R 6/8-5/8 light reding pot red; some to many small crystal and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior) as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 13 Small cook- H72.T3.159, No. 1 (IAA 74-1311); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; some small ing pot lime; hard. Surface: (Interior): as exterior. (Exterior): 5YR 5/6 yellowish red.

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Plate 4 87

88

Plate 5

No. Object  1 Cooking pot  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

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19 20 21 22 23 24

Reg. No./Description

H72.T3.306, No. 2 (IAA 74-1274); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; some small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/6 red. (Exterior): as interior, random vertical hand burnish on neck and body, spiral burnish on base. Cooking pot H72.T3.153, No. 1 (IAA 74-1276); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/4 reddish brown; some small crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Cooking pot H72.T3.12, No. 1 (IAA 74-1247); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; some to many medium ceramic; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Cooking pot H72.T3.40, No. 1 (IAA 74-1248); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core, hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 10R 5/6 red. Small cook- H72.T3.306, No. 3 (IAA 74-1304); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some small lime, some small to medium ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 2.5 YR 5/6 ing pot red. Cooking pot H72.T3.8, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some small ceramic, few small crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Cooking pot H72.T3.15, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; many small crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Dipper juglet H72.T3.231, No. 3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; some lime; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): 2.5YR 6/6 light red; much caked weathering. Dipper juglet H72.T3.302, No. 2 (IAA 74-1322); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; some small sand; hard. Surface: (Interior): as exterior. (Exterior): 7.5 YR 7/4 pink, vertical hand burnish. Dipper juglet H72.T3.81, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.7, No. 1 (IAA 74-1337); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 2/7 black; some small lime and crysJuglet tal; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste, vertical hand burnish. H72.T3.131, No. 1 (IAA74-1338); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 6/2 light brownish gray; fine Juglet levigated; gray core; hard. Surface: 5YR 3/1 very dark gray, vertical hand burnish. H72.T3.130, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 2/1 black; many small lime; no core; hard. SurJuglet face: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.54, No. 1 (IAA 74-1339); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 3/7 black; some small crystal; no Juglet core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste, hand burnish. H72.T3.44, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some small crystal and ceramic; no core; Juglet hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 5YR 5/4 reddish brown. H72.T3.49, No. 1 (IAA 74-1328); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/3 pink; some small lime, few Juglet crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown. H72.T3.42, No. 1 (IAA 74-1365); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 red; many small lime, few Jug large lime, some ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste; 5YR 4/1 dark gray stripes on rim, neck and body. H72.T3.13, No. 1 (IAA 74-1364); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 5/8 yellowish red; few lime; gray Jug core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste; 10R 5/4 dark red decorative lines on body. H72.T3.303, No. 2 (IAA 74-1261); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; some lime, ceramic and Jug crystal, few large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 5/4 weak red. (Exterior): as interior; 2.5YR 5/2 weak red stripes. H72.T3.46, No. 1 (IAA 74-1279); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; many small crystal, Jug lime and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste, 10R 5/6 red decorative lines. H72.T3.36, No. 1 (IAA 74-1360); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; some small to medium Jug lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste, 5YR 4/1 dark gray decorative lines on body and neck. H72.T3.134, No. 1 (IAA 74-1356); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some ceJug ramic and few medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red. H72.T3.286, No. 1 (IAA 74-1347); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some small to Jug medium lime, some very small to small ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.37, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5 YR 6/8 light red; many small crystal and Jug ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste, decorative lines 5YR 8/7 white, 5YR 5/2 reddish gray.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Plate 5 89

90

Plate 6

No. Object  1 Pitcher  2  3

 4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

13

Reg. No./Description H72.T3.19, No. 1 (IAA 74-1349); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; many small crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior) as paste. (Exterior) 2.5YR 6/6-6/8 light red, vertical hand burnish. Pitcher H72.T3.71, No. 1 (IAA 74-1350); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; many small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red, incised horizontal lines around body under handle. Strainer jug H72.T3.142, No. 1 (IAA 74-1352); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as exterior; strainer inside rim. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 7/2 light gray, burnish; incised horizontal lines on neck and upper body, bi-coil handle, three small knobs (faux rivets) below handle. Jug H72.T3.142, No. 2 (IAA 74-1348); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 5YR 5/6 yellowish red. Jug H72.T3.191, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some small to medium lime and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Jug H72.T3.216, No. 1 (IAA 74-1359); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Decanter jug H72.T3.304, No. 2 (IAA 74-1341); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; many small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Jug H72.T3.191, No. 2 (IAA 74-1362); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; few medium to large ceramic, few small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Jug H72.T3.4, No. 1 (IAA 74-1366); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; few lime, some small ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste; decorated lines around mouth and rim 10R 4/4 weak red. Jug H72.T3.35, No. 1 (IAA 74-1280); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/2 pinkish gray; many small crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 10R 5/6 red; decorative lines 7.5YR 4/2 dark brown. Jug H72.T3.82, No. 1 (IAA 74-1357); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some small crystal, few lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red. Decanter jug H72.T3.301, No. 2 (IAA 74-1342); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6-6/6 reddish yellow; few small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red, incised line around neck. Jug H72.T3.33, No. 1 (IAA 74-1351); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; many small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste except for strip inside rim. (Exterior): slip 10R 5/6 red (very mottled into gray shade).

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Plate 6 91

92

Plate 7

No. Object  1 Decanter  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Reg. No./Description H72.T3.305, No. 2 (IAA 74-1345); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; many small to medium lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 6/8 light red. (Exterior): as interior, wheel burnish. Juglet H72.T3.309, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; small ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10R 5/6 red on rim. (Exterior): as interior, burnish. Strainer jug H72.T3.76, No. 1 (IAA 74-1489); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red and 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some to many ceramic and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 2.5YR 6/6 light red; decorative lines 2.5YR 3/2 dusty red. Jug H72.T3.55, No. 1 (IAA 74-1491); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; many small ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Two-handled H72.T3.52, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; some small cejug ramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as interior, incised horizontal lines on rim and shoulder. Small jug H72.T3.57, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6-6/8 light red; some small ceramic, crystal and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Bowl H72.T3.213, No. 1 (IAA 74-1406); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): as interior. Bowl H72.T3.26, No. 1 (IAA 74-1405); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; fine levigated; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Bowl H72.T3.288, No. 1 (IAA 74-1403); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; few lime; not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. Bowl H72.T3.29, No. 1 (IAA 74-1407); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 5/8 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior above carination. Bowl H72.T3.73, No. 1 (IAA 74-1426); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 3/6 reddish yellow; many small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 5/8 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior above carination. Bowl H72.T3.190, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; some small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as exterior, wheel burnish. (Exterior): 10YR 7/3 very pale brown. Bowl H72.T3.145, No. 1 (IAA74-1408); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some small to medium lime; not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10R 4/8 red. (Exterior): as interior above carination. Bowl H72.T3.29, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; many small ceramic and lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 6/6 light red. (Exterior): as paste. Bowl H72.T3.53, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; many medium to large ceramic and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior):10R 5/6 red. (Exterior): slip 10R 4/3 weak red. Bowl H72.T3.28, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as exterior, wheel burnish. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 6/8 light red. Bowl H72.T3.50, No. 1 (IAA 74-1425); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/2 pinkish gray; some sand, few small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 10R 4/4 weak red. Bowl H72.T3.236, No. 1 (IAA 74-1424); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 6/3 pale brown; few medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5Y 8/2 white. (Exterior): as interior. Bowl H72.T3.6, No. 1 (IAA 74-1396); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/3 pink; few small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Plate 7 93

94

Plate 8

No. Object  1 Plate  2

Plate

 3

Plate

 4

Bowl

 5

Bowl

 6

Bowl

 7

Bowl

 8

Bowl

 9

Bowl

10

12

Two-handled bowl Two-handled bowl Handled bowl

13

Small bowl

14

Small bowl

15

Small bowl

16

Small bowl

17

Small bowl

18

Small bowl

19

Small bowl

20

Small bowl

21

Lamp

22

Lamp

23

Lamp

24

Lamp

25

Lamp

26

Lamp

27

Lamp

28

Lamp

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

11

Reg. No./Description H72.T3.197, No. 1 (IAA 74-1420); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 5/4 weak red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.28, No. 2 (IAA 74-1419); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5 YR 6/6 light red; many very small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.156, No. 1 (IAA 74-1418); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 6/8 light red; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as exterior, wheel burnish. (Exterior): 10R 5/6 red. H72.T3.193, No. 1 (IAA 74-1390); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 7/4 red. (Exterior): as interior; two incised lines parallel to rim above carination. H72.T3.193, No. 2 (IAA 74-1393); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red, wheel burnished. (Exterior): slip only above carination, not burnished. H72.T3.27, No. 1 (IAA 74-1377); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; few lime; core not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/8 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior, wheel burnish above carination. H72.T3.211, No. 1 (IAA 74-1431); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10YR 5/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. H72.T3.59, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; some small lime and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste, burnish. (Exterior): as interior. H72.T3.188, No. 1 (IAA 74-1394); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10R 4/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior, burnish above carination. H72.T3.207, No. 1 (IAA 74-1376); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior above carination, no burnish. H72.T3.141, No. 1 (IAA 74-1402); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; few lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10R 4/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): some slip above carination as interior. H72.T3.195, No. 1 (IAA 74-1413); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/3 pink; some small sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 5/8 red. (Exterior): as interior above carination. H72.T3.225, No. 3 (IAA 74-1412); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; fine levigated; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10R 4/8 red. (Exterior): as interior. H72.T3.47, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as exterior, wheel burnish. (Exterior): 10R 5/6 red. H72.T3.219, No. 1 (IAA 74-1386); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; some sand; not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10R 4/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.306, No. 2 (IAA 74-1488); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not clearly visible, possibly 5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): mottled slip 10R 4/8 red and 10R 2/1 black, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. H72.T3.14, No. 2 (IAA 74-1389); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.117, No. 1 (IAA74-1397); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 4/4 pink; some sand; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10R 5/6 red. (Exterior): as paste, as interior on rim. H72.T3.1 17, No. 2 (IAA 74-1409); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 8/4 pink; few sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste; stripe 2.5YR 5/6 red on rim. (Exterior): as interior. H72.T3.192, No. 1 (IAA 74-1388); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as exterior, wheel burnish. (Exterior): 10R 4/6 red above carination; two grooves around rim. H72.T3.96, No. 1 (IAA 74-1453); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 8YR 7/3 pink; many small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.102, No. 1 (IAA 74-1478); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some small to medium ceramic and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.98, No. 1 (IAA 74-1467); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 8/2 pinkish white; some small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.19, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.300, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: some small lime; not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): 7.5YR 7/4 pink. (Exterior): as interior. H72.T3.189, No. 1 (IAA 74-1436); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/4 pink; some sand, few small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H72.T3.34, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 7/4 pink. (Exterior): as interior. H72.T3.321, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 7/4 pink. (Exterior): as interior.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Plate 8 95

96

Plate 9

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

No. Object  1 Handle  2

Handle

 3

Blade/awl

 4

Blade/awl

 5

Blade

 6

Cooking pot

 7

Jug

 8

Jug

 9

Juglet

10

Juglet

11

Plate

12

Platter

13

Bowl

14

Bowl

15

Bowl

16

Bowl

17

Bowl

18

Lamp

19

Lamp

20

Lamp

Reg. No./Description H72.T3.7, No. 3b; Composition: Bone. Color: 7.5YR 8/2 pinkish white. Dimensions: L. 72 mm, D. 13 mm. Condition: good. H72.T3.7, No. 3a; Composition: Bone. Color: 7.5YR 8/2 pinkish white. Dimensions: L. 73 mm, D. 14 mm. Condition: good. H72.T3.7, No. 2b; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L. 63 mm, W. 8 mm, Th. 3 mm. Condition: fair, corrosion obscures details. H72.T3.7, No. 2a; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L. 88 mm, D. 19 mm. Condition: fair, encrusted, and corroded. H72.T3.7, No. 6; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L. 121 mm, W. 25 mm, Th. 3 mm. Condition: fair, encrusted, and corroded. H77.T4.23, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/8 reddish yellow; many fine to coarse lime; core not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T4.18, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 4/8 yellowish red; few small to medium sand, few very small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 5/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): 2.5YR 5/6 red. H77.T4.18, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; some very small to medium lime, few very small sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 5/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): 2.5YR 5/6 red. H77.T4.19, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 4/1 dark gray; some medium ceramic, few coarse lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): 2.5YR 3/0 very dark gray, random burnish. H77.T4.21, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 4/3 dark brown; some small to large lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T4.18, No. 3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 5/6 yellowish red; few very small to medium lime, few very small sand, few small organic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): as interior. H77.T4.20, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some medium to large ceramic, medium to large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste; wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T4.15, No. 3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 5/6 yellowish red; few small lime, few very small organic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): as interior. H77.T4.15, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/8 reddish yellow; few very small to small sand, few small to medium lime, few very small to large organic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 7.5YR 7/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): 7.5YR 7/4 pink. H77.T4.20, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some small to large lime, few medium to large ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 6/8 reddish yellow, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior, wheel burnish on rim. H77.T4.12, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: (Inner): 2.5YR 4/6 red. (Outer): 10YR 4/2 dark grayish brown; some small lime, few small sand; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red. (Exterior): 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow. H77.T4.15, No. 6; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 4/6 red; few small lime, some very small sand; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red. (Exterior): 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow. H77.T4.24, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; many small to large lime, some medium to large ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T4.22, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; very many small to large lime, some small to large ceramic, some medium to large crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T4.15, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; many small lime, few small sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red. (Exterior): 2.5YR 6/8 light red.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Plate 9 97

98

Plate 10

No. Object  1 Lamp  2

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

 3

Two-handled cooking pot Two-handled cooking pot

 4

Cooking pot

 5

Juglet

 6

Storage jar

 7

Storage jar

 8

Small pilgrim flask

 9

Dipper juglet

10

Dipper juglet

11

Juglet

12

Juglet

13

Juglet

14

Juglet

Reg. No./Description H77.T5.7, No. 1; Technique: Moldmade. Paste: 10YR 8/3 very pale brown; many small to medium ceramic, many small crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): as past; mold decorated. H77.T6.6, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; many small to very large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T6.23, No. 3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; some small to large lime, some medium to large ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T6.22, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; many medium to large lime and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 2.5YR 5/8 red, burnish. H77.T6.4, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 8/2 white; some small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): as paste, incised horizontal lines on rim and neck. H77.T6.15, No. 1 (IAA 77-139); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; many small to large lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): random slip 7.5YR 7/2 pinkish gray. H77.T6.13, No. 1 (IAA 77-138); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; many small to large lime, some large ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T6.7, No. 1 (IAA 77-137); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; many small to medium lime, many small to medium ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): burnished. H77.T6.14, No. 1 (IAA 77-129); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 8/6 light red; some medium to large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T6.5, No. 1 (IAA 77-130); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; many small to large lime, some medium to large ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T6.4, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR N5/0 gray; some small to large lime; core not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): as paste, incised horizontal lines. H77.T6.20, No. 1 (IAA 77-133); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 6/1 gray; very many small lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): 2.5YR N2.5/0. black, vertical random burnish. H77.T6.3, No. 1 (IAA 77-141); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 5/3 brown; some small to large lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): not visible. (Exterior): 7.5YR N3/0 very dark gray, burnish. H77.T6.8, No. 1 (IAA 77-131); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/16 reddish yellow; few large ceramic, many small lime, some small to medium crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Plate 10 99

100

Plate 11

No. Object  1 Platter  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

14 15 16 17 18 19

Reg. No./Description

H77.T6.12, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; very many small crystal, some small to large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T6.12, No. 4; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few large ceramic, some Bowl medium to large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/8 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. H77.T6.11, No. 1 (IAA 77-140); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some medium to Platter large lime and crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red, random burnish. (Exterior): as interior, wheel burnish on rim. H77.T6.12, No. 7; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 6/3 pale brown; few small to medium orPlatter ganic, few very small to medium sand, few very small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10YR 7/4 very pale brown; slip 2.5YR 5/6 red. (Exterior): as interior, no slip. Pomegranate H77.T6.16, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some small to large lime, many small crystal, some medium to large ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 5/6 red, bowl wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior, random burnish. H77.T6.12, No. 3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some large ceramic, Bowl some small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. H77.T6.12, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some large ceramic, Bowl some medium to large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. H77.T6.12, No. 5; Technique: Wheel made. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some large ceramic, Bowl some small to large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. H77.T6.18, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some medium to very Bowl large lime, very many small crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 6/6 light red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. H77.T6.2, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some medium to large Bowl lime, some large ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 5/8 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. H77.T6.12, No. 6; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; some medium to Bowl large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. Handled bowl H77.T6.23, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some medium ceramic, some small to medium lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 6/6 reddish yellow, wheel burnish. (Exterior): slip 10YR 7/3 very pale brown. Handled bowl H77.T6.23, No. 5; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; many small to large lime, many small crystal; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 10YR 7/3 very pale brown. H77.T6.12, No. 9; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some medium to very large lime; Bowl no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. H77.T6.23, No. 4; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; some medium to large lime, Bowl many small to large crystal; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 10YR 7/3 very pale brown. H77.T6.23, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some medium to large Bowl lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T6.19, No. 1 (IAA 77-128); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some large Lamp ceramic, some small to large lime; no core; hard Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T6.9, No. 1 (IAA 77-126); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 8/4 pink; some small to large Lamp lime and crystal; not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. H77.T6.10, No. 1 (IAA 77-127); Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some Lamp medium to large ceramic, some small to large lime; not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Plate 11 101

102

Plate 12

No. Object  1 Bowl  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

14 15 16 17

Reg. No./Description 660.T8.2, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; a few large lime and sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 5/6, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. Two-handled 660.T8.6, No. 11; Technique: Wheelmade Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few large lime bowl and sand; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/4 reddish brown, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. Lug handles. Two-handled 660.T8.6, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; some large sand, bowl few medium to large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Lug handles. Bowl 660.T8.6, No. 12; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few large sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 4/4 reddish brown. (Exterior): 2.5YR 5/6 red, burnish traces. Bowl 660.T8.1, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade Paste: 2.5YR 5/3 red; few medium to large lime and sand, few large ceramic. No core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): as interior. Bowl 660.T8.6, No. 9; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few large sand and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red. (Exterior): as interior. Bowl 660.T8.6, No. 15; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few large sand and lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 5/4 reddish brown. (Exterior): as interior. Bowl 660.T8.6, No. 6; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few large sand and lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. Bowl 660.T8.1, No. 21; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few medium lime and sand; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Cooking pot 660.T8.l, No. 3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; some medium to large lime and sand; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Jar 660.T8.1, No. 9; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; few medium to large sand, few medium lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Jar 660.T8.6, No. 8; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few large sand and lime, some very small sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Lamp 660.T8.6, No. 5; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 8/5 pink; few large lime and ceramic, many very small lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. Lamp 660.T8.1, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; some medium lime and sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 5Y 8/2 white. Perfume 660.T8.6, No. 4; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 6/4 light brown; few large lime; juglet gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 5YR 2.5/1 black, continuous burnish. Perfume 660.T8.6, No. 3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 6/1 gray; few large lime and sand; juglet no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 5YR 2.5/1 black, continuous burnishing. Perfume 660.T8.6, No. 7; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few large sand; juglet no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Plate 12 103

104

Plate 13

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

No. Object  1 Bowl  2

Bowl

 3

Bowl

 4

Chalice

 5

Jug

 6

Cooking pot

 7

Jug

 8

Jug

 9

Juglet

10

Small cooking pot

11 12

Small cooking pot Jug

13

Juglet

14

Juglet

15

Juglet

16

Lamp

Reg. No./Description 660.T16.4; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; some medium lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 2.5YR 6/8 light red to 5/8 red. 660.T16.3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10R 5/8 red; few medium to large lime and ceramic; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 6/8 light red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T16.2; Technique: Wheelmade Paste: 5 YR 7/6 reddish yellow; few medium to large lime, few medium sand; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 5/8 red. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T16.5; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5 YR 6/8 light red; few medium to large lime, some sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T16.6; Technique: Wheel and handmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; few medium lime and sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 6/6 light red. (Exterior): as interior. 660.Tl6.l; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; few medium lime and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 6/6 light red. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T16.7; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 5/6 yellowish red; few medium lime and sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T16.8; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; few medium to large lime, few medium ceramic and sand; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 10R 5/8 red, continuous burnish. 660.T16.23; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 7/4 pink; few large lime and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 2.5YR 4/6 red with 2.5YR 2.5/4 dark reddish brown organic paint. 660.T17.6; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/3 pink; some large and many small lime, few medium ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste mottled with 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow. 660.17.7; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/3 pink; few small sand and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 7.5YR 7/4 pink. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T17.5; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; few small sand, some small to medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 60.T17.2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 4/0 dark gray; few small sand and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/0 dark gray. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T17.8; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 4/0 dark gray; few small sand and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/0 dark gray. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T17.4; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 4/0 dark gray; core not visible; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/0 dark gray. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T17.1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/3 pink; few small sand and lime, very few ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Plate 13 105

106

Plate 14

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

No. Object  1 Bowl  2

Bowl

 3

Bowl

 4

Bowl

 5

Bowl

 6

Bowl

 7

Bowl

 8

Cooking pot

 9

Cooking pot

10

Juglet

11

Juglet

12

Juglet

13

Jug/jar

14

Jug

15

Jug

16

Lamp

17

Lamp

Reg. No./Description 660.T18.1, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; few small lime and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 light red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior on rim. 660.T18.4, No. 10; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 red; some medium to large lime, few small ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T18.l, No. 5; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 6/4 light brown; few medium lime, few large sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T18.1, No. 11; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; few large sand; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T18.4, No. 16; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few medium lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T18.4, No. 9; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; some medium to large lime, few medium ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): 5YR 7/3 pink. 660.T18.4, No. 15; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; single large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 4/6 red. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T18.4, No. 23; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; few medium to large lime and gravel, few medium ceramic; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 7/6 to 6/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T18.1, No. 25; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10YR 5/8 red; few medium to large lime, few medium ceramic; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): 10R 6/6 light red. 660.T18.4, No. 8; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR N3/ very dark gray; some medium lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T18.4, No. 14; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 4/0 dark gray; some small lime, few small sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 4/0 dark gray. (Exterior): as interior, burnished. 660.T18.4, No. 7; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR N3/ very dark gray; some medium lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T18.4, No. 24; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 4/6 yellowish red; few large lime and sand; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T18.4, No. 12; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; some medium to large lime, few small ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red rim. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T18.1, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; few small lime and ceramic; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T18.4, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10R 6/8 red; few medium lime and sand; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 6/8 light red. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T18.4, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10R 5/8 red; few medium to large lime, few medium ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow. (Exterior): as interior.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Plate 14 107

108

Plate 15

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

No. Object  1 Bowl  2

Bowl

 3

Bowl

 4

Bowl

 5

Bowl

 6

Bowl

 7

Bowl

 8

Bowl

 9

Bowl

10

Cooking pot

11

Cooking pot

12

Cooking pot

13

Cooking pot

14

Decanter

15

Lamp

16

Lamp

17

Lamp

18

Cooking pot

19

Juglet

20

Juglet

21

Lamp

22

Lamp

Reg. No./Description 660.T20.16, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/8 reddish yellow; few medium to large lime, few medium ceramic; dark gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.20.13, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; few medium lime, sand and ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; 10R 6/8 light red wheel burnish. (Exterior): 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow. 660.T20.17, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/8 reddish yellow; few medium lime and sand; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow, wheel burnish. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.2, No. 5; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few medium to large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste with traces of slip 2.5YR 5/6 red. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.4, No. 4; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5 YR 7/6 reddish yellow; few medium lime, ceramic and sand; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 2.5YR 5/8 red. (Exterior): as paste, slip 2.5YR 5/8 red on rim. 660.T20.32; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; few medium lime and sand; dark core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): slip 10YR 8/2 white. 660.T20.3, No. 3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/6 red; few medium lime and sand; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 6/6 light red. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T20.5, No. 14; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; few small to large lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): slip 10YR 8/2 white. (Exterior): slip 5YR 7/4 pink. 660.T20.21, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 4/8 red; few medium sand and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 2.5YR 5/6 red, wheel burnish. (Exterior): slip 2.5YR 5/6 red. 660.T20.1, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; few medium to large lime, few medium ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 10R 6/4 pale red. (Exterior): as interior. 660.T20.2, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10R 6/6 light red; few medium ceramic, few medium to large lime; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.8, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10R 4/8 red; few medium to large lime, few medium sand and ceramic; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.4, No. 2; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10R 4/8 red; few medium to large lime, few medium sand and ceramic; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.10, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 10R 5/8 red; few medium to large lime and ceramic, few medium sand; gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): 5YR 6/4 light reddish brown. (Exterior): slip 10YR 8/1 white. 660.T20.4, No. 3; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; few medium to large lime, few medium sand; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.5, No. 7; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few large sand and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.4, No. 13; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 5YR 7/8 reddish yellow; few medium lime, few medium to large sand; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.1, No. 2; Technique: Wheel and handmade. Paste: 2.5YR 5/8 red; many medium sand, few large lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.33, No. 1; Technique: Wheelmade. Paste: 7.5YR 6/6 reddish yellow; few medium sand and lime; light gray core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.3, No. 4; Technique: Wheel and handmade. Paste: 7.5YR 8/2 pinkish white; few medium to large ceramic; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior) as paste. (Exterior) as paste. 660.T20.4, No. 8; Technique: Moldmade. Paste: 5YR 6/8 reddish yellow; some medium sand, few medium lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste. 660.T20.5, No. 23; Technique: Moldmade. Paste: 7.5YR 8/2 pinkish white; few large sand and lime; no core; hard. Surface: (Interior): as paste. (Exterior): as paste with 2.5YR 3/6 dark red organic paint.

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

Plate 15 109

110

Plate 16

Copyright © 2013. Pennsylvania State University Press. All rights reserved.

No. Object  1 Knife  2

Arrowhead

 3

Arrowhead

 4

Arrowhead

 5

Arrowhead

 6

Nail

 7

Nail

 8

Pipe/haft

 9

Toggle pin

10

Arrowhead

11

Arrowhead

12

Arrowhead

13

Earring

14

Earring

15

Earring

16

Earring

17

Earring

18

Earring

19

Earring

20

Ring

21

Ring

22

Ring

23

Ring

Reg. No./Description 660.T20.3, No. 7; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red Dimensions: L. 155 mm, W.12 mm, Th. 6 mm. Condition: Fair, 2 pieces. 660.T20.3, No. 7; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red Dimensions: L. 155 mm, W.12 mm, Th. 6 mm. Condition: Fair, 2 pieces. 660.T20.4, No. 37; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L.20 mm, W. 6 mm, Th.4 mm. Condition: Fair. 660.T20.3, No. 2; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L. 49 mm, W.20 mm, Th. 5 mm. Condition: Fair. 660.T20.3, No. 3; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimension: L. 47 mm, W.15 mm, Th.3 mm. Condition: Fair. 660.T20.5, No. 47; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L. 50 mm, W.10 mm, Th. 8 mm. Condition: Fair, broken. 660.T20.3, No. 6; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L. 52 mm, W. 14 mm, Th. 8 mm. Condition: Fair. 660.T20.3, No. 9; Composition: Bronze. Color: Green. Dimensions: L. 83 mm, W. 15 mm, Th. 1 mm. Condition: Poor, reconstructed. 660.T20.2, No. 26; Composition: Bronze. Color: Green. Dimensions: L. 114 mm, Th. 4 mm. Condition: Good. 660.T20.3, No. 1; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L. 90 mm, W. 24 mm, Th. 5mm. Condition: Fair. 660.T20.4, No. 35; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L. 75 mm, W. 23 mm. Th. 5 mm. Condition: Good. 660.T20.3, No. 4; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L. 85 mm, W. 20 mm, Th. 5 mm. Condition: Fair. 660.T20.3, No. 19; Composition/Color: Silver. Dimensions: H. 27 mm, W.16 mm. Condition: Fair, broken 660.T20.3, No. 20; Composition/Color: Silver. Dimensions: H. 26 mm, W. 15 mm. Condition: fair, wire broken off. 660.T20.4, No. 41; Composition/Color: Silver. Dimensions: H. 27 mm, W. 15 mm. Condition: Good. 660.T20.4, No. 43; Composition/Color: Silver. Dimensions: H. 25 mm, W. 15 mm. Condition: good, wire broken off. 660.T20.4, No. 44; Composition/Color: Silver. Dimensions: H. 27 mm, W. 15 mm. Condition: Good. 660.T20.2, No. 30; Composition: Bronze. Color: Green. Dimensions: H. 21 mm, W. 8 mm. Condition: Fair. 660.T20.3, No. 21; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: L.20 mm, W. 12 mm, Th. 4 mm. Condition: Fair. 660.T20.3, No. 22; Composition: Iron. Color: Rust red. Dimensions: D. 25 mm, Th. 5 mm. Condition: Good. 660.T20.3, No. 23; Composition: Bronze. Color: Green. Dimensions: D.25 mm, Th. 2 mm. Condition: Fair, broken. 660.T20.3, No. 23; Composition: Bronze. Color: Green. Dimensions: D.25 mm, Th. 2 mm. Condition: Fair, broken. 660.T20.5, No. 48; Composition: Bronze. Color: Green. Dimensions: D. 23 mm, Th. 2 mm. Condition: Fair.

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Plate 16 111