Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins: A Catalogue of Coins from the American Numismatic Society 0897223349, 9780897223348

Citation preview

KUSHAN, KUSHANO-SASANIAN, KUSHAN, KUSHANO-SASANIAN, AND KIDARITE COINS

David Jongeward is an independent cultural historian and a departmental associate with the Royal Ontario Museum, Department of World Cultures, Toronto, Canada. He was visiting scholar from 2005 to 2013 with the Asian Institute, Munk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto. His most recent project is a catalog of the Gandhara sculpture collection in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford University, forthcoming in 2015. He coordinated and coauthored an interdisciplinary collaborative research project: Gandharan Buddhist Reliquaries, published in 2012. Joe Cribb is the former Keeper of Coins and Medals at the British Museum, where he worked for forty years as a curator of Asian coins and currencies. He has published many articles on Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite coins and on the processes of numismatic research. In 1997 he was awarded the Ikuo Hirayama Silk Road Art and Archaeology prize, in 1999 the Royal Numismatic Society’s medal, and in 2008 the American Numismatic Society’s Archer M. Huntington Medal. He was President of the Royal Numismatic Society 2005-2010, and has been Secretary General of the Oriental Numismatic Society since 2011. Peter Donovan is the Curatorial Associate for the Islamic and South Asian collections at the ANS. A retired consultant exploration geochemist working worldwide, his career ended with 13 years at the United Nations Development Program.

The American Numismatic Society 75 Varick Street, 11th floor New York, NY 10013 front jacket photo: S c u lptura l g roup depic t ing t he Budd hist deit ies Panchi ka and Har it i (Phar ro and Ardo chsho of t he Kushans) f rom Ta k ht-i B a hi. ©Br it ish Mus eum. back jacket photo: R oya l p or t rait on a gold dinara of Wima Kadphis es. ANS 1944.100.30162. Photog raphe d by A l an R o che.

A Catalogue of Coins from the American Numismatic Society

ISBN 9780897223348

90000 >

jacket design: Oliver D. Hoover

ans 9 780897 223348

The Kushan Empire was a vast inland empire that stretched across Central and South Asia during the first to fourth centuries AD. The origins of Kushan dynasty continue to be debated, and precise dates, especially for the late Kushan kings, remain elusive, but the coinage reveals the Kushan dynasty as a major force in the cultural and political history of the ancient Silk Road. Kushan coinage began c. AD 50 with issues of the first Kushan king, Kujula Kadphises (c. AD 50–90). The first Kushan coins were based on Greek, Scythian and Parthian coin designs already current in the territory of present day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Under Kujula Kadphises’ son Wima Takto (c. AD 91–113) and grandson Wima Kadphises (c. AD 113–127) the coinage system was gradually centralized to serve the entire Kushan empire, stretching from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to northern India. Gold and copper denominations were established during the reign of Wima Kadphises which were maintained through the reigns of ten more kings until the demise of the Kushan empire in the mid-fourth century AD. This catalogue presents all the Kushan coins in the American Numismatic Society, with selected illustrations, detailed descriptions and commentary. The production system of Kushan coinage is presented with major revisions of chronology and organization compared with previous publications. This presentation has been based on the latest coin-based research, including die studies and site find analysis. The coins are classified by ruler, metal, mint, production phase, denomination, type and variety. Introductory essays present the historical and cultural contexts of the kings and their coins. All the ANS gold coins and a selection of copper coins are illustrated. This catalogue also features two series of coins issued by the KushanoSasanian and the Kidarite Hun rulers of former Kushan territory because they followed and adapted the Kushan coinage system.

Jongeward and Cribb

The American Numismatic Society publishes books, journals, and monographs on coins, medals, and related objects of all periods and cultures.

AND KIDARITE COINS

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

David Jongeward and Joe Cribb with Peter Donovan

the american numismatic society

The authors intend this catalogue to be a tool for scholars and collectors alike for understanding, identifying ,and attributing these fascinating coins that represent four centuries of Central and South Asian ancient history.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

KUSHAN, KUSHANO-SASANIAN, AND KIDARITE COINS

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Mazdooano, the gracious one. Kushan god on a gold dinara of Kanishka I (Coin 386).

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins A Catalogue of Coins From the American Numismatic Society

David Jongeward and Joe Cribb with Peter Donovan

THE AMERICAN NUMISMATIC SOCIETY NEW YORK 2015

©2015 American Numismatic Society

© 2015 The American Numismatic Society

ISBN 978-0-89722-334-8

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Printed in China

©2015 American Numismatic Society

To our dear friend Liz Errington, whose work has been an inspiration to us both

©2015 American Numismatic Society

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Contents

Introduction The American Numismatic Society

1

The Kushan Empire and its Coinage

3

Kushan Coinage Tradition

4

Kushan Monetary System and Mints

7

Previous Studies of Kushan Coins

10

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins in the Collection of the American Numismatic Society

12

Acknowledgements 13 Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coin Types by Ruler

15

Catalogue 1. Da Yuezhi Coins and the Coinage of Kujula Kadphises (Coins 1–146) Introduction

21

Catalogue

27

2. The Coinage of Wima Takto (Coins 147–257)

Introduction

39

Catalogue

45

3. The Coinage of Wima Kadphises (Coins 258–369) Introduction

53

Catalogue

57

4. The Coinage of Kanishka I (Coins 370–708) Introduction

65

Catalogue

70

5. The Coinage of Huvishka (Coins 709–1081) Introduction

89

Catalogue

93

6. The Coinage of Vasudeva I (Coins 1082–1200) Introduction

135

Catalogue

138

©2015 American Numismatic Society

7. The Coinage of the Late Kushans (Coins 1201–1688) Introduction

149

Catalogue



Kanishka II

152



Vasishka

164



Kanishka III

169



Vasudeva II

171



Mahi

174



Shaka

175



Kipunadha

177

8. The Coinage of the Kushano-Sasanians, Part One: Vasudeva Imitations (Coins 1690–2139) Introduction

179

Catalogue

181

9. The Coinage of the Kushano-Sasanians, Part Two: Royal Issues (Coins 2140–2408) Introduction

197

Catalogue

229



Unidentified King

202



Ardashir

203



Peroz I

205



Hormizd I

210



Hormizd II

217



Peroz II

219



Varahran

221



Shapur II

224

10. The Coinage of the Kidarite Huns (Coins 2409-2444) Introduction

227

Catalogue

229

11. Unidentifiable Coins (probably Kushan) from the Lincoln Series (Coins 2445–2470) 241 Appendices A. North and East India Imitations (Coins A1–A168)

243

B. Huvishka Portrait Types

251

C. Deities on Kushan Coins

259

D. Kushan Tamgas 303

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Addendum: The Story of a Fake Kushan Coin, ANS 1944.100.48106

307

Concordance to Göbl

309

Bibliography 313 Index 319 Plates 323 List of Figures

Figure 1. Helmeted Warrior type copper unit of Kujula Kadphises (coin 100)

25



Figure 2a–b. Figures 2a–b. Clay head of a Kushan prince from Khalchayan and ‘Heraus’ type obol (coin 39).

26



Figure 3. Statue of Wima Takto

41



Figure 4a–b. Horseman/Zeus type bilingual base silver tetradrachm (coin 240) and Helmeted Bust type copper tetradrachm (coin 248)

43



Figure 5. Bilingual copper tetradrachm of Wima Kadphises (coin 277)

55



Figure 6. Attic standard gold dinara of Wima Kadphises (coin 265)

56



Figure 7. Statue of Kanishka

66

List of Maps

Map 1. The Kushan World



Map 2. Bactria and Environs in the time of the Da Yuezhi and the early Kushans

1 22

List of Tables

Table 1. Principal Sources (five or more coins) of Kushan coins in the American Numismatic Society

1



Table 2. Rulers and Dynasties

4



Table 3. Kushano-Sasanian Crown Types

200



Table 4. Deities on Coins of Kanishka and Huvishka

268



Table 5. Kushan Tamgas 305



Table 6. Kushano-Sasanian Tamgas 306



Table 7. Kidarite Tamgas 306

©2015 American Numismatic Society

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Introduction

Nearly all the 2,638 coins documented in this catalogue of the ANS collection of Kushan coins were donated to the Society: Table 1. Principal Sources (five or more coins) of Kushan coins in the American Numismatic Society ANS Accession

Collection

1911.105

I. J. Greenwood

No. of coins 69

1921.54

Valentine collection, gift of E. T. Newell

15

1924.69

Columbia University

1927.38

R. T. Barrington

1927.165

K. Minassian

1944.100

E. T. Newell

1949.66

Sir John Marshall, purchased from Metropolitan Museum of Art

1952.112

Purchased from A. F. McKenzie

1967.154

A. M. Newell

12

1973.56

Metropolitan Museum of Art

37

1974.78

F. Jacobs

1977.274

G. C. Miles collection, gift of J. R. McCredie

11

1979.45

William Spengler

10

1986.149

Marjorie D. Schwartz

1987.46

William Spengler

1987.47

Martha Carter

29

1988.22

William Spengler

62

1989.15

William Spengler

5

1991.3

H. W. Herz

1995.51

Harry Fowler

23

1996.62

C. K. Panish

8

1997.66

Olivia Garvey Lincoln

2012.13

Purchased from P. R. Donovan

8 10 8 464 7 5

8

35 120

7

1,510

1

12

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

©2015 American Numismatic Society

2

Map 1. The Kushan World. Courtesy of Elizabeth Errington.

A few coins have been purchased since the outset of the present catalogue project which began in 2006. Kushan coin donations to the ANS commenced with the I. J. Greenwood bequest in 1911. Subsequent donations include the collections of E. T. Newell in 1944, a jointly donated collection from William Spengler and Dr. Martha Carter in 1986, and a large collection of Kushan coppers from the Lincoln bequest in 1997. Dr. Larry Adams, an ANS Trustee, has kindly permitted the authors to include fifty-four gold coins from his private collection, an intended gift to the Society. In the catalogue, the coins of Dr. Adams are designated with numbers preceded by the letters LAK. The entire ANS collection of Kushan coins can be accessed online: www.numismatics.org.1

1. Individual coins may be found by appending the ANS accession number to the address: www.numismatics.org/ collection. The first coin in this catalogue may thus be found at numismatics.org/collection/1944.100.66762.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Introduction

3

The Kushan Empire and its Coinage During the first centuries AD a vast inland empire stretched across Central and South Asia. The Kushan Empire was a superpower of its time alongside those of China, Persia and Rome. Just how and when the Kushan dynasty was formed continues to be debated, and precise dates, especially for the late Kushan kings, are still elusive, but the coinage alone reveals the Kushan dynasty as a major force in the cultural and political history of the ancient Silk Road. Evidence for the reigns of a handful of Kushan kings has been gleaned from cryptic references in Chinese and Kashmiri annals, supported by evidence from contemporary inscriptions on stone and metal and from the Kushans’ extensive coinage. Some Kushan kings are only known because their names appear on coins. Determining chronologies of kings in Central Asia has depended on numismatics and epigraphy to a greater extent than on archaeology. Coin finds have provided crucial evidence in most Kushan-era archaeological sites. This is especially true for the sites at Begram in Afghanistan and Taxila in Pakistan, together with smaller sites in Pakistan, northern Afghanistan, southern Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and India. In all these sites the dating of antiquities has largely relied on the coins found in the same or related archaeological contexts (Errington and Curtis 2007: 63–72). The 1993 discovery in northern Afghanistan of the Rabatak inscription (Sims-Williams and Cribb 1995/1996; Sims-Williams 1998, 2008) added another piece of firm evidence for understanding the history of the Kushan Empire. The inscription records the purpose of a cult at a religious sanctuary built on the orders of the fourth Kushan king Kanishka I. It lists the gods whose images were to be presented in the sanctuary, and the achievements of Kanishka I in subjugating the cities of northern India. It also provides the names of his dynastic predecessors: his great-grandfather Kujula Kadphises, his grandfather Wima Takto and his father Wima Kadphises, confirming the evidence of royal succession provided by the coins. Kanishka I has generated the widest attention across the spectrum of cultural, political and religious history, as well as in numismatics. In Rosenfield’s study of Kushan dynastic arts, the reign of Kanishka is given more attention than all the other Kushan kings combined. Rosenfield describes Kanishka as a figure of primary importance in Asian history, “exceptional in his ability to consolidate a great empire while also encouraging the release of his peoples’ creative energies” (Rosenfield 1967: 27–58). Kanishka’s reign is rightly considered a pivotal era in the history of the area and saw major contributions in architecture, sculpture, and Buddhist texts and art. Kanishka’s importance in written records is largely because of the part he played as a patron of Buddhism. His issue of coins with Buddhist images supports the historicity of this legendary role. He has also become crucial to modern historical research because of the use of an era, apparently established in his first year, as a dating system for the next century and a half in Kushan territory. Many contemporary inscriptions and sculptures carry dates in this era, so the Kanishka era has also become of immense importance to epigraphists and historians of religion and art. Because this era appears then to have disappeared, there has been a long running controversy over its start date. This has largely been resolved by a growing consensus that places the Kanishka era in the early second century AD, based in part on Falk’s analysis of a reference to the second century AD as the “Kushan era” in an early Sanskrit text (Falk 2001). It is now widely agreed by scholars that this era began in c. AD 127.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

4

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

For the purposes of this catalogue, the list of Kushan and related rulers, together with their approximate dates, is constructed around Falk’s date of AD 127 for the beginning of the Kanishka era (see Table 2, below). Research on these issues is an ongoing process and constantly under review. Table 2. Rulers and Dynasties Kushan Kings

Dates AD

Dates documented in inscriptions*

Kujula Kadphises

c. 50–90

AZ 122 and 136

Wima Takto

c. 90–113

GR 279

Wima Kadphises

c. 113–127

GR 287

Kanishka I

c. 127–151

KA 1–23

Huvishka

c. 151–190

KE 28–60

Vasudeva I

c. 190–230

KE 64–98

Kanishka II

c. 230–247

KE [1]11–[1]18

Vasishka

c. 247–267

KE [1]20–[1]30

Kanishka III

c. 267–270

KE [1]41

Vasudeva II

c. 267–300

Mahi

c. 300–305

Shaka

c. 305–335

Kipunadha

c. 335–350

Kushanshahs Unidentified king

c. 230

Ardashir

c. 230–245

Peroz I

c. 245–270

Hormizd I

c. 270–300

Hormizd II

c. 300–303

Peroz II

c. 303–330

Varahran (Kidarite puppet)

c. 330–365

Shapur II

c. 309–379

Kidarites Yosada

c. 335

Kirada

c. 335–345

Peroz

c. 345–350

Kidara

c. 350–390

*The dating eras employed in the inscriptions are abbreviated as follows: AZ—the Azes Era (counting from 46 BC), GR—the Greek Era (counting from 174 BC), and KA—the Kanishka Era (counting from AD 127).

Kushan Coinage Tradition Coinage in the territory which was to become the Kushan Empire first appeared during its addition to the empire of the Achaemenid Persian kings. The Persian administration oversaw the production of two locally made coinages, die stamped coins in the Greek style and punch-marked bent-bar coins (Cribb 2005: 70–72). A hoard found at Chaman-i Hazouri in the Kabul region contained coins imported from Mediterranean cities and kingdoms together with both kinds of the locally made coins (Curiel and Schlumberger 1953; Cribb 2005). This hoard provides evidence

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Introduction

5

that India’s coinage tradition dates back to at least the late fifth century BC. The rule of the same region by Greek and Indian kings in the period after the defeat of the Persian empire by Alexander the Great meant that both Greek and Indian coinage circulated in the area after Alexander’s conquest (Cribb 2005). Two forms of Indian coinage circulated in this area, silver punch-marked coins, derived from the bent-bar coins made from cut sheets of silver and stamped with sun, moon, tree and other symbols, and also square copper cast coins with similar symbolic designs. After Greek and Indian rule the territory came under the control of Indo-Scythian (c. 75 BC– AD 50) and Indo-Parthian kings (c. AD 32–110) who issued coins in the Greek tradition (Cribb 2007a: 333–375). When the Kushans began issuing coins in about AD 50, they adapted for their own purposes coin designs already in use. Kushan coin minting techniques and coin design were an extension of the traditions of Greek style coinage already current in the area over more than three centuries. Many aspects of Greek coin design had been adapted locally first by the Indo-Greek kings of the second century BC, who introduced bilingual inscriptions in Greek and Prakrit, written in Brahmi or Kharoshthi script (Salomon 1998: 42–56, 77–79; 1999: 3–4, 110–112), then by the Indo-Scythians of the first century BC who retained the general form of Bactrian and Indo-Greek coinage, but replaced Greek royal portrait busts with full-figure royal images in nomad dress or armor. In turn, the Indo-Scythians were overthrown by an Indo-Parthian dynasty in the early first century AD who retained many of the Indo-Scythian designs, but also reintroduced portrait busts, now in an Iranian style. Throughout the Indo-Greek to Indo-Parthian period, the coin inscriptions gave the name and titles of the issuing ruler, except in a few cases where the coins are inscribed with a former ruler’s name and titles as a continuing posthumous issue. Apart from these cultural shifts, coin designs in this region remained structurally as they had under the Indo-Greeks, with royal designs surrounded by Greek inscriptions on the obverse, and religious images on the reverse surrounded by inscriptions in Prakrit (in Kharoshthi script). The Kushans initially continued most aspects of these traditions, preferring to mimic designs of their predecessors, and issued coins with Indo-Greek, Indo-Parthian and Indo-Scythian designs. Some coin designs of the first Kushan king, Kujula Kadphises, are either direct copies or adaptations of Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian issues, mostly modified by replacing the earlier kings’ names with his own. Two of Kujula Kadphises’s coinages continue the practice of making posthumous issues in the name of a long dead king, following the practice of the peoples they conquered. In one of his issues from the mint in Taxila, Kujula Kadphises chose an imported Roman coin design as his prototype. Until the discovery of his name in the Rabatak inscription, the coinage after the issues in the name of Kujula Kadphises was poorly understood. Those with the name of Kujula Kadphises’ son, Wima Takto, were thought to relate to the next king, his son Wima Kadphises (Cribb 1981b). The rest of the coinage was anonymous, inscribed in Greek with the titles ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΩΝ [sic] ΣΩΤΗΡ ΜΕΓAΣ, king of kings great savior. A variety of attributions have been proposed, associating them with Kujula Kadphises, Wima Kadphises, an unidentified Kushan king or a usurper (MacDowall 1968; Mukherjee 1995; Fussman 1998; Bopearachchi 2006, 2007 and 2008). The use of the name of Wima Takto on two coin types linked by their designs and tamgas with the anonymous coins shows that at least part of this enigmatic coinage was issued in his reign (SimsWilliams and Cribb 1995/1996). It seems likely that the issue of the anonymous coins may have commenced in the reign of Kujula Kadphises in an attempt to establish a stable standard for his monetary system.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

6

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

Wima Takto’s son, Wima Kadphises, introduced a novel design for his copper coinage based in Kushan culture with a highly original image of the standing king in nomad dress making an offering at a small altar. Alongside these he used a variety of royal images on gold coins, with the king seated on or emerging from a mountain top, riding an elephant, seated on a throne or riding in a chariot, all reflecting aspects of Kushan culture. Wima Kadphises’ image of a devotional king sacrificing at an altar was his most influential innovation and it was retained throughout Kushan coinage (Cribb 1998: 86–87), as well as influencing the coin design of several successor states (Cribb 2005 and 2007). It was this design which became the primary image used by his son Kanishka I. Kanishka I also made the final break with key aspects of the earlier tradition by changing the language on his coins from Greek to Bactrian, an Iranian language written using Greek letters (Sims-Williams 1989a: 344–349; 1989b: 230–235), and dropping the use of Kharoshthi along with Greek. He also introduced the labeling of divine images on the reverse, perhaps following Roman practice (Errington and Cribb 1992: 48–49). Kanishka’s successor Huvishka reused the portrait types of Wima Kadphises, particularly the king emerging from mountain top on his gold coins and the elephant rider, king seated on mountain and king seated on throne on his copper (see Appendix B for Huvishka’s portrait designs). All the kings after Huvishka retained the sacrificing king design introduced by Wima Kadphises and adapted by Kanishka I. Apart from a gradual shift in style, the only other innovation to take place in Kushan coin design was the gradual phasing out of Bactrian inscriptions, which were replaced by Brahmi inscriptions in the form of monograms written in the field of the coin. The introduction of Brahmi monograms began in the reign of Vasudeva I, but became the dominant form of inscription in the reign of Vasudeva II, who put the initial part of his name Vasu as a vertical Brahmi monogram in the obverse right field of his coins. All his successors appear to have followed this practice of identifying themselves through such a monogram (Errington and Cribb 1992: 73; Burns 1984:54–66). Kanishka’s adoption of Bactrian language inscriptions has been explained in a variety of ways (Cribb 1998: 86). The discovery of the Rabatak inscription (Sims-Williams and Cribb 1995/1996: 110–111), which explicitly refers to the transition from Greek to Bactrian, points to a deliberate political act of the Kushans to establish a more distinctly Iranian identity and a resolutely anti-Greek attitude (as suggested by Fussman 1976: 313–22). The abandonment of Kharoshthi inscriptions on the reverses of Kushan coins, however, does not appear to have had a political meaning, but simply reflects the consequence of the coinage becoming imperial and therefore circulating throughout the Kushan Empire, rather than being essentially local to the Gandhara and Punjab regions, the only parts of the Kushan state where Kharoshthi had traditionally been used on coins. During Kanishka’s reign and that of his successor Huvishka, Kharoshthi still appeared on some copper coins produced in Kashmir, Gandhara or the Punjab in the form of control marks (usually as single letters, but as a name Yodhavade on some rare issues not in the ANS collection). The introduction of Brahmi monograms was clearly of a different order to the decision to use Bactrian. The first uses of Brahmi seem to have been related to the administration of coin production, as tiny Brahmi control marks began to be used at only one of Vasudeva I’s gold mints in the last part of his reign. Under Kanishka II, in the only mint in routine production, the use of Brahmi monograms became a standard procedure which spread to the copper mint and to newly located mints when they opened. The reign of Kanishka II also saw the loss of parts of Bactria from

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Introduction

7

the Kushan Empire, so the gradual reduction in the use of Bactrian as an official language began at the same period. By the reign of Vasudeva II, Bactrian inscriptions on the coins were becoming increasingly illegible. The Brahmi monograms became an easier means of identification for the user and replaced Bactrian. On a few gold issues of Vasudeva II Kharoshthi monograms appeared in place of the usual Brahmi ones. Illegible traces of Bactrian continued to appear on most gold coins, but disappeared completely from the copper. Brahmi monograms were also used on the coins issued by successor states, including Kidarite Hun coins in Gandhara and Gupta coins in India. However, Bactrian survived in use on KushanoSasanian coinage in Afghanistan, and was continued on the coins issued by their successors in the same region, the Kidarite and the Alchon Huns.

Kushan Monetary System and Mints Although the Kushans adapted many aspects of the coin design practice of their forerunners in the region, their monetary system only followed earlier practices during the period of its establishment under Kujula Kadphises. The introduction of the anonymous Soter Megas coinage at the end of the reign of Kujula Kadphises marked a departure from earlier monetary practice. This new coinage attempted to unify the currency throughout Kushan territory, leaving only Kashmir with a separate system until the following reign. New areas of conquest in Gandhara and India briefly used modified versions of the unified currency, while the denominational system in Kashmir was changed to comply with the imperial coinage. The new coinage was based on copper denominations weighing two drachms (c. 8.5 grams) and a half drachm (2.1 grams) on a “reduced Attic” standard. In size it also approximated to the Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian base-silver four drachm (c. 9.5 grams) on the Indo-Greek standard. The general issue Soter Megas coinage was exclusively copper, replacing the chaos created by the debasement of silver coinages previously in use in both Bactria and south of the Hindu Kush. The new coinage featured a radiate bust of the Kushan sun god Mioro on its obverse, and a horseman on the reverse. In newly conquered Gandhara, however, Wima Takto issued an Indo-Greek standard Soter Megas coinage that took account of the previous system (Indo-Parthian) by retaining about 3% silver content and copying the Indo-Parthian horseman/Zeus design type. In the next reign the unification process was taken a step forward in establishing a completely unified coinage for the entire empire, including Kashmir and newly conquered territories. New copper denominations were added and higher denominations in gold were also introduced. Wima Kadphises’ coinage now consisted of copper coins weighing four, two and one drachms (16, 8, and 4 grams), and gold of four, two, one (rare) and half drachms (16, 8, 4 and 2 grams). The tetradrachm and didrachm coppers and the dinara and half dinara gold were clearly intended as the standard units, as in the next reigns of Kanishka and Huvishka these were the dominant issues. Only in Kashmir were one drachm coppers routinely issued. By the reign of Vasudeva I the copper coinage consisted only of the four drachm and the gold of two and half drachm denominations. The two drachm gold coin was very close in weight to the imported Roman denarius aureus, the standard Roman gold denomination, so that at some point before the reign of Kanishka II it came to be known as the dinara. The name of the copper denomination is not known. In this catalogue the large copper denomination will be referred to as a tetradrachm until late in Huvishka’s copper issues when reduced weight denominations are referred to as “units.”

©2015 American Numismatic Society

8

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

The unification and standardization achieved during the reigns of Wima Takto and Wima Kadphises lasted until the end of the Kushan Empire. To some extent the standard was continued by the successor Kushano-Sasanian and Kidarite Hun states and also borrowed by the Gupta empire in India. However, the system was not as robust as its continuity suggests. The causes are not entirely clear, but under Huvishka the weight of the standard copper four drachm unit began to drop, so that its origins in the Attic standard became obscured. The initial cause seems to have been a loss of control of the issue system, as the same designs appear on coins weighing from the standard 16 grams down to about 1 gram. When control was restored a new standard was set at about 12 grams. The process of decline continued and by the end of the reign the coins were being issued at about 10 grams. Under Vasudeva I they dropped down to about 8 grams. Each of the following reigns saw a progressive reduction of the standard until the end of the empire, when copper coins weighing less than 2 grams were being issued. The Kushano-Sasanian coinage also followed a similar downward trajectory. When the Kidarites took over from both the Kushans and the Kushano-Sasanians, the copper coinage standard dropped to about 1 gram (Khan, Errington, Cribb 2008: 50). The gold coinage maintained a high standard until the period of Kanishka II, when the gold content of the coins began to fall significantly, although not the weight. The initial gold issues of Wima Kadphises were made with almost pure gold, and through the next century a drop in fineness of less than 5% has been observed (Bracey 2011; Oddy and Cribb 1998). From the accession of Kanishka II the gold coins began to be debased progressively. The gold content had fallen to about 85% by the end of Vasishka’s reign. Kanishka III and Vasudeva II’s reigns suggest an attempt to restore a higher fineness of about 92%, but without success as the gold content continued to drop. During Shaka’s reign, the fineness dropped from about 77% down to about 50%. The decline continued during Kipunadha’s reign until some of his issues contained less than 15% gold and lost their gold appearance. Kushano-Sasanian and Kidarite gold coins show gold quality close to the contemporary issues of the Kushans. It is likely that the cost of conflict between the Kushans and the Kushano-Sasanians was in part the cause of this decline. The decrease in value of the gold coinage followed the track of the descending weight standard of the copper coinage. Although it is likely that the monetary system was based on an official correlation between the gold and copper coinages, no evidence survives to confirm this or to indicate the nature of the correlation. The production of gold and copper coinage seems normally to have been separate. Unfortunately there are no indicators such as mint marks or mint names that reveal the number of mints or their locations. The identification of mints and conjectures about their location are based on distinctions in design, style and production techniques and on the distribution of finds. Die studies suggest that initially there was only one gold mint, with a second mint added towards the end of Kanishka I’s reign. The original mint remained the main one through the reigns of Huvishka and Vasudeva I, with the added mint working as a subsidiary. The number of dies attributed to each mint suggests that production at the main gold mint was double that of the subsidiary mint. Die studies also suggest that production at the Kushan mints appears to involve just two individuals at anvils striking coins at the main mint and one at the subsidiary mint. There were probably other workers involved in refining and alloying the metal, making blanks and checking production, but it is clear that only a small team was involved, so mint locations could be readily transferable. At the end of the reign of Vasudeva I, the main gold mint stopped production, but copies of its designs continued in a series of posthumous imitations. The imitations gradually evolved in

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Introduction

9

design, providing the prototype for the first Kushano-Sasanian gold issues minted by the second Kushanshah, Peroz I. It seems plausible to suggest that the main mint was closed or taken over as a result of the Sasanian invasion of Bactria. As later gold coins from the same mint are sometimes marked with the Bactrian name Bachlo (i.e., Bactra = Balkh), it also seems plausible to suggest that the main Kushan gold mint was located in the same city. The subsidiary Kushan gold mint continued until the reign of Vasishka, when it also ceased production and new mints were opened further east. This is also the time when the Sasanians seem to have taken possession of Peshawar, so it is likely that this was the location of the subsidiary mint. The loss of the main and subsidiary gold mints forced the Kushans to open mints in at least two other locations. The distribution of finds suggests that one was located in Mathura and the other in the Punjab, probably at Taxila. After Vasudeva II, the mint at Mathura seems to have been moved back into Gandhara. Under the first Kushan king, Kujula Kadphises, production of copper and silver coinage was localised, reflecting the various regional monetary systems in the territory he conquered. The largest production centres relate to the two centres of Kushan rule in its conquered territories at Begram and Taxila. Local finds help to distinguish the production of similar coinage at local mints in these territories. With reforms of the copper coinage of Wima Takto and Wima Kadphises, the copper coinage appears to be produced centrally, probably also at Begram, with some local production at subsidiary mints in Kashmir and in newly conquered territory under Wima Takto and perhaps continuing in Kashmir under Wima Kadphises. Kanishka’s main production of copper coinage also seems to have been at Begram. Kanishka also had a large subsidiary mint in Kashmir that produced mostly copper drachms. Kashmir was an important source of copper and the coins produced there from Kujula Kadphises into the reign of Huvishka are often recognizable due to their magnetic response (Tanner et al. 1979). Another small subsidiary mint producing only four drachm issues opened in the last years of Kanishka I’s reign, probably in Gandhara, perhaps to complement the subsidiary gold mint at Peshawar. Under Huvishka, copper coinage production continued at the three mints working under Kanishka, but towards the end of his reign he also opened a small copper mint in Mathura. The production of copper coinage from the period of Vasudeva I onwards is more difficult to locate. Some production can be matched with gold issues due to the shared use of Brahmi control marks, but there is insufficient evidence to be precise about the location and number of mints. The picture is obscured by the massive production of imitation coins. Some of these can be linked with the Kushano-Sasanians through the use of mint control marks that appear on the posthumous Vasudeva gold coinage attributable to them. Kushano-Sasanian copper coin production from the reign of Peroz I suggest two minting centres, one linked with the gold mint in Bactria and the other somewhere south of the Hindu Kush, either at Begram or Peshawar. The Kidarites seem to have continued the use of two minting centres, in Bactria and in Gandhara. For most of the Kushan period the depiction of divine images on the coins reflected pre-Kushan practice, with a small number, sometimes just one, deity being selected for use on one ruler’s coins. This was the case for the coins of Wima Kadphises, all of which depict the Kushan god Oesho (see Appendix C), and also for the coinage of Vasudeva I, who also used Oesho designs. His successor, Kanishka II, retained Oesho for some issues, but mostly used the goddess Ardochsho. Oesho and Ardochsho continued to be used as the divine images on all coins of the late Kushans. The coinage of Kanishka I and Huvishka reveal a major departure from this practice, as many deities appear on their coins. Many reasons have been proposed for this. Some researchers suggest that the gods depicted on the coins represent the diverse religious beliefs of their subjects, while

©2015 American Numismatic Society

10

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

others argue that their designs represent the gods of the nations with whom the Kushan Empire traded. Such explanations do not fit the surviving evidence (Cribb 1998: 89–90). The Rabatak inscription (Sims-Williams and Cribb 1995) with its list of gods who were seen as responsible for Kanishka I’s accession to the throne creates a different view of the Kushan pantheon. The inscription shows the Kushan king seeking authority from a wide range of gods, and divine representations on the coins of Kanishka I and Huvishka show them seeking that authority from an even wider range of gods (see Appendix C). Although some of the gods initially appear with Greek names and some have Indian names, the Rabatak inscription has made it clear that the Greek names are simply translations of the names of Iranian gods, and the Indian names are convenient labels for these same Iranian gods (Cribb 2008). The gods represent the religious practice and beliefs of the Kushan kings, not of their subjects or their trading partners. The place of the gods on the coins also appears to have had a practical purpose alongside their use as an expression of Kushan royal authority (Cribb 2009: 513–514). Although Göbl (1984) and MacDowall (1978) were correct to show that the divine images related to the mint administration, an analysis of their use shows that they were used to mark batches of production, rather than the administrative subdivisions, at the Kushan mint (Cribb 2008: 96).

Previous Studies of Kushan Coins There are four useful listings of Kushan coins available at present. John Rosenfield’s The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans (Berkeley 1967), Michael Mitchiner’s Oriental Coins and their Values—Ancient and Classical World, (London 1978), Robert Göbl’s System und Chronologie der Münzprägung des Kušānreiches (Vienna 1984) and his Donum Burns—die Kušānmünzen im Münzkabinett Bern und die Chronologie (Vienna 1993). In preparing this volume we have made use of all four, and acknowledge the value they bring to the subject. The first of these (Rosenfield) is not a coin catalogue, but an outline of the designs on Kushan coins as an aid to understanding their place within official art in the Kushan Empire. Its analysis of the identity of royal and divine imagery represented an outstanding contribution to the subject, particularly at a time when there was no systematic listing available of the coins themselves. The absence of such a guide to the coinage is the only serious deficiency of this study, as there was no measure by which Rosenfield could distinguish the normal from the abnormal and the personal idiosyncrasies of the die engraver from the officially sanctioned representation of king or god. The subsequent discovery of the Rabatak inscription has also clarified the function of divine images within the Kushan state in a way about which Rosenfield could only speculate. Mitchiner’s work presents itself implicitly as a corpus-style presentation of the Kushan coinage as part of a larger account of ancient coinage in Asia. Its weaknesses lie in the limited number of coins it presents, as it is by no means an exhaustive treatment of the material. Nevertheless, when it appeared in 1978, Mitchiner’s listing was without doubt the best presentation made of this complex series. It remains an immensely useful resource, particularly because it is based on many specimens from private collections, and because of Mitchiner’s insights into the organization of the coinage. In the ANS catalogue, Mitchiner’s numbers are used for coinages of the first two Kushan kings, Kujula Kadphises and Wima Takto. Göbl’s massive 1984 volume easily superseded Mitchiner’s account of the Kushan coinage. It represents a highly detailed attempt to describe the Kushan monetary system by means of a structured presentation of a corpus of the whole of the Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian and Kidarite

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Introduction

11

Hun coinages. Göbl’s work was based on an extensive collection of material from public and private collections, auction sales and dealers’ lists. It remains the largest body of data on Kushan coins in print and underpins any study of the monetary systems. It will maintain its position as an essential tool in the study of the subject for a long time to come. Unfortunately, Göbl omitted the coins of the first two rulers. The main weakness of Göbl’s approach is his treatment of the structure of the mint system in the Kushan state. Göbl’s understanding of mint organizations was developed through his study of Roman coinage and he applied his understanding of the production of Roman coinage too rigidly to the Kushan system. According to Göbl’s approach the Kushan mint was normally composed of four workshops distinguished by reverse types. This idea was borrowed from late Roman coinage, where an added letter or a number in the reverse design indicated the existence of independent workshops (officinae) within each mint producing their own series of coins. These additional letters or numbers began in the third century AD and continued into the fourth. But Göbl, as well as other scholars of Roman coinage, sought to detect workshops on earlier Roman coins according to reverse types (MacDowell 1979). It was Göbl’s belief in the workshop system that influenced his understanding of Kushan history and prompted him to directly link Kushan and Roman minting practice. Göbl’s analysis of Roman minting practice, however, is not entirely free of controversy: “The usual assumption that the different reverse types were produced by different officinae within the mint is still far from proven and in many cases seems to me to hinder rather than to advance our understanding of the coinage… What do we gain, then, by speaking of ‘officinae’…?” (Clay 1979: 23). The problems arising from Göbl’s insistence on a workshop based structure for coin production can readily be understood when the use of dies is reviewed. Kushan coin die analysis conducted at the British Museum shows that normally only two work stations (and sometimes just one) produced coins at Kushan gold mints (Cribb 1998: 83–98; Bracey 2009). They worked in the same space and could swap reverse dies between them. There was no practical reason for the mint to be divided into workshops. Göbl’s analysis based on workshops confused the arrangement of the production of Kushan gold coins, and often induced him to group coins that do not belong together, and separate coins that belong together. Göbl began his organization with the idea of four workshops distinguishable by four reverse types. He used Kanishka’s first gold issue with Helios (Miiro), Salene (Mao), Nanaia (Nana) and Hephaistos (Athsho) reverses to establish his approach. But then Göbl came across an issue with five reverses, so he had to find a way to take into account the deity, Oesho. Instead of adjusting his scheme, Göbl felt obliged to find a way to group the fifth reverse into one of his four workshops. He did this by transferring Athsho into the workshop represented by Miiro, reallocated the Athsho workshop to Oesho, thus complicating his approach. Göbl’s mistaken linkage between Kushan and Roman mint practice became one of the underlying reasons for the chronology he developed placing the beginning of the Kanishka I era in the third century (AD 278), which is about 150 years later than the AD 127 date generally accepted by scholars now (Göbl 1984: 28). This chronology created weaknesses in Göbl’s analysis of other aspects of the Kushan coinage, particularly in relation to the Kushano-Sasanian series, for which he suggested a commencement date of about AD 350 in the reign of Shapur II (AD 307–379), whereas the evidence now available shows that it ended during this reign and began in the time of Ardashir I (AD 224–241) (Göbl 1984: 79).

©2015 American Numismatic Society

12

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

Equally detrimental is a practical problem arising from Göbl’s approach: the accumulative process by which coins were entered into his scheme. His adding of extra examples to the end of a list of coins of a particular type creates a lack of clarity, and therefore, confusion. For example, Göbl divided Kanishka I’s gold coins with Bactrian inscriptions into two ‘emissions’, first according to two crown types, and secondly according to deities on the reverse. He lists twelve coins under Miiro with the first crown, but the die links and style shows that the order of issue was entirely different to the order that emerges in his listing. When a thorough study of dies and style is attempted, it is possible to determine the order in which the obverse and reverse dies were produced (Cribb and Bracey forthcoming). In 1993, Göbl refined his presentation in a collection catalogue based on the holdings of the Bern Museum, Switzerland, particularly its donation from Dr. Craig Burns who specialized in collecting late Kushan coins. Göbl remedied some of his misunderstandings relating to the structure of the coinage from Vasudeva I onwards, removing, for example, his assignation of some coins of Vasudeva I to a second king Vasudeva who he identified as a contemporary of Kanishka II.

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins in the Collection of the American Numismatic Society In this catalogue of the ANS collection, the production system of Kushan coinage is presented differently from that of either Mitchiner or Göbl. Die analysis allows us to recognize that reverse types were used to distinguish batches of production at the same mint. There are two possible explanations for the batching. The mint may have used a change of deity to indicate a new period of production, or to distinguish consignments of bullion. There is not enough evidence to know how the batching system was structured, but it has nothing to do with workshops. Analysis also reveals that obverse dies seemed to be kept in production for about a year. There are roughly enough dies to suggest that approximately one obverse die was made for each work station each year of the reign of Kanishka I and Huvishka, for example. Every time a die wore down, it was recut, in some cases many times. On the other hand, reverse dies were rarely recut, but if a die wore out or broke before the production period or batch was complete, another reverse die with the same design was made to replace the unusable die (Cribb 1998: 95–96). This catalogue follows a sylloge approach in its listing of a single collection, but follows a collection catalogue approach in its presentation of analytical material and commentary, with the addition of detailed coin descriptions. It is our intention that the ANS collection of Kushan coins provide a tool for people to use in a variety of ways for the identification and placement of the coins. We have chosen to present the ANS coins chronologically based on the die analysis and research being developed during the preparation of the forthcoming corpus-style catalogue of the Kushan coins in the British Museum. The ANS coins are classified by ruler, mint, phase of production, metal, denomination, type and variety. The section listings are prefaced by introductory essays to establish the historical context of the kings and the coins. All of the ANS gold coins are illustrated. A selection of copper coins is illustrated, including those of sufficient quality or condition to illustrate specific types. A large number of heavily worn coins in the ANS collection are of considerable interest in spite of their condition. We provide each of these coins with a catalogue number, while illustrating only a few. The remainder can be found on the ANS online collection database where they are all illustrated (numismatics.org/search). Poor condition coinage is of immense significance in understanding its post-production use, as it offers insight into issues that remained in circulation for

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Introduction

13

long periods. This is particularly true of the copper coins of Kanishka I, Huvishka and Kanishka II. The 16 gram standard copper coins of Kanishka and Huvishka appear to have been exported in large quantities into northern India, once the official Kushan standard had been reduced to 12 grams. The heavily worn examples of these coins are often found in India where they appear to have continued in circulation, perhaps until the fourth century AD. The worn coins of Kanishka II appear to relate to a different phenomenon. They were the last official Kushan copper coinage to be issued for use north of the Hindu Kush, so their continued circulation perhaps reflects the failure of supply to regions no longer under Kushan control following the Sasanian conquests. Alongside the Kanishka II coins, a series of imitations were circulated based on Kanishka II’s obverse designs and Vasudeva I’s reverses. Control marks on these imitations suggest that the coins were issued by the early Kushano-Sasanians. Like the Kanishka II coppers, the condition of the imitation coins reflects both poor quality production as well as longevity in circulation.

Acknowledgements We hope that this ANS catalogue provides an improved picture of how the coins of all the Kushan kings can be understood and used as a resource for Kushan history. The latest coin-based research and analysis is used to present a chronological arrangement which positions the numismatic evidence alongside that provided by archaeological, inscriptional and other resources. We are without doubt making our own mistakes, but what we present is what we know from the coins at the time of writing (2014), avoiding, we hope, any preconceptions. Our catalogue is based on the numismatic research of the authors and on the research of their collaborators, particularly Harry Falk, Berlin Free University, Elizabeth Errington and Robert Bracey, of the Department of Coins and Medals, British Museum, and Gul Rahim Khan and Nasim Khan of the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Peshawar. All of us who work on Kushan and related coins owe a huge debt of gratitude to Robert Göbl, the giant on whose broad shoulders we all stand. Thanks are also due to the various museums and institutes whose collections and data have been consulted by the authors, particularly the British Museum (London), Ashmolean Museum (Oxford), Fitzwilliam Museum (Cambridge), Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Shanghai Museum, the University of Vienna’s Institute for Numismatics, and the Indian Institute for Research in Numismatic Studies. Thanks also to the Asian Institute, Munk Centre for Global Studies, University of Toronto. The authors are grateful to the support given by Kushan coin collectors who have made images of their collections available for study, particularly Dr. Larry Adams, Pankaj Tandon, Gunter Roth, Vikramm Chand, Alex Raia, Heinz Bons, Peter Linenthal and Aman ur Rahman. Our special thanks go to Elizabeth Errington for reading the manuscript with a critical eye, offering innumerable comments and suggestions for clarification and pointing to inconsistencies. We thank Ute Wartenberg Kagan and Andrew Meadows, Director and Deputy Director of the ANS. Their continued enthusiasm for this volume has been important in our ability to sustain the effort to complete it and their hard work has been essential for getting it through the publication process. We are also grateful to ANS Trustee Dr. Larry Adams for financial support that has made the volume possible. This catalogue could not have been accomplished without the efforts of Dr. Peter Donovan at the ANS, who called to the authors’ attention hundreds of previously unidentified Kushan coins in the ANS collection. Peter’s curatorial role included measuring, weighing, and arranging the

©2015 American Numismatic Society

14

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

coins for photography, as well as creating a continually updated collection database. He presented editorial questions and comments in regards to our descriptions and organization at several key points. We cannot thank him enough for holding out through this lengthy process. Many thanks also to Oliver Hoover for his diligent work in preparing the text for publication and to Oktar Skjaervo for the Pahlavi font. We would also like to acknowledge and express our appreciation for the support given by Neil Kreitman, both for this publication and for Kushan studies in general over the last three decades. His support and encouragement has made much of the research involved here possible.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Introduction

15

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coin Types by Ruler Coin Types of Kujula Kadphises and his Da Yuezhi Predecessors Type

Coin nos. Coinage in the Da Yuezhi period

Local imitation Bactrian silver types in the Da Yuezhi period

1–4

Anonymous imitation Eucratides silver types attributable to the Da Yuezhi (Shuangmi yabgu)

5–21

Anonymous imitation Heliocles types attributable to the Da Yuezhi (Dumi yabgu): silver

22–30

Anonymous imitation Heliocles types attributable to the Da Yuezhi (Dumi yabgu): copper

31–36

Coinage of Kujula Kadphises ‘Heraus’ type

37–43

Heracles type in the name of Hermaeus/Kujula Kadphises as yabgu

44–69

Heracles type in the name of Hermaeus/Kujula Kadphises as maharaja

70–72

Heracles type in the name of Kujula Kadphises alone as yabgu

73–84

Heracles type, unofficial imitations

85–99

Helmet type

100–102

Roman emperor type

103–112

Cross-legged king type

113

Bull and camel type

114–124

Imitation Hermaeus/Zeus type

125–130

Unofficial imitation of Hermaeus/Zeus type

131–132

Imitation Hermaeus/Nike type

133–142

Unofficial imitation of Hermaeus/Nike type

143–146

Coin Types of Wima Takto/Soter Megas Type

Coin nos. General Issues initiated under Kujula Kadphises and continuing under Wima Takto

Radiate bust/ horseman type; early phase (square lettering)

147–173

Radiate bust/ horseman type; early phase (cursive lettering)

174–176

Radiate bust/horseman type; late phase (cursive lettering)

177–216

Local Issues Bull and camel type (magnetic series)

217–222

Imitation Heliocles type

223–238

Horseman/Zeus bilingual type

239–245

Uninscribed Oesho/Ardochsho type

246–247

Helmeted bust type

248–251

Mathura bust/Zeus type

252–257

©2015 American Numismatic Society

16

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

Coin Types of Wima Kadphises Type

Coin nos. Gold coinage

Attic standard double dinara

258–264

Attic standard dinara

265–270

Attic standard quarter dinara

271–272 Copper coinage

Standing king, monolingual

Drachm

273

Standing king, bilingual

Tetradrachms

274–305

Didrachms

306–308

Drachms

309–312

Illegible tetradrachms

313–369

Coin Types of Kanishka Type

Coin nos. Gold Coinage

Standing king at altar: dinara, main mint, early phase

370–372

Bust of king: quarter dinara, main mint, early phase

373–377

Kanishka dinara: main mint, late phase

378–388

Kanishka dinara and quarter dinara: subsidiary mint, late phase

389–390

Copper Coinage Standing king: main mint, early phase didrachms with Greek inscriptions

391–408

Standing king: main mint, second phase tetradrachms and didrachms with Bactrian inscriptions

409–615

Standing king with unidentifiable reverses: main mint, late phase tetradrachms

616–630

Standing king: subsidiary mint, magnetic tetradrachms

631–632

King on throne: Kashmir mint magnetic drachms

633–634

Standing king: Kashmir mint magnetic drachms and hemidrachms

635–707

Plated silver forgery

708

Coin Types of Huvishka Type

Coin nos. Gold Coinage

Half-figure of king: main mint, early phase

709–732

Half-figure of king: main mint, late phase

733–751

Elephant rider: Gandhara mint (Peshawar), early phase

752–753

Half-figure of king: Gandhara mint (Peshawar), early phase

754–767

Half-figure of king: Gandhara mint, late phase

768–776

Copper Coinage Elephant rider: main mint, early phase

777–879

King on couch: main mint, early phase

880–935

Cross-legged king: main mint, early phase

936–967

Elephant rider/two armed Oesho: main mint, late phase

968–983

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Introduction

17

King on couch: main mint, late phase

984–990

Cross-legged king: main mint, late phase

991–994

Elephant rider: Gandhara mint, early phase

995–997

Cross-legged king: Gandhara mint, early phase

998

Elephant rider: Gandhara mint late phase, first part

999–1006

King on couch: Gandhara mint late phase, first part

1007

Cross-legged king: Gandhara mint late phase, first part

1008

Elephant rider/Ardochsho series: Gandhara mint, late phase, second part

1009–1016

Standing king at altar: Kashmir mint

1017–1019

Elephant rider: Mathura mint

1020–1023

Seated king (as if on couch): Mathura mint

1024–1025

Seated king (as if on mountain): Mathura mint

1026–1031

Unofficial Copper Imitations Elephant rider

1032–1052

King on couch

1053–1070

Cross-legged king

1071–1081

Coin Types of Vasudeva I Type

Coin nos. Gold Coinage

King at altar: main mint (Bactria), early phase

1082–1084

King at altar: main mint, middle phase

1085–1090

King at altar: main mint, late phase

1091–1093

King at altar: subsidiary mint (Gandhara), early phase

1094–1100

King at altar: subsidiary mint, middle phase

1101–1102

Copper Coinage Standing king: main mint, early phase

1103–1105

King at altar with altar trident: main mint, early phase

1106–1116

King at altar with crossbar on altar trident; main mint, middle phase

1117–1120

King at altar with semicircle of dots on trident held by king: main mint, middle phase

1121–1122

King at altar with illegible control-marks; main mint, middle phase

1123–1151

King at altar with nandipada; main mint, late phase

1152–1164

King at altar with tamgas both sides: main mint, late phase

1165–1173

King at altar: subsidiary mint

1174–1176

Illegible Vasudeva units

1177–1196

Unofficial imitations

1197–1200

©2015 American Numismatic Society

18

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

Coin Types of the Late Kushans Type

Coin nos. Kanishka II Gold Coinage

King at altar

1201 Kanishka II Copper Coinages

King at altar with Brahmi vi

1202–1220

King at altar with Brahmi vi and dot rosette

1221

King at altar with Kharoshthi vi

1222–1224

Standing king with illegible Brahmi or Kharoshthi vi

1225–1267

Crude standing king (6-8 grams)

1268–1435

Crude standing king (3-6 grams)

1436–1598

Unofficial copies of Kanishka II

1599–1603

Unofficial copies from India of Kanishka II

1604–1605

Vasishka Gold Coinage King at altar; main mint early phase

1606–1609

King at altar; main mint late phase

1610–1612

King at altar; subsidiary mint

1613–1617 Vasishka copper coins

King at altar/Oesho with Brahmi tha: main mint

1618

King at altar/Oesho with Brahmi chu: subsidiary mint

1619–1622

King at altar/Oesho with illegible chu: subsidiary mint

1623–1639

King at altar/Ardochsho with Brahmi chu: subsidiary mint

1640–1642

Kanishka III gold and copper coins Gold: King at altar

1643–1645

Copper: King at altar

1646–1647

Ancient forgery of Kanishka III

1648

Vasudeva II Gold and Copper Coinage Gold: King at altar

1649–1650

Copper: King on throne (including overstrikes)

1651–1663

Copper: Standing king/Oesho

1664–1665 Mahi Gold Coinage

Gold: King at altar

1666 Shaka Gold and Copper Coinage

Gold: King at altar

1667–1671

Copper: King at altar

1672–1678

Imitation

1679

Unofficial copy from India

1680

Contemporary forgery

1681 Kipunadha Gold and Copper Coins

Gold: King at altar Highly debased gold: King at altar Copper: King at altar

1682 1683–1687 1688

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Introduction

19

Coin Types of the Kushano-Sasanians: Vasudeva Imitations Type

Coin nos. Gold Coinage

Early series in the name of Vasudeva I

1689–1693

Late series in the name of Kanishka II

1694–1695

Late series in the name of Vasudeva I

1696–1703 Copper Coinage

Standing king with swastika

Type 1A

1704–1712

Standing king with triangle and lines

Type 1B

1713–1727

Standing king with triangle

Type 1C

1728–1876

Standing king with triangle and dot edges

Type 2

1877–1927

Standing king with small triangle

Type 3A

1928–1943

Standing king with no triangle

Type 3B

1944–1978

Standing king with bird-like body type

Type 4

1979–1997

Standing king with vertical lines reverse

Type 5

1998–2047

Vertical lines type (obverse and reverse)

Type 6

2048–2101

Unclear attribution, possibly Vasudeva imitations

2102–2136

Crude irregular copies of Vasudeva imitations

2137–2139

Coin Types of the Kushano-Sasanians: Royal Issues Type

Coin nos. Unidentified king

Bust of king/Anahita

2140–2141 Ardashir

Standing king in Sasanian dress

2142–2143

Bust of king/Anahita

2144–2153 Peroz Gold Coinage

King at altar; early series

2154–2156

King at altar; late series

2157–2159 Peroz Copper Coinage

King at altar

2160–2186

Bust of king/fire altar

2187–2205 Hormizd I Gold Coinage

King at altar; early series

2206

King at altar; late series

2207–2213 Hormizd I Copper Coinage

Exalted God series

2214–2220

Investiture series

2221–2224

Ribboned altar series

2225–2243

Bust of king/fire altar; in the name of Kavad

2244–2294

Contemporary unofficial copy of Hormizd I in the name of Kavad

2295–2297

Bust of king/fire altar; in the name of Meze

2298–2336

Contemporary unofficial copy in the name of Meze

2337

©2015 American Numismatic Society

20

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

Hormizd II Copper Coins Bust of king/Anahita on altar

2338–2340

Bust of king/bust of deity on altar; in the name of Meze

2341

Peroz II Gold Coin King at altar

2342 Peroz II Copper Coins

Bust of king/bust of deity on altar

2343–2349

Bust of king/bust of deity on altar; in the name of Meze

2350–2358

Varahran Gold Coins King at altar

2359–2361 Varahran Copper Coins

Bust of king/bust of deity on altar

2362–2370 Shapur II Copper Coins

Bust of king/bust of deity on fire altar; in the name of Kavad

2371–2385

Bust of king/bust of deity on fire altar; in own name, Shaboro

2386

Bust of king/bust of deity on fire altar; with illegible Kavad or Shaboro

2387–2397

Bust of king/fire altar; in own name, Shaboro

2398–2408

Coin Types of the Kidarite Huns Type Gold: In the name of Varahran Kushanshah, time of Yasada and Kirada

Coin nos. 2409–2412

Gold: Yasada in own name

2413

Gold: Kirada in own name

2414–2415

Gold: In the name of Varahran Kushanshah, time of Peroz Copper: In the name of Varahran Kushanshah, time of Peroz

2416 2417–2419

Gold: Peroz in own name

2420

Copper: Peroz in own name

2421

Gold: In the name of Varahran Kushanshah, time of Kidara

2422–2431

Copper: In the name of Varahran Kushanshah, time of Kidara

2432

Gold: Kidara: Kushano-Sasanian style

2433

Pale gold: Kidara: Kushan style

2434–2444

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Da Yuezhi Coins and the Coinage of Kujula Kadphises c. AD 50–90

(Coins 1–146, Plates 1–6)

‘Roman Emperor’ Type copper unit of Kujula Kadphises (coin 105).

Introduction The earliest surviving account of the rise of the Kushan Empire is in the chronicle of the late Han, the Hou Han Shu (chapter 88.9; Zürcher 1968: 367; Thierry 2005: 492–3; Hill 2009: 28–9). This account is derived from the report submitted to the Chinese emperor Andi (AD 107–125) by Ban Yong, his general in Xinjiang (Chinese Central Asia). He probably gathered his information on the Kushans before he left Central Asia in AD 103. Outlining the history of the ‘Western cities’, present-day Xinjiang Province and the territories beyond its eastern borders, Ban Yong referred to Da Yuezhi nomadic tribesmen who, after being expelled by the Xiongnu (Huns) in northern China (177/6 BC), moved to Da Xia (a territory in the Oxus basin). According to this account the Da Yuezhi were organized under five local rulers (Chinese xihou, translated into Prakrit as yavuga, and rendered as yabgu in Turkish), one of whom was called Kushan, rendered Guishuang in the Chinese text.

The Da Yuezhi More details of the Da Yuezhi migration from Inner Asia and their initial settlement to the north of the Oxus before they overran the territory south of the Oxus River was reported in earlier Chinese chronicles, the Shiji and Hou Han Shu (Zürcher 1968: 358–66; Thierry 2005: 490–2).1 A few coin types are attributable to the Da Yuezhi chiefs. These coins include silver hemidrachms and obols that copy Greek models. The coins’ Greek inscriptions do not appear in their entirety, but refer to Yuezhi leaders by the names of Sapadbizes, Agesiles, Pseigacharis, and Pabes, and date to the first century AD (Mitchiner 1978: 387). 1. Also see Yu 1998 and Grenet 2006 for the most recent research on the original locations of the local rulers north of the river Oxus, before the Da Yuezhi conquered northern Afghanistan.

21

©2015 American Numismatic Society

22

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

Map 2. Bactria and Environs in the time of the Da Yuezhi and the early Kushans, first century BC–first century AD.

Kujula Kadphises The Hou Han Shu reports that a Kushan yabgu called Qiujiuque (Kujula Kadphises) attacked and overcame the other four yabgu and established himself as king of the Da Yuezhi in the first century AD. He then invaded Anxi and captured Gaofu, and destroyed Puda and Jibin taking full possession of their kingdoms. Anxi was the name given in Chinese sources to the Parthian empire of Iran, so there are two interpretations of the first part of this statement: either he invaded Parthian territory in western Bactria and captured Termez (Grenet 2006) or he invaded the IndoParthian kingdom and captured Kabul. Puda and Jibin have been identified in various ways, but the most likely interpretations are that Kujula conquered Peshawar and Kashmir, or that he conquered Bactria and the Kabul region. Coin distribution patterns, augmented by limited archaeological and inscriptional records show that during his long reign (c. AD 50–90),2 Kujula crossed the Hindu Kush from Bactria, and conquered an extensive area that includes the Kabul region, Taxila, Kashmir, as well as areas south into Sind, while retaining control of territories in Bactria and north of the Oxus (cf. Cribb 1999). It is unclear from the evidence whether Kujula controlled the Peshawar region. When Kujula Kadphises came to power, imitations of silver coins of the late Bactrian Greek kings Eucratides I (c. 174–140 BC) and Heliocles I (c. 120–90 BC) were in circulation in his northern territories. The dividing points between imitations made before and after his seizure of power are uncertain. One silver imitation of Eucratides I’s obol is inscribed with Kujula Kadphises’ name (British Museum collection), suggesting that these imitations continued into his reign. The absence of silver content in many of the imitations of Heliocles I’s tetradrachms and drachms also suggests that they are contemporary with Kujula’s copper coinages south of the Hindu Kush. 2. The Hou Han Shu reported that he lived to be eighty years of age.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Da Yuezhi and Kujula Kadphises

23

Name and Titles Kujula Kadphises is generally referred to on his coinage in various versions based on Greek or Prakrit transcriptions of his name and title as yabgu, adding a religious title sacadharmathita (steadfast in the [true] law) in the Prakrit versions. The Greek is XOΡANΣY ZAOOY ΚΟΖΟΛA KAΔΑΦEΣ, or ΚΟΖΟΥΛΟ ΚΑΔΦΙΖΥ ΚΟΡΣΝΟY, and the Prakrit, in Kharoshthi script, is 0>?=@ 056738A 00p TBA, Kujula Kas[s]a Kushana Yavugasa Dhamathidasa, or Kushana Yaua Kujula Kaphsa Sacadharmathitasa. Some series give him different political titles maharaja rajatiraja (king, king of kings) or maharaja mahada (great king) together with a religious title devaputra (son of god); maharaya rayatiraya devaputra Kuyula Katakaphasa, or maharaja mahada Kushana Kuyula Katakaphsa devaputra. This imperial title was adopted from the Indo-Parthian rulers overthrown by Kujula, but the “son of god” title is exclusive to the Kushans. The earliest coins use a Greek version of Kujula’s yabgu title without his name: ΤΥΡΑΝΝΟΥΝΤΟΣ ΗΙΑΟΥ ΚΟΡΡΑΝΟΥ (coin 37) or ΗΙΑΟY ΚΟΡPΑΝΟY (Ruling yabgu Kushan, or yabgu Kushan), (coins 38–43). Kujula is referred to in a Bactrian inscription (Sims-Williams and Cribb 1995/1996) as ΚΟΖΟΥΛΟ ΚΑΔΦΙΣΟ ÞΑΟ (King Kujula Kadphises). In the only surviving Prakrit and Brahmi inscriptions he is referred to by his title Kushan (Konow 1929: 67–70, 70–77; Rosenfield 1967: 144–145). A silver scroll inscription from Taxila uses his imperial status, as found on some coins: maharaja rajatiraja devaputra, “king, king of kings, son of god” (Marshall 1978: 393; Konow 1929: 70, 77), but, like some of his coin inscriptions, only names him as Kushana. The religious titles in Kujula’s Prakrit coin inscriptions, “steadfast to the law” (dharmat[h]ida or dhammathida on his Heracles type coins), and “steadfast to the true law” (sacadharmathitasa on his Roman type) seem to represent an adaptation of the title dhrami[k]a used by Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian rulers in this region, translating the Greek title ΔIKAIOΣ that implies the quality of being just, and faithful to the law. In an Indian context this quality was expected of a king. It has sometimes been used to represent Kujula as a Buddhist, but it is clear that the religious connection here is with the Kushan god Oesho, depicted on Kujula’s coins by the Greek counterpart, Heracles (cf. Lüders 1961: 138–145).

Coin Design Kujula Kadphises’ coinage was minted with a range of different types, some with several varieties. In addition, several imitative issues in the name of earlier kings appear to have been in circulation during his reign. There are also many unofficial contemporary imitations of his types. A distinctive characteristic of Kujula’s coinage is the adoption of earlier coin designs, some as direct copies, others adapted to suit their new context. Inspiration for designs derived from IndoGreek, Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian and Roman coins. In some cases the adopted designs were based on locally current prototypes issued in the territories Kujula conquered, but the Roman prototype derives from coins imported into his territory through trade with Roman and other merchants via the Indian Ocean.

Coin Denominations and Standards Like the designs, Kujula Kadphises’ coin denominations reflected those previously in use in various parts of his realm. South of the Hindu Kush, the Indo-Greek denominational system was prevalent, but had been transformed by debasement during the Indo-Scythian and IndoParthian period (70 BC–AD 60). Kujula’s Heracles type adopted the standard of the Indian silver tetradrachm denomination of about 9 grams, but in copper, and followed the debasement of

©2015 American Numismatic Society

24

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

the imitations of the Indo-Greek king Hermaeus’ coins, which were issued between the end of Hermaeus’ reign (c. 70 BC), and the rise of Kujula (c. AD 50). Although Kujula’s issues initially matched the Indo-Greek standard weight of 9 grams, they were mostly made on a reduced version of this standard, which progressively declined, reducing it to about 5–6.5 grams, then 3–6 grams, and finally 2 grams. In addition to these issues, many unofficial copies circulated that weighed from 9 grams down to less than 1 gram.3 The Helmet type, and the imitation Hermaeus/Zeus type seem to represent the reduction to about 6 to 5 grams. The Roman, the Hermaeus/Nike and the Cross-legged types seem to be copper denominations representing the reduced 4 down to 2 gram standards. Kujula’s bull and camel and ‘Heraus’ copper types do not relate to the reduced IndoGreek silver denomination, but retain a full standard of about 10 grams used by the Indo-Scythian satrap, Jihonika (with Greek name, Zeionises) for copper coins. Quarters of the bull and camel denomination are also known (for example, coins in the British Museum collection). Coin issues from north of the Hindu Kush attributable to the period of the Da Yuezhi and the reign of Kujula (but not bearing his name) were struck on a reduced version of the Attic standard used by the Bactrian Greeks with a drachm of approximately 4 grams on coins of the Bactrian king Eucratides I (c. 174–140 BC), denominated as either tetradrachms or obols, and those of his successor Heliocles I (c. 120–90 BC), denominated as tetradrachms and drachms. The late Heliocles imitation types, attributable to Kujula’s reign, however, were made of copper. Kujula’s silver coins of the ‘Heraus’ type used the same reduced Attic standard. Curiously, a unique large Hermaeus imitation type of the same series as the Zeus type, collected at Akra in Bannu District (British Museum collection), seems to be a copper tetradrachm on the same reduced Attic standard as the Heliocles imitation type, whereas the small coins of the Zeus and Nike types reflect Kujula’s reductions of the Indo-Greek tetradrachm standard, as suggested above (Cribb 2002). The progressive reduction of the weight standard of the imitation Hermaeus coinages of Kujula in the Begram and Taxila regions marked the final stages of the collapsing currency systems introduced by the Indo-Greek kings in these areas. By the time he conquered these areas the silver content had almost disappeared from the Indo-Greek standard tetradrachm and drachm denominations as continued by the Indo-Scythians and Indo-Parthians. The pre-Kushan imitation Hermaeus imitations of the Begram region had already become a copper coinage, but further east the Indo-Parthian and local Indo-Scythian successor coinages retained enough silver to maintain the silver appearance of the coins at the time of issue. In peripheral regions, however, such as Kashmir and Sind, the impact of silver reduction was slower. The Kushan mints during the reign of Kujula continued the decline of the currency by reducing the weight of the coins once there was no more silver to be removed. The weight reductions observed in Kujula’s main coinages of Hermaeus imitation types brought the currency system to a low point. Once the circulating coins had been reduced to about 2 grams, a stop had to be made to the degeneration of the coinage. New issues, the Roman Emperor Head and Seated King types, were introduced at Taxila to try to stabilize the coinage. At Begram there are no similar new coins in the name of Kujula, but the Hermaeus imitations are followed by a fully reformed issue, the anonymous Soter Megas coinage. The anonymity of the coinage makes its attribution problematic, but in the light of the attempted reforms at Taxila, it seems likely that the Soter Megas coinage represented a similar attempt at Begram to stabilize the coinage in the late stages of Kujula’s reign. There is strong evidence that this new anonymous coinage continued into the next reign. The listing of it and discussion of its attribution will be found in the Wima Takto section (pp. 39–51). 3. A unique quarter of Kujula’s Heracles type has been recorded from the Fitzwilliam Museum collection, Cambridge.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Da Yuezhi and Kujula Kadphises

25

Figure 1. Helmeted Warrior type copper unit of Kujula Kadphises (coin 100).

Coin Distribution

The distribution of coin finds provides evidence of the extent of Kujula’s kingdom and the territories added to it by conquest. There are, however, some limitations on this evidence because of the history of excavations in the region. Some territories under former Soviet rule in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan are documented from the results of formal excavations (Zeymal 1983; Rtveladze and Pidaev 1981). The Begram region south of the Hindu Kush near Kabul is represented by the site finds assembled by Charles Masson (cf. Errington and Curtis 2007: 216–221), and the French excavations in the 1930s (Bopearachchi 2001: 411–435), while Taxila and Swat are also well documented by formal excavations (Marshall 1951, Göbl 1976, MacDowell and Callieri 2004). Finds from northern Afghanistan remain sketchy, as do those from Gandhara (around Peshawar) and Kashmir. The Begram coin finds relate only to the territory Kujula occupied south of the Hindu Kush. Until recently it has not been clear what coins, if any, circulated in territory that was under his control as Kushan yabgu, following his overthrow of the other Yuezhi yabgus. Local rulers under the names Sapadbizes and Pabes issued coins generally associated with the Termez and Balkh regions of northern Bactria (Rtveladze 1993/1994: 81–96) (coins 1–4). The Da Yuezhi imitations of Eucratides (coins 5–21) seem most closely linked with the Kafirnigan valley (Staviskij 1986: 135), the territory associated with the Xidan (southern valley) and Shuangmi (northern valley) yabgus (Grenet 2006). Their Heliocles imitations (coins 22–36), are found most frequently in the Surkandarya valley area (Staviskij 1986: 135), associated with the Dumi (Termez)/Gaofu yabgu. It appears that Kujula continued issuing local currencies after he expanded his control over the territories of the other yabgus (Grenet 2006). The coinage of Kujula most likely begins with silver ‘Heraus’ type coins that are most commonly found in the territories associated with the valley of the Vakhsh in Tajikistan (Staviskij 1986: 135), which is the original location of the Kushan yabgu at the time of Kujula’s rise to power (Grenet 2006) (coins 37–43). In addition, a copper type (two examples in the British Museum collection), seems to have been issued in Kashmir. Kujula’s coins have been found in large numbers at Begram and Taxila (Marshall 1951). The finds at Begram are predominantly Heracles types (coins 44–84) suggesting that they were originally issued there. At Taxila many Heracles types are also found, perhaps indicating that Kujula Kadphises’ army conquered the city from a base at Begram. The Helmet type (coins 100– 102) is rare and its place of issue is unknown. Three examples have been reported from Begram (Errington 2001: 373) and two from Hazara District, i.e. in the territory north of Taxila (Smith 1898). Taxila finds include types which are rare among the Begram finds: the Roman type (coins 103–112) and the Cross-legged king type (coin 113), so these are probably new issues for that city. From the Taxila excavations three silver coins of Kujula (no examples in the collection) were

©2015 American Numismatic Society

26

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

Figures 2a–b. Clay head of a Kushan prince from Khalchayan (drawing courtesy of Elizabeth Errington) and ‘Heraus’ type obol (coin 39).

found as successors of a series of Indo-Parthian coins which appear to have been issued in Sind, much further south than Chinese sources suggest. Kujula’s copper Heraus type (no examples in collection), and the magnetic Bull and Camel types which followed it appear from collectors’ reports to have been issued in Kashmir, but there is insufficient archaeological evidence to demonstrate this yet (coins 114–124). A series of imitation Hermaeus coins from the period of Kujula, but not mentioning his name have an unusual distribution. There are three groups of these coins, all sharing the same control marks (Kharoshthi f [pra] and Greek }). The largest denomination, c. 13 grams, with a Zeus reverse, is known only from a unique example (British Museum) found at Akra, Bannu District (Pakistan); the next denomination, c. 5 to 6 grams, with a Zeus reverse (coins 125–30), is most commonly found at Begram; the smallest denomination, c. 2 grams (coins 133–142), with winged Victory reverse, is best represented in the finds from Taxila. Related denominations made of lead (Pb) seem also to come from Akra (Cribb 2002: 75– 76), so it is likely that the center of production was there. However, the distribution of the coins suggests that they were being made for circulation in various parts of Kujula’s empire.

Royal Image The representation of Kujula on his coins is fairly consistent, but is often too small to show significant features. The clearest portrait is on the ‘Heraus’ type (coins 37–43). His facial features and dress can be compared with those of a painted clay sculpture of a royal figure (Pugachenkova 1994: 343, fig. 13; our fig. 2a) from Khalchayan, an excavation site in the upper Surkhandarya valley, Uzbekistan. The sculpture was found in the remains of what appears to be a Kushan royal temple of the first century AD, although no Kujula Kadphises coins have been found there. The temple seems to be similar in function to those also found at Surkh Kotal, Rabatak and Mathura (Sims-Williams and Cribb, 1995/6: 109–10). The Heraus coin image is a bust facing to the right, with long hair down to his collar, a moustache and jutting chin. He wears a diadem and a nomad jacket. A similar face appears on a rare Sind type Kujula coin, but wearing a tall hat. The same hair and hat are to be seen on the Roman type and the cross-legged king type. On the bust portrait in the Helmet type the hair length is the same, but he has no moustache. None of Kujula’s other coin types achieve the same effect as found in the distinctive portrait features of the Heraus coins.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Da Yuezhi and Kujula Kadphises

27

Da Yuezhi Coinage from Bactria: Early first century AD4 1–4: Local Bactrian coinage in the Da Yuezhi period. Reduced Attic standard silver (billon) hemidrachms (c. 1.5 g) and obols (c. 0.5 g) circulating in western Bactria (Balkh and Termez area). Hemidrachms (c. 1.5 g) Obverse: Bust to right, wears Bactrian Greek crested helmet and cloak over shoulder. Greek inscription (partially legible): …ZHC (Sapadbizes). Reverse: Nanaia (Type 1). Lion with long legs and neck stands to right, crescent behind lion’s head; dotted border. Greek inscription repeated on left and right: NANAIA. Mitchiner 1978: 2824–2828 1. 15 mm, 1.54 g, 1944.100.66762. 2. 14 mm, 1.17 g, 1944.100.66763.

Obols: Imitation of Eucratides obol (c. 0.5 g) Obverse: Bust to right, wears Bactrian Greek crested helmet. No inscription. Reverse: Heracles (Type 1) stands facing holds club in right hand, lion skin in left. Greek inscription to left and right: ПABHC (Pabes). Mitchiner 1978: 2834 3. 11 mm, 0.54 g, 1995.51.12. 4. 11 mm, 0.43 g, 1979.45.20.

Anonymous coins attributable to the Da Yuezhi (Shuangmi yabgu) in circulation until the time of Kujula Kadphises 5–21: Imitation Eucratides I type. Reduced Attic standard silver obols (c. 0.6 g) circulating in the Kafirnigan valley, Uzbekistan. Using poorly executed designs copied from Eucratides I obols (c. 174–145 BC). Obverse: Bust of king facing right, wears royal diadem, crested helmet decorated with bull’s horn and ear; wears armor and a cloak around shoulders; dotted border. Reverse: Two caps of the Dioscuri surmounted by stars, with two palms; Greek monogram in exergue as indicted. Greek inscription: (1h) ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΥΚΡΑΤΙΔΟΥ (of king Eucratides). Mitchiner 1978: 1866–1867 5. 10 mm, 0.65 g, 1995.51.261; SNG ANS 487; Π Γ. 6. 10 mm, 0.65 g, 1983.51.725; SNG ANS 488; Π Γ. 4. All coins with SNG ANS designation previously published by Bopearachchi 1998.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

28

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

7. 9 mm, 0.56 g, 1981.159.3; SNG ANS 489; Π Γ. 8. 11 mm, 0.56 g, 1995.51.301; SNG ANS 490; Π Γ. 9. 8 mm, 0.55 g, 1993.29.28; SNG ANS 491; Π Γ. 10. 10 mm, 0.54 g, 1995.51.267; SNG ANS 492; Π Γ. 11. 11 mm, 0.53 g, 1995.51.302; SNG ANS 493; Π Γ. 12. 10 mm, 0.51 g, 1995.51.268; SNG ANS 494; Π Γ. 13. 8 mm, 0.46 g, 1993.29.29; SNG ANS 495; Π Γ. 14. 13 mm, 0.72 g, 1944.100.78308; SNG ANS 519; A. 15. 11 mm, 0.68 g, 1979.45.58; SNG ANS 520; A. 16. 11 mm, 0.65 g, 1995.51.308; SNG ANS 521; A. 17. 9 mm, 0.47 g, 1995.51.321; SNG ANS 518; A. 18. 11 mm, 0.59 g, 1995.51.306; SNG ANS 524; illegible monogram. 19. 9 mm, 0.56 g, 1995.51.106; SNG ANS 512; é. 20. 12 mm, 0.38 g, 1995.51.309; SNG ANS 517; M. 21. 9 mm, 0.23 g, 1995.51.160; SNG ANS 525; Δ.

Anonymous coins attributable to the Da Yuezhi (Dumi yabgu) in circulation until the time of Kujula Kadphises 22–36: Imitation Heliocles type Reduced Attic standard silver tetradrachms (c. 16 g) and drachms (c. 4 g) circulating in the Surkhandarya Valley, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. Using poorly executed designs copied from tetradrachms of tetradrachms of Bactrian Greek king Heliocles I (c. 120–90 BC). Tetradrachms (c. 16 g) Obverse: Bust of king facing right, wears diadem and cloak around shoulders; surrounded by reel and pellet border. Reverse: Zeus (Type 1A) stands facing, rays emanating from head, wears calf-length robe with bare right shoulder; holds multi-branched thunderbolt in right hand, long scepter that rests on ground in left hand. Greek and/or Bactrian control marks as indicated. Greek inscription: (1h) ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΗΛΙΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ (of king Heliocles the just). Mitchiner 1978: 1870–1871 22. 33 mm, 16.55 g, 1993.29.37; SNG ANS 633; Δ in exergue. 23. 32 mm, 15.86 g, 1995.51.168; SNG ANS 636; Π Γ in exergue. 24. 31 mm, 15.68 g, 1995.51.169; SNG ANS 637; Π Γ in exergue; i (pa) to left. 25. 34 mm, 14.99 g, 1993.29.41; SNG ANS 651; illegible monogram. Drachms (c. 4 g) Reverse: Blundered Greek inscription: (1h) ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΗΛΙΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ (of king Heliocles the just). Mitchiner 1978: 1892–1893 26. 20 mm, 4.11 g, 1995.51.161 SNG ANS 652; Δ in exergue. 27. 21 mm, 3.74 g, 1986.78.979 SNG ANS 653; Δ in exergue.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Da Yuezhi and Kujula Kadphises

29

28. 19 mm, 3.54 g, 1944.100.74489; SNG ANS 655; Π Γ in exergue; i (pa) to left. 29. 18 mm, 3.39 g, 1995.51.162; SNG ANS 656, Kharoshthi i (pa) to left. 30. 18 mm, 2.24 g, 1944.100.74490; SNG ANS 657; illegible monogram. Reduced Attic standard copper tetradrachms (c. 14 g) and drachms (c. 4 g) circulating in the Surkhandarya valley, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. Using poorly executed designs copied from tetradrachms of Heliocles I. Tetradrachms (c. 14 g) Obverse: Bust of king facing right, wears diadem and cloak around shoulders; reel and pellet border. No inscription. Reverse: Zeus (Type 1B) stands facing, rays emanating from head, wears calf-length robe with bare right shoulder; holds multi-branched thunderbolt in right hand, long scepter in left hand. Greek control mark , (often corrupted to ) to left. Blundered Greek inscription: (1h) ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΗΛΙOKΛΕOΥΣ ΔΙKAIOY (of king Heliocles the just). Mitchiner 1978: 1875–1876 31. 31 mm, 14.93 g, 1944.100.74492; SNG ANS 660; . 32. 30 mm, 13.93 g, 1979.45.143; SNG ANS 661; . 33. 31 mm, 11.89 g, 1944.100.74491; SNG ANS 664; ,. Obverse (variant): Crude face, looped hair. Reverse: Corrupted Greek monogram . 34. 27 mm, 13.33 g, 1995.51.318; SNG ANS 662. 35. 30 mm, 8.73 g, 1979.45.144; SNG ANS 663. Drachms (c. 4 g) Obverse: Bust of king facing right, wears diadem and cloak over shoulder; reel and pellet border. No inscription. Reverse: Zeus (Type 1A) stands facing, rays emanating from head, wears calf-length robe with bare right shoulder; holds multi-branched thunderbolt in right hand, long scepter in left hand. Illegible Greek inscription. Mitchiner 1978: 1874 36. 20 mm, 4.14 g, 1979.45.145; SNG ANS 665, illegible monogram.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

30

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

Kujula Kadphises, c. AD 50–90 37–43: ‘Heraus’ type. Reduced Attic-standard silver tetradrachms (c. 15 g) and obols (c. 0.6 g) circulating primarily in the Vakhsh valley, Tajikistan. Based on silver tetradrachms of the Bactrian Greek king Eucratides I (c. 174–140 BC). Tetradrachm (c. 15 g) Obverse: Bust of king facing right, wears diadem and nomad jacket; has long hair, moustache, beetling brows, prominent jowls and jutting chin; reel and pellet border. Reverse: King riding horse that walks to right, right hand rests on bow case attached to back of saddle. Nike (Type 1) flying behind king’s head; wears long robe and holds diadem in extended right hand; Greek control mark ΣAZABO[Y] between horse’s legs. Blundered Greek inscription: (8h) ΤΥΡΑΝΝΟΥΝΤΟΣ ΗΙΑΟΥ ΚΟΡΡΑΝΟΥ (of ruling Kushan yabgu). Mitchiner 1978: 2839 37. 30 mm, 15.56 g, 1995.51.328; possibly a modern copy. Obols (c. 0.6 g) Obverse: Bust of king facing right, wears diadem and nomad jacket; has long hair, moustache, prominent jowls and jutting chin. Reverse: King stands facing right, wears nomadic dress; armed with a sword, raising right hand. Greek inscription (often blundered) ΗΙΑΟY ΚΟΡPΑΝΟY (of Kushan yabgu). Mitchiner 1978: 2840–2843 38. 12 mm, 0.61 g, 1983.51.728. 39. 11 mm, 0.55 g, 1983.51.727. 40. 11 mm, 0.54 g, 1995.51.331. 41. 11 mm, 0.46 g, 1995.51.329. 42. 12 mm, 0.35 g, 1995.51.330. Reverse (variant): Inscription: ΗΙΑIΟY ΚΟΡΣΑΝΟY. 43. 11 mm, 0.44 g, 1976.105.1. 44–99: Heracles types. 44–69: In the name of Hermaeus; Kujula Kadphises as yabgu. Indo-Greek standard copper tetradrachms (c. 9 g reduced to 7 g) circulating primarily in Begram and Taxila regions. Obverse: Bust of king facing right, wears a diadem and cloak over shoulder. Blundered Greek inscription: (7h) ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΤΗΡΟΣΣΥ ΕΡΜΑΙΟΥ (of king Hermaeus, savior).

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Da Yuezhi and Kujula Kadphises

31

Reverse: Heracles (Type 2A) stands facing, head to left, naked, wears diadem with ribbons to right; holds club in right hand, lion skin over left forearm. Prakrit inscription in Kharoshthi script: (12h) 0>?=@ 056738A 00p TBA (kujula kasasa kushana yavugasa dhamathidasa [of Kujula Kadphises, Kushan yabgu, steadfast in the law]). Mitchiner 1978: 2844–2851 44. 24 mm, 9.93 g, 1911.105.372. 45. 22 mm, 8.66 g, 1944.100.28130. 46. 25 mm, 8.34 g, 1944.100.28136. 47. 22 mm, 8.19 g, 1944.100.28128. 48. 22 mm, 8.15 g, 0000.999.56387. 49. 24 mm, 7.97 g, 1944.100.28115; double struck. 50. 22 mm, 7.49 g, 1911.105.376. 51. 24 mm, 7.42 g, 1973.56.1401. 52. 22 mm, 7.26 g, 1911.105.369. 53. 22 mm, 6.99 g, 1944.100.28112. 54. 23 mm, 6.94 g, 1938.50.7. 55. 22 mm, 6.84 g, 1944.100.28123. 56. 22 mm, 6.84 g, 1927.38.32. Obverse (variant): Blundered inscriptions. Mitchiner 1978: 2852–2853. 57. 23 mm, 10.40 g, 1944.100.28124. 58. 24 mm, 8.34 g, 1944.100.28114. 59. 23 mm, 8.15 g, 1997.66.2903. 60. 23 mm, 7.92 g, 0000.999.12650. 61. 22 mm, 7.84 g, 0000.999.12640. 62. 21 mm, 5.13 g, 1911.105.370. Standard reduced to about 4 g. Reverse (variant): Heracles (variant of Type 2A) stands facing, head to left; wears diadem with symmetrical ribbons. Blundered obverse inscriptions, reverse inscriptions based on the Kharoshthi inscription used on nos. 44–56. 63. 20 mm, 7.78 g, 0000.999.12652. 64. 22 mm, 5.81 g, 1944.100.28117. 65. 21 mm, 5.48 g, 1911.105.373. 66. 21 mm, 5.40 g, 1997.66.7075. 67. 20 mm, 5.33 g, 1944.100.28119. 68. 20 mm, 3.74 g, 1944.100.28118. Obverse (variant): Kharoshthi inscription identical to reverse. 69. 22 mm, 7.22 g, 1944.100.28116 (not previously published).

©2015 American Numismatic Society

32

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

70–72: Maharaja type. Reduced weight copper tetradrachms (c. 7 g) circulating in the Begram, Kabul, and Taxila regions. Obverse: Bust of king facing right, wears diadem and cloak over shoulder. Blundered Greek inscription: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΤΗΡΟΣΣΥ ΕΡΜΑΙΟΥ. Reverse: Heracles (variant of Type 2A) stands facing head to left; wears diadem with symmetrical ribbons. Prakrit inscription in Kharoshthi script: (12h) 012 342 0567 038( 0:;N=Q 05F7 38G 00p T)G (kujula kasasa kushana yavugasa dhamathidasa [of Kujula Kadphises, Kushan yabgu, steadfast in the law]). Mitchiner 1978: 2861–2868 73. 26 mm, 9.72 g, 1944.100.28129; Kharoshthi $ (dha) to left. 74. 23 mm, 9.11 g, 1938.50.8; c (i) to left; Kharoshthi R (bu) to right; cut mark across face. 75. 23 mm, 8.83 g, 1911.105.375; Kharoshthi c (i) to left, R (bu) to right. 76–78: Reverse Sanskritic inscription. Reverse (variant): Heracles (Type 2B) stands facing, head to right, wears diadem with ribbons to left; Kharoshthi R (bu) to right; Q (dha) to left. Sanskritic inscription in Kharoshthi script: (11h) DNO$ QEF' I8G QPL KJG (kujula katsasya kushana yavug’asya dharmathida [of Kujula Kadphises, Kushan yabgu, steadfast in the law]). 76. 23 mm, 9.74 g, 1911.105.368. 77. 23 mm, 8.78 g; 1944.100.28137. Reverse enlargement on plate 77. 78. 23 mm, 7.94 g, 1944.100.28127.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Da Yuezhi and Kujula Kadphises

33

79–84: Reverse Prakrit inscriptions. Reverse: Heracles (Type 2A) stands facing, head to left. Prakrit inscription in Kharoshthi script: (12h) 0&?=@ 056738A 00p TBA (kujula kasasa kushana yavugasa dhamathitasa [of Kujula Kadphises, Kushan yabgu, steadfast in the law]). Kharoshthi D (ra) to left. 79. 23 mm, 8.67 g, 1997.66.2574; not previously published. Obverse: Greek blundered or incomplete inscription, based on the Greek inscription on nos. 73– 75. Reverse: Heracles (Type 2A) stands facing, head to left. Kharoshthi control marks as indicated. Blundered or incomplete Prakrit inscriptions in Kharoshthi script. 80. 21 mm, 7.56 g, 1947.85.1; Kharoshthi C (ha) to left. 81. 21 mm, 5.33 g, 1952.112.150; Kharoshthi C (ha) to left. 82. 22 mm, 7.33 g, 1997.66.6827; no control mark. 83. 19 mm, 6.70 g, 1991.3.116; no control mark. 84. 20 mm, 5.41 g, 1944.100.28122; no control mark. 85–99: Variable weight unofficial copper imitations with Heracles reverse (less than 7 g) Obverse: Bust of king facing right, wears diadem and cloak over shoulder. Corrupt Greek inscription. Reverse: Heracles (crude Type 2A) stands facing, head to left, naked, holds club in right hand, lion skin over left forearm. Corrupt Prakrit inscriptions in Kharoshthi script. Mitchiner 1978: 2897–2910 85. 20 mm, 6.16 g, 1944.100.30177. 86. 21 mm, 6.13 g, 1997.66.3076. 87. 23 mm, 6.02 g, 1997.66.2905. 88. 20 mm, 5.84 g, 1944.100.28121. 89. 22 mm, 5.21 g, 1944.100.28111. 90. 20 mm, 4.88 g, 1944.100.28125. 91. 19 mm, 4.02 g, 1911.105.374. 92. 21 mm, 3.88 g, 1944.100.28120. 93. 20 mm, 3.77 g, 1944.100.28126. 94. 19 mm, 3.68 g, 1944.100.28133. 95. 18 mm, 3.50 g, 1973.56.1402. 96. 15 mm, 2.16 g, 1944.100.28135. 97. 16 mm, 2.14 g, 1944.100.28131. 98. 21 mm, 2.04 g, 1944.100.28134. 99. 14 mm, 1.40 g, 1944.100.28132.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

34

Kushan, Kushano-Sasanian, and Kidarite Coins

100–102: Helmeted Warrior type. Reduced weight Indo-Greek standard copper tetradrachms (c. 5 g) circulating in Begram and Taxila regions. Based on silver coin designs of the Bactrian Greek king Eucratides (c. 174–140 BC). Obverse: Bust of king facing right, wears Bactrian Greek helmet and cloak over shoulder. Greek or Bactrian inscription: (1h) ΚΟΖΟΥΛΟ ΚΑΔOBΙKEI KOPΣAN (of Kujula Kadphises Kushan). Reverse: Warrior stands facing, head to right, wears helmet and armor; holds spear in right hand and round shield in left. Prakrit inscription in Kharoshthi script: (11h) VqpTSG VUF738G (kushana yavu'asa kuyula ka’usa [of Kujula Kadphises, Kushan yabgu]). Mitchiner 1978: 2873–2874 100. 20 mm, 4.62 g, 1944.100.29657. 101. 19 mm, 4.49 g, 1944.100.29683. Obverse: Blundered type and inscription. Reverse: Kharoshthi s (ho) to left. 102. 20 mm, 3.74 g, 1944.100.29675. 103–112: Roman Emperor type Reduced Indo-Greek standard copper unit (c. 3.5 g) circulating in the Taxila region. Based on gold and silver coins of Roman emperor Augustus (27 BC–AD 14) Obverse: Bust of Roman emperor facing right, wears diadem. Greek inscription 9h: XOPANΣY ZAOOY ΚΟΖΟΛA KAΔΑΦEΣ (of Kujula Kadphises, Kushan yabgu). Reverse: King, seated to right on Roman-style curule chair,5 wears nomad dress and tall hat; extends right arm and holds sword hilt with left; tripartite circular device in field to left. Prakrit inscription in Kharoshthi script: (7h) 0&?]@ä0 0epT\r 0UW7 038> (khushanasa ya’u’asa kuyula kaphsasa sacadharmathitasa [Kujula Kadphises Kushan yabgu, steadfast in the true law]). Mitchiner 1978: 2878–2879 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108.

16 mm, 3.64 g, 1944.100.29797. 17 mm, 3.41 g, 1944.100.29808. 17 mm, 3.36 g, 1973.56.220. Reverse enlargement on plate 74. 19 mm, 3.28 g, 1944.100.29810. 18 mm, 3.26 g, 1917.216.2272. 17 mm, 2.89 g, 1997.66.2902.

5. For two types of Roman-style curule chair, see Sutherland and Carson 1984: 164; 270.

©2015 American Numismatic Society

Da Yuezhi and Kujula Kadphises

35

Reverse (variant): Kharoshthi , (bra) to right. Mitchiner 1978: 2875–2877 109. 110. 111. 112.

18 mm, 3.23 g, 1944.100.29811. 18 mm, 3.12 g, 1973.56.219. 17 mm, 3.11 g, 1944.100.29827; trace of , (bra) to right. 18 mm, 2.81 g, 1944.100.29816.

113: Cross-legged King type. Reduced Indo-Greek standard copper unit (c. 2 g) circulating in the Taxila region. Based on coins of the Indo-Scythian king Azes (c. 46 BC–AD 10). Obverse: King sits facing, cross-legged, wears nomadic dress and tall hat; holds pickaxe (?) in raised right hand, left hand at waist;  to left. Prakrit inscription in Kharoshthi script: (7h) 0e>p T\r 0567 038A (kushanasa yavugasa kuyula kadaphsasa [of Kujula Kadphises, Kushan yabgu]). Reverse: Zeus (Type 2) stands facing, head to right, wears diadem with ribbons to left; right hand raised, holds long staff with hidden left hand. Blundered or incomplete Greek inscription: ΚΟΖΟΛΑ ΧΟΡΑΝΟΥ ΖΑΟΟΥ (of Kujula, Kushan yabgu). Mitchiner 1978: 2880–2881 113. 16 mm, 1.92 g, 1944.100.29785; Kharoshthi u (pu) to left. 114–124: Bull and Camel type (magnetic series).6 Reduced weight Indo-Greek standard copper tetradrachms (c. 10 g) circulating in Kashmir. Based on copper coins of Indo-Scythian satrap Jihonika (c. AD 10-40). Obverse: Oesho (Type1A), represented by bull, stands to right, nandipada above, Kharoshthi control marks in field to right as noted. Blundered Greek inscription based on inscription of Jihonika: (2h) MANNIOΛOY YIOY ΣATPAΠOY ZEIΩNIΣOY (of satrap Jihonika, son of Manigula); with Kharoshthi control marks. Reverse: Bactrian camel stands facing right; Kharoshthi control marks as indicated. Prakrit inscription in Kharoshthi script in two versions: 1. (5h) 04p&p X7b 0,`Mf 07;_7; 07;