Korean Studies Guide [Reprint 2020 ed.] 9780520350731

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Korean Studies Guide

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1/ Ivorean studies guide

C O M P I L E D FOR T H E I N S T I T U T E OF EAST ASIATIC STUDIES, U N I V E R S I T Y OF C A L I F O R N I A , BY B . H . HAZARD, JAMES

HOYT,

H.

T.

EDITED BY R I C H A R D

1

KIM,

AND W .

MARCUS

954

BERKELEY UNIVERSITY

AND LOS

ANGELES

OF C A L I F O R N I A

PRESS

W.

SMITH,

JR., JR.

U N I V E R S I T Y O F C A L I F O R N I A PRESS B E R K E L E Y AND LOS A N G E L E S C A M B R I D G E U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS LONDON, E N G L A N D

COPYRIGHT, 1 9 5 4 , B Y T H E REGENTS OF T H E U N I V E R S I T Y OF C A L I F O R N I A L I B R A R Y OF CONGRESS C A T A L O G CARD N U M B E R : 5 4 - 7 8 4 3 PRINTED IN T H E UNITED STATES OF A M E R I C A

Foreword The Korean Studies Guide is a direct outgrowth of work done by Professor George M. McCune before his untimely death in 1948. He, his wife, Evelyn McCune, and his brother. Shannon McCune, were pioneers in Korean studies in this country. Without George McCune we should be much further in the dark concerning that country and its rich background than we are today. Thus, although the actual writing of the Guide has been the work of others, the inspiration for it, and much of the basic training of those who have participated in its compilation, came from the McCune family. The Institute is happy to acknowledge this debt. The Guide was written by four specialists working under the direction of the Institute of East Asiatic Studies at Berkeley. The basic planning of the Guide and compilation of the material on bibliography and reference works, as well as the gathering of the other material, was the work of Mr. Warren W. Smith, Jr. under a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation as part of a special Korean studies program in 1951. During 1952-53 the compilation was carried on by a group employed by the University of California for this special purpose. Mr. Benjamin H. Hazard, Jr. has prepared the material on archaeology in chapter iv, and the chapters on Korean history, government, and economics, with the exception of the one on the Y i dynasty. He has also taken the responsibility for the final checking of sources and Oriental language r e f erences throughout the Guide. Mr. James Hoyt has compiled the parts dealing with the Y i dynasty, Korean art, music, education, geography, and sociology. Dr. H a T a i K i m ( K i m Ha-t'ae)has written the sections on religion and philosophy, language, and literature. Each of these four men has surveyed the material as a whole and has contributed to the sections prepared by the others. Finally, the manuscript has been prepared for publication by the editor, Mr. v

vi

Foreword

Richard M a r c u s , whose diligent and thorough r e v i s i o n h a s made possible g r e a t e r unity in the a s s e m b l y of the work of s e v e r a l diff e r e n t individuals, in this work the editor was a s s i s t e d by Mr. John Gildersleeve, of the University of California P r e s s . The r e s u l t is a product of t e a m r e s e a r c h in which all have p a r t i c i pated through an interchange of ideas and information. The institute i s p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l to D r . L. George Paik (Paek Nak-chun), P r e s i d e n t of Chosun (Chos5n) C h r i s t i a n U n i v e r sity, whose unique knowledge of Korean h i s t o r y and bibliography was m a d e available to the group in Berkeley, and to M r . L e e Hiseung (Yi Hi-sung), P r o f e s s o r of L i t e r a t u r e at Seoul National Univ e r s i t y , for his suggestions and c o r r e c t i o n s in the c h a p t e r s on l i t e r a t u r e and language. P r o f e s s o r Shannon McCune, C h a i r m a n of the Department of Geography, Colgate University, took a s h i s p a r t i c u l a r responsibility the chapter on geography and m a d e many valuable suggestions f o r the other sections which have been i n c o r porated into the Guide. F o r the Institute of E a s t Asiatic Studies a committee composed of P r o f e s s o r D e l m e r M. Brown, P r o f e s s o r P e t e r A. Boodberg, M r . Richard J . Miller, and P r o f e s s o r Woodbridge Bingham, c h a i r m a n , have s u p e r v i s e d the work of compilation. In offering the Guide to students of the F a r E a s t it i s felt that an urgency e x i s t s which has made important the production of s o m e s o r t of guide in a field where nothing of i t s kind has been previously available. This handbook i s not a definitive work and suggestions f o r i t s improvement will be welcomed. In fact, only by making this tool available to those who may wish to use it and then r e c e i v i n g their c o m m e n t s can t h e r e be a solid b a s i s f o r r e v i s i o n . Revision we know t h e r e must be: the Institute t a k e s full responsibility f o r issuing the Guide in i t s p r e s e n t f o r m , and it is hoped that those who find it useful will send in their suggestions.

Woodbridge Bingham, D i r e c t o r Institute of E a s t Asiatic Studies

Contents Introduction I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV XVI. XVII.

ix

L i b r a r i e s , General Bibliographies, and P e r i o d i c a l s R e f e r e n c e Materials Geography Art and Archaeology General History Ancient K o r e a T h r e e Kingdoms and Unified Silla Koryo Period Y i Dynasty Government, Economics, and Recent History Sociology Religion and Philosophy Music Language Literature Education Special R e f e r e n c e Materials and Addenda

.

1 16 29 38 56 74 79 85 90 106 125 129 142 145 153 164 169

Appendices Chronological List of Rulers and Dynasties Publishing Houses and Societies Glossary

. . . .

177 186 192

Maps

199

Index of T i t l e s

209

Index of Authors

217

Introduction M o d e r n K o r e a n s t u d i e s b e g a n b e f o r e the t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y , when a f e w b o o k s on K o r e a w e r e w r i t t e n by f o r e i g n m i s s i o n a r i e s , d i p l o m a t i c p e r s o n n e l , and v i s i t o r s , but J a p a n ' s a n n e x a t i o n of K o r e a in 1910 b r o u g h t t h i s p i o n e e r p e r i o d to an end. T h e r e a f t e r , t h e p e n i n s u l a w a s v i e w e d by m a n y W e s t e r n e r s a s but an a p p e n d a g e of t h e J a p a n e s e E m p i r e , and t h e r e w a s l i t t l e i n c e n t i v e to s t u d y K o r e a . M e a n w h i l e t h e J a p a n e s e e n t e r e d upon a b r o a d p r o g r a m of r e s e a r c h on K o r e a n s u b j e c t s . Although t h e i r p u r p o s e w a s p r a c t i c a l — t o equip t h e m s e l v e s with a l l a v a i l a b l e knowledge of K o r e a , and t h e r e b y to gain c o n c r e t e a d v a n t a g e in t h e i r d e a l i n g s with t h e K o r e a n people— t h e J a p a n e s e w e r e g r e a t l y i m p r e s s e d by t h e c u l t u r a l t r e a s u r e s t h a t t h e y d i s c o v e r e d : t h e h e r i t a g e of a people who h a v e p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of F a r E a s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n .

The

J a p a n e s e h a v e n e v e r l o s t t h e i r i n t e r e s t , t h e y h a v e c o n t i n u e d to publ i s h widely, e v e n a f t e r 1945, in the f i e l d of K o r e a n s t u d i e s . T h e R u s s o - A m e r i c a n o c c u p a t i o n in 1945 and t h e o u t b r e a k of t h e K o r e a n W a r in 1950 a w a k e n e d a l o n g - n e g l e c t e d O c c i d e n t a l i n t e r e s t in K o r e a n a f f a i r s . T h i s i n t e r e s t , l i k e t h a t of t h e J a p a n e s e , w a s i n s p i r e d by p r a c t i c a l i t y . And the W e s t h a s found, a s did t h e J a p a n e s e , t h a t " p r a c t i c a l " i n f o r m a t i o n i s not enough, t h a t it i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t to s e p a r a t e the p r a c t i c a l f r o m t h e a c a d e m i c ,

or

r a t h e r , t h a t an a c a d e m i c knowledge of K o r e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n i s p a t ently practical. In view of t h i s new i n t e r e s t in t h i n g s K o r e a n , t h e I n s t i t u t e of E a s t A s i a t i c Studies of the U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a i n i t i a t e d ,

as

p a r t of i t s S u m m e r P r o g r a m on K o r e a in 1951, with f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e R o c k e f e l l e r F o u n d a t i o n , t h e c o m p i l a t i o n of t h e K o r e a n S t u d i e s G u i d e . T h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l - e q u i p p e d to u n d e r t a k e t h i s t a s k , not only b e c a u s e of i t s long t r a d i t i o n in t h e f i e l d of K o r e a n s t u d i e s , but a l s o b e c a u s e ix

x

Introduction

t h e A s a m i c o l l e c t i o n of K o r e a n l i t e r a t u r e , t h e l a r g e s t a g g r e g a t e of old K o r e a n b o o k s o u t s i d e t h e O r i e n t , i s in t h e U n i v e r s i t y ' s East Asiatic Library. T h e p u r p o s e of t h i s Guide i s to p r o v i d e a handbook of b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y f o r p u r s u i n g t h e s t u d y of t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of K o r e a n c u l t u r e . In g e n e r a l , t h e c h a p t e r s a r e divided t o p i c a l l y and b e g i n with b r i e f s t a t e m e n t s outlining t h e s u b j e c t s t r e a t e d . T h e s e l e c t i o n of t o p i c s and t h e t h o r o u g h n e s s of t h e t r e a t m e n t a c c o r d e d h a v e b e e n d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s of (1) t h e v a l u e and v o l u m e of a c a d e m i c p u b l i c a t i o n s in t h e f i e l d , (2) t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s to t h e c o m p i l e r s , (3) t h e f i e l d s of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of the s c h o l a r s who h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d , a n d (4) t h e o b v i o u s l i m i t a t i o n of t i m e . T h e r e h a s b e e n s o m e a d m i t t e d l y a r b i t r a r y a r r a n g i n g of t h e G u i d e . E m p h a s i s , f o r e x a m p l e , h a s b e e n c e n t e r e d upon h i s t o r i c a l m a t e r i a l s , and t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s h a v e b e e n a l m o s t e n t i r e l y e x c l u d e d . It w a s f o u n d m o s t c o n v e n i e n t to g r o u p a r t and a r c h a e ology in t h e s a m e c h a p t e r , s i n c e m a n y of t h e b e s t e x a m p l e s of Korean a r t have been obtained f r o m archaeological s i t e s . Governm e n t , e c o n o m i c s , and r e c e n t h i s t o r y h a v e b e e n s i m i l a r l y g r o u p e d b e c a u s e m o s t s o u r c e b o o k s do not r e a d i l y f a l l into t h e c a t e g o r y of a s i n g l e d i s c i p l i n e , but contain m a t e r i a l r e l e v a n t to a l l t h r e e . T h e g r e a t e r p a r t of e a c h c h a p t e r c o n s i s t s of a n n o t a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h i e s which s e e k to i n c l u d e t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e w o r k s , both W e s t e r n and O r i e n t a l , on t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of K o r e a n c u l t u r e . T h e a n n o t a t i o n s i n d i c a t e the c o n t e n t s of t h e books l i s t e d , t h e y a r e not i n t e n d e d a s r e v i e w s , and c r i t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s h a v e b e e n kept to a m i n i m u m . T h e f a c t t h a t a book i s l i s t e d i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t it i s r e g a r d e d a s of at l e a s t s o m e m e r i t . T h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l n u m b e r of W e s t e r n w o r k s — e s p e c i a l l y of c u r r e n t W e s t e r n w o r k s should be noted, f o r t h i s p o v e r t y s u g g e s t s a t o n c e t h e f a i l u r e of t h e West to s t u d y K o r e a a d e q u a t e l y and t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r w o r k to be done. It should a l s o b e noted t h a t m a n y of t h e i m p o r t a n t w o r k s on K o r e a a r e in J a p a n e s e o r C h i n e s e r a t h e r t h a n K o r e a n . T h i s t r i lingual s i t u a t i o n a r i s e s f r o m t h e n a t u r e of K o r e a ' s r e l a t i o n s with t h e s e two n e i g h b o r i n g p o w e r s and i s one of t h e u n f o r t u n a t e c o m -

Introduction

xi

plications of Korean studies. However, the Korean national language has become an increasingly important medium of e x p r e s sion, and the nature of the Korean language—its history and r e lationship to other Asiatic languages—is itself a field that offers great opportunity for investigation. Anyone acquainted with the history of K o r e a , ancient or modern, will be aware of the close relationship which Korea has had with China and Japan. The annals of these two countries have provided f r o m the e a r l i e s t times important primary source m a t e r i a l s for the study of Korean history. Moreover, much of the literature of Korea i t s e l f (especially history, philosophy, and b e l l e s - l e t t r e s ) has been written partly or entirely in c l a s s i c a l Chinese. The vast amount of secondary material published in J a p a n e s e has already been mentioned. The compilers of the Guide have essayed to mitigate language difficulties whenever possible. Standard romanization has been used throughout: McCune-Reischauer s y s t e m for Korean, WadeG i l e s for Chinese, Hepburn for Japanese, and L e s s i n g - P o p p e * for Mongolian. Descriptions of the various bibliographical entries a r e designed to give b a s i c information even to those without a knowledge of the language in question. Works have been c l a s s i f i e d by the languages in which they a r e written—Western, Korean, J a p anese, Chinese, and Mongolian—so that u s e r s with a knowledge of only certain languages can quickly find m a t e r i a l s they can read. F o r the benefit of those who read han- gul, but do not know Chinese c h a r a c t e r s , Korean proper names (including the titles of Korean works) have been given in both scripts whenever it was possible to dp so. The breadth of the m a t e r i a l s in the different languages indicates that studies on Korea can never be c a r r i e d out without r e ferring to the general context of F a r E a s t e r n culture. On the one hand, Korean historical s o u r c e s can be of value to an understanding of the historical development of the entire F a r E a s t . On the other, Korean history and culture have an individuality and a value of their own; as a nation which has maintained its identity for employed in the Mongolian-English Dictionary being prepared by the Institute of E a s t Asiatic Studies, University of California.

xii

Introduction

over two thousand y e a r s and which today ranks among the twenty most populous nations in the world, K o r e a , present,

i s well worth examination.

past and

I Libraries, General Bibliographies, and Periodicals The purpose of this chapter i s to list the l i b r a r i e s , both in A m e r i c a and abroad, w h e r e strong collections bearing upon K o r e a a r e housed; to list the b a s i c bibliographies n e c e s s a r y f o r Korean studies; and to list the m o r e important or comprehensive m a g a z i n e s and j o u r n a l s dealing with Korea. LIBRARIES L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s , Washington, D. C. H a s perhaps the l a r g e s t collection of books on Korea in W e s t e r n and O r i e n t a l languages in the United States. The l i b r a r y has published t h r e e bibliographies of i t s holdings of m o d e r n works on K o r e a : (1)

K o r e a : An Annotated Bibliography of Publications in W e s t e r n Languages. Washington, 1950. E m p h a s i z e s works published a f t e r 1930; c o v e r s most completely books on history, government, and economics. The index l i s t s authors, significant titles, and s u b j e c t s of special i n t e r e s t .

(2)

K o r e a : An Annotated Bibliography of Publications in the R u s s i a n Language. Washington, 1950. C o v e r s a wide range of s u b j e c t s and indicates the nature of Russian r e s e a r c h on Korea both b e f o r e and a f t e r the revolution of 1917. The index l i s t s authors, titles, and subjects.

(3)

K o r e a : An Annotated Bibliography of Publications in F a r E a s t e r n Languages. Washington, 1950. Includes J a p a n e s e and Chinese t i t l e s , and many Korean titles published since 1945. It i s a r r a n g e d topically, and is s t r o n g e s t in bibliographies and in works on government and economics. T h e r e is an index of authors and titles. 1

2

Korean Studies Guide

The L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s h a s also compiled a bibliography of Korean publications f r o m 1946 to 1952, c l a s s i f i e d by subject. It h a s not yet been published but i s available in photostat on special r e quest. Most e n t r i e s a r e in the Korean language. The National Archives, tic correspondence between instructions to envoys, etc. which A m e r i c a had official

Washington, D. C. Contains the diplomaK o r e a and A m e r i c a , legation m e s s a g e s , f r o m 1883 to 1905, the period during r e l a t i o n s with the Korean monarchy.

The New York Public L i b r a r y , New York City. The p a p e r s of H o r a c e Allen, the A m e r i c a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e to Korea f r o m 1884 to 1905, and the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of George C. Foulk, who was attached to the Korean Mission of the United States and l a t e r to the A m e r ican Consulate in Seoul f r o m 1883 to 1887, a r e h e r e . Includes a file of the Seoul Daily Independent. See entry 259 f o r a full d e s c r i p tion of the Allen collection. The University of California, Berkeley. Its E a s t Asiatic L i b r a r y h a s one of the w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t collections of Korean works since it r e c e n t l y purchased the Asami (Asami Rintaro yfa -fag" ¿i.iif' ) collection, which has some 4,000 f a s c i c l e s of Korean works including a set of the Yijo Sillok (289) in 888 f a s c i c l e s . The E a s t Asiatic L i b r a r y also p o s s e s s e s a valuable collection f o r the study of Korean economic development f r o m 1945 to 1950—books, p a m phlets, and f o l d e r s containing d i r e c t i v e s , ordinances, and m e m o randa r e l a t e d to economic problems—given to the University by Edgar A. J . Johnson, f o r m e r Civil A d m i n i s t r a t o r of K o r e a and head of the K o r e a branch of the ECA. Columbia University, New York City. Has many of the i m p o r tant r e f e r e n c e works f o r Korean studies, and has i s s u e d a bibliography of 535 titles of Chinese, J a p a n e s e , and Korean works available in its E a s t Asiatic L i b r a r y : (4)

Kumsu Kangsan ££ ^ York, 1950.

> x A, 3-

(Works on Korea). New

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Has a good collection of W e s t e r n books on Korea, and s o m e books in J a p a n e s e and Chinese, most of t h e m on Korean a r t and archaeology.

L i b r a r i e s , Bibliographies, P e r i o d i c a l s

3

H a r v a r d University, Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s . Has r e c e n t l y begun a collection of Korean works, and h a s outstanding Chinese and J a p a n e s e collections in which many books on K o r e a may be found, including most of the basic r e f e r e n c e works f o r the study of Korea b e f o r e 1910. The University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Has an adequate collection, including most of the b a s i c r e f e r e n c e works in English, J a p anese, and Chinese. It h a s some 300 Korean works, and h a s also f i l e s of the Korea Review (38) and the Korean Repository (39). Stanford University, Stanford, California. Its Hoover L i b r a r y of War, Revolution, and P e a c e h a s some 200 Korean titles, m o s t of t h e m written a f t e r 1945; f i l e s of Japanese n e w s p a p e r s published during the war and of Korean n e w s p a p e r s published since 1945; many Government General publications; and, perhaps most i m p o r tant, a collection of the photographs made of documents taken f r o m the J a p a n e s e consulate in Korea, 1895-1910. Stanford h a s r e c e n t l y acquired the r a r e Kojong Sillok (289) and Sunjong Sillok (289), and also the Kanaseki fc ffi collection (see 122), which c o n s i s t s mainly of works on ethnology, anthropology, and archaeology of the P a r E a s t , including many i t e m s about Korea. The University of Washington, Seattle. Has most of the b a s i c works in both W e s t e r n and Oriental languages. Töyö Bunko (Oriental L i b r a r y ) , Tökyö. Has the best collection on Korea in Japan. Colleges and l i b r a r i e s in Korea have been closed o r d e s t r o y e d by the Korean War, and their facilities will be unavailable until they a r e r e s t o r e d and reorganized. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES Western (5)

Bulletin of F a r E a s t e r n Bibliography [five t i m e s a year], Washington: A m e r i c a n Council of L e a r n e d Societies, 1936-1941. C o v e r s books on Korea published during t h e s e y e a r s . See also F a r E a s t e r n Q u a r t e r l y (8).

4

Korean Studies Guide

(6)

C o r d i e r , Henri. Biblioteca Sinica, dictionnaire bibliographique des ouvrages r e l a t i f s k l ' é m p i r e chinois. P a r i s , 1904-1907. 4 vols. Also Supplément et Index. P a r i s , 1924. L i s t under " l e s pays t r i b u t a i r e s de la Chine" titles on Korea, most of t h e m W e s t e r n works published b e f o r e 1900. C o r d i e r also gives the table of contents of the Korea Review (38) and the Korean Repository (39).

(7)

Courant, Maurice. Bibliographie Coréene. Publications de l ' É c o l e des langues o r i e n t a l e s vivantes, XVIII-XX. P a r i s , 18941897. 3 vols. Also Supplément. Publications . . . . XXI. P a r i s , 1901. The b e s t W e s t e r n compilation of Korean books f r o m e a r l i est t i m e s until 1899, a total of s o m e 3,200 titles. The volumes a r e a r r a n g e d topically, and t h e r e a r e valuable detailed indices giving titles, authors, and important dates and places mentioned in the bibliography. Courant gives whenever possible a complete bibliographical h i s t o r y f o r each title, a s u m m a r y of i t s contents, and c r i t i c a l r e m a r k s on it. N a m e s and titles a r e identified by Chinese c h a r a c t e r s , and Courant indicates those European collections, p r i vate o r institutional, in which copies of the books may be found. C a r e should be used in reading this book, f o r Courant had opinions about K o r e a ' s intellectual h i s t o r y which have been shown to be fallacious. His bibliography r e m a i n s n e v e r t h e l e s s a monumental and invaluable r e f e r e n c e for K o r e a n studies, the work of a diligent s c h o l a r who had f i r s t - h a n d contact with the m a t e r i a l s he treats.

The introduction, a valuable e s s a y on Korean l i t e r a t u r e , l i b r a r i e s , and book s t o r e s in the late nineteenth century, has been t r a n s l a t e d into English by M r s . W. M. Royds and published in TAKBRAS, XXV (1936), 1-99. (8)

F a r E a s t e r n Q u a r t e r l y . L a n c a s t e r , Pennsylvania: F a r E a s t e r n Association, 1941- . Continues the bibliographical work of the Bulletin of F a r E a s t e r n Bibliography (5). Until May, 1947, m a t e r i a l on Korea appeared under v a r i o u s groupings, e.g., "Manchuria and K o r e a " and " C e n t r a l and N o r t h e a s t e r n Asia"; but beginning with Vol. VI, no. 3 (May, 1947) t h e r e was Et s e p a r a t e section f o r Korea. Starting with the bibliography f o r 1949, the e n t i r e bibliography f o r the y e a r is published in the August i s s u e of the succeeding y e a r .

L i b r a r i e s , Bibliographies, P e r i o d i c a l s

5

The Q u a r t e r l y also r e v i e w s r e c e n t books on Korea in both W e s t e r n and Oriental languages. Vol. V, no. 3 (May, 1946) i s entirely on Korea. (9)

K. B S. Bibliographical R e g i s t e r of Important Works Written in J a p a n e s e on Japan and the F a r E a s t , Published During the Year 1932-1937. Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinko-kai, 1937-1943. 6 vols. Has a special section for books and a r t i c l e s on Korea, usually listed with brief annotations. The R e g i s t e r s a r e highly s e l e c t i v e , so that anyone using them should r e f e r also to other s o u r c e s .

(10)

K e r n e r , Robert. Northeast Asia, a Selected Bibliography. B e r k e l e y : University of California P r e s s , 1939. 2 vols. L i s t s in Vol. II p r i m a r y and secondary s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s on K o r e a in Weste r n (including Russian) and Oriental languages, s o m e 450 e n t r i e s a r r a n g e d topically.

(11)

McCune, Shannon. Bibliography of W e s t e r n Language M a t e r i a l on Korea. Rev. and enl. New York: International S e c r e t a r i a t , I n s t i tute of P a c i f i c Relations, 1950. General coverage of the most r e cent and a c c e s s i b l e titles, and a c o m m e n t a r y on the content and value of the books listed.

(12)

Nachod, O s c a r . Bibliography of the J a p a n e s e E m p i r e , 1906-26. London and Leipzig, 1928. 2 vols. Also supplements: Bibliographie von Japan, 1927-29. Leipzig, 1931; and Bibliographie von Japan, 1930-32. Leipzig, 1935. See P r a e s e n t (13).

(13)

P r a e s e n t , Hans, and Wolf Haenish. Bibliographie von Japan, 1933-35. Leipzig, 1937. This work and the two l a t e r volumes by Nachod (12) contain together some 655 r e f e r e n c e s to m a t e r i a l on Korea published f r o m 1930 to 1935.

(14)

Trollope, M a r k N. "Corean Books and T h e i r Authors," TAKBRAS, XXI (1932), 1-104. A h i s t o r i c a l t r e a t m e n t of K o r e a n l i t e r a t u r e c l a s s i f i e d a s c l a s s i c s , history, philosophy, and collected works. The a r t i c l e i s one of the best introductions in a W e s t e r n language to Korean intellectual and l i t e r a r y activities. During his stay in Korea Bishop Trollope collected s o m e 10,000 Korean books, and his a r t i c l e i s based upon l e c t u r e notes he had intended to ex-

6

Korean Studies Guide

pand into a book b e f o r e his sudden death in Seoul in 1933. (15)

Underwood, H o r a c e . "A P a r t i a l Bibliography of Occidental L i t e r a t u r e on Korea," TAKBRAS, XX (1931), 1-186. Divides i t s m a t e r i a l into fourteen sections, the t i t l e s in each section a r r a n g e d by date of publication. It l i s t s some 2,882 i t e m s and h a s an author index. It gives quite thorough coverage and i s one of the b a s i c bibliographies of W e s t e r n books and a r t i c l e s on Korea b e f o r e 1931. The listing was expanded and brought down to 1935 in a supplement which follows Underwood's method of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n : G o m p e r t z , E. and G. "Supplement to 'A P a r t i a l B i b l i o g r a p h y . . . on Korea 1 by H. H. Underwood, P h . D . , 1931," TAKBRAS, XXIV (1935), 23-48. Korean

(16)

Ch'ulp'an T a e g a m ^ ^ t»| (Register of Publications). Seoul: Chos5n Ch'ulp'an Munhwa HySphoe, 1949. An index and a guide to the publishing t r a d e of K o r e a f r o m 1945 to 1949. It l i s t s monographs ( a r r a n g e d according to subject), periodicals and n e w s p a p e r s , book d e a l e r s , authors and t h e i r fields of l i t e r a t u r e , pseudonyms used by famous K o r e a n s , s t a t i s t i c s f o r the publishing t r a d e , texts of laws r e l a t e d to publishing, and gives a short h i s t o r y of the Korean Association of Cultural Publishing. J a p a n e s e : Bibliographies and Guides to Old Works

(17)

ChSsen Sotokufu Kotosho Mokuroku ^ ^ ¡¡^ ^ 1*1 J 13 tifc (Government G e n e r a l Catalogue of Old Books). Keijo: Chosen S8tokufu, 1921. E s s e n t i a l l y a catalogue of old Korean and Chinese books p o s s e s s e d by the Government G e n e r a l in 1921, c l a s s i f i e d a s c l a s s i c s , h i s t o r y , philosophy, and collected w o r k s . T h e r e a r e s e p a r a t e sections f o r Chinese and K o r e a n books. While it i s probably one of the most c o m p r e h e n s i v e l i s t s of old Korean books available, including many titles not found in C o u r a n t ' s bibliography (7), the work omits s o m e important t i t l e s and lacks a s a t i s f a c t o r y index. Despite t h e s e defects, the book i s one of the e s s e n t i a l r e f e r e n c e books f o r the study of K o r e a b e f o r e 1910.

L i b r a r i e s . Bibliographies, P e r i o d i c a l s (18)

7

ChSsen Tosho Kaidai jkf Ig $ Sj Mi (Annotated Bibliography of K o r e a n Books). KeijO: ChSsen SOtokufu, 1919. Reprinted in 1932. A s e l e c t e d collection of old Korean books. It gives brief annotations of all books listed, information on their a u t h o r s , and o t h e r data. The b a s i c information i s made readily available through excellent indices, one listing titles according to traditional Chinese divisions, another, by the kana o r d e r of the f i r s t c h a r a c t e r of their titles. T h e r e is also a special index of authors a r r a n g e d by number of s t r o k e s which m a k e s it possible rapidly to look up all writings of

a p a r t i c u l a r man included in the catalogue and to find h i s biography. The ChSsen Tosho Kaidai i s the best and most inclusive work of i t s kind available, an essential tool f o r a study of Korean h i s t o r y and l i t e r a t u r e , not only f o r bibliographical purposes, but for identification of books and authors cited in h i s t o r i c a l texts. (19)

H i r o s e Bin.;^ .¿frNippon SOsho Sakuin \3 ^ 4 ^ ¡j 5L [ i r r e g u l a r ] , P u s a n : YSksa

F o u r i s s u e s a s of A p r i l ,

1953.

Book r e -

v i e w s and excellent s c h o l a r l y a r t i c l e s . Japanese (53)

Chosen

[monthly], KeijS: Chosen Sotokufu, 1911-1945.

C a l l e d Ch5sen Sotokufu Geppo C h o s e n Ih5

^1915-1920.

*f

,fj-/£[ ^ | | ^ 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 1 5 , and E m p h a s i z e s laws, p o l i c i e s ,

and r e f o r m s of the G o v e r n m e n t G e n e r a l , but a l s o h a s s o m e s i g n i f i cant a r t i c l e s on K o r e a n h i s t o r y , e c o n o m i c s , and r e l a t e d s u b j e c t s . Sokan I r a i no Somokuji B e n r a n ^ i j ^ij ^

^

(T Ifl.'M/'g

, Saishin Chosen Rekishi Chiri Jiten i ( t i t %% J*- (New Historical and Geographical

Dictionary of Korea). TokyS: Fuzam-bo, 1933.

Descriptions of

important Korean historical events, persons, places, government offices, administration, books, and geography, from earliest times to the present. It was written expressly for beginners in Korean historical research. The materials are in general well chosen and well organized; they are arranged in kana order. The work contains errors. Many of the Chinese characters for books and names are misprinted; there are mistakes in the kana transliteration of the names of persons and places; and some descriptions contain errors of fact. See Seikyu Gakuso, XII (1953), 190-191, for a detailed review. (88)

Toyo Rekishi Daijiten jj^-y^-^- j t

(Great Dictionary

of Oriental History). T5ky8: Heibon-sha, 1937-1939. 9 vols.

A

historical dictionary for Asia, completed by historians from T5ky5 and KyOto Imperial universities, and other specialists throughout Japan. It is less thorough than the Kokushi Jiten (86), but it contains information on important persons, places, books, events, institutions, and similar historical material that is not readily available elsewhere. The coverage on Korea is quite good, extending from ancient times to the present. Many articles are by outstanding scholars of Korean studies, such as Suematsu Yasukazu -ff> i-f, Nakamura Eiko "f7 / f j

, Marugame Kinsaku

, Hatada Takashi,j£ ® jjj^, and Y i Hong-jik. Subjects are arranged in kana order, and in Vol. IX are three indices:

one in

Reference Materials

25

Chinese c h a r a c t e r s , one in the kana t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n of foreign words and n a m e s , and one in romanizations of foreign words and names. GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES H e r e a r e listed the important r e f e r e n c e works on geographical n a m e s since the founding of Yi dynasty. F o r place n a m e s b e f o r e the fourteenth century s e e the index to Sinjung Tongguk Y5ji Sungnam (118). Western (89)

Kat5, BunjirO, and S. Kanazawa. A Catalogue of the Romanized Geographical Names of Korea. TOkyO: I m p e r i a l University, 1903. Gives the romanized Korean and J a p a n e s e n a m e s , Chinese c h a r a c t e r s , and em English translation.

(90)

G a z e t t e r to Maps of Korea. Washington, 1950. 3 vols. Loc a t e s place n a m e s which appear on i s s u e s of A r m y Map Service m a p s , s e r i e s L 751-Korea, 1:50,000; and s e v e r a l s h e e t s of L 542Manchuria, 1:250,000. I n c o r p o r a t e s the work of the K o r e a N a m e s Survey of the F a r E a s t Command. Romanization follows the McCune-Reischauer system.

(91)

A Manual of Korean Geographical and Other P r o p e r N a m e s Romanized. Yokohama: Japan Mail Office, 1883. Compiled f o r the B r i t i s h legation in Korea. It i s divided into two p a r t s : the f i r s t locates and identifies Korean geographical n a m e s ; the second l i s t s a selection of Chinese c h a r a c t e r s used by K o r e a n s f o r p r o p e r n a m e s and places, with their m o r e common pronunciations. The f i r s t part cam be used a s a modified h i s t o r i c a l a t l a s of K o r e a under the Yi dynasty. Geographical n a m e s were taken principally f r o m the TaejSn Hoet'ong (473) and a map of K o r e a published by the J a p a n e s e G e n e r a l Staff. Coverage i s by no m e a n s complete, but the manual is one of the few books of i t s kind in a W e s t e r n language.

(92)

Map of Korea. Washington: Korean A f f a i r s Institute, 1945. One of the b e t t e r m a p s of m o d e r n Korea. It i s a t h i r t e e n - s h e e t sectional map of K o r e a which shows the details of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

26

Korean Studies Guide

boundaries, r i v e r s , cities, r o a d s and r a i l r o a d s , and mountains. Supplemental m a p s bound with it show the of natural r e s o u r c e s and i n d u s t r i e s , the physiography t r y , and K o r e a ' s position in the F a r E a s t . T h e r e i s a McCune-Reischauer romanization is used.

important distribution of the coungood index.

(93)

P l a c e Name Index f o r Korea (ChSsen). Washington: War D e p a r t ment, 1943. C o m p r i s e s two m a i n indices, one t r a n s c r i b i n g place n a m e s in r o m a n i z e d J a p a n e s e - K o r e a n , and the other in r o m a n i z e d K o r e a n - J a p a n e s e . Korean romanization is according to the McCuneR e i s c h a u e r s y s t e m . N a m e s in both indices a r e listed in English alphabetical o r d e r . In the J a p a n e s e - K o r e a n index, the Chinese c h a r a c t e r s and han-gul a r e given f o r each place name. Both indices have location symbols by which n a m e s cam be found on the map of Korea (1:1,500,000) which i s bound in the book. The book a l s o contains a g l o s s a r y of common J a p a n e s e and Korean geographical t e r m s . Despite e r r o r s , this book i s a b a s i c r e f e r e n c e work f o r K o r e a since 1910. MISCELLANEOUS REFERENCE WORKS Western

(94)

(95)

G a r d n e r , C h a r l e s S. Chinese Traditional Historiography. Cambridge: H a r v a r d University P r e s s , 1938. Probably the b e s t work in a W e s t e r n language f o r understanding the complex p r o c e s s of writing h i s t o r y in China and how h i s t o r i c a l composition t h e r e d i f f e r e d f r o m W e s t e r n methods. K o r e a n h i s t o r i a n s used the Chine s e method.

Landis, E . B. "Numerical C a t e g o r i e s of Korea," The Korean Repository, III, (1896), 431-438; 463-468. A s u r v e y of K o r e a n n u m e r i c a l c a t e g o r i e s in which s o m e of the unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s a r e d e s c r i b e d .

Although K o r e a borrowed m o s t of h e r m a j o r a r t i s t i c and s c i e n tific ideas f r o m China, it i s dangerous to say that t h e r e have been no Korean s u r v i v a l s even in s p h e r e s w h e r e the influence of Chinese civilization was especially strong. N u m e r i c a l c a t e g o r i e s provide a good example of the p e r s i s t e n c e and development of the Korean ele-

Reference Materials

27

ment, for although s i m i l a r in many ways to the Chinese, they a r e unmistakably different. (96)

McCune, George M. " T h e Y i Dynasty Annals of Korea," BRAS, X X I X (1939), 57-82.

TAK-

Gives valuable information about the

Korean method of writing history. The a r t i c l e deals mainly with the compilation and preservation of the Yijo Sillok (289), but i s also has general information on the tradition of compilation and the motivation of Korean historians. (97)

Mayers, William F . The Chinese R e a d e r ' s Manual. London: Probsthain and Co., 1910. Reprint of 1874 edition.

Helpful for

general information on China needed by the student of Korea. Korean (98)

Ch'oe Nam-son. Yoksa Ilgam

£, 9 48.

(Daily

M i r r o r of History). Seoul: Tongmy5ng-sa, 1947. 2 vols.

A day-

by-day r e c o r d of important events in Korean history which follows the lunar calendar—the official calendar in K o r e a until January 1, 1896. L i s t s b r i e f biographies of important men; the dates of the completion of law codes or the promulgation of significant edicts, of influential political or military developments, of m a j o r festivals and popular celebrations, and of the establishment of various i n s t i tutions, often including notes on their history, development, and importance in Korean life. T h e r e a r e brief discussions of each month's m a j o r festivals, their origins and h i s t o r i c a l background. T h e r e i s no index. One must know the approximate date of an event to look it up. (99)

Taedong Unbu Kunok K.

^ Jgf

Dictionary of Rhymes). Seoul, 1798.

^ -g- £ f ±

(Korean

A very important r e f e r e n c e

book for early Korean literature. It was compiled by KwSn Mun-hae X.

^d i

in 1588 as an encyclopedia of things Korean f r o m

the t i m e of Tan-gun to the reign of King Sonjo (1568-1608).

The

m a t e r i a l was divided into twenty books and arranged according to the standard Chinese rhyme scheme which included eleven c a t e gories—geography, names of dynasties, family names, personal names, filial sons, virtuous wives, district m a g i s t r a t e s ,

spirits.

28

Korean Studies Guide

trees, plants, and birds. The preface says the book was patterned after the Yflan f dynasty rhyming encyclopedia, Yfln-fu Ch'flnyfl M'f i by Yin Shih-fu ¡lfc^ , and used 15 Chinese and 175 Korean sources. Maurice Courant in his Bibliographie Cor6ene (7), calls the Taedong Unbu Kunok the most valuable source he found on Korean literature. Japanese (100)

Ch5sen Sotokufu TSkei Nempo jsf § /jij fa ft ^ ^ (Statistical Yearbook of the Korean Government General, [19101944]). Keijo, 1911-1945. The most complete source of statistical Information on Korea during the Japanese occupation. Although some of the figures seem questionable, for most purposes they may be accepted as presenting an accurate picture of economic, social, and other activities in Korea susceptible to statistical analysis.

Extracts (ySran Jf) from the statistical tables were published for several of the yearbooks. (101)

(102)

Kitagawa Sajin i t >'j A K . Chflsen KoyPshoku Jiten ffl ,&3f 'i) % (Dictionary of Unique Characteristics of Korea). Keijo: Seiko Hakko-sho, 1932. Contains much information on unusual Korean customs and manners, and some historical data. It has an index in kana order.

O Ch'5ng £ s f i . Chosen no Nenjfl Gyoji o ^ H £ (Annual Festivals of Korea). 7th ed. Keijo: Chosen Sotokufu, 1937. A complete and yet easily understandable description of each celebration and popular festival; songs, pictures, and stories help explain them. Arranged chronologically according to the lunar calendar. Historical sources often cited.

Ill Geography Korea's geographic position in the heart of the Far East has had a profound effect on its history. The peninsula of Korea has served as a bridge between the continent and Japan; along this bridge numerous invading forces have spent themselves. Despite these invasions, the Korean people have been able to develop and maintain a national consciousness and a distinctive Korean culture. The peninsula, which stretches some 600 miles from 43°N to 34°N, has a broad mountainous base and an area of 85,328 miles. Its width varies from 120 to 160 miles, and its southern end is a maze of islands and inlets. Some fifty miles off the south coast is volcanic Cheju-do

-«l

^ i

(Quelpart Island).

The peninsular character of Korea modifies the humid continental climate. The northern interior has bitterly cold winters; the southern coast relatively mild ones, with average January temperatures above freezing. Both sections have heavy rainfall in the hot summer months. The largest rivers flow either west or south; some have etched out flood plains and developed alluvial plains in their lower courses. Along the shores of the Yellow Sea are extensive tidal flats, some of which have been reclaimed. Most of Korea, however, is a land of small valleys, abrupt hills, and high mountains. The northern interior is a mountainous land with narrow valleys formed by the tributaries of the Yalu (Amnok fA Tumen (Tuman SL

%

"i f- ) and

) rivers, which are Korea's northern

boundary. Paektu-san a i j J,

f 'it •

a

volcanic massif, forms

the drainage divide between these two river systems; its widespread lava flows have capped some of the summits of the northern interior. From this mountainous heartland, a major mountain chain, the T'aebaek ^ IL &

j ^ i

"l" H 'df

*I

. Chungjong N a m h a n - j i

( R e - e d i t e d M o n o g r a p h on N a m h a n ) .

K e i j o : C h o s e n K o s h o K a n k 5 - k a i , 1916. v e r s i o n (1846 ? ) by So My5ng-fing i £ 4

An edition of t h e r e v i s e d v

f t h e

eighteenth-

c e n t u r y N a m h a n - j i (Monograph on N a m h a n ) . T h e m o n o g r a p h d e s c r i b e s the a r e a around N a m h a n - s a n •b ^

^

"a i i I t

. the

s i t e of t h e c a p i t a l of P a e k c h e built b y King O n j o (18 B . C . - 2 8 A. D.) and of t h e f o r t c o m p l e t e d in 1636 b y King I n j o to d e f e n d K o r e a against the Manchus. T h e 1916 edition d o e s not c o n t a i n t h e c o l o r e d m a p of t h e a r e a which i s in S5 M y 5 n g - f i n g ' s r e v i s i o n . A m a n u s c r i p t of h i s r e v i s i o n , in s i x b o o k s in f o u r f a s c i c l e s , with t h e m a p , i s in t h e E a s t A s i a t i c L i b r a r y of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a . (113)

Kim Ch5ng-ho Cl

1

£

i

• T a e d o n g YSjido X. Jjt4g * b )fi

( M a p s of K o r e a ) . K e i j o : K e i j 5 T e i k o k u D a i g a k u ,

1936.

T w e n t y - o n e folding s e c t i o n a l m a p s w h i c h c a n b e f i t t e d

t o g e t h e r and which show p h y s i c a l and h u m a n g e o g r a p h y of t h e l a t e Yi d y n a s t y p e r i o d . T h i s edition h a s a s e p a r a t e l y bound i n d e x b y Suematsu Yasukazu. K i m , u n l i k e m a n y O r i e n t a l s c h o l a r s of h i s t i m e , did not r e l y upon b o o k s f o r h i s i n f o r m a t i o n but t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h o u t K o r e a to

34

Korean Studies Guide

make his own observations. He published the m a p s , a f t e r some hesitation, in 1861 and again in 1864. Kim was i m p r i s o n e d , charged with having p r e p a r e d the m a p s to help the J a p a n e s e invade Korea. (114)

(115)

Kim No-gyu £ f ' i i if . PugyS YosSn it, jfe t*f ! (Essential Selections on N o r t h e r n Geography). 1903. 2 books in 1 f a s c i c l e . A b o r d e r m a r k e r was set up in 1712 to indicate the boundary between K o r e a and China, but t h e r e w e r e continual disputes about i t s proper location. Kim No-gyu, a Kor e a n government inspector, reviewed all available s o u r c e s f o r a study of the subject and extracted important quotations f o r this compilation. Min Chu-my5n >¥| )H £

-J if

and Song Won-muk

^ ^

7

'f • Tonggyong Chapki j|L j , f t -f' i I (Miscellany First of the E a s t e r n Capital). 1845. 3 books in 3 f a s c i c l e s . printed in 1669. Compiled f r o m the extant geographies of KySngju -i-i-j "*=), . Supplemented and given i t s present t i t l e by S5ng Won-muk in 1845. Kyongju, the seat of the kings of Silla f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s , was popularly known as the E a s t e r n Capital. Min Chu-my5n r e ceived the d e g r e e of chinsa in 1648, and was l a t e r an official in the city. This work contains much to i n t e r e s t the archaeologist and sociologist as well a s the h i s t o r i c a l l y minded geographer under such topical subdivisions a s "History of Official Titles," "Village Names," "Customs," " F a m o u s Places," "Storehouses " "Schools," "Way-stations," "Bridges," "Buddhist Houses." "Monuments," " F o r e s t s , " "Number of Households," " F a m o u s Officials," "Mausolea," "Arts," and "Books." (116) Pak No-sik *|L ^ ± ai . Sin ChosSn C h i r i ifetg g) ^ t fa % fifc (Pulguk-sa and S5kkuram). A folio of plates with a short introduction in Japanese giving the history of the Pulguk-sa, a Buddhist temple, and the SSkkuram, a cave containing many beautifully carved Buddhist images, both of the Silla period. They a r e near Ky5ngju. The plates consist of diagrams, sketches, and detailed photographs of both sites and their sculpture, and each is a c c o m panied by a brief description. T h e r e is a list of plate titles in English. 76 plates.

Vol. II. "Keishu Nanzan no Busseki" i f j ¿L, f) (Buddhist Remains on Nam-san at KySngju). D i s c u s s e s the r e mains of s e v e r a l Buddhist temples and stupas built during the Silla period, and numerous Buddhist images and statues carved out of the rocks. Panoramic photographs of N a m - s a n and its vicinity; and photographs and sketches of the r e m a i n s , both distant views and details. I l l plates. (140)

ChSsen Kinseki Soran '¡r fa (A Complete Survey of Korean Stone Monuments). KeijO: Chosen Sotokufu, 1919. 2 vols. Contains the text of inscriptions on stone monuments, grave stones, decrees engraved on stone, inscriptions on Buddhist statues, bells, incense b u r n e r s , etc., collected by the

46

Korean Studies Guide

Government General from 1913 to 1916. The inscriptions are grouped chronologically by periods from the Three Kingdoms to the Y i dynasty. Nearly all the extant inscriptions of the Three Kingdoms and United Silla periods, and selected ones from the later periods, are reproduced. The earliest is dated 85 and the latest 1910. (141)

ChSsen Kofun Hekiga-shP

^

a

*i £ %

(Collection

of Old Korean Tomb Wall Paintings). KeijS: Ri-o-shoku, 1917. A collection of 105 fine photographs and sketches, many in color, of KoguryS tombs, tomb sites, tomb interiors, and details of tomb wall paintings. Sketches illustrate the various forms of tomb construction. There is a one-page introduction in English as well as an introduction in Japanese. (142)

Chosen Koseki Zufu

£ jjj,

j*-(Album of Korean Antiq-

uities). KeijS: ChSsen SStokufu, 1915-1935. 15 vols.

A record

of historical remains with examples of the arts, crafts, and architecture of each period. The collection is based on the archaeological survey that began before the Japanese annexation of Korea and continued through 1914. The first five volumes cover the period from before the Han Chinese invasion to the end of United Silla. Vols. VI-IX concern the Kory5 period, and the rest cover the Y i dynasty. There is no explanatory text. It was planned to issue a commentary on each volume; but commentaries on only the first five volumes were published: (142a)

ChSsen Koseki Zufu Kaisetsu

& g ^ l f l i f Sf f f o

(Com-

mentary on the Album of Korean Antiquities). KeijS: ChSsen Sotokufu, 1915-1917. 5 vols. (143)

Fujita RyBsaku fi^ >S >h ^

A

• ChSsen Kokogaku Kenkyu

§.f

(Studies in Korean Archaeology). Kyoto: Takagiri

Shoin, 1948.

Nine studies of stone-age culture, Chinese knife

money, Lo-lang tombs, Koguryo tombs, etc. 20 plates. (144)

Fujita Ryosaku. Sugihara ChStarS-shi Shushu KSkohin Zuroku

A

^ B?

fe.

t

% £ o°a i f ) ^ ( I l l u s t r a t e d List of

Sugihara Chotaro's Collection of Archaeological Articles). Kyoto: Chosen KSkogak-kai, 1944.

Contains plates and descriptions of

Art and Archaeology

47

selected i t e m s f r o m the collection of Sugihara. T h e s e i t e m s , ranging f r o m L o - l a n g to the end of KoryS, include weapons, b r o n z e m i r r o r s and v e s s e l s , gold e a r r i n g s , t i l e s , c e r a m i c s , Buddhist m e t a l objects, and s t a t u a r y . 30 plates. (145)

Hamada Kósaku w and U m e h a r a S u e j i j f e ^ Shiragi Koga no Kenkyu ^ij ^ £ 1 'Hli (Study on the Ancient T i l e s of the Siila), Kyoto Teikoku Daigaku Bungaku-bu Kokogaku 4 ,f ^ % Kenkyu Hokoku $ , (Report on Archaeological R e s e a r c h in the Department of L i t e r a t u r e , Kyoto I m p e r i a l University, Vol. XIII). TokyB, 1934. A thorough description and discussion of t i l e s f r o m the Siila period, t r a c i n g their development and the influences upon t h e m f r o m China and other lands. 119 plates.

(146)

311(1 H a r a d a Yoshito J ^ ® Tazawa Kingo ffl i r \ . Rakur5 - ^ ( L o - l a n g ) . Tokyo: T5ko Shoin, Tokyo Teikoku Daigaku Bungaku-bu, 1930. A r e p o r t of the excavation of the tomb of Wang Hsti B=f . The site, excavation, and contents a r e d e s c r i b e d in detail and beautifully i l l u s t r a t e d . Appended i s an i m p o r tant discussion by Kiyono Kenji y ^ f 3 , Kaneseki Takeo

^ jL and H i r a i Takashi ^ ^ js^-. of the human r e m a i n s in the tomb. The authors argue that the teeth found t h e r e show a c l o s e r r e s e m b l a n c e to those of m o d e r n K o r e a n s than to e i t h e r J a p a n e s e or Chinese. English r e s u m e of the text, G e r m a n r e s u m e of the appendix. 128 plates. (147)

Ikeuchi Hiroshi yft tfj % and U m e h a r a Sueji. Tsùkò (Tung-kou [ancient KoguryS s i t e in C h i - a n ^ '¿-District, T'unghuajaL-ifc)Province, Manchuria]). Tòkyo: Nichi-ManBunkaKyokai, 1940, 2 vols. Vol. I d e s c r i b e s an ancient capital of KoguryS, s t e l a e including that of King Kwanggaet'o, and the dating of the tombs. Vol. Q d e s c r i b e s the ton^be and t h e i r contents with p a r t i c u l a r attention to the wall paintings. R e s u m e s in English and Chinese. 165 plates.

(148)

Karube J i o n f ^ S f 8 - . Kudara Bijutsu § y|f- £ / # j ( A r t of Paekche). Tokyo: H5un-sha, 1946, A s u r v e y of Paekche a r c h i t e c t u r e , s c u l p t u r e , m e t a l work, pottery, and painting, and a h i s t o r y

48

Korean Studies Guide

of Paekche, written by a r e s i d e n t of many y e a r s in Kongju -2- Jy- , the ancient capital. (149)

Katsuragi Sueji ^ . Chosen Kinseki-kS fyq jfe^ (Notes on Korean Stone Monuments). Keijo: Osaka-yago Shoten, 1935. D i s c u s s e s inscriptions in general, the types and kinds of inscriptions found in Korea, both m e t a l and stone, and the p r o b l e m s involved in their study. M a j o r i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e grouped by Korean h i s t o r i c a l periods and d e s c r i b e d at c o n s i d e r able length. 29 plates.

(150) Koizumi Akio ^ . RakurS Saiky5-zuka % fy .t$^(Tomb of the Painted Basket of Lo-lang). Keijo: Chosen Koseki Kenkyu-kai, 1934. D e s c r i b e s the excavation of Han Chine s e tombs n e a r P'yong-yang. Contents of the tombs a r e minutely described. 28-page English r e s u m e . 133 s u p e r b plates, s o m e in color. Two m a p s and 50 i l l u s t r a t i o n s . P l a t e s have English and J a p a n e s e captions. (151)

Koseki Chosa Gaiho ^ ^ ^ ^ (Brief Report of Investigation of Ancient Remains). Keijo: ChosenKosekiKenkyu-kai, 19341936. 3 vols. T h r e e r e p o r t s of excavations of Lo-lang tombs. Each has a d e s c r i p t i v e title, and the l a s t two contain a p r o g r e s s r e p o r t f o r the y e a r of the s o c i e t y ' s activities. They a r e listed by the y e a r f o r which the r e p o r t was made. (See also entry 152) 1933. RakurS Kofun h t-fj (Lo-lang Tombs). D e s c r i b e s the excavation of eight L o - l a n g tombs. 28 plates. 1934. RakurS Kofun ¡5 rf D e s c r i b e s the excavation of four L o - l a n g tombs. 21 plates. 1935. RakurS Iseki " J f c y i ( L o - l a n g Remains). D e s c r i b e s the excavation of five Lo-lang tombs and the site of an e a r t h f o r t . 31 plates.

(152)

^IjL'u (Report of InvestigaKoseki Chosa HSkoku 5 j f JB] tion of Ancient Remains). Keijo: Chosen Sotokufu, 1917-1937; Keijo: Chosen Koseki Kenkyu-kai, 1937-1940. 16 vols. The annual r e p o r t s of the Service of Antiquities f o r the Government General f o r 1916-1934, and of the Society f o r the Study of Korean Antiquities f o r 1936-1938. The r e p o r t s of the society may be con-

A r t and A r c h a e o l o g y .

49

s i d e r e d a s continuing t h e r e p o r t s of the s e r v i c e , s i n c e a l l of t h e m w e r e p u b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e s a m e t i t l e . In J a p a n e s e t h e s e a r e d a t e d by t h e y e a r of r e i g n of t h e E m p e r o r , e . g , T a i s h S G o - n e n d o K o s e k i C h o s a HSkoku [ R e p o r t f o r 1916]; Showa R o k u - n e n d o K o s e k i C h o s a Hokoku [ R e p o r t f o r 1931]. T h e y a r e l i s t e d by t h e y e a r f o r which t h e r e p o r t w a s m a d e . 1916. P u b l i s h e d in 1917. C o n t a i n s t h e r e g u l a t i o n s of t h e c o m m i t t e e f o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . D e s c r i b e s (1) old f o r t s and t e m p l e s , (2) r e m a i n s of K o r y 5 , Silla, and P a e k che, (3) r o y a l g r a v e s of K o r y 5 and Silla, (4) t h e e x c a v a t i o n of L o - l a n g t o m b s n e a r P ' y o n g - y a n g , (5) d o l m e n s in H w a n g hae-do ^

i b j>j £_ , and (6) s h e l l m o u n d s in P ' y o n g -

an N a m d o Sf- ^

S_- 151 p l a t e s and 490 p h o t o -

graphs. 1917. P u b l i s h e d in 1920. D e s c r i b e s (1) r e m a i n s of f o r t s , t e m p l e s , t o m b s , s t e l a e , s t u p a s , s t o n e B u d d h a s , e t c . found in KySngsang Namdo ^ t{

t ^ (Korean A r c h i t e c t u r e and Art). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1941. Contains the text of the Chosen B i j u t s u - s h i (155) and twentyt h r e e e s s a y s on specialized topics about t h e r e m a i n s of the T h r e e Kingdoms and e a r l i e r e r a s . (160)

(161)

(162)

Sugihara Sadakichi i . ChSsen Kokuho Taikan iJ^ IS) f A - f e (Survey of the National T r e a s u r e s of Korea). Tokyo: Dobun-kan, 1911. Fifty beautiful plates selected to p r e s e n t a panoramic view of the best in Korean a r t f r o m the T h r e e Kingdoms period through the Yi dynasty—sculpture, metalwork, calligraphy, c e r a m i c s , e m b r o i d e r y , painting, and m o t h e r - o f - p e a r l inlaid work. The i l l u s t r a t i o n s accompanied by brief descriptions.

Sugiyama ShinzS fc'l J-n s. . Nippon Chosen Hikaku Kenchikushi a ^ t t ^ ^ ^ ^ (A History of the C o m p a r a t i v e A r c h i t e c t u r e of Japan and Korea). Kyoto: Qrashima Shuppan-sha, 1946. E x a m i n e s the a r t of building in Korea and Japan in ancient and modern t i m e s to discover r e s e m b l a n c e s and d i f f e r e n c e s in m e t h ods and techniques. The indebtedness of the e a r l y J a p a n e s e to Kor e a n a r t i s a n s i s noted, but J a p a n e s e modifications and independent contributions a r e emphasized.

U m e h a r a Sueji. Chosen Kodai no Bosei ^¡j £ «) ( F u n e r a r y P r a c t i c e s of Ancient Korea). Tokyo: Zauho Kanko'-kai, 1947. D e s c r i b e s b u r i a l c u s t o m s f r o m the stone age through the T h r e e Kingdoms period. 32 plates. It i s reviewed by Sidney Kaplan in the H a r v a r d J o u r n a l of Asiatic Studies, XI (1948), 223-227.

(163)

U m e h a r a Sueji. ChSsen Kodai no Bunka 4 0 jC/itj (Ancient Culture of Korea). Kyoto: T a k a g i r i Shoin, 1946. Reviews K o r e a n culture f r o m the stone age to the introduction of Buddhism in the T h r e e Kingdoms period. A good s u m m a r y of the archaeological work in Korea. The thorough documentation f u n c tions as an excellent bibliography. 32 plates.

(164)

U m e h a r a Sueji and F u j i t a Ryosaku. ChSsen Kobunka SSkan f H i fg. (A s u r v e y of the Ancient C u l t u r e of Korea). Kyoto: Yotoku-sha, 1947-1948. 2 vols. The f i r s t two

Art and Archaeology

55

volumes of a planned s e r i e s of twelve. This s e r i e s i s intended to supplement the Chosen Koseki Zufu (142). Vol. I, "Rakuro Z e n k i " ( P r e - L o - l a n g ) , concentrates on Chinese r e m a i n s in K o r e a p r i o r to the establishment of the Lo-lang p r e f e c t u r e , but does not i n clude neolithic r e m a i n s . Vol. II, "Rakuro" (Lo-lang), i s devoted to m a t e r i a l s f r o m the Han Chinese colony L o - l a n g tombs. The 100 plates a r e superb. (165)

Yanagi Soetsu % . Chosen to Sono Geijutsu I t O & (Korea and H e r Art). Tokyo: Sobun-kaku, 1922. A j o u r n a l i s t ' s r e a c t i o n t o the Korean independence movement of 1919. Sensitive to the aesthetic values of the Korean people, the author d e s i r e d a rapprochement of the J a p a n e s e and K o r e a n s through a J a p a n e s e appreciation of peninsular a r t . His work i s f r a n k l y sympathetic to the Korean point of view to a d e g r e e unusual in the writings of J a p a n e s e . Because of the w r i t e r ' s r e f r e s h i n g perspicacity, it i s a good statement on the n a t u r e and value of Korean a r t .

(166)

Yoshida E i z a b u r 5

a '3>

H. gp . Chosen Shogaka Retsuden

% % (Biographies of Korean P a i n t e r s and C a l l i g r a p h e r s ) . Keijo: Keijo Nippo-sha, 1915. Five hundred brief biographies of p a i n t e r s and c a l l i g r a p h e r s of the T h r e e Kingdoms period. E n t r i e s a r e listed under s u r n a m e s and also, by c r o s s r e f e r e n c e , under all s t y l e s and c o u r t e s y n a m e s . T h e r e i s a c h r o nology f r o m 47 B.C. to 1915 in the Korean, J a p a n e s e , Chinese and W e s t e r n c a l e n d a r s . Based partly on the Samguk Sagi (225) and the Haedong YSksa (241). Note: F o r f u r t h e r information on a r t and archaeology s e e 83, 185, 205, 212, 428.

V General History Ancient Korea.—According to legend the Korean nation was founded by Tan-gun, a semidivine figure, in 2333 B.C. Another tradition s a y s that in 1122 B.C. Kija, the uncle of the last mona r c h of the Chinese Shang i$) dynasty, fled to Korea when the Shang w e r e deposed by the Chou and built a capital at P y o n g yang. The h i s t o r i c i t y of these f i g u r e s h a s been s e v e r e l y challenged by many modern s c h o l a r s . However, the legends tend to c o n f i r m v e r y early contact between China and the peninsula. Anthropological studies show that the e a r l i e s t known inhabitants of the peninsula were a proto-caucasoid o r p a l e o - a s i a t i c people s i m i l a r to the Ainu of n o r t h e r n Japan. During s e v e r a l millenia t h e s e people w e r e s u b m e r g e d by migrations of Tungusic peoples f r o m Manchuria. The f i r s t actual r e c o r d s of Chinese contacts come f r o m about 500 B.C., when Chou r e f u g e e s founded a s h o r t - l i v e d colony in n o r t h e r n Korea, the next f r o m about 300 B.C., when exiles f r o m the Kingdom of Yen in North China settled b r i e f l y in Korea. In 108 B.C. the Han Wu e m p e r o r invaded K o r e a and set up four p r e f e c t u r e s . Of these, Lo-lang, c e n t e r e d on the Taedong A. /sj wf River, lasted until 313, when the Kingdom of Koguryo o v e r r a n it. T h r e e Kingdoms. —The Chinese noted t h r e e t r i b e s in southern Korea, usually r e f e r r e d to as the Sam iL AJJ (Three) Han ¿J-: the Ma Han Jb » I- l>J-in the southwest; the Pyon Han ^ ij; in the Naktong River basin; and the Chin Han J ^ ^ x | •sH in the southeast. F r o m the loose confederacy of t h e s e t r i b e s e m e r g e d , in about the fourth century, two of the t h r e e Korean kingdoms that give the period i t s name—Silla and Paekche. Koguryo, the t h i r d kingdom, was f o r m e d a few y e a r s e a r l i e r north 56

General History

57

of the L o - l a n g colony f r o m the Puy5 j f c ^ o=| and r e l a t e d t r i b e s . The two fundamental t h e m e s of the Three Kingdoms period a r e the struggle between Silla and KoguryS f o r dominance and the beginnings of Buddhist culture in the peninsula. F r o m about 313 to about 550 Koguryo was the chief power in Korea. It defeated Chinese a t t e m p t s to conquer it; it o v e r r a n Lo-lang; it gradually expanded both northward and southward. Silla, during t h e s e y e a r s , was h a r a s s e d by J a p a n e s e r a i d s . Paekche, which sent s c h o l a r s and a r t i s a n s to b r i n g Buddhist culture to Japan, was in t u r n s u s tained by an alliance with Japan. About 560, Silla began to e l i m i nate the J a p a n e s e influence in the peninsula, f i r s t by absorbing the tiny s t a t e of Karak, * and l a t e r by uniting with T'ang China to d e s t r o y Paekche and KoguryS. Unified Silla.— This period i s usually considered to have existed f r o m 661 to 935. Silla was then the prevailing power throughout the peninsula; its n o r t h e r n boundary, however, was quite s h o r t of the p r e s e n t Korean boundary. The influence of Buddhism, which had become the s t a t e religion of Silla in 528, led to a flourishing culture. The f i r s t hundred y e a r s w e r e m a r k e d by strong, capable government; the next hundred by a gradual decline under weaker m o n a r c h s ; the l a s t century o r so by rebellions and factional s t r i f e . In 918, Wang K5n, a lieutenant of one of the r e b e l w a r l o r d s , u s u r p e d his c h i e f ' s position, c a r v e d out an independent s t a t e and in 935 deposed the king of Silla. Koryo. —This kingdom existed f r o m 918 (or 935) to 1392, under the r u l e of the Wang dynasty, with two u s u r p e r s at the end. Korean Buddhist culture r o s e to i t s s u p r e m e accomplishments and fell into decline during the Koryo period. The f i r s t century or so was m a r k e d by vigorous expansion and the repulse of the Khitan, a Manchurian t r i b e who t h r i c e t r i e d to invade Koryo. Between 1033 and 1044 a wall was built a c r o s s the n o r t h e r n end of the peninsula to keep out Manchurian r a i d e r s . The e r a f r o m 1047 to 1122 is known a s the "In-law" period because the royal authority was often 1 Called a l s o Kaya o r Imna in Korean, and Mimana o r K a r a in J a p a n e s e . Its capital was Kfimhae (near Pusan). Little is known of i t s h i s t o r y , but it h a s yielded valuable archaeological finds.

58

Korean Studies Guide

in the hands of the kings' f a t h e r s - i n - l a w . In 1107, the Jflrchen, another Manchurian people, sought u n s u c c e s s f u l l y to o v e r r u n Kory5, but in 1127 the king of KoryS acknowledged himself v a s s a l to the Chin dynasty, which the Jflrchen had founded in North China. The "In-law" regency was followed by a troubled period, when Kory5 was in effect ruled by g e n e r a l s and the court split among m i l i t a r y cliques. T h e r e w e r e frequent r e v o l t s . Then, in 1231, the Mongols o v e r r a n the peninsula and in 1259 divided it into m i l i t a r y d i s t r i c t s . T h e r e a f t e r the KoryS king was a feeble v a s s a l of the G r e a t Khan, his court a petty imitation of the Mong o l s ' . Mongol d r e s s and c u s t o m s w e r e introduced, and Mongol p r i n c e s s e s m a r r i e d KoryS kings. Kory5 was i m p o v e r i s h e d under its Mongol v a s s a l a g e . It was taxed m e r c i l e s s l y to p r e p a r e f o r the attempted invasions of J a pan which the Khan undertook in 1274 and again in 1281. In the next century it was f u r t h e r ruined by the J a p a n e s e p i r a t e r a i d e r s (wako Korean: waegu jfe Sg ztj who r o a m e d over l a r g e a r e a s of the country. Yi Dynasty.—In 1392, the general Yi Song-ge (Yi T ' a e - j o ) , who had been a l e a d e r of the pro-Ming p a r t y at court and who had been s u c c e s s f u l in his campaign against the wako, deposed the feeble Koryo monarch he had s e r v e d . He founded a new dynasty which lasted until 1910. The Yi revolution deposed Buddhism as the state religion f o r the Yi w e r e patrons of Confucianism. Under Yi S5ng-ge and h i s i m m e d i a t e s u c c e s s o r s ' t h e a d m i n i s t r a tion was r e f o r m e d and the country strengthened. In 1419, T s u s h i m a ff Island, which the wako used f o r a b a s e of o p e r a t i o n s , was o v e r r u n ; this diverted J a p a n e s e r a i d s f r o m K o r e a f o r m o r e than a century. In 1576, f r o m a complex of c a u s e s , the royal court split into two p a r t i e s —generally known a s the E a s t and West p a r t i e s — f r o m which c a m e c e n t u r i e s of intrigue and dissension that gradually sapped the s t r e n g t h of the Yi government. In 1592, the J a p a n e s e invaded Korea, under the generalship of Hideyoshi, who d i r e c t e d the invasions f r o m Japan. On land, the K o r e a n s w e r e generally

General History

59

h e l p l e s s against Hideyoshi, on sea, their f l e e t s , especially under the naval genius Yi S u n - s i n ^ -fe AJ . frequently defeated the J a p a n e s e . In 1598, Hideyoshi died and the i n v a d e r s w e r e r e called. In 1627, the Manchus invaded Korea, and in 1637 reduced it to v a s s a l a g e under the Ch'ing (Manchu dynasty). Korean t r o o p s w e r e sent in 1654 to the Amur River to help the Manchus r e p e l a R u s s i a n advance. In 1777, Catholicism was introduced f r o m China, but Korea r e m a i n e d hostile to Western m i s s i o n a r i e s and m e r c h a n t s : ports w e r e closed to ships; m i s s i o n a r i e s and their converts w e r e p e r secuted. In 1839, F r e n c h Catholic p r i e s t s w e r e killed; in 1866, F r e n c h w a r s h i p s bombarded Kanghwa yZ~ ^ Island, and the USS G e n e r a l Sherman was burned on the Taedong River; in 1871, A m e r i c a n naval units seized the f o r t s on Kanghwa Island. The W e s t e r n t h r e a t remained, however, r e m o t e and nebulous, even if occasionally destructive. However, much c l o s e r to home a new power was rising—Westernized Japan. In 1876, Japan obtained a W e s t e r n - s t y l e t r e a t y f r o m Korea, and f r o m the e m b a s s y thereby established began a gradual but r e l e n t l e s s i n t r u sion. In 1894, J a p a n won a quick w a r against China, and e l i m i nated K o r e a ' s ancient nominal v a s s a l a g e to the Chinese throne, in 1895, the J a p a n e s e m i n i s t e r was a collaborator in the plot to m u r d e r Queen Min; in 1905, the J a p a n e s e defeated Russia, t h e i r chief W e s t e r n r i v a l f o r influence in Korea. In 1910 they annexed the country. T h e r e a r e only a few Western s u r v e y h i s t o r i e s of Korea, m o s t of t h e m written at the turn of the century and most of them outdated by l a t e r J a p a n e s e and Korean r e s e a r c h . T h e r e a r e comparatively few m o d e r n general h i s t o r i e s of K o r e a in Korean. The J a p a n e s e discouraged Korean s c h o l a r s f r o m publishing in their native language between 1910 and 1945, although they allowed and, in fact, encouraged K o r e a n s to contribute to J a p a n e s e publications. The f i v e - y e a r interval between K o r e a ' s liberation and the Korean War was too short f o r much to be published. J a p a n e s e h i s t o r i e s of Korea a r e n u m e r o u s , f o r f r o m the m i d -

60

K o r e a n Studies Guide

nineteenth century to the p r e s e n t J a p a n e s e h i s t o r i a n s have c a r r i e d out meticulous r e s e a r c h in the a f f a i r s of the peninsula. Unfortunately, many of t h e s e books i n t e r p r e t K o r e a n h i s t o r y to suit J a p a n ' s i m p e r i a l i s t i c policy toward the peninsula. Some a r e outright distortions. The J a p a n e s e h i s t o r i a n Hatada, writing a f t e r 1945, made the following s t a t e m e n t about five J a p a n e s e h i s t o r i e s of K o r e a : T h e s e a r e a l l inclined to r e c o r d political events and do not m e e t modern r e q u i r e m e n t s ; m o r e o v e r , s i n c e they w e r e written during the period of J a p a n e s e r u l e of K o r e a , t h e r e was a c o n s c i o u s o r unconscious e x p r e s s i o n of J a p a n e s e s u p e r i o r i t y toward K o r e a , and much of the truth could not be written; when viewed f r o m the p r e s e n t , t h e r e a r e many points that naturally r e q u i r e r e v i s i o n . 2

SURVEY HISTORIES Western (167)

G a l e , J a m e s S. A History of the K o r e a n P e o p l e . C h r i s t i a n L i t e r a t u r e Society, 1927.

Seoul: The

F r o m the legendary period

to 1919. B a s e d on K o r e a n books and f i r s t - h a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s . G a l e was a m i s s i o n a r y in K o r e a . Published s e r i a l l y in K o r e a n Mission Field, XX-XXIII (1924-1927). (168)

Griffis, William E .

C o r e a . the H e r m i t Nation. 9th ed., r e v .

and enl. New Y o r k : S c r i b n e r ' s Sons, 1911. F i r s t printed in 1882. Divided into t h r e e p a r t s : ancient and medieval K o r e a ; political and s o c i a l K o r e a ; modern and r e c e n t K o r e a , (Sriffis, who lived in J a p a n , used J a p a n e s e s o u r c e s and the K o r e a n h i s t o r i e s known to the J a p a n e s e . (169)

Hulbert, H o m e r B .

The H i s t o r y of K o r e a .

Seoul: T h e M e t h -

odist Publishing House, 1905. 2 v o l s . L e g e n d a r y period to 1904. It i s the m o s t detailed account of K o r e a in English, but i t s a c count of a few important events i s much too b r i e f . Most of the book i s b a s e d on the T o n g - s a Kangmok (238), f o r the periods b e f o r e the Y i dynasty, and the Taedong Kinyon (267), f o r the Y i dynasty. It was published s e r i a l l y in the K o r e a Review, I - I V ^Hatada Takashi. Chosen-shi (190), pp. 253-254.

General History

61

(1901-1905), and there is a resume of it in Koreans and Their Culture (351). (170)

Hulbert, Homer B. The Passing of Korea. New York: Doubleday, Page, 1906.

A brief cultural and social survey, and

an outline history. Hulbert's account of events after 1882, when Korea was opened to the West, is especially good, for he lived in Seoul during this period and had the confidence of the king. An excellent book to begin a study of old Korea. (171)

Kuno, Yoshi S. Japanese Expansion on the Asiatic Continent. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1937-1940. 2 vols. Vol. I begins with the third century and ends with Hideyoshi's activities in the sixteenth century. Vol. II begins with Ieyasu's ^ ^ activities in the seventeenth century and ends with the opening of Japan in the 1850's. The work is particularly valuable for

information about early Japanese contacts with Korea, for translations of documents, and for a correct chronology of early Japanese history (172)

Longford, Joseph H. The Story of Korea. New York: Scribner's Sons, 1911.

A popular history, valuable chiefly as a brief

survey of Korea. Based on Western sources. (173)

Ross, John. History of Corea, Ancient and Modern, with Manners and Customs, Language and Geography. London: Eliot Stock, 1891.

First printed in 1880. Covers the years 1122 B.C.

to 1876, and contains a good account of customs and conditions in Korea in the mid-nineteenth century with comparisons to Chinese customs. Based on Chinese sources. This is the first history of Korea in English. Korean (174)

Ch'oe Nam-s5n. Choson Yoksa f ^ . S f ^ - ^ i *d ry of Korea). KeijO: Tongmy5ng-sa, 1931.

*)-(Histo-

A short survey,

about half of it on events since the beginning of the Y i dynasty. Ch'oe is a specialist on early Korean history.

62 (175)

(176)

Korean Studies Guide

Ch'oe N a m - s o n . Kungmin ChosSn YSksa ig) ^ ^ ,/g- ^ °J. i A)-(People's History of Korea). Seoul: TongmySngs a , 1947. F r o m Tan-gun to 1945 in 127 s h o r t c h a p t e r s , each about an incident, trend, o r person. Valuable mainly a s a topical outline of events. Difficult Chinese c h a r a c t e r s have han-gfil_ equivalents beside them. Kang Hyo-s5k

'Jr 1 ^

• Tongguk Ch5llan-sa ^ |gj)

~IJ I'd ZV A ^(History of Korean Wars). Keijo: Hanyang Sowon, 1927. 6 books in 1 f a s c i c l e . An account of the w a r s , r e bellions, and invasions f r o m the T h r e e Kingdoms period to the end of the Yi dynasty. Contains information on the wako r a i d s , on old place n a m e s and t h e i r m o d e r n equivalents, and h a s a table of kings which gives the reign, p a r e n t s , and m a n n e r of death of each king. Compiled f r o m s t a n d a r d h i s t o r i e s of the periods covered. Written in hanmun with han-gul reading aids. (177)

S5ul Taehak Kuksa Y5n-gu Sil tf ± k - f f . (g) ' t tf ± cfj ? A i (Seoul National University National H i s t o r y R e s e a r c h Boom). C h o s o n - s a Kaesol sJaf fj^ ± A(. (Outline of Korean History). Seoul: Hongmun SiSgwan, 1949. C o m piled by s c h o l a r s at Seoul National University under the direction of Yi In-y5ng ^ ^ ®J o={.

A c r i t i c a l h i s t o r y covering e a r l i e s t t i m e s to 1910, which e m phasizes social, political, and economic t r e n d s and f o r c e s r a t h e r than events and p e r s o n s and i s divided by topics r a t h e r than by dynastic divisions. This e m p h a s i s and a r r a n g e m e n t r e s u l t in a new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Korean history. New and valuable m a t e r i a l i s given, e.g., the c r i t i c i s m by J a p a n e s e and Korean s c h o l a r s of the Tan-gun legend. The book contains t h r e e bibliographies: (1) Korean, Chinese, and J a p a n e s e p r i m a r y s o u r c e s ; (2) s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s divided by topics—government, a r t , religion, archaeology, and others— which includes periodicals and a few W e s t e r n t i t l e s ; (3) books and collections of p r i m a r y s o u r c e s in hanmun r e p r o d u c e d by the C h o s e n - s h i Henshu-kai, the Chosen Kosho Kanko-kai, and o t h e r societies. T h e r e a r e also genealogical t a b l e s of Korean dynasties and

General History

63

of Po-hai kings, and a chronology table f r o m 194 B . C . to 1910, in which dates a r e given by the Western calendar; by the Korean calendar, which reckons f r o m Tan-gun; by a Japanese calendar which reckons f r o m Jimmu Tenno

i (660 B . C . ) ; and by

the Chinese cyclical stems and reign names. (178)

S5ul Taehak Kuksa Y5n-gu-hoe M, t /(-) -f c-t) -ilf

A- f f I « ]

"$L /f-

a|. o=/ ^ 51 (Seoul National University National

History Research Association). Kuksa KaesSl

/ffetiSL ^

A)-

''¿L(Outline of National History), Seoul: Hongmun SSgwan, 1950. A slightly r e v i s e d version of the ChosSn-sa KaesSl (177), the principal r e v i s i o n being perhaps the elimination or reduction of material critical of the authenticity of the Tan-gun legend. (179)

Sin Chong-on A-j>

^

f

*i

oH . Sangsik Kuksa

% A )-(Common Sense National History).

Kurakpu, 1945, F r o m Tan-gun to 1945.

sOi'Sl $L

Seoul: Kyemong

Emphasizes the three

independence movements during the Japanese occupation. B r i e f and v e r y condensed, but contains many items of interest; f o r example, a chart of Shinto shrines in Japan in which the principal deity is a Korean king or noble, and a chart of bureaus and ministries of the Y i dynasty. Chronology table f r o m 57 B.C. to 1907. Tan-gun and K i j a a r e treated as historical. (180)

Y i In-y5ng. Kuksa Yoron l^j

J* g ^ ^ A(.

j | (Essentials

of National History). Seoul: Kumnyong T o s o Chusik Hoesa, 1950. F r o m the earliest times to Dr. Rhee's inauguration. A mature, scholarly account, even though the book was intended as a secondary school text. (181)

Y i Pyong-do ^ J) ^ *)-

»J

. Kuksa Taegwan

/g) £

£

^

¿¿(General Survey of National History). 5th r e v . ed.

Seoul: T o n g j i - s a , 1949. sa Taegwan period to 1945.

fe

The e a r l i e r editions are called Choson£

c-fj av-. F r o m the neolithic

A critical, dispassionate analysis of the s i g n i f i -

cant social and political trends of Korean history. Many valuable charts and tables show ministries and bureaus of the K o r y o and Y i dynasties, the provinces of the KoryS period, ranks and titles during the Y i dynasty,

and factionalism in the Y i court.

The

64

Korean Studies Guide

c h a r t of s o c i a l and government changes i s p a r t i c u l a r l y good, especially f o r the periods b e f o r e the tenth century. J a p a n e s e : Encyclopedic H i s t o r i e s (182)

Ch5s e n - s h i ft$ ¿ . ( H i s t o r y of Korea). Keijo: Chosen S5tokufu, 1932-1940. 37 vols. A detailed account of Korea f r o m the e a r l i e s t t i m e s to 1894 r e l a t e d in e x t r a c t s f r o m books, d i a r i e s , r e p o r t s , rubbings, l e t t e r s , and other p r i m a r y s o u r c e s . I n f o r m a tion i s a r r a n g e d chronologically; all e n t r i e s a r e c a r e f u l l y dated. Each y e a r i s designated by its cyclical c h a r a c t e r , the n a m e of the Korean king and the y e a r of his reign, the n a m e s of the Chinese and J a p a n e s e e m p e r o r s , and the y e a r of the e r a ; each month i s designated by its cyclical c h a r a c t e r s ; the day, if known, is also given in cyclical c h a r a c t e r s .

In Vols. I-HI the e x t r a c t s a r e given in t h e i r original language. In Vols. IV-XXXV the e x t r a c t s a r e given in a k a n a m a j i r i p a r a p h r a s e which often uses obsolete c h a r a c t e r s and a r c h a i c phrasing in an effort to r e t a i n the style of the original. This method c r e a t e s a reading problem for anyone unacquainted with obsolete Chin e s e c h a r a c t e r s . Short p a s s a g e s a r e quoted whole; longer p a s sages a r e abstracted. The t h i r t y - f i v e volumes of text a r e divided into six s e r i e s , each corresponding to a traditional division of Korean h i s t o r y . S e r i e s One (3 vols.) c o v e r s the origins of Korea to the t r i u m p h of Silla (668), and is based chiefly on the Samguk Sagi (225), Nihon Shoki 0 "Jr ^ ( C h r o n i c l e s of Japan), and other J a p a n e s e h i s t o r i e s , Chinese h i s t o r i e s , and archaeological evidence. S e r i e s Two (1 vol.), which c o v e r s Unified Silla, is based chiefly on the Samguk Sagi. T h e r e a r e e r r o r s in the dates of this s e r i e s . S e r i e s T h r e e (7 vols.) c o v e r s the Koryo period, chiefly f r o m the Koryos a (240) and K o r y 5 - s a C h 5 r - y o (242). S e r i e s F o u r (10 vols.) c o v e r s the Yi dynasty until 1608, largely f r o m the Yijo Sillok (289) and other official r e c o r d s . D i a r i e s and other c o n t e m p o r a r y accounts of the Hideyoshi invasion a r e cited. S e r i e s Five (10 vols.) c o v e r s the middle y e a r s (1608-1800) of the Yi dynasty. S e r i e s Six (4 vols.) b r i n g s the account to 1894, and includes e x t r a c t s f r o m Western source material.

General History

65

Vol. XXXVI gives the history of the compilation of the work, d e s c r i b e s i t s organization, and l i s t s its c o m p i l e r s . It contains also a table of contents in the f o r m of a chronology, and a list of the 377 plates in the work (mostly photographs of s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s ) , a l i s t which m a k e s a good bibliography. Appended i s a description of the content and size of each volume, and a list of publications in the ChSsen Shiryo Sôkan (183). Vol. XXXVII i s a kana index of m o r e than 850 pages, with a f o u r - p a g e supplement of Western n a m e s . Two keys, one a c cording to the on reading of c h a r a c t e r s , the other according to 214 r a d i c a l s , a r e given. The C h 5 s e n - s h i is the most ambitious J a p a n e s e h i s t o r y of Korea. R e s e a r c h toward i t s compilation began in 1915, soon a f t e r the J a p a n e s e occupied Korea, f i r s t under the direction of the Chùsu-in, which was s u p e r s e d e d in 1921 by the C h ô s e n - s h i Hensan Iin-kai (Korean History Compilation Committee), and finally in 1925 by the Chôsen-shi Henshu-kai (Korean H i s t o r y Compilation Society). Each group was m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e than i t s p r e d e c e s s o r , and encouraged m o r e Korean s c h o l a r s to a s s i s t in the p r o j e c t . Local r e s e a r c h groups w e r e established throughout the provinces of Korea; and all available m a t e r i a l s in Japan, China, and o t h e r countries w e r e collected. F r o m the outset the c o m p i l e r s attempted to follow a policy of r e s p e c t f u l i m p a r t i a l i t y toward t h e i r subject: they would seek only f a c t s , weigh all the evidence on debatable i s s u e s , s u p p r e s s nothing and distort nothing. The C h ô s e n - s h i has some defects. T h e r e i s no attempt to i n t e r p r e t o r synthesize its m a s s of m a t e r i a l . Its chronological a r r a n g e m e n t makes it h a r d to find information by topics. (The extensive index helps only partly to o v e r c o m e this difficulty.) The a b s t r a c t e d p a s s a g e s do not indicate what h a s been omitted. Sources a r e cited only by title. N e v e r t h e l e s s it i s still the m o s t valuable single work for the student of Korean h i s t o r y . (182a)

C h o s e n - s h i Henshu-kai JigyS GaiyS f J & ify- ^f %Hfc (Outline of the Work of the Korean Compilation Society). Keijô, 1937. Contains a detailed account of the compilation of the Chôsen-shi.

66

Korean Studies Guide

(183)

Ch5sen ShiryS S5kan f% .if (Korean H i s t o r i c a l M a t e r i a l s Series). Keijo: Chosen Sotokufu, 1932-1942. Twentyone r e - i s s u e s of r a r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s (some printed, s o m e photo-offset, some reproduced by other means) u s e d in c o m piling the C h 5 s e n - s h i (182). The society planned to publish all of the s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s , but reduction of funds and other difficulties f o r c e d t h e m to give up this plan.

These m a t e r i a l s , except i t e m nineteen, which was unavailable, a r e l i s t e d under t h e i r t i t l e s in the a p p r o p r i a t e c h a p t e r s . See e n t r i e s 242, 243, 263, 265, 271, 273, 276, 277, 278, 282, 283, 284, 288, 290, 292, 293, 294, 303, 466, 491. Most of the i t e m s contain a table of contents and a k a n a m a j i r i c o m m e n t a r y . (184)

Chosen ShiryS Shushin .if t- t j % M)-(Japanese-Korean Ancient S o u r c e M a t e r i a l ) . Toky5: I s o b e K o y 5 - d o , 1928.

E x t r a c t s about K o r e a n and J a p a n e s e h i s t o r y

and g e o g r a p h y f r o m C h i n e s e and K o r e a n p r i m a r y s o u r c e s .

Each

i s p r i n t e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l C h i n e s e o r in h a n m u n with a b r i e f i n k a n a m a j i r i ; the C h i n e s e t e x t s i n c l u d e kunten. A c o n v e n i e n t , c o m p a c t w o r k , but Vols. I - H I of t h e C h 5 s e n - s h i (182) c o n t a i n m o r e a u t h o r i t a t i v e v e r s i o n s of t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l .

78 (222)

Korean Studies Guide

Shiratori Kurakichi, e d . - i n - c h i e f . Manshû R e k i s h i - c h i r i > - f - «

(New Studies of the Mongol Invasions). 2 vols. M e m o i r s . . . of the Toyo Bunko (214), S e r i e s A, no. 15 (1931). A study of the attempted Mongol invasion of Japan. B a s e d on J a p a n e s e , Korean, and Chinese s o u r c e s which had not previously been adequately studied. Vol. I h a s twelve c h a p t e r s , s i x of which deal p r i m a r i l y with KoryS-Mongol r e l a t i o n s , including the Mongol conquest of Kory5. The other c h a p t e r s contain considerable information about KoryS's part in the attempted invasions of Japan by the Mongols. Vol. II c o n s i s t s of plates of the beautifully i l l u s t r a t e d Oyano-hon & Sf ^ j ( T h e Oyano Book), a c o n t e m p o r a r y a c count of the Mongol invasion by the Oyano b r o t h e r s , who fought against the Mongols. (248)

Ikeuchi Hiroshi. M a n - S e n - s h i Kenkyu Chusei 7I5 tff (Studies in Manchurian and Korean History: the Middle Ages). Tokyo: Ogiwara Sei Bunkan, 1943; Zauho Kanko-kai, 1937. 2 vols. Vol. I i s p r i m a r i l y about Manchuria. Vol. U contains much m a t e r i a l on e a r l y KoryS and K o r y 5 ' s r e l a t i o n s with the Khitan and Jtlrchen.

(249)

Imanishi Ryu. K 5 r a i - s h i Kenkyu tfii ^ (Studies in the H i s t o r y of Kory5). Keij5: Chikazawa Shoten, 1944. A post-

KoryS

89

humous publication of t h i r t e e n studies of KoryS. The f i r s t i s an outline of KoryS's history; the o t h e r s a r e studies on s p e c i a l s u b j e c t s , e.g., the s o - c a l l e d " t e n - a r t i c l e t e s t a m e n t " of the founder of the dynasty, the author of the Samguk Yusa (226), and the court office of h i s t o r i c a l compilation during the Wang dynasty. (250)

Nakamura Eiko. "Muromachi Jidai no N i s - S e n K a n k e i " 'J? " J (Remnants of a Military G a r r i s o n Register). Item 10 of the Chosen Shiryo Sole an (183). Keijo, 1936. 2 f a s c i c l e s . A photo-offset reproduction of the r e m a i n s of a m i l i t a r y r e g i s t e r r e m i t t e d in 1596 by Yun Sfing-gil f - m . t £ -5- 1 , an administrative i n s p e c t o r of P ' y o n g - a n province. Valuable f o r a study of K o r e a n m i l i t a r y r e o r g a n i z a t i o n in the f a c e of aggression f r o m Japan and Manchuria.

(264) Chong To-j5n H Z * L • Sambong-jip =_ AJ- iL*!, (Collected Works of Sambong). Keijo: Chosen Kosho Kanko-kai, 1916. F i r s t printed at Andong, Kyongsang province, in 1464. Reprinted in 1487. Chong To-j5n, style Sambong, was a poet, s c h o l a r , and politician who helped Yi T ' a e - j o to gain the throne and who was involved in the intrigue over Y i ' s s u c c e s s o r . His poems a r e full of political c o m m e n t s and s a t i r i c a l p o r t r a i t s of p e r s o n s and factions at Court. (265)

Jf Ch5ng-w5n Chon-gyo ^ P & i ^ f * . *o -' ^ ( R e l a y e d C o m mands f r o m the Office of Royal S e c r e t a r i e s ) . I t e m 5 of the Chos e n Shiryo S5kan (183). Keijo, 1934. 3 f a s c i c l e s . The f i r s t two f a s c i c l e s contain collotypes of 77 r o y a l commands f r o m the Sungj5ng-w5n ii^tl H (Office of Royal S e c r e t a r i e s ) to Yu S5ng-nyong ¿¿p fyfj^ ^ ^ , the chief m i n i s t e r , f r o m 1592 to 1607. The t h i r d f a s c i c l e contains other royal c o m m a n d s .

They a r e part of the Sungj5ng-w5n Ilgi i t pfc & I H f± •> I (Daily R e c o r d s of the Office of Royal S e c r e t a r i e s ) , the 3047 f a s c i c l e s of which, except f o r this excerpt, have r e m a i n e d in m a n u s c r i p t in the a r c h i v e s of the Korean government. It cont a i n s accounts of court a f f a i r s , m e m o r i a l s , edicts, m i n i s t e r i a l meetings, etc. It was begun in 1392, but all r e c o r d s w e r e des t r o y e d in 1592 by the J a p a n e s e invaders. The unpublished p o r tion c o v e r s the y e a r s 1623 to 1894, and a few months of 1894. (266)

ChungjSng Kyorinji ? f £ £ i ¡2. e± (Revised H i s t o r y of F o r e i g n Relations). Keijo: Keijo Teikoku Daigaku

94

Korean Studies Guide

H5bungaku-bu, 1940. A printing with a brief k a n a m a j i r i c o m m e n t a r y of an" important document of the e a r l y seventeenth c e n t u r y . See entpy 2£6. (267)

Hulbert, H o m e r B., et al. Taedong KlnySn A ^ wj ->1 «i (A Chronicle of Korea), by HfilbSp yk. [pseud.] Shanghai, n.p., 1905. 5 books. A chronological account of Kor e a f r o m 1392 to 1896 e x t r a c t e d f r o m v a r i o u s p r i m a r y s o u r c e s . Compiled by Hulbert under h i s Korean pen-name with the aid of Korean s c h o l a r s .

(268)

Hwang Sin

A

d • "Ubon Wanghwan Ilgi" >3 / M i i f .

9

iii 4r t t °i 11 < D i a r y o f a T r i p to Japan), Seikyu Gakuso. Supplement to Vol. 11 (1933). R e c o r d s the a u t h o r ' s e x p e r i ences as envoy to Japan in 1596 in h i s u n s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t to s e e Hideyoshi and to bring about peace. (269)

Kosa Ch'waryo y^ n. i t i (Outline of Events). Keijo: Keijo Teikoku Daigaku HSbungaku-bu, 1941. A r e p r i n t of a chronological outline of m a j o r events between 1368 and 1554 intended a s a r e f e r e n c e book f o r officials. Compiled in 1554 by O Suk-kw5n & fe.fi. "1 ^ ^L > r e v i s e d and extended to 1585. P a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r Korean r e l a t i o n s with China and Japan.

(270)

Kukcho Pogam iSJ ^ £ £ ^ £ ji. (Dynastic M i r r o r ) . Keijo: Chosen Kenkyu-kai, 1917. 5 vols. The hanmun text, with a k a n a m a j i r i t r a n s l a t i o n , of the official Yi dynasty h i s t o r y compiled under the auspices of the court. Begun by Kw5n Nam at the ^ H command of King Sejo (1456-1468). E a c h y e a r was t r e a t e d as an entity so that the account could be continued in l a t e r r e i g n s . The work was continued to the r e i g n of Ch'51-jong (1850-1863), and e a r l i e r e n t r i e s w e r e r e v i s e d . The h i s t o r y i s , of c o u r s e , e n t i r e l y sympathetic to the Yi dynasty.

(271)

K w 5 n K f i n | £ i i L * i - f r . Yangch'on-jip (3g £ £ xj (Anthology of Yangch'on). Item 13 of the Ch5sen Shiryo Sokan (183). Keijo, 1937. 8 f a s c i c l e s . A photo-offset reproduction of the collected writings in 7 f a s c i c l e s of Kw5n Kun, style

Yi Dynasty

95

Yangch'on, (1352-1409). Kw5n was an intellectual, c o u r t i e r , and m a n of a f f a i r s at the Wang court who, in 1392, gave his allegiance to the Yi. His writings contain important i n f o r m a tion on the e m e r g e n c e of Confucianism as the dominant philosophy under Yi T ' a e - j o . The eighth f a s c i c l e contains a printed k a n a m a j i r i commentary. (272)

R1 Shun-shin Zenshu f '|f f t >£• % (Complete Works of Yi Sun-sin). Keij5: Chosen Kenkyu-kai, 1916. 2 vols. A printing of the original documents, with a k a n a m a j i r i t r a n s l a t i o n . Korean s c h o l a r s r e f e r to the work as Ch'ungmukong ChSnsS fe(The Complete Works of Ch'ungmukong [Yi Sun-sin]). The book, despite its title, is actually not the complete works of K o r e a ' s naval genius. Additional m a t e r i a l in the p o s s e s s i o n of the Yi family has since come to light. See also entry 288.

(273)

Sadae Mun-gwe ^IL. i ¡^J (Documents Concerning the Serving of the Great). Item 7 of the ChSsen Shiryo Sokan (183). Keijo, 1935. 24 f a s c i c l e s . Photo-offset r e p r o d u c t i o n s of s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y copies of the official r e c o r d s of K o r e a ' s t r i b u t a r y r e l a t i o n s with China. Only the r e c o r d s f r o m 1593 to 1608 a r e extant, and t h e s e a r e not complete. Contains an a c count of K o r e a ' s obedience to the Ming, of the r i s e of the Manchu, of diplomatic r e l a t i o n s with Japan and the Ryukyu Islands, and of Hideyoshi's invasions as r e f l e c t e d in diplomatic exchanges with China.

The m i s s i n g portions may have been d e s t r o y e d b e c a u s e of t h e i r sympathetic attitude toward Kwanghae-gun (1609-1623). He i s often r e g a r d e d by Korean h i s t o r i a n s as a u s u r p e r and was f o r c e d to abdicate when a r i v a l clique gained power. He was, however, recognized by the Ming, and Chinese accounts of h i m a r e usually laudatory. (274)

Samban Resik = ^ (Rites of the T h r e e C l a s s e s ) . [Seoul] 1868. 2 books in 1 f a s c i c l e . A manual of court etiquette compiled and printed in 1868 which defines the court r i t e s and c e r e m o n i e s then c u r r e n t in the Yi court f o r

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the t h r e e r a n k s or c l a s s e s of nobles—the m i l i t a r y , the civil, and the h e r e d i t a r y . (275)

Simyang Changgye tjAfa ot ^ (The Shen-yang P a p e r s ) . Keijo: Keijo Teikoku Daigaku, 1935. A m o d e r n p r i n t ing of one of the m o s t important collections on K o r e a ' s r e l a t i o n s with the Manchu during t h e i r r i s e to power. In 1636-1637, Manchu troops invaded Korea, defeated the Korean a r m y , captured Seoul, and s u r r o u n d e d King Injo in his f o r t r e s s at N a m h a n - s a n . The King was obliged to humiliate himself b e f o r e the Manchu l e a d e r , to give tribute, and to p r o m i s e to c e a s e his obedience

to the Ming. To bind the King to his p r o m i s e s , the Manchu took hostage the Crown P r i n c e , another royal prince, and 190 other p e r s o n s . The hostages w e r e m a r c h e d to Shen-yang (Mukden), the Manchu capital. H e r e the Crown P r i n c e was allowed cons i d e r a b l e f r e e d o m within his compound, and through h i m negotiations between K o r e a and the Manchu w e r e conducted until 1643, when the Manchu felt t h e m s e l v e s strong enough to r e l e a s e the hostages. The collection c o n s i s t s of m e m o r i a l s , l e t t e r s , o r d e r s , ins t r u c t i o n s , and other documents that p a s s e d between the h o s t ages and the Korean court, and a few p a p e r s written a f t e r 1643. They a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y valuable f o r a description of the Manchu during t h e i r war against the Ming. They w e r e s e c r e t e d in the vaults of the r o y a l l i b r a r y during the period when K o r e a was a v a s s a l of the Manchu. The p a p e r s a r e a complex m i x t u r e of Chinese and idu. This edition punctuates the text, u n d e r s c o r e s the idu, and gives an idu g l o s s a r y with kukhanmun and k a n a m a j i r i t r a n s l a t i o n s . (276)

Sin Suk-ju if - j ^ . Haedong ChSgukki £ ^ a-) f -y) (Record of the Countries of the E a s t e r n Sea). l i i -i^ I t e m 2 of the Chosen Shiryo S5kan (183). Keijo, 1933. A photooffset reproduction of a book written in 1471 at the command of King SSngjong. Sin Suk-ju was head of the UijSngbu, K o r e a ' s highest political office, when he wrote the book. It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y informative about Korean r e l a t i o n s with Japan, Tsushima, and the Ryukyu Islands. It contains a s u r v e y of r e l a t i o n s with

Y i Dynasty

97

Japan, an account of Japanese history and geography, state papers exchanged between K o r e a and Japan, and descriptions of s e v e r a l Korean missions to the island powers. (277)

Sin Suk-ju. Pohanjae-jip • ( H a m e l ' s R e c o r d of a Castaway). Seoul: Pangmun S5gwan, n.d. An annotated t r a n s l a t i o n which l i s t s the editions of H a m e l ' s book a

^

(Modern Korean Political History). Tokyo: Kotetsu

Shoin, 1930.

Treats the political history of the dynasty under

three headings: military rule, clique rule, and decadence. Chinese: Primary Sources (303)

Tung Ytleh$^fl. . Ch'ao-hsien Fu

^

(A Korean Idyll).

Item 15 of the ChSsen Shiryo Sokan (183). Keijo, 1937. 1 fascicle. A photo-offset reproduction of an account by the envoy YOeh, style Shang-chfli'l]

, of his journey in 1488 to Korea to an-

nounce the accession to the throne of the Ming Emperor Hsiao Tsung^. ^ . Reproduced from a Chinese printing of 1531. With the photo-offset reproduction is a 53-page pamphlet with a r e printing of the text in clearer type and extracts from other writings by YOeh. Note: For further information on the Y i dynasty see 20, 21, 24, 76, 78, 83, 84, 87, 88, 96, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118, 1-36, 140, 167, 168, 169, 171, 176, 177, 179, 181, 182, 185, 186, 250, 305, 306, 309, 311, 313, 316, 320, 324, 326, 335, 336, 339, 340, 341, 342, 347, 349, 352, 357, 358, 359, 368, 370, 371, 375, 376, 377, 379, 380, 382, 389, 427, 432, 442, 443, 447, 451, 453, 462, 465, 466, 467, 472, 473, 479, 488, 491.

Government, Economics, and Recent History

X

When Korea was opened to Western influences in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, it was a monarchy founded on Confucian principles. Historical and cultural traditions, and a homogeneous people, made Korea intensely nationalistic and conservative, suspicious of foreigners and of change. The government was tyrannical, corrupt, and weak; the court was divided by the factionalism which had developed in the late sixteenth century from entangled philosophical and political issues. The monarch was the nominal vassal of the Manchu; therefore, when a faction or party was in office, it generally looked to China for support and played the conservative role. When it was out of office, a party often tried to regain control by posing as a supporter of measures to reform the government or by seeking support from Japan. At this time, the two principal rivals for the control of the court were Queen Min and the King's father, Taew8n-gun «1 *d ± (1811-1898). Most of the people were, in effect, serfs, living in farming villages and tilling an exhausted land. Taxation was oppressive and arbitrary, so that few peasants were able to become owners of land. Merchants were regarded with contempt in the Confucian scheme of things and occupied a low social position. The arts and crafts had never recovered from the Mongol invasions of the thirteenth century and the Japanese invasions of the sixteenth century. A small, privileged class (the yangban ugj "it) controlled the national wealth and dominated the government. This class alone was admitted to the Confucian civil service, although in theory this service was open to all who could pass the examinations. After 1882, when the United States obtained entrance by treaty into Korea, some Westerners were accepted as advisers 106

Government, Economics, Recent H i s t o r y

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to the court, o t h e r s w e r e granted industrial and mining c o n c e s sions. Some young K o r e a n s w e r e sent to study in Japan, where they c a m e to r e s p e c t W e s t e r n technology and methods of gove r n m e n t , but in general Korea showed few signs of Westernizing itself in a way comparable to the unique r e v o l u t i o n - f r o m - a b o v e that the Japanese had made under the E m p e r o r Meiji. Nor was Korea given the opportunity. F o r f r o m 1876, when by t r e a t y they established an e m b a s s y in Seoul, the J a p a n e s e struggled r e l e n t l e s s l y to gain control over Korea. To achieve this, Japan had to dispose of t h r e e opponents: the a n t i - J a p a n e s e e l e m e n t s at the Yi court and among the people; the Manchu, who claimed traditional obedience f r o m Korea; and W e s t e r n powers, especially Russia, who also attempted to gain control of Korea, In 1894, Japan picked a q u a r r e l with China over the sending of Chinese troops to s u p p r e s s the Tonghak uprising. The s h o r t Sino-Japanese War eliminated the Manchu f r o m K o r e a . In Octob e r , 1895, Queen Min was m u r d e r e d as the r e s u l t of a plot in , was involved. which the Japanese envoy. Viscount Miura The King and the Crown P r i n c e took asylum in the T s a r ' s e m b a s s y , and Russian influence, which had been gradually growing a s the T s a r s expanded their economic penetration of Manchuria, now b e c a m e a t h r e a t to J a p a n ' s i n t e r e s t s in K o r e a . In 1905, over i s s u e s that directly concerned Manchuria but w e r e also concerned with Korea, Japan went to war with R u s s i a and broke i t s power in the F a r E a s t . Japan then proclaimed a p r o t e c t o r a t e o v e r Korea, and, in 1907, f o r c e d the Korean " E m p e r o r " to abdicate and placed his feeble-minded son on the throne. In 1910, the J a p a n e s e abolished all p r e t e n c e of Korean independence, annexed the peninsula, and established what i s usually called the Government General, an organization with J a p a n e s e in all policy-making positions and headed by a governor who was r e sponsible only to the J a p a n e s e e m p e r o r . All of the g o v e r n o r s w e r e g e n e r a l s of the J a p a n e s e a r m y , except Viscount Saito, who was an a d m i r a l . The J a p a n e s e ruled Korea f r o m 1910 to 1945, s o m e t i m e s with s e v e r i t y , other t i m e s with moderation, usually with s o m e efficiency, and never with the thought of encouraging K o r e a

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toward emancipation or s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . The peninsula was s y s t e m a t i c a l l y developed—or exploited—to become p a r t of the i m p e r i a l political and economic s y s t e m , to f u r t h e r J a p a n ' s a m b i tions in Asia and e l s e w h e r e , and to contribute toward whatever e f f o r t s t h e s e ambitions entailed. During t h e i r f i r s t few y e a r s in Korea the J a p a n e s e w e r e h a r s h in t h e i r effort to establish t h e m s e l v e s and to anticipate attempts to displace them. T h e i r f e a r s of revolt w e r e not u n r e a l i s t i c . In 1919, Korea was swept by an independence movement f o s t e r e d by the i d e a l s of national s e l f determination that M r . Wilson, the president of one of J a p a n ' s a l l i e s , was enunciating. In J a n u a r y , 1919, the deposed " E m p e r o r " Kojong died, and h i s c o r p s e b e c a m e the focus f o r a n t i J a p a n e s e sentiment. On March f i r s t , t h i r t y - t h r e e l e a d e r s of v a r i o u s religions united in a declaration of independence, and t h e i r followers joined in widespread peaceful d e m o n s t r a t i o n s which the J a p a n e s e r u t h l e s s l y s u p p r e s s e d . L a t e r in the y e a r , a provisional government was organized in Shanghai with Rhee Syngman (Yi Sung-man) as its p r e s i d e n t . During the twenties, especially under the comparatively l i b e r a l administration of Viscount Saito, s o m e of the m o s t r e s t r i c t i v e and inequitable f e a t u r e s of the Government G e n e r a l w e r e modified or eliminated. In the t h i r t i e s , a s Japan m a d e r e a d y to e m b a r k on the c r e a t i o n of h e r " c o - p r o s p e r i t y sphere," K o r e a was subject to i n c r e a s i n g economic and political r e s t r i c tions, as was Japan itself. The war economy of the f o r t i e s brought acute economic d i s t r e s s to Korea: a g r i c u l t u r e s u f f e r e d f r o m lack of f e r t i l i z e r a s chemicals were diverted toward a r m a m e n t s ; m a c h i n e r y was overworked and poorly maintained; shipping l o s s e s were high; and t a x e s b e c a m e s e v e r e . Although J a p a n e s e r u l e proved ultimately d i s a s t r o u s to the Korean economy, the peninsula was in e a r l i e r y e a r s enormously developed by the J a p a n e s e . Japan annexed in 1910 a backward, feeble nation with a haughty, c o r r u p t nobility, an o p p r e s s e d p e a s a n t r y , and an exhausted land. Under the J a p a n e s e , the government was modernized, the taxes r e g u l a r i z e d , the fields r e vitalized, and Korean technology greatly advanced. In the south, improved a g r i c u l t u r a l techniques caused the yields of r i c e and

Government, Economics, Recent H i s t o r y

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other foodstuffs to r i s e steadily until the beginning of World War II; the denuded hills w e r e r e f o r e s t e d ; the fishing industry modernized. In the north, m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e s w e r e exploited; and h y d r o e l e c t r i c plants, steel and textile m i l l s , f e r t i l i z e r and other chemical f a c t o r i e s w e r e built. Roads and r a i l r o a d s , t e l e phone and telegraphy s y s t e m s were built, and an efficient postal system created. Unfortunately for Korea, all this was done to make the peninsula an integral part of the J a p a n e s e economy,

a base

f o r continental expansion, and a field f o r credit investment. T h e r e w e r e government monopolies on t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m munication, on the salt, tobacco, and other i n d u s t r i e s , the Bank of ChSsen was government affiliated.

and

Joint stock

companies w e r e f o r m e d in Tokyo to exploit the land and other r e s o u r c e s of Korea. The Oriental Development Company, with I m p e r i a l blessing, became the g r e a t e s t landlord in K o r e a .

The

Korean economy s u f f e r e d f r o m the abuses of a b s e n t e e i s m . When Korea b e c a m e politically independent of Japan in 1945, the country b e c a m e at the s a m e time economically isolated and denuded. F o r with the J a p a n e s e " o p p r e s s o r " went also the J a p a n e s e technician and m a n a g e r ; and t h e r e w e r e not enough t r a i n e d K o r e a n s to r e p l a c e them. Sources of raw m a t e r i a l s w e r e cut off and outlets f o r t r a d e closed. This i s the key to K o r e a ' s p r e s e n t economic difficulty and was, of course, enormously aggravated by the s t r a i n s of the long war economy, by the a r b i t r a r y division of the peninsula into North and South Korea, and by the Korean War. K o r e a ' s political problems s t e m f r o m much the s a m e cause, and a r e aggravated by many of the same conditions. The J a p a n e s e withdrew f r o m a country that had never known popular r e sponsible government, that had no experience with a p a r l i a m e n t , a f r e e political p r e s s , s u f f r a g e , and so forth. In 1943, at the Cairo Conference, the Allied l e a d e r s had a g r e e d that "in due c o u r s e Korea shall be f r e e and independent." Military expediency caused the Allies to divide Korea at the 38th parallel, Soviet t r o o p s occupying the north, A m e r i c a n t r o o p s the south. In Decern-

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b e r , 1945, the Moscow Conference announced a t r u s t e e s h i p over Korea which was angrily denounced by the Korean people. Throughout 1946, American-Soviet c o n f e r e n c e s failed to integ r a t e the two zones; and eventually the two powers set up i n t e r i m governments in their r e s p e c t i v e s p h e r e s , each naturally encouraged along lines of the opposing ideologies of A m e r i c a and R u s s i a . In July, 1948, Rhee Syngman was inaugurated president of the Republic of Korea; in September, Kim Il-s5ng b e c a m e p r e m i e r of the D e m o c r a t i c P e o p l e ' s Republic. R u s s i a announced that its t r o o p s would be withdrawn f r o m K o r e a by the end of the y e a r , and the A m e r i c a n withdrawal was completed in June, 1949. On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops invaded South K o r e a . The Security Council of the United Nations immediately branded the attack a b r e a c h of peace and called f o r a c e s s a t i o n of h o s t i l i t i e s . P r e s i d e n t T r u m a n authorized A m e r i c a n t r o o p s to engage in ground support of the South Korean a r m i e s , the A m e r i c a n a i r f o r c e to conduct m i s s i o n s on s t r a t e g i c m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s in North Korea, and the A m e r i c a n navy to blockade the coast ox K o r e a . R u s s i a and Communist China supported North K o r e a . Within a few months a war of considerable proportions was being fought on Korean soil. Most books about K o r e a n government, economics, o r r e cent h i s t o r y contain information in all of these fields. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e has been no attempt to c l a s s i f y t h e m s e p a r a t e l y . B e f o r e the twentieth century, Korean and other O r i e n t a l schola r s did not distinguish "government" f r o m political h i s t o r y and usually mixed economics with h i s t o r y or geography. Many of t h e s e e a r l y accounts a r e r e p r i n t e d in the MunhSn Pigo (83). A r t i c l e s on the economy of old Korea can be found in TAKBRAS (46), The Korean Repository (39), Korea Review (38), Korean Review (40), Chindan Hakpo (49), Seikyu GakusS (59). and Chos e n GakuhS (54). T h e r e a r e , besides those listed h e r e , many Government G e n e r a l publications on special s u b j e c t s such a s fishing, i r r i g a t i o n , r i c e production, etc. The bibliographies of the L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s (1-3) list this and other m a t e r i a l both f o r the J a p a n e s e and p o s t - J a p a n e s e periods in K o r e a .

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WORKS ON GOVERNMENT, ECONOMICS, AND RECENT HISTORY Western (304)

Annual Report on the Administration of Tyosen [1907-1937]. Keijo: Chosen Sotokofu, 1908-1938. Called Annual Report of R e f o r m s and P r o g r e s s in Korea, 1908-1910; . . . in Chosen, 1911-1922; Annual Report on the Administration of Chosen, 1923-1936. R e p o r t s of the Government General. Contains a r t i c l e s and s t a t i s t i c a l tables on the history, organization, and administration of the Government General, and on finance, i n dustry, communications, education, religion, and social work. The r e p o r t f o r 1937 contains a chart of the organization of the Government General. See also entry 334.

(305)

Bank of Chosen. Economic History of Chosen. Keijo: Hoshino Tokuji, 1920. Compiled and published in c o m m e m o r a tion of the decennial of the Bank of Chosen by the Manager of the R e s e a r c h Department. The book contains (1) an introduction, which s c a n s Korean geography and history; (2) a section called "Economic Reconstruction of Chosen," which deals with financial, monetary, c o m m e r c i a l , and industrial r e f o r m s and innovations p r i o r to 1910, and a brief history of c u r r e n c y ; (3) a section called "Economic Development of Chosen," which c o v e r s the development of agriculture, industry, c o m m e r c e , and finance a f t e r 1910; (4) appendices which contain the Bank of Chosen act and the bylaws of the Bank of Chosen. See also entry 327, which cont a i n s s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l in addition to an account of the economy of Manchuria.

(306)

C r é m a z y , Laurent. La code penai de la C o r é e . Seoul: The Seoul P r e s s , 1904. A t r a n s l a t i o n and analysis of the penal code of Korea in 1901, with notes comparing it to the Ch'ing legal code Ta-Ching L u - l i X. and the Annamite penal code Hoang-Viet Luat-lS

(307)

Grajdanzev, Andrew J. Modern Korea. New York: I n t e r national S e c r e t a r i a t , Institute of Pacific Relations, 1944. Contains a brief description of Korean geography and h i s t o r y and a

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detailed account of Korean economy under the J a p a n e s e — a g r i culture, population, industry, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , communication, c o m m e r c e , finance, administration, health, education, religion, and also problems of Korean independence. The author employs J a p a n e s e s t a t i s t i c s . Five appendices: "Agricultural Statistics of Korea," "Reliability of Korean Agricultural Statistics," "Some Industrial Statistics," " E x t e r n a l T r a d e of Korea," and " L i s t of Equivalents of Geographical Names in K o r e a in J a p a n e s e and K o r e a n Languages." (308)

McCune, George M., and A r t h u r L. Grey, J r . Korea Today. Cambridge: H a r v a r d University P r e s s , 1950. I s s u e d under the auspices of the International S e c r e t a r i a t , Institute of P a c i f i c R e lations. S u m m a r i z e s the history and economy of old Korea; studies K o r e a as a J a p a n e s e colony; and c o n s i d e r s the post-World War II political, economic, and social p r o b l e m s in North and South Korea. South Korea, f o r which t h e r e w e r e m o r e data, i s given the longer account. T h r e e appendices—"Selected Documents Relating to Korean Relations," "A Note on Korean Demography," and "Tables"—and a bibliography.

(309)

McKenzie, F . A. The Tragedy of Korea. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1908. D e s c r i b e s the J a p a n e s e penetration of Korea—the steps they took, the r e a c t i o n of the K o r e a n s , and the e x c e s s e s of the J a p a n e s e a s t h e i r control i n c r e a s e d . T h e r e a r e appendices on the findings of the t r i a l of Viscount Miura, who was implicated in the m u r d e r of Queen Min, t r e a t i e s r e lating to Korea f r o m 1876 to 1907, and a petition to P r e s i d e n t Theodore Roosevelt f r o m the Koreans of Hawaii. The author was the sole W e s t e r n witness to s o m e of the action in the r e bellion of 1907. Many photographs.

(310)

Meade, E. Grant. A m e r i c a n Military Government in K o r e a . New York: King's Crown P r e s s , 1951. An analysis of the Ame r i c a n Military G o v e r n m e n t ' s operations f r o m October, 1945, to October, 1946, in Chölla Namdo. The author, who was a m e m b e r of the A m e r i c a n Military Government during this period, provides an introduction to i t s methods, p r o b l e m s , and p r o -

Government, Economics, Recent History

113

g r a m s , as well as his conclusions on its accomplishments and shortcomings. (311)

Nelson, M. F r e d e r i c k . K o r e a and the Old O r d e r s in E a s t e r n Asia. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University P r e s s , 1946. Reviews K o r e a ' s legal s t a t u s among nations to 1910 and p r o vides an understanding to K o r e a ' s complicated international s t a t u s . The study i s in t h r e e p a r t s : (1) "The International Society of Confucian M o n a r c h i e s " t r a c e s the h i s t o r i c a l development of K o r e a ' s position within the Confucian s y s t e m f r o m e a r ly contacts with the Chinese to the coming of the West. (2) "Kor e a in Conflicting Societies of Nations" p r e s e n t s the clash b e tween Western and Confucian concepts of the s t a t u s of Korea f o r m the beginning of W e s t e r n contacts to 1895. (3) "Korea in the W e s t e r n State System" i s a study of K o r e a ' s gradual l o s s of sovereignty f r o m 1894 to 1910. Appended a r e a list of t r e a t i e s and a g r e e m e n t s concerning Korea, a much abbreviated c h r o n ology of Korean r u l e r s , kingdoms and dynasties, and a c h r o n ology of Chinese dynasties. The romanization of K o r e a n n a m e s i s not consistent; many a r e given in Chinese romanization.

(312)

Republic of Korea Economic Summation [monthly], Seoul, 1945- . Published by the United States A r m y M i l i t a r y G o v e r n ment of Korea under the title Summation of the United States A r m y Military Government Activities in Korea, 1945-1947. Numbers f r o m November, 1945, to March, 1946, w e r e appended to SCAP (Japan) S u m m a r i e s . Called South Korean I n t e r i m Government Activities, 1947-1948. D e s c r i b e s the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e p a r t m e n t s of the A m e r i c a n government of occupation and of the Republic of Korea, and gives political and economic data.

(313)

Rossetti, C a r l o . C o r e a e Coreanio. Collezione di monog r a f i e i l l u s t r a t e : s e r i e viaggi 3, 4. Bergamo: Instituto italiano d ' a r t i grafiche, 1904-1905. 2 vols. An account, p a r t i c u l a r l y of Seoul, by the Italian r e p r e s e n t a t i v e in Korea at the t u r n of the century. Many fine photographs.

(314)

Tewksbury, Donald G. Source M a t e r i a l s on K o r e a n P o l i t i c s and Ideologies. Source Books on F a r E a s t e r n Political Ideologies,

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Korean Studies Guide

II. New York: International S e c r e t a r i a t , Institute of P a c i f i c Relations, 1950. Divided into t h r e e p a r t s : " F r o m Isolation to Annexation by Japan," " F r o m Annexation by Japan to World War II," " F r o m World War II to the Korean C r i s i s of 1950." Composed of t r e a t i e s , speeches, m e m o r i a l s , petitions, p r o c l a m a tions, and constitutions. Fundamentally, it deals with the J a p anese steps toward annexation and the Korean r e a c t i o n to them, with the Korean independence movement, with the A m e r i c a n Soviet i m p a s s e over Korea; and with the s t a t e m e n t s r e l e a s e d in the f i r s t few months a f t e r hostilities broke out in 1950. Except f o r its m a t e r i a l on the independence movement, the book has little on Korean politics and ideologies. (315)

United Nations Documents Index [monthly]. New York: Document Index Unit of the United Nations L i b r a r y , 1950- . Lists r e p o r t s and other documents which a r e of considerable value f o r understanding present conditions in Korea, e.g., r e p o r t s of the United Nations T e m p o r a r y C o m m i s s i o n pn Korea. Korean

(316)

Ch'oe Ho-jin jfi i] t . Kundae ChosSn K y 5 n g j e - s a YSn-gu & iV fc •>% * " * f Basic Structure of Korean Economy). Seoul: Tongsim-sa, 1947.

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L a r g e l y a discussion of the J a p a n e s e economic penetration and exploitation of Korea, with some attention to Korean a g r i c u l t u r a l villages and economic problems a f t e r 1945. (323)

KySngje Ny5n-gam ^ >J ig (Annual Economic Review). Seoul: Chos5n Unhaeng, Chosabu, 1948- . Published in 1948 a s Chos5n Kyongje NySnbo fg^ >-t ^

v*! 4 (The Annual Economic Review of Korea). Contains i n f o r mation on all phases of Korean economic life—production, f o r eign and domestic t r a d e , construction, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , c u r r e n c y , banking, population, etc. Reviews laws and ordinances and notes events that affect Korean economy. Many of the s t a t i s t i c a l t a b l e s contain data f r o m the period of J a p a n e s e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as well a s f r o m the Republic of K o r e a . Most of the c h a r t s and g r a p h s have English and Korean titles. (324)

(325)

Sudo Ky5ngch'al P a l t a l - s a f i. >i *£ d£ c£ a). (History of the Metropolitan Police). Seoul: Sudo Kwangu Kyongch'al-ch'5ng, 1947. L a r g e l y devoted to the period f r o m 1945 to e a r l y 1947—military government o r d i n a n c e s concerned with the police; the organization, training, and r e f o r m of the police; and methods of c r i m e detection and prevention. T h e r e i s a s u m m a r y of the police s y s t e m s of the Yi dynasty and J a p a n e s e administration. Many c h a r t s and graphs.

Yi Man-gyu % i L »1 . YS Un-hy5ng SSnsaeng T ' u j a e n g - s a g ¿j_ j £ ± £ a , £ ^ ^ ^ e xtj (The H i s t o r y of the Fight of Y5 Un-hy5ng). Seoul: Minju Munhwa-sa, 1946. Recounts the fight f o r Korean independence by Y5 Un-hy5ng (Lyuh Woon Hyung), the a u t h o r ' s f a t h e r in-law. D e s c r i b e s Y5's e a r l y life, h i s activities in the twent i e s , his t r i p to Moscow, his r e l a t i o n s with the Communist P a r t y , h i s e f f o r t s against the Japanese, his i m p r i s o n m e n t , and h i s activities a s head of the t r a n s i e n t P e o p l e ' s Republic f o r m e d on September 6, 1945, at Seoul, until his a s s a s s i n a tion on July 19, 1947. Written with a Communist bias, but n e v e r t h e l e s s an important study.

Government, Economics, Recent History

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Japanese (326)

A s a m i Rintaro. Chosen H o s e i - s h l - k 5 f f t j k ^ ' i &) A D r a f t History of Korean Legislation). T5ky5: Gansho-do Shoten, 1922. A study of the Korean legal and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s t e m s f r o m the period of the Sam Han to the end of the Yi dynasty. Well documented. The bibliography contains s t a n d a r d p r i m a r y h i s t o r i e s and many legal codes.

(327)

Chosen Ginko lii.&f (Bank of Korea). Sen-Man Keizai Ju-nen-6hi,$jf>3s + ^ (A. T e n - Y e a r Economic History of Korea and Manchuria). Keij5: Sawada Shintaro, 1919. Published to c o m m e m o r a t e the tenth a n n i v e r s a r y of the Bank of Kor e a . P a r t one d e s c r i b e s banking and c u r r e n c y in Korea b e f o r e 1910. P a r t two reviews the financial, a g r i c u l t u r a l , and indust r i a l conditions in Korea a f t e r 1910. P a r t t h r e e d i s c u s s e s i n dustry, r a i l r o a d s , t r a d e , and finance in Manchuria and e a s t e r n Inner Mongolia about 1910. P a r t four d e s c r i b e s the development of the Bank of Korea. A chronology of the bank's h i s t o r y is s e p a r a t e l y paged. See also entry 305.

(328)

Chosen Gyosei Henshu Sokyoku $$ i f f j f j (Kor e a n Government E d i t o r i a l Office). Chosen Tochi Hiwa ^

(Secret Story of the Korean Administration). Keijo: Teikoku ChihS Gyosei Gakkai, 1937. An account of the unofficial meetings held in Tokyo by s e v e r a l m e m b e r s of the Diet and s o m e f o r m e r m e m b e r s of the Government G e n e r a l to d i s c u s s the independence movement in Korea and the actions of the Gove r n m e n t General. The group was not a policy-making body, nor w e r e i t s views n e c e s s a r i l y the official i m p e r i a l attitude; but the account i s n e v e r t h e l e s s an interesting picture of what J a p a n e s e in comparatively high places thought of the Korean situation. The group was notably c r i t i c a l of Western m i s s i o n a r i e s f o r t h e i r encouragement of Korean independence sentiments. (329)

ChSsen Jihen no Keii $^ i f

( A Diplomatic History of the Sino-

Japanese War). Tokyo: Toko Shoin, 1951. Also published as M e m o i r s . . . of the Toyo Bunko (214), Series A, no. 32 (1951). A posthumous work. May be considered to continue his Kindai Nis-Sen Kankei no Kenkyu (300). Contains a documented description of the rivalry between Japan and China over Korea which culminated in the Sino-Japanese War. The part dealing with the political and diplomatic background before the war is primarily concerned with Korean history and is based largely on Korean government documents.

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Chinese (348)

Ko C h ' i h - f e n g ^ i . Ch'ao-hsien Ko-ming-chi £ ^ ¿¿.(Record of the Korean Revolution). Shanghai: Shang-wu Yin-shu-kuan, 1945. The author, who i s a journalist, c o m piled his m a t e r i a l f r o m interviews with cabinet m e m b e r s of the Korean P r o v i s i o n a l Government and f r o m this g o v e r n m e n t ' s publications. The book contains r e f l e c t i o n s on the Korean r e v o l utionary movement, the p r o b l e m of recognition of the P r o v i s i o n a l Government, the P r o v i s i o n a l constitution, Korean political p a r ties, and K o r e a in J a p a n ' s m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g y . Appendices contain m a t e r i a l on the underground movement in Korea and the r e v o l u tionary activities of K o r e a n s living in A m e r i c a .

(349) rffy

Pak Un-sik ^.f. fHtfj^ x . Han-kuo T ' u n g - s h i h ig) (The T r a g i c History of Korea). By T ' a e - b a e k Kwangno

ib j i i i y) 4 t (The Madman of T ' a e - b a e k ) [pseud.] Shanghai: T a - t ' u n g Pien-i-chfl, 1915. The work of a Korean writing in Chinese. Divided into t h r e e p a r t s , each s e p a r a t e l y paged. P a r t one i s a brief outline of Korean geography and h i s t o r y . P a r t two t r a c e s Korean h i s t o r y f r o m 1863 to 1897. P a r t t h r e e c o v e r s the period f r o m 1897 to 1911. (350)

Pak Un-sik. Han-kuo T u - l i Yfln-tung chih H s u e h - s h i h i l ^ - i l i i i in. (Bloody H i s t o r y of the Korean Independence Movement). Shanghai: W e i - h s i n - s h e , 1920. Two p a r t s s e p a r a t e ly paged. P a r t one deals with Korean independence m o v e m e n t s b e f o r e 1910, J a p a n e s e s t e p s toward annexation, K o r e a n r e s i s t ance to J a p a n e s e control, and o p p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s introduced by the J a p a n e s e a f t e r 1910. P a r t two deals with independence m o v e m e n t s a f t e r 1910, p a r t i c u l a r l y the March F i r s t movement, J a p a n e s e a t r o c i t i e s a f t e r the March F i r s t movement, the e s t a b lishment of a P r o v i s i o n a l republic in 1919, and e x p r e s s i o n s of sympathy f r o m f o r e i g n e r s . Photographs show d e m o n s t r a t i o n s in 1919, victims of a t r o c i t i e s , and m e m b e r s of the P r o v i s i o n a l Republic. Note: F o r f u r t h e r information on government, economics, and r e c e n t h i s t o r y s e e 76, 77, 81, 100, 121, 170, 253, 254, 257, 258, 259, 261, 296, 300, 361, 468, 470, 476, 478.

XI Sociology Most of the books listed in this chapter d e s c r i b e a social pattern that h a s existed f o r c e n t u r i e s among the m a j o r i t y of Korean people. It i s a pattern of r u r a l economy, based on the Korean f a r m e r and his f a m i l y who spend most of their t i m e tilling the fields o r working at those cottage i n d u s t r i e s that make each family n e a r l y s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t . Even r e c r e a t i o n is a f a m i l y a f f a i r , the Korean f a r m e r spending his s p a r e hours in such s i m p l e p a s t t i m e s as conversation, smoking, and listening to the t a l e s of itinerant s t o r y - t e l l e r s , all within the family c i r c l e . T h e s e f a m i lies live in s m a l l villages of g r a s s - r o o f e d dwellings. Each group of villages c e n t e r s around a m a r k e t town, where on m a r k e t day the v i l l a g e r s gather to exchange t h e i r goods and s e r v i c e s , and to engage in holiday f e s t i v i t i e s . Most Koreans know no l a r g e r social or economic activity than the m a r k e t - d a y gathering. In Confucianism, the f a r m e r is m o r e highly r e g a r d e d than the a r t i s a n , the m e r c h a n t , or the soldier, and the Confucian domestic code i s perhaps the s t r o n g e s t f o r c e sustaining the existing social pattern. According to this code, women occupy a subordinate position, m a r r i a g e is a r r a n g e d by the family, the deceased a r e given elaborate f u n e r a l s , and one m u s t honor e l d e r s and a n c e s t o r s . The Westernization of Korea has been s u p e r f i c i a l , confined largely to the urban upper c l a s s e s , most industry lies in the thinly populated North. The Korean War has, of c o u r s e , disrupted the age-old social pattern in many a r e a s , but just how many permanent changes will come f r o m this one cannot predict.

125

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SOCIOLOGICAL STUDIES O F KOREA Western (351)

Osgood, Cornelius. The Koreans and T h e i r Culture. New York: Ronald P r e s s , 1951. i^i

'i j 1

A detailed study of S5ndup'o

, a "typical" Korean village on Kwanghwa-do. O s -

good lived on the island in the summer of 1947. His book i s the best Western anthropological work on Korea, but his failure to utilize Oriental-language m a t e r i a l s resulted in numerous e r r o r s , particularly in the second half of the book, which i s an analysis of Korean history. The book is reviewed by Evelyn B . McCune in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, L X X I (1951), 284-286. Korean Ch'oe Ik-han % &

(352) sa

£

4| 'i

i. i

. Chos5n Sahoe Chongch'aek»-

A

(History of Korean

Social Policy). Seoul: Pangmun S5gwan, 1947.

A documented

study of the m e a s u r e s taken by the government and other organizations to relieve the d i s t r e s s caused by natural c a l a m i t i e s , particularly drought, from the early T h r e e Kingdoms period through the Y i dynasty. (353)

Kim Tu-hon &f & S*.

'¡{j. ^ f i l

)\ -hf fe £

?/- f

. Choson Kajok Chedo Y5n-gu i

f (Study on the

F a m i l y System in Korea). Seoul: tiryu Munhwa-sa, 1949.

An

exhaustive, systematic explanation of the Korean family s y s t e m f r o m the historical as well as from the sociological point of view. Gives special attention to distinguishing between the Chinese and Korean family s y s t e m s , which a r e often mistakenly equated. The f i r s t half is devoted to the structure and function of the family; the second discusses household m o r e s , m a r r i a g e , mourning, ancestor worship, and the decay of the patriarchal family s y s tem. The study is carefully documented and contains an English table of contents. (354)

Y i Yö-song i >w Ji A-j J2,

f . »I

^ • ChosSn Poksik-ko

(Investigation of Korean Costumes and Orn-

Sociology

127

aments). Seoul: Paegyang-dang, 1947. An account of d r e s s , and of weaving and dyeing techniques, in ancient Korea, e s p e cially during the T h r e e Kingdoms period. P r o f u s e l y i l l u s t r a t e d . Japanese (355)

(356)

Chosen Fuzoku Shiryo Shusetsu: Sen, Hidarinawa, Dakyu, Pakachi $/f ifLfc $ ¡fj % ^ ^ ^ ^ (A Collection of M a t e r i a l s on Korean Customs: Fans, Rope, Polo, Gourds). Keijo: Chosen Sotokufu, 1937. A collection of folklore m a t e r i a l with k a n a m a j i r i annotations. The study i s limited and s o m e t i m e s o v e r e m p h a s i z e s the s i m i l a r i t i e s between Japan and Korea.

Ch5sen no Shuraku fjtjjj^ ?-§c 4 - (Korean Villages). Keijo: Chosen Sotokufu, 1933-1935. 3 vols. A detailed study of Kor e a n villages—local history, economic geography, onomatology, and public administration.

(357)

Chosen Saishi SOzoku Horon: Josetsu ffl & up

s,J ¿4 ( T r e a t i s e on Law with Regard to Inheritance and Reli•

gious O b s e r v a n c e s in Korea: Introduction). Keijo: Ch5sen S5tokufu, 1939. A study of contemporary Korean c u s t o m s relating to death and religious o b s e r v a n c e s , with an account of t h e i r h i s t o r y . Carefully documented, especially with p r i m a r y s o u r c e s of the Yi dynasty period. (358)

(359)

Fujita T 5 z 5 ^ ® r_ . Chosen Kon-in-ko (Study on Korean M a r r i a g e ) . Tokyo: Daido Shokan, 1941. A valuable t r e a t i s e on matrimony during the e a r l y Yi dynasty. M a r r i a g e a b l e age, the wedding ceremony, r e m a r r i a g e , bigamy, and divorce a r e studied. Based upon the Yijo Sillok (239).

I m a m u r a Tomo ^ , ed. Ri-ch5 J i t s u r o k u Fuzoku Shiryo Saiyo ^ iJLvtf(Selection of M a t e r i a l s Related to Customs in the Yi Dynasty Annals). Keijo: Chosen Sotokufu, ¿939. Intended a s an index to sociological m a t e r i a l in the Yijo Sillok (239). The editor t r a n s l a t e d into k a n a m a j i r i the e n t r i e s which deal with the traditions, c u s t o m s , and beliefs of the Korean people, and a r r a n g e d them in chronological o r d e r .

128 (360)

Korean Studies Guide

I m a m u r a Tomo. ChSsen Fflzoku-shu "i^ (Compilation of Korean Customs). Keij5: Shid5-kan, 1914. Des c r i b e s the c l a s s s y s t e m ; c u s t o m s at birth, death, and m a r r i age; f e s t i v a l s ; family relationships; legal tradition; superstition; and costume. Based on observation and Korean h i s t o r i e s .

Minji KanshQ Kaito Ishu ft, ^ ^ ^ y (Collection of C u s t o m a r y Replies in Civil Litigation). Keijo: Chosen S6tokufu, 1933. Contains the decisions handed down in 324 t r i a l s between Korean litigants f r o m 1909 to 1933. T h e s e a r e a r r a n g e d chronologically. The book contains a detailed table of contents and an index. An outline of family relationships and inheritance customs, p r e p a r e d by the Government G e n e r a l ' s Committee on Old C u s t o m s and Institutions, is appended.

(361)

The book was compiled to supplement the civil code drawn up in 1912 by the J a p a n e s e . This code settled m o s t of the civil i s s u e s in connection with the annexation, but failed to cover l e gal problems a r i s i n g among Koreans, many of which w e r e decided according to c u s t o m a r y law u n f a m i l i a r to the J a p a n e s e t r i bunals. T h e r e f o r e , a r e c o r d of p r e c e d e n t s was drawn up to a c quaint J a p a n e s e j u r i s t s with Korean c u s t o m a r y law.

Note: F o r f u r t h e r information on sociology s e e 80, 83, 84, 95, 98, 101, 102, 173, 185, 187, 195, 199, 200, 206, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 393, 446, 452, 454, 457, 458, 462, 488, 491.

XII Religion and Philosophy The primordial religion of Korea was animism. Archaeological evidence suggests that the paleo-asiatic inhabitants of the peninsula were animists, and it is known that the Tungusic tribes brought animism into Korea from Manchuria. The Tungusic tribes also brought shamanism, a type of animism. Animism is still a powerful influence among Koreans, especially among the peasantry, who believe that many things and activities are guarded by or governed by spirits. There are many "sacred" places in Korea—especially the tops of high mountains—where gods or demons dwell, and where altars or temples are erected to honor or appease them. The postharvest ceremony of giving tribute to these spirits is perhaps the principal animistic festival. A modern type of Korean shaman is the mudang 3S. a female medium who communicates with spirits by charms, secret rites, and hypnotism. According to some scholars. Tan-gun was a shaman, according to others, he was a demon, god, or culture-hero of one of the tribes—probably the PuyS—who caught the imagination of other tribes and to whom various legends and attributes were gradually assigned. Scholars who argue that he was borrowed from China point out that the earliest known version of the Tangun story, in the Samguk Sagi (225), is dated many centuries after the occurrence of the events it relates, when Chinese influence had permeated the peninsula and when Koreans were first becoming conscious of themselves as a nation. Whatever its origins, the Tan-gun story indicates the development of a quite sophisticated form of shamanism and possibly a development toward monotheism. The story is briefly as follows: The son of the Creator promised a tiger and a bear that he would make them into human beings if they would eat only certain foods and remain 129

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K o r e a n S t u d i e s Guide

in d a r k n e s s f o r t h r e e w e e k s . Only t h e b e a r f u l f i l l e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s , and w a s duly t u r n e d into a m a i d e n . T h e s o n of t h e C r e a t o r f e l l i n love with h i s c r e a t u r e , who b o r e h i m t h e s e m i d i v i n e T a n - g u n . In m a n h o o d . T a n - g u n e r e c t e d an a l t a r on a m o u n t a i n ( s e v e r a l p l a c e s in K o r e a c l a i m t h e h o n o r ) , r u l e d t h e K o r e a n s f o r 1200 y e a r s , and taught t h e m a g r i c u l t u r e and o t h e r c i v i l i z e d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s . H i s b i r t h d a y (The Opening of H e a v e n Day) i s c e l e b r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t K o r e a on t h e t h i r d day of t h e e l e v e n t h month. T h e K o r e a n s p r o b a b l y f i r s t c a m e into c o n t a c t with C o n f u c i a n i s m in t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y B. C., when t h e L o - l a n g and o t h e r C h i n e s e c o l o n i e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d . But C o n f u c i a n i s m s p r e a d s l o w l y in K o r e a , and w a s l a t e r s u b m e r g e d f o r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s by t h e K o r e a n s ' e n t h u s i a s t i c a c c e p t a n c e of B u d d h i s m , which by t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y h a d d e v e l o p e d a b r i l l i a n t r e l i g i o u s and a r t i s t i c p r o g r a m in C h i n a . In 372, t h e monk Sundo "Ifc by t h e E m p e r o r F u C h i e n

was sent

of t h e F o r m e r C h ' i n d y n a s t y to

p r e a c h B u d d h i s m in K o g u r y o . In 384, it e n t e r e d P a e k c h e ,

whence

i n 552 it w a s t r a n s m i t t e d to J a p a n . Silla r e c e i v e d B u d d h i s m c o m p a r a t i v e l y l a t e (in 528), but adopted it with g r e a t z e a l , m a d e it t h e s t a t e r e l i g i o n , and b y i t s i n s p i r a t i o n c r e a t e d a c u l t u r e of high m e r i t . In t h e s e v e n t h and eighth c e n t u r i e s s o m e of t h e Silla k i n g s w e r e h o s t i l e to t h e B u d d h i s t s and t r i e d to r e d u c e t h e i r p o w e r and w e a l t h , but when t h e s y m p a t h e t i c Wang (KoryS) dyn a s t y c a m e into p o w e r , t h e B u d d h i s t s e n t e r e d upon a s e c o n d and l o n g e r "golden age." T h e K o r y 5 p e r i o d m a r k s t h e h e i g h t of K o r e a n B u d d h i s m : t h e r e w e r e t h o u s a n d s of p r i e s t s and m o n k s , t e m p l e - s p o n s o r e d a r t s and e d u c a t i o n f l o u r i s h e d , and B u d d h i s t i n f l u e n c e at c o u r t w a s u s u a l l y s t r o n g and s o m e t i m e s d o m i n a n t . D u r i n g t h e Silla and K o r y 5 p e r i o d s , t h e C o n f u c i a n i s t s u s u a l l y played a s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e , although s o m e k i n g s f a v o r e d t h e m in an e f f o r t to s t o p t h e a b u s e of p o w e r , the a c c u m u l a t i o n of w e a l t h , a n d t h e g r o w t h of s u p e r s t i t i o n a m o n g t h e B u d d h i s t s . T h e Yi r e v o l u t i o n of 1392 w a s a m a j o r r e v e r s e in t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r of B u d d h i s m . T h e e a r l y Yi r u l e r s w a n t e d to e s t a b l i s h a s t r o n g s t a t e b a s e d on r a t i o n a l e t h i c s and on a p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s ophy s u i t a b l e to t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c and a g r a r i a n c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r

Religion and Philosophy

131

kingdom, and they r e g a r d e d Confucianism, which is p r i m a r i l y a s y s t e m of social relationships, as much m o r e suitable to their d e s i r e s than Buddhism. T h e r e f o r e , like t h e i r newly e s t a b lished s u z e r a i n , the Ming of China, the Yi b e c a m e patrons of the Confucianists and organized their monarchy upon the Confucian principles of obedience to and r e v e r e n c e f o r o n e ' s superiors—king, noble, m a s t e r , t e a c h e r , husband, f a t h e r , elder— and paternal benevolence toward one's i n f e r i o r s — s u b j e c t , p e a s ant, s e r v a n t , disciple, wife, son, younger kinsman. In Confucian schools young men studied the Chinese c l a s s i c s to p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s f o r positions in the civil s e r v i c e . Scholars w e r e highly r e s p e c t e d , and ideally all g o v e r n o r s w e r e "sages." P h i l osophical speculation—which was usually a r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Confucian doctrines—thrived; and Korean s c h o l a r s , especially in the sixteenth century, made important contributions to neoConfucianism. But just a s Buddhism had e a r l i e r developed vices when it was in power, so Confucianism developed many deplorable shortcomings: i t s philosophical speculations (which were often mixed with political i s s u e s ) c r e a t e d factions at court, i t s r e v e r e n c e f o r China often made the Korean mind parochial and s u b s e r v i e n t , i t s r e s p e c t f o r tradition c r e a t e d a stubborn c o n s e r v a t i s m that too often t r i e d to rationalize w e a k n e s s e s into v i r t u e s , its contempt f o r manual labor and technology made Korea in time weak and backward, its r e s p e c t f o r s c h o l a r s h i p was often m e r e l y academic snobbishness. All these s h o r t c o m ings weakened the Yi government and eventually contributed to i t s collapse. The conflict between Buddhism and Confucianism in Korea was generally one of struggle f o r power confined to the court and the upper c l a s s . The triumph of one s y s t e m did not r e s u l t in the elimination of the other, only in its loss of p r e s t i g e and wealth. J u s t a s in "Buddhist" t i m e s some Silla and Koryo kings had f a v o r e d the Confucianists, so in "Confucian" t i m e s s o m e Yi kings f a v o r e d Buddhism, or at least w e r e willing to t o l e r a t e the Buddhists so long as they caused no trouble. The g e n e r a l attitude of the Confucian toward Buddhism was one of contempt r a t h e r than hostility.

132

Korean Studies Guide

Both Buddhism and Confucianism made s o m e attempt to s u p p r e s s a n i m i s m . In general, however. Buddhism adapted i t self to a n i m i s m by incorporating s o m e of its s p i r i t s o r gods into Buddhist t e m p l e s , and Confucianism generally ignored it as a superstition of the peasants. P e r h a p s the most notable Confucian influence on the Korean c o m m o n e r , a p a r t f r o m teaching h i m to mind h i s m a n n e r s and be happy with his place in the g r e a t s c h e m e of things, is the encouragement of a n c e s t o r w o r ship, a p r a c t i c e which he had a l r e a d y developed as part of animism. Christianity c a m e into Korea in the seventeenth century, f i r s t f r o m Catholic converts at the i m p e r i a l court in Peking, and later f r o m Catholic m i s s i o n a r i e s f r o m the West, especially f r o m F r a n c e . By the late eighteenth century, the Church of Rome was established in Korea and gained many c o n v e r t s d u r ing tha nineteenth century despite the hostility of the government, which conducted s e v e r a l organized p e r s e c u t i o n s and executed many p r i e s t s and other religious. The l a s t persecution, in 1866, r e s u l t e d in the W e s t e r n powers' demanding an opening of Korea and a c e s s a t i o n of its a n t i - C h r i s t i a n activity. T h e r e w e r e only a few P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r i e s in K o r e a b e f o r e 1850, but in the l a t t e r part of the century they c a m e in g r e a t e r n u m b e r s and soon gained considerable influence among the people. Some allied t h e m s e l v e s with Koreans who w e r e trying to r e f o r m the government and strengthen the nation against Japan; o t h e r s gained influence at court by t h e i r knowledge of W e s t e r n medicine and technology. Today, the Roman Catholic and s e v e r a l P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s have considerable congregations in Korea. In 1861, Ch'oe Che-u j a t ^ * £| -f , a scholar of southe r n Korea, founded a religious r e f o r m movement called Ch'5ndogyo (Teachings of the Heavenly Way), or, especially b e f o r e 1894, Tonghak, ( E a s t e r n learning), as opposed to S5hak -ife '•") "»-J; (Western learning, or Christianity). Tonghak combined s e v e r a l doctrines of s h a m a n i s m , Buddhism, and Confucianism in an attempt to f u r n i s h the Korean people with a new O r i e n t a l faith and ideal. Because it had to combat the c o r r u p t and hostile Yi

Reilglon and Philosophy

133

court, the Tonghak movement soon took on a political r o l e ; the " m a r c h " of the Tonghak group upon Seoul caused the Manchu to send troops to support the Yi throne and gave the J a p a n e s e the excuse they sought to drive the Chinese out of Korea. During the J a p a n e s e administration, many Ch'5ndo-gyo l e a d e r s w e r e active in the independence movements. GENERAL, WORKS ON RELIGION IN KOREA Western (362)

Clark, C h a r l e s Allen. Religions of Old Korea. New York: Revell, 1932. The most comprehensive study of Korean r e l i gions. Contains l e c t u r e s , delivered at the P r i n c e t o n Theological Seminary in 1921, on Buddhism, Confucianism, Ch'Sndogyo. Shamanism, and other Asiatic s e c t s , and on the e a r l y phases of Christianity in Korea; d e s c r i b e s their history, doct r i n e s , l i t e r a t u r e , and a r t s in Korea. Written by a m i s s i o n a r y who, except f o r some information given h i m by Korean a s s o ciates, r e l i e d upon W e s t e r n s o u r c e s and s o m e t i m e s accepts accounts of Korean history which have been proved e r r o n e o u s . WORKS ON BUDDHISM IN KOREA Western

(363)

(364)

S t a r r , F r e d e r i c k . Korean Buddhism. Boston: M a r s h a l l Jones Co., 1918. Contains t h r e e l e c t u r e s —"History," "Condition," "Art." Supports the argument that Buddhism i s still an influential religion in contemporary Korea. Neither a profound nor detailed work, but it i s based on p e r s o n a l observation and contains suggestions f o r f u r t h e r study. It i s a l s o one of the v e r y few W e s t e r n studies of Korean Buddhism.

Trollope, Mark Napier. "Introduction to the Study of Buddhism in Corea," TAKBRAS, VHI (1917), 1-41. A brief but inf o r m a t i v e h i s t o r y of Buddhism in Korea and a s u m m a r y of i t s c r e e d s . Contains suggestions to f u t u r e r e s e a r c h e r s .

134

Korean Studies Guide

Korean (365)

Yi Nung-hwa

fi£,

»l-s-i|- . ChosSn Pulgyo T'ongsa

£ £ ifl(A Comprehensive H i s t o r y of Korean Buddhism). Seoul: Sinmung-wan, 1918. 2 vols. Divided into t h r e e p a r t s : (1) events r e l a t e d to Buddhism chronologically a r r a n g e d with extensive quotations f r o m s o u r c e s ; (2) an enumeration of Buddhist s e c t s , with explanations of t h e i r c r e e d s and biographies of prominent monks; (3) 200 e s s a y s on subjects r e l a t e d to Buddhism, e.g., "The Origin of Korean Phonetic Script," "Korean Music," "Introduction of M o h a m m e danism, Christianity, T a o i s m and Confucianism," "Indigenous Religions of Korea." Both volumes- contain indices. (366)

Yi Nung-hwa, "Choson P u l g y o - s a " ^ £-Ai •J a |-(History of Korean Buddhism), C h 5 s e n - s h i K5za (185), II, [ s e p a r a t e paging]. One of the finest introductions to the study of Korean Buddhism, even though the account c o v e r s only the T h r e e Kingdoms period. Quotes m a t e r i a l s f r o m the Samguk Sagi (225), Samguk Yusa (226), HonchS K 5 s 5 - d e n / £ . | q . t , ) ' $ ^ ( B i o g r a p h i e s of P r o m i n e n t P r i e s t s in Japan), Nihon BukkyO Ryakushi Q ^ ¿ ( B r i e f History of J a p a n e s e Buddhism), Tongguk A

T'onggam (244), and other s o u r c e s . Contains s h o r t accounts of prominent Korean monks, p a r t i c u l a r l y those who t r a n s m i t t e d Buddhism to Japan and those who w e r e skilled in m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s and in l i t e r a t u r e . D e s c r i b e s t e m p l e s built during the T h r e e Kingdoms period; and d i s c u s s e s s e c t s and a r t s of K o r e a n Buddhism. Written in kukhanmun, with a kana p a r a p h r a s e of the han-gSl. Japanese (367) Nukariya K a i t e n > f fe ^ Chosen Zenkyo-shi £ q r f l i o t i H i s t o r y of Zen in Korea). Tokyo: Shunshu-sha, 1930. C o n s i s t s of l e c t u r e s originally delivered at Komazawa U n i v e r sity. The author is p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d in explaining the c a u s e s of the decline of Zen Buddhism in Korea. Nukariya, who i s a student of Zen throughout the F a r E a s t , h a s a thorough knowledge of Korean h i s t o r y and of Buddhist l i t e r a t u r e . He s u p p o r t s h i s argument with many quotations in Chinese f r o m s o u r c e

Religion and Philosophy

135

material, and acknowledges his debt to several Korean abbots and particularly to the Korean authority on Buddhism, Y i Nunghwa. (368)

Takahashi T5ru .à? t,k J •

Rich

° Bukkyo ^ ^

f^^Bud-

dhism During the Y i Dynasty). Tokyo: Hobun-kan, 1929. Describes the vicissitudes of Korean Buddhism during the Y i dynasty, and endeavors to show the place of Buddhism in the Y i government by pointing out that Buddhism at first was still an officially recognized religion, that later it retained a strong hold on the people even though not officially recognized, and that finally it showed considerable decay and degeneration. Except for Y i Nung-hwa's ChosSn Pulgyo T'ongsa (365), Takahashi's is perhaps the only systematic Oriental account of Korean Buddhism. This is the only published volume of a projected outline history of Korean thought, Chosen Shis8-shi Taikei. WORKS ON CONFUCIANISM IN KOREA Western Youn, L. Eul Sou (Yun Ùl-su f~ Z* ft à ± f

(369)

cianism en Corée. Paris: Paul Genthner, 1939.

). L e ConfuThe only

Western study of Korean Confucianism, but the account stops with the reign of King Sejong. The book is probably at its best in dealing with the conflict between Buddhism and Confucianism in the latter part of the Kory5 dynasty, and in its account of the philosophical distinctions between Confucianism and neo-Confucianism. References are not always precise and the bibliography is limited. Korean (370)

Hong Hfii £ ^

X %) . "Chos8n Hakye-sa"

$¡3.

iJ; caj A (History of Korean Literary Accomplishments),

Chosen-shi KOza (185), II, [separate paging].

Discusses the

development of Korean Confucianism from the Three Kingdoms period to the middle of the Y i dynasty, and argues that the year 372, which is recorded as the year of the entry of Confucianism

136

Korean Studies Guide

in Korea, was not really the beginning but. the r e n a s c e n c e of Confucianism in Korea. The biographical sketches of prominent Confucian s c h o l a r s a r e interesting and useful, but the book contains no account of their philosophies. (371)

Hy5n Sang-yun % ^

£

ChosSn Yuhak-sa

gg

(History of Korean Confucianism). Seoul:

Minjung SSgwan, 1949.

Consists of lectures given by the p r e s i -

dent of KoryS University, whose main concern is to t r a c e the influences of Confucianism on the Korean people and on the political and s o c i a l conditions during the Y i dynasty. Contains biographical sketches of many scholars f r o m the Silla period to 1910, and contains an excellent chapter on the period of Y i Hwang

-I i £ ( T ' o e g e

i) x| ) and Y i I $

If

"/

(Yulgok >J? J^. -g- j i . ). This book i s the best organized study on the history of Korean Confucianism, but gives too much attention to biography and too little to history and philosophy. The detailed table of contents s e r v e s as an index. (372)

Y i Nfing-hwa. "ChosSn Yugeji YangmySng Hakp'a" \%

i _ p|> a

^

£

-Sj- -m| *)

^

,éf

it; s K T h e Yang-ming

School of Korean Confucianism), Seikyü Gakuso, 25 (1936), 105142.

An account of the Confucian s c h o l a r s who were influ-

enced by Wang Shou-jen 3L 'rf

. T h e s e were few since the

Wang school of Confucian thought was regarded as h e r e t i c a l by its opponent, the Chu Hsi school, which in Korea held political power. (373)

Y i Sang-baek

"Yupul Yang-gyo Kyodae úi

Kiy5n e Taehan Ily5n-gu M

— úfífo *

ty

¿b

Z K

a

l ^ » k

2- "H 1 1 'Í "// 4 it Í fff(On

Buddhism by Confucianism).

c

t\

it

Supplanting of

P a r t I of the ChosSn Munhwa-sa

Y5n-gu Non-go (488). Originally published in two parts in the Toyo ShisS Kenkyü '.fcyf.^.flifo . V o l s . H and HI (1938, 1939), an annual of the R e s e a r c h Society of Oriental Thought, Waseda University, Tokyo. Contends that the Confucian predominance over Buddhism in the l a t e r part of the KoryS period and early part of the Y i dynasty cannot be explained in t e r m s of their philosophi-

Religion and Philosophy

137

cal and religious systems, but that social and economic reasons enabled Confucianism to supplant Buddhism. The notes and comments at the end of each chapter are particularly valuable. Japanese (374)

Oda ShOgo and O Yun-j5k. Chosen Bummyo oyobi Shobu Jugen; Fu: Chosen Jugaku Nempy5; Chosen Jugaku Engenfu $j*f K m

n p t s . K B-J

^

f , ^ - *>

(Spirit of Japanese Education and Yi T'oege,

with Y i Yulgok's KySngmong Yogy51

^ * i

^

S. ^

and Current Events). Keij5: Ch5sen Jij5 Kyokai Shuppan-bu, 1934.

Shows the influence of Y i Hwang (T'oege) upon the Japa-

nese Confucianist Otsuka Taiya

Sj

(1677-1750) and

points out that T'oege's philosophy influenced the Meiji educational rescript. Contains a short biography of Y i I (Yulgok) and the original text of his KySngmong YogySl (Essentials of Dispelling Ignorance) with a kanamajiri translation and comments. (376)

Takahashi Toru. "Chosen Jukyo Taikan"

f$#ijIÌL_

fc .f i

(Development of the Schools of F o r m and Matter in

the History of Confucianism in the Yi Dynasty), ChSsen Shina Bunka no Kenkyu ^fl

(Studies of Korean

£ fif X. 4L

and Chinese Cultures). Edited by the Keijo Teikoku Daigaku H5bun Gakkai. Tokyo: Tókó Shoin, 1929. Pp. 141-281.

A detailed

study of two of the major schools of thought in neo-Confucianism during the Yi dynasty. The study indicates the fundamental differences between the two schools in their interpretations of human nature, differences which were consequent upon their r e spective acceptance of the primacy of form or the primacy of matter. The article is based on the writings of Yi I (Yulgok) and Yi Hwang (T'oege), and their followers. The debate between the formalists and the materialists in Korean Confuciansim began with these two philosophers in the sixteenth century, continued for more than 300 y e a r s , and often split Confucian scholars into irreconcilable factions but also led to a notable advance and r e finement of Confucian thought in Korea. (378)

t'g-ify it 4- J

Yun Yong-gyun sono Elkyó ni tsuite

^

^ g

,

^

. Shushi-gaku no Denrai to ^

t

?

^ fy ^

u

fc

. < £ (Concerning the Introduction of Chu Hsi Philosophy and Its Influence). Edited by Sin S5k-ho ^ jt* £,Sj \l Yasukazu. Keijo, 1933.

£ and Suematsu

A posthumous publication. A study of

the introduction of Chu Hsi philosophy into Korea, its development and influence, and its political and social implications as revealed by the history of the Yi dynasty. Well documented. WORKS ON CHRISTIANITY IN KOREA Western (379)

Dallet, Charles. Histolre de l'Égllse de Corée. P a r i s : Librairie Victor Palme, 1874.

2 vols.

The first systematic

account of Catholicism in Korea. The long introduction to Vol. I describes Korean history, institutions, language, morality, and customs; the r e s t of the work is a detailed account of the Roman Catholic church in Korea from its introduction in 1784 to the persecution of 1866.

Religion and Philosophy (379a)

Y i NSng-sik £ jfc

»1 * AJ, and Yun Chi-s5n

139

f- &

- 2 * 1 * ^ , t r a n s . ChosSn Kyohoe-sa: S5sol Xd S3. i j

Alt

(History of the Korean Church: Introduc-

tion). Seoul: Taesông Ch'ulp'an-sa, 1947.

A Korean t r a n s l a -

tion of Dallet's introduction, with notes and comments. (380)

Mutel, Gustave. Documents relatifs aux m a r t y r s de C o r é e de 1839 et 1846. Hong Kong: Société des Missions É t r a n g è r e s de P a r i s , 1924.

Contains translations of the sections of the

Sungj5ng-w5n Xlgi (265), HSnjong Sillok (289), and other Korean official documents which contain accounts of the persecutions of Christians in K o r e a in 1839 and 1846. Mutel was given p e r m i s sion by the Government General to go through the archives of the old Korean government. He dates every passage by the Chinese and Western calendars, and he gives the Chinese Charact e r s as well as the Christian names f o r the eighty-two m a r t y r s of 1839 and 1846. (381)

Paik, L . George (Paek Nak-chun 0 ^ < > $

sij £

History of Protestant Missions in K o r e a (1832-1910). yang: Union Christian College P r e s s , 1929.

).

The

P'yông-

The most defini-

tive history of Protestant missions in Korea by a Korean s c h o l a r trained in Western historical methods. Paik uses few O r i e n tal s o u r c e s , but his bibliography in Western languages i s e x haustive. The introduction furnishes a succinct and useful a c count of Korea and its religions. Korean (382)

Y i Man-ch'ae ^

-f/

¿^

° I It ^

.

Py6gwi-p'y5n

fêjgfy

(Compilations of a Defense Against Heresy).

Keijô: Py5k W i - s a , 1931. 7 vols.

A compilation of m a t e r i a l s

about the persecution of Catholics during the reigns of ChSngjo, Sunjo, and HSnjong. The work was begun by Y i Ki-gy5ng a Confucian s c h o l a r of the reign of King ChSngjo, and completed by his descendant, Y i M a n - c h ' a e .

Con-

tains an account of the introduction of Catholicism into K o r e a , its relations with political factions, and the persecutions of i t s b e l i e v e r s ; also contains l e t t e r s of converts and their petitions to the government.

140

Korean Studies Guide

Japanese (383)

Kusuta Onosaburo 4if> ® K 3

Chosen Tenshukyo Shoshi

(A Short History of Korean Catholicism).

Pusan: Privately printed, 1933. Designed for popular use, but it will s e r v e as an introduction to the subject. F a i l s to use many valuable Korean s o u r c e s . (384)

Uragawa WasaburS >if) ")

. Chosen Junkyo-shi

(History of Martyrdom in Korea). Osaka: Zenkoku Shobo, 1944.

A detailed account of persecutions of C h r i s -

tians in 1800-1801 and 1838-1840. B a s e d on the standard works on the subject and on much valuable information the author obtained f r o m F a t h e r Leo Pichon, of Seoul, Contains a useful general survey of Catholicism in K o r e a and gives detailed i n f o r mation on m a r t y r s . P r o p e r names a r e given only in kana. WORKS ON OTHER RELIGIONS IN KOREA Korean (385)

Son C h i n - t ' a e -3$, YSn-gu ^

^

£

j-fc

EJJ . ChosSn Minjok Munwa ui ¿ijfc

£ Ad

fh

-d f

(Studies on Korean Native Culture). Seoul: Uryu Munhwa-sa, 1948.

Previously published in s e v e r a l Korean and Japanese

journals, A collection of e s s a y s on ethnology by one of K o r e a ' s outstanding ethnologists. The second part of the book deals with religious beliefs, and contains e s s a y s on the t r a v e l l e r ' s altar, the altar pole, the devil post, the mountain spirit, and other topics. T h e s e a r e studied historically and compared with s i m i l a r Manchurian and Chinese beliefs and p r a c t i c e s . Japanese (386)

Murayama Chijun

J-.

»Jiji. Chosen no Fuken

3i i f j (Shamans of Korea). K e i j S : Chosen Sotokufu, 1932.

O A

thorough study of Korean s o r c e r e r s and s o r c e r e s s e s . In 1932 there were m o r e than ten thousand shamans in Korea who lived among the people without belonging to any shrine, their effect upon the people is h e r e objectively described.

Religion and P h i l o s o p h y (387)

M u r a y a m a C h i j u n . C h 5 s e n no F u s u i f fj G e o m a n c y ) . K e i j o : C h 5 s e n Sotokufu, 1931.

fe, f«i f i j ( S a c r i f i c e s to C o n f u c i u s ; P r a y e r s f o r Rain, S a c r i f i c e s to F a m i l y S p i r i t s ) . K e i j o : C h o s e n Sotokufu, 1938.

Describes communal

and p r i v a t e s a c r i f i c e s p r a c t i c e d a m o n g the v a r i o u s c l a s s e s in K o r e a . C i t e s p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e e a r l i e s t K o r e a n h i s t o r i e s to show t h e p e r s i s t e n c e of t h e r i t u a l s and s a c r i f i c e s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s book. Note: F o r f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on r e l i g i o n and p h i l o s o p h y s e e 83, 185, 187, 197, 206, 297.

XIII Music Korean music has always been strongly influenced by that of China, although there have been many independent developments and native adaptations. New instruments were invented in K o r e a at an early date; f o r example, the chwago and the hyang p ' i r i t i f ^ S^

if

(sitting drum),

E| a) (tartar pipe), both of which

'antedate the Christian e r a . Several instruments were devised during the T h r e e Kingdoms period. The kSmungo i-f {r JL (a harp) was developed in Kogury5 by Wang San-ak £

ifc \i" "-¡T

the chief minister to King Yang-w5n, and was later made popular in Silla by the composer Ok P o - g o i

.#7 ^ i 2- . King K a s i l

of Kaya invented a kind of harp called Kaya- gum -j^c jqp

o|t ^ ,

which also became popular in Silla. S i l l a ' s musicians produced the hyang pip'a jfgp

(Korean lute) and the taegum

c-fj o , a variety of the T'ang bamboo flute. Paekche produced -

a harp that s e e m s modeled upon an Assyrian original. Many of these instruments were reproduced without modification for many centuries. During the Kory5 and Y i dynasties, Chinese influence became even stronger than it had been during the T h r e e Kingdoms period. The early Y i kings commanded the establishment of musical canons which would conform with Chinese conventions and eliminate native influence. At the command of King Sejong, the musicologist Pak Y5n

f - i ^ h^ oW brought Korean ceremonial music into con-

formity with the music of the T'ang and other Chinese courts. Y 5 n san-gun, who preferred the l y r i c a l ballads of the kisaeng, tempor a r i l y checked the development toward Chinese orthodoxy, but it was resumed under his s u c c e s s o r s . Korean music, like most of Korean culture, declined during the Hideyoshi invasions and did not r e c o v e r until King Ch5ngjo and his proteges, S5 My5ng-ung and Ch5ng Yag-yong, revived an interest at court in c l a s s i c a l mu142

Music

143

s i c . King Kojong's court included s e v e r a l hundred m u s i c i a n s , whose students p r e s e r v e d Korean c l a s s i c a l m u s i c a f t e r the J a p a n e s e annexation. A r i c h tradition of folk music was developed among the Kor e a n c o m m o n e r s , although until r e c e n t t i m e s this m u s i c was l a r g e l y ignored by court c o m p o s e r s . Today, Korean m u s i c i a n s a r e turning i n c r e a s i n g l y to the folk music of their country, and often u s e W e s t e r n m u s i c a l techniques and i n s t r u m e n t s . The best o r most available p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y works Korean music a r e l i s t e d in this chapter. In addition, t h e r e is portant information on Korean music in the MunhSn Pigo (83), K o r y S - s a (240), the Haedong YSksa (241), and in the "Note on s i c " of the Sejo Sillok (289).

on imthe Mu-

WORKS ON KOREAN MUSIC Western (391)

E c k a r d t , A n d r e a s . Koreanische Musik. Mitteilungen d e r Deutschen G e s e l l s c h a f t f ü r N a t u r - und Volkerkunde O s t a s i e n s , Vol. XXIV. Tokyo, 1930. An analysis, description, and h i s t o r y of Korean m u s i c . Examples of its melody and h a r m o n y a r e given In W e s t e r n notation. Contains photographs of i n s t r u m e n t s . This i s the best W e s t e r n work on the subject.

(392)

Boot, J. L . ( M r s . ) . "Korean Musical I n s t r u m e n t s and An Introduction to Korean Music," TAKBRAS, XXX (1940), 1-31. A compact s u r v e y of Korean music with many d i a g r a m s , c h a r t s , and photographs. Based upon E c k a r d t ' s work (391) and other, chiefly Western, s o u r c e s . Korean

(393)

Akhak KwebSm ^ flbffr ^ ( E x a m p l a r f o r Music). Keijö: Koten KankS-kai, 1933. 9 books in 3 f a s c i c l e s . A photooffset reproduction of the 1610 printing of a work compiled at the command of King Songjong to p r e s e r v e Pak Y5n's studies of court m u s i c . This is the m o s t complete and best organized work of the Yi dynasty on m u s i c . It d e s c r i b e s i n s t r u m e n t s , m u s i c a l techniques, songs, dances, and c e r e m o n i e s .

Korean Studies Guide (394)

Ch5ng Yag-yong. Aks5 Kojon ^ ^

ft-

144

/,-) j . £ (Glean-

ings from Music Books), [c. 1800]. 12 books in 4 fascicles.

A

manuscript of quotations pertinent to musicology from numerous sources, especially classical Chinese literature, arranged by topic. The works are listed in tables of contents for each chapter. Some illustrations. As an editor and compiler, Ch8ng Yag-yong (b. 1762) excelled all other classical scholars of his time. He not only mastered the traditional Oriental learning but undertook pioneer studies in Western learning. Those searching for historical information on specialized musical subjects will find this collection a useful r e f e r ence. The manuscript is in the East Asiatic Library of the University of California. (395)

HamHwa-jin -ft

is.

£

t ) - M . Choson Umak T'ongnon -s-

Uryu Munhwa-sa, 1948.

4- £

(Survey of Korean Music). Seoul:

A comprehensive survey of Korean mu-

sic from the earliest times to the present, with a chronological chart of major musical events. (396)

S5ng Ky5ng-nin

H

• Chos5n ui Aak

z)

£ ^ »I oj. o^ (Korean Court Music). Seoul: Pangmun S5gwan, 1947. A short history of the development of court ceremonial music, with descriptions of instruments, songs, and dances. (397)

SSng Kyong-nin. ChosSn Umak Tokpon j' 1947.

If

fc-

: (Korean Music Reader). Seoul: Uryu Munhwa-sa,

A handbook of Korean music written in han-gul. Contains

a concise account of Korean music from its origins to the present. Apparently intended as a textbook. Japanese (398)

Tanabe Hisao

. T5y5 Ongaku-shi & i-^ ^

(History of Oriental Music). Toyo-shi K5za ^

^ (Lec-

tures on Oriental History), Vol. XIH. Tokyo: Yusan-kaku, 1930. Contains a partly annotated bibliography of Western and Oriental materials on Korean music. Note: For further information on music see 83, 84, 187, 297, 365, 441, 442.

XIV Language Korean i s a polysyllabic, agglutinative language of the Altaic family, s i m i l a r to J a p a n e s e in morphology and syntax: i.e., (1) p a r t i c l e s a r e placed a f t e r substantives to indicate t h e i r function; (2) the sentence o r d e r i s always subject, object, and verb; (3) modifying words, p h r a s e s , and c l a u s e s precede the words they modify; (4) v e r b s have neither person nor number, and a r e conjugated by adding auxiliary suffixes to the s t e m ; (5) t h e r e a r e no a r t i c l e s nor r e l a t i v e pronouns, and (6) nouns usually have neither p e r s o n nor n u m b e r . The Korean vocabulary contains n u m e r o u s Chinese words, and some words f r o m Jflrchen, Manchu, and Mongolian. Modern K o r e a n r e t a i n s vestiges of vowel harmony, which i s a prominent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of other Altaic languages. Spoken Korean e x p r e s s e s d e g r e e s of politeness by different v e r b a l s u f fixes. Little i s known about e a r l y Korean. Chinese accounts indicate only that the Sam Han spoke s i m i l a r dialects and that the n o r t h e r n tribes—the Ye, Okcho, and KoguryS—spoke languages r e l a t e d to that of the Puy5. Silla and the lower c l a s s e s of Paekche spoke a Han dialect; Kogury5 and the upper c l a s s e s of Paekche spoke a Puy8 dialect. The language spoken at the Kory5 period r e s e m b l e d m o d e r n Korean. The K o r e a n s have two s c r i p t s : the older—hanmun—was b o r rowed f r o m China in the T h r e e Kingdoms period; the other—hangul—was invented by King Sejong in 1443. Hanmun c o n s i s t s of Chinese c h a r a c t e r s written according to the laws of Chinese g r a m m a r and syntax, but usually r e a d with Korean pronunciation. Until the twentieth century, hanmun r e m a i n e d the s c r i p t of most schola r s and educated K o r e a n s , many of whom r e g a r d e d Sejong's s c r i p t with contempt. L a t e in the T h r e e Kingdoms period the K o r e a n s dev i s e d a s u p p l e m e n t a r y charactery—idu—which u s e d c e r t a i n Chinese 145

146

Korean Studies Guide

c h a r a c t e r s only f o r t h e i r phonetic value in o r d e r to indicate p a r t i c l e s and v e r b a l suffixes. The invention of idu i s usually a t t r i buted to S51 C h ' o n g ^ /J (b. 655), but some a u t h o r i t i e s b e lieve it was devised e a r l i e r . In the Kory5 period kugy5l and t'o, which some authorities r e g a r d a s identical with idu, w e r e used f o r this purpose. In 1446, King Sejong i s s u e d a proclamation, the p r e f a c e to which r e a d in p a r t a s follows: Our national language d i f f e r s f r o m Chinese and h a s no affinity with written Chinese. T h e r e f o r e , what our people wish to s a y cannot be said in the Chinese m a n n e r . And so, having c o m p a s sion upon our people in this deplorable situation, we have devised a new writing of twenty-eight c h a r a c t e r s , so that our people may readily l e a r n it and u s e it in t h e i r daily a f f a i r s . The "new writing" consisted of seventeen consonants and eleven vowels—twenty-eight symbols that could be conveniently combined to r e p r e s e n t the sounds of K o r e a n speech. E a c h K o r e a n syllable c l u s t e r consisted of two o r s o m e t i m e s t h r e e symbols— the initial (a consonant), the medial (a vowel), and s o m e t i m e s the final (a consonant). King Sejong called this s c r i p t hunmln chSngum, i.e., " c o r r e c t sound f o r teaching the people" (see 407). About a century l a t e r , it was called Snmun, or " v e r n a c u l a r script," and was also r e f e r r e d to a s panjSl, f r o m the Chinese t e r m f o r phonetic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . During the s o - c a l l e d Snmun period, which l a s t e d until 1893, the s c r i p t was considerably r e v i s e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y by the s c h o l a r Ch'oe Se-jin, who d i s c a r d e d the symbol o . F o r a s h o r t t i m e (1894-1910) the s c r i p t was called kungmun, o r national s c r i p t . E a r l y in the twentieth century it was given the n a m e hangul, o r Korean s c r i p t , by the g r e a t Korean linguist, Chu Si-gy5ng. The ChosSn O Hakhoe (Korean Language Association) h a s , since i t s f o r m a t i o n in 1933, encouraged the u s e of han-gul. It h a s r e d u c e d the s c r i p t to twenty-four symbols—fourteen consonants and ten vowels—and h a s f o r m u l a t e d r u l e s to s t a n d a r d i z e the spelling of Korean. Modern Korean i s usually written in kukhanmun, which c o m p r i s e s both hanmun and han-gul.

Language

147

WORKS ON THE KOREAN LANGUAGE Western (399)

Gale, J a m e s S. Korean G r a m m a t i c a l F o r m s . Seoul: T r i lingual P r e s s , 1894. A handbook of 164 v e r b a l endings and connectives. Contains m o r e than a thousand sentences, with English t r a n s l a t i o n s , to i l l u s t r a t e the u s e of these g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m s .

(400)

Rahder, Johannes. "Comparative T r e a t m e n t of the J a p a n e s e Language," Monumenta Nipponica, VII (1951), 198-208, VIII (1952), 239-288. A comparative study intended principally "to link old J a p a n e s e word f a m i l i e s to r e l a t e d word f a m i l i e s in Korean, Ainu, Tungus, Mongolian, Turkic, Sinitic, T i b e t o - B u r m e s e , Thai, A u s t r i o - A s i a t i c and Austronesian languages." The second part d i s c u s s e s K o r e a n - J a p a n e s e phoneme correspondence.

(401)

Ramstedt, G. J . A Korean G r a m m a r . Helsinki: S u o m a l a i s Ugrilaninen Seura, 1939. Divided into six c h a p t e r s : phonetics, morphology, postpositions and adverbs, uninflected words, word formation, and sentence s t r u c t u r e . P r e s e n t s many original i n t e r pretations of Korean g r a m m a r , e.g., r e g a r d s the adjective a s a v e r b . This is one of the most thorough and s y s t e m a t i c g r a m m a r s of Korean, but it i s suitable only f o r the advanced student. It u s e s a difficult s y s t e m of romanization instead of han-gul. Had the author used han-gul, and had he followed the unified s y s t e m of s p e l l ing, he could have avoided many involved and laborious explanations.

(402)

Ramstedt, G. J . Studies in Korean Etymology. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilaninen Seura, 1949. An etymological dictionary of Korean words a r r a n g e d according to the alphabetic o r d e r of r o m a n i z e d Korean. Contains illustrations of phoneme c o r r e s p o n dence between Korean and Mongolian, Turkish, Tungus, Manchur i a n , Japanese, and other languages, but the relationship between the Korean word and i t s equivalent in another language i s not a l ways c l e a r l y shown. Also i l l u s t r a t e s the d i f f e r e n c e between North and South Korean dialects.

148

Korean Studies Guide

(403)

R o g e r s , Michael C. Outline of Korean G r a m m a r . B e r k e l e y : Department of O r i e n t a l Languages of the University of California, 1953. A brief study of Korean g r a m m a r designed f o r advanced students. The m a t e r i a l could have been p r e s e n t e d m o r e c l e a r l y by using han-gul, a s well a s romanization, throughout the book; instead, han- gul is used only in the f i r s t chapter. Korean

Ch'oe Hy5n-bae ii| ^ St ^ IS, i - i xj % aJ. (Survey H i s t o r y of K o r e a n Script). Seoul: IlsSngdang S5j8m, 1948. A concise but not v e r y s y s t e m a t i c s u r vey of han-gul. D i s c u s s e s written Korean b e f o r e the invention of han-gul, and the invention and development of han-gul. (415)

SSk Chu-my5ng /& '&

^

. Cheju-do P a n g - 5 n - j i p

5. "J" 'i *i4 (Collection on the Cheju-do Dia'•"1 % 75 % lect). Seoul: SSul Sinmun-sa Ch'ulp'an-bu, 1947. Divided into t h r e e p a r t s : (1) a list of about 10,000 dialect words and p h r a s e s of Cheju-do, and t h e i r s t a n d a r d Korean equivalents; (2) e s s a y s on the Cheju-do and other Korean dialects, e.g., d i f f e r e n c e s b e tween the speech of n o r t h e r n and southern Cheju-do, dialect words of Cheju-do derived f r o m old Korean and f o r e i g n languages; (3) e s s a y s on m i s c e l l a n e o u s s u b j e c t s r e l a t e d to the Cheju-do dialects. (416)

Yi Hi-sfing. ChosSn Ohak Non-go £ ^ ( E s s a y s on K o r e a n Language). Seoul: Uryu Munhwa-sa, 1947. Contains sixteen e s s a y s , originally published in j o u r n a l s and n e w s p a p e r s b e f o r e 1945, on Korean linguistics, e.g., "On the P r o b l e m of the Final Use of ° ," "Concerning Korean Standard Language," "Concerning F o r e i g n Derivative Words," "On T e m p o r a l Auxiliary Verbs," and "An Introduction to the Methodology of Korean Language Studies."

Language (417)

Y i Kung-no | jj, | s6"g-hak

itJi£l£l

«1 j

t ,

151

SilhSm Tohae ChosSn O Dm-

Sf I f 4

n

iitf

i^T (Illustrated Korean Phonetics). Seoul: Amun-gak,

1947.

A pamphlet which describes Korean phonetics on the basis of experiments the author made with an artificial mouth and kymograph in 1928 at the University of Paris. Y i Sung-nySng. "Mourn Chohwa Y5n-gu" -ty 4 i * )

(418)

M

3. % £ i). o=| -2- ( A Study of Vowel Harmony), Chindan Hakpo, 16 (1949), 1-110.

A critical examination of Ogura Shimpei's

theory of vowel harmony, a review of the study of vowel harmony during the past 500 years, and the author's theories on the subject. (419)

Y i Sung-nySng.

ChosSn O Umunnon Y5n-gu

'jt> £ *± »1 - t £ .§.

f

Seoul: Uryu Munhwa-sa, 1949.

(Studies on Korean Phonology). An exhaustive study of the ex-

tinct vowel symbol » . Japanese (420)

Maema KyOsaku «9 % §

Keirin Ruiji Raigen K5

^

(Study of KoryS Words in Chi-lin-lei Shih).

Mem-

oirs . . . of the Toyo Bunko (214), Series A, no. 3 (1925).

A com-

mentary on Kory5 words in the Chi-lin-lel Shih (A Korean Miscellany) by Sun Mu^ J ^ ( t w e l f t h century). (421)

Maema KyOsaku.

Rytika Kogo Sen

^ (Comments

on Old Words in Yongbi O Ch'5n-ga), Memoirs ... . of the Toyo Bunko (214), Series A, no. 3 (1924).

A commentary on old words

in the Yongbi O Ch'5n-ga (1445). See entry 451. (422)

Ogura Shimpei.

ChSsen Gogaku-shi

ffif

i f ffl ^.(History

of the Korean Language). Keijo: Osaka-yago Shoten, 1920.

A

detailed survey of the characteristics of the Korean language and an account of the origin of written Korean. A large part of the book is a discussion of Korean studies of Japanese, Chinese, Manchurian, Mongolian, Jflrchen, Khitan, and other languages. Contains photographs of old Korean texts. The index is in kana order.

152

K o r e a n Studies Guide

(423)

Ogura Shimpei. Chosen ni okeru Kenj5-ho Sonkei-ho no J o doshi f f j I-. J g|. fg_ $ 9 «6 ft*i*| < T h e t u m b l e and Honorific Auxiliary V e r b in Korea). M e m o i r s . . . of the Toyo Bunko (214), S e r i e s A, no. 26 (1938). An excellent h i s t o r i c a l and descriptive account of humble and honorific K o r e a n auxiliary v e r b s . Contains an English r e s u m e and a han-gul index of the auxiliary verbs.

(424)

Ogura Shimpei. Chosen-g5 Hogen no Kenkyu /j 9 & (Studies in K o r e a n Dialects). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1944. 2 vols. Vol. I contains dialectical words a r r a n g e d by subjects—e.g., astronomy, climate, r i v e r s , food, animals—in the international phonetic symbols. Vol. II contains e s s a y s previously published in j o u r n a l s and pamphlets, and an account of regional dialects, with m a p s .

(425)

Ogura Shimpei. Kyoka oyobi Rit5 no Kenkyu ¿¿f ¿fo ^ v *> ;t>f ?L(Study of Hyangga and Idu). Keijo: Keijo I m p e r i a l University, 1929. A handbook of hyangga frgp ffi; -»[.and idu divided into t h r e e p a r t s : (1) a thorough study of hyangga, with c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o m m e n t a r y on the hyangga in the Samguk Yusa (226); (2) a study of idu used in official documents; (3) e s s a y s on vowel harmony, the development of double consonants, and the development of honorific auxiliary v e r b s . Note: F o r f u r t h e r information on language s e e 73, 74, 185, 206, 365, 487.

XV Literature B e f o r e the twentieth century, Korean literature had two separate although partly overlapping traditions—a native or "folk" l i t e r a ture, most of it unwritten, which was composed largely for the lower c l a s s e s ; a formal or "Chinese" literature, most of it in hanmun, which was composed by and for the upper c l a s s e s . Kor e a ' s native literature f i r s t developed in prehistoric t i m e s f r o m religious c e r e m o n i e s , mythology, and folklore, K o r e a ' s " C h i n e s e " l i t e r a t u r e f i r s t developed in the Three Kingdoms period f r o m the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. The distinction between these two literatures increased in the Kory5 and Yi periods, a s Confucian scholars became ever more disdainful of native Korean culture and ever more devoted to being "Chinese." Korean folk literature consists principally of songs (all folk poetry was intended to he sung), " p r o s e " fiction, mask plays (or mask dances), and puppet shows; formal literature consists principally of poetry in Chinese v e r s e - f o r m s , prose fiction, and l i t e r a r y e s s a y s . "Ope r a t i c " performances, that i s , the formal singing of poems by either groups or soloists, were popular with all c l a s s e s , but except for these and the mask plays, Korea had no important drama. The Confucianists held the theatre in contempt, although they p e r formed annually an intellectual play, the Kw5lhui

|| (The

Drama of the P a l a c e Gate) to commemorate the removal of the capital to Seoul at the inception of the Y i dynasty. Probably the oldest Korean v e r s e - f o r m i s called tosolga £ of tStsori t^

a t e r m which i s believed to be a transliteration a| . o r "sounds for appeasing spirits or gods."

E a r l y Chinese accounts of K o r e a relate that the people sang and danced at religious c e r e m o n i e s , and it i s probable that the f i r s t Korean poetry was "hymns" of praise or prayer composed f o r these festivities. The most important poems of the T h r e e King153

154

K o r e a n Studies Guide

doms period a r e the hyangga of Silla—idu poems of four, eight, o r ten p h r a s e s (each p h r a s e h a s five o r s o m e t i m e s six syllables), many of t h e m Buddhist songs. T h e r e a r e fourteen hyangga in the Samguk Yusa (226), which w e r e probably copied f r o m a lost ninthcentury anthology, the Samdaemok gj Ab CJ) .Z. . Hanmun poems of the T h r e e Kingdoms and l a t e r periods a r e in the S a m guk Sagi (225), the Chungbo Munh5n Pigo (83), and the "Akji" « f j oi j * I (Music Section) of the K o r y S - s a (240), which also contains t h i r t y - o n e s o k - a k -fco r popular songs, of KoryS. Two important han-gul anthologies w e r e compiled in the reign of Sejong: the Yongbi O Ch'5n-ga (451); and the W5rin Ch'5n-gang Chigok cp Jf- ix. i , i# H xi *| -0-(Songs of the Moon's Reflection on a Thousand Rivers), which contains Buddhist hymns t r a n s l a t e d by command of King Sejong. Sijo aij- |)f) £ , kasa fkfljlf and chapka $£l^;&7|.were popu l a r v e r s e - f o r m s of the Yi period. Most sijo were composed in t h r e e lines, each of f o u r p h r a s e s , and each p h r a s e of a fixed n u m b e r of syllables: 3, 4, 3(4), 4; 3, 4, 3(4), 4; 3, 5, 4, 3. Kasa usually contained eight p h r a s e s , each of eight syllables. ChSng Ch'61>j|p-gj^ (1536-1593), style Songgang , was the m o s t outstanding poet of the k a s a f o r m . Chapka w e r e long n a r r a tive poems sung by m a l e p r o f e s s i o n a l e n t e r t a i n e r s called soritkun e| o r kwangdae c^. P r o s e fiction was f i r s t written in the T h r e e Kingdoms period, e.g., Hwawang-yu ^ o^r ¿ h ^ ( P a r a b l e of the F l o w e r Kingdom), by S51 Ch'Sng, and Chap-j5n X±(Miscellaneous Stories), by Kim T a e - m u n o ) ^ , a r e f r o m Silla. Hanmun r e mained the principal vehicle of p r o s e fiction in the Yi period, a l though t h e r e w e r e also many t a l e s written in han-gul f o r ladies, who could not r e a d hanmun, and t r a n s l a t i o n s into han-gul of Buddhist and Confucian t a l e s . One of the b e s t of t h e s e , the Kuunmong j h t f - f t f . by Kim Man-jung £ ->A (1617-1682), was t r a n s l a t e d by J a m e s S. Gale: The Cloud D r e a m of the Nine (London: O'Connor, 1922), Much han-gul p r o s e fiction i s anonymous, s o m e b e c a u s e Confucian s c h o l a r s r e g a r d e d anything not written in hanmun a s trivial, s o m e b e c a u s e it contains s a t i r i c a l attacks upon the i n j u s t i c e s and inequalities of the Yi period.

Literature

155

Korean literature since 1900 reveals both a profound Western influence and the Korean desire to create a new, distinct national culture. Han-gul and kukhanmun have displaced hanmun a s the principal script; "folk" literature has been compiled in anthologies and studied a s a s e r i o u s cultural heritage; Western ideas and literary f o r m s have been used by Korean writers. P r o s e fiction of the f i r s t two decades urged new ideas of education and morality, political liberalism, and national independence, e.g., Un Sege £& & '"I (The Silvery World), f i r s t modern Korean novel (1908), by Yi In-jik ^ 1= ^ »| »J ; Hwa ui Hy51 tb "I t\r (Blood of Flowers), by Yi Hae-jo o| irj ; MujSng -Sr ^ x-J (The Heartless), by Yi Kwang-su "I H" f • T h e Principal type of prose fiction in the twenties was the naturalistic novel, e.g., T'angnyu \ (The-Muddy Stream), by Ch'ae Man-sik ^ ^ oh A.I ; PulgunChwi -c t± 71 m ; Sanyang K a e ? I (Red Mouse), by K i m Ki-jin /£- ^ $ i\ ; "i" ">1 (The Hunting Dog), by Pak Y5ng-hi * |. $ fz andKananhanSaram-d5l ->j- y.- -ije-fc -¡j (The Poor), by Yi Kiy6ng ^ 'g o^ . Historical novels and novels-of-the-soil were prominent in Korean prose fiction of the thirties, e.g., Yi Sun-sin •j" £ ° | i" . b y Yi Kwang-su, and UnhySn-gung ui Pom f f ¿.gj i -J- s| 4 (Spring of the Unhy5n Palace), by K i m Tong-in ^ /,Jf; Hurk (The Soil), by Yi Kwangsu, and Sangnoksu ^ frlfc^5:) JSL ¿f- (The E v e r g r e e n Tree), by Sim Hun |p ^ j . Hong My8ng-hi's >K ^ °5> "») long novel, Im K5-jSng g. j L 2J, >| < published in 1928, combines s e v e r a l of these types; it i s a realistic account of life among the lower c l a s s e s in the Yi period. Many modern Korean poets abandoned the traditional Oriental v e r s e f o r m s to experiment with the f r e e - v e r s e styles of r e cent Western poetry. Outstanding among these f r e e - v e r s e poets a r e : K i m Y5ng-nang ^ jjA "o^o ' a poet whose dominant mood i s aestheticism; Kim K i - r i m fci •> | e-J , noted for his subtle, intellectual v e r s e ; and the Catholic poet, ChSng Chi-yong ij^ jJ. * j -g-. Other modern poets—Ch5ng In-bo, Yi Un-sang , and Yi Py5ng-gi ) , for example—use sijo and other traditional v e r s e f o r m s .

156

K o r e a n S t u d i e s Guide

T h e m o d e r n K o r e a n l i t e r a r y e s s a y a l s o r e v e a l s both W e s t e r n and t r a d i t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e s : Yi T a e - j u n ' s yp T

jfe Jf

c.•! , Korean c h i l d r e n ' s songs, the effects of the Manchu invasions on sijo. Also contains Korean t r a n s l a t i o n s of all Chinese poems cited in the e s s a y s . WORKS ON KOREAN DRAMA Japanese

(461) Innami Takaichi E P ilb ~ . Chosen no Engeki Ji^ 9 yif| !%'J (Korean T h e a t r i c a l s ) . Tokyo: HokkS Shobo, 1944. An account of traditional folk plays, m a s k dances, puppet shows, and "operas," and also of the new Korean d r a m a to 1944. Contains the text of the puppet show Kkoktukkaksi and of the m a s k dance Pongsan T ' a l , and photographs of Korean dances and m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s . Based largely upon Kim Chae-ch'61 1 Choson Y8n-guk-sa gif /Jj) £ ^ Korean D r a m a ) and Ch5ng N o - s i k ' s ^ guk-sa ^ £ -x. A (History of n e i t h e r of which was available to the c o m p i l e r s

"3" * I- (History of £ ChosSn Ch'angKorean Opera), of the Guide.

Note: F o r f u r t h e r information on l i t e r a t u r e s e e 99, 185, 187, 197, 264, 297, 370, 425.

XVI Education Formal education in Korea was largely in the hands of the Confucianists from the Three Kingdoms period until the twentieth century. The Buddhists played a secondary role in Korean education even when they dominated the government. The first school was established by royal command in Kogury5 in 372 to instruct sons of noblemen, and similar schools were founded later in Paekche and Silla. During the Silla and Koryo periods many Buddhist neophytes and Confucian students went to China to study. The kwagS 31- 7j , or Confucian civil-service examination system, was known in the Silla period, but the dominance of Buddhism and the hostility of the hereditary nobles prevented its full development until the Y i period. Until the twentieth century, little education was given to the lower classes. In theory, the Confucian civil-service examinations were open to all males, but social and economic conditions prevented the lower class from preparing for them. Buddhist education was more readily available to the lower classes, and the Buddhists increasingly recruited neophytes from among the common people. After King Sejong's time, some commoners were taught to read and write han-gul. The s5dang ^

cfc were small, private "elementary"

schools which were first established by the Confucianists during the Koryô period and became numerous during the Y i period. Boys entered the s5dang at seven or eight years, were taught Chinese characters, and memorized selected passages from the works of Confucius. The secondary level of Confucian education consisted of the hyanggyo

^

it Si-, or local phrontistery, and

s5w5n ï t figj A-j m , or academy. The hyanggyo, which flourished from the fourteenth to the eighteenth century, were provincial colleges modeled after the Four Institutes in Seoul and intended 164

Education

165

to p r e p a r e students f o r final d e g r e e s . The f i r s t s5w5n—the Sosu —w a s S5w6n I f j i j founded in 1541 by Chu Sebung jf] ttfjsj. to honor the shade of the t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Confucian, An Yuj^-^g. ^ , and in 1551 was enriched by the g o v e r n m e n t ' s generous gift of land, s e r f s , books, and other a w a r d s . Soon other s5w5n w e r e established, like the f i r s t ostensibly to honor the m e m o r y of a famous local s c h o l a r , but also to f o r m l i t e r a r y and political clubs independent of the capital. The sowSn, which gradually displaced the hyanggyo, b e c a m e locally n a r r o w and adamant, and in the l a t e r Yi period w e r e often the m e e t i n g - p l a c e s of factional groups. The highest school in Korea during the Yi period was the S5nggyun-gwan r ^ J ^ ^ f e i | i 3l- • o r Confucian College, in Seoul, which was a s o r t of scholastic honorary society and a gatheringplace of Korean intellectuals. The Four Institutes w e r e a s s o c i a ted with this college, each of t h e m staffed by two i n s t r u c t o r s and two p r o f e s s o r s , s u p e r v i s e d by a d i r e c t o r appointed by the crown, and limited to one hundred students. Examinations w e r e on t h r e e levels—district, provincial, and national. E v e r y hundred days the prefect of each d i s t r i c t held a g e n e r a l examination, and s u c c e s s f u l candidates w e r e entitled to take the provincial examinations. These, held at t h r e e - y e a r int e r v a l s by the provincial governor in his palace, w e r e specialized —military science, l i t e r a t u r e , language, law, medicine, cosmography, and the " d e g r e e " course—and a candidate p r e p a r e d to be examined in one of t h e s e subjects. The national examinations, held in Seoul the following spring, w e r e also specialized. Succ e s s f u l candidates in all fields except l i t e r a t u r e and m i l i t a r y s c i ence w e r e awarded the chins a ^ A j. (doctor), saeng-w5n 'i. a f¿ (licentiate), o r a s i m i l a r degree, and usually given a position in the government. Students of l i t e r a t u r e and m i l i t a r y science w e r e granted the privilege of a yet higher examination —one held in the r o y a l palace with the king a s one of the a r b i t r a t o r s . They w e r e graded "A," "B," or "C," but all r e c e i v e d v e r y special honors and usually a high political appointment. The Confucianists equated knowledge with the philosophy of Confucius; t h e r e f o r e , t h e i r schools s t r e s s e d thorough instruction

166

K o r e a n Studies Guide

in the Chinese c l a s s i c s and a r e v e r e n c e f o r all that the M a s t e r had said. Original inquiry and a c r i t i c a l attitude w e r e discouraged; thoroughness and conformity were the qualities expected of a s t u dent—qualities which readily degenerated into pedantry and r o t e m e m o r i z a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , b e c a u s e Confucian schooling was given only to m a l e s of the upper c l a s s e s , and b e c a u s e it was so closely connected with politics, it developed many c o r r u p t i o n s and a b u s e s , especially in the late Yi period. The f i r s t W e s t e r n school in K o r e a was an English-language school f o r i n t e r p r e t e r s opened by the crown in 1883. In 1886, the crown appointed t h r e e A m e r i c a n s to teach s o m e t h i r t y sons of noblemen, and in the s a m e y e a r Methodist m i s s i o n a r i e s founded c Ihwa Haktang 4 °l \ v £ (now Ewha [Ihwa] Women's University), the f i r s t Korean college f o r women. P'y5ng-yang Union C h r i s t i a n College was founded e a r l y in the twentieth c e n tury, and Cnosun (Choson) C h r i s t i a n College (now a university) in 1915. Westernized education in Korea was encouraged by the J a p a n e s e and many schools, including Keij5 I m p e r i a l University, w e r e built by them. However, the J a p a n e s e r e f u s e d K o r e a n s equal educational opportunities, prohibited the u s e of K o r e a n in schools, and t r i e d to u s e education a s a device f o r making Kor e a n s loyal s u b j e c t s of the J a p a n e s e e m p e r o r . These r e s t r i c t i o n s and abuses a r e said to have angered the K o r e a n s m o r e than any of the other o p p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s of the J a p a n e s e . A f t e r 1945, the Republic of K o r e a launched a " d e m o c r a c y and n a t i o n a l i s m " p r o g r a m of education, and school attendance, 'both in North and South Korea, i n c r e a s e d greatly in the brief period between liberation and the Korean War, WORKS ON KOREAN EDUCATION Western (462)

Hulbert, H o m e r B. "National Examination in Korea," TAKBRAS XIV (1923), 9-32. C o n s i s t s mainly of p a s s a g e s f r o m chronicles and other r e c o r d s chronologically a r r a n g e d which show how the c i v i l - s e r v i c e examinations affected K o r e a n culture.

Education (463)

167

Kim, Helen K. Rural Education for the Regeneration of Kor e a . New York: T e a c h e r s College, Columbia University, 1931. Surveys the J a p a n e s e school s y s t e m in Korea, a r g u e s that the f a c t o r which kept the s y s t e m f r o m rendering a g r e a t e r s e r v i c e to the people was discrimination against K o r e a n s , and advocates cultural autonomy and vocational training f o r K o r e a n s .

(464)

Roe, Chungil Y. The T r u e Function of Education in Social Adjustment: A Comparative E s t i m a t e and C r i t i c i s m of the Educational Teachings of Confucius and the Philosophy of John Dewey with a View to Evolving a P r o j e c t f o r a System of National Education Which Will Meet the Needs of Korea. Lincoln [University of Nebraska], 1927. Argues "that neither Confucius nor Dewey h a s succeeded in finding a b a s i c aim f o r education which i s entirely adequate to the needs of Korea," and p r e s e n t s the "doctrine of s u r v i v a l - e f f i c i e n c y . . . which facilitates the synthesis of the best e l e m e n t s of both oriental and occidental philosophies of education."

(465) Underwood, Horace H. Modern Education in Korea. New York: International P r e s s , 1926. A history of Korean education f r o m 1883. Most of the account deals with the schools of the P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r i e s . Contains many c h a r t s and tables. Korean (466)

(467)

Sosu S5w8n Tungnok j n j,^ ¡v/, ^ g j ±. ^ ^ ^ ( R e c o r d s of Sosu S5w8n). Item 17 of the Chosen Shiryo Sokan (183). Keijo, 1937. A photolith reproduction of the r e c o r d s of the Sosu S5w5n f r o m 1547 to 1669, and a printing of the text with m o d e r n punctuation and the idu r e n d e r e d in reduced type.

¿q ffija. Yi Man-gyu. ChosSn Kyoyuk-sa (History of Korean Education). Seoul: Uryu Munhwa-sa, 1947. 2 vols. A detailed s u r v e y of Korean education i n t e r p r e t e d in t e r m s of social and economic patterns. Vol. I i s p a r t i c u l a r l y valuable because it contains information h a r d to find e l s e w h e r e . A chronology of Korean education f r o m 285 to 1943 is appended. An informative work, but written with a leftist bias.

168

K o r e a n Studies Guide

Japanese (468)

Meiji iko Ky5iku Seido H a t t a t s u - s h i

>&

-Vj /£.

i t i£. (History of the Development of the Educational System since Meiji). Tokyo: Kyoiku-shi Henshu-kai, 1939. 12 vols. A detailed account of the g o v e r n m e n t - s u p p o r t e d schools of the J a p a n e s e E m p i r e f r o m k i n d e r g a r t e n to college since 1911. Volu m e X, which h a s m o r e than a thousand pages, deals with Korea, Note: F o r f u r t h e r information on education s e e 83, 84, 185, 187, 370.

XVII Special Reference Materials and Addenda H e r e a r e listed the most important available w o r k s on K o r e a n r a n k s and titles, Korean chronologies, and also a few works which c a m e to the attention of the c o m p i l e r s of the Guide too late to be listed in their p r o p e r chapters. K o r e a n Ranks and T i t l e s The understanding of Korean court and m i l i t a r y r a n k s and titles is one of the m o s t difficult problems f o r the student of Korean history, and unfortunately t h e r e i s no adequate W e s t e r n work on the subject. In g e n e r a l , Korean m i l i t a r y and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e designations a r e l a r g e l y patterned upon China's f r o m the Silla p e r i od until 1910, J a p a n ' s f r o m 1910 to 1945, and the W e s t e r n r e p u b l i c s ' a f t e r 1945; but t h e r e were, of course, many d i f f e r e n c e s . WORKS ON KOREAN RANKS AND TITLES Western (469)

Des Rotours, Robert. T r a i t é des fonctionnaires et T r a i t é de l ' a r m é e , traduit de la Nouvelle Histoire des T'ang. Bibliothèque de l'Institut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, Vol. VI. Leyden: B r i l l , 1947-1948. 2 vols. An account of the T'ang government of China, which gives some indirect knowledge of Silla and KoryS r a n k s and t i t l e s because these w e r e largely patterned a f t e r the T'ang s y s t e m .

(470)

K o r e a (Republic). Bureau of Public Information. R e f e r e n c e Handbook, Government of the Republic of K o r e a . Seoul, 1949. Standardizes the n a m e s of Korean government agencies and o r g a n izations, d e s c r i b e s t h e m in detail, l i s t s the officials, and gives Chinese c h a r a c t e r s , romanization, and English t r a n s l a t i o n s of the n a m e s of all government groups. 169

170 (471)

Mayers, William F.

Korean Studies Guide

T h e C h i n e s e G o v e r n m e n t : A M a n u a l of

C h i n e s e T i t l e s C a t e g o r i c a l l y A r r a n g e d and E x p l a i n e d , with an Appendix.

2d ed. Shanghai: K e l l y and W a l s h . 1886.

Offers

s o m e i n d i r e c t knowledge of r a n k s and t i t l e s of t h e Yi p e r i o d ,

al-

though t h e book i s c h i e f l y about l a t e C h ' i n g t i m e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e Ming and T ' a n g d y n a s t i e s , upon which t h e Yi g o v e r n m e n t w a s patterned. (472)

Wilkinson, W i l l i a m H. T h e C o r e a n G o v e r n m e n t : C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C h a n g e s , J u l y 1894 to O c t o b e r 1895, with a n A p p e n d i x on Subsequent E n a c t m e n t s t o 30th J u n e 1896. Shanghai: S t a t i s t i c a l D e p a r t m e n t of t h e I n s p e c t o r a t e G e n e r a l of C u s t o m s , 1897.

The

only W e s t e r n w o r k which i s a n y t h i n g n e a r an a d e q u a t e a c c o u n t of t h e K o r e a n l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s t e m s b e f o r e 1910.

Di-

v i d e d into t h r e e p a r t s : (1) t h e l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s t e m s b e f o r e 1894, which i s b a s e d c h i e f l y on t h e T a e j 5 n H o e t ' o n g (473); (2) t h e r e o r g a n i z e d g o v e r n m e n t a f t e r t h e r e f o r m s of 1894-1895; (3) a c h r o n o l o g i c a l s u m m a r y of t h e r e s o l u t i o n s and a c t s which changed t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e book h a s a s u b j e c t index, an i n d e x of r o m a n i z e d K o r e a n n a m e s , r a n k s , e t c . , and an i n d e x of C h i n e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i n g to r a d i c a l s . Korean (473)

Chugyo T a e j S n H o e t ' o n g i j

TL of XJ j , _f-

(Annotated C o l l e c t i o n of F u n d a m e n t a l S t a t u t e s ) . K e i j o : C h S s e n Sotokufu C h u s u - i n , 1939.

A r e p r i n t with a n n o t a t i o n s of t h e T a e -

jSn H o e t ' o n g (1865), which i s a c o m p e n d i u m of t h e m a j o r l a w c o d e s of t h e Yi p e r i o d . C o n t a i n s l a w s on a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,

land,

r i t e s and c e r e m o n i e s , m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n , public w o r k s ,

etc.,

and n a m e s t h e r e s p o n s i b l e o f f i c i a l s . T h e t e x t i s p u n c t u a t e d and i n c l u d e s k u n t e n , and t h e r e i s a k a n a i n d e x of t h e a n n o t a t i o n s . A l s o c o n t a i n s a 7 5 - p a g e k a n a m a j i r i a c c o u n t of t h e b a c k g r o u n d of t h e T a e j S n H o e t ' o n g and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e K o r e a n g o v e r n ment. (473a)

Yakubun T a i t e n K a i t s u

Sotokufu C h u s u - i n , 1921. Hoet'ong.

^

•

Kei

j ° : Chosen

A J a p a n e s e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e T a e j S n

Special Reference Materials

171

Japanese (474)

Kuroi Jodo ,f.

-Ǥ. \ . "Shiragi Shoki Kankai Meigi ni tsuite

no Shin-kenkyu" j f j $ } j

u

0

j( r ^

&

(New Researches on the Names of Official Ranks in the First Age of Silla), Kokogaku Zasshi $ £

XIV (1924), 470-483.

Based on the Samguk Sagi (225). Studies Buddhist and Sanskrit influence on titles of the early Silla period. (475)

Imanishi Ryu. "Shiragi Kan-igo-ko" £, ^ ^ (57 B . C . - 3 A.D.) Pak 2. Namhae Wang & fity £ ^ ¿„j (4-24) Pak 3. Yuri Wang f'^ i f £ ^ (24-57) Pak 4. T'alhae Wang n i 1 (57-80) S8k 5. P ' a s a Wang ^ ^ ( 8 0 - 1 1 2 ) Pak 6. Chima Wang fc ^ £ r-) ^ (112-134) Pak 7. Ils5ng Wang ¿jfaqc ^ ^ ^ (134-154) Pak 8. Adalla Wang ( J g ^ ^ o|- c£ ^ (154-184)Pak 9. P8rhyu Wang ^ ^ ^ ^ (184-196) S5k 10. Naehae Wang ^ ^ £ oj i 1 ^ (196-230) S8k 11. Chobun Wang n h i f i. Z -ir (230-247) S5k 12. Ch'Smhae Wang ^ L ^ ^ ^ (247-261) S8k 13. Mich'u Wang Q , ^ jj- (262-284) Kim 14. Yurye Wang ^ ^ ^ e=c) (284-298) S8k 15. K i r i m Wang ^ j . ,, ^ (298-310) S8k 16. Hulhae Wang f t , £ 4if (310-356) S8k 17. Naemul Wang % fcj ^ 1 tj,- (356-402) Kim 18. Sils8ng Wang ^ £ A i „.j (402-417) Kim 19. Nulchi Wang ^ t ^ ,.,£¿-(417-458) Kim 20. Chabi Wang-^ (458-479) Kim i tl. 21. Soji Wang Jfu £ t *| (479-500) Kim 22. Chijiing Wang '*o p g - £ 11 s^- (500-514) Kim

R u l e r s and Dynasties 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. *Queen

181

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Glossary N o t e : (K), (J), and (C) indicate that the word i s Korean, J a p a n e s e , o r Chinese. hanmun 5f i iJ: (K): a s c r i p t written in Chinese c h a r a c t e r s . Hanmun a p p e a r s to be indistinguishable f r o m Chinese, but most K o r e a n s r e a d it by t h e i r pronunciation and syntax. F o r the p u r p o s e s of the Guide, works by K o r e a n s written in Chinese c h a r a c t e r s have been c l a s s i f i e d a s "Korean" and r e g a r d e d a s being in hanmun. han-gul e ¿ ~t (K): the p r e s e n t n a m e of the s c r i p t invented by King Sejong. It contained 17 consonants and 11 vowels when it was p r o c l a i m e d in 1446; v a r i o u s modifications r e duced t h e s e to 14 consonants and 10 vowels. Words a r e w r i t ten in syllable c l u s t e r s . Han-gul was also called huprriln ch5ng-um, Snmun, panjSl (q.v.), and kungmun. hwarang gp ^^¿¿-(K): an institution of Silla o r g a n i z e d to t r a i n young nobles in the a r t s of war and government. By extension, the word came to m e a n a s p i r i t of w a r r i o r v a l o r . idu

»1 (K): Chinese c h a r a c t e r s used phonetically to r e p r e s e n t Korean auxiliary v e r b s and connectives. Invented e a r l y in the period of unified Silla. It i s s i m i l a r to kugy5l (q.v.) and Vo in method and purpose, and also r e s e m b l e s the J a p a n e s e manyogana ^ ^ •

kana i H £> (J): a J a p a n e s e s y l l a b a r y of f o r t y - s e v e n symbols. T h e r e a r e two types of kana: (1) h i r a g a n a ^ IPIL-i, • which gives a c u r s i v e o r abbreviated f o r m of a c h a r a c t e r which h a s the sound of the kana syllable; (2) katakana ) j , which gives the e s s e n t i a l o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c portion of a c h a r 192

Glossary

193

a c t e r which h a s the sound of the kana syllable. Kana i s a s i m p l e way of writing J a p a n e s e words usually used in conjunction with Chinese c h a r a c t e r s (see k a n a m a j i r i ) . kanamajlri (J): J a p a n e s e s c r i p t composed of Chinese c h a r a c t e r s and kana (q.v.). Most nouns and v e r b s a r e in c h a r a c t e r s ; p a r t i c l e s , v e r b a l suffixes, adjectival, and a d v e r b i a l inflections a r e in kana. kambun | ¿_(J): J a p a n e s e s c r i p t written in Chinese c h a r a c t e r s . Kambun s e e m s indistinguishable f r o m Chinese, but the J a p a n e s e usually r e a d it by t h e i r pronunciation and syntax, and often i n s e r t kunten (q.v.) to indicate the l a t t e r . It i s e s s e n tially the J a p a n e s e equivalent of the Korean hanmun (q.v.). k i s a e n g ( K ) : Korean f e m a l e e n t e r t a i n e r s skilled in singing, dancing, playing m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s , and in the a r t of polite conversation. Similar to the J a p a n e s e geisha

K o r e a : the p r e s e n t English n a m e f o r the country and peninsula, derived f r o m KoryS (K). The country, o r portions of it, h a s been called by many n a m e s throughout i t s history, and s e v e r a l of t h e s e n a m e s a r e still used f o r patriotic, poetic, o r o t h e r r e a s o n s . The most important a r e given below with s o m e explanation of when o r w h e r e they a r e chiefly used. ChosSn (K): the K o r e a n s ' name for t h e i r country during the Yi period and still the most frequent Korean designation. Chosen (J) i s the J a p a n e s e f o r m used during most of the J a p a n e s e occupation period. C h ' a o - h s i e n (C) i s the Chinese equivalent, u s e d chiefly to r e f e r to Korea of Kija and Wiman. Sam Han (K), SSn Kan (J), San-han (C): p r o p e r l y the t h r e e t r i b e s of e a r l y Korean history, but by extension h a s b e e n u s e d to indicate K o r e a a s a whole. Similarly, Samguk (K), Sahkoku (J) and San-kuo (C) m e a n p r o p e r l y the T h r e e Kingdoms, but by extension have been used to indicate K o r e a in l a t e r ages. Silla (K), Shiragi, Shinra (J), Hsin-lo (C): used to d e s i g nate K o r e a a f t e r the tenth century, although the n a m e i s usually confined to the h i s t o r i c a l kingdom. Only v e r y r a r e l y

194

Korean Studies Guide

has this extension been given to Paekche (K)—Kudara, Hakusai (J), P a i - c h i (C)—and to KoguryS (K)—Kokurai, Koma (J), Kao-chtl-li (C). JL e=j (K), Koma, K o r a i (J), Kao-li (C): KoryS ^ usually confined to the h i s t o r i c a l kingdom. Taehan Cheguk iSj V *-) ^ (K), Taikan Teikoku (J), T a - h a n Ti-kuo (C): used especially during the s o - c a l l e d Korean E m p i r e (1897-1910). Han-guk ^ / f ^ i¿ ^ (K), Kankoku (J), and Han-kuo (C) a r e s h o r t e r f o r m s of t h e s e n a m e s , and also v a r i a n t s of Sam Han, etc. Taehan Min-guk ^ ¡ ^ ^ °J ^ (K), Taikan Minkoku (J), T a - h a n Min-kuo (C): the official n a m e of the R e A public of Korea; and Chos5n Inmin-guk ^ /vL\j i «J °J (K), Chosen Jinminkoku (J), C h ' a o - h s i e n J e n - m i n kuo (C)—the official n a m e of the D e m o c r a t i c P e o p l e ' s Republic of K o r e a . In addition, t h e s e n a m e s a r e also frequently used f o r Korea: C h i n d a n ; f . ® xj ci- (K), Shindan (J), Chen-1'an (C) Ch'Snggu-i i p ^ f (K), Seikyu (J), C h ' i n g - c h ' i u (C) Haedong ^ ^ ^ (K), Kaito (J), Hai-tung (C) K y e r i m ^ ^ ^ s j t f a Keirin (J), Chi-lin (C) Kunyok (K), Kan-iki (J), Chin-ytleh (C) Sohwa £ it- (K), ShSka (J), Hsiao-hua (C) Taedong ^ £ ch) -£- (K), TaidC (J), Ta-tung (C) Tongguk ^ |gjj i . ^ (K), T5koku (J), Tung-kuo (C) kugyol C7 f (K): Chinese c h a r a c t e r s o r p a r t s of Chinese c h a r a c t e r s f i r s t used during the KoryS period to r e p r e s e n t Korean auxiliary v e r b s and connectives in hanmun (q.v.) in o r d e r to facilitate the reading of the text according to Korean syntax. T'o i s a s c r i p t s i m i l a r to kugySl in method and p u r pose, and both a r e s i m i l a r to idu (q.v.). kukhanmun

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¿¿- {r (K): Korean s c r i p t composed of Chi-

nese c h a r a c t e r s and han-gul (q.v.) used in Korea since the invention of han-gul but especially by r e c e n t Korean w r i t e r s and publishers. Most nouns a r e written in c h a r a c t e r s ; most

Glossary

195

of the other p a r t s of speech in han-gul. kungmun l§] ^

g (K): s e e han-gul.

kunten §"1 fff.(J): m a r k s used in kambun (q.v.) texts to indicate how to r e a d the text according to J a p a n e s e syntax. okp'ySn i ^f ^ a^ (K): Korean dictionaries of Chinese c h a r a c t e r s which give the Korean pronunciation of the c h a r a c t e r s , usually in han-gul in the recent okp'ySn. E a r l y okp'ySn used the Chinese method called f a n - c h ' i e h J ^ i j j . in which the initial sound of one c h a r a c t e r was combined with the final sound of another to indicate the pronunciation of the c h a r a c t e r in question. Bnmun I / | i . 0d ir (K): see han-gul. panjSl fa i j ] < ( K ) : Originally, a Korean word f o r f a n - c h ' i e h (see okp'ySn). By extension, it b e c a m e one of the n a m e s f o r Sejong's s c r i p t (see han-gul). Po-hai

a Manchurian state which existed f r o m the eighth

to the e a r l y tenth century and which contained much of p r e s e n t n o r t h e a s t e r n Korea. Called also Palhae ¿1 (K) and Bokkai (J). Tamna-guk ^ (K): The Korean n a m e f o r Cheju-do b e f o r e the Yi period. Called also Tanra-koku (J) and T a n - l o kuo (C). (K): s e e kugySl.

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