Isaiah's Servants in Early Judaism and Christianity: The Isaian Servant and the Exegetical Formation of Community Identity (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen Zum Neuen Testament 2.reihe, 554) 9783161550423, 9783161608049, 3161550420

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Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament ∙ 2. Reihe Herausgeber/Editor

Jörg Frey (Zürich) Mitherausgeber/Associate Editors

Markus Bockmuehl (Oxford) ∙ James A. Kelhoffer (Uppsala) Tobias Nicklas (Regensburg) ∙ Janet Spittler (Charlottesville, VA) J. Ross Wagner (Durham, NC)

554

Isaiah’s Servants in Early Judaism and Christianity The Isaian Servant and the Exegetical Formation of Community Identity Edited by

Michael A. Lyons and Jacob Stromberg

Mohr Siebeck

Michael A. Lyons, born 1967; MA and PhD University of Wisconsin-Madison; 2007–12 ­A ssistant Professor of Old Testament and 2012–18 Associate Professor of Old Testament, Simpson University; since 2018 Lecturer in Old Testament, University of St Andrews. orcid.org/0000-0003-2940-3965 Jacob Stromberg, born 1974; DPhil Oxford; since 2011 Lecturer in Old Testament, Duke University. orcid.org/0000-0002-4002-4918

ISBN 978-3-16-155042-3 / eISBN 978-3-16-160804-9 DOI 10.1628/978-3-16-160804-9 ISSN 0340-9570 / eISSN 2568-7484 (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament, 2. Reihe) The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data are available at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2021 Mohr Siebeck Tübingen, Germany. www.mohrsiebeck.com This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher’s written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations and storage and processing in electronic systems. The book was typeset by epline in Böblingen using Minion typeface, printed on non-aging paper by Laupp & Göbel in Gomaringen, and bound by Buchbinderei Nädele in Nehren. Printed in Germany.

Preface Much has been written on the “Suffering Servant” of Second Isaiah. But a critical gap remains in scholarly treatments of this topic in its earliest reception. While there has been a great deal of attention devoted to the identity and traditionhistorical background of the “Suffering Servant” and to the use of the so-called “Servant Songs” in early Christianity, far less attention has been given to the Trito-Isaian “servants” and to how their description was received by early readers. This has resulted in an incomplete and distorted picture. It is our contention that the Isaian argument about the servants and Servant is not of marginal importance in the Second Temple period, but had a significant impact on the formation of texts and community identity. This volume of essays takes as its starting point the fact that a group referred to as the “servants” or “offspring” in Isaiah 54–66 has been described in relation to the “Servant” figure of Isaiah 40–53. Like the Servant, the servants/offspring suffer righteously, are promised vindication, and are in various ways linked to the theme of the universal recognition of Yhwh. It is already suggested in Isa 53:10– 11 that the Servant will create a righteous community, and – as Joseph Blenkinsopp and Willem Beuken have shown – the remainder of the book develops this idea in greater detail. The servants/offspring play a key role in this argument. But to what extent are early Jewish and Christian readers aware of this Isaian argument about the servants and the Servant, and how do they use it to shape their own identity? To what extent might their constructions of community identity be understood as “exegetical”? What are the similarities and differences in the ways that they use these Isaian texts? How is the Isaian presentation of the servants and Servant designed to be understood within the framework of a larger portrait of Israel’s history, and as the product of a profoundly analogical strategy of composition? This volume of essays is dedicated to answering these questions. The following essays have been written by a talented cast of scholars. They bring a variety of perspectives and methodologies to bear on the questions stated above. The editors are grateful to the contributors for their careful and creative work. We are also indebted to Elena Müller and Tobias Stäbler for their editorial expertise and to Tobias Weiß for his diligent work in producing this volume. Finally, we wish to thank Jörg Frey, Tobias Nicklas, and the rest of the editorial board of Mohr Siebeck for accepting this project. Michael A. Lyons, Jacob Stromberg

Table of Contents Preface  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V List of Abbreviations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX Michael A. Lyons and Jacob Stromberg Introduction: “This is the Heritage of the Servants”  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 D. Andrew Teeter and Michael A. Lyons The One and the Many, the Past and the Future, and the Dynamics of Prospective Analogy  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Michael A. Lyons The Servants in Psalms 22, 69, and 102  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Jacob Stromberg A Covenantal Community and a New Creation after the Flood: The Wise in Daniel 11–12 and the Servants of the Lord in Isaiah  . . . . . . . . . 65 Holly J. Carey The Servants in Wisdom of Solomon  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Elizabeth E. Shively The Servant(s) in the Gospel of Mark and the Textual Formation of Early Christian Identity  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Holly Beers The Servant(s) in Luke-Acts  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Jan Rüggemeier Transworld Characters and the Isaian Servant(s) Theme in Romans  . . . . . . 209 Mark S. Gignilliat Paul and Isaiah’s Servants in 2 Corinthians  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 James P. Ware The Servants of the Servant in Isaiah and Philippians  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

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Table of Contents

Volker Gäckle Jesus, the Slaves, and the Servant(s) in 1 Peter 2:18–25  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Sheree Lear Following the Lamb Wherever He Goes: The Reception of Isaiah’s Servant Narrative in Revelation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 William A. Tooman The Servant-Messiah and the Messiah’s Servants in Targum Jonathan Isaiah  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Michael A. Lyons “He Will Call His Servants by Another Name”: Concluding Reflections on Community Identity and the Exegesis of Isaiah  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 List of Contributors  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Index of References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Index of Authors  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

Abbreviations AB ANTJ ArBib ATM BBR BEL BETL BFCT BKAT BNTC BR BTB BThSt BVC BWANT BZAR BZAW BZNW CBETh CBQ CBR CQ ConBNT DNTB EdF EKKNT EThSt ETL EvT ExpTim FAT FB FOTL FRLANT GRBS HAT HCOT HeBAI HKAT HNT HThKNT

Anchor Bible Arbeiten zum Neuen Testament und Judentum Aramaic Bible Altes Testament und Moderne Bulletin for Biblical Research Bibliotheca Ephemerides Liturgicae Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium Beiträge zur Förderung christlicher Theologie Biblischer Kommentar, Altes Testament Black’s New Testament Commentaries Biblical Research Biblical Theology Bulletin Biblisch-Theologische Studien Bible et vie chrétienne Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten Testament Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology Catholic Biblical Quarterly Currents in Biblical Research The Classical Quarterly Coniectanea Biblica: New Testament Dictionary of New Testament Background Erträge der Forschung Evangelisch-katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament Evangelical Theological Society Studies Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses Evangelische Theologie Expository Times Forschungen zum Alten Testament Forschung zur Bibel Forms of the Old Testament Literature Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments Greek, Byzantine, and Roman Studies Handbuch zum Alten Testament Historical Commentary on the Old Testament Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel Handkommentar zum Alten Testament Handbuch zum Neuen Testament Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament

X HTS ICC IKZ ITC JBL JJP JJS JPTSup JSJ JSNT JSNTSup JSOT JSOTSup JSPL JTS JTSA KEK KHC LNTS LSTS NEchtB NovTSup NTD NTS NTSI OBO OTL OTM OTS PIBA PMLA POuT PRSt RBS SBB SBLSS SBS SIJB SJT SJOT SNT SNTA SNTSMS SPB StBibLit STDJ SubBi TBei

Abbreviations

Hervormde Theologiese Studies International Critical Commentary Internationale kirchliche Zeitschrift International Theological Commentary Journal of Biblical Literature Journal of Juristic Papyri Journal of Jewish Studies Journal of Pentecostal Theology Supplements Journal for the Study of Judaism Journal for the Study of the New Testament Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplements Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplements Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters Journal of Theological Studies Journal of Theology for Southern Africa Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar über das Neue Testament Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament Library of New Testament Studies Library of Second Temple Studies Neue Echter Bibel Novum Testamentum Supplements Das Neue Testament Deutsche New Testament Studies New Testament and the Scriptures of Israel Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis Old Testament Library Oxford Theological Monographs Old Testament Studies Proceedings of the Irish Biblical Association Proceedings of the Modern Language Association De Prediking van het Oude Testament Perspectives in Religious Studies Resources for Biblical Studies Stuttgarter biblische Beiträge Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series Stuttgarter Bibelstudien Schriften des Institutum Judaicum in Berlin Scottish Journal of Theology Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament Studien zum Neuen Testament Studiorum Novi Testamenti Auxilia Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series Studia Post Biblica Studies in Biblical Literature Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah Subsidia Biblica Theologische Beiträge



Abbreviations

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament ThB Theologische Bücherei THKNT Theologischer Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament ThKNT Theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament TLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung TSAJ Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism TU Texte und Untersuchungen TVG Theologische Verlagsgemeinschaft TynBul Tyndale Bulletin WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchung zum Neuen Testament VT Vetus Testamentum VTSup Vetus Testamentum Supplements UTB Universitätstaschenbücher WBC Word Biblical Commentary ZAW Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft ZNW Zeitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

XI

Introduction “This is the Heritage of the Servants” Michael A. Lyons and Jacob Stromberg … identities are the names we give to the different ways we are positioned by, and position ourselves within, the narratives of the past.1

Scriptural exegesis lay at the heart of Jewish and Christian identity formation in and around the Second Temple period. There were of course many factors that would have shaped the construction of one’s notions of self, of the “other,” and of the group or groups with which one might be affiliated. But in no small measure, Jewish and Christian communities were (or became) textual communities with exegetically-derived identities – something that can be easily seen in compositions such as 1QS and CD, 4Q504 “Words of the Luminaries,” and the bulk of the writings in the New Testament.2 1 Stuart

Hall, “Cultural Identity and Diaspora,” in Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, ed. Jonathan Rutherford (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1990), 222–37 (here 225). 2  For the notion of “textual communities,” see Brian Stock, The Implications of Literacy: Written Language and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelth Centuries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 90; Maren R. Niehoff, “Did the Timaeus Create a Textual Community?,” GRBS 47 (2007): 161–91. For explorations of how Second Temple-period Jewish and early Christian identities were exegetically constituted, see e. g. George J. Brooke, “Justifying Deviance: The Place of Scripture in Converting to a Qumran Self-Understanding,” in Reading the Present: Scriptural Interpretation and the Contemporary in the Texts of the Judean Desert, ed. Kristin De Troyer and Armin Lange (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005), 73–97; P. R. Davies, The Damascus Covenant: An Interpretation of the “Damascus Document”, JSOTSup 25 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1982), esp. 55; Maxine L. Grossman, “Cultivating Identity: Textual Virtuosity and ‘Insider’ Status,” in Defining Identities: We, You, and the Other in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Proceedings of the Fifth Meeting of the IOQS, ed. Florentino García Martínez and Mladen Popović, STDJ 70 (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 1–11; Reinhard G. Kratz, “Die Suche nach Identität in der nachexilischen Theologiegeschichte: Zur Hermeneutik des chronistischen Geschichtswerkes und ihrer Bedeutung für das Verständnis des Alten Testaments,” in Das Judentum im Zeitalter des Zweiten Tempels, FAT 42, 2nd ed. (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2013), 157–80; David Lincicum, Paul and the Early Jewish Encounter with Deuteronomy, WUNT II/284 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010); Hanna Liss and Manfred Oeming, eds., Literary Construction of Identity in the Ancient World (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2010); Jeremy Punt, “Identity, Memory and Scriptural Warrant: Arguing Paul’s Case,” in Paul and Scripture: Extending the Conversation, ed. Christopher D. Stanley (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2012), 25–53 (esp. 49); Rafael Rodríguez, “Textual Orientations: Jesus, Written Texts, and the Social Construction of Identity in the Gospel of Luke,” in T&T Clark Handbook to Social

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But although it holds promise as a key to unlock the mysteries of identity formation, the study of how readers in Antiquity handled scripture is fraught with complexity. The following questions are illustrative of the problem: in any given instance, to what extent were the motivating factors behind the shaping of identity external versus internal? When did texts exert pressure on readers, and when did readers (driven, perhaps, by felt needs or by group conflicts) exert pressure on texts? In any given instance, did readers of scripture work with locutions or passages in isolation, or in light of the text’s larger argument structure? To what extent did the innovation of meaning trump the inheritance of meaning? These are no simple matters. The present volume aims to illuminate the dynamics behind the exegetical origins of early Jewish and Christian identity by focusing on the reception of the relationship between the “servants of Yhwh” and the “Servant of Yhwh” in Isaiah 40–66. Since there is evidence to suggest that the Isaianic presentation of the Servant(s) was central to the self-conception of multiple communities over time, this selection should prove to be a useful test case. While much has been written on the reception of the Isaian Servant in early scriptural exegesis, this volume takes as its starting point the underappreciated fact that the interpretation of the “Servant of Yhwh” in Isaiah 40–55 begins in the book of Isaiah itself in chs. 54, 56–66, where we find an argument about a group known as the “servants of Yhwh.” This starting point is in line with a trend in Isaian research that understands material in Isaiah 56–66 as instances of Fortschreibung, or editorial extension, of Isaiah 40–55.3 Of course, this is not to deny that older traditional material has also been incorporated into Isaiah 56–66. However, this trend does reflect a growing appreciation that Isaiah 56–66 was the product of sustained theological reflection on a text, reflection that generated a new postexilic edition of the book of Isaiah. It is thus proper to view the contents of these Identity in the New Testament, ed. J. Brian Tucker and Coleman Baker (New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014), 191–210; Konrad Schmid, “The Canon and the Cult: The Emergence of Book Religion in Ancient Israel and the Gradual Sublimation of the Temple Cult,” JBL 131.2 (2012): 289–305; Devorah Steinmetz, “Sefer HeHago: The Community and the Book,” JJS 52.1 (2001): 40–58; Shemaryahu Talmon, “The Community of the Renewed Covenant: Between Judaism and Christianity,” in The Community of the Renewed Covenant: The Notre Dame Symposium on the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Eugene Ulrich and James VanderKam (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 1994), 3–24; Susan J. Wendel, Scriptural Interpretation and Community Self-Definition in Luke-Acts and the Writings of Justin Martyr, NovTSup 139 (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 27–79, 279–82 (esp. 27–28, 44–45, 77–79). 3 See e. g. Wolfgang Lau, Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 56–66, BZAW 225 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1994); Risto Nurmela, The Mouth of the Lord Has Spoken: Inner-Biblical Allusions in Second and Third Isaiah (Lanham: University Press of America, 2006); Odil Hannes Steck, Studien zu Tritojesaja, BZAW 203 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1991); Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Walther Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” STU 20 (1950): 110–22, repr. in Gottes Offenbarung: Gesammelte Aufsätze zum Alten Testament, ThB 19 (Munich: Chr. Kaiser, 1963), 217–33.



Introduction

3

eleven chapters of the book as the arguments of one who was both a reader and a redactor of an earlier form of the book of Isaiah.4 As the history of research presented below will show, scholarship has become increasingly aware of the significance of the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument and its reception by early readers. And yet to this point there has been no attempt at a comprehensive investigation into this topic with a synthesis of the results. This is the goal of the present volume.

1.  The Isaian Servants and their Afterlife: The History of Research The investigation of how the Isaianic theme of the “Servant of Yhwh” has been transformed in the latter portion of the book has its roots in older scholarship. It has long been recognized that references to the “Servant of Yhwh” end in Isaiah 53 and that what we find thereafter are references to “servants of Yhwh” (Isa 54:17; 56:6; 65:8–9, 13–15; 66:14). This raises the question of whether there is a connection between the Servant and the servants, and if so, what the nature of the connection is. In his 1841 commentary on the prophets, Heinrich Ewald remarked that the reference to the “servants of Yhwh” in Isa 54:16–17 was an “explanation” of Isa 53:10–12 (in which Yhwh’s Servant is said to “see offspring” and “make many righteous”).5 And in an 1877 study, William Urwick argued for a connection between the Servant figure of Isaiah 53 and the “servants” of the latter part of the book.6 4 See Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 248. Of course, the presence and number of editorial layers in Isaiah 56–66 is a currently debated topic in Isaian scholarship. 5 Heinrich Ewald, Die Propheten des Alten Bundes, vol. 2 (Stuttgart: Adolph Krabbe, 1841), 457: “v. 16 f., welche letzten Worte ganz wie absichtliche Erklärung zu 53,10–12 sich zu erkennen geben und das Ganze erhaben schliessen.” Duhm would subsequently argue that this plural reference to the “servants” in Isa 54:17b was related to the plural references in Isaiah 56–66; see Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia, 5th ed., HKAT 3/1 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1968), 413. 6 William Urwick, The Servant of Jehovah: A  Commentary, Grammatical and Critical, upon Isaiah LII. 13–LIII. 12 (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1877), 56–58: “A careful examination of these passages – the only places in which the word occurs after chapter liii., and the only places in which it occurs in the plural throughout this later portion from chapter xl. onwards – leads to the conclusion that by the phrase my servants (in the plural) is meant … a class of persons, a class of characters, all who piously fear the Lord and walk in his ways, whether they belong to the chosen people or be strangers …. The more natural explanation of this strikingly marked change of number is, that the prophet, having applied the title in chapter liii. to an individual person in whom his ideal should find its full realization, thenceforward, when speaking of the class, adopts the plural.” Abraham Kuenen also saw a connection between the Servant and the servants in which a task was “transferred,” though he understood the relationship in terms of a shift from David’s descendents to obedient Israel (this was related to his argument that the promise to David was democratized in Isa 55:3); see Abraham Kuenen, De Profeten en de Profetie onder Israël. Historisch-dogmatische studie, 2 vols. (Leiden: P. Engels, 1875), 1:256–59

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The connection between the Servant and the servants was gradually explored in subsequent research: in 1956, Venantius de Leeuw noted the textual shift from the Servant to the servants and suggested that Trito-Isaiah constituted the earliest interpretation of Deutero-Isaiah, an interpretation in which the role of the Servant was passed on to the servants.7 And in a 1972 monograph, George Nickelsburg argued that the imagery of the Deutero-Isaianic Servant figure was taken up and used for a righteous community in Trito-Isaiah and in Daniel:8 In Second Isaiah the term ʿebed occurs in the singular. For the most part, this servant is identified with the nation, Israel – although at times he seems to be a figure separate from the nation. Daniel 12 witnesses to a pluralization of the servant figure: the servant, singular, has become the servants, plural (or more specifically, “the wise ones” and “those who bring many to righteousness”). This shift had taken place already in Third Isaiah, where the righteous are called “my servants, my chosen ones.”

In 1975, Paul Hanson attempted to reconstruct the roots of Jewish apocalyptic thought, tracing it to conflict between visionary and priestly groups. While he understood Deutero-Isaiah’s “Servant” as referring to Israel rather than to a prophetic individual within Israel, he believed that these references were reinterpreted for a community called the “servants” in Trito-Isaiah.9 A  similar view can be found in Elizabeth Achtemeier’s short commentary (1982) on the last eleven chapters of Isaiah. Here she argued that Trito-Isaiah’s references to Yhwh’s “servants” were used to designate a “Levitical-prophetic” party within Israel and that the author had appropriated the role of Deutero-Isaiah’s “Servant” to describe these “servants.”10 (esp. 256, n.3). Elliger too noted the linguistic shift from the Deutero-Isaian singular to the Trito-Isaian plural (and argued that the occurrence of “servants of Yhwh” in Isa 54:17 belonged with Trito-Isaiah) but did not speak of a role being passed from DI’s “Servant” to TI’s “servants.” As he saw it, TI took up DI’s vision of salvation, then focused on those to whom salvation would come: “Dtjes.s Botschaft umspannt das ganze Volk; allen ohne Ausnahme steht das Heil bevor; die Sünde ist ja abgewischt. Trtjes.s Blick haftet nicht so sehr an dem, was kommt, sondern auch sehr stark an denen, zu denen es kommt.” See Karl Elliger, Deuterojesaja in seinem Verhältnis zu Tritojesaja, BWANT 63 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1933), 162–63. 7  Venantius de Leeuw, De Ebed Jahweh-Profetieen: Historisch-kritisch Onderzoek naar hun ontstaan en hun betekenis (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1956), 332: “L’histoire de l’interprétation des chants de l’Ébed débute avec les Livres de l’Ancien Testament, peut-être déjà avec le Trito-Isaïe. Alors que le Serviteur occupe une place de premier plan dans Is., xl–lv, il disparaît de l’horizon dans Is., lvi–lxvi, où se rencontrent plutôt ‘les serviteurs’, c’est-à-dire les Israélites pieux et fidèles auxquels le rôle de l’Ebed, au moins en partie, semble avoir été dévolu.” 8  George W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 25. 9  Paul D. Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic: The Historical and Sociological Roots of Jewish Apocalyptic Eschatology, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 36: “In 40–55 the entire nation is the object of the promise of salvation, whereas in 56–66 salvation is reserved for one segment of the nation. This is reflected, e. g., in the reinterpretation of the ‘servant’ Israel of Second Isaiah as the ‘servants’ comprising only the faithful remnant” (see further 44–45, 67–69, 93–100). 10 Elizabeth Achtemeier, The Community and Message of Isaiah 56–66: A  Theological



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But perhaps the most concentrated analysis of the relationship between the Servant and the servants was undertaken from a sociological standpoint by Joseph Blenkinsopp and from a literary standpoint by Willem Beuken. In 1983 and afterward, Blenkinsopp wrote a series of articles arguing that at least some of the references to Yhwh’s Servant in Isaiah 40–55 referred to an individual prophetic figure whose disciples honored his legacy. The Servant’s values and mission were taken over as paradigmatic by a sectarian “pietist, prophetic-eschatological” group referred to in Isaiah 56–66 as the “servants.” These “servants” were also designated as the “tremblers” (Isa 66:2, 5), a group that Blenkinsopp linked with those who “feared God’s name” in Mal 3:13–21.11 In 1990 and 1991, Willem Beuken published two essays exploring the literary development of the “servants of Yhwh” theme throughout Isaiah 54, 56–66, and argued that these chapters functioned as an explanation of the promise in Isaiah 53 that the Servant would “see offspring” and “make many righteous.”12 The research of Blenkinsopp and Beuken in particular has had a significant impact on Isaian scholarship.13 Commentary (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1982), 132: “… Trito-Isaiah here pictures a new election of a new group within Israel. As before, the title of ‘servants’ is intended to appropriate for the Levitical-prophetic community the role of Second Isaiah’s Servant” (see further 16–17, 45, 88–89, 144). 11 Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch,” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23; repr. in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship, ed. R. P. Gordon (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 392–412; idem, “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period,” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20; idem, “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition, ed. Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans, VTSup 70/1 (New York: Brill, 1997), 155–75; idem, “Trito-Isaiah (Isaiah 56–66) and the gôlāh Group of Ezra, Shecaniah, and Nehemiah (Ezra 7–Nehemiah 13): Is there a Connection?” JSOT 43.4 (2019): 661–77. See Blenkinsopp, “Jewish Sect,” 14: “… the statement that the servant will see his offspring and the outcome of his travail implies either belief in a miraculous restoration to life or, more probably, that his work and mission will be continued by those who, like the speaker, have come to believe in him and have answered the call to perpetuate his mission and teaching”; “Servant and the Servants,” 171: “The texts do, however, permit and even encourage us to think of the relationship between the prophetic Servant who is spoken of and who himself speaks in chaps. 49–54 and the ‘servants of Yhwh’ of the last two chapters in terms of discipleship.” See further Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19B (New York: Doubleday, 2003), 33–34, 63–66, 132–33, 275–83, 293–301. 12  W. A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH,’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87; idem, “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah,” in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989, ed. J. A. Emerton (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), 204–21. 13  See e. g. Ulrich F. Berges, The Book of Isaiah: Its Composition and Final Form, trans. Millard C. Lind (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2012), 392–93, 451–502; Brevard Childs, Isaiah, OTL (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 430–31, 455, 499; Emmanuel Uchenna Dim, The Eschatological Implications of Isaiah 65 and 66 as the Conclusion of the Book of Isaiah (Bern: Peter Lang, 2005), 1–2, 280–82, 349–53; Judith Gärtner, “‘… Why Do You Let Us Stray From Your Paths …’ (Isa 63:17): The Concept of Guilt in the Communal Lament Isa 63:7–64:11,” in Seeking the Favor of God, Vol. 1: The Origins of Penitential Prayer in the Second Temple Period, ed. Mark J. Boda et al. (Atlanta: SBL, 2006), 145–63 (esp. 160–62); Knud Jeppesen, “From ‘You, My Servant’ to ‘The Hand of the Lord is with My Servants’: A Discus-

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Modern readers are not unique in recognizing the connection between the Servant and the servants. Ancient readers were influenced by it as well and followed in the footsteps of the original Persian-period sectarian group by defining themselves as the servants or offspring of the Deutero-Isaian Servant.14 As noted above, Nickelsburg recognized that the shift from the Servant figure of Isaiah 40–55 to the servants of Isaiah 56–66 was reflected in the book of Daniel. In this claim he was anticipated by Gustav Dalman, who had long before pointed out that Dan 12:3 (“And those who have insight will shine like the radiance of the expanse; and those who make the many righteous [‫הרבים‬ ‫]מצדיקי‬, like the stars forever and ever”) is borrowing the wording of Isa 53:11 (“the righteous one, my Servant, will make many righteous [‫)”]לרבים … יצדיק‬. Moreover, the reference in Dan 12:3a to “those who have insight” [‫ ]המשׂכלים‬seems to be drawing on the terminology of Isa 52:13, in which it is said that Yhwh’s righteous Servant will “have success” [‫]ישׂכיל עבדי‬.15 Another Second-Temple period Jewish text that used the Isaian Servant figure as a paradigm for a later community of righteous sufferers is Wisdom of Solomon.16 Similar lines of investigation into the reception of the Isaian “Servant/servants” argument have been continued in sion of Is 40–66,” SJOT 1 (1990): 113–29 (esp. 125–29); Jan Leunis Koole, Isaiah III, Volume 3: Isaiah 56–66, HCOT (Leuven: Peeters, 2001), 21, 87; Paul V. Niskanen, Isaiah 56–66, Berit Olam (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2014), xx, 33, 86–89; Christopher R. Seitz, “How Is the Prophet Isaiah Present in the Latter Half of the Book? The Logic of Chapters 40–66 within the Book of Isaiah,” JBL 115 (1996): 219–40 (esp. 237–38); idem, “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible VI, ed. Leander E. Keck (Nashville: Abingdon, 2001), 307–552 (here 317–21); Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 79–91; Marvin A. Sweeney, “The Reconceptualization of the Davidic Covenant in Isaiah,” in Reading Prophetic Books: Form, Intertextuality, and Reception in Prophetic and Post-Biblical Literature, FAT 89 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014), 94–113 (esp. 97–98, 101–103); Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, “Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40–66. History of Research,” in Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66, ed. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad, FRLANT 255 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014), 13–40 (esp. 32–35). 14  The labels “Deutero-Isaiah” and “Trito-Isaiah” are of course anachronistic when speaking of the earliest reception of the book of Isaiah. 15  G. H. Dalman, Der leidende und der sterbende Messias der Synagoge im ersten nachchristlichen Jahrtausend, SIJB 4 (Berlin: H. Reuther, 1888), 31; see also James A. Montgomery, The Book of Daniel, ICC (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1927), 472; H. L. Ginsberg, “The Oldest Interpretation of the Suffering Servant,” VT 3 (1953): 400–404; John Day, “DAʿAT ‘Humiliation’ in Isaiah LIII 11 in the Light of Isaiah LIII 3 and Daniel XII 4, and the Oldest Known Interpretation of the Suffering Servant,” VT 30.1 (1980): 97–103; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19A (New York: Doubleday, 2002), 85; idem, “The Suffering Servant, the Book of Daniel, and Martyrdom,” in Essays on the Book of Isaiah, FAT 128 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019), 198–215. 16  See P. C. Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon 3,1–4,19 and the Book of Isaiah,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift Willem A. M. Beuken, ed. Jacques van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne, BETL 132 (Leuven: University Press and Peeters, 1997), 413–20; George W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006), 83–88; M. Jack Suggs, “Wisdom of Solomon 2:10–5: A Homily Based on the Fourth Servant Song,” JBL 76.1 (1957): 26–33; J. Pat-



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recent studies. For example, Ulrich Berges, Alphonso Groenewald, and Michael Lyons have respectively argued that Psalms 102, 69, and 22 were edited into their final forms by those who self-identified as the “servants” or their “offspring.”17 All three of these psalms contain the motifs of righteous suffering, hope for vindication, and the universal recognition of Yhwh found in Isa 40–66. Blenkinsopp had already suggested in his 1983 essay that the Isaian argument about the “Servant” and the “servants” also played a prominent role in the formation of early Christianity:18 A closer study of the movement generated by the Servant’s career may serve not only to fill out some details, but to suggest that the early Christian movement, in the way it understood itself charged,19 and the prospects which lay ahead of it, was following a pattern already at hand in the historical experience of Second Temple Judaism.

This suggestion would be confirmed in studies on Luke-Acts (Holly Beers, Michael Lyons), 2 Corinthians (Mark Gignilliat), and Galatians (Mark Gignilliat, Matthew Harmon).20 It is important to note that the authors of these studies do not argue that the formulations of early Christian identity and mission are merely random, ad hoc transformations of Deutero-Isaian Servant imagery. Rather, they agree that it was the way in which Isaiah 54, 56–66 picked up and extended the Servant imagery of Isaiah 40–55 that was determinative for early Christian writers. To sum up: recent scholarship on the reception and use of Isaian Servant language in later texts has concluded that these texts reflect rick Ware, The Mission of the Church in Paul’s Letter to the Philippians in the Context of Ancient Judaism, NovTSup 120 (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 118–26. 17 Ulrich Berges, “Die Knechte im Psalter. Ein Beitrag zu seiner Kompositionsgeschichte,” Biblica 81 (2000): 153–78; idem, “Who were the Servants? A Comparative Inquiry in the Book of Isaiah and the Psalms” in Past, Present, Future: The Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets, ed. Johannes C. de Moor and Harry F. van Rooy, OTS 44 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 1–18; Alphonso Groenewald, Psalm 69: Its Structure, Redaction, and Composition, ATM 18 (Münster: Lit, 2003), 239–60; idem, “Who are the ‘Servants’ (Psalm 69:36c–37b)? A  Contribution to the History of the Literature of the Old Testament,” HTS 59.3 (2003): 735–61; Michael A. Lyons, “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isa 54, 56–66,” CBQ 77.4 (2015): 640–56. See also the contribution by Lyons in this volume. 18  Blenkinsopp, “Pietistic Group,” 411–12; see also idem, Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 134. 19  Blenkinsopp, “Pietistic Group,” 412, n.60: “The sequence: mission to Israel, relative failure, mission to the Gentiles as a preparation for the parousia not only in the Servant passages but throughout Second and Third Isaiah (e. g., 66:18–21 for a Gentile mission leading to the parousia).” 20 Holly Beers, The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts, LNTS 535 (New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015), esp. 41–48, 86, 88–89; Mark Gignilliat, Paul and Isaiah’s Servants: Paul’s Theological Reading of Isaiah 40–66 in 2 Corinthians 5:14–6:10, LNTS 330 (New York: T&T Clark, 2007), esp. 108–42; idem, “Isaiah’s Offspring: Paul’s Isaiah 54:1 Quotation in Galatians 4:27,” BBR 25.2 (2015): 205–23; Matthew Harmon, She Must and Shall Go Free: Paul’s Isaianic Gospel in Galatians, BZNW 168 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010), esp. 45, 74–89, 120 n. 257, 192; Michael A. Lyons, “Paul and the Servant(s): Isa 49,6 in Acts 13,47,” ETL 89.4 (2013): 345–59.

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thematic developments that are already present in the book of Isaiah as a whole and are a product of its compositional development. These recent studies represent a dramatic shift from the assumption that early readers of Isaiah simply re-imagined themselves as the Deutero-Isaian Servant.21 The problem can be illustrated by asking the following question: by what logic do New Testament authors use Isaian Servant language to describe both Jesus and Jesus’ followers? On the one hand, it is clear that Jesus is described using Isaian Servant imagery in e. g. Luke 2:30–32 (cf. Isa 49:6 + 46:13) and Luke 3:22 (cf. Isa 42:1). On the other hand, in Acts 13:47, Paul and Barnabas are depicted as quoting Isa 49:6 (in which Yhwh tells the Servant that he has made him “a light for the nations”) and stating that “This is what the Lord has commanded us.” Similarly, the argument of 1 Pet 2:21–25 (which uses the language of Isaiah 53 to describe Jesus’ suffering and death) is prefixed with the statement that Jesus’ sufferings function as an “example” (ὑπογραμμόν) to the addressees of the book. This use of material from Isaiah 40–55 demands an explanation: by what rationale do these authors claim that Jesus’ followers have acquired the role of the Isaian Servant?22 It is not enough to point to Jesus’ commissioning of the apostles in Acts 1:8 or the commissioning of Paul in Acts 9:15–16. This would require us to believe that Jesus had invented the notion himself  – and such a hypothesis does not satisfactorily explain the pervasive use of the book of Isaiah in shaping both pre-Christian identity and early Christian mission. Nor is it enough to say that the earliest Christians saw themselves as the “New Israel” and, believing that being a “light to the nations” was Israel’s God-appointed task, decided to take up this task themselves. This raises the question of why the earliest Christians would believe this about themselves in the first place and ignores the fact that the New Testament authors identify the Isaian Servant figure with Jesus even while using Isaian language for his followers. Nor again is it enough to use the word “collective” in a facile way, as if by introducing enough elasticity into the Isaian Servant image one can stretch it to “explain” how the book of Isaiah is being used by later authors.23 It is striking that the New Testament authors do not appeal 21  See e. g. Paul E. Dinter, “Paul and the Prophet Isaiah,” BTB 13 (1983): 48–52; Robert F. O’Toole, Luke’s Presentation of Jesus: A  Christology, SubBi 25 (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 2004); 95 n. 211; W. F. J. Ryan, “The Church as the Servant of God in Acts,” Scripture 15 (1963): 110–15. 22  For statements of the problem, see Gignilliat, Paul and Isaiah’s Servants, 51; Lyons, “Paul and the Servant(s),” 345–49; Grant Macaskill, Union with Christ in the New Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 125–27, 260–61. 23  See e. g. George Adam Smith, The Book of Isaiah, 2 vols. (New York: A. C. Armstrong and Son, 1893), 2:287–88: “… Paul revives and reinforces the collective interpretation of the Servant. He claims the Servant’s duties and experience for himself, his fellow-labourers in the gospel, and all believers.” Note the ambiguity of the term “collective interpretation”: is this an assertion that ancient readers understood the Servant figure in e. g. Isaiah 53 to refer to a group (as opposed to an individual)? Or is it an assertion that ancient readers used Deutero-Isaian



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to a collective understanding of their relationship to Jesus when defining their identity and mission, but to a paradigmatic or exemplary understanding (cf. Acts 26:23; 1 Pet 2:21). Furthermore, if the relationship of Jesus to his followers could be explained in terms of “collective Servant imagery,” why the need for the commissions in Acts 1:8; 9:15–16? It seems to the editors of this volume that there is a more compelling way to explain the use of Isaiah in defining early Christian identity and mission: what if these New Testament authors are not doing something fundamentally new in their use of the book of Isaiah, but are instead responding to an argument structure that already exists within the book itself ? What if there were precursors to this kind of text-handling that were already operative in pre-Christian, Jewish literary circles? And what if the way in which the identity of both early Jewish and Christian readers was defined was (at least in some cases) fundamentally exegetical in nature?24

2.  The Aims of this Volume The essays in this volume present and coordinate research on how the Isaian relationship between the Servant and the servants was perceived and utilized by early readers of the book of Isaiah. The texts to be investigated include the following: Psalms 22, 69, 102; Daniel; Wisdom of Solomon; Mark; Luke-Acts; Romans; 2 Corinthians; Philippians; 1 Peter; Revelation; Targum Jonathan on Isaiah. These represent the earliest reflections on the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument from Second Temple-period Israelite, early Christian, and early Jewish perspectives.25 Also included is an essay on the literary and conceptual antecedents to the Isaian Servant(s). The essays in this volume answer the following questions: Servant imagery to describe their own community identity? And if the latter is true, is the former necessarily the case? 24  For an explanation of what we mean by “exegetical,” see the concluding essay in this volume. 25  While the speaking voice in 1QHa self-designates with the title “your servant” (e. g. 1QHa 5.24; 13.28; 18.29) and speaks of suffering and vindication, and while 1QHa uses individual locutions from Isaiah 40–66 (e. g. 1QHa 15.10 // Isa 50:4), the Isaianic “servants” theme is not taken up and developed in this text. On the use of Isaian Servant language in the Hodayot and the Self-Exaltation Hymn (4QH 491c), see John J. Collins, “The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament: The Case of the Suffering Servant,” in Method and Meaning: Essays on New Testament Interpretation in Honor of Harold W. Attridge, ed. A. B. McGowan and K. H. Richards, SBLRBS 67 (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2012), 279–95. Similarly, 2 Maccabees does not develop the “servants” theme, even though it may be influenced by the concept of vicarious suffering in Isaiah 53. On the latter possibility, see Nickelsburg, Resurrection (2nd ed.), 119–38; Antti Laato, “The Influence of Isaiah 53 on Early Jewish Martyr Theology,” in Who is the Servant of the Lord? Jewish and Christian Interpretations on Isaiah 53 from Antiquity to the Middle Ages (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2012), 49–71.

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– What was the literary matrix in which the presentation of the Isaian Servant(s) was shaped? – How does one explain the continued use of the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument centuries after the composition of Isaiah, by which time the interpretation of some passages was uncertain (Acts 8:34) and the original community who self-identified as the “servants” had long since vanished? – How are themes associated with the Servant’s identity and mission in Isaiah 40–55 (particularly, righteous suffering, hope for vindication, and the universal acknowledgment of Yhwh) that are taken up in Isaiah 54, 56–66 as paradigmatic for the “servants” subsequently taken up by later authors and read as paradigmatic for their own communities? – When compared, how similar or different are the ways in which later authors utilized the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument? How diverse was the interpretation of Isaiah and the exegetical construction of community identity in Antiquity? – What kinds of text-handling practices are employed by the communities that read and used the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument? Were the early Jewish and Christian authors who referenced the book of Isaiah merely engaging in atomistic, ad hoc readings of the Deutero-Isaian Servant figure?26 Or were these readers’ uses of Deutero-Isaian locutions influenced by the larger argument structure extending into Isaiah 54, 56–66 (that is, by the passages that are already reading the Servant figure as paradigmatic for a later community of servants)? The volume concludes with a synthesis of the results and reflections on the significance of the project.

Bibliography Achtemeier, Elizabeth. The Community and Message of Isaiah 56–66: A  Theological Commentary. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1982. Beentjes, P. C. “Wisdom of Solomon 3,1–4,19 and the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 413–20 in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift Willem A. M. Beuken. Edited by Jacques van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne. BETL 132. Leuven: University Press and Peeters, 1997. Beers, Holly. The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts. LNTS 535. New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015. Berges, Ulrich. “Die Knechte im Psalter. Ein Beitrag zu seiner Kompositionsgeschichte.” Biblica 81 (2000): 153–78. –. The Book of Isaiah: Its Composition and Final Form. Translated by Millard C. Lind. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2012. 26  So Henry J. Cadbury, “The Titles of Jesus in Acts,” in The Beginnings of Christianity. Part 1: The Acts of the Apostles, ed. F. J. Foakes Jackson and Kirsopp Lake (London: Macmillan and Co., 1933), 354–75 (here 369–70); Morna Hooker, Jesus and the Servant: The Influence of the Servant Concept of Deutero-Isaiah in the New Testament (London: SPCK, 1959), 21–23.



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–. “Who were the Servants? A Comparative Inquiry in the Book of Isaiah and the Psalms.” Pages 1–18 in Past, Present, Future: The Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets. Edited by Johannes C. de Moor and Harry F. van Rooy. OTS 44. Leiden: Brill, 2000. Beuken, W. A. M. “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 204–21 in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989. Edited by J. A. Emerton. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991. –. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH.’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 40–55. A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19A. New York: Doubleday, 2002. –. Isaiah 56–66. A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19B. New York: Doubleday, 2003. –. “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period.” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20. –. Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006. –. “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book.” Pages 155–75 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Edited by Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans. VTSup 70/1. New York: Brill, 1997. –. “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch.” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23. Reprinted as pages 392–412 in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship. Edited by R. P. Gordon. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995. –. “The Suffering Servant, the Book of Daniel, and Martyrdom.” Pages 198–215 in Essays on the Book of Isaiah. FAT 128. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019. –. “Trito-Isaiah (Isaiah 56–66) and the gôlāh Group of Ezra, Shecaniah, and Nehemiah (Ezra 7–Nehemiah 13): Is there a Connection?” JSOT 43.4 (2019): 661–77. Brooke, George J. “Justifying Deviance: The Place of Scripture in Converting to a Qumran Self-Understanding.” Pages 73–97 in Reading the Present: Scriptural Interpretation and the Contemporary in the Texts of the Judean Desert. Edited by Kristin De Troyer and Armin Lange. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2005. Cadbury, Henry J. “The Titles of Jesus in Acts.” Pages 354–75 in The Beginnings of Christianity. Part 1: The Acts of the Apostles. Edited by F. J. Foakes Jackson and Kirsopp Lake. London: Macmillan and Co., 1933. Childs, Brevard. Isaiah. OTL. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001. Collins, John J. “The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament: The Case of the Suffering Servant.” Pages 279–95 in Method and Meaning: Essays on New Testament Interpretation in Honor of Harold W. Attridge. Edited by A. B. McGowan and K. H. Richards. SBLRBS 67. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2012. Dalman, G. H. Der leidende und der sterbende Messias der Synagoge im ersten nachchristlichen Jahrtausend. SIJB 4. Berlin: H. Reuther, 1888. Davies, P. R. The Damascus Covenant: An Interpretation of the “Damascus Document”. JSOTSup 25. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1982. Day, John. “DAʿAT ‘Humiliation’ in Isaiah LIII 11 in the Light of Isaiah LIII 3 and Daniel XII 4, and the Oldest Known Interpretation of the Suffering Servant.” VT 30.1 (1980): 97–103. Dim, Emmanuel Uchenna. The Eschatological Implications of Isaiah 65 and 66 as the Conclusion of the Book of Isaiah. Bern: Peter Lang, 2005. Dinter, Paul E. “Paul and the Prophet Isaiah.” BTB 13 (1983): 48–52.

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Duhm, Bernhard. Das Buch Jesaia. 5th ed. HKAT 3/1. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1968. Elliger, Karl. Deuterojesaja in seinem Verhältnis zu Tritojesaja. BWANT 63. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1933. Ewald, Heinrich. Die Propheten des Alten Bundes. Vol. 2. Stuttgart: Adolph Krabbe, 1841. Gärtner, Judith. “‘… Why Do You Let Us Stray From Your Paths …’ (Isa 63:17): The Concept of Guilt in the Communal Lament Isa 63:7–64:11.” Pages 145–63 in Seeking the Favor of God, Vol. 1: The Origins of Penitential Prayer in the Second Temple Period. Edited by Mark J. Boda et al. Atlanta: SBL, 2006. Gignilliat, Mark “Isaiah’s Offspring: Paul’s Isaiah 54:1 Quotation in Galatians 4:27.” BBR 25.2 (2015): 205–23. –. Paul and Isaiah’s Servants: Paul’s Theological Reading of Isaiah 40–66 in 2 Corinthians 5:14–6:10. LNTS 330. New York: T&T Clark, 2007. Ginsberg, H. L. “The Oldest Interpretation of the Suffering Servant.” VT 3 (1953): 400–404. Groenewald, Alphonso. Psalm 69: Its Structure, Redaction, and Composition. ATM 18. Münster: Lit, 2003. –. “Who are the ‘Servants’ (Psalm 69:36c–37b)? A  Contribution to the History of the Literature of the Old Testament.” HTS 59.3 (2003): 735–61. Grossman, Maxine L. “Cultivating Identity: Textual Virtuosity and ‘Insider’ Status.” Pages 1–11 in Defining Identities: We, You, and the Other in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Proceedings of the Fifth Meeting of the IOQS. Edited by Florentino García Martínez and Mladen Popović. STDJ 70. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Hall, Stuart. “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.” Pages 222–37 in Identity: Community, Culture, Difference. Edited by Jonathan Rutherford. London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1990. Hanson, Paul D. The Dawn of Apocalyptic: The Historical and Sociological Roots of Jewish Apocalyptic Eschatology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979. Harmon, Matthew. She Must and Shall Go Free: Paul’s Isaianic Gospel in Galatians. BZNW 168. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010. Hooker, Morna. Jesus and the Servant: The Influence of the Servant Concept of DeuteroIsaiah in the New Testament. London: SPCK, 1959. Jeppesen, Knud. “From ‘You, My Servant’ to ‘The Hand of the Lord is with My Servants’: A Discussion of Is 40–66.” SJOT 1 (1990): 113–29. Koole, Jan Leunis. Isaiah III, Volume 3: Isaiah 56–66. HCOT. Leuven: Peeters, 2001. Kratz, Reinhard G. “Die Suche nach Identität in der nachexilischen Theologiegeschichte: Zur Hermeneutik des chronistischen Geschichtswerkes und ihrer Bedeutung für das Verständnis des Alten Testaments.” Pages 157–80 in Das Judentum im Zeitalter des Zweiten Tempels. FAT 42. 2nd ed. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2013. Kuenen, Abraham. De Profeten en de Profetie onder Israël. Historisch-dogmatische studie. 2 vols. Leiden: P. Engels, 1875. Laato, Antti. “The Influence of Isaiah 53 on Early Jewish Martyr Theology.” Pages 49–71 in Who is the Servant of the Lord? Jewish and Christian Interpretations on Isaiah 53 from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2012. Lau, Wolfgang. Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 56–66. BZAW 225. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1994. Leeuw, Venantius de. De Ebed Jahweh-Profetieen: Historisch-kritisch Onderzoek naar hun ontstaan en hun betekenis. Assen: Van Gorcum, 1956.



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Lincicum, David. Paul and the Early Jewish Encounter with Deuteronomy. WUNT II/284. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010. Liss, Hanna, and Manfred Oeming, eds. Literary Construction of Identity in the Ancient World. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2010. Lyons, Michael A. “Paul and the Servant(s): Isa 49,6 in Acts 13,47.” ETL 89.4 (2013): 345–59. –. “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isa 54, 56–66.” CBQ 77.4 (2015): 640–56. Macaskill, Grant. Union with Christ in the New Testament. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. Montgomery, James A. The Book of Daniel. ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1927. Nickelsburg, George W. E. Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertesta­ mental Judaism and Early Christianity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972. 2nd ed., 2006. Niehoff, Maren R. “Did the Timaeus Create a Textual Community?” GRBS 47 (2007): 161–91. Niskanen, Paul V. Isaiah 56–66. Berit Olam. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2014. Nurmela, Risto. The Mouth of the Lord Has Spoken: Inner-Biblical Allusions in Second and Third Isaiah. Lanham: University Press of America, 2006. O’Toole, Robert F. Luke’s Presentation of Jesus: A Christology. SubBi 25. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 2004. Punt, Jeremy. “Identity, Memory and Scriptural Warrant: Arguing Paul’s Case.” Pages 25–53 in Paul and Scripture: Extending the Conversation. Edited by Christopher D. Stanley. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2012. Rodríguez, Rafael. “Textual Orientations: Jesus, Written Texts, and the Social Construction of Identity in the Gospel of Luke.” Pages 191–210 in T&T Clark Handbook to Social Identity in the New Testament. Edited by J. Brian Tucker and Coleman Baker. New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014. Ryan, W. F. J. “The Church as the Servant of God in Acts.” Scripture 15 (1963): 110–15. Schmid, Konrad. “The Canon and the Cult: The Emergence of Book Religion in Ancient Israel and the Gradual Sublimation of the Temple Cult.” JBL 131.2 (2012): 289–305. Seitz, Christopher R. “How Is the Prophet Isaiah Present in the Latter Half of the Book? The Logic of Chapters 40–66 within the Book of Isaiah.” JBL 115 (1996): 219–40. –. “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections.” Pages 307–552 in The New Interpreter’s Bible VI. Edited by Leander E. Keck. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001. Smith, George Adam. The Book of Isaiah. 2 vols. New York: A. C. Armstrong and Son, 1893. Steck, Odil Hannes. Studien zu Tritojesaja. BZAW 203. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1991. Steinmetz, Devorah. “Sefer HeHago: The Community and the Book.” JJS 52.1 (2001): 40–58. Stock, Brian. The Implications of Literacy: Written Language and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelth Centuries. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983. Stromberg, Jacob. Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Suggs, M. Jack. “Wisdom of Solomon 2:10–5: A  Homily Based on the Fourth Servant Song.” JBL 76.1 (1957): 26–33.

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Sweeney, Marvin A. “The Reconceptualization of the Davidic Covenant in Isaiah.” Pages 94–113 in Reading Prophetic Books: Form, Intertextuality, and Reception in Prophetic and Post-Biblical Literature. FAT 89. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014. Talmon, Shemaryahu. “The Community of the Renewed Covenant: Between Judaism and Christianity.” Pages 3–24 in The Community of the Renewed Covenant: The Notre Dame Symposium on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by Eugene Ulrich and James VanderKam. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 1994. Tiemeyer, Lena-Sofia. “Continuity and Discontinuity in Isaiah 40–66. History of Research.” Pages 13–40 in Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66. Edited by Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad. FRLANT 255. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014. Urwick, William. The Servant of Jehovah: A  Commentary, Grammatical and Critical, upon Isaiah LII. 13–LIII. 12. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1877. Ware, J. Patrick. The Mission of the Church in Paul’s Letter to the Philippians in the Context of Ancient Judaism. NovTSup 120. Leiden: Brill, 2005. Wendel, Susan J. Scriptural Interpretation and Community Self-Definition in Luke-Acts and the Writings of Justin Martyr, NovTSup 139. Leiden: Brill, 2011. Zimmerli, Walther. “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas.” STU 20 (1950): 110–22. Reprinted as pages 217–33 in Gottes Offenbarung: Gesammelte Aufsätze zum Alten Testament. ThB 19. Munich: Chr. Kaiser, 1963.

The One and the Many, the Past and the Future, and the Dynamics of Prospective Analogy The Servant(s) as the Vindication of Moses and the Prophets D. Andrew Teeter and Michael A. Lyons 1. Introduction The issue of conceptual continuity and discontinuity in the presentation of the Isaian Servant(s) is important. What is taken over from earlier texts and traditions, and what constitutes innovation – and how should a proper appreciation of these matters guide our reading? The portrait of the Isaian Servant is in some respects unique. Yet it would be a mistake to overlook the parallels between this portrait and what we find in other ancient Israelite texts – and this is true not simply at the tradition-historical level but also at the level of compositional strategy.1 Even more important than the question of the tradition-historical antecedents of the Isaian Servant is the extent to which this figure within Isaiah is designed to be understood within the framework of a larger portrait of Israel’s history, a framework that supplies the conceptual substructure for the Servant and servants.2 This historical portrait is profoundly analogical, in which the repeated patterns of the past (pertaining to both figures and events) are 1  Some writers have claimed that the “Suffering Servant” is a construct created by later Christian readers of the book of Isaiah; so e. g. Harry M. Orlinsky, Studies on the Second Part of the Book of Isaiah: The So-Called “Servant of the Lord” and “Suffering Servant” in Second Isaiah, VTSup 14 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1967), 17: “the concepts ‘Suffering Servant’ and the servant as ‘Vicarious Sufferer’ are likewise post-biblical in origin – actually the product of Christianity in the period subsequent to the death of Jesus”; Donald Juel, Messianic Exegesis: Christological Interpretation of the Old Testament in Early Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), 127: “We should not speak of ‘the Suffering Servant’ or ‘the servant of the Lord’ as if the phrases represent a distinct conception in postbiblical Judaism”; Leroy Andrew Huizenga, “The Incarnation of the Servant: The ‘Suffering Servant’ and Matthean Christology,” HBT 27 (2005): 25–58 (here 26): “The ‘suffering servant,’ however, was not a meaningful category for Matthew to appropriate or his hearers and readers to appreciate …. Rather, the servant figure has come into being through centuries of Biblical interpretation, emerging fully in the modern period.” The desire to avoid anachronism is understandable; but it seems to us that these studies fail to appreciate the extent to which the Servant as presented in Isaiah is already a product of interpretive activity, the result of the scribal coordination of earlier traditions. 2  While scholarship has inquired into the tradition-historical antecedents of the prophetic suffering servant figures in Isaiah and Jeremiah, it has often overlooked a key aspect of the his-

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continuously brought into comparison. The relationship that obtains between the past and the future, and specifically the prospective significance of the past for the future, is crucial for understanding the significance of both the Servant and servants in Isaiah, as well as the continuing interpretive reception of these figures outside that book. This essay will contend that the book of Deuteronomy in particular functions as a template for understanding this analogical history of Israel, systematically presenting comparisons between the one and the many, the past and the future, failure and success, and epitomizing in this way the dynamics of prospective analogy. This essay will show, first, how Moses is depicted as a paradigmatic prophet who suffers and is willing to lay down his life as he struggles to create a righteous community, yet is also set in comparison to his contemporaries; second, how the presentations of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel have been coordinated with the presentation of Moses; and third, how the presentations of Moses and the “prophets like Moses” prefigure another Moses-like suffering Servant, who, after the exile, will successfully create a new community of servants and bring about the realization of Yhwh’s plans for Israel through Moses. Such a Servant and servants are presented to the reader in the book of Isaiah, and their portraits arise from analogical strategies employed in the process of literary composition and coordination.3

2. Moses as the Model of a Prophetic Suffering Servant 2.1  The Presentation of Moses as a Prophet The life of Moses as contained within the composite Pentateuch is a prophetic life from beginning to end. Moses’ portrayal as the paradigmatic prophet is widely recognized,4 and with good reason: he is presented as one who is comtorical meaning of these texts: the degree to which these figures are designed to be understood in relation to textually constructed figures within the Hebrew Bible. 3  Our focus in this essay will not be on tradition-historical differentiation or on a detailed reconstruction of the process of literary formation behind the presentations of the Moses and Isaian Servant figures. Instead, we will concentrate on the portraits arising from the aggregate whole, which is what was available to Second Temple-period readers. See further Ehud Ben Zvi, “Exploring the Memory of Moses ‘The Prophet’ in Late Persian/Early Hellenistic Yehud/ Judah,” in Remembering Biblical Figures in the Late Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods: Social Memory and Imagination, ed. Diana V. Edelman and Ehud Ben Zvi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 335–64. 4  See e. g. Eckart Otto, “Deuteronomy as the Legal Completion and Prophetic Finale of the Pentateuch,” in Paradigm Change in Pentateuchal Research, ed. Matthias Armgardt, Benjamin Kilchör, and Markus Zehnder, BZAR 22 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2019): 179–88 (here 185): “Deuteronomy portrays Moses as the chief prophet and archetype or model for all the prophets in the Hebrew Bible”; Timo Veijola, “Die Deuteronomisten als Vorgänger der Schriftgelehrten,” in Moses Erben: Studien zum Dekalog, zum Deuteronomismus und



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17

missioned by Yhwh to speak on his behalf (Exod 3:16; 5:1; 9:2; cf. Num 12:2a) and as one who is consulted by the people for oracles from Yhwh (Exod 18:15– 16; Num 9:6–14). He is classified as a prophet (Deut 18:15, 18; 34:10) and is given the prophetic titles “man of God” (Deut 33:1; Josh 14:6; cf. 1 Kgs 13:1; 17:18; 2 Kgs 4:7) and “servant of Yhwh” (Num 12:7; Deut 34:5; Josh 1:1, 2, 13; cf. 2 Kgs 17:23; Amos 3:7). He is granted the spirit of prophecy (Num 11:25) and is described as communicating with Yhwh even more directly than prophets usually do (Num 12:5–8). He is an intermediary between the people and Yhwh (Exod 19:3–8), he delivers Yhwh’s instructions and warns and exhorts the people to keep them (Exod 16:32; Exod 21:1; Lev 18:1–5; Deut 4:9–10, 14–18, 40), and he intercedes on behalf of the people (Exod 32:11–13, 30–32; Num 11:1–2; 12:13; 14:13–19; 16:20–24; 21:7; Deut 9:18–29; 10:10). He also performs signs (Exod 4:1–17; 7:14–18) and miracles (Exod 15:23–25; 17:1–6, 7–13; cf. 2 Kgs 2–4), some of which are explicitly presented as validations of his prophetic role (e. g., Num 16:28–33). Finally, he serves as the model for future prophets who will be “like” him (Deut 18:15–19). As will be demonstrated below, the presentation of Moses and the presentations of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel have been coordinated together so that these prophets resemble each other. 2.2  The Relationship between Prophet and People Central to this portrait of a prophetic life is the relationship between the prophetic individual and the corporate whole. We refer to the parallel actions and the bound fate of Moses and the people in connection with the prophetic task. This fraught, multifaceted, and complex connection between Moses and the people is a crucial thread running throughout the portrayal of a prophetic life.5 On the one hand, as the human representative of the people before God, Moses is the advocate of the people: he stands in for and speaks up on behalf of the people, interceding before God; he lays himself down on behalf of the people in the face of divine anger, reminding God of his promises. He is thus regularly cast in an oppositional role, standing between God and the people. Yet he is also an exemplary righteous figure, distinct in this regard from the zum Schriftgelehrtentum, BWANT 149 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2000), 192–240 (here 217): “Die Essenz der Prophetie wird nun mittels des nomistisch verstandenen Mose definiert, der wegen seiner Gottunmittelbarkeit zwar als Prophet ohnegleichen (Dtn 34, 10–12), aber doch zugleich als Anherr und Vorbild aller späteren Propheten erscheint (Dtn 18, 15–22).” See further Christophe Nihan, “Moses and the Prophets: Deuteronomy 18 and the Emergence of the Pentateuch as Torah,” Svensk exegetisk årsbok 75 (2010): 21–55; Ben Zvi, “Exploring the Memory of Moses,” 205. 5  So interrelated are the two that one might debate whether Exodus-Deuteronomy represents the biography of Moses or the history of Israel. See Rolf P. Knierim, The Task of Old Testament Theology: Substance, Method, and Cases (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 372.

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rest of the people. When he represents the people before God, he does so as a righteous representative, one known by name and favored by God. The exercise of his prophetic office requires him to choose to step into the gap and to lay himself down, to place his own unique credit, merit, or favor on the line.6 God repeatedly tells Moses to step aside, to allow him to give vent to his anger and destroy the people, promising to start over with Moses himself (Exod 32:9–10; Num 14:11–12; 16:20–21; 17:9–10). And Moses repeatedly refuses to allow this, strenuously advocating for the people (Exod 32:11–14, 30–32; Num 14:13–20; 16:22; 17:11–15).7 This is but one of several ways in which the fate of the people and that of Moses are intertwined. On the other hand, as the prophetic mediator between God and Israel, Moses regularly finds himself at odds with the people, who refuse to listen and continuously disobey as he calls them to conformity with the covenant. They complain against him, are angry at him, accuse him of trying to kill them, threaten and abuse him, and question and reject his prophetic bona fides. 2.3  Moses as a Suffering Servant This mediating position thus brings the prophet Moses into constant hardship, sorrow, and suffering, into a role for which he laments his inadequacy (Num 11:10–15). He is God’s servant who is despised and rejected (Exod 15:24; 16:2–3; 17:1–4; Num 12:1; 14:1–10; 16; 20:2–5; 21:5), who suffers both at the hands of and for the sake of the people, even unto death. Not only is he threatened with death by the very people for whom he cares (Exod 17:3–4; Num 14:10; 17:6–7), but he places himself in the face of divine anger in order to prevent the people’s destruction (Exod 32:9–11; Num 16:20–22) and even offers his own life in their place (Exod 32:32). Finally, Moses eventually is excluded from the land of promise because of the people.8 It is because of the people’s rebellion at the border and their failure to believe (Num 14:9, 11) that Moses is initially prevented from entering the land; he must lead them forty years in the wilderness until the first generation dies off, thus preventing their entry (Num 14:26–35). And it is the people’s subsequent rebellion in the wilderness (Num 20:1–5) that serves as the triggering event for Moses’ failure to believe, an act that results in his exclusion from the land (Num 20:6–12). The prophetic portrait of Moses is that of a servant of God who suffers because of and for the sake of the people on whose behalf he has been called. He 6  Note the striking contrast between the portrayals of Moses and Aaron in Golden Calf narrative. 7  Note how Moses is commemorated as an intercessor in Ps 106:19–23, as one who “stands in the breach before [Yhwh], in order to turn away his wrath.” 8  See Deut 1:37 (‫ ;)גם־בי התאנף יהוה בגללכם‬3:26 (‫ ;)ויתﬠבר יהוה בי למﬠנכם‬4:21 (‫התאנף־בי‬ ‫ויהוה‬ ‫)ﬠל־דבריכם‬.



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is the chosen one who suffers on behalf of the many. This story is tragic, insofar as not only is Moses not permitted to enter into the land, but is also told that the future generation of his people will fail and that disaster will befall them (Deut 31:16–21, 24–29). One of the striking elements of this portrait of Moses as a suffering servant is the extent to which it is an analogical portrait, having been mapped in key ways onto the story of the Aqedah.9 In both Gen 22 and Exod 19–34 there is a “testing” (Gen  22:1 // Exod  20:20, ‫ )נסה‬on a mountain (Gen 22:2, 14 // Exod 19:2ff ) to see if someone “fears God” (Gen 22:12 // Exod 20:20), and in both stories a substitute is offered for the life of others (Gen 22:13; Exod 32:32). The second story explicitly refers to an element present in the first story (Exod 32:13 → Gen 22:17) and takes up the distinctive vocabulary of the first story.10 In Gen 22, Abraham passes the test by fearing God, resulting in a reaffirmation of the covenant. In Exod 19–24, the people initially pass the test and fear God (Exod 19:21–24; 20:18–21), resulting in the establishment of a covenant; in Exod 32, the people fail the test of “fearing God” by worshipping the calf and breaking the covenant. Yet as the story continues, Exod 32–34 describes a reversal of the broken 9  The story of the test of Abraham and his giving up of a beloved son (Gen 22) exerted considerable influence on other texts; see e. g. Jeremiah Unterman, “The Literary Influence of ‘The Binding of Isaac’ (Genesis 22) on ‘The Outrage at Gibeah’ (Judges 19),” Hebrew Annual Review 4 (1980): 161–66; Jonathan D. Safren, “Balaam and Abraham,” VT 38.1 (1988): 105–13; J. David Pleins, “Son-Slayers and Their Sons,” CBQ 54 (1992): 29–38; Jon D. Levenson, The Death and Resurrection of the Beloved Son: The Transformation of Child Sacrifice in Judaism and Christianity (New Haven: Yale, 1993); Yair Zakovitch, Through the Looking Glass: Reflection Stories in the Bible [Hebrew] (Tel Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad, 1995), 72–77; Ricky Novick, “Abraham and Balaam: A  Biblical Contrast,” JBQ 35.1 (2007): 28–33; Tzvi Novick, “Biblicized Narrative: On Tobit and Genesis 22,” JBL 126.4 (2007): 755–64; Gideon Miller, “Peril and Deliverance and the Akedah-Sinai Narrative Structure,” JBQ 40.4 (2012): 247–52; Paba Nidhani De Andrado, The Akedah Servant Complex: The Soteriological Linkage of Genesis 22 and Isaiah 53 in Ancient Jewish and Christian Writings (Leuven: Peeters, 2013); Hyun Chul Paul Kim, “Two Mothers and Two Sons: Reading 1 Kings 3:16–28 as a Parody on Solomon’s Coup (1 Kings 1–2),” in Partners with God: Theological and Critical Readings of the Bible in Honor of Marvin A. Sweeney, ed. Shelley L. Birdsong and Serge Frolov (Claremont: Claremont Press, 2017), 83–99 (here 93–94). 10 Shared distinctive vocabulary includes: ‫ צחק‬Gen 21:9; 22:2, etc.  // Exod 32:6; ‫נסה‬ Gen  22:1 // Exod  20:20; ‫ וישׁכם בבקר‬Gen 22:3 // Exod 24:4; 32:6; 34:4; ‫ יום השׁלישׁי‬Gen  22:4 // Exod 19:11, 16; ‫ מרחק‬Gen  22:4 // Exod  20:18; 24:1; ‫ ראה‬Gen 22:4, 8, 13, 14 // Exod 19:21; 20:18, 22; 24:10; 32:1, 5, 9; 34:3, 10; ‫ נﬠרים‬Gen  22:5 // Exod  24:5; ‫ ישׁב … ﬠד … נשׁוב‬Gen  22:5 // Exod 24:14; ‫ השׁתחוה‬Gen  22:5 // Exod  24:1; 34:8; ‫ יחדיו‬Gen  22:6, 8 // Exod  19:8; ‫ויבן מזבח‬ Gen  22:9 // Exod  24:4; 32:5; ‫לא שׁלח יד‬/‫ אל‬Gen  22:12 // Exod  24:11; ‫ ירא(ה) אלהים‬Gen  22:12 // Exod 20:20; ‫קרניו‬/‫ קרן‬Gen 22:13 // Exod 34:29, 30, 35; ‫ ﬠשׂה הדבר הזה … שׁמﬠ‬Gen 22:16, 18 // Exod 24:3. The use of ‫ קרן‬in Exod 34:29, 30, 35 has attracted considerable attention; see the survey in Eric X. Jarrard, “Double Entende in Exodus 34: Revisiting the ‫ קרן‬of Moses,” ZAW 131.3 (2019): 388–406. But whatever the meaning of the word, it seems plausible that the choice of the word functions as an additional link between the Sinai narrative and Gen 22. Its function is to represent Moses on analogy to the ram who is offered up “in the place of his son” (‫תחת בנו‬, Gen 22:13).

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covenant into a remade covenant because of Moses’s prophetic work in which he lays himself down on behalf of the people. The point of these parallels to the Aqedah (which span the entire Sinai pericope) is that Moses’ self-sacrificial actions are set on analogy to Abraham’s ultimate act of sacrificial obedience: both result in the re-confirmation of the covenant. 2.4  Future Failure, Future Success: The Matrix of Deuteronomy The book of Deuteronomy represents the final day in the prophetic life of Moses. It is constructed on the basis of a continuous series of symmetries and comparative structures. One key way that these ubiquitous structures function is to create comparisons between successive generations, often turning upon success or failure.11 They concentrate on the relationship between successive communities of the past, present, and future, specifically in relation to the figure of Moses.12 As we have already noted above, the failure and fate of the people are intertwined with the failure and fate of Moses.13 On one level  – that of the suasive rhetoric of the character addressing the audience on the plains of Moab – the aim of Moses’s work within the book of Deuteronomy is to create a righteous community, a community that will differ from the previous generation of Horeb that died in the wilderness for their failure to believe. As both the character and the book emphasize, Moses himself will not enter the land, an outcome directly linked to the people’s failure.14 In11  See Eckart Otto, “Moses the Suffering Prophet,” in Propheten der Epochen: Festschrift für István Karasszon zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. Viktor Kókai Nagy and László Sándor Egeresi, AOAT 426 (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2015), 137–49 (here 137): “The Pentateuch is ending with two catastrophes, a collective one predicting doom and annihilation of the people, and an individual catastrophe for Moses, YHWH’s arch-prophet, who had to die before the people would have crossed the Jordan.” 12  See e. g. the relationships between the structurally corresponding panels: Deut 1 // 2–3 and 5–7 // 8–11, in which the description of past failures in the wilderness (1:26–40, 41–46) is set in contrast to the recent successes in the Transjordan (2:1–23, 2:24–3:22), and the description of past success at Horeb (5:1–31) is set in contrast to past failure at Horeb (9:6–29). Note also how the description of Moses’ past failure in Deut 1:37 is set in comparison to the people’s past failure, and the reminder of Moses’ failure in 3:23–28 is set in contrast to the people’s recent success (and in 3:21–22, 28, their future success under the direction of Joshua). The center unit in chap. 4 contains past, present, and future temporal perspectives – and it too contains a reference to Moses’ failure (4:21–22). 13 Both the people’s and Moses’ actions are described as a failure to “believe” (‫האמין‬, Num 14:11; 20:12; Deut 1:32) and as “rebelling” (‫מרה‬, Num 20:10, 24; 27:14). See further HansChristoph Schmitt, “Redaktion des Pentateuch im Geiste der Prophetie: Beobachtungen zur Bedeutung der ‘Glaubens’-Thematik innerhalb der Theologie des Pentateuch,” VT 32.2 (1982): 170–89. 14 See Num 20:12; 27:12–14; Deut 1:37; 3:23–27; 4:21–22; 32:48–52; 34:4–5. The difference in perspective between Deut 32:31 (= Num 20:12) vs. Deut 1:37; 3:26; 4:31 is, from the vantage point in this essay, insignificant; Moses’ own failure is presented as a result of the repeated failures of the people, and their fates are bound together.



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21

stead Joshua, Moses’s successor, will lead them.15 But despite Moses’s extended, urgent and impassioned instruction, Moses is finally told by God that the people are certain to fail in the future,16 breaking covenant and serving other gods. Moses informs the people of their fallibility17 and testifies against them, teaching them a song that will continue to serve as a witness against them in the future when he is no longer there. This song is recorded as a prophetic testimony18 to accompany and serve alongside the Torah. But Moses’s discourse, along with the broader composition in which it is embedded, also looks beyond that certain future failure to an even more distant future success and a vindication for “his servants” (Deut 32:36). The identity of these “servants,” as well as the specific nature of their vindication by God, are questions left opaque, or at very least not unpacked, within the Song of Moses itself. Yet these questions remain very much of interest for the broader composition of the book. For, on a higher level of literary rhetoric, the book of Deuteronomy itself seeks to create a righteous, Moses-following, post-exilic community; a community that, through the reading of the book, can imaginatively project itself back onto the plains of Moab; that can locate itself within the temporal sequence and analogical parallels between generations set up by the book; a community that, like Moses, will be obedient unto death, laying down its own life in service to a rebellious people and as a witness to the nations (Deut 32:36, 43). In short, the book of Deuteronomy sets up an expectation not only for a future “prophet like Moses” (Deut 18:15–19), but also for a prophetic community – i. e., a community of suffering servants, who, like Moses, will serve as witnesses, calling the people to obedience to God and his Torah. These “servants” are mentioned as characters within the song, but the song itself, as Moses’s enduring final prophetic testimony to the people, prefigures these servants and their testimony. It does so in part by means of the projected parallel relationship 15  Note how Moses’s request for a spirit-filled leader (“do not let the people be like sheep without a shepherd,” Num 27:17), is fulfilled by Joshua (Num 27:18–23), with the result that the people “obey” (Deut 34:9). This development, a vindication of Moses in the near term, when placed into the prospective “success :: failure > failure :: success” framework of the book, anticipates a distant-term vindication of Moses, after the people have disobeyed. The motif in Num 27:17 appears to underlie Isa 53:6 (“all we like sheep have gone astray”). 16  In light of this, the comment in Deut 34:9 comes as a surprise; see Jean-Pierre Sonnet, “Redefining the Plot of Deuteronomy  – From End to Beginning: The Import of Deut 34:9,” in Deuteronomium – Tora für eine neue Generation, ed. Georg Fischer, Dominik Markl, and Simone Paganini, BZAR 17 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2011), 37–49. 17  See Deut 29:3 (‫ ;)ולא־נתן יהוה לכם לב לדﬠת וﬠינים לראות ואזנים לשׁמﬠ ﬠד היום הזה‬on the connection with Isa 6:9–10, see the discussion below. 18  C. H. Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (Freiburg: J. C. B. Mohr, 1891), 71: “Da ist nun zunächst klar, dass das Lied zwar im Ausdrucke manches Eigenthümliche hat, aber in den Gedanken jeder Originalität entbehrt: es ist gewissermaassen ein Compendium der prophetischen Theologie, durch und durch voll Reminiscenzen an ältere Propheten.” See further Otto, “Deuteronomy as the Legal Completion and Prophetic Finale of the Pentateuch,” 185–86.

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between successive, analogically linked communities in the past, present, and future. And it does so in part by means of its allusive literary relationship to the prophetic books themselves, which functionally serves to establish the song of Moses as the very model – the conceptual blueprint – for a prophetic “book” of the kind found in Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Twelve.19 Thus, the book of Deuteronomy and the prophetic corpus together anticipate the creation of a righteous community of servants. This is the vindication of Moses.20

3.  The Prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel as Prophets “Like Moses” The portrayal of Moses in Deuteronomy provides the reader with a framework for understanding the presentation of later prophets. Just as Moses the Servant of Yhwh speaks of Israel’s failure and future success on the eve of entrance into the land, so the later Moses-like prophets also speak of Israel’s failure and future success on the eve of exile from the land. Like Moses, these prophets are faithful, though despised and rejected by their own doomed generation, the generation predicted in Deut 31 to fail. In a variety of ways, the depictions of these prophets have been coordinated with the depiction of Moses.21 Previous research has shown how this is accomplished in the cases of Isaiah,22 Jeremiah,23 and Eze19  For some of these relationships and for the scholarly recognition of them, see further below. 20 See Otto, “Moses the Suffering Prophet,” 139–40, on Deut 29:28: “This verse differentiates between the individual and collective fates reflecting a postexilic attitude to retribution. Reward and punishment in Moses’ individual fate will remain a secret, which belongs to God, different from the fate of doom and salvation of the people. The fate of God’s servants, which do not fit to the strict doctrine remains a secret, so when prophets were imprisoned or killed, because they delivered God’s messages, so in 2 Chr 16:10; 24:20–22. Different from Moses’ fate the collective fate of the people is for Deut 29:28 not a secret but revealed in the Book of Deuteronomy. The verse reflects the amphibolic character of the text of Deuteronomy saying that the meaning of the text is not hidden and this includes also the subtext of Moses’ prophecies as this verse stands in the middle of a prophecy at a turning point between the prophecy of doom and salvation.” 21  See Konrad Schmid, “The Prophets after the Law or the Law after the Prophets? Terminological, Biblical, and Historical Perspectives,” in The Formation of the Pentateuch. Bridging the Academic Cultures of Europe, Israel, and North America, ed. Jan C. Gertz et al., FAT 111 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2016), 841–50, esp. 848: “Taken together, there is a historical realm of possible mutual influence reaching from approximately the eighth to the fourth centuries. It is likely not only that the Pentateuch influenced the prophets but that the influences ran in the other direction as well.” See also Reinhard Achenbach, “‘A Prophet like Moses’ (Deuteronomy 18:15) – ‘No Prophet like Moses’ (Deuteronomy 34:10): Some Observations on the Relation between the Pentateuch and the Latter Prophets,” in The Pentateuch: International Perspectives on Current Research, ed. Thomas B. Dozeman, Konrad Schmid, and Baruch J. Schwartz, FAT 78 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011), 435–58, esp. 441, 451. 22  On Isaiah as a “prophet like Moses,” see Norman Habel, “The Form and Significance of the Call Narrative,” ZAW 77.3 (1965): 297–323 (here 309–14); Martin O’K ane, “Isaiah:



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kiel.24 The result is that these prophets are prophets “like Moses” (Deut 18:18).25 A few examples will suffice to demonstrate this.26 3.1  The Commissioning of the Prophets like Moses Some of the closest connections between these prophetic figures can be seen in the accounts of their commissioning.27 Like Moses, the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel are “sent” (Exod 3:10, 12–15; Isa 6:8; Jer 1:7; Ezek 2:3, 4; 3:5, 6) and are told to “go and speak” to the people (Exod 3:16, 18; 4:12; Isa 6:9; Jer 1:7; Ezek 2:4, 7; 3:1, 4, 11). Both Moses and the prophets are reassured, either by a promise of Yhwh’s presence (Exod 4:12, 15; Jer 1:8b, 19b; 15:20b) or by a promise of Yhwh’s empowerment (Exod 4:12, 15; Jer 1:18; 15:20a; Ezek 3:8–9), and they are told not to be afraid (Jer 1:8, 17; Ezek 2:6; 3:9; cf. Exod 3:6). In Isaiah’s case, the motifs of prophetic empowerment and encouragement have been relocated and transformed: they have been moved outside the commission report proper and placed in Isa 8:11–18, the motif of empowerment has been turned into an expression of confidence, and the motif of encouragement has been widened to include not only the prophet but also the prophet’s followers.28 A  Prophet in the Footsteps of Moses,” JSOT 69 (1996): 29–51; Alphonso Groenewald, “Isaiah 1:2−3 and Isaiah 6: Isaiah ‘A Prophet like Moses’ (Dt 18:18),” HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies 68.1 (2012): 1–7; idem, “The Role and Function of Ṣedaqa and Torah in the Introduction to the Book of Isaiah,” in Ṣedaqa and Torah in Postexilic Discourse, ed. Susanne Gillmayr-Bucher and Maria Häusl, LHBOTS 640 (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2017), 71–85 (here 76). 23  On Jeremiah as a “prophet like Moses,” see Habel, “Call Narrative,” 306–7; Christopher R. Seitz, “The Prophet Moses and the Canonical Shape of Jeremiah,” ZAW 101 (1989): 3–27; R. E. Clements, “Jeremiah 1–25 and the Deuteronomistic History,” in Understanding Poets and Prophets. Essays in Honour of George Wishart Anderson, ed. A. Graeme Auld, JSOTSup 152 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993), 94–113; Achenbach, “Prophet like Moses,” 446–50; Benedetta Rossi, “Reshaping Jeremiah: Scribal Strategies and the Prophet like Moses,” JSOT 44.4 (2020): 575–93. 24  On Ezekiel as a “prophet like Moses,” see Henry McKeating, “Ezekiel the ‘Prophet Like Moses’?” JSOT 61 (1994): 97–109; Risa Levitt Kohn, “A Prophet Like Moses? Rethinking Ezekiel’s Relationship to the Torah,” ZAW 114 (2002): 236–54 (esp. 249–50); Rebecca ­G. S. ­ Idestrom, “Echoes of the Book of Exodus in Ezekiel,” JSOT 33.4 (2009): 489–510. 25  On the role of Deut 18:15–18 in “open[ing] the gate for covenantal texts that were not yet written but could be written by the scribes of prophetic scrolls in the future,” see Reinhard Achenbach, “‘The Unwritten Text of the Covenant’: Torah in the Mouth of the Prophets,” in Covenant in the Persian Period: From Genesis to Chronicles, ed. Richard J. Bautch and Gary N. Knoppers (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2015), 93–107, here 96. 26  The same strategy of the presentation of a prophet after the pattern of Moses can be seen in early Christian texts, in the Matthean and Lukan depictions of Jesus; see Dale C. Allison, The New Moses: A Matthean Typology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993); Robert F. O’Toole, “The Parallels between Jesus and Moses,” BTB 20 (1990): 22–29. 27 See Habel, “Call Narrative.” 28  Note the shift from singular address in Isa 8:11 to plural in vv. 13–14 and the references to “faithful witnesses” (8:2) and “disciples” (8:16). On Isa 8:11–16, Williamson remarks: “The

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Moses’ repeated objections to his commission (Exod 3:11; 4:10, 13) have also been taken up and transformed in various ways in the other prophetic commissioning reports: Isaiah does not protest but volunteers (Isa 6:8), Jeremiah’s single (and understandable) protest is easily overcome (Jer 1:6–7), and any protest on the part of Ezekiel is forestalled and internalized (Ezek 2:8; 3:14). The giving of confirmatory “signs” to Moses (Exod 4:1–9) has also been transformed in the depictions of the other prophets. Isaiah and his children function as “signs” (Isa 8:18); Jeremiah receives two confirmatory visions (Jer 1:11–14); both Ezekiel himself and his actions are said to be “signs” for the people (Ezek 4:3; 12:6, 11; 24:24, 27). Finally, the motifs of speech and Yhwh’s words in a prophet’s mouth appear in all these stories, with variations that appear to be creative literary modifications of the foundational Mosaic pattern. Moses complains that he is not a “man of words” and that he is “heavy of mouth and heavy of tongue” (Exod 4:10) and “uncircumcised of lips” (Exod 6:12). In response, Yhwh identifies himself as the one who “assigns a mouth to humanity” and makes people “mute or deaf, seeing or blind” (Exod 4:11). He then promises to “be with [Moses’] mouth” and – after Moses’ reluctance – tells Moses that he can “put the words in [Aaron’s] mouth” (Exod 4:12, 15). In Yhwh’s statement that he will raise up a prophet “like Moses” (Deut 18:18), he promises to “put [his] words in the mouth of the prophet.” In the book of Isaiah, these motifs appear before the prophet’s commissioning proper, in his cry that he is a “man of unclean lips” (Isa 6:5). Only after a seraph touches a coal to his “mouth” and announces that his sin is removed (Isa 6:7) does Isaiah volunteer for the prophetic task. In his case, this amounts to ensuring the “blindness” and “deafness” of the people (Isa 6:9–10) – the same motifs that were present in Exod 4:11. In the book of Jeremiah, we find a speech-related objection similar to that of Moses: Jeremiah says that he “does not know how to speak” (Jer 1:6). Yhwh then touches his mouth and announces, “I have placed my words in your mouth” (Jer 1:9). Later in the book, Jeremiah says, “Your words were found, and I ate them” (Jer 15:16). Finally, Ezekiel is commanded to “speak [Yhwh’s] words” (Ezek 2:7; 3:4), a command that is accompanied by an order to “open your mouth and eat” a scroll (Ezek 2:8–3:3).29 Here, Yhwh’s words are quite literally placed in the prophet’s mouth. In language that recalls Moses’ complaint in Exod 4:10, Yhwh then informs Ezekiel that he is not being sent to “a people difficult of speech and heavy of tongue”; ironically, such a people would listen to Ezekiel, but Israel will not (Ezek 3:5–6). present passage … indicat[es] that for a certain group, no doubt to be identified with Isaiah’s supporters, there was encouragement to stay separate without fear”; see H. G. M. Williamson, Isaiah 6–12: A  Critical and Exegetical Commentary, ICC (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018), 281 (also 284, 294). 29  Note the plus in MT Ezek 3:1, which looks like a conflation of Ezek 2:8 and Jer 15:16. This suggests that early readers were aware of the connections between the depictions of the prophets.

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3.2  The Intercession of the Prophets like Moses Moses is presented as the paradigmatic prophetic intercessor, a role which he repeatedly carries out (Exod 32:11–13, 30–32; Num 11:1–2; 12:13; 14:13–19; 16:20–24; 21:7; Deut 9:18–29; 10:10). It is not surprising that his role has shaped the presentation of other prophets, though the motif is transformed in various ways.30 The prophet Isaiah is not strongly presented as an intercessor, most likely because his role is defined in terms of facilitating the people’s blindness and deafness (Isa 6:9–10).31 However, some have seen a subtle intercessory element in Isaiah’s response “How long, O Lord?” (‫ﬠד־מתי אדני‬, 6:11a).32 Insofar as this statement is a recognized element in lament psalms (e. g., Pss 6:4; 74:10; 80:5; 90:13; cf. 13:2; 89:47), this is quite possible. In Jer 7:16; 11:14, Yhwh actually commands the prophet Jeremiah not to intercede.33 As Tiemeyer has argued, the suppression of intercession seems to be part of an argument running through a number of prophetic books explaining how Yhwh can judge his people if he is by nature gracious and likely to forgive.34 In two instances, Jeremiah is depicted as interceding for the people (Jer 14:7–9, 19–22) – and each time, Yhwh immediately rejects his attempt at intercession and warns him not to do so (Jer 14:10–12; 15:1–3).35 30 

See Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, “God’s Hidden Compassion,” TynBul 57.2 (2006): 191–213. this a deliberate inversion of the role of Yhwh’s prophetic servants who summon Israel to return (e. g., 2 Kgs 17:13; Jer 25:4–6)? See Achenbach, “The Unwritten Text of the Covenant,” 97. 32  So Mark J. Boda, “‘Uttering Precious Rather Than Worthless Words’: Divine Patience and Impatience with Lament in Isaiah and Jeremiah,” in Why? … How Long? Studies on Voice(s) of Lamentation Rooted in Biblical Hebrew Poetry, ed. Leann Snow Flesher, Carol J. Dempsey, and Mark J. Boda (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014), 83–99, here 85: “Faced with the prospect of hardening the hearts of his nation, it appears that the prophet responds with muted protest, leveraging the tradition of lament.” So also Habel, “Call Narratives,” 312: “Thus, in Isaiah too the prophetic ‘I’ is not absent”; Sheldon Blank, “Traces of Prophetic Agony in Isaiah,” HUCA 27 (1956): 81–92, esp. 82; Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah, OTL (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 57. 33  Jer 11:11b, 14b seem to have influenced MT Ezek 8:18. On the lack of intercession in the book of Ezekiel, see the discussion below. 34 See Tiemeyer, “God’s Hidden Compassion”; see further Thomas M. R aitt, A Theology of Exile: Judgment/Deliverance in Jeremiah and Ezekiel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977), 35–58, for his discussion of the “radicalization” of Yhwh’s judgment. 35  Note the coordination of Jer 15:1–3 with Ezek 14:12–21, and note also that the refusal to accept intercession in Jer 15:1–3 has been bolstered in v. 4 with the Deuteronomistic explanation (2 Kgs 21:10–15; 23:26–27; 24:3–4) for why Jerusalem had to fall. In another instance, Jeremiah refers to intercession that he offered in the past (Jer 18:20b) but then asks Yhwh for vengeance and not forgiveness because the people for whom he interceded have repaid his good with evil (Jer 18:19–20a, 21–23). In yet one more instance, Jeremiah seems to be described as making an attempt at provoking intercession by proxy (Jer 36:5–7). On the breakdown of the Mosaic office of intercession in Jeremiah, see further Seitz, “The Prophet Moses,” 11–12. 31  Is

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In the book of Ezekiel, the role of the prophet Ezekiel as intercessor is suppressed even further.36 He and his community are already suffering in exile, and the fall of Jerusalem is presented as a foregone conclusion (Ezek 4–5). If the reader had any doubts, they are removed in Ezek 14:12–21; here Yhwh says that should exemplary righteous figures be present, they could not even save their own family members, let alone the city.37 Because Yhwh has fed Ezekiel a scroll containing “lamentation, mourning, and woe” (Ezek 2:8–3:4) and because Yhwh controls his mouth (Ezek 3:26–27), the prophet is not free to intercede. Still, both Zimmerli and Greenberg suggest that Ezekiel’s outcries in Ezek 9:8; 11:13 are instances of intercession.38 On the one hand, the interrogative form of Ezekiel’s speech is reminiscent of Moses’ and Aaron’s question in Num 16:22, which in context does successfully function as intercession (see Num 16:20– 27a). In each case, what appears to be a mere question seems to function as an appeal. On the other hand, it is clear from Yhwh’s response to Ezekiel that no intercession will be accepted (Ezek 9:9–10).39 3.3  The Suffering of the Prophets like Moses The life of Moses is presented as the life of a suffering prophet. He experiences suffering and the threat of death along with his people at the hands of Pharaoh (Exod 1:15–2:15). But he also suffers at the hands of his own people: Moses’ contemporaries do not listen to him (Exod 6:9; 7:13; 16:19–20; 32:1); they constantly complain to him (Exod 14:11–12; 15:24; 16:2–3; 17:2–4; Num 20:2–5; 36 See Tiemeyer, “God’s Hidden Compassion,” 211–12; so also Hermann Spieckermann, “The Conception and Prehistory of the Idea of Vicarious Suffering in the Old Testament,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, trans. Daniel P. Bailey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 1–15 (here 12–13). Part of the reason the prophet Ezekiel is not presented as an intercessor has to do with how his role is described in relation to the fall of the city of Jerusalem (Ezek 24:25–27; 33:21–22), which has been irrevocably determined. It is also undoubtedly a by-product of the book’s “radical theocentricity”: all transformative action is performed by Yhwh, who acts for the sake of his own name (Ezek 36:16–32). 37  Note the coordination of Ezek 14:12–21 with Jer 15:1–3. While the statement in the latter passage describes Yhwh’s rejection of Jeremiah’s attempt to intercede, at this point in the book of Ezekiel no such attempt was made. 38 Walther Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1: A  Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel, Chapters 1–24, Hermeneia (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 249: “When Ezekiel breaks out in a cry of intercession to Yahweh at this terrible event commencing in the midst of the temple then he is acting as a true prophet”; Moshe Greenberg, Ezekiel 1–20: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 22 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983), 203: “These are the only instances of Ezekiel’s attempt to intercede for his people, and they may have to do with his (visionary) presence amidst the slain. The otherwise striking omission of intercession from the book is perhaps connected with its unconditional message of doom …” 39  As the reader discovers in Ezek 11:14–20, the destruction of Jerusalem is not in fact the “destruction of the entire remnant of Israel”; hope lies in Yhwh’s future transformation of the exiles. But this transformation is not presented as the result of intercession.

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21:4–5); they verbally oppose and slander him (Num 12:1–2; 16:1–3, 12–14, 41–42); they even attempt to kill him (Num 14:10). The same pattern of suffering experienced by Moses can be seen in the presentation of other prophets. Isaiah undergoes humiliation by going “naked and barefoot” for three years in order to symbolically act out divine judgment (Isa 20:2–3). He also experiences hostile verbal reactions from his audience, who resists him and ignores his message (Isa 7:11–13; 28:14; 30:9–11). These negative experiences are inextricably linked to Isaiah’s prophetic task and to his obedience to Yhwh.40 Jeremiah is portrayed as suffering along with the people insofar as he experiences exile with them (temporarily in Jer 40:1–5 and on a permanent basis in 43:5–7). This is comparable to the experience of Moses, who experiences hardship in the wilderness as the leader of the people. But more often, Jeremiah is described as suffering at the hands of his contemporaries: they ignore his message (Jer 6:10; 7:27; 18:18; 36:23–24; 37:2, 27; 38:15; 43:1–4; 44:15–19); slander, mock, and falsely accuse him (12:6; 15:10, 15; 17:15; 18:18–20; 20:7, 8, 10; 29:26–27; 37:13–14; 43:2); threaten him with death (11:19–21), arrest and imprison him (20:1–2; 37:14–16, 21; 38:28), beat him (20:1–2; 37:15), and attempt to kill him (26:7–11; 38:1–6, cf. vv. 9–10, 16). In all this he is clearly depicted as an innocent sufferer (Jer 15:10b; 18:20; 37:18). Moreover, Jeremiah’s suffering is depicted as experienced because of his faithfulness to Yhwh: Jeremiah says that he “bears reproach on account of ” Yhwh (Jer 15:15, ‫ )שׂאתי ﬠליך חרפה‬and that Yhwh’s word has become “reproach and derision” for him (20:8, ‫היה דבר־יהוה לי‬ ‫)לחרפה ולקלס‬. He experiences profound depression, humiliation, and isolation as a direct result of his prophetic task (Jer 15:17–18; 20:7–10, 14–18). Ezekiel is also depicted as suffering along with the people. The book of Ezekiel makes repeated references to the prophet’s exilic situation (e. g., Ezek 1:1, 3; 3:11, 15; 33:21) and depicts Ezekiel being told to physically act out the siege of Jerusalem (4:3), the famine in the city (4:9–11, 16–17; 12:17–19), the degradation of captives (5:1), the trauma of deportation (12:1–11), and the state of numbed shock experienced by those who hear news of the city’s fall (24:15–24). Ezekiel is said to “be a sign” for the people by these actions (Ezek 12:6, 11; 24:24). In all these instances, the prophet embodies the suffering of the people. Even more space is given to describing the suffering Ezekiel undergoes at Yhwh’s command, as part of his prophetic task. He is described as internalizing divine judgment (Ezek 2:8–3:3, 10), experiencing restricted speech (3:26), and performing a variety of humiliating and physically uncomfortable symbolic actions (4:4–6, 9–11, 12–15; 5:1).41 He is told that Yhwh will take the life of his wife, but 40 

See Isa 8:17, “And I will wait for Yhwh, who is hiding his face from the house of Jacob.” of Ezekiel’s priestly status, the actions commanded in Ezek 4:12–13 are portrayed as objectionable to him (v. 14; cf. Lev 19:7–8; 22:8; Deut 23:12–14), and the action commanded in Ezek 5:1 would be similarly understood (cf. Lev 21:5). 41  Because

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he is prohibited from engaging in conventional practices of mourning and must keep silent (Ezek 24:15–18).42 The reader is struck by the book’s emphasis on the physicality of Ezekiel’s experience: it describes Yhwh forcibly manipulating and restricting the prophet’s body in a variety of ways (Ezek 3:12, 14, 22, 26; 4:8; 8:1, 3). Finally, Ezekiel is described as suffering at the hands of his fellow-exiles: as is usual for a prophet, no one responds positively to what he says (Ezek 3:7; 33:30–33; cf. 2:3–5), and the reference in Ezek 3:25 seems to point to some kind of constraint placed on the prophet by the people. To sum up: the presentations of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel have been coordinated with the presentation of Moses as a prophet. They are commissioned in similar ways; they suffer in similar ways; they intercede in similar ways – or are denied the ability to intercede, in ways that highlight the connection. The role and characteristics of a “prophet like Moses” seem to be well-established.43 But the depiction of these prophets in terms of Moses does not simply look backwards but also forwards. Like Moses in Deuteronomy, these “prophets like Moses” pre-figure a future Moses-like suffering servant, who, after the exile, will successfully create a new community of servants and bring about the realization of Yhwh’s plans for Israel through Moses.

4.  The Isaian Servant(s) as the Vindication of Moses As shown above, Deuteronomy contains both pessimistic and optimistic outlooks in which the fates of Moses and the people are intertwined. Moses will die before entering the land because of his failure (Deut 1:37; 3:23–27; 4:21–22; 32:48–52; 34:1–6), and the people (in the future, as in the past) will break the covenant and go into exile (Deut 31:16–21, 27, 29; 32:15–30).44 But we also see expressed the hope for (1) Yhwh’s continued instruction through a prophet “like Moses,” whose mouth will contain Yhwh’s words (Deut 18:15–19); (2) the creation of a righteous community after exile (Deut 30:1–9; 32:43); and 42  Daniel Block remarks, “The price Ezekiel is asked to pay for the privilege of serving as God’s agent is high. More than any other prophet, even Hosea, Ezekiel plays the role of a suffering servant; the medium has truly become the message. Personal feelings are sacrificed that he might in his body bear witness to the inexorable work of God in the lives of his people”; Daniel L. Block, The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 1–24, NICOT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 793–94. 43  The analogical relationships between the patriarchs, Moses, and the prophets with respect to intercession and self-sacrifice were noted by early Jewish readers; see Jacob Z. Lauterbach (trans. and ed.), Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael, vol. 1, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2004), Pisḥa 1 (lines 105–108) on Exod 12:1: “And so you also find, that the patriarchs and the prophets offered their lives on behalf of Israel. As to Moses, what did he say: ‘Yet now, if thou wilt forgive their sin; and if not blot me, I pray Thee, out of the book which Thou hast written.’” 44 See Otto, “Moses the Suffering Prophet.”



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(3) Yhwh’s compassion toward “his servants” (Deut 32:36, 43). Each of these three motifs appear in Isaiah 40–66, with the result that the individual Servant figure and the group called the “servants” together represent the vindication of the prophet Moses (and the prophets like Moses) and the realization of their efforts. 4.1  The Patterning of the Isaian Servant on Moses and the Prophets The Isaian Servant is depicted as a prophetic figure,45 patterned on Moses and the Moses-like prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel.46 His title, “Servant of Yhwh” (Isa 42:1; 49:3, 5, 6; 52:13; 53:11) is used of Moses (Num 1:7; Deut 34:5), Isaiah (Isa 20:3), and other prophets (Jer 7:25). Like earlier prophets, the Servant is appointed by Yhwh:47 just as Moses is “called” (‫קרא‬, quite literally in Exod 3:4), so also is the Servant (Isa 42:6; 49:1); just as Yhwh knew Jeremiah before he was formed in the womb (‫אצרך בבטן‬, Jer 1:5), so the Isaian Servant is formed from the womb (‫יצרי מבטן‬, Isa 49:5; cf. v. 1).48 Like Moses and other prophets, the Servant is empowered for service by YHWH (Isa 42:1, 6; 49:2; 50:7; cf. Exod 4:1–9, 12; Jer 1:8b, 18–19; 15:20–21; Ezek 3:8–9), and Yhwh’s “words are in [his] mouth” (Isa 51:16; 59:21; cf. Exod 4:15; Deut 18:18; Jer 1:9; 15:16, 19; Ezek 2:8–3:3). Like Moses and other prophets, the Servant is taught by Yhwh and is in turn a teacher of others (Isa 42:4; 50:4; cf. Exod 4:12; Deut 4:1, 5, 14; 6:1; Isa 1:10; 8:16, 20; Jer 7:1–7; Ezek 18). 45  “All that has been said above justifies the view that the figure of the Servant in some sort sums up the entire prophetic movement and its experiences down through the ages”; so Sigmund Mowinckel, He That Cometh: The Messiah Concept in the Old Testament and Later Judaism, trans. G. W. Anderson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 233. So also Gerhard von R ad, Old Testament Theology, Vol. 2: The Theology of Israel’s Prophetic Traditions, trans. D. M. G. Stalker (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1965), 259. 46  For the earlier recognition of the relationship of the Isaian Servant to Moses, the earlier “servant of Yhwh,” see the comments of R. Samlai on Isa 53:12 in b. Sotah 14a. For the modern appreciation of this relationship, see G. P. Hugenberger, “The Servant of the Lord in the ‘Servant Songs’ of Isaiah: A Second Moses Figure,” in The Lord’s Anointed. Interpretation of Old Testament Messianic Texts, ed. Philip E. Satterthwaite, Richard S. Hess, and Gordon J. Wenham (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995), 105–40; Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition, ed. Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans, VTSup 70/1 (New York: Brill, 1997), 155–75 (here 158–60, 164–65); R. E. Clements, “Isaiah 53 and the Restoration of Israel,” in Jesus and the Suffering Servant; Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed. William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998), 39–54; Christopher R. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible VI, ed. Leander E. Keck (Nashville: Abingdon, 2001), 307–552 (here 464); Klaus Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah: A Commentary, trans. Margaret Kohl, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2001), esp. 20–22; see also 125–36, 298–300, 306–11, 338–43, 363–64, 393–98, 404–29. 47  Compare Isa 42:1, 6; 49:1, 5 with Exod 3–4; Isa 6; Jer 1:4–14, 17–19; Ezek 2–3. 48  Note that in the narrative logic of Exodus 1–2, Moses is also “called from the womb.”

30

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Baltzer has pointed out a number of other analogies between the descriptions of Moses and the Servant: Yhwh “puts [his] spirit on” (‫נתן רוחי ﬠל‬, Isa 42:1) the Servant, a construction that is used elsewhere only in Num 11:25, 26, 29 where Yhwh takes the spirit that is on Moses and “puts his spirit on” (‫ )נתן רוחו ﬠל‬the seventy elders so that they may prophesy. The Servant will “not grow faint” (‫לא‬ ‫יכהה‬, Isa 42:4) in bringing forth God’s torah, a description that is also used to describe Moses’ vigor in Deut 34:7 (‫)לא־כהתה ﬠינו‬. The description of the Servant’s mission in Isa 42:6–7 is concluded with the statement “I am Yhwh; that is my name” (‫אני יהוה הוא שׁמי‬, Isa 42:8), a statement that seems to be modelled on the revelation of the divine name to Moses in Exod 3:15 (‫)יהוה … זה שׁמי‬. And just as Moses “brings out” (‫הוציא‬, Exod 3:10–12) the people and brings forth torah, so the Servant “brings out” justice and prisoners (Isa 42:1, 3, 7).49 Just as other prophets suffer along with the people (Moses on the journey in the wilderness; Jeremiah and Ezekiel in exile, Jer 40:1; Ezek 1:1), the Servant also shares in the suffering of the people (Isa 53:3, 4).50 Just as the prophets suffer at the hands of the people,51 so too does the Servant, who is despised, rejected, beaten, and afflicted (Isa 49:7; 50:6; 53:3, 7). The similarities between the depiction of Jeremiah (who has long been viewed as an exemplary suffering prophetic servant)52 and the Isaian Servant are so pronounced that Saadia Gaon believed the Isaian Servant to be the prophet Jeremiah,53 though modern scholarship has accounted for these similarities under the rubric of literary dependence.54 For 49 

Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 127, 130, 133. Baltzer (Deutero-Isaiah, 407–8) compares the Servant’s experience of sickness to Moses’ experience of leprosy (Exod 4:1, 6). 51  For the suffering of Moses, see e. g. Num 12:1–2; 14:10; 16:1–3, 12–14, 41–42. For the suffering of Jeremiah, see e. g. Jer 12:6; 15:10, 15; 17:18; 20:1–2; 26:7–11; 37:11–16; 38:1–6. 52  On the presentation of Jeremiah as an exemplary sufferer, see Sheldon Blank, “The Prophet as Paradigm,” in Prophetic Thought: Essays and Addresses (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1977), 23–34; esp. 31–32; A. H. J. Gunneweg, “Konfession oder Interpretation im Jeremiabuch,” ZThK 67 (1970): 395–416, here 399: “Jeremia ist der exemplarisch leidende Gerechte”; Peter Welten, “Leiden und Leidenserfahrung im Buch Jeremia: Herrn Prof. D. Walther Zimmerli zum 70. Geburtstag,” ZThK 74.2 (1977): 123–50, here 145: “Mit der Einfügung dieser Stücke in den Kontext des Jeremiabuches wird der Prophet, so wie er uns in diesem ganzen Buch überliefert wird, insgesamt als ein leidender Gerechter interpretiert”; Hannes Bezzel, Die Konfessionen Jeremias: Eine redaktionsgeschichtliche Studie, BZAW 378 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2007), 40, 55 (note however his qualifications, pp. 56, 286); idem, “The Suffering of the Elect. Variations on a Theological Problem in Jer 15:10–21,” in Prophecy in the Book of Jeremiah, ed. Hans M. Barstad and Reinhard G. Kratz, BZAW 388 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2009), 48–73. 53  See Joseph Alobaidi (trans. and ed.), The Messiah in Isaiah 53: The Commentaries of Saadia Gaon, Salmon ben Yeruham, and Yefet ben Eli on Is. 52:13–53:12 (Bern: Peter Lang, 1998), 46, 59. 54  For the literary construction of the Isaian Suffering Servant on the model of the prophet Jeremiah, see Bernhard Duhm, Die Theologie der Propheten als Grundlage für die innere Entwicklungsgeschichte der israelitischen Religion (Bonn: Adolph Marcus, 1875), 289; Fred A. Farley, “Jeremiah and ‘The Suffering Servant of Jehovah’ in Deutero-Isaiah,” ExpTim 38.11 (1927): 521–24 (see e. g. 523: “Jeremiah would naturally be thought of as ‘The Servant of the 50 



The One and the Many, the Past and the Future

31

example: Jeremiah is compared to “a tame lamb led to slaughter” (‫כבשׂ אלוף יובל‬ ‫לטבוח‬, Jer 11:19a), and the Isaian Servant is described as “a sheep led to the slaughter” (‫שׂה לטבח יובל‬, Isa 53:7); Jeremiah’s enemies exclaim, “let us cut him off from the land of the living” (‫ונכרתנו מארץ חיים‬, Jer 11:19b), and the Isaian Servant is described as “cut off from the land of the living” (‫נגזר מארץ חיים‬, Isa 53:8). Finally, both Jeremiah and the Isaian Servant experience “pain(s)” (‫מכאבות‬, Isa 53:3; ‫כאב‬, Jer 15:18) and “trouble” (‫ﬠמל‬, Isa 53:11; Jer 20:18).55 Like Moses, the Servant intercedes for the people (Isa 53:12; cf. Exod 32:11– 13, 30–32; Num 11:1–2; 12:13; 14:13–19; 16:20–22; 21:7). And just as Moses willingly offers his life (Exod 32:31–32), so does the Servant.56 As Coats explains, The suffering servant poem from the Second Isaiah depicts the death of the new Moses (Isa. 53.8). But the death of this particular servant did not occur for his own rebellion. He carried the rebellions of his people. And the result was death, like Moses cut off from the promised land, like Moses ‘stricken for the transgressions of my people.’ But the critical point is that the salvation offered the people of God by this new Moses is explicitly healing. ‘With his stripes we are healed.’ The death of the servant brings healing, restoration to the people.57

Yet Isaiah 53 takes the motif of laying down one’s life even further than Exod 32:32, for the Servant actually dies instead of and for the benefit of the people (Isa 53:5–6, 11–12), as part of Yhwh’s mysterious plan (Isa 53:10).58 As Lord’; he would even furnish features for the picture of the ideal ‘Servant’ or ‘prophet’”); Sheldon H. Blank, Prophetic Faith in Isaiah (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1958), 100–104; idem, “The Prophet as Paradigm,” 31–32; Benjamin Sommer, A  Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusions in Isaiah 40–66 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 61–62, 64–66; Patricia Tull Willey, Remember the Former Things: The Recollection of Previous Texts in Second Isaiah (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 193–97; Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 340; Katherine J. Dell, “The Suffering Servant of Deutero-Isaiah: Jeremiah Revisited,” in Genesis, Isaiah and Psalms. A Festschrift to Honour Professor John Emerton for His Eightieth Birthday, ed. Katherine J. Dell, Graham Davies and Yee Von Koh; VTSup 135 (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 119–134; Ulrich Berges, “Servant and Suffering in Isaiah and Jeremiah: Who Borrowed from Whom?” OTE 25.2 (2012): 247–59. Fischer argues that the direction of dependence flows in the other direction (that is, the depiction of the prophet Jeremiah was constructed on the Isaian Suffering Servant); see Georg Fischer, “Jeremiah, God’s Suffering Servant,” in Jeremiah Studies: From Text and Contexts to Theology, FAT 139 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2020), 249–66; idem, “Riddles of Reference: ‘I’ and ‘We’ in the Books of Isaiah and Jeremiah: The Relation of the Suffering Characters in the Books of Isaiah and Jeremiah,” OTE 25.2 (2012): 277–91, esp. 288: “The portrayal of the prophet Jeremiah, especially in his confessions, but also in his vocation (Jer 1), can be seen as a realisation of the suffering servant, as he is depicted especially in Isa 49 and 53” [emphasis in the original]. 55  See also the use of ‫ הפגיﬠ‬in Isa 53:6; Jer 15:11 and ‫ לקח‬in Isa 53:8; Jer 15:15. 56  Because of the Servant’s obedient submission to death, he will “prolong days” (‫ימים‬ ‫יאריך‬, Isa 53:10) – a statement that is, as Baltzer (Deutero-Isaiah, 422) notes, a characteristic utterance of the Moses of Deuteronomy, who promises that the people’s obedience will result in “prolonging days” (e. g., Deut 4:40; 5:16, 33; 6:2; 11:8–9; 22:7; 25:15; 32:47). 57  George W. Coats, The Moses Tradition, JSOTSup 161 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), 141. 58  Note that even though Moses’ offer of his own life is not accepted (Exod 32:32–33), his

32

D. Andrew Teeter and Michael A. Lyons

was demonstrated above, the fates of Moses and the people were intertwined: both fail to “believe” (Num 20:12; Deut 1:32), and both experience Yhwh’s anger, resulting in their inability to enter the land (Deut 1:34–35, 37). In Isaiah, the relationship between Yhwh’s intercessory agent and the people is somewhat different: the Servant is innocent, yet Yhwh causes the people’s iniquity to affect him (Isa 53:6) and he “bears their sins” (Isa 53:11, 12).59 The Isaian Servant is portrayed as analogical to Moses not in Moses’ failure but in Moses’ intercessory success. And just as the account of Moses laying down his life shares features with the story of Abraham’s test in Gen 22, so also does the description of the Servant in Isaiah.60 4.2  The Creation of a Righteous Community of Suffering Intercessors: The “Servants” The book of Deuteronomy depicts the people of Israel as unfaithful not only in the past (Deut 1:26, 27, 32, 43) but also – from the temporal perspective of the book – in the future. Despite Moses’ strenuous efforts to teach them Yhwh’s laws, statutes, and ordinances, the people will break the covenant and go into exile (Deut 31:16–21, 27, 29). But the book of Deuteronomy also expresses hope for the formation of a righteous community in the future. Deuteronomy 32 in particular focuses on this pessimism (Deut 32:15–30) and optimism (Deut 32:36, 43). We find the very same perspectives about Israel’s history in Isaiah, in some cases expressed in the same words. There is good reason to conclude that Isaiah 40–66 and Deuteronomy (and in particular Deut 32) have been shaped in light of each other.61 intercession secures the people’s survival, YHWH’s continued presence, and the establishment of the covenant (Exod 32:11–13, 30–32; 33:3, 12–16; 34:1 ff.). 59 See Spieckermann, “Vicarious Suffering,” 11. For the possible influence of Ezek 4:4 on Isa 53:12, see Richard Kraetzschmar, Das Buch Ezechiel übersetzt und erklärt, HAT (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1900), 46; Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1, 164–65. 60 See De Andrado, The Akedah Servant Complex, 67–94; more cautiously, Levenson, Death and Resurrection, 201. 61  On the connections between Deut 32 and Isaiah, see Cornill, Einleitung, 71; Karl Budde, Das Lied Mose’s Deut. 32 erläutert und übersetzt (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1920), 45; Ernst Sellin, “Wann wurde das Moselied Dtn 32 gedichtet?” ZAW 43 (1925): 161–73; Sten Hidal, “Some Reflections on Deuteronomy 32,” ASTI 11 (1977/78): 15–21 (here 15); Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 478–79; Bernard Gosse, “Deutéronome 32,1–43 et les rédactions des livres d’Ezéchiel et d’Isaïe,” ZAW 107 (1995): 110–17 (here 114–16); Paul Allan Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction in Trito-Isaiah: The Structure, Growth, and Authorship of Isaiah 56–66, VTSup 62 (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 143–44, 151; Paul Sanders, The Provenance of Deuteronomy 32, OtSt 37 (Leiden: Brill, 1996), 75, 421; Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture, 134–39, 273–74; Hyun Chul Paul Kim, “The Song of Moses (Deuteronomy 32.1–43) in Isaiah 40–55,” in God’s Word for Our World, Vol. 1: Biblical Studies in Honor of Simon John De Vries, ed. J. Harold Ellens et al. (New York: T&T Clark, 2004), 147–71; Thomas A. Keiser, “The Song of Moses a Basis for



The One and the Many, the Past and the Future

33

The pessimistic assessment of the people in Deut 29:3 as not having “a heart to know or eyes to see or ears to hear” appears in the prophetic corpus (Isa 6:9– 10; Jer 5:21; Ezek 12:2),62 and is particularly pervasive in Isaiah.63 This motif of Israel’s blindness and deafness is taken up in Isa 42:18–20, and the following verses spell out the results, which are also identical to Deuteronomy’s pessimistic evaluation: although Israel was given Yhwh’s law, they failed to obey and were exiled (Isa 42:21–25). Deuteronomy’s optimism about the eventual formation of a righteous community is also realized in Isaiah. The problem of Israel’s blindness will be solved by the opening of blind eyes – a task that is attributed to Yhwh’s Servant (Isa 42:7). Isaiah 53 can be seen as the outworking of this task: because of the righteous Servant’s willingness to lay down his life, he will “see offspring” and “make many righteous” (Isa 53:10, 11). This hints at the formation of a community who will embody the values of the Servant. As Beuken has demonstrated, the formation of this righteous community – identified as the “servants” (Isa 54:17; 56:6; 65:8–9, 13–15; 66:14) and the “offspring” (Isa 59:21; 61:8–9; 65:9, 23; 66:22)  – constitutes the main theme of Isa 56–66.64 The last part of the book of Isaiah describes the profile of the servants/offspring, the community whose identity is shaped in light of the Servant and who are the result of his work.65 Just as the Servant is Yhwh’s “chosen” (‫בחירי‬, Isa 42:1), so also are the servants/offspring (‫בחירי‬, 65:9, 15). Just as the Servant is a righteous sufferer (Isa 53), so also are the servants/offspring; their righteousness is referred to in Isa 54:14, 17; 57:1; 61:3, and their suffering is referred to in Isa 57:1; 66:5. These servants/offspring are those who “seek” Yhwh and respond to his offer (Isa 65:8–10; 66:2b, 5), and their opponents are those who do not Isaiah’s Prophecy,” VT 55.4 (2005): 486–500; Eckart Otto, “Moses Abschiedslied in Deutero­ nomium 32. Ein Zeugnis der Kanonsbildung in der Hebräischen Bibel,” in Die Tora: Studien zum Pentateuch. Gesammelte Aufsätze, BZAR 9 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2009), 641–79 (here 657–71). 62  On the literary relationship between these passages, see Franz Hesse, Das Verstockungsproblem im alten Testament: Eine frömmigkeitsgeschichtliche Untersuchung, BZAW 74 (Berlin: Töpelmann, 1955), 60–61; Wolfgang Köhler, Die Verstocktheit Israels im Jesajabuch: Studie eines theologischen Motivs (Berlin: Lit, 2019), 10–11. 63  E. g. Isa 6:9–10; 29:18; 32:3; 35:5; 42:18–20; 43:8; 44:18. See R. E. Clements, “Beyond Tradition-History: Deutero-Isaianic Development of First Isaiah’s Themes,” JSOT 31 (1985): 95–113 (here 101–4). 64  W. A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH,’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. 65 Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch,” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23; repr. in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship, ed. R. P. Gordon (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 392–412; idem, “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period,” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20; idem, “The Servant and the Servants”; W. A. M. Beuken, “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah,” in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989, ed. J. A. Emerton (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), 204–21.

34

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(Isa 65:1–2, 11, 12; 66:4).66 This righteous community of servants can therefore be seen as the realization of Moses’ goal for Israel according to Deuteronomy – a goal that he was unable to achieve in his lifetime.67 But the Isaian servants do not merely represent the realization of Moses’ efforts to form a righteous community. They are also depicted as taking up the prophetic role of intercession associated with both Moses and the Isaian Servant, a depiction that is the result of compositional activity in the last few chapters of the book. It is widely acknowledged that the lament in Isa 63:7–64:11 is an older unit that has been placed in its current context and that Isa 65–66 has been composed as a response to it.68 The lament is voiced by one who identifies himself and Israel as “your servants, the tribes of your inheritance” (63:17, ‫ﬠבדיך‬ ‫)שׁבטי נחלתיך‬. He prays on behalf of the entire people (64:5, 8 “all of us”), confessing their sins and pleading with Yhwh to return (64:17), to cease from being angry (64:8, ‫)אל־תקצף‬, and to not remember iniquity (64:8). The language of Isa 63:7, which recounts Yhwh’s “compassion” (‫ )רחמיו‬and “abundant lovingkindness” (‫)רב חסדיו‬, recalls the Gnadenformel of Exod 34:6 in which Moses’ intercession results in the revelation of Yhwh’s character as “compassionate” (‫ )רחום‬and “abundant in lovingkindness” (‫)רב־חסד‬ – qualities that Moses points to in his subsequent intercession for the people’s sins (Num 14:18). The plea in Isa 64:8 “do not remember iniquity forever” (‫ﬠון‬ ‫תזכר‬ ‫ )אל־לﬠד‬recalls Yhwh’s self-revelation in Exod 34:7 as the one who “forgives iniquity” (‫)נשׂא ﬠון‬, also referenced by Moses in his subsequent intercession (Num 14:18). And just as Deut 9:26–29 depicts Moses praying to Yhwh for the people, calling them “your people, your inheritance” (‫ )ﬠמך נחלתך‬and recounting Yhwh’s “redemption” (‫)פדה‬,69 here too in Isa 63:7–64:11 the speaker prays for the people, calling them the “tribes of your inheritance” (‫שׁבטי נחלתך‬, 63:17) and recounting 66 

See Isa 55:6–7 for the offer to which these verses refer, and note the shared vocabulary. Note Deut 4:29: ‫ובקשׁתם משׁם את־יהוה אלהיך ומצאת כי תדרשׁנו בכל־לבבך ובכל־נפשׁך‬. 68  See Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 30–32, 49–51; see also Odil Hannes Steck, Studien zu Tritojesaja, BZAW 203 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1991), 221–26; Brooks Schramm, The Opponents of Third Isaiah: Reconstructing the Cultic History of the Restoration, JSOTSup 193 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 154–56; Ulrich F. Berges, The Book of Isaiah: Its Composition and Final Form, trans. Millard C. Lind (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2012), 466–71; Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer, “The Lament in Isaiah 63:7–64:11 and Its Literary and Theological Place in Isaiah 40–66,” in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew. Essays Honoring Joseph Blenkinsopp and His Contribution to the Study of Isaiah, ed. Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 52–70 (here 58–60). There is also wide agreement that Isa 60–62 represents the earliest material in Trito-Isaiah, with Isa 56:1–8 and 65–66 composed as a frame around it; see Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile, 30. 69  Isa 63:7–64:11, Deut 9, and Ps 106 contain a number of similarities, both conceptual and lexical: note e. g. Isa 63:9 // Ps 106:10 (‫ ;)הושׁיﬠם … גאל‬Isa  63:13 // Ps  106:9 (‫ויוליכם בתהמות‬ ‫ ;)… מדבר‬Isa  63:17 // Ps  106:5 (‫ ;)נחלה‬Deut 9:7, 8, 19, 22 // Isa 64:4, 8 // Ps 106:32 (‫;)קצף‬ Deut  9:23, 24 // Isa  63:10 // Ps  106:33 (‫ ;)מרה‬Deut  9:25 // Ps  106:23 (‫)השׁמיד‬. Yhwh’s anger (‫קצף‬, Isa 64:4, 8) is a significant theme in Deuteronomy (Deut 1:34; 9:7, 8, 19, 22), and is used to 67 



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Yhwh’s “redemption” (16, 63:9 ‫ )גאל‬specifically under the leadership of Moses (63:11–12). Given the numerous depictions of Moses as an intercessor at Sinai and in the wilderness, the references to Moses and Israel’s experience under Moses in this Trito-Isaian lament (esp. Isa 63:9, 11–13) can be seen to have a strategic role in context.70 The concerns of the lament are taken up but subtly modified in the following section.71 The petition that Yhwh should act “for the sake of your servants” (Isa 63:17, ‫ )למﬠן ﬠבדיך שׁבטי נחלתך‬is taken up in 65:8, where Yhwh promises that he will act “for the sake of my servants, so as not to destroy the entirety” (‫)למﬠן ﬠבדי לבלתי השׁחית הכל‬. What is significant for our argument here is that the lament’s equation of the servants with the people (63:17) and references to the entirety of the people (64:5, 8 ‫ )כלנו‬are qualified and limited in 65:10, where the servants are defined exclusively as “my people who seek me.”72 Nevertheless, while Isa 65–66 might be said to function as a corrective to the lament, it also represents a positive response to it insofar as the editorial juxtaposition of the two units and modification of 63:17 in 65:8 depicts the righteous servants who respond to Yhwh as those who successfully intercede for the people. The servants, then, are depicted as intercessors, like the Servant in Isa 53 and like Moses in the Pentateuch.73 4.3  Yhwh’s Compassion for the Servants As previously noted, Deut 32 articulates both pessimistic (Deut 32:15–30) and optimistic (Deut 32:36, 43) perspectives on Israel’s future. When Israel rejects Yhwh for other gods (vv. 15–18), he punishes them (vv. 19–26), but he restrains himself for two reasons: first, to prevent misunderstanding on the part of Israel’s “adversaries” (vv. 26–27), and second, because he sees that “his servants” are powerless (v. 36). Yhwh will therefore “have compassion on his servants” (v. 36) and “take vengeance on his adversaries” (vv. 41, 43). As noted above, Deuteronomy’s poem about Israel’s history contains numerous lexical and conceptual parallels with Isa 40–66. depict both Israel and Moses as the deserving objects of Yhwh’s wrath and to link their fates together. 70  See Richard J. Bautch, “Dating Texts to the Persian Period: The Case of Isaiah 63:7– 64:11,” in On Dating Texts to the Persian Period: Discerning Criteria and Establishing Epochs, ed. Richard J. Bautch and Mark Lackowski (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019), 139–47 (here 142–43). 71  Stromberg (Isaiah After Exile, 30–32) notes how Isa 65:1 (‫ )לא־קרא בשׁמי‬takes up 64:6 (‫)אין־קורא בשׁמך‬, Isa 65:6 (‫ )לא אחשׁה‬takes up 64:11 (‫)הﬠל־אלה … תחשׁה‬, Isa 66:1 (‫אי־זה בית אשׁר‬ ‫ )תבנו־לי‬responds to 64:10 (‫)בית קדשׁנו … היה לשׂרפת אשׁ‬, and Isa 65:8 responds to 63:17; 64:5, 8. See further Steck, Tritojesaja, 221–26. 72  The response of the servants in Isa 65:10 is in contrast to the description of the response of the servants’ opponents in Isa 65:1, 12. All these passages reflect Yhwh’s offer in 55:6–7. 73 See Berges, The Book of Isaiah, 456–58.

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Like the Servant (Isa 53), the Isaian servants/offspring suffer for their righteousness (Isa 57:1; 66:5). And just as the Servant is promised vindication (Isa 50:8–9; 52:13; 53:12), so also the servants are promised vindication in the face of those who oppose them: protection (54:17), an inheritance (65:9–10), and Yhwh’s blessing (65:13–15). However, Yhwh will punish the opponents of the servants (Isa 65:12–15; 66:4). The two-fold response of Yhwh in Deut 32 of “compassion” for his “servants” (‫וﬠל־ﬠבדיו יתנחם‬, v. 36)74 and “vengeance” (‫ )נקם‬for his “adversaries” (‫לצרים‬, vv. 41, 43) also plays a central role in Isaiah’s argument about the servants.75 Both responses show up in Isa 61:2, where Yhwh’s agent (speaking with the voice of the Servant)76 is commissioned “to proclaim … the day of vengeance of our God” (‫ )לקרא … יום נקם לאלהינו‬and “to comfort all who mourn” (‫)לנחם כל־אבלים‬. In context, the “vengeance” is for Yhwh’s “adversaries” (Isa 59:17–18), and the “comfort” is for “those who mourn in Zion” – the ones who are called “oaks of righteousness” (61:2, 3). As Beuken has demonstrated, these are the servants/ offspring (61:9).77 The servants are spoken of as “righteous” (61:3) in Isa 54:14, 17; 57:1; they are portrayed as “the ones who mourn” (61:2, 3) over Israel’s sin in Isa 59:9–15; 63:15–19;78 they are described as “ministers” (61:6) in Isa 56:6; they are described as having “joy” instead of “shame” (61:7) in Isa 65:13; 66:5; and they are described as “possessing” the land (61:7) in Isa 65:9. Again, just as the Isaian Servant is the realization of Moses’ prophetic intercessory role, and just as the Isaian servants are the realization of the righteous community of Israel that Moses struggled to produce, so the vindication of Yhwh’s servants spoken of in Deut 32 is realized in Isa 54, 56–66.

74  The “servants” are also mentioned in MT Deut 32:43, though in fact several different versions of this verse are attested in the textual witnesses (4QDeutq, MT, LXX). For a reconstruction of the text’s development here, see Arie van der Kooij, “The Ending of the Song of Moses: On the Pre-Masoretic Version of Deut 32:43,” in Studies in Deuteronomy, In Honour of C. J. Labuschagne on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, ed. Florentino García Martínez et al., VTSup 53 (Leiden: Brill, 1994), 93–100. If this reconstruction is correct, it seems plausible that the readings “nations” and “servants” in the proto-MT of v. 43 were adjustments made in light of the outlook of the book of Isaiah. 75  Those who see a connection between Yhwh’s “servants” in Deut 32:36 and Isa 65:8, 13 include Sellin, “Moselied,” 169–70; Kim, “The Song of Moses,” 162–64; and (cautiously) Petra Schmidtkunz, Das Moselied des Deuteronomiums: Untersuchungen zu Text und Theologie von Dtn 32,1–43, FAT 2/124 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2020), 230–32. Note also the comment on Deut 32:36 and its connection to Isa 65:8 by R. Obadiah Sforno, ‫( באור ﬠל התורה‬Venice: 1567): ‫– יתנחם ﬠל הרﬠה הראויה לﬠמו וירחם ﬠליהם בשׁביל ﬠבדיו שׁבתוכם כאמרו כן‬ ‫וﬠל ﬠבדיו יתנחם‬ ‫אﬠשׂה למﬠן ﬠבדי לבלתי השׁחית הכל‬. 76  See W. A. M. Beuken, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55,” in The Book of Isaiah/Le Livre D’Isaïe, ed. Jacques Vermeylen, BETL 81 (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 411–42. 77  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 70, 72–73. 78  See Isa 63:17 and the argument above for how this is taken up and modified in Isa 65.



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5. Conclusion In this essay we have demonstrated, first, how Moses is depicted as a paradigmatic prophet who suffers and is willing to lay down his life as he struggles to create a righteous community. Moreover, the book of Deuteronomy sets Moses in comparison to the people of Israel: just as the first wilderness generation fails, Moses also fails, and both die before entering the land. Before he dies, Moses is portrayed as instructing the second generation of the people, attempting to create success by means of constant reference to the failures of the previous generation. Tragically, Moses is told that after his death, the people will commit apostasy and go into exile. But Deut 32:36, 43 (as well as the blessings in Deut 33) hold out hope for success even after this failure. Second, we have shown how the analogical relationships between Moses and his contemporaries in the book of Deuteronomy set the pattern for the descriptions of subsequent prophets and their relationship with their own Israelite contemporaries. The presentations of the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel have been coordinated with the presentation of Moses, so that they are set on analogy to him as “prophets like Moses” (Deut 18:15–18). The descriptions of their commissioning all display similarities, and the motifs of prophetic suffering and intercession (or prohibition of intercession!) are prominent in the case of each figure. Like Moses, these prophets also tragically die without having created a righteous community. Third, we have shown how the presentations of Moses and the “prophets like Moses” prefigure a future Moses-like suffering servant described in the book of Isaiah  – a Servant who, after the exile, will successfully create a new community of servants and bring about the realization of Yhwh’s plans for Israel through Moses. The complex relationship between Moses and the people in the Pentateuch (and between the prophets and the people in the prophetic corpus) is mirrored in the complex relationship between the Isaian Servant and Israel. A number of ambiguities in Isa 40–55 (prompting the longstanding debates over “the identity of the servant”) arise from what is best explained as a deliberate compositional strategy of analogy.79 But the analogical strategies go beyond what we see in Isa 40–55 alone. The Isaian depiction of the Servant(s) has been coordinated with the presentation of Moses and other prophets. Like Moses and the other prophets, the Isaian Servant suffers; like Moses, the Isaian Servant lays down his life to preserve his community. The description of the Isaian servants – who are righteous, who suffer for their righteousness, who are promised vindication, and who attempt to intercede – represent the vindication of Moses’ prophetic life and his efforts to create a righteous community. 79  See Peter Wilcox and David Paton-Williams, “The Servant Songs in Deutero-Isaiah,” JSOT 42 (1988): 79–102.

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The compositional strategies described above combine to create a model of history (and therefore of reality) that is profoundly analogical, in which the patterns and rhythms of the past are determinative for the present and future.80 This is a model of reality in which the Servant of Yhwh, in a way that is predictable from the analogical contours of the past, becomes an essential figure within God’s plan for history.

one many

one

many

one

many

Moses

The Prophets

The Servant

The Servants

The People

The People

The People

The People

Failure (past)

Success (future)

Understanding analogical history of this kind, with its emphasis on the significance of the past for the future, has powerful implications for the present volume’s theme of the exegetical formation of identity. Such a view of history is the expression of a set of ideas about God, humanity, the order of the world, and ultimately about one’s place within it. Such literary strategies sponsor, indeed, actively seek to inculcate,81 a practice of reading one’s own time and circumstances in light of the analogical past, of understanding and locating oneself in light of its recursive analogies. To this extent, the dynamics unpacked in this essay – the one and the many, the past and the future, failure and success – greatly illuminate the reception of Isaiah’s Servant(s) in the reading communities described in the following essays of this volume.

Bibliography Achenbach, Reinhard. “‘A Prophet like Moses’ (Deuteronomy 18:15)  – ‘No Prophet like Moses’ (Deuteronomy 34:10): Some Observations on the Relation between the Pentateuch and the Latter Prophets.” Pages 435–58 in The Pentateuch: International Perspectives on Current Research. Edited by Thomas B. Dozeman, Konrad Schmid, and Baruch J. Schwartz. FAT 78. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011.

80 See further D. Andrew Teeter, “Jeremiah, Joseph, and the Dynamics of Analogy: On the Relationship between Jer 37–44 and the Joseph Story,” HeBAI (forthcoming); Jacob Stromberg, “Figural History in the Book of Isaiah: The Prospective Significance of Hezekiah’s Deliverance from Assyria and Death,” in Imperial Visions: The Prophet and the Book of Isaiah in an Age of Empires, ed. Reinhard G. Kratz and Joachim Schaper, FRLANT 277 (Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 2020), 81–102. 81 See e. g. Dominik Markl, Gottes Volk im Deuteronomium, BZAR 18 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2012), esp. 15, 18.



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–. “‘The Unwritten Text of the Covenant’: Torah in the Mouth of the Prophets.” Pages 93–107 in Covenant in the Persian Period: From Genesis to Chronicles. Edited by Richard J. Bautch and Gary N. Knoppers. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2015. Allison, Dale C. The New Moses: A Matthean Typology. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993. Alobaidi, Joseph. The Messiah in Isaiah 53: The Commentaries of Saadia Gaon, Salmon ben Yeruham, and Yefet ben Eli on Is. 52:13–53:12. Bern: Peter Lang, 1998. Baltzer, Klaus. Deutero-Isaiah: A  Commentary. Translated by Margaret Kohl. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2001. Bautch, Richard J. “Dating Texts to the Persian Period: The Case of Isaiah 63:7–64:11.” Pages 139–47 in On Dating Texts to the Persian Period: Discerning Criteria and Establishing Epochs. Edited by Richard J. Bautch and Mark Lackowski. FAT 2/101. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2019. Ben Zvi, Ehud. “Exploring the Memory of Moses ‘The Prophet’ in Late Persian/Early Hellenistic Yehud/Judah.” Pages 335–64 in Remembering Biblical Figures in the Late Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods: Social Memory and Imagination. Edited by Diana V. Edelman and Ehud Ben Zvi. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. Berges, Ulrich F. The Book of Isaiah: Its Composition and Final Form. Translated by Millard C. Lind. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2012. –. “Servant and Suffering in Isaiah and Jeremiah: Who Borrowed from Whom?” OTE 25.2 (2012): 247–59. Beuken, W. A. M. “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 204–21 in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989. Edited by J. A. Emerton. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991. –. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH.’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. –. “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55.” Pages 411–42 in The Book of Isaiah/Le Livre D’Isaïe. Edited by Jacques Vermeylen. BETL 81. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989. Bezzel, Hannes. Die Konfessionen Jeremias: Eine redaktionsgeschichtliche Studie. BZAW 378. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2007. –. “The Suffering of the Elect. Variations on a Theological Problem in Jer 15:10–21.” Pages 48–73 in Prophecy in the Book of Jeremiah. Edited by Hans M. Barstad and Reinhard G. Kratz. BZAW 388. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2009. Blank, Sheldon. “The Prophet as Paradigm.” Pages 23–34 in Prophetic Thought: Essays and Addresses. Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1977. –. Prophetic Faith in Isaiah. London: Adam and Charles Black, 1958. –. “Traces of Prophetic Agony in Isaiah.” HUCA 27 (1956): 81–92. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period.” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20. –. “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book.” Pages 155–75 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Edited by Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans. VTSup 70/1. New York: Brill, 1997. –. “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch.” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23. Reprinted as pages 392–412 in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship. Edited by R. P. Gordon. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995. Block, Daniel L. The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 1–24. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997. Boda, Mark J. “‘Uttering Precious Rather Than Worthless Words’: Divine Patience and Impatience with Lament in Isaiah and Jeremiah.” Pages 83–99 in Why? … How Long?

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Studies on Voice(s) of Lamentation Rooted in Biblical Hebrew Poetry. Edited by Leann Snow Flesher, Carol J. Dempsey, and Mark J. Boda. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014. Budde, Karl. Das Lied Mose’s Deut. 32 erläutert und übersetzt. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1920. Childs, Brevard S. Isaiah. OTL. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001. Clements, R. E. “Beyond Tradition-History: Deutero-Isaianic Development of First Isaiah’s Themes.” JSOT 31 (1985): 95–113. –. “Isaiah 53 and the Restoration of Israel.” Pages 39–54 in Jesus and the Suffering Servant; Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins. Edited by William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998. –. “Jeremiah 1–25 and the Deuteronomistic History.” Pages 94–113 in Understanding Poets and Prophets. Essays in Honour of George Wishart Anderson. Edited by A. Graeme Auld. JSOTSup 152. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993. Coats, George W. The Moses Tradition. JSOTSup 161. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993. Cornill, C. H. Einleitung in das Alte Testament. Freiburg: J. C. B. Mohr, 1891. De Andrado, Paba Nidhani. The Akedah Servant Complex: The Soteriological Linkage of Genesis 22 and Isaiah 53 in Ancient Jewish and Christian Writings. Leuven: Peeters, 2013. Dell, Katherine J. “The Suffering Servant of Deutero-Isaiah: Jeremiah Revisited.” Pages 119–34 in Genesis, Isaiah and Psalms. A Festschrift to Honour Professor John Emerton for His Eightieth Birthday. Edited by Katherine J. Dell, Graham Davies, and Yee Von Koh. VTSup 135. Leiden: Brill, 2010. Duhm, Bernhard. Die Theologie der Propheten als Grundlage für die innere Entwicklungsgeschichte der israelitischen Religion. Bonn: Adolph Marcus, 1875. Farley, Fred A. “Jeremiah and ‘The Suffering Servant of Jehovah’ in Deutero-Isaiah.” ExpTim 38.11 (1927): 521–24. Fischer, Georg. “Jeremiah, God’s Suffering Servant.” Pages 249–66 in Jeremiah Studies: From Text and Contexts to Theology. FAT 139. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2020. –. “Riddles of Reference: ‘I’ and ‘We’ in the Books of Isaiah and Jeremiah: The Relation of the Suffering Characters in the Books of Isaiah and Jeremiah.” OTE 25.2 (2012): 277–91. Fishbane, Michael. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. Gosse, Bernard. “Deutéronome 32,1–43 et les rédactions des livres d’Ezéchiel et d’Isaïe.” ZAW 107 (1995): 110–17. Greenberg, Moshe. Ezekiel 1–20: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 22. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983. Groenewald, Alphonso. “Isaiah 1:2−3 and Isaiah 6: Isaiah ‘A Prophet like Moses’ (Dt 18:18).” HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 68.1 (2012): 1–7. –. “The Role and Function of Ṣedaqa and Torah in the Introduction to the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 71–85 in Ṣedaqa and Torah in Postexilic Discourse. Edited by Susanne Gillmayr-Bucher and Maria Häusl. LHBOTS 640. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2017. Gunneweg, A. H. J. “Konfession oder Interpretation im Jeremiabuch.” ZThK 67 (1970): 395–416.



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Habel, Norman. “The Form and Significance of the Call Narrative.” ZAW 77.3 (1965): 297–323. Hesse, Franz. Das Verstockungsproblem im alten Testament: Eine frömmigkeitsgeschichtliche Untersuchung. BZAW 74. Berlin: Töpelmann, 1955. Hidal, Sten. “Some Reflections on Deuteronomy 32.” ASTI 11 (1977/78): 15–21. Hugenberger, G. P. “The Servant of the Lord in the ‘Servant Songs’ of Isaiah: A Second Moses Figure.” Pages 105–40 in The Lord’s Anointed. Interpretation of Old Testament Messianic Texts. Edited by Philip E. Satterthwaite, Richard S. Hess, and Gordon J. Wenham. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995. Huizenga, Leroy Andrew. “The Incarnation of the Servant: The ‘Suffering Servant’ and Matthean Christology.” HBT 27 (2005): 25–58. Idestrom, Rebecca G. S. “Echoes of the Book of Exodus in Ezekiel.” JSOT 33.4 (2009): 489–510. Jarrard, Eric X. “Double Entende in Exodus 34: Revisiting the ‫ קרן‬of Moses.” ZAW 131.3 (2019): 388–406. Juel, Donald. Messianic Exegesis: Christological Interpretation of the Old Testament in Early Christianity. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988. Keiser, Thomas A. “The Song of Moses a Basis for Isaiah’s Prophecy.” VT 55.4 (2005): 486–500. Kim, Hyun Chul Paul. “The Song of Moses (Deuteronomy 32.1–43) in Isaiah 40–55.” Pages 147–71 in God’s Word for Our World, Vol. 1: Biblical Studies in Honor of Simon John De Vries. Edited by J. Harold Ellens et al. New York: T&T Clark, 2004. –. “Two Mothers and Two Sons: Reading 1 Kings 3:16–28 as a Parody on Solomon’s Coup (1 Kings 1–2).” Pages 83–99 in Partners with God: Theological and Critical Readings of the Bible in Honor of Marvin A. Sweeney. Edited by Shelley L. Birdsong and Serge Frolov. Claremont: Claremont Press, 2017. Köhler, Wolfgang. Die Verstocktheit Israels im Jesajabuch: Studie eines theologischen Motivs. Berlin: Lit, 2019. Kohn, Risa Levitt. “A Prophet Like Moses? Rethinking Ezekiel’s Relationship to the Torah.” ZAW 114 (2002): 236–54. Kooij, Arie van der. “The Ending of the Song of Moses: On the Pre-Masoretic Version of Deut 32:43.” Pages 93–100 in Studies in Deuteronomy, In Honour of C. J. Labuschagne on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday. Edited by Florentino García Martínez et al. VTSup 53. Leiden: Brill, 1994. Knierim, Rolf P. The Task of Old Testament Theology: Substance, Method, and Cases. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995. Kraetzschmar, Richard. Das Buch Ezechiel übersetzt und erklärt. HAT. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1900. Lauterbach, Jacob Z. Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael. Vol. 1. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2004. Levenson, Jon D. The Death and Resurrection of the Beloved Son: The Transformation of Child Sacrifice in Judaism and Christianity. New Haven: Yale, 1993. Markl, Dominik. Gottes Volk im Deuteronomium. BZAR 18. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2012. McKeating, Henry. “Ezekiel the ‘Prophet Like Moses’?” JSOT 61 (1994): 97–109. Miller, Gideon. “Peril and Deliverance and the Akedah-Sinai Narrative Structure.” JBQ 40.4 (2012): 247–52.

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Mowinckel, Sigmund. He That Cometh: The Messiah Concept in the Old Testament and Later Judaism. Translated by G. W. Anderson. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. Nihan, Christophe. “Moses and the Prophets: Deuteronomy 18 and the Emergence of the Pentateuch as Torah.” Svensk exegetisk årsbok 75 (2010): 21–55. Novick, Ricky. “Abraham and Balaam: A Biblical Contrast.” JBQ 35.1 (2007): 28–33. Novick, Tzvi. “Biblicized Narrative: On Tobit and Genesis 22.” JBL 126.4 (2007): 755–64. O’K ane, Martin. “Isaiah: A Prophet in the Footsteps of Moses.” JSOT 69 (1996): 29–51. Orlinsky, Harry M. Studies on the Second Part of the Book of Isaiah: The So-Called “Servant of the Lord” and “Suffering Servant” in Second Isaiah. VTSup 14. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1967. O’Toole, Robert F. “The Parallels between Jesus and Moses.” BTB 20 (1990): 22–29. Otto, Eckart. “Deuteronomy as the Legal Completion and Prophetic Finale of the Pentateuch.” Pages 179–88 in Paradigm Change in Pentateuchal Research. Edited by Matthias Armgardt, Benjamin Kilchör, and Markus Zehnder. BZAR 22. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2019. –. “Moses Abschiedslied in Deuteronomium 32. Ein Zeugnis der Kanonsbildung in der Hebräischen Bibel.” Pages 641–79 in Die Tora: Studien zum Pentateuch. Gesammelte Aufsätze. BZAR 9. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2009. –. “Moses the Suffering Prophet.” Pages 137–49 in Propheten der Epochen: Festschrift für István Karasszon zum 60. Geburtstag. Edited by Viktor Kókai Nagy and László Sándor Egeresi. AOAT 426. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2015. Pleins, J. David. “Son-Slayers and Their Sons.” CBQ 54 (1992): 29–38. Rad, Gerhard von. Old Testament Theology, Vol. 2: The Theology of Israel’s Prophetic Traditions. Translated by D. M. G. Stalker. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1965. Raitt, Thomas M. A Theology of Exile: Judgment/Deliverance in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977. Rossi, Benedetta. “Reshaping Jeremiah: Scribal Strategies and the Prophet like Moses.” JSOT 44.4 (2020): 575–93. Safren, Jonathan D. “Balaam and Abraham.” VT 38.1 (1988): 105–13. Sanders, Paul. The Provenance of Deuteronomy 32. OtSt 37. Leiden: Brill, 1996. Schmid, Konrad. “The Prophets after the Law or the Law after the Prophets? Terminological, Biblical, and Historical Perspectives.” Pages 841–50 in The Formation of the Pentateuch. Bridging the Academic Cultures of Europe, Israel, and North America. Edited by Jan C. Gertz et al. FAT 111. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2016. Schmidtkunz, Petra. Das Moselied des Deuteronomiums: Untersuchungen zu Text und Theologie von Dtn 32,1–43. FAT 2/124. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2020. Schmitt, Hans-Christoph. “Redaktion des Pentateuch im Geiste der Prophetie: Beobachtungen zur Bedeutung der ‘Glaubens’-Thematik innerhalb der Theologie des Pentateuch.” VT 32.2 (1982): 170–89. Schramm, Brooks. The Opponents of Third Isaiah: Reconstructing the Cultic History of the Restoration. JSOTSup 193. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995. Seitz, Christopher R. “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections.” Pages 307–552 in The New Interpreter’s Bible VI. Edited by Leander E. Keck. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001. –. “The Prophet Moses and the Canonical Shape of Jeremiah.” ZAW 101 (1989): 3–27. Sellin, Ernst. “Wann wurde das Moselied Dtn 32 gedichtet?” ZAW 43 (1925): 161–73. Sforno, R. Obadiah. ‫באור ﬠל התורה‬. Venice: 1567.



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Smith, Paul Allan. Rhetoric and Redaction in Trito-Isaiah: The Structure, Growth, and Authorship of Isaiah 56–66. VTSup 62. Leiden: Brill, 1995. Sommer, Benjamin. A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusions in Isaiah 40–66. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998. Sonnet, Jean-Pierre. “Redefining the Plot of Deuteronomy – From End to Beginning: The Import of Deut 34:9.” Pages 37–49 in Deuteronomium  – Tora für eine neue Generation. Edited by Georg Fischer, Dominik Markl, and Simone Paganini. BZAR 17. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2011. Spieckermann, Hermann. “The Conception and Prehistory of the Idea of Vicarious Suffering in the Old Testament.” Pages 1–15 in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher. Translated by Daniel P. Bailey. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Steck, Odil Hannes. Studien zu Tritojesaja. BZAW 203. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1991. Stromberg, Jacob. “Figural History in the Book of Isaiah: The Prospective Significance of Hezekiah’s Deliverance from Assyria and Death.” Pages 81–102 in Imperial Visions: The Prophet and the Book of Isaiah in an Age of Empires. Edited by Reinhard G. Kratz and Joachim Schaper. FRLANT 277. Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, 2020. –. Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Teeter, D. Andrew. “Jeremiah, Joseph, and the Dynamics of Analogy: On the Relationship between Jer 37–44 and the Joseph Story.” HeBAI (forthcoming). Tiemeyer, Lena-Sofia. “God’s Hidden Compassion.” TynBul 57.2 (2006): 191–213. –. “The Lament in Isaiah 63:7–64:11 and Its Literary and Theological Place in Isaiah 40–66.” Pages 52–70 in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew. Essays Honoring Joseph Blenkinsopp and His Contribution to the Study of Isaiah. Edited by Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. Unterman, Jeremiah. “The Literary Influence of ‘The Binding of Isaac’ (Genesis 22) on ‘The Outrage at Gibeah’ (Judges 19).” Hebrew Annual Review 4 (1980): 161–66. Veijola, Timo. “Die Deuteronomisten als Vorgänger der Schriftgelehrten.” Pages 192–240 in Moses Erben: Studien zum Dekalog, zum Deuteronomismus und zum Schriftgelehrtentum. BWANT 149. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2000. Welten, Peter. “Leiden und Leidenserfahrung im Buch Jeremia: Herrn Prof. D. Walther Zimmerli zum 70. Geburtstag.” ZThK 74.2 (1977): 123–50. Wilcox, Peter and David Paton-Williams. “The Servant Songs in Deutero-Isaiah.” JSOT 42 (1988): 79–102. Williamson, H. G. M. Isaiah 6–12: A  Critical and Exegetical Commentary. ICC. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018. Willey, Patricia Tull. Remember the Former Things: The Recollection of Previous Texts in Second Isaiah. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997. Zakovitch, Yair. Through the Looking Glass: Reflection Stories in the Bible [Hebrew]. Tel Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad, 1995. Zimmerli, Walther. Ezekiel 1: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel, Chapters 1–24. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.

The Servants in Psalms 22, 69, and 102 Michael A. Lyons 1. Introduction An examination of the Psalter reveals a handful of references to those called the “servants” and “offspring,” some of which coincide to a surprising extent with themes and locutions that are also prominent in Isaiah 40–66.1 Three psalms in particular are notable in this respect: Psalms 22, 69, and 102. But who are the “servants”/“offspring” mentioned in these psalms? And how should the similarities in theme and outlook between these psalms and the book of Isaiah be explained? In this essay, I will show how Psalms 22, 69, and 102 have been editorially coordinated to an extended argument in Isaiah 40–66, one which is generally agreed to have come into being by a process of Fortschreibung. Thus the editorial growth of these psalms reflects the extension of an argument that is already formed in the composition of the book of Isaiah itself. The editing of these psalms can be attributed to scribes who sought to define their identity and the identity of their community in terms of the “servants” of Isaiah 54, 56–66. With respect to the identity of the “servants” in Isaiah 54, 56–66, scholarship has long been aware that they are connected in some way to the “Servant of Yhwh” in Isaiah 40–55.2 In Isaiah 53, it is said that the “Servant of Yhwh” who suffers and dies will “see offspring” (v. 10) and “make many righteous” (v. 11). After this chapter, the Servant drops out of the book and is replaced by references to the “servants” and the “offspring.”3 As Willem Beuken has shown, the main theme of the latter part of Isaiah revolves around these servants and their destiny – and how it is that they constitute Yhwh’s purpose to bring about righteousness in Israel and the nations.4 1  The plural form “servants” should be distinguished from the self-deprecating singular expression “your servant” (e. g., Ps 119:17) and from the references to “your servant David” or “your servant Moses.” 2  See the Introduction to this volume. 3  References to the “servants of Yhwh” occur in Isa 54:17; 56:6; 65:8, 9, 13, 14, 15; 66:14, and references to the “offspring” of the Servant (cf. Isa 53:10) occur in Isa 59:21; 61:9; 65:9, 23; 66:22. 4  W. A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH’,” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87; idem, “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah,” in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989, ed. J. A. Emerton (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), 204–21.

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Joseph Blenkinsopp has argued that while some of the occurrences of ‫יהוה‬ ‫ﬠבד‬ in Isaiah 40–55 refer to Israel, others refer to a prophetic figure within Israel whose righteous suffering was commemorated by his disciples.5 The “servants” of Isaiah 54, 56–66 represent a community who formed themselves around the values of this Servant.6 Just as the Servant suffered (Isa 50:6; 53:2–12), the servants also suffer persecution from others (Isa 57:1; 66:5); just as the Servant was vindicated (Isa 50:7–9; 52:13; 53:10–12), the servants also are promised vindication (Isa 54:14–17; 65:13–16; 66:2, 5–6); and just as the Servant is depicted as one who brings about the universal recognition of Yhwh (Isa 49:5–7; 53:11), in the same way the servants are also connected with this goal, whether as members of restored Zion whose light will attract the nations (Isa 65:9; 66:10–14; cf. 60:3–14; 62:1–2) or in their connection with the proclamation described at the end of the book (Isa 66:14, 18–19, 21–23).7 Blenkinsopp further notes that this community identified as the “servants” bears all the hallmarks of a sectarian group and can be located in the tumultuous years of the early Persian period.8 The existence of a distinct social movement and the literary outworking of this movement’s values provide the background for the scribal activity I describe below. As Ulrich Berges has noted, “it can be safely stated that there is a growing awareness that the term ‫ ֲﬠ ָב ִדים‬in Isaiah is not only a term for the pious but a pointer to a special group of people in post-exilic times who were active in the shaping of the literary heritage of Ancient Israel.”9 5 Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch,” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23; repr. in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship, ed. R. P. Gordon (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 392–412 (here 408–10); idem, “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition, ed. Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans, VTSup 70/1 (New York: Brill, 1997), 155–75 (here 164–65, 173). 6  Blenkinsopp, “Pietistic Group,” 411: “If, moreover, the titles (Servant, Servants) are the same, it is because the disciples embody the form and exemplify the consequences of the prophet founder’s ministry”; idem, “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period,” CBQ 52 (1990), 5–20 (here 14): “… the statement that the servant will see his offspring and the outcome of his travail implies either belief in a miraculous restoration to life or, more probably, that his work and mission will be continued by those who, like the speaker, have come to believe in him and have answered the call to perpetuate his mission and teaching.” See further Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants,” 170–73; idem, Isaiah 56–66. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19B (New York: Doubleday, 2003), 33–34, 63–66, 132–33, 275–83, 293–301. 7  On the difficulties of Isa 66:18–23, see Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 314–16. 8  Blenkinsopp, “Pietistic Group,” 397–403; idem, “The Servant and the Servants,” 168–71, 173–75. 9 Ulrich Berges, “Who Were the Servants? A Comparative Inquiry in the Book of Isaiah and the Psalms,” in Past, Present, Future: The Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets, ed. Johannes C. de Moor and Harry F. van Rooy, OTS 44 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 1–18, here 6. See also Joseph Blenkinsopp, The Beauty of Holiness: Re-Reading Isaiah in the Light of the Psalms (New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018), esp. 121–33.



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2.  The Coordination of Psalms 22, 69, and 102 to Isaiah 40–66 Many commentators have detected parallels between Isaiah  40–66 and Psalms 22, 69, and 102, and some have even suggested that these psalms were edited in light of Isaiah. Joachim Becker argued that all three of these psalms shared the same motifs and “same salvation-historical situation” as Isaiah 40– 66.10 Joseph Blenkinsopp suggested the possibility of a shared “cultic connection” between Trito-Isaiah and Psalms 69 and 102, all of which mention the “servants of Yhwh.”11 And Ulrich Berges has argued that certain psalms mentioning the “servants” arise from the same circle of tradents as Trito-Isaiah and that those who self-identified as the “servants” were involved in the editing of the Psalter.12 But what were the motives for the redactional coordination of these psalms to the book of Isaiah, and how was this accomplished? To answer these questions, we must first trace the flow of thought in each psalm and identify the themes and locutions common to these psalms and Isaiah 40–66. In particular, we will look for the presence of themes describing innocent or righteous suffering, hope for vindication from God, and the future universal recognition of Yhwh and his kingship. 2.1  Psalm 22 Psalm 22 is remarkable for its diverse genre features, which occur in three sequential sections. We find language characteristic of individual complaint in vv. 2–22a (e. g., complaint, vv. 2–11, 13–19; petition, vv. 12, 20–22a), individual thanksgiving in vv. 22b–27, and universal praise in vv. 28–32 (note the disappearance of the individual in these verses). These differences of language and outlook are so pronounced that Bernhard Duhm suggested Psalm 22 was made up of two completely different psalms, one consisting of vv. 2–22 and the other consisting of vv. 23–32.13 But whatever its compositional history (see below), the 10  See Joachim Becker, Israel deutet seine Psalmen: Urform and Neuinterpretation in den Psalmen, SB 18 (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1966), 42–53; the shared motifs he identifies include Yhwh’s kingship, the release of captives and restoration of Zion, the recognition of Yhwh, and the possession of the earth by the descendants of Yhwh’s servants. See esp. 43: “Gedanken und Sprache lehnen sich anerkanntermaßen stark an deutero- und tritoisaianische Texte an, die ja auch aus derselben heilsgeschichtlichen Situation heraus geschrieben sind.” 11  Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants,” 166; see also idem, Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 200–201. 12 Ulrich Berges, “Die Knechte im Psalter. Ein Beitrag zu seiner Kompositionsgeschichte,” Biblica 81 (2000): 153–78; idem, “Who Were the Servants?,” 1–18. 13 Bernhard Duhm, Die Psalmen, KHC (Freiburg: J. C. B. Mohr, 1899), 74: “Ps 22B [= vv. 23–32] ist wesentlich ein Produkt des liturgischen Bedürfnisses und darum als Gedicht nicht bedeutend …. Dass der Ps der späteren Zeit angehört, ist klar, ebenso, dass er mit Ps 22A nicht

48

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psalm’s structure is in fact tripartite: vv. 2–22a, 22b–27, 28–32. Curiously, the transition between complaint (v. 22a) and thanksgiving (v. 22b) occurs within a line-pair (at least in the MT); this may indicate the presence of editorial shaping.14 Prominent images and repeated vocabulary include wild animals (bulls, lions, dogs) representing enemies (Ps 22:13–14, 17, 21–22), vivid depictions of physical discomfort (vv. 15–18), and forms of the words “far off ” (‫רחק‬, vv. 2, 12, 20) and “help” (‫ﬠזר‬, vv. 12, 20). The flow of the argument begins with two complaints (vv. 2–11): the speaker feels that God is distant (vv. 2–3), and onlookers mock the speaker’s reliance on Yhwh (vv. 7–9). Following each complaint is a reference to the past: in vv. 4–6, to Yhwh’s deliverance of “our fathers,” and in vv. 10–11, to the speaker’s reliance on Yhwh from birth. The rhetorical function of these references to the past is to motivate Yhwh to act again in the present. Psalm 22 then shifts to petitions in vv. 12, 20–22; these call on God to “not be far off ” and to “deliver.” The petitions in these verses bracket a new set of complaints in vv. 13–19, which depict an “assembly of evildoers” in terms of vicious animals and describe the speaker’s extreme physical distress. In the middle of a petition (v. 22), the speaking voice suddenly affirms that “You answered me!” This abrupt shift to thanksgiving then moves into vows to praise (v. 23, 26) and calls to praise (v. 24, 27b) for Yhwh’s deliverance of the afflicted (v. 25, the suffering individual; v. 27a, the “poor”). At this point the psalm again shifts abruptly; the speaking individual vanishes, and the scope of the sentiments becomes global and even eschatological.15 In vv. 28–32 we find the statements that “all the ends of the earth” will turn to Yhwh, whose kingship is over all; that both living and dead will worship him; and that his righteousness will be declared to future generations. There are few features that would allow us to date the psalm with certainty, other than the outlook expressed in v. 30 (which is surely late).16 Most models for the composition of Psalm 22 postulate an original core with later redactional additions (typically, vv. 28–32); most also agree that there is some kind of litdas mindeste zu thun hat.” This suggestion is not unreasonable when we consider Psalm 108 (Ps 108:2–6 = Ps 57:8–12; Ps 108:7–14 = Ps 60:7–14). 14  MT v. 22b: ‫“ ﬠניתני‬you answered me!” The LXX translator took v. 22b as continuing the complaint, which caused him to construe the form as a suffixed noun (τὴν ταπείνωσίν μου). 15  So Klaus Seybold, Die Psalmen, HAT (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr/Paul Siebeck, 1996), 97: “Ein eschatologischer Ausblick auf das Königtum JHWHs bildet den letzten Teil (28–32), der die Dokumentation fortschreibt und zugleich in eine universale Perspecktive stellt”; see also Hubert Irsigler, “Psalm 22: Endgestalt, Bedeutung, und Funktion,” in Beiträge zur Psalmenforschung: Psalm 2 und 22, ed. J. Schreiner (Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 1988), 193–240, esp. 196. Note however that even the earlier verses were read in terms of eschatological vindication: see the use of Ps 22:27 in 4Q88 9.13–14. 16  The statement that the dead will worship Yhwh (‫לפניו יכרﬠו כל־יורדי ﬠפר‬, v. 30) is a departure from the belief expressed in e. g. Pss 88:6, 11–13; 115:17; see Hans-Joachim Kraus, Psalms 1–59, trans. Hilton C. Oswald (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1988), 300; Seybold, Die Psalmen, 99.



The Servants in Psalms 22, 69, and 102

49

erary relationship with the book of Isaiah.17 In particular, a number of commentators have argued that Psalm 22 was composed and/or edited in light of the so-called “Servant Songs” of Isaiah 40–55.18 There are in fact numerous shared words between these texts: Ps 22:2–3 // Isa 49.8 (‫ﬠנה‬, ‫ ;)ישוﬠה‬Ps  22:7 // Isa  49:7; 53:3 (‫ ;)בזה‬Ps  22:9 // Isa  53:10 (‫ ;)חפץ‬Ps 22:10–11 // Isa 49:1, 5 (‫אם‬, ‫;)מבטן‬ Ps  22:12 // Isa  49:8 (‫ ;)ﬠזר‬Ps  22:16 // Isa  53:12 (‫ ;)מות‬Ps  22:19 // Isa  53:12 (‫;)חלק‬ Ps  22:22 // Isa  49:8 (‫ ;)ﬠנה‬Ps  22:23 // Isa  52:15 (‫ ;)ספר‬Ps  22:24 // Isa  53:10 (‫;)זרﬠ‬ Ps 22:25 // Isa 49:7; 53:3, 4, 7 (‫סתר פנה‬, ‫ﬠנה‬, ‫ ;)בזה‬Ps  22:27 // Isa  57:15 (/‫חיה לב‬ ‫ ;)לבב‬Ps 22:28, 30 // Isa 49:7 (‫ ;)חוה‬Ps 22:31 // Isa 52:15; 53:8, 10 (‫דור‬, ‫ספר‬, ‫)זרﬠ‬. But while it is possible that the composer of Psalm 22 was borrowing vocabulary from the depiction of Deutero-Isaiah’s suffering Servant, it should be noted that none of these words are exclusive to Psalm 22 and Isaiah 40–55; they can in fact be found in many complaint psalms. It is not simply shared vocabulary that suggests a relationship between Psalm 22 and Deutero-Isaiah, but shared themes and argument structure (see below). Furthermore, one should also take into account the differences between the depiction of the Deutero-Isaian Servant 17  For a survey of compositional models, see Gottfried Vanoni, “Psalm 22: Literarkritik,” in Beiträge zur Psalmenforschung: Psalm 2 und 22, ed. J. Schreiner (Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 1988), 153–92 (here 156–61); Marko Marttila, Collective Reinterpretation in the Psalms: A  Study of the Redaction History of the Psalter, FAT II/13 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006), 99–105. For Wood, vv. 2–19 constitute the original psalm, and vv. 4, 10, 20–32 represent a “rewriting” of it; see Joyce Rillett Wood, “Writing and Rewriting of Psalm 22,” Studies in Religion 48.2 (2019): 189–215. For Hossfeld and Zenger, vv. 2–3, 7–23 constitute the original psalm; this influenced the composition of the Deutero-Isaian Servant passages. The original psalm was then given a series of editorial additions, the latest of which was vv. 28–32; see Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Die Psalmen I: Psalm 1–50, Neue Echter Bibel (Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 1993), 145, 149. For Gelin, vv. 2–27 constitute the original psalm, and vv. 28–32 represent a post-exilic editorial expansion dependent on Deutero-Isaiah; see A. Gelin, “Les quatre lectures du Psaume xxii,” BVC 1 (1953): 31–39. Martin-Achard also understood vv. 28–32 to be a later addition, but noted similarities between the original lament and Deutero-Isaiah; see R. Martin-Achard, “Notes Bibliques: Remarques sur le Psaume 22,” Verbum Caro 17 (1963): 78–87 (here 81, 82). My reconstruction follows that of Briggs, for whom both the original core (vv. 2–23) and later expansions (vv. 24–25, 27 and vv. 28–32) were post-exilic and dependent on Isaiah 40–66, though the composer also undoubtedly drew on the motifs and language of traditional complaint and thanksgiving psalms. See C. A. Briggs and E. G. Briggs, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms, 2 vols.; ICC (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1906), 1:190–91. 18 See Briggs and Briggs, Psalms, 1:190: “The ideal of the Ps. is so nearly related to the suffering servant of Is.2 that there must be dependence of the one upon the other  …. If the suffering servant of Is.2 is exilic, that of the Ps. is post-exilic”; Claus Westermann, Gewendete Klage: Eine Auslegung des 22. Psalms (Neukirchen: Neukirchener, 1955), 63: “Es ist auch nicht zufällig, daß gerade dieser Psalm deutliche Anklänge an die Gottesknechtlieder in Deuterojesaja zeigt (vgl. Jes. 53,3; 52,14; 49,7; 53,10)”; Carroll Stuhlmueller, Psalms 1–72 (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1983), 147: “the psalmist nonetheless found companionship – or better, sheer survival – by repeating over and over the laments particularly of the prophet Jeremiah but also the Servant Songs of Second Isaiah, and then by absorbing and recasting them into new forms.” See also Duhm, Die Psalmen, 72; S. R. Driver, Studies in the Psalms (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1915), 171, 180; A. Gelin, “Psaume xxii,” 36.

50

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and the sufferer of Psalm 22. First, the Isaian Servant does not feel abandoned by God, whereas in Psalm 22 the speaker does (though obviously not enough to prevent him from crying for and expecting help!). Second, the Servant’s suffering is mysteriously linked to God’s design (Isa 53:10), while the speaker’s suffering in Psalm 22 is not depicted as part of a divine plan. Third, the Isaian Servant’s suffering is for the benefit of and in the place of others (Isa 53:5, 6, 8, 12; he is even described as “bearing sin”), whereas the sufferer of Psalm 22 is not described in this way. Finally, the Servant figure actually dies (Isa 53:8, 9, 12), whereas the speaker in Psalm 22 feels close to death (v. 16) but does not in fact die (vv. 22b, 25). It seems to me, then, that the suffering individual of Psalm 22 is not simply a “collectivization” of the Deutero-Isaian Servant figure.19 Rather, as I have argued elsewhere, Psalm 22 should be understood as a paradigmatic reading of Isaiah in light of how the values of the Servant are taken up by the servants of Isaiah 54, 56–66.20 First, we find in Ps 22:31 a reference to the “offspring” (‫)זרﬠ‬, which is the very same designation that we find in Isaiah for the servants, the ostracized group who saw themselves as faithful to Yhwh.21 Moreover, Psalm 22 seems to refer to the Servant of Isaiah 53, the one from whom the servants derived their identity:22 “And the one who did not preserve himself alive – offspring will serve him (‫ונפשו לא חיה זרﬠ יﬠבדנו‬, Ps 22:30d–31a).”23 Second, we find locutions and arguments in Psalm 22 that are derived from passages outside the so-called “Servant Songs” and that play a key role in the broader argument structure of Isaiah 40–66: Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the earth (‫( !)כל־אפסי־ארץ‬Isa 45:22) All the ends of the earth (‫ )כל־אפסי־ארץ‬will remember and return to Yhwh. (Ps 22:28) Sing, O heavens, because Yhwh has acted (‫ﬠשה‬ ‫ !)כי‬Shout aloud, O lower parts of the earth! Break forth, O mountains; sing, O forest, and every tree in it, because Yhwh has redeemed Jacob, and in Israel he will be glorified! (Isa 44:23) 19  As is argued by Briggs and Briggs, Psalms, 1:191–92; Driver, Psalms, 181–82; Becker, Psalmen, 52, 53. 20  Michael A. Lyons, “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isaiah 54, 56–66,” CBQ 77.4 (2015): 640–56. 21  See also Becker, Psalmen, 52, 53; Marttila, Collective Reinterpretation, 211. 22  Lyons, “Psalm 22,” 650. See already Matthew Poole, who took Ps 22:30–31a as a parallel to Isa 53:10 (“if he makes himself [‫ ]נפשו‬a reparation offering, he will see offspring”); Matthew Poole, Annotations upon the Holy Bible. Vol. I, ed. Thomas Parkhurst et al. (London: John Richardson, 1683). Becker, Psalmen, 53, also sees a parallel to Isaiah 53, but reads the reference collectively: “Die Stelle gehört nicht (wie etwa Ps 71,18) dem Bereich der individuellen Heilserfahrung an, sondern ist wie die angeführten Parallelstellen vom Volk zu verstehen, das als Knecht Jahwes in den Tod gegeben wurde (Is 53,8–9), aber in der Nachkommenschaft, dem künftigen Geschlecht, Jahwe dienen wird. Es wird offenbar, daß der interpretierende Bearbeiter die Duldergestalt in Ps 22 vom Volke verstanden hat.” 23  I follow the lineation of Irsigler, “Psalm 22,” 197: “MT 30d (= korr. 30c) und MT 31a verknüpfen sich primär am ehesten zu einem Satzgefüge” (yielding a balanced tricolon in v. 30).

The Servants in Psalms 22, 69, and 102



51

They will come and proclaim his righteousness to a people about to be born, because he has acted (‫( !)כי ﬠשה‬Ps 22:32)24

Third, we see the same tripartite argument structure (righteous suffering, vindication, universal recognition of Yhwh) in Psalm 22 that we see in Isaiah 54, 56–66 in the argument about the servants. In fact, it seems to me impossible to explain the logic of Psalm 22 apart from the argument structure of Isaiah. After all, what possible connection is there between the sufferings of an individual and the universal recognition of Yhwh that we see in Ps 22:28–32? But once we recognize that the psalm’s depiction of suffering has been brought into the sphere of the Isaian argument about the Servant and servants, it makes sense: in Isa 57:1; 66:5 the servants are persecuted and mocked for their trust in Yhwh, while in Ps 22:7–9, 13–19 the speaker is persecuted and mocked for his trust in Yhwh.25 Likewise, it is argued in Isa 54:14–17; 65:13–15; 66:2, 5–6 that the servants will be vindicated, and in Ps 22:22b–25 we find a description of the suffering individual’s vindication. Finally, in both Isaiah 54, 56–66 and Psalm 22 we have a shared eschatological outlook in which there is global recognition of Yhwh (Isa 66:18, 23; Ps 22:28) and proclamation about Yhwh (Isa 66:19; Ps 22:31–32). So while it is true that locutions from Isaiah 40–55 may be found in Psalm 22, they are being used in light of the broader argument about the relationship of the servants to the Servant which is reflected in the final edited shape of this psalm.26 The psalm in its present form invites those who suffer righteously to enter into the hope for vindication and eschatological restoration that is promised to the servants of Isaiah 54, 56–66.27 2.2  Psalm 69 Psalm 69 contains the features of an individual complaint psalm: petitions (vv. 2a, 14b–19), complaints (vv. 2b–5, 8–13, 21–22, 30a), and expressions of praise and confidence (vv. 31ff ). Hossfeld and Zenger provide a structural analysis identifying three sections (vv. 2–14a, 14b–30, 31–37), each made up of two smaller sections:28 24 

On this parallel, see in particular Becker, Psalmen, 51. statements in Isa 65:8–11, 13–15; 66:14 likewise indicate conflict between the servants and their opponents. On Isa 57:1–2, see Beuken, “Main Theme,” 69. Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 56–66, 148–51) takes these verses as a lament for the Deutero-Isaian Servant by his disciples. 26 See Marttila, Collective Reinterpretation, 133, who argues that Psalm 22 was edited in light of both Trito- and Deutero-Isaiah. 27  See the description of how Psalm 22 is used in 2 Tim 4:17–18 by Joel Marcus, The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1992), 181. 28 Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Psalms 2, Hermeneia, trans. Linda M. Maloney (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005), 172–74. Groenewald divides Psalm 69 into five stanzas of 25 The

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vv. 2–14a lament vv. 2–5 water and mud imagery vv. 6–14a concrete social problems vv. 14b–30 petition vv. 14b–19 water and mud imagery vv. 20–30 concrete social problems vv. 31–37 praise vv. 31–34 individual praise (the poor and the prisoners) vv. 35–37 cosmic praise (heavens, earth, and sea)

The options for dating Psalm 69 can be determined by the reference to the speaker’s “zeal for [God’s] temple” (v. 10) and by the expression of hope that God will “save Zion and rebuild the cities of Judah” (v. 36). The latter statement demands a post-exilic date at least for the last few verses of the psalm. The former statement could reflect a pre-exilic date for the core of the psalm, or a post-exilic date for its entirety. The question of dating, then, goes hand-in-hand with the question of the psalm’s compositional history: either a pre-exilic psalm was expanded after the exile, or else the entire psalm was composed and edited after the exile.29 Running throughout the psalm is the keyword ‫חרף‬/‫“ חרפה‬reproach” (Ps 69:8, 10, 11, 20, 21). We find other repeated words and images distributed in the same order in parallel blocks: vv. 2 // 14d (‫הוׁשיﬠני‬/‫)יׁשﬠך‬, vv. 2–3 // 15–16 (‫מﬠמקי־מים‬, ‫ׁשבלת‬, ‫יון‬/‫טיט‬, ‫ׁשטף‬, ‫)טבﬠ‬, vv. 5 // 15 (‫)ׂשנאי‬, vv. 6 // 20 (‫ידﬠת‬ ‫)אתה‬, vv. 7–8 // 20 (‫בוׁש‬, ‫כלם‬, ‫)חרפה‬, vv. 10–11 // 21 (‫)חרפה‬, vv. 12 // 22 (‫)נתן‬, vv. 14a // 30 (‫)ואני‬.30 Also notable are the imprecation in vv. 23–29 (connected to the preceding verse by shared food/table imagery) and the seemingly cult-critical statement in vv. 32 (connected to the preceding verse by wordplay).31 The flow of the argument begins with an initial petition to save (v. 2a) followed by complaint (vv. 2b–5); the latter is offered as justification (‫כי‬, v. 2) for the petition. The complaint uses water/mud imagery (v. 3; cf. Pss 32:6; 40:3; 124:4–5) to express a feeling of despair, followed by the description of physical pain (v. 4, a throat sore from crying out and eyes that fail; cf. Pss 6:7–8; 119:82). The complaint then names the specific cause of distress: numerous enemies who offer false accusations (v. 5; cf. Pss 35:11–12, 19–20; 38:20; 40:13). There two strophes each: Stanza 1, vv. 2–4, 5; Stanza 2, vv. 6–7, 8–14a; Stanza 3, vv. 14b–16, 17–19; Stanza 4, vv. 20–22, 23–30; Stanza 5, vv. 31–34, 35–37); see Alphonso Groenewald, Psalm 69: Its Structure, Redaction, and Composition, ATM 18 (Münster: Lit, 2003), 39. 29 For a summary of different compositional models for Psalm 69, see Groenewald, Psalm 69, 176–94; Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 174–76. It seems likely that there were multiple layers of redactional activity besides the “servants”-oriented layer discussed here. 30  See Leslie Allen, “The Value of Rhetorical Criticism in Psalm 69,” JBL 105.4 (1986): 577–98; Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 172–74; Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 51–100, WBC 20 (Dallas: Word Books, 1990), 193. 31  Groenewald, Psalm 69, 140: “according to the text Yahweh prefers a ‫( ִׁשיר‬song) to a ‫ׁשֹור‬ (bull), even when this is a spotless and ritually flawless sacrificial animal.”



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53

is a transition in v. 6; this is not a specific confession of sin but an acknowledgment that God knows the speaker’s failings, which flows into a wish (v. 7) that those who “wait for” and “seek” God not have any cause to be ashamed by the speaker’s actions. At this point one might expect a protestation of innocence, but what we actually find is a protestation of piety: in vv. 8–13 the central complaint is that the speaker’s piety has provoked the hostility of others. The speaker reminds God that he has acted “for your sake” (v. 8), that he is estranged from family members because of his “zeal for your temple” (vv. 9–10), and that his weeping, fasting, and self-abasement are mocked by others (vv. 11–13) – yet the speaker nevertheless continues to pray to God (v. 14a). The complaint gives way to a lengthy petition (vv. 14b–22) to “answer” and “deliver.” This petition is linked by repeated vocabulary to the complaint in vv. 3–13 and is supported by reasons for God to act. In vv. 23–29 we find an imprecation against unnamed opponents. It begins with a wish that “their table” become a snare (v. 23); this seems to function as a response in kind to the complaint in v. 22 that the speaker has been given “poison” and “vinegar” as food and drink. Other than this, the imprecation is not strongly connected to what we have seen so far but introduces completely new vocabulary and imagery (divine punishment, v. 27; the language of “righteousness” and the “book of life,” vv. 28–29). The imprecation is bracketed by complaint language in vv. 20–22 (which serves as justification for the petition to “ransom” in v. 19) and in v. 30a (“But I am afflicted and pained”). This complaint in v. 30a (… ‫ )ואני‬both contrasts with the preceding imprecation and mirrors the end of the earlier complaint (… ‫ואני‬, v. 13b), and it is followed in v. 30b by an expression of confidence that God’s salvation will “set on high” the speaker. We then see a vow to praise (v. 31a). But what follows next is unusual: first, we find a statement in v. 32 that the “song” of v. 31 will please Yhwh more than a “bull” – a reflective sentiment that seems to be derived from a theme expressed elsewhere.32 Next, we find a statement in v. 33a that “the poor will see and rejoice.” But what will they “see” – that song is accepted rather than a bull, vv. 31–32, or the “deliverance” of v. 30? The latter seems more likely, given that the rationale for v. 33b is the similar deliverance described in v. 34 (“Because Yhwh hears the needy and does not despise the prisoners who are his”). The praise at the individual level in vv. 31–34 is unexpectedly expanded to praise at the cosmic level in v. 35 (“heavens and earth … seas and all that swarm in them”). Even more unexpected is the rationale for this praise, described in vv. 36–37: the restoration of Zion and its possession by the “offspring of his servants.” But what does the restoration of Zion have to do with the earlier complaint of the individual, and who are these heretofore unmentioned “servants”? 32  For other passages containing language which is seemingly cult-critical, or which depicts prayer, obedience, and praise in terms of or as a substitute for sacrifice, see Pss 40:7–9; 50:7–14, 23; 51:18–19; 141:2.

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Verses 35–37 can be best explained as a later addition to Psalm 69, since their cosmic scope and reference to “rebuilding the cities of Zion” have no intrinsic connection to the problem of individual distress recounted earlier.33 Moreover, it is these verses that contain the clearest points of contact with Isaiah. They mention the “offspring of [God’s] servants” – the destiny of whom is, as Beuken has pointed out, the main theme of Isaiah 56–66.34 Even more significant is the fact that what is predicated about the “offspring/servants” in both compositions is identical: And I will bring forth offspring (‫ )זרﬠ‬from Jacob and one who possesses (‫ )ירׁש‬my mountains from Judah; and my chosen ones will possess (‫ )ירׁש‬it, and my servants (‫ )ﬠבדי‬will dwell (‫ )ׁשכן‬there. (Isa 65:9)35 For God will save Zion and rebuild the cities of Judah, and they will live there and possess (‫ )ירׁש‬it; the offspring of his servants (‫ )זרﬠ ﬠבדיו‬will inherit (‫ )נחל‬it, and those who love his name will dwell (‫ )ׁשכן‬in it. (Ps 69:36–37)36

The theme of the inheritance of the “servants” is particularly prominent in the last part of the book of Isaiah, occurring in Isa 54:17 (‫ ;)נחלה‬57:13 (‫ירׁש‬, ‫;)נחל‬ 61:7 (‫ ;)ירׁש‬65:9 (‫)ירׁש‬.37 The importance of this theme in Isaiah 54, 56–66, the incongruity of its appearance in Psalm 69, and the number of shared locutions between Isa 65:9 and Ps 69:36–37 suggest that Psalm 69 has been edited in light of Isaiah 40–66.38 Moreover, the mention of salvation for Zion in Ps 69:36 is paralleled in Isa 46:13; 52:7; 62:1, 11, and the reference to rebuilding the cities of Judah is paralleled in Isa 44:26; 58:12; 60:10; 61:4.39 Finally, the theme of the 33 So already Herman Venema, Commentarius ad Psalmos LXV–LXXXV (Leovardiae: H. A. de Chalmot, 1766), 265–66, who noted that the style of these verses differs from the preceding and identified them as an “apostrophe” put into the mouth of a persona created by the author to express praise. See also Berges, “Who Were the Servants?,” 14–15; Briggs and Briggs, Psalms, 2:115, 120; Groenewald, Psalm 69, 193–94, 221–45; idem, “Who are the ‘Servants’ (Psalm 69:36c–37b)? A Contribution to the History of the Literature of the Old Testament,” HTS 59.3 (2003): 735–61; Tate, Psalms 51–100, 192–95. 34  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 67–87; References to the “servants of Yhwh” occur in Isa 54:17; 56:6; 65:8, 9, 13, 14, 15; 66:14, and references to the Servant’s “offspring” (cf. Isa 53:10) occur in Isa 59:21; 61:9; 65:9, 23; 66:22. 35  Earlier it was stated that “The one who takes refuge in me will inherit [‫ ]נחל‬the land and will possess [‫ ]ירׁש‬my holy mountain” (Isa 57:13). 36  The depiction of the “servants” as “those who love Yhwh’s name” (Ps 69:37) can also be seen in Isa 56:6. 37  Beuken, “Isaiah LXV–LXVI,” 206–207; idem, “Main Theme,” 77–78; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 276–78; idem, “The Servant and the Servants,” 174–75. 38  Becker, Psalmen, 45–48; Groenewald, Psalm 69, 239–60; Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, 176. 39  On the connections between Isa 44:26 and Ps 69:36, both of which refer to the “cities of Judah” being “built” and “inhabited,” see Craig C. Broyles, “The Citations of Yahweh in Isaiah 44:26–28,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition, ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans, VTSup 70/1 (New York: Brill, 1997), 399–421 (here 401).



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universal recognition of Yhwh (Ps 69:35) is prominent in texts such as Isa 44:23; 45:22; 52:10; 66:18–19, 23 (note also the shared motif of cosmic witness and response of praise to God’s salvific work in Isa 44:23; 49:13).40 What facilitated this redactional coordination of Psalm 69 to the arguments of Isaiah 40–66? The most significant factor was undoubtedly the theme of righteous suffering that was already present in the psalm. The speaker in Psalm 69 has suffered reproach for God’s sake (‫ﬠליך‬, v. 8), is ostracized from family because of his zeal for God’s temple (vv. 9–10a), claims to share in the reproach that is directed at God himself (v. 10b), and suffers mockery for the expressions of his piety (vv. 11–13). Similarly, according to Isa 57:1–2; 66:5 the servants suffer for God’s sake, and like the Deutero-Isaian Servant (cf. Isa 50:6; 49:7; 53:3, 7), they are hated by others.41 Other lexical and thematic similarities between Psalm 69 and Isaiah 40–66 probably acted as additional triggers for the redactional insertion. The theme of vindication by God – implied in Psalm 69 by the petitions in vv. 14b–19, and expressed explicitly by the statements of confidence in vv. 30b, 34 – is also prominent in Isaiah 40–66 (the Servant hopes for and is vindicated in Isa 49:4b, 7; 50:7–9; 52:13; 53:12; the servants are promised vindication in 54:15–17; 56:6–7; 65:9–15, 23; 66:5, 14). The petition “do not hide your face” (Ps 69:18) is paralleled by statements in Isaiah that God has “hidden his face” from Israel but will no longer do so (Isa 54:8; 57:17–18). The petition “answer me!” (vv. 14, 17) is paralleled by statements in Isaiah that God does answer the needy (Isa 41:17; 49:8; 58:9; 65:24). The words “shame” (‫)בוׁש‬, “disgrace” (‫)כלם‬, and “reproach” (‫חרף‬, ‫)חרפה‬ – which form a leitmotif in Psalm 69 (cf. vv. 7–11, 20–21) – also play a significant role in Isaiah 40–66: the Deutero-Isaian Servant voices his confidence that he will not be “humiliated and ashamed” even though he “did not hide his face from disgrace” (Isa 50:6–7). When delivered, Israel will no longer experience “shame” or “disgrace” (Isa 45:17; 54:4), and those who “wait [‫]קוה‬ for Yhwh will not be ashamed [‫( ”]בוׁש‬Isa 49:23 // Ps 69:7). And the servants of Trito-Isaiah – who are “hated,” and rejected by their “brothers” for Yhwh’s sake (Isa 66:5 // Ps 69:5, 8–9) – will not experience “shame”; rather, their opponents will (Isa 65:13; 66:5).42 The complaint that “I waited for pity [‫ ]נוד‬and for com40 See Becker, Psalmen, 51: “Daß sich diese deuteroisianische Stelle auf die Befreiung aus dem Exil bezieht, und daß ‘Er hat es getan’ hier entsprechend zu deuten ist, bedarf keines Nachweises. Wir haben hier einen Text, der die Brücke von Ps 22 nach Ps 69 und Ps 102 schlägt und diese drei Psalmen miteinander verklammert. Denn wir finden das heilsgeschichtliche ‘Er hat es getan’ von Ps 22,32 und zwar in ausdrücklicher Beziehung zur Befreiung aus dem Exil, und den zum Vorstellungsbereich vom Königtum Jahwes gehörenden kosmischen Jubel von Ps 69,35. Die ausdrückliche Erwähnung der Befreiungstat verbindet Is 44,23 mit Ps 69 und Ps 102.” 41  On Isa 57:1–2, see Beuken, “Main Theme,” 69; see also Isa 65:8–11, 13–15; 66:14. 42  Compare the imprecation in Ps 69:23–29 to the polemic against those who persecute the servants in Isa 65:11–15.

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forters [‫( ”]מנחמים‬Ps 69:21) is paralleled in the description of devastated Zion (Isa 51:19) before restoration: “who will show pity to you [‫ … ]מי ינוד לך‬how shall I comfort you [‫ ”?]מי אנחמך‬The comment that enemies have persecuted the one whom God struck (v. 27) is reminiscent of the picture of the Servant in Isaiah 53.43 The argument that God responds to the “afflicted” (‫ﬠני‬, Ps 69:30), the “poor” (‫ﬠנוים‬, Ps 69:33), the “needy” (‫אביונים‬, Ps 69:34), and the “prisoners” (‫אסירים‬, Ps 69:34) can be found in Isa 41:17 (‫ﬠני‬, ‫ ;)אביונים‬49:13 (‫ ;)ﬠני‬54:11 (‫ ;)ﬠניה‬61:1 (‫ﬠנוים‬, ‫)אסורים‬.44 In Isa 66:2, it is the “afflicted” (‫ )ﬠני‬that God regards – and these are the “servants”! The wish that the “heart” of “those who seek Yhwh” will “live” (Ps 69:33) is paralleled by the statement in Isa 57:15 that God will “cause the heart of the crushed to live” and by an extended argument about those who “seek God” (i. e., the servants) in Isa 55:6; 65:1, 10. What is the argument of Psalm 69 in light of its redaction, and what was its significance for the community in which it was shaped and used? The addition of vv. 35–37 coordinates the psalm with Isaiah 40–66 by linking righteous suffering to vindication and eschatological renewal. All creation will acknowledge Yhwh, and the individual sufferer of the psalm is made to be one of the servants, who wait in hope for their inheritance – the restored Zion (Ps 69:36–37; Isa 65:9). As Briggs notes, “This sufferer is doubtless the ideal community of Ps. 22, Is. 53.”45 2.3  Psalm 102 Like Psalms 22 and 69, Psalm 102 also contains some features of an individual complaint psalm: petitions (vv. 2–3, 25) and complaints (vv. 4–12, 24). But there are also communal features present (vv. 13–23) that complicate our understanding of this psalm’s genre.46 Hossfeld and Zenger identify its major sections as follows:47 vv. 2–12 petition and complaint of individual vv. 13–23 communal prayer for Zion vv. 24–29 complaint and petition of individual; promise of the future 43 

Groenewald, Psalm 69, 174–75. a discussion of the identity of the “poor” and “needy,” and of their appearance in Isaiah and the Psalms, see Ulrich Berges, “Die Armen im Buch Jesaja. Ein Beitrag zur Literaturgeschichte des AT,” Biblica 80 (1999): 153–77; Johannes Bremer, “Die Armentheologie als eine Grundlinie einer Theologie des Psalters,” HEBAI 5.4 (2016): 350–90; Sue Gillingham, “The Poor in the Psalms,” ExpTim 100 (1988): 15–19; Groenewald, Psalm 69, 144–53, 194, 217–20; W. Dennis Tucker, Jr., “A Polysemiotic Approach to the Poor in the Psalms,” PRSt 31 (2004): 425–39. 45  Briggs and Briggs, Psalms, 2:113. 46  See Erhard S. Gerstenberger, Psalms, Part 2, and Lamentations, FOTL 15 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), 210–15. 47 Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Psalms 3: A Commentary on Psalms 101– 150, Hermeneia, trans. Linda M. Maloney (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2011), 19–20. 44  For



The Servants in Psalms 22, 69, and 102

57

The dating of the final form of this psalm to the post-exilic period is established by the reference to the “rebuilding of Zion” (v. 17) after the confidence that God would “arise and have compassion on Zion” (v. 14) for its ruined state (v. 15).48 As with Psalm 69, scholarship is divided over whether there was an earlier core that was subsequently expanded (so Marttila), or whether the entire psalm is a late literary unity (so Steck).49 The keyword “my days” (‫ימי‬, vv. 4, 12, 24, 25) runs throughout the individual complaint sections and brackets the communal language in vv. 13–23. It is in fact part of the pervasive time-related language that plays a key role (see below) in the argument of this psalm: “day of my distress” (v. 3, ‫“ ;)יום צר‬all day long” (v. 9, ‫“ ;)כל־היום‬forever” (v. 13, ‫“ ;)לﬠולם‬all generations” (v. 13, ‫“ ;)לדר ודר‬time to favor it” (v. 14, ‫“ ;)ﬠת לחננה‬appointed time” (v. 14, ‫“ ;)מוﬠד‬later generation” (v. 19, ‫לדור‬ ‫“ ;)אחרון‬in all generations are your years” (v. 25, ‫“ ;)בדור דורים ׁשנותיך‬your years” (v. 28, ‫)ׁשנותיך‬. Other repeated language and imagery includes “to dry up like grass” (vv. 5, 12, ‫ ﬠׂשב‬+ ‫ )יבׁש‬and the three solitary birds to which the speaker compares himself (vv. 7–8). The psalm begins with a petition (vv. 2–3) for Yhwh to hear and answer the prayer of the supplicant. This is followed by the complaint (vv. 4–12; note the inclusio formed by the repetition of “my days”). The complaint initially focuses on the internal experience of the supplicant: his bones “burn,” his heart is “stricken,” his “groaning” is so intense that it affects his body, and he feels as isolated as a wilderness bird (vv. 4–8). It then shifts to a description of external factors: the mockery and reproach of enemies (v. 9) and the belief that God himself is angry with and has rejected the sufferer (v. 11). The complaint finishes in v. 12 with language linking back to v. 4 (“my days”) and v. 5 (“dry up like grass”). The shift to communal prayer in vv. 13–23 displays a remarkable change of topic: an acknowledgment of Yhwh’s eternality (v. 13; cf. Ps 9:8; 29:10; 135:13), followed by the certainty that God will “have compassion” on ruined Zion because “your servants” are attached to it (vv. 14–15) – an action that will elicit the universal recognition of Yhwh (v. 16). Verses 17–23 form a retrospective statement that God has rebuilt Zion and responded to the prayers of the destitute, an action that should be permanently recorded so that all peoples may recognize it when they gather in Zion to worship Yhwh. In vv. 24–25 the psalm shifts back to the perspective of the individual, who complains that God has “shortened his days” and then petitions God (whose “years are for all generations”) not to remove him halfway through his life. The theme of God’s eternality is continued in vv. 26–28, where it is contrasted with 48  Hossfeld and Zenger (Psalms 3, 19) note the shift from the prefix conjugation in v. 14 to the suffix conjugations in vv. 17–18, 20 (which “describe completed stages”). 49  For compositional models, see Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 3, 20–22; Marttila, Collective Reinterpretation, 128–35; Odil Hannes Steck, “Zu Eigenart und Herkunft von Ps 102,” ZAW 102 (1990): 357–72.

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the temporality of the earth and heavens. Throughout the psalm, then, the individual petitioner is strongly aware of his own transitoriness (and that of creation itself ) and asks God – who abides forever – to intervene. The final verse (v. 29) shifts away from the complaint of the individual with a statement that the “sons of your servants” and their “offspring” will dwell and be firmly established before God. As in Psalms 22 and 69, we have in Psalm 102 material that bears no intrinsic relation to the problem of a suffering individual. In fact, the references in Psalm 102 to the restoration of Zion and the destiny of the servants represent Isaian themes that have been brought into relationship with the suffering individual, because they are already related to each other in Isaiah 40–66. The deviations from the individual complaint that reflect on the future of Zion and the servants (Ps 102:13–23, 29) constitute an editorial coordination of this psalm to Isaiah.50 As in Psalms 22 and 69, we find in Psalm 102 references to the Isaian “servants” (Ps 102:15, 29) and “offspring” (v. 29).51 The incongruous final verse in Psalm 102 draws on the Isaian argument about the destiny of the servants: And I will bring forth offspring (‫ )זרﬠ‬from Jacob and one who possesses (‫ )ירׁש‬my mountains from Judah; and my chosen ones will possess (‫ )ירׁש‬it, and my servants (‫ )ﬠבדי‬will dwell (‫ )ׁשכן‬there. (Isa 65:9) The sons of your servants (‫ )ﬠבדיך‬will dwell (‫)ׁשכן‬, and their offspring (‫ )זרﬠ‬will be established before you. (Ps 102:29)

Psalm 102:13–23 also articulates Isaian arguments: the hope that Yhwh will “have compassion” (‫רחם‬, v. 14) on Zion after its devastation can be found in Isa 49:13; 54:8, 10; 60:10, and the “rebuilding” (‫בנה‬, v. 17) of Zion by Yhwh is hoped for in Isa 44:26 (cf. Isa 58:12; 61:4). The statement that Yhwh “has appeared in his glory” (v. 17) is also linked to the restoration of Zion described in Isa 60:2. Psalm 102:16, 23 describe the universal recognition of Yhwh – which is not only what the Deutero-Isaian Servant brings about (Isa 49:6; 51:4–5; 52:10; 53.1) but also what the Trito-Isaian servants participate in. Just as foreigners are welcomed to become part of the “servants” in Isa 56:6–8, so the incorporation of other peoples as those who “serve” Yhwh in Jerusalem is depicted in Ps 102:23. Note the connections below: And the foreigners who join themselves to Yhwh, to minister to him and to love the name of Yhwh, to be his servants, everyone who keeps the Sabbath so as not to profane it and those who hold fast to my covenant – I will bring them to my holy mountain and make 50 See Gunild Brunert, Psalm 102 im Kontext des Vierten Psalmenbuches, SBB 30 (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1996), 189–94; see also Becker, Psalmen, 44–45; Berges, “Who Were the Servants?,” 9–10; Marttila, Collective Reinterpretation, 133; Steck, “Ps 102,” 367–70. 51  References to the “servants of Yhwh” occur in Isa 54:17; 56:6; 65:8, 9, 13, 14, 15; 66:14, and references to the “offspring” of the Servant (cf. Isa 53:10) occur in Isa 59:21; 61:9; 65:9, 23; 66:22.



The Servants in Psalms 22, 69, and 102

59

them rejoice in my house of prayer …. Utterance of Lord Yhwh, who gathers the banished ones of Israel: I will still gather to it, to its already gathered ones. (Isa 56:6–8) And they will fear from the west the name of Yhwh, and from the rising of the sun, his glory; for he will come like a narrow river which the wind of Yhwh drives along. (Isa 59:19)52 And I – their works and their thoughts – it has come to gather all the nations and tongues, and they will come and see my glory. (Isa 66:18)53 And nations will fear the name of Yhwh, and all the kings of the earth your glory54 …. when the peoples are gathered together, and the kingdoms, in order to serve Yhwh. (Ps 102:16, 23)

Other Isaian motifs and locutions are also present in Ps 102:13–23: the release of “prisoners” (Isa 49:9; 61:1 // Ps 102:21);55 Yhwh’s “holy height” (Isa 57:15 // Ps 102:20); and “recounting Yhwh’s praise” (Isa 43:21 // Ps 102:22). Outside of these verses we find words and themes also occurring in Isaiah 40–66 which may have provided some of the impetus for the redactional adjustment of Psalm 102 to Isaiah: the comparison of humans to withering vegetation (Ps 102:5, 12) can also be found in Isa 40:7–8; the theme of having felt Yhwh’s anger and rejection (Ps 102:11) can also be found in Isa 54:8–9; 57:16–17; 60:10; 64:4, 8, where it is acknowledged that Yhwh was temporarily angry at Israel and exiled them. But it is in the last few verses of the psalm that we find some of the most significant similarities: Lift up your eyes to the heavens, and look to the earth beneath; because the heavens will be dispersed like smoke, the earth will wear out like a garment, and its inhabitants will die like gnats; but my salvation will be forever, and my righteousness not be shattered. (Isa 51:6) For I  am about to create new heavens and a new earth; the former things will not be remembered or come to mind. (Isa 65:17) For just as the new heavens and the new earth, which I am about to make, will remain before me  – utterance of Yhwh  – thus your offspring and your name will remain. (Isa 66:22) Beforehand you founded the earth, and the heavens are the work of your hands. They will perish, but you will remain, and all of them will wear out like a garment; you will change them like clothing, and they will pass away. But you are he; and your years will not come 52  For a discussion of the argument in Isa 59:15b–20 and its compositional connection to Isa 63:1–6, see Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 194–99. 53  For the function of this verse in the larger argument of Isaiah, see Beuken, “Isaiah LXV– LXVI,” 209–10. 54  Note that 4QPsb reads “his glory”  – a harmonization of this verse to the locution in Isa 59:19, prompted by the already-existing relationship between these verses. 55  Ps 102:21 uses the same locution as Ps 79:11 (‫)אנקת אסיר … בני תמותה‬. Note that Psalm 79 also mentions the “servants” (Ps 79:2, 10) and laments the ruin of Jerusalem (v. 1). The final form of Psalm 102 therefore seems to constitute an editorial solution to the problem posed in Psalm 79.

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to an end. The sons of your servants will dwell, and their offspring will be established before you. (Ps 102:26–29)

As I noted above, the controlling theme of Psalm 102 is the contrast between human temporality and divine eternality. In the earliest form of the psalm, the speaker – overwhelmed by his ephemerality – recognizes Yhwh’s eternality. He pleads with him to not snatch his life away, noting that although even the heavens and earth will pass away, Yhwh will remain. In Isa 51:6, the author contrasts the temporality of the heavens and earth with the permanence of Yhwh’s deliverance (note that both Isa 51:6 and Ps 102:27 use the expression ‫)בלה כבגד‬. In the transition from Deutero-Isaiah to Trito-Isaiah, we learn that Yhwh’s deliverance is carried out by his Servant, who creates a community of righteous offspring – the servants. In Trito-Isaiah, the author argues that the “servants”/“offspring” will endure and inherit the “new heavens and new earth” that Yhwh will create (Isa 65:9–17, 23; 66:22). By adding the final verse about the permanence of the servants (Ps 102:29), the redactor of Psalm 102 has used Isaiah to address the complaint posed by the original speaking voice in the psalm: the solution to human temporality is to partake in the community of Yhwh’s servants, for he has promised that it is they who will remain and inherit the blessing of a restored cosmos. Just as Isaiah 40–55 and Isaiah 54, 56–66 link suffering to vindication and the universal recognition of Yhwh, Psalm 102 is brought into the Isaian argument structure, even though the suffering in the earliest form of the psalm was not overtly depicted as suffering righteously or for Yhwh’s sake. Similarly, the relationship between individual suffering and references to Zion’s destiny in Psalm 102 is difficult to explain – unless one recognizes the prior connection between the persecuted servants and their glorious inheritance in Isaiah 54, 56–66.

3. Conclusion In the analysis above, I  have outlined how Psalms 22, 69, and 102 were editorially coordinated with the argument about the Servant and the servants in Isaiah 40–66. All three psalms mention the Trito-Isaian “servants”/“offspring” (Pss 22:30d–31a; 69:36–37; 102:15, 29), and all three make heavy use of Isaianic locutions at points where they show signs of editorial expansion (e. g., Pss 22:28– 32; 69:35–37; 102:13–23, 29). Two of the three psalms follow Isaiah in explicitly hoping for the restoration of Zion (Pss 69:36–37; 102:14–17; cf. Isa 52:7–9; 58:12; 60:10; 61:4), and Psalm 22 might be said to presuppose it.56 Similarly, all three psalms follow a three-part argument structure which is incomprehensible without reference to the Isaian argument structure about the Servant(s):57 56 See 57 

Groenewald, Psalm 69, 229–32. Tate, Psalms 51–100, 194: “Ps 22 has the same literary structure as Pss 69 and 102, much

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The Servants in Psalms 22, 69, and 102



Suffering

Vindication

Universal Recognition of Yhwh

Isaiah 40–55

50:6; 53:2–9

49:4b, 7; 50:7–9; 52:13; 53:10–12

49:5–7

Isaiah 54, 56–66

57:1; 66:5

54:14–17; 65:13– 15; 66:2, 5–6

66:18–19, 21–23

Psalm 22

22:2–22a (persecution for piety, vv. 7–9, 13–19)

22:22b–25

22:28–32

Psalm 69

69:2–30a (persecution for piety, vv. 5, 8–13)

69:33–34, 36–37

69:35

Psalm 102

102:14–15, 17–18, 102:2–12, 24 (persecu20–21, 29 tion, v. 9; despair at ephemerality, vv. 4, 12, 24)

102:16, 19, 22–23

As Marttila notes, “In the light of these numerous examples there can hardly be any doubt that the collective redaction in Pss 22, 69 and 102 which emphasized the return and rebuilding of the country and Yahweh’s kingship over all the world had its background and model in the compositions of Deutero- and TritoIsaiah.”58 Furthermore, there are good reasons to believe that Psalms 22, 69, and 102 were formed in relation to each other as well as to Isaiah 40–66. They have numerous locutions in common: Ps 22:3, 22 // Ps 69:18 // Ps 102:3 (‫;)ﬠנה‬ Ps  22:4 // Ps  102:13 (‫ישב‬, of Yhwh); Ps 22:23 // Ps 102:22 (‫ ;)ספר שם‬Ps  22:25 // Ps  69:30, 34 // Ps  102:18 (‫ﬠני‬, ‫ ;)בזה‬Ps  22:25 // Ps  69:18 // Ps  102:3 (‫;)סתר פנה‬ Ps  22:27 // Ps  69:33 (‫ﬠנוים‬, ‫דרש‬, ‫ ;)לבב חיה‬Ps  22:31 // Ps  69:37 // Ps  102:15, 29 (‫ﬠבד‬, ‫ ;)זרﬠ‬Ps  22:31–32 // Ps  102:19 (‫דור‬, ‫נברא‬ ‫ﬠם‬/‫נולד‬ ‫ ;)ﬠם‬Ps  69:34 // Ps  102:21 (‫)אסיר‬. This fact is recognized by modern commentators, but even pre-critical commentators were aware of the relationships between these psalms.59 The following verses show particularly striking resemblances: of the same basic context, and is about the same length. It is possible that these three psalms all emerged from the same context …” 58  Marttila, Collective Reinterpretation, 135. 59  For modern commentators, see e. g. Briggs and Briggs, Psalms, 2:124 (on the connections between Ps 22:25, 27 and Ps 69:33, 34); Corinna Körting, Zion in den Psalmen, FAT 48 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006), 55–56 (on the connection of Ps 102:15, 29 to Psalm 69); Tate, Psalms 51–100, 194–95: “Note similarities between 69:18 and 102:3; 69:33 and 102:18; 69:36 and 102:17; 69:37 and 102:29; 69:34 and 102:21 …. As noted above, some parallels with Ps 22 are also evident, and the two psalms possibly stem from the same circles.” For precritical commentators, see Ibn Ezra’s comment on Ps 22:31 (where he noted the similarity to Ps 102:29); see Menachem Cohen (ed.), Mikraot Gedolot ‘Ha-Keter’: Psalms, 2 vols. (RamatGan: Bar Ilan University, 2003); John Calvin, Commentary on the Psalms, trans. James Anderson (Edinburgh: Calvin Translation Society, 1845), 3:45: “There is a close resemblance between this psalm [= Psalm 69] and the twenty-second”; Herman Venema, Commentarius ad Psalmos LXV–LXXXV, 263 (on Ps 69.33): “Conf. Ps. xxii:27., qui locus nostro parallelus est.”

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The afflicted will eat and be satisfied; let those who seek him praise Yhwh; may your heart live forever! (Ps 22:27) The afflicted will see; those who seek God will rejoice; and may your heart live! (Ps 69:33)

Note likewise the following: For God will save Zion and rebuild the cities of Judah, and they will live there and possess it; the offspring of his servants will inherit it, and those who love his name will dwell in it. (Ps 69:36–37) The sons of your servants will dwell, and their offspring will be established before you. (Ps 102:29)

The locutions, outlook, and argument structure shared by these psalms indicate that they are all of a kind. On the basis of this evidence, both Groenewald and Marttila argue that Psalms 22, 69, and 102 all went through the same multi-stage redactional process.60 It is important to note, however, that the relation of these psalms in their current form to Isaiah 40–66 cannot be explained by a simplistic appeal to a shared “post-exilic context.” To be sure, I do think it likely that the editing of all three psalms occurred in the early Persian period among the original group who self-identified as the “servants.”61 But as we see from the books of Daniel and Wisdom of Solomon, later communities throughout history were also inspired by the book of Isaiah to shape their identity around the righteous suffering and mission of the Servant and the servants. The deployment of borrowed locutions and the presence of the same argument structures in these texts point to a more specific relationship than can be explained by simply locating them in the same temporal period. The redaction of Psalms 22, 69, and 102 represents an attempt to constitute identity exegetically: that is, scribes reflected on Isaian texts and carefully edited earlier traditional psalms (the contexts of which lent themselves to this activity) in light of an Isaian argument structure in order to produce new texts that provided solutions to specific social problems. This is revealed by their appropriation of psalms containing references to communal conflict and to a persona who experiences reproach and distress at the hands of others. Through the redaction of these psalms, those who suffer for their devotion to Yhwh (Pss 22:7–9; 69:8–13) and experience despair at the thought of their ephemerality (Ps 102:4, 12, 24) are brought into the sphere of a textually-constituted community. This community will receive the inheritance promised to the servants of Isaiah 54, 56–66, namely, vindication by God and eschatological restoration, in which the renewal of Zion and the universal recognition of Yhwh will be realized. 60 

Groenewald, Psalm 69, 245–46; Marttila, Collective Reinterpretation, 132–33. Steck, “Ps 102,” 369–71, dates the composition of the entirety of Psalm 102 to the 3rd– 2nd century BCE. Note however Marttila’s argument that while such a date is reasonable for what he identifies as redactional additions, nothing in the remainder of Psalm 102 demands to be located in this period; see Marttila, Collective Reinterpretation, 131–32. 61 



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63

Bibliography Allen, Leslie. “The Value of Rhetorical Criticism in Psalm 69.” JBL 105.4 (1986): 577–98. Becker, Joachim. Israel deutet seine Psalmen: Urform und Neuinterpretation in den Psalmen. SBS 18. Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1966. Berges, Ulrich F. The Book of Isaiah: Its Composition and Final Form. Translated by Millard C. Lind. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2012. –. “Die Armen im Buch Jesaja. Ein Beitrag zur Literaturgeschichte des AT.” Biblica 80 (1999): 153–77. –. “Die Knechte im Psalter. Ein Beitrag zu seiner Kompositionsgeschichte.” Biblica 81 (2000): 153–78. –. “Who were the Servants? A Comparative Inquiry in the Book of Isaiah and the Psalms.” Pages 1–18 in Past, Present, Future: The Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets. Edited by Johannes C. de Moor and Harry F. van Rooy. OTS 44. Leiden: Brill, 2000. Beuken, W. A. M. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH.’ ” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. –. “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 204–21 in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989. Edited by J. A. Emerton. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 40–55: A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19A. New York: Doubleday, 2002. –. Isaiah 56–66. A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19B. New York: Doubleday, 2003. –. “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period.” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20. –. Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006. –. The Beauty of Holiness: Re-Reading Isaiah in the Light of the Psalms. New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018. –. “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book.” Pages 155–75 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Edited by Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans. VTSup 70/1. New York: Brill, 1997. –. “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch.” Pages 392–412 in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship. Edited by R. P. Gordon. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995. Originally published in PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23. Bremer, Johannes. “Die Armentheologie als eine Grundlinie einer Theologie des Psalters.” HEBAI 5.4 (2016): 350–90. Briggs, C. A., and E. G. Briggs. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms. 2 vols. ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1906. Broyles, Craig C. “The Citations of Yahweh in Isaiah 44:26–28.” Pages 399–421 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Edited by Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans. VTSup 70/1. New York: Brill, 1997. Brunert, Gunild. Psalm 102 im Kontext des Vierten Psalmenbuches. SBB 30. Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1996. Calvin, John. Commentary on the Psalms. 5 vols. Translated by James Anderson. Edinburgh: Calvin Translation Society, 1845.

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Cohen, Menachem (ed.). Mikraot Gedolot ‘Ha-Keter’: Psalms. 2 vols. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University, 2003. Driver, S. R. Studies in the Psalms. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1915. Duhm, Bernhard. Die Psalmen. KHC. Freiburg: J. C. B. Mohr, 1899. Gelin, A. “Les quatre lectures du Psaume xxii.” BVC 1 (1953): 31–39. Gerstenberger, Erhard S. Psalms: Part 1, with an Introduction to Cultic Poetry. FOTL 14. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988. –. Psalms, Part 2, and Lamentations. FOTL 15. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001. Gillingham, Sue. “The Poor in the Psalms.” ExpTim 100 (1988): 15–19. Groenewald, Alphonso. Psalm 69: Its Structure, Redaction, and Composition. ATM 18. Münster: Lit, 2003. –. “Who are the ‘Servants’ (Psalm 69:36c–37b)? A  Contribution to the History of the Literature of the Old Testament.” HTS 59.3 (2003): 735–61. Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar, and Erich Zenger. Die Psalmen I: Psalm 1–50. NEchtB. Wurzburg: Echter, 1993. –. Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100. Hermeneia. Translated by Linda M. Maloney. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005. –. Psalms 3: A Commentary on Psalms 101–150. Hermeneia. Translated by Linda M. Maloney. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2011. Irsigler, Hubert. “Psalm 22: Endgestalt, Bedeutung, und Funktion.” Pages 193–240 in Beiträge zur Psalmenforschung: Psalm 2 und 22. Edited by J. Schreiner. Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 1988. Körting, Corinna. Zion in den Psalmen. FAT 48. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006. Kraus, Hans-Joachim. Psalms 1–59: A  Commentary. Translated by Hilton C. Oswald. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1988. Lyons, Michael A. “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isa 54, 56–66.” CBQ 77.4 (2015): 640–56. Marcus, Joel. The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1992. Martin-Achard, R. “Notes Bibliques: Remarques sur le Psaume 22.” Verbum Caro 17 (1963): 78–87. Marttila, Marko. Collective Reinterpretation in the Psalms: A  Study of the Redaction History of the Psalter. FAT II/13. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006. Poole, Matthew. Annotations upon the Holy Bible. Vol. I. Edited by Thomas Parkhurst et al. London: John Richardson, 1683. Rillett Wood, Joyce. “Writing and Rewriting of Psalm 22.” Studies in Religion 48.2 (2019): 189–215. Seybold, Klaus. Die Psalmen. HAT. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr/Paul Siebeck, 1996. Steck, Odil Hannes. “Zu Eigenart und Herkunft von Ps 102.” ZAW 102 (1990): 357–72. Stuhlmueller, Carroll. Psalms 1–72. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1983. Tate, Marvin E. Psalms 51–100. WBC 20. Dallas: Word Books, 1990. Tucker, Jr., W. Dennis. “A Polysemiotic Approach to the Poor in the Psalms.” PRSt 31 (2004): 425–39. Vanoni, Gottfried. “Psalm 22: Literarkritik.” Pages 153–92 in Beiträge zur Psalmenforschung: Psalm 2 und 22. Edited by J. Schreiner. Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 1988. Venema, Herman. Commentarius ad Psalmos LXV–LXXXV. Leovardiae: H. A. de Chalmot, 1766. Westermann, Claus. Gewendete Klage: Eine Auslegung des 22. Psalms. Neukirchen: Neukirchener, 1955.

A Covenantal Community and a New Creation after the Flood The Wise in Daniel 11–12 and the Servants of the Lord in Isaiah* Jacob Stromberg 1. Introduction Well before the birth of Jesus, Jewish readers discerned in Isaiah’s suffering servant (52:13–53:12) a portrait of someone with paradigmatic importance for the future. A case in point: the last vision in the book of Daniel employs one of the earliest widely accepted references to Isaiah’s suffering servant that can be found outside of the book of Isaiah itself. To better understand this reference, I  aim to trace the argument of the latter half of Isaiah as this relates to the appearance of the servants there. There the servants are located within a view of history wherein the past portends the future. The days of Israel’s ancestors and Isaiah the prophet are all received with a prospective significance that is brought to bear on the meaning of Isaiah’s suffering servant and his offspring, the servants. The relationship between the servant and his offspring has been cast in the light of the accounts of Noah and Jacob, underscoring the importance of the patriarchal promise for “offspring” as a continuation of that divine plan manifest in the Edenic renewal after the flood. It will be seen that the final vision of the book of Daniel presents the righteous suffering wise in the light of this prospective history. The wise are portrayed as one further instantiation of the past patterns of God’s dealings with the world. The final vision of Daniel projects a future whose shape fits into that analogical rhythm of the past which had prefigured it.

*  Aspects of this essay grew out of conversations during the 2018–2019 “Texture” workshop series with Michael Lyons, Andrew Teeter, and William Tooman (to whom I am indebted for their insights into the book of Genesis). In what follows, I have endeavored to indicate those cases where I am indebted to a specific insight from one or more of these participants.

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2.  The Isaianic Basis for the Hope of Daniel’s Wise In the last vision of the book, Daniel, on the bank of the river ‫חדקל‬,1 beholds an awesome and unnamed figure sent to him in the third year of Cyrus king of Persia. According to Dan 10, this figure had come to explain to Daniel “what will befall your people in days to come, for the vision is still for the future” (Dan 10:14). That future, written in “the book of truth” (v. 21), is then explained to Daniel in chs. 11–12. A time would come when the rule of the Persians would give way to that of the Greeks; and a great king would arise for a time, whose empire would be divided up “to the four winds of the heavens” (11:4). There would then ensue a protracted conflict between “the king of the north” and “the king of the south.” This conflict – usually understood as the wars between the Seleucids to the north in Syria and Ptolemies to the south in Egypt – would be a time of tribulation for Daniel’s people. The king of the north (typically identified as Antiochus Epiphanes from v. 21 forward) would “rage against the holy covenant,” showing favor to “those who abandon the holy covenant” (11:30). But others, for their faithfulness, would have to suffer through this time of tribulation:2 Those who have insight among the people (‫ )מׂשכילי ﬠם‬shall give understanding to the many (‫ ;)לרבים‬for some days, however, they shall fall by sword and flame, and suffer captivity and plunder. When they fall victim, they shall receive a little help, and many (‫ )רבים‬shall join them insincerely. Some of those who have insight (‫ )המׂשכילים‬shall fall, so that they may be refined, purified, and cleansed, until the time of the end, for there is still an interval until the time appointed. (Dan 11:33–35)

After this statement comes a condemnation of the hubris of the king of the north, who “lifts himself up and exalts himself above every god” and speaks blasphemies against the “God of gods” (v. 36). This is followed by a description of further conflicts involving the north and the south. Then in ch. 12 comes an announcement of the end, and vindication after the period of tribulation for “those who have insight” (‫ )המׂשכילים‬who “give understanding to the many (‫”)לרבים‬: Many (‫ )רבים‬of those who sleep in the dust of the dirt shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt. Those who have insight (‫)המׂשכילים‬ shall shine like the brightness of the sky, and those who make the many righteous (‫מצדיקי‬ ‫)הרבים‬, like the stars forever and ever. But you, Daniel, keep the words secret and the book sealed until the time of the end. Many (‫ )רבים‬shall be running back and forth, and knowledge (‫ )הדﬠת‬shall increase. (Dan 12:2–4)

In this promise of vindication for the righteous who suffer during the period of tribulation, the allusion to Isaiah’s poem of the suffering servant comes into full 1 

The word ‫ חדקל‬occurs only in Dan 10:4 and Gen 2:14, where it refers to the Tigris. translations of the Hebrew text are largely based on the NRSV, modified as necessary. 2 My



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view, as is widely recognized.3 The poem begins and ends with a reference to the “many” (‫)רבים‬: See, my servant shall prosper (‫ ;)יׂשכיל‬he shall be exalted and lifted up, and shall be very high. Just as there were many (‫ )רבים‬who were astonished at you – so marred was his appearance, beyond human semblance, and his form beyond that of mortals – so he shall spatter many nations (‫ ;)גוים רבים‬kings shall shut their mouths because of him; for that which had not been told them they shall see, and that which they had not heard they shall contemplate. (Isa 52:13–15) Out of his anguish he shall see light;4 he shall find satisfaction through his knowledge (‫)בדﬠתו‬.5 The righteous one, my servant, shall make many righteous (‫יצדיק צדיק ﬠבדי‬ ‫)לרבים‬, and he shall bear their iniquities. Therefore I will allot him a portion with the many (‫)ברבים‬, and he shall divide the spoil with the strong; because he poured out himself to death, and was numbered with the transgressors; yet he bore the sin of many (‫)רבים‬, and made intercession for the transgressors. (Isa 53:11–12)

The allusion to this poem in the Danielic vision is transparent. Both portraits – that of the Isaianic servant and that of the Danielic wise – are partly a response to the need to endure the loss of national autonomy amidst the ravages of empire (Babylonian and Ptolemaic/Seleucid respectively). Just as the servant “shall prosper” (‫ )יׂשכיל‬and be “exalted and lifted up” after his righteous suffering, so shall “those who have insight” (‫ )המׂשכילים‬be like the stars in the sky after their faithful tribulation. In both cases, the faithful suffering involves “justifying” the “many” (‫ מצדיקי הרבים‬/ ‫)יצדיק צדים ﬠבדי לרבים‬, a combination not found elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible.6 Significantly, these phrases occur at the beginning and ending of the Isaianic poem, as do the references to the “many” (‫)רבים‬ – which suggests a meaningful distribution to the Danielic allusion. Moreover, as in the Isaianic poem so too in the Danielic allusion do the references to the “many” (‫ )רבים‬include both Israel and the nations.7 The role of the Isaianic servant was 3  See the literature on this point cited in the introduction to this volume. In addition, see Martin Hengel with Daniel P. Bailey, “The Effective History of Isaiah 53 in the Pre-Christian Period,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janow­ ski and Peter Stuhlmacher (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 75–146 (here 90–98); Anathea E. Portier-Young, Apocalypse Against Empire: Theologies of Resistance in Early Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011), 272–76. 4  So 1QIsaa, b and LXX; cf. 4QIsad. 5  The meaning of ‫ דﬠת‬in Isa 53:11 and Dan 12:4 is much debated, though the reference from the latter to the former seems secure. See, for instance, John Day, “DAʿAṮ ‘Humiliation’ in Isa LIII 11 in the Light of Isaiah LIII 3 and Daniel XII 4, and the Oldest Known Interpretation of the Suffering Servant,” VT 30.1 (1980): 97–103; J. A. Emerton, “A Further Consideration of D. W. Thomas’s Theories about yādaʾ,” VT 41.2 (1991): 145–63. 6  I tend to agree with Carol Newsom’s remark: “While it is possible that the death of the wise is thought to have similar effects [as the death of the servant in Isaiah], it seems more likely that their teaching (Dan 11:33) is what makes the many righteous”; Carol A. Newsom with Brennan W. Breed, Daniel: A Commentary, OTL (Louisville: Westminster John Knox), 364. 7  It is used of the nations in Isa 52:15. The reference in 53:11 includes the “us” in vv. 5–6 (note the use of ‫ ﬠון‬in both). In the light of Daniel’s allusion to the suffering servant, the repeated

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to be a “light to the nations” (42:6; 49:6), a conduit for divine “instruction” to go forth to the peoples (51:4). For his calling, he suffered persecution and “walked in darkness, without light” (51:10; cf. vv. 4–9). But out of his suffering he would “see light” (53:11). It may be in this light that the reader was to understand the imagery describing the vindication of the resurrected righteous in Dan 12: they “shall shine like the brightness of the sky, … like the stars forever and ever (Dan 12:3). Indeed, the vindication of the righteous by resurrection here recalls the vindication of the servant himself. In his righteous suffering, the Isaianic servant was “cut off from the land of the living (‫( ”)חיים‬Isa 53:8) but would nevertheless “see light” (53:11; cf. v. 12), “prosper (‫ ”)יׂשכיל‬and “be high and exceedingly lifted up” (52:13). This promise was clearly the basis for the title of the righteous – “those who have insight” (‫)המׂשכילים‬ – who, after their faithful suffering and death, would resurrect “to eternal life (‫( ”)לחיי ﬠולם‬Dan 12:3). The Isaianic background of the Danielic resurrection here is acknowledged by most scholars, when they note the reference to Isa 26:19 in Dan 12:3:8 Your dead shall live (‫)יחיו‬, their corpses shall rise. O dwellers in the dust (‫)ﬠפר‬, awake (‫ )הקיצו‬and sing for joy! For your dew is a dew of lights, and the earth will give birth to those long dead. (Isa 26:19) Many of those who sleep in the dust (‫ )ﬠפר‬of the earth shall awake (‫)יקיצו‬, some to everlasting life (‫)לחיי ﬠולם‬, and some to shame and everlasting contempt. Those who have insight shall shine like the brightness of the sky, … like the stars forever and ever. (Dan 12:2–3)

Both passages promise a bright future for the dead: light and life (‫)חיים‬.9 In both cases, the dead shall awake (‫ )קי״ץ‬from the dust (‫)ﬠפר‬, a combination not found elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible. Thus, the Danielic portrait of the vindication of the suffering righteous employs a composite allusion echoing both Isaianic texts, the portrait of the suffering servant and the promise that the dwellers of the dust shall rise. For this reason, it becomes probable that the Danielic author understood the latter-day implications of the fate of the servant in Isa 52:13 use of the phrase ‫ רבים‬in Dan 11–12 for both the nations and the Jews was likely to be understood in connection with the allusion to the Isaianic poem, which itself is framed by this phrase (Dan 11:10, 14, 18, 26, 33–34, 39, 44; 12:2–4, 10). 8  See, all with further literature, Jennie Grillo, “Roots of Resurrection in the Tales of Daniel,” VT (2020): 1–11 (here 10); G. Brooke Lester, Daniel Evokes Isaiah: Allusive Characterization of Foreign Rule in the Hebrew-Aramaic Book of Daniel, LHBOTS 606 (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015), 100; Newsom, Daniel, 364. 9  Some understand Isa 53:8–9 in terms of a metaphorical death; see, for instance, Shalom Paul, Isaiah 40–66: Translation and Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans), 408. Similarly, some have argued that Isa 26:19 should be understood as a metaphorical (not literal) resurrection from the dead. For a discussion of this whole problem, see Christopher B. Hays, A Covenant with Death: Death in the Iron Age II and Its Rhetorical Uses in Proto-Isaiah (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015), 323–36. If the Daniel author read either passage this way (which is not certain), then perhaps we should conclude that he will have understood its metaphorical sense to bear a literal significance by means of an analogical application to a new situation.



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(“he will be lifted up”) in the light of the promise of Isa 26:19 (“their corpses shall rise”).10 Along similar lines, it is possible that the Danielic author understood “he shall see light (‫( ”)אור‬Isa 53:11) in the light of “your dew is a dew of lights (‫)אורת‬,” a cryptic image contributing to the promise of resurrection in the context (Isa 26:19).11 In any case, there is broad agreement that Daniel 11–12 deliberately references Isaiah’s servant, a point further supported by the highly allusive texture of Daniel in general, and of these chapters in particular. One striking feature of this allusion is the movement from singular to plural. Those who would justify the many in Daniel are clothed in the language of the one who would justify the many in Isaiah. The one suffering servant in Isa 52:13–53:12 provides the pattern for the suffering righteous in Dan 11–12. Any explanation of this move from the singular in Isaiah to the plural in Daniel must take account of an identical shift that takes place within the latter half of Isaiah itself. This point was made some years ago by George Nickelsburg, who noted that the pluralization of the suffering servant in Daniel’s final vision was anticipated by an identical shift that had taken place already in the latter half of Isaiah:12 In Second Isaiah the term ‫ ﬠבד‬occurs in the singular. For the most part, this servant is identified with the nation, Israel – although at times he seems to be a figure separate from the nation. Daniel 12 witnesses to a pluralization of the servant figure: the servant, singular, has become the servants, plural (or more specifically, “the wise ones” and “those who bring many to righteousness”). This shift had taken place already in Third Isaiah, where the righteous are called “my servants, my chosen ones.”

According to Nickelsburg, this pluralization from servant to servants in the latter half of Isaiah paved the way for a similar pluralization of the servant in the final vision of Daniel: “Third Isaiah’s pluralization of the servant made it possible to read the Deutero-Isaianic servant passages as descriptions of a person or persons whom the descriptions might fit.”13 The implication is that the pattern of Isaiah’s servant was seen to fit the righteous sufferers whom Daniel’s final vision describes in precisely those terms. Nickelsburg employs the category of “pluralization” to describe the shift from servant to servants in Isa 40–66. This essentially grammatical observation is, of course, accurate. But it hardly accounts for the rationale underlying this shift in the latter half of Isaiah. How does Isaiah itself present this transition from the servant to the servants? And what does the Isaianic presentation aim to argue 10  The ending on ‫ נבלתי‬is difficult, but does not affect the present argument. See J. J. M. Ro­ berts, First Isaiah: A Commentary, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015), 329. 11  See Jennie Grillo, “Roots of Resurrection,” 1–11. 12  George W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006 [1st ed., 1972]), 39–40. 13  Nickelsburg, Resurrection, 40.

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for the reader? Moreover, has the presentation of this shift in Isaiah made itself felt on the final Danielic vision, where the many righteous sufferers are clothed in the dress of the one suffering servant of Isa 52:13–53:12? Put otherwise, does this final Danielic vision move beyond a simple acknowledgment of this grammatical shift in the latter half of Isaiah to echo the native logic governing that shift? Does that logic govern the Isaianic allusion in Daniel?

3.  The Offspring of the Servant and the Children of Zion in Isaiah This transition from the servant to the servants in the latter half of Isaiah occurs at a major division in this material. As has long been recognized, the latter half of Isaiah segments itself into two major parts, chs. 40–55 and 56–66. In Isa 40–55, the word ‫ ﬠבד‬always occurs in the singular, except its last occurrence at 54:17 which is in the plural.14 And in Isa 56–66, the word always occurs in the plural.15 This distribution suggests a relationship between the “servant” and the “servants” in the latter half of Isaiah, a topic that has now received much attention.16 Since the work of W. A. M. Beuken, this relationship has generally (and rightly) been viewed in the light of the repeated use of the word “offspring” in these chapters, a position summarized well by Michael Lyons:17 In Isaiah 40–55, it is said that Yhwh’s servant, the agent of restoration who suffers (Isa 49:6; 53:2), will have “offspring” and “make many righteous” (53:10–11). Yet after chap. 53, the figure of the individual servant vanishes from the book and is replaced with descriptions of a community called the “servants” or “offspring” [in chs. 54–66].18

According to Beuken, these servants are the “offspring” of the servant, a claim that is central to the book’s concluding chapters (Isa 54–66).19 As Beuken notes, the promise that the servant – who justifies the “many” (‫)לרבים‬ – “will see offspring (‫( ”)זרﬠ‬53:10) is immediately developed in relation to Zion portrayed as a barren woman bereft of children.20 She shall rejoice, because “the children of 14  Isa 41:8–9;

42:1, 19; 43:10; 44:1–2, 21, 26; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3, 5–7; 50:10; 52:13; 53:11; 54:17. 15  Isa 56:6; 63:17; 65:8–9, 13–15; 66:14. 16  See the literature cited in the introduction to this volume. 17  Michael A. Lyons, “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isaiah 54; 56–66,” CBQ 77 (2015): 640–56 (here 642). 18  The word ‫“( ﬠבדים‬servants”) occurs at Isa 54:17; 56:6; 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13–15; 66:14. The word ‫“( זרﬠ‬seed”) occurs at Isa 59:21; 61:8–9; 65:9, 23; 66:22. 19  W. A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah: ‘The Servants of Yhwh’,” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. 20  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 67–68. In support of Beuken’s suggestion, I would note that the beginning of Isa 54 has been deliberately set on analogy to the end of 53. The servant would see



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the desolate woman will be many (‫ )רבים‬more than the children of the married woman,” and her “offspring (‫ )זרﬠ‬will inherit the nations” (54:1–3). In support of Beuken’s point, I would draw attention to 54:13. Here, barren Zion is told that she shall be restored and that “all your children will be learned of the Lord (‫)למודי יהוה‬.” This is a clear reference back to the description of the obedience of the suffering servant in 50:4–11. In this passage, God gives the servant a “tongue of the learned (‫ ”)למודים‬and an “ear to listen like the learned (‫( ”)כלמודים‬v. 4; the word ‫ למוד‬occurs only one other time in the book at 8:16, which is related to the present passage). This comparison between the future children of the barren woman Zion in 54:13 and the servant in 50:4–11 is surely related to the fact that his hope in suffering is presented as an example to those who would enjoy the restored Zion in 51:1–8.21 Finally, the whole description of the restoration of barren Zion in ch. 54 concludes with the first reference to the servants, thereby identifying them as her children: “this [restored mother Zion22] is the inheritance of the servants of the Lord” (v. 17b). They are her children “learned of the Lord,” those who emulate the suffering servant in ch. 50 and are the “offspring” of the same in ch. 53. This relationship between the servants and mother Zion is developed in the remainder of the book.23 In Isa 57, we read of another mother, her “children,” and “offspring” – the same terms used in the promises made to barren Zion in ch. 54 through the righteous suffering of the servant in ch. 53. Only these children are the “children of the sorceress,” the offspring (‫ )זרﬠ‬of the “harlot” (57:3–4). Here, the speaker asks these children of harlotry, “against whom did you make wide (‫ )תרחיבו‬the mouth, did you elongate (‫ )תאריכו‬the tongue?” (57:4). This sign of disrespect by the harlot’s children contrasts with the happy offspring (‫)זרﬠ‬, extend (‫ )יאריך‬days, divide spoil among the many (‫)ברבים‬, because he justified the many (‫ )רבים‬and bore the sin of the many (‫[ רבים‬53:10–12]). Set in this light is the promise that the barren woman would have so many (‫ )רבים‬children that she would have to extend (‫ )האריכי‬the cords of her tents; and her offspring (‫ )זרﬠך‬would possess the nations (54:1–3). This tight-knit set of lexical parallels joins with the immediate juxtaposition of the two passages to indicate that the work of the servant would lead to the restoration of the barren woman to motherhood. This conclusion is supported by the fact that this juxtaposition comes as the last of a series of such juxtapositions within chs. 49–54 wherein the work of the servant is followed by the plight of Zion as a woman bereft of her children, indicating that the work of the former was for the benefit of the latter. 21  On the relationship between Isa 50:4–11 and 51:1–8 in this respect, compare 50:9 with 51:6, 8; see Jacob Stromberg, “Servant of God,” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Theology, vol. 2 kin-wor, ed. Samuel E. Balentine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 279–85 (here 282). Note also the connection between God’s promise to comfort (‫ )נח״ם‬Zion in 51:3 and his address to Zion “not comforted (‫ ”)נחמה‬in 54:11. 22  Both the restored city and the promise of protection for it are the inheritance for the servants. Thus, the promise of protection to Zion (2fs pronouns [v. 17]) is the inheritance of the servants. 23 A comprehensive analysis here is out of the question. What follows is indebted to Beuken’s analysis, but departs from and expands on it at many points.

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fate promised to Zion regarding her own. Though barren Zion had no children nor a husband, she is told to “make wide (‫ )הרחיבי‬the place of your tent … make long (‫ )האריכי‬your cords,” for her children would be many (54:1–3).24 The words of the harlot’s offspring are made to echo that happy future promised to barren Zion, thereby underscoring the contrasting fates of the two women and their children. In contrast to the fate of Zion in ch. 54, the many acts of harlotry would not save the adulterous woman of ch. 57 (see vv. 12–13). This comparison is developed further by a contrast within ch. 57 itself. ­Isaiah 57 contrasts the harlot who sets up her bed on a mountain “high and lifted up” (‫ )גבה ונׂשא‬with those who are “crushed (‫ )דכא‬and lowly of spirit,” those who are revived by God, the one who is “high and lifted up” (‫ונׂשא‬ ‫[ רם‬57:7, 15]). This contrast echoes the description of the servant, who, though he was crushed (‫)דכ״א‬, would “be exalted and be lifted up and exceedingly high )‫”(ירום ונׂשא וגבה‬ (53:1, 10).25 In ch. 57, this contrast between the lowly of spirit and the woman with her offspring comes amid the criticism that the leaders of the people “all turn their own way, each to his own unjust gain (‫)כלם לדרכם פנו איׁש לבצﬠו‬,” so that the righteous (‫ )הצדיק‬perish without anyone paying regard (56:11; 57:1) – a situation which mirrors that of the servant himself. In the only other occurrence of the former collocation in the Hebrew Bible, the speaker of Isa 53:6 confesses, “All of us (‫ )כלנו‬wandered like sheep; each of us turned to his own way (‫איׁש‬ ‫ )לדרכו פנינו‬and the Lord laid on him the iniquity of us all.”26 In this way, the servant, who was righteous (‫)צדיק‬, “bore their iniquities,” though in his suffering he was not given regard (53:2–3, 11). By means of these conspicuous parallels, the author evidently aims to portray the ones “crushed and lowly in spirit” – who are contrasted with the harlot and her offspring – as the “offspring” that the servant would see and barren Zion would enjoy (53:10; 54:1–3). Righteous like the servant, they suffer like him. And like him, they will be vindicated by the one who is “high and lifted up.”27

24 

This combination (‫ אר״ך‬+ ‫ )רח״ב‬occurs nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible. Within Isa 40–66, the word ‫ דכ״א‬occurs only these two times. 26  This combination (‫ כל‬+ ‫ דרך‬+ ‫ איׁש‬+ ‫)פנה‬ – to say nothing of the shared identical syntax – occurs nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible. See Joseph Blenkinsopp, “Who is the ṣaddiq of Isaiah 57:1–2,” in Studies in the Hebrew Bible, Qumran, and the Septuagint Presented to Eugene Ulrich, ed. Peter W. Flint, Emanuel Tov, and James C. VanderKam, VTSup 101 (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 109–120; P. A. Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction in Trito-Isaiah: The Structure, Growth and Authorship of Isaiah 56–66, VTSup 62 (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 71–72. 27 This is suggested by the allusion to Isa 6:1 at 53:12 and 57:15, on which see H. G. M. Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah: Deutero-Isaiah’s Role in Composition and Redaction (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 39–40. 25 

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4.  The Servants of the Lord in Isaiah: A Covenantal Community for a New Creation after the Flood The role of the servants as the children of Zion flows from their identity as a covenantal community. This covenantal community would enjoy the steadfast love promised to David. It would do so after a great flood. And that flood is portrayed on analogy to both the Assyrian flood in the days of Isaiah the prophet and to that flood in the days of Noah. This composite analogy stems from the fact that the Assyrian flood in the days of Isaiah has itself been compared to the flood in the days of Noah. Thus, as in the days of Noah, the covenant offered to Zion and her children would come after a great flood. The other analogy employed in the latter half of Isaiah to portray the servant and his offspring, the servants, is that of Jacob and his offspring. This comparison to the exile and return of Jacob’s family to the promised land also finds its basis in a comparison to the days of Noah. For the latter half of Isaiah, the importance of Noah within this composite analogy rests on the Edenic renewal bestowed upon Noah and his offspring on the mountain after the flood of his days. That Edenic renewal revealed the divine intention that governed the patterns of history, patterns which prefigured that future foreseen in the vision of Isaiah. 4.1  Covenantal Community Isaiah 54 comes as the last of a series of passages within chs. 49–55 that promise restoration for Zion, portrayed as a woman bereft of children (49:14–26; 50:1–3; 52:1–6; 54; cf. 51:3, 9–11; 52:1–10). Concluding this series of passages is the offer of a renewed Davidic covenant in ch. 55, which identifies the covenant God would now make with barren Zion in ch. 54: For the mountains may depart and the hills be removed, but my steadfast love (‫ )חסדי‬shall not depart from you, and my covenant (‫ )ברית‬of peace shall not be removed, says the LORD, who has compassion on you. (Isa 54:10) Incline your ear, and come to me; listen, so that you may live. Then I will make with you an everlasting covenant (‫)ברית‬, my steadfast, sure love (‫ )חסדי‬for David. (Isa 55:3)

The fulfillment of God’s promise to Zion in ch. 54 relied on an ear obedient to the call in ch. 55. This renewed offer of the Davidic covenant and the series of passages promising restoration to Zion – which it concludes – are evoked in the portrayal of restored mother Jerusalem in ch. 60 (60:4a // 49:18; 60:4b // 49:22; 60: 14a // 49:23; 60:16 // 49:26). A tidy example of this comes in 60:1–9, which evokes both 51:3–5 and 55:5, the latter being an elaboration of the covenant just cited:28 28 These

references are widely recognized. See, with further literature, Wolfgang Lau,

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For the Lord has comforted Zion; he has comforted all her ruins; he will make her wilderness like Eden and her desert like the garden of the Lord … Listen to me, my people, and give heed to me, my nation; for a teaching will go out from me, and my justice for a light to the peoples (‫)לאור ﬠמים‬. I will bring near my deliverance swiftly, my salvation has gone out and my arms will rule the peoples; the coastlands will wait for me (‫איים יקוו‬ ‫)אלי‬, and for my arm they will hope. (Isa 51:3–5) See, you shall call nations that you do not know, and nations that do not know you shall run to you, because of the LORD your God, the Holy One of Israel, for he has glorified you (‫)למﬠן יהוה אלהיך ולקדוׁש יׂשראל כי פארך‬. (Isa 55:5)

Arise, shine (‫ ;)אורי‬for your light (‫ )אורך‬has come, and the glory of the LORD has shone upon you. For darkness shall cover the earth, and thick darkness the peoples; but the LORD will shine upon you, and his glory will appear over you. Nations shall come to your light (‫)אורך‬, and kings to the brightness of your shining …. For the coastlands shall wait for me (‫)לי איים יקוו‬, the ships of Tarshish first, to bring your children from far away, their silver and gold with them, for the name of the LORD your God, and for the Holy One of Israel, because he has glorified you (‫לׁשם יהוה אלהיך‬ ‫)ולקדוׁש יׂשראל כי פארך‬. (Isa 60:1–3, 9)

The future beautification of Jerusalem by the nations attracted there by the light of the Lord evokes both passages: Isa 51:3–5 (the response of the nations to the instruction which will go forth as a light to the nations from God who, seeing the mission of the servant through to fulfillment, promises to restore Zion like “Eden” and “the garden of the Lord”) and 55:5 (the restoration of Zion by the nations when God honors the covenant with David [vv. 3–5], the basis for the hope given to Jerusalem and her children, the offspring of the servant who himself had been appointed a light for the nations).29 Because the fulfillment of the promise in the former passage required the activation of the covenant offered in the latter, the textual blend in 60:1–9 makes eminent sense. The fulfillment of the former (the restoration of Zion “like Eden”) awaited the activation of the latter (the covenant with David, a relationship presupposed in the citation at 60:9). Isaiah 55:5 elaborates on the promise of the Davidic covenant in v. 3; and in context this is identified as that covenant offered barren Zion in 54:10, as noted above. This explains why Isa 60:9 takes the second person pronouns of 55:5 (‫ )אלהיך … פארך‬as an address to mother Zion, who is told “your children (‫ ”)בניך‬will return. The implication of the allusion (60:9) matches Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 56–66: Eine Untersuchung zu den literarischen Bezügen in den letzten elf Kapiteln des Jesajabuches, BZAW 225 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1994), 46–49. 29  On the role of the servant as a light to the nations, see Isa 42:6; 49:6. On the way the community forwards the mission of the servant in Isa 51:1–8, see H. G. M. Williamson, Variations on a Theme: King, Messiah and Servant in the Book of Isaiah (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1998), 155–66.



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that of the earlier elaboration (54:10 // 55:3–5): Zion would see restoration and receive her children when God honored the Davidic covenant in 55:3–5. In Isa 55, God would honor the covenant when an obedient ear met his call (vv. 2–3), a condition elaborated by vv. 6–9 in individual rather than corporate terms: “Seek the LORD while he may be found, call upon him while he is near; let the wicked forsake his way, and the man of iniquity his thoughts (‫איׁש און‬ ‫( ”)מחׁשבתיו‬Isa 55:6–7a). In a similar way, Zion’s restoration in ch. 60 – initiated by the arriving light (‫ )אור‬of the divine glory (‫)כבוד‬ – depends upon an obedient response to the conditions stipulated in the preceding chapters (Isa 58–59). There, the people are told to rectify the injustices in their midst, so that their light (‫ )אור‬may shine and the glory of the Lord (‫ )כבוד יהוה‬can gather them (58:7–9). But at present, “their thoughts are thoughts of iniquity (‫)מחׁשבותיהם מחׁשבות און‬,” a clear echo of 55:7 (‫)איׁש און מחׁשבתיו‬. Therefore, they hope for light (‫ )אור‬but instead walk about in darkness (59:9). This call to justice, an obedient response to which would see the light and glory of the Lord appear over Zion, defines the imperative initiating the vision of restoration in ch. 60, “arise, shine (‫( ”)אורי‬60:1). When the call to justice falls on receptive ears and Zion’s inhabitants shine like a light, then the city shall be restored: the light and glory of the Lord will shine upon it, attracting the nations with her children for her restoration. At that time, there will be no more “desolation and destruction (‫ ”)ׁשד וׁשבר‬in her borders (60:18), a reversal of the current state of society, wherein “desolation and destruction (‫ )ׁשד וׁשבר‬are in their highways” (59:8). This reversal, combined with the echo of Isa 55:7 in the same line, suggests the restoration of Zion is being conceived of in the larger context in terms of how it is framed in chs. 54–55, where the covenant offered there required an obedient ear to the divine call.30 The conditions for the restoration of Zion and return of her children stipulated there in the offer of the Davidic covenant are presupposed here. 30  In this respect, compare Isa 54:8–10 (the end of divine anger replaced by the offer of a covenant for restoration) with 60:10, the line which follows the citation of 55:5 in 60:9. Both proclaim that God’s anger (‫ )קצ״ף‬has past, and he is now showing compassion (‫ )רח״ם‬towards Zion – a combination that occurs only otherwise in the Hebrew Bible at 47:6, which accuses lady Babylon of not having compassion towards the people with whom God was angry. The fact that Isa 47 and 54 each come as the penultimate passage in their respective section of Deutero-Isaiah (40–48; 49–55) suggests that the reader was to perceive their contrasting fates as deliberate (47:8–9; 54:1–6). In this connection, compare 47:1 with 52:1–2. Indeed, where God will restore Zion “like Eden” (‫[ כﬠדן‬51:1–3]), he will send bereavement upon lady Babylon, the “delighted one” (‫[ ﬠדינה‬47:8]). Here, the transformation of Zion from ‫ ﬠקרה‬to ‫( כﬠדן‬51:1–3; 54:1) maps precisely onto the life of Sarah who began ‫ ﬠקרה‬and ended with ‫ﬠדנה‬, the delight of a child (Gen 11:30; 18:12). This tends to be supported by the former Isaianic passage where the multiplication of Abraham and Sarah serve as an encouragement for the restoration of Zion (Isa 51:1–3). All of this is to say that the reference to God’s “anger” and “compassion” in 54:8–10 and 60:10 belong to a larger argument regarding lady Zion’s fate in chs. 40–66 that has been cast in covenantal terms (Gen 17 passim; Isa 55:5; 60:9).

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With a view towards this vision of Zion’s restoration, the next chapter (Isa 61) turns to address her future children, who are to inhabit the city. Here, one clothed in the language of the servant aims to encourage those who would inherit the restored Zion of ch. 60.31 Importantly, he does so in the light of the work of the servant, the promises made to Zion, and the conditions for her restoration outlined in chs. 49–55. In language recalling the mission of the one servant to be a light to the nations to glorify God (‫[ להתפאר‬49:3, 6]), the inhabitants of Zion – thusly illuminated for the nations – will all be righteous (‫ ;)צדיקים‬they will be “a shoot of my own planting, my handiwork to glorify myself (‫נצר מטﬠי מﬠׂשה‬ ‫( ”)ידי להתפאר‬60:21; cf. 44:21–23). This would happen, Zion is told, after “the days of your mourning” are complete, when the Lord becomes “an eternal light for you” (60:20). In light of this, Isaiah 61 then addresses the future inhabitants of the city, those who “mourn for Zion” in the present (v. 3). They are assured that a time is coming when there will be “oil of gladness instead of mourning.” When Zion is restored, they will be called “oaks of righteousness (‫)אילי הצדק‬, a planting of the Lord to glorify himself (61:3( ”)‫)מטﬠ יהוה להתפאר‬. Thus, the many righteous who will inhabit the city as her children receive the role of the servant whose righteous suffering would make this possible: in a city which casts its illumination on the nations, they will be a righteous planting that glorifies God. This becomes even more transparent, since Zion’s children here are portrayed as the righteous sufferers from Isa 57, where they are compared in their suffering to the servant, as argued above. In both passages, they “inherit” (‫)יר״שׁ‬ the “land” (57:13; 60:21); in both, they “mourn” (‫[ אב״ל‬57:18; 61:2–3]); in both, they receive comfort (‫[ נח״ם‬57:18; 61:2]); and in both, though they are broken of “heart” (‫)לב‬, they will be healed (57:15; 61:1).32 Thus, Isa 61 addresses the future inhabitants of Zion in terms of the suffering righteous in ch. 57, thereby identifying them as the offspring of the servant whose suffering that chapter evokes. There can be little doubt that these future inhabitants of Zion addressed in Isa 61 are those among the people who respond positively to the exhortations to righteousness in chs. 57–59 (57:14 // 59:7–8 // 60:18; 58:12 // 61:4) – exhortations showing what the people must do for the light to shine, as noted above. It is unsurprising, then, that God promises to make a covenant with them. This is 31  W. A. M. Beuken, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55,” in The Book of Isaiah, ed. Jacques Vermeylen, BETL 81 (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 411–42. On the many points of connection between ch. 60 and 61, see Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 536–38. 32  There – in contrast to the children of the harlot who “burn with lust under the oaks (‫”)הנחמים באלים‬ – the one who hopes in the Lord “will inherit the land and inherit my holy mountain” (Isa 57:13), a group identified as those “lowly in spirit” and the “mourners” (‫)אב״ל‬ whom God would comfort (‫( )נח״ם‬57:15, 18). These are identified in Isa 61:1–3 as the “oaks of righteousness (‫ ”)אילי הצדק‬that will be comforted (‫)נח״ם‬. Cf. Beuken, “Main Theme,” 72.

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described in language that evokes both the first and, importantly, the last chapter of Isa 40–55:33 See, the Lord GOD comes with might, and his arm rules for him; his reward is with him, and his recompense (‫)פﬠלתו‬ before him. (Isa 40:10) Incline your ear, and come to me; listen, so that you may live. Then I will make with you an everlasting covenant (‫ואכרתה‬ ‫)לכם​ברית ﬠולם‬, my steadfast, sure love for David. (Isa 55:3)

For I the LORD love justice, I hate robbery and wrongdoing; I will faithfully give them their recompense (‫)פﬠלתם‬, and I will make an everlasting covenant with them (‫ﬠולם אכרות להם‬ ‫)ברית‬. (Isa 61:8)

In both cases, the covenant leads to prominence among the nations (Isa 55:4–5; 61:9). And the fact that the covenant formula of 55:3–5 is cited verbatim in the description of Zion’s restoration (60:9), which these mourners are to inherit as her children, leaves little doubt that the covenant here presupposes the formulation there. Since the Davidic covenant offered in ch. 55 is the basis for that restoration of Zion outlined in chs. 49–55 (where it will be “like Eden” and “like the garden of the Lord,” 51:3), it may be anticipated that the restoration described here and grounded in the same covenant (61:8) will be portrayed on analogy to the same garden imagery. We have just seen that the chapters preceding the description of Zion’s restoration in ch. 60 stipulate the conditions to be met for that vision to see the light of day: if they heed the call to justice, then they will be “like a well-watered garden (‫( ”)גן‬Isa 58:11; cf. Gen 2:10–12). As we have also seen, those who heed this call are described in chs. 60–61. And here they are described in terms reminiscent of the Eden narrative, in continuity with the garden but in contrast with the transgression there. They will be a “planting” of the Lord (‫נט״ﬠ‬ [Isa 60:21; 61:3; cf. Gen 2:8]), filled with trees, “oaks of righteousness” (Isa 61:1; cf. Gen 2:10). In ch. 61, the speaker has been sent to proclaim ‫ פקח קוח‬for the prisoners (Isa 61:1), surely a phrase that deliberately inverts the “taking” (‫)ותקח‬ and “opening” (‫ )ותפקחנה‬of the Eden narrative (Gen 3:6–7).34 Then they will “eat” (‫ ;)אכ״ל‬but, instead of “shame” (‫ )בו״ׁש‬and exile, they will possess their land (Isa 61:6–7; cf. Gen 2:16–17, 25; 3:1–7, 23). And when all of this transpires, God 33 

Beuken, “Servant and Herald,” 430–31. The phrase ‫ פקח קוח‬in Isa 61:1 is much discussed. Its use here should be seen in the light of the fact that the speaker in ch. 61 adopts the mission of the servant in Deutero-Isaiah, as indicated by the many parallels between the two, on which see Beuken, “Servant and Herald.” There the servant’s mission was to “open (‫ )לפקח‬the eyes of the blind,” namely, as in 61:1, to set prisoners (‫ )אסורים‬free (42:7; 49:8–9). On the form of ‫ פקח קוח‬together with the suggestion that it “denotes the opening of eyes so as to let in the light and serves as a metaphor (as in Akkadian) for the release of captives,” see Paul, Isaiah 40–66, 539. Here Paul explains the morphology on analogy to “‫ יפה־פיה‬in Jer 46:20, in which both the second and third radicals are duplicated.” 34 

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will clothe (‫ )לב״ׁש‬the one addressing them in garments not of defeat and sin, but of salvation and “righteousness” (Isa 61:10; cf. Gen 3:7, 21).35 The community he addresses, the “planting of the Lord,” is the work of God’s hands (Isa 60:21). Anticipating the fulfillment of that covenant in 61:9–10, the speaker awaits the day when the oaks will grow: “just as the earth brings forth its sprout (‫כארץ‬ ‫ )תוציא צמחה‬and as a garden sprouts that which is sown in it (‫)כגנה זרוﬠיה תצמיח‬, so the Lord God will cause righteousness to sprout (‫ )יצמיח‬and praise before all nations” (Isa 61:11; cf. Gen 1:12; 2:9). Since Zion’s children here are identified with the offspring of the servant in Isa 53, it is fitting that there the sufferings of the servant bear the image, not of a well-watered garden or of a cluster of trees, but of a root out of dry ground, “without form or glory, that we should look at him (‫ ;)ונראהו‬and without appearance that we should desire him (‫( ”)ולא מראה ונחמדהו‬Isa 53:2). If it does anything, this description conjures up a contrast to the moment of transgression in the garden (Gen 2:9; 3:6).36 Significantly, this parallel (if correct) places the servant on analogy to the tree in the garden, something which is also true of the servants who are called “oaks of righteousness,” as noted above. Be that as it may, these references in Isa 61 fit well with what we have seen up to this point. Having already evoked the portrait of Zion’s restoration from Isa 49–55 (where it is likened unto “Eden” and “the garden of the Lord”), these chapters carry this analogy forward in their description of her future children, doing so, however, with a lighter touch by comparison to the earlier articulation. This whole line of development that I have attempted to trace within the latter half of Isaiah reaches a conclusion in the final vision of the book (chs. 65–66).37 35  Both passages involve the identical wordplay between ‫ בו״ׁש‬and ‫לב״ׁש‬. Gen 2:25 states, “the two of them were naked (‫)ﬠרומים‬, the man and his wife (‫)האדם ואׁשתו‬, and they were not ashamed (‫)ותבׁשׁשו‬.” By contrast, Gen 3:21 recounts, “The Lord God made for the man and his wife (‫ )לאדם ולאׁשתו‬garments of skin (‫ )ﬠור‬and he clothed them (‫)וילבׁשם‬.” The same wordplay obtains in Isa 61, though to opposite effect. Isa 61:10–11 stands in parallel to vv. 7–9. In both, joy for deliverance is followed by the divine action (‫ תוציא‬// ‫ זרוﬠיה; צאצאיהם‬// ‫)זרﬠם‬, which is recognized by “the nations.” Accordingly, “he clothed me (‫ )הלביׁשני‬in garments of salvation” is made to echo “instead of your shame (‫)בׁשתכם‬, twofold” (vv. 7, 10). 36  The combination ‫ חמ״ד‬+ ‫ מראה‬occurs within a single verse only at Gen 2:9; Isa 53:2; Dan 9:23 in the HB. Without attempting to be comprehensive, I note a few other parallels between the servant and the tree/Adam. The servant, whose mission was to “open blind eyes” (‫)לפקח ﬠינים ﬠורות‬, would prosper (‫[ ׂשכ״ל‬Isa 42:7; 52:13]). Compare this to the Genesis narrative, where the tree was good “to make one prosper” (‫)להׂשכיל‬, so they ate from it and “their eyes were opened” (‫[ ותפקחנה ﬠיני ׁשניהם‬Gen 3:6–7]). By contrast, when kings behold the servant, whose appearance is not “desirable” as was that of the tree, “they will close their mouth” (Isa 52:14). In both, compare also ‫ יד״ﬠ‬in conjunction with “hiding” (Isa 53:3; Gen 3:7–10, 21) and exposing (‫ )ﬠר״ה‬oneself to death at the hands of God (Isa 53:12; Gen 2:25; 3:7, 10–11; cf. Exod 28:42–43). In Isa 61, a figure with the mission of the servant will be clothed in garments of salvation by God, as seen above. 37  Much has been written on these chapters as a conclusion to the book. See the literature cited in Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 87.



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This vision contrasts the behavior and fates of two groups, those who “forsake the Lord” and the “servants” of God, also called “offspring” (e. g., 65:8–15). These servants are persecuted by those who forsake the Lord (66:2, 5). But, in a final decisive divine act, the servants will be vindicated and their opponents punished, the servants blessed and their opponents cursed (65:9–25; 66:5–24). As can be anticipated from the foregoing discussion, this final vision describes the “servants/offspring” in terms of those righteous inhabitants of mother Zion and the righteous whose suffering echoes that of the servant himself, as these are taken up in the texts examined above. Thus, the servants will “inherit” the land and God’s mountain (‫[ יר״ׁש‬65:9 // 57:13; 60:21]). God will “bless” “their progeny” (‫[ צאצאיהם‬65:23 // 61:9]). However, they are currently afflicted in “spirit” (‫[ רוח‬66:2 // 57:15]), and “mourn” (‫ )אב״ל‬for Jerusalem, though one day they will enjoy her restoration (66:10 // 57:18; 61:2–3; cf. 66:12 // 60:4). As her children, they are the ones whom God will comfort (‫[ נח״ם‬66:13 // 57:18; 61:2]). After God restores her, they will be “priests” of the Lord (66:21 // 61:6; cf. 56:6–838). In Isa 66:7–14, the restoration of Zion and the servants as her children recalls the broader presentation of this hope in chs. 49–60.39 Thus, when the servants, those who “mourn” over Zion, are told to rejoice in her restoration, Isaiah 66:10 recalls that portrait of the city and her children in chs. 60–61 (60:20; 61:2–3). And when the children of Zion are promised “you will be carried (‫ )תנׂשאו‬on the hip (‫)ﬠל צד‬,” Isaiah 66:12 evokes both 49:22 and 60:4 (itself based on 49:22): “your daughters will be carried (‫ )תנׂשאנה‬on the shoulder (‫כתף‬ ‫( ”)ﬠל‬49:22); “your daughters will be carried (‫ )תאמנה‬on the hip (‫( ”)ﬠל צד‬60:4). In Isa 66:11–12, the assurance that they will “suckle” (‫[ ינ״ק‬vv. 11–12]) because the “wealth” (‫ )כבוד‬of the nations will flow to her brings to mind the promises of 60:13, 16; 61:6. Like the pains of labor, their sufferings of the present are an assurance of hope: “‘Do I bring to the breach but then not cause birth?’ says your God” (66:9). Where barren Zion had ‘not given birth (‫ ”)ילדה‬nor “been in labor (‫( ”)חלה‬54:1), the servants are assured that “Zion labors and also gives birth (‫ )חלה גם ילדה‬to her children’” (66:8). In both passages, the announcement of birth is the basis for a call to rejoice: in 54:1, Zion is to rejoice; in 66:10, her children – the servants – are to rejoice. Since the restoration of Zion and the servants as her children in this final vision recalls the earlier presentation of this hope, we can expect that the covenantal conditions prescribed there will be imperative here as well. As I argue in a different publication, several features of Isa 66:7–14 (in addition to those 38  For a discussion of the relationship between 56:6–8 and 66:21 with respect to priesthood, see Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 135–40. For a different assessment of the evidence, see Nathan MacDonald, Priestly Rule: Polemic and Biblical Interpretation in Ezekiel 44, BZAW 476 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2015), 28–29. The point of disagreement between the two studies does not affect the argument here. 39  Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 109–13.

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mentioned above) suggest that ch. 54 bore an important role as background to the depiction of Zion’s restoration with her children here.40 It is significant, therefore, that the criteria established for enjoying her restoration there are presupposed here. As noted above, the conditions for seeing Zion’s restoration realized are established in ch. 55 with the renewed offer of the Davidic covenant. There the command issues forth, “listen carefully to me and you will eat the good, you will delight (‫ )ותתﬠנג‬in fatness,” no doubt because the nations would bring their riches to Zion when the covenant came into effect (55:3, 5; cf. 60:9, 16; 61:6; 66:12). The servants are assured that, when the nations bring their riches to Zion, “you will delight (‫ )והתﬠנגתם‬at the teat of her riches” (66:11–12). By contrast, their opponents did not “listen” when God called (65:12; 66:4). Hence, God tells them, “my servants shall eat, but you will go hungry” (65:13). The covenantal conditions stipulated in ch. 55 are quite clearly the basis for the deliverance of a remnant when will God come to judge the nation according to 65:1–9. In building a case for judgment, this passage deliberately evokes those conditions from ch. 55:41 Seek (‫ )דרשׁו‬the Lord while he may be found (‫)בהמצאו‬, call upon him (‫ )קראהו‬while he is near; let the wicked forsake his way (‫ )דרכו‬and the man of iniquity his devices (‫)מחשׁבתיו‬. Let him return to the Lord and he will heal him, to our God for he will greatly forgive. For my thoughts (‫)מחשׁבותי‬ are not your thoughts (‫ )מחשׁבותיכם‬and your ways (‫ )דרכיכם‬are not my ways (‫)דרכי‬, says the Lord. For as the heavens are higher than the earth, so my ways (‫ )דרכי‬are higher than your ways (‫ )מדרכיכם‬and my thoughts (‫ )מחשׁבתי‬than your thoughts (‫)ממחשׁבתיכם‬. (Isa 55:6–9)

I was ready to be sought (‫)נדרשׁתי‬ by those who did not ask for me, I was ready to be found (‫ )נמצאתי‬by those who did not seek me. I said “here I am, here I am” to a people who did not call (‫ )קרא‬on my name; every day I spread out my hands to a rebellious people, those who walk in the way (‫ )הדרך‬which is not good, after their own devices (‫)מחשׁבתיהם‬, the people who provoke me continually to my face. (Isa 65:1–3)

As a whole, the nation did not heed the conditions prescribed in ch. 55. While the whole will be punished accordingly, a remnant – the servants – will be spared. Following the announcement of global judgement in Isa 65:1–8, we read, Thus says the LORD: As the new wine is found (‫ )ימצא התירוׁש‬in the cluster, and they say, “Do not destroy it, for there is a blessing in it,” so I will do for my servants’ sake, so as not to destroy the whole. I will bring forth offspring from Jacob, and from Judah an inheritor (‫ )יורׁש‬of my mountains; my chosen shall inherit it, and my servants shall settle there. Sharon shall become a pasture for flocks, and the Valley of Achor a place for herds to lie down, for my people who have sought me (‫)דרׁשוני‬. (Isa 65:8–10)

Here, the “servants/offspring” will be spared the judgment and enjoy the blessing, because they heed the call sent forth in ch. 55, a point reinforced by word40 Ibid. 41 

Ibid., 87–91.



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play. The servants who sought (‫ )דר״ׁש‬the Lord will inherit (‫ )יר״ׁש‬the mountains, being spared as the new wine (‫ )התירוׁש‬found in the cluster. Where God made himself available to be found (‫ )מצ״א‬by those who would seek him (‫ )דר״ׁש‬in ch. 55, those who sought him (‫ )דר״ׁש‬will be found (‫ )מצ״א‬as a new wine in ch. 65. The servants would enjoy these blessings on the basis of obedience to the conditions stipulated by the renewed offer of the Davidic covenant in ch. 55, which explains why they are heirs to the restoration promised through the “root of Jesse” in ch. 11. As Zion’s children, the servants would enjoy the new Jerusalem wherein, The wolf and the lamb shall feed together, the lion shall eat straw like the ox; but the serpent – its food shall be dust! They shall not hurt or destroy on all my holy mountain, says the LORD. (Isa 65:25)

This is a direct citation of the restoration after exile portrayed by the royal oracle in Isa 11.42 When the Davidic king reigned with divinely endowed “wisdom” (11:2), the world would be characterized by justice and, as a result, peace: The wolf shall live with the lamb, the leopard shall lie down with the kid, the calf and the lion and the fatling together, and a little child shall lead them. The cow and the bear shall graze, their young shall lie down together; and the lion shall eat straw like the ox. The nursing child shall play over the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put its hand on the adder’s den. They will not hurt or destroy on all my holy mountain; for the earth will be full of the knowledge of the LORD as the waters cover the sea. On that day the root of Jesse shall stand as a signal to the peoples; the nations shall inquire of him, and his dwelling shall be glorious. (Isa 11:6–10)

To the extent that this ruler may be compared to Solomon (who was also given wisdom from God),43 attention may be drawn as well to the well-known echoes of his reign in the vision of Zion’s restoration in ch. 60, which was to be the inheritance of the servants described in chs. 65–66:44 A multitude of camels shall cover you, the young camels of Midian and Ephah; all those from Sheba shall come. They shall bring gold and frankincense, and shall proclaim the praise of the LORD. (Isa 60:6)

This clearly recalls the visit of the queen of Sheba at the height of Solomon’s glory in 1 Kings 10. Indeed, Isaiah 60:9 – which cites the restoration grounded in the “sure mercies of David” from Isa 55:5 – echoes this very passage in Kings: “for the islands will hope in me and the ships of Tarshish first, to bring to me 42  On the problem of dependence, together with the exilic outlook of vv. 10–12, see Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 101–9. 43  On this, see Jacob Stromberg, “Hezekiah and the Oracles against the Nations in Isaiah,” in The History of Isaiah: The Formation of the Book and its Presentation of the Past, ed. Jacob Stromberg and J. Todd Hibbard, FAT (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2021), 297–340 (here 312 n. 32). 44  See Ronald E. Clements, “Psalm 72 and Isaiah 40–66: A Study in Tradition,” PRS 28.4 (2001): 333–41.

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your children from afar, and gold and silver with them” (cf. 1 Kings 10:22).45 And it is not without good reason that more than one commentator has seen in Isa 60:21 – the description of Zion’s future inhabitants as the “shoot” (‫ )נצר‬of the Lord’s planting – an echo of that “shoot” (‫ )נצר‬from Jesse that will “make fruit” after destruction in Isa 11:1.46 Nor is it a coincidence that the holy people are summoned to Zion by the lifting of a “signal” in Isa 62:10–12, the precise image employed for the restoration of the exiles in Isa 11:10–12. The restoration of Zion portrayed in these chapters (60–62) would be the inheritance of the servants, as was made clear by ch. 61 above. All of this demonstrates that the covenant of ch. 55 – promising a Davidic style restoration when its covenantal conditions were met – was essential for understanding the nature of that restoration of Zion and her children in this last vision of chs. 65–66. 4.2  Wrath like the Assyrian Flood followed by Edenic Renewal In the context of Isa 54–55, God offers this covenant after a great flood: “In overflowing wrath for a moment I hid my face from you (‫)בׁשצף קצף הסתרתי פני‬, but with everlasting steadfast love I will have compassion on you, says the LORD, your Redeemer. For this is the waters of Noah to me, in that I swore that the waters of Noah would never again pass over the earth, so I have sworn that I will not be angry with you and will not rebuke you.” (Isa 54:8–9). This “steadfast love” finds the assurance of the divine covenant: “my steadfast love shall not depart from you, and my covenant of peace shall not be removed” (Isa 54:10). As has been noted by others, the construal of the divine anger as a flood in 54:8 develops the imagery of the coming Assyrian flood in the days of the prophet in 8:8 and Isaiah’s response to this in 8:17.47 In his anger, God was hiding his face (‫[ המסתיר פניו‬8:17]) from the house of Jacob, sending a flood that would overflow (‫[ ׁשט״ף‬8:8]) and pass through Judah (so the language in 54:8 above).48 Confirming the importance of this earlier passage for the later formulation, Isaiah’s response to the coming flood is to seal up the teaching among his disciples (‫[ חתום תורה בלמדי‬8:16]) awaiting hope on the other side of calamity, precisely the language employed to describe Zion’s children after the flood (‫כל בניך למודי‬ ‫[ יהוה‬54:13]). 45 

Isa 66:19–21 develops the thought of 60:9. For the purpose of the present argument, I leave aside the question of whether this allusion assumes a community with a king (as in Isa 11), or argues that that king has been replaced by the community, as argued by Marvin A. Sweeney, “The Reconceptualization of the Davidic Covenant in Isaiah,” Reading Prophetic Books: Form, Intertextuality, and Reception in Prophetic and Post-Biblical Literature, FAT 89 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014), 94–113. 47 Alexander Weidner, Das Ende Deuterojesajas, FAT II/94 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), 179; Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 110. 48  ‫ ׁשצף‬is a by-form of ‫ׁשטף‬, evidently chosen here for the sake of alliteration (‫)קצף‬. 46 

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83

As Hugh Williamson has convincingly shown, these references in ch. 54 are part of a larger engagement with Isa 8 in chs. 40–55.49 Several of the examples he gives involve the mission of the servant. These later chapters place the hope of the servant and his offspring amidst suffering on analogy to that of Isaiah and his disciples in a time of comparable duress, an analogy no doubt generated by 8:18, where Isaiah and his children were to be “signs and portents” of things to come. From the perspective of the current argument, the most notable example flagged by Williamson comes in 50:4–11, the reflections of the servant on his suffering for God’s purpose of restoration. Having been given a “tongue of the learned” (‫[ לׁשון למודים‬51:4; cf. 8:16]) to help the weary, the servant did not hide his face (‫[ פני לא הסתרתי‬50:8; cf. 8:17]) from mocking or insult. After God castigates the people for not listening to him, thus bringing judgment on themselves (50:10–11), he encourages “the people in whose heart is my instruction” (‫תורתי‬ ‫[ בלם‬51:7; cf. 8:16]). God assures them that, though they suffer the reproach of men – as does the servant – they will be delivered just like him (50:8–9 // 51:5–8). As argued above, this people who have the “torah in their heart,” a people who are to emulate the servant with his “learned tongue,” are identified by ch. 54 as the offspring of the servant, the children of Zion who are “learned by the Lord.” The flood in the days of the servant (54:8–9) recalled the flood in the days of Isaiah the prophet (8:7–8), with the prophet and his children being “signs” of realities to come, here projected onto the servant and his offspring, the future children of Zion. On this basis, we can fully anticipate the outworking of this promise in the final vision of the book. When the promises to barren Zion are fulfilled in this final vision, and the “servants/offspring” enjoy her restoration as those who have responded positively to the covenantal conditions of ch. 55, they as her children will enjoy the wealth of the nations which flow to her like a gentle flood (Isa 66:12). This image of a gentle flood deliberately inverts the language of the Assyrian threat announced in Isa 8:6–8, the very basis for that description of the flood of divine wrath which Zion had to endure in 54:8. Isaiah 66 inverts the image of that Assyrian threat in 8:6–8 by means of an allusion to 30:27–33, no doubt because this was itself an inversion of 8:6–8.50 In 49 

Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah, 94–115. the ‘afterlife’ of Isa 8:6–8 in these passages, see Judith Gärtner, “The Kabod of YHWH: A Key Isaianic Theme from the Assyrian Empire to the Eschaton,” in The History of Isaiah: The Formation of the Book and its Presentation of the Past, ed. Jacob Stromberg and J. Todd Hibbard, FAT (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2021), 431–46; Marvin Sweeney, “On ûmeśôś in Isaiah 8.6,” in Among the Prophets, Language, Image and Structure in the Prophetic Writings, ed. P. R. Davies and D. J. A. Clines, JSOTSup 144 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993), 42–54; H. G. M. Williamson, A  Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 1–27. I. Isaiah 6–12, ICC (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018), 227. It should be noted, in addition, that Isa 30:27–33 belongs to a larger engagement with ch. 8 in this section of the book (chs. 28–32). See, for example, Reinhard Gregor Kratz, “Jesaja 28–31 als Fortschreibung,” in Prophetenstudien. Kleine Schriften II, FAT 74 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011), 176–97. 50  On

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30:27–33, a divine flood of fire would surge to defeat the enemy of the people, Assyria, that watery flood which had threatened to sweep them away! Accordingly, this divine flood of fire in 30:27–33 then becomes the basis for the destruction of the enemies of the servants in 66:14–16, an analogical extension into the future of that defeat of Assyria in the past days of Isaiah the prophet: 6 Because this people has refused the waters of Shiloah that flow gently, and rejoiced in (‫ )מׂשוׂש את‬Rezin and the son of Remaliah; 7 therefore, behold (‫)הנה‬, the Lord is bringing up against it the mighty and many (‫ )הﬠצומים והרבים‬waters of the River (‫)הנהר‬, the king of Assyria and all his glory (‫ ;)כבודו‬it will rise above all its channels and overflow all its banks; 8 it will sweep on into Judah; it will overflow and pass over, reaching up to the neck (‫ ;)ׁשטף וﬠבר ﬠד צואר יגיﬠ‬and the extending of its wings will fill (‫)מטות כנפיו מלא‬ the breadth of your land, O Immanuel. (Isa 8:6–8) 27 Behold, the name of the LORD comes (‫ )הנה ׁשם יהוה בא‬from far away, burning with his anger (‫)אפו‬, and in thick (‫)כבד‬ rising smoke; his lips (‫ )ׂשפתיו‬are full of wrath (‫)מלאו זﬠם‬, and his tongue is like a devouring fire (‫ ;)אׁש‬28 his breath is like an overflowing stream that reaches up to the neck (‫)כנחל ׁשוטף ﬠד צואר יחצה‬ – to sift the nations with the sieve of destruction, and to place on the jaws of the peoples a bridle that leads them astray …. 30 And the LORD will cause his majestic voice to be heard and the descending blow of his arm to be seen, in furious anger and a flame of fire (‫ )אף ולהב אׁש‬which devours, with a cloudburst and tempest and hailstones. 31 The Assyrian will be terror-stricken at the voice of the LORD, when he strikes with his rod …. 33 For his burning place has long been prepared; truly it is made ready for the king, its pyre made deep and wide (‫)הרחיב‬, with fire and wood in abundance (‫ ;)אׁש וﬠצים הרבה‬the breath of the LORD, like a stream (‫)כנחל‬ of sulfur, kindles it. (Isa 30:27–33)

10 Rejoice with Jerusalem, and be glad for her, all you who love her; rejoice with her in joy (‫)ׂשיׂשו אתה מׂשוׂש‬, all you who mourn over her – 11 that you may nurse and be satisfied from her consoling breast; that you may drink deeply with delight from her bosom of glory (‫)כבודה‬. 12 For thus says the LORD: Behold I will extend prosperity to her like a river, and the wealth of the nations like an overflowing stream (‫הנני‬ ‫;)נטה אליה כנהר ׁשלום וכנחל ׁשוטף כבוד גוים‬ and you shall nurse and be carried on her arm, and dandled on her knees. 13 Like a man whose mother comforts him, so I will comfort you; and you shall be comforted in Jerusalem. 14 You shall see, and your heart shall rejoice (‫ ;)וׂשׂש‬your bones (‫)ﬠצמותיכם‬ like the grass shall flourish; and the hand of the LORD shall be known by his servants, but he will show wrath (‫ )זﬠם‬to his enemies. 15 For, behold, the LORD will come in fire (‫)כי הנה יהוה באׁש יבוא‬, with his chariots like the whirlwind, to pay back his anger (‫ )אפו‬in fury, and his rebuke in flames of fire (‫אׁש‬ ‫)בלהבי‬. 16 For by fire (‫ )באׁש‬will the LORD execute judgment, and by his sword, on all flesh; and those slain by the LORD shall be many (‫)ורבו‬. (Isa 66:10–16)



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The argument of the allusion in Isa 66:10–16 relies on the reader’s ability first to have perceived the relationship between 8:6–8 and 30:27–33. Regarding these two passages, the language of the former is redeployed to the opposite effect in the latter: in 8:6–8, God would judge his people with the watery flood of the king of Assyria; in 30:27–33, God would then judge the king of Assyria with the fiery flood of his own wrath. The river that was the Assyrian king would come with all his glory (‫ )כבודו‬to “overflow and pass over, reaching up to the neck (‫ׁשטף וﬠבר ﬠד‬ ‫ ”)צואר יגיﬠ‬and filling (‫ )מל״א‬the land with its wings (8:7–8). By way of inversion, to punish the Assyrian king the name of God would come in thick (‫ )כבד‬rising smoke, his fiery breath “like an overflowing stream that reaches up to the neck (‫ ”)כנחל ׁשוטף ﬠד צואר יחצה‬and his lips full (‫ )מל״א‬of wrath (30:27–28). This contrast involves a further comparison. God would punish his people with “the mighty and many waters of the River, the king of Assyria (‫מי הנהר הﬠצומים והרבים‬ ‫( ”)את מלך אׁשור‬8:7). By way of inversion, to punish the Assyria king God would prepare a pyre “for the king … with fire and wood in abundance (‫;)אשׁ וﬠצים הרבה‬ the breath of the LORD, like a stream (‫ )כנחל‬of sulfur, kindles it” (30:33). The comparison between a flood of water and judgment by fire is not unique to this passage.51 Indeed, Isa 8:6–8 itself involves just such a contrast with 6:1–5.52 In 6:1–5, the robes of the Lord fill (‫ )מלאים‬the temple, the fiery seraphim fly about with their wings (‫)כנפים‬, proclaiming that the land is full of the divine glory (‫)מלא כל הארץ כבודו‬, while the temple fills (‫ )ימלא‬with smoke to which Isaiah responds that he is undone for having seen the king (‫)המלך‬, the LORD. By way of inversion, God sends the king of Assyria (‫ )מלך אׁשור‬and all of his glory (‫ )כל כבודו‬as a raging river so that “the outstretching of its wings is the fullness of the breadth of your land (‫)מטות כנפיו מלא רחב ארצך‬.” To punish his people, the divine king with his fiery heavenly attendants sends the aqueous threat of a human king with his earthly auxiliaries. This divine deed sets the two kings on a collision course in the book, a destructive course taken up in the contrast noted here (8:6–8; 30:27–33)53 and culminating in the conflict during the days of Hezekiah. At that time, the king of Assyria lifts his eyes up “high” against God, seeking to elevate himself on “high” in reproach (37:23–24). The contrast between these two passages is taken up by Isa 66:10–16, where, for the most part, the allusion redeploys the language of 8:6–8 by way of inversion in the first half (66:10–14) and that of 30:27–33 by way of reapplication in the second (66:14–16). And it is significant that the dividing line between the two halves comes in 66:14b: “the hand of the Lord shall be known by his servants, but he will show wrath to his enemies.” 51  On the patterning of the destruction of Sodom by fire on analogy to the flood of Noah, see Yair Zakovitch, ‫( מקראות בארץ המראות‬Tel Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad, 1995), 48–49. 52  See Jörg Barthel, Prophetenwort und Geschichte: Die Jesajaüberlieferung in Jes 6–8 und 28–31, FAT 19 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997), 207–8; Williamson, Isaiah 6–12, 238. 53  In this respect, compare Isa 30:31 with 6:4.

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By means of this allusion, Isa 66:10–14 inverts the language of 8:6–8, signaling the end of a comparable destruction. The original threatening river of Assyria that washed up to Jerusalem’s gates gives way in ch. 66 to the gentle flow of the wealth of the nations to Zion and her children, the servants. Because the people rejected the gently flowing waters of Shiloah and “rejoiced in (‫)מׂשוׂש את‬ Rezin and the son of Remaliah”54 who planned evil against Jerusalem, God tells the prophet to proclaim, “behold, the Lord is bringing up the mighty (‫)הﬠצומים‬ and many waters of the River (‫)הנהר‬, the king of Assyria and all his glory (‫)כבודו‬,” which would “overflow” (‫ )ׁשטף‬and extend (‫ )נט״ה‬into Judah (8:6–8). By way of inversion of this situation, God exhorts the people to rejoice with Jerusalem with joy (‫)ׂשיׂשו אתה מׂשוׂש‬, so that they would “drink deeply with delight from her bosom of glory (‫)כבודה‬.” To this end he assures them, “behold, I will extend prosperity to her like a river, and the wealth of the nations like an overflowing stream (‫;”)הנני נטה אליה כנהר ׁשלום וכנחל ׁשוטף כבוד גוים‬55 at that time, “your heart shall rejoice (‫ ;)וׂשׂש‬and your bones (‫ )ﬠצמותיכם‬like the grass shall flourish” (66:10–14). No less analogical is the reapplication of Isa 30:27–33 in 66:15–16. The divine judgment against Assyria portends that against God’s enemies, the opponents of the servants. To punish the king of Assyria, “Behold, the name of the LORD comes (‫)הנה ׁשם יהוה בא‬,” “burning with his anger (‫)אפו‬,” full of wrath (‫“ )זﬠם‬in furious anger and a flame of fire (‫( ”)אף ולהב אׁש‬30:27–33). By way of reapplication of this situation, God would “show wrath (‫ )זﬠם‬to his enemies. For, behold, the LORD will come in fire (‫ … )כי הנה יהוה באׁש יבוא‬to pay back his anger (‫ )אפו‬in fury, and his rebuke in flames of fire (‫( ”)בלהבי אׁש‬66:14–16).56 Moreover, while each judgment has a global scope (30:28; 66:16), each passage focuses on a local application: the king of Assyria (30:31–33) and the cultic deviants (66:17), contrasted here and elsewhere in this vision with the “servants/offspring” (65:9–16; 66:1–5, 14, 24). By inverting the language of the flood used in 8:7–8 (with the aid of its inversion in 30:28), the restoration of Zion and her children in 66:7–14 signals 54  The parallel ‫ מׂשוׂש את‬// ‫ מאס את‬suggests ‫ מׂשוׂש‬governs what follows, just as ‫ מאס‬governs what follows it. In both cases, the item is followed by ‫את‬. 55  The phrase ‫ כנחל ׁשוטף‬occurs in Isa 30:28 and 66:12, both of which are a variation on the same material in 8:6–8. Apart from these two passages, the phrase occurs nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible. 56  The comparison of the force of divine judgment to a whirlwind (‫[ כסופה‬Isa 66:15]) may be compared to the same in 29:6, itself related to 30:30 (“flame of consuming fire”) and to 8:19–20 (// 29:4). In context (29:7–8), the “multitude” of 29:5–6 is developed in relation to the defeat of the “multitude” of armies battling against Jerusalem, an image that finds its fulfillment in ch. 37. On the related “rebuke” in 66:15, compare the same in 17:13, which comes in a passage (17:12–14) that has long been associated with the defeat of Assyria and been seen to correspond to the prophet’s response to the same in 8:9–10. These passages (8:9–10; 17:12–14; 29:5–7; 30:27–33) are often assigned to a single redactional layer: see Barthel, Prophetenwort und Geschichte, 364–5.



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the fulfillment of those hopes expressed by ch. 54 in terms of a restoration after the flood of God’s anger, an image which in that chapter draws on precisely this passage from the first half of the book.57 Accordingly, the Isaianic image of an Assyrian flood – probably first developed in response to the propaganda of the Neo-Assyrian empire in the days of the prophet himself – is here given an eschatological valence in relation to the latter-day restoration of Zion and the servants as her children given her by the sufferings of the servant.58 In this light, it is probably important that God promises to vindicate the servant after his suffering in the following way: “Therefore I will allot him a portion with the numerous (‫)רבים‬, and with the mighty (‫ )ﬠצומים‬he shall divide the spoil” (53:12). In the book of Isaiah, this combination occurs only here and at 8:7.59 In chs. 65–66, the restored Zion is again compared to Eden and a new creation. This is to be expected from what we have seen in the foregoing analysis. Above we saw that the Davidic covenant offered in ch. 55 was the basis for that restoration of Zion outlined in chs. 49–55, where it will be “like Eden” and “like the garden of the Lord” (51:3). Because the “servants/offspring” give an obedient ear to the divine call in ch. 55, we can anticipate that the restored Jerusalem they enjoy as her children will be compared to Eden here as well. This is indeed the case, as is widely recognized.60 God promises to give the servants a new name and that a time would come when their “former troubles” 57  While the promises of Deutero-Isaiah are pronounced in such a way as to suggest that their fulfillment is imminent with the rise of the Persian king Cyrus, these were delayed into the future foreseen in Third Isaiah because of the sins of the people; on this, see Stromberg, “Restoration Reconfigured,” in Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66, ed. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad, FRLANT 255 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014), 195–218. Thus, while ch. 54 announces that the end of the flood of divine wrath – the “hiding” of God’s face – was at hand with the covenant announced there, Third Isaiah speaks to the ongoing reality of God’s “hidden” face in the days of its addressees, the explanation being that their sins were separating them from their God (59:1–3). Presumably this means the flood of divine wrath would continue until the fulfillment of the vision in ch. 66 where that flood gives way to the gentle flood of the nations’ wealth into Zion. 58  On the Neo-Assyrian background to Isa 8:6–8, see Peter Machinist, “Assyria and Its Image in the First Isaiah,” JAOS 103.4 (1983): 719–37 (here 726–27); Shawn Zelig Aster, Reflections of Empire in Isaiah 1–39: Responses to Assyrian Ideology (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2017), 106–14; Konrad Schmid, “Theological Interpretation of Assyrian Propaganda in the Book of Isaiah,” in The History of Isaiah: The Formation of the Book and its Presentation of the Past, ed. Jacob Stromberg and J. Todd Hibbard, FAT (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2021), 493–502. 59 Additionally, Williamson (The Book Called Isaiah, 73) notes that ‫“( חלק ׁשלל‬to divide spoil”) is a phrase that occurs only here and at 9:2 in the prophetic literature. Importantly, Isa 9:2 belongs to a royal oracle (9:1–6) whose fulfillment would see the overthrow of an oppressor linked to Assyria in the book: see Jacob Stromberg, “Hezekiah and the Oracles Against the Nations.” 60  Odil Hannes Steck, “Der neue Himmel und die neue Erde: Beobachtungen zur Rezeption von Gen 1–3 in Jes 65,16b–25,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift for Willem A. M. Beuken, ed. Jacques van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne, BETL 132 (Leuven: Peeters, 1997), 349–65; Konrad Schmid, “New Creation Instead of New Exodus. The Innerbiblical Exegesis

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would be forgotten (65:15–16). This promise finds its basis in the announcement that follows: For I am about to create new heavens and a new earth (‫;)בורא ׁשמים חדׁשים וארץ חדׁשה‬ the former things (‫ )ראׁשונות‬shall not be remembered or come to mind. But be glad and rejoice forever in what I am creating; for I am about to create (‫ )בורא‬Jerusalem as a joy, and its people as a delight. (Isa 65:17–18)

This announcement recalls each word of Gen 1:1 (‫בראׁשית ברא אלהים את הׁשמים‬ ‫)ואת הארץ‬. And it does so, importantly, through the lens of the contrast between “former” and “new” things in chs. 40–55, where God assures the servant that, as “creator” (‫)בורא‬, he will make something new for the servant’s “offspring” (43:1–7, 16–21; 44:1–8).61 On the one hand, the “former things” recall the “beginning” (‫ראׁשית‬/‫)ראׁשונות‬, suggesting a discontinuity with the present age of the world when these are forgotten. On the other hand, the “new heavens and new earth” recall the first “heavens and earth,” suggesting that what God is about to create can only be understood on analogy to what he created in the beginning. When God does this the “former troubles” will be forgotten (65:16). Thus, when God honors that covenant with Zion (54:10) – the sure mercies promised to David (55:3) – the servants would enjoy peace from all of the dangerous animals, including the one who tempted the first heirs of the garden of Eden, Adam and his wife, Eve. As for this one, the “serpent, his food shall be dust” (‫ונחׁש ﬠפר‬ ‫[ לחמו‬65:25]). This is a clear evocation of the curse on the serpent in Gen 3:14 (‫ ;)ויאמר יהוה אלהים אל הנחׁש … ﬠפר תאכל‬and here in Isaiah it has been combined with a citation of that earlier royal oracle in the book promising that the very same dangerous animals will no longer pose a threat on the “holy mountain,” Jerusalem, when the Davidic king reigns in wisdom (11:6–9 // 65:25).62 These echoes of Genesis suggest that the whole of Gen 1–3 stands in view in this final Isaianic vision, as noted by Konrad Schmid.63 It is unsurprising, therefore, that the opponents of the servants, who would be swept away by that flood of divine fire in judgment on “all flesh,” are described in 66:17 as those who “hide” in the “middle” (‫ )בתוך‬of “gardens,” “eating” that which God had forbidden – precisely what Adam and Eve did after being tempted into eating the forbidden fruit by that serpent who, as a consequence, was cursed to the diet of “dust” (Gen 3:6–15).64 And, as we shall see, it is not likely a coincidence that this and Theological Transformations of Isaiah 65:17–25,” in Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66, ed. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad, FRLANT 255 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014), 175–94. 61  See Jacob Stromberg, “Restoration Reconfigured.” 62  For one attempt at sorting out the diachrony of this citation, see Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 101–9. 63  According to Schmid (“New Creation Instead of New Exodus,” 187), “One might suspect that the inclusion of the opening verse of Gen 1 and another from the concluding section in Gen 3 together suggest that Isa 65:17–25 intends to allude to the entire section of Gen 1–3.” 64  Compare also Isa 65:3–5. Cf. Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The One in the Middle,” in Reading



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act of transgression in Genesis is soon followed by a flood in divine judgment on “all flesh.”65 4.3  Genesis as Background to Isaiah’s Servant-Servants In the foregoing discussion, I have traced a movement from the servant to his offspring, the servants, the children of Zion who would form a covenantal community in a new creation after the flood of attacking nations. What kind of narrative does this movement advance? Understanding the answer to this question requires us to consider two additional details of the portrayal of this movement within chs. 40–66. Both of these relate to the book of Genesis, which can hardly be considered surprising in the light of the Eden analogy examined above. The first detail relates to Noah and the second to Jacob. 4.3.1 Noah Above, I observed that the restoration of Zion and her children followed a great flood of divine wrath as described in ch. 54 and that this flood comes to an end with the gentle flood of the wealth of the nations into the city for her children in ch. 66. In each case, the flood was seen to be cast in the light of that earlier Assyrian flood in Isa 8:6–8; and in ch. 66 an allusion to this earlier passage was seen to have been combined with an echo of it in 30:27–33, where God would meet the waters of the Assyrian flood with a flood of fire to deliver his people. In this light, I noted how this flood of fire from 30:27–33 had been reapplied to “all flesh” to destroy the enemies of God in ch. 66 – the upshot of all of this being that the composite allusion there reapplied 30:27–33 thusly, while also inverting the language of 8:6–8 in fulfillment of that restoration after the flood of divine wrath promised in ch. 54. I also observed how Edenic renewal followed this flood in both anticipation (51:3; 54:8–10) and fulfillment (66:10–24). This whole sequence has been cast in the light of the flood story of Genesis. The flood that echoes Isa 8:6–8 in these two chapters has been explicitly connected to Noah in ch. 54 and implicitly so in ch. 66. After the descriptions of the suffering servant who would see “offspring” and of barren Zion who would rejoice in her children, God promises that the time had come for things to change: For a brief moment I  abandoned you, but with great compassion I  will gather you. In overflowing wrath for a moment I hid my face from you, but with everlasting love I will have compassion on you, says the LORD, your Redeemer. For this is the waters of Noah to me, in that I swore that the waters of Noah would never again pass over the earth, so I have sworn that I will not be angry with you and will not rebuke you. For the mountains from Right to Left: Essays on the Hebrew Bible in Honour of David J. A. Clines, ed. J. Cheryl Exum and H. G. M. Williamson, JSOTSup 373 (London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2003), 63–75. 65  Isa 66:16; cf. Gen 6:12–13, 17, 19; 7:16, 21; 8:17; 9:11, 15–17.

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may depart and the hills be removed, but my steadfast love shall not depart from you, and my covenant of peace shall not be removed, says the LORD, who has compassion on you. (Isa 54:7–10)

As in the days of Noah, God had sent a great flood. And as then, God now offered a covenant of peace to mark the end of that threat and to begin anew (Gen 9  //  Isa 54:10). According to Isa 55, this covenant would be eternal like that made in the days of Noah (‫[ ברית ﬠולם‬Isa  55:3 // Gen  9:16]). What follows the offer of this covenant within ch. 55 pronounces its conditions and consequences in a way that tends to evoke the flood narrative by way of continuity and contrast. There is a contrast between heaven and earth: let the wicked man forsake his wicked “thoughts” (‫[ מחׁשבות‬Isa 55:7–9; cf. Gen 6:5]), for just as the “heavens” are “higher than the earth,” so God’s “thoughts” were higher than theirs (Isa 55:9; cf. Gen 7:19). But here, because the flood would pass when the covenant was honored, God is set on renewal rather than destruction: “just as the rain comes down” from the heavens, not to destroy the earth, but to water it so that it “sprouts” forth food, so God’s word accomplishes its purpose (Isa 55:10–11; cf. Gen 2:5; 8:2). When God fulfills this covenant of “peace” (Isa 55:12 // 54:10; cf. Gen 9), the “mountains and the hills” would rejoice with all of creation (Isa 55:12; cf. Gen 7:19), thorns and thistles would be replaced with trees (Isa 55:12; cf. Gen 3:18; 5:29; 8:21), and their restoration would be for God “an eternal sign, not cut off ” (‫[ לאות ﬠולם לא יכרת‬Isa 55:13; cf. Gen 9:11–16]). In both passages, the flood is followed by a renewal of the Edenic conditions of the early chapters of Genesis. We have already seen that when the covenantal conditions of chs. 54–55 are met by the servants in the final vision of the book, they would enjoy Zion as her children in a new creation after a flood of divine fire. This whole sequence is transparently based on the analogous situation in the early chapters of Genesis, where the flood is presented as an undoing of creation and the divine blessing upon leaving the ark and offering the sacrifice is portrayed as a renewal of creation:66 God blessed Noah and his sons, and said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth. The fear and dread of you shall rest on every animal of the earth, and on every bird of the air, on everything that creeps on the ground, and on all the fish of the sea; into your hand they are delivered. Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you; 66  See, for example, Michael Fishbane, “Genesis 2:4b–11:32/The Primeval Cycle,” in Text and Texture: Close Readings of Selected Biblical Texts (New York: Schocken, 1979), 17–39 (here 30–34); idem, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 318–21; David L. Petersen, “The Yahwist on the Flood,” VT 26 (1976): 438–46; Gary A. Rendsburg, The Redaction of Genesis (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2014), 9–13; Erich BosshardNepustil, Vor uns die Sintflut: Studien zu Text, Kontexten und Rezeption der Fluterzählung Genesis 6–9, BWANT 165 (Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 2005), 115–21; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Creation, Un-Creation, Re-Creation: A Discursive Commentary on Genesis 1–11 (London: T&T Clark, 2011), 145–46.



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and just as I gave you the green plants, now I give you everything … for in his own image God made man. And you, be fruitful and multiply, abound on the earth and multiply in it.” (Gen 9:1–7)

This post-diluvial blessing follows immediately upon Noah’s sacrifice, and it recapitulates the language of the original blessing of the humans (Gen 1:26–28). In the light of this, Michael Fishbane rightly concludes, “Noah is thus portrayed as a new Adam in a renewed creation.”67 As after the flood in the days of Noah, so too in Isaiah does the Edenic renewal bud from the actions of a figure found to be “righteous” (‫ )צדיק‬by God (Gen 6:9; Isa 53:11). Just as God’s purpose was to preserve the “offspring” (‫ )זרﬠ‬of Noah for a post-diluvian world, so too was it his plan to do the same for the servant (Gen 7:3; 9:9; Isa 53:10; 54:1–4, 8–10). In both cases, the preservation of the “offspring” is decided by a sacrifice offered by the righteous figure (Gen 8:21–22; Isa 53:10–11).68 In both cases this is followed by a covenant ratifying the promise for the “offspring,” in the case of Isa 54 a covenant explicitly compared to the one in the days of Noah (Gen 9; Isa 54:8–10; 55:3–5). This Noahic-like covenant in Isa 54 is elaborated in terms of the covenant with David in ch. 55, as we have seen. Importantly, this elaboration is perhaps not without precedent in the books of Samuel. According to Jean-Pierre Sonnet, 67  Fishbane, “Primeval Cycle,” 34. In Gen 9:18–27, Noah has arguably been set on analogy to the portrait of Adam in Gen 2–3, on which see John D. Sailhamer, “Genesis,” in A  Complete Literary Guide to the Bible, ed. Leland Ryken and Temper Longman III (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993), 110–19. 68  On the ‫ אׁשם‬of the servant (after which he would see “offspring”), see most recently Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Sacrificial Life and Death of the Servant,” VT 66.1 (2016): 1–14. Noah’s sacrifice after the flood plays a critical role in drawing together the ‘plot’ threads of Gen 1–9. In Gen 8:20–22, God responds to Noah’s sacrifice with a promise that deliberately recalls three earlier inter-related moments from before the flood: (1) God’s curse on the ground “on account of ” Adam, so that they will have to eat of it “in pain” (Gen 3:17); (2) the expectation of Noah’s father that his son will provide comfort from the “pain” caused by the ground God had cursed (Gen 5:28–29); and (3) the “pain” God feels in “his heart” when he sees the evil inclinations of the heart of Adam/humanity, so that he purposes to destroy all flesh with a flood (Gen 6:5–6). These hostilities are resolved when Noah offers a burnt offering to God upon leaving the ark. In response to the “pleasing aroma” of Noah’s sacrifice (which presumably soothed the divine pain), God promises in Gen 8:20–22 to no longer curse the ground (cf. 3:17; 5:28–29), nor to send another flood, despite the ongoing evil of the human heart (cf. 6:5–6). God ratifies the promise not to send another flood by making a covenant with Noah and his “offspring” after him (Gen 9:9–17). Accordingly, Noah’s sacrifice – the basis for God’s covenant – ensures the preservation of his “offspring.” In lieu of a full analysis here, I limit myself to noting only some of the verbal linkages coordinating these passages for the reader: the repetition and wordplay of ‫ נח‬and ‫ נחם‬and ‫( ניחח‬Gen 5:29; 6:6; 8:20, 21); the wordplay of ‫ ﬠצבון‬and ‫( ויתﬠצב‬Gen 3:17; 5:29; 6:6); the repetition of ‫( אל לבו‬Gen 6:6; 8:21); the reference to the “curse” on the “ground” (Gen 3:17; 5:29) that is “on account of ” humanity (Gen 3:17; 8:21); and the reference to the “inclination” of the human “heart” that is “evil” (Gen 6:5; 8:21). Cf. Karl Budde, “Gen. 3,17; 5,29; 8,21: Ein Beitrag zur Quellenkritik der Biblischen Urgeschichte,” ZAW 6 (1886): 30–43; Rolf Rendtorff, “Genesis 8,21 und die Urgeschichte des Jahwisten,” Kerygma und Dogma 7.1 (1961): 69–78; Fishbane, “Primeval Cycle,” 31–34.

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God’s promise to David in Samuel is formulated in such a way within the larger context of that narrative so as to evoke the beginning and ending of the flood account in Genesis.69 In the broader context of this analogy, the covenant with David becomes the analogical counterpart to that covenant with Noah, something that seems to be presupposed in Isa 54–55. Such a comparison suggests that the patterns of the past were seen to portend the patterns of the future: the pattern of Noah’s days reemerges in the days of David, and it would do so again in the future. To all of this, I would add the fact that the portrait of Assyria as a flood in Isa 8:6–8 – developed in 54:8–10 in relation to Noah’s flood – is itself likely a response to Neo-Assyrian descriptions of the Assyrian king advancing into battle as the primeval flood of Mesopotamian tradition, a description that is applied, for instance, to Esarhaddon.70 In this light, it is not likely an historical coincidence that the Isaianic account has Esarhaddon’s reign begin precisely at the end of the threat of that Assyrian flood announced in 8:6–8 (37:38). In Isaiah, the Assyrian flood of 8:6–8 comes to an end with the prayer of Hezekiah and the resulting death of Sennacherib at the hands of his sons, who then flee to the land of ‫אררט‬ (Ararat!), exactly the geographical location where the biblical flood comes to its conclusion: at the end of Noah’s flood the ark rests on “the mountains of ‫”אררט‬ (Isa 37:38 [= 2 Kings 19:37]; Gen 8:4). The name Ararat occurs only one other time in the Hebrew Bible (Jer 51:27). Indeed, Hezekiah was promised that, after God had repelled the Assyrian flood, the remnant in Jerusalem would “take root downward and bear fruit upwards” (Isa 37:31). This promise evokes the hopes of Edenic renewal from Isa 11,71 whose fulfillment would in the end be delayed until the days of that future enjoyed by the servants in the final vision of the book (11:6–9 // 65:25). Moreover, the sign given Hezekiah ensuring the fulfillment of this promise was to plant (‫ )נט״ﬠ‬vineyards (‫ )כרמים‬and enjoy their fruit – precisely what Noah does after the flood and reestablishment of the original blessing of creation (Isa 37:31–32; Gen 9:18–21). Because that renewal in the days of Noah was ensured a permanence by God’s covenant with him, it is entirely to be expected that the repelling of the Assyrian flood and Edenic renewal expected in the days of Hezekiah should also be grounded in a covenant, that with David.72 69 Jean-Pierre

Sonnet, “God’s Repentance and ‘False Starts’ in Biblical History (Genesis 6–9; Exodus 32–34; 1 Samuel 15 and 2 Samuel 7),” in Congress Volume Ljubljana 2007, ed. A. Lemaire, VTSup 133 (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 469–94 (here 469–88). 70  In connection with Isa 8:7–8, Peter Machinist (“Assyria,” 726–27) comments, “Two parallels from the Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions are evident in these lines. The first is the image of the king advancing into battle like raging water. In Assyrian texts, the waters are called abūbu, i. e., ‘flood,’ recalling the primeval Flood; and the abūbu can either appear as the weapon of the king or be directly likened to him. Note, for example, the portrayal of Esarhaddon; ša tallaktašu abūbumma Whose gait is the Flood.” 71 See Stromberg, “Hezekiah and the Oracles against the Nations in Isaiah.” 72  See Jacob Stromberg, “Figural History in the Book of Isaiah: The Prospective Significance of Hezekiah’s Deliverance from Assyria and Death,” in Imperial Visions: The Prophet



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Thus, as in Isa 54–55, so here too is the covenant with David compared to that covenant with Noah. In light of all of this, we may return to the final vision of the book where an Edenic renewal for the servants follows that fiery divine flood and sees the former troubles replaced with the gentle flood of the wealth of the nations into Zion, all in development of that original Assyrian flood announced in Isa 8:6–8 as well as its subsequent echoes in 30:27–33 and 54:8. Here too, the narrative of the primeval flood seems to be present in the structure of the telling.73 As in Genesis, this fiery judgment would fall on “all flesh” (‫[ כל בׂשר‬Isa  66:15–17 // Gen  6:12–13, 17, 19; 7:16, 21; 8:17; 9:11, 15–17]).74 As also in Genesis, the judgment would come because of man’s evil “intentions” (‫[ מחׁשבות‬Isa 66:18 // Gen 6:5]). As before, after the judgment God would give a “sign” (‫ )אות‬and send the “survivors” to precisely those places where Noah’s three sons are said to have spread out onto the earth after becoming nations themselves in Genesis 10.75 In both, these nations receive the metonym ‫“( לׁשנות‬tongues” [Isa 66:18 // Gen 10:5, 20, 31]).76 One of the nations in Isaiah is amusingly called “those who draw the bow (‫”)קׁשת‬ (Isa 66:19 // Gen 9:13–16). These nations represent the “offspring after you” with whom God promised to Noah that he would make the covenant with its “sign” (‫ )אות‬of the “bow” (‫[ קׁשת‬Gen 9:9–17]). As before, after the judgment the place of rest would be on a “mountain” (“my holy mountain” // “the mountains of Ararat” [Isa 66:20; Gen 8:4]). What follows the travel to the mountain in each case is a statement about the stability of the new world order: As long as the earth endures, seedtime (‫ )זרﬠ‬and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night, shall not cease (‫)לא יׁשבתו‬. (Gen 8:22)

For as the new heavens and the new earth, which I will make, shall endure before me, says the LORD; so shall your offspring (‫ )זרﬠכם‬and your name endure. From new moon to new moon, and from sabbath to sabbath (‫)ׁשבת ׁשבתו‬, all flesh shall come to worship before me, says the LORD. (Isa 66:22–23)

and the Book of Isaiah in an Age of Empires, ed. Joachim Schaper and Reinhard Kratz, FRLANT 277 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2020), 81–102 (here 88–91). On Isa 37:3–32, see Stromberg, “Hezekiah and the Oracles against the Nations in Isaiah.” 73  Compare the remarks of Michael P. Maier, Völkerwallfahrt in Jesajabuch, BZAW 474 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2016), 484–85. 74 The fiery whirlwind-like (‫[ כסופה‬Isa 66:15]) devastation that would judge “all flesh” causing the wicked to come to an end (‫[ יספו‬66:17]) may evoke God’s promise at the end of the watery flood (‫[ לא אסף ﬠוד‬Gen 8:21]) by way of contrast. On the influence of the formulation (‫ )לא … ﬠוד‬from this passage on the promise of restoration after judgment in the latter half of Isaiah, see Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 374. 75  This is true when one reads ‫ פוט‬for ‫( פול‬with the LXX) in Isa 66:19. Even without this reading, however, all of the other names on the list occur together within a chapter only in Gen 10; Isa 66; and Ezek 27 within the HB. 76  The reference to the nations repatriating the Israelites on a host of animals that go to Jerusalem (Isa 66:20) may be compared to Gen 7:6–9.

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In both cases, there is a new creation after divine judgment. In both cases, the stability of the new world order applies to “all flesh” (‫ )כל בׂשר‬and the “offspring” (‫ )זרﬠ‬of those addressed (Gen 9:8–17; Isa 66:22–24). And in both cases, that stability finds expression in the varying coordinates of the calendar. Where the regularity of the seasons shall continue as before, this now maps onto those coordinates of the religious calendar, the new moon and the sabbath. As a result of these conspicuous parallels, where that flood echoing Isa 8:6–8 is explicitly compared to the days of Noah in ch. 54, it is implicitly compared thusly here in ch. 66 where the promises to Zion made there come to fruition in the days of the offspring of the servant. In short, the latter half of Isaiah places the servant and his offspring after the flood of divine wrath on analogy to Noah and his offspring who was himself like a new Adam in a new creation grounded in a divine covenant. The future would be like the past, because the past portended the future. 4.3.2 Jacob Second, we come to the well-known fact that the latter half of Isaiah shows a strong preference for referring to the community as “Jacob.”77 I  would like to suggest that this preference, together with the fact that the servant is explicitly identified as Jacob in these chapters, explains why the notion of “offspring” was chosen to describe his relationship to the servants as well as why Zion, their mother, is initially described as “barren” (like Rachel) in Isa 54:1 – neither of which is entirely clear from Beuken’s otherwise excellent study.78 In Isa 40–55, the servant is identified as “Jacob/Israel” (41:8–9; 42:1,79 19–24; 43:1–14; 44:1–5, 21; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3). It is a widely-recognized feature of this part of the book that, where chapters 40–48 address Jacob/Israel, chapters 49–55 turn their attention to addressing Zion. For reasons that need not be gone into here, it appears that the word “servant” is applied to a new referent in chs. 49–55, where an individual prophet takes over the role of Jacob/Israel as a light to the nations (49:1–6; 50:10; 53:11).80 Remarkably, God says to this individual, “you are my servant, [you are] Israel,”81 while also proclaiming that his role as 77  See

H. G. M. Williamson, “Jacob in Isaiah 40–66,” in Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66, ed. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad, FRLANT 255 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014), 219–29. 78 Cf. Beuken, “Main Theme,” 68. Here Beuken seems reluctant to identify the servant of Isa 53 with Jacob the servant in chs. 40–55. 79  There can be little doubt that the reference to the servant in Isa 42:1 was to be understood in the light of 41:8–10 (‫ )תמ״ך‬and 42:19–24, both of which explicitly identify the servant as Jacob. 80  On this, see Peter Wilcox and David Paton-Williams, “The Servant Songs in Deutero-Isaiah,” JSOT 42 (1988): 79–102; Williamson, “Jacob in Isaiah 40–66,” 224–25; Stromberg, “Servant of God,” 280–82. 81  For this translation, see Wilcox and Paton-Williams, “Servant Songs,” 93.



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a servant was to “restore Jacob to him” (49:3, 5–6). What follows supports this supposition: the remaining references to the servant presuppose a sharp distinction between the people and this figure (50:10–11; 52:14; 53:2 ff.).82 However one understands this puzzle of a passage, it is clear that chs. 49–55 continue to identify the servant as Jacob/Israel and that he bears the same mission as the servant in chs. 40–48 (49:3 // 44:23; 49:6, 8 // 42:6). Naturally, this would mean that the servant and his offspring (the servants) are Jacob and his offspring in the construal of chs. 40–66. This inference is immediately confirmed by a cursory examination of only some of the relevant passages within these chapters of the book. In the first passage to mention the servant, God encourages “Israel,” calling him “my servant, Jacob, whom I  have chosen, the offspring of Abraham, my friend” (41:8). Because Abraham before him was the “friend” of God, Jacob, his offspring, can expect a brighter future. As Abraham’s “offspring,” Jacob can be assured that God is “with” him and he need not “fear” – assurances given to Abraham and then Isaac his son in Genesis83 – for God will uphold him with his “victorious right hand” (41:9–10). For Jacob, the servant, the past held the key to the future. For hope, he need only look to the example of Abraham his forefather and friend of God: “Look to Abraham your father and to Sarah who bore you; for he was but one when I called him, but I blessed him and made him many” (51:2). This encouragement to the people leads immediately to the promise, “For the LORD will comfort Zion; he will comfort all her waste places, and will make her wilderness like Eden, her desert like the garden of the LORD” (Isa 51:1–3). As was seen above, this promise comes to fruition in the final vision of the book, where the “offspring” which comes forth “from Jacob” will inherit the restoration of Zion in Edenic fashion after God creates “a new heavens and a new earth” (65:9, 17–18, 25). Here, the theme is brought full circle: the first reference to the servant encourages “Jacob,” whose hope as the “offspring” of Abraham is regeneration, and the last reference to “Jacob” sees that hope fulfilled in the salvation of his own “offspring,” the “servants,” in the new Eden of the last two chapters of the book. In this final vision is fulfilled that earlier hope announced to Jacob, the servant, a hope founded upon the origins of creation itself: For thus says the LORD, who created the heavens, he is God, he formed the land and made it, he established it; he did not create it ‫תהו‬, he formed it to be inhabited: I am the LORD, and there is no other. I did not speak in secret, in a land of darkness; I did not say to the offspring of Jacob (‫)זרﬠ יﬠקב‬, “in ‫תהו‬, seek me.” I the LORD speak the truth, I declare what is right. (Isa 45:18–19; cf. 44:21, 23, 24; 45:7–13) 82  Isa 52:14 contrasts “you” with “him”; and beginning in 53:2 there is a distinction drawn between “him” and “us.” 83  Gen 15:1; 21:22; 26:24. Cf. Gen 31:3; 46:3–4; 48:21.

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According to this unambiguous echo of Gen 1, the hope for the “offspring of Jacob” was identical to God’s original purpose in creation:84 God did not create the land to be ‫תהו‬, nor did he ask the offspring of Jacob to seek him in ‫תהו‬. God created the land to be inhabited. This promise is fulfilled in Isa 65 where, in another clear echo of Gen 1, the servants, the offspring of Jacob, inherit the land in the “new heavens and earth.” This hope of renewal belonged to Jacob and his offspring. This, no doubt, is the reason for the continual reminder to Jacob, the servant, that the one promising restoration is “your creator” (‫)בוראך‬, “your shaper” (‫)יצרך‬, “your maker” (‫)ﬠׂשך‬ – all language recalling the creation of the first human.85 In this way, Jacob is like a new Adam whose offspring will enjoy a new creation (and in this respect Jacob may be compared to Noah who is also likened to a new Adam). Indeed, the first time God addresses “Jacob” by name it is to tell him that he is the “creator of the ends of the earth,” so that the one who hopes in him will “renew” his strength (Isa 40:27–31 [cf. ‫ חל״ף‬in Job 14:14]). It is this generational shift which accounts for the well-known transformation of the language about the servant in chs. 40–55 that one sees in chs. 56–66. In the former, God addresses “Jacob my servant (‫ )ﬠבדי‬and Israel my chosen one (‫)בחירי‬,” the “offspring (‫ )זרﬠ‬of Abraham, my friend” (41:8; 45:4). In the latter, he addresses the “offspring (‫ ”)זרﬠ‬of Jacob, “my chosen ones (‫)בחירי‬, my servants (‫”)ﬠבדי‬ – the children of Zion and “offspring” of the servant as seen above (65:9). What had been promised to Jacob, the servant, for his offspring would be inherited by the servants: But now hear, O Jacob my servant, Israel whom I have chosen! Thus says the LORD who made you, who formed you in the womb and will help you: Do not fear, O Jacob my servant, Jeshurun whom I have chosen. For I will pour water on the thirsty land, and streams on the dry ground; I will pour my spirit upon your offspring (‫)אצק רוחי ﬠל זרﬠך‬, and my blessing on your descendants. (Isa 44:1–3)

Here God promises to do for the “offspring” of the servant, Jacob, what he had already done for the servant himself (‫[ נתתי רוחי ﬠליו‬42:1]). God would pour out his “spirit” on the “offspring” of the servant Jacob, a promise which undoubtedly depended on a response to the call: “turn back to me, for I have redeemed you” (‫[ ׁשובה אלי כי גאלתיך‬44:21–22]). The promise to Jacob regarding his “offspring” would come to fruition when this condition was met. This is transparently the background to Isa 59:19–21, which assures renewal to the righteous who will be delivered through the flood of divine wrath: 84 Benjamin Sommer (A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40–66 [Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998], 142–43) thinks the Isaiah passage is refuting the view of Gen 1. But surely the remarks of Joseph Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55: A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19A [New York: Doubleday, 2002], 259) are closer to the mark: “all that 18c is saying is that Yahveh did not destine the earth to be an empty void but rather to be inhabited, which is completely in keeping with what the Genesis account says.” 85  Isa 42:5; 43:1; 44:2, 21, 24; 45:7; 49:5. Cf. Gen 1:27; 2:7.



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So those in the west shall fear the name of the LORD, and those in the east, his glory; for he will come like a pent-up river that the wind of the LORD (‫ )רוח יהוה‬causes to surge (cf. 30:28!). And he will come to Zion as Redeemer (‫)גואל‬, to those in Jacob who turn back from transgression (‫)ׁשבי פׁשﬠ ביﬠקב‬, says the LORD. And as for me, this is my covenant with them, says the LORD: my spirit that is upon you (‫)רוחי אׁשר ﬠליך‬, and my words that I have put in your mouth, shall not depart out of your mouth, or out of the mouths of your offspring (‫)זרﬠך‬, or out of the mouths of the offspring of your offspring (‫)זרﬠ זרﬠך‬, says the LORD, from now on and forever. (Isa 59:19–21)

There can be no doubt that “those in Jacob who turn back from transgression” here are the righteous “offspring” from Jacob in 65:9, those spared from the flood of divine wrath in ch. 66. Thus, the promise made to Jacob, the servant, regarding his “offspring” in Isa 44:1–3 would find fulfillment in the “offspring” from Jacob, the servants, who enjoy that Edenic renewal after the divine flood in the final vision of the book. The push for seeing those promises made to Jacob, the servant, come to fruition for his offspring drives the exhortations to do righteousness in chs. 57–59 that were seen above to be requisite to enjoying restored mother Zion as her children. Isaiah 48:21–22 announces that “the Lord has redeemed his servant Jacob,” but warns, “‘there is no peace for the wicked,’ says the Lord.” In Isa 57:21, a citation of this phrase is repeated after the divine assurance to “renew the broken of heart” (v. 15), whom we saw above are the “offspring” from Jacob in ch. 65. In Isa 58, the call goes forth, “proclaim to my people their transgression, to the house of Jacob their sin” (v. 1). When they do this, God promises, “I will let you eat the inheritance of Jacob your father” (v. 14). When they do this, their light would shine (v. 8–10), leading to the restoration of Zion which they would enjoy as her children (chs. 60–61). Significantly, the promise that they will “eat the inheritance of Jacob” in Isa 58:14 almost certainly belongs to a larger evocation of Deut 32, a passage that looks to have influenced many of the texts cited above.86 In this poem cast as a speech on the plains of Moab, Moses envisions Israel’s future after entering the land. Though God found Jacob in a wasteland (‫[ בתהו‬Deut 32:9; cf. Isa 45:18–19]), he sustained him with rich food. But then Jacob, here called Jeshurun (‫)יׁשרון‬, grew fat and forgot him (Deut 32:15; cf. Isa 44:2), so that God sent enemies against him. Alongside other well-known parallels shared between this poem of Moses and the latter half of Isaiah, these parallels suggest that the former exerted considerable influence over the latter,87 particularly in the texts 86  On this allusion to Deut 32:9–13 in Isa 58:11–14, see already S. R. Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy, ICC (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902), 359. More recently, see Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 478; Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture, 134–35. 87  The name ‫ יׁשרון‬occurs only at Deut 32:15; 33:5, 26; and Isa 44:2 in the Hebrew Bible. In addition, compare Deut 32:39 with Isa 43:11–13. Also, consider the claims of Isa 44:8 against the backdrop of the monotheistic-sounding formulation of Deut 32:39 and the penchant of

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adduced to support the argument here. If that is so, then it cannot be a coincidence that the poem of Moses ends by envisioning a time when God, after having so punished Jacob, would come to visit vengeance upon his enemies, to atone for his land and people, and to avenge “the blood of his servants” (Deut 32:43). On this reading, the “servants” whom Moses foresaw are the “servants” in the final vision of Isaiah, the “offspring” of the servant, Jacob, who receives a word of hope, having suffered divine punishment at the hands of his enemies. There can be little doubt that this identification of the servant as Jacob derives from the strong preference in this half of Isaiah for referring to the community by this name, particularly in chs. 40–48.88 But as Williamson notes, “The reason why this should be so in a manner that seems to be disproportionate when compared with other comparable bodies of literature is not certain.”89 The foregoing analysis suggests we will find an answer to this question in the important role assigned to the Genesis narratives as background to this half of Isaiah (at least in its final form). Thus, Jacob finds himself in exile in Mesopotamia here in Isaiah just as he did in Genesis when he fled from his brother Esau whom he had wronged.90 And this is precisely where one expects to find him when viewed against the overarching structure of Genesis–2 Kings, where the comings and goings of the people to and from the land create a clear pattern of expectation that at this moment Jacob would find himself in exile in Mesopotamia91 anticipating an exodus likened to the first one before returning to the the poem as a whole to characterize God as the rock (‫[ צור‬Deut 32:4, 15 18, 30–31, 37]). The argument about the “former” and “latter” things in the latter half of Isaiah might be another point of comparison with Deut 32. In this respect, compare Deut 32:29 (cf. v. 20) with Isa 41:22; 43:10; and 46:10. On the “former” and “latter” things in Isaiah, see my survey in Stromberg, “Restoration Reconfigured.” The interest in the Pentateuchal poems, particularly as these relate to the patriarch Jacob, might also be seen in Isa 49:26 (= 60:16) which calls God ‫אביר יﬠקב‬, a phrase which occurs in Jacob’s blessing of Joseph (Gen 49:24) and only otherwise at Ps 132:2, 5. On the book of Isaiah and Deut 32, see also Thomas A. Keiser, “The Song of Moses a Basis for Isaiah’s Prophecy,” VT 55.4 (2005): 486–500. 88  See Isa 40:27; 41:8, 14, 21; 42:24; 43:1, 22, 28–44:2; 44:5, 21, 23; 45:4, 19; 46:3; 48:1, 12, 20; 49:5–6, 26; 58:1, 14; 59:20; 60:16; 65:9. 89  Williamson, “Jacob in Isaiah 40–66,” 219. 90  I am entirely indebted to Andrew Teeter (personal communication) for this suggestion and the secondary literature cited in its support. Naturally, he cannot be held responsible for the way I have chosen to formulate the problem here. For a different attempt at relating the life of Jacob in Genesis to that of the Jacob in Isa 40–55, see Meira Polliack, “Deutero-Isaiah’s Typological Use of Jacob in the Portrayal of Israel’s National Renewal,” in Creation in Jewish and Christian Tradition, ed. H. Graf Reventlow and Yair Hoffman, LHBOTS 319 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002), 72–110. 91 Yair Zakovitch observes the following pattern in Genesis–2 Kings, beginning with Abraham and ending with Israel: Abraham leaves Mesopotamia (Haran) → Abraham arrives in  Canaan  → Abraham goes down to Egypt → Abraham returns to  Canaan  → Jacob leaves for Mesopotamia (Haran) → Jacob returns to  Canaan  → Jacob goes down to Egypt → Israel returns to  Canaan  → Israel (Israel & Judah) are exiled to Mesopotamia. See Yair Zakovitch, “And you shall tell your son …”: The Concept of the Exodus in the Bible (Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 1991), 48; idem, “Do the Last Verses of Malachi (Mal 3:22–24) have a Canonical Function?,”



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land, precisely the moment and place at which God was ready to work a new exodus-like redemption for Jacob in Isa 40–55. For not only does the telling of the first exodus recall Jacob’s flight from Laban in Genesis,92 but Israel finds itself in exactly the same place (Mesopotamia) at the end of its history in 2 Kings that the patriarch did after his flight from Esau. It is here, in exile in Mesopotamia, that Deutero-Isaiah takes up the analogy in proclaiming a new-exodus hope to Jacob, who was the servant, not of Laban, nor of Pharaoh, but of God.93 In this respect, the servant of Isaiah, a figure who works salvation for the people in Isa 52:13–53:12 takes on a Mosaic significance, no doubt the reason why this last ‘servant song’ follows immediately after the promise of a new and better exodus (52:12).94 It is instructive that in both stories, where Jacob/Israel “serves” (‫ )ﬠב״ד‬his ‘captor’ (Laban/Pharaoh), he is not said to “serve” (‫ )ﬠב״ד‬God until after he has been set free.95 While this explains Deutero-Isaiah’s account where Jacob is the servant whom God redeems in exodus-like fashion from Mesopotamia, the telling of Jacob’s service at the house of Laban in Mesopotamia is no less illuminating. After Jacob has fled from the house of Laban where he was bound in The Book of the Twelve  – One Book or Many?, ed. Elena Di Pede and Donatella Scaiola, FAT II/91 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2016), 60–81 (here 70–71). The repetition of this pattern (Mesopotamia, Canaan, Egypt, Canaan, Mesopotamia, Caanan, Egypt, Canaan, Mesopotamia) imparts a prospective function to the lives of the patriarchs, which as a result foreshadow that of the later nation. It is this prospective significance that Deutero-Isaiah develops in portraying Jacob as once again returning from Mesopotamia. It may also explain why the people are exhorted to look to the example of Abraham their father, since the life of Abraham itself in this prospective schema comes to portend that of Jacob in many respects, most importantly in redemption and return to the land. 92  Zakovitch, Concept, 46–48; idem, Jacob: Unexpected Patriarch (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012), 88–90. Zakovitch posits that the Jacob story has been told in the light of the Exodus narrative. 93  On the well-known typology between the exodus from Egypt and the departure from Babylon in Isaiah, see Bernhard W. Anderson, “The Exodus Typology in Second Isaiah,” in Israel’s Prophetic Heritage, ed. Bernhard W. Anderson and Walter Harrelson (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 177–95; Fishbane, “The ‘Exodus’ Motif/The Paradigm of Historical Renewal,” in Text and Texture: Close Readings of Selected Biblical Texts (New York: Schocken, 1979), 121–40 (here 133–38); Anja Klein, “‘Zieht heraus aus Babel’: Beobachtungen zum Zweiten Exodus im Deuterojesajabuch,” ZAW 112 (2015): 279–99. 94  “[T]he new exodus will have a distinct novum. For in contrast to the original exodus, which occurred in an atmosphere of anxiety and haste (‫בחפזון‬, cf. Exod 12:11; Deut 16:3), the people are now told ‘‫ לא בחפזון‬not in haste will you leave, nor will you go in flight’ (Isa 51:11–12). By this explicit reversal, the prophet avers that in the new exodus disquietude will be displaced by calm. The new exodus will therefore not simply be a remanifestation of an older prototype, but will have qualitative distinctions of its own”; Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 364. 95  Jacob “serves” (‫ )ﬠב״ד‬Laban in Gen 29:15, 18, 20, 25, 27, 30; 30:26, 29; 31:6, 41; 32:6. Then, after leaving, Jacob is a “servant” (‫ )ﬠבד‬of God in Gen 32:11. Israel “serves” (‫)ﬠב״ד‬ Pharaoh in Exod 1:13–14; 2:23; 5:9, 11, 15–16, 18; 6:5–6, 9; 7:26, 29; 13:3, 14; 14:5, 12. Then, after leaving, Israel would “serve” (‫ )ﬠב״ד‬God in Exod 4:23; 7:16; 8:5, 16; 9:1, 13; 10:3, 8, 11, 24, 26; 12:25–26; 12:31; 13:5.

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in servitude (‫)ﬠב״ד‬, he fears his brother Esau upon returning to the land, and so he prays, I am not worthy of the least of all the steadfast love and all the faithfulness that you have shown to your servant (‫)ﬠבדך‬, for with only my staff I crossed this Jordan; and now I have become two companies. Deliver me, please, from the hand of my brother, from the hand of Esau, for I am afraid of him; he may come and smite me, the mothers with the children. Yet you have said, “I will surely do you good, and make your offspring (‫ )זרﬠך‬as the sand of the sea, which cannot be counted because of their number.” (Gen 32:11–13)

Here, for the first time in his life and following his “servitude” in the house of Laban, Jacob presents himself to God as ‫“( ﬠבדך‬your servant”). And he does so in gratitude that God had multiplied his “offspring” (‫)זרﬠ‬, to whom Esau now seemingly posed a threat. Thus, his prayer is to be delivered “from the hand of Esau” who may “come and smite” Jacob’s family. As the story goes, God intervened on Jacob’s behalf. Esau greeted him with open arms, and the first words out of his mouth were “who are these with you?” (Gen 33:5; cf. Isa 49:21!). And so God delivers Jacob’s “offspring” and they are free to live in the land. Just how illuminating this narrative is for understanding that movement within the latterhalf of Isaiah can be seen in the fact that, just before the fulfillment recounted in chs. 65–66 of those promises to Jacob the “servant” regarding his “offspring,” God intervenes once again – this time against Edom, the nation that Esau became, a name seemingly employed here as a cipher for all “peoples” (Isa 63:1–6; cf. v. 6). All of this suggests that we can expect the barren woman of Isa 54 to be set on analogy to Rachel, the wife of Jacob, the servant of the Lord. To the best of my knowledge, these are the only two women in the Hebrew Bible who are said to be “barren” (‫ )ﬠקרה‬and to bear “reproach” (‫[ חרפה‬Gen 29:31; 30:23; Isa 54:1, 4]). These two words frame the episode of the competition between Rachael and Leah, which begins with the notice “Rachael was barren” and concludes with her words “God has removed my reproach” as a response to the birth of her own child, Joseph (Gen 29:31; 30:23). The intervening struggle between the two women sees all but one of Jacob’s sons born to him (Gen 29:31–30:25). The episode concludes the way it opens, with the notice “and he [God] opened her womb” (‫)ויפתח את רחמה‬, first the womb of Leah, because she was “hated,” and then the womb of Rachel, “because God listened to her” (Gen 29:31; 30:22). Reminiscent of this, God promises Zion that her days of barrenness are over, “[now] with steadfast eternal love I have compassion on you (‫ … )רחמתיך‬my steadfast love will not depart from you, nor will my covenant of peace be moved, says the one who has compassion on you (‫)מרחמך‬, the Lord” (Isa 54:8, 10). No sooner does Rachel report the removal of her reproach by the birth of her son and names him Joseph than the narrator adds, “when Rachael gave birth to Joseph, Jacob said to Laban, ‘send me away so that I may go to the place of my land’” (Gen 30:25). Thus, the birth of Joseph signaled to Jacob that it was time



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to leave Mesopotamia and return to the land. In this light, it is either incredibly fortuitous or highly deliberate that, immediately after the announcement of children for barren Zion and the removal of her reproach in Isa 54, we read: “buy grain and eat; come, buy grain without silver” (Isa 55:1). This line almost certainly evokes the words of Jacob’s sons as they are brought into the house of Joseph in Egypt (Gen 43:22; cf. 47:14).96 Thus, just as the appearance of Joseph in the Genesis narrative signaled the time was right to leave Mesopotamia, so here too is precisely the same thing signaled by an evocation of Joseph’s role in saving the family during famine. 4.3.3  The Genesis Narratives It seems, then, that the future story of the servant and his offspring has been told against the backdrop of the past in Genesis, especially the narratives of Noah 96  It is probable in my option that this line belongs to a larger evocation of the Joseph story that has been used to frame Isa 40–55. Thus, the comforting words of Joseph to his brothers at the end of that narrative (Gen 50:20–21) are taken up precisely at the beginning and the ending of Deutero-Isaiah (Isa 40:1–2; 55:7–9). Joseph says to his brothers, “‘Even though you intended (‫ )חׁשבתם‬to do harm to me, God intended it (‫ )חׁשבה‬for good, in order to preserve a numerous people, as he is doing today. So have no fear; I myself will provide for you and your little ones.’ In this way he comforted them (‫ )וינחם‬and spoke to their heart (‫”)וידבר ﬠל לבם‬ (Gen 50:20–21). Deutero-Isaiah begins by evoking Joseph’s comforting of them, “Comfort, O comfort (‫ )נחמו נחמו‬my people, says your God. Speak to the heart of (‫ )דברו ﬠל לב‬Jerusalem” (Isa 40:1–2). These Isaianic chapters conclude with precisely the contrast that Joseph underscores between the divine intention and that of his brothers,”let the wicked man forsake his way, and the unrighteous man his intentions (‫ ;)מחׁשבתיו‬let him return to the LORD, that he may have mercy on him, and to our God, for he will abundantly pardon. For my intentions are not your intentions (‫)כי לא מחׁשבותי מחׁשבותיכם‬, nor are your ways my ways, says the LORD. For as the heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my intentions than your intentions (‫( ”)מחׁשבתי ממחׁשבתיכם‬Isa 55:7–9). The echo in Isa 40:1–2 is seen by Reinhard Kratz, who, noting among other things that the specific collocation used in these two passages occurs only otherwise in Ruth 2:13, concludes: “Nach allem scheint mir die Folgerung nicht unbegründet, daß Jes 40,1f als Eröffnung von Jes 40–48* in sprachlicher und sachlicher Orientierung an Gen 50,21 im Kontext von Gen 50,15–21 und der Josepherzählung bzw. der Vätergeschichte im ganzen gedacht und auch formuliert wurde”; so Reinhard Kratz, “Der Anfang des Zweiten Jesaja in Jes 40,1f und seine literarischen Horizonte,” in Prophetenstudien. Kleine Schriften II, FAT 74 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck), 198–215 (here 212). It is remarkable and speaks very much in favor of the whole line of argument being advanced presently that precisely here in Gen 50:19 the comforting words of Joseph to his brothers (‫ )התחת אלהים אני‬have been deliberately contrasted with the callous response of Jacob to Rachael (‫ )התחת אלהים אנכי‬when she reveals her plight of barrenness to him (Gen 30:2). Moreover, Jacob is almost certainly being contrasted here with the response of his father Isaac to Rebecca over precisely the same issue (Gen 25:21–22). The connection in both passages is recognized by Zakovitch, ‫מקראות‬ ‫בארץ המראות‬, 30–31, 37–39. Isaac prayed for Rebecca who was “barren” and she conceived; Abraham prayed for the house of Abimelek, then his wife was able to bear children and Sarah, who was “barren,” conceived (Gen 20:17–21:2). Perhaps the servant who prays in Isa 53:12 (followed in 54:1 by the “barren” woman who has children) is being likened to Abraham and Isaac, but contrasted with the patriarch Jacob. In Isaiah, then, the servant (Jacob) would be doing what the patriarch did not, emulating Abraham (cf. Isa 51:1).

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and Jacob. In this way, the Isaianic presentation of the servant and his offspring employs a composite analogy: what was true for Noah and his offspring was true for Jacob and his own; and together both cast their light on the future of the servant and his offspring in Isaiah’s vision. This underscores the importance of the patriarchal promise for “offspring” as a continuation of that divine plan manifest in the Edenic renewal after the flood. The degree to which such an understanding may have been grounded in those intentions which shaped the contours of history in Genesis itself goes well beyond the confines of this article. But we can at least say that, when measured against the earliest instantiation of this analogy in Genesis (that between Noah and Adam) and perhaps later echoes of this in the story of Jacob, the latter half of Isaiah was merely extending an analogy that was already there, casting it out into the future which it foresaw for God’s people. It is undeniable, in my opinion, that several of the Genesis passages relating to the life of Jacob that are evoked here in Isaiah do bear a resemblance back to the story of Noah and the flood, though space prohibits more than a superficial examination of these here.97 Importantly, both the flood and Esau posed a threat to the continuance of “offspring” (‫)זרﬠ‬.98 After Jacob steals Esau’s blessing, Esau plans to kill him: “Esau said in his heart (‫)ויאמר ﬠׂשו אל לבו‬, ‘the days of mourning for my father are drawing near, and I will kill Jacob my brother’” (Gen 27:41). Rebecca then reports this to Jacob as follows: “Esau your brother is consoling himself (‫ )מתנחם‬to kill you” (v. 42). Both utterances recall the cause of God’s plan to blot out humanity: “the Lord regretted (‫ )וינחם‬that he made humanity upon the earth and he was pained in his heart (‫( ”)אל לבו‬Gen 6:6–7; cf. the counterpart to the latter at the end of the flood in 8:21 [‫)]אל לבו‬. In response to Esau’s intentions, Rebecca planned to save Jacob, and the enunciation of her plan echoes the end of the flood: “Now therefore, my son, obey my voice; flee at once to my brother Laban in Haran … until your brother’s anger turns back from you (‫ﬠד‬ ‫ … )ׁשוב אף אחיך ממך‬then I will send, and take you from there (‫”)וׁשלחתי ולקחתיך‬ (Gen 27:43–45). This sequence mirrors that of the flood story where the turningback of the waters is followed by the sending and taking of the dove (‫ויׁשבו המים‬ ‫[ מﬠל הארץ‬8:3]; ‫[ ויׁשלח ידו ויקחה‬8:9]). If so perceived, this analogy suggests that Jacob’s safe return to the land after meeting the potentially deadly Esau is like the end of the flood, precisely how the two analogies are combined in the latter half of Isaiah. There the announcement that God would enter into judgment against Edom (Isa 63:1–6) gives way to a prayer for restoration (63:7–64:11), followed by a vision of renewal after the end of the flood-like wrath (65–66). 97  In what follows, the parallels between Esau and the flood (and Abraham and the covenant with Noah) were suggested to me by Andrew Teeter (personal communication), for which I am grateful. Naturally, I alone am responsible for the merely (and necessarily) suggestive formulation of these references here. 98  Gen 7:3; 9:9; 32:12–13.

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Arguably, the deliverance of Rachel from her plight of barrenness also evokes the deliverance of Noah from the flood: 1 But God remembered (‫ )ויזכר‬Noah … And God made a wind blow over the earth, and the waters subsided … 6 At the end of forty days Noah opened the window of the ark (‫ויפתח‬ ‫ … )נח את חלון התבה‬21 And when the LORD smelled the pleasing odor [of Noah’s sacrifice], the LORD said in his heart, “I will no longer (‫ )אסף‬curse the ground because of humanity … nor will I ever again (‫ )אסף‬destroy every living creature as I have done.” (Gen 8:1, 6, 21)

22 Then God remembered (‫)ויזכר‬ Rachel, and God heeded her and opened her womb (‫)ויפתח את רחמה‬. 23 She conceived and bore a son, and said, “God has taken away (‫ )אסף‬my reproach”; 24 and she named him Joseph (‫)ותקרא את ׁשמו יוסף‬, saying, “May the LORD add (‫ )יסף‬to me another son!” (Gen 30:22–24)

In both stories, the fate of the character takes a turn for the better when God “remembers” them. In both cases, this is also signaled by “opening” the vessel for life (the ark/Rachel’s womb). The divine plan for life is presumably the point of continuity upon which the comparison turns. Thus, the naming of her son “Joseph” (‫ )יוסף‬recalls the divine promise no longer (‫ )יס״ף‬to destroy. There is precedent in Genesis for such a comparison wherein a story about the threat to a woman’s “offspring” is cast in the light of the same threat posed by the flood. Yair Zakovitch has argued, convincingly in my opinion, that the story of Sodom and Gomorrah in Gen 19 has been structured on analogy to the flood account.99 If so, the plan of Lot’s older daughter – “let us keep alive offspring from our father” (‫)ונחיה מאבינו זרﬠ‬100 – surely echoes the divine plan: “take from seven of every kind … to preserve offspring (‫ )לחיות זרﬠ‬upon the face of the earth.”101 The sick twist is that Lot’s daughters, in carrying out their plan to preserve life, end up repeating the drunken incestuous tragedy that took place in Noah’s tent.102 In any case, the story of Lot’s daughters provides precedent for a comparison between the threat of the flood to “offspring” and those threats undermining the birth of “offspring” through a woman. In the case of Lot’s daughters, their husbands died, and they were stranded with their father. In Rachel’s case, she was barren. The comparison between Rachel’s barrenness and the flood is also mirrored in Isaiah. Here, the promise that the barren woman will receive children coincides with that end of divine wrath likened to the flood of Noah. This is true in both the promise to Zion (Isa 54:1–10) and the fulfillment in her children, the servants (66:7–24). If the birth of Joseph could be compared to the end of the flood, then it is not surprising that, when Joseph comforts his brothers at the end of their ordeal in Egypt, his words recall both the cause of the flood and God’s plan for life afterwards: 99 

Zakovitch, ‫מקראות בארץ המראות‬, 48–49. Gen 19:13, 34. 101  Gen 7:3. 102  Zakovitch, ‫מקראות בארץ המראות‬, 48–49. 100 

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5 The LORD saw that … every inclination of the plans of their hearts was only evil continually all day (‫)מחׁשבת לבו רק רﬠ כל היום‬. 6 And the LORD was sorry (‫ )וינחם‬that he had made humankind on the earth, and it grieved him in his heart (‫)אל לבו‬ … 3 and [take] seven pairs of the birds of the air also, male and female, to keep alive offspring (‫ )לחיות זרﬠ‬on the face of all the earth …. 21 And when the LORD smelled the pleasing odor, the LORD said in his heart (‫)אל לבו‬, “I will no longer curse the ground because of man, even though the inclination of his heart (‫ )לבו‬is evil from youth; nor will I ever again destroy every living creature as I have done.” (Gen 6:5–6; 7:3; 8:21)

19 But Joseph said to them, “Do not be afraid! Am I in the place of God? 20 Even though you planned evil against me (‫)חׁשבתם ﬠלי רﬠה‬, God intended it (‫ )חׁשבה‬for good, in order to keep alive a numerous people (‫)להחית ﬠם רב‬, as he is doing today. 21 So have no fear; I myself will provide for you and your little ones.” In this way he comforted them (‫)וינחם‬, and spoke to their heart (‫)וידבר ﬠל לבם‬. (Gen 50:19–21)

In both cases, God had a plan to preserve life (‫ )חי״ה‬amidst destruction (flood/ famine). Understanding this, Joseph refuses to kill his brothers. For this reason (and paradoxically), Joseph’s inaction here also offers a contrast to God’s destructive act in the Flood.103 God sent the flood because of the evil “plans” (‫ )חׁש״ב‬of humanity, which made him regret (‫ )נח״ם‬that he created them for he was pained in his heart (‫)אל לבו‬. But despite the evil “plans” (‫ )חׁש״ב‬of his brothers, Joseph comforted them (‫ )נח״ם‬and spoke kindly to their heart (‫לבם‬ ‫)ﬠל‬. This contrast stems from Joseph’s understanding of his role in the divine plan, expressed in his first words to his brothers: “Am I in the place of God?” It was not his place to kill when God had determined to save. It is important to note that both here and in the earlier story involving Esau the potential threat arises after the death of the father: Esau plans to kill Jacob after the death of Isaac, and the brothers of Joseph think he will kill them after the death of Jacob. Since the end of the flood seems to be evoked both by the comforting words of Joseph here and in the resolution of Rachel’s plight of barrenness above, the transition from Isa 54–55 is supremely fitting. After barren Zion is promised children on analogy to the covenant with Noah (Isa 54:1–10), this covenant is then elaborated in terms that recall precisely these words of Joseph to his brothers in Genesis.104 Why exactly the stories of these descendants of Abraham should seemingly be cast in the light of the flood story may have something to do with the wellrecognized parallel between the Noahic covenant (Gen 9) and the Abrahamic covenant (Gen 17). For many scholars, God’s covenant with Abraham and his offspring recalls his covenant with Noah and his own. According to Eric Bosshard-Nepustil, for instance, “Das Verhältnis zwischen Gen 9 und 17 ist also 103  A more thorough treatment of this would show that, while Joseph is being contrasted with God in Gen 6, he is acting in continuity with God in Gen 8. The pain of God in Gen 6 is soothed by Noah’s sacrifice in Gen 8, leading to an end of the divine hostility towards humanity (see footnote 68 above). 104  See footnote 96 above.

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entscheidend für das Verständnis der thematischen Struktur von PG.”105 Above we saw in Isaiah that the servant, Jacob, was encouraged more than once that he would experience renewal after the flood, precisely because he is the offspring of Abraham. And not a few promises involving the servant there echo the divine commitment to Abraham’s offspring in Genesis.106 At the very least, all of these parallels suggest that the composite analogy in the latter half of Isaiah found precedent in the construal of Genesis itself. The story of Jacob and his offspring echoed that of Noah and his own. 4.3.4  Some Initial Conclusions In the foregoing discussion, I have traced a movement from the servant to his offspring, the servants, the children of Zion who would form a covenantal community in a new creation after the flood. We have seen that the latter half of Isaiah portrays the servant and his offspring after the flood of divine wrath on analogy to Noah and his own, Noah himself becoming a new Adam in a new creation grounded in that divine covenant given in response to his righteous sacrifice. And just now we have seen that the latter half of Isaiah also portrays the servant and his offspring on analogy to the patriarch Jacob and his own as they travel back from Mesopotamia and are delivered from Esau’s wrath to enjoy the promised land. In this way, a composite analogy comes to define the significance of that relationship between the servant and his offspring in the latter half of Isaiah. Here, that future envisioned for the servant and his offspring recalled the story of Adam and his own, which, for the Isaianic prophet at least, cast its long shadow over the histories of subsequent generations, including those of Noah and Jacob. What kind of narrative does such a movement advance? It advances an analogical history whereby the shape of the past continuously portends that of the future. In this history, the servant and his offspring are nothing more than the most definitive instantiation of that divine plan continuously revealed in the shape of the past, a plan aimed at putting the chosen people back into a place like Eden. From the point of view of the book, Isaiah spoke of a future whose shape fit into that analogical rhythm of the past which had prefigured it.107 Like Isaiah and his children in the days of the Assyrian flood,108 the patterns of the 105 

Bosshard-Nepustil, Vor uns die Sintflut, 126. Compare, for instance, Isa 54:3 (‫ )וזרﬠך גוים יירׁש‬and 65:9 (‫ יר״ׁש‬+ ‫ )זרﬠ‬with Gen 22:17; 24:60; cf. 28:4. 107  On “rhythm” in narrative and its correlate, prospection, see the brief comments in Meir Sternberg, The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1985), 114. See also Jacob Stromberg, “Figural History in the Book of Isaiah.” 108  The parallels between Isaiah and his children in the days of the Assyrian flood and the servant and his offspring in the flood of the latter half of the book belong to a larger organization in the latter half of the book of Isaiah, whereby chs. 40–66 are structured analogically 106 

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past revealed in Genesis spoke of a future whose culmination emerges into the light for the reader with the final chapters of Isaiah. The story of the servant and his offspring had played itself out before on the stage of history, and it would do so again one final time as foreseen at the conclusion of the Isaianic vision. The future would resemble the past, because the past portended the future.

5.  The Wise of Daniel: A Covenantal Community for a New Creation after the Flood With that conclusion in place, we may revisit the Isaianic wise (‫ )המׂשכילים‬as they appear in the final vision of the book of Daniel, the topic with which this essay began. At the start, we saw that these righteous sufferers in Dan 11–12 are patterned in a variety of ways on that righteous sufferer of Isa 52:13–53:12, who, after his tribulation, would “be lifted up” and “prosper” (‫)יׂשכיל‬. In the latter half of Isaiah, this servant would see offspring, “the servants,” who would emulate him in his mission, suffering, and vindication. The question driving this essay is whether or not the final vision of Daniel portrays these righteous sufferers in the light of that larger movement within the latter half of the book of Isaiah from servant to servants. Put otherwise, does this final Danielic vision move beyond a simple acknowledgment of the grammatical shift from singular (servant) to plural (servants) in the latter half of Isaiah to echo the native logic governing that shift? Does that logic govern the Isaianic allusion in Daniel? To answer this, we must consider the particular echo of Isaiah considered above – the echo of the suffering servant in the suffering wise ones of Daniel – in the context of the broader engagement with the Isaianic prophecy in this final Danielic vision. I begin by noting that, after the period of tribulation in the final vision of Daniel, the righteous sufferers are promised a vindication which unmistakably echoes the vindication of the servants in the final vision of Isaiah. In Dan 12:2–3, the righteous sufferers – “those who have insight” (‫)המׂשכילים‬ – would resurrect “to eternal life” (‫ )לחיי ﬠולם‬after their faithful suffering and death. This happy on chs. 1–39. The first half of Isaiah has been given a narrative structure that recounts the commission of the prophet and culminates with the story of Hezekiah. On the principle that the past portends the future, this narrative sequence (together with the oracles framed by it) has been made the key to understanding that future foreseen in the second half of the book. On this, see Jacob Stromberg, “The Book of Isaiah: Its Final Structure,” in The Oxford Handbook of Isaiah, ed. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 19–36 (especially 33–34). To what that essay notes by way of parallels, I would add the following items, which are salient in the light of the discussion here: (1) restoration on the other side of Assyrian judgment is set on analogy to the problem of Jacob and his offspring (so Isa 29:22–24 in the light of 8:16–18); as in chs. 40–66, this analogy explains the poem about judgment on Edom in ch. 34 just before the end of the Assyrian flood in chs. 36–37; (2) the Assyrian flood in chs. 1–39 is likened to the Noahic flood with Edenic renewal thereafter, as noted above.

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fate is contrasted with that of the rebels, who would be consigned “to eternal contempt (‫)לדראון ﬠולם‬.” As is widely recognized, this sad fate awaiting the rebels in Daniel’s final vision has been patterned on that fate of the rebels in the last line of the final vision of the book of Isaiah.109 This last Isaianic vision speaks of a renewed Jerusalem for the “servants” of God, the offspring of the servant, in a new heavens and earth. In this Edenic renewal, “all flesh” would come to worship God at Jerusalem, and the bodies of the rebels would be left outside as a “contempt (‫)דראון‬110 to all flesh” (Isa 66:20–24). By locating the righteous sufferers in the eschatological future of Isaiah’s final vision, Daniel depicts them as of a kind with the Isaianic “servants” of these chapters. Moreover, the righteous here are said to be faithful, when the king of the north rages against “the holy covenant” (‫)ברית קדׁש‬, so that many forsake it (11:28, 30, 32). As with the servants of Isaiah, the righteous sufferers of Daniel form a covenantal community. Thus, Daniel’s allusion follows the contours of Isaiah’s strategy. The fact that here the ‫מׂשכילים‬ find themselves in the eschatological scenario of Isa 66, but are patterned after the suffering servant who would “prosper” (‫ )יׂשכיל‬in 52:13–53:12, suggests that it is precisely the strategy of the latter half of the Isaianic prophecy which underlies the Danielic vision here. We saw above that in the final vision of Isaiah the servants of the Lord would need to endure a period of divine wrath set on analogy to that of the Assyrian flood from the first half of the book. We also saw that when this flood came to an end, the servants would be restored and the wicked would be punished as a “contempt (‫ )דראון‬to all flesh,” a fate befalling the wicked here in Daniel. If the final vision of Daniel has patterned its future on the Isaianic model, then we can expect the period of tribulation here to have been styled on the pattern of that Assyrian flood depicted there. And indeed it has, as has been recognized for a long time.111 In the final vision of Daniel, the period of tribulation echoes that Assyrian flood first announced in Isa 8:6–8. This whole problem has been presented in great detail by Andrew Teeter, whose main conclusions I list only selectively here with a few points of the relevant data.112 The tribulation for the righteous in Dan 11 arises from an ongoing series of conflicts between the kings of the north and those of the south, usually identified 109 

E. g., Matthias Henze, “The Use of Scripture in the Book of Daniel,” in A Companion to Biblical Interpretation in Early Judaism, ed. Matthias Henze (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012), 279–307 (here 298); Lester, Daniel Evokes Isaiah, 99–101; Newsom, Daniel, 364. 110  The word ‫ דראון‬occurs nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible outside of Isa 66 and Dan 12. 111  I. L. Seeligmann, “Voraussetzungen der Midraschexegese,” in Congress Volume: Copenhagen, ed. G. W. Anderson, VTSup 1 (Leiden: Brill, 1953), 150–81 (here 171); Andrew Teeter, “Isaiah and the King of As/syria in Daniel’s Final Vision: On the Rhetoric of InnerScriptural Allusion and the Hermeneutics of ‘Mantological Exegesis,’” in A  Teacher for All Generations: Essays in Honor of James C. VanderKam, vol. 1, ed. Eric F. Mason et al., JSJSup 153 (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 169–200; Lester, Daniel Evokes Isaiah, 134–49. 112  Teeter, “Isaiah and the King of As/syria in Daniel’s Final Vision,” 169–200; cf. Lester, Daniel Evokes Isaiah, 134–49.

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as the Seleucids and Ptolemies respectively. While this whole period is set on analogy to the Assyrian flood in Isaiah 1–39, the kings of the north are singled out by the allusion for their similarity to the raging Assyrian king of Isaiah. And here Isa 8:7–8 can be said to have played a decisive role: 7 therefore, behold, the Lord is bringing up against it the mighty and many waters of the River, the king of Assyria and all his glory; it will rise above all its channels and overflow all its banks; 8 it will sweep on into Judah; it will overflow and pass over (‫וﬠבר‬ ‫)ׁשטף‬, reaching up to the neck; and the extending of its wings will fill the breadth of your land (‫)ארצך‬, O Immanuel. (Isa 8:7–8)

10 His sons shall wage war and assemble a multitude of great forces, which shall advance and overflow and pass over (‫וﬠבר‬ ‫)ׁשטף‬, and again shall carry the war as far as his fortress …. 22 and the forces of the flood will be flooded away (‫ )הׁשטף יׁשטפו‬and broken before him, and the prince of the covenant as well …. 26 those who eat of the royal rations shall break him, his army shall be swept away (‫)יׁשטוף‬, and many shall fall slain …. 40 At the time of the end the king of the south shall attack him. But the king of the north shall rush upon him like a whirlwind, with chariots and horsemen, and with many ships. He shall advance against lands (‫ )ארצות‬and pass through like a flood (‫וﬠבר‬ ‫)וׁשטף‬. (Dan 11:10, 22, 26, 40)

In Isa 8, Assyria is portrayed as a destructive flood that would overflow into Judah, a point that was not lost on the Danielic author. As Teeter observes, “In Daniel, the image expresses the uncontrolled rage of latter-day kings of ‘the north’ as they endlessly wage war against ‘the south’ in their struggle for power.”113 Like Assyria before them, these kings were from the “north” (cf. Isa 14:31). And so Judah – at times under the influence of the kings of the south in this period – would become subject to the aggressions of the north (11:30, 41). Thus, in Dan 11, “the precise locution ‫ שטף וﬠבר‬is consciously restricted to vv. 10 and 40, where Judea itself is in question, in contrast to the use of ‫ שט״ף‬alone in vv. 22 and 26, which depict activities elsewhere.”114 The analogy here would also explain why items relating to Judah under the Assyrian threat in Isaiah have been applied in the Danielic vision to the kings of the south.115 113 

Teeter, “Isaiah and the King of As/syria in Daniel’s Final Vision,” 173. Ibid., 174. The locution ‫ שטף וﬠבר‬only occurs in these passages in the Hebrew Bible and applies to Judah in Isa 8:8. 115  Consider these two items: (1) In Dan 11:17, the king of the north plots against the south: “but it shall not succeed or be to his advantage” (‫)ולא תﬠמד ולא לו תהיה‬. This phrase evokes the doomed plans of the nations against Jerusalem in Isaiah (Isa 7:5–7 [‫ ;]לא תקום ולא תהיה‬8:10 [‫ﬠצו‬ ‫ ;]ﬠצה ותפר … ולא יקום‬cf. 14:24–27). On this see especially Teeter, “Isaiah and the King of As/ syria in Daniel’s Final Vision,” 179–80; cf. John J. Collins, Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993), 381. (2) In Dan 11:7, the problem of royal succession in the south adapts Isaianic language: “he will arise from the shoot of her roots (‫)מנצר ׁשרׁשיה‬.” This evokes Isa 11:1 which addresses the problem of royal succession in Judah in the days of the Assyrian flood with precisely the same language: “a branch from his roots (‫ )נצר מׁשרׁשיו‬shall fruit forth.” Because the fulfillment of Isa 11:1 is associated specifically with Hezekiah after the overthrow of the Assyrian flood (see Stromberg, “Hezekiah and the Oracles against the Nations in Isaiah”), it is important that the last king of the north in Daniel 114 



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In development of this threat of an Assyrian flood within Isa 8 itself, verses 14–15 speak of the difficulties that will face “both houses of Israel” as a consequence: He will become a sanctuary, a stone one strikes against; for both houses of Israel he will become a rock one stumbles over – a trap and a snare for the inhabitants of Jerusalem. And many shall stumble over them (‫ ;)וכׁשלו בם רבים‬they shall fall (‫ )ונפלו‬and be shattered (‫ ;)ונׁשברו‬they shall be snared and taken (‫)ונלכדו‬. (Isa 8:14–15)

Allusions to this passage in Daniel’s vision portray the difficulties of the future on analogy to those of the past (Isa 8:14–15 // Dan 11:18–19, 26, 33–35).116 For instance, Dan 11:33–35 portrays the hardships of the righteous during the floodlike tribulation: The wise among the people shall give understanding to many (‫ ;)לרבים‬for some days, however, they shall stumble (‫ )ונכׁשלו‬by sword and flame, and suffer captivity and plunder. When they stumble (‫)ובהכׁשלם‬, they shall receive a little help, and many shall join them insincerely. Some of the wise shall stumble (‫)יכׁשלו‬, so that they may be refined, purified, and cleansed, until the time of the end, for there is still an interval until the time appointed. (Dan 11:33–35)

Like “both houses of Israel” in Isaiah’s days, the righteous of Daniel’s vision would suffer hardship during the flood of that nation from the north. Indeed, the final king of the north “in Daniel is overtly aligned with Isaiah’s Assyria through distinctive phrases (‫ כלה ונחרצה‬and ‫ )כלה זﬠם‬which occur nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible” (compare Isa 10:22–26 with Dan 9:26–27; 11:36).117 In both visions, the “wrath” (‫ )זﬠם‬and “decreed destruction” (‫ונחרצה‬ ‫ )כלה‬would eventually “come to an end” (‫[ כלה‬Isa 10:23, 25; Dan 9:27; 11:36]). To all of this, it is very much worth adding that, as Daniel receives these visions about the hard times ahead for his people, he receives them in the manner of Isaiah the prophet when he was commissioned for ministry in Isa 6.118 In that passage, God announces judgment on the people until all that would be left was “holy offspring” (‫)זרﬠ קדׁש‬, a judgment developed immediately in relation to Assyria in subsequent chapters (e. g., 7:17; 8). On the model of Isaiah’s commisis said to be terrified by “rumors” (‫ )ׁשמﬠות‬and then to meet his end (Dan 12:44–45). After this statement in Daniel follows the resurrection of the righteous (12:1–3). In Isaiah, the Assyrian flood comes to an end when Sennacherib hears rumors (‫[ ׁשמוﬠה‬Isa 37:7–9]) and then meets his end (37:36–38). What follows next in Isaiah is an account of how God raised Hezekiah up from Sheol, as his poem has it (38:10, 11, 17, 18). Thus, the scenario of Dan 11–12 follows the contours of the sequence in Isaiah. In Isaiah, the account of Hezekiah finds its analogical counterpart in the future vision of chs. 65–66 (see Stromberg, “The Book of Isaiah,” 33–34). Because this is the future within which Daniel locates its resurrection, it is not impossible that Hezekiah’s deliverance from “the pit” was seen to prefigure the resurrection of the righteous in Daniel. 116  Teeter, “Isaiah and the King of As/syria in Daniel’s Final Vision,” 174–76. 117  Ibid., 177. 118  George G. Nicol, “Isaiah’s Vision and the Visions in Daniel,” VT 29 (1979): 501–5.

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sion, the heavenly beings tell Daniel of a flood like Assyria that will inundate the land of his people in days to come. Finally (and for reasons that cannot be gone into here), Teeter concludes:119 By literary design and by explicit decree (Isa 14:26–27), eighth-century Assyria has been absorbed – already in Isaiah – into a larger, typological role in its capacity as the rod of divine wrath that is itself destined for destruction. As the period of divine judgment is extended historically and restoration deferred, so also is the identity of the agent of wrath expanded – not merely shifted. Under the conception of a single plan of God governing the judgment and deliverance of his people, the historical particulars of Assyria’s role and fate become features of an archetype, a pattern capable of extension well beyond the seventh-century demise of that empire. This allows for multiple historical empires and personalities to be subsumed under a single rubric; and it paves the way for later authors to discover and articulate new literary correspondences with Assyria, based not on genealogy but on functional continuity within the “plan” of God.

In this respect, the analogical extension of Isaiah’s Assyria into that future shown to Daniel was entirely predictable on the basis of the earlier prophetic book itself. While Teeter draws this conclusion primarily on the basis of the first half of Isaiah, much the same can be said for the remainder of the book, as we have seen here. Thus, like the servants in Isaiah, the righteous in Daniel find themselves threatened by an Assyrian-like flood. Like the servants in Isaiah, they will be vindicated after this flood. And like the opponents of the servants in Isaiah, the wicked in Daniel will be made a “contempt” (‫ )דראון‬when the flood ends and the righteous are vindicated. In both halves of Isaiah the Assyrian flood is set on analogy to that of Noah, as was seen above. Hence, in both cases there follows after the flood a promise of Edenic renewal. Because Daniel has adapted the language of the Assyrian flood from precisely this Isaianic framework, we would expect the same to follow after the flood here, namely, a return to what was lost when Adam and Eve were ejected from Eden. Our expectations are not disappointed when we compare the fate of the righteous in Daniel with the curse on Adam that undid the very act of his own creation in Genesis: The LORD God formed the man from the dust of the ground (‫)את האדם ﬠפר מן האדמה‬, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life (‫ ;)נׁשמת חיים‬and the man became a living being (‫)לנפׁש חיה‬. (Gen 2:7) Cursed is the ground (‫ )האדמה‬because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days

119 

Many of those who sleep in the dust of the ground (‫ )אדמת ﬠפר‬shall awake, some to everlasting life (‫)לחיי ﬠולם‬, and some to shame and everlasting contempt. Those who are wise shall shine like the brightness of the sky, and those who lead many to righteousness, like the stars forever and ever. (Dan 12:2–3)

Teeter, “Isaiah and the King of As/syria in Daniel’s Final Vision,” 197–98.

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of your life (‫ … ;)כל ימי חייך‬By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread until you return to the ground (‫)ﬠד ׁשובך אל האדמה‬, for out of it you were taken; you are dust, and to dust you shall return (‫כי ﬠפר אתה‬ ‫)ואל ﬠפר תׁשוב‬. (Gen 3:17–19)

In Genesis, God enacted this death sentence by means of exile. He sent Adam from the garden so that he would no longer be able to take “from the tree of life (‫)מﬠץ החיים‬, eat, and live forever (‫( ”)וחי לﬠלם‬3:22–23). To ensure Adam would not return to eat, God placed cherubim “east of the garden in Eden,” in order to “guard the way to the tree of life” (3:24). For the righteous in Daniel, their vindication would be a reversal of the curse put on Adam: they would “awake” from sleeping in “the dust of the ground (‫ ”)אדמת ﬠפר‬to “everlasting life (‫לחיי‬ ‫( ”)ﬠולם‬Dan 12:2). Indeed, it is fitting that this whole vision is revealed to Daniel as he stands on the bank of the river ‫חדקל‬, which is said to have flowed out of Eden and “east of Asshur” (Gen 2:14; Dan 10:4).120 There on the bank of the river Daniel meets a figure whose appearance deliberately recalls that of the cherubim (Dan 10:6).121 And what happens next can only be understood in the light of the Eden narrative. Adam and Eve “ate” (‫ )אכ״ל‬the forbidden fruit, because “the tree was desirable for insight” (‫[ נחמד הﬠץ להׂשכיל‬Gen 3:6]). Then, “they heard the sound of the Lord God (‫ ”)ויׁשמﬠו את קול יהוה אלהים‬and, out of fear, they “hid” (‫)חב״א‬ in the middle of the garden (Gen 3:8–10). But here Daniel, “insightful” (‫)ׂשכ״ל‬ in all that precedes,122 had not “eaten” (‫ )אכ״ל‬that which was “desired” (‫חמ״ד‬ [Dan 10:3]). So while the men with him “hide” (‫ )חב״א‬in terror at the appearance of the cherub-like being, Daniel remains and “hears” (‫ )ׁשמ״ﬠ‬the “sound (‫ )קול‬of his words” (Dan 10:9). And hearing this, Daniel falls to the ground in a “deep sleep” (‫[ נרדם‬Dan  10:9 // ‫תרדמה‬, Gen 2:21123]). But the being commands Daniel “rise” (‫ ;)ﬠמד‬and when Daniel heard him speak he rose (‫[ ﬠמ״ד‬Dan 10:10–11]). This cherub-like being had come to reveal the vision to Daniel. And at the end of that vision, after telling Daniel that the ‫ מׂשכילים‬would “awake” from their “sleep” in the dust, the being encourages Daniel, “you shall rest and then rise (‫)ותﬠמד‬ to your inheritance at the end of days” (Dan 12:13). Thus, the reenactment of 120 

The word ‫ חדקל‬occurs nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible. Dan 10:6, Daniel describes the legs of the being as having “the appearance of burnished bronze” (‫)כﬠין נחׁשת קלל‬, which is a reference to the appearance of the cherubim in Ezek 1:7. Note that Ezek 10:20 identifies the ‫ חיות‬of Ezek 1 as ‫כרובים‬. Daniel’s evocation here belongs to a larger allusion to Ezekiel in the chapter. See Henze, “The Use of Scripture in the Book of Daniel,” 292–94. 122  Daniel is given “insight” (‫ )ׂשכ״ל‬by God in Dan 1:4, 17; 5:11–12, 14; 7:8; 9:22, 25. 123  This reference to the “deep sleep” of Adam when God created Eve from his rib is not likely random. The curse on the man (‫[ ﬠד ׁשובך אל האדמה כי ממנה לקחת‬Gen 3:19]) echoes the creation of Eve (‫[ לזאת יקרא אׁשה כי מאיׁש לקחה זאת‬Gen 2:23]), presumably because of the irony that the latter (who was to be a blessing) led to the curse of the former. 121 In

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the Edenic story in Daniel’s visionary experience on the bank of the river ‫חדקל‬ foreshadowed his own fate at the end of days. In the final vision, a being reveals to Daniel a future time when a great flood would give way to an Edenic renewal, a reversal of the curse on Adam for the righteous. Having been contrasted with Adam for the reader, Daniel is then promised he would partake in this renewal. At that time, he would rise from sleep, as he had once arisen from sleep on the bank of the ‫חדקל‬. As the opening of the book says, Daniel himself was one of the ‫מׂשכילים‬, and like them he had righteously endured the perils of that flood of the nations overwhelming his people (Dan 1:4, 17). So like them, he too would rise from his sleep in the dust. Because this Edenic renewal would follow the tribulation of a great flood, this Danielic vision of the future echoes the prototypical flood experience in the days of Noah, when Edenic renewal followed destruction.124 After the flood of Gen 6–8, God mitigates the curse on the ‫ אדמה‬pronounced in Gen 3.125 After the flood of Dan 11, God mitigates the curse on the ‫ אדם‬pronounced in Gen 3. In Dan 12, the ‫אדם‬, like the earlier ‫ אדמה‬from whence he came, would see better times on the other side of the flood. And because the Danielic vision likens this tribulation to the Assyrian flood of the Isaianic prophecy, it is clear that the prototypical flood of the earliest times in Genesis is here being mediated through the lens of that historical experience and vision of the later eight-century prophet whose name the book bears. Ancient history had replayed itself in the days of Isaiah who foresaw a future when it would all happen again one final time. In this light, it cannot be a coincidence that the resurrection in the Danielic vision evokes the promise of Isaiah 26, as noted above: “O dwellers in the dust (‫)ﬠפר‬, awake (‫ )הקיצו‬and sing for joy!” (Isa 26:19) // “Many of those who sleep in the dust (‫ )ﬠפר‬of the earth shall awake (‫( ”)יקיצו‬Dan 12:2). This prophecy comes in a larger eschatological scenario of judgment and salvation within Isa 24–27. And here, as is widely recognized, the judgment to come echoes the flood in days of Noah, and the restoration thereafter evokes Edenic renewal.126 This too informs the Danielic vision. 124  Perhaps this is the significance to the final words to Daniel, “you shall rest (‫ )תנוח‬and then rise to your inheritance” (Dan 12:13). First the ark (with Noah inside) rested (‫)ותנח‬, and then followed the Edenic renewal (Gen 8:4; 9). 125  See footnote 68 above. 126  God would send a worldwide judgment, because the inhabitants violated the “eternal covenant” (‫[ ברית ﬠולם‬Isa 24:5]). This echoes the ‫ ברית ﬠולם‬in Gen 9:16, according to Bosshard-Nepustil (Vor uns die Sintflut, 248): “Denn nur diesen ewigen Bund schliesst Gott mit allen Menschen.” An echo of the Noahic covenant here would not automatically identify the covenant in Isa 24:5 as that made after the flood. But it would suggest that the covenant here was being compared to the covenant there. To initiate the global destruction, the “windows of the heights/heavens were opened” (Isa 24:18; Gen 7:11). In preparation for this destruction, God commands the audience “close your doors behind you” (Isa 26:20; cf. Gen 7:16). After the judgment, there would follow a renewal of the vineyard (Isa 27:2–6; Gen 9:20–21). This suggests



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In every way, such a vision is fitting for Daniel, who saw these things on the

‫חדקל‬, the very river which flowed from Eden, and from whence came the As-

syrian flood spoken of by Isaiah.127 For Daniel was a “son of Adam,” one of the “children of Israel,” from the “royal offspring” of Judah, full of “insight,” and a “servant of the living God,” as Darius recognized when he called into the pit to see if God had delivered him from the “lions” therein.128 The later righteous of Daniel’s final vision would face “lions” of their own, the ravenous nations of Dan 7.129 And as God did for Daniel before them, he would deliver them from the nations. At the end of days, they would rise from the dust. When viewed through this later visionary lens, the deliverance of Daniel from the lions’ den comes to prefigure their deliverance from the nations, which would be deliverance from death itself unto eternal life. Conversely, the last line of the book promises Daniel that he would join those who rise from the dust at the end of days. Just as Daniel’s life prefigured their own, so their blessed fate would be his to share. Those who “justify the many (‫ ”)רבים‬would shine “like the stars (‫ ”)ככוכבים‬in the expanse (Dan 12:3), a promise that surely evokes that oft-repeated promise to Abraham: “I will multiply (‫ )והרביתי‬your offspring like the stars of (‫ )ככוכבי‬the heavens” (Gen 26:4; cf. 15:5; 22:17).130

6. Conclusion To conclude this essay, I  repeat the quote with which this volume began: “… identities are the names we give to the different ways we are positioned by, and that an Edenic renewal would follow judgement in Isa 24–27. Thus, “those who dwell in the dust” shall awake (Isa 26:19; cf. Gen 2:7; 3:19); God will defeat the “snake” (‫[ נחׁש‬Isa 27:1; cf. Gen 3:14–15]); and there will be a removal of the “thorns and thistles” (Isa 27:4; cf. Gen 3:18), so that Israel bears “fruit” (Isa 27:6). Because the story of the destruction of Sodom – also the story of the origin of the Moabites – has been told in the light of the flood narrative (Zakovitch, ‫מקראות בארץ המראות‬, 48–49), it is important to observe that the judgment to come in Isa 24–27 is applied specifically to Moab (25:10–11) and would see the removal of death, that “shroud that is cast (‫ )הלוט הלוט‬over all peoples” (25:7). This promise sounds like a wordplay on the name of Moab’s ancestral father, ‫לוט‬, in Gen 19. On Isaiah’s parallel with the flood here, see Bosshard-Nepustil, Vor uns die Sintflut, 248–59; J. Todd Hibbard, Intertextuality in Isaiah 24–27, FAT II/16 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006), 56–69. 127  Dan 10:4 says he was on the bank of “the great river, namely the Hiddeqel” (‫הגדול‬ ‫הנהר‬ ‫)הוא חדקל‬. Because the Hiddeqel is the Tigris, but “the great river” is usually the Euphrates, some see ‫ הוא חדקל‬as a gloss: so Collins, Daniel, 373. However, this incongruous usage would allow Dan 10:4 to evoke both of these Mesopotamian rivers, even if only actually referring to the Tigris (Hiddeqel). The Hiddeqel flowed from Eden, but the Assyrian flood came from “the great river” (Isa 8:8). Both references are developed in the vision that follows. 128  Dan 1:3; 6:21; 8:17. 129  See Reinhard Gregor Kratz, “Die Visionen des Daniel,” in Das Judentum im Zeitalter des Zweiten Tempels. Kleine Schriften I, FAT 42 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004), 226–44 (here 229–33, esp. n.14). 130  I am grateful to Andrew Teeter for this suggestion.

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position ourselves within, the narratives of the past.”131 Identity is one small part of the larger universe which these scriptural texts seek to convey. They convey that identity through a past whose shape portends the future. The reason why this should be so relates to the theological impulse giving rise to the “biblical historical imagination” and the visionary accounts embedded therein. This impulse is captured well by Michael Fishbane’s description of history in the Bible:132 [T]he events of history are prismatic openings to the transhistorical. Indeed, the very capacity of a historical event to generate future expectation is dependent on the transfiguration of that event by the theological intuition that in it and through it the once and future power of the Lord of history is revealed.

Until we come to terms with such a vision of history, I suspect that we will understand neither the biblical texts themselves nor their earliest reception.

Bibliography Anderson, Bernhard W. “Exodus Typology in Second Isaiah.” Pages 177–95 in Israel’s Prophetic Heritage. Edited by Bernhard W. Anderson and Walter Harrelson. New York: Harper and Row, 1962. Aster, Shawn Zelig. Reflections of Empire in Isaiah 1–39: Responses to Assyrian Ideology. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2017. Barthel, Jörg. Prophetenwort und Geschichte: Die Jesajaüberlieferung in Jes 6–8 und 28–31. FAT 19. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1997. Beuken, W. A. M. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah: ‘The Servants of Yhwh.’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. –. “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55.” Pages 411–42 in The Book of Isaiah. Edited by Jacques Vermeylen. BETL 81. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Creation, Un-Creation, Re-Creation: A Discursive Commentary on Genesis 1–11. London: T&T Clark, 2011. –. Isaiah 40–55: A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19A. New York: Doubleday, 2002. –. “The One in the Middle.” Pages 63–75 in Reading from Right to Left: Essays on the Hebrew Bible in Honour of David J. A. Clines. Edited by J. Cheryl Exum and H. G. M. Williamson. JSOTSup 373. London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2003. –. “The Sacrificial Life and Death of the Servant.” VT 66.1 (2016): 1–14. –. “Who is the ṣaddiq of Isaiah 57:1–2?” Pages 109–120 in Studies in the Hebrew Bible, Qumran, and the Septuagint Presented to Eugene Ulrich. Edited by Peter W. Flint, Emanuel Tov, and James C. VanderKam. VTSup 101. Leiden: Brill, 2006.

131 Stuart Hall, “Cultural Identity and Diaspora,” in Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, ed. Jonathan Rutherford (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1990), 222–37 (here 225). 132  Fishbane, “‘Exodus’ Motif,” 140.



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Bosshard-Nepustil, Erich. Vor uns die Sintflut: Studien zu Text, Kontexten und Rezeption der Fluterzählung Genesis 6–9. BWANT 165. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 2005. Budde, Karl. “Gen. 3,17; 5,29; 8,21: Ein Beitrag zur Quellenkritik der Biblischen Urgeschichte.” ZAW 6 (1886): 30–43. Clements, Ronald E. “Psalm 72 and Isaiah 40–66: A  Study in Tradition.” PRS 28.4 (2001): 333–41. Collins, John J. Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993. Day, John. “DAʿAṮ ‘Humiliation’ in Isa LIII 11 in the Light of Isaiah LIII 3 and Daniel XII 4, and the Oldest Known Interpretation of the Suffering Servant.” VT 30.1 (1980): 97–103. Driver, S. R. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy. ICC. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902. Emerton, J. A. “A Further Consideration of D. W. Thomas’s Theories about yādaʿ.” VT 41.2 (1991): 145–63. Fishbane, Michael. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985. –. “The ‘Exodus’ Motif/The Paradigm of Historical Renewal.” Pages 121–40 in Text and Texture: Close Readings of Selected Biblical Texts. New York: Schocken, 1979. –. “Genesis 2:4b–11:32/The Primeval Cycle.” Pages 17–39 in Text and Texture: Close Readings of Selected Biblical Texts. New York: Schocken, 1979. Gärtner, Judith. “The Kabod of YHWH: A  Key Isaianic Theme from the Assyrian Empire to the Eschaton.” Pages 431–46 in The History of Isaiah: The Formation of the Book and its Presentation of the Past. Edited by Jacob Stromberg and J. Todd Hibbard. FAT. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2021. Grillo, Jennie. “Roots of Resurrection in the Tales of Daniel.” VT (2020): 1–11. Hall, Stuart. “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.” Pages 222–37 in Identity: Community, Culture, Difference. Edited by Jonathan Rutherford. London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1990. Hays, Christopher B. A Covenant with Death: Death in the Iron Age II and Its Rhetorical Uses in Proto-Isaiah. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015. Hengel, Martin, with Daniel P. Bailey. “The Effective History of Isaiah 53 in the PreChristian Period.” Pages 75–146 in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Henze, Matthias. “The Use of Scripture in the Book of Daniel.” Pages 279–307 in A Companion to Biblical Interpretation in Early Judaism. Edited by Matthias Henze. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012. Hibbard, J. Todd. Intertextuality in Isaiah 24–27. FAT II/16. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006. Keiser, Thomas A. “The Song of Moses a Basis for Isaiah’s Prophecy.” VT 55.4 (2005): 486–500. Klein, Anja. “‘Zieht heraus aus Babel’: Beobachtungen zum Zweiten Exodus im Deuterojesajabuch.” ZAW 112 (2015): 279–99. Kratz, Reinhard Gregor. “Der Anfang des Zweiten Jesaja in Jes 40,1f und seine literarischen Horizonte.” Pages 198–215 in Prophetenstudien. Kleine Schriften II. FAT 74. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011.

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–. “Jesaja 28–31 als Fortschreibung.” Pages 176–97 in Prophetenstudien. Kleine Schriften II. FAT 74. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011. –. “Die Visionen des Daniel.” Pages 226–44 in Das Judentum im Zeitalter des Zweiten Tempels. Kleine Schriften I. FAT 42. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004. Lau, Wolfgang. Schriftgelehrte Prophetie in Jes 56–66: Eine Untersuchung zu den literarischen Bezügen in den letzten elf Kapiteln des Jesajabuches. BZAW 225. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1994. Lester, G. Brooke. Daniel Evokes Isaiah: Allusive Characterization of Foreign Rule in the Hebrew-Aramaic Book of Daniel. LHBOTS 606. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015. Lyons, Michael A. “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isaiah 54; 56–66.” CBQ 77 (2015): 640–56. MacDonald, Nathan. Priestly Rule: Polemic and Biblical Interpretation in Ezekiel 44. BZAW 476. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2015. Machinist, Peter. “Assyria and Its Image in the First Isaiah.” JAOS 103.4 (1983): 719–37. Maier, Michael P. Völkerwallfahrt in Jesajabuch. BZAW 474. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2016. Newsom, Carol A., with Brennan W. Breed. Daniel: A  Commentary. OTL. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. Nickelsburg, George W. E. Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. Nicol, George G. “Isaiah’s Vision and the Visions in Daniel.” VT 29 (1979): 501–5. Paul, Shalom. Isaiah 40–66: Translation and Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012. Petersen, David L. “The Yahwist on the Flood.” VT 26 (1976): 438–46. Polliack, Meira. “Deutero-Isaiah’s Typological Use of Jacob in the Portrayal of Israel’s National Renewal.” Pages 72–110 in Creation in Jewish and Christian Tradition. Edited by H. Graf Reventlow and Yair Hoffman. LHBOTS 319. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002. Portier-Young, Anathea E. Apocalypse Against Empire: Theologies of Resistance in Early Judaism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011. Rendsburg, Gary A. The Redaction of Genesis. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2014. Rendtorff, Rolf. “Genesis 8,21 und die Urgeschichte des Jahwisten.” Kerygma und Dogma 7.1 (1961): 69–78. Roberts, J. J. M. First Isaiah: A Commentary. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015. Sailhamer, John D. “Genesis.” Pages 110–19 in A Complete Literary Guide to the Bible. Edited by Leland Ryken and Temper Longman III. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993. Schmid, Konrad. “New Creation Instead of New Exodus. The Innerbiblical Exegesis and Theological Transformations of Isaiah 65:17–25.” Pages 175–94 in Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66. Edited by Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad. FRLANT 255. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014. –. “Theological Interpretation of Assyrian Propaganda in the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 493–502 in The History of Isaiah: The Formation of the Book and its Presentation of the Past. Edited by Jacob Stromberg and J. Todd Hibbard. FAT. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2021.



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Seeligmann, I. L. “Voraussetzungen der Midraschexegese.” Pages 150–81 in Congress Volume: Copenhagen. Edited by G. W. Anderson. VTSup 1. Leiden: Brill, 1953. Smith, P. A. Rhetoric and Redaction in Trito-Isaiah: The Structure, Growth and Authorship of Isaiah 56–66. VTSup 62. Leiden: Brill, 1995. Sommer, Benjamin. A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40–66. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998. Sonnet, Jean-Pierre. “God’s Repentance and ‘False Starts’ in Biblical History (Genesis 6–9; Exodus 32–34; 1 Samuel 15 and 2 Samuel 7).” Pages 469–94 in Congress Volume Ljubljana 2007. Edited by A. Lemaire. VTSup 133. Leiden: Brill, 2010. Steck, Odil Hannes. “Der neue Himmel und die neue Erde: Beobachtungen zur Rezeption von Gen 1–3 in Jes 65,16b–25.” Pages 349–65 in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift for Willem A. M. Beuken. Edited by Jacques van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne. BETL 132. Leuven: Peeters, 1997. Sternberg, Meir. The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1985. Stromberg, Jacob. “The Book of Isaiah: Its Final Structure.” Pages 19–36 in The Oxford Handbook of Isaiah. Edited by Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021. –. “Deutero-Isaiah’s Restoration Reconfigured.” Pages 195–218 in Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66. Edited by Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad. FRLANT 255. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014. –. “Figural History in the Book of Isaiah: The Prospective Significance of Hezekiah’s Deliverance from Assyria and Death.” Pages 81–102 in Imperial Visions: The Prophet and the Book of Isaiah in an Age of Empires. Edited by Joachim Schaper and Reinhard Kratz. FRLANT 277. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2020. –. “Hezekiah and the Oracles against the Nations in Isaiah.” Pages 297–340 in The History of Isaiah: The Formation of the Book and its Presentation of the Past. Edited by Jacob Stromberg and J. Todd Hibbard. FAT. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2021. –. Isaiah after Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. –. “Servant of God.” Pages 279–85 in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Theology. Volume 2: kin-wor. Edited by Samuel E. Balentine. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. Sweeney, Marvin A. “On ûmeśôś in Isaiah 8.6.” Pages 42–54 in Among the Prophets, Language, Image and Structure in the Prophetic Writings. Edited by P. R. Davies and D. J. A. Clines. JSOTSup 144. Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993. –. “The Reconceptualization of the Davidic Covenant in Isaiah.” Pages 94–113 in Reading Prophetic Books: Form, Intertextuality, and Reception in Prophetic and Post-Biblical Literature. FAT 89. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014. Teeter, Andrew. “Isaiah and the King of As/syria in Daniel’s Final Vision: On the Rhetoric of Inner-Scriptural Allusion and the Hermeneutics of ‘Mantological Exegesis.’” Pages 169–200 in A  Teacher for All Generations: Essays in Honor of James C. VanderKam, Volume 1. Edited by Eric F. Mason et al. JSJSup 153. Leiden: Brill, 2012. Weidner, Alexander. Das Ende Deuterojesajas. FAT II/94. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017. Wilcox, Peter, and David Paton-Williams. “The Servant Songs in Deutero-Isaiah.” JSOT 42 (1988): 79–102.

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Williamson, H. G. M. The Book Called Isaiah: Deutero-Isaiah’s Role in Composition and Redaction. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. –. A  Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 1–27. Volume 1: Isaiah 6–12. ICC. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018. –. “Jacob in Isaiah 40–66.” Pages 219–29 in Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66. Edited by Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad. FRLANT 255. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014. –. Variations on a Theme: King, Messiah and Servant in the Book of Isaiah. Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1998. Zakovitch, Yair. “And you shall tell your son …”: The Concept of the Exodus in the Bible. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1991. –. “Do the Last Verses of Malachi (Mal 3:22–24) have a Canonical Function?” Pages 60–81 in The Book of the Twelve – One Book or Many? Edited by Elena Di Pede and Donatella Scaiola. FAT II/91. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2016. –. Jacob: Unexpected Patriarch. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012. –. ‫מקראות בארץ המראות‬. Tel Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad, 1995.

The Servants in Wisdom of Solomon Holly J. Carey 1. Introduction It takes just a quick read through the apocryphal book Wisdom of Solomon to see that the author was heavily influenced by earlier Jewish texts. Allusions to the scriptures of Israel abound.1 Perhaps most influential for Wisdom is the book of Isaiah, and of particular importance are the Isaianic “Servant” passages. The author draws upon the characterization of the Isaianic Servant throughout his book, and especially in the key chapters of Wis 2–5, which set up the rest of the “wisdom” that he shares with his audience.2 In his use of the Servant language of Isaiah, he both adopts and adapts the texts to fit his own particular circumstances. By this strategy, he is following the example found within Isaiah itself, where the concept of “Servant” in Deutero-Isaiah is modified in Trito-Isaiah.3 1  In perhaps my favorite description of the subtlety of the intertextual strategy in Wisdom, Silvana Manfredi declares that “the influence of the Old Testament is never showy in the Book of Wisdom.” Silvana Manfredi, “The Trial of the Righteous in Wis 5:1–14 (1–7) and in the Prophetic Traditions,” in The Book of Wisdom in Modern Research: Studies on Tradition, Redaction, and Theology, ed. Angelo Passaro and Giuseppe Bellia (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2005), 160. 2 Pancratius C. Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon 3,1–4,19 and the Book of Isaiah,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift Willem A. M. Beuken, ed. Jacques van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne, BETL 132 (Leuven: University Press and Peeters, 1997), 420, describes this as a kind of “structural use of Scripture.” 3  For the foundational studies on Isaiah’s Servant passages and the concept of “servant” throughout the book of Isaiah, see Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia, HKAT, 5th ed. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1968); Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch,” PIBA 7 (1983):1–23; repr. in R. P. Gordon, “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 392–12; idem, “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition, ed. Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans, VTSup 70/1 (New York: Brill, 1997), 155–75; Willem A. M. Beuken, “Isa. 56.9–57.13: An Example of the Isaianic Legacy of Trito-Isaiah,” in Tradition and Reinterpretation in Jewish and Early Christian Literature, ed. J. W. Van Henten, SPB 36 (Leiden: Brill, 1986), 48–64; idem, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55,” in The Book of Isaiah/Le Livre d’Isaïe, ed. Jacques Vermeylen, BETL 81 (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 411–42; idem, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH’,” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87; Elizabeth Achtemeier, The Community and Message of Isaiah 56–66: A Theological Commentary (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1982), 40–55; Walther Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” in Gottes Offenbarung: Gesammelte Aufsätze zum Alten Testament, ThB 19 (Munich: Kaiser, 1963),

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In this essay, I  will highlight the ways that the author of Wisdom does this, in (a) the language he borrows that is inspired by the Servant(s) passages in Deutero-Isaiah and Trito-Isaiah and the way he adapts it for his own purposes, (b) the allusions to Isaianic Servant passages that he applies to his protagonist and the community he represents, and (c) the Isaianic themes he shares and the innovative interpretations and applications of these themes that he weaves into his text.4

2.  The Language of “Servant(s)” in Isaiah and Wisdom 2.1  Terminology: παῖς, δοῦλος, δίκαιος, and υἱός There are several terms that are applied to the protagonists of the Isaianic Servant passages and Wisdom. Although on the surface it might not seem obvious that the “righteous man” or “righteous” in Wisdom is patterned after the “Servant” and “servants” of Isaiah 40–66, there are indications within the texts themselves that these are seen as relatively interchangeable terms – that the author of Wisdom was clearly patterning his righteous man of Wis 2 and 5 after the Servant of Isaiah 52–53, although the specific vocabulary used is not always verbatim.5

217–33. Blenkinsopp (“Servants of the Lord,” 411–12) concludes his essay by suggesting that later Christian adaptations of the Servant passages follow a tradition (“pattern”) already at work within the Isaianic text. Although he does not mention Wisdom specifically, the observations in this essay indicate that it, too, joins in this tradition. See also Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants,” 162. 4  Since the aim of this essay is to focus on the Isaianic intertextuality present in Wisdom, I do not have space here to devote adequate attention to questions of dating, origin, or specifics on which Jewish community the author of either Isaiah or Wisdom has in mind. For those matters, see Achtemeier, Community and Message, 16–17 (Isaiah); Blenkinsopp, “Servants of the Lord,” 392–412 (Isaiah); Joseph Blenkinsopp, “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period,” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20 (Isaiah); M. Jack Suggs, “Wisdom of Solomon 2:10–5: A Homily Based on the Fourth Servant Song,” JBL 76.1 (1957): 26 (Wisdom); Sydney H. T. Page, “The Suffering Servant Between the Testaments,” NTS 31.4 (1985): 481–97 (Wisdom); George W. E. Nickelsburg, “Reading the Hebrew Scriptures in the First Century: Christian Interpretations in Their Jewish Context,” WW 3.3 (1983): 243 (Wisdom). 5  At the outset it must be confirmed that the author of Wisdom was likely using a Greek version of Isaiah, rather than a Hebrew text. Although perhaps not identical to LXX Isaiah, there is so much more agreement with that text over against the MT that it is most useful to treat it as the source, unless otherwise demonstrated. See, for example, James Patrick Ware, The Mission of the Church in Paul’s Letter to the Philippians in the Context of Ancient Judaism, NovTSup 120 (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 121, who argues that Wis 2:12–5:13 is primarily drawn from the Servant Songs of LXX Isaiah. See also Suggs, “Wisdom of Solomon,” 29; Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon,” 413; Patrick W. Skehan, “Isaias and the Teaching of the Book of Wisdom,” CBQ 2.4 (1940): 292.



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In the Servant Songs of LXX Isaiah, multiple terms are used to refer to the protagonist. In the first, second, and fourth Servant Song, he is called παῖς, which can mean “servant” or “child” (42:1; 49:6; 52:13), and in the surrounding context of these songs παῖς is the preferred term of the author (44:1, 2, 21; 45:4; 49:15).6 However, even within the second Servant Song, the author refers to this same person as God’s δοῦλος, which also means “servant” (49:3, 5). Both terms are elsewhere used to emphasize the intimate relationship between Jacob (Israel) and God, thus indicating their relative interchangeability, and to highlight their primary function as those who do the work of God (44:1, 2, 21; 45:4; 49:3, 5, 6).7 In addition, the fourth Servant Song refers to God’s δοῦλος as a δίκαιος (“righteous one”) who will make many others righteous (53:11). This combination of the concepts of servanthood and righteous behavior sets a precedent that will later influence the terminology used by the author of Wisdom.8 Thus, we can see that the author of Isaiah used multiple words to describe the experiences of the one who endured suffering at the hands of his enemies, with the hope of vindication by God in the future. In Wisdom, the preferred term for God’s protagonist is “the righteous one” (δίκαιος; Wis 2:10, 12, 18; 3:10; 4:7, 16; 5:1). So pervasive is this reference that both the wicked in their monologues (Wis 2, 5) and the narrator in his commentary on the fates of the wicked and God’s people (Wis 3–4) refer to him in this way. Moreover, those who identify with him are also referred to as “righteous” (2:16; 3:1–9; 5:15). Yet, παῖς is also found in Wisdom. In Wis 2:13, which is within the first monologue, the wicked mock the righteous man for claiming to be a “child of God” (παῖδα κυρίου), and in Wis 2:16 for claiming God as his “Father” (πατέρα θεόν). The combined language of παῖς with the concept of fatherhood indicates an adaptation of the use in Isaiah, at least in terms of emphasis. Here the author of Wisdom highlights the familial relationship between God and the protagonist.9 Perhaps this is why the author of Wisdom does not refer to the righteous man or the people he represents as δοῦλος, as the term could not convey the same type of relationship that the author wants to under6  Although the term παῖς does not appear in the third Servant Song proper, its presence in Isa 50:10 indicates that the protagonist is the subject of the preceding verses. 7 Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66. A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19B (New York: Doubleday, 2003), 33; Suggs, “Wisdom of Solomon,” 29. 8  Also Kristin De Troyer, “An Exploration of the Wisdom of Solomon as the Missing Link Between Isaiah and Matthew” in Isaiah in Context: Studies in Honour of Arie van der Kooij on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday, ed. Michaël N. van der Meer, VTSup 138 (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 223. 9  Yet, unlike Ware (Mission, 120–21) and De Troyer (“An Exploration,” 223–24), I do not believe the author is making a choice between the righteous man as a “servant” and the righteous man as a “child” of God – as if they are exclusive options – and opting for the latter. Instead, the author is emphasizing the identification of the righteous man as a child of God, following Isaiah’s own use of the term.

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score.10 The familial relationship between God and the righteous man is an important motif in Wisdom, as it serves to delineate the two “sides” on which one can be located – the side of the wicked and the side of God’s righteous.11 This delineation is made obvious by the actions of each side: the righteous are those who serve God faithfully, while the wicked oppose them, and therefore God, as well.12 The wicked are further differentiated from the righteous because they put their hopes in their children and offspring (3:13, 16; 4:6), while persecuting the childless children of God (4:1).13 The use of τέκνον to refer to the children of the wicked (instead of παῖς) visually increases the divide between these two groups. To further distinguish the righteous from the wicked, the author of Wisdom applies the term υἱός to the righteous man in particular, and to the children of God that he represents. The protagonist is described as “the righteous son of God” (ὁ δίκαιος υἱὸς θεοῦ) in Wis 2:18.14 Elsewhere in the text, the term has a religious meaning, referring to God’s children, and is even used to refer to the people of Israel as “sons” of God (Wis 16:10; 18:13).15 Taken together, these strategies show that the author of Wisdom is adopting much of the terminology of Isaiah’s Servant passages, but adapting the terms (and introducing new ones) to highlight the unique nature of the righteous as the suffering children of God. 2.2  Individual or Community? Another notable characteristic of Wisdom is the way that the author switches back and forth from describing the experiences of the righteous man (ὁ δίκαιος) and the righteous ones (οἱ δίκαιοι). It is clear that he regards the individual plight of his righteous man as paradigmatic for the community that is also experiencing suffering at the hands of their enemies. In this regard, Wisdom is following the example of Isaiah itself. While in the first half of Deutero-Isaiah (Isa 40–48) the 10  In Wis 9:5, Solomon identifies himself as a δοῦλος. Other instances in Wisdom refer to a serving vessel (15:7) and to the role of household slaves (18:11; 19:14). 11  More will be said of this theme below. 12  Wis 9:4; 12:7, 20; 19:6. 13  A form of τέκνον is always used to refer to the progeny of the wicked, and never applied to the righteous man or his community – they are ἀτεκνία (4:1). It is used once by Solomon in his recounting of history to describe the Israelites in the wilderness (16:21), but the very incident calls to mind rebellion in the midst of provision, and so is not to be regarded as a positive term here. 14  The wicked present this as conditional because they doubt that the righteous man is indeed God’s representative. Suggs, “A Homily,” 32: “… the use of υἱός to describe the suffering righteous man is difficult to explain as a translation of ‫ﬠבד‬, but is perfectly clear as a misunderstanding of the LXX’s παῖς.” 15  Israel/Zion can be described as both God’s υἱός and as his παῖς (e. g., Isa 1:2; 30:9; 49:15), and Wisdom follows this usage (Wis 12:7, 19, 20, 21; 16:23; 18:4, 9; 19:6). This suggests that these concepts of servanthood and sonship can be held together, an aspect of the language upon which the earliest Christians seized in order to understand Jesus’ relationship to God and his mission of servanthood. See De Troyer, “An Exploration,” 224.



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“Servant” is singular, and with one exception refers to Jacob/Israel,16 in the latter half, the focus is on an individual person.17 At the end of Deutero-Isaiah, however, there is an example of a communal use of the term, with Isa 54:17 promising God’s intervention on behalf of his “servants” (οἱ ἔνοχοί).18 This transition from the singular use to the plural use is significant, as it prepares the reader of Isaiah to apply the Servant language communally, a strategy that is displayed throughout Trito-Isaiah.19 This communal understanding and application of the “Servant” language in Trito-Isaiah is not the only adaptation of Deutero-Isaiah found in the latter part of the book.20 It appears that the author of Trito-Isaiah also understood his “righteous ones” as “servants” who were carrying the mantle of obedience to God that had been passed down to them from the previous faithful followers described in Isaiah 40–55.21 This communal understanding of the term was almost certainly influential by the time that Wisdom was written, perhaps inspired by the LXX Isaiah’s rendering of Isa 54:17, where there is an additional reference to the servants at the end of the verse, where they are called God’s “righteous ones” (μοι δίκαιοι) – the preferred reference to God’s people in Wisdom. Thus, we can see some inner-textual exegesis taking place in Isaiah, where the author of Trito-Isaiah both adopts the language and themes of the Servant in Deutero-Isaiah and applies them to his own context. This practice inspired the author of Wisdom, who viewed the Isaianic Servant texts as a reservoir from which to draw his own language and understanding of the experiences of his community, a fact which will be demonstrated in an examination of the multiple allusions to Isaianic Servant(s) passages below.22

16  Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 33–34. Cf. Isa 41:8, 9; 42:1–2; 44:1–2, 22; 45:4; and 48:20. The one exception is 42:1–2, which does not refer to Jacob/Israel. 17  Isa 49:3, 5, 6; 52:13; 53:11. 18  Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants,” 157–58. This text also shares an important theme found in Wisdom – the vindication of God’s people against their enemies. 19  Isa 56:6; 63:17; 65:8–9, 13–15; 66:14. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 33–34, argues that this section is the hinge between Deutero-Isaiah and Trito-Isaiah, and therefore that this plural instance of “servant” prepares the reader for “an evolution of this theme” toward prophetic plurality. See also Beuken, “Main Theme,” 67–87; idem, “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: TritoIsaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah” in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989, ed. J. A. Emerton (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), 205. 20  Verbatim citations of Deutero-Isaiah in Trito-Isaiah include: Isa 40:10b in 62:11c; 51:5b and 55:5b in 60:9; and 48:18 in 62:12. 21 See Beuken, “Isaiah Chapters,” 206, and “Main Theme,” who argues that the motif of the contrast between the righteous and the ungodly in Trito-Isaiah is communicated through the use of two key themes: the seed/offspring and righteousness. He believes both of these belong to the semantic field of “servant” in Isaiah. 22 See Nickelsburg, “Reading,” 243–44, who argues that other later texts also re-appropriate the language of Isa 52–53 (Dan 12:3; 1QH 4.5–5.4; 8.35–36; 2 Macc 7).

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3.  Allusions to the Isaian Servant(s) Passages in Wisdom 3.1  The Structure of Wisdom 1–6 The presence of a substantive number of allusions to Isaiah in Wisdom has long been acknowledged in scholarship, with the focus of study centering on the Servant Songs in particular.23 A concentrated portion of these allusions are found in Wis 2 and 5, with the presence of other allusions in the larger first section of Wis 1–6. The allusions are made up of a mix of parallel themes, words, and similar circumstances.24 The shared circumstance of a faithful follower of God experiencing persecution by his enemies, and the anticipated vindication of the righteous, is a common motif in Jewish literature that the author of Wisdom utilizes and applies to his current context. In this section of the essay, I will lay out the allusions to Isaiah’s Servant passages in Wisdom in particular, and in the next section, I  will discuss the parallel themes in more detail as they are presented in the text and reflect on their significance for the community to which Wisdom is directed. At the outset, it might be helpful to describe briefly the structure of Wis 1–6, as it is a crucial component of the author’s presentation. The first six chapters of Wisdom are arranged concentrically, with Wis 2 and 5 mirroring each other.25 The section begins with the narrator’s exhortation for his audience to pursue wisdom, listing qualities that reflect wise conduct toward God and urging the avoidance of conduct that is unwise (1:1–15), and ends with another exhortation to seek wisdom so as to avoid the judgment of God (6:1–21). Following the exhortation in Wis 1 is the narrator’s introduction to the motive behind the actions of the wicked against the righteous man (1:16–2a)26 and then a monologue of the wicked that conveys their inner thoughts of injustice against the righteous man (2:1b–20). This first monologue itself has three parts: an exposition of the 23  The earliest appears to be found in Gustav Dalman, Der leidende und sterbende Messias der Synagoge im ersten nachchristlichen Jahrtausend, SIJB 4 (Berlin: Reuther, 1888). Cf. also Suggs, “A Homily,” 26–33; James D. Smart, History and Theology in Second Isaiah: A Commentary on Isaiah 35, 40–66 (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1965); Ware, Mission; Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon,” 413–20; Skehan, “Isaias and the Teaching,” 289–99; Page, “The Suffering Servant,” 481–97. There are also three citations from Isaiah in Wisdom: Isa 3:10 (Wis 2:12), Isa 44:20 (Wis 15:10), and Isa 59:17 (Wis 5:18). 24  See Holly J. Carey, Jesus’ Cry from the Cross: Towards a First-Century Understanding of the Intertextual Relationship between Psalm 22 and the Narrative of Mark’s Gospel, LNTS 398 (London: T&T Clark, 2009), 43, for a discussion of the presentation of similar circumstances as a textual allusive strategy. 25  For a detailed explanation of the structure of Wisdom, see James M. Reese, “Plan and Structure in the Book of Wisdom,” CBQ 27.4 (1965): 391–99; also, Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon,” 414. 26  Wis 1:16 indicates that the motivation for their ungodly actions is that they have “summoned death, considering him a friend”; προσεκαλέσαντο αὐτόν, φίλον ἡγησάμενοι). The antecedent of αὐτόν is θάνατον (1:12–15).

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ephemeral nature of life (2:1b–5), an announcement of their intention to exploit creation and oppress the poor (2:6–11), and an announcement of their plan to test the claims of the righteous man by putting him to death (2:12–20). The counterpart to this first monologue is found in a second in Wis 5. Like the first one, it begins with a brief introduction from the narrator (5:1–3), which sets the scene of the righteous man’s vindication, thus helping the audience make sense of the “change of tune” that the wicked have in the second monologue (5:4–13). The second monologue also has three parts: a confession of their particular actions in oppressing and murdering the righteous man (5:4–5), a confession of their life of exploitation (5:6–7), and their recognition that the things they pursued have vanished, as they had invested in nothing that lasts (5:8–13). The central section of Wis 3–4 reflects on the futility of the reasoning of the wicked, preparing the audience for their final confessions in the presence of God’s judgment. The corresponding structure of Wis 1–6 can perhaps be seen more clearly in the outline below: A Exhortation to wisdom (1:1–15)

B Introduction to the motive of the wicked (1:16–2a)

C

First monologue (2:1b–20) i Ephemeral nature of life (2:1b–5) ii The wicked’s intention to exploit and oppress (2:6–11) iii The wicked’s plan to murder the righteous man (2:12–20)



D The futility of the wicked (3:1–4:20)

B′ Introduction to the confession of the wicked (5:1–3)

C′ Second monologue (5:4–13) iii′ Confession of the murder of the righteous man (5:4–5) ii′ Confession of a life of exploitation and oppression (5:6–7) i′ Ephemeral nature of their actions (5:8–13) A′ Exhortation to wisdom (6:1–21)

The two monologues of the wicked are clearly the focus of Wis 1–6. Aside from the general exhortations to wisdom in 1:1–15 and 6:1–21, the bulk of this section – almost one-third of the entire book – focuses on the folly of the wicked, the wisdom of the righteous man, and their respective fates as related to their actions against or for God. Even those two exhortations, then, are related to the story of the wicked and the righteous man, because it is clear that the wicked do not reflect the wisdom of God, and that the righteous man does. 3.2  Allusions to Isa 52–53 in Wis 2 and 5 The emphasis on the unjust actions of the wicked against the righteous man in Wis 2 and 5 provide a natural connection to the similar experiences of the

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Servant in Isa 52–53. It is in these sections where we find the highest concentration of allusions to the fourth Servant Song, even though verbal agreement is rare. The following is a list of potential allusions to Isa 52–53 in Wis 2 and 5, followed by some brief observations on recurring patterns and emphases.27  1. Wis 2:12 (Isa 53:11): both figures are called the “righteous one” (δίκαιος).28  2. Wis 2:13 (Isa 52:13): both figures who suffer at the hands of enemies are described as πᾶις (of God).  3. Wis 2:14 (Isa 53:2): the πᾶις is described as one whose appearance is repulsive – his oppressors do not even want to look at him.  4. Wis 2:16 (Isa 52:13; 53:11): the πᾶις is accused by the wicked of claiming God as his father, emphasizing the relationship between the righteous man and God over against that of his adversaries.29  5. Wis 2:19–20 (Isa 53:7–9): the righteous man’s defining characteristics of gentleness and patience are challenged by his enemies, as he is given a shameful death.30  6. Wis 2:21 (Isa 53:4): the reasoning (λογίζομαι) of his enemies against him is determined faulty.  7. Wis 2:21 (Isa 53:6): those who oppose God’s Servant/righteous man have “gone astray” (ἐπλανήθησαν).31  8. Wis 5:1 (Isa 52:13): the Servant’s/righteous man’s lowly position will not last forever. He will be lifted up (Isaiah) and stand in the presence of his enemies (Wisdom).32  9. Wis 5:1 (Isa 53:4): the one exalted was the same one who was abused by his enemies. 10. Wis 5:2 (Isa 52:14, 15): the enemies of the righteous man will be amazed when he is saved. 11. Wis 5:3–4 (Isa 53:3–4, 10): the wicked recall how they derided the righteous one and withheld honor from him, even as they realize they were wrong. 12. Wis 5:5 (Isa 53:12): the Servant/righteous man will be allotted a reward for his commitment to God. 13. Wis 5:6–7 (Isa 53:6): in the confessions of the enemies, they acknowledge that they have “gone astray” (ἐπλανήθημεν) from “the way of truth/the Lord” (ὁδοῦ ἀληθείας … ὁδὸν κυρίου, Wis) or while going their own “way” (τῇ ὁδῷ, Isa).

27  These are allusions that have been recognized by scholars of both Isaiah and Wisdom, but the list is by no means exhaustive. Given the nature of the debate concerning the identification (which criteria are used?) and interpretation (to what extent does the former context influence the new context?) of allusions, I am sure there are those who would consider some dubious and others who would add to it. See my discussion on the interpretation of allusions in Carey, Jesus’ Cry from the Cross, 29–44. 28  See also Wis 2:18; 3:1, 10; 4:7, 16; 5:1. 29  Suggs, “A Homily,” 30, believes this indicates a misreading of πᾶις by the author, but may also reflect the Davidic imagery of Isa 53:2. 30  Suggs, “A Homily,” 30: “Notice that in both Wisdom and Isaiah death is closely related to the meekness of the pais.” 31  Although in Isa 53:6, this is presented as a confession by the servant’s enemies, and in Wis 2:21, this is presented from the narrator’s perspective. 32  Ware, Mission, 122. I believe Ware is the first to suggest this connection, and I think he is right to see it here, as exaltation is often described in Jewish writings in terms of the person’s position in relation to his opposition. See e. g., Psalm 110:1.

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14. Wis 5:8–13 (Isa 53:9): wickedness is tied to wealth in both passages. While the Servant identifies with the poor and afflicted, his enemies (wrongly) identify him with the wicked and the rich (Isaiah). The righteous man’s enemies, however, reflect upon the emptiness of their investment in arrogance and wealth.33

It is interesting to note that many of the allusions to Isa 52–53 in Wis 2 and 5 are descriptive in nature, focusing on either the physical or spiritual characteristics of the Servant/righteous man. Both figures have appearances that are repulsive to their enemies. Both are mocked for what should be considered admirable qualities (gentleness and patience), but in the skewed worldview of their persecutors, these are regarded as signs of weakness and shame. This is because the wicked have “gone astray” – they are not following the ways of God and therefore cannot and will not judge rightly. In both texts, the protagonist’s relationship with God is called into question by his enemies. This is ironic, as it becomes clear at the end of these sections that the Servant/righteous man was indeed a πᾶις of God since both are vindicated in the presence of their enemies, as is indicated by the confessions from the mouths of the wicked themselves.34 3.3  Allusions to Isa 52–53 in Wis 1–6 There are a number of allusions to Isa 52–53 in the larger context of the first section of Wisdom (1–6), but particularly in the section between the two monologues of the wicked concerning the righteous man they persecuted (Wis 3–4). As mentioned earlier, these chapters are from the narrator’s perspective, offering thoughts on the futility of the wicked’s reasoning and actions. These too have a profound impact on Wis 2 and 5, as they reflect upon what the wicked have (falsely) reasoned in Wis 2, and because they help to set the stage for their admittance of guilt in Wis 5: 1. Wis 3:2–3 (Isa 53:4): the Servant is hurt at the hands of enemies who follow their own reasoning (λογίζομαι). 2. Wis 3:2–3 (Isa 53:4, 8): the affliction of the Servant/righteous man is reiterated. 3. Wis 3:6 (Isa 53:7–10): the lives of the Servant and the righteous man are understood as an offering. 4. Wis 3:9; 4:15 (Isa 52:13): those who are the Lord’s can find comfort in his acts on their behalf. 5. Wis 3:13–4:6 (Isa 53:2, 10): the problem of the sterility and premature death of the Servant/righteous man is overcome in vindication. 33 

So also Ware, Mission, 122. I would not go so far as to say that Wis 2 and 5 are, taken together, a homily based on Isa 52–53 (as does Suggs, “A Homily”), it seems clear that Isa 52–53 do influence significantly Wisdom, both by the sheer number of connections identified above and by the overlapping themes discussed below. So also Ware, Mission, 122, who argues that the cumulative weight of allusions to LXX Isa 52:1–53:12 is “a focus of sustained exegetical reflection in Wis 2:12–5:13.” 34  Although

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6. Wis 4:19 (Isa 52:15): in an ironic role-reversal, when the Servant/righteous man is vindicated, his enemies will be speechless.35

Of particular note concerning these allusions to Isa 52–53 in Wis 3–4 is that each of these allusions fall under two major categories: suffering and vindication. We will examine the impact of this more thoroughly in the discussion of shared themes between the Servant passages in Isaiah and Wisdom in a moment. For now, it will suffice to simply recognize that these two themes are of crucial importance from the narrator’s perspective, as he reflects on the folly of the enemies of the righteous man.36 3.4  Allusions to Other Isaian Servant(s) Passages in Wisdom The Suffering Servant song of Isa 52–53 is not the only one to have impacted the author of Wisdom. Particularly important is Isa 42:1–4.37 Although a less familiar Servant Song to modern readers, it is the first of its kind in the Isaianic corpus, and so has primary influence on the audience’s understanding of what it means to be a faithful servant of God. The tone of this Servant Song is quite different than Isa 52–53, as it emphasizes the role the Servant will fulfill in bringing forth justice to the world. In Wis 2:18a, the “righteous son of God” (ὁ δίκαιος υἱὸς θεοῦ) is “upheld” (ἀντιλαμβάνω) by God, just as the Servant (πᾶις) of Isa 42:1 is “upheld” by him. The emphasis on both of these passages is in their identification with God and his acknowledgement of his relationship with him.38 Furthermore, in Wis 3:6–9 and Isa 42:1–4, not only are the righteous one and the Servant backed by God, but their faithfulness results in their active participation in God’s judgment of the nations (they are the “righteous” [δικαίων] in Wis 3:1).39 Perhaps another connection to Isa 42 and Wisdom is found in the use of the imagery of light. In Isa 42:6, the role of the chosen Servant is to function 35  The role-reversal is present in different ways in these two texts. In Isa 53:7, the Servant is described as silent while he is being sacrificed. In Wis 2, the righteous man has no voice at all – the only voice one hears is that of his enemies in their violent monologue. 36  It is also interesting to note that the order of these allusions in Wis 3–4 follow strictly the order of the Servant’s/righteous man’s own (anticipated) experience (suffering: Wis 3:2–3, 6; vindication/hope: Wis 3:9; 3:13–4:6; 4:15, 19). 37  Ware, Mission, 123, argues that it is less common for scholars to note the influence of Isa 42:1–4 on Wisdom, as much of the attention focuses on Isa 52:13–53:12. 38  Ware, Mission, 123, believes the author of Wisdom’s substitution of πᾶις with υἱός indicates that he understood the figure in Isa 42:1 in the same way he understood the πᾶις of Isa 52:13 – in the sense of a son, rather than a servant, and that this was applied collectively, rather than individually, in the Wisdom community. See however n. 9 above. 39  Wis 3:8: κρινοῦσιν ἔθνη καί κρατήσουσιν λαῶν; Isa 42:3, 4: κρίσις. The collective emphasis in both texts is similar, as is their function as agents of God’s judgment. I agree with Ware, Mission, 123, who argues that this indicates a hope of eschatological vindication for the group as a whole in Wisdom, rather than seeing evidence of an individual eschatology in 3:1–4:20 and a general one in 5:1–23.



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as God’s covenant to the people – to be a light to the nations (φῶς ἐθνῶν).40 That Servant has been “called in (the) righteousness” of the Lord (ἐκάλεσἀ σε ἐν δικαιοσύνῃ), who has guided and protected the Servant. The author of Wisdom uses the contrasting image of light and darkness to describe the environment of the righteous and the wicked, respectively. While the wicked are depicted as ones trapped in a darkness without light (Wis 17:2, 5–6, 20–21; 18:4), the righteous bask in the great light of the law (Wis 18:1, 4). Although these Servant Songs provide the foundational framework upon which the author of Wisdom draws his inspiration for the righteous persecuted man of Wis 1–6, there are other “servant” passages in Isaiah that help to flesh out that understanding even further. Although without the label “servant,” the subjects of these passages share experiences and demonstrate qualities that are reflective of what we have seen in Isaiah’s Servant. One such shared experience is the subject of Isa 54. Following directly on the heels of the Servant Song of Isa 52–53, this passage grapples with the grim reality of childlessness among God’s people  – an issue that the author of Wisdom also addresses (στεῖρα; Isa 54:1; Wis 3:13).41 Although with different “answers” to the problem, both texts make it clear that barrenness is not a sign of godlessness, but rather the opposite. Both are given the promise that God will vindicate and bless them. Not surprisingly, this theme of childlessness and posterity is even further pursued in both Isaiah and Wisdom texts, as Isa 56:4–5 and Wis 3:14 testify to the place of the eunuch among God’s people. Interestingly, both emphasize the importance of belonging in their descriptions of the place that is made for them by God as a reward for their faithfulness. Isa 57:1–2 functions as another Isaianic intertext in Wisdom. Interestingly, as in Wis 2 and 5, a singular “righteous” man came to be understood best as a representation of the collective community. This is indicated by the use of both the singular and plural of δίκαιος in parallelism in LXX Isa 57:1ab: Ἴδετε ῾ως ὁ δίκαιος ἀπώλετο, καὶ οὐδεὶς ἐκδέχεται τῇ καρδίᾳ, καὶ ἄνδρες δίκαιοι αἴρονται, καὶ οὐδεις κατανοεῖ.

The translators of the LXX have deliberately made this clearer by repeating the same word, whereas in the MT, the “righteous one” (‫צדק‬, 57:1a) perishes, while the “devout ones” (‫אנׁשי־חסד‬, 57:1b) are taken away. 40  This role of the Servant as a light to the nations is repeated in the second Servant Song, Isa 49:6. 41  Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon,” 417. Beyond the linking word, Beentjes sees the connection as further strengthened by the positioning of the Isaianic text (immediately following Isa 52–53), given that the author of Wisdom has already made much use of that passage in Wis 2, and continues to do so in Wis 5. In other words, it can be assumed that the author of Wisdom is doing what other early readers of Isaiah were doing – seeing a continuation of the concept of servant in the experiences of communities that grappled with childlessness.

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Some have even seen a connection between the identity of the Suffering Servant in Isa 53 and the “righteous” in Isa 57.42 Both experience death, probably at the hands of enemies who do not worship Yahweh.43 Like the Servant of Isa 53, no one pays attention to or mourns his death (οὐδεις ἐκδέχεται τῇ καρδίᾳ, 57:1; οὐκ ἐλογίσθη, 53:3). Furthermore, there is precedence in other Hebrew texts for viewing the terms ‫חסד‬/‫ חסיד‬and ‫ ﬠבד‬as synonyms, linking the concepts of devotion and servanthood in explicit ways.44 In drawing upon Isa 57, then, the author of Wisdom is locating his own community among those who have been devoted in their righteousness, even as they have experienced suffering by their enemies. In both texts, there is a contrast between the fates of the righteous and the wicked (57:1–2 in contrast with 57:3–13a; Wis 3–4).45 Both describe the wicked as offspring/children of “adultery” (σπέρμα μοιχῶν, Isa 57:3; τέκνα δὲ μοιχῶν, Wis 3:16).46 Drawing upon the battle imagery of Isa 59:16–19, the author of Wisdom describes the righteous as those who are defended, cared for, and rewarded by God for eternity (Wis 5:15–20). Although Isa 59 is not strictly a “Servant” passage (there is no mention of a servant in the chapter at all), it is located in TritoIsaiah, where we have already seen the significant influence of the Servant Songs. Again, we have the likelihood of a connection in shared circumstances, where the author of Wisdom viewed the afflicted and oppressed ones of Isa 59 as those people of God who once again found themselves sharing in the experiences of the servants that had gone before them (59:7, 16). Like the righteous man of Wis 2 and 5, these people experience injustice on a grand scale. It so angers God that no one has stood up for them that he does so himself, arming for battle against those who revel in injustice. In Wis 5:17–20, the Lord rewards the righteous by giving them eternal life and goes to battle for them against the wicked.47 As in Isa 59:17, God arms himself with specific pieces of armor. The breastplate made of righteousness is taken nearly verbatim from 59:17a (ἐνεδύσατο δικαιοσύνην ὠς θώρακα; ἐνδύσεται θώρακα δικαιοσύνην in Wis 5:18a). In Wis 5:18b, God also puts on a helmet, although the emphasis here is on his authentic justice (κρίσιν ἀνυπόκριτον), rather than on salvation (περικεφαλαίαν σωτηρίου, Isa 59:17b). 42 

Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 150–51, argues that the transition from singular to plural suggests the death of a particular righteous person, and believes the reference to be to the Suffering Servant of Isa 53, “who, by his teaching and example, will render the many righteous” (53:11). He acknowledges Smart, History and Theology, 240–41, as the first to recognize this. 43  Smart, History and Theology, 240, lists Isa 57:4; 50:6; and Isa 59 as indicating pagan practices among the enemies of the servant. See also Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 151. 44  Ps 79:2; 116:15–16. 45 Also Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 152. 46 Also Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon,” 418. 47  Wis 5:20 refers to them as “madmen” (τοὺς παράφρονας), but given the context, this is best understood as another reference to the same enemies that have opposed the righteous throughout Wisdom.

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Lastly, in his understanding of the righteous man as God’s “child,” the author of Wisdom may be following an Isaianic tradition of emphasizing the role of God as father to his servants. These concepts are held together in Isa 63:16, where the prayer of the speaker appeals to God as the father of his community, even when its connection through Abraham and Israel is tenuous.48 Similarly, the wicked who oppose the righteous man in Wisdom mock him for describing himself as “a child of the Lord” (παῖδα κυρίου; 2:13) and for boasting that God is “his father” (ἀλαζονεύεται πατέρα θεόν; 2:16d). Thus, rejection is understood as part of what it means to be a child of God, both in Isaiah and in Wisdom.49

4.  Adoption and Adaptation: The Servant(s) in Wisdom As we have seen in the preceding section of the essay, the Isaianic Servant passages were an important source of intertexts for Wisdom. Although it has not been possible to describe every shared detail in the space permitted, this survey has identified the pervasiveness of these allusions throughout Wisdom as a whole, in Wis 1–6, and even more particularly, in Wis 2 and 5. Now we can turn to a reflection upon the major themes that run through the Isaianic Servant passages that have been incorporated in Wisdom. In the discussion of each, it will become clear that the author of Wisdom did not apply these intertexts in an ad hoc fashion, but (a) followed the example of intertextual usage within Isaiah itself, and (b) believed the circumstances of the Isaianic Servant(s) provided the author of Wisdom a framework from which to understand the experiences of his own community. In other words, it is the larger context of the Isaianic community’s experience which formed the basis for much of the language and imagery applied to Wisdom’s community of the righteous. This does not mean, however, that the author of Wisdom slavishly followed Isaiah. Yes, he adopted the Isaianic Servant(s) theme to help make sense of the experiences of his community. But he also departed from these texts in several key ways. Thus, the book of Wisdom displays the process of adoption and adaptation of the Isaianic Servant(s) passages in ways that allow the community to embrace the continuity between themselves and God’s people in history, yet to anticipate different outcomes for their community. The focus of this section, then, is to discuss in more detail the overlapping themes found in both texts, and to highlight the ways in which the author of Wisdom has modified his understanding of the Servant(s) in order to apply it to his own context.

48  49 

Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 262. The author of Wisdom also addresses God directly as “Father” in 14:3.

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4.1.  Righteous vs. Wicked: Two Opposing Groups In Wisdom, the lines between the righteous and the wicked are drawn clearly and sharply – there is no grey area, only black and white. In Wis 2 and 5, the righteous are represented by the righteous man. The wicked oppose him and seek his death, because they have aligned themselves with an alternative covenant (Wis 1:16). As later texts in Isaiah demonstrate, the Isaianic community too saw in their experiences a connection to the Servant of Isa 52:13–53:12. He, too, was opposed by his enemies. All the “characters” in the story choose their side – the Servant is the Servant of God; his enemies are the enemies of God. Thus, the community that displays the characteristics of the Servant become servants themselves – faithful followers of God who stand firm in the face of persecution by their enemies. In both Wisdom and the Servant passages of Isaiah, there are keys to determining on which “side” one is located. Of utmost importance is the question of identification. With whom does the community identify: God or his opposition? In the Servant passages of Isaiah, the Servant’s identification with God is made clear from the lips of Yahweh himself. He is not just “a” servant or “the” servant, but God’s Servant, as indicated by the title given him (ὁ παῖς μου; 42:1). Those who are righteous belong to God, bearing his name. The author of Wisdom picks up on this relationship of belonging, testifying to the truthfulness of the righteous man’s claim that he is “a child of the Lord” (παῖδα κυρίου; 2:13) and that God is his “father” (πατέρα θεόν; 2:16), even as it comes in the form of a sarcastic accusation from the wicked (the audience knows that the righteous man is indeed all of these things, a fact which will be later revealed to the wicked in Wis 5).50 Those who belong to God will find comfort in their trust in him and will abide in God’s love, grace, and mercy (Wis 3:9; 4:15), even if it costs them their lives. The Servant of Isaiah is certainly familiar with this, and the story of his suffering in the fourth Servant Song of Isa 52–53 is preempted by a foreshadowing of the exaltation he will experience after his death – a testimony to the trustworthiness of God (Isa 52:13) who promises to “uphold” him in the presence of his enemies (Isa 42:1; Wis 2:18a).51 This would be an important reminder to a community currently experiencing its own persecution.52 By 50  De Troyer, “An Exploration,” 222, sees a reflection of this irony (the wicked present this as conditional: If this person is a child of God, then God will assist him and rescue him from his opponents, Wis 2:18) in Matthew’s crucifixion scene. 51  De Troyer, “An Exploration,” argues that the additional statement from the mockers at the cross (“He trusts in God; let God deliver him now, if he desires him; for he said, ‘I am the Son of God”; Matt 27:43) comes from Wis 2:18, which contains an interpretation of the Suffering Servant passages in Isaiah, starting with Isa 42:1. 52  The importance of maintaining trust in God when all seems to be going wrong is a common theme in the scriptures (E. g., Ps 22; Dan 3; 6; Isa 7). Manfredi, “Trial of the Righteous,”



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contrast, the wicked identify with “death” in Wis 1:16, making an alternative covenant that results in the death of the righteous, just as the enemies of the Servant bring about his death (Isa 53:13–53:12). In Wisdom and the Isaianic Servant passages, the righteous and the wicked are also distinguished by what they do and their motivations for doing it.53 In Wis 2:14–20, the wicked ones’ actions against the righteous man are motivated in part because of their own superficiality. They are put off by the appearance of the man, his mannerisms, and his way of life – they cannot stand the sight of him. His very sight is a constant reminder of their own iniquities.54 Their response to this is to plot his torture and death. This calls to mind Isa 53:2, where it is the unremarkable appearance of the Servant that motivates his enemies to strike him down. The character of the wicked is called into question by the author of Isaianic Servant passages and the author of Wisdom (Isa 53:4, 6; Wis 2:21). Moreover, not only do the righteous condemn the wicked, but each text includes a confession from the mouths of the wicked themselves. They testify to the foolishness and futility of their actions against those who belong to God (Isa 53:2–4, 6, 10; Wis 5:3–7). They are also condemned by what they did not understand and who they have ignored. They have found themselves to be on the wrong side. Yet the author of Wisdom also adapts this motif of the contrast of the righteous and the wicked in ways that depart from Isaiah’s Servant passages. One of the key differences is that the righteous man is distinguished from his enemies by his adherence to God’s Law (Wis 2:12c),55 while the emphasis in the first Servant Song is on the role of God’s Servant as the covenant itself (Isa 42:1–6). The Servant’s qualification is not based on strict adherence to the Law.56 Rather, this is made possible because God has chosen him (Isa 42:1). Although a departure from Deutero-Isaiah in terms of emphasis, it is likely that the author of Wisdom is following the development of Trito-Isaiah, where the servants are commended for keeping the Sabbath and God’s covenant (Isa 56:2, 6), and responding to 169, describes the trial of the servant of Isa 50:4–9 as a display of trust in God in the midst of persecution. 53  Beuken, “Good Tidings,” 416–17, sees the string of infinitives in Isa 42 as an indication of the identification of the Servant – he is determined by the tasks that have been assigned to him by Yahweh. 54  Manfredi, “Trial of the Righteous,” 161. 55  While the wicked follow a “law” of their own (Wis 2:11: ἔστω δὲ ἡμῶν ἡ ἰσχὺς νόμος τῆς δικαιοσύνης). See also George W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity (expanded edition; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006), 67. 56  Manfredi, “Trial of the Righteous,” 169, believes that this mention of the Law is related to Wis 1:5; 3:11; 6:17–19; and 7:14c, which place an emphasis on the instruction that results in right relationship with God. Although she focuses on the impact of the prophetic word here, what is intriguing for our purposes is the contrast between those who listen to God (the righteous), and those who do not (the wicked).

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God’s word with reverence (66:5).57 In both texts, this relationship between God’s covenant and his people is described by using the imagery of light and darkness. While Isa 42:6 and 49:6 indicate that the purpose and function of God’s Servant as a covenant is to be a “light to the nations” (εἰς φῶς ἐθνῶν) – and is therefore missional in emphasis  – the use of light/darkness imagery in Wisdom anticipates the vindication of the righteous which is to come.58 The righteous bask in the “light of the Law” (νόμου φῶς; Wis 18:1, 4), while the wicked will sit in darkness (Wis 17–18).59 4.2.  The Plight of the Righteous A key feature of both the Servant passages of Isaiah and of Wisdom is the emphasis on the suffering of the protagonist.60 Both the Servant and the righteous man experience unjust persecution at the hands of their enemies. In both texts there is the promise of vindication, but each requires the audience to linger in the affliction a little while before moving on to the hope that God has promised. This vindication is depicted as a future anticipation for God’s people, but it is the experiences of unjust suffering with which they can currently identify. In both texts, the protagonist identifies with the poor and afflicted. In Wis 2, the wicked revel in the material possessions and pleasures of this world, under the misguided belief that this life is all that there is (2:6–9). Conversely, the righteous man is called “poor” (πένητα δίκαιον; Wis 2:10). In this way, the wicked emulate the oppressors of Isa 59, who seek out ways to take advantage of the poor when they seek to kill him (59:7, 16; Wis 2:10–12). In the end, it turns out that their values have been misplaced, and they confess that their love of money was futile (Wis 5:8–13). Their motivation for persecuting God’s servant has been their own faulty reasoning (Wis 3:2–3; Isa 53:4). As God’s servant experiences suffering by his enemies, there is no one to mourn his pain and death (Isa 53:3; 57:1). It is as if he is experiencing this 57  Isa 65:10 may also belong to Trito-Isaiah’s development of Deutero-Isaiah, describing the servants as those who have sought God (οἳ ἐζήτησάν με). 58 Adam Gregerman, “Biblical Prophecy and the Fate of the Nations in Early Jewish and Christian Interpretations of Isaiah” in “What Does the Scripture Say?”: Studies in the Function of Scripture in Early Judaism and Christianity, ed. Craig A. Evans and H. Daniel Zacharias, LNTS 470 (New York: T & T Clark, 2012), 236, views these texts as a retelling of Exodus: “It reflects Isaiah’s interest in the Gentiles (49:6), with the idea that Israel has in theory a message that is intended for all the people …” 59  Thus, where there appears to be a role of the Servant as a mediator of the Law of God to the Gentiles, which will result in their eschatological conversion, there is no redemptive focus for anyone other than the righteous in Wisdom (3:8, 18–19). Pace Ware, Mission, 154. 60  See Lothar Ruppert, “Der leidende Gerechte” in Die Entstehung der jüdischen Martyrologie, ed. J. W. van Henten, SPB 38 (Leiden: Brill, 1989), 76–87, for an examination of how LXX Isaiah has throughout a motif of the suffering just/righteous, and a comparison of that motif between Isa 53 and Wis 2:12–20 and 5:1–7.



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torture in isolation, surrounded by enemies on all sides. Although the author of Wisdom does not make a similarly explicit observation of the righteous man’s experience, there are other more implicit indications within the text that this, too, is the reality of his protagonist. There is an absence of any sort of mourning language in the description of the experiences of the righteous man, and there is an emphasis on allowing God to ensure that justice is done on his behalf. Moreover, the presentation of the persecution in the form of a speech from his enemies invokes an overwhelming sense of the righteous being overrun by those who oppose him. In other words, aided by a different genre and strategy than those of the Deutero-Isaian Servant passages, the author of Wisdom still conveys the abandonment of the righteous by all but God himself.61 Contributing to the plight of the righteous is the reality that their lives are cut short and that they are unable to bear children. This motif is found in Isa 53:2, where the premature death of the Servant is emphasized. In the following passage, the barrenness among God’s people is a reality that will only be rectified when God intervenes (54:1). The fulfillment of this promise will take place even among the eunuch, who will no longer be called a “dry tree,” because he will join God’s people as a family member, rather than being a foreigner or outcast (56:4– 5). Likewise, both sterility and premature death are realities for the righteous community of which the author of Wisdom is a part (Wis 3:13–4:6).62 In this central section between the threats and confessions of the wicked, the author contrasts their misplaced confidence in their many offspring and long lifespan with the trust that the righteous have in God, despite their barrenness and persecution. Both the barren woman and the eunuch are specifically mentioned (Wis 3:13–14), just as in Isaiah. The difference is in the anticipated outcome. Whereas in the Isaianic servant passages, there is the promise of God’s intervention to wipe out infertility and provide his people with children (Isa 54:1–3), the author of Wisdom makes no such promises. The future reward for the righteous will be the retaining of their virtue (Wis 4:1), the special favor shown by God (Wis 3:14), and examination of the “fruit” of the soul (καρπὸν; Wis 3:13).63 61  Isa 66:5 does briefly place a taunt of God’s people on the lips of their enemies. If the author of Wisdom is following the “lead” of Trito-Isaiah here, he surely goes well beyond this in two extended monologues. 62  Ware, Mission, 121, sees in this passage the author grappling with the apparent contradictory claims in Isa 53:2 and 53:10: “In Wisdom 3:13–4:20 the author thus explains how it may be said of the suffering just, although childless (ὡς ῥίζα ἐν γῇ διψώσῃ, Isaiah 53:2) and cut off by early death, that ‘your soul shall see a long-lived seed’ (ἡ ψυχὴ ὑμῶν ὄψεται σπέρμα μακρόβιον, Isaiah 53:10).” 63  Nickelsburg, Resurrection, 113, sees an apologetic focus in the author’s handling of the fertility and long life of the wicked and the barrenness and short life of the righteous: “Here again he maintains God’s ultimate justice by asserting a final judgement, which will adjudicate the injustices of this life.” In Wisdom, this judgment will be the answer to infertility and premature death, not the opening of the wombs of the righteous or the lengthening of their lives. In

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And part of the punishment for the wicked will be that their children will either perish in their youth or die without influence or hope (Wis 3:16–19).64 Isaiah 52–53 includes numerous specifics about the kind of suffering endured by the Servant. In another interesting departure from the Suffering Servant passage, the account of the persecution of the righteous man in Wisdom can scarcely be called an “account” at all. This is because there is little detail given as to the nature of the suffering of the righteous man. In the first monologue of Wis 2, where the enemies are plotting their actions against the righteous man, the audience is given a good deal of insight into their motivations for doing so. However, very little of the “how” is included in this speech. What kind of torture did they inflict on him (2:19)? How did they insult him (2:19)? What, specifically, was shameful about the manner of his death (2:20)? The absence of this information in a place where such attention is given to the plight of the righteous in Wisdom may indicate that this had more to do with his role as a representative for the community than with serving as a description of his experiences for his own sake. Perhaps this aids the community in making sense of what has happened and is happening to them – they can insert their own specific experiences into the more general reference to suffering in the text. In this strategy, the author of Wisdom is not alone. Trito-Isaiah’s treatment of the plight of the servants is also rather vague. In Isaiah 57:1–2, the righteous are persecuted and suffer death at the hands of the wicked, but no specifics are given. In Isaiah 66:5, the servants are “hated and abhorred” by the wicked (τοῖς μισοῦσιν ἡμᾶς καὶ βδελυσσομένοις), but no more information on this experience is shared. In neither texts is the experience of the servants understood as vicarious. In Isaiah 52–53, however, the presentation of the suffering of the Servant – while clearly meaningful for later Jewish self-understanding and identification as suffering people of God – has as its primary focus the experiences of the Servant himself and the impact of his suffering on the community.65 Perhaps these reasons best explain the absence of an understanding of the righteous man’s death in Wisdom as one that was vicarious in nature.66 Although fact, the author of Wisdom suggests that there is blessing in the short life-span of the righteous, because it prevents them from succumbing to wickedness (Wis 4:11, 17). 64  Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon,” 417, argues that the author of Wisdom is deliberately flipping the common understanding of God’s blessings for the righteous (they should be fertile and the wicked should not), and that this is inspired by Isaiah: “The purpose of the second paradox (3,13–4,6) was to convince the reader that the traditional conception in which childlessness is to be explained as a curse from God needed a fresh re-examination.” 65 Lothar Ruppert, Der leidende Gerechte: Eine motivgeschichtliche Untersuchung zum Alten Testament und zwischentestamentlichen Judentum, FzB 5 (Würzburg: Echter, 1972), 27–28. 66  Page, “Suffering Servant,” 482, argues that the community embraced the notion of suffering, but not vicarious suffering. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, 88, argues that the lack of the vicarious suffering element here is due to the fact that the efficacy of righteous man’s suffering is told from the lips of the wicked who are now realizing how wrong they were. It would not be



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the author of Wisdom includes the image of offering – an image often connected to the concept of vicarious sacrifice – it does not function in the same way here as it does in Isa 52–53. In Wis 3:5–6, the efficacy of the deaths of the righteous is in their result: their deaths have proven that the righteous are worthy of God’s future blessings. The emphasis is on the acceptability of the offering  – they have passed God’s test. Unlike the Servant’s death (Isa 53:11–12), theirs is not endured for others, they do not bear the iniquities of others, and they do not make intercessions for their enemies. 4.3.  Justice, Judgment, and the Afterlife All of the suffering that is experienced by the Servant and the righteous man is viewed with an eye toward vindication. No matter what God’s people have experienced in this life, they have the hope that he will make it right in the end.67 Thus, the suffering and premature death of the righteous has an eschatological focus. The vindication of both the Servant and the righteous man is not contingent on whether that person is rescued from death. In both texts, the vindication that comes to each will be carried out after death, as a final reward for their faithfulness. This reward will be administered in the presence of the very enemies that persecuted them (Isa 52:14, 15; 53:4; Wis 5:1). The spatial emphasis on the position of each protagonist is key: both will assume a position of importance physically – they will “stand,” and be “exalted and greatly lifted up” (στήσεται; Wis 5:1; ὑψωθήσεται καὶ δοξασθήσεται σφόδρα; Isa 52:13). Moreover, they will both be rewarded for their commitment to God, and that reward will come in the form of association with God himself (Isa 49:4) and with his people, i. e., “the sons of God” and “the great ones” (υἱοῖς θεοῦ; Wis 5:5; πολλούς; Isa 53:12). Similarly, at the end of Isaiah, the oppressors of the servants are rejected and the servants are vindicated and presented by an announced verdict in 65:13–16. The servants now bear a new name, while those who did not “call out” God’s name receive their punishment (65:1, 15).68 This is the essence of the justice the righteous will experience after enduring the injustice of persecution by their enemies.69 This language paints a picture of the place of the righteous with God in contrast to their enemies, and God’s judgment of their actions as indeed righteous. appropriate for the wicked to talk about vicarious suffering! See also Nickelsburg, “Reading,” 243. 67  Other Jewish literature from the Second Temple period that shares this motif of the eschatological vindication of God’s righteous Jews and the destruction of their enemies includes Tobit 14:5–7; 2 Macc 7; T. Jud. 25:1–5; T. Mos. 10:1–10; Josephus, Ap. 2.218; Sib Or. 3.573–600. 68  Beuken, “Isaiah Chapters,” 207. 69 Michael Kolarcik, “Universalism and Justice in the Wisdom of Solomon” in Treasures of Wisdom: Studies in Ben Sira and the Book of Wisdom, ed. N. Calduch-Benages and Jacques Vermeylen, BETL 143 (Leuven: Peeters, 1999), 289–301.

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In fact, both texts describe the initial speechlessness of their enemies when they are proven wrong (Isa 52:14, 15; Wis 4:19), and later a confession of guilt and wrongdoing from the mouths of the enemies themselves (Isa 53:3–4, 10; Wis 5:3–4).70 They have both gone their own way, and that way is not the way of God (Isa 53:6; Wis 5:6–7). This is ironic, as they have previously put the Servant/righteous man on trial and have tried to judge him – now their own actions against him serve as their condemnation, and justice their reward (Isa 50:8; Wis 5:1, 23).71 In an ironic twist of fate, then, the wicked themselves go on trial before God and the righteous, except that they will deserve the guilty verdict they receive.72 We have already seen the influence of Isa 57:1–2 on Wisdom in the collective use of the term δίκαιος and the possible connection to the Suffering Servant of Isa 52–53. In Isa 57:1 and Wis 4:10, both of the righteous are described as being “taken up,” with Isa 57:1 using the term αἴρω twice, and Wis 4:10 altering the vocabulary to align more closely to the description of the fate of Enoch in Gen 5:24 (μετατίθημι).73 Thus we can see a sort of “triple-layer” use of intertexts, where the author of Wisdom sees in Isa 57:1–2 an influence from the Enoch story, and sees in both figures a precedent for his own righteous figure. An area where Isa 57 and Wisdom differ is in their emphasis on what happens after death. While both deal with the death of the righteous, it is not certain that Isa 57:1–2 has in view life after death per se. Rather, by using ἡ ταφή (“the grave”), a Greek term with no equivalent in the Hebrew text, the translator is indicating his association of “peace” (εἰρήνη) with “the grave,” i. e., that the life of the righteous has simply been cut short.74 The reasons given for the premature death of the righteous also differ: for the author of Wisdom, the untimely death of the righteous is to keep him from apostasy (Wis 4:11, 17), while in Isa 57:1–2 the language of peace suggests that death is a reprieve from suffering. Perhaps the most intriguing adaptation of the Servant(s) passages in Wisdom comes in the different view of the afterlife and the role that the protagonist will 70 

Manfredi, “Trial of the Righteous,” 164. Manfredi, “Trial of the Righteous,” 163–64. These texts are linked by forms of the verb ἵστημι. Although she is right to see a difference between the scenes of the judgment of the servant on trial by his enemies in the third Servant Song of Isa 50:4–9 and the judgment of the wicked by God in Wis 5, the implied outcome of the trial of the righteous in Isa 50 is the same as in Wis 5: because the servant has God on his side as his advocate (50:9), it is clear that he will ultimately be vindicated. 72  Nickelsburg, Resurrection, 85–87, highlights parallels between the protagonist of the Servant Songs and the protagonists in wisdom tales. He argues that the purpose of the use of the Servant Songs in Wisdom was to intentionally shape the “narrative” to reflect a wisdom tale (a genre he discussed in much detail in his work). While I do not believe it is necessary to see an intentional modeling of Wis 2–5 after wisdom tales specifically, it is quite possible that such a popular genre influenced the author’s way of presenting the righteous man. 73  Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon,” 418. 74  Pace Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon,” 418. 71 



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play in executing justice. Although both figures will be involved due to their exalted status alongside God himself, in Wisdom, the presentation of this justice as recompense is more explicit than in Isaiah. While it is clear that the Servant will have an active role in meting out justice among the nations in Isa 42:1–4, it is simply described as justice (κρίσις) – it is not specified as to whether this involves punishment against his enemies.75 By contrast, what God does to the wicked in Wis 4:19 – dashing them to the ground, shaking them to their very foundations, leaving them barren while they painfully suffer, and allowing even their memory to perish – is described in detail and anticipated as a result of the condemnation made against them by the righteous man himself (Wis 4:16).76 Perhaps the author of Wisdom is here inspired by a development of Deutero-Isaiah in TritoIsaiah, where details of the end of the wicked are described as an exact reversal of the future experiences of the servants. In Isa 65:11–15, the servants will eat, drink, rejoice, sing songs of gladness, and will be given the name of blessing, while the wicked will go hungry, thirst, be put to shame, cry out from pain of heart, and will have a name that is cursed. Yet Wisdom is still distinctive even from Trito-Isaiah in the active role the author envisions for the righteous. While in Isa 65:11–15, the emphasis is on God’s meting out of blessings to his servants and punishment to their enemies, in Wisdom the newly rewarded people of God are depicted as being armed alongside a detailed description of God’s own battle gear drawn from Isa 59:18–21. In addition, by anticipating the role of “creation” in the battle against “the madmen” in the following verses, the author of Wisdom sees the eschatological role of the righteous as one that involves an active participation in subduing those who would afflict the poor and oppress the helpless (Wis 5:17–20).77 At the end, someone will finally join God in his defense of those who have endured injustice in life.

75  The use of the more general language of “governing” and “ruling” to describe the role of the vindicated righteous is also present in Wisdom, both explicitly (κρινοῦσιν ἔθνη καὶ κρατήσουσιν λαῶν; 3:8) and implicitly (they will be given a crown and a diadem, 5:16). See also Isa 66:14, where the hand of YHWH is with his servants and against their enemies; Isa 66:16, where he delivers judgment against them; Isa 66:18, where he gathers all of the nations to himself in order to view his glory, all emphasizing his active role in judgment, not theirs. Beuken, “Isaiah Chapters,” 213, sees in this chapter an integration of two major themes: the servants of God and the destiny of Israel and the nations in the end. 76  Nickelsburg, Resurrection, 112, sees the primary emphasis in Wisdom as a concern that justice will be met, with an exaltation of the righteous that is in the service of vindication: “The author is mainly interested in showing that what the righteous claimed was true, and that what the ungodly said was false.” 77  Beuken, “Good Tidings,” 423–24, argues that this allusion to Isa 59 indicates an “expectation of a new era, inaugurated by YHWH.” He also believes the oppressors are not foreign powers in Isa 59:15–17, but that injustice is being committed within Israel itself. If so, this would certainly fit well within the historical context of Wisdom, where it is not clear that the wicked are outsiders, but are more likely to be other Jews. Cf. Blenkinsopp, “Persian Epoch.”

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5. Conclusion While these are certainly not the only Isaianic themes adopted and adapted by the author of Wisdom, it is clear by their pervasiveness and high volume at key places in the text – particularly in Wis 2–5 – that the depiction of the Servant was a formative image for the self-understanding of the community to which Wisdom is addressed.78 The tension between God’s Servant and his enemies provided the template from which the author of Wisdom drew his understanding of his own community’s polarizing experience with the wicked. The reality of the Servant’s suffering, while still being claimed by God, helped the author of Wisdom to make sense of the persecution that his own community faced, and provided the hope for justice and reward in the end. Generally speaking, in his re-appropriation of the suffering and vindicated Servant motif for his community, the author of Wisdom was not particularly innovative. This self-understanding is modeled within Isaiah itself, as the Deutero-Isaian Servant comes to be understood as a representative of God’s faithful – those who have experienced persecution, but who have the hope of vindication. The sufferings of the righteous man and his anticipated vindication by God in the presence of his enemies was a reality that had already been experienced by the Servant in Deutero-Isaiah, and was re-actualized by the Trito-Isaianic community. This was also true for the author of Wisdom, who had hope that even when sharing the same fate as the righteous man, his community too could anticipate hope for the future.

Bibliography Achtemeier, Elizabeth. The Community and Message of Isaiah 56–66: A  Theological Commentary. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1982. Beentjes, Pancratius C. “Wisdom of Solomon 3,1–4,19 and the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 413–20 in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift Willem A. M. Beuken. Edited by Jacques van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne. BETL 132. Leuven: University Press and Peeters, 1997. Beuken, Willem A. M. “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 204–21 in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989. Edited by J. A. Emerton. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991. –. “Isa. 56.9–57.13: An Example of the Isaianic Legacy of Trito-Isaiah.” Pages 48–64 in Tradition and Re-Interpretation in Jewish and Early Christian Literature: Essays in Honour of Jürgen C. H. Lebram. Edited by J. W. van Henten. SPB 36. Leiden: Brill, 1986. –. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH.’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. 78 See Skehan, “Isaias,” 293–99, for a discussion of additional themes and types shared between Isaiah and Wisdom.



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–. “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55.” Pages 411–42 in The Book of Isaiah/Le Livre d’Isaïe. Edited by Jacques Vermeylen. BETL 81. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 56–66. A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19B. New York: Doubleday, 2003. –. “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period.” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20. –. “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book.” Pages 155–75 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Edited by Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans. VTSup 70/1. New York: Brill, 1997. –. “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch.” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23. Reprinted, pages 392–412 in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship. Edited by R. P. Gordon. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995. Carey, Holly J. Jesus’ Cry from the Cross: Towards a First-Century Understanding of the Intertextual Relationship between Psalm 22 and the Narrative of Mark’s Gospel. LNTS 398. London: T&T Clark, 2009. Dalman, Gustav. Der leidende und sterbende Messias der Synagoge im ersten nachchristlichen Jahrtausend. SIJB 4. Berlin: Reuther, 1888. De Troyer, Kristin. “An Exploration of the Wisdom of Solomon as the Missing Link Between Isaiah and Matthew.” Pages 215–27 in Isaiah in Context: Studies in Honour of Arie van der Kooij on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday. Edited by Michaël N. van der Meer. VTSup 138. Leiden: Brill, 2010. Duhm, Bernhard. Das Buch Jesaia. HKAT. 5th ed. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1968. Gregerman, Adam. “Biblical Prophecy and the Fate of the Nations in Early Jewish and Christian Interpretations of Isaiah.” Pages 212–40 in “What Does the Scripture Say?”: Studies in the Function of Scripture in Early Judaism and Christianity. Volume 1: The Synoptic Gospels. Edited by Craig A. Evans and H. Daniel Zacharias. LNTS 470. London: T&T Clark, 2012. Kolarcik, Michael. “Universalism and Justice in the Wisdom of Solomon.” Pages 289– 301 in Treasures of Wisdom: Studies in Ben Sira and the Book of Wisdom. Festschrift M. Gilbert. Edited by N. Calduch-Benages and Jacques Vermeylen. BETL 143. Leuven: Peeters, 1999. Manfredi, Silvana. “The Trial of the Righteous in Wis 5:1–14 (1–7) and in the Prophetic Traditions.” Pages 159–78 in The Book of Wisdom in Modern Research: Studies on Tradition, Redaction, and Theology. Edited by Angelo Passaro and Giuseppe Bellia. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2005. Nickelsburg, George W. E. Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity. Expanded Edition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. –. “Reading the Hebrew Scriptures in the First Century: Christian Interpretations in Their Jewish Context.” Word & World 3.3 (1983): 238–50. Page, Sydney H. T. “The Suffering Servant Between the Testaments.” NTS 31.4 (1985): 481–97. Reese, James M. “Plan and Structure in the Book of Wisdom.” CBQ 27.4 (1965): 391–99. Ruppert, Lothar. “Der leidende Gerechte.” Pages 76–87 in Die Entstehung der jüdischen Martyrologie. Edited by J. W. van Henten. SPB 38. Leiden: Brill, 1989.

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–. Der leidende Gerechte: Eine motivgeschichtliche Untersuchung zum Alten Testament und zwischentestamentlichen Judentum. Forschung zur Bibel 5. Würzburg: Echter, 1972. Skehan, Patrick W. “Isaias and the Teaching of the Book of Wisdom.” CBQ 2.4 (1940): 289–99. Smart, James D. History and Theology in Second Isaiah: A  Commentary on Isaiah 35, 40–66. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1965. Suggs, M. Jack. “Wisdom of Solomon 2:10–5: A  Homily Based on the Fourth Servant Song.” JBL 76.1 (1957): 26–33. Ware, James Patrick. The Mission of the Church in Paul’s Letter to the Philippians in the Context of Ancient Judaism. NovTSup 120. Leiden: Brill, 2005. Zimmerli, Walther. “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas.” Pages 217–33 in Gottes Offenbarung: Gesammelte Aufsätze zum Alten Testament. ThB 19. Munich: Chr. Kaiser, 1963.

The Servant(s) in the Gospel of Mark and the Textual Formation of Early Christian Identity Elizabeth E. Shively 1. Introduction Long-suffering readers are aware that scholarship on Isaiah’s Servant in Mark tends to hit repeat. To what extent did the evangelist (or Jesus) interpret Jesus’ death in terms of Isaiah 53? These repeated lyrics are usually joined to a Christological and soteriological refrain. Some take them up as an anthem, while others reject them as a racket; but the lyrics remain fairly constant. I suggest, however, that there is a whole song worth hearing. Accordingly, my aim is to show that instead of using a discrete text (Isa 53) in a single location (Mark 10:45 or portions of the Passion Narrative), Mark follows early Second Temple exegetical practices by interpreting and applying throughout the whole Gospel an argument structure that extends through Isaiah 40–66. Thus, Mark develops a key theme of Isaiah 40–66, which is that the mission of Yhwh’s Servant is continued by his disciples, the servants who embody his suffering and vindication.1 As a result, the Servant(s) motif in Mark functions as a pattern for integrating Christology and discipleship.

2.  Markan Scholarship on the Servant Generally, the scholarship of Joachim Jeremias and Morna Hooker set the contours of future debate over the extent to which Isaiah’s Servant influenced the evangelists and/or Jesus.2 Jeremias traced messianic exegesis of so-called Servant passages in Deutero-Isaiah (Isa 42:1–4, 6; 49:6; 52:13–53:12) to pre-Christian 1  See Joseph Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 259. 2  For example, R. T. France, Jesus and the Old Testament: His Application of Old Testament Passages to Himself and His Mission (London: Tyndale, 1971), 110–35; Ben F. Meyer, “The Expiation Motif in the Eucharistic Words: A Key to the History of Jesus?” in One Loaf, One Cup, ed. idem, New Gospel Studies 6 (Macon, GA: Mercer, 1993), 11–33; Martin Hengel, “Der stellvertretende Sühnetod Jesu. Ein Beitrag zur Entstehung des urchristlichen Kerygmas,” IKZ 9 (1980): 1–25, 135–47; idem, The Atonement, trans. J. Bowden (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981); Peter Stuhlmacher, “Vicariously Giving His Life for Many, Mark 10:45 (Matt. 20:28),” in Reconciliation, Law, and Righteousness: Essays in Biblical Theology, trans. E. Kalin (Philadel-

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tradition and on this basis concluded that Jesus interpreted his own death in light of Isaiah 53.3 Hooker famously opposed this view in Jesus and the Servant, in which she evaluated proposed allusions to the Servant Songs in the Gospels based on verbal correspondences. Subsequently, scholars have tended to adopt these approaches with some variation. In what follows, I describe Hooker’s approach to the Servant in Mark, after which I look at the views to Mark’s Servant of two scholars who follow Jeremias’ trajectory (Peter Stuhlmacher and Rikki Watts) and two scholars who follow Hooker’s (Kelli O’Brien and Richard Hays). At the outset of her study, Hooker rejected C. H. Dodd’s view that the NT writers envisioned whole contexts when they quoted OT texts.4 Instead, she explicitly relied on H. J. Cadbury’s atomistic approach to the Old Testament and to Isa 53 specifically.5 Accordingly, she organized possible allusions according to those that have a “direct literal linkage” to the Servant Songs and those that describe Jesus’ suffering.6 She then evaluated texts allusion-by-allusion, grouped according to synoptic parallels. As a result, she treated allusions and texts in isolation without attention to their larger narrative contexts in the Gospels, and with little attention to Jewish exegetical tradition. For example, Hooker accepts that εὐαγγέλιον in Mark 1:1 and elsewhere (1:14, 15; 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9; [16:5]) is an implicit use of material from Deutero-Isaiah (Isa 40:9; 52:7). She then concludes that the conflated texts in Mark 1:2–3 (Mal 3:1 // Exod with Isa 40:3) “confirm the conclusion that εὐαγγέλιον is taken from Isa. 40–65, and show that the evangelist in some way identified the coming of Jesus with the deliverance promised in these chapters.”7 But this logic does not inform her subsequent analysis. This is evident in the next section, in which she evaluates possible allusions to Isaianic texts in the account of Jesus’ baptism and rejects the use of Isa 42:1 in Mark 1:11 based on the lack of exact verbal correspondence. Whereas Mark 1:11 has ὁ υἱος μου (“my son”) and ἐν σοὶ εὐδόκησα (“in whom I am well pleased”), she notes that Isa 42:1 LXX has παῖς μου προσεδέξατο αὐτὸν ἡ ψυχή μου (“my soul receives him”) – though Theodotion has ὃν εὐδόκησεν ἡ ψυχή μου (“my soul is well pleased with him”). Later, in her discussion of the Spirit’s descent (Mark 1:8–10), she comments that phia: Fortress, 1986), 16–29; idem, Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments, Bd. 1: Grundlegung. Von Jesus zu Paulus, 2nd ed. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997), 125–43. 3 Walther Zimmerli and Joachim Jeremias, The Servant of God (London: SCM Press, 1957 [1952]), 57, 98–104. See also Joachim Jeremias, “παῖς θεοῦ,” TDNT 5:677–717, contra H. H. Rowley, who states, “There is no serious evidence … of the bringing together of the concepts of the suffering servant and the Davidic Messiah before the Christian era.” See H. H. Rowley, The Servant of the Lord, and Other Essays on the Old Testament (Oxford: Blackwell, 1956), 90. 4  C. H. Dodd, According to the Scriptures: The Substructure of New Testament Theology (London: Nisbet, 1952). 5 Morna Hooker, Jesus and the Servant: The Influence of the Servant Concept of DeuteroIsaiah in the New Testament (London: SPCK, 1959), 21–22. 6 Ibid., 62. A text in which Jesus sees himself as the suffering servant falls into both groups. 7  Ibid., 67.

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“the Spirit will rest upon the Messiah (Isa. 11.2–4) and on the Servant of Yhwh (Isa. 42.1; cf. 61.1).”8 Yet in her subsequent discussion of the possible allusion in Isa 42:1 she fails to acknowledge that the line, “I will put my Spirit upon him” supports a verbal and thematic correspondence with Mark 1:11.9 Hooker treats these possible allusions as a discrete units, ignoring her own prior discussion about the literary and hermeneutical connections to what has preceded the baptism in the Markan and Isaianic contexts. That is, she overlooks significant thematic correspondences that she identified earlier and which could have informed her evaluation of the use of Isa 42:1 in Mark 1:11, where Mark links Jesus with Isaiah’s Servant and Yhwh’s promised deliverance. Hooker maintains this atomistic approach and reliance on verbal correspondences to evaluate other possible allusions. At the end of her investigation, she concludes that the Synoptic Gospels contain echoes of Deutero-Isaiah, but “no certain reference to the Songs themselves, which in any way suggests that Jesus was identified with a Messianic interpretation of the ‘Servant’, or which is concerned with the significance of his suffering and death.”10 Instead, she identifies Daniel’s “one like a son of man,” who represents the suffering people, as the interpretative pattern for Jesus’ suffering and death.11 In contrast to Hooker and in line with Jeremias, the Tübingen school sought to advance the view that Jesus interpreted his own death as an atoning sacrifice after Isaiah’s suffering Servant. A number of articles on Isa 53 and the Suffering Servant written in the 1990’s by German scholars were revised, expanded, and collected to appear in translation in The Suffering Servant.12 In an important article contained in that volume, Peter Stuhlmacher argues that “Jesus adopted the general messianic interpretation of Isaiah 53 current in early Judaism.”13 In 8 

Ibid., 68. This is puzzling, since Hooker sees dependence based on conceptual similarity between Mark 3:27 and Isaiah 49:24f but without linguistic correspondence; see Hooker, Jesus and the Servant, 74. 10  Hooker, Jesus and the Servant, 157; idem, “Did the Use of Isaiah 53 to Interpret His Mission Begin with Jesus?” in Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed. William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998), 88–103. C. K. Barrett came to the same conclusion; see C. K. Barrett, “The Background of Mark 10:45,” in New Testament Essays: Studies in Memory of Thomas Walter Manson, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1959), 1–18. 11  Hooker, Jesus and the Servant, 162. 12 Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, eds., The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, trans. Daniel P. Bailey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004). 13  He cites 1QIsaa; 4Q540–541 (Aramaic Apocryphon of Levi); 4Q537 (Aramaic Testament of Jacob); Targum of Isaiah 53, and 1 Enoch 38:2; 46:4; 62:3. Peter Stuhlmacher, “Isaiah 53 in the Gospels and Acts,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, trans. Daniel P. Bailey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 149. See also the essay by O. Betz, “Jesus and Isaiah 53,” in Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed. William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998), 70–87. For a critique of Stuhlmacher’s view, see W. Zager, “Wie kam es im Urchristentum zur Deutung des Todes Jesu als Sühnegeschehen?” 9 

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addition, Stuhlmacher gives greater attention to the larger literary and theological contexts of both Deutero-Isaiah (DI) and Mark. For example, he examines the use of παραδίδοται in the second passion prediction (Mark 9:31) as a passive referring to God’s act of delivering up the Son of Man (cf. Isa 43:3–5; 53:5–7, 11–12).14 Then he reads the ransom saying in 10:45 as a development of the passion predictions and interpretation of Jesus’ suffering and death from the perspective of these Isaianic passages and as a development of 8:37.15 In addition, he takes λύτρον as a translation of ‫כפר‬, and argues that Jesus redeems people from final judgment.16 Then, in 14:24, at the Last Supper, Mark further develops these texts by combining Isa 53:10–12 with Exod 24:8. This combination generates a portrayal of the suffering Servant’s vicarious suffering and death as a guilt offering (‫)אשם‬, modelled on the Passover, which inaugurates a new covenant.17 In sum, Stuhlmacher interprets Jesus’ sayings in a developing sequence from Mark 9:31 to 10:45 to Mark 14:22, 24 in light of Isa 43:3–4; 53:7 52:13–53:12; 61:1–2 (and Pss 22; 68; 118). He concludes that Jesus himself understood his life and death “in light of the tradition already given to him in Isaiah about the (vicariously suffering) Servant of God.”18 While some aspects of Stuhlmacher’s article are problematic (e. g., λύτρον does not translate ‫כפר‬, as I will discuss below), he crucially underlines the fact that New Testament authors wrote in light of received Jewish exegetical practices and tradition; and he attends to the literary and hermeneutical contexts of both Isaiah and Mark. Another collection of essays produced in the 1990’s, Jesus and the Suffering Servant, focuses on the influence of Isaiah 53 on the early Christian faith.19 In this volume, Hooker reiterates her earlier approach and conclusions,20 though Rikki Watts opposes them in an essay on Mark’s Gospel. Rather than relying only on verbal correspondence as a criterion of dependence, Watts attends also to “overarching motifs; synthetic uses of the OT; and semantic change.”21 In addition, he gives particular attention to Mark’s Isaianic hermeneutical framework which provides literary-theological structure for the sayings of Jesus reZNW 87 (1996): 165–86; idem, Jesus und die frühchristliche Verkündigung (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1999), 35–61. Zager argues that Hellenistic Jewish martyrdom theology generated the conception of Jesus’ death in terms of atonement. 14  Stuhlmacher, “Isaiah 53,” 150. 15  Ibid., 151. 16  Ibid., 151. 17  Ibid., 152. 18  Ibid., 153. 19  William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer, “Introduction,” in Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998), 1–2. 20  Hooker, “Use of Isaiah 53.” 21  Rikki E. Watts, “Jesus’ Death, Isaiah 53, and Mark 10:45: A Crux Revisited,” in Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed. William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998), 125–51 (here 126).

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corded throughout of the narrative.22 Watts argues that Mark establishes this hermeneutical structure in the prologue with the mixed citation attributed to Isaiah, after which follows a three-fold structure that corresponds to the Isaianic New Exodus (INE): (1) Mark 1:16–8:21 (deliverance from Satan); (2) 8:22– 10:45 (journey along the way); (3) 10:46–16:8 (in Jerusalem).23 Watts likens the disciples to “blind” Israel which refuses to accept God’s way of salvation through Cyrus.24 That is, as Jesus leads the disciples along the way to Jerusalem they reject God’s way of salvation through Jesus’ suffering and death. In particular, Watts detects an exegesis of Isaiah 52:13–53:12 woven into Mark’s Gospel that he attributes to Jesus himself.25 Jesus’ question, “How then is it written about the Son of Man, that he is to go through many sufferings and be treated with contempt?” (Mark 9:12) provides Watts’ point of departure. He argues that because Mark joins two previously unconnected ideas, Isaiah 53 must be the single text that Jesus has in mind because of its centrality to the INE. In other words, since Mark establishes the INE motif from the beginning of the narrative through several Isaianic texts, and since Yhwh accomplishes the New Exodus through the suffering of his Servant, this suggests that Isa 53 lay behind Mark 9:12. In addition, Watts points to the central focus on Jesus’ suffering in 8:22–10:45 and the repetition of παραδίδομι in the passion predictions (9:31; 10:33), which corresponds to language in Isa 53:6, 12. Jesus then explains how he will accomplish the purpose for which he came in Mark 10:45. Watts’ reading of 9:12, 10:45 and the Passion Narrative (PN) in light of a larger Isaianic hermeneutical framework is important. Like Stuhlmacher, Watts rightly attends to the larger hermeneutical and narrative frameworks of both Isaiah and Mark. Two notable studies have argued against the presence of the suffering Servant motif/Isa 53 in Mark 10:45 and the PN. First, Kelli O’Brien explicitly follows Hooker’s lead to test what had at the time she wrote grown to approximately 270 commonly suggested allusions to scripture in Mark’s PN. She uses Richard Hays’ criteria for identifying the presence of allusions26 and develops a sophisticated approach that attends to such matters as reinterpretation of scripture within scripture itself, types of interplay between texts, and early Christian reliance on Jewish exegetical traditions. In addition, she indicates she will fill a deficiency 22 

Watts, “Jesus’ Death,” 129. See also Rikki E. Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus in Mark (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997). Joel Marcus also argues that the middle section is shaped by the Isaianic “way” toward Jerusalem; see Joel Marcus, “Mark and Isaiah,” in Fortunate the Eyes that See: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of his Seventieth Birthday, ed. A. B. Beck et al. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 449–66. 24  Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus, 130; idem, “Consolation or Confrontation? Isaiah 40–55 and the Delay of the New Exodus,” TynBul 41 (1990): 31–59. 25  Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus, 151. 26 Kelli S. O’Brien, The Use of Scripture in the Markan Passion Narrative, LNTS 384 (London: T&T Clark, 2010), 28ff; see Richard B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 29–32. 23 

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of Hooker’s study by asserting that Mark employs scriptural allusions to tell the whole story in all its parts: “allusion to Scripture functions to interpret the narrative as narrative, to define characters and to foreshadow and give meaning to events.”27 Yet in her subsequent analysis, O’Brien does not fully deliver on her introductory methodology or promises. In practice, verbal correspondence serves as her chief criterion for confirming the presence of allusions in the PN.28 Out of all the allusions O’Brien tests according to this criterion, she confirms only sixteen and then interprets them.29 She uses other criteria, such as thematic coherence, to interpret the sixteen allusions after she has confirmed them, treating each allusion one-by-one, in isolation. O’Brien gives special attention to her evaluation of possible allusions to Isa 52:13–53:12 in Mark’s PN and in Mark 10:45, for which she follows this procedure. For example, she compares Mark 14:61, “But he was silent (ἐσιώπα) and did not answer (οὐκ ἀπεκρίνατο οὐδέν),” to Isa 53:7, “like a sheep that before its shearers is silent (LXX ἄφωνος; MT ‫)אלם‬30 so he did not open his mouth.” She demonstrates verbal correspondence with the Hebrew term since the LXX translates ‫ אלם‬with σιωπάω in other places. Based on the fact that there is only one corresponding term, O’Brien concludes that the “verbal correspondence is weak; this is not an allusion.”31 She considers no other criteria. Instead, she argues that Mark 14:61 alludes to Isa 36:21, “They were silent (ἐσιώπησαν) and no one answered (οὐδείς ἀπεκρίθη) him a word.” O’Brien is impressed by two instances of verbal correspondence here. In addition, she makes an argument for a sort of inverted thematic correspondence: whereas the Jerusalemites refuse to respond to Rabshakeh’s blasphemous talk, Jesus refuses to respond to charges of blasphemy against himself.32 This stretches the imagination, however, because it requires some mental gymnastics to make the thematic correspondence work. Yet thematic correspondence between Isa 53:7 and Mark 14:61 is incredibly straightforward since both passages depict an individual who remains intentionally silent under threat of death by and for his own people. Moreover, Mark’s immediate context additionally supports an allusion to Isa 53:7 in Mark 14:61. Just four verses later in 14:65 Mark employs language from Isa 50:6 to describe Jesus’ maltreatment and mockery (“spit,” “face” and “struck”).33 O’Brien accepts an allusion to Isa 50:6 in Mark 14:65 in a 27 

O’Brien, Use of Scripture, 16. to verbal correspondence is Hays’ criterion of “Volume,” which is on display, for example, in O’Brien’s evaluation of the possible use of Isaiah 52:13–53:12 in Mark’s PN; see O’Brien, Use of Scripture, 76–87. On a rare occasion O’Brien uses thematic correspondence as a criterion for evaluating an allusion, e. g., pp. 86 and 102. 29  She defines an allusion as an intentional reference to a previous work “indicated by verbal correspondence and that has interpretative value” (O’Brien, Use of Scripture, 22). 30  LXX translates ‫ אלם‬with σιωπάω elsewhere. 31  O’Brien, Use of Scripture, 81. 32  Ibid., 135–36. 33 Ibid., 99, 108; see also 138–41. 28  Attention



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later analysis, but this does not factor in to her discussion of 14:61.34 It is difficult to tell in this instance how her analysis supports her initial aim of demonstrating how “allusion to Scripture functions to interpret the narrative as narrative.” This is a pity, for by looking at this Markan scene as a whole, instead of taking discrete allusions as starting points, it is apparent that Mark describes Jesus’ trial before the Sanhedrin with language interlaced from passages that describe the humiliation of Yhwh’s Servant. Throughout the rest of her study, when O’Brien tests suggested allusions or interprets confirmed allusions, she does not relate them to other suggested or confirmed allusions, but instead only looks at each in its own immediate context and in the light of Jewish and Christian interpretative traditions. Thus, O’Brien’s reliance on verbal correspondence for determining allusions and her atomistic approach to their interpretation somewhat undermine her conclusion that “the Servant of the Lord is not the pattern by which the Gospel of Mark portrays Jesus’ passion”35 and thwart her attempt at a narrative approach to scriptural allusions. The second study that argues against the presence of the suffering Servant motif/Isa 53 in Mark 10:45 and the PN is Richard Hays’ Echoes of Scripture in the Gospels.36 In it, Hays challenges interpreters of the Gospels to read Israel’s scriptures in the “revisional figural ways” that the evangelists did.37 He observes that the New Testament writers conduct a “process of reading backwards in light of new revelatory events.”38 That is, they interpret previous traditions (Israel’s Scripture) and apply them to the “stories about Jesus.”39 Promisingly, he explains the relationship between the New Testament and its source texts in terms of pattern and correspondence.40 He looks at how the four Gospels use scripture explicitly and implicitly. He distinguishes intertextual references between quotation (introduced by citation formula), allusion (which includes several words or notable characters/events from source text), and echo (which includes only a word or phrase from source text).41 He also brings attention to “metalepsis,” an effect in which the use of a source text only has its full force when the reader recalls the original context from which it came, and reads the 34  This is in spite of using Hays’ criterion of “recurrence or clustering,” which she explains in her methodology as an author’s use of “a number of allusions from the same area of a biblical book” (ibid., 29). 35  Ibid., 87. 36 Richard Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Gospels (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2016). 37 Ibid., 4. Hays builds an understanding of figural readings out of Erich Auerbach’s definition of “figural interpretation” to understand it as that which establishes a connection between one real person or event and another through space and time such that the second fulfills the first. 38  Ibid., 5. 39 Ibid. 40  Ibid., 3. 41  Ibid., 10.

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two texts in juxtaposition.42 Hays’ work is important for its attention to “the poetics of allusion imbedded in Mark’s distinctive narrative strategy.”43 He comments, “for the most part [Mark’s] scriptural references are woven seamlessly into the fabric of the story. The story is intelligible, at one level, for readers who do not hear the scriptural echoes. But for those who do have ears to hear, new levels of complexity and significance open up.”44 He suggests, for example, that Isa 51:9–10, with its appeal to the Lord to awake from slumber to ransom Israel “may be in the background of Mark 4:35–41,” even though the two passages share no verbal correspondence. For him, the thematic correspondence in conjunction with the “recurrent echoing of Isaiah’s new exodus imagery” is significant enough to evoke this background.45 In addition, to support the “scriptural references woven into the fabric of the story,” he gives the story of Jesus entering Jerusalem on a colt (Mk 11:1–11), which has no citation formula and no verbal correspondence. “But the reader who perceives the subliminal symbolism of Zech 9:9 imbedded in the action will more fully grasp the significance of the episode.”46 Hays omits from his main discussion, however, the Servant motif and Isa 52:13–53:12, and he includes an excursus explaining his reasoning. Using only the criterion of verbal correspondence, he evaluates the extent to which Mark employs the Isaian suffering Servant in the Passion Narrative. He looks at three discrete verses (Mark 10:45; 14:24, 61), denying verbal correspondences with Isa 53 in all three and ignoring those that are commonly accepted (e. g., between Isa 50:6 and Mark 14:65). As a result, Hays reaches the same conclusion as Hooker and O’Brien: In sum, it is very difficult to make a case that Isaiah’s Suffering Servant texts play any significant role in Mark’s account of Jesus’ death – at least at the level of Mark’s text-production … within the verbal texture of Mark’s own narrative, it is chiefly the psalms of the suffering righteous one, along with the apocalyptic visions of Zechariah and Daniel, that provide the hermeneutical framework for interpreting the death of Jesus, the crucified Messiah.47

Suddenly, the Isaianic hermeneutic that Mark introduces at the beginning of the gospel does not apply, nor are there scriptural echoes from Isaiah woven into this part of the story. In light of Hays’ methodology and application of it throughout 42 

Ibid., 11. Ibid., 98. See also Thomas Hatina, In Search of a Context: The Function of Scripture in Mark’s Narrative, JSNTSup 232 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002). 44  Hays, Echoes, 99. 45  Ibid., 68–69. 46  Ibid., 99. 47 Ibid., 87 (emphasis in the original). Others who make a similar argument include Stephen P. Ahearne-Kroll, The Psalms of Lament in Mark’s Passion: Jesus’ Davidic Suffering, SNTSMS 142 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007); and David Allen, According to the Scriptures: The Death of Christ in the Old Testament and the New (Norwich, UK: SCM Press, 2018). 43 



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his book, this is a puzzling conclusion; or, perhaps it is puzzling that he does not apply the same methodology to Mark’s use of the Servant motif/Isa 53 as he does to the rest of Mark’s use of scripture, which generates this conclusion. To summarize, O’Brien and Hays wish to give attention to Mark’s narrative shape, but they disregard Mark’s Isaianic hermeneutic in their evaluation of scripture in the PN, and so disregard narrative developments and thematic correspondences.48 Stuhlmacher and Watts, on the other hand, attend to the larger hermeneutical framework of Isaiah and the narrative context of Mark in their evaluation of Mark’s use of the Servant motif. Yet even this is an overly narrow investigation. In practice, their investigation is set into the framework of Deutero-Isaiah to evaluate the suffering Servant/Isa 52:13–53:12 in Mark 10:45 and the Passion Narrative, in order to draw out Christological and/or soteriological implications. I  suggest, however, that the investigation of the Servant motif in Mark requires further expansion based on an understanding of early Second Temple exegetical practices.

3.  Extending the Interpretation of the Servant It is impossible to appreciate Mark’s approach to scripture without understanding the phenomenon of early Second Temple interpretation within the Jewish scriptures. That is, the books of the Jewish scriptures themselves exhibit stages of composition, interpretation, and rewriting in changing situations and contexts.49 Scholarship increasingly recognizes this sort of exegetical activity in the book of Isaiah.50 As a point of departure for this essay, I consider Jacob Stromberg’s 48  In an essay in which he looks at how Isa 53 impacts the early formation of NT tradition, Wolfgang Kraus discusses problems involved with relying solely on verbal correspondence in deciding the extent to which Isaiah 53 is a source text for Mark 10:45. He concludes: “Entscheidend bleibt dann der motivische Bezug, nämlich der, dass einer sein Leben für andere einsetz”; Wolfgang Kraus, “Jesaja 53 LXX im frühen Christentum – eine Überprüfung” in Beiträge zur urchristlichen Theologiegeschichte, ed. idem, BZNW 163 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2009), 149–82; p. 179, n. 148. Rikki Watts (“Jesus’ Death,” 143) conveys a similar point when he quips, “where else, if not here, in the OT [i. e., Isa 53] can we find any concept of a ‘serving’ figure who, in an eschatological context, gives his life for ‘the many’?” 49  Jacob Stromberg discusses the influence of John Barton and James Kugel in this regard; see Jacob Stromberg, “Isaiah’s Interpretive Revolution: How Isaiah’s Formation Influenced Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation,” in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew. Essays Honoring Joseph Blenkinsopp and His Contribution to the Study of Isaiah, ed. Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015), 214–32 (here 214–16). See further John Barton, Oracles of God: Perceptions of Ancient Prophecy in Israel after the Exile (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); James L. Kugel, How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture Then and Now (New York: Free Press, 2007). 50  Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, xvii. See also idem, “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in Persian Epoch,”  PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23; repr. in R. P. Gordon (ed.),”The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 392–412; idem, “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period,”

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argument that, “Isaiah was … rewritten by early Second Temple readers, scribes active just after the exile … [so that] [t]he post-exilic shaping of Isaiah itself represents an interpretive revolution. And this was of the greatest hermeneutical consequence for how the book would be read later in the period concerned,”51 particularly at Qumran and by early Christians. As an example, Stromberg looks at the interpretation of Isaiah 40:3 in Isa 57, and then the later interpretation of Isa 40:3 in Qumran and early Christian texts. He detects a shift in outlook from the pre-exilic Isa 40 to its interpretation and application in the post-exilic Isa 57.52 Unlike the announcement of “comfort” in Isa 40:3, the renewed announcement of “comfort” in Isa 57 is directed only to the righteous (v. 15); and a stumbling block of sin must be removed before restoration may come (vv. 15–17).53 As Stromberg summarizes, “[t]he new imperative enjoins the addressees to moral preparation and it assumes a division among the people. Neither aspect is present in the source, Isa 40. Both are introduced by the exegetical citation as part of the book’s post-exilic composition. For those acquainted with the interpretation of Isa 40 in the late Second Temple Period, this reformulation will sound utterly familiar. Both moves are found in the exegesis of Isa 40:3 at Qumran [1QS] and in the NT.”54 This is particularly evident in Mark’s application of Isa 40:3 to the ministry of John, who calls Israel out to the wilderness for a baptism of repentance. The point is that late Second Temple readers of Isaiah, like Mark, did not see the eight-century prophet “as is,” but (in Stromberg’s words) “clothed in early Second Temple dress: they saw Isaiah after exile.”55 This “interpretive revolution” applies equally to the motif of Isaiah’s Servant. That is, as Isa 57 takes up the announcement of “comfort” of Isa 40:3, similarly Isa 54, 56–66 take up the servant motif of chapters 40–55 to interpret and apply it in the post-exilic context. In this new context, God’s people have returned to rebuild their city and temple, and their experience is not as they had hoped it CBQ 52 (1990); 5–20; idem, “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the

Book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition, ed. Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans, VTSup, 70.1 (New York: Brill, 1997), 155–75. 51  Stromberg, “Isaiah’s Interpretive Revolution,” 218. Elsewhere, Stromberg has demonstrated persuasively that the author of TI read previous parts of Isaiah, to which he alluded and developed in TI. He states that “The author of TI created a work in the last eleven chapters of the book, which, through various forms of textual borrowing, draws the earlier stages of Isaiah into its own future vision. He also introduced material throughout 1–55 [e. g., 54:17] which would, in a manner of speaking, anticipate that vision. The end product was an Isaiah drawn into the final chapters from both directions. This does not amount to total cohesion … but it does constitute a strategy”; see Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book, OTM (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 250–51. 52  Stromberg, “Isaiah’s Interpretive Revolution,” 226. 53  Ibid., 228–29. 54  Ibid., 229–230; see also 231. 55  Ibid., 232.

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would be.56 The speaker employs the same argument strategy as DI to address the people through the lens of the exodus redemption once again, in which the way is prepared for the coming of Yhwh to rescue them for his holy presence (Isa 57:14–21; 62:10–12; compare esp. 57:14; 62:10 and 40:3). In particular, TI extends the narrative-theological identity of the Servant by applying it to the servants.57 After chapter 53, the singular “Servant” becomes the community of “servants” (54:17; 56:6; 65:8, 9, 13–15; 66:14) or offspring (59:21; 61:8–9; 65:9, 23; 66:22).58 The servants/offspring continue the Servant’s activity as a righteous remnant in conflict with their opponents as they await the new creation (Isa 57:1; 61:1–4; 65:13–17).59 At that time, Yhwh will distinguish between the righteous and those who will be ashamed within Israel: “My servants shall rejoice, but you shall be put to shame” (Isa 65:13c).60 TI describes the less-than-ideal experience of the post-exilic community, which generates division among God’s people: Hear the word of the LORD, you who tremble at his word: Your own people who hate you and reject you for my name’s sake have said, ‘Let the LORD be glorified, so that we may see your joy’; but it is they who shall be put to shame. (Isa 65:5; see also 57:13)

Joseph Blenkinsopp comments that Isa 66:5 “points unmistakably to a situation of conflict and schism” in which the speaker “is addressing a collectivity which has been ostracized or excommunicated … by their fellow Jews.” Thus, Isaiah 40–66 as a whole displays an exegetical trajectory, which Michael Lyons summarizes as follows: “Isaiah 54; 56–66 extends and develops earlier passages in Isaiah 40–55 to argue that Yhwh’s righteous servant creates a community (the ‘servants’/ ‘offspring’) who suffer righteously like him and are vindicated like him.”61 It is demonstrable that this exegetical trajectory shaped how various groups in early and late Second Temple Judaism read Isaiah. For example, scholarship has long recognized that Psalm 22 is composed or edited in light of the Isaianic Servant Songs based on verbal, conceptual, thematic, and logical parallels.62 Michael Lyons pushes this argument further to demonstrate that Psalm 22 reflects 56 Joseph

Blenkinsopp, “Jewish Sect,” 7, 8. Gignilliat, “Who is Isaiah’s Servant? Narrative Identity and Theological Potentiality,” SJT 61 (2008): 125–36 (here 135–36); Michael A. Lyons, “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isaiah 54; 56–55,” CBQ 77 (2015): 640–56 (here 648–50). 58  Beuken argues that the “servants” are introduced in Isa 54:17 and developed throughout 56–66; W. A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH’,” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87; idem, “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah,” in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989, ed. J. A. Emerton (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), 204–21. See also Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 79–91, 243–47; Lyons, “Psalm 22.” 59  Gignilliat, “Who is Isaiah’s Servant?”, 134. 60  The oppositions in Isa 65:13–15 are similar to those in the Beatitudes, especially the reversals of Luke’s version (Luke 6:20–26). 61  Lyons, “Psalm 22,” 649; see also Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 230–50. 62  For a discussion of the history of the scholarship and the nature of the parallels, see Michael Lyons, “Psalm 22,” 641–47. 57 Mark

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not only the suffering Servant or DI narrowly, but the argument structure that extends through Isa 40–66 broadly. Accordingly, Psalm 22 reflects a “transition from an individual righteous suffering servant to a community of righteous sufferers.”63 Psalm 22 takes up portions from TI about the righteous community that is persecuted, mocked, vindicated, and awaits Yhwh’s universal reign, and applies these to a righteous individual.64 In this case, the individual embodies the experience of the community. The point of Lyons’ argument is that Psalm 22 reflects an exegetical pattern within the larger book of Isaiah which suggests that (in Stromberg’s terms) Psalm 22 sees Isaiah “clothed in early Second Temple dress.” Similarly, the book of Daniel follows the interpretive pattern of TI by applying what is said about the Servant to portray the “knowledgeable” (maskilim) as a group of righteous sufferers who await divine vindication (11:33–12:10).65 For example, the “wise among the people will give understanding to many,” but first will “fall by sword and flame, and suffer captivity and plunder” (Dan 11:33). Their activity recalls that of Isaiah’s Servant, who “shall make many wise” (Isa 52:13), but not before his rejection and death. Also, like the Servant, their mission to the many and to God will vindicate their suffering. According to Daniel 12:3, “Those who are wise shall shine like the brightness of the sky, and those who lead many to righteousness, like the stars forever and ever” (compare Isa 53:11, “my Servant  … shall make many righteous”). In addition, like the Suffering Servant, the “wise” in Daniel are ultimately exalted to a higher status, in this case to eternal life (Dan 12:3; compare Isa 52:13). Finally, sectarian texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls employ Isaianic Servant texts as a pattern for explaining experiences of suffering and hope for divine vindication. In the Hodayot the speaker employs language from Isaiah to portray the Teacher of Righteousness as one who experiences sickness, afflictions, and rejection (1QHa 16.26–27; Isa 53:3–4), yet who enlightens many (1QHa 12.23; Isa 53:11) and whom God upholds and fills with his Holy Spirit (1QHa 15.5–6; Isa 42:1; 61:1). Similarly, in the Self-Exaltation hymn,66 the speaker employs 63 

Ibid., 647. Lyons, “Psalm 22,” 650, gives the following parallels: Isa 57:1 // Ps 2:2–22a; Isa 66:5 // Ps 22:8–9a; Isa 65:13–15; 66:2, 5–6 // Ps 22:22b–27; Isa 66:18, 23 in Ps 22:28; Isa 66:19 in Ps 22:31–32. 65  H. L. Ginsberg, “The Oldest Interpretation of the Suffering Servant,” VT 3 (1953): 400– 404; Hans C. C. Cavallin, Life After Death: Paul’s Argument for the Resurrection of the Dead in 1 Cor 15 (Lund: Gleerup, 1974), 29, n. 22; John J. Collins, Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993), 385–93; George W. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism, HTS 26 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972), 24–25; Israel Knohl, “The Suffering Servant: From Isaiah to the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in Scriptural Exegesis: The Shapes of Culture and the Religious Imagination: Essays in Honor of Michael Fishbane, ed. D. A. Green and L. S. Lieber (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 89–104 (here 94–95). 66  Four fragmentary texts from Cave 1 and part of the 4QHodayot fragments. See John 64 



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Isaiah’s Servant as a pattern to describe his experience of being despised and rejected (4Q491 11.I), and later exalted to the clouds with the heavenly beings (4Q427 7.II.7–9; compare 52:13).67 John Collins concludes that the writers of the Scrolls and of the New Testament share “a common reliance on a corpus of authoritative scriptures, which could be used to contextualize and explain new experience. In many cases, there were also common exegetical traditions.”68 In particular, the suffering and vindication of the Servant proves to be a powerful and lasting image, as various texts interpret and apply the Servant motif to their own situations by envisioning their community as the embodiment of those who have returned from exile to constitute a new community of righteous sufferers, experiencing division among their own as they await eschatological vindication.69 The Gospel of Mark likewise sees Isaiah “clothed in early Second Temple dress”; this hermeneutic, I argue, influences Mark’s interpretation and application of the Isaianic Servant motif. Mark does not use texts discretely; rather, he develops and extends a received exegetical and theological tradition in a new context. That is, Mark  – like those before him  – does not interpret DI or the suffering Servant or Isa 52:13–53:12 narrowly, but interprets and applies an argument structure that extends through Isa 40–66 broadly. Within that argument structure, Mark develops a key theme of Isaiah 40–66, which is “the profile and mission of the Servant of the Lord continued by his disciples.”70 Isaiah chapters 50 and 53 present the Servant’s vicarious suffering and death, but also his disciples’ reflections on the instruction and afflictions of their master (50:10–11; 53:1–11). In Isa 53, the Servant inherits offspring who may be viewed as his disciples.71 Isaiah 56–66 develops this relationship by interpreting the servants as the disciples of the Servant, who take up his cause and for this reason suffer and are vindicated.72 In what follows, I show how Mark develops this broad argument structure and key theme by looking at the prologue (Mark 1:1–13), Jesus’ creation of a J. Collins, “The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament: The Case of the Suffering Servant,” in Method and Meaning: Essays on New Testament Interpretation in Honor of Harold W. Attridge, ed. A. B. McGowan and K. H. Richards, SBLRBS 67 (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2012), 279–95. 67  Collins, “Dead Sea Scrolls,” 290–91; Knohl, “The Suffering Servant,” 95–100. 68  Collins, “Dead Sea Scrolls,” 294. See also George J. Brooke, “Shared Exegetical Traditions between the Scrolls and the New Testament” in The Oxford Handbook of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Timothy H. Lim and John J. Collins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 565–91. 69  For a similar point, see Holly Beers, The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts, LNTS 535 (New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015), 6. 70  Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 259. 71  Ibid., 253–55. 72  Ibid., 253. Blenkinsopp comments about Isaiah 53 and 65–66 that “[t]hese two texts … refer to one and the same prophet and teacher”; Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 257.

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community (3:20–35), and then three sections in which Jesus instructs his disciples (4; 8:22–52; 13). I will show that these teaching sections are significant for understanding Mark’s portrayal of Jesus as Isaiah’s Servant and Jesus’ followers as his servants, or offspring, who are instructed to continue his missional activity when he is gone.

4.  Approaching the Task Before I turn to Mark’s Gospel, I will mention a number of assumptions that guide this study in addition to the hermeneutical approach I discuss above. First, I  assume that Mark and his audience read and interpreted the book of Isaiah the way other Jews of antiquity did, that is, as a unified work by a single prophet, rather than as a composite one.73 For example, whereas the modern historical-critical interpreter has tended to delineate four so-called Servant Songs, Blenkinsopp suggests that an ancient audience likely recognized the “Servant” as a blended profile, that is, a “profile of a prophetic teacher and preacher with a mission to restore Israel and announce salvation to the Gentile world, a mission which has provoked opposition and abuse and will eventually lead to a violent death”74 and ultimate vindication by his God. In addition, an ancient audience may have recognized verbal parallels and themes that run throughout the book of Isaiah relating to God’s redemption and the Servant’s mission. These suggestions justify taking a literary and thematic approach to Isaiah.75 Second, I  assume that Mark uses Isaiah both explicitly and implicitly; and that this use may evoke the wider context or additional themes or motifs other than what is stated. Based on observations of such practices, William Tooman has developed principles for recognizing implicit scriptural borrowing in the Jewish Scriptures and Second Temple literature. Tooman notes that it is rare to find a quotation (explicit use) in the OT. He explains that “[i]mplicit reuse of Scripture is marked by demonstrable repetition of some element or elements of an antecedent text” such as “a word, phrase, clause, paragraph, topos, or [literary] form.”76 If Mark follows inherited practices, then these observations are instructive for investigating implicit use of scripture in the Gospel. What I find most significant is that explicit use of scripture is rare; and that implicit use of scripture may be recognized by elements other than (or in addition to) 73  See Christopher R. Seitz, “How Is the Prophet Isaiah Present in the Latter Half of the Book? The Logic of Isaiah 40–66 within the Book of Isaiah,” in Word without End: The Old Testament as Abiding Theological Witness (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2005), 168–93; repr. from JBL 115 (1996): 219–40. 74  Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 253. 75  See also Beers, Followers of Jesus, 32. 76  William A. Tooman, Gog and Magog: Reuse of Scripture and Compositional Technique in Ezekiel 38–39, FAT II/52 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011), 27.



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verbal correspondence. Tooman gives the following principles for recognizing implicit reuse, which he states are most persuasive when more than one appears together:77 –  Uniqueness: “the element in question may be unique to a particular source.”78 Tooman gives the example of Ezekiel 39:21, “I will set my glory upon the nations, and all the nations will see my judgment that I  have done,” which corresponds verbally and thematically to verses throughout Isaiah 40–66.79 Tooman concludes that “these are strong markers of literary dependence, but they do not point to a particular context” and Ezekiel “appears, in this case, to be reusing a topos that is distinctive of DeuteroIsaiah, rather than citing a particular text.” –  Distinctiveness: “the borrowed element may be distinctive to a particular source, but not exclusive to it. Thus, ‘distinctive’ merely means that the locution, image, or trope in question is associated with a particular antecedent text, though it may appear in other texts as well.” –  Multiplicity: “Often, several elements of an antecedent source appear in close proximity in the evoking text, making the source easy to identify. Multiplicity of the shared elements is a strong indicator of deliberate reuse.” –  Thematic correspondence: “Second Temple authors also show a remarkable penchant for drawing on texts that share a similar subject, theme, or argument with a text they are composing.”

I list these principles in full, because it should be obvious that they prompt us to abandon a primarily atomistic approach and an over-reliance on verbal correspondence in the investigation of New Testament texts.80 For example, if Mark belongs to a linguistic community from which he draws his exegetical practices, then we may find that he, too, at times reuses broader themes rather than citing particular texts; and that he, too draws on texts with which he shares a theme or argument structure. In addition, I assume that the narrative mode in which Mark writes is crucial for understanding his use of scripture. By using a narrative framework, Mark places language and symbols in sequence with events and agents, thereby providing his audience with a spatial story that helps them to organize thought and create meaning. The implication is that the discrete analysis of Mark’s scriptural use cannot not fully illuminate the significance of the Isaianic Servant motif. My aim is to demonstrate how Mark constructs the narrative identities of Jesus and 77  Drawn from pp. 27–30. Tooman includes a fifth criterion, “Inversion,” which I  omit because it is not relevant for my purposes. 78  Tooman, Gog and Magog, 27. 79 See Tooman, Gog and Magog, pp. 27–28 for a particular discussion of the Hebrew, which I omit for the sake of space. 80  Tooman’s principles are quite different than Hays’ criteria. Whereas Tooman’s principles are generated from his observations of ancient practices of inner biblical exegesis, Hays’ criteria are generated from modern literary theory. Also, it is possible to employ Hays’ criteria and rely on verbal correspondence for the evaluation of implicit use of scripture in the NT; but it is impossible to do this using Tooman’s principles.

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his disciples through explicit and implicit use of scripture woven progressively through Mark’s Gospel. The construction of these narrative identities is a matter of characterization, for which cognitive narratology provides a fruitful approach. We might think of characterization in terms of frames, which represent how we structure clusters of knowledge into an emergent whole.81 To determine expectations in social and textual contexts, we draw on schemata, frame-like structures stored in the mind that are built out of prior experience and knowledge.82 The process of reading or hearing a text activates schemata and accompanying expectations; but it also converges with elements that emerge from the narrative which confirm, expand, or challenge those expectations, thereby (re)constructing new frames. For example, from the beginning of the narrative, Mark activates a character frame by introducing “Jesus” as “Messiah.” As the narrative progresses from beginning to end, Mark leads the audience through repetition of words and themes (including scriptural ones), and the characters’ actions and relations with others so that the audience builds a matrix of ideas and characteristics associated with Jesus and the disciples that either confirm or challenge expectations. And as the audience processes the narrative, new data and rhetoric (including scripture) will confirm or challenge, expand or refine the character frame for Jesus and for the disciples. Thus, Mark’s characterization of Jesus and his disciples on the pattern of the Isaianic Servant(s) draws on the external knowledge of the audience and the shaping of a point of view by means of narration.83 Finally, I assume that Mark and his audience belong to a discourse community with a cultural encyclopedia informed by a shared historical, social, and political context that gives them access to common knowledge so that they may engage in competent communication.84 Crucially, I assume that Israel’s scriptures and traditions provide the chief “frame of cultural knowledge” for Mark and his audience.85 Accordingly, I assume that Mark relies on an informed audience to 81 Brian Paltridge, Genres, Frames, and Writing in Research Settings, Pragmatics and Beyond 45 (Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co., 1997); Marvin Minsky, “A Framework for Representing Knowledge,” in The Psychology of Computer Vision, ed. P. Winston (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975), 47–62. 82 David Herman, Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), 89. 83  See also Jan Rüggemeier, “Mark’s Jesus Reviewed: Towards a Cognitive-Narratological Reading of Character Perspectives and Markan Christology,” in Reading Mark in the TwentyFirst Century: Method and Meaning, ed. G. Van Oyen, BETL 293 (Leuven: Peeters, 2019), 717–36. 84 Umberto Eco, Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language (London: Macmillan Press, 1984), 46–86. Eco states that “The encyclopedia is the regulative hypothesis that allows both speakers to figure out the ‘local’ dictionary they need in order to ensure the good standing of their communicative interaction,” (Semiotics, 80). 85  I agree with Richard Hays that “all four canonical Gospels are deeply embedded in a symbolic world shaped by the Old Testament – or to put the point in a modern critical idiom, that their ‘encyclopedia of production’ is constituted in large measure by Israel’s Scripture. This



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take an active role to fill in gaps in the text, that is, to make connections between what is in the text and what the text infers.86

5.  The Gospel of Mark 5.1  Prologue (Mark 1:1–13) Mark activates a character frame for Jesus by announcing the “good news about Jesus, the Messiah” (Mark 1:1)87 and interpreting this announcement88 with a mixed citation (vv. 2–3; Isa 40:3; Exod 23:20 // Mal 3:1).89 The introductory position of the citation and its attribution to “Isaiah the prophet” indicates that does not mean that the symbolic world of Greco-Roman pagan antiquity is insignificant for the Gospels, but that it is secondary; the Evangelists’ constructive Christological affirmations are derived chiefly from hermeneutical appropriation and transformation of Israel’s sacred texts and traditions.” Hays, Echoes, 10. 86  According to Eco, “The text interpretation is possible because even linguistic signs are not ruled by sheer equivalence (synonymy and definition); they are not based upon the identity but are governed by an inferential schema; they are, therefore, infinitely interpretable.” Umberto Eco, “The Theory of Signs and the Role of the Reader,” The Bulletin of Midwest Language Association 14 (1981): 35–45 (here 44). 87  The title “Son of God” appears in Mk 1:1 in the vast majority of English translations, but the manuscript evidence for its inclusion is debatable. Nevertheless, a version of the title appears just a few verses later at the baptism (v. 11), establishing “Son of God” as an important title for Mark: it signals that Jesus is God’s chosen one, who is radically obedient to his heavenly Father. For an argument for the longer reading, see Max Botner, “The Role of Transcriptional Probability in the Text-Critical Debate on Mark 1:1,” CBQ 77 (2015): 467–480. For an argument for the shorter reading see P. M. Head, “A Text-Critical Study of Mark 1.1: ‘The Beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ,’” NTS 37.4 (1991): 621–29. 88  I take vv. 1–3 as a unit. Guelich has persuasively demonstrated that the καθώς clause that introduces v. 2 depends on what precedes it, as in other Jewish and NT usage; see Robert Guelich, “‘The Beginning of the Gospel’: Mark 1:1–15,” BR 27 (1982): 5–15. In Mark, see also 4:33; 9:13; 11:6; 14:16, 21; 15:8; 16:7. See also Joel Marcus, Mark 1–8: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 141–42; Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus, 55–56; Robert Gundry, Mark: A  Commentary on His Apology for the Cross (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 30–31. 89  This “text,” compiled from Mal 3:1, Exod 23:20, and Isa 40:3, had apparently already been joined in Jewish tradition; see Joel Marcus, The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1992), 13. This is perhaps because both Malachi and Isaiah speak of preparatory messengers who go before Israel in the context of maintaining the covenant. In fact, it is likely that Malachi reworked Exod 23:20 in order to draw attention to Israel’s faithlessness to the covenant. While the messenger in Exod 23:20 goes before Israel so that the Lord may show his faithfulness in fighting against the Canaanites to remove them from the land, Malachi warns that his messenger prepares the way of the Lord, who fights against the unfaithful among Israel to remove them from the covenant community. The opening position of the mixed citation and ascription to Isaiah likely indicates that Mark views Isaiah as an interpretive key for the Gospel, as if to say, this is that, or this “good news” of Jesus is that good news about which Isaiah wrote. In other words, “Isaiah” is Mark’s hermeneutical key.

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Isaiah’s redemption is the crucial hermeneutical framework for the rest of the Gospel.90 While the mixed citation interprets Mark’s opening verse, the referent and activity of the “messenger” and the “voice” (vv. 2–3) are explained in vv. 4–8, indicating that the citation refers particularly to John’s ministry.91 In addition, LXX Isa 40:9–10a provides content for John’s preaching: ἐπ᾿ ὄρος ὑψηλὸν ἀνάβηθι, ὁ εὐαγγελιζόμενος Σιων· ὕψωσον τῇ ἰσχύι τὴν φωνήν σου, ὁ εὐαγγελιζόμενος Ιερουσαλημ· ὑψώσατε, μὴ φοβεῖσθε· εἰπὸν ταῖς πόλεσιν Ιουδα Ἰδοὺ ὁ θεὸς ὑμῶν. ἰδοὺ κύριος μετὰ ἰσχύος ἔρχεται (Isa 40:9–10a)

The one crying in the wilderness is to bring “good news” to Zion by lifting his voice “with strength” to announce to Jerusalem and the cities of Judah, among other things, that “the Lord is coming with strength” to accomplish redemption (see also LXX Isa 49:26). Correspondingly, John announces to the inhabitants of Jerusalem and Judea that one who is stronger than he is coming after him (ἔρχεται ὁ ἰσχυρότερός μου ὀπίσω μου, Mark 1:7), who will baptize God’s people in the Holy Spirit. The use of the comparative adjective implies that John is “strong” i. e., he has lifted his voice “with strength,” but the coming one is “stronger.” Mark uses scripture explicitly and implicitly through interpretation and narration to correlate the coming of Jesus the Messiah with Yhwh’s coming as Divine Warrior. Yet immediately after John anticipates the coming of this “stronger one,” Jesus comes – not from a place of power but from Nazareth of Galilee (ἦλθεν Ἰησοῦς ἀπὸ Ναζαρὲτ τῆς Γαλιλαίας); and not to baptize in the Spirit, but to join Israel for baptism and to receive the Spirit himself. Nevertheless, Mark’s thematic and narrative use of Isaiah signals an eschatological context in which God is breaking into the world to do a new thing: when Jesus rises from the water the heavens are torn apart (σχιζομένους τοὺς οὐρανούς, v. 10) and God descends audibly and visibly, suggesting a theophany and the fulfillment of Isa 63:19 [ET 90  Mark uniquely places this composite citation at the beginning of the Gospel. While Matthew and Luke both cite Isa 40:3 in the parallel passages, neither alludes to Exod 23:20 // Mal 3:1. Matthew and Luke cite this composite text in a different context than Mark: Jesus, speaking to the crowds, applies Malachi’s prophecy to John (Matt 11:9; Luke 7:27). Scholars who argue that Mark’s opening citation is programmatic for the rest of the Gospel include Marcus, Way of the Lord, 12–22; Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus, 53–90; Hays, Echoes, 20–21. 91  Gundry (Mark, 31) argues that “Since kathos in v. 2a defines ‘beginning of the good news of Jesus Christ’ as in accordance with the OT quotations in vv. 2b–3, the phrase covers only those verses whose subject matter corresponds to the OT quotations, i. e. vv. 4–8, which tell how John the Baptizer’s activities correspond to the quoted passages …. To extend the beginning by including further verses, and perhaps the whole of Mark, would violate the definition of the beginning by the kathos-clause.” That is, he takes the quotation as applying only up to v. 8, and then a new pericope is introduced. While I agree that the quotation applies to John’s baptizing activity, I would argue that the activity and its effects extend through v. 13 because John baptizes Jesus (vv. 9–11) and then the Spirit that enters Jesus throws him into the wilderness (vv. 12–13). Mark himself indicates the end of John’s activity in v. 14.



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64:1], “O that you would tear open (‫)קרﬠ‬92 the heavens and come down” (cf. 63:15).93 Mark obviously sees Isaiah “clothed in early Second Temple dress,” because he interprets the theophany for which the way of the Lord is prepared (“the glory of the Lord shall be revealed,” Isa 40:5) in terms of TI’s apocalyptic plea for God to remember his hard-hearted and subjugated people with a fresh act of his saving power.94 Moreover, he applies the theophany to a new context and situation: out of the torn heavens, the Spirit descends in visible form into Jesus (and thereby into the world) and the divine voice speaks, “you are my Son, the beloved, in you I am well pleased” (σὺ εἶ υἱος μου ὁ ἀγαπητός, ἐν σοὶ ευδόκησα, Mark 1:11). A number of observations, when taken together, support the view that Mark fuses Psalm 2:7 (υἱος μου εἶ σύ)95 with Isaiah 42:1 (ἐν σοὶ ευδόκησα) to interpret this scene. First, these texts share a verbal correspondence with Mark 1:11. While the verbal correspondence with Psalm 2:7 is obvious, that with Isa 42 is more subtle but no less compelling. While LXX Isa 42:1 has προσεδἔξατο αὐτον, both Theodotion and Symmachus have ὅν ἑυδόκησεν, which is a Greek word normally used for translating the Hebrew ‫רצה‬.96 This is evident in the clear quotation of Isa 42:1 in Matt 12:18, which reads ὁ ἀγαπητός μου εἰς ὅν ἑυδόκησεν ἡ ψυχη μου. Second, both OT texts cohere with Mark’s hermeneutical framework and accompanying themes. Psalm 2 portrays clashing realms and the extension of God’s kingly rule through his anointed son; Isaiah 42 has God present Israel as his chosen servant97 in whom he places his Spirit (v. 1b) for a mission to the world. Mark’s use of the Isaianic Servant motif not only coheres with Mark’s hermeneutical framework, but is also essentially required by it. As Peter Bolt observes, “the expectation generated by the quotation from Isa. 40.3 [favors a Markan allusion to the Servant] since, in the flow of Isaiah, the Servant would 92  In Isa 63:19b [= LXX 64:1 in the versification of the Göttingen edition], the translator renders ‫ קרﬠ‬with ἀνοίγω, but uses σχίζω for ‫ קרﬠ‬in Isa 36:22 and 37:1 (and for ‫ בקﬠ‬in Isa 48:21). See Joseph Ziegler, ed., Isaias, 3rd ed., Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum Auctoritate Academiae Scientiarum Gottingensis editum 14 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983), 357. 93  σχίζω in Mark probably reflects the Hebrew text tradition of Isa 63:19 [ET 64:1]. The Greek term is used to translate ‫ קרﬠ‬in LXX Isa 36:22; 37:1. Isa 63:19 is the only place in the MT in which ‫ קרﬠ‬refers to the heavens. See Hays, Echoes, 18; also Joel Marcus, The Way of the Lord, 49–50, 58. 94  See also Hays, Echoes, 16–17. 95  Ps 2:7 LXX, Υἱός μου εἶ σύ. 96  For further discussion of the language, see Richard Schneck, Isaiah in the Gospel of Mark I–VIII (Berkeley: BIBAL Press, 1994), 63–64. 97 The LXX translator uses both δοῦλος and παῖς in DI, and these should be taken as synonyms. See the discussion in Eugene Robert Ekblad, Jr., Isaiah’s Servant Poems According to the Septuagint: An Exegetical and Theological Study, CBET 23 (Leuven: Peeters, 1999), 96–100. See also the discussion of the various uses of “servant” in Jewish scriptures in Edwin K. Broadhead, Naming Jesus: Titular Christology in the Gospel of Mark, JSNTSup 175 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), 101–102.

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follow the voice.”98 By interpreting Jesus’ baptism through these texts, Mark indicates that Jesus has been anointed by the Spirit to successfully carry out the Servant’s mission of extending God’s kingly rule. Thus, this event portrays Jesus’ commissioning for his mission, which he will fulfill throughout the narrative.99 This is a key point, because it means that the Isaianic Servant is a crucial part of Jesus’ character frame from the beginning of the narrative and a motif through which all subsequent data is filtered as the reader processes the story. The Spirit initiates this mission by driving Jesus into the wilderness. Mark has already correlated the coming of Jesus the Messiah with Yhwh’s coming as Divine Warrior, who overthrows Babylon and redeems his people from sin. Mark and his audience likely made connections to their own situation under Roman occupation. Yet here, Mark presents Satan as the Spirit-filled Jesus’ main opponent. Mark’s worldview is similar to that of the Qumran literature, in which the current upside-down state of affairs is explained as the time of Belial’s rule (1QM 14.9; 1QS 1.11–12; 2.19; 3.21–25; CD 12.23; 15.17; 11Q13). According to this shared symbolic world, the current state of affairs is awry because Belial/ Satan rules the world by engendering illness and death, disorder in the natural world, spiritual blindness and worldly thinking, oppressive establishments, and the rejection of God’s word and will. The destruction of Satan’s rule over the world is necessary to rectify human oppression and sin, and Mark begins to interpret Jesus’ mission accordingly in terms of a cosmic battle.100 Mark thus recontextualizes Israel’s scripture through apocalyptic language and images to create new connections and convey new meaning to Israel’s hope.101 After Jesus emerges from the wilderness conflict and John is arrested, Mark reports that Jesus “came into Galilee proclaiming the good news from God” (ἦλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἰς τὴν Γαλιλαίαν κηρύσσων τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τοῦ θεοῦ), and saying, “the time is fulfilled (πεπλήρωται ὁ καιρός), and the reign of God (ἡ βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ) has come near; repent, and believe in the good news (ἐν τῷ εὐαγγελίῳ)” (vv. 14–15). This text corresponds verbally and thematically with LXX Isa 52:6–7: My people will know my name in that day (ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἐκείνῃ) because I am the one who speaks … like the feet of one bringing good news (εὐαγγελιζομένου) of a report of peace, 98  Peter G. Bolt, Jesus’ Defeat of Death: Persuading Mark’s Early Readers, SNTSMS 125 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 46, n. 16. 99 Ibid., 46. See also Robert C. Tannehill, “The Gospel of Mark as Narrative Christology,” Semeia 16 (1979): 57–95 (here 60–62). 100  Qumran literature exhibits a similar symbolic world, envisioning the present time as the time of Belial’s rule. The archangel Belial has an army of evil spirits under his command, and rules over the world until a day appointed for his destruction. Belial and his spirits seek to destroy the Sons of Light and lead them astray from God’s command; e. g., 1QM 12.2–5; 13.10–11; 1QS 1.11–12, 21–22; 11Q13 (11QMelch) 2.11–12. 101  See Elizabeth E. Shively, Apocalyptic Imagination in the Gospel of Mark: The Literary and Theological Role of Mark 3:22–30, BZNW 189 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2012).



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like one bringing good news (εὐαγγελιζόμενος) of good things, because I will make your salvation heard and say to Zion, “Your God will reign (Βασιλεύσει σου ὁ θεός).”

In addition, Daniel 7 interprets the vision of the kingdom given to the holy ones, when war raged against the holy ones “until the ancient of days came (ἐλθεῖν) and gave the judgment for the holy ones and the time (ὁ καιρός) was given and the holy ones gained hold of the kingdom (τὸ βασίλειον)” (LXX Daniel 7:22).102 These correspondences suggest that Mark blends Isaiah and Daniel to interpret and apply the time about which the Lord spoke (ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἐκείνῃ, Isa 52:6; ὁ καιρός, Dan 7:22) to explain Jesus’ preaching (πεπλήρωται ὁ καιρός, Mark 1:14). Whereas John corresponds to the messenger who announces the Lord’s coming with strength (Isa 40:2–3, 9–10), Jesus corresponds to the Lord himself who announces the good news of God’s reign (Isa 52:6–7) and his coming to subjugate oppressors and deliver a verdict for his people. The implication of the Isaianic context is that by virtue of Jesus’ message, people should know who he is. Yet a key question throughout the first half of the Gospel is, “Who is this?” (e. g., Mark 2:7, 4:42; 6:2–3, 14–16; 8:27, 29). In sum, the prologue yields essential information for approaching the rest of the narrative. First, it indicates how Mark uses scripture. Mark interprets Jesus’ person and mission by applying Isaianic texts explicitly and implicitly, in combination with other texts, contextually through the language of co-texts, and by evoking broader Isaianic texts and themes. Second, Mark’s narration is what gives coherence and meaning to his scriptural use. Third, the primacy effect suggests that the prologue provides the audience with the architecture for detecting and making meaning of Mark’s scriptural use as they process the rest of the narrative.103 Specifically, the prologue provides an Isaianic hermeneutical framework, and activates a character frame for Jesus that facilitates the interpretation of his person and mission as a blend of Isaianic Divine Warrior and Spirit-anointed Servant, and royal Son, in an apocalyptic mode. 102  Richard Hays also draws attention to these two texts, but not to all the verbal correspondences nor to the implications of Mark’s blending; see Hays, Echoes, 30–31. 103  As Rüggemeier states, “[b]y this primacy effect a character frame is activated into which the reader inevitably tries to fit further attributes as he or she progresses through the rest of the narrative”; Rüggemeier, “Mark’s Jesus Reviewed,” 293. According to Monika Fludernik, the primacy effect suggests that “what we encounter first in a text will decisively shape our subsequent conceptualizations of the textual world.” See Monika Fludernik, “Narratology in the Twenty-First Century: The Cognitive Approach to Narrative,” PMLA 125.4 (2010): 924–30. This is a contrasting approach to that of Kelli O’Brien, who states, “Mark certainly alludes to other passages from Deutero-Isaiah elsewhere … Allusions to passages such as Isa 40.3 and 50.6 cannot support an allusion to Isaiah 53, however. Allusions to parts of Deutero-Isaiah do not imply the entire work, and certainly do not point away from the specific text alluded to and towards Isaiah 53 instead, as is sometimes claimed. There is too much distance between the referent passages, the closest being Isa. 50.6, to include Isaiah 53 in the larger context of the referent – the context of an allusion does not stretch that far” (O’Brien, Use of Scripture, 86–87; my emphasis).

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5.2  Jesus Creates a Community (Mark 3:9–35) Just after announcing the good news of God’s reign, Jesus calls his first disciples, and Mark activates their character frame as they respond by leaving their livelihood and family ties to follow him (Mark 1:16–20; 2:13–14). As the narrative continues, the first disciples are aligned with Jesus and experience opposition for following him (2:18–22, 23–28). They do what Jesus teaches, and when others question Jesus about them, he defends their act of following as good practice. Jesus soon appoints twelve disciples104 from among them for two purposes (ἵνα, twice in v. 14): to be with him, and to be sent to preach and cast out demons. That is, he calls out the Twelve to participate in the words and the deeds of the reign of God, his very activity. This call narrative is juxtaposed to Jesus’ interaction with his blood family and religious “family,” who reject that activity (3:21, 22). In 3:9 Jesus asks his disciples to prepare a boat because of the crowd (3:9) but does not embark; instead he climbs a mountain (v. 13) and teaches from the boat later (4:1–2). Thus, 3:7–12 and 4:1–2 frame the material within. The intervening material (3:13–35) has two sets of juxtaposed and overlapping episodes. The first set (3:13–19; 22–30) contrasts Jesus’ interaction with the Twelve and his interaction with a group of scribes. Jesus goes up (ἀναβαίνει) a mountain and calls together (προσκαλεῖται) his followers (3:13) from whom he selects the Twelve to be with him and to give authority to preach and cast out demons. By contrast, some scribes come down (καταβάντες) from Jerusalem to refute Jesus’ authority to cast out demons, a refutation of that mission; Jesus then calls together the scribes (προσκαλεσάμενος) to speak to them in parables (3:22–23). The second set of episodes (3:20–21; 31–35) contrast Jesus’ blood family with his newly created “family.” Jesus’ kin approach him in the house where he has come with the newly appointed Twelve105 to tear him away from his preaching and exorcising ministry, claiming that he is out of his mind. Later, they call to Jesus from outside the house where he sits with his followers, and he symbolically creates a new family. In the overall structure of this section, Mark joins these episodes by intercalating the account with the scribes into the accounts about family. Through the juxtaposition of scenes, Mark paints a multi-part portrait that depicts Jesus’ rescue of human beings from the house where Satan is master (v. 27) to situate them in a new house where Jesus is master (vv. 30–35). The people of Jesus’ new household are identified not by blood or existing religious ties, but by the purposeful activity of doing God’s will (v. 35). 104  This is a symbolic number that evokes “a symbolic reconstitution of the twelve tribes of Israel”; E. P. Sanders, Jesus and Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 98–106. 105  Mark 3:19b–20 states, “Then [i. e., after he called the Twelve] he went home, and the crowd came together again so that they (αὐτούς) could not even eat.” The plural pronoun αὐτούς appears to include the Twelve who have followed Jesus and are at home with him.



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In the center of this complex text, Mark uses Isaiah to interpret Jesus’ mission (3:27). The group of scribes attempts to discredit Jesus by circulating a rumor that he receives his authority and power from Satan (vv. 22, 30). Jesus responds with a series of parables in which he corrects them. The Parable of the Strong Man is crucial in this regard: But no one is able to enter a strong man’s house (οἰκίαν τοῦ ἰσχυροῦ) to plunder his goods (διαρπάσαι τἀ σκεύη) unless he first binds the strong man (τὸν ἰσχυρὸν δήσῃ). Then he may plunder his house (τὴν οἰκίαν αὐτοῦ διαρπάσει). (Mark 3:27)

Most scholars detect an allusion to LXX Isa 49:24–25 due to thematic correspondences with Mark 3:27: Will anyone take the spoils from a giant (παρὰ γίγαντος σκῦλα)? … If one should take a giant captive he will take spoils (αἰχμαλωτεύσῃ γίγαντα λήμψεται σκῦλα), and by taking them from a strong man (παρὰ ἰσχύοντος), he will be saved. (Isa 49:24–25)

Without denying this allusion, I wish to note that Mark 3:27 also shares significant verbal and thematic correspondence with LXX Isa 42:22: The people were spoiled (πεπρονομευμένος) and plundered (διηρπασμένος), for the trap was in the secret rooms everywhere, as well as in the houses (ἐν ὄικος), where they hid them: they have become plunder (προνομήν), and there was no one to rescue the prey (ἅρπαγμα) and no one to say, ‘Restore!’ (Isa 42:22; see also διαρπαγὴν in v. 24)

These verbal and thematic correspondences suggest that Mark interprets Jesus’ mission in view of a broader textual unit than is commonly supposed. Isaiah 42:22 continues a discourse begun in 41:1, in which Israel is identified as God’s Servant and chosen one (41:8–10). In the first so-called Servant poem, Yhwh appoints his Servant (according to LXX 42:1, Israel) to be a light to the world, to open the eyes of the blind and deliver those bound in prison houses (v. 7).106 But in a turn of events, God’s Servant is just as blind and deaf as those to whom they are sent because they refuse to obey God’s laws (42:18–20, 24b). It is for this reason that Yhwh hands them over to the plunderers, as in the text quoted above (42:21–25). Yet Yhwh promises not to desert his people: And now (καὶ νῦν) thus says the Lord God who made you, Jacob, who formed you, Israel: Do not fear, for I have redeemed (ἐλυτρωσάμην) you; I have called you by name, you are mine. (LXX Isa 43:1) 106  Whereas in the MT, God presents an unidentified servant to Zion (perhaps Cyrus) in 42:1, the LXX translator views God presenting Israel to the nations (the translator glosses “Israel” in 42:1 and 49:3). Read in the MT, the blindness of the Servant Israel in 42:18–25 contrasts with the mission given to the Servant in 42:1–5. Blenkinsopp comments that, “Some of the problems of these ‘servant’ texts, which have defied the ingenuity of exegetes for centuries, may be the result of the reapplication and rewriting of passages such as 42:1–9 in the light of changed historical circumstances of new insights. And 42:1–9 is unspecific and ambiguous enough in its allusions to have been applied to more than one situation without any significant rewriting”; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19A (New York: Doubleday, 2002), 210.

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Isaiah subsequently develops themes of conquest and judgment, forgiveness and redemption. Simultaneously, Isaiah develops the role of the Servant as Israel (49:3), who also becomes a remnant or individual with a mission to Israel (49:5–6). These developments set the context for the expressed need for one with greater power and authority to overthrow the mighty plunderer of God’s people, as quoted above (LXX Isa 49:24–26; see also LXX Isa 50:2; 59:1). Ultimately, only the Lord has the power and authority to subjugate the mighty, recalling the initial announcement of good news, that κύριος μετὰ ἰσχύος ἔρχεται (LXX Isa 40:10). Mark’s use of Isaiah in this discourse builds upon the architecture of the Isaianic hermeneutical framework and character frame for Jesus established in the prologue. Through this use, Mark significantly develops John’s initial announcement that ἔρχεται ὁ ἰσχυρότερός μου ὀπίσω μου (Mark 1:7). It is necessary, however, to look at more than a single verse to understand the fullness of this development, because Mark conveys his interpretation of Isaiah for understanding Jesus’ mission through narration. That is, Mark communicates through scripture and narration not only that Jesus’ mission is to rescue the “spoils” from the enemy, but also that he establishes a new kind of practicing/obedient community out of those whom he redeems. In what follows, I look at three sections of the Gospel in which Jesus instructs his disciples. In these sections, Mark narratively develops the relationship between Jesus and his newly created community by interpreting and applying the Isaianic Servant(s) theme, exemplifying the exegetical trajectory apparent in Isa 40–66. The presentation of the Servant in Isa 50 is an important yet often overlooked text in this trajectory. In Isa 50, God’s Servant is given “the tongue of instruction” (γλῶσσαν παιδείας) and an “ear to hear” (ὠτίον ἀκούειν, 50:4). The instruction of the Lord opens his ears so that he has a word to speak, signifying a reversal of Isa 6:9–10.107 Because his ears are unstopped, those who fear the Lord are instructed to listen to him (ἀκουσάτω τῆς φωηῆς τοῦ παιδός αὐτοῦ, 50:10; see also 48:1; 51:1, 4, 7). Nevertheless, the Servant is misunderstood and abused by those in his own community; but he finds divine deliverance (vv. 6–11). The suggestion that Isa 50 is a significant intertext for Mark is strengthened by the activation of the Isaianic hermeneutic and Servant motif as part of the character frame for Jesus at the outset of the Gospel, and by Mark’s use of language from Isa 50:6 to interpret Jesus’ passion predictions (Mark 10:31) and passion (Mark 14–15). 5.2.1  First Teaching Block (Mark 4:2–33) Mark develops the nature of Jesus’ newly formed community by tying 3:20–35 to the parables discourse in ch. 4. Jesus tells the Parable of the Sower (4:3–8), in which he emphasizes the importance of hearing his teaching (that is, the word 107 

Marcus, Way of the Lord.

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of God that is sown). When he finishes teaching, he calls out to the crowd, “Let anyone with ears to hear, listen!” (ὃς ἒχει ὦτα ἀκούειν ἀκουέτω, 4:9; see also v. 25; Isa 50:10). In an apparent response to this call,108 a small group breaks away from the crowd to seek him out when he is alone: “those who were around him along with the twelve ask him about the parables” (4:10). Shared vocabulary suggests that this group of disciples is the same group that sat around Jesus in the house in 3:30–35 (compare the use of οἱ περὶ αὐτὸν in 3:32, 34 and 4:10; see also ἐν παραβολαῖς in 3:23 and 4:2, 11; οἱ ἕξω in 3:31 and 4:11; ἀφίημι in 3:28–29 and 4:12). That is, this inquiring group of disciples is the group Jesus had set apart as his new “family” to do God’s will. Jesus responds to say that they have been given the secret of God’s kingdom, while those outside (like Jesus’ kin and the scribes who had rejected his mission) receive everything in parables (4:11). As a justification, Jesus quotes Isa 6:9–10, which describes the prophet’s commission to instruct Israel to see without perceiving and to hear without understanding because of their hard hearts (Mark 4:12). The end of Mark’s quotation reads μήποτε ἐπιστρέψωσιν καὶ ἀφεθῇ αὐτοῖς, which agrees with the Targum of Isa 6:10 (‫שׁת ֵביק ְלהֹון‬ ְ ִ‫ ) ִויתוּבוּן ְוי‬rather than ἰάσομαι αὐτούς of the LXX (‫ רפא‬in the MT).109 Mark’s use of this language connects this passage with the unforgivable sin logion that precedes it (compare the use of ἀφίημι in Mark 3:28–29). There, the Markan Jesus embeds a judgment against the scribes within a parabolic discourse.110 Now in 4:11–12, he explicates that judgment: those who have refused to see and hear Jesus’ mission find themselves on the outside of the community that he has come to gather. Jesus’ response cannot signify that these followers do not receive any teaching in parables, because the point of their question is to ask the meaning of the parable they have just heard. Rather, Jesus’ statement suggests that the disciples receive parables (like everyone else) but also receive the secret of God’s kingdom that generates understanding; by contrast, those outside receive everything in parables so that they may not perceive or understand or be forgiven, that is, so that they may not receive the benefits of God’s kingdom (1:14–15). It makes no sense, then, for Jesus to intend a rebuke with the questions, “Do you not understand this parable? Then how will you understand all the parables?” (4:13). Rather, Jesus’ first question in v. 13 repeats the disciples’ initial question about the parables to affirm that they lack understanding; and his second question insinuates that the disciples will understand as Jesus reveals the secrets of the kingdom of God – which he then begins to do through his explanation of 108 

Verse 10 is introduced by καὶ, connecting it to v. 9. fact that Matthew follows the LXX καὶ ἐπιστρέπψωσιν καὶ ἰάσομαι αὐτούς (Matt 13:15) suggests that Mark intentionally substitutes ἀφεθῇ αὐτοῖς in Mark 4:12 for literary and theological purposes. Luke leaves out the line altogether (Luke 8:10). 110  Jesus’ parabolic discourse functions not to teach, but to expose misunderstanding and unbelief. See also Marcus, Mark 1–8, 149; Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus, 194–210. 109 The

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the Parable of the Sower. Mark underlines this point at the end of the chapter: Jesus speaks everything in parables (i. e., to everyone), but explains everything to his disciples through private instruction (4:33–34). In sum, Jesus has created a community which he now instructs in order to lead them to understanding. Mark thereby adds to the character frame for Jesus by portraying him as the Servant-teacher, and to the character frame for his disciples by portraying them as those who hear him. Later, Jesus tells the Parable of the Vineyard after the scribes, along with the elders and chief priests, challenge his authority again (12:1–11). Jesus uses Isaiah 5:1–7, the song of the unfruitful vineyard, to dramatize and develop the nature of Jesus’ mission and new community.111 Kelli O’Brien sees this parable as evidence against the view that Mark interprets Jesus in terms of the Isaianic Servant. She comments that in this parable, Jesus is even contrasted with the servants. The owner sends the servants (the prophets, etc.), and then sends his son (Jesus). Certainly, Jesus is portrayed as the one who serves (Mark 10:45), but no word for servant is ever applied to him as an epithet. In other words, service is something Jesus does. He is the Son of God and the Christ.112 Yet a careful look at the grammar in the context of Mark 12:1–11 tells otherwise. The man of the parable sends series of servants (cf. Jer 7:25–26), of whom the Son is the climactic servant and heir: v. 2 ἀπέστειλεν πρὸς γεωργοὺς … δοῦλον v. 4 ἀπέστειλεν πρὸς αὐτοὺς ἂλλον δοῦλον v. 5 καὶ ἂλλον [δοῦλον] ἀπέστειλεν [πρὸς αὐτοὺς] καὶ πολλοὺς ἂλλους [δοῦλοὺς] v. 6 ἔτι ἓνα [δοῦλον] εἶχεν υἱὸν ἀγαπητὸν ἀπέστειλεν αὐτὸν ἒσχατον πρὸς αὐτοὺς

The term “servant” is explicitly stated in vv. 2 and 4 and assumed in vv. 5 and 6. That is, the adjectives ἂλλον and ἂλλους in v. 5 and ἓνα in v. 6 modify implicit uses of δοῦλος. The phrase υἱὸν ἀγαπητὸν (v. 6), then, should be understood as epexegetical of the implicit δοῦλοὺς. Thus, the clause ἔτι ἓνα εἶχεν means that the man still had one servant, namely (or, climactically), his Son. This parable recalls and expands upon the character frame of Jesus’ baptism, where he is introduced as God’s anointed Servant-Son (Mark 1:10–11; Ps 2:7; Isa 42:1). Moreover, the tenants recognize that this Son is the heir (κληρονόμος) of the vineyard/Israel 111  Mark uses the phrase ἐν παραβολαῖς to introduce the Beelzebul discourse (3:22), the parable of the Sower (4:2, 11), and the parable of the Vineyard (12:1). This phrase is unique to Mark’s Gospel at these points in the story which suggests narrative connections among these discourses. It is absent from the Beelzebul discourse in the synoptic parallels. Matthew does have the phrase ἐν παραβολαῖς in the introduction to the parable of the Sower, but Luke alters it. Neither Matthew nor Luke use the phrase to introduce the parable of the Vineyard. 112  O’Brien, Use of Scripture, 87.

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and plot to kill him for his inheritance (ἡ κληρονομία, v. 7). Yet in this story, they do not receive the inheritance by killing God’s anointed Servant-Son. Instead, by being killed (ἀποκτείνω, 12:5, 7–8; cf. 8:31; 9:31; 10:34), the Servant-Son inherits a new community, of which he will be the keystone. The themes and language evoke LXX Isa 53:12, “he will inherit many (κληρονομήσει πολλούς) … because his soul was delivered to death (ἀνθ᾽ ὧν παρεδόθη εἰς θάνατον ἡ ψυχὴ αὐτοῦ).” Mark adds Ps 118 to the scriptural blend in order to portray Jesus as the cornerstone of the new temple-community given to others upon his death (Mark 12:10–11; 14:58; see further 10:28–30). 5.2.2  Second Teaching Block (8:22–10:52) Hearing and seeing remain important themes throughout Mark and are associated with receiving and understanding Jesus’ word (e. g., Mark 7:14, cf. v. 18; 8:18; 8:38 with 9:7). Yet as the narrative progresses, Jesus’ own disciples – those among Jesus’ first-formed family and recipients of the secret of God’s kingdom – increasingly fail to understand him. Their trajectory towards imperception comes to a climax after the second feeding miracle, when Jesus is on a boat with his disciples (8:14–21). They are concerned that they had forgotten to bring more than one loaf of bread, and Jesus uses this as an instructional opportunity to warn them against the “yeast” of the Pharisees and Herod. This is a warning against an “unseen, pervasive spreading”113 of thinking that evaluates Jesus’ words and works according to human ways rather than God’s ways, generating hard hearts and dulled senses.114 The Pharisees, for example, had just asked Jesus for a sign from heaven even though he had amply provided one in the multiplication of the loaves. His disciples miss the point, however, believing that Jesus is referring to the fact that they have no bread. Jesus responds with some leading questions, which only serve to expose their hard hearts and poor senses of hearing and sight (cf. 4:9, 12, 23, 33). In this respect, the Twelve follow the pattern of God’s Servant Israel, initially called for a divine mission (3:13–15; 6:7–13, 30) but eventually having become too imperceptive to understand Jesus or accomplish what he has called them to do (see 9:18–19, 28–29). Thus, Jesus’ 113 

R. Alan Cole, Mark: An Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale Commentary, 2nd ed. (Leicester: InterVarsity, and Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989), 200. 114  The disciples exhibited this sort of human evaluation in the accounts of the feeding miracles. For example, in the account of the feeding of the 5,000, when the disciples ask Jesus to send the crowd away for something to eat, Jesus tells them to provide food (6:37). The disciples had just experienced God’s power through their own activity (vv. 7–13, 30), but they are unwilling or unable to consider this situation as an opportunity once again to provide kingdom benefits for others. Rather, they respond with the abrasive remark, “Are we to go and buy two hundred denarii worth of bread, and give it to them to eat?” (v. 37). This suggests that they think Jesus wants them to provide food through human channels, and they believe that this is impossible. The Feeding of the 4,000 repeats the same pattern (8:1–10) and reveals that the disciples are thinking according to human ways, rather than God’s ways.

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disciples have joined the outsiders who look without perceiving and who hear without understanding (Mark 4:12; see Isa 6:9–10). The central section of the Gospel features Jesus’ instruction to his unperceiving disciples (Mark 8:22–10:52). A three-fold pattern unifies this section and develops its themes. Three times, Jesus predicts that he will suffer, die, and rise (8:31; 9:31; 10:32–34), each time using language from Isa 50 and 53 to describe his suffering (παραδίδοται, Mark 9:31, 10:33, 34; cf. Isa 53:6b, 12; θανάτῳ, Mark 10:33; cf. Isa 53:12; ἐμπτύσουσιν, Mark 10:34; cf. Isa 50:6; μαστιγώσουσιν, Mark 10:34; cf, Isa 50:6; τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ, 10:45; cf. Isa 53:12; πολλῶν, Mark 10:45; cf. Isa 53:11, 12). Jesus reinforces these scripturally-laced predictions by rooting his suffering in scripture (Mark 9:12; see also 8:31). Yet after each prediction, his disciples misconstrue the nature of his mission (8:32–33; 9:32; 10:35–41). And each time, Jesus responds with corrective teaching about the nature of his disciples’ mission (8:34–37; 9:33–37; 10:42–45). The implication is that the disciples’ mission is bound to that of Jesus. The rhetorical effect is to advance the character frames of Jesus as Servant-teacher and of his disciples as servants. This section (Mark 8:22–10:52) is marked by a concentration of ὁδος language (8:27; 9:33; 10:17; 10:32; 10:46; 10:52), which corresponds to language that is repeated throughout Isaiah. This language recalls Mark’s opening citation to “prepare a way for the Lord.” Through its concentration and repetition in this central teaching section of the Gospel, Mark implicitly uses Deutero-Isaiah’s “way of the Lord” motif to interpret Jesus’ movement with his disciples towards Jerusalem. As they are “on the way,” Jesus instructs his disciples plainly (παρρησία, 8:31), rather than parabolically, about the nature of his mission and theirs. For Isaiah, the “way of the Lord” is not only geographical but also ethical: to follow the “way of the Lord” is to obey him (Isa 42:24). To walk in the “way of the Lord” requires divine guidance because God’s ways are unlike human ways (Isa 55:8–9) and people are blind or captive (Isa 42:16, 18–19; 43:16, 19; cf. 48:17) and choose their own ways rather than God’s (e. g., 42:24; 53:6; 56:11; 57:10, 18; 58:13; 65:2; 66:3).115 In fact, Isaiah speaks of those who fumble “on the way,” like the blind (Isa 59:10; cf. CD 8–10) and of the healing of the blind “on the way” (Isa 42:16; cf. 35:5–7). Mark has just illustrated the tendency of even Jesus’ disciples to follow their own way of thinking rather than God’s in the most recent encounter on the boat (Mark 8:14–21). Significantly, then, this section of Mark is framed by miracle stories in which Jesus provides physical 115  Klyne Snodgrass views the “way of the Lord” in an ethical sense (i. e., the way human beings should walk or live); see Snodgrass, “Streams of Tradition Emerging from Isaiah 40:1–5 and Their Adaptation in the New Testament,” JSNT 8 (1980): 24–45 (here 30–33). Joel Marcus, however, takes the “way of the Lord” refer to the Lord’s own creation of a way through the wilderness to demonstrate his saving power (i. e., the Lord’s way of redemption), with the ethical sense as a secondary referent; see Marcus, Way of the Lord, 29. Rikki Watts combines these two functions in Isaiah’s New Exodus, which I think takes best account of the development of language and themes in Isaiah.

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sight to blind men, signaling the spiritual perception his disciples need “on the way” (Mark 8:22–26; 10:46–52).116 These thematic correspondences with Isaiah illuminate Jesus’ interaction with his disciples in the opening scene (Mark 8:27–33) and are programmatic for the rest of the section. “On the way” (8:27), Peter confesses that Jesus is the “Messiah” (v. 29). In Jesus’ response he develops the interpretation of “Messiah” by predicting that the “Son of Man” will suffer, die, and rise (v. 32). The use of the phrase “Son of Man” in conjunction with suffering and death conveys a paradox in the concept of “Messiah” (see also 10:45). The image of the Son of Man likely comes from Dan 7:14, where the one like a son of man appears as a glorious, heavenly figure.117 Like Daniel, Mark imagines an exalted figure (cf. Mark 13:24–27; 14:62). Unlike Daniel, Mark’s Son of Man rises to this status only after suffering and dying. This redefined image upsets conventional expectations that the Messiah’s mission is to achieve political liberation from the Romans and Jewish sympathizers. Accordingly, Peter responds by rebuking Jesus; he refuses to hear Jesus’ instruction because suffering and death do not fit his conception of “Messiah” (8:31–32). Jesus then rebukes Peter as “Satan” (8:33) and contrasts thinking that is according to τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων (human ways) with thinking that is according to τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ (God’s ways). Through this contrast, Mark interprets and applies the Isaianic locution of the “way of the Lord” to the fulfilment of Jesus’ vocation as Messiah, so that τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ corresponds to the necessity (δεῖ, v. 31) of Jesus’ suffering, dying, and rising. Thus, existence according to τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων is a particular way of thinking and living that refuses the endurance of suffering in keeping with God’s ways. Jesus goes on to teach his followers that not only will he suffer and die, but also that they must imitate his way (vv. 34–38). Through repetition and variation, the rest of the section describes Jesus instruction to his disciples “on the way.” The Transfiguration scene that follows Jesus’ first passion prediction and accompanying instruction confirms that vindication follows his suffering and death. Once again, the divine voice from heaven affirms “this is my beloved son,” as at Jesus’ baptism (Mark 9:7; cf. 1:11). This time, however, the divine voice adds “listen to him” (ἀκούετε αὐτοῦ). The language corresponds to Deut 18:15, in which Moses says that God will raise up a prophet like him, and “you shall listen to him” (αὐτοῦ ἀκούσεσθε).118 Thematic correspondences to Exod 24, 34, 40 suggest that Mark interprets Jesus’ transfiguration in light of the revelation of 116 

Isa 35:5–7; 42:16 refer to the healing of the blind “on the way.” The origin and meaning of the phrase “Son of Man” are contested areas of scholarship. For a discussion of the issues, see Adela Yarbro Collins, “The Influence of Daniel on the New Testament,” in Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel, ed. John J. Collins, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993), 90–112. 118  Marcus concludes that the language is so close that “we may speak of a virtual citation.” Marcus, Way of the Lord, 81. 117 

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God’s glory to Moses on Mount Sinai. Yet it is crucial to observe that Deut 18:15 in its larger context presents Moses as God’s servant (Deut 34:5; cf. Exod 14:31; Num 12:7) to whom God gives words to speak to Israel (Deut 18:15–19). It is for this reason that the people will “listen to” the prophet like Moses. Isaiah’s Servant is built on the pattern of this servant, teacher, and prophet, because God gives words to his Servant to speak to Israel (Isa 50:4), and those who fear the Lord are called to listen to him (ἀκουσάτω τῆς φωνῆς παιδὸς αὐτοῦ, v. 10). Considering the Isaianic intertext throughout this section, I detect a secondary allusion to LXX Isa 50:10. I suggest therefore that Mark blends Moses imagery and Isaian Servant imagery to interpret the person of Jesus in light of his disciples’ failure to hear. In this new situation, the divine instruction, “listen to him” suggests that Jesus is the prophet like – though greater than – Moses, who speaks with God’s own authority; yet ironically, what makes him greater is his suffering and death. By blending these images in the description of the mountaintop glory, Mark draws attention to Jesus’ authoritative role as teacher and prophet, and to the contentious content of his instruction. When Jesus and his disciples are about to enter Jerusalem (Mark 10:32–33), James and John exhibit their failure to hear by asking to be seated at Jesus’ right and left “in your glory” (ἐν τῇ δόξῃ σου, v. 37). This phrase recalls Jesus’ description of the Son of Man coming in glory after the first passion prediction (8:38). The echo highlights the disciples’ implicit shame in Jesus’ words about suffering and death (8:34–38). Instead of embracing Jesus’ instruction that the glory of the Messiah and his followers must come through suffering, James and John still have their minds set on τὰ τῶν άνθρώπων (8:33). Jesus responds that they do not know what they are asking, and he underlines this point by asking them if they are able to share in his cup and in his baptism (v. 38). Throughout the Jewish Scriptures, τὸ ποτήριον is often a metaphor for suffering God’s wrath,119 and τὸ βάπτισμα seems to be a metaphor for immersive and overwhelming experience.120 In light of Mark’s Isaianic hermeneutical framework, an informed audience would likely detect an implicit use of Isa 51:17–23, which describes the cup of God’s wrath poured out on Jerusalem. In the context of Mark’s narrative, τὸ ποτήριον and τὸ βάπτισμα most likely refer to the content of the passion predictions. This means Jesus is asking if James and John are able to share in his suffering and death. Mark thus uses scripture through narrative not only to develop the interpretation of Jesus’ death as the suffering of God’s judgment,121 but also to develop the disciples’ mission as participation in their master’s suffering. 119 God’s wrath against Israel (Isa 51:17–22; Ezek 23:31–34) or against the nations (Ps 75:8; Isa 51:23; Jer 25:15–29; 49:12; 51:7; Lam 4:21–22; Hab 2:15–16). 120  See Luke 12:50 (Jesus’ experience of crucifixion and death); see further Josephus, Ant. 10.9.4 (drunkenness to the point of insensibility); Plutarch, Galb. 21 (being in debt). 121  In Mark, Jesus is not depicted as the object of God’s wrath. Rather, the Markan Jesus



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The other disciples take offense at James’ and John’s request, apparently having their own aspirations of status in the kingdom they imagine Jesus will bring. To expose the attitude of his followers, Jesus uses the acts of Gentile rulers as a negative example by contrasting the way they seek greatness with the way his followers must seek greatness. Those who rule the Gentiles lord it over them, and their great ones (οἱ μεγάλοι αὐτῶν, v. 42) hold authority over them. Jesus says it is not to be this way “among you” (ἐν ὑμῖν, 10:43a); rather, the one who wishes to become great among Jesus’ followers (μέγας … ἐν ὑμῖν) must be a servant (διάκονος) of the others, and the one who wishes to be first must be a slave of all (πάντων δοῦλος, 10:42–44).122 The point is not about the need for liberation from the oppression of Gentile rulers; the point is, rather, about how one achieves “greatness” (μέγ-).123 Those who follow Jesus and enter God’s reign can only do so the way he does, through self-sacrificial service. The whole narrative unit up to this point (8:22–10:42) has followed a trajectory by which Mark develops the character frame of disciples as servants (δοῦλοι) whose followership of Jesus is defined according to their commitment to imitate Jesus in his suffering and death, through which they avoid judgment and achieve glory/salvation/greatness. A similar trajectory obtains throughout LXX Isaiah 54–66, in which those who serve the Lord (δουλεύω in 56:3–8; 60:12; 65:9, 13–14; 66:23) are differentiated from among those who refuse, both within and outside Israel (and who, as a result, face judgment).124 Ultimately, the Lord promises that those who serve him will inherit the mountain of the Lord, while those who do not will be judged: “my servants (οἱ δουλεύοντές subverts what the traditional idiom represents: he voluntarily takes and “drinks the cup,” experiencing suffering so that those who deserve it do not experience it. 122  A key piece of data that Hooker and Barrett give for rejecting an allusion to Isa 53:10–12 in Mark 10:45 is that διακονέω is never used to translate ‫ ﬠבד‬in LXX; see Hooker, Jesus and the Servant, 76–77; Barrett, “Background,” 5–6. But they overlook the fact that the verb διακονέω does not appear in LXX at all (the cognate διάκονος appears only 6 times, in LXX Esth 1:10; 2:2; 6:3, 5; Prov 10:4; 4 Mac 9:17). Rikki Watts is surely correct in saying that by the Common Era either the δουλ- or διακον- stems, or both, had undergone a semantic shift with διακον- appropriating some of the former’s functions, such that διακονέω became viable, and sometimes perhaps even a preferable, rendering of the LXX’s δουλεύω; see Watts, “Jesus’ Death,” 137–38. It is also worth noting that LXX translators employ synonymous terms for ‫ﬠבד‬ in the same passage. For example, LXX Lev 25:55 uses two different Greek terms to translate ‫ﬠבד‬: “because to me the sons of Israel are domestics (οἰκέται); these are my servants (παῖδές) whom I brought out from the land of Egypt” (see also Deut 6:21). Moreover, LXX translators employ various Greek terms to render ‫ﬠבד‬. Compare, for example, the various references to Moses as the servant of the Lord: οἰκέτης κυρίου (LXX Deut 34:5); ὁ παῖς κυρίου (Josh 1:7, 13, 15; 8:31; 9:24; 11:12, 15; 12:6; 13:8; 14:7; 22:2, 4, 5); and δοῦλος κυρίου (1 Kings 8:52; 2 Kings 18:12; 21:8; Ps 104 [105]:26). Even in Isa 40–66, two synonymous terms for ‫ ﬠבד‬appear (παῖς and δοῦλος). It should not worry us, then, that in Mark 10:43–45, διάκονος and δοῦλος appear in synonymous relationship. 123  Contra Sharyn Dowd and Elizabeth Struthers Malbon, “The Significance of Jesus’ Death in Mark: Narrative Context and Authorial Audience,” JBL 125 (2006): 271–97 (here 281). 124  Ekblad, Isaiah’s Servant Poems, 257.

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μοι) shall rejoice, but you will be ashamed (αἰσχυνθήσεσθε)” (LXX Isa 65:13). This language is evocative of Jesus’ warning to his disciples not to be ashamed of him and his words lest they face the Son of Man’s shame when he returns (ἐπαισχύνομαι, Mark 8:38). This verbal and thematic coherence lends support to my suggestion that Mark takes up and applies the “servants” motif in Isa 56–66 to interpret Jesus’ relationship with his disciples. Yet in Mark, Jesus’ interaction with his disciples shows that, increasingly, they have been unable to perceive and understand, and, therefore, to serve rightly. Thus, in order to underscore his teaching, Mark’s Jesus uses his own service as the quintessentially positive example (Mark 10:43b–45). Jesus’ climactic statement in Mark 10:45 is notoriously difficult yet important. It is the second instance in which he explains the purpose of his mission (see also 3:27) and the first of two instances in which he explains his death (see also 14:24). The saying itself consists of three propositions: (a) For even the Son of Man did not come to be served (οὐκ ἦλθεν διακονηθῆναι) (b) But (ἀλλά) [he came (ἦλθεν)] to serve (διακονησαι) (c) that is (καὶ), [he came (ἦλθεν)] to give his life as a ransom for many (δοῦναι τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ λύτρον ἀντὶ πολλῶν).125

Mark fuses Daniel’s glorious one-like-a-son-of-man with Isaiah’s suffering Servant to highlight the purpose of Jesus’ coming.126 According to Daniel, all nations will serve/worship the one like a son of man (λατρεύουσα in LXX Dan 7:13–14).127 In contrasting statements (οὐκ … ἀλλά, Mark 10:45a,b), Jesus overturns expectations by teaching that even the Son of Man has not come to be served but to serve.128 The term διακον- connotes carrying out the commands under the authority of another, which fits the context in which Jesus opposes the 125  A comparison with other NT and early Christian texts that employ a ransom logion reveals that Mark 10:45 uniquely connects the ransom logion to the saying about the Son of Man. This connection is anticipated by the image of the Son of Man’s suffering in the passion predictions. J. Christopher Edwards discusses receptions of the ransom logion in the following NT texts: 1 Tim 2:6; Titus 2:14; Gal 1:4; 2:20; Eph 5:2, 25; John 10:11, 15; 15:13; 1 John 3:16. In addition, he looks at patristic receptions through 300 C. E. He notes that the ransom logion is joined with different motifs in different contexts, although Mark 10:45 is the only text that joins the logion to a saying about the Son of Man. Edwards explains the differences in the receptions according to a common oral tradition that circulated before in was used in written texts. See J. Christopher Edwards, The Ransom Logion in Mark and Matthew: Its Reception and Its Significance for the Study of the Gospels (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012), esp. 22–24. 126  Hooker and Barrett reject Isaiah’s Servant in favor of Daniel’s one-like-a-son-of-man, while Rikki Watts rejects Daniel’s figure in favor of Isaiah’s Servant. Marcus is surely correct in his view that Mark blends the two. See Morna Hooker, The Son of Man in Mark (London: SPCK, 1967), 141; Barrett, “Background,” 8; Joel Marcus, Mark 8–16: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 749. 127  Mark has διακονηθῆναι, διακονῆσαι in v. 45, but uses διάκονος and δοῦλος synonymously in vv. 43 and 44. See my discussion of these terms in footnotes 97 and 122 above. 128  The implication is: if even the Son of Man has come to serve, then how can disciples be above their master by refusing to serve?

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lording of authority over others. The καὶ in v. 45c has an explanatory function, introducing a clause that explicates the content of v. 45b. That is, “to give his life as a ransom” amplifies “to serve.” The description of the Son of Man’s life-giving service suggests active submission to death and recalls Jesus’ question to James and John. It also recalls Jesus’ earlier instruction that the one who loses his life for the sake of Jesus and the gospel will save it (ὃς δ᾽ ἂν ἀπολέσει τὴν ψηχὴν αὐτοῦ … σῶσαι αὐτήν, 8:34; see also vv. 35–38). Yet this saying is more than an example; it is also an explanation of the Son of Man’s unique service. This is because term λύτρον evokes the image of a slave price that the “many” cannot pay; with ἀντὶ πολλῶν, the phrase indicates that Jesus submits to a vicarious death on behalf of the “many.”129 A particular focus on the textual source of the term λύτρον (Mark 10:45c) has dominated the investigation of this passage. Undeniably, λύτρον is tricky. It appears in the NT only in Mark 10:45 and its parallel in Matt 20:28.130 The term is absent from LXX Isa 53:10 and its co-text, and the Hebrew ‫( אׁשם‬guilt offering) is never translated by λύτρον in the LXX. These observations have led some scholars to reject altogether the idea that Mark applies Isa 53 and the Servant motif to interpret Jesus’ death, and instead to propose various alternative intertexts for Mark 10:45 that have λύτρον (e. g., LXX Exod 21:29 and 30:11–16;131 or LXX Isa 43:3–4;132 or Dan 7:14 and 9:24–27133); or to propose no intertext at all.134 It is unlikely that λύτρον in Mark 10:45 corresponds to a specific term in Isa 53; instead, Jewish scribal practices suggest that it may correspond to a distinctive theme that appears throughout Deutero-Isaiah.135 That is, throughout 129 

See also Marcus, Mark 8–16, 757. words appear elsewhere in the NT: λύτρωσις (redemption/ransoming, Luke 1:68; 2:38; Heb 9:12); λυτρώτης (redeemer/ransomer, Acts 7:35); λυτρόω (redeem/ ransom, Luke 24:21; Titus 2:14; 1 Pet 1:18). 131  Adela Yarbro Collins, “Mark’s Interpretation of the Death of Jesus,” JBL 128 (2009): 545–54; idem, “The Signification of Mark 10:45 among Gentile Christians,” HTR 90 (1997): 371–82. 132 W. Grimm, Weil ich dich liebe: Die Verkündigung Jesu und Deuterojesaja, ANTJ 1 (Bern: Herbert Lang, 1976). Peter Stuhlmacher, “Existenzstellvertretung für die Vielen: Mk 10,45 (Mt 20,28),” in Versöhnung, Gesetz und Gerechtigkeit: Aufsätze zur biblischen Theologie, ed. idem (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981), 27–42 = ET, “Vicariously Giving His Life for Many, Mark 10:45 (Matt. 20:28),” in idem, Reconciliation, Law, and Righteousness: Essays in Biblical Theology, trans. E. Kalin (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986), 16–29. 133  Brant James Pitre, Jesus, the Tribulation, and the End of Exile: Restoration Eschatology and the Origin of the Atonement (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, and Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005), esp. 384–417; idem, “The ‘Ransom for Many,’ the New Exodus, and the End of Exile: Redemption as the Restoration of All Israel (Mark 10:35–45),” Letter & Spirit 1 (2005): 41–68; Hooker, Jesus and the Servant, 74; idem, The Son of Man in Mark, 103–47; idem, “Use of Isaiah 53,” 88–103, esp. 100; Barrett, “Background,” 1–18. 134  Dowd and Malbon, “Significance of Jesus’ Death”; Ched Myers, Binding the Strong Man: A Political Reading of Mark’s Story of Jesus, 2nd ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2008). 135  See Tooman’s first principle, above. 130 Related

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Deutero-Isaiah, the Lord acts as Redeemer (ὁ λυτρούμενος) to liberate Israel from captivity and sin. In this regard, it is worth noting that while the noun λυτρόν occurs once in Isaiah, the cognate verb λυτρόω occurs throughout (11 times).136 For example, God is “your Redeemer” (σου ὁ λυτρούμενός, Isa 41:14; 43:14; 44:24), and Exodus imagery is used to portray a new and greater exodus by which Yhwh will have saved Israel: “Fear not, for I  have redeemed you (ἐλυτρωσάμην σε); I  have called you by name, you are mine” (43:1). This language recurs throughout Isa 40–55: God is “Redeemer”; his action is “to redeem”; and Israel is called “the redeemed of the Lord” (51:10; 44:22, 23; 51:10; 52:3; 62:12; 63:9). In ch. 53, the seer describes how the Redeemer (ὁ λυτρούμενός) will accomplish redemption, climactically, through the Servant’s death (Isa 53:12).137 In particular, I recall my earlier observation that after Yhwh hands Israel over to the plunderers (42:21–25) he promises, “[d]o not fear, for I have redeemed (ἐλυτρωσάμην) you; I have called you by name, you are mine” (LXX Isa 43:1). This redemption culminates in the ministry of the Servant described in chapter 53. Thus, the term λύτρον in Mark 10:45, set within Mark’s foundational Isaianic hermeneutical framework, evokes a larger block of material that culminates in the description of the Servant’s death in Isa 53. This image of redemption in Mark 10:45 colors in the portrait that Mark began to sketch at the outset of the Gospel and to which he adds detail throughout this teaching section. In this portrait, Mark has set redemption from captivity and sin in cosmic terms. Mark explicitly aligned Satan with τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων in 8:33. Increasingly, the disciples have not had ears to hear; rather, their continuous negative response to Jesus and his words have suggested Satan’s role in blinding their eyes and marring their understanding.138 In short, Mark takes up and applies Isaiah’s “redemption” motif (which culminates in Isa 53) and recontextualizes it with apocalyptic topoi to interpret Jesus’ death. Thus, in Mark’s narrative-theological world, redemption from captivity and sin requires liberation from Satan’s reign. This suggestion is strengthened upon the comparison of Mark 10:45 with the only other passage in the Gospel in which the Markan Jesus explains the 136  λυτρόν appears only 20 times in the Jewish Greek Scriptures with a range of meaning; but the cognate verb λυτρόω appears over 100 times, and nearly half of the appearances render either ‫ גאל‬or ‫ פדה‬in contexts that remember the Lord’s redemption of his people from Egypt or that look ahead to a New Exodus. See e. g. LXX Deut 7:8; 9:26; 13:6; 15:15; 21:8; 24:18; 2 Kings 7:23; 1 Chr 17:21; Neh 1:10; Pss 73:2; 76:15; 77:42; 105:10; Isa 41:14; 43:1, 14; 44:22, 23, 24; 51:11; 52:3; 62:12; 63:9 (cf. LXX Pss 102:4; 106:2). For a similar observation, see Watts, “Jesus’ Death,” 142–43; Pitre, Jesus, the Tribulation, and the End of Exile, 406–9. Pitre connects the theme of release from exile to Daniel 9; Pitre, Jesus, the Tribulation, and the End of Exile, 414–15; idem, “The ‘Ransom for Many,’” 60–64. 137  Watts, “Jesus’ Death,” 142. In this way, Watts argues, Mark conceptually joins redemption and compensation in using λύτρον to describe the purpose of Jesus’ death. He rules out deliverance from Satan here, believing this to be accomplished only through Jesus’ exorcisms. 138  The audience may recall 4:10–20 and 21–25, in which Jesus warns his hearers to pay attention to what they hear and in which Satan takes up the word that is sown.



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purpose of his mission, 3:22–30. Similar to the word-picture of λύτρον, the discourse in 3:22–30 portrays Jesus as the one who rescues those held captive to Satan’s power. Now in 10:45, the narrative and hermeneutical trajectory suggests that Jesus’ vicarious death will somehow break Satan’s grip on the human mind, which has caused the blindness to Jesus’ words and works.139 In this way, Jesus follows the pattern of Isaiah’s Servant who, in his suffering and death, is enlightened to give understanding to those who did not hear (Isa 52:13, 15; 53:11).140 Moreover, additional verbal and thematic correspondences between Mark 10:45 and Isa 53:12 lend support to this suggestion. Jesus serves “many” (πολλὺς) through his vicarious death, an action which corresponds to the Servant’s vicarious death on behalf of “many” (πολλὺς, 3 × in LXX 53:11–12; see also 52:14).141 As an adjective, this term may modify Israelite groups142 or nations.143 Yet it also appears in Daniel and the Community Rule as a noun (“the many”) in a somewhat technical sense to refer to a community or a remnant within Israel.144 If this is the sense in Mark 10:45, then it suggests that Mark’s Jesus has come to redeem the “many,” that is, the community that does God’s will.145 This sense ties in well with the content of Isa 53:12, which describes Yhwh’s redemption of his people through his Servant, who “will divide the spoils of the mighty (καὶ τῶν ἰσχυρῶν μεριεῖ σκῦλα) because his soul was delivered to death (παρεδόθη εἰς θάνατον ψηχὴ αὐτοῦ)” (LXX Isa 53:12a).146 It is arguable 139  For a development of this view, see Ulrike Mittmann-Richert, “Die Dämonen und der Tod des Gottessohns im Markusevangelium,” in Die Dämonen. Die Dämonologie der israelitisch-jüdischen und frühchristlichen Literatur im Kontext ihrer Umwelt, ed. Armin Lange, Hermann Lichtenberger, and K. F. Diethard Römheld (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003), 476–504. 140  This intertext may help to explain Mark’s presentation of the centurion’s confession upon seeing how Jesus dies. 141  Pesch views “the many” as a reference to Israel, while Gnilka sees it as a reference to all people; see Rudolf Pesch, Das Markusevangelium. II Teil Kommentar zu Kap. 8,27–16,20, HThKNT II/2 (Freiburg: Herder, 1977), 358; Joachim Gnilka, Das Evangelium nach Markus, EKKNT II/2 (Zürich: Benziger; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1979), 2:246. Ekblad, looking at the LXX, takes it as a reference inclusive of Israel and the nations, all people; see Ekblad, Isaiah’s Servant Poems, 256. Blenkinsopp comments, however, that “[i]t is worth observing that the designation ʿebed (‘servant,’ ‘agent’) and the description of the beneficiaries of his mission as rabbîm (‘many’) are present only in the Yahveh discourse. Since rabbîm is used with the article, it is tempting to interpret the term in a quasi-technical sense with reference to the Servant’s disciples as hārabbîm (‘the Many’), as in Dan 12:2–4, 10, the Qumran group, and early Christianity (cf. Mark 14:24; Rom 5:15)”; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 349–50. 142  LXX Isa 8:15; 30:17, 25; 33:23. 143  LXX Isa 2:3, 4, 6; 8:7; 13:4; 17:12, 13; 24:22; 52:15. 144  Dan 11:33; 12:2–4, 10; 1QS 6.1, 8, 11–12, 14, 19–20; 7.10, 13; 4Q259; CD 13.9; 16.8–9; 15.5. 145  See also Marcus, Mark 8–16, 750; see further the discussion of “The Many” in late Second Temple texts and the influence of this designation in early Christian texts in Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 174–78. Mark’s Jesus uses this language in 14:24, also part of a prepositional phrase (“poured out for many”), when he sits at the head of a table with his “family.” 146  The MT has “I will allot him a portion with the great, and he will divide the spoil with the mighty; because he poured out himself to death.”

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that semantically, the “many” in this verse correspond to the “spoils of the mighty.” Moreover, the last place σκῦλα appears is LXX Isa 49:24–25, where the spoils include the people themselves, whom the Lord promises to rescue from the mighty.147 Now in 53:12, the Divine Warrior has accomplished redemption through his Servant; because of his death, the Servant inherits the many, who are among the spoils.148 While Mark does not use vocabulary of “mighty” or “spoils” or “plunder” in Mark 10:45, Mark’s use of λύτρον is broad enough to capture these Isaianic themes because Mark has already used them to interpret Jesus’ person and ministry (1:2–3, 7; 3:27). Thus, Mark communicates how he will redeem “the many” – the community that does God’s will – from sin and its current captivity to satanic blindness and hard-heartedness, by means of his death. 5.2.3  Third Teaching Block: The Olivet Discourse In the Olivet discourse, Jesus teaches his disciples how to live as the community that does God’s will after he has died. The speech is constructed as an answer to his disciples’ question about the time and the signs of Jesus’ prediction about the destruction of the temple (Mark 13:4). Nevertheless, the speech essentially functions as a response to their misunderstanding about the end of all things. Jesus’ point is that the destruction of the temple may be a harbinger, but it is not the end of all things, as these disciples appear to believe. The end will come only after Jesus’ followers endure the kind of suffering that the disciples have resisted so far in the narrative. A series of imperatives throughout 13:5–23 marks Jesus’ instruction to his followers about how to live in light of the worldly upheaval.149 By contrast, vv. 24–27 focuses on cosmic upheaval and contains no imperatives. This section is set off both by the absence of imperatives and by the introduction of an indefinite timeframe, “in those days, after that tribulation” (v. 24). This scene is the end time judgment that includes the rejection of those who deny Jesus and the salvation of those who endure public suffering for his sake (see 8:34–38).150 147 

Isa 60:5–7, 16–17; 61:6 uses different language. Ekblad explains the “spoils of the mighty” in Isa 53:12 by looking ahead to Isa 60:5–7, 16–17; 61:6. But the language and themes of these passages generally differ from Isa 53:12; see Ekblad, Isaiah’s Servant Poems, 263. 149  βλέπετε (13:5); μὴ θροεῖσθε (v. 7); βλέπετε (v. 9); μὴ προμεριμνᾶτε (v. 11); τοῦτο λαλεῖτε (v. 11); φευγέτωσαν (v. 14); μὴ καταβάτω μηδὲ εἰσελθάτω (v. 15); μὴ ἐπιστρεψάτω (v. 16); προσεύχεσθε (v. 18); μὴ πιστεύετε (v. 21); βλέπετε (v. 23). 150  I see 13:24–27 as a narrative development of 8:34–38, in contrast to Adela Yarbro Collins, Mark: A Commentary, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2007), 410–11, 614–15, who interprets 8:38 as the Son of Man’s rejection of those who refuse to associate with Jesus and connects this with the gathering of the elect in 13:27, but then interprets 13:24–27 as a salvation without judgment. In addition, my interpretation contrasts with those who take the cosmic images in 13:24–27 as representative of the temple cosmology and symbolic of its destruction; 148 



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The speech recalls Jesus’ earlier teaching, just after the first passion prediction, in which he calls his followers to serve as self-sacrificial witnesses “for my sake” (8:35; see 13:9) and the “gospel’s” (8:35; see 13:10). He warns that those who are ashamed of him and his words in the midst of a hostile environment, the Son of Man will likewise be ashamed of when he comes, “in the glory of his Father” with the holy angels (8:38; see 13:24–27; cf. Isa 65:13c). He presents the coming of the Son of Man as the eschatological judgment that includes the rejection of those who deny Jesus and the salvation of those who follow him. If the coming of the Son of Man is taken to refer to eschatological judgment in 8:34–8, then the verbal and thematic connections between 8:34–8 and 13:24–27 suggest that the coming of the Son of Man in this latter text is a development of the same event, and that the primary concern of ch. 13 is the faithfulness/faithlessness of Jesus’ followers.151 Jesus’ teaching in this section consummates the exegetical trajectory exhibited in Isa 40–66, in which the identity of the Servant is embodied in the servants who extend his mission. Isaiah 56–66 takes up the narrative identity of the Servant from Isaiah 40–55 and applies it to the community of servants (54:17; 56:6; 65:8, 9, 13–15; 66:14) or offspring (59:21; 61:8–9; 65:9, 23; 66:22).152 According to Isaiah, as a result of the Servant’s death, he “will see an offspring” by which “he will survive days, and the delight of the Lord will prosper in his hands” (v. 10:b).153 Though the Servant has died, he has descendants through whom he see N. T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God, II (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996), 339–66; Crispin H. T. Fletcher-Louis, “Jesus, the Temple and the Dissolution of Heaven and Earth,” in Apocalyptic in History and Tradition, ed. Christopher Rowland and John Barton, LSTS 43 (London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002), 117–41; Timothy C. Gray, The Temple in the Gospel of Mark: A  Study in Its Narrative Role, WUNT II/242 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008), 148–49. This interpretation does not take into account the hope of the judgment of the wicked and vindication of the righteous that brings a new state of affairs at the end of the age that is represented in apocalyptic literature. The study of Edward Adams, The Stars Will Fall From Heaven: ‘Cosmic Catastrophe’ in The New Testament and Its World, LNTS 347 (New York: T&T Clark, 2007) supports my position in his investigation of the significance and function of cosmic language in OT, Jewish apocalyptic and Greco-Roman literature for understanding that in the NT. 151 Similarly, Stephen C. Barton, Discipleship and Family Ties in Mark and Matthew, SNTSMS 80 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 116–17 suggests that the teaching in Mk 13:5–37 is aimed at Christians, in order to prepare followers for the time that Jesus would no longer be with them. He points to the presence of the imperative and the absence of questions from outsiders. He also compares the private teaching of chapter 4 to that of chapter 13: whereas the former is about the sower who sows the word, the latter is about the followers who will preach the gospel to all nations. 152 Beuken argues that “servants” are introduced in 54:17 and developed throughout 56–66. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah,” 68–87; see also Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 79–91, 243–47; Lyons, “Psalm 22.” 153  The MT conveys that the Lord delights in the notion that the Servant’s life will serve as a guilt offering (‫ָאשׁם‬ ָ , Isa 53:10; cf. Lev 5:14–26; Num 5:6; Ezra 10:10, 19); LXX Isa 53:10 has ἐὰν δῶτε περὶ ἁμαρτίας, “if you (pl.) give [an offering] for sin,” referring to the group that

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survives and through which his mission continues.154 These servants/offspring are a remnant that continue the Servant’s activity in the midst of conflict within their own community as they look for the new creation (Isa 57:1; 61:1–4; 65:13–17).155 At that time, Yhwh will distinguish between the righteous and the unrighteous within Israel: “My servants shall rejoice, but you shall be put to shame” (Isa 65:13c). The servants/offspring continue the Servant’s activity by suffering (57:1); enlightening the nations (60:1–4, 9; cf. 42:6; 49:6); receiving the promised Spirit (61:1; cf. 44:3); and sharing in the Servant’s exaltation and vindication (60:1, 3; cf. 52:13).156 Mark takes up this trajectory by interpreting the Servant in light of the servants (thereby seeing Isaiah “clothed in early Second Temple dress”), and extending the trajectory to Jesus’ followers. This exegetical trajectory is most evident in Mark 13:9–13, where Mark employs language and themes from Isaiah and from Jesus’ own ministry in order to interpret the continuation of Jesus’ followers’ mission after his death. First, Jesus uses language from Isa 53:6, 12 – which he had recently used to predict his own suffering and death – to describe their affliction (παραδίδωμι, Mark 9:31; 10:33; cf. 8:31; παραδώσουσιν ὑμας, 13:9; παραδιδόντες, v. 11; παραδώσει εἰς θάνατον, v. 12). Other language also ties Jesus’ followers to the continuation of his mission, to which he had appointed them during his ministry: they will stand as witnesseses in a hostile environment to preach the gospel (δεῖ κηρυχθῆναι τὸ εὐαγγέλιον, 13:10; cf. ἦλθεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς  … κηρύσσων το εἀγγέλιον, 1:14; ἐποίησεν δώδεκα … ἵνα ἀποστέλλῃ αὐτοὺς κηρύσσειν, 3:14).157 And, they will preach the gospel to all nations (13:10; Isa 60:1–4, 9; cf. 42:6; 49:6). Moreover, the affliction of Jesus’ followers is patterned after Jesus’ own affliction. He tells them not to worry about what they will say when they are delivered over to trial because the Holy Spirit will give them their words “in that hour” (ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ὥρᾳ, Mark 13:11). By this, John’s prediction of a baptism with the Holy Spirit will have been fulfilled. Like Jesus, his followers will receive divinely-given words as servants who know what to speak in their own affliction (Isa 50:4–6, 10). They will continue his ministry as the Holy Spirit strengthens them to join his struggle “in that hour” against human and, by implication, cosmic opponents (Mark 10:38; cf. Isa 44:3; 61:1). After the speech, Jesus prays that the hour might pass from him (14:35), and after an excruciating night of prayer he yields to God’s will and says, “the hour has come (ἦλθεν ἡ ὥρα), the Son of Man is will benefit from the Servant’s death (vv. 1–7, 11–12). In both cases, the offering yields offspring. 154  Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 355. 155  Gignilliat, “Who is Isaiah’s Servant?” 134. 156  These characteristics are a summary of Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah,” 69–81. 157  The Greek text has καὶ at the beginning of v. 10. I take v. 10 as a link between vv. 9 and 11. That is, vv. 9 and 11 state how the gospel will be preached to all the nations, namely, through the testimony of those who stand as witnesses.



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betrayed into the hands of sinners” (v. 41). “The hour” is thus the time when Jesus and his followers are delivered over to their opponents. Also, like Jesus, his followers’ faithful testimony will bring them into conflict with their religious and blood family (see Mark 3:21–22). They will be beaten in synagogues (13:9) and delivered to death by their own family members (v. 11; see Isa 57:1; 65:13–17). The Holy Spirit’s help does not mean the removal of their affliction, but their endurance through it, because the one endures to the end will be saved (v. 13).158 By this they share in the Son of Man’s vindication (13:24–27; cf. 8:38; Isa 60:1, 3; cf. 52:13). Jesus embodies his own prediction in his subsequent experience described in the PN. He himself is delivered over to a council (14:53–65; cf. 13:9) and a governor (15:1–5; cf. 13:9); he is beaten, not in a synagogue, but in the precinct of the high priest (14:65; 13:9). When Jesus stands as a witness before the high priests, the reader may surmise that what he says is given to him “in that hour.” When the high priest asks him, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” (14:61), the reader may imagine that it is not Jesus who speaks but the Holy Spirit when he breaks his silence and answers, “I am, and you will see the Son of Man, seated at the right hand of Power, and coming with the clouds of heaven” (v. 62; cf. 13:11). The direct result of these words is not that Jesus is delivered from his opponents, but that he is delivered to death (vv. 63–65). An informed audience may recall that Jesus described the fate of his followers in these terms, blended with language and themes from Isaiah. As a result, the PN functions not only to depict Jesus’ fate as the suffering Servant; it also provides a pattern onto which an audience may map themselves as servants who will embody his mission to proclaim the gospel in the face of opposition when he is gone. Perhaps the recognition that Mark is following this Isaianic exegetical trajectory can add sense to Mark’s ending.159 This is because the Isaianic pattern moves from suffering to exaltation. Mark depicts a situation, however, in which Jesus’ disciples have not resolved the logic of suffering-dying-rising. Rhetorically, then, in light of the Isaianic hermeneutic, the unresolved ending invites an informed audience to resolve and embrace Jesus’ suffering-dying-rising pattern, not only by “joining” the disciples in Galilee to look for the risen Christ, but also by looking for the return of the Son of Man (ch. 13).

158  The message in Mark 13 echoes the message of the book of Daniel, to which it alludes throughout: Dan 2:28 in Mark 13:7; Dan 12:12 in Mark 13:13; Dan 9:27; 11:31; 12:11 in Mark 13:14; Dan 12:1 in Mark 13:19. 159  For a discussion of Mark’s ending, including the interpretative history and exegetical issues involved, see E. Shively, “Recognizing Penguins: Audience Expectation, Cognitive Genre Theory, and the Ending of Mark’s Gospel,” CBQ 80 (2018): 273–92.

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6. Conclusion I have argued that Mark not only portrays Jesus as the fulfillment of Isaiah’s suffering Servant, but also employs the exegetical trajectory of Isa 40–66 as a pattern for explaining the relationship between Jesus, his disciples and future followers. According to this trajectory, Jesus the Servant forms a community of servants to whom he brings redemption and understanding by his death and resurrection. They embody and continue his ministry of the gospel after he is gone, through suffering to glory. While the provenance of Mark is debated, evidence internal to the Gospel suggests that the earliest audience experienced or resisted rejection, suffering, or domination.160 Through narration and scriptural reuse, Mark thus provides a key resource for individuals and communities to make sense of their experience in the world and to shape their expectations in social contexts. Mark restructures the values, thought, and practice of those who have ears to hear by patterning Jesus’ identity and mission – and that of his disciples – after the Isaianic Servant(s). The narrative may thus function to persuade an audience about what to think and how to act by means of textual and scriptural communication. Joseph Blenkinsopp comments that “[t]he interpretation of texts is … a scholarly and scribal activity … but it is also a social phenomenon and, typically, a group activity.”161 Indeed, Mark, like his predecessors, interprets and applies his scriptures through narrative in order to depict and, presumably, to shape a community in light of the appearance of Jesus.

Bibliography Adams, Edward. The Stars Will Fall From Heaven: ‘Cosmic Catastrophe’ in The New Testament and Its World. LNTS 347. New York: T&T Clark, 2007. Ahearne-Kroll, Stephen P. The Psalms of Lament in Mark’s Passion: Jesus’ Davidic Suffering. SNTSMS 142. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Allen, David. According to the Scriptures: The Death of Christ in the Old Testament and the New. Norwich, UK: SCM Press, 2018. Barrett, C. K. “The Background of Mark 10:45.” Pages 1–18 in New Testament Essays: Studies in Memory of Thomas Walter Manson. Edited by A. J. B. Higgins. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1959. Barton, John. Oracles of God: Perceptions of Ancient Prophecy in Israel after the Exile. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Barton, Stephen C. Discipleship and Family Ties in Mark and Matthew. SNTSMS 80. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. 160  For example, affliction may have been generated from Neronian persecution. Scholars generally support a Roman, Syrian, or Galilean provenance for Mark’s Gospel, but conclusions remain inconclusive. 161  Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, xv.



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Beers, Holly. The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts. LNTS 535. New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015. Bellinger, William H., Jr., and William R. Farmer. “Introduction.” Pages 1–7 in Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins. Edited by William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998. Betz, O. “Jesus and Isaiah 53.” Pages 70–87 in Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins. Edited by William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998. Beuken, W. A. M. “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 204–21 in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989. Edited by J. A. Emerton. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991. –. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH.’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 40–55. A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19A. New York: Doubleday, 2002. –. “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period.” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20. –. Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006. –. “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book.” Pages 155–75 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Edited by Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans. VTSup 70/1. New York: Brill, 1997. –. “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch.” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23. Reprinted as pages 392–412 in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship. Edited by R. P. Gordon. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995. Bolt, Peter G. Jesus’ Defeat of Death: Persuading Mark’s Early Readers. SNTSMS 125. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Botner, Max. “The Role of Transcriptional Probability in the Text-Critical Debate on Mark 1:1.” CBQ 77 (2015): 467–80. Broadhead, Edwin K. Naming Jesus: Titular Christology in the Gospel of Mark. JSNTSup 175. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999. Brooke, George J. “Shared Exegetical Traditions between the Scrolls and the New Testament.” Pages 565–91 in The Oxford Handbook of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by Timothy H. Lim and John J. Collins. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Cavallin, Hans C. C. Life After Death: Paul’s Argument for the Resurrection of the Dead in 1 Cor 15. Lund: Gleerup, 1974. Cole, R. Alan. Mark: An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Commentary. 2nd ed. Leicester: InterVarsity, and Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989. Collins, Adela Yarbro. “The Influence of Daniel on the New Testament.” Pages 90–112 in Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Edited by John J. Collins. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993. –. Mark: A Commentary. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2007. –. “Mark’s Interpretation of the Death of Jesus.” JBL 128 (2009): 545–54. –. “The Signification of Mark 10:45 among Gentile Christians.” HTR 90 (1997): 371–82. Collins, John J. Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993. –. “The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament: The Case of the Suffering Servant.” Pages 279–95 in Method and Meaning: Essays on New Testament Interpretation in

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Honor of Harold W. Attridge. Edited by A. B. McGowan and K. H. Richards. SBLRBS 67. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2012. Dodd, C. H. According to the Scriptures: The Substructure of New Testament Theology. London: Nisbet, 1952. Dowd, Sharyn, and Elizabeth Struthers Malbon. “The Significance of Jesus’ Death in Mark: Narrative Context and Authorial Audience.” JBL 125 (2006): 271–97. Eco, Umberto. Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language. London: Macmillan Press, 1984. –. “The Theory of Signs and the Role of the Reader.” The Bulletin of Midwest Language Association 14 (1981): 35–45. Edwards, J. Christopher. The Ransom Logion in Mark and Matthew: Its Reception and Its Significance for the Study of the Gospels. WUNT II/327. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012. Ekblad, Eugene Robert, Jr. Isaiah’s Servant Poems According to the Septuagint: An Exegetical and Theological Study. CBET 23. Leuven: Peeters, 1999. Fletcher-Louis, Crispin H. T. “Jesus, the Temple and the Dissolution of Heaven and Earth.” Pages 117–41 in Apocalyptic in History and Tradition. Edited by Christopher Rowland and John Barton. LSTS 43. London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002. Fludernik, Monika. “Narratology in the Twenty-First Century: The Cognitive Approach to Narrative.” PMLA 125.4 (2010): 924–30. France, R. T. Jesus and the Old Testament: His Application of Old Testament Passages to Himself and His Mission. London: Tyndale, 1971. Gignilliat, Mark. “Who is Isaiah’s Servant? Narrative Identity and Theological Potentiality.” SJT 61 (2008): 125–36. Ginsberg, H. L. “The Oldest Interpretation of the Suffering Servant.” VT 3 (1953): 400–404. Gnilka, Joachim. Das Evangelium nach Markus. EKKNT II/2. Zürich: Benziger, and Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1979. Gray, Timothy C. The Temple in the Gospel of Mark: A Study in Its Narrative Role. WUNT II/242. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008. Grimm, W. Weil ich dich liebe: Die Verkündigung Jesu und Deuterojesaja. ANTJ 1. Bern: Herbert Lang, 1976. Guelich, Robert. “‘The Beginning of the Gospel’: Mark 1:1–15.” BR 27 (1982): 5–15. Gundry, Robert. Mark: A  Commentary on His Apology for the Cross. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993. Hatina, Thomas. In Search of a Context: The Function of Scripture in Mark’s Narrative. JSNTSup 232. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002. Hays, Richard. Echoes of Scripture in the Gospels. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2016. –. Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. Head, P. M. “A Text-Critical Study of Mark 1.1: ‘The Beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ.’” NTS 37.4 (1991): 621–29. Hengel, Martin. The Atonement. Translated by J. Bowden. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981. –. “Der stellvertretende Sühnetod Jesu. Ein Beitrag zur Entstehung des urchristlichen Kerygmas.” IKZ 9 (1980): 1–25, 135–47. Herman, David. Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Hooker, Morna. “Did the Use of Isaiah 53 to Interpret His Mission Begin with Jesus?” Pages 88–103 in Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins.



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Edited by William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998. –. Jesus and the Servant: The Influence of the Servant Concept of Deutero-Isaiah in the New Testament. London: SPCK, 1959. –. The Son of Man in Mark. London: SPCK, 1967. Janowski, Bernd, and Peter Stuhlmacher, eds. The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Translated by Daniel P. Bailey. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Jeremias, Joachim. “παῖς θεοῦ.” TDNT 5:677–717. Knohl, Israel. “The Suffering Servant: From Isaiah to the Dead Sea Scrolls.” Pages 89–104 in Scriptural Exegesis: The Shapes of Culture and the Religious Imagination: Essays in Honor of Michael Fishbane. Edited by D. A. Green and L. S. Lieber. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Kraus, Wolfgang. “Jesaja 53 LXX im frühen Christentum  – eine Überprüfung.” Pages 149–82 in Beiträge zur urchristlichen Theologiegeschichte. Edited by Wolfgang Kraus. BZNW 163. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2009. Kugel, James L. How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture Then and Now. New York: Free Press, 2007. Lyons, Michael A. “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isaiah 54; 56–55.” CBQ 77 (2015): 640–56. Marcus, Joel. Mark 1–8: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. –. Mark 8–16: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009. –. “Mark and Isaiah.” Pages 449–66 in Fortunate the Eyes that See: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of his Seventieth Birthday. Edited by A. B. Beck et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995. –. The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1992. Meyer, Ben F. “The Expiation Motif in the Eucharistic Words: A  Key to the History of Jesus?” Pages 11–33 in One Loaf, One Cup. Edited by Ben F. Meyer. New Gospel Studies 6. Macon, GA: Mercer, 1993. Minsky, Marvin. “A Framework for Representing Knowledge.” Pages 47–62 in The Psychology of Computer Vision. Edited by P. Winston. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. Mittmann-Richert, Ulrike. “Die Dämonen und der Tod des Gottessohns im Markusevangelium.” Pages 476–504 in Die Dämonen. Die Dämonologie der israelitischjüdischen und frühchristlichen Literatur im Kontext ihrer Umwelt. Edited by Armin Lange, Hermann Lichtenberger, and K. F. Diethard Römheld. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003. Myers, Ched. Binding the Strong Man: A Political Reading of Mark’s Story of Jesus. 2nd ed. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2008. Nickelsburg, George W. Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism. HTS 26. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972. O’Brien, Kelli S. The Use of Scripture in the Markan Passion Narrative. LNTS 384. London: T&T Clark, 2010. Paltridge, Brian. Genres, Frames, and Writing in Research Settings. Pragmatics and Beyond 45. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co., 1997.

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Pesch, Rudolf. Das Markusevangelium. II Teil Kommentar zu Kap. 8,27–16,20. HThKNT II/2. Freiburg: Herder, 1977. Pitre, Brant James. Jesus, the Tribulation, and the End of Exile: Restoration Eschatology and the Origin of the Atonement. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, and Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005. –. “The ‘Ransom for Many,’ the New Exodus, and the End of Exile: Redemption as the Restoration of All Israel (Mark 10:35–45).” Letter & Spirit 1 (2005): 41–68. Rowley, H. H. The Servant of the Lord, and Other Essays on the Old Testament. Oxford: Blackwell, 1956. Rüggemeier, Jan. “Mark’s Jesus Reviewed: Towards a Cognitive-Narratological Reading of Character Perspectives and Markan Christology.” Pages 717–36 in Reading Mark in the Twenty-First Century: Method and Meaning. Edited by G. Van Oyen. BETL 293. Leuven: Peeters, 2019. Sanders, E. P. Jesus and Judaism. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985. Schneck, Richard. Isaiah in the Gospel of Mark I–VIII. Berkeley: BIBAL Press, 1994. Seitz, Christopher R. “How Is the Prophet Isaiah Present in the Latter Half of the Book? The Logic of Isaiah 40–66 within the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 168–93 in Word Without End: The Old Testament as Abiding Theological Witness. Edited by Christopher R. Seitz. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2005. Reprinted from JBL 115 (1996): 219–40. Shively, Elizabeth E. Apocalyptic Imagination in the Gospel of Mark: The Literary and Theological Role of Mark 3:22–30. BZNW 189. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2012. –. “Recognizing Penguins: Audience Expectation, Cognitive Genre Theory, and the Ending of Mark’s Gospel.” CBQ 80 (2018): 273–92. Snodgrass, Klyne. “Streams of Tradition Emerging from Isaiah 40:1–5 and Their Adaptation in the New Testament.” JSNT 8 (1980): 24–45. Stromberg, Jacob. Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book. OTM. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. –. “Isaiah’s Interpretive Revolution: How Isaiah’s Formation Influenced Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation.” Pages 214–32 in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew. Essays Honoring Joseph Blenkinsopp and His Contribution to the Study of Isaiah. Edited by Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015. Stuhlmacher, Peter. Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments, Bd. 1: Grundlegung. Von Jesus zu Paulus. 2nd ed. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997. –. “Existenzstellvertretung für die Vielen: Mk 10,45 (Mt 20,28).” Pages 27–42 in Versöhnung, Gesetz und Gerechtigkeit: Aufsätze zur biblischen Theologie. Edited by Peter Stuhlmacher. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981. –. “Isaiah 53 in the Gospels and Acts.” Pages 147–62 in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher. Translated by Daniel P. Bailey. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. –. “Vicariously Giving His Life for Many, Mark 10:45 (Matt. 20:28).” Pages 16–29 in Reconciliation, Law, and Righteousness: Essays in Biblical Theology. Edited by Peter Stuhlmacher. Translated by E. Kalin. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986. Tannehill, Robert C. “The Gospel of Mark as Narrative Christology.” Semeia 16 (1979): 57–95. Tooman, William A. Gog and Magog: Reuse of Scripture and Compositional Technique in Ezekiel 38–39. FAT II/52. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011.



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Watts, Rikki E. “Consolation or Confrontation? Isaiah 40–55 and the Delay of the New Exodus.” TynBul 41 (1990): 31–59. –. Isaiah’s New Exodus in Mark. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997. –. “Jesus’ Death, Isaiah 53, and Mark 10:45: A Crux Revisited,” Pages 125–51 in Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins. Edited by William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998. Wright, N. T. Jesus and the Victory of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God, vol. 2. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996. Zager, W. Jesus und die frühchristliche Verkündigung. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1999. –. “Wie kam es im Urchristentum zur Deutung des Todes Jesu als Sühnegeschehen?” ZNW 87 (1996): 165–86. Ziegler, Joseph, ed. Isaias. 3rd ed. Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum Auctoritate Academiae Scientiarum Gottingensis editum 14. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983. Zimmerli, Walther, and Joachim Jeremias. The Servant of God. London: SCM Press, 1957.

The Servant(s) in Luke-Acts Holly Beers 1.  Introduction: Isaiah, the Servant(s), and Luke-Acts Who embodies the Isaian vocation of the servant(s)? In Luke-Acts,1 the answer is layered. While Luke2 portrays Jesus as taking on the servant vocation in a paradigmatic manner, Jesus does not walk alone; his recruited followers walk with and behind him. Luke’s depiction of an ultimate servant who is then followed by a group of servants thus incorporates an aspect of the Isaian vision itself, for the vocation of the famous “servant” of the songs in Isaiah 40–55 is picked up and expanded by a community of “servants” in chapters 56–66. While there are many aspects of the Isaian servant vocation that could be highlighted, the task of being a light to the nations, the reality of (righteous) suffering, and the hope for (and experience of ) vindication will be the focus of this essay, especially as they pertain to recruitment of witnesses, the possibility of Gentile membership in the servant group, the use of a servant text from second (not third) Isaiah for the disciples, and resurrection as vindication. In this essay I am building on my earlier monograph The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts.3 1  The hyphenated “Luke-Acts” was coined by Cadbury in the twentieth century as a way of highlighting the unity of the two compositions. See Henry Joel Cadbury, The Making of Luke-Acts, 2nd ed. (London: SPCK, 1968), 11. 2  By “Luke” I  mean the implied author and am not making a historical claim regarding authorship. 3 Holly Beers, The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts, LNTS 535 (London: T&T Clark, 2015). Rouven Genz, Jesaja 53 als theologische Mitte der Apostelgeschichte: Studien zu ihrer Christologie und Ekklesiologie im Anschluss an Apg 8,26–40, WUNT II/398 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2015), 413, also sees an Isaian link between Jesus and his followers: “im Wirken Jesu als des Gottesknechts die Existenz der Gemeinde als der Knechte des Knechts begründet” (emphasis original). He adds: “Dabei lässt sich durchgängig erkennen, dass die Gemeinde einerseits an Jesu Werk teilhat und sein Wirken fortführt und dass andererseits Jesu einzigartiger und stellvertretender Auftrag die Existenz und das Wirken der Gemeinde erst ermöglicht, sie also bleibend auf ihn bezogen bleibt” (413–14). I  see my monograph and this essay as complementary to Genz’s work, though the primary focus of each is different, for the heart of Genz’s thesis is that the atoning aspect of the servant text Isaiah 53 in Luke-Acts is central, while I  argue that Luke downplays this motif because he wants to portray both Jesus and the disciples as embodying the servant vocation. This distinction then leads to a focus on different texts.

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1.1  The Servant(s) In Isaiah: An Overview4 First, some brief comments regarding the servant(s) in Isaiah,5 especially in the LXX, are in order. The “servant songs” are found in Isaiah 42, 49, 50, and 53,6 though scholars such as Willem Beuken have famously argued for the inclusion of chapter 61, which Jesus reads in Nazareth in Luke 4:18–19. In this view the figure in Isaiah 61, though never actually labeled the servant, speaks in the voice and takes on the role of the servant from especially Isaiah 42 and 49 and/or the offspring of the servant promised in 53:10, the seed.7 Joseph Blenkinsopp and Willem Beuken both see a broader thematic connection between the servant in Second Isaiah and servants as the “main theme” in Third Isaiah.8 In other words, the community behind Third Isaiah (chapters 56–66) used and developed the largely singular “servant” language in chapters 40–55 by explicitly making it plural (see Isa 54:17, though technically part of Second Isaiah; also 56:6; 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13 [three times], 14, 15; 66:14).9 Stated 4  For a similar survey of the Isaian material, see Holly Beers, “Filling Up What is Lacking in Christ’s Afflictions: Isaiah’s Servant and Servants in Second Temple Judaism and Colossians 1:24,” in Who Created Christianity? Fresh Approaches in the Relationship Between Paul and Jesus, ed. Craig A. Evans and Aaron W. White (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2020), 438–42. 5  See also the contribution by Jacob Stromberg in this volume. 6  The first critical scholar to separate these “servant songs” from the rest of Isaiah was Bernhard Duhm in 1892 (Das Buch Jesaja, 3rd ed., HKAT 3/1 [Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1914]). 7  The speaker in Isaiah 61 may also be taking on the role of the herald of 52:7–8. See Willem A. M. Beuken, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55,” in The Book of Isaiah  – Le Livre d’Isaїa: Les Oracles et Leurs Relectures: Unité et Complexité de L’ouvrage, ed. Jacques Vermeylen, BETL 81 (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 416–18, 432, 439; idem, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah: ‘The Servants of YHWH,’” JSOT 47 (1990): 71. Cf. Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, AB 19B (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 221–23; idem, Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 161–62; Elizabeth Achtemeier, The Community and Message of Isaiah 56–66: A Theological Commentary (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1982), 88; John Bergsma, The Jubilee from Leviticus to Qumran: A History of Interpretation, VTSup 115 (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 200; and George A. F. Knight, Isaiah 56–66: The New Israel, ITC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985), 50. Isaiah 61 may echo other texts as well, including the royal passage Isa 11:1–10. Isaiah 61 was also used in the Qumran texts 11Q13 (of Melchizedek) and 4Q521 (of an anointed figure) to describe God’s eschatological deliverance. See Beers, Followers, 69–71. 8  Willem A. M.  Beuken, “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah,” in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989, ed. J. A.  Emerton, VTSup 43 (Leiden: Brill, 1991), 205, calls the Servants of Yahweh “the main topic of Trito-Isaiah” (emphasis his). See Beuken, “Main Theme,” 67; Joseph Blenkinsopp, “Who is the Ṣaddiq of Isaiah 57:1–2?” in Studies in the Hebrew Bible, Qumran, and the Septuagint Presented to Eugene Ulrich, ed. Peter W. Flint, Emanuel Tov, and James C. VanderKam (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 119. See also Christopher R. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections,” in New Interpreter’s Bible, Vol. 6, ed. Leander E. Keck (Nashville: Abingdon, 2001), 514, who argues that “continuity has been maintained from servant to the generation of the servants.” 9  It is possible that the same author composed both chapters 40–55 and 56–66, which is the



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differently, the servants embody and realize the vocation (and thus part of the vindication) promised to the servant.10 Their continuation speaks to the truth of the servant’s task. 1.2  The Identity of the Servant(s) in the Septuagint The identity of the servant in the so-called “songs” has been debated vigorously by scholars, though the servant is addressed as “Israel” in Isa 49:3, while in 49:5–6 the servant has a mission to Israel. A contextual reading, which incorporates all the passages and not just the famous “servant songs,” encourages such an identification, for Jacob or Israel is identified as the servant in 41:8; 44:1, 2, 21 [twice]; 45:4; 48:20.11 The Septuagint, which Luke prefers,12 clarifies the servant’s identity as Israel or a remnant of Israel in the first two of the “servant songs.” For example, in LXX Isa 42:1 the grammatically singular servant is named view of, among others, William L. Holladay, “Was Trito-Isaiah Deutero-Isaiah After All?” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition, ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans, VTSup 70/1 (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 193–217. Also, as the final form of many biblical texts was still being shaped in the Second Temple period, drawing hard authorial or editorial lines between Second and Third Isaiah may not be wise. See Jacob Stromberg, “Isaiah’s Interpretive Revolution: How Isaiah’s Formation Influenced Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation,” in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew, ed. Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 157–69. 10  Seitz, “Isaiah,” 473–74. Seitz (424) also claims that “[t]he boundary between the work of the servant and that of the servants is not sharply fixed.” See Beuken, “Main Theme,” 83; Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition, ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans, VTSup 70/1 (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 157–58. Cf. Paul D. Hanson, Isaiah 40–66, Interpretation (Louisville: John Knox), 173, who argues that the servants are the “kinsfolk of the barren” one from 54:1.” Rikki E. Watts, “Consolation or Confrontation? Isaiah 40–55 and the Delay of the New Exodus,” TynBul 41 (1990): 55, describes the servants in 54:17 as “that group which has been restored to Israel’s original calling as a result of the ‘unknown’ ‫’ ֶﬠ ֶבד‬s work.” 11  Cyrus as God’s anointed in Isa 45:1 (cf. 44:28) is a possible exception to the “servant Israel” motif. A historical-critical reading by Blenkinsopp (“Servant and the Servants,” 164–65) identifies the servant of the songs as Cyrus in chapter 42, a prophet in 49, and a prophetic speaker in 50 and 53, though he argues in a later work “that an integrative approach to Isaiah 40–66, and for that matter to the book as a whole, permits us to see … the profile and mission of the Servant of the Lord continued by his disciples in particular, as a central theme in the book, and one by no means confined to the four Ebedlieder passages identified by Bernhard Duhm” (Sealed Book, 259). 12  Luke almost always uses a text form of the LXX that matches or is very close to the versions we have today. See Traugott Holtz, Untersuchungen über die alttestamentlichen Zitate bei Lukas, TU 104 (Berlin: Akademie, 1968), 42; and Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “The Use of the Old Testament in Luke-Acts,” SBL Seminar Papers (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992), 533–34. Michael A. Lyons, “Paul and the Servant(s): Isaiah 49,6 in Acts 13,47,” ETL 89.4 (2013): 349, makes the point that this is not always true, citing the allusion to Isa 42:1 in Luke 3:22 at Jesus’ baptism, which appears to have been shaped by the MT. However, that allusion has been debated because there is no verbal overlap. Luke also may be relying on earlier tradition in Luke 3:22 (as is likely in the citation of Isa 53:12 in Luke 22:37, which also relies on the MT).

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Jacob (Ιακωβ ὁ παῖς μου), and instead of MT’s “my chosen” LXX reads “Israel (is) my chosen.”13 Significantly, the servant in Isaiah 53, while textually anonymous, shares a lexical tie with the earlier passage (ὁ παῖς μου).14 LXX Isaiah 49:3 names Israel as the servant, though in v. 5 the servant’s task is to bring Jacob/Israel back to God. This difficulty is solved by the LXX translator(s) by describing the gathering in first-person language. In other words, instead of stating Israel’s gathering as in the MT, the LXX reads: “I will be gathered” (v. 5). This apparently identifies the (true) servant as a remnant group, “because it makes sense of a group, not of an individual, to say that one shall ‘be gathered’.”15 This remnant’s task is to bring the larger community of Israel back to God. The identity of the servant as Israel is significant because of the way the motif is picked up by Luke in the Gospel and Acts, especially in the designation of Paul and Barnabas as the servant in Acts 13. The Isaian servant vocabulary is also relevant to this point, for the Greek words δοῦλος and παῖς are used across Second Isaiah LXX for the Hebrew ‫ﬠבד‬. They seem to be synonyms employed for the purpose of variety, and not because they have different connotations.16 Perhaps significantly, in LXX Isa 42:19 plural forms of both δοῦλος and παῖς are used in God’s complaint that his servants are blind, while the MT’s famous first instance of the plural “servants” instead of the singular occurs in Isa 54:17.17 Thus this plural language in Second Isaiah increases the likelihood that Luke would have noticed and linked the servant language in Third Isaiah, which is predominantly plural (Isa 65:8 uses a generic 13 

All translations are my own. Also, in Isa 52:13 the translator’s use of ὑψόω and δοξάζω recalls the same verbs in 4:2, which discuss the remnant of Israel. From this evidence Martin Hengel with Daniel P. Bailey, “The Effective History of Isaiah 53 in the Pre-Christian Period,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, trans. Daniel P. Bailey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 121, argue: “Therefore Isaiah 4:2 and 52:13 can be interpreted in the light of one another. The Servant is either the remnant of Israel itself (cf. Daniel 12) or Israel’s representative. Collective and individual interpretations need not be mutually exclusive. They are two aspects of the same thing.” Cf. Herbert Haag, Der Gottesknecht bei Deuterojesaja, EdF 233 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1985), 47, who argues that in LXX Isaiah the Servant of the Lord is Israel in chapters 42 and 49 and an individual in chapters 50 and 53. 15  Arie van der Kooij, “‘The Servant of the Lord’: A  Particular Group of Jews in Egypt According to the Old Greek of Isaiah. Some Comments on LXX Isa 49,1–6 and Related Passages,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift Willem A. M. Beuken, ed. Jacques van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne, BETL 132 (Leuven: Leuven University Press and Uitgeverij Peeters, 1997), 388. See also Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, AB 19A (New York: Doubleday, 2002), 82. 16  Exceptions are Isa 45:14; 49:7, where plural forms of δοῦλος are used of foreign slaves. 17  Isa 54:17 LXX uses, instead of either δοῦλος or παῖς (or related forms), a form of θεραπεύω. This is the only occurrence of θεραπεύω in the LXX of Isaiah, and out of the 23 occurrences in the LXX, most are in the apocrypha. Its related nouns, θεραπεία and θεράπων, do not appear in the LXX and only rarely in the New Testament, two of which are in Luke (θεραπεία in Luke 9:11; 12:42; Rev 22:2; θεράπων only in Heb 3:5). 14 

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singular). Also, with one exception,18 the vocabulary in Third Isaiah alternates between δουλεύω (56:6; 65:8; 65:13 [three times]; 65:14; 65:15), δοῦλος (56:6; 63:17; 65:9), and δούλη (56:6).19 LXX Isaiah 56:6 uses all three: δουλεύω, δοῦλος, and δούλη. In this section (vv. 1–8), not only are eunuchs and foreigners eligible to be part of the servant group,20 but women are as well. The naming of women is an addition by the LXX translator(s) to the MT.21 If eunuchs, foreigners, and women may join the community of servants, then it follows that they are eligible to participate in servant tasks, including being a light to the (other) Gentiles.22 In the MT of Isaiah the final occurrence of ‫ ﬠבד‬occurs in 66:14. The Septuagint, however, does not employ either παῖς or δοῦλος (or related forms). Instead, the servants as a group are uniquely designated as οἱ σεβόμενοι, in which David Baer sees Gentile God-fearers. He argues that the language “during the GraecoRoman era had become at least a semi-technical term for Gentile God-fearers.”23 In other words, the LXX translator seems to indicate that Gentiles are eligible for the servant vocation,24 a move in line with Isa 56:1–8.

18 

The exception is 66:14. It will be discussed below. δουλεύω is also used in 60:12 of Gentile nations and kings in their subjection to Israel. Although after 56:6 (in the MT and LXX) the term “servants” does not appear until 63:17, Beuken, “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI,” 205–6, has argued that the servants are still a significant theme because of the concepts of “seed” and the oppressed “righteous.” 20  Willem A. M. Beuken, “Major Interchanges in the Book of Isaiah Subservient to Its Umbrella Theme: The Establishment of Yhwh’s Sovereign Rule at Mt. Zion (Chs. 12–13; 27–28; 39–40; 55–56),” in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew, ed. Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 95. Cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 140–42. 21 See Joseph Ziegler, Isaias, 3rd ed., Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum 14 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983), 331; and Richard R. Ottley, The Book of Isaiah According to the Septuagint (Cambridge: University Press, 1906), 2:354. Ottley notes as well the addition of another feminine noun – θυγάτηρ – to Isa 45:11. Luke perhaps builds on the lead of Isaiah here by being the only author in the New Testament to use δούλη (Luke 1:38, 48; also Acts 2:18, citing Joel). 22  Cf. Luke’s inclusion of Isa 56:7 in Luke 19:46 on the lips of Jesus in the temple area. Also, while Luke does not narrate specific individual Gentiles taking up the servant mission in Acts, it is implied whenever Gentiles respond well (e. g. in the travels and preaching of Paul). There are also the “we” passages in Acts 16:10–17, etc., and if the implied author is a Gentile, then he himself takes up that role. 23  David A. Baer, When We All Go Home: Translation and Theology in LXX Isaiah 56–66, JSOTSup 318 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), 232. It is also possible that this language may be a later Christian interpolation, as Baer acknowledges on 232 n.6, though he argues in some detail against it. 24 Cf. Baer, When We All Go Home, 236, who argues that “the LXX translator has signalled his recognition of Gentiles within the restored Jerusalem of this passage.” However, he also sees the LXX translator nationalizing aspects of these final verses of Isaiah in other ways (e. g. 276). As a later reader Luke is of course free to emphasize and shape the Isaian text as he wishes in his own two-volume work. 19 

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In addition, there is a well-attested variant in the textual tradition that uses φοβέω instead of σέβω.25 Baer points out that this is the only instance in the entire Septuagint where either of these Greek words is used to translate a form of ‫ﬠבד‬.26 The choice of this vocabulary rather than παῖς or δοῦλος (or related forms) for ‫ ﬠבד‬is likely because both παῖς and δοῦλος “would have led the reader outside the conceptual realm of Gentile God-fearers.”27 Luke uses both words for Gentile God-fearers in Acts (φοβέω in 13:16, 26; σέβω in 13:43, 50; 16:14; 17:4, 17; 18:7). The emphasis in LXX Isaiah is thus a corporate, not an individual, servant. In chapter 42 all Israel is called or recruited to embody the servant’s vocation, though chapters 49–66 envision a smaller, faithful group within Israel actually responding well.28 In other words, the tasks of being a light to the nations, the suffering that accompanies this witness, and the hoped-for vindication because of it, are embodied by a remnant of God’s people whose membership is open even to eunuchs and Gentiles. There is thus an eschatological or contemporary thrust to the translation of the LXX, as the earlier Isaian texts from chapters 40–55 are applied to a later group in chapters 56–66 who self-identified as the servants. For them, then, these Isaian prophecies were either already being fulfilled or were about to be fulfilled.29

2. Luke-Acts 2.1  The Servant(s) in Luke-Acts: An Overview Now, to Luke and Acts: at least three times in his two volumes Luke explicitly connects Jesus with a servant text: in Luke 4:18–19 in the synagogue in Nazareth (quoting Isa 61:1–2 [with 58:6]); Luke 22:37 during the last supper (citing Isa 53:12); and Acts 8:32–33, the Ethiopian eunuch passage (Isa 53:7–8).30 Many scholars have argued for a Jesus-as-servant motif in these texts, especially 25 See

Ziegler, Isaias, 368, for details. Baer, When We All Go Home, 235. 27  Ibid., 236. 28 Cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 82–83; and van der Kooij, “Particular Group,” 394–96, who agree that the servant is a group but then attempt to identify it historically as the company to which the LXX translators belonged and a band of Jews in Egypt, respectively. Also, Eugene R. Ekblad, Jr., Isaiah’s Servant Poems According to the Septuagint: An Exegetical and Theological Study (Leuven: Peeters, 1999), 277, makes a relevant point when he notes that the two servant figures (Israel and a group within it) are “inextricably intertwined. The mission of the unidentified servant is one with that of Jacob/Israel.” 29  Hengel with Bailey, “Effective History,” 119, 121; Blenkinsopp, Sealed Book, 261. 30  There are also many allusions to the Isaian servant texts; see the lists in the UBS5 and NA28 and my monograph. 26 



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the latter two.31 In this essay my focus will be the one servant text clearly quoted in reference to Jesus’ followers in Acts; it is Isa 49:6 and is used by Paul and Barnabas in Acts 13:47. In this scene they are claiming to embody the vocation of the servant.32 My argument is that Luke sees Jesus fulfilling the servant role in an ultimate or paradigmatic way, though his followers, in Luke but especially in Acts, also embody that vocation.33 To argue that Jesus and his followers embody the servant vocation is not to say that Isaiah had them in mind or that they “fulfill” Isaian prophecy in some kind of direct line. Rather, Luke joins others in the Second Temple period who seem to see their group or a special figure within it as embodying the vocation of the Isaian servant(s).34 This vocation is thus in some sense open, as opposed to closed. It awaits embodiment by the faithful. This kind of reading may be called “eschatological,” a label that many scholars have used when studying the ways in which various Second Temple communities and texts were reading and using Isaiah.35 Of course, Luke lived long before the age of historical criticism that has argued for two or more “Isaiahs” and isolated the “servant songs” from the rest of the book.36 Indeed, Luke quotes from all three “Isaiahs” without distinction (e. g. Isa 6:9–10 in Acts 28:26–27; Isa 53:12 in Luke 22:37; Isa 66:1–2 in Acts 7:49– 31  For detailed discussion of these passages, including analyses and critiques of scholars who affirm or deny that Jesus is being characterized by Luke as (and/or viewed himself as) the Isaian servant, see Beers, Followers. For a treatment of the Acts 8 citation, see Genz, Jesaja 53. 32 Gerhard Schneider, Die Apostelgeschichte 9,1–28,31, HTKNT 5/2 (Freiburg: Herder, 1982), 146; Martin Rese, “Die Funktion der alttestamentlichen Zitate und Anspielungen in den Reden der Apostelgeschichte,” in Les Actes des Apôtres: Traditions, redaction, théologie, ed. Jacob Kremmer (Gembloux: J. Duculot, 1979), 77–79; Max Turner, Power From On High: The Spirit in Israel’s Restoration and Witness in Luke-Acts (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 301; Kenneth D. Litwak, Echoes of Scripture in Luke-Acts: Telling the History of God’s People Intertextually, JSNTSup 282 (London: T&T Clark, 2005), 152 n.144; David Moessner, “‘The Christ Must Suffer,’ The Church Must Suffer: Rethinking the Theology of the Cross in Luke-Acts,” in SBL Seminar Papers, ed. David J. Lull (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990), 190–91. Cf. Ulrike Mittmann-Richert, Der Sühnetod des Gottesknechts: Jesaja 53 im Lukasevangelium, WUNT 220 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008), 276–77; Morna Hooker, Jesus and the Servant (London: SPCK, 1959), 116. 33 Cf. Lyons, “Paul and the Servant(s),” 348: “how do we explain the fact that Luke-Acts uses Isaian Servant language not only for a group (the apostles, in Acts 13,47) but also for a singular agent (Jesus, in Luke 2,32; Acts 26,23), and sees the role of the former as in some way derived from the latter (that is, not just as a ‘collective’)?” (emphasis original). 34  See other essays in this volume. 35  A famous example of the eschatological use of Isaiah is the Qumran pesharim (4Q161– 65), which directly relate Isaiah to the sect’s existence at the end of the age. Cf. Godfrey Ashby, “The Chosen People: Isaiah 40–55,” JTSA 64 (1988): 35, who argues that even in their “original” setting the servant texts communicate “what it means to be Israel … what it means to be chosen by God” and what “the person who is to lead Israel in her mission as the chosen people, must act, behave and be.” Cf. also Blenkinsopp, Sealed Book, 261. 36  See Joachim Jeremias, “παῖς θεοῦ,” TDNT 5:682: “the modern isolation of the Servant Songs, like the division of the book into Proto-, Deutero- and Trito-Isaiah, was completely un-

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50), indicating his view of their singular composition and unity. Such a unity, however, does not mean that Luke would be unable to detect development in a motif or theme throughout the larger work.37 In other words, even if Luke was unaware of a later historical community behind Third Isaiah, his keen eye may have been able to see what, almost two thousand years later, Blenkinsopp did: that the grammatically singular servant and plural servants may be viewed “in terms of discipleship.”38 The vocabulary used of the servant(s) in LXX Isaiah strengthens a “discipleship” link, for while the Greek words δοῦλος/δουλεύω and παῖς are used synonymously in Second Isaiah for the servant, only δοῦλος and δουλεύω (and δούλη, one time) continue through Third Isaiah. It may then be significant that in Acts  – after the disciples have fully embraced the servant vocation  – Luke uses παῖς for Jesus (3:13, 26; 4:27, 30) and δοῦλος (4:29; 16:17; cf. 2:18) for the disciples.39 While each word occurs only a handful of times,40 the cluster in chapter 4 is illuminating. Within a span of four verses, twice he calls Jesus παῖς while labeling the disciples δοῦλος in between. In other words, Luke may be using intentional “Third Isaiah” language for the disciples as the plural servants, the ones who are continuing the servant vocation first embodied by Jesus.41 2.2  The Servant Task in Isaiah 49:6 Claimed by Paul and Barnabas in Acts 13:47 In Acts 13:46–47 Paul and Barnabas are in Pisidian Antioch on the first of the so-called missionary journeys. On the second Sabbath, after speaking in the synknown …” He adds that there was atomistic reading and differences across geographical areas, so a uniform interpretation cannot be assumed (682–83). 37 Cf. Blenkinsopp, Sealed Book, 279, who makes a similar argument regarding the Qumran text 4Q491c, the so-called Self-Glorification Hymn. 38  Blenkinsopp, “Servant and the Servants,” 171. His comparison is more specifically between the servant – singular – in Isaiah 49–54 and the servants – plural – in chapters 65–66. 39  My main reason for focusing on the servant language in Acts (rather than Luke’s Gospel) is that it is only in the second volume that the disciples have fully taken up the servant task. They are also given more narrative emphasis in Acts, as the Gospel is focused on Jesus. In Luke παῖς is used of servants and children as well as Israel and David (once or twice). In Luke δοῦλος is almost always used for servants/slaves; it is also used self-referentially by Simeon. 40  Luke prefers to label the followers of Jesus as μάρτυς and μαθητής. 41  Many scholars have seen Isaian servant connotations in the use of παῖς in Acts 3. Luke also uses παῖς of David in 4:25, but Jesus is the Davidic king and the disciples are not, so Luke’s careful application of παῖς to Jesus alone in Acts may show his awareness of this distinction. In 20:12 Luke employs it for the boy who falls out of the window, but there it is clearly emphasizing his age. In Acts 16:17 the girl with the python spirit follows Paul and his companions (described as “us;” this is one of the “we” sections of Acts) and cries out: “These men are slaves (δοῦλος) of the Most High God, who are proclaiming to you a way of salvation.” Though her voice from a narrative perspective is not necessarily trustworthy, the use here fits with the Isaian paradigm. Note also the “way” language, another Isaian theme picked up in Acts; see Beers, Followers, 142–43.



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agogue and experiencing Jewish rejection, they declare: “It was necessary first to speak the word of God to you; since you reject it and do not judge yourselves worthy of eternal life, we are turning to the Gentiles. For in this way the Lord has commanded us: ‘I have made you into a light of nations/Gentiles, that you may be for salvation to the end of the earth.’” The last sentence is a quote from the servant text Isa 49:6.42 The Jewish rejection here has been discussed often, with scholars such as Charles Talbert seeing it as the main theological reason for the turn to Gentiles,43 but the Isaian background may be able to account both for the rejection of (some) Jews and then the turn to the Gentiles in a deeper way.44 While Jewish rejection may narratively stimulate the mission to Gentiles in Acts, the deeper theological stimulation is the servant’s task in Isaiah. In Isaiah 49 the chronological priority on the Jews in clear (v. 6; cf. 42:6), but the text also stresses the rejection that follows and the task of being a light for the Gentiles (49:4–6). In Isaiah, many Jews refuse to accept and participate in the task of the servant(s), even to the end of the book.45 Of course, Isa 49:6 is a passage from Second Isaiah, not Third Isaiah, that is being applied to the disciples. In other words, Paul and Barnabas are claiming to embody the task of the servant in the earlier part of Isaiah, not that of the servant’s disciples or servants later. If Luke sees Jesus as the paradigmatic servant, then how does this text fit with Jesus’ followers? At least three comments are appropriate here. First, LXX Isaiah 49 is the first servant text where a distinction is made between a larger servant Israel and a smaller group within it. The LXX’s personalization of the smaller group makes this clear, for the servant states in v. 5: “συναχθήσομαι καὶ δοξασθήσομαι ἐναντίον κυρίου.” Paul and Barnabas are thus claiming to be this smaller remnant servant group who both is gathered and gathers Israel while also being a light to the nations. The recruitment of their fellow Jewish listeners is also implied; to ears attuned to Isaiah, Yahweh’s call to Israel to be gathered as faithful servant Israel rings loudly. Just prior to the verse quoted by Paul and Barnabas, the Isaian servant expresses his exhaustion and disappointment in attempting to gather Israel, but 42  There is a text critical issue with the phrase “as a covenant for the people,” which Luke omits. See David W. Pao, Acts and the Isaianic New Exodus (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002), 97. 43 Charles H. Talbert, Reading Luke-Acts in Its Mediterranean Milieu, NovTSup 107 (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 169. 44  Cf. Jürgen Roloff, Die Apostelgeschichte, NTD 5 (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981), 209, where he suggests that this Isaian link can be assumed to be pre-Lukan: “Jes 49,6 zusammen mit anderen deuterojesajanischen Texten schon sehr früh zur Begründung der Heidenmission gedient hat.” 45  For discussion of the overlapping conclusions of Isaiah and Acts, see Beers, Followers, 173–75.

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affirms that God is his strength.46 The question, then, stands: who will join Paul and Barnabas by being gathered, and thus take up the servant mantle and live that calling? The answer is equally clear: the Gentiles (Acts 13:48; though note the positive response by at least some Jews in v. 43, prior to the Isaian quote).47 The acceptance (or perhaps gathering?!) of Gentiles signals another Isaian passage, for in Isa 56:3–8 Gentiles are eligible for membership in the community of servants (cf. 66:18–21).48 46 Ulrich Berges, “Kingship and Servanthood in the Book of Isaiah,” in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew, ed. Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 125. He writes with a historical goal in mind, arguing that the servant “confess[es] that he has fully exhausted himself in his attempt to bring Jacob/Israel back to Yhwh (vv. 4–5) [and] articulates his disappointment at only having been able to motivate a small portion of the exiles to return home to Zion/Jerusalem.” 47  The focus first on gathering Israel (prior to the Gentiles) is highlighted by Jesus’ own activity, including in the inauguration of his public ministry in his hometown synagogue in Luke 4, where he reads from the servant text Isa 61:1–2 (and 58:6  – for a textual discussion of the exact conflation and its relation to the MT and LXX, as well as the links to the later Jewish exegetical technique gezerah shava, see Charles A. Kimball, Jesus’ Exposition of the Old Testament in Luke’s Gospel, JSNTSup 94 [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994], 99–100, 106–7). The people in Nazareth at first seem to respond positively (though see David L. Tiede, Prophecy and History in Luke-Acts [Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980], 36–38, for discussion of whether the response is positive or not), with their rage appearing only after the mention of the Elijah and Elisha stories that highlight Gentiles as recipients of God’s salvific work. The use of Isaiah 61 may indicate that Jesus is indirectly recruiting his hometown community to join him in his Isaian servant task and thus become the next generation of offspring. The focus on the nations as well as the Jewish division initiated here will continue throughout Luke-Acts (see Martin W. Mittelstadt, The Spirit and Suffering in Luke-Acts: Implications for a Pentecostal Pneumatology, JPTSup 26 [London: T&T Clark, 2004], 6, 29, though without reference to the servant motif ). Thus, the common scholarly discussion regarding whether or not Jesus is detailing the (wholesale) rejection of Israel here (e. g. Bart J. Koet, Five Studies on Interpretation of Scripture in Luke-Acts, SNTA 14 [Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989], 46–47) would benefit from an awareness that the rejection of at least some of Israel is a major motif in the second half of Isaiah, and that her judgment is dependent at least partly upon her response to the servant vocation. Jesus’ focus on Israel in his earthly ministry (even though he points to Gentile inclusion) may actually help to explain the choice of Isa 61 – a text from Third Isaiah, where the plural servants are the main character group – in Luke 4. As a text from the last chapters of Isaiah it casts a more generalized picture of restoration than the servant texts in second Isaiah, focusing less on deliverance from Babylon and more on economic oppression, likely with Jubilee and/ or Sabbath overtones (see Berges, “Kingship,” 127; August Strobel, “Die Ausrufung des Jobeljahres in der Nazarethpredigt Jesu; zur apokalyptischen Tradition Lc 4,16–30,” in Jesus in Nazareth, ed. Walther Eltester, BZNW 40 [Berlin: de Gruyter, 1972], 41; Koet, Studies, 31). In other words, Isaiah 61 describes Jesus’ ministry well in the ensuing chapters of Luke’s Gospel, where Jesus is almost exclusively with Jews. Also, the servant in Isaiah 61 is technically anonymous and speaks in a grammatically singular voice (as opposed to the servant in Isaiah 49, who is clearly named Israel). For more detail on Isaiah 61 in Luke 4, see Beers, Followers, 103–5. 48  For the role of Gentiles in Isa 66:18–21, including the ambiguities, see Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 312–15.



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Second, in reference to an earlier servant text (from Second Isaiah, not Third) being used by the disciples, it is true that while being a light to the nations is an aspect of the servant’s mission in Second Isaiah, the disciples are the ones who embody it in a way in which not even Jesus does. In other words, this feature from Second Isaiah is still awaiting fulfillment after Jesus’ resurrection and ascension (Luke 24:47; Acts 1:8). Any tension here is minimized when we realize that Jesus and his followers are sharing one vocation,49 even if the disciples embody this aspect of it more fully. Third, the narrative arc of suffering, death and exaltation, followed by the proclamation to the nations is reminiscent of the servant in Isaiah 53 (a verse from which is quoted in Luke 22:37 and linked to Jesus).50 The servant suffers in 53:1–6; dies in 53:7–9; and is exalted in 53:10–12; 52:13. The outcome of this is the nations seeing the servant in 52:14–15.51 Jesus fulfills or embodies these first pieces, though the last aspect is merely initialized by him.52 49  For Luke the sharing of this vocation is only possible because of Jesus’ paradigmatic (and inaugural) embodiment of it; in other words, there is more nuance here than simply that of various groups or individuals embracing a collective identity as the servant. Cf. Genz, Jesaja 53, 398: “Aus der Tatsache, dass gerade im zweiten jesajanischen Gottesknechtslied die Identität des Knechts aufgrund des Auftrags an Israel (Jes 49,5f ) und der Anrede mit ‘Israel’ (Jes 49,3) zwischen individuell und kollektiv bzw. korporativ schillert, erhellt außerdem das durchgängige Neben- und Miteinander des Gottesknechts Jesus und seiner Knechtsgemeinde in der Apostelgeschichte: Es entspricht eben dieser Verschmelzung der Perspektiven. Dass einerseits die Gemeinde an Jesu Werk teilhat und sein Wirken fortführt und dass andererseits Jesu einzigartiger und stellvertretender Auftrag die Existenz und das Wirken der Gemeinde überhaupt ermöglicht, hat seine hermeneutische Voraussetzung in der jesajanischen Gottesknechtsvorstellung.” 50  Cf. I. Howard Marshall, “‘Israel’ and the Story of Salvation: One Theme in Two Parts,” in Jesus and the Heritage of Israel: Luke’s Narrative Claim Upon Israel’s Legacy, ed. David P. Moessner (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 1999), 346, who stresses the connectedness of the motifs of suffering, resurrection and preaching to the nations, though without reference to the servant. 51 Peter Mallen, The Reading and Transformation of Isaiah in Luke-Acts, LNTS 367 (London: T&T Clark, 2008), 132, 178. 52  If the disciples embody the aspect of being a “light to the Gentiles” beyond what Jesus himself accomplishes, it is also true that Jesus embodies at least one aspect of the servant vocation in a way in which even the disciples do not: his death is uniquely “on behalf of ” others. Luke is famous for a supposed lack of atonement theology, a thesis argued by, among others, Hans Conzelmann (The Theology of St. Luke [New York: Harper & Row, 1961], 201), for he appears to acknowledge the atoning nature of Jesus’ death directly only in Luke 22:19–20 [though there are text critical issues] and Acts 20:28. However, it may be better to see Luke reading Isaiah well by understanding that the servant’s vicarious suffering in Isaiah 53 is only one aspect of a broader mission in general, and of suffering in particular. Also, Luke wishes to apply the servant imagery not only to Jesus but his followers, and atoning significance is not easily shared. The view that Luke has no or minimal atonement theology has been critiqued by scholars such as Mittmann-Richert, Sühnetod des Gottesknechts, ch. 1, esp. 176–81, who argues that in Luke the Isaianic servant provides a “foundational motif ” for Jesus’ passion. Also, Genz, Jesaja 53, 284–87, maintains that the atonement language in Acts 20:28 is the core of Paul’s farewell speech.

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2.3  Another Isaian Servant Text: Isaiah 55:3 in Acts 13:34 and Its Implications for the Servant Motif The fact that Luke details Paul’s use of Isa 55:3 in the same chapter of Acts supports this reading of the servant figure and his task of gathering/recruiting. In Acts 13:34, Paul declares that God has spoken and promised “δώσω ὑμῖν τὰ ὅσια Δαυὶδ τὰ πιστά,” the last six words of which are a quote from Isa 55:3. In the context of Isaiah this verse “portrays Yhwh as establishing an eternal covenant – one in accordance with the faithfulness promised to David – with the servants, the true descendants of Jacob.”53 The significance of this transfer is found in the binary offer given to the addresses of this passage, for in 55:1–5 they “are faced with the alternative of either joining the servants or rejecting them. It is only with the servants that Yhwh establishes an ‘eternal covenant’ according to these steadfast promises of faithfulness to David.”54 The implied offer is thus one of recruitment, and the vocation, once accepted, will include another role played earlier by David: being a witness (μαρτύριον) to the nations (55:4).55 The decentralization of this witness, from the king to the servant community, is not a new feature of Isaiah. The people of (servant) Israel are God’s witnesses (μάρτυς) to the nations in Isaiah (Isa 43:10, 12; 44:8),56 though God also clarifies that he will be his own witness (43:10, 12; also μάρτυς). μάρτυς (along with related words) is common especially in Acts.57 Acts actually uses μάρτυς more than any other NT book, and almost always to designate the action of Jesus’ disciples.58 Perhaps the most well-known use of “witness” terminology in Acts is in 1:8, where Jesus instructs his disciples: “But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you; and you will be my witnesses (μάρτυς) in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth.” 53 

Berges, “Kingship,” 119. Ibid., 127. 55  The servants “are the ones that Yhwh has raised up to be a ‘witness to the nations,’ to be a prince and a commander of the peoples (Isa 55:4)”; so Berges, “Kingship,” 127. He also connects the text back to Isa 42:6; 49:6. See also Edgar W. Conrad, “The Community as King in Second Isaiah,” in Understanding the Word: Essays in Honor of Bernhard W. Anderson, ed. James T. Butler, Edgar W. Conrad, and Ben C. Ollenburger, JSOTSup 37 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1985), 109. Cf. Marvin A. Sweeney, “Eschatology in the Book of Isaiah,” in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew, ed. Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 141. 56  Genz, Jesaja 53, 323, also stresses this aspect of Israel’s task: “Israel soll vor der Welt Zeuge sein für JHWH” (emphasis original). See also Mallen, Reading, 81–82, 143–45, 152–54. 57  Luke 1:8, 22; 2:32; 3:15; 5:32; 6:13; 7:58; 10:39, 41; 13:31; 22:15, 20; 26:16. Luke also uses the related words μαρτύρομαι, μαρτυρέω, μαρτυρία, and μαρτύριον in his two volumes, but the occurrences are less significant statistically when compared with the rest of the NT. Perhaps Luke’s guide here is the Isaian preference, which is clearly μάρτυς (5 times). μαρτύριον is the only one of the other four words even to appear in LXX Isaiah (in 55:4, of David; Isa 55:3 is quoted in Acts 13:34). 58  Acts uses μάρτυς thirteen times; next is Revelation (five times). It appears in 6:13; 7:58 of false witnesses. 54 



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The phrase “to the end of the earth” (ἕως ἐσχάτου τῆς γῆς) is almost certainly a quotation from LXX Isa 49:6; this is virtually assured because this rare phrase occurs only seven times in the LXX and NT (Isa 8:9; 48:20; 49:6; 62:11; Pss Sol 1:4; Acts 1:8; 13:47) and in other Christian writings that are dependent on Isaiah and/or Acts.59 This reference to “the end of the earth” thus helps to shape the servant mission of the disciples in the rest of Acts. The servant-as-witness motif gives a compelling answer to the question of why witness terminology is so plentiful in Acts but so sparse in Luke.60 Contra I. Howard Marshall, who argues that, because of Acts, the apostles should be understood as witnesses in Luke, or C. K. Barrett, who notes the characterization of the disciples as witnesses (and even connects witnessing with suffering) without seeing the Isaian background,61 the reality of narrative development in Luke-Acts means that the disciples can only be proper witnesses when they have fully embraced the servant task, as they do in Luke 24–Acts 2 (after understanding Jesus’ own identity and mission more deeply, being commissioned, and receiving the Spirit).62 Once Paul is understood in Acts 13 to be reminding the listening Jews (and Gentiles [including God-fearing converts?!], vv. 43, 48) of Yahweh’s call of and promises to the servant(s) in Isaiah (and which the reader or hearer of Acts has already seen to be embodied throughout the narrative in initial ways), it is clear that it is not just refusal that will come at a cost for the audience. Acceptance will also lead to suffering and rejection, because that is the reality for those who witness to the ends of the earth as the servant(s).63 Jesus declared and consistently endured this reality first (e. g. in Nazareth in Luke 4:24, 28–29; his passion predictions in Luke 9:22, 44; 18:31–33; the use of Isa 53:12 in Luke 22:37; the suffering in Luke 24:46, etc.), even while preparing his disciples for a similar experience (e. g. Luke 9:5; 10:10, 16; 12:11; 21:12–17; cf. Acts 9:16).64 In Acts the disciples begin to experience in full the suffering Jesus had predicted for 59  Genz, Jesaja 53, 323; Pao, New Exodus, 85; Robert C. Tannehill, The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts: A  Literary Interpretation (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1990), 2:17; Mittelstadt, Spirit, 88 n.4. Cf. Koet, Studies, 91 n.58. 60  μάρτυς only appears twice in Luke, at 11:48 (used by Jesus in a critique of the legal experts) and 24:48 (in Jesus’ commission of the disciples). 61  Marshall, “Israel,” 349–50 (though he admits that the disciples’ apprenticeship by Jesus in Luke is the grounding for their witness in Acts); Charles K. Barrett, “Imitatio Christi in Acts,” in Jesus of Nazareth Lord and Christ: Essays on the Historical Jesus and New Testament Christology, ed. Joel B. Green and Max Turner (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 262. 62 Cf. Tannehill, Unity, 1:294, and Beers, Followers. 63  Others have also linked suffering and witness, though without the link to the Isaian servant(s), including Donald Senior, “The Death of Jesus and the Meaning of Discipleship,” in The Death of Jesus in Early Christianity, ed. John T. Carroll and Joel B. Green (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995), 243. 64  For detailed arguments and discussions of texts on this theme, see Beers, Followers (passim).

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them (e. g. the escalating rejection and persecution culminating in the death of Stephen in chapters 4–7; Paul and Barnabas’ “encouragement” to the new followers of Jesus in 14:22; repeated rejection in various locales during the “missionary journeys” of chapters 13–19; Paul’s arrest and imprisonment). It is important to note, of course, that the theme of righteous suffering (and its ensuing vindication) may be intertextually connected to a variety of Israel’s scriptures, including the psalms.65 However, the Davidic psalms, so often linked to Jesus in Luke-Acts (e. g. Ps 2:7 in Acts 13:33; LXX Ps 15:8–11 in Acts 2:25–28; Ps 110:1 in Acts 2:34–35), are limited in their scope and coverage to Jesus. The necessary suffering of Jesus which then translates into a necessary suffering for his followers is much more likely to be based in texts other than the Davidic/ messianic psalms. Isaiah’s servants, then, are a much better fit, for in Isaiah suffering is not just an unwanted side effect of the servant task; it is in fact one way in which the servant(s) fulfill his/their mission. This begins in Second Isaiah (e. g. 49:4–5; 50:6–9; chapter 53) and continues through the end of the book (e. g. 57:1; 66:5).66 The positive response of Gentiles in Acts 13:43, 48 may also be given its proper shape when both Isaiah passages (55:3; 49:6) quoted by Paul are taken into account, for Beuken argues that the explicit inclusion of non-Israelites (and eunuchs) in Isa 56:1–8 is initiated in Isaiah 55 “by the broad invitation to life in abundance and covenant with Yhwh, directed to all people on the sole condition that they take heed: ‘Everyone who thirsts, come to the waters; he who has no money, come, buy and eat! (55:1) … Incline your ear, and come to me; hear, that your soul may live; and I will make with you an everlasting covenant’ (55:3).”67 There is no ethnic or socio-economic limitation or requirement here for membership in the community of servants,68 who have now as a group taken up the Davidic mandate of being a witness to the nations.69 Of course, it is also true that the immediate point made with the Isa 55:3 passage in Acts 13 concerns Jesus’ resurrection (as vindication), not the (vocation of the) servants or the inclusion of Gentiles. Because of this, scholars such as Peter Mallen have concluded that Luke does not have other aspects of the passage be65  See, e. g., Joshua W. Jipp, “Luke’s Scriptural Suffering Messiah: A Search for Precedent, a Search for Identity,” CBQ 72 (2010): 255–74; Peter Doble, “Luke 24.26, 44 – Songs of God’s Servant: David and His Psalms in Luke-Acts,” JSNT 28 (2006): 267–83; and Moessner, “Christ Must Suffer,” 184–85. 66  See, e. g., Anthony Phillips, “The Servant  – Symbol of Divine Powerlessness,” ExpTim 90/12 (1979): 373: “But how is the servant to achieve his task? The third and fourth servant songs make this plain – by suffering. There is no other way.” 67  Beuken, “Major Interchanges,” 95–96. 68  Ibid., 98. 69 Ulrich Berges, “Where Does Trito-Isaiah Start in the Book of Isaiah?” in Continuity and Discontinuity: Chronological and Thematic Development in Isaiah 40–66, ed. Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer and Hans M. Barstad, FRLANT 255 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014), 71–72.

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yond resurrection in view.70 This is possible, though Luke’s wider concern with Gentiles in Acts 13 perhaps tips the scale in favor of allowing the larger section in Isaiah 55 to be admitted. Also, Paul’s quotation of Isa 55:3 keeps the plural “you” (ὑμῖν) of the LXX, which at the very least indicates an awareness of the non-singular application of the Davidic promises, however they are construed. Tying the notions of Gentile inclusion (e. g. the “light to the nations” motif ) and resurrection-as-vindication actually fits well within a reading both of Isaiah and Acts, for while vindication in Isaiah does not include a clearly defined notion of resurrection,71 it can easily be read in that way. In Isa 53:12 LXX the servant’s apparent death could be followed by his resurrection because of his inheritance of many, as one who is alive would be able to inherit.72 In Acts resurrection is often seen as the heart of the conflict at hand (e. g. 2:24–32; 3:15; 4:2; 17:18, 32; 23:6; 24:15, 21; 26:6–8, 23), and the hope for a mass resurrection (initiated by Jesus’ own) has not been abandoned, as passages such as 23:6 demonstrate through the use of the plural for the dead ones (ἀναστάσεως νεκρῶν; also in 4:2; 17:32; 24:21; 26:23; cf. 24:15, which uses the plural δικαίων and ἀδίκων; and 26:8, which reads νεκροὺς ἐγείρει).73 The Isaian servant tie may be strongest in Acts 26:23, where Paul speaks of the Messiah’s suffering, his “being the first to rise from the dead,” and his proclamation of “light both to our people and to the Gentiles.” The suffering and mission of universal “light” are servant characteristics (φῶς appears in Isa 42:6; 49:6; 50:10; 53:11). In addition, in Acts 28:20 Paul tells the Jewish leaders in Rome that his suffering, demonstrated through his chains, is “for the sake of the hope (ἐλπίς) of Israel.” This recalls the language of hope and resurrection in 23:6; 24:15; 26:6–7, where ἐλπίς is used alongside vocabulary for resurrection.74 70 

Mallen, Reading, 110. Phillips, “Servant,” 373: “But the servant’s exaltation should not be understood in terms of resurrection for this doctrine was not yet part of Jewish theology. The poet relies on conventional psalmic language.” 72  The vindication of the servant(s) in Isaiah is multi-faceted and includes (but is not limited to) enduring through suffering (Isa 50:7–9; 56:9–63:16; cf. Acts 4–7 and the mounting persecution; 14:22), the judgment and/or destruction of enemies (e. g. Isa 50:10–11; cf. Acts 3:23; also the use of Isa 6:9–10 in Acts 28:24–27), the blessings of eating, drinking, rejoicing, singing, and being given a new name while their oppressors experience the opposite (Isa 65:13–15; 66:14; cf. Luke 6:20–21; Acts 2:44–46; 4:32–34), and the “new heavens and new earth” (Isa 66:17–25; cf. Acts 3:20–21), though many Isaiah scholars have seen the servant’s ultimate vindication in the offspring that are promised to him in 53:10 (e. g. Phillips, “Servant,” 373; Beuken, “Main Theme,” 76–81). However, LXX Isa 53:10 does not speak of the servant’s offspring, but of the offspring of those who witness the servant (as a response/reward if they “offer for sin”). Because, as I already noted, the text of LXX Isa 53:12 can be read: “he will inherit many” (though NETS gives a footnote with the alternate translation “he shall cause many to inherit”), this points, even indirectly, to offspring. In Acts, the offspring motif could be seen in every successful “recruitment” to the servant task. 73  Cf. the mention of Jesus’ individual rising in 25:19, though these are Festus’ words, and he is an outsider to this issue. 74  Paul also adds that Gentiles will hear, which is another nod to the servant motif. Cf. David 71 

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Thus the references to (the Jewish hope of ) the dead rising as a plural group make sense within the narrative sweep of an open servant vocation, to be embodied not just by Jesus but by his disciples. The resurrection (and vindication) of the ultimate servant will be theirs as well, for Jesus is the first to rise, but he is not the last. Even if Luke argues for the scriptural validity and vindication of Jesus’ resurrection primarily in terms of the psalms, the Davidic link to Isa 55:3 here likely links that Davidic hope to the broader promises passed to the servant community in the latter part of Isaiah.

3. Conclusion The reception of the Isaian servant(s) figure is thus nuanced in Luke-Acts, for Luke, while portraying Jesus as the ultimate servant, does not limit the Isaian fulfillment to Jesus but rather expands it to include Jesus’ followers. The paradigmatic embodiment of the servant Jesus is in fact the foundation for his followers to pick up the mantle and continue the vocation, just as the servant in Second Isaiah begins a mission that is furthered by a community of servants in the last chapters of the book. The servant tasks that are highlighted by Luke in Acts 13 confirm this reading, for as Paul and Barnabas claim the servant vocation for themselves in v. 47, they are at the same time recruiting their listeners – who include Gentiles – to the servant task. This is part of what it means to be a light to the nations (Isa 49:6). They also experience the suffering so often emphasized in Isaiah, but their hope for vindication is grounded in Jesus’ own resurrection as the ultimate servant.

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Moessner, “The Ironic Fulfillment of Israel’s Glory,” in Luke-Acts and the Jewish People: Eight Critical Perspectives, ed. Joseph B. Tyson (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1988), 48, who argues that “it is exactly through the hostility against and suffering of a part of Israel, the servant, that Israel as a whole is and will be gathered and the very means by which the Gentiles are incorporated into Israel’s eschatological salvation.”



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–. “The Ironic Fulfillment of Israel’s Glory.” Pages 35–50 in Luke-Acts and the Jewish People: Eight Critical Perspectives. Edited by Joseph B. Tyson. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1988. Ottley, Richard R. The Book of Isaiah According to the Septuagint. 2 Vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1906. Pao, David W. Acts and the Isaianic New Exodus. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002. Phillips, Anthony. “The Servant  – Symbol of Divine Powerlessness.” ExpTim 90.12 (1979): 370–74. Rese, Martin. “Die Funktion der alttestamentlichen Zitate und Anspielungen in den Reden der Apostelgeschichte.” Pages 61–79 in Les Actes des Apôtres: Traditions, redaction, théologie. Edited by Jacob Kremmer. Gembloux: J. Duculot, 1979. Roloff, Jürgen. Die Apostelgeschichte. NTD 5. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981. Schneider, Gerhard. Die Apostelgeschichte 9,1–28,31. HThKNT 5/2. Freiburg: Herder, 1982. Seitz, Christopher R. “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections.” Pages 307–552 in New Interpreter’s Bible, Vol. 6: Introduction to Prophetic Literature; Isaiah; Jeremiah; Baruch; Letter of Jeremiah; Lamentations; Ezekiel. Edited by Leander E. Keck. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001. Senior, Donald. “The Death of Jesus and the Meaning of Discipleship.” Pages 234–55 in The Death of Jesus in Early Christianity. Edited by John T. Carroll and Joel B. Green. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995. Strobel, August. “Die Ausrufung des Jobeljahres in der Nazarethpredigt Jesu; zur apokalyptischen Tradition Lc 4,16–30.” Pages 38–50 in Jesus in Nazareth. Edited by Walther Eltester. BZNW 40. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1972. Stromberg, Jacob. “Isaiah’s Interpretive Revolution: How Isaiah’s Formation Influenced Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation.” Pages 157–69 in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew. Edited by Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. Sweeney, Marvin A. “Eschatology in the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 132–43 in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew. Edited by Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. Talbert, Charles H. Reading Luke-Acts in Its Mediterranean Milieu. NovTSup 107. Leiden: Brill, 2003. Tannehill, Robert C. The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts: A Literary Interpretation. 2 Vols. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986–90. Tiede, David L. Prophecy and History in Luke-Acts. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980. Turner, Max. Power From On High: The Spirit in Israel’s Restoration and Witness in Luke-Acts. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996. Watts, Rikki E. “Consolation or Confrontation? Isaiah 40–55 and the Delay of the New Exodus.” TynBul 41 (1990): 31–59. Ziegler, Joseph. Isaias. 3rd ed. Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum 14. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983.

Transworld Characters and the Isaian Servant(s) in Romans Jan Rüggemeier 1.  Past Research and Preliminary Observations The insight that Paul frequently draws on the book of Isaiah and thereby repeatedly refers to Deutero-Isaiah’s Servant theme is anything but new. Among the New Testament writings, Paul’s letter to the Romans contains the most references to the book of Isaiah. Thus, we find about fifteen marked citations1 and almost as many implicit allusions.2 Even though the criteria for determining such “echoes of scripture”3 remain disputed among biblical scholars, there is no question that Paul cites Isaiah more often than any other writing from the Hebrew Bible. So it is widely recognized that the book of Isaiah is “both statistically and substantively the most important scriptural source for Paul.”4 Paul and his Roman readers are au fait with Isaiah’s language and main themes. In spite of this obvious result, the present essay points out that discussing intertextual references to a single source text is a rather limited way to look at the 1  Six times Isaiah is not only explicitly mentioned by Paul but actually functions as a “voice” in the text (cf. Rom 9:27 // Isa 10:22–23; 28:22; Rom 9:29 // Isa 1:9; Rom 10:16 // Isa 53:1; Rom  10:20 // Isa  65:1; Rom  10:21 // Isa  65:2; Rom  15:12 // Isa  11:10). Further citations are made prominent by context (e. g., citation of other OT texts) or by more general citation formula (e. g., καθὼς γέγραπται): Rom  2:24 // Isa  52:5; Rom  3:15–17 // Isa  59:7, 8; Rom  9:20 // Isa  45:9; 29:16; Rom  9:33 // Isa  8:14; 28:16; Rom  10:11 // Isa  28:16; Rom  10:15 // Isa  52:7; Rom  11:8 // Isa 29:10; Deut 29:3; Rom 11:26–27 // Isa 59:20–21; 27:9; Rom 14:11 // Isa 45:23; Rom 15:21 // Isa 52:15. Most scholars assume that Paul quotes from the LXX but quite often modifies texts to suit his own argument: e. g., E. Earle Ellis, Paul’s Use of the Old Testament (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2003), 83–84. However, there is also evidence that Paul is – at least to a certain degree – familiar with Hebrew version(s) of Scripture. See Martin Hengel, The Pre-Christian Paul, trans. J. Bowden (London: SCM; Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1991), 18–39. 2  On Paul’s allusions in general, see Florian Wilk, Die Bedeutung des Jesajabuches für Paulus, FRLANT 179 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998), 445–46. 3  See Richard B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). Hays’ model of intertextuality has been widely influential and at the same time highly disputed in Pauline Studies. Below I will outline some methodological issues. For a discussion of Hays’ theory and echoes in Scripture, see Sönke Finnern and Jan Rüggemeier, Methoden der neutestamentlichen Exegese. Ein Lehr- und Arbeitsbuch, UTB 4212 (Tübingen: A. Francke, 2016), 153–66. For a critical appraisal of Hays’ theses, see Christoph Heilig, Hidden Criticism? The Methodology and Plausibility of the Search for a Counter-Imperial Subtext in Paul (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2017), 35–43. 4  Hays, Echoes of Scripture, 162.

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Servant figure. At least from a cognitive-narratological5 point of view the Servant must not only be perceived as a textual phenomenon, but as something similar to a “transworld identity” (Doležel, Pavel) or “transworld individual” (Margolin).6 Like Pinocchio, Robin Hood, Don Juan, or Antigone, the Servant belongs to a character type that “undergo[es] a process of culturalization” and “become[s] common cultural property.”7 Accordingly, the reception of such characters is not only influenced by a single text – in this case: Deutero-Isaiah – but also by later revisions, versions, adaptions, and Fortschreibungen.8 In order to explore this aspect, my essay begins with some methodological considerations central to the analysis of (transworld) characters and asks how this cognitive-narratological approach can be made fruitful for the exegesis of Paul’s letter to the Romans. Furthermore, this essay differs from earlier works in terms of content. Past scholarship has mainly focused on Paul’s identification of Isaiah’s Servant with Jesus. As has been frequently supposed, the apostle interprets Jesus’s crucifixion in light of the fourth Servant Song, which becomes apparent by Paul’s use of παρεδόθη/παρέδωκεν in Rom 4:25 and 8:32, most probably alluding to Isa 53.9 In contrast to the extensive debate on Paul’s interpretation of the Christ event through the lens of the prophet Isaiah, comparatively little has been done on Paul’s self-identification with the Isaian Servant.10 As will be argued in this article, there is also an identification of Christ-believers with the suffering, yet vindicated community of “servants,” a character group first introduced by TritoIsaiah and adopted by several later writings (see 3.1.2). This reference will become apparent, when reading Rom 4:25 (see 3.1), Rom 8:32 (see 3.2), Rom 10:15 and Rom 10:20–21 (see 3.3) in its wider context and against the backdrop of a 5 On the critical debate of whether narrative substructures  explain the texts that Paul wrote, see, e. g., the collection of articles and responses in Bruce W. Longenecker, Narrative Dynamics in Paul: A Critical Assessment (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002). 6 Cf. Lubomír Doležel, Heterocosmica: Fiction and Possible Worlds (Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press, 1998); Thomas G. Pavel, Fictional Worlds (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Uri Margolin, “Individuals in Narrative Worlds: An Ontological Perspective,” Poetics Today 11/4 (1990), 843–71; idem, “Characters and Their Versions,” in Fiction Updated: Theories of Fictionality, Narratology, and Poetics, ed. C. – A. Mihailescu and W. Hamarneh (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1996), 113–32. 7  Margolin, “Characters,” 116. 8  On the reception of characters, see Ralf Schneider, Grundriß zur kognitiven Theorie der Figurenrezeption am Beispiel des viktorianischen Romans (Tübingen: Stauffenburg Verlag, 2000). 9  See Kazmierz Romaniuk, “De Themate Ebed Jahve in Soteriologia Sancti Pauli,” CBQ 23 (1961): 14–25 (here 15); Shiu-Lun Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah in Romans. A Comparative Study of Paul’s Letter to the Romans and the Sibylline and Qumran Sectarian Texts, WUNT II/15 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2002), 200–201. 10  See, however, the more recent study by Wagner and his thesis: “Paul read large sections of Isaiah as a prophetic word concerning his own role in the eschatological restoration of Israel and the extension of the salvation to the Gentiles”; J. Ross Wagner, Heralds of the Good News: Isaiah and Paul ‘In Concert’ in the Letter to the Romans, NovTSup 101 (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 32–33.



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broader “Servant(s) schema.” Also in Romans 15:7–13 and 15:14–33 we find indications that Paul’s understanding of the early Christian community and mission was to a certain degree influenced by the Servant theme (see 3.4). Interestingly, Paul switches between different types of identification without ever explaining the relation between the one Servant, the Servant’s agent, and the community of servants. Does he take for granted that his readers are not only familiar with the book of Isaiah, but also with such a paradigmatic reading? If so: Where does this differentiated use of Servant(s) in Paul’s letter to the Romans stem from? Is this triple identification to be understood as a Pauline innovation, or does Paul follow the lines of earlier interpreters? Past research has supposed that Paul’s interpretation of the Suffering Servant, especially its application to Jesus, is deeply rooted in early Christian traditions and  – at least to a certain degree – influenced by Jesus’s messianic self-depiction.11 However, this dependence of Paul on earlier Christian traditions has been disputed.12 At the same time it seems very unlikely that Paul’s use of Servant language has been invented de novo by him. At the very least, this would make it almost impossible for his readers to under­stand his allusions. In particular, Paul’s rereading of Isa 40–66 and his use of Servant language to describe the eschatological role of God’s elected people might not be quite as unique as has been supposed.

2.  Methodological Considerations: The Servant, Pinocchio, and other “Transworld Identities” The identification of citations and allusions in New Testament writings is a challenging and at the same time highly disputed enterprise. Therefore, it is understandable that a whole set of different criteria for identifying echoes of Scripture has been suggested and discussed over the last decades. Still highly influential is the work of Richard B. Hays,13 frequently referred to in the introductory part of Pauline studies. However, when it comes down to actual textual analysis, it is noticeable that scholars frequently dismiss most of Hays’ seven criteria and primarily focus on the aspect of verbatim repetition (“volume”) and a selection of a few others.14 11  See, e. g., Peter Stuhlmacher, Der Brief an die Römer, NTD 6 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998), 16. 12  See Michael Wolter, Der Brief an die Römer. Teilband 1: Röm 1–8, EKK VI/1 (Ostfildern: Patmos; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2014), 310–13. 13  Hays, Echoes of Scripture; see also Stefan Alkier and Richard Hays (eds.), Die Bibel im Dialog der Schriften. Konzepte intertextueller Bibellektüre, NET 10 (Tübingen: A. Francke, 2005). 14  See, e. g., Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah, 11: “In my judgment, the most useful guides are the criteria of volume and thematic coherence” [emphasis original]. So also Wagner, Heralds of the Good News, 16–17; Wilk, Bedeutung des Jesajabuches, 13–14. For other studies that focus

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This one-sided emphasis on word connections is, however, problematic in itself. First, it neglects the probative value of Hays’ secondary criteria. Second (and more important in our context), it overlooks the fact that the reader’s recognition of narrative characters is much more flexible. Whereas verbatim repetition is a helpful criterion when examining the phenomenon of intertextuality in a rather strict sense,15 it is not so conclusive when the interest is on the idea of a person or character. In order to identify allusions like this, a different methodological tool-kit is needed. Let me illustrate this with a modern example: When we watch the computer animated comedy film Shrek I and all of the sudden a live wooden puppet who declares himself to be a true boy enters the scenery, we inevitably identify this person with Pinocchio, the fictional character created by Italian writer Carlo Collodi. Simultaneously, we recognize Geppetto, Pinocchio’s father, even though neither Pinocchio nor Geppetto are called by name and Collodi’s story is not cited at all in this short scene (which lasts some fifteen seconds). Furthermore, we are not even confused by the fact that in contrast to the original story both characters all of the sudden speak English (rather than Italian), live in a different story world, and appear in a new genre. Actually, we even accept the fact that the loving relationship between father and son has turned into the opposite. Thus, in Shrek I Geppetto sells Pinocchio for the ridiculous amount of five shillings simply to get rid of him. Certainly, the recognition of Pinocchio and his father is not based on any verbal reminiscence. Rather, there are only few essential character traits – namely Pinocchio’s outer appearance (wooden puppet, growing nose) and his desire to be a real boy – that allow an unambiguous identification. Additionally, we draw on our cinematic knowledge and real-world experiences, for we know (at least in some way) that Pinocchio is a transworld identity, which is to say: he appears in different media types like movies, comics, and even commercials.16 Furon Paul’s explicit citations in general, see e. g., Dietrich-Alex Koch, Die Schrift als Zeuge des Evangeliums: Untersuchungen zur Verwendung und zum Verständnis der Schrift bei Paulus, BHT 69 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1986); Christopher D. Stanley, Paul and the Language of Scripture: Citation Technique in the Pauline Epistles and Contemporary Literature, SNTSMS 69 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). On Romans (with much attention devoted to Rom 9–11), see e. g., Hans Hübner, Gottes Ich und Israel: Zum Schriftgebrauch des Paulus in Römer 9–11, FRLANT 136 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1984); Douglas A. Oss, “Paul’s Use of Isaiah and Its Place in His Theology with Special Reference to Romans 9–11,” Ph.D. diss., Westminster Theological Seminary, 1992; James W. Aageson, “Paul’s Use of Scripture: A Comparative Study of Biblical Interpretation in Early Palestinian Judaism and the New Testament, with Special Reference to Romans 9–11,” Ph.D. diss., Oxford University, 1983. 15  Scholars often use the term intertextuality, once coined by Julia Kristeva, in quite different and (with respect to methodology) incompatible ways. On this problem see Finnern and Rüggemeier, Methoden, 164–65. Also, for Hays, an echo may not be intended by the author himself; see Hays, Echoes of Scripture, 25–29. 16  See also Marie-Laure Ryan, Possible Worlds. Artificial Intelligence and Narrative Theory (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 52. There is some logical controversy sur-



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thermore, we expect that a comedy film like Shrek will frequently invert viewer expectations. Thus, the short scene is simply funny because Geppetto is not the loving father he used to be. How does this process of character recognition work? From the perspective of cognitive sciences, the idea of a person is not contained “within” a certain text (or movie), but is only constructed in the interaction between the text (or movie) and the recipient’s own “encyclopedia.”17 As is widely agreed in today’s postclassical narratology, this background knowledge of the recipient is culturally determined and organized in dynamic, flexible structures, most often referred to as “schemata.”18 A  schema, then, is a mental framework, or (simply put) the basic concept or idea of a place, a building, a piece of furniture, or a person (like Pinocchio). Thus, the main function of a schema is to simplify reality and to provide a skeletal conception that helps us to rapidly process information. In other words, a schema can be described as “a sort of skeleton, somewhat like an application form with many blanks or slots to be filled.”19 What is of significance here is that this “pre-reading” knowledge may not necessarily be affirmed by the incoming data of the story, but can also be challenged, refreshed, modified, or even combined with new ideas.20 To return to our example: we have no problem accepting that Pinocchio is now a friend of Shrek, that he speaks English, and that his relationship to Geppetto has changed drastically. Actually, it is precisely deviations like this that catch the recipient’s special attention. My thesis is that this cognitive understanding of characters improves our understanding of biblical characters and the Isaian Servant(s), as well.21 Even rounding identity, which cannot be further elaborated here; cf. David Lewis, “Counterfactuals and Comparative Possibility,” Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 418–46, esp. 435–37. 17 Umberto Eco, The Role of the Reader. Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1979), 17–25, 187–190, 222–24. 18  Roger C. Schank and Robert P. Abelson, Scripts, Plans, Goals and Understanding. An Inquiry into Human Knowledge Structures, Artificial Intelligence Series (Hillsdale: Erlbaum, 1977); David Herman, “Scripts, Sequences and Stories. Elements of a Postclassical Narratology,” PMLA 112 (1997): 1046–59; idem, Story Logic. Problems and Possibilities of Narrative, Frontiers of Narrative (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), 85–122; Marisa Bortolussi and Peter Dixon, Psychonarratology. Foundations for the Empirical Study of Literary Response (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Jens Eder, “Narratology and Cognitive Reception Theories,” in What is Narratology?, ed. T. Kindt and H.-H. Müller, Narratologia 1 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003), 277–301. 19 Marvin Minsky, The Society of Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), 245. 20  See David E. Rumelhart, “Notes on a Schema for Stories,” in Representation and Understanding. Studies in Cognitive Science, ed. D. G. Bobrow and A. Collins (New York: Academic Press, 1975), 211–36; idem, “Schemata. The Building Blocks of Cognition,” in Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension, ed. R. J. Spiro et al. (Hillsdale: Erlbaum, 1980), 33–58. 21  For an application of this theory to Markan Christology see my Poetik der markinischen Christologie. Eine kognitiv-narratologische Exegese, WUNT II/456 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017).

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though Paul frequently cites Isaiah and the idea of God’s Servant is closely linked to the book of Deutero-Isaiah, the whole theme must not be conceived as a static concept stemming from a single text. Due to the fact that the idea of God’s Servant (Isa 40–55) is already adopted and transformed by Trito-Isaiah,22 and is taken up in later texts (e. g., Dan 12;23 Wis 3:1–4:19;24 Ps 22, 69, and 10225), it seems appropriate to address the Servant as part of Israel’s “cultural memory.”26 Of course, these later textual receptions do not constitute separate and parallel worlds, but are extensions of or participants in the earlier one in which the Servant and servants are first encountered. Nevertheless, categories provided by cognitive narratology provide a robust framework for analyzing the depiction of characters as they are taken up by later readers. Just as viewers recognize Pinocchio as a transworld entity, so readers recognize the Isaian Servant(s) in Romans even beyond the explicit references because of these characters’ distinctive features and relation to other entities of the story world. “The tricky question is, of course,” as Maria E. Reicher in a recent article on transworld characters states, “which of a character’s internal properties are supposed to be ‘essential’ and which are not.”27 In order to make some analytical 22  See Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). 23  As argued by Nickelsburg in 1972 the shift from the one servant to the servants of Trito-Isaiah is reflected in Dan 12. Thus, “Daniel 12 witnesses to a pluralization of the servant figure: the servant, singular, has become the servants, plural …. This shift had taken place already in Third Isaiah, where the righteous are called ‘my servants, my chosen ones’”; see George W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 25. See also Gustaf H. Dalman, Der leidende und der sterbende Messias der Synagoge im ersten nachchristlichen Jahrtausend (Berlin: H. Reuther, 1888), 31; James A. Montgomery, The Book of Daniel, ICC (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1927), 472; H. L. Ginsberg, “The Oldest Interpretation of the Suffering Servant,” VT 3 (1953): 400–404; George W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life, expanded ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006), 33–41. 24  On this paradigmatic reading of the Isaian Servant for a later community, see Pancratius C. Beentjes, “Wisdom of Solomon 3:1–4:19 and the Book of Isaiah,” in Studies in the Book of Isaiah: Festschrift Willem A. M. Beuken, ed. Jacques van Ruiten and Marc Vervenne, BETL 132 (Leuven: University Press, 1997), 413–20; Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life, expanded ed., 83–88; M. Jack Suggs, “Wisdom of Solomon 2:10–5: A  Homily Based on the Fourth Servant Song,” JBL 76.1 (1957): 26–33; J. Patrick Ware, The Mission of the Church in Paul’s Letter to the Philippians in the Context of Ancient Judaism, NTSup 120 (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 118–26. 25 See the contribution by Michael A. Lyons in this volume; also, Michael A. Lyons, “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isa 54, 56–66,” CBQ 77.4 (2015): 640–56. 26 Aleida Assmann, “Vier Formen von Gedächtnis, ‘Von individuellen zu kulturellen Konstruktionen der Vergangenheit,’” Wirtschaft & Wissenschaft 9 (2001): 34–45; cf. Jan Assmann, “Communicative and Cultural Memory,” in Cultural Memory Studies. An International and Interdisciplinary Handbook, ed. A. Erll and A. Nünning (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2008), 109–18. 27  Maria E. Reicher, “The Ontology of Fictional Characters,” in Characters in Fictional Worlds. Understanding Imaginary Beings in Literature, Film and Other Media, ed. J. Eder et al. (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010), 111–33 (here 127).



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progress here, it seems necessary to obtain a better under­standing of character traits. In today’s narratology different systematiza­tions are discussed.28 As Sönke Finnern and I  have suggested elsewhere,29 it is possible to combine these approaches and to differentiate eleven character traits in toto.30 All of these traits might influence the reader’s understanding and perception of a character. However, the reader never becomes immediately aware of all these attributes at the same time, but becomes attentive to them only by means of certain narrative techniques. These include the use of foil characters, techniques of perspectivation, and repetition or explicit narrative asides. Furthermore, the reader’s awareness might be raised by incoherent, emotionally highly charged or humorous traits or by characteristics that allow an insight into a character’s “nucleus of personality.”31 Thus, Pinocchio’s desire to be a real boy is not a marginal feature because it helps the reader to understand his motivation, behavior, emotions, perceptions, and psychological disposition. Furthermore, characters participate in a specific story world and are mutually shaped by this literary environment and by their relation to other characters. Due to a character’s sociocultural and biographical background, the reader inevitably imagines a particular network of other people (e. g., a wooden puppet requires a wood craftsman). As is the case with transworld characters, these preconditions and relationships often remain surprisingly stable when a character reappears in a new literary surrounding. In Shrek I Pinocchio still has a father who is a wood craftsman, and continues to have powerful opponents, who keep him away from becoming a real boy. The so-called “actantial model” once introduced by Algirdas Greimas helps to systematize stable character roles like these.32 According to Greimas, all characters are perceived as expressions of an underlying narrative grammar, consisting of six actants: 1) the hero, who is in search for 2) an object; 3) the sender and 4) a receiver; 5) the hero’s helper and 6) the hero’s opponent. Greimas’s model has been criticized in more recent scholarship for several good reasons.33 However, when the model is not applied too rigidly, it remains useful – especially 28  Different systematizations of character traits are discussed in today’s narratology: see Ryan, Possible Worlds, 110–23; Jens Eder, Die Figur im Film. Grundlagen der Figurenanalyse (Marburg: Schüren, 2008), 234–35. 29 See Finnern and Rüggemeier, Methoden, 198–203. 30  Namely: 1) perception, 2) emotions, 3) ideology (viz., values, norms, opinions), 4) outer appearance, 5) sociocultural and biographical background, 6) knowledge, 7) obligations, 8) wishes/desires, 9) psychological dispositions, 10) behavior, and 11) motivation. 31  See Jens Eder, Figur im Film, 210–11. 32  On the actantial model, see Algirdas J. Greimas, Sémantique structural (Paris: Presse universitaires des France, 1986). 33  First, it is not reasonable that each actant is necessarily realized in one character only. Second, characters might perform more than one role or switch between different roles. Third, one role may be distributed among several characters. See Rüggemeier, Poetik, 77. The model quickly reaches its limits, especially when analyzing modern narratives.

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for narratives in which there is an obvious hierarchy and clear lines of conflict between different characters. A last aspect that can enrich our investigation of the Isaian Servant and servants is the development of characters within the reading process. As already pointed out by Catherine Emmott some twenty-five years ago, the perception of literary figures is subject to numerous dynamic processes and functions as all schemata do: “As we read we collect information from the text about each character, remembering details about their appearance, personality, actions and background. We build an ‘image’ of a character in our mind and with every subsequent mention of the individual we not only add to this mental representation … but utilize it.”34 We should therefore reckon that the given image of a character or character group is very likely to be modified in the reading process. For example, more specific information might be added or the reader might be challenged by inconsistent or even conflicting information. For this reason, it becomes necessary not only to look at single passages in Paul’s letter to the Romans, but to relate these passages according to their actual order. Thus, in the progress of our analysis we will begin with a reading of the earliest passage Rom 4:25 and move on to Rom 8:32, Rom 9–11, and Rom 15.

3.  Reading Romans 3.1  Reading Rom 4:25 in Its Wider Context (Rom 5:1–11) 3.1.1  Rom 4:25 as Credal Formula? While Paul alludes to the book of Isaiah several times early in Romans, it is only in Rom 4:25 that the Servant(s) theme becomes relevant for his readers. Interestingly, this undisputed35 allusion to the last Servant Song (Isa 53:6, 12) does not seem to fit very well with Paul’s previous line of thought (4:1–24), and therefore catches the reader’s attention. In his most recent commentary on Romans, Michael Wolter notes that “The chapter could actually end with verse 24. The relative clause, which depends on ‘Jesus, our Lord’ and is added by Paul here, does not contribute at all to his previous argumentation.”36 34 Catherine Emmott, “Splitting the referent: an introduction to narrative enactors,” in Advances in Systemic Linguistics: Recent Theory and Practice, ed. M. Davies and L. Ravelli (London: Pinter, 1992), 221–28 (here 221). 35  See Morna D. Hooker, “Did the Use of Isaiah 53 to Interpret His Mission Begin with Jesus?” in Jesus and the Suffering Servant, ed. William H. Bellinger and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg: Trinity Press, 1998), 88–103 (here 101), who considers Rom 4:25 to be the “one clear echo of Isaiah 53 in Paul.” 36  Wolter, Der Brief an die Römer I, 310 [my translation].



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Rom 4:25 seems surprising for another reason as well: in a way otherwise atypical of Paul, this verse closely parallels the idea of Jesus’s death and resurrection by attributing a salvific relevance to both: “Jesus was delivered up for the sake of our transgressions and was raised for the sake of our righteousness.” Ἰησοῦν … ὃς παρεδόθη διὰ τὰ παραπτώματα ἡμῶν καὶ ἠγέρθη διὰ τὴν δικαίωσιν ἡμῶν.

Due to this deviance, and because of the parallel structure of Rom 4:25, scholars have often concluded that Paul might be citing a credal formula here.37 At first sight the terminology used in Rom 4:25 seems to support this assumption, because “he was handed over” (παρεδόθη) is a formulation often associated with Jesus’s trial and execution in the New Testament.38 However, there is also good reason to challenge the postulate of an early Christian tradition. First, we do not have any evidence for the existence of such a pre-Pauline formula.39 Second, we have to be sensitive to Paul’s quite distinctive word usage. Only here is the passive παρεδόθη used, most likely implying that Jesus was delivered up by God (divine passive).40 Furthermore, the term “transgression” (παράπτωμα) belongs to Paul’s preferred vocabulary, whereas it is barely used by other New Testament authors and is thus anything but traditional.41 Third, it is unusual, but certainly not impossible, for Paul (and other Christian writers) to relate the idea of Jesus’s death to his resurrection and to assign a salvific meaning to both (1 Cor 15:3–5; 2 Cor 5:15; cf. Ign. Rom. 6:1; Pol. Phil. 9:2). Actually, a similar thought is repeated only few lines later, when Paul reassures his readers in Rom 5:10 that they were “reconciled to God through the death of his Son” (κατηλλάγημεν τῷ θεῷ διὰ τοῦ θανάτου τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ) and shall be “saved through his life” (σωθησόμεθα ἐν τῇ ζωῇ αὐτοῦ).42 3.1.2  Intertextual References and the Servant(s) Schema Insofar as Rom 4:25 actually proves to be quite coherent with Paul’s theology, the question arises as to whether one must assume a credal formula behind this 37  See already Rudolf Bultmann, Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 6th ed. (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1968), 49; see also Klaus Wengst, Christologische Formeln und Lieder des Urchristentums, SNT 7 (Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 1972), 101 f. 38  Cf. Mark 9:31 par.; 10:33 par.; 15:1, 10, 15 par.; John 19:16; Acts 3:13. It is also repeatedly used to describe Jesus’s being handed over by Judas (Mark 14:10, 21, 41; Matt 10:4; John 19:11). 39  So also Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah, 189. 40  Similarly, with God as subject, in Rom 8:32; cf. 1 Clem 16:17. 41 See Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah, 190. 42  Especially the variation “through the death/through his life” suggests that Paul is again referring to Jesus’s resurrection here. See Adolf Jülicher, Der Brief an die Römer, Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments 2 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1910), 223–335 (here 257); James D. G. Dunn, Romans 1–8, WBC 38A (Dallas: Word, 1988), 261; John Murray, The Epistle to the Romans: The English Text with Introduction, Exposition, and Notes, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997); Wolter, Der Brief an die Römer I, 336.

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verse. And indeed more and more commentators plead for a direct influence of LXX Isa 53:12,43 assuming that Paul simply added the idea of Jesus’s resurrection in Rom 4:25b according to his own theology (cf. 1 Cor 15:17). However, this explanation leaves the main question unanswered: for what reason was the statement about Jesus’s resurrection added by Paul? If already Rom 4:25a does not fit into Paul’s line of argumentation, this seems even more true of Rom 4:25b. A slightly different suggestion is provided by Shiu-Lun Shum, who argues “that thematically Rom 4:25b stands closer to the Hebrew Isa 53:11,” and concludes “that not only the first half of the verse alludes to Isa 53:6, 12, but its latter half too …”44 However, it is actually not the Hebrew text itself, but only a messianic re-reading of Isa 53 in the Isaiah Targum, which allows Shum to draw this parallel. Thus, the Isaiah Targum expects a messianic servant, who will triumph, judge the nations, and become the future hope of Israel. This later Fortschreibung of Isa 53 is in many regards closer to Paul’s thinking. However, as Shum himself rightly states, the question then arises “whether or not Paul drew inspiration from the targumist’s messianic translation of the Isaian passage, in view of the uncertainty of the date of the Targum.”45 It is precisely here that it is worth taking a step back and asking how Paul generally alludes to the Servant figure. What if Paul might actually not be referring to a single text, but – as considered above – drawing on a broader cultural “Servant(s)” schema present in different Second Temple writings? As argued by the editors of this volume, it is already within Trito-Isaiah that we find a reflection on and extension of the Servant figure. Thus, in Isa 56–66 the Servant is thought to create a community, referred to as “servants” or “offspring,” and characterized as “heirs.”46 This community suffers and is vindicated like God’s Servant. In a time of distress the servants are given God’s promised Spirit (Isa 57:19; 59:21) and are assured of their inheritance (Isa 65:13–14). Furthermore, this group of followers attracts foreigners (Isa 55:5) and finally even includes the nations (Isa 56:6–8). The focus of Trito-Isaiah is not on the Servant’s suffering, but rather on the Servant’s afterlife in a community who carries out his mission. 43 See

Wolter, Der Brief an die Römer I, 311. Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah, 191 (both citations). Likewise, it has been suggested that Paul might refer to a pre-masoretic text as attested by the Great Isaiah Scroll of Qumran: see Hermann Patsch, “Zum alttestamentlichen Hintergrund von Römer 4,25 und I. Petrus 2,24,” ZNW 60 (1969): 273–79 (here 277–78). 45  Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah, 192. Furthermore, for Paul, the Servant is not judge, but actually the hope of the nations. This idea is actually much closer to the Book of Isaiah (cf. Isa 49:22; 51:4–5). 46  For “servants,” see: Isa 54:17; 56:6; 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13–15; 66:14; “offspring”: Isa 59:21; 61:8–9; 65:9, 23; 66:22. Trito-Isaiah (Isa 56–66) in particular places great emphasis on the idea of “inheritance,” including possession of the land and God’s eschatological blessings. On Isa 54:17a as a redactional remark, see Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 246. 44 



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Trito-Isaiah’s interpretation of the Servant figure is taken up by later authors as well. This supports the idea of a widely known “Servant(s)” schema. Some hundred years ago G. H. Dalman already demonstrated that Dan 11–12 is reading Isa 53.47 Indeed, Dan 11–12 repeats the idea of a righteous community (Dan 12:3), who suffers (Dan 11:33–34; 12:1) and lives in a time of tribulation (καιρὸς θλίψεως, Dan 12:1), but yet has insight (Dan 12:3) and will be vindicated by God (Dan 12:1–3). Also in Wisdom of Solomon (Wis 3:1–9) we read about a righteous and faithful group of elected followers who suffer and will yet be vindicated by God. This group “understands the truth” (v. 9) and will therefore “govern nations and rule over peoples” (v. 8). Thus, the author’s interest is in the present and future of the community. Thinking of the Isaian Servant and servants in terms of transworld identity and schemata helps us to understand this continuity of characterization. In a cognitive-narratological perspective, later authors take up and adapt exactly those character traits which (a) are often repeated in the book of Isaiah (e. g., the task of proclaiming: Isa 53:10–11; 56:8; 65:23, 25 66:18–21; cf. Dan 11:33; 12:3; Wis 3:7), (b) are emotionally highly charged (e. g., Isa 53:12; cf. Dan 11:33), and are (c) highlighted by contrast, e. g., by the use of foil characters (Isa 66:4–6 ↔ Isa 66:2, 5; cf. Wis 3:9 ↔ 3:10), or by means of perspectivation. For example, the reader is granted insight into God’s secret plan of salvation and Daniel’s sealed book (e. g., Wis 3:5; Dan 12:4) and realizes that the enemies’ point of view is false (Wis 3:2, 4; contrast with Isa 53:4). Furthermore, later authors do not only flesh out the servants in a similar way, but also take over the “coordinate system” of the original story. Thus, a specific set of “actant roles” (in the sense of Greimas) like the Servant (subject), God (sender), God’s Spirit (helper), the righteous servants (object), enemies (opponent), and restored Israel (receiver) are explicitly mentioned or implicitly assumed. Whereas the present time is still described in terms of outer distress and injustice, the servants have insight in God’s plan and therefore expect their imminent inheritance and vindication. 3.1.3  Reading Rom 4:25–5:11 in light of the Servant(s) Schema When reading Rom 4:25 in its wider context (Rom 5:1–11) and against the backdrop of this Servant(s) schema, several key terms, character traits and character roles catch the eye: at the beginning of Rom 4 Paul raises the question regarding under which circumstances Christ-believers are counted among Abraham’s offspring and inheritors. Paul’s answer: it is not by “works of Torah” (vv. 2–8), nor by circumcision (vv. 9–15), but only by faith and, thus, “according to grace” (v. 47  Dalman, Messias, 31; see also Montgomery, Daniel, 472; Ginsberg, “Suffering Servant”; Nickelsburg, Resurrection, 33–41.

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16: κατὰ χάριν48). In Rom 4:25 Paul then concludes that God’s grace finds its unparalleled expression in Christ’s redemptive work. For Paul, Jesus’s death and resurrection mark the central content of Christian faith. What is at stake in Rom 4:25, however, is not theoretical reflections on soteriology or christology. Rather, Rom 4:25 functions as a pivot verse, since Paul now turns to the present situation of Christ-believers.49 Whereas Rom 4:1–25a deals with the general conditions of justification, Jesus’s resurrection “for the sake of our righteousness” (4:25b) leads over to his afterlife, that is to say: the community’s present status. Just as Trito-Isaiah directs the gaze from the one Servant to the group of servants, Rom 4:25b directs the reader’s attention from the salvific work of Jesus Christ to the relationship between Christ-believers and their savior. Already on a linguistic level this shift becomes evident by Paul’s frequent use of the phrase διὰ Χριστοῦ and its variants.50 In sharp contrast to Rom 1:18–3:21, where Paul has focused on the past and provided evidence that “Jews and Gentiles have all sinned alike and fall short of the Glory of God” (Rom 3:22–23), he now turns to the present.51 This description of the present time has both similarities and differences with the above-outlined Servant(s) schema: first, like the Isaian servants, Christ-followers in Rome are portrayed as a “righteous community” (Isa 53:5, 11; 57:1; 59:20–21; 61:3, 11; 62:1; Dan 12:3; Ps 22:32) created by the Servant. Whereas believers in Rome have once been “weak” (ἀσθενεῖς v. 6b),52 “godless” (ἀσεβεῖς v. 6b; cf. 4:5), “sinners” (ἁμαρτωλοί v. 8), and even “God’s enemies” (ἐχθροί v. 10),53 they are now justified by faith (δικαιωθέντες οὖν ἐκ πίστεως) and accordingly live in peace with God.54 Admittedly, the combination between 48 

Paul’s formulation here is directly referring to the question of Rom 4:1 (κατὰ σάρκα). Paul writes in Rom 5:6 that “We were weak at this time,” i. e. in the past and in contrast to the present time of justification (gen. absol.: ὄντων ἡμῶν ἀσθενῶν ἔτι). Similarly, he states in Rom 5:8: “when we were still sinners” (ἔτι ἁμαρτωλῶν ὄντων ἡμῶν). 50  διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (Rom 5:1, 11a; cf. 5:21); δι᾽ οὗ/δι᾽ αὐτοῦ (5:2a, 9b, 11b); ἐν τῷ αἵματι αὐτοῦ and ἐν τῇ ζωῇ αὐτοῦ (Rom 5:9a, 10b). Cf. also διὰ τοῦ ἑνός (Rom 5:17, 18, 19). 51  For a precise linguistic analysis, see Simon M. Schäfer, Gegenwart in Relation. Eine Studie zur präsentischen Eschatologie bei Paulus ausgehend von Römer 5–8, WMANT 152 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2018), 83, who concludes: “Believers currently have access to God’s grace, they currently participate in it” [my translation]. 52  As becomes obvious by context, ἀσθενεῖς does not have the implication of “immature” or “morally weak” here, but just like the other three idioms stands for a human existence in separation from God. So also C. E. B. Cranfield, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. Volume 1, ICC (Edinburgh: Clark, 1975), 264. 53  The provocative nature of this train of thought becomes clear when it is juxtaposed with texts like Exod 23:7, Isa 5:23, and CD 1.19, where the justification of the godless is a crime God detests. Similarly, the godless are contrasted with those who have insight in Dan 12:10. On the contrary, Isa 43:25 and 53:5, 11 expect God’s justification of the sinners and godless (cf. also Gen 12:1–3; Hos 11:8–9; Jer 31:20). 54  As indicated by Paul’s use of the preposition πρὸς in the formulation πρὸς τὸν θεόν his concern is not peace in general, but the believer’s peaceful relationship to God. See Michael 49  Thus,



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δικαιοσύνη and εἰρήνη is anything but unique to the Servant figure.55 Still, the idea remains crucial to the book of Isaiah (cf. Isa 9:5–6; 11:1–16; 32:17;56 48:18; 54:13–14; 60:17) and the fact that Paul alludes to Isa 53 in the preceding verse makes it quite likely that his readers also relate δικαιοσύνη and εἰρήνη to the Servant figure (cf. Isa 53:5).57 This seems all the more likely, as Paul uses the conjunction οὖν and the divine passive δικαιωθέντες in Rom 5:1 to take up his previous idea regarding Jesus’s resurrection “for our justification” (Rom 4:25b). As in the above-mentioned servants texts, Gentiles are expected to be included in Israel’s restoration (Isa 56:6–8; 60:6; contrast Wis 3:8). However, for Paul this is already a present not a pending event. Second, as in the Servant(s) schema, Paul uses the paradigm of “righteous suffering” (Isa 56–66, Dan 11–12, Wis 3:1–9, Ps 22, 69, 102). This aspect is stressed by the structure of Paul’s argumentation. In v. 3 the elliptical phrase οὐ μόνον δέ, ἀλλὰ καί and the obvious repetition of the predicate (καυχώμεθα) both indicate that Paul sharpens his previous statement on Christian hope: justification by faith does not only evoke hope, but even enables Christ-believers to “boast in sufferings” (καυχώμεθα ἐν ταῖς θλίψεσιν58). However, Paul leaves it open to the reader’s interpretation what is exactly meant by those “sufferings.” Assuming that Paul writes his letter 56 CE, it seems rather unlikely that he is still referring to the expulsion of Jews from Rome by Claudius (49 CE) here.59 Neither is there any strong evidence for a systematic Roman persecution of Christ-believers in the first century.60 Even though the definite article (ταῖς) mark out those tribulations as specific occurrences, Paul’s wording rather reveals that he is referring to hardships generally expected in a believer’s life Wolter, Rechtfertigung und zukünftiges Heil. Untersuchungen zu Röm 5:1–11, BZNW 43 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1978), 99–102; Schäfer, Gegenwart in Relation, 81. 55  The idea that a situation of “peace” is restored by God and goes hand in hand with God’s justice or justification is well attested in different writings of Second Temple Judaism (cf., e. g., Ps 35:27; 72:3, 7; 85:11; Wis 3:3, 9; 1 En 1:8; 5:7, 9; 10:17; 11:2; 58:4; 105:2). 56  NTG28 also notes this parallel. 57  At the beginning of a character presentation, textual cues trigger a certain categorization on the reader’s side. Only when the reader is unable to integrate the given information into this category, a different character category is used. On this aspect of character construction, see Ralf Schneider, “Toward a Cognitive Theory of Literary Character: The Dynamics of Mental-Model Construction,” Style 35 (2001): 607–39. 58  This phrase does not only refer to the situation within which believers nevertheless boast, but also designates the object of boasting. For a similar judgment see, e. g., Murray, Romans, 163; Cranfield, Romans. Volume 1, 260. 59  For this suggestion, see, Jewett, Romans, 353. However, Paul’s greetings to Prisca and Aquila (Rom 16:3; cf. 1 Cor 16:19; Acts 18:2, 26) reveal that those who were expelled in 49 CE already returned to Rome some years later. This suggests a phase of political détente. 60  For a critical appraisal of relevant accounts, see John Granger Cook, Roman Attitudes Toward the Christians. From Claudius to Hadrian, WUNT 262 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010); Brendt D. Shaw, “The Myth of the Neronian Persecution,” JRS 105 (2015): 73–100; Markus Öhler, Geschichte des frühen Christentums, UTB 4737 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2018), 283–98.

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(1 Thess 3:3; Rom 8:35; cf. Mk 13:19, 34; Mt 24:9; 1 Cor 7:26). Thus, it is hard to deny that there is an apocalyptic-eschatological undertone in Rom 5, also present in most servants texts (Dan 11:33–34; 12:1–3; Wis 3:1–3; Ps 22:28–32; 69:36–37; 102:19, 22–2361).62 Third, Paul shares the confidence that believers rejoice amid their afflictions due to the “insight” given to them by God’s promised Spirit. Believers boast in their afflictions, because63 they “know that afflictions produce endurance” (εἰδότες ὅτι ἡ θλῖψις ὑπομονὴν κατεργάζεται, v. 3b). The term εἰδότες here as in other occurrences64 refers to a “truth accessible only to faith.”65 Like the reason for boasting, the source of this knowledge lies outside the believer. It is not based on human experience, but – as the conclusion of the climax in v. 5 suggests – on God’s revelatory act, i. e. by God’s love that “has been poured out into our hearts through [the] Holy Spirit, who has been given to us.” The Spirit as God’s gift affirms the hope in God’s glory, an idea very close to the Isaian tradition and its later reception. Already the prophet’s assurance of peace and righteous­ness is built on God’s merciful grace and achieved by God’s Spirit (Isa 11:2; 32:15; 57:19; 59:21; 60:9–17; 61:1; cf. 42:1). Here the idea of Israel’s restora­tion and that of the entire world is closely linked to the Holy Spirit, as well. At the same time, those “who have insight” (Dan 12:3; cf. Wis 3:9) are exhorted to understand the eschatological afflictions and to be certain that they will rejoice and receive their inheritance in the end (Dan 12:13). Thus, Rom 4:25–5:11 is linked to the Servant(s) schema by several features. Christ-followers in Rome are portrayed as a suffering, yet righteous and hopeful community, who have insight into God’s plan through the guidance and assurance of God’s Holy Spirit. Even though none of these character traits can be exclusively assigned to Trito-Isaiah and its later reception, the combination of these features supports the idea that Paul might refer to a familiar Servant(s) schema. This finds further confirmation when considering the continuity of “actantial roles” (Greimas) in Rom 4:25–5:11: 61  For the use of the “Servant(s)” theme in these three psalms, see the contribution by Lyons in this volume; also, Michael A. Lyons, “Psalm 22,” 640–56; Ulrich Berges, “Who Were the Servants? A  Comparative Inquiry in the Book of Isaiah and the Psalms,” in Past, Present, Future: The Deuteronomistic History and the Prophets, ed. Johannes C. de Moor and Harry F. van Rooy, OTS 44 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 1–18; Alphonso Groenewald, “Who Are the ‘Servants’ (Psalm 69:36c–37b)? A Contribution to the History of the Literature of the Old Testament,” HTS 59 (2003): 735–61. 62  So also Schäfer, Gegenwart in Relation, 93: “Although the article in the prepositional phrase ἐν ταῖς θλίψεσιν refers to actual hardships, an eschatological meaning of θλίψεις on the background of Jewish apocalypticism cannot be neglected here …” [my translation]. 63  The participle εἰδότες (“know”) has a causal sense here, cf. Douglas J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 303 n.44. 64  Cf., e. g., Rom 6:9; 13:11; 1 Cor 15:58; 2 Cor 1:7; 4:14; 5:6, 11; Gal 2:16; 4:8; 1 Thess 1:4. 65 Otto Michel, Der Brief an die Römer, KEK 4 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978), 178 n.8 [my translation].

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God sender

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non-Christian receiver (unmentioned)

God’s spirit helper

Jesus Christ/Servant subject

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At the same time, this visualization sensitizes the reader to the peculiarities of Paul’s argumentation. In contrast to Wis 3:1–9 or Dan 12, the group of enemies remains vague and almost completely recedes into the background. At least, it is not explicitly mentioned, but only alluded to by the idea of sufferings. Even more significant is the difference with respect to the believers, who are  – regarding their own past – addressed as God’s enemies. Through this difference, the grace of God is underlined and his love is shown as unconditional. Furthermore, in Rom 4:25–5:11 the group of receivers does not yet come fully into view. Paul’s interest here is entirely on God’s relationship to Christ-believers and justification through the work of Jesus, not on the community’s mission. However, as we continue reading Paul’s letter we will become aware that the Apostle is also alluding to this aspect of the Servant(s) schema (see below, 3.3) and the reader is, thus, motivated to integrate further information into the servants’ image. Already in Rom 5:19 Paul tells us that through the obedience of the one Servant Jesus, “many are made righteous.” Paul’s argumentation seems to be rooted in Isa 53:11 and its later interpretation, as well. Even though Isa 53:11 remains a crux interpretum, we already find here the idea of a community that has been made righteous by God’s Servant. Dan 12:3 speaks even more clearly of a righteous community “who makes the many righteous.” Accordingly, the “concept of a one-many-solidarity-relation­ship”66 in Rom 5 most likely stems from the Suffering Servant Song, but might also be influenced by the text’s later reception, which is to say: a broader Servant(s) schema. 3.2  Reading Rom 8:32 in its Wider Context 3.2.1  Differences between Rom 8 and Isa 53 Chapter 8 of Paul’s letter to the Romans is in many respects closely linked to Rom 4:25–5:11 (see list below, 3.2.3).67 The most prominent example of this is Paul’s reemployment of the verb παραδίδωμι in Rom 8:32, by which he once more expresses the idea of God’s delivering-up of Jesus. Whereas this verse clearly echoes Rom 4:25, it remains disputed among scholars whether or not 66 

Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah, 199 [emphasis original]. See, also Jewett, Romans, 387. a detailed comparison between Rom 5:1–11 and Rom 8:18–27, see Peter von der Osten-Sacken, Römer 8 als Beispiel paulinischer Soteriologie, FRLANT 112 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975), 124–28. 67  For

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Paul wants his readers to draw a connection to the book of Isaiah here.68 Michael Wolter raises the objection that in Rom 8:32 Paul drops the idea of Jesus’ being delivered up “for the sake of our transgressions.”69 By stating that Christ was delivered up “for us all” (ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν πάντων παρέδωκεν αὐτόν), Paul’s focus would be more on the community and the believers’ present situation. Interestingly, a similar ‘community shift’ between Isaiah and Paul is noticed by ShiuLun Shum in regard to the wider context (Rom 8:31–34): “[W]hat is at stake in Isa 50:7/8–9 is an individual’s vindication by God, but in Rom 8:31–34 is a community’s relationship with God even though that relationship also embraces its individual aspect.”70 As will be argued in the following, this shift from an individual’s vindication to the community of Christ-believers becomes fully understandable when reckoning once more that Paul’s argumentation is not based only on Deutero-Isaiah, but is influenced by the broader Servant(s) schema. In order to perceive this, it becomes necessary to consider the wider context, especially Rom 8:14–17, 8:18–30, and 8:31–39. In these three sections Paul does not only repeat those character traits already familiar to us from our earlier analysis (Rom 4:25–5:11), but he also adds further attributes – in particular, the idea of an intimate parentchild-relationship, the idea of the servants’ inheritance and vindication, and a cosmological perspective. 3.2.2  Rom 8:14–17: Adoption, Vindication, and Inheritance In Rom 8:14–17 the relation between Christ-believers and God is firstly described in terms of an intimate parent-child relationship. Thus, Paul repeatedly calls his fellow Christians in Rome “sons” (υἱοὶ θεοῦ 8:14, 19; 9:26; cf. 2 Cor 6:18; Gal 3:26) or “children” of God (τέκνα θεοῦ 8:16.21; cf. 9:8: Phil 2:15), and, accordingly, addresses God as “father” and “Abba” (αββα ὁ πατήρ Röm 8:15; Gal 4:6). Such a filial relationship with God is, of course, well attested throughout the whole Hebrew Bible, where it is mainly the sons of Israel, who call God “father” (cf., e. g., Deut 32:6; Jer 31:9). Still, in Trito-Isaiah this address is already linked to the servants. Thus, in Isa 63:16–17 it is precisely the group of servants who call on God as “father.” Similarly, LXX Ps 101:29 talks about “the sons of your servants” (οἱ υἱοὶ τῶν δούλων σου), who will live in God’s presence. And according to LXX Ps 68:36 it is “the descendants of God’s servants (τὸ σπέρμα τῶν δούλων), who will inherit Judah.” Another term that gives expression to 68 See Wagner, Heralds, 334 n. 106: “The case for an echo of Isaiah 53 in Romans 8:32 is somewhat weaker (παραδίδωμι), but it is strengthened considerably when Paul’s earlier allusion to Isaiah 53 in Romans 4:25 is taken into account.” However, Wolter, Der Brief an die Römer I, 542, states: “A reference to Isa 53:12 is therefore rather unlikely in Rom 8:32b” [my translation]. 69  Wolter, Der Brief an die Römer I, 542–43. 70  Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah, 202.



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the intimate relationship between God and believers is “my chosen ones,” used in Isa 65:9 (ἐκλεκτοί μου) as a synonym for the servants and in Rom 8:33 (ἐκλεκτῶν θεοῦ) as a designation for Christ-believers. However, we should not concentrate on terminology only. It is also the relation between the one Servant and the many servants and the function ascribed to both character groups that seems to be mirrored in Rom 8. Like the servants, Christ-believers share in the sufferings of the one Servant, Jesus Christ, and are at the same time portrayed as “co-heirs with Christ” (8:17). Thus, for Paul, sonship does not only underline the believers’ intimate relationship with God, but is actually a juridical term. What stands in the background here is obviously the familiar concept of Roman adoptio. According to Roman adoption laws the adoptee is taken out of his previous state and placed in a new relationship to a paterfamilias. Similar to this idea of a family change (mutatio familiae), Paul contrasts the idea of “adoptive sonship” (υἱοθεσία71) with the believers’ former existence as “slaves of sin” (Rom 8:15; cf. Rom 6:17, 20; 6:6; 7:25).72 It is only by their justification that Christ-followers are now God’s slaves (Rom 6:13–23) and heirs.73 At the same time, sonship denotes a legal status. Accordingly, Paul associates sonship with the privilege of inheritance. This aspect is highlighted in Rom 8:16–17, where the terms “child,” “heirs” and “co-heirs” are arranged in a chiastic pattern and, thus, closely related to each other: τέκνα θεοῦ (a) // τεκνα (a′)  – κληρονόμοι (b) // κληρονόμοι θεοῦ (b′). Christ-believers are not only God’s sons, but also God’s heirs inasmuch as God himself grants inheritance.74 Whereas Roman adoption laws sufficiently explain this link between sonship and inheritance, and also the believers’ designation as “co-heirs” (συμκληρονόμοι),75 the following idea of Christ-believers participating in 71  With υἱοθεσία Paul makes use of a juridical term, which in the Roman Hellenistic world refers to the legal institution of adoption. Thus the expression appears particularly in inscriptions and papyri. For a compilation and discussion of source texts, see Martin S. Smith, “Greek Adoptive Formulae,” CQ 17 (1967): 302–10; Marek Kurylowicz, “Adoption on Evidence of Papyri,” JJP 19 (1983): 61–75; James M. Scott, Adoption as Sons of God. An Exegetical Investigation into the Background of ΥΙΟΘΕΣΙΑ in the Pauline Corpus, WUNT II/48 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992). 72  When a person was adrogated all his property rights transferred to the adrogator. It is uncertain how far this included debts. However, some legal texts at least respond to such a danger of loss for creditors: cf., e. g., Gaius, Inst. 3.84, 4.38; Dig. 4.5.2.2; and Dig. 15.1.42: “in adrogatorem de peculio actionem dandam quidam recte putant.” 73  An insight, interestingly, given to them by God’s Spirit (cf. Rom 5:3, 5). The double use of ἐλάβετε in v. 15 indicates that they are exclusively receivers of the πνεῦμα υἱοθεσίας. The term πνεῦμα υἱοθεσίας obviously has two meanings here: 1) Gen. obiectivus: “a Spirit producing sonship,” i. e. salvation, as well; 2) Gen. qualitatis: “a Spirit, who lets believers experience their sonship.” On this double meaning see Schäfer, Gegenwart in Relation, 258. For the translation “a Spirit producing sonship,” see Jewett, Romans, 498. 74 See Jewett, Romans, 501. 75  Among the many examples where “co-heirs” are mentioned in the Roman legal texts,

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Christ’s sufferings (συμπάσχω) and the idea of participating in Christ’s glory (συνδοξάζομαι) contradict this imagery and, therefore, attract the reader’s attention. What we are obviously dealing with here is a kind of blending between the reader’s Roman legal knowledge and the Servant(s) schema. Thus, the idea that the servants’ inheritance includes suffering and vindication is already present in Trito-Isaiah: “The last ten chapters of Isaiah place great emphasis on the ‘inheritance’ that God will give the servants; this includes vindication from enemies …”76 In most other servants-texts the idea of inheritance is also an illustrative expression of vindication (Isa 54:17; 60:21; Dan 12:3, 13; Ps 69:37; Ps 102:29).77 Obviously, Paul is confident that his Roman readers are equally familiar with both concepts – Roman adoption laws and the Servant(s) schema – and are, thus, able to relate and combine them. 3.2.3  Reading Rom 8:18–30 and Rom 8:31–39 While Paul introduces the idea of sonship in Rom 8:14–17 and – on the basis of the Servant(s) schema – associates it not only with the aspect of inheritance, but also with the idea of vindication, he comes back to the community’s present sufferings and the believers’ reason for hope in Rom 8:18–30 and Rom 8:31–39. Interestingly, a series of key terms from Rom 4:25–5:11 reappear in this context.78 4:25a; 5:6, 10 Christ delivered over to death 4:25b; 5:10 raised to life/resurrection 4:25b for us/for our justice 5:1, 9 (God) makes righteous 5:2 glory/glorify 5:3, 4 patience 5:2, 4, 5 hope 5:3 suffering 5:5 God’s spirit 5:5, 8 God’s love 5:9, 10 save(d from wrath)

8:32, 34 8:34 8:31, 32 8:33 8:18, 21,30 8:25 8:20, 24 8:35 8:23, 26–27 8:35a, 37, 39 8:24, 8:31–34

Almost all these terms are, as seen in our previous analysis of Rom 4:25–5:11, central to the Servant(s) schema. Thus, it seems unlikely that it is simply due to a rhetorical interest that Paul links both passages. Rather, Paul deepens his earlier I  will be content with a prominent one: Octavian’s two coheirs, Q. Pedius and L. Pinarius, receive one quarter of the remaining estate (Pliny, Nat. 35.21; Suetonius, Caes. 83.2). 76  Michael A. Lyons, “Paul  and the  Servant(s): Isa 49,6  in  Acts 13,47,” ETL 89.4 (2013): 345–59 (here 351). 77  Unlike the perspective in these documents, Paul does not perceive inheritance as a mere future event. Already now he addresses Christ-believers as God’s sons and children (υἱοὶ θεοῦ εἰσιν, v. 14b; ἐσμὲν τέκνα θεοῦ, v. 16b). 78  For a similar but incomplete list, see John D. Harvey, Listening to the Text: Oral Patterning in Paul’s Letters, EThSt 1 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), 194.



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depiction of Christ-believers as servants and at the same time adds further details. For example, the listing of seven forms of adversity in Rom 8:35 (affliction, distress, persecution, hunger, nakedness, peril, and sword) is an illustration of the previously mentioned sufferings.79 Due to the personification of burdens Paul’s description also gains more liveliness. However, similar to Rom 4:25–5:11 the actual group of enemies still remains vague. Here, too, Paul shows no interest in depicting the enemies more precisely or in identifying them with a certain group of contemporaries. Most similarities between Rom 4:25–5:11 and Rom 8 do not need to be dealt with in more detail here, because they only confirm Paul’s earlier depiction of Christ-believers. Nevertheless, two aspects deserve to be addressed more extensively: first, it seems remarkable that Paul in Rom 8:19–22 places the suffering of believers within the larger context of the suffering of the creation as a whole. How does he get from the thought of inheritance in v. 17c to this subject? Amazingly, most commentators leave this question unanswered. However, it is unlikely to be a coincidence that already in Isa 65 the ideas of inheritance, vindication and restoration of God’s creation are closely linked. This is also confirmed by the fact that Paul’s description of a cosmic restoration in some ways reverberates with Isaiah’s new-exodus motif and the idea of a new kingdom of peace (Isa 65:17–25; 66:22–23; cf. 11:6–9).80 At the same time, Paul gives this image an interesting twist. Whereas Isa 65 incorporates Isa 11:6–9,81 and thereby focuses on the promised blessings to the righteous community, Paul expresses the thought that creation (κτίσις82) will share in the children’s glory inasmuch as God’s children share in the glory of Christ. Thus, the idea of justification is not restricted, but even extended in cosmological regards. The second aspect that deserves special appreciation is Paul’s soteriological and christological argumentation in Rom 8:32. Similar to Rom 5:9–10 (πολλῷ μᾶλλον) Paul makes use of an argumentum a fortiori here (πῶς οὐχί …;)83 to 79  Even though some afflictions are already mentioned in the context of our Servant(s) texts, we should be careful not to postulate any direct dependencies here in Rom 8:35. All tribulations are well attested by similar “catalogues of human hardships.” See John T. Fitzgerald, Cracks in an Earthen Vessel: An Examination of Catalogues of Hardships in the Corinthian Correspondence, SBLDS 99 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988), 47; Studies of tribulation lists related to Romans include Wolfgang Schrage, “Leid Kreuz und Eschaton: Die Peristasenkataloge als Merkmale paulinischer theologia crucis und Eschatologie,” EvT 34 (1974): 141–75; Jewett, Romans, 543–48. 80  So also Sylvia C. Keesmaat, Paul and his Story. (Re)Interpreting the Exodus Tradition, LNTS 181 (New York: Bloomsbury, 1999), 97–135; Harry A. Hahne, The Corruption and Redemption of Creation. Nature in Romans 8:19–22 and Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, LNTS 33 (London: T&T Clark), 2006, 181; Schäfer, Gegenwart in Relation, 283. 81  Stromberg, Isaiah after Exile, 108. 82  On the understanding of this term, see Hahne, Corruption and Redemption, 176–81. 83  In Rom 5:9–10 and Rom 8:32 he makes use of an argumentum a fortiori (πολλῷ μᾶλλον πῶς οὐχί …;).

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expose why Jesus’s death “for us” is the ultimate reassurance of believers. Taking for granted that Christ’s death is decisive for our present, insofar as his redemptive work reveals God’s grace and love towards us, Paul raises the (rhetorical) question: “how will God not also, along with him, graciously give us all things (τὰ πάντα)” (8:32b)?84 Interestingly, Isa 66:2 in a similar way reassures the servants of their vindication by reminding them that “all things” (πάντα) are made by God’s hand and “all things” (πάντα ταῦτα) came into being through him. Certainly this word-connection in itself is not sufficient to argue for a direct dependence of Rom 8:32 on Isaiah 66. However, Paul’s argumentation once more gains sharper contours when read against the background of Isa 56–66. With the same confidence as in Isa 66:2, Paul is convinced that earthly hardships cannot undo God’s own promises and final verdict: “It is God who justifies” (θεὸς ὁ δικαιῶν; cf. Isa 50:8). This, however, leads Paul – in contrast to Isaiah – to an identification of Jesus Christ, the Servant, with God. Thus, when Paul makes use of παρέδωκεν in 8:32 he does not only reinterpret the (Isaian) Servant figure in light of the Christ event, but actually construes the Servant as κύριος ἡμῶν (Rom 8:39, cf. Rom 10:12), which is to say: as the one equal to God.85 3.3  Reading Rom 10:13–15 and Rom 10:20–21 in the Wider Context (Rom 9–11) 3.3.1  The Servant(s) and the Proclamation of the Gospel When reckoning with the allusions to the Servant(s) schema in Rom 4:25–5:11 and Rom 8, it comes with some surprise that nowhere in the first part of his letter does Paul speak about the aspect of the community’s proclamation.86 Nowhere does he explicitly mention that Christ-believers “make many righteous” (Isa 53:10–11), “guide” or “instruct many” (Dan 11:33; cf. Isa 42:6–7), are “light”87 (Isa 42:6–7; 66:18–21;88 Dan 12:3; Wis 3:7) and “witness to God’s 84  Here “all things” (τὰ πάντα) inevitably includes salvation, but cannot be limited to this aspect alone; so e. g. Moo, Romans, 541; Schäfer, Gegenwart in Relation, 327 n.382. For the opposite position, see Johann Albrecht Bengel, Der Gnomon: Lateinisch-deutsche Teilausgabe der Hauptschriften zur Rechtfertigung: Römerbrief, nach dem Druck von 1835/36, trans. H. Gaese (Tübingen: A. Francke Verlag, 2003), 266. 85  Cf. Otfried Hofius, “The Fourth Servant Song in the New Testament,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 163–88, esp. 175–76. On the expression “Lord of all,” see Job 5:8 LXX; Esth 4:17c; 1QapGen ar 20.13. 86  On Rom 5:19 see my analysis above. 87  However, Rom 2:19 is reminiscent of the Jewish prerogative to be “a guide of the blind” and “a light to those in the darkness” (cf. Isa 42:6–7). The idea that Israel was called to be a leader of the nations is also attested by other writings: 1 En 105:1; Sib. Or. 3:194–95; Josephus, C. Ap. 2:291–95; Philo, Abr. 98; For a similar polemic, see esp. Matt 23:16, 24 and John 9:40–41. 88  Cf. also Isa 49:6; 52:7.



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glory among the nations” (Isa 66:19), or proclaim restoration to Israel and the nations (Isa 56:8; 65:23, 25). The aspect of proclamation, so central to TritoIsaiah’s depiction of the servants, seems to be totally neglected by Paul. Why is this so, if Paul wants to portray the Christ-believers as servants? One might object that this divergence is partly explainable by the outline of Paul’s letter. Thus, it is only in the context of Rom 9–11, when dealing with the soteriological dynamics between Israel and the nations that Paul positively and in more detail turns to the subject of the gospel’s proclamation.89 However, as is often argued, Paul’s main focus in this section still lies on the significance of his own vocation, not on the community’s role.90 Thus, Lionel J. Windsor in a recent monograph points out that Paul in Rom 9–11 mainly envisages his own “apostolic ministry within the context of Israel’s distinct role vis-à-vis the nations.”91 Interestingly, Windsor recognizes in this context that Paul – among several other traditions  – portrays himself in the role of the Isaian Servant. According to Windsor this already becomes evident by Paul’s self-desig­nation as “servant” or “slave of Christ Jesus” in Rom 1:1 (δοῦλος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ; cf. Phil 1:1; Gal 1:10). However, this self-attribution is rather ambiguous,92 and, Paul does not draw on the term “δοῦλος” in Rom 9–11 at all. 3.3.2  Paul as Servant among many Servants As will be argued in the following section, there is still good reason to assume that Paul depicts himself as “one of the Servant’s servants.” At least, focusing on his own role does not imply a neglect of Christ-believers participation in the ministry. This becomes evident when aligning Paul’s argumentation in Rom 9–11 with Isa 55–66  – which is to say: Trito-Isaiah’s reading of the Isai89  As Lionel J. Windsor, Paul and the Vocation of Israel. How Paul’s Jewish Identity Informs his Apostolic Ministry, with Special Reference to Romans, BZNW 205 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2014), 210–11, rightly observes “Paul makes a great deal of the concept of human speech in Rom 10. This is a strikingly new feature in his argument so far in Romans …. Thus, while earlier in Romans, Paul states that sin has produced false speech (Rom 1:29–30; 2:1; 2:19–22; 3:13–14), and that the Law’s condemnation has silenced all speech (Rom 3:19–20), now in Rom 10, he claims that belief and salvation are intertwined with true speech.” 90  On this prominence of Paul’s person in Rom 9–11, see Johann D. Kim, God, Israel, and the Gentiles: Rhetoric and Situation in Romans 9–11, SBLDS 176 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000), 97–103; Karl-Wilhelm Niebuhr, Heidenapostel aus Israel: Die jüdische Identität des Paulus nach ihrer Darstellung in seinen Briefen, WUNT 62 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992), 158–60. Rhetorical features to mention here include a) the Apostle’s threefold attestation of his own sorrow about Israel (Rom 9:1–4a), b) the emphatic first-person self-references in Rom 9:1, 10:1–2, and 11:1, and c) Paul’s frequent use of first-person λέγω to authorize his arguments (Rom 9:1; 10:18, 19; 11:1, 13). 91  Windsor, Paul and the Vocation, 112 [emphasis original]. 92  The term δοῦλος does not necessarily have a prophetic connotation only (cf. Amos 3:7; Jer 7:25; Dan 9:6), but for Paul’s readers in Rome might have connotations related to the institution of slavery, as well. See Michael J. Brown, “Paul’s Use of δοῦλος Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ in Romans 1:1,” JBL 120 (2004): 723–37 (here 725–28); Jewett, Romans, 100.

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an Servant motif  – and when paying special attention to Rom 10:13–15 and Rom 10:20–21. Let us take a look at Paul’s main lines of argumentation first: Paul begins his argumentation by expressing a close identification with his fellow Israelites.93 Since the majority of Israel lives in “separation from the Christ” (ἀνάθεμα … ἀπο τοῦ Χριστου) Paul is plagued by “deep sorrow and pain.”94 Like the Isaian Servant – but also like other prominent representatives of Israel – Paul has even offered his own damnation for the sake of his compatriots.95 That is why for Paul the existential question arises how to resolve the tension between Israel’s hostility towards Christ (-believers) and God’s faithfulness towards Israel.96 The apostle charges that Israel stubbornly prefers her own righteousness instead of submitting to God’s righteousness, revealed in Christ for all who believe (Rom 10:4; cf. 5:1). According to Paul, Israel still demands the “doing” of the law (Rom 9:32;97 10:5–8; cf. 3:20; Gal 2:16).98 This tragically leads to the exclusion of Gentiles, which also means that Israel fails the task assigned to it by God. In contrast, Paul proclaims that salvation for Jews and Gentiles comes through faith alone 93  This becomes apparent by the fact that Paul addresses non-Christian Jews as “my brothers” and “fellow Israelites” (Rom 9:3). Jewett, Romans, 561: “The further elaboration of ‘my compatriots by flesh’ was required because the formulation ‘brothers’ was so frequently employed to refer to fellow believers, whether Jews or Gentiles. The word συγγενής appears here with the meaning ‘compatriots’, fellow Jews.” Cf. Wilhelm Michaelis, “συγγενής, συγγένεια,” TDNT 7 (1971), 741. 94  The two expressions λύπη and ὀδύνη also occur in LXX Isa 35:10 and 51:11, but Paul is not necessarily alluding to Isaiah here. Thus, the two terms are also elsewhere used in combination (see e. g., Wis 31:6; Tobit 3:1 [AB]; Ceb. Tab. 10:1–2; 26:2; 27:4). On a rhetorical level, this formulation serves to increase Paul’s authenticity. 95  It is debated among scholars whether Paul is thinking of himself as playing the role of Moses (Exod 32:31–32) or the Isaian Servant here. Others even suggest that Paul is thinking of himself as one of the Maccabean martyrs or Christ himself. The dense formulation does not allow a clear conclusion to be drawn here. On this debate see James D. G. Dunn, Romans 9–16, WBC 38B (Dallas: Word, 1988), 525. 96  For Paul, separation from Christ implies alienation from God (Rom 8:39); so also Michael Wolter, Der Brief an die Römer. Teilband 2: Röm 9–16, EKK VI/2 (Ostfildern: Patmos; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2019), 29–30. 97  The phrase ὡς ἐξ ἔργων here points to Israel’s erroneous understanding of the law. According to Paul, Israel maintains that God’s law could actually be fulfilled by human works. For a similar use of the expression, see esp. 2 Bar 57:2: “[T]he unwritten Torah was in force among them, and the works of the commandments were done at that time.” Cf. also 4Q398 14–17. ii.2–3; 1QS 5.21; 6.18 (“works in the Torah”); Philo, Praem. 126. For the more recent discussion on the term “works of law” in Romans, see, e. g., Jacqueline C. R. De Roo, Works of Law at Qumran and in Paul, NTM 13; Sheffield: Phoenix Press, 2007); Robert K. R apa, The Meaning of the “Works of the Law” in Galatians and Romans, StBibLit 31 (New York: Peter Lang, 2001); James D. G. Dunn, The New Perspective on Paul (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005), 413–28; Lloyd Gaston, Paul and the Torah (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1987), 100–106; Heikki R äisänen, Paul and the Law, 2nd ed., WUNT 29 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1987), 174–76. 98  Paul thus accuses his Jewish contemporaries of the same fault as the paradigmatic teacher of the Torah in Rom 2:17–29.

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(Rom 10:11–12), and presents himself as “apostle to the nations”99 (Rom 11:13), which is to say: as a paradigmatic Israelite.100 Having clearly spelled out Israel’s misuse of the law, Paul goes on to introduce the remnant motif (Rom 9:27–28; 11:5).101 Through this he expresses his strong conviction that God has not abandoned, but only hardened his people (Rom 11:1–6). Actually, it is only by Israel’s failing (Rom 10:1–4) and widespread rejection of “our message” (Rom 10:16; cf. Isa 53:1; 65:1–2) that “salvation has come to the Gentiles” (Rom 11:11). Thus, the present time is depicted by him as a time of God’s grace (Rom 11:5) and – since faith comes from hearing (Rom 10:17) – a time of proclamation. Although Paul does not only appeal to Isaiah, but also to other scriptural texts in Rom 9–11, the resemblance to Trito-Isaiah’s reading of Isa 40–55 seems obvious. Paul’s description of Israel’s present situation and failure is reminiscent of Isa 65:1–2, where God’s former offer to “seek” and “to call upon him” (Isa 55:6–7) is also rejected by the majority of Israel. By the explicit reference to Isa 65:1–2 in Rom 10:20–21 Paul depicts the majority of Israel as disobedient and stubborn (cf. Rom 11:8). 3.3.2  Reading Rom 10:20–21 and Rom 10:13–15 Many scholars express surprise at Paul’s “stunning reversal”102 here, because he understands Isa 65:2 as speaking only to Israel, whereas he ostensibly sees a reference to the Gentiles in Isa 65:1 and interprets this verse in terms of God’s revelation to the nations (Rom 10:20). However, when reading Paul’s interpretation against the wider context of Isa 65–66 and the Servant(s) schema, this understanding does not seem quite as odd. As already argued by J. Alec Motyer in his analysis of Isa 65 and Isa 66 the “reference here [Isa 65:1] to the Gentiles fits the pattern of the whole …. [Especially] Isa 66:18–21 matches the present verse in speaking of ‘nations’ ‘who have not seen my glory’ and ‘have not heard the report of me.’”103 Paul’s interpretation of Isa 65:1 makes even more sense when considering the wider context of Isa 55–66. Already in LXX Isa 55:6–7 (cf. Isa 66:9) God’s offer to Israel to seek him is preceded by the expectation that the nations “will call 99 

The formulation ἀπόστολος τῶν ἐθνῶν is to be understood as Gen. qualitatis here. Windsor, Paul and the Vocation, 214: “In short, Paul argues … that his own apostolic ministry fulfills Israel’s role in God’s global purposes, despite the fact that Israel as a whole has failed in this role.” 101  For a closer comparison of Rom 9:27–28 and Isa 10:22–23 see Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah, 206–10. In regard to Rom 11:5 “[n]o passage can be adduced from Isaiah as a parallel text …. Despite this, however, Paul’s use of the term strongly suggests that the Isaian remnant tradition too had indeed exerted certain influence upon Paul even in this passage …”; so Shum, Paul’s Use of Isaiah, 231; see also Jewett, Romans, 658–59. 102  Wagner, Heralds, 213. 103  J. Alec Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah (London: Inter Varsity Press, 1999), 523. 100 So

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upon you” (ἐπικαλέσονταί σε, Isa 55:5), and it is assumed that foreigners will be included among the servants (τὸ σωτήριον κυρίου εὐαγγελιοῦνται, Isa 60:6). The Servant’s role “as light to the nations” is extended to the servants. Therefore it makes perfect sense when Paul reproaches Israel for not fulfilling her intended role vis-à-vis the nations and portrays himself as a faithful Israelite, and, thus, as one of God’s servants. Paul presupposes that his fellow Christians participate in this mission. This becomes evident in Rom 10:13–15. In Rom 10:13 Paul first quotes Joel 2:32 to remind his Roman readers that “everyone will be saved, who calls on the name of the Lord.” In order to successfully implement a global mission strategy that makes Christ known everywhere, all Christ-believers are called to proclaim the gospel. Accordingly, Paul does not only quote Isa 52:7 in the following, but strikingly changes104 the singular “he who brings good news” (εὐαγγελιζόμενος ἀγαθά) to the plural “those who bring good news” (τῶν εὐαγγελιζομένων ἀγαθά).105 As already noted by Michael Lyons in a more recent study on the servants motif, this “shift from singular proclamation to plural proclamation is already attested in Isaiah itself in a remarkable way: in Isa 60:6, it is the nations who stream to a restored Zion who will ‘proclaim the praises of YHWH’ … even more explicitly in the LXX, ‘proclaim good news of the salvation of YHWH’ (τὸ σωτήριον κυρίου εὐαγγελιοῦνται).”106 This indicates that Paul’s adaption of Isa 52:7 is not merely motivated by the believers’ new reality or by Paul’s missionary enthusiasm, but rather by Paul’s intention to identify the Christ-believers with the Isaian servants. Admittedly, this allusion is still rather reticent and it seems as if Paul has not reflected further on the exact cooperation between himself, the apostle to the nations, and his fellow Christians in Rome. Once more it proves true that the focus in Rom 9–11 lies on Paul’s own apostolic ministry. Nevertheless, a reader who has been sensitive towards Paul’s allusions in Rom 4:25–5:11 and Rom 8 and has in mind the previously-evoked image of the servants would certainly be able to add this information to the earlier depiction of Christ-believers. Another thing that remains remarkable is that Paul sees himself not merely as a counterpart to other Christ-believers, but rather as one of the servants. 104 According to Jewett, Romans, 639, “[t]here is a wide consensus that the singular reference to the preacher in the MT and both forms of the LXX, which probably referred to the messiah or his herald, was intentionally altered by Paul to refer to the plurality of preachers of the Christ gospel.” So also Dunn, Romans 9–16, 621; Wagner, Heralds, 89. Unlike Paul, Acts 10:36 and Eph 2:17 retain the singular of Isa 52:7. 105 Some scholars propose Paul was not citing but rather paraphrasing Isa 52:7 here. However, this does not appear likely, for the sentence is introduced by καθὼς γέγραπται (“as it is written”), Paul’s common formula to citing scripture (cf. Rom 1:17; 2:24; 3:4, 10; 4:17; 8:36; 9:13, 33; 11:8, 26; 15:3, 21). For a detailed discussion on Paul’s use of Isa 52:7, see Stanley, Paul and the Language of Scripture, 134–41. 106  Lyons, “Paul and the Servant(s),” 356, n.38.



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3.4  Reading Rom 15 Already at first reading, it becomes obvious that Paul’s argumentation in Rom 15:7–13, as well as the recapitulation of his apostolic ministry (Rom 15:14– 21) and the remarks on his future plans (Rom  15:22–33) are once more influenced by Isaian language and images. First, Paul’s citation of Isa 11:10 in Rom 15:12 is worthy of particular note: how does Paul interpret and apply the Isaian motif of the “root” or the “shoot of Jesse” (ἡ ῥίζα τοῦ Ἰεσσαὶ)? Second, Paul’s description of his apostolic ministry as “priestly service” and “offering to the Gentiles” (v. 16) arouses interest, for this self-image may reflect ideas of Isa 66:18–21. Also, Paul’s plans to travel to Spain may refer to Isa 66:19 or Isa 49:6. Third, after having cited Isa 52 in Rom 2:24 and Rom 10:15, Paul uses a verse from the fourth Servant Song (Isa 52:15) in Rom 15:21 to identify Jesus Christ with God’s Servant and to prove his own Gentile mission to be in accordance with Scriptures. Interestingly, all these passages are connected to the Servant(s) theme.107 To what extent does Paul reflect on this, and how do these allusions refer to our previous analysis of Rom 4:25–5:11, Rom 8, and Rom 9–11? 3.4.1  The “Shoot of Jesse” in Rom 15:12 – Jesus Christ as Davidic Messiah In Rom 15:7–13 Paul concludes his argumentation on the strong and weak in Rome (14:1–15:13). Here Paul reminds the Christ-believers in Rome that in the same way as Christ has “welcomed” (προσελάβετο) them and “has become servant to the circumcised” (διάκονον γεγενῆσθαι περιτομῆς), they are also supposed to welcome and serve one another. In order to prove that Christ’s “service” for the Gentiles and the resulting glorification of Israel’s God by the Gentiles is in accordance with the scriptures, Paul makes use of a catena of quotations. More precisely Paul selects four texts from the psalter, the Torah, and the prophets (LXX Ps 17:50; Ps 116:1; Deut 32:43; Isa 11:10). As indicated by the comparatively long introduction phrase (καὶ πάλιν Ἠσαΐας λέγει) and its end position, the quotation from LXX Isa 11:10 in Rom 15:12b is most important for Paul. Strikingly, the citation is almost verbatim from the LXX. Only the conjunction καί and the phrase “on that day” (ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἐκείνῃ) are eliminated, either to avoid any appeal to the day of God’s judgment or simply to highlight the messianic aspect. Like other early Christian authors,108 Paul un-

107  Isa 11:10 is a postexilic editorial comment and adds a positive view of the nations to the chapter. In Isa 66:18–21 the role of God’s Servant as “light to the nations” (Isa 42:6; 49:6) is passed on to the servants. With Isa 52:15, Paul precisely chooses the one verse in Isa 52–53 that explicitly refers to the Servant’s mission to the Gentiles. 108 Cf. Matt 3:16; John 7:24; 2 Thess 2:18; 1 Pet 4:14; Rev 5:5; 19:15, 21; 22:16. See also Craig A. Evans, “Messianism,” DNTB: 700, who lists further examples from the Apo­crypha.

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doubtedly perceives “shoot of Jesse” as a messianic title and identifies Jesus with the Davidic Messiah, on whom the Gentiles’ hope rests.109 However, Paul’s turn to an individual figure does not come without surprise. All other citations in Rom 15:10–11 rather “[drive] forward his thesis of ethnic mutuality in Christ”110 and therefore focus on the new community of Jews and Gentiles. As Robert Jewett has shown, Paul is particularly careful in his citations here to avoid any idea of the Gentiles’ subordination to Israel.111 How does Isa 11:10 then fit into this? It seems advisable to recall the recent debate on the “root of Jesse” here. As is often suggested, Isa 11:10 is probably a later editorial comment to Isa 11:1–9.112 This becomes evident not only by subtle differences at the word level, but especially by the new, positive view on the nations introduced by Isa 11:10. On the basis of these differences, some scholars question an original messianic understanding of Isa 11:10 and instead suggest a collective reinterpretation of Isa 11:1.113 One could argue that even though Paul undoubtedly follows a messianic interpretation of Isa 11:10, he might have known of such a collective interpretation. This, however, remains a merely hypothetical assumption, for we do not have any evidence for such a reading (at Paul’s time). On the contrary, Second Temple writings rather support an individual and messianic interpretation of Isa 11:10.114 Altogether, there are some good reasons for a collective reading, but the counterarguments prevail.115 Furthermore, Paul’s use of Isa 11:10 can already be sufficiently explained by his sensitive reading of Scripture. Thus, it seems quite likely that Paul was simply aware of the positive undertone struck by Isa 11:10 and therefore quoted the verse without intending or having in mind a collective reading.

109  The formulation ἐπί αὐτῷ in v. 12b refers to the person of Christ and does not denote the reason for hope. 110  Jewett, Romans, 895. 111 Ibid. 112  Actually, it is even almost certain that Isa 11:10 is an editorial comment on Isa 11 as a whole. See, e. g., Willem A. M. Beuken, Jesaja 1–12, HTKAT (Freiburg: Herder, 2003), 315; Brevard Childs, Isaiah, OTL (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2000), 105–6; Ronald E. Clements, Isaiah 1–39, NCB (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 125; Otto K aiser, Isaiah 1–12: A Commentary, trans. R. A. Wilson (London: SCM, 1972), 155. 113 Jacob Stromberg, “The ‘Root of Jesse’ in Isaiah 11:10: Postexilic Judah, or Postexilic Davidic King?” JBL 127.4 (2008): 655–69 (here 657): “In their view, long after exile had removed Israel’s kingship, Isa 11:10 was added to reinterpret 11:1 as the postexilic community. Thus, 11:10 is an attempt to apply the old promise to a new day. The ‘root,’ for these scholars, is the community that survived the exile.” 114  See, e. g., Sir 47:22; Sib. Or. 3:385–95; T. Jud. 24:5–6; 1QSb 5.21–26; 4Q161 (=4QpIsaa) 8–10.iii.11–22; 4Q174 (=4QFlor) 1.11; 4Q285 5.1–6. 115  For a thorough discussion, see Stromberg, “Root of Jesse,” 655–69. Isaiah 11 is most closely linked to Isa 60–62.



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3.4.2  Isa 66:18–21 as Reference Text for Paul’s Priestly Service and his travel plans to Spain? Like his earlier self-depiction in Rom 9–11, it is also in the context of Rom 15:14– 21 that Paul presents himself as ambassador of Jesus Christ. In v. 16a Paul calls himself a “minister of Christ Jesus” (λειτουργός Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ), which in itself does not have a priestly connotation.116 The term rather points to Paul’s public role117 (cf. Phil 2:17; 2:25118). However, as Christ’s minister, who has been called by God (Rom 15:15b; cf. 1:5), it is Paul’s “priestly service” (ἱερουργεῖν) to proclaim the gospel. An attentive reader who has the Servant(s) schema in mind might notice echoes of Isa 66:18–21 here. Insofar as Paul’s comment on his priestly service is rather unexpected, it certainly attracts the reader’s attention. In a similar way Isa 66:21 also abruptly speaks of “priests [and Levites]” whom God chooses among his servants. Like the servants or witnesses of Isa 66 who “declare God’s glory among the nations,” Paul proclaims God’s gospel “so that the offering of the Gentiles may be accepted.”119 As Jewett notes, “Gentiles who were formerly kept at distance from the altar in Yahweh’s temple are now brought near to a sacrifice that is ‘well-pleasing.’”120 Even if no verbatim agreements can be found between Rom 15 and Isa 66:18–21, those similarities are hardly accidental. Pauline scholarship has discussed a relation between these two passages for another reason. According to Roger D. Aus and Rainer Riesner, Paul thought the prophecy of Isa 66:19 to be fulfilled in his own mission activity, which then would be reflected in Paul’s travel plans to Spain (Rom 15:24).121 In this context Aus assumes that the city of Tarshish, mentioned in Isa 66, can be identified with the Spanish city of Tartessos near the Straits of Gibraltar. At the same time he takes the city as pars pro toto for Spain. However, while Tartessos can in fact 116  This attribution is reminiscent of what we see in Rom 1:1, although Paul changes the title “δοῦλος” to “λειτουργός.” 117  See the comprehensive study provided by Antonino Romeo, “Il termine ΛΕΙΤΟΥΡΓΙΑ nella grecità biblica (Settanta e Nuovo Testamento),” in Miscellanea liturgica in honorem L. Cuniberti Mohlberg, vol. 2, ed. Leo C. Mohlberg, BEL 23 (Rome: Edizioni Liturgiche, 1949), 467–519. The genitive construction makes Paul appear as an “agent” or “ambassador” of Christ. A priestly connotation of the term is rejected by (among others) Jewett, Romans, 906; Wolter, Der Brief an die Römer II, 424. 118  Not even in the Septuagint does the term continuously have a priestly connotation: see e. g., LXX 2 Sam 19:19; 1 Kgs 1:4, 15; 19:21; 1 Chr 27:1; 2 Chr 17:19; 22:8; Ps 100:6. 119  In contrast to Paul and Isa 66:18–19:21, Isa 66:20 only speaks of the Israelites who are brought back from the Diaspora as an offering (δῶρον) to the Lord. This difference is one reason why Blenkinsopp argues that Isa 66:20 is a later interpolation, intended to correct vv. 18–19, 21. See Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66: A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB (New York: Doubleday, 2003), 313–15. 120  Jewett, Romans, 907. 121 Rainer Riesner, Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology, trans. D. Stott (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 246; Roger D. Aus, “Paul’s Travel Plans to Spain and the ‘Full Number of Gentiles’ of Rom xi.25,” NovT 21 (1979): 232–62.

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sometimes be considered as the end of the earth (cf. LXX Ps 48:7–10; 71:8.10; Jonah 1:3), one wonders why Paul in Rom 15:24 skips the city’s name, if he really wanted to allude to Isa 66. Furthermore, Tarshish appears in Isa 66:19 as the starting point for God’s mission to the Gentiles, not as the destination of someone’s mission.122 As Jewish and Greek sources indicate, Spain was often identified with the end – or more precisely – one end of the earth (see, e. g., Ps Sol 8:15 f.; Strabo, Geogr. 2.5.14; 3.1.8). Accordingly, Paul’s travel plans might be derived from other texts as well. Thus, his quotation of Isa 52:15 in Rom 15:21 reveals that his plans to travel to Spain must also be seen in relation to his rule not to missionize where Christ has already been heard. Allan Chapple has more recently argued for the influence of Isa 49:6.123 Paul uses Isa 49 elsewhere, too, when he is reflecting on his own mission work (2 Cor 6:2; Gal 1:15; Phil 2:16). Interestingly, in 2 Cor 6:4–5 and Acts 13:47, the use of Isa 49:6 marks a shift from singular to plural proclamation. In Rom 15:14–24 Paul also presupposes that his fellow Christians participate in his mission. When he addresses his fellow Christians as “my brothers” (v. 14a), this already indicates respect and emphasizes a shared social status.124 In the following (v. 14b–c) Paul describes his fellow Christians as full of “goodness” (ἀγαθωσύνη), filled with every kind of knowledge (γνῶσις), and capable to admonish one another (ἀλλήλους νουθετεῖν) – just as Paul has admonished them. The use of the accusative pronoun ἀλλήλους (cf. Rom 12:10) in combination with the verb νουθετεῖν is remarkable, because it suggests a principle of “ethical reciprocity”125 otherwise quite uncommon in ancient literature.126 122  This is why Riesner identifies Tarshish with Tarsus instead (cf. Josephus, Ant. 1:127), and sees the “distant islands” as the ends of the earth. See Riesner, Early Period, 245–53. However, this is also unlikely, because Spain is otherwise never called an island. 123 Allan Chapple, “Why Spain? Paul and His Mission Plans,” JSPL 1.2 (2011): 193–212 (here 204 f.). 124  Jan N. Bremmer rightly states that “[i]t is a rather amazing characteristic of early Christian life that the members of the congregation addressed one another as ‘brother’ or ‘sister’”; see Jan N. Bremmer, Maidens, Magic and Martyrs in Early Christianity. Collected Essays I, WUNT 379 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), 20. However, this does not mean that members of an association could not also occasionally address one another as brothers; see Philip A. Harland, “Familial Dimensions of Group Identity: ‘Brothers’ (ἀδελφοί) in Associations of the Greek East,” JBL 124 (2005): 491–513; cf. e. g., IKilikiaBM II 201 lines 25, 28, 29; 69–70 AC in George E. Bean and Terence B. Mitford (eds.), Journeys in Rough Cilicia, 1964–1968, 2 vols. (Vienna: Böhlaus, 1965–1970). 125 See Wolter, Der Brief an die Römer II, 283f, 422: “In der Umwelt des frühen Christentums gibt es solche, am Prinzip der egalitären Reziprozität orientierten Mahnungen vor allem dort, wo es um das Verhältnis von Geschwistern und Freunden geht. Es ist dabei immer wieder die Aufforderung zur wechselseitigen Liebe unter Brüdern, die auf diese Weise vorgetragen wird” (283). Cf. Xenophon, Mem. 2.7.1; Aristotle, Eth. nic. 1156b29–30; 1162b7–8. 126 However, see Col 3:16; 1 Clem 56:2; 2 Clem 17:2, and 1 Thess 5:11 (παρακαλεῖτε ἀλλήλους).

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Even though Rom 15:14 f. functions as captatio benevolentiae,127 Paul’s high opinion towards Christ-believers in Rome can hardly be dismissed as a rhetorical device only. In v. 24 he also asks for support from the Roman congregations and expresses his hope “to be sent” (προπέμπειν) to Spain with their help. Due to the situational character of Paul’s writing this cooperative interaction is not reflected systematically and the expression προπέμπειν remains somewhat vague. Does this help only include material support necessary for the journey, or does it also imply personal assistance or even accompaniment?128 Paul certainly needed the help of translators and “networkers” to get his missionary activity in Spain started. Admittedly, the Servant(s) schema does not receive much more attention in Rom 15. Paul’s reflections on the Gentile mission and his travel plans can be aligned with this previous evoked schema, but Paul does not reflect on this in more detail.

4.  Concluding Remarks In this essay I have argued that from a cognitive-narratological point of view the Servant figure can be considered as something similar to a “transworld identity.” When examining Paul’s letter to the Romans, this heuristic turns out to be useful at least in two ways. First, this approach sensitizes the reader to the fact that Paul’s allusions to the Servant(s) theme must not be limited to explicit lexical references to the book of Isaiah only. Rather, it is also by distinctive character traits and the characters’ actantial role that Paul’s readers recognize the servants. Thus, when in Rom 4:25–5:11, 8:18–30, and 8:31–39 Christ-followers are portrayed as a righteous, suffering community, who are yet hopeful – due to their insight into God’s plan and the guidance of God’s Spirit – Paul’s readers certainly catch this allusion in the reading process. Second, schema theory helps to explain how Paul’s readers relate different allusions in the reading process and build an image of the Servant(s) in their minds. Thus, when Paul does not simply repeat earlier features of the servants, but in Rom 8:14–17 and Rom 8:19–22 adds further attributes, namely the idea of sonship, inheritance, vindication, and cosmic restoration, these features are added to the mental representation. 127 

Cf. Aristotle, Rhet. 3.14.7. Most commentators agree that this verb “implies the provision of rations, money, means of transportation, letters of introduction, and escort for some part of the way [to Spain]” C. E. B. Cranfield, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. Volume 2, ICC (Edinburgh: Clark, 1979), 769. 128 

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As indicated by Paul’s rather implicit use of the Servant(s) schema in Rom 10 and 15, the “apostle to the nations” does not only perceive himself as a paradigmatic Israelite, but actually presupposes that his fellow Christians participate in this mission. However, this idea is not yet fully spelled out in Romans, due to the fact that Paul in the latter chapters of his writing rather reflects on his own role vis-à-vis the nations.

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Nickelsburg, George W. E. Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertesta­ mental Judaism and Early Christianity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972. Expanded edition, 2006. Niebuhr, Karl-Wilhelm. Heidenapostel aus Israel: Die jüdische Identität des Paulus nach ihrer Darstellung in seinen Briefen. WUNT 62. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992. Öhler, Markus. Geschichte des frühen Christentums. UTB 4737. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2018. Oss, Douglas A. “Paul’s Use of Isaiah and Its Place in His Theology with Special Reference to Romans 9–11.” Ph.D. diss., Westminster Theological Seminary, 1992. Osten-Sacken, Peter von der. Römer 8 als Beispiel paulinischer Soteriologie. FRLANT 112. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975. Patsch, Hermann. “Zum alttestamentlichen Hintergrund von Römer 4,25 und I. Petrus 2,24.” ZNW 60 (1969): 273–79. Pavel, Thomas G. Fictional Worlds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Räisänen, Heikki. Paul and the Law. WUNT 29. 2nd ed. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1987. Rapa, Robert K. The Meaning of the “Works of the Law” in Galatians and Romans. StBibLit 31. New York: Peter Lang, 2001. Reicher, Maria E. “The Ontology of Fictional Characters.” Pages 111–33 in Characters in Fictional Worlds. Understanding Imaginary Beings in Literature, Film and Other Media. Edited by J. Eder et al. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2010. Riesner, Rainer. Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology. Translated by D. Stott. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. Romaniuk, Kazmierz. “De Themate Ebed Jahve in Soteriologia Sancti Pauli.” CBQ 23 (1961): 14–25. Romeo, Antonino. “Il termine ΛΕΙΤΟΥΡΓΙΑ nella grecità biblica (Settanta e Nuovo Testamento).” Pages 467–519 in Miscellanea liturgica in honorem L. Cuniberti Mohlberg. Vol. 2. Edited by Leo C. Mohlberg. BEL 23. Rome: Edizioni Liturgiche, 1949. Rüggemeier, Jan. Poetik der markinischen Christologie. Eine kognitiv-narratologische Exegese. WUNT II/456. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017. Rumelhart, David E. “Notes on a Schema for Stories.” Pages 211–36 in Representation and Understanding. Studies in Cognitive Science. Edited by D. G. Bobrow and A. Collins. New York: Academic Press, 1975. –. “Schemata. The Building Blocks of Cognition.” Pages 33–58 in Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension. Edited by R. J. Spiro et al. Hillsdale: Erlbaum, 1980. Ryan, Marie-Laure. Possible Worlds. Artificial Intelligence and Narrative Theory. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991. Schäfer, Simon M. Gegenwart in Relation. Eine Studie zur präsentischen Eschatologie bei Paulus ausgehend von Römer 5–8. WMANT 152. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2018. Schank, Roger C., and Robert P. Abelson. Scripts, Plans, Goals and Understanding. An Inquiry into Human Knowledge Structures. Artificial Intelligence Series. Hillsdale: Erlbaum, 1977. Schneider, Ralf. Grundriß zur kognitiven Theorie der Figurenrezeption am Beispiel des viktorianischen Romans. Tübingen: Stauffenburg Verlag, 2000. –. “Toward a Cognitive Theory of Literary Character: The Dynamics of Mental-Model Construction.” Style 35 (2001): 607–39. Schrage, Wolfgang. “Leid Kreuz und Eschaton: Die Peristasenkataloge als Merkmale paulinischer theologia crucis und Eschatologie.” EvT 34 (1974): 141–75.

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Scott, James M. Adoption as Sons of God. An Exegetical Investigation into the Background of ΥΙΟΘΕΣΙΑ in the Pauline Corpus. WUNT II/48. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992. Shaw, Brendt D. “The Myth of the Neronian Persecution.” JRS 105 (2015): 73–100. Shum, Shiu-Lun. Paul’s Use of Isaiah in Romans. A Comparative Study of Paul’s Letter to the Romans and the Sibylline and Qumran Sectarian Texts. WUNT II/15. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2002. Smith, Martin S. “Greek Adoptive Formulae.” CQ 17 (1967): 302–10. Stanley, Christopher D. Paul and the Language of Scripture: Citation Technique in the Pauline Epistles and Contemporary Literature. SNTSMS 69. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Stromberg, Jacob. Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. –. “The ‘Root of Jesse’ in Isaiah 11:10: Postexilic Judah, or Postexilic Davidic King?” JBL 127.4 (2008): 655–69. Stuhlmacher, Peter. Der Brief an die Römer. NTD 6. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1998. Suggs, M. Jack. “Wisdom of Solomon 2:10–5: A  Homily Based on the Fourth Servant Song.” JBL 76.1 (1957): 26–33. Wagner, J. Ross. Heralds of the Good News: Isaiah and Paul ‘In Concert’ in the Letter to the Romans. NovTSup 101. Leiden: Brill, 2002. Wengst, Klaus. Christologische Formeln und Lieder des Urchristentums. SNT 7. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 1972. Windsor, Lionel J. Paul and the Vocation of Israel. How Paul’s Jewish Identity Informs his Apostolic Ministry, with Special Reference to Romans. BZNW 205. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2014.

Paul and Isaiah’s Servants in 2 Corinthians Mark S. Gignilliat 1. Introduction Returning to the topic of one’s dissertation entails blessings and curses.1 Over a decade ago, I, like so many aspiring doctoral students, was knocking around for a suitable dissertation topic. During a postgraduate seminar on Isaiah with Professor Christopher Seitz, I stumbled onto the work of Willem Beuken, particularly his seminal article on the “servants” of Third Isaiah.2 Beuken identified the servants, first introduced in Isa 54:17, as the major theme of Isaiah 56–66. Brevard Childs’s Isaiah commentary was our only secondary text for the Isaiah seminar, and he too, in conversation with Beuken, identified the servants as a, if not the, major theme of Isaiah 56–66. I had spent some time in Isaiah before my doctoral studies began but had not encountered this Isaianic theme and was intrigued. What were the prophetic dynamics at play that moved from Isaiah 40– 55’s signal dramatic figure – the servant – to Isaiah 56–66’s presentation of the emerging dramatis personae, viz., the servants (plural)? As students of Isaiah know, after Isaiah 53 the term ‫ ﬠבד‬never again appears in the singular but only in the plural form ‫ﬠבדים‬. The seed of the dissertation topic was then planted. But what about Paul? Narrative dynamics in Paul’s thought were the rage during my postgraduate days, and I  was still inebriated by my initial reading of Richard Hays’ Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul. In a seminar, my own Doktorvater made a joke about all the dissertations out there on Paul’s reading of Isaiah. I laughed 1 Mark Gignilliat, Paul and Isaiah’s Servants: Paul’s Theological Reading of Isaiah 40–66 in 2 Corinthians 5.14–6.10, LNTS 330 (London: T&T Clark, 2007). 2  W. A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH,” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87; idem, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55,” in Le Livre D’Isaïe: Les Oracles et Leurs Relectures Unité et Complexité de L’Ouvrage, ed. Jacques Vermeylen, BETL 81 (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 411–42; idem, “Isaiah liv: The Multiple Identity of the Person Addressed,” in Language and Meaning: Studies in Hebrew Language and Biblical Exegesis, ed. A. S. van der Woude, OTS 19 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974), 29–70. Joseph Blenkinsopp has worked on the “servants” motif in Isaiah 56–66 as well; see Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66: A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19B (New York: Doubleday, 2003). Blenkinsopp’s religious-historical/ phenomenological approach differs from Beuken’s more literary interests. Beuken’s analysis is in this regard more germane to Paul’s textured reading of the literary corpus with little concern for religious-historical reconstruction.

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with everyone else in the room as I  went back to my study carrel to work on Paul’s reading of Isaiah. Yet, there was and is something about Paul’s reading of Scripture that continues to intrigue Bible readers today for a host of differing reasons. Does Paul model for us a distinctively Christian hermeneutic? Are his reading practices transferrable, or hostage to first-century interpretive instincts and methods? Does Paul follow a particular interpretive approach common to a first-century interpretive community: Qumran, proto-Rabbinic, etc.? These are questions that continue to occupy the scholarly community. In this essay, I wish to turn back to the relationship between the figures of the servant(s) in Isaiah 40–66 and Paul’s presentation of reconciliation’s principal agents in 2 Corinthians 5:14–6:10. My approach is more literary in orientation, seeking to calibrate a reading strategy where Paul’s and Isaiah’s presentations of redemption’s principal agents and objects – Servant and servants – are read in mimetic relation to each other. One critical question does rise to the surface on the front end of this essay. Are we finger painting with the Scripture’s linguistic repository, or is there something emerging from the text itself that invites this kind of inner-canonical conversation? I believe part of the answer to this question lies within the scope of Paul’s own Isaianic hint in 2 Cor 6:2. Here Paul quotes Isa 49:8 and its promise of a future day of salvation,3 clarifying as he does the current eschatological moment: “Now is the day of salvation” (2 Cor 6:2b). The Isaianic quotation on the surface structure of 2 Corinthians serves as an entry point into Paul’s larger understanding of Isaiah 40–66’s principal agents. Isaiah’s promise of future salvation and Paul’s apostolic insistence on this moment as Isaiah’s promised future time allows for a reading of mutual reciprocity. For Paul, the “now” moment of God’s saving action in history is the hermeneutical open door to Isaiah’s prophetic presentation. The Isaianic word “back then” becomes the redemptive script and lived experience of Paul’s eschatological νῦν καιρὸς. So, who were the redemptive agents of Isaiah’s promised future as expressed in Isa 49:8 and actualized in 2 Cor 5:14–6:10? Our attention turns now to this question.

2.  Isaiah’s Pattern of Eschatological Redemption The redemptive promises of Isaiah 40–53 center on the unfolding of its central persona: the servant of the Lord. Isaiah’s servant appears as a concrete answer to Judah’s cry for justice in Isa 40:27. In the first of the so-called servant songs, the servant emerges as a figure chosen and empowered by the Spirit’s anointing for a royal task, namely, the establishment of justice (‫ )מׁשפט‬for the nations (Isa 42:7) and comfort for Yhwh’s people. The presentation of the servant in Isaiah 40–53 3 

καιρῷ δεκτῷ ἐπήκουσά σου καὶ ἐν ἡμέρᾳ σωτηρίας ἐβοήθησά σοι (Isa 49:8 // 2 Cor 6:2a).



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is not seamless, however, and leaves the reader with challenges regarding the servant’s identity.4 In large measure, the challenge regarding the servant’s identity is the clear identification of the servant with Israel in 40–48 (see esp. Isaiah 41). As Wilcox and Paton-Williams observe, the depiction of the servant in these chapters suggests “a consistent identification of the two,” to wit, the servant is Israel, and Israel is the servant.5 The challenge lies on the far side of Isaiah 48 where the depiction of the servant in individual terms becomes acute enough to problematize any facile identification of the servant with empirical Israel. The shift in the servant’s narrative depiction takes place on the far side of the announcement of “new” and “hidden” things in Isa 48:6. It also takes place after the portrayal of Israel’s covenant infidelity and forfeited blessings (48:17–19). There Israel’s forfeiture is presented in terms of the Abrahamic covenant and the loss of a prolific offspring (‫ ;כחול זרﬠך‬cf. Gen 22:17; Isa 41:8–10). The servant’s emerging identity in chapters 49–54 leans into the newness of Isaiah’s promise, particularly as this promise focuses on the restoration of the promised, yet forfeited, seed/offspring spoken of in 48:17–19. The new things in Yhwh’s economy of grace center on Yhwh’s self-determination to make good on his Abrahamic promises made so long ago in the face of and despite Judah’s persistent habit of covenant infidelity. As the redemptive pattern unfolds, the servant emerges as the unique means of Yhwh’s restorative action. In brief, the servant’s offspring are Abraham’s offspring (Isa 53:10).6 I will turn back to this matter in due course. Isaiah 49 proves crucial to one’s coming to terms with the dynamic of the servant’s emerging identity in 40–54. This chapter leaves readers with an internal and intentional tension. Clearly in Isa 49:3, the servant’s identity is predicated with Israel simpliciter. This feature of the servant’s identity comes as no surprise given the portrayal up to this point. Yet a few verses later in this chapter, the servant Israel has a mission to Israel – bringing back the tribes of Jacob and Israel (49:6). Readers are left with a basic question of identification: is the servant Israel or not? With good reason, Wilcox and Paton-Williams describe the second servant song as “without doubt, the most awkward of the servant songs.”7 The awkwardness Wilcox and Paton-Williams describe pertains to the servant’s identity and the tension described above. In their reading, the servant after chapter 48 becomes more clearly identified with the prophet himself. To their question, “Is 4  On the character and identity distinction of the servant in Isaiah 40–48, see Peter Wilcox and David Paton-Williams, “The Servant Songs in Deutero-Isaiah,” JSOT 42 (1988): 79–102 (here 85–88). 5  Ibid., 81. 6 See Mark S. Gignilliat, “Isaiah’s Offspring: Paul’s Isaiah 54:1 Quotation in Galatians 4:27,” BBR 25 (2015): 205–23. 7  Wilcox and Paton-Williams, “Servant Songs,” 88.

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the servant Israel, or the prophet, or what?”, Wilcox and Paton-Williams answer with, “the prophet.” The prophet emerges as the embodiment of Israel who is given a mission to Israel and the nations.8 What was once the responsibility of Israel’s election – to be a light to the nations – now becomes the special vocation of the servant both for the nations and for Israel. Brevard Childs resists the urge to identify the servant of Isaiah 49:1–6 with the prophet, though he too recognizes the internal tensions of the servant’s identity in this section. Childs follows closely the text’s verbal sense and claims, but is slower to speculate on the servant’s historical identity. In other words, Childs allows the textual silence on the servant’s identity to remain silent. Speculation about the historical identity of the servant “misses the point of the text.”9 The firstperson voice of Isa 49:1–6 remains “concealed” for the purposes of witnessing to an historical figure who emerges from within Israel as a faithful embodiment of Israel for Israel and the nations. In terms of mimetic logic, the figure’s concealed identity remains open for fulfillment or embodiment in future times as well.10 If Isaiah’s own verbal sense adds pressure to our reading of 2 Corinthians 5:14– 6:10, especially given the quotation of Isa 49:8 at 6:2, then this chapter proves crucial to our reading. The introduction of the servant at 49:7 keeps this persona in view, making clear the servant’s instrumental role in the eschatological moment of salvation announced in 49:8.11 The eschatological “but now” of 49:5 and the “hour of favor” in 49:8 pertain to the mission of Yhwh’s servant: establishing justice in the world, being a light to the nations, and releasing captives/opening blind eyes.12 The antecedent of the second person pronouns of 49:8 – “in the hour of favor I have answered you” – is not ambiguous. The day of salvation is the day of the servant’s mission as a covenant of the people (49:8b). Seitz even suggests the elaboration of the servant theme in 49:8–13 is properly understood as the servants’ later and confident assertation that what God promised with the servant will in time prevail.13 Our attention will return to Paul in due course, but the reading on offer in this chapter rests on the portrayal of Isaiah’s servant and the extension of the servant’s mission and identity via his offspring the servants. The larger tableau 8 

Ibid., 89–93. Childs, Isaiah, OTL (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 385. 10  Childs (Isaiah, 385) reads ‫ נקל‬in 49:6 as the antonym of being glorified in v. 5. In other words, the expansion of the Servant’s mission to include the nations is not set over against the call to restore Israel. Rather, the restoration of Israel is the least part of the Servant’s mission that always had the nations in view. The Servant’s mission reveals YHWH’s identity as the God of all creation. 11  Note the language of “choosing” (‫ )בחר‬at the end of 49:7 (cf. 42:1). A measure of continuity is present in the final form of Isaiah’s depiction of the Servant. 12 See Childs, Isaiah, 386–87. 13 Christopher R. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible VI, ed. Leander E. Keck (Nashville: Abingdon, 2001), 307–552 (here 430). 9 Brevard

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of Isaiah’s redemptive movements in Isaiah 40–66 along with its future eschatological hope is insolubly linked to the servant’s person and work. The extension of the servant’s work, along with a significant actualization of its future promises, takes up residence with the servant’s offspring, namely, the servants. It is not beyond the pale to claim that within the wide-angle frame of Isaiah’s final form, the quotation of Isaiah 49:8 takes this larger perspective of the servant’s person, mission, and offspring in view. Such Isaianic categories of identifying the servant and the servants provide semantic distinctions that aid in our reading of Paul. The servants understand their mission in light of the anterior and prior work of the servant. As will be noted, narrative descriptions overlap between the servant and the servants. Yet a distinction in identity and priority remain much like what one finds in the canonical portrayal of Moses (servant of Yhwh) and Joshua (servant of Moses). The Isaianic servants are the seed/offspring (‫ )זרﬠ‬the servant sees from his suffering (Isa 53:10). They are fruit and reward of the servant’s innocent suffering and place-taking: the many made righteous by the knowledge of him (53:11). They are the servant’s reward and the extension of his person and work. W. A. M. Beuken’s targeted studies on the “servants” theme provide the lion’s share of exegetical work establishing its thematic centrality in Isaiah 54–66.14 As mentioned in the introduction, the first mention of the plural ‫ ﬠבדים‬in contrast to the singular ‫ ﬠבד‬of 40–53 is Isa 54:17. After this first mention, the term is found solely in plural form (Isa 63:17; 65:8–9, 13–15; 66:14). It cannot be said, however, that the term ‫ ﬠבדים‬is found at every turn in the corpus known as TritoIsaiah.15 How then can Beuken claim that the ‫ ﬠבדי יהוה‬are “the” main theme of Trito-Isaiah?16 Beuken’s search for a thematic thread is not limited to a concordance approach to linguistic and intertextual phenomena hemmed in by the particularity of one lexeme.17 Two other linguistic terms are related to the same semantic notion as the ‫ﬠבדים‬, namely, “seed” (‫ )זרﬠ‬and “righteous/ness” (various forms of ‫)צדק‬. By means of aposiopesis, a rhetorical device where the absence of a term creates its louder presence, Beuken demonstrates the thematic centrality of the “servants” 14 

LIV.”

Beuken, “Main Theme”; idem, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings”; idem, “Isaiah

15  The term “Trito-Isaiah” is anachronistic given the subject of this study. Nevertheless, the term can be deployed as a literary marker without the adjoining critical theories of the compositional history of the book. 16  Brevard Childs’ commentary on Isaiah affirms Beuken’s conclusions. Materially speaking, Childs exchanges the definite article “the” with the indefinite “a”; see Childs, Isaiah, 446. 17  Leonard specifies shared language and lexical markers as the most important feature for identifying intertextual allusions; see J. M. Leonard, “Identifying Inner-Biblical Allusions: Psalm 78 as a Test Case,” JBL 127 (2008): 241–65 (here 246). See also Sommer’s engagement with Ben-Porat’s four elements for identifying textual allusions in Benjamin Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40–66 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 10–14.

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to chapters 56:9–59:21 and 60:1–63:6 despite the term’s absence in these literary locations. Beuken makes his case for the servants as the main theme of 56–66 by means of a careful analysis of the other two “accompanying notions.”18 Our attention will return in due course to the semantic interdependence of seed, righteous(ness), and servants, for the main point of the exegetical argument rests here. By way of anticipation, however, the servant sees his seed (‫ )זרﬠ‬in Isa 53:10, a seed made righteous (‫ )צדק‬by the work of the servant (53:11). The righteous offspring of 53:10 is properly identified in the literary unfolding of the book as the ‫ﬠבדים‬. A full rehearsal of Beuken’s exegetical arguments will take us too far afield. Nevertheless, a few of his more salient insights are worth rehearsing. In the first section, 56:9–63:6, the ‫ ﬠבדים‬bear a resemblance to the ‫ ﬠבד‬of Isaiah 53 in that the servants are righteous (57:1–2), and they suffer under the hand of the wicked. Again, the shared semantic field of righteous(ness), seed, and servants bears materially on the identification of this coherent thematic element in the latter part of Isaiah. The description of the wicked standing over against the righteous is noteworthy. In Isa 57:3–4, the metaphor of children and offspring provides a stark counterbalance to the offspring language predicated on the servants. The wicked are ‫( זרﬠ מנאף‬57:3), ‫( ילדי־פשׁﬠ‬57:4, a thematic link to the introductory and concluding theme of the book in Isaiah 1 and 66), and ‫( זרﬠ שׁקר‬57:4). The wicked offspring of the adulterous woman of 57:3–10 is juxtaposed to the righteous offspring of the servant promised in 53:10. Though most often translated as “vindication,” it is worth observing the use of ‫ צדקה‬in Isa 54:17 (‫)זאת נחלת ﬠבדי יהוה וצדקתם מאתי נאם־יהוה‬. The ‫ ﬠבדים‬of 54:17 are those whose ‫ צדקה‬has its source in Yhwh. When the question arises, “Who exactly are these servants?,” the confluence of the seed and righteous(ness) motifs again makes its presence known. In anticipation of a contextual hearing of Isa 54:1 for the sake of engaging Paul more fully, Goldingay raises and answers this question: “Who are these servants? Insofar as 17b follows on 54:1–17a, they might be the children of the woman that chapter addresses, the disciples of v. 13.”19 The significance of this matter will be returned to in due course. Nevertheless, it is important to keep before the reader the critical interface of the servants of Isa 54:17, seed/ offspring, and righteous(ness), especially as these impinge on the child/offspring motif so central to chapter 54 as a whole. The contrast between the righteous and the godless presents itself in chapter 59 as well. Iniquity (‫ )ﬠון‬and sin (‫ )חטאה‬have separated Yhwh from his people (59:1–8). The result of this covenantal fissure is the absence of peace (‫ )שׁלום‬and justice (‫ ;משׁפט‬59:8). In the midst of the iniquitous scene emerge those who rec18  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 68. A  helpful description of aposiopesis is found in Ward Farnsworth, Farnsworth’s Classical English Rhetoric (Boston: David R. Godine, 2011), 182–93. 19 John Goldingay, The Message of Isaiah 40–55: A  Literary-Theological Commentary (London: T&T Clark, 2005), 544.



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ognize themselves as such, acknowledge their lack of righteousness, and respond to the prophetic call to repentance (59:9–20).20 The promised redeemer (‫)גואל‬ of 59:20 comes to those in Jacob who turn (‫ )שׁוב‬from their rebellion (‫)פשׁﬠ‬.21 The shared imagery of 40–53’s servant and these righteous figures who emerge as the repentant faithful forges a literary connection between the two. Beuken observes two of these connections. The third of the so-called “servant songs” ends with a call to obedience to the voice of the servant (50:10). The imagery deployed is the contrast of light and darkness. Light and darkness form the focal point for the lack of righteousness observed by the servants of 59:9 as well. In addition to Beuken’s analysis, one observes light (‫ )אור‬and justice (‫)משׁפט‬ as ingredient terms within the second “servant song,” i. e., Isa 49:1–6. On the far side of the servants’ turning from rebellion (59:20) toward the righteousness of Yhwh, a covenant is made with these servants that alludes back to the first “servant song,” Isa 42:1. One observes both in 59:21 and 42:1 the Spirit of Yhwh (‫ )רוחי‬placed on the servant (42:1) and the servants (59:21).22 The servants share in the ministry of the servant by the anointing of the self-same Spirit of the Lord. Moreover, the promise of the covenant made with these servants is a promise whose substance is located in the enduring character of Yhwh’s word, a word placed on their mouths and the mouths of their offspring: ‫ודברי אשׁר־שׂמתי בפיך‬ ‫( לא־ימושׁו מפיך ומפי זרﬠך ומפי זרﬠ זרﬠך אמר יהוה‬Isa 59:21). The promise to servant Jacob and his seed in Isa 44:1–5 – “I will pour my spirit upon your offspring” – is actualized in the offspring more explicitly identified as the servants in the book’s literary development (cf. 43:5; 45:19, 25).23 20  Janowski provides three characterizations of the “we” speakers in Isaiah 53. In paraphrastic form, they are as follows: 1) The consequences of the “we” speakers’ actions which they should have borne are placed onto another; 2) The “we” recognize this place-taking and acknowledge their guilt is borne by the servant as their own; and 3) In retrospect, the “we” recognize their own guilt and the servant’s innocence. See Bernd Janowski, “He Bore Our Sins: Isaiah 53 and the Drama of Taking Another’s Place,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, trans. Daniel P. Bailey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 48–74 (here 69–70). In his commentary on Isaiah 40–66, Christopher Seitz identifies the “we” voice as the ‫ ﬠבדים‬who are the ones responding in obedience to the call of the servant (Isa 50:10) and who act as heralds of his work; see Seitz, “Isaiah 40–66,” 465. 21  The importance of ‫( פשׁﬠ‬cf. chaps. 1 and 66) to the editorial shaping of the book is an interpretive crux; see H. G. M. Williamson, Isaiah 1–5, ICC (London: T&T Clark, 2006), 9–10, 34. 22  Stromberg provides further support for the connection between the ‫ ﬠבד‬of 40–53 and the ‫ ﬠבדים‬of 54–66 by drawing attention to the parallel expression ‫ בחירי‬in 42:1a; 45:4; 65:9, 15. See Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 81. 23  Koole leans against earlier arguments identifying the addressee as the prophet himself and newer arguments (e. g., Watts) identifying the figure as Cyrus. For Koole, the lexical sharing between this section and the servant songs presses for an understanding of the figure as the servant; see Jan L. Koole, Isaiah. Part 3, HCOT (Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1997–98), 211–14. In light of Beuken’s analysis, the ambiguity between the servant and the servants (his offspring)

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What begins to emerge is the unmistakable centrality of the “offspring” theme in Isaiah 40–66. This literary dynamic trades on the organic relationship between the servant (40–53) and the servants (54–66). The righteous servant is promised offspring (‫ )זרﬠ‬made righteous by his own work. Spieckermann clarifies: “It is this Suffering Servant of whom God says in the closing part of the song (53:11aβ–12) … will, through his vicarious act as the righteous one (‫)צדיק‬, effect righteousness (‫ צדק‬hifil) for the many (‫)רבים‬.”24 The ‫ רבים‬within the literary movement from 53:10–11 are to be identified with the ‫ זרﬠ‬seen by the servant: ‫ רבים‬and ‫ זרﬠ‬link 54:1–3 to 53:10–11. The portrayal of the servants in Isaiah 54–66 reveal their sharing in the person and mission of the servant of the Lord. They too live in the eschatological tension of suffering in righteousness while awaiting the fulfillment of future promises (Isa 53:10–12 and 65:13–16). As Seitz reminds, “From chapter 54 to 66, the servant is replaced by servants. They share in the servant’s affliction, for the sake of God’s righteousness.”25 While in the current moment, the servants herald the message of the good news, announcing the retrospective significance of the servant’s person and work. We see this feature of the servant’s identity emerging in Isa 52:7 and in 53:1 where the servants’ heralding activity is located with the first-person voice of “Who has believed our message?” (cf. Isa 61:1– 3).”26 The year of the Lord’s favor is bound up with the announcement of the new things of God’s redemptive work in his servant and the servants’ extension of his work in their heralding activities and shared sufferings.

3.  Paul: Herald of the Servant in 2 Corinthians 5:14–6:10 The suggestion of this essay is as follows: Isaiah’s eschatological moment and agents of redemption, announced and narrated so long ago, figure Paul’s own apostolic identity and eschatological realism. He announces the new creation promised by Isa 65:17 in 2 Cor 5:17, a new creation whose presence in Isaiah should not take us by surprise, so much so, that pressing for a clear identification of servant or servants is beside the point. The latter are the extension of the former, distinct, yet overlapping in identity. 24 Hermann Spieckermann, “The Conception and Prehistory of the Idea of Vicarious Suffering in the Old Testament,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, trans. Daniel Bailey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 1–15 (here 5). 25 Christopher R. Seitz, Figured Out: Typology and Providence in Christian Scripture (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 115. 26 See Beuken, “Servant and Herald.” Seitz (“Isaiah 40–66,” 424) states, “They [the servants] saw the deeper significance in his [servant’s] death than others saw in his death and the fulfillment of God’s earlier promises … This radical and bracing proclamation the servants judge to be the continuation of the work of the servant, whose death did not bring defeat but the possibility of a new beginning.”

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is linked to the new name given to the servants (Isa 65:15; cf. 62:2). For Paul, the new creation takes place because of the love Christ demonstrates in his own self-giving and place-taking (2 Cor 5:14–15). Paul’s description of Christ’s place-taking death and the great exchange of 5:21 echo Isaiah 53’s account of the servant: he became sin (cf. Isa 53:10).27 Paul narrates his own identity as an agent of reconciliation whose primary role is the announcement of God’s reconciling activity: “Be reconciled to God” (5:20). Within this text, Paul also embodies his heralding role when he proclaims, “Behold, now is the ‘acceptable time’; behold, now is the ‘day of salvation’” (6:2). Moreover, Paul enters into shared suffering with Christ, the dynamic of which is observed in the depiction of the servants in Isaiah 54–66 and of Paul’s apostolic identity in 2 Cor 6:3–10. Earlier in the epistle, Paul narrates his own suffering as a participation in the suffering of Christ – a “carrying around” of the death of Jesus in Paul’s body (2 Cor 4:10; cf. 1:5a). Yet, with the servants of Isaiah, Paul’s current suffering opens to the future of God’s vindication in the resurrection of the dead (2 Cor 4:13–14; cf. 1:9–10). Because this Isaianic dynamic is so, Paul can say with measured confidence, “So we do not lose heart” (2 Cor 4:16). Paul lives in the eschatological tension of current redemption  – new creation! (2 Cor 5:17)  – and future fulfillment  – “as dying, and behold, we live” (2 Cor 6:9). Both the identifiable echoes to Isaiah (Isa 65:17 in 2 Cor 5:17; Isa 53:10–11 in 2 Cor 5:21) and the Isaianic quotation at 2 Cor 6:2 (Isa 49:8) are hermeneutically provocative, inviting readers into the wide-angle frame of Isaiah’s own discrete voice. Paul’s description of Christ’s eschatological work alongside Paul’s extension of Christ’s work via his heralding proclamation drip with Isaianic resonances from beginning to end. Paul’s apostolic ministry is one whose redemptive script has been handed to him in Isaianic form. He is enacting a heralding role whose narrative identity emerges from times long past yet is ever present as a living prophetic legacy. The mimetic relation is one whose logic trades on the shared reality and integrity of both figure and future fulfillment, where the former provides the figured redemptive drama for the latter to draw the curtain and take center stage.

4. Conclusion Paul’s consciousness of his eschatological moment in time, as expressed in 2 Cor 6:2, opens a path of entry to Isaiah’s prophetic portrayal of redemption’s signal agents. What was a word from a time then and there becomes the lived moment for Paul and the Corinthian church in the here and now. The Servant produces a righteous offspring from the act of his own self-giving and suffering. 27 

For further elaboration, see Gignilliat, Paul and Isaiah’s Servants, 101–6.

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These servants of the Servant continue in that holy fellowship with the Servant’s person and mission, heralding the gospel of the kingdom, entering into the fellowship of his suffering, and hoping with confidence for future vindication. Paul’s apostolic ministry as expressed in 2 Corinthians breathes the air of this Isaianic redemptive world. The final stanza of T. S. Eliot’s “Little Gidding” is oftrepeated and for good reason: We shall not cease from exploration And the end of all our exploring Will be to arrive where we started And know the place for the first time.28

If I may conscript Eliot for the purpose of this essay, Paul’s apostolic exploration entails at its very core the continued reading and hearing of Israel’s Scriptures. With the revelation of God in Jesus Christ breaking into time, Paul’s reading strategy involves his reading and re-reading of Isaiah. Yet for all of Paul’s familiarity with Isaiah’s prophetic legacy, in the νῦν καιρὸς he has come to know the Isaianic place for the first time, finding within its sacred pages the redemptive script of his own moment in time.

Bibliography Beuken, W. A. M. “Isaiah liv: The Multiple Identity of the Person Addressed.” Pages 29–70 in Language and Meaning: Studies in Hebrew Language and Biblical Exegesis. Edited by A. S. van der Woude. OTS 19. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974. –. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH.’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. –. “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55.” Pages 411–42 in Le Livre D’Isaïe: Les Oracles et Leurs Relectures Unité et Complexité de L’Ouvrage. Edited by Jacques Vermeylen. BETL 81. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 56–66: A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19B. New York: Doubleday, 2003. Childs, Brevard. Isaiah. OTL. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001. Eliot, T. S. “Little Gidding.” Pages 138–45 in The Complete Poems and Plays 1909–1950. New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1980. Farnsworth, Ward. Farnsworth’s Classical English Rhetoric. Boston: David R. Godine, 2011. Gignilliat, Mark S. “Isaiah’s Offspring: Paul’s Isaiah 54:1 Quotation in Galatians 4:27.” BBR 25 (2015): 205–23. –. Paul and Isaiah’s Servants: Paul’s Theological Reading of Isaiah 40–66 in 2 Corinthians 5.14–6.10. LNTS 330. London: T&T Clark, 2007. Goldingay, John. The Message of Isaiah 40–55: A  Literary-Theological Commentary. London: T&T Clark, 2005. 28  T. S. Eliot, “Little Gidding,” in The Complete Poems and Plays 1909–1950 (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1980), 145.



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Janowski, Bernd. “He Bore Our Sins: Isaiah 53 and the Drama of Taking Another’s Place.” Pages 48–74 in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher. Translated by Daniel P. Bailey. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Koole, Jan L. Isaiah. Part 3. HCOT. Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1997–98. Leonard, J. M. “Identifying Inner-Biblical Allusions: Psalm 78 as a Test Case.” JBL 127 (2008): 241–65. Seitz, Christopher R. “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections.” Pages 307–552 in The New Interpreter’s Bible VI. Edited by Leander E. Keck. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001. –. Figured Out: Typology and Providence in Christian Scripture. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001. Sommer, Benjamin. A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40–66. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998. Spieckermann, Hermann. “The Conception and Prehistory of the Idea of Vicarious Suffering in the Old Testament.” Pages 1–15 in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher. Translated by Daniel P. Bailey. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Stromberg, Jacob. Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Wilcox, Peter, and David Paton-Williams. “The Servant Songs in Deutero-Isaiah.” JSOT 42 (1988): 79–102. Williamson, H. G. M. Isaiah 1–5. ICC. London: T&T Clark, 2006.

The Servants of the Servant in Isaiah and Philippians James P. Ware 1.  Introduction: The Servant of Isaiah in Philippians The Servant Songs of Isaiah were a major focus of thought, study, and reflection in Second Temple Judaism.1 The way in which interpretation of the Servant Songs was normally expressed in ancient Judaism was through the cluster of allusion and echo. Paul in Philippians, as we will see, also expresses an interpretation of Isaiah’s Servant Songs and does so by means of scriptural echo and allusion. Therefore, both Paul’s interest in interpretation of the Servant Songs, and the method whereby he indicates this interpretation, are thoroughly Jewish. And yet, as we will see, Paul’s interpretation of the Servant figure of Isaiah, founded in his conviction that Jesus is the Christ, was without parallel in ancient Judaism in several key respects. Moreover, Paul’s interpretation of Isaiah’s Servant Songs raises a striking difficulty, which we will find can only be fully resolved when we grasp the way in which Paul is reading these passages within the context of the text of Isaiah as a whole. The solution to this apparent inconsistency in Paul’s interpretation will thus take us to the very heart of his understanding of the figure of the Servant within the context of the canonical book of Isaiah.

2.  An Individual Figure (Philippians 2:6–11) We begin with Paul’s “Christ hymn” in Philippians 2:6–11. A full analysis of this profound passage is of course well beyond the limits of this essay.2 The feature of the passage that is important for our discussion here is the cluster of scriptural resonances within the hymn. Although debate continues regarding the literary 1  See James P. Ware, Paul and the Mission of the Church: Philippians in Ancient Jewish Context (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011), especially chapter three, “Conversion of Gentiles and Interpretation of Isaiah in Second Temple Judaism,” 93–155. Although Bernhard Duhm’s isolation of the Servant Songs as an independent collection within Isaiah 40–55 without connection to that larger literary context is an exclusively modern conception, there is clear evidence that ancient interpreters did read these poems or parts of them as distinctive contexts within the larger book of Isaiah. It is this sense in which I speak of the “Servant Songs” in this essay. 2  For bibliography, see conveniently Ralph P. Martin, Carmen Christi: Philippians 2.5–11 in Recent Interpretation and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids:

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background of the passage, recent study strongly suggests that Philippians 2:6–9 reflects conscious interpretation of the Isaianic portrayal of the Suffering Servant in Isaiah 52:13–53:12.3 This is suggested not only by the shared storyline of abasement–suffering–death–resurrection–exaltation but also by the striking number of verbal correspondences to the fourth Song within the short space of Philippians 2:6–9: Philippians 2:6–9

MT Isa 52:13–53:12 and Greek Versions

2:7 ἑαυτὸν ἐκένωσεν (“he emptied himself ”) 2:7  μορφὴν δούλου (“form of a servant”) 2:7 μορφὴν δούλου (“form of a servant”) 2:8  ἐταπείνωσεν ἑαυτόν (“he abased himself ”)

Cf. Isa 53:12, ‫“ הערה למות נפשׁו‬he emptied out his soul unto death” Cf. Isa 53:2a, ‫“ לא תאר לו‬no form to him”; Aquila, οὐ μορφὴ αὐτῷ Cf. Isa 52:13, 53:11, ‫“ עבדי‬my servant”; Aquila, δοῦλος μου Cf. Isa 53:4, ‫“ מענה‬abased”; Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, τεταπεινωμένον; LXX Isa 53:8 ἐν τῇ ταπεινώσει αὐτοῦ Cf. Isa 53:12, ‫“ למות‬unto death” Cf. Isa 52:13, ‫“ ירום ונשׂא וגבה מאד‬he will be exalted and lifted up and highly exalted”

2:8  μέχρι θανάτου (“unto death”) 2:9 αὐτὸν ὑπερύψωσεν (“he highly exalted him”)

The striking number of scriptural resonances indicates that Philippians 2:6–9 offers an exegetical reflection on the fourth Servant Song of Isaiah.4 Paul understands the Song as fulfilled in the suffering, death, resurrection, and exaltation of Jesus. We thus find in Paul’s hymn, as in Targum Isaiah, an individual and messianic interpretation of the fourth Song.5 However, two key aspects of Paul’s interpretation have no parallel in ancient Judaism. First, Paul identifies the sufferings and death of the Servant in the fourth Song with the passion and crucifixion of Jesus (Phil 2:6–8). This interpretation of Isaiah 52:13–53:12 in terms of a suffering messiah has no antecedents in ancient Judaism.6 Second, Eerdmans, 1983); the select bibliography by John Reumann in Pauline Theology, Volume I: Thessalonians, Philippians, Galatians, Philemon, ed. J. M. Bassler (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991), 281–84; Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd, eds., Where Christology Began: Essays in Philippians 2 (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998); and Gregory P. Fewster, “The Philippians ‘Christ Hymn’: Trends in Critical Scholarship,” CBR 13 (2015): 191–206. 3  For fuller discussion and literature, see Ware, Mission of the Church, 224–29. 4  The Philippians hymn contains little or no direct allusions to the LXX version of Isa 52:13– 53:12, and is apparently derived either from a different Greek recension or the original Hebrew text. On the variety of Greek translations of the Hebrew Scriptures available besides the Old Greek (= LXX) in antiquity, see D. Barthélemy, Les devanciers d’Aquila, VTSup 10 (Leiden: Brill, 1963). 5  On the interpretation of Isaiah 52:13–53:12 in Targum Isaiah, see B. D. Chilton, The Isaiah Targum: Introduction, Translation, Apparatus, and Notes (Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1987), 102–105; Pierre Grelot, Les Poèmes du Serviteur (Paris: Cerf, 1981), 213–20. 6 See Ware, Mission of the Church, 93–155.



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Paul’s interpretation is unique in understanding the eschatological exaltation of the Servant as already fulfilled in the resurrection and glorification of Jesus of Nazareth (Phil 2:9). This interpretation of Isaiah 52:13–53:12 as fulfilled in the passion, crucifixion, resurrection, and exaltation of Jesus as the Christ, although without parallel in Second Temple Judaism, is not unique to the Christ hymn, but is pervasive in early Christian sources.7

3.  A Collective Figure (Phil 2:16; 2:15; 4:5; and 1:28) Elsewhere in Philippians, however, we find an apparently quite different interpretation of the Servant figure of Isaiah. We find this at four points in Philippians, where Paul either alludes to the Servant Songs of Isaiah, or to Second Temple Jewish texts that reflect on these Songs. 3.1  The Servant of Isaiah in Philippians 2:16 In Philippians 2:16, Paul exhorts the Philippians to hold forth the word of life, “that I may boast in the day of Christ, that I did not run for nothing nor labor for nothing” (2:16). The second part of Paul’s self-description in 2:16b, “nor labor for nothing” (οὐδὲ εἰς κενὸν ἐκοπίασα), introduces an allusion to Isaiah 49:4, and thus to the second Servant Song of Isaiah (Isa 49:1–6). In applying the words of Isaiah 49:4 to himself, is Paul identifying himself with the Servant figure of the second Song? Some interpreters have taken this view.8 However, Paul’s use of this Isaian passage elsewhere in his letters suggests a different conclusion. In 1 Corinthians, for example, Paul applies the language of Isaiah 49:4, which he applies to himself in Philippians 2:16, to the church at Corinth (1 Cor 15:58, ὁ κόπος ὑμῶν οὐκ ἔστιν κενὸς ἐν κυρίῳ). This suggests that Paul’s application of the second Servant Song to his own ministry in Philippians 2:16 is not meant to identify the Servant with his own person in an exclusive manner, but rather reflects a collective interpretation, identifying the Servant with the church and its mission to the nations. 3.2  The Servant of Isaiah in Philippians 2:15 This collective interpretation of the Servant in Paul’s thought is confirmed by other passages within the letter. Immediately prior to Philippians 2:16, examined 7  Cf. Matt 8:17; 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 1:29; 12:38; Acts 3:13; 8:32–35; Rom 4:25–5:1; 15:21; 1 Cor 15:3; 1 Pet 2:21–25; 1 John 3:5; 1 Clement 16; Justin, Dial. 13; 32; I Apol. 50–51. 8  See, for example, L. Cerfaux, “Saint Paul et le ‘serviteur de Dieu’ d’Isaïe,” in Recueil Lucien Cerfaux II, BETL 6/7 (Gembloux: Duculot, 1954), 446–54; Albert-Marie Denis, “L’Apôtre Paul, Prophète ‘Messianique’ des Gentils,” ETL 33 (1957): 245–318; Traugott Holtz, “Zum Selbstverständnis des Apostels Paulus,” TLZ 91 (1966): 326–30.

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above, Paul in the preceding verse assures the Philippians that, as they hold forth the word of life, “you appear as lights in the world” (φαίνεσθε ὡς φωστῆρες ἐν κόσμῳ, 2:15). As recognized by most interpreters, Paul’s imagery here echoes LXX Daniel 12:3, φανοῦσιν ὡς φωστῆρες τοῦ οὐρανοῦ.9 Strikingly, Daniel 12:3 alludes intertextually to Isaiah 52:13–53:12, in a collective application of the fourth Song associating the “wise” (‫ ;המשׂכלים‬cf. Isa 52:13, ‫ )ישׂכיל עבדי‬and “those who make the many righteous” (‫ ;מצדיקי הרבים‬cf. Isa 53:11, ‫יצדיק צדיק‬ ‫ )עבדי לרבים‬with the figure of the Servant. In Daniel 12:3, the sufferings of the Servant are applied to the sufferings of the holy remnant for the sake of their God, and the exaltation of the Servant is interpreted as their bodily resurrection and glorification in the eschatological time of renewal.10 Assuming Paul’s awareness of the intertextual connection between Daniel 12:3 and the fourth Servant Song, we thus find in Philippians 2:15, as in Philippians 2:16, a collective application of Isaian Servant language, identifying the Philippians with the Servant of the fourth Song whom they collectively embody. But what is striking within Paul’s Jewish context is Paul’s application of the eschatological imagery of Daniel 12:3 to the Philippians in the present, for it reflects his conviction that the eschatological time of renewal has already dawned in Jesus Christ. This conviction is reflected in Paul’s modification of the future tense φανοῦσιν of LXX Daniel 12:3 to the present tense φαίνεσθε in Philippians 2:15. Paul’s application here of the fourth Song as already inaugurated in the activity of the Philippians provides an important connection to the application of the same passage in Philippians 2:6– 11 as already fulfilled in the resurrection and glorification of Jesus. 3.3  The Servant of Isaiah in Philippians 4:5, 1:28 In the midst of the depiction of the righteous child of God in Wisdom of Solomon 2:12–5:13, who is persecuted and put to death by the godless but raised to life by God, the wicked express their intention to persecute God’s child “that we may know his gentleness” (ἵνα γνῶμεν τὴν ἐπιείκειαν αὐτοῦ, Wis 2:19). In Philippians 4:5, Paul’s command τὸ ἐπιεικὲς ὑμῶν γνωσθήτω πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις (“let your gentleness be known to all people”) introduces a clear intertextual allusion 9 

For a helpful summary of the evidence, see Peter Oakes, “Quelle devrait être l’influence des échos intertextuels sur la traduction? Le cas de l’épître aux Philippiens (2:15–16),” in Intertextualités: La Bible en échos, ed. D. Marguerat and A. Curtis (Geneva: Labor et Fides, 2000), 263–64; see also G. Walter Hansen, The Letter to the Philippians (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009), 183. 10  The intertextual adaptation of Isa 52:13–53:12 in Dan 12:2–3 is widely recognized; see, conveniently, John J. Collins, Daniel, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993), 385, 393; Michael Knibb, “You Are Indeed Wiser Than Daniel: Reflections on the Character of the Book of Daniel,” in The Book of Daniel in the Light of New Findings, ed. A. S. van der Woude (Leuven: Peeters, 1993), 406–407; and Martin Hengel, “Zur Wirkungsgeschichte von Jes 53 in vorchristlicher Zeit,” in Der leidende Gottesknecht: Jesaja 53 und seine Wirkungsgeschichte, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996), 60–64.



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to this persecuted righteous figure of Wisdom. The obvious nature of the allusion in Philippians 4:5 renders it highly likely that also in Philippians 1:28, where the Philippians’ fearless testimony to the gospel is a proof to the opponents of their destruction (ἀπωλείας), but of the Philippians’ salvation (σωτηρίας), Paul’s language again recalls the righteous one of Wisdom 2:12–5:13, whose persecution and death (Wis 2:12–20) results in the destruction of his persecutors (ἀπωλείας, 5:7), but his salvation (σωτηρίας, 5:2). In applying the imagery of Wisdom 2–5 to the Philippians, Paul encourages them in the midst of their sufferings for the gospel, by including them within the righteous remnant of Israel, who will be raised to life in the coming time of renewal. Remarkably, like Daniel 12:3, Wisdom 2:12–5:13 also alludes to and draws upon the Isaian Suffering Servant Song. In fact, as is now universally recognized by scholars of Wisdom, LXX Isaiah 52:13–53:12 is a focus of sustained exegetical reflection in Wisdom 2:12–5:13. The author of Wisdom appears to have taken the Servant of the fourth Song as a collective figure, representative of the righteous in Israel, and to have understood Isaiah 53 as a scene of eschatological resurrection and vindication, in which the wicked, raised to judgment, confess their former contempt for a persecuted and martyred righteous one, who now stands before them raised gloriously to life.11 Although it is less well recognized, Wisdom’s depiction of the righteous child of God in 2:12–5:13 also draws upon the language and imagery of the first Servant Song (LXX Isa 42:1–9), likewise interpreting the Servant of this Song as a corporate figure, representative of the righteous remnant of Israel.12 Was Paul aware of the intertextual significance of Wisdom 2–5 as an interpretation of the Servant Songs? While this cannot be proved, it seems a likely assumption. Indeed, it seems unlikely to be accidental that in this letter, where Paul engages in exegetical reflection on both the second (Phil 2:16) and fourth (Phil 2:6–11) Servant Songs of Isaiah, he also reflects upon Daniel 12:3 and Wisdom 2–5, the two key Old Testament texts that reflect exegetically on Isaiah’s Servant Songs. If so, we find both in Paul’s application of the second Song to his apostolic mission (Phil 2:16), and in his application of Daniel 12:3 and Wisdom 2–5 to the Philippians (Phil 1:28; 2:15; 2:16), a collective interpretation of Isaiah’s Servant Songs. 11 See, for example, Joachim Jeremias, “Amnos Tou Theou  – Pais Theou,” ZNW 34 (1935): 118–19 (cf. 121: “We possess in Wisdom of Solomon 5 an example of how a diaspora Jew understood Isaiah 53 according to the LXX”); M. J. Suggs, “Wisdom of Solomon 2:10–15: A Homily Based on the Fourth Servant Song,” JBL 76 (1957): 26–33; M. Gilbert, “Wisdom of Solomon and Scripture,” in Hebrew Bible/Old Testament: The History of Its Interpretation, ed. Magne Sæbø (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000), 609; David Winston, The Wisdom of Solomon: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1979), 119–20. For fuller discussion, see Ware, Mission of the Church, 118–23. 12 See Ware, Mission of the Church, 122–23.

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But this immediately raises a crucial question. We have seen that Paul’s Christ hymn in Philippians 2:6–11 involves an individual and messianic interpretation of the fourth Servant Song. We also find this interpretation, explicitly and implicitly, elsewhere in Paul (Rom 4:25–5:1; 10:16; 15:20–21; 1 Cor 15:3–4). But in Philippians 1:28, 2:15, 2:16, and 4:5 we find, either directly through allusion to Isaiah, or indirectly through allusion to Daniel 12:3 and Wisdom 2–5, a collective interpretation of the first, second, and fourth Servant Songs. Paul’s reading of Isaiah’s Servant Songs appears self-contradictory or confused. I  believe there is a solution to the mystery, and that it lies within Paul’s own careful reading of the Servant Songs within the context of the book of Isaiah, and its theme of “the servants of the Servant.”

4.  The Servants of the Servant in Isaiah13 As widely recognized, the figure of the Servant of YHWH is unique to Isaiah 40– 55. Integral to the development of the figure of the Servant within these chapters are four “Servant Songs” (42:1–9; 49:1–6; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12), discrete poetic units that nonetheless function seamlessly within the larger literary context of chapters 40–55.14 Initially identified with Israel (41:8–9), the Servant is gradually revealed in these chapters, preeminently within the Servant Songs, as an individual figure who acts on behalf of Israel (see especially 48:12–16; 49:1–6; 49:7–13; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12). Corresponding to the individual identity of the Servant that emerges within these chapters, the term “servant” is always employed, from chapter 40 to the close of the fourth Song, in the singular (42:1, 19; 43:10; 44:1, 2, 21, 26; 45:4; 48:20; 49:3, 5, 6, 7; 50:10; 52:13; 53:11).15 However, at the climax of the fourth Song the Servant is promised a seed or offspring (53:10).16 The third Song had already addressed a remnant in Israel 13  This aspect of the thought of Isaiah 40–66 has been much studied in recent years and is described in detail elsewhere in this volume. I will only briefly indicate here my own understanding of the contours of this theme within Isaiah. 14  On the common features and unity of dramatic movement that link the Servant Songs one to another, see Bernd Janowski, “Er trug unsere Sünden: Jes 53 und die Dramatik der Stellvertretung,” in Der leidende Gottesknecht: Jesaja 53 und seine Wirkungsgeschichte, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996), 32–33; and Henning Graf Reventlow, “Basic Issues in the Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55,” in Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed. William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg: Trinity, 1998), 23–26. On the inseparability of the Servant Songs from the wider literary framework of Isaiah 40–55 and their function within that context, see Willem A. M. Beuken, Jesaja, POuT, 4 vols. (Nijkerk: Callenbach, 1979–89), IIA:106–133; IIB:11–30, 183–241. 15  Willem A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah: ‘The Servants of YHWH,’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67. 16  Beuken, “Servants of YHWH,” 67–68.



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who “obey the voice of his Servant” (50:10), and in the first person confession within the fourth Song (53:1–9) this remnant confessed that they had been redeemed by the Servant’s sufferings (53:4–6).17 This seed or offspring promised to the Servant, the faithful remnant redeemed by him, are then identified as “the servants of YHWH” in Isaiah 54:17.18 Hereafter in the book the term “servant” occurs only in the plural (56:6; 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13, 14, 15; 66:14), with reference to these followers of the Servant. In this movement of thought in Isaiah from a singular Servant to a plurality of servants created by the Servant’s work, we discover a “major theme of Third Isaiah in linking the suffering servant of Second Isaiah with the servants of chapters 56–66 who are his offspring.”19 They are the servants of the Servant. Isaiah 54:17 thus provides a crucial point of transition between the Servant of Isaiah 40–55 and the servants of Isaiah 56–66.20 But as W. A. M. Beuken points out, the theme of the servants of the Servant is in fact first “programmatically announced” in Isaiah 56:1–8.21 Here the identity of this community of servants is specifically expanded to include gentiles outside ethnic Israel: “in chapter 56 the ethnic distinction between Israel and the nations has been theologically relativized, and God’s invitation is offered to all who faithfully enter into his covenant of justice and righteousness (56:6 ff.).”22 This community, the offspring of the Servant, not only follows him but also imitates him, in some mysterious fashion taking up his vocation of suffering, participating in his redemptive mission, and sharing in his victory (Isa 57:1–13; 59:9–21; 65:8–16; 66:1–5).23 The Servant’s role as a “light to the nations” (42:6; 49:6) is thus taken up and extended by the servants of the Servant (Isa 63:1–3, 19–22; 62:1–3). Recent studies have suggested that this interplay between the Servant and his servants within Isaiah is clearly recognized, and serves as a reading strategy for the book, in multiple Jewish and Christian texts in antiquity.24 And a number of Pauline interpreters have claimed that we find in Paul a reading of the Servant 17 Brevard Childs, Isaiah (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 430–431. Cf. Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of An Interpretive Tradition, Vol. 1, ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans, VTSup 70/1 (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 173. 18  Beuken, “Servants of YHWH,” 67–68. 19  Childs, Isaiah, 505. 20  Childs, Isaiah, 431; Blenkinsopp, “Servant and the Servants,” 157–58. 21  Beuken, “Servants of YHWH,” 85: “It appears that the theme of ‘the servants of YHWH’ is introduced in the last chapters of Deutero-Isaiah (53.10; 54.17) on the one hand and programmatically announced in the prologue of Trito-Isaiah (56.6) on the other hand.” Cf. the full discussion in 68–69. 22  Childs, Isaiah, 546. 23  Beuken, “Servants of YHWH,” 69–82. 24  See, for example, Michael A. Lyons, “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isaiah 54; 56–66,” CBQ 77 (2015): 640–56; and Holly Beers, The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts, LNTS 535 (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015).

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Songs grounded in the larger context of Isaiah 40–66 and its movement from a singular Servant to a plurality of servants. Mark Gignilliat, for example, argues that in 2 Corinthians 5:14–6:10 “Paul understands Jesus Christ to embody the redemptive role of Isaiah’s Servant, and Paul understands himself to fulfill the role of a servant follower of the Servant.”25 R. Reed Lessing likewise argues for the importance of this reading strategy of Isaiah in Paul. Paul understands the prophetic figure of the Isaian Servant as fulfilled in Jesus, but nonetheless “servanthood does not end with Jesus. His offspring comes about through his suffering and death, which justifies many (53:11), and creates righteous servants for Yahweh (54:17c). Paul sees himself, and all Christians, as these offspring, the reconstituted Israel and a new community justified by the Servant and called to be suffering servants.”26 Despite the recent attention to this topic in Paul, little attention has hitherto been given in this connection to the book of Philippians. Yet we have already seen that Philippians is rich with allusions to Isaiah’s Servant Songs, and to Jewish texts which reflect on them. We have also seen that Paul in Philippians understands the Servant Songs in apparently conflicting ways, interpreting them in both an individual and a collective sense. I will argue that the explanation of Paul’s seemingly contradictory interpretations of the Servant Songs in Philippians lies in an exegesis of the book of Isaiah which interpreted these Songs in light of the book’s larger theme of the servants of the Servant.

5.  The Servants of Isaiah in Philippians 4:18 In Philippians 4:18 Paul describes the gift that the Philippians had sent in support of his mission as a “savor of a sweet aroma, an acceptable sacrifice, wellpleasing to God” (ὀσμὴν εὐωδίας, θυσίαν δεκτήν, εὐάρεστον τῷ θεῷ). This verse is replete with the rich sacrificial language and imagery of the Old Testament, found in multiple passages (e. g. Gen 8:21; Exod 29:18, 25, 41; Lev 1:9, 13, 17).27 Among these idioms, however, Paul’s phrase θυσία δεκτή has more specific biblical overtones. The combination of θυσία and δεκτός occurs, outside Philippians 4:18, in only two places in the entire Bible: Sirach 35:6 (θυσία ἀνδρὸς δικαίου δεκτή, “the sacrifice of the righteous man is acceptable”), and Greek Isaiah 56:7 (αἱ θυσίαι αὐτῶν ἔσονται δεκταὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ θυσιαστηρίου μου 25 Mark Gignilliat, “A Servant Follower of the Servant: Paul’s Eschatological Reading of Isaiah 40–66 in 2 Corinthians 5:14–6:10,” Horizons in Biblical Theology 26 (2004): 99; idem, Paul and Isaiah’s Servants: Paul’s Theological Reading of Isaiah 40–66 in 2 Corinthians 5:14– 6:10, LNTS 330 (London: T&T Clark, 2007). 26  R. Reed Lessing, “Isaiah’s Servants in Chapters 40–55: Clearing Up the Confusion,” Concordia Journal 37 (2011): 133. 27  For fuller discussion and relevant passages, see John Reumann, Philippians: A  New Translation with Commentary, AB 33B (New Haven: Yale, 2008), 667–70.



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“their sacrifices will be acceptable upon my altar”). This Greek translation of Isaiah 56:7 is identical in the LXX, Symmachus, and Theodotion. The rarity of the combination of θυσία and δεκτή suggests that Paul in Philippians 4:18 is thinking of one of these two texts, Sirach 35:6 or Greek Isaiah 56:7. But which is the source of Paul’s allusion? A crucial factor indicates that it is the Isaian text that Paul has in mind. To see this, we need to examine the way in which Philippians 4:18 is the culmination of the theme of the Philippians’ sacrifice found throughout the letter. Philippians 2:17 opens this theme within the epistle with a foundational description of the Philippians’ offering. There Paul’s sacrificial imagery envisions the offering of the Philippians as a priestly sacrifice and activity (Phil 2:17, τῇ θυσίᾳ καὶ λειτουργίᾳ τῆς πίστεως ὑμῶν, “the sacrifice and priestly ministry of your faith”). In 2:17 the sacrifice (θυσία) to which Paul refers is identified as a specifically priestly action by the associated noun λειτουργία. In contrast with λατρεία, which in the LXX is frequently used of the worship of the whole people of Israel, λειτουργία and its cognates are in the LXX used exclusively of the sacerdotal service of the priests and Levites.28 This connotation of the word is also reflected in the New Testament, where the term, when used of divine worship, is always used of priestly or sacerdotal functions.29 In Philippians 2:25 and 2:30, Paul further develops this theme of the Philippians’ partnership for the gospel as a priestly ministry or λειτουργία. Within the larger context of Philippians, therefore, it is clear that Paul envisions the offering in Philippians 4:18 as a priestly sacrifice. This crucial factor determines which of our two Old Testament texts is the source of Paul’s language. For in the Sirach passage the offering is conceived as a lay sacrifice, offered by the Israelite worshipper through the priestly ministers. In Isaiah 56:7, by contrast, the sacrifice is a specifically priestly offering, and gentiles are portrayed as sacerdotal ministers of the Lord.30 This would indicate that it is the specifically priestly sacrifice of Isaiah 56:7 that underlies Paul’s language in Philippians 4:18. The priestly character of the gentiles’ offerings is prominent in Hebrew Isaiah 56:6–7. The term used for their ministry in 56:6 is ‫שׁרת‬, the regular word in the Hebrew Bible for the service of the priests and Levites. The same word is used in Isaiah 61:6, where it is rendered in the LXX by λειτουργός: ὑμεῖς δὲ ἱερεῖς κυρίου κληθήσεσθε, λειτουργοὶ θεοῦ, “but you will be called priests of 28  E. g. Exod 28:39; Num 4:24; 1 Sam 2:11; cf. R. C. Trench, Synonyms of the New Testament, 11th ed. (London: Kegan Paul, 1890), 125–28; E. Lohmeyer, Die Briefe an die Philipper, an die Kolosser und an Philemon, KEK (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1953), 143 n. 4. 29  E. g. Luke 1:23; Heb 9:21; 10:11. Cf. Hansen, Philippians, 189–90. 30  Roy D. Wells, “‘Isaiah’ as an Exponent of Torah: Isaiah 56.1–8,” in New Visions of Isaiah, ed. Roy F. Melugin and Marvin A. Sweeney, JSOTSup 214 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 147–48; Childs, Isaiah, 542; Blenkinsopp, “Servant and the Servants,” 166; Ware, Mission of the Church, 65.

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the Lord, ministers of God” (61:6). With only one exception, the Hebrew verb ‫ שׁרת‬is consistently translated in the LXX by the Greek verb λειτουργέω and its cognates, which as we have seen throughout the Bible, when used in the context of worship, always connote priestly or sacerdotal functions. The priestly character of the service of the gentiles in Isaiah 56:6–7 is also evident in all ancient Greek translations – except the LXX. Unlike the other ancient Greek versions, the priestly function of the gentiles is obscured in the Septuagint translation of Isaiah 56:6, which renders ‫ שׁרת‬as δουλεύω rather than λειτουργέω. The reason for this, as scholars are widely agreed, was the Septuagint Isaiah translator’s discomfort with the passage’s depiction of gentiles as exercising Levitical functions.31 Only once among its many occurrences in the Old Testament is the Hebrew verb ‫ שׁרת‬translated in the LXX with δουλεύω rather than λειτουργέω or its cognates – here in LXX Isaiah 56:6! Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, by contrast, all translate ‫ שׁרת‬in Isaiah 56:6 with λειτουργέω. This is significant, for it suggests that Isaiah 56:6–7 may underlie not only Philippians 4:18, but also the larger theme of the Philippians’ sacrifice developed throughout the letter. For if, as we know he does elsewhere (e. g. 1 Cor 15:54), Paul is here utilizing a Greek text of Isaiah stemming from the “proto-Theodotion” recension, it is likely that Isaiah 56:6–7 is the source, not only of Paul’s language of “an acceptable sacrifice” (θυσία δεκτή) in Philippians 4:18, but also of Paul’s characterization of the Philippians’ labor for the gospel as a “priestly ministry” (λειτουργία and its cognates) throughout the letter (2:17; 2:25: 2:30). Paul, then, in Philippians 4:18, and most likely elsewhere in the letter as well, identifies the Philippians with the gentiles portrayed as priestly ministers of the Lord in Isaiah 56:6–7. This is of great importance for grasping Paul’s overall reading of Isaiah, and in particular its theme of the servants of the Servant. For the gentiles who are depicted in Isaiah 56:6–7 as participating in the Levitical priesthood and its sacrifices are designated “his servants” (Isa 56:6). Indeed, as we saw in part 4, Isaiah 56:1–8 is the foundational passage in the development of the theme of the servants of YHWH in the book of Isaiah. Paul, in applying the language of Isaiah 56:6–7 to the Philippians, identifies them as these servants of the Servant within the movement of thought of Isaiah 40–66. This explains the mystery otherwise so perplexing – Paul’s seemingly inconsistent combination of individual and corporate understandings of the Servant Songs. The explanation is that Paul is reading the Servant Songs within the wider context of the book of Isaiah, as describing the mission of an individual Servant, whom Paul identifies with Christ Jesus, a mission extended by the servants of that Servant, whom Paul 31 We find a similarly altered reading of the passage in 1QIsaa, apparently stemming from the same motivation. On the LXX and 1QIsaa readings, see Dwight W. van Winkle, “An Inclusive Authoritative Text in Exclusive Communities,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of An Interpretive Tradition, Vol. 1, ed. Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 423–40.



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identifies with the followers of Christ. Paul understands believers in Christ as the servant followers of the Servant portrayed in Isaiah.

6.  The Servants of the Servant in Philippians We now return to the Christ hymn in Philippians 2:6–11, studied at the beginning of this essay (part 2). Our further study of this passage, and its place within the overall structure and themes of the letter, will confirm that Paul understood Christ and the church to fulfill the portrayal of the Servant and the servants in Isaiah. We will also discover the uniqueness of Paul’s reading of this theme in Isaiah, which is without parallel in ancient Judaism. 6.1  The Divinity of the Servant in Philippians The climactic verses of the Philippians Christ hymn read as follows: For this reason God in response highly exalted him, and gave to him the name which is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee might bow, of beings in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father. (Phil 2:9–11)

We saw above how Paul in the Christ hymn, through a rich clustering of allusions and echoes, portrays Jesus as fulfilling the role of the suffering and exalted Servant of Isaiah 53. However, Paul’s allusions to Isaiah’s suffering Servant Song extend only to verse 9 of the hymn. At verse 10 the focus of exegetical reflection shifts from the fourth Servant Song to another Isaian passage. As universally recognized, Paul’s words in verses 10–11 are an allusion to Isaiah 45:22–23, the central monotheistic passage within the book of Isaiah, which envisions the coming full revelation of the divine glory and name in the time of YHWH’s reign: Turn to me and be saved, all the ends of the earth! For I am God, and there is no other. By myself I have sworn, the word has gone forth from my mouth in righteousness and will not turn back, that to me every knee will bow, every tongue will confess. (Isa 45:22–23)

Paul’s interpretation of Isaiah 45:22–23 is striking indeed. For in the Christ hymn, the worship of every knee and every tongue, portrayed in Isaiah as given to YHWH in the time of his coming kingdom (“to me every knee will bow, every tongue will confess,” Isa 45:23) is given to Jesus (“that at the name of Jesus every knew might bow … and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord,” Phil 2:10–11). Moreover, here the “name which is above every name,” which in Paul’s Jewish context can only be the creator God of Israel, is the name given to Jesus (2:9). In Paul’s hymn, Jesus is given the glory that Isaiah declares belongs to YHWH alone, and receives the worship that in Paul’s Jewish context is due to the creator alone (Phil 2:9–11). In all these ways the Philippians hymn

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identifies Jesus as the Lord, the one creator God of Israel. And yet this worship of Jesus as Lord is not inconsistent with, but redounds to, the glory of God the Father (Phil 2:11). The Christ hymn points to a mysterious distinction within the one God between God the Father (2:11) and the Son, who is “in nature God” (Phil 2:6a) and “equal with God” (Phil 2:6b). Paul’s interpretation of Isaiah 45 within the Christ hymn reveals a Christology which is fully divine and incarnational.32 It is noteworthy that Paul’s divine Christology is so powerfully evident here in the Christ hymn, for this is the very passage which we have seen portrays Jesus as the fulfillment of the Servant figure of the fourth Servant Song of Isaiah. It is clear, therefore, that Paul read the Servant Songs of Isaiah in the context of a divine and incarnational Christology, understanding the Servant of these Songs as mysteriously embodying the coming of YHWH himself. This aspect of Paul’s interpretation of the Servant figure in Isaiah is without parallel in Second Temple Judaism. 6.2  The Imitation of the Christ Hymn in Philippians As recent scholarship has shown, Phil 2:6–11 is the fulcrum upon which the entire letter pivots. Paul’s descriptions of Timothy (2:19–24) and Epaphroditus (2:25–30), whom Paul presents to the Philippians as models, are filled with allusions and echoes of Philippians 2:6–11, portraying Epaphroditus and Timothy as imitating the humility and sacrificial self-giving of Jesus within the Christ hymn.33 In 3:7–11, a series of striking echoes of the Christ hymn portray Paul’s paradigmatic story as exemplifying the pattern of Jesus in 2:6–11.34 In 3:20–21, by means of the most concentrated cluster of allusions to 2:6–11 within the entire letter, Paul exhorts the Philippians to join him in following the model of Christ within the hymn.35 32  For the Christ hymn’s unmistakable expression of Paul’s divine Christology, see the insightful discussions in Richard Bauckham, God Crucified: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 34–35, 51–53, 56–61; David Yeago, “The New Testament and the Nicene Dogma: A Contribution to the Recovery of Theological Exegesis,” Pro Ecclesia 3 (1994): 152–64. For further discussion of the incarnational character of Paul’s Christology, see James P. Ware, Paul’s Theology in Context: Creation, Incarnation, Covenant, and Kingdom (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2019), 43–91. 33  Cf. Gerald F. Hawthorne, “Imitation of Christ: Discipleship in Philippians,” in Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament, ed. R. N. Longenecker (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 163–79; Ware, Mission of the Church, 232–33; Hansen, Philippians, 197, 205. 34  The standard treatment is William S. Kurz, “Kenotic Imitation of Paul and of Christ in Philippians 2 and 3,” in Discipleship in the New Testament, ed. Fernando F. Segovia (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985), 103–26; see also Peter Wick, Der Philipperbrief: Der formale Aufbau des Briefs als Schlüssel zum Verständnis seines Inhalts (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1994), 71–73. 35  See Neal Flanagan, “A Note on Philippians 3,20–21,” CBQ 18 (1956): 8–9; Markus Bockmuehl, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians, BNTC 11 (London: A&C Black, 1997), 235–36.

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These echoes of the Christ hymn throughout the letter confirm how Paul’s individual (2:6–11) and collective (2:15; 2:16; 4:5) interpretations of the Servant Songs fit together and cohere within a reading of Isaiah understanding Jesus’ followers as the servants of the Servant portrayed in Isaiah 40–66. We saw above (part 2) that the Christ hymn embodies Paul’s individual interpretation of the fourth Song as fulfilled in Jesus. But Paul’s echoes of the Christ hymn throughout the letter reveal that he understood Jesus’ followers as imitators of Jesus as the Servant, extending his unique but paradigmatic mission (2:19–30; 3:7–11; 3:20–21). The key to Paul’s understanding is his identification of believers with the servant followers of the Servant in the book of Isaiah. We now see that Paul in Philippians reflects this theme of the servants of the Servant in two ways: in his collective interpretation of the Servant Songs in 2:15, 2:16, and 4:5, examined above, and in his portrayal throughout the letter of the Philippians as servant imitators of the Servant of the Christ hymn. 6.3  The Servants’ Participation in the Servant in Philippians And yet the relationship of the servants and the Servant in Philippians is more than imitation. A major theme of Philippians is the supernatural union of Christ with the faithful and his power at work in them through the indwelling of his Spirit (1:1–2, 6–8, 11, 13–14, 19, 29; 2:13; 3:3, 10, 12; 4:1–2, 4, 7, 10, 13, 21, 23). It is this participation in Christ that underlies the exhortations in the letter to imitation of Christ, for “the call to imitate Christ Jesus is made possible by the power of the living, exalted Christ, who is present and at work within the lives of believers through the work of his Holy Spirit.”36 In Philippians the mission activity of the church is in reality the work of the risen Christ, empowering them to follow his model of suffering for the sake of the gospel. This theme in Philippians of participation in Christ opens up one more aspect of Paul’s understanding of Jesus as the Isaian Servant. Paul read the movement from Servant to servants in Isaiah as fulfilled, not merely through imitation, but in the divine power of the incarnate Son of God at work in those supernaturally united to him by faith. They are the servants in whom lives the Servant. This participatory understanding of the relationship of the Servant to the servants, without analogue in ancient Judaism, explains Paul’s portrayal (which we saw in part 3) of the eschatological resurrection life of Dan 12:3 as already present in the lives of the Philippians in Philippians 2:15. The theology of mission which emerges here is striking: the power of Jesus’ resurrection, which will one day raise the bodies of the Philippians to life and renew all of creation (Phil 3:10–11; 3:20–21), is the same power now at work in them as they hold forth the word of life (Phil 2:15–16). In Paul’s understanding, it is this empowering union with the 36 

Hawthorne, “Imitation,” 178.

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risen Christ that enables Christ followers to imitate him, as servant followers of the Servant. Through this mystical participation in the Servant, the Philippians fulfill Isaiah’s portrayal of a people extending the Servant’s role as a light for the gentiles (Isa 42:6; 49:6; 63:1–3, 19–22; 62:1–3). In Paul’s interpretation of Isaiah, it is the Servant Jesus who is “the light to the nations” (φῶς ἐθνῶν, Isa 49:6). But through their union with him, his servants the Philippians have become “lights in the world” (φωστῆρες ἐν κόσμῳ, Phil 2:15). In Philippians, therefore, the mission of the church is the activity of Christ. It is the Servant at work through his servants.

7. Conclusion: Isaiah’s Servant and Isaiah’s Servants in Philippians Isaian scholars W. A. M. Beuken, Brevard Childs, and Joseph Blenkinsopp have argued persuasively for a crucial movement of thought within Isaiah 40–66, from a singular “Servant” (the noun always singular in chapters 40–53), who through his suffering creates a righteous offspring (53:10–11), to a plurality of “servants” (the noun always plural in chapters 54–66), identified as the offspring of the Servant. I have argued that Paul, through his allusions and echoes of these chapters of Isaiah in the book of Philippians, reveals that he is fully aware of this movement of thought within the canonical book of Isaiah, and has incorporated it into his own theological understanding. Paul’s “Christ hymn” in Philippians 2:6–11 reveals an individual and messianic interpretation of Isaiah’s fourth Servant Song as fulfilled in the suffering, death, resurrection, and exaltation of Jesus. However, elsewhere in Philippians we discover, either directly through allusion to Isaiah (Phil 2:16) or indirectly through allusion to Daniel 12:3 and Wisdom 2–5 (Phil 1:28, 2:15, and 4:5), a (seemingly contradictory) collective interpretation of Isaiah’s first, second, and fourth Servant Songs. The solution to the mystery is that Paul is reading Isaiah’s Servant Songs within the larger context of the book of Isaiah and its theme of the servants of the Servant. Paul in Philippians understands the singular Servant of Isaiah 40–53 as fulfilled in the person of Jesus of Nazareth, and identifies the Philippians, and all those united to Christ, as the servants of the Servant portrayed in Isaiah 54–66, transformed by the work of the Servant and called to suffering in carrying out his mission. In his connected reading of Isaiah 40–66 focusing on the eschatological reign of God, Paul’s thinking is profoundly Jewish. However, Paul’s reading of Isaiah is without parallel in ancient Judaism in several important ways. The Christ hymn is without precedent in ancient Judaism in its interpretation of Isaiah 52:13– 53:12 in terms of a suffering messiah, and in the conviction it expresses that the eschatological time of fulfillment has already dawned in Jesus of Nazareth.



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But most striking of all is Paul’s extraordinary understanding of the Servant of Isaiah as the embodiment of YHWH himself, and of his servants as empowered to follow him through their supernatural union with him in the power of the Holy Spirit. Paul understands the mission of the church as the activity of the Servant present and at work in his servants. Through the Servant Jesus, the light to the nations (φῶς ἐθνῶν, Isa 49:6), his servants the Philippians have become lights in the world (φωστῆρες ἐν κόσμῳ, Phil 2:15).

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Hawthorne, Gerald F. “Imitation of Christ: Discipleship in Philippians.” Pages 163–79 in Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament. Edited by R. N. Longenecker. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. Hengel, Martin. “Zur Wirkungsgeschichte von Jes 53 in vorchristlicher Zeit.” Pages 49–91 in Der leidende Gottesknecht: Jesaja 53 und seine Wirkungsgeschichte. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996. Holtz, Traugott. “Zum Selbstverständnis des Apostels Paulus.” TLZ 91 (1966): 321–30. Janowski, Bernd. “Er trug unsere Sünden: Jes 53 und die Dramatik der Stellvertretung.” Pages 27–48 in Der leidende Gottesknecht: Jesaja 53 und seine Wirkungsgeschichte. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996. Jeremias, Joachim. “Amnos Tou Theou – Pais Theou.” ZNW 34 (1935): 117–23. Knibb, Michael. “You Are Indeed Wiser Than Daniel: Reflections on the Character of the Book of Daniel.” Pages 399–411 in The Book of Daniel in the Light of New Findings. Edited by A. S. van der Woude. Leuven: Peeters, 1993. Kurz, William S. “Kenotic Imitation of Paul and of Christ in Philippians 2 and 3.” Pages 103–26 in Discipleship in the New Testament. Edited by Fernando F. Segovia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985. Lessing, R. Reed. “Isaiah’s Servants in Chapters 40–55: Clearing Up the Confusion.” Concordia Journal 37 (2011): 130–34. Lohmeyer, E. Die Briefe an die Philipper, an die Kolosser und an Philemon. KEK. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1953. Lyons, Michael A. “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isaiah 54; 56–66.” CBQ 77 (2015): 640–56. Martin, Ralph P. Carmen Christi: Philippians 2.5–11 in Recent Interpretation and in the Setting of Early Christian Worship. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983. Martin, Ralph P. and Brian J. Dodd, eds. Where Christology Began: Essays in Philippians 2. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998. Oakes, Peter. “Quelle devrait être l’influence des échos intertextuels sur la traduction? Le cas de l’épître aux Philippiens (2:15–16).” Pages 251–87 in Intertextualités: La Bible en échos. Edited by D. Marguerat and A. Curtis. Geneva: Labor et Fides, 2000. Reumann, John. Philippians: A New Translation with Commentary. AB 33B. New Haven: Yale, 2008. –. “Philippians.” Pages 279–84 in Pauline Theology, Volume I: Thessalonians, Philippians, Galatians, Philemon. Edited by Jouette M. Bassler. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991. Reventlow, Henning Graf. “Basic Issues in the Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55.” Pages 23–38 in Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins. Edited by William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer. Harrisburg: Trinity, 1998. Suggs, M. J. “Wisdom of Solomon 2:10–5: A Homily Based on the Fourth Servant Song.” JBL 76 (1957): 26–33. Trench, R. C. Synonyms of the New Testament. 11th ed. London: Kegan Paul, 1890. Van Winkle, Dwight W. “An Inclusive Authoritative Text in Exclusive Communities.” Pages 423–40 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of An Interpretive Tradition. Edited by Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans. VTSup 70/1. Leiden: Brill, 1997. Ware, James P. Paul and the Mission of the Church: Philippians in Ancient Jewish Context. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2011. –. Paul’s Theology in Context: Creation, Incarnation, Covenant, and Kingdom. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2019.



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Wells, Roy D. “‘Isaiah’ as an Exponent of Torah: Isaiah 56.1–8.” Pages 141–55 in New Visions of Isaiah. Edited by Roy F. Melugin and Marvin A. Sweeney. JSOTSup 214. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996. Wick, Peter. Der Philipperbrief: Der formale Aufbau des Briefs als Schlüssel zum Verständnis seines Inhalts. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1994. Winston, David. The Wisdom of Solomon: A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1979. Yeago, David. “The New Testament and the Nicene Dogma: A Contribution to the Recovery of Theological Exegesis.” Pro Ecclesia 3 (1994): 152–64.

Jesus, the Slaves, and the Servant(s) in 1 Peter 2:18–25 Volker Gäckle 1. Introduction In his Hallenser dissertation on “Isaiah 53 in Early Christianity” from 1942, Hans Walter Wolff comments on how the First Letter of Peter treats the ‘Fourth Servant Song’ of Isa 53. His work is inspired by Julius Schniewind and Ernst Wolf and appeared in its fourth and last edition in 1984. According to Wolff, the author does not use the Song as a proof from Scripture in the ordinary sense. Rather, the text provides him [the author of the letter] with words for his “proclamation.”1 To understand what this, at first unspectacular assessment, suggests and what the message of the ‘Fourth Servant Song’ eventually means for the First Epistle of Peter, we have to go a long way. First, this approach leads us via a (brief ) sketch of the circumstances of the congregations in Asia Minor, which the letter addresses, to a (detailed) exegesis of the verses of 1 Pet 2:18–25. These verses contain the most detailed reception of Isa 53 in the entire New Testament. In a third step, we will take a look at the author’s hermeneutical premises, which this letter fortunately explains to us more thoroughly than any other New Testament writing. Finally, in a fourth step, we will deal with the underlying thoughts of this collection of essays: the relationship of the one Servant of God to the servants following him.

2.  The Church in Distress: the Circumstances of the Recipients of 1 Peter The circumstances of the early Christian churches, which the First Letter of Peter reflects, differ from the circumstances of the churches to which Paul addresses his major letters in the 50s. The letter addresses distressed congregations in Asia Minor (1 Pet 1:1) who are experiencing increasing oppression. The author2 de1  Hans Walter Wolff, Jesaja 53 im Urchristentum: Mit einer Einführung von Peter Stuhl­ macher, TVG (Gießen: Brunnen, 1984), 101. 2  The question of the authorship of the First Letter of Peter is still controversial. While a clear majority of exegetes assess the letter as pseudepigraphic, the authenticity of the letter is also regularly defended. For the respective arguments, see Volker Gäckle, “Grüße nach

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scribes their state as “suffering,” which also extends to their brothers elsewhere in this world (ἐν κόσμῳ, 5:9). That is, he describes a more or less general experience of many Christians in the Roman empire. Each Christian suffers ὡς χριστιανός (4:16), that is, the Christians are known by this name and as a group distinguishable from Judaism in their environment. They suffer verbal stigmatization and public denunciation “for the name of Christ” (4:14; cf. 2:12, 15, 23; 3:9, 16; 4:4, 12–19), but it appears there are still no arrests (cf. Rev 2:10), let alone martyrs (cf. Rev 2:13). Everything suggests an early stage of a persecution (1:6; 2:19–21; 3:13–17; 4:12–19; 5:8–10), circumstances the church has seemingly not yet experienced. Its members are therefore insecure (4:12), whereas the author claims to have a specific advantage in experience and a broader viewpoint (5:9). An essential point for understanding 1 Pet 2:18–25 is the author’s conviction that the church can bring about a change of mind among those around them by excellent and exemplary behaviour (2:12, 15; 3:13). In this respect, the ethics of the First Letter of Peter are world oriented, optimistic, almost “missionary” (2:12, 13–17; 3:14–17; 4:16) which also applies to the slave paraenesis in 1 Pet 2:18–25.

3.  The Slave Paraenesis, the Passion of Christ and Isa 53 (1 Pet 2:18–25) The verses in 1 Pet 2:18–25 belong to the central part of the First Letter of Peter, 1 Pet 2:11–5:11. That part begins with instructions to particularly vulnerable groups in the church, specifically to slaves and women (2:18–3:8), who were primarily affected by the hostile attitude of the pagan environment. Their legal status was low to non-existent, and thus these two groups in particular were vulnerable to repression by slave masters and husbands. They experienced in an already hostile environment the “strangeness” of the church (1:1; 2:11) with increasing costs for body and life. In 1 Pet 2:18–25 the author speaks directly to the church members from the circle of slaves.3 One of the exegetical riddles of this text is the great “theological effort”  – one could also speak of a theological and especially soteriological “surplus” – which the author of these lines undertakes for a rather simple slave paraenesis, much less elaborated in other Haustafeln. The fundamental nature Babylon: Anmerkungen zur Verfasserfrage des 1. Petrusbriefes,” TBei 45 (2015): 8–23. Despite certain sympathies for the authenticity of the letter, I will speak neutrally of the “author” of the First Letter of Peter in the context of this article because of the open debate. 3  These are in a notable way mentioned in all letters which contain such Haustafeln, see Col 3:18–4:1; Eph 5:22–6:9; 1 Tim 2:8–15; 5:3–8; 6:1–2; Titus 2:2–10; 3:1–9; 1 Clem. 21:6–8; Ign. Pol. 4.1–6.2; Pol. Phil. 4.2–6.1; Did. 4.9–11; Barn. 19.5–7. Slaves had obviously always in remarkable numbers been members of the early Christian congregations.



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of his argument – as all commentators agree – suggests that the slaves, because of their extreme conditions, have a representative and paradigmatic status for the entire community.4 Like the slaves (and women) in their respective households, and among their non-believing slave masters (or husbands), the whole community lives among an increasingly unsympathetic pagan society in the cities of the addressed regions of Asia Minor (cf. 1:1).5 We will keep these points in mind and ponder them further at the end of our article. The slave paraenesis begins in 2:18 with a statement6 of the commanded subordination to the slave masters “in all fear.” This statement is remarkable in two respects: On the one hand, slaves subordinating to their slave masters7 represents a process analogous to Christians subordinating to “human order” (cf. 2:13: ὑποτάγητε). In a sense, therefore, the paraenesis deals with a question of “behaviour suitable to one’s status”8 and intends to combat the pagan suspicion that young Christianity was a sect threatening the state and society.9 On the other hand, the phrase ἐν παντὶ φόβῳ, again analogous to 2:13, 15, 17, justifies and limits this behaviour theologically.10 For in the state of fearing 4  See also Norbert Brox, Der erste Petrusbrief, EKKNT 21 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, and Zürich: Benziger, 1989), 128: “Der Sklaventext dieser Haustafel ist also, abgesehen von der Paränese selbst (V.18), gar kein Text bloß für Sklaven. Er erklärt generell die Möglichkeit christlichen Lebens unter den gegebenen prekären Bedingungen.” 5  J. Ramsey Michaels, 1 Peter, WBC 49 (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1988), 135; Paul J. Achtemeier, 1 Peter: A  Commentary on First Peter, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996), 192, 194; and idem, “Suffering Servant and Suffering Christ in 1 Peter” in The Future of Christology: Essays in Honor of L. E. Keck, ed. A. J. Malherbe and W. A. Meeks (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993), 176–88 (here 177). Achtemeier speaks of a “paradigmatic significance” (1 Peter, 192), and continues: “[T]hey and their fate stand as exemplary both of the Christian’s situation in the Roman Empire and of the Christ-like reaction they must adopt to it.” 6  A participial construction (ὑποτασσόμενοι) is present here, which is not necessarily to be read as an imperative, analogously to 2:13, where there is clearly an imperative. In this case, it is rather an affirmative statement of an existing order or a given state. 7  At this place, the author deliberately does not use the possible terms δοῦλοι, cf. Eph 6:5; Col 3:22, and κυρίοι, cf. Eph 6:5; Col 4:1, for the slaves and their masters, but οἰκέται and δεσπόται, cf. 1 Tim 6:1; Titus 2:9, and LXX Prov 22:7; Dio Chrysostom Chrys. 14.10; Philo Deus 64. It is obviously his aim to differentiate the relationship of slaves to their masters from the relationship of all Christians as “servants,” see 1 Pet 2:16: θεοῦ δοῦλοι, to God or Christ as κύριος, see 2:13. 8  Brox, Petrusbrief, 126, points out that there must be a certain “identity of Christian and conventional social standards.” According to Brox, the author wants to show that the “distance and difference between Christianity and non-Christianity are considerably smaller than their common ground and agreement on recognized ideals” (ibid., 127). 9 Reinhard Feldmeier, Der erste Brief des Petrus, ThHK 15,1 (Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2005), 113. 10  “Fear” does not mean fear of the slave master, but fear of God or responsibility before God. See also Michaels, 1 Peter, 138, and Feldmeier, Petrus, 113 f.; differently Brox, Petrusbrief, 131, cf. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 193: “The admonition to slaves … is based not on social convention or political custom but on the slave’s obligation to God: the subordination is to be carried out with all reverence for God (v. 18), as their unjust suffering is to be borne for the same reason (v. 19).”

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God, slaves can and should only carry out those commands of their slave masters which do not affect their overriding loyalty to God. In another situation, for example when called to idolatry or to denying Christ, they are to choose suffering. Despite essentially accepting the ancient social order, this brief and almost unnoticeable restriction of subordination contains at the same time a seed for qualifying it. The evil the Christian slaves now experience from their unjust masters is described by the author in vv. 19a and 20b as χάρις.11 Thus, it receives, like the subordination, a theological, even soteriological connotation. He interprets their negative experience as part of the salvific good the Christian slaves  – and all Christians – hope for: “As strangers they are separated from the world, because they belong to God. Experiences of alienation are the other side of their belonging to God and therefore a part of grace.”12 In the light of 5:12, “grace” becomes one of the central terms of salvation in the First Letter of Peter.13 It means, “in this sense (that is, under the difficulties of hard external conditions), a successful existence of faith and hope. At the same time, of course, the character of a gift and of grace (in a general sense) has also to be perceived in the word.”14 Other than in Paul’s letters, we cannot translate the term συνείδησις θεοῦ here as human conscience, in the sense of an anthropological authority. It is a knowledge of God or awareness of God,15 in whose will all events are founded and before whose eyes all experienced injustice happens.16 The author aims in these verses, as in 2:4–10, to establish within the suffering slaves and church members an identity of contrast to ancient society. They are to understand themselves amid the experienced repressions as representatives of God, who belong to him and are esteemed and ennobled by him.17 Their differing behaviour 11  Verses 19 and 20 have an abb’a’ structure. Two positive statements about the interpretation of the experiences of suffering as “grace” frame two negative statements about the experienced suffering. 12 Martin Vahrenhorst, Der erste Brief des Petrus, ThKNT 19 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2016), 122: “Sie sind als Fremde aus der Welt ausgesondert, weil sie zu Gott gehören. Fremdheitserfahrungen sind die Kehrseite ihrer Zugehörigkeit zu Gott, deshalb sind sie Teil der Gnade.” 13  The term occurs no less than ten times in 1 Peter: 1:2, 10, 13; 2:19, 20; 3:7; 4:10; 5:5, 10, 12. 14  Brox, Petrusbrief, 133; cf. Michaels, 1 Peter, 139, who wants the term to be understood more in the sense of “that which counts with God or that with which God is pleased.” 15  Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 196; Vahrenhorst, Petrus, 122 f.; cf. also Michaels, 1 Peter, 140: “out of a conscious commitment to God.” 16  According to Vahrenhorst (Petrus, 123) slaves should endure their circumstances because they know they are acting in relation to God and because they know that God also knows about their situation and their actions. Only in this way could suffering be interpreted as grace. 17  On this aristocratic self-consciousness of the addressees of the First Letter to Peter, cf. Reinhard Feldmeier, “Die Außenseiter als Avantgarde. Gesellschaftliche Ausgrenzung als missionarische Chance nach dem 1. Petrusbrief,” in Persuasion and Dissuasion in Early Christianity, Ancient Judaism, and Hellenism, ed. P. van der Horst et al., CBETh 33 (Leuven: Peeters, 2003),



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and self-concept should also have an impact on their environment as the term κλέος in v. 20 makes clear.18 Through the ethics of suffering, the author hopes for a “good reputation” for Christians and churches, which, in turn, is to generate a missionary dimension. Therefore, this goal should not be thwarted by misconduct.19 It is the great recurring theme of the First Letter of Peter (cf. 1 Pet 3:17; 4:12– 14; 5:10)20 that the experience of suffering has theological and soteriological meaning. Suffering means in its deepest sense to experience God and his grace. The following verses deepen this theme and provide a Christological foundation with the help of a commentary on Isa 53.21 With εἰς τοῦτο v. 21 refers directly to v. 20b and now justifies with the ὅτι-sentence (“because Christ suffered for you,” v. 21b) the bold thesis that all Christians (it can obviously no longer only be the speech of slaves here) are called to this experience of grace in suffering.22 The suffering of Christ in his Passion becomes exemplary suffering for his followers: “[T]he implication is that as Christ did good and suffered, so also slaves do good and suffer.”23 The suffering of the Christian slaves, as well as the stigmatization, repression, and defamation which all the addressees of the First Letter of Peter experience, are thus anchored in and accounted for by the Passion of Jesus. Because it is the “calling”24 of Christians to follow Christ, this also applies in suffering. Conversely, suffering in the First Letter of Peter becomes an essential expression of being a Christian (cf. 1:6; 4:12–14; 5:9–10). Thus, the Passion of Jesus takes on a paradigmatic meaning and becomes a meaningful 161–78, and Volker Gäckle, Allgemeines Priestertum: Zur Metaphorisierung des Priestertitels im Frühjudentum und Neuen Testament, WUNT 331 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014), 461–66. 18  Cf. also Job 28:22; 30:8, and 1 Clem. 5.6; 54.3. 19  Brox, Petrusbrief, 127: “One of the stereotypical objections of society at that time to foreign religions was disloyalty to the ritual and social conventions, especially among slaves and women, who were first and foremost demanded to adapt and submit …. Slaves and women should meet the standardized expectations of the environment …” 20  The subject of “suffering” is one of the central motives in the First Letter of Peter. The word field πάσχω/πάθος/παθήματα is found no less than twelve times in this letter: 1 Pet 2:19, 20, 21, 23; 3:14, 17, 18; 4:1 [2 ×], 15, 19; 5:10. Six times it is related to Christ, six times to the members of the congregation, “from which it becomes clear there is a correspondence between their fate and that of the Anointed One” (Vahrenhorst, Petrus, 125). 21  Cf. Steve Moyise, “Isaiah in 1 Peter” in Isaiah in the New Testament, ed. Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken, NTSI (London: T&T Clark, 2005), 175–88 (here 182–84). 22  1 Pet 3:18 repeats this sentence emphasizing the uniqueness of this suffering (ἅπαξ) and introduces there once again a wider reflection on the Passion of Jesus in 3:18–22. It serves as a final Christological justification for a similar church paraenesis on the topic of not-repaying, not-abusing, and the responsibility before everyone in 3:8–17. Here, too, the author encourages his readers to hold fast to doing good despite hostility and suffering. Two elements from Isa 53:5, 11, 12 are also mentioned there with the remark that Christ “suffered for sins” and with his description as “righteous”; see Wolff, Jesaja 53 im Urchristentum, 102. 23  Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 198. 24  The motive of “vocation” runs like a red thread through the whole letter. It has always to do with including the called ones into God’s realm of salvation, cf. 1 Pet 1:15; 2:9, 21; 3:9; 5:10.

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narrative for the experience of suffering of both slaves and all other members of the congregation.25 This is also the reason for the unusual and singular formula of 1 Pet 2:21b “because Christ suffered for you.”26 Usually the well-known early Christian death formulas say that “Christ died for us/you”27 or “died for our/your sins,”28 but not that he “suffered for us/you.”29 With a high likelihood, the formula stems from the author of the First Letter of Peter himself who uses it for its ethical application: “Jesus dying for us/you” stood for a unique soteriological event in its redeeming, forgiveness-granting and sin-liberating meaning that only Christ could perform and nobody could imitate. However, Christ who is “suffering for us/you” should become a model and pattern for the discipleship30 of the church, and here, above all, for the Christian slaves.31 To express the exemplary nature of Jesus’ suffering, the author uses on one hand the term ὑπογραμμός. It stands for the letters that students in ancient 25  Brox, Petrusbrief, 128: “To suffer unjustly and to be able to endure this in the firm hope of the coming salvation is a state or the possibility of faith out of hope. The argument for hope is found in the destiny of Jesus Christ.” 26  The verb ἔπαθεν here could also mean the death of Jesus, cf. Luke 22:15; Acts 17:3; Heb 13:12, but in this context clearly refers to the suffering of Jesus, which is understood as paradigmatic. According to Cilliers Breytenbach, “‘Christus litt euretwegen’: Zur Rezeption von Jesaja 53 LXX und anderen frühjüdischen Traditionen im 1. Petrusbrief,” in Deutungen des Todes Jesu im Neuen Testament, ed. J. Frey and J. Schröter, UTB 2953 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012), 437–54 (here 440 f.): “… it is also forbidden to see the formulation Χριστὸς ἔπαθεν ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν as a divergent rewording of the Pauline formula ‘Christ died for us,’ and thus including 1 Pet 2:21 … in an inner-New Testament semantic network, imposing on it one’s own understanding of the Pauline formula.” 27  E. g. Rom 5:6, 8; 2 Cor 5:14–15. 28  E. g. 1 Cor 15:3, Rom 4:25. 29  While “dying for others” is a well-known topos in both Jewish and Hellenistic-Roman antiquity, the formulation of a suffering for others is unique here. See for this the recent research by Christina Eschner, Gestorben und hingegeben “für” die Sünder: Die griechische Konzeption des Unheil abwendenden Sterbens und deren paulinische Aufnahme für die Deutung des Todes Jesu Christi, Vol. 1: Auslegungen der paulinischen Formulierungen. Band 2: Darstellung und Auswertung des griechischen Quellenbefundes, WMANT 122 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2010). 30  Achtemeier, “Servant,” 177, n. 2; idem, 1 Peter, 199, and Martin Williams, The Doctrine of Salvation in the First Letter of Peter, SNTSMS 149 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 102, rightly point out that because of the singularity of Jesus’ death on the cross, this cannot be an imitation of Jesus, cf. 1 Cor 11:1; 1 Thess 1:6, but a following in the sense of Mark 8:34–38; 2 Cor 8:8–9; Phil 2:5–8; John 21:19–22 or Heb 13:13; cf. 1 Clem. 16.17. The famous ἅπαξ in 1 Pet 3:18 also supports this. Cf. Williams, ibid.: “The call to follow … consists more in discipleship than imitation, direction than details; it is a track to be followed rather than a track to be imitated.” 31  So also Vahrenhorst, Petrus, 126, and Michaels, 1 Peter, 143. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 199, even thinks of a reciprocal meaning “as Christ suffered for them, so they are called to suffer ‘for him’, that is, because of their devotion for him” and refers to Phil 1:29 and Col 1:24; cf. also 2 Cor 1:6; 4:15; 12:15. However, such a reciprocity is not expressed anywhere in the text. The addressees are to follow Christ in suffering, he is their “model” in suffering, but nowhere is it said here that they suffer “for him.”



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times were to reproduce when learning to write.32 On the other hand, he uses the metaphor of the footprint (ἴχνος)33 which the disciples are to follow and go after. Jesus’ suffering becomes a pattern, an example, a model and path of discipleship.34 This ethical, exemplary, and paraenetic application of Jesus’ Passion is unique in this form in the New Testament.35 What follows in the next verses is surprising to us readers today: the author does not unfold the example of Jesus’ suffering during his Passion based on Passion traditions, which were undoubtedly available to him. Instead, he uses the frame of a rather freely arranged commentary about the ‘Fourth Servant Song’ in Isa 53. The reasons for this recourse to the Old Testament tradition will once again be the subject of our interest below. At this point, it must be enough to point out that for all the authors of the Scriptures of the New Testament, the Scriptures of Israel were the interpretation of the nature, work, suffering and death of Jesus written with prophetic foresight. The recourse to this testimony, therefore, had much more weight for any early Christian reader than any not yet canonized tradition of teaching or narrative about the pre-Easter Jesus of Nazareth, and even than any potential eyewitness account. Through this recourse to Scripture, all New Testament authors also made it clear that the events had not only happened this way but that they had to happen this way. Strikingly, however, the author does not follow the order of Isa 53, but obviously the chronological order of Jesus’ Passion: first, he unfolds his patiently endured suffering (1 Pet 2:21–23), then the crucifixion (v. 24a–c) and finally, the effects of the crucifixion on the believers or the addressees of the letter (vv. 24d–25). A selection of different text passages from Isa 53 is assigned to this chronological order.36 The author begins by stating that Jesus is sin32  See Clement Strom. 5.8, 49. The term can also stand for a literary pattern, 2 Macc 2:28, and is eventually also used metaphorically as a pattern for human behaviour in the sense of “model”, see 1 Clem. 5.7; 16.17; 33.8; Pol. Phil. 8.2. Note especially the section in Pol. Phil. 8.1–2, which has many similarities with 1 Pet 2:21–25. Polycarp calls upon its readers here to become imitators (μιμηταὶ γενώμεθα) of Christ’s patience. In Clement Paed. 1.9 [84.2] Clement alludes to Ezek 34:14–16 and presents the elders as ὑπογραμμός for the patience and concern of Christ as the “shepherd of the sheep.” 33  Cf. Rom 4:12; 2 Cor 12:18; Plato Resp. 553 A; Philo Virt. 64. The closest to the context of 1 Pet 2:21 is the term in Ign. Eph. 12.2 and Mart. Pol. 22.1, where it is used in connection with martyrdom. 34  It is evident that the literal meaning of following Jesus, in the sense of the pre-Easter circle of disciples, is no longer at issue here but rather a metaphorical meaning of discipleship, as already indicated in the Gospels, cf. Matt 10:38; 16:24 // Mark 8:34 // Luke 9:23; John 13:36; 21:19, 21. 35  Feldmeier, Petrus, 116: “This interweaving of soteriological singularity and ethical exemplarity of the Passion of Christ is characteristic of 1 Pet.” (italics in the original). One can only think of Phil 2:5; Heb 13:13 and 1 Thess 1:6 (cf. also 1 Clem. 16.17), where the subject is at most alluded to. Matt 16:24 // Mark 8:34 // Luke 9:23 clearly, however, deal with one’s own cross and the suffering of Jesus does not (yet) have a paradigmatic character. 36  Breytenbach, “Rezeption,” 442, presents a fine overview of quotations and allusions.

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less.37 His statement is a reminder, on the one hand, of the expected “flawlessness” of slaves: their suffering can only count as an experience of grace or God if they are flawless (cf. v. 20a). Then again, it is a parallel and a reference to Isa 53, to the Servant whose suffering is also described as being innocent (cf. Isa 53:9). By referring to the non-cheating, non-abusing, and non-threatening behaviour of Jesus in v. 22–23 the author alludes to a Passion motif which the Passion accounts38 mention but do not stress. It plays no paradigmatic or exemplary role there. According to the Gospel accounts, Jesus had not only remained silent during the various interrogations but had also answered and even argued (Mark 14:62 // Matt 26:63; John 19:10–11; cf. John 18:19–38). At least, the facet of enduring, and not abusing nor threatening, is not the focus of attention and only becomes a central Passion motif in 1 Pet 2:22–24.39 Instead, the paradox of the innocent Messiah and plenipotentiary Son of God beaten, martyred, and crucified by men is in the foreground of the Gospels. What remains a secondary motif in the Passion account is, however, a central motif in Isa 53. So it is precisely this motif that the author takes up to underline the exemplary nature and validity of the Passion of Jesus. In the last part of our contribution, we will again pay particular attention to this issue. 1 Peter 2:22 exactly matches (with two exceptions) the wording of LXX Isa 53:9b. The author of the First Letter of Peter merely added the personal pronoun ὃς and replaced the term ἀνομία by the term ἁμαρτία40 presumably to remind us that slaves were expected to be flawless (v. 20a): “The anointed one made no mistake and nevertheless suffered. In this respect, the Anointed One is a model for slaves who suffer without having made mistakes.”41 In v. 23 there Benjamin Sargent, Written to Serve: The Use of Scripture in 1 Peter, LNTS 547 (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 125 f., examines the question of whether the locutions from Isa 53 in vv. 22–25 are to be understood as quotations or allusions and clearly pleads for the latter option: “There is nothing in 2.22–25 to alert a reader or hearer to the fact that these are anything other than Peter’s own words. There is no citation formula. The only clue that a reference is taking place, like other allusions, is verbal similarity to the source text.” 37  Cf. John 8:46; 2 Cor 5:21; Heb 4:15; 7:26; 1 John 3:5. 38  Mark 14:60–61 // Matt 26:62–63; Mark 15:4–5 // Matt 27:12–14; Luke 23:9; John 19:9; cf. Justin Dial. 102.5. 39  Cf. Origen Cels. 2.34. 40  This change too probably does not go back to a different version of the Isaiah text, but to the author himself, since it is noticeable that in the entire First Letter of Peter the word stem νομ- is missing. It obviously wasn’t the author’s priority to exactly reproduce the Isaiah text but to allude to some of its aspects. 41  Vahrenhorst, Petrus, 126, “Der Gesalbte hat keinen Fehler gemacht und hat dennoch gelitten. Insofern ist der Gesalbte ein Vorbild für Sklaven, die leiden, ohne Fehler gemacht zu haben.” Cf. 1 Peter 3:14; 4:14. Feldmeier, Petrus, 116, sees in the amendment rather an adaptation to the removal of sins in v. 24; ἁμαρτία is also a core term in Isa 53 and appears there in vv. 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, in v. 5 even as a synonymous parallel to ἀνομία. The real reason for the change will remain open. In any case, it can be justified.

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follows a commentary on v. 22b42 in the form of a free continuation of Isa 53:9b. It is not found in this way in the text of Isaiah, but it picks up on the silently suffering sheep of Isa 53:7 and applies its patient silence to the Passion of Jesus.43 Verse 23b explains Jesus’ patient suffering by pointing out that he delivered it/himself(?) to God (παρεδίδου), who is justly judging.44 This reference links to the slave paraenesis in v. 18–20 and the phrasing ἐν παντὶ φόβῳ and διὰ συνείδησιν θεοῦ which the author uses to remind slaves that their sufferings are known and pleasing to God. But now, he reminds them also of the divine power to justify the innocent sufferer and to repay the offenders for their unjust deeds.45 Following this description of the paradigmatic and exemplary suffering of Jesus as a model for the reader, the author displays in v. 24 the soteriological – and here positively not paradigmatic  – role of the Passion, specifically of the crucifixion (ἐπὶ τὸ ξύλον).46 He again does this by alluding to Isa 53:4, 11, 12, although it is not easy to distinguish the individual parts.47 This means that he also unfolds and expresses this part of the Passion in the light of the Isaian Servant of God. Or conversely: the author adapts Isa 53 in an individual way to the cross. He interprets it here as a vicarious atoning death48 but in such a way that “our sins are carried to the wood.” He understands the death on the cross in the sense 42 

Michaels, 1 Peter, 145. In detail Sargent, Written to Serve, 129. Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 200, wants to refer the patient silence not only to the Passion of Jesus, but with regard to Matt 5:43–48; Rom 12:17–20; 1 Thess 5:15 and 1 Peter 3:9 to the entire earthly ministry of Jesus. However, the reference to the judgment of God speaks more for the context of the Passion (cf. Mark 14:36; Luke 23:46). 44  Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 201, points out that the question remains what exactly Jesus delivered to God: his cause, cf. Mark 14:36, his person, cf. Luke 23:46 and Eph 5:2, 25, or, according to Michaels, 1 Peter, 147, his enemies? Most likely, one has to think of his person. 45  Cf. Rom 12:19; 2 Enoch 50:3–5; T. Gad 6:7. One can certainly understand the last part of the verse as an indication that Christ is not only the model in suffering, but also the guarantor of eschatological justification. Feldmeier, Petrus, 117, rightly points out that this reasoning differs strongly from the contemporary Cynic-Stoic ataraxia and apathy, cf. Epictetus Diatr. 3.22, 53 f.; Plutarch Inim. util. 90 D; Marc. Aur. Med. 6.30. 46  For the “bearing of sin(s)” cf. John 1:29; Heb 9:28. The verb ἀνήνεγκεν comes from the sacrificial language of the LXX, cf. Gen 8:20; Lev 14:20; 2 Chr 35:16; cf. Heb 7:27; 9:28; 13:15; James 2:21. However, here it cannot be a cultic uplifting of “the sins” (clear object of ἀνήνεγκεν) to the cross in the sense of a sacrifice, since nowhere in the Jewish Old Testament or early Christian literature were “sins sacrificed”. Accordingly, as Michaels says (1 Peter, 148), this must be here the simple and profane interpretation “to carry away.” For “wood,” see Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29; Gal 3:13 (cf. Deut 21:23) and Barn. 5.13; 8.5; 12.11; Pol. Phil. 8.1. 47 See Achtemeier, “Servant,” 180, n. 19; Williams, Doctrine, 103, with a clear and concise comparison table; and for details, Sargent, Written to Serve, 127. 48  For an absence of ritual atonement, for which Breytenbach (“Rezeption,” 447) pleads, there can be no question, as Peter Stuhlmacher (“Vorwort zum Nachdruck” in Wolff, Jesaja 53 im Urchristentum, 11), and Wolff himself (ibid., 103) properly argue. Rather, the ritual atonement must also be understood as the assumption of a punishment and death; cf. Ralf Albrecht, “Sühne in Jesaja 53,” in Warum das Kreuz?: Die Frage nach der Bedeutung des Todes Jesu, ed. Volker Gäckle, TVG (Wuppertal: R. Brockhaus, 1998), 35–51. 43 

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of Isa 53:4–6, as a vicarious punishment for the burden of sins taken over49 – a burden which consists of many individual sins. What is striking here is the first change of the personal pronoun since 1 Pet 1:3, from the 2nd person plural (cf. 2:21a) to the 1st person plural (2:24a+b) and the renewed change to the 2nd person plural in 2:24c. This change has prompted older researchers to consider whether the statements in vv. 21–25 are an early Christian hymn, but their assumption is not widely accepted anymore.50 The brief shift to the 1st person plural is more likely motivated by Isa 53. The meaning of ἀπογενόμενοι (2:24) is also controversial. The verb ἀπογίνομαι literally means “to be absent from something,” “not to be involved in something” or “not to have a share in something,” but can also mean in a figurative sense “to stop being”, “to become lost” or “to lose (one’s life)” and thus stand for dying.51 Is it, then, a matter here of “dying to” sins, in the sense of Rom 6, standing in contrast to “living for righteousness,” or is it a matter of removing 49  As seen correctly by Breytenbach, “Rezeption,” 444, 447 f., and Williams, Doctrine, 103–109; cf. Exod 28:38, 43; Lev 5:1, 17; 7:18; 19:8; 20:19, 20; 22:19; 24:15; Num 5:31; 9:13; 14:33–35; 18:1, 22; Ezek 18:20. The aspect of suffering punishment is also expressed in the term ξύλον, which in Deut 21:23 denotes a stake on which a delinquent’s body was hanged. Already in early Judaism this passage was related to the punishment of the crucifixion, cf. 11Q19 64.7–12 and 4Q169 (4QpNah) 3+4 1.1–8, and therefore could also be applied by Paul in Gal 3:13 to the death on the cross of Jesus. Williams, Doctrine, 108: “Thus the notion of Jesus hanging upon a ‘tree’ carries with it the connotations of punishment, shame, and even accursedness of God.” Also C. E. B. Cranfield, The First Epistle of Peter (London: SCM Press, 1950), 67 f.: “[T]he bearing of our sins means suffering the punishment of them in our place.” 50  Until the 1960s, the “hymnal thesis” enjoyed great popularity, e. g. with Hans Win­disch, Die katholischen Briefe, HNT 15, 2nd ed. (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1930), 64 f.; Rudolf Bultmann, “Bekenntnis- und Liedfragmente im ersten Petrusbrief,” ConNT 11 (1947): 1–14 (12 f.); Edouard Lohse, “Paränese und Kerygma im 1. Petrusbrief,” ZNW 45 (1954): 68–89 (88); David Hill, “‘To Offer Spiritual Sacrifices … (1 Peter 2:5)’: Liturgical Formulations and Christian Paraenesis in 1 Peter,” JSNT 16 (1982): 45–63; Klaus Wengst, Christologische Formeln und Lieder des Urchristentums, SNT 7 (Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus Mohn, 1974), 83–86; Leonhard Goppelt, Der erste Petrusbrief, KEK 12/1 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978), 204–207, and even still with Brox, Petrusbrief, 129 n. 420, 134 f. Apart from shifting the personal pronoun from 2nd person pl. (v. 21ab) to 1st person pl. (v. 24a) and back to 2nd person pl. (v. 24d and v. 25), reference was made to the personal pronoun ὃς (v. 22a, 23a, 24a), which is common for confessional texts and hymns, and, of course, to the surplus of content expected in confessional texts or hymns, which also characterizes this slave paraenesis. Meanwhile, however, Thomas P. Osborne, “Guide Lines for Christian Suffering: A SourceCritical and Theological Study of 1 Peter 2,21–25,” Biblica 64 (1983): 381–408 (here 383–87); William L. Schutter, Hermeneutic and Composition in 1 Peter, WUNT II/30 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1989), 143 f.; Michaels, 1 Peter, 136 f.; Achtemeier, “Servant,” 178 f., and others have shown that these elements have been overestimated. The Isaiah 53 quotation explains the change of the personal pronoun better. The relative pronoun is common for the language of the First Letter of Peter. One can also explain the surplus of content differently (see below). And the similarities of 1 Pet 2:21–25 with the other known Christ-hymns (like 1 Tim 3:16; Phil 2:6–11 or Col 1:15–20) are manageable, above all because none of these hymns uses Old Testament texts in a more extensive way. 51 Wilhelm Gemoll, Griechisch-Deutsches Schul- und Handwörterbuch, 9th ed. (Mün­ chen/Wien: G. Freytag Verlag/Hölder Pichler-Tempsky, 1954), 98.

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someone from sins? The similarity to Rom 6:4, 11, 13, 14 speaks for the former meaning. In favour of the latter meaning is that Paul never uses ἀπογίνομαι in the sense of “dying,” and the First Letter of Peter uses the verb θανατόω for “dying” in 1 Pet 3:18b. Besides, in contrast to Rom 6, there is no mention here of dying with Christ. Also, sin does not have the character of a personal power, but the author always speaks in the plural about concrete “sins.”52 While ἀπογενόμενοι therefore suggests “to take away,” that is, to remove and distance the addressees from the sphere of influence of sins,53 the final purpose of the Cross event is clear: not only the slaves, but all Christians should “live to righteousness,” that is, in line with the will of God.54 One can hardly overestimate the fundamental importance of this at first ethical-exemplary (vv. 22–23) and then soteriological (v. 24) application of Isa 53 to the Passion of Jesus. Amid the ancient world which understood strength, prosperity, health, and success as a proof of the benevolence of God or the gods, interpreting the Passion of Jesus through Isa 53 reappraises suffering. It is no longer a sign of God’s rejection, but the opposite: a signum of calling (v. 21a), and thus, an experience of grace and God. Verse 24c and v. 25a recall LXX Isa 53:5d and 53:6a, except for the change back to the 2nd person plural. In the light of Isa 53, the author interprets the forgiveness or removal of sins as healing,55 expressed as follows: the addressees, who like sheep wandered away from God,56 are brought back (by God)57 to the 52 

Rightly observed by Williams, Doctrine, 110 f., and Vahrenhorst, Petrus, 129. Breytenbach, “Rezeption,” 447: “Die Adressaten (‘wir’)‚ ‘sind den Sünden weggenommen’, sie sind deren Besitz entzogen worden.” The dative ταῖς ἁμαρτίαις denotes the owner here (ibid., n. 49). 54  Michaels, 1 Peter, 149: “ζήσωμεν points not to the resurrection or the life of the future with God … but to a new kind of life in the present world (cf. Titus 2:12; 1 John 4:9).” Similarly Brox, Petrusbrief, 138: “Dabei hat δικαιοσύνη hier wohl stärker ethische Bedeutung als den qualifiziert paulinischen Sinn (= das Heil selbst).” Cf. also 1 Pet 3:14 (διὰ δικαιοσύνην) with 3:17 (ἀγαθοποιοῦντας) and 2:15, 20; 3:6, 11; 4:19. In 3:11–13 δικαίους is also a synonym for ποιησάτω ἀγαθόν. Williams, Doctrine, 111 f., draws the conclusion: “Thus Peter diverges substantially from the Pauline notion of ‘righteousness of God’ or the righteousness bestowed by God …. The focus of this passage … is not on dying and rising with Christ (representation), but on ceasing from wrongdoing/sins and living for doing what is right (ethics).” This is underlined by the multiplicity of terms with which the First Letter of Peter emphasizes good and correct behavior: ἀγαθοποιέω (2:15, 20; 3:6, 17), ἀγαθοποία (4:19), ἀγαθοποίος (2:14), ἀναστροφή (1:15; 2:12; 3:1, 2, 16), καλὰ ἔργα (2:12). 55  In the perspective of the Old Testament healing is closely connected with the forgiveness of sins, cf. Deut 30:3; 2 Chr 7:14; Pss 6:2 (LXX 6:3); 30:2 (LXX 29:3); 41:4 (LXX 40:5); 103:3 (LXX 102:3); Isa 6:10; 53:5. Cf. also Williams, Doctrine, 114: “Thus healing here includes the forgiveness of sins, but also embraces the restoration of fellowship with God, and all of the benefits that derive from that fellowship.” 56  In the Old Testament this is a metaphor for the Israelite people who turn away from Yahweh, e. g. Ezek 34:5–6 (cf. Matt 9:36; 10:6; 15:24). 1 Peter 2:25 refers to the Gentiles. 57  The verb ἐπιστρέφω often has in the New Testament the meaning of repenting/conversion in the theological sense, cf. Luke 1:16, 17; Acts 3:19; 9:35; 11:21; 14:15; 15:19; 26:18, 20; 53 

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shepherd58 and overseer59 of their lives. This “once-now scheme” reflects the typical concern of the First Letter of Peter to contrast the novelty of Christian existence with the earlier pagan way of life (cf. 1 Pet 1:3–5, 14, 18; 2:9–10, etc.). Our contribution lacks the space to discuss the subject of ancient slavery at length. It must be enough here to point out that the position of converted slaves must have posed an enormous challenge to all early Christian communities. On the one hand, they were theologically and soteriologically equal to all other Christians (1 Cor 12:13; Gal 3:28; Eph 6:8; Col 3:11). On the other side, nowhere in antiquity and in early Christian literature was the social position of slaves questioned, let alone slavery itself. The tension between the theologicalsoteriological equality and the inferiority they experienced every day in society had to lead to notable conflicts. Against this background, one may also explain the expansions of the remarks in vv. 21–25 which are striking for a simple slave paraenesis and seem overdone. However, the fact that this interpretation provides acknowledgment, appreciation, and meaning to the oppressed, defamed, and stigmatized members of the congregation – in particular, to the Christian slaves in their often precarious position – makes these lines appear in a different light.60

4.  Isaiah 53 and the Hermeneutics of the First Letter of Peter In most of the Old Testament quotations in the New Testament, as, for example, in the fulfilment quotations in the Gospel of Matthew or the typological and allegorical interpretations of Paul (cf. e. g., 1 Cor 10:1–4; Gal 4:22–31), we can only implicitly deduce the hermeneutical principles involved. However, in the First Letter of Peter, we have the extraordinary luck that the author presents to his readers in 1:10–12 a “hermeneutical introduction.” It is significant for under2 Cor 3:16; 1 Thess 1:9. The passive form can be read here as passivum divinum, in the sense that God was the actual one acting in this repentance. 58  While the shepherd metaphor was often applied to God in the Old Testament, e. g. Ps 23:1–4; 80:2; Isa 40:11; Ezek 34:12 and others, it is exclusively applied to Christ in the New Testament, John 10:11–16, 27; Heb 13:20; 1 Pet 5:10; Rev 7:17. Particularly from the last-mentioned passage it is natural to think of Christ here too, against Brox, Petrusbrief, 139, especially since the relationship with Christ is the dominant theme of vv. 21–25, according to Michaels, 1 Peter, 151; Achtemeier, 1 Peter, 204; Feldmeier, Petrus, 118, and Sargent, Written to Serve, 128, whereas Vahrenhorst, Petrus, 131, is also right when he reminds us that the New Testament description of Jesus as shepherd is in line with the Old Testament tradition of the pastoral ministry of God, and Jesus’ pastoral ministry is to be understood in the terms of a divine delegation of this ministry. 59  In early Jewish literature God is called ἐπίσκοπος in LXX Job 20:29; Wis 1:6; Philo Leg. 3.43; Somn. 1.91. 60  Vahrenhorst, Petrus, 132.



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standing all the Old Testament quotations and allusions in this letter, but above all for applying Isa 53 in 1 Pet 2:21–25. In these three verses in 1 Pet 1:10–12, the author provides a series of fundamental statements which we can only paraphrase and present as theses at this point:61 1. The Old Testament Prophets62 “were seeking and searching” for the salvation now revealed in Christ (v. 10). 2. In them the “Spirit of Christ” and thus Christ himself was active. He has testified to them concerning both the sufferings of Christ and the future glory (v. 11). 3. They already knew that the revelation they had received would not serve themselves and their contemporaries,63 but only (!) that generation64 to whom the gospel of this salvation – still hidden, even to the heavenly world – has now been revealed and proclaimed (v. 12). The meaning and explosiveness of these statements pose a particular challenge for any modern exegesis. For in these verses, the author claims no less than that the whole Scriptures finally have an eschatological focus. In his view, they are addressed to that end times generation to which he belongs, and specifically to the Christian churches to which he writes his letter. Also, the ministry and office of the Old Testament prophets are seen as solely directed towards these evangelists in this climax of times (1:20: ἐπ’ ἐσχάτου τῶν χρόνων; cf. 1:12; 2:10, 25; 3:21).65 The prophets were “ministers of the church and forerunners of the apostles”66 – those apostles who preached to the churches in Asia Minor and elsewhere the gospel of a salvation that the prophets themselves couldn’t clearly see, but for which they already longed and which they were seeking. The early Christian evangelists did their ministry in the awareness that the same Spirit of 61  Cf. here in detail Sargent, Written to Serve, 18–49, and Allan Chapple, “The Appropriation of Scripture in 1 Peter,” in All That the Prophets Have Declared: The Appropriation of Scripture in the Emergence of Christianity, ed. M. R. Malcolm (Milton Keynes: Authentic Publishers, 2015), 155–71, 264–80 (here 157–59). 62  On the question of whether these are the prophets of the Old Testament or Christian prophets and thus contemporaries of the author, see Achtemeier, “Servant,” 185 f., and Chapple, “Appropriation,” 270, n. 24, who plead clearly for the first option. 63  That prophets would not serve their own contemporaries but a future generation of the end-times is a recurring topos in the Old Testament, in early Jewish literature, and in the New Testament; cf. Num 24:17; Deut 18:15; Hab 2:1–3; Dan 9:3, 22–27; 12:6–13; 1 Enoch 1:2; 1QpHab 7.1–8; Matt 13:17 // Luke 10:24; John 8:56; 12:41; Rom 4:23–24; 15:4; 1 Cor 10:11; Heb 11:13–16. 64  Cf., however, Rom 4:23–24. 65  Achtemeier, “Servant,” 184; Chapple, “Appropriation,” 159: “Peter believes that in accordance with God’s purpose … Israel finds the climax of her story in the Jesus of the gospel.” 66 Emmanuel L. Rehfeld, “Die Gottesknechtsgrammatik des Ersten Petrusbriefes. Ein Musterfall biblischer Theologie,” TBei 47 (2016): 119–27 (here 120).

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Christ67 and the same power was now also effective in them and through them. They knew they were proclaiming in their gospel what Isaiah and his fellow prophets had already witnessed centuries before.68 The aim of this hermeneutic is therefore not to ask where and to what extent the divine salvation event is prefigured in the scriptures of Israel. It is about realizing that the entire Scriptures focus on the present time of eschatological fulfilment and that they are only now revealing themselves in their true meaning. The prophets, full of the Spirit of Christ, proclaimed his Passion and future glory. Looking at 1 Pet 2:18–25 against this background, it becomes obvious again how the author encourages this congregation of “strangers” (1:1; 2:11), and above all the slaves among them: not only by making them aware of their aristocratic status (2:4–10), but also of the eschatological fulfilment in their lifetime. They are living at the summit of time, they are the recipients of God’s history of salvific acts, they are finally the eschatological people of God (2:9–10). They experience the work of the divine Spirit, who had already centuries ago proclaimed and prepared this historical hour.69 Against this horizon it also becomes clear that interpreting the Passion of Jesus through the ‘Fourth Servant Song’ from Isa 53 was not only possible, but also mandatory. From the author’s hermeneutical perspective, this Servant was not a figure of ancient history – whether in the sense of a symbolic representation of Israel or an anonymous prophet – but the Christ foreseen by “Isaiah” with the “sufferings that were to come upon Christ” (1:11).70 Moreover, it is remarkable that the First Letter of Peter is not only about a selective interpretation or scriptural illustration of individual Christological or soteriological motifs in light of the ‘Fourth Servant Song’ or the message of 67  On the identity of “Spirit of Christ” and “Holy Spirit” see Chapple, “Appropriation,” 270, n. 23. 68  Chapple, “Appropriation,” 157: “The prophetic message is thus to be understood as a proleptic form of the gospel. For Peter, this means that the gospel is the hermeneutical key to the OT Scriptures.” 69  Chapple, “Appropriation,” 158. He rightly points out that the author of the First Epistle of Peter is concerned with working on “identity formation” (ibid., 168) for his oppressed and marginalized congregations of recipients with the help of this hermeneutic; cf. also Gäckle, Allgemeines Priestertum, 463–66. 70 François Vouga, “Textproduktion durch Zitation. Ist der Erste Petrusbrief der Autor der Gottesknechtslieder (1 Petr 2,21–25)?” in Was ist ein Text?: Alttestamentliche, ägyptologische und altorientalische Perspektiven, ed. by L. Morenz et al., BZAW 362 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2007), 353–64 (here 364): “Christus ist der Gottesknecht des Buchs Jesaja, und der Gottesknecht Jesajas ist Christus, der gelitten hat und unsere Sünden in seinem Leib auf das Holz hinaufgetragen hat.” We find the same hermeneutical perspective plainly in John 12:40–41, where Isaiah saw Christ and testified to him, and in Heb 11:26, where Moses preferred the “shame of Christ” to the treasures of the Egyptians. In John 12:40–41 and Heb 11:26 the Old Testament figures already perceive the fate of Christ and share it to a certain extent – both the suffering of Christ (Heb 11:26) and the glory of Christ (John 12:40–41). Cf. Achtemeier, “Servant,” 186.



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(Deutero-) Isaiah. The author of the First Letter of Peter considers the entire circumstances of the recipients in the light of the exodus71 and exile events. The (Deutero-) Isaianic message of salvation is – as also for Paul and other New Testament Scriptures72 – of outstanding importance because of the similar circumstances of the proclamation, namely, the exile.73 Thus, the First Letter of Peter also addresses its readers as an exilic community scattered among the nations (1:1: παρεπίδημοι διασπορᾶς; 2:11: πάροικοι74 καὶ παρεπίδημοι; cf. also 1:17b). It motivates them to hold on to hope amidst a distressing present (1 Pet 1:3, 13, 21; 3:5, 15; cf. Isa 40:1, 9–11; 52:7–10).75 Similarly, E. L. Rehfeld can say that the First Letter of Peter has adopted the overall setting of Deutero-Isaiah, and Deutero-Isaiah forms the grammar of the First Letter of Peter.76 And F. Vouga rightly considers the First Letter of Peter as an interpretation of the history of Jesus,77 authorized and made plausible by the Book of the Prophet (Isaiah).

5.  The Discipleship of the Slaves and the Discipleship of the “Servants” One of the surprises of studying the interpretative literature on 1 Pet 2:18–25 is observing how little attention is paid to the phrase ἵνα ἐπακολουθήσητε τοῖς ἴχνεσιν αὐτοῦ (2:21).78 For by these terms the author very clearly refers to the discipleship of the pre-Easter circle of disciples who followed Jesus’ footsteps in a direct sense. 71 On the exodus tradition in the First Letter of Peter, cf. Jens Herzer, Petrus oder Paulus?: Studien über das Verhältnis des 1. Petrusbriefes zur paulinischen Tradition, WUNT 103 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998), esp. 183 f.; Chapple, “Appropriation,” 161–63, 165–68. On the outstanding significance of the exodus motif in Deutero-Isaiah, see Walther Zimmerli, “Der ‘neue Exodus’ in der Verkündigung der beiden großen Exilspropheten,” in Gottes Offenbarung: Gesammelte Aufsätze zum Alten Testament, TB 19 (München: Kaiser, 1963), 192–204; Hartmut Gese, “Der Johannesprolog,” in Zur biblischen Theologie: Alttestamentliche Vorträge (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1989), 152–201 (here 199 f.); Joseph Blenkinsopp, “Absicht und Sinn der Exodustradition in Deuterojesaja (Is 40–55),” Concilium (D) 2 (1966): 762–67. 72 Cf. Wolff, Jes 53 im Urchristentum; Otfried Hofius, “Das vierte Gottesknechtslied in den Briefen des Neuen Testaments,” in Neutestamentliche Studien, WUNT 132 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000), 340–360; Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken (eds.), Isaiah in the New Testament (London: T&T Clark, 2005). 73  Cf. for the following Rehfeld, “Gottesknechtsgrammatik,” 120–26. 74  The term παροικία is used in Acts 13:17 as terminus technicus for forced labor in Egypt and is synonymous with the Babylonian ‫ גולה‬in 1 Esdras 5:7 and LXX Ezra 8:35; cf. also LXX Isa 52:4. 75  Further relations can be found between 1 Pet 1:18a and LXX Isa 52:3; 1 Pet 1:3; 2:10 and LXX Isa 52:8 (keyword “mercy”). 76  Rehfeld, “Gottesknechtsgrammatik,” 121. 77  Vouga, “Textproduktion,” 362. 78  Most detailed in Goppelt, Petrusbrief, 202 f.

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A not insignificant part of the pre-Easter Jesus tradition deals precisely with this ethics of discipleship: it forced the called ones to abandon their previous living conditions, including work and family. They entered the non-settled lifestyle of wandering around as disciples of the Son of Man79 “who has nowhere to lay his head” (Matt 8:20 // Luke 9:58). Now, this discipleship ethos had already before Easter not been the only ethical concept for a life pleasing to God.80 After Easter and the Ascension, it had to undergo an unavoidable crisis or transformation since it was no longer possible to follow the risen Christ (now ascended to heaven) in such a way as the pre-Easter circle of disciples did.81 Therefore, the verb ἀκολουθέω strikingly recedes in the New Testament letter literature as it already obviously does in the Acts of the Apostles.82 In its place, the word field πίστις/πιστεύω usually appears, which describes the form of a positive bond to the risen and ascended Christ after Easter. The verb ἀκολουθέω is used, if at all, only with a metaphorical meaning.83 Simultaneously, it was necessary to reflect on how to transfer the ethos of discipleship into the post-Easter church ethos.84 This happened in quite different ways, but that is not our topic here. Besides this “salvation-historical-ecclesiological transformation” of the discipleship ethos, however, there was also a need for a “sociological transformation” for individual groups in ancient society. Because of a lack of freedom, they, especially most women and above all slaves, were not in a position to make far-reaching life decisions. What could it mean for a 79  Cf. Matt  8:19–22 // Luke  9:57–62; Matt  10:5–15 // Luke  10:1–16; Matt  23:34–36 // Luke 11:49–51; Matt 6:25–33 // Luke 12:22–31; 14:25–35. 80 As a rule, Jesus develops his “general” ethics from the Torah, cf. Matt 22:34–40 // Mark 12:28–34; Matt 19:3–6; Luke 16:27–31. 81  This transformation becomes visible in various thematic fields, such as the Pauline mission, which knows longer periods of settledness. Other Pauline examples concern renunciation of support (cf. e. g. 1 Cor 9:4–18 and Luke 10:7) and dealing with possessions (cf. Acts 2:44–45; 4:32–37 with 1 Tim 6:17–19). We can see this transformation also in the functional differentiation between settled church elders and non-settled missionaries  (Acts 13:1–3; cf. also Did. 12.3–13.1), between prophets or “righteous” people (ascetics?) and ordinary Christians (“little ones,” Matt 10:41), between prophets and teachers (Matt 23:34), and between (church) apostles and prophets (Did. 11.3). 82  Neither in the Acts of the Apostles nor in the New Testament letters (with the exception of 1 Pet 2:21; cf. also Rev 14:4) is the relationship to Christ or the Christian existence described with the verb ἀκολουθέω. With Paul, the term μίμησις is found, referring twice to Christ (1 Cor 11:1; 1 Thess 1:6) and four times to Paul (1 Cor 4:16; 11:1; 1 Thess 1:6; Phil 3:17, cf. also 2 Thess 3:7, 9). 83  Such a metaphorical transformation of the term was facilitated by the fact that the verb ἀκολουθέω could at that time already refer in a figurative sense to pagan gods, speakers or philosophers, but also to opinions and philosophies, without the physical presence of a person being assumed. See Ulrich Luz, “Nachfolge Jesu I,” TRE 23 (1994): 678–86 (here 683): “‘Nachfolge’ konnte somit vom konkreten ‘Hinter-Jesus-Hergehen’ gelöst und zu einer Chiffre werden, die das christliche Leben überhaupt umschreibt.” 84  According to Luz, “Nachfolge Jesu,” 679, 683, this process of expanding the concept of following and discipleship begins already in the Gospels as a “paraphrase of the existence of all Christians, including those in the settled churches” (emphasis in the original).

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slave to “follow” Jesus’ “footprints” if leaving the slave master would have been sanctioned with the harshest punishments? The apostolic letter literature, therefore, develops an ethics of discipleship which is both post-Easter and “status-related.” The author of the First Letter of Peter contributes to this development by turning a minor facet of Jesus’ Passion, namely his patient and silent suffering in the face of deadly violence, into a model and pattern for the behaviour of Christian slaves. However, he also stylizes this motif as a general model for the behaviour of those harassed, defamed, and stigmatized Christians in the congregations of Asia Minor whose “options of discipleship” were also sharply limited by circumstances. He does this by interpreting the vicarious suffering of Jesus through the figure of the Servant of God from Isa 53. In his description, the patient bearing and silent enduring of the torment receive a stronger emphasis than in the synoptic Passion tradition. But what legitimized the author of the First Letter of Peter to turn both the suffering of Jesus and of the Servant of God into an example and a ὑπογραμμός for a pagan Christian congregation and its slaves? For neither the synoptic tradition nor Isa 53 mention such an ethical application. We might argue the author did not need such a legitimation because this application was obvious as an early Christian Vorbildchristologie. What is striking here, however, is that on the one hand, there are not too many New Testament examples of such a Vorbildchristologie,85 which aim primarily at Jesus’ attitude of humility, self-giving, sacrifice, and willingness to suffer. On the other hand, 1 Pet 2:21–25 represents the most extended text of this genre. At this point, however, the observations that have become the subject of this collection of essays might also play a role. As the research by Beuken,86 Blenkinsopp,87 and others has shown:88 we are dealing in Isa 40–66 not only with one Servant of God who brings light (Isa 42:6; 49:6), righteousness (Isa 43:1, 4), justice (Isa 42:4), and salvation (Isa 49:6), and who suffers vicariously and gives his life away “for the many” (Isa 53:4–12). Rather, we meet here a whole community of “servants”89 who regarded themselves as the promised descendants of this one Servant (Isa 53:10). They carried on his mission and message, and in their following the Servant of God they became the model for Paul90 85 

Cf. Matt 11:29–30; John 13:15; Rom 15:3, 7; 2 Cor 8:8–9; 13:4; Phil 2:5–8; 3:10. W. A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH,’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. 87 Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch,” in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship, ed. R. P. Gordon (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 392–412. 88 See the literature in Michael A. Lyons, “Paul and the Servant(s): Isaiah 49,6 in Acts 13,47,” ETL 89 (2013): 345–59 (here 351, n. 23). 89  See Isa 54:16–17; 56:6; 65:8–9, 13 [3 ×], 15; 66:14. 90  See the work by Mark Gignilliat, Paul and Isaiah’s Servants. Paul’s Theological Reading of Isaiah 40–66 in 2 Corinthians 5.14–6.10, LNTS 330 (London: Bloomsbury, 2007). 86 

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and the apostles.91 Because of their prophetic understanding of Scripture,92 they could understand themselves as the “heralds” or “evangelists” (Isa 52:7) of this Servant of God.93 His true and eschatological identity had now been revealed to them in Jesus of Nazareth. His message of the return from exile had found its eschatological perfection in the Gospel of Jesus Christ. And his work and ministry as “light for the nations” and for the “restoration of Israel” is now being continued and carried on in this community of servants. It is now significant for the New Testament reception of the relationship of the Servant of God to the community of “servants” following him, and in particular for understanding 1 Pet 2:18–25: the identity of the one Servant of God is reflected in the life, suffering, and action of the servants belonging to him (Isa 53:10). They are the ones who answered the “call” of the Servant (Isa 50:10; cf. ἐν παντὶ φόβῳ in 1 Pet 2:18a and ἐκλήθητε in v. 21a) in obedience, faithfulness and “fear of God.” They are the preachers of the Servant’s message, they experience the same rejection and the same suffering as the Servant, they suffer in righteousness (Isa 57:1–2; 65:20–23; cf. 1 Pet 2:19 f.: εἰ … ὑποφέρει τις λύπας πάσχων ἀδίκως) and patiently await their future justification in the eschatological tension of the times (Isa 63:6–64:12; 65:17–25; cf. 1 Pet 2:23c: παρεδίδου δὲ τῷ κρίνοντι δικαίως).94 Gentiles will now also become part of this group of servants and join in restoring Israel (Isa 55:5; 56:6–8; 66:18–21). Though suffering is an essential part of the narrative identity of these servants, they experience simultaneously that even in their present affliction “the hand of the Lord is with them” (Isa 66:14; cf. 1 Pet 2:19–20: “It is a sign of grace [in the sight of God]!”), while judgement awaits their enemies (Isa 66:14; cf. 1 Pet 2:23c). Against the background of this fellowship and followership of servants in Isa 40–66, we must also consider whether we should understand the phrase ἵνα … τῇ δικαιοσύνῃ ζήσωμεν in 1 Pet 2:24c not only in an ethical but also in a soteriological sense, for the righteousness of the servants in Isa 54:17; 57:1–2; 65:13–15 is a righteousness granted by God. Isaiah 56:1 announces Yahweh’s coming righteousness for those who uphold right and practice justice.95 And 91  See Acts 13:47 with Isa 49:6, and the works by Michael A. Lyons, “Paul and the Servant(s),” 345–59, and Holly Beers, The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts, LNTS 535 (London: Bloomsbury, 2015). 92  Rom 4:23–25; 15:4; 1 Cor 10:11; 1 Pet 1:10–12; Heb 11:13–16. 93  Cf. J. Ross Wagner, Heralds of the Good News: Isaiah and Paul in Concert in the Letter to the Romans, NovTSup 101 (Boston: Brill, 2003). 94  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 69: “Now the victims of that sinful generation have a likeness to the Servant. They undergo his destiny: they as well as he are ‘righteous’ (53.11; 57.1) and yet they experience suffering”. Similarly Christopher R. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible VI, ed. Leander E. Keck (Nashville: Abingdon, 2001), 307–552 (here 490 f.): “The servant was to make many righteous [Is 53:11], the fate that was his is shared by those who follow in his way.” 95  Seitz, “Isaiah 40–66,” 485: “The word delivered to them is that all who do justice and righteousness and hold fast to the divine covenant are God’s servants.”



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Willem Beuken sums up the message of Isa 60:1–63:6 as follows: “In these chapters the prophet announces a righteous generation, in which the promise to the Servant will come true.”96 What Mark Gignilliat writes for Paul we can equally say for slaves as well as for all Christians in the churches in Asia Minor who the First Letter of Peter targets: “Those who follow God in obedience suffer as did the Servant and as did Jesus. So also do the servants suffer in solidarity with the Servant, and Paul suffers in solidarity with Jesus. This is God’s paradoxical means of advancing his good news and Isaiah pre-figures God’s new redemptive action.”97 Understanding the slave paraenesis of 1 Pet 2:18–25 against the background of the relationship between the one Servant of God of Isa 53 and the community of servants following him in Isa 54–66 makes the theological profusion of these verses also appear in a new light. For then, it is less about a slave paraenesis than about a general church paraenesis through which all Christians, though “freemen,” should consider themselves as “servants” or “slaves” (cf. 2:16: ὡς ἐλεύθεροι … ὡς θεοῦ δοῦλοι).98 They are to follow the one servant Jesus Christ. And in his footsteps, they should and can understand the suffering they experience as part of their divine calling.

Bibliography Achtemeier, Paul J. 1 Peter: A  Commentary on First Peter. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996. –. “Suffering Servant and Suffering Christ in 1 Peter.” Pages 176–88 in The Future of Christology: Essays in Honor of L. E. Keck. Edited by A. J. Malherbe and W. A. Meeks. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993. Albrecht, Ralf. “Sühne in Jesaja 53.” Pages 35–51 in Warum das Kreuz?: Die Frage nach der Bedeutung des Todes Jesu. Edited by Volker Gäckle. Wuppertal: R. Brockhaus, 1998. Beers, Holly. The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts. LNTS 535. London: Bloomsbury, 2015. Beuken, W. A. M. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH.’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. “Absicht und Sinn der Exodustradition in Deuterojesaja (Isa 40– 55).” Concilium (D) 2 (1966): 762–67. –. “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch.” Pages 392–412 in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship. Edited by R. P. Gordon. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995. 96  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 70, and Gignilliat, Paul and Isaiah’s Servants, 119, summarize: “The term ‫ צדק‬characterizes the servants of Isaiah 53–66.” 97  Gignilliat, Paul and Isaiah’s Servants, 142. 98  Michaels, 1 Peter, 152: “Because he writes to all as ‘God’s slaves’ (2:16), the servants in the stereotyped household duty code can be used effectively as stand-ins for all believers in the provinces of Asia minor.”

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Breytenbach, Cilliers. “‘Christus litt euretwegen’: Zur Rezeption von Jesaja 53 LXX und anderen frühjüdischen Traditionen im 1. Petrusbrief.” Pages 437–54 in Deutungen des Todes Jesu im Neuen Testament. Edited by J. Frey and J. Schröter. 2nd ed. UTB 2953. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012. Brox, Norbert. Der erste Petrusbrief. EKKNT 21. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, and Zurich: Benziger, 1989. Bultmann, Rudolf. “Bekenntnis- und Liedfragmente im ersten Petrusbrief.” ConBNT 11, in honorem Antonii Fridrichsen (1947): 1–14. Chapple, Allan. “The Appropriation of Scripture in 1 Peter.” Pages 155–71, 264–80 in All That the Prophets Have Declared: The Appropriation of Scripture in the Emergence of Christianity. Edited by M. R. Malcolm. Milton Keynes: Authentic Publishers, 2015. Cranfield, C. E. B. The First Epistle of Peter. London: SCM Press, 1950. Eschner, Christina. Gestorben und hingegeben “für” die Sünder: Die griechische Konzeption des Unheil abwendenden Sterbens und deren paulinische Aufnahme für die Deutung des Todes Jesu Christi, Vol. 1: Auslegungen der paulinischen Formulierungen. Vol. 2: Darstellung und Auswertung des griechischen Quellenbefundes. WMANT 122. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 2010. Feldmeier, Reinhard. “Die Außenseiter als Avantgarde. Gesellschaftliche Ausgrenzung als missionarische Chance nach dem 1. Petrusbrief.” Pages 161–78 in Persuasion and Dissuasion in Early Christianity, Ancient Judaism, and Hellenism. Edited by P. van der Horst et al. CBETh 33. Leuven: Peeters, 2003. –. Der erste Brief des Petrus. THKNT 15,1. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2005. Gäckle, Volker. Allgemeines Priestertum: Zur Metaphorisierung des Priestertitels im Frühjudentum und Neuen Testament. WUNT 331. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014. –. “Grüße nach Babylon: Anmerkungen zur Verfasserfrage des 1. Petrusbriefes.” TBei 45 (2015): 8–23. Gemoll, Wilhelm. Griechisch-Deutsches Schul- und Handwörterbuch. 9th ed. München/ Wien: G. Freytag Verlag/Hölder Pichler-Tempsky, 1954. Gese, Hartmut. “Der Johannesprolog.” Pages 152–201 in Zur biblischen Theologie: Alttestamentliche Vorträge. 3rd ed. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1989. Gignilliat, Mark. Paul and Isaiah’s Servants. Paul’s Theological Reading of Isaiah 40–66 in 2 Corinthians 5.14–6.10. LNTS 330. London: Bloomsbury, 2007. Goppelt, Leonhard. Der erste Petrusbrief. KEK 12/1. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 1978. Herzer, Jens. Petrus oder Paulus?: Studien über das Verhältnis des 1.  Petrusbriefes zur paulinischen Tradition. WUNT 103. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998. Hill, David. “‘To Offer Spiritual Sacrifices … (1 Peter 2:5)’: Liturgical Formulations and Christian Paraenesis in 1 Peter.” JSNT 16 (1982): 45–63. Hofius, Otfried. “Das vierte Gottesknechtslied in den Briefen des Neuen Testaments.” Pages 340–60 in Neutestamentliche Studien. WUNT 132. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000. Lohse, Eduard. “Paränese und Kerygma im 1. Petrusbrief.” ZNW 45 (1954): 68–89. Luz, Ulrich. “Nachfolge Jesu I.” Theologische Realenzyklopädie 23 (1994): 678–86. Lyons, Michael A. “Paul and the Servant(s): Isaiah 49,6 in Acts 13,47.” ETL 89 (2013): 345–59. Michaels, J. Ramsay. 1 Peter. WBC 49. Waco, TX: Word Books, 1988. Moyise, Steve. “Isaiah in 1 Peter.” Pages 175–88 in Isaiah in the New Testament. Edited by Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken. NTSI. London: T&T Clark, 2005.



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Moyise, Steve, and Maarten J. J. Menken, eds. Isaiah in the New Testament. NTSI. London: T&T Clark, 2005. Osborne, Thomas P. “Guide Lines for Christian Suffering: A Source-Critical and Theological Study of 1 Peter 2,21–25.” Biblica 64 (1983): 381–408. Rehfeld, Emmanuel L. “Die Gottesknechtsgrammatik des Ersten Petrusbriefes. Ein Musterfall biblischer Theologie.” TBei 47 (2016): 119–27. Sargent, Benjamin. Written to Serve: The Use of Scripture in 1 Peter. LNTS 547. London: Bloomsbury, 2015. Schutter, William L. Hermeneutic and Composition in 1 Peter. WUNT II/30. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1989. Seitz, Christopher R. “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections.” Pages 307–552 in The New Interpreter’s Bible VI. Edited by Leander E. Keck. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001. Vahrenhorst, Martin. Der erste Brief des Petrus. ThKNT 19. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2016. Vouga, François. “Textproduktion durch Zitation. Ist der Erste Petrusbrief der Autor der Gottesknechtslieder (1 Petr 2,21–25)?” Pages 353–364 in Was ist ein Text? Alttestamentliche, ägyptologische und altorientalische Perspektiven. Edited by L. Morenz et al. BZAW 362. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2007. Wagner, J. Ross. Heralds of the Good News: Isaiah and Paul in Concert in the Letter to the Romans. NovTSup 101. New York: Brill, 2003. Wengst, Klaus. Christologische Formeln und Lieder des Urchristentums. SNT 7. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus Mohn, 1974. Williams, Martin. The Doctrine of Salvation in der First Letter of Peter. SNTSMS 149. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Windisch, Hans. Die katholischen Briefe. HNT 15. 2nd ed. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1930. Wolff, Hans Walter. Jesaja 53 im Urchristentum: Mit einer Einführung von Peter Stuhlmacher. TVG. 4th ed. Gießen: Brunnen, 1984. Zimmerli, Walther. “Der ‘neue Exodus’ in der Verkündigung der beiden großen Exils­ propheten.” Pages 192–204 in Gottes Offenbarung: Gesammelte Aufsätze zum Alten Testament. ThB 19. München: Kaiser, 1963.

Following the Lamb Wherever He Goes The Reception of Isaiah’s Servant Narrative in Revelation Sheree Lear 1. Introduction In his book Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in the Book of Revelation, Jan Fekkes argues that the Servant Songs have little influence on the Christology of Revelation.1 He does not find many convincing literary connections between Revelation’s Christ and Isaiah’s Servant. Indeed, there are few literary connections between the suffering Servant in Isaiah and Christ in Revelation. Yet why does Revelation so frequently make use of material from Isa 40–55, passages where the Servant Songs are found? Fekkes’ focus might be too narrow; as with most things in Revelation, looking at only one category on its own (i. e., Christology) belies the complexity of the composition of the book. In Revelation, the images, recourse to various textual traditions in different languages, and allusions are all connected. While the Servant Songs might not be highly influential in developing the Christology of Revelation, the Deutero-Isaian Servant Songs and their development in Trito-Isaiah’s “servants” material were influential on the development of the description of God’s chosen and their relationship to Christ in Revelation. As highlighted in the introduction to this volume, Beuken and Blenkinsopp have both offered a reading of the relationship between the Servant in DeuteroIsaiah and the servants/offspring in Trito-Isaiah.2 Both trace a narrative connection between Deutero-Isaiah and Trito-Isaiah where the righteous Servant suffers, hopes for vindication, and brings about the universal knowledge of God. The Servant is promised “offspring” (‫זרﬠ‬, Isa 53:10), subsequently identified as 1 Jan Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in the Book of Revelation: Visionary Antecedents and Their Development, JSNTSup 93 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1994), 155–56. José Comblin offers an opposing perspective, writing an entire chapter to show “la presénce du Serviteur dans la christologie de l’Apocalypse”; José Comblin, Le Christ dans l’Apocalypse, Théologie Biblique (Paris: Desclée, 1965), 15. This essay will take the middle road, agreeing that the Servant Songs do not dominate the Christology of Revelation, but that they are influential on the greater narrative. 2  Albeit from very different perspectives and with different goals. See Willem A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH,’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87; Joseph Blenkinsopp, “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period,” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20.

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God’s “servants” (‫ )ﬠבדים‬who themselves in turn suffer, hope for vindication, and bring about the universal knowledge of God.3 Beuken demonstrates that the Trito-Isaian narrative about the servants/offspring is replete with material drawn from the Servant Songs of Deutero-Isaiah. He argues that the life, death, hope, and mission of the Servant is paradigmatic for the servants. What the Servant does will be the model for the destiny of the servants. In this essay, I will show that Revelation is receptive to this “Servant Narrative,” the connection between the Servant of Deutero-Isaiah and the servants of Trito-Isaiah as outlined by Beuken and Blenkinsopp. I will argue that the author of Revelation (hereafter “John”) appears to be aware of the flow of thought and theology presented in the final portions of the book of Isaiah, and that the argument of the Isaian Servant Narrative – namely, that the life, death, and vindication of the Servant are paradigmatic for the servants – is found in multiple facets throughout Revelation. In some instances, this paradigmatic relationship is explicitly stated, as in Rev 3:21, “To the one who conquers I will grant him to sit on my throne, as I also conquered and sat on the throne with my Father.”4 In other instances, the paradigmatic relationship is more subtle, which is typical in the reuse and interconnectedness of scripture. I will highlight this argument throughout the remainder of my discussion of the influence of the Isaian Servant Narrative on Revelation. To discover the clues left by the author that point to influence from the Servant Narrative on Revelation, I  will start by determining where the terms “servant” (δοῦλος) or “servants” (δοῦλοι) are used throughout the book, as well as whether any other names or images are used for or connected with these servants. I will then show how those designated as “servants” in Revelation have been correlated with the “servants” of Isaiah.

2.  The Servants and Co-Referential Designations In Revelation 1:1 and 22:6, John’s revelation is described as for God’s “servants” (τοῖς δούλοις). In solidarity with these “servants,” John, also a “servant” (τῷ δούλῳ αὐτοῦ Ἰωάννῃ, Rev 1:1), identifies the addressed group as a “kingdom, [namely,] priests” (Rev 1:6). John is their “brother” and “partner in suffering in the kingdom and in patient endurance” (1:9). He highlights that he is on 3  References to the “servants” occur in Isa 54:17; 56:6; 65:8, 9, 13, 14, 15; 66:14, and references to the “offspring” of the Servant (cf. Isa 53:10) occur in Isa 59:21; 61:9; 65:9, 23; 66:22. 4  G. B. Caird, speaking of Rev 14, argues: “But the point that [John] has been hammering home in chapter after chapter is that the initial victory of Jesus needs to be repeated in the victory of the Conquerors (ii.21), who were to share with Christ the task of reducing the rebellious world to submission (ii.26–27)” (see my discussion on Rev 2:26–27 below). G. B.  Caird, A  Commentary on the Revelation of St. John the Divine (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), 178.



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Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. John’s vision is thus written to a group of sufferers, whom he identifies as being God’s fellowservants, who are priests and a kingdom. In Rev 2:20, someone identified as “Jezebel” is seducing “my servants” (τοὺς ἐμοὺς δούλους) “to practice sexual immorality and to eat food sacrificed to idols.” In Revelation 6:9–11 “the servants” are those who have been slaughtered because of “the word of God and the witness they bore.” Not only are the servants (οἱ σύνδουλοι, v. 11) those who are slaughtered, but they include those who are yet to be slaughtered. These servants wear a white robe. Revelation 7:3 notes that “the servants of our God” (τοὺς δούλους τοῦ θεοῦ ἡμῶν) are the sealed 144,000 from every tribe of the sons of Israel. The description of the 144,000 is expanded in Rev 14:1–5: they have the Lamb and his Father’s name on their foreheads (i. e., the seal of Rev 7:13–14), they have been redeemed from the land, they have not defiled themselves (they are virgins), they follow the Lamb wherever he goes, they have been redeemed from mankind as the first fruits, there is no lie in their mouths, and they are blameless. God’s “servants” (τοῖς δούλοις σου)  – namely, “the prophets, the saints, and those who fear your name”  – are to be rewarded in Rev 11:18. In Revelation 19:2, God avenges the blood of his servants (τῶν δούλων αὐτοῦ), shed by the hand of the great whore. In Revelation 19:5, the servants (οἱ δοῦλοι) are said to “fear” God. At the end of Revelation, the servants (οἱ δοῦλοι, 22:3) are found in the new city. They will worship God, see God’s face, and his name will be on their foreheads. God will be their light and they will reign. Revelation 22:6 repeats the opening purpose of the book, namely, to “show his servants (τοῖς δούλοις αὐτοῦ) what must soon take place.”5 Finally, in Rev 19:10 and Rev 22:9 an angel identifies himself as a “fellow servant (σύνδουλός) with you and your brothers.” In 19:10, these “brothers” are those “who hold to the testimony of Jesus.” In 22:9, they are “prophets” and “those who keep the words of this book.” Thus, several terms that seem to be used co-referentially with “servants” are: “prophets” (Rev 11:18, 22:9), “saints” (Rev 11:18), and “those who fear your name/God” (Rev 11:18, 19:5). Further names or groups of people that can be correlated with the servants by association with similar features include “those who are victorious” (who also wear white, Rev 3:4) and those who receive a name (Rev 2:17; 3:12). In the greetings of the letter of Revelation, written to “his servants,” John identifies with the readers, using the first personal plural pronoun (Rev 1:5, 6). Thus, the servants are made to be “a kingdom, priests serving God” (Rev 1:6). This phrase “kingdom, priests” is also applied to those whom the slaughtered Lamb bought by his blood, “saints from every tribe and language, and people and nation” who were “made to be a kingdom and priests 5  “Servant” also occurs elsewhere in Revelation to designate specific individuals, for example, Moses in Rev 15:3.

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serving our God” (Rev 5:10). Later, in Rev 7:14, these international saints are also noted to have white robes. In summary, the servants of Revelation are saints, priests, prophets and a kingdom. They receive a new name, are marked on their foreheads, and wear white. They are pure, righteous, and blameless with no deceit (either through washing, or because of their deeds). They have been redeemed, slaughtered, and have suffered. They serve, follow the Lamb wherever he goes, and will reign. They are those to whom the book of Revelation is written and about whom it is written. Thus, for the remainder of this essay, I will refer to all of these entities simply as “servants” to simplify my discussion.

3.  Characteristics of the Servants With the nomenclature associated with the “servants” clarified, I will now explore John’s use of the Servant Narrative of Deutero- and Trito-Isaiah. It will become apparent that the characteristics and narrative of the servants in Revelation can be traced back to influence from the Servant and servants of Isaiah. 3.1  The Slaughter of the Servant, the Slaughter of the Servants Fekkes considers the possible relationship between the Christology of Revelation and the Servant Songs in only one passage, Rev 5:6 (but then discounts it).6 In this passage, John sees a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered. While all agree that the Lamb is an image of Christ, as Fekkes points out, scholars disagree on the origin of the image of the slaughtered lamb.7 Some connect the Lamb with Isaiah’s Servant who is “like a lamb/sheep led to the slaughter,” some connect it to the Paschal lamb, and some to the warrior ram found in other apocalyptic literature.8 Fekkes dismisses the first option as he correctly notes that Christ is never designated as “servant” in Revelation, nor does there seem to be many allusions to the Servant Songs in the descriptions of Christ. Instead he highlights Revelation’s use of Exodus typology, concluding that the slaughtered lamb’s origin is the Passover lamb. Fekkes’ argument is convincing, and it is entirely likely that the lamb is influenced by the Passover lamb, but one element does suggest that the “slaughtered sheep/lamb” of Rev 5 stems initially from Isa 53:7.9 In Beuken’s reading of the servants in Trito-Isaiah, he notes that 6 

Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 153. Ibid., 153–58. 8  Ibid., 155. 9  The author of Revelation is not shy about combining images from disparate texts in Israel’s scriptures. Beale similarly argues that “neither [image] should be excluded, since both have in common with the metaphorical picture in 5:6 the central idea of a lamb’s sacrifice that 7 



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the characteristics of the servant from Deutero-Isaiah seem to be transferred to the servants.10 In his discussion of Isa 57, Beuken notes that [n]ow the victims of that sinful generation have a likeness to the Servant. They undergo his destiny: they as well as he are ‘righteous’ (53.11; 57.1) and yet they experience suffering … In the same way as he perished by the faithlessness of his people (53.5, 8: pešaʿ), the righteous suffer through the breaking of faith of the adulterous generation (57.4). In the same way as he was taken away (53.8: lqḥ, pual), the righteous are snatched off (57.1: ʾsp, niphal).11

The servants do like the Servant in Isaiah. This being the case, it is not surprising that specific language attributed to the Servant would also be attributed to the servants in later literature.12 In two places in Revelation, the servants, like the Lamb, are described as “slaughtered” (σφάζω, 5:6). Revelation 6:9 presents an image of the souls of those who have been slaughtered (τῶν ἐσφαγμένων) for the word of God and for the testimony they had given. In Rev 18:24, the blood of those who have been slaughtered (τῶν ἐσφαγμένων) is found in Babylon, the great city, as a result of her persecution. 3.2  The Vindication of the Servants: Psalm 2 and Isaiah in Revelation Being slaughtered is not the only characteristic that the servants share with Christ. They also share in his rule and his vindication. John attributes to the servants actions and characteristics normally attributed to the Messiah. An example of such attribution is found in the message to the church of Thyatira (Rev 2:18–29). There, the one who conquers will be given “authority over the nations, and he will rule them with a rod of iron, as when earthen pots are broken in pieces, even as I myself [i. e., Christ] have received authority from my Father” (Rev 2:26–27). This is an obvious allusion to Ps 2:8–9, a passage that is elsewhere associated with Christ (Rev 12:5; 19:15). Revelation 2:28 acknowledges that the servants’ authority is based on the paradigm already set by Christ: “even as I myself have received authority from my Father,” so shall this prophecy be applied to the servants. accomplishes redemption and victory for God’s people.” G. K. Beale and Sean McDonough, “Revelation” in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, ed. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 1101. Comblin argues that the use of the Exodus imagery stems from John’s use of Isaiah: elements from Isaiah are suggestive of the Exodus and later Sinai experience. He writes: “Que l’agneau pascal se superpose, dans l’Apocalypse, á l’agneau d’Is., LIII,7, ne doit pas nous étonner. Le souvenir de l’Exode domine dans le Deutéro-Isaïe”; Comblin, Le Christ, 29. 10  In his discussion of Isa chapter 61, for example, Beuken argues that “The person speaking not only works as the Servant, but through his service, he also passes his resemblance to the Servant onto those who mourn.” Beuken, “Main Theme,” 71. 11  Ibid., 69–70. 12  Compare the use of Isa 49:6 in Acts 13:14. See Michael A. Lyons, “Paul and the Servant(s): Isaiah 49,6 in Acts 13,47,” ETL 89.4 (2013): 345–59.

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Why does Revelation apply Ps 2:8–9 to the servants as well as to Christ? This paradigmatic application of Ps 2 was most likely motivated by John’s reading of Isa 54:3, 17. According to Ps 2:8, God will give the nations to his anointed as an “inheritance” (κληρονομίαν). The same language appears in Isa 54, where the Zion’s “offspring” (identified as the servants in 54:17; 65:8–10) are predicted to “inherit the nations” (ἔθνη κληρονομήσει, 54:3). Additionally, the ensuing promise of God’s love, inheritance of land, and victory in conflict in Isa 54 are described as “the heritage (κληρονομία) of the servants of YHWH” (v. 17).13 Thus, the promises to the servants and the language in Isa 54 provide a natural foundation for the application of Ps 2:7 to the servants of Revelation. Reading through the lens of Isa 54, and knowing that the servants of Trito-Isaiah receive characteristics of the Servant of Deutero-Isaiah, John extends the promises made to God’s anointed in Ps 2:8–9 to the servants. A similar interpretation is also suggested in Rev 21:6b–7: “To the thirsty, I will give from the spring of the water of life without payment. The one who conquers will have this heritage (κληρονομήσει) and I will be his God and he will be my son.” This passage reuses and interweaves a block of thematically interconnected passages: Isa 55:1, 3, Isa 54:17, and 2 Sam 7:14. Isaiah 55:1 contains a call to the one who is thirsty and who has no money to come and drink water. Isaiah 55:3 develops this metaphor as a call to come and receive life. The person who comes and drinks this water will be given an everlasting covenant, equated with the covenant God made with David. Revelation 21:7b picks up on this promise and thus applies God’s covenant with David in 2 Sam 7:14, “I will be to him a father and he will be to me a son,” to “the thirsty” of Rev 21:6b.14 These “thirsty” are the ones who conquer and receive the “heritage” (κληρονομία) of Isa 54:17. This connection to the heritage of the servants in Isa 54 and the thirsty who are God’s sons is facilitated by the lexical similarities between God’s covenant with David in 2 Sam 7 and Ps 2 (and Ps 2’s lexical connections with Isa 54 discussed above).15 Thus, through a reading of Isa 54 and its lexical connections, messianic promises are applied to the servants in Revelation. The Servant Songs are influential on Revelation’s Christology in another passage that is related to Ps 2. Revelation 19:15 says: “From his mouth comes a sharp sword with which to strike down the nations, and he will rule them with a rod of iron.” The second half of the verse, “and he will rule them with a rod of iron” is obviously dependent on Ps 2:9. “The picture of the ‘sharp, two-edged sword 13 

A passage that is alluded to in Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5. two passages are similarly juxtaposed in the beginning of Hebrews and in Acts 13:33–34. See John J. Collins, “The Interpretation of Psalm 2” in Echoes from the Caves: Qumran and the New Testament, ed. Florentino García Martínez (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 49–66 (here 49–50). 15  Hebrews 1:5 makes a similar connection: “For to which of the angels did God ever say ‘You are my son, today I have become your father’? [Ps 2:7] Or again, ‘I will be his father and he will be my son’? [2 Sam 7:14].” 14 These

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proceeding from his mouth,’” as noted by Beale, “… is based on Isa 49:2, where the figurative language refers to the ability of the ‘servant Israel’ (Isa 49:3) to accomplish God’s mission of restoring Israel and saving the nations (Isa 49:6) … Here in 19:15 the Isaiah prophecy is reaffirmed, and Jesus is identified implicitly as the ‘servant Israel.’”16 Thus, John connects Ps 2:9 with the Servant’s swordlike mouth in the Servant Song in Isa 49:1–6. But John also conflates Ps 2 with Isa 63:1–6. In Ps 2, vengeance is promised against the nations and kings who scoff at YHWH and his anointed.17 In Isa 63:1–6, “someone” appears whose garments are red and spattered in blood because he has come from trampling Edom like grapes in a winepress. He has been trampling because “the day of vengeance was in my heart and the year of my redemption/redeemed ones has come.”18 As Beale notes, “[t]he prophecy of God as a warrior in Isa. 63 is reaffirmed, and Christ is identified as that divine warrior. In Isaiah the warrior judges to achieve ‘vengeance’ and ‘redemption on behalf of his people (so Isa 63:4), and the same goal is implicit in Rev. 19.”19 In Isa 63:3 it is emphasized that the wrath of God was brought about “alone” because “from the peoples no one was with me.” In Revelation, this aloneness is reversed. Christ is the one coming for vengeance, and based on the earlier interpretation of Psa 2 and the influence of the Isaian Servant Narrative, the servants accompany Christ.20 Thus, as was promised in Rev 2:27, the servants, namely, the armies in heaven, clothed in linen (compare the description of the bride in 19:7–8) follow the rider on the white horse on their own white horses for the day of their vengeance. His robe has been dipped in blood, much like their blood-washed robes (see discussion of Gen 49:11 below). This is the beginning of the fulfillment of the vindication of the servants. Their full vindication is accomplished in Revelation’s description of Isaiah’s promised new heaven and new earth (Isa 65:17; 66:22 and Rev 21:1).21 3.3  White Robes: The Righteousness of the Servants An important motif in Revelation is “the white robe.” Of particular interest for this essay is the relationship of the white robes given to the servants and the 16 

Beale and McDonough, “Revelation,” 1143. A passage that has close lexical ties to Isa 59:15–18. 18  Isa 63:1 begins by asking “Who is this coming from Edom?” and the question is answered by “It is I, speaking in righteousness and mighty to save.” 19  Beale and McDonough, “Revelation,” 1143. 20  It is difficult here to determine how John read Isa 63:1–6. Did he understand the unidentified grape-crusher to be the Servant coming in vindication? This would then bolster my argument about the influence of the Servant Narrative on Revelation. Or, did John understand Isa 63:1–6 to be an image of YHWH coming in judgement, which he then applied to Christ? Based on John’s use of scripture elsewhere, either is possible. John exhibits a high Christology by applying texts about God to Christ in Revelation, but he was obviously also interested in the Servant Narrative. 21  See also Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophet Traditions, 227–30. 17 

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significance of the robes. Thankfully, there are several instances in Revelation where an interpretation of the white robes is given. Revelation 3:4 addresses the church in Sardis. In a direct address, the Son of Man notes that there are some who have not “defiled” (ἐμόλυναν) their clothes. Because of this, they will walk with him in “white robes” because they are worthy.22 This would suggest that white robes are equal to purity (vs. defilement). Revelation 3:5 continues by stating that the one who conquers will have white robes like them. In Rev 6:11, the souls who had been slaughtered are each given a white robe. Those who receive the white robe were slaughtered for “the word of God and for the testimony that they had given” (Rev 6:9).23 Similarly, Rev 7:9 depicts a great multitude from every nation, tribe, people, and language standing before the throne and before the Lamb.24 In Rev 7:13–14 this multitude wears white robes and has come out of great suffering. They have washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. In Rev 19:7–8, the bride is dressed in linen, bright and pure (i. e. not defiled). This linen is identified as “the righteous deeds of the saints.” This linen is not initially described as white, but I include it in this survey because in the next image, the armies in heaven appear with the rider on the white horse wearing “linen, white and pure.” (19:14) The proximity and the similarity in dress would suggest that the bride in the first scene is reimagined as the armies in heaven in the second scene of Rev 19. Thus, white robes are for those who are worthy, those who are not defiled, the ones who conquer, and who give up their life for the word of God and for their testimony. They are available to those from all nations. In some instances, the robes are white because they have been washed in blood.25 In other instances, the robes are “linen, bright, pure,” and defined as the righteous deeds of the saints. Below, I will argue that the “linen robes” stem from John’s reuse of Isa 61:10 and 62:1, and that the soiled robes that need to be clean stem from the influence of Isa 64:5. In contrast, Beale writes (with respect to Rev 3:4–5) 22  See Rev 1:13, where Christ is described as wearing a “long robe” (ποδήρη); this is the term used for priestly garments in LXX Exod 29:5; Zech 3:4. 23  There is also a clear allusion in Rev 6:10 to Deut 32:43: “Rejoice, o nations, his people, for the blood of his servants he will avenge and he will return vengeance to his enemies and ransom/purge his land, his people.” This passage explicitly calls for the vindication of God’s slaughtered “servants” (and connects the nations to God’s people). This allusion sets the reader up for the Rider on the white horse in Rev 19. Those who have been slaughtered are awaiting their vengeance; in Rev 19, it has arrived. Further, the use of Deut 32:43 in Rev 6:10 could suggest that the driving image for the slaughtered saints is the “servants” of Isaiah. 24  These are most likely the same group that was identified in Rev 5:9: the blood of the slaughtered Lamb bought saints from every tribe, language, people, and nation, who were made to be a kingdom and priests serving God who will reign on earth. 25  Washing in blood is not always the requirement for having white robes. In Rev 6:11, the slaughtered are given a white robe without any mention of washing. Granted, if they have been slaughtered, by inference they have already been covered in blood.

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that “[t]he ‘white robes’ signify the purification of the end-time tribulation in Daniel 11–12, where the saints are ‘made white’ through the fire of persecution; a similar meaning fits well here.”26 It is highly possible that this text is also influential on John, but note that this passage in Daniel has also been shown to have been influenced by the Isaian Servant narrative.27 Zechariah 3:1–5 offers a similar interpretation of these Isaian passages. Isaiah 61:10 says: “for he has clothed me with the garments of salvation; he has covered me with the robe of righteousness, as a bridegroom decks himself like a priest with a beautiful headdress, and as a bride adorns herself with her jewels.” In Zechariah, “filthy garments” (signifying iniquity) are removed from Joshua, the high priest, and he is then dressed with a pure headdress and clothing. By analogy, if the filthy garments are his iniquity, then the new garments must represent his purity and righteousness. Considering John’s use of Zechariah’s visions elsewhere (e. g. the image of four horsemen), it is possible that Zechariah is also influential on Revelation’s use of the “white robe” theme. Based on the complexity of John’s reuse of scripture, it is often difficult to determine which antecedent text is influential and where. Often it is demonstrable that John sees the interconnectedness of his texts and, based on this, uses small portions from each of the texts. I think it is highly likely that Isaiah, Daniel and Zechariah are influential on Revelation’s white robes. That being said, below, I will demonstrate places where it seems that John was in fact reading Isaiah in particular. 3.3.1  The Bride’s Bright Linen: A Closer Look The identification of the linen garments in Rev 19:8 as the righteous deeds (δικαιώματα) of the saints connects the “white robe” theme of Revelation with MT Isa 61:10: “I will greatly rejoice in YHWH; my soul shall exult in my God, for he has clothed me with garments of salvation; he has covered me with the robe of righteousness (‫)צדקה‬,28 as a bridegroom decks himself like a priest with a 26 

Beale and McDonough, “Revelation,” 1096. See George W. E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 25, and the introductory essay in this volume. 28  Here the Old Greek translation reads χιτῶνα εὐφροσύνης “tunic of joy.” For evidence that John sometimes uses a text-form that agrees with MT Isaiah rather than the Old Greek translation of Isaiah, see e. g. Rev 3:7 = MT Isa 22:22 ≠ OG (note that various Greek witnesses contain a plus here adjusting them towards the Hebrew text). See also Rev 21:4 = MT Isa 25:7–8 ≠ OG (here the Vorlage of the OG does not differ from the Hebrew, but the translator has taken “death” as the subject of the clause). For similar evidence based on John’s use of Ezekiel, see Rev 14:2 = MT Ezek 1:24 (cf. 3:12) ≠ OG; Rev 18:1 = MT Ezek 43:2 ≠ OG; Rev 19:19 = MT Ezek 27:31 ≠ OG. See further Garrick V. Allen, “Scriptural Allusions in the Book of Revelation and the Contours of Textual Research 1900–2014: Retrospect and Prospects,” CBR 14.3 (2016): 319–39; Martin K arrer, “Von der Apokalypse zu Ezechiel: Der Ezechieltext der Apokalypse,” in Das Ezechielbuch in der Johannesoffenbarung: Mit Beiträgen von Michael Bachmann, Beate Ego, Thomas Hieke und Martin Karrer, ed. D. Sänger; BThSt 76 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirch27 

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beautiful headdress, and as a bride adorns herself with her jewels.” Both passages (Rev 19:6–8 and MT Isa 61:10) involve a bride who is clothed in righteousness. Further, the Isaiah passage connects the robes of the righteous to a bridegroom, who dresses himself like a priest. The clothing of the priests was linen (cf. Exod 28:39–43). Thus, Revelation’s bride who is clothed in righteousness is described using priestly imagery (cf. Isa 61:6, “you will be called priests of YHWH”) – which is how the servants are described in Rev 1:6. The linen robes of the bride are “bright” (βύσσινον λαμπρὸν, Rev 19:8a), most likely because of John’s continued reading of his Isaian passage. MT Isaiah 62:1 reads, “for Zion’s sake I will not keep silent, and for Jerusalem’s sake I will not be quiet, until her righteousness29 goes forth like brightness and her salvation30 like a torch that burns.” The bride’s linen robes are bright and pure (λαμπρὸν καθαρόν) because they are equated with the “righteous deeds of the saints” (τὸ γὰρ βύσσινον τὰ δικαιώματα τῶν ἁγίων ἐστίν, Rev 19:8b). This linkage of righteousness with brightness or light appears in several Isaian texts, all of which are connected with the Servants Narrative. In Isa 50, the disciples of the Servant follow him even though he has no “brightness” (‫נגה‬, 50:10), because he looks forward to “vindication” from God (‫קרוב מצדיקי‬, v. 8). In Isa 60:3, 19–21, the nations will be attracted to the “brightness” (‫נגה‬, v. 3) of restored Zion, and God himself will be Zion’s “light” (‫אור‬, vv. 19, 20) because all its people will be “righteous” (‫צדיקים‬, v. 21). Likewise, in Isa 62:1, 2, Zion’s “righteousness” (‫)צדק‬ will be like “brightness” (‫)נגה‬ – which, again, will be seen by the nations. The connection with the Servants Narrative in these passages is that the servants/offspring are the ones who will inherit restored Zion (Isa 54:3, 17; 65:8–9, 18–23). Moreover, as Beuken has argued, the “righteousness” which is brought about in the servants is the main theme of the latter part of Isaiah.31 The prominence of this “brightness” motif in Isaiah and its reception in Revelation may have facilitated the use of an Ezekielian image in the description of the bride. The words “brightness” (‫נגה‬, Isa 50:10; 60:3, 19; 62:1) and “torch” (‫לפיד‬, Isa 62:1) both appear in Ezek 1 (vv. 4, 13, 27, 28), a text that was clearly important for John (cf. Rev 1:15; 4:1–8). Moreover, the word “glory” (‫ )כבוד‬is used to describe God both in Ezek 1:28 and in Isa 60:1, 2 – and this is a glory that God bestows on Zion in Isa 62:2. John clearly connects Isa 62:2 and Ezek 1:24 in Rev 19:6–8 to provide a description of the bride of Christ.32 Like restored Zion ener, 2004), 84–120 (see esp. 118); Beate Kowalski, “Transformation of Ezekiel in John’s Revelation,” in Transforming Visions: Transformations of Text, Traditions, and Theology in Ezekiel, ed. William A. Tooman and Michael A. Lyons (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2010), 279–311 (esp. 302–7). 29  LXX: “my righteousness.” 30  LXX: “my salvation.” 31  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 68. 32  Revelation 18:23 seems to be the negative image of Rev 19:6–10 – no light of a lamp, no bride, no bridegroom.



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in Isaiah, the bride in Revelation has glory which comes from God, and a “multitude” with a “voice like many waters” (Rev 19:6; cf. Ezek 1:24) – identified as the voice of the servants (Rev 19:5) – publicly and audibly rejoices at the appearance of the bride. This “multitude” (ὄχλος) is international in scope (Rev 7:9; see further below), a feature that draws on Isaiah’s theme of the universal recognition of God. In Revelation, the great multitude’s rejoicing at the marriage of the bride comes sandwiched in between God’s judgement of the kings and nations who aligned themselves with the beast and the whore (see Rev 18; 19:11–20). The nations who are God’s servants are revealed in splendor, while those from the nations who are not the servants receive God’s judgment (cf. Rev 19:11ff and Isa 63:1–6, a passage that comes in the same order as the allusions we have been tracing in this section about the bride in linen: Isa 61, 62, and then 63).33 3.3.2  Washing Defiled Robes In Rev 3:1–4, the works of those in Sardis are not perfect in God’s eyes (Rev 3:1– 4), yet there are still some among them who have not defiled their clothes. Because their clothes have not been defiled, they can wear white.34 The equation of uncleanliness with a defiled robe is found in Isa 64:5, which says that “we have all become like one who is unclean, and all our righteous deeds are like a garment of defilement (‫)ﬠדים‬.” Here in Isaiah, the servants are seeking God’s salvation. They confess their sins and remind God that his city is desolate. God responds first by remembering the iniquity of his people (65:1–7), then reflects in Isa 65:8–10 that he will not destroy them all, but will preserve his “chosen” (‫ ;בחירי‬οἱ ἐκλεκτοί μου) – the servants – from the midst of the people. In Revelation, his “chosen” (ἐκλεκτοὶ, Rev 17:14) are preserved through the washing of their robes in the blood of the (slaughtered) Lamb (cf. Isa 53:11–12 where the Servant will make many righteous, pouring himself out to death, bearing the sins of many). In Rev 7:13–14, the multitude has washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. The washed white robes of those who suffered (Rev 7:14) can be connected to the Servant Narrative in several possible ways. Bauckham sees the reference as an allusion to Dan 11:35; 12:20, where God’s persecuted followers will be “purified and made white.”35 The last part of Daniel (which speaks of the suffering, vindication, and righteousness of “those who have insight”) draws heavily on the Isaian Servant Narrative.36 Others see the reference to washing as a messianic 33 David Mathewson, “Isaiah in Revelation” in Isaiah in the New Testament, ed. Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken (London: T&T Clark, 2005), 194. 34  See the comments on Zechariah 3:1–5 above. 35 Richard Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation (London: T&T Clark, 1993), 227. 36  See the concluding essay in this volume.

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reference, alluding to Gen 49:11 where Judah washes his robe in the blood of grapes.37 In Rev 7:14, the servants wash their robes in the blood of the Lamb.38 Fekkes notes the possible allusion, but dismisses it saying, “Since John has already used a portion of the Judah blessing messianically (Rev. 5.5), it would seem odd that he would then turn around and apply it to the corporate messianic community.”39 However, in light of the Isaian Servant Narrative, this application is not odd at all. The servants do as the Servant. In Rev 22:14, those who wash their robes are “blessed.” Isa 61:9 describes the “offspring” in a similarly favored way: “All who see them shall acknowledge that they are a people whom YHWH has blessed.”40 This verse in Isaiah comes right before the verse about being clothed in “garments of righteousness” (see my discussion of the Bride and Isa 61:10 above). In Revelation, the clothes that have been washed are now equal to righteousness (the reversal of Isa 64:5). Additionally, those who wash their clothes are able enter the city gates because they are clean, whereas those who are unclean may not enter the gates (Rev 21:25, 27; cf. Isa 52:1; 60:11).41 Thus, John’s reading of Isaiah was influential in his presentation of the white robes of the servants in Revelation, both through allusion to or “inner-biblical exegesis” of non-Isaian texts as well as through application of the larger argument of the Isaian Servant Narrative. 3.4  The Universal Makeup of the Servants The servants of Revelation appear to be made up of representatives both from Israel and from the nations. This universalistic image is not unique to Revelation, but is demonstrably a feature of the Isaian Servants Narrative. As stated in Isa 49:6, “It is too light a thing that you should be my servant to raise up the tribes of Jacob and to bring back the preserved of Israel; I will make you a light for the nations, that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth.” 37 

See G. K. Beale, The Book of Revelation, NIGNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 438. the book of Revelation wine is frequently equated with blood (see for example Rev 17:6, cf. Isa 49:26). 39  Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 168. 40  Note the description of the servants/offspring as blessed or a blessing in Isa 61:9; 65:8, 23 (cf. 65:16). 41  Fekkes (Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 167) also points to a correspondence in “Exodus 19.10, 14, where the Israelites are told to purify themselves and wash their garments before approaching Yahweh at Sinai. It is not an accident, then, that John follows the purification ritual of 7.14 with a proclamation of access to the presence of God in 7.15a.” (Compare Rev 7:14a and LXX Exod 19:14). Fekkes further thinks the Exodus text has priority here because of the domination of Exodus imagery in this portion of Revelation. He notes that LXX Exod 4:31 identifies the Israelites’ sojourn in Egypt as a θλῖψις. It seems entirely likely to me that these passages and images are also connected in the book of Revelation. The author of Revelation is not shy about conflating multiple images from disparate portions of scripture. Note what an evocative combination is created when the servants who suffer in Isaiah are paired with the “servants” who are brought out of suffering in Egypt (contrast ‫ ﬠבד‬in Exod 1:13, 14 with Exod 3:12b; 4:23a). 38 In

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3.4.1  The Servants as a Set-Apart Group Within Israel As noted above, Isa 49:6 highlights the expectation that the Servant will “raise up the tribes of Jacob.” It is the Servant’s job to “return (‫ )לשובב‬Jacob to God” (Isa 49:5). In Isa 63:17, God is asked to “turn back (‫ )שוב‬for the sake of your servants,” namely, “the tribes that are your heritage.” As noted by Beuken, “In [Trito-Isaiah] the word ‘tribes’ occurs only here; it appears to take up a theme of [Deutero-Isaiah].”42 He further argues that in Isa 49:8, the Servant will “apportion the desolate heritages,” another lexical link with Isa 63:17.43 Thus, there is an expectation that the tribes of Jacob are to be reunited to God through the Servant. However, Isa 65:8–10 (cf. vv. 1–16) and 66:5 (cf. vv. 1–14) make it clear that it is not all of Jacob who are envisioned in this reunification. The servants are those who “seek God” (65:10); they are distinguished from the rest of the people who did not respond to God’s call (65:1–2; 66:4; cf. 55:6–7), and who persecute the servants (66:5). In Rev 7:4, 144,000 from all the tribes of the sons of Israel are “sealed,” or, set apart from the entirety of the sons of Israel. Both Ford and Nestle-Aland’s loci citati vel allegati identify the setting apart of these tribes as an allusion to Isa 49:6.44 Their argument is bolstered by Revelation’s obvious dependence on Isa 49:10 in Rev 7:16–17. Contextually, this makes sense. In Isa 49, the Servant will raise up the tribes of Israel, he will be a light to the nations, and his salvation will reach the ends of the earth (v. 6). He will be a covenant to the people (v. 8), and through his leading them like a shepherd (v. 9), “they will not hunger or thirst, neither scorching wind nor sun will strike them down, for he who has pity on them will lead them, and by springs of water will guide them” (cf. Rev 7:16–17). Revelation 7 follows this same pattern. The 144,000 servants from the tribes of Israel are sealed (vv. 3–4), then John immediately sees a “great multitude” “from every nation, from all tribes and peoples and languages” (v. 9). In Rev 7, like Isa 49:6, “raising up the tribes of Israel” alone is too simple a task for God. The nations must also be included in the salvation and vindication of God’s people as described in Isa 49:10 (cf. Isa 63:16).45 One further element connects the 144,000 with the Servant Narrative of Isaiah. In Rev 14, the description of the 144,000 is expanded. The seal they receive on their foreheads is explained as the name of the Lamb and his Father, written on 42 

Beuken, “Main Theme,” 76.

43 Ibid.

44 See Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 173; J. Massyngberde Ford, Revelation: A New Translation with Commentary, AB 38 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1975), 126. 45  “In Revelation John has already applied to the church so many descriptions of the old Israel … The hundred and forty-four thousand, then, are identical with the great throng from every nation. This conclusion is confirmed by the description of them as God’s servants”; so Caird, Revelation, 95.

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their foreheads (v. 1). Revelation 14:5 notes that no lie is found in their mouth. This appears to be an allusion to the Servant in Isa 53:9, where it is said that “there was no deceit in his mouth.”46 Note that Revelation’s application of the Servant’s characteristic to the servants/offspring is anticipated already in Isaiah, where the “righteous” offspring of Isa 57:1 are contrasted with the “offspring of deceit” (57:4).47 Similarly, the problem of speaking deceitfully is diagnosed and confessed in 59:3–4, 13–15, but then solved in 59:21 where God’s words are said to be put into the mouths of the “offspring.” Again, what the Servant does, so do the servants. 3.4.2  All Peoples: Nations, Tongues, and Eunuchs In the Servant Narrative, Isa 49:6 sets the foundation for the offspring of the Servant (i. e., the servants, cf. Isa 53:10; 54:17) to include an international element. That the Servant will be a “light for the nations” is paralleled with his mission of raising up the tribes of Jacob. This is developed in several passages in Trito-Isaiah (Isa 56, 61 and 66). Isaiah 56:3–8 presents us with the foreigner and the eunuch who join themselves to YHWH. It is promised that they will not be separated from God’s people, but will be allowed to minister to YHWH.48 They will be God’s servants (v. 6) and will be brought to God’s “holy mountain” (v. 7; cf. 65:9, 11; 66:20). Regarding Isaiah 61, Beuken argues that “a new order of righteousness will be visible in the offspring of the prophet, who looks like the Servant and is already clothed, as a pledge with righteousness.”49 He argues that this righteousness “is not something which the nations have heard about without participating in.”50 In Isaiah 61:11, the Lord causes righteousness and praise to sprout up before the nations, something that Beuken argues is “not restricted to the cognitive sphere, but … is a cosmic happening … the oppressed and those who mourn [Isa 61:1–2], encouraged to righteousness and the praise of God by the preaching of the prophet, form a new growth which YHWH causes to sprout. The nations will live in the midst of these”51 and they will also become participants. “The universalistic interpretation of the servants of YHWH, which the prologue has announced (56.6 f.), is realized here.”52 Isaiah 66 further develops the international vision of the servants. Isaiah 66:18 declares that “[the time] is coming to gather all nations and tongues. And they shall come and shall see my 46  Fekkes argues that Revelation primarily draws from Zeph 3:13 and secondarily from Isa 53:9; see Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 192. 47  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 69. 48  According to v. 8, God will not only “gather the banished ones of Israel,” but will gather others “as well” (‫)ﬠוד‬ – i. e., the foreigners just mentioned. 49  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 73. See also my discussion above of the servants and white robes. 50 Ibid. 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid.



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glory.” These shall go, proclaim God’s glory among the nations and bring “all your brothers from all the nations as an offering to YHWH” (cf. the discussion of Rev 14 above). While the referents in this Isaian passage are confusing, I suggest that John understood this to be a continuation of Isa 61. Isaiah 61:9 notes that the offspring will be known among the nations and in the midst of the peoples. In Isaiah 66, the offspring/servants (vv. 14, 22) includes the nations.53 They bring their brothers from the nations and some from these will be priests. This imagery of gathering the nations recalls the prediction of Isa 56:8: “The Lord YHWH who gathers the banished ones of Israel declares, ‘I will gather yet others to him besides those who have already been gathered.’” The “brothers” (Isa 66:8) includes both Israel and non-Israel, because righteousness, not ethnicity, is the marker of the servants.54 Because the preaching of the Herald/Servant in Isa 61 continues the argument about the people created by the Servant, Isa 66:18–21 is the realization of the prediction of Isa 56.55 The foreigner (and the eunuch) will serve God in his temple, which will be a house of prayer for all people. This reading of Isaiah is evident through Revelation’s allusions to Isaiah. Two examples will be discussed below.

3.4.2.1  A Pillar for the Eunuch In Rev 3:7–13, the church of Philadelphia is being persecuted by those “who say that they are Jews and are not.” At stake in Philadelphia is the identification of the true people of God. Revelation answers this first by alluding to Isa 22:20–23:56 God’s Servant Jesus, whom God clothes in a robe and who is granted authority, is given the key to the house of David and what he opens, none shall shut.57 As noted by Fekkes, “[e]ven though the Philadelphian Christians may be shut out and rejected by the ‘synagogue of Satan’, Christ has set before them ‘an open door, which no one is able to shut.’”58 Furthermore, Revelation 3:9 highlights that these so-called “Jews” from the “synagogue of Satan” will acknowledge the true servants by use of an allusion to Isa 60:14, a passage about the restoration of Zion: “The sons of those who afflicted you shall come bending low to you, and all who despised you shall bow down at your feet.” Fekkes convincingly demonstrates that that John did not draw purely from Isa 60:14, but also drew 53  See the discussion below about the selection of people and the “sign” (σημεῖον) that is placed on them in LXX Isa 66:19; Ezek 9:4. 54  “Brother(s)” is a designation for the servants in Revelation (see Rev 1:9; 6:11). 55 See Beuken, “Main Theme,” 71. “The question of ‘the righteous seed’ is continued in ch. 61, which is not astonishing if one realizes that here the speaker puts on the features of the Servant as well as those of the Herald of Good Tidings.” 56  Ford, Revelation, 416. 57  Note that the “servant” in Isa 22:20 is identified as Eliakim, the son of Hilkiah. 58  Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 132.

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language from its mirror verse in Isa 49:23.59 The qualities of the Servant are again attributed to Revelation’s servants, as is the description of restored Zion.60 Further Isaian allusions are picked up in Rev 3:12, which says: “the one who conquers, I will make a pillar in the temple of my God. Never shall he go out of it, and I will write on him the name of my God, and the name of the city of my God.”61 This is an allusion to Isa 56:5, a promise to the righteous eunuch.62 The MT reads: “I will give in my house and within my walls a monument (‫ )יד‬and a name better than sons and daughters; I will give them an everlasting name that will not be cut off.” While the MT is engaging in wordplay on the eunuch’s physical state,63 John discreetly obscures the wordplay and interprets ‫ יד‬as a pillar that is in “my house,” namely, God’s temple.64 The one who “conquers” will be made a pillar in God’s temple.65 In Isaiah, the eunuch (who is, like the foreigner, concerned about separation from God’s people) will be given an “eternal name” that is better than sons and daughters (Isa 56:3–5). In Revelation, the name is written on the one who conquers, a common theme relating to the servants in Revelation (see discussion below).66 Finally, in Isaiah, the eunuch’s God-given name will not be cut off (‫כרת‬, 56:5). In Revelation 3:12, this is interpreted as the person who will not be “cut off,” namely, excluded from the temple (compare Lev 18:29; Num 15:30; cf. Lev 21:20 where the priests who have crushed testicles are not to offer sacrifices; Deut 23:1, where the eunuch is kept separate from the assembly). The ones who “conquer” (Rev 3:12),67 namely, the servants, who are clothed in righteousness, 59 

See the discussion in ibid., 134. See the discussion above on the glory and garments shared by Isaiah’s restored Zion and Revelation’s bride. 61  On being called the name of the city, see Isa 60:14. 62  The possibility of a connection to Isa 22:23 “ I will drive him like a peg into a firm place; he will become a seat of honor for the house of his father” seems weak to me; see H. Kraft, Die Offenbarung des Johannes, HNT 16a (Tübingen: Mohr, 1974), 82; Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 134. Beale and McDonough see the same connection as I do to this text. They write: “The Philadelphians are promised a permanent place in God’s temple. This is likely an evocation of Isa 56:3–5 (together with 62:2; 65:15) … For ‘memorial’ the LXX has the Gentile being given ‘a named place,’ which is suitable to the threefold repetition of a name being written on the ‘pillar’ or overcomer in 3:12.” See Beale and McDonough, “Revelation,” 1097. 63  See Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19B (New York: Doubleday, 2003), 139. 64  See 2 Sam 18:18 for similar wordplay, where ‫ יד‬is directly interpreted to be a “pillar.” 65  Several manuscripts use the dative, αὐτῷ, which makes the allusion closer to Isa 56:6. However, this variant is not well attested, and the difference is easily explained as an attempt to smooth a difficult reading. 66  The name written on them is the name of God (Isa 65:15–16, taken up immediately again in Rev 3:14) and the name of the city (Isa 60:14, “they shall call you the City of YHWH,” the passage already alluded to in Rev 3:9). Regarding Rev 3:14, see Mathewson, “Isaiah,” 195. 67  Those who “conquer” are the followers of Jesus in Rev 2:7, 11, 17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; 12:11; 15:2; 21:7. In Rev 5:5 the one who “conquers” is the Lion of Judah, and in 17:14 it is the Lamb. 60 

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are truly God’s people.68 These servants will act as priests, serving God in his temple.

3.4.2.2  Servants from Every Tribe, Language, People, and Nation As mentioned above, Isa 66:18 promises the gathering of “all nations and tongues,” a designation that occurs throughout Revelation, usually in a list including “tribes and peoples.” The first place we encounter such a list is in Rev 5:9. There the slaughtered Lamb’s blood ransoms saints from every tribe, language, people, and nation. In Isaiah’s Servant Narrative, all of these are designations of the servants, both those from Israel and from outside Israel (e. g. “nations,” “tongues,” Isa 66:18; “tribes,” Isa 49:6; “peoples,” Isa 61:9). What is significant about Rev 5:9 is that not all are ransomed. Saints are taken from every tribe, language, people, and nation. This is also the message of Isaiah. Isaiah 65:9 says “I will bring forth descendants from Jacob, and from Judah inheritors of my mountains. My chosen [cf. Rev 17:14] shall inherit it, and my servants shall settle there.” As Blenkinsopp points out, Isa 65 and 66 seem to indicate that the servants see themselves as “the true elect to be revealed as such at the Parousia.”69 In Revelation, the true servants are similarly those who conquer through patient endurance (Rev 14:12).

3.4.2.3  Marked and Set Apart Throughout Revelation, there is an idea that the servants are marked on their foreheads to set them apart. This seal is first placed on the 144,000 in Rev 7:4 to protect them from the impending judgment. This marking is rightfully identified as originating from Ezek 9:3–4, where God commissions a scribe to mark a remnant in Jerusalem who have not joined in worshipping idols.70 In Revelation, this faithful remnant initially is the 144,000, but is quickly expanded to definitely include all servants in Rev 22:4, “[his servants] will see his face and his name will be on their foreheads.”71 Revelation 14:1 identifies the “seal” on the fore68 

Caird, Revelation, 53. Blenkinsopp, “Jewish Sect,” 10. 70  “The vision in Ezek. 9 provides the best background for understanding the activity of the divine sealing … the Qumranians applied Ezek. 9:4 to themselves as the true, faithful remnant of Israel living in the last days [CD-B XIX, 12]). John likely views the Ezek. 9 passage as typological of the remnant faithful within the church community and God’s spiritual preservation of it in the midst of trials and persecutions.” Beale and McDonough, “Revelation,” 1106–07. 71  Note that those who worship the beast also receive a mark on their foreheads. This is a literary device found in Revelation where the “dark side” mimics God and his people. See Paul B. Duff, “Wolves in Sheep’s Clothing: Literary Opposition and Social Tension in the Revelation of John,” in Reading the Book of Revelation: A Resource for Students, RBS 44, ed. David L. Barr (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 2003), 65–79, and Mathias Rissi, “The Rider on the White Horse: A  Study of Revelation 6:1–8,” Int 18 (1964), 416–17. Arguably, it is implied that the 144,000 is expanded in Rev 7:9 (see discussion of white robes and “multitude” above). 69 

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heads as “[the Lamb’s] name and his Father’s written on their forehead.” These expansions are not arbitrary, but are arguably a result of John’s reading of Isaiah’s Servant Narrative. First, the theme of the “given (new) name” in Revelation is drawn from Isa 56:5, 62:2, and 65:15–16: I will give in my house and within my walls a monument and a name better than sons and daughters; I will give [the eunuchs] an everlasting name that shall not be cut off. (Isa 56:5)

The nations shall see your [Zion’s] righteousness, and all the kings your glory, and you shall be called by a new name that the mouth of YHWH will give. (Isa 62:2)

You [those who forsake YHWH] shall leave your name to my chosen for a curse, and the Lord YHWH will put you to death, but his servants he will call by another name … (Isa 65:15)

In Isa 65:15–16, the new name given to the servants is implied to be God’s name: You shall leave your name to my chosen for a curse, and the Lord YHWH will put you to death, but his servants he will call by another name, so that he who blesses himself in the land shall bless himself by the God of Amen, and he who takes an oath in the land shall swear by the God of Amen.

Verse 15 notes that the name of the servants’ adversaries will be a curse. As Blenkinsopp notes, “That the name of the opponent will be used as a curse suggests that the elect will be named after ‘the God Amen’” (cf. Rev 3:14).72 Thus, the servants in Revelation receive a new name, the name of God (they also receive the name of the city, and of the Lamb). That the name is “written” on their forehead (Rev 14:1) might stem from MT Ezek 9:3 where the one marking the foreheads carries “the inkhorn of the scribe.”73 The expansion of the 144,000 servants who have God’s name on their foreheads (Rev 7:3–4; 14:1) to all the servants having God’s name on their foreheads (Rev 22:3–4) could very likely be a result of John’s inclusive definition of the “servants” (see the discussion above). This inclusive definition is bolstered by Isa 66:18–19, where “all nations and tongues” are gathered to “see [God’s] glory.” These will receive a “sign” that God will “leave on them” (καταλείψω ἐπ᾿ αὐτῶν σημεῖα, v. 19). In Revelation the ones who are gathered are only those who have received God’s name on their foreheads. This idea of restriction seems to draw on LXX Ezek 9:4, which speaks of a “sign” (σημεῖον) that is placed on the foreheads of the faithful alone in Jerusalem.74 Thus, there is an easy connection between 72 

Blenkinsopp, “Jewish Sect,” 10 n. 21. There are other references to things being “written” in Revelation, so this is not certain. 74 “Johannes besaß wohl keine Textausgabe des Alten Testaments im heutigen Sinn, sondern die einzelnen alttestamentlichen Schriften jeweils auf eigenen Schriftrollen. Wenn seine Verwendung der Psalmen eine griechische Vorlage vermuten lässt, dann ist es durchaus vorstellbar, dass Johannes z. B. eine hebräische Ezechiel-Rolle und eine griechische PsalmenRolle zur Verfügung hatte”; so Stephan Witetscheck, “Der Lieblingspsalm des Sehers: Die 73 



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the sealed 144,000 and the servants from the nations who are selected by being marked. It also provides John material to limit the international servants, an important part of his theology. 3.5  Conversion of the Nations In Isa 66:19–21, universal knowledge of God is brought about when his agents go to the nations to proclaim his “glory.” It is possible that the servants are these agents who make proclamation (note the reference to the “servants” in v. 14 and the “offspring” in v. 22).75 Here, the proclamation of God’s “glory” moves outward to the nations (v. 19). However, in Isa 60 and 62, universal knowledge of God is brought about when the nations are attracted to restored Zion. In these chapters, God bestows his own “glory” upon the city (Isa 60:1, 2; 62:2), a “glory” that attracts the nations inward to Zion. Revelation seems to focus on the latter image rather than the former: Rev 21:24–26 draws on Isa 60:3–16, and its argument is further qualified by the use of Isa 52:1 in Rev 21:27.76 Of course, Revelation has already depicted a universal acknowledgement of God and the Lamb by both Jews and Gentiles earlier in Rev 5:13; 7:4–8, 9.77 Thus, John’s choice to focus on the inward attraction to Jerusalem rather the outward expansion makes sense. This does not mean the message of Isa 66:19–21 is completely ignored: the servants in Revelation are still associated with proclamation. Revelation 1:9; 6:9; 12:11; 20:4 link the servants’ “testimony” (μαρτυρία) about Jesus with their righteous suffering.78 However, the focus in these passages is on righteous Verwendung von Ps 2 in der Johannesapokalypse,” in Septuagint and Messianism, BETL 195, ed. Michael A. Knibb (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2006), 487–502. 75 See Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 313–15. 76  Isaiah 52:1 is a logical place to connect in light of the context of this passage in Revelation. Revelation 21:2 picks up again the image of the city, Jerusalem, as an adorned bride who is descending from heaven. The use of wedding language recalls Rev 19, where the garments of the bride (God’s holy people) are a focal point. Isaiah 52:1 calls Jerusalem/Zion to put on her garments of splendour, connecting with and/or influencing the depiction of Jerusalem as a bride. Isaiah 52:1 promises Jerusalem, so arrayed, that no more shall the uncircumcised or defiled enter her. 77  The reference by Mathewson (“Isaiah in Revelation,” 207) to the use of Isa 60:3–16 in Rev 21:24–26 as “evok[ing] the expectation of an end-time conversion of the nations” would have to be qualified by these verses. Read alone, Mathewson would be correct, but he fails to take into consideration Revelation’s interpretation of the Isaian Servants thus far and the immediate context of the passage in Revelation. Revelation 21:27 states that nothing unclean will enter “into it” (εἰς αὐτήν), mirroring the kings of the earth who bring their glory “into it” (εἰς αὐτὴν). Only those who have been made clean and who tell the truth (cf. Rev 14:5, a description of the 144,000 who are spotless and do not lie) may enter the city – including the representatives from the nations. Note Fekkes’ argument that “This ‘open door’ [Rev 22.25] is hardly a reference to missionary opportunity, for the purpose of the letter is wholly devoted to comforting the community in its struggles and promising rewards for its faithfulness”; Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 132. 78 See Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 258.

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Sheree Lear

suffering and the act of testimony rather than on the image of ingathering. John affirms the narrative of the servants, that the nations will flock to God’s city, and he affirms that the servants will be involved in proclamation, but his book does not depict the conversion of the nations.79

4. Conclusion In light of John’s use of Isaiah and other passages from the Hebrew Bible, it is clear that he picked up on and was influenced by the “Servant Narrative” as delineated by Beuken and Blenkinsopp. The servants of Revelation suffer and their righteousness is evident in their white robes. Like the Servant (the Lamb), the servants are slaughtered. They are made up of representatives from Israel and from all peoples, nations, tribes, and tongues. The servants, like Christ, will be vindicated through the judgment of the nations. John viewed scripture as a web of interconnections. Thus, we see that the argument of the Isaian Servant Narrative – that the servants do as the Servant – is applied to other texts, whether they are connected to Isaiah through shared lemmata, or whether John sees that a text’s descriptions can be applied as attributes of the servants. John’s own connections within this web are also impressive, at times obscuring his use of Isaiah. John’s overwhelming dependence on his scriptures and their own interconnectedness sometimes makes it difficult to determine exactly which text is (dominantly) influential in each verse of Revelation. Yet the sheer mass of John’s textual reuse would suggest this is on purpose. The book of Revelation necessitates a reader who is a scholar of many texts, and it assumes that these texts are inter-referential. Thus, Revelation’s white robe reminds us of Isaiah but also of Daniel, Genesis, and Zechariah, all texts which have their own unique material not connected to the Servant Narrative that is alluded to in Revelation. John’s interpretation of scripture extends an invitation to his readers to enter into the matrix of the interpretation of scripture in response to persecution. Thus, the suffering servants addressed in Revelation receive an identity and hope through participating in this interpretative matrix. Their suffering is given a rationale through their reading of their scriptures, (ideally) solidifying their resolve to “follow the Lamb wherever he goes.”

79  This is a debated issue; see Bauckham, Climax of Prophecy, 238. Unlike Caird (Revelation, 180–81), I am not convinced that the “salvation of the heathen” is depicted in Revelation.



Following the Lamb Wherever He Goes

315

Bibliography Allen, Garrick V. “Scriptural Allusions in the Book of Revelation and the Contours of Textual Research 1900–2014: Retrospect and Prospects.” CBR 14.3 (2016): 319–39. Bauckham, Richard. The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation. London: T&T Clark, 1993. Beale, G. K. The Book of Revelation. NIGNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. Beale, G. K., and Sean McDonough. “Revelation.” Pages 1081–1158 in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament. Edited by G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007. Beuken, Willem A. M. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH.’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 56–66: A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19B. New York: Doubleday, 2003. –. “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period.” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20. Caird, G. B. A Commentary on the Revelation of St. John the Divine. New York: Harper & Row, 1966. Collins, John J. “The Interpretation of Psalm 2.” Pages 49–66 in Echoes from the Caves: Qumran and the New Testament. STDJ 85. Edited by Florentino García Martínez. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Comblin, José. Le Christ dans l’Apocalypse. Théologie Biblique. Paris: Desclée, 1965. Duff, Paul B. “Wolves in Sheep’s Clothing: Literary Opposition and Social Tension in the Revelation of John.” Pages 65–79 in Reading the Book of Revelation: A Resource for Students. RBS 44. Edited by David L. Barr. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 2003. Fekkes, Jan. Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in the Book of Revelation: Visionary Antecedents and Their Development. JSNTSup 93. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994. Ford, J. Massyngberde. Revelation: A New Translation with Commentary. Anchor Bible 38. Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1975. K arrer, Martin. “Von der Apokalypse zu Ezechiel: Der Ezechieltext der Apokalypse.” Pages 84–120 in Das Ezechielbuch in der Johannesoffenbarung: Mit Beiträgen von Michael Bachmann, Beate Ego, Thomas Hieke und Martin Karrer. Edited by D. Sänger. BThSt 76. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 2004. Kowalski, Beate. “Transformation of Ezekiel in John’s Revelation.” Pages 279–311 in Transforming Visions: Transformations of Text, Traditions, and Theology in Ezekiel. Edited by William A. Tooman and Michael A. Lyons. Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2010. Kraft, H. Die Offenbarung des Johannes. HNT 16a. Tübingen: Mohr, 1974. Lyons, Michael A. “Paul and the Servant(s): Isaiah 49,6 in Acts 13,47.” ETL 89.4 (2013): 345–59. Mathewson, David. “Isaiah in Revelation.” Pages 189–210 in Isaiah in the New Testament. Edited by Steve Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken. London: T&T Clark, 2005. Nickelsburg, George W. E. Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972. Rissi, Mathias. “The Rider on the White Horse: A  Study of Revelation 6:1–8.” Int 18 (1964): 407–18. Witetscheck, Stephan. “Der Lieblingspsalm des Sehers: Die Verwendung von Ps 2 in der Johannesapokalypse.” Pages 487–502 in Septuagint and Messianism. BETL 195. Edited by Michael A. Knibb. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2006.

The Servant-Messiah and the Messiah’s Servants in Targum Jonathan Isaiah William A. Tooman 1. Introduction In Targum Jonathan Isaiah (𝔗J Isa), the Suffering Servant does not suffer. The passages in the Hebrew text of Isaiah regarding the Suffering Servant have been systematically rewritten to accord with expectations of a triumphant messiah. These facts are well-known and have been explored numerous times in the past.1 What have not been explored are the implications of this rewriting for the theme of the servants. In the Masoretic Text (𝔐), the characteristics of the servants are determined by those of the Suffering Servant. The servants emulate the Servant to the extent that they suffer in their own right.2 For 𝔗J Isaiah, though, one must 1  I make no attempt in this essay to relate my findings to all modern proposals on the topic. A  basic bibliography, for those who would like one, would have to include: Jostein Ådna, “The Servant of Isaiah 53 as Triumphant and Interceding Messiah: The Reception of Isaiah 52:13–53:12 in the Targum of Isaiah with Special Attention to the Concept of Messiah,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, trans. Daniel P. Bailey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 189–224; Robert Aytoun, “The Servant of the Lord in the Targum,” JTS 23 (1921): 172–80; Otto Betz, “Die Übersetzungen von Jes 53 (LXX, Targum) und die Theologia Crucis des Paulus,” in Jesus, Der Herr der Kirche: Aufsätze zur biblischen Theologie II, WUNT 52 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1990), 197–216; Bruce D. Chilton, The Isaiah Targum: Introduction, Translation, Apparatus and Notes, ArBib 11 (Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1987); idem, The Glory of Israel. The Theology and Provenance of the Isaiah Targum, JSOTSup 23 (Sheffield: JSOT, 1982); Harald Hagermann, Jesaja 53 in Hexapla, Targum und Peschitta, BFCT 2/56 (Gütersloh: Bertelsmann, 1954); Otfried Hofius, “Kennt der Targum zu Jes 53 einen sündenvergebenden Messias?” in Neutestamentliche Studien, WUNT 132 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000), 70–107; Joachim Jeremias, “παῖς θεοῦ,” TDNT 5:695; Klaus Koch, “Messias und Sündenvergebung in Jesaja 53  – Targum: Ein Beitrag zu der Praxis der Aramäischen Bibelübersetzung,” JSJ 3 (1972): 117–48; Arie van der Kooij, Die alten Textzeugen des Jesajabuches: Ein Beitrag zur Textgeschichte des Alten Testaments, OBO 35 (Berlin: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981); Étan Levine, The Aramaic Version of the Bible: Contents and Context, BZAW 174 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1988); Roger Syrén, “Targum Isaiah 52:13–53:12 and Christian Interpretation,” JJS 40.2 (1989): 201–12; Hans Walter Wolff, Jesaja 53 im Urchristentum, TVG, 4th ed. (Giessen: Brunnen, 1984). 2  W. A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH’,” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87; Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book,” in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition, ed. Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans, VTSup 70/1 (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 155–75.

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ask: how is the identity of the servants construed, if it is not shaped by a figure who suffers righteously?

2.  The Servant-Messiah in 𝔗J Isaiah The title “servant” (‫ )ﬠבד‬is given to many characters in 𝔗J Isaiah, as it is in 𝔐. The prophet Isaiah (20:3), Eliakim (22:20), David (37:33), and Israel/Jacob (e. g., 41:8–10; 44:1–2, 21; 45:4; 49:3) are all designated “servant” of God. Three texts in 𝔗J Isaiah also associate the servant with the Messiah: 42:1–7; 43:10a; 52:13–53:12. Isaiah 43:10a offers no details about the Servant-Messiah and will not detain us.3 The other two describe his status before God, his actions on behalf of Israel, and the ways that he engages with the nations. In 𝔐, Isa 42:1–7 and 52:13–53:12 portray an unnamed “Servant” who suffers, whereas in 𝔗J, they describe the Servant-Messiah, who champions the suffering. Below I have provided parallel translations of these texts with notes on translation equivalents so that the reader may have a context for understanding 𝔗J’s differences from its Vorlage.4 2.1  The Servant in Isaiah 42:1–7 𝔐

1 Here

is my Servant, whom I uphold,

my chosen one, [in whom] my soul delights; I have put my spirit upon him; he will bring forth justice to the nations. 2 He will not cry out, nor lift up, or make heard in the street his voice; 3 a bruised reed he will not break, and a dim wick – he will not quench it; faithfully, he will bring forth justice.

𝔗J

1 Behold

my Servant, I will bring him near,5 my chosen one in whom my Memra is pleased; I will put my Holy Spirit upon him, he will reveal my justice to the nations. 2 He will not cry or call or lift up outside his voice. 3 The humble who are like a bruised reed he will not break, and the poor who are like a flickering lamp he will not quench; for his truth, he will bring forth justice.

3  𝔗J Isa 43:10a: “‘You are witnesses before me,’ says Yhwh, ‘and my Servant the Messiah (‫ )משׁיחא‬whom I am pleased with him.’” The pericope in which this line appears, Isaiah 43:8– 21, describes the incomparability of Yhwh and his fulfilment of prophecies. It only speaks of the Servant-Messiah in this one half-verse. 4  Where translations of 𝔐 and 𝔗J are compared, plusses in either text are italicised and differences (e. g., word substitutions) are underlined. Where elements of a single poetic line in 𝔐 were split between two lines in 𝔗J, I have added an ellipsis (…) to mark the split. Other excerpts from 𝔗J are offered without distracting paratextual elements. 5 For 𝔐’s ‫אתמך־בו‬, “I will sustain him,” 𝔗J offers ‫אקרבניה‬, “I will bring him near.”



The Servant-Messiah and the Messiah’s Servants

𝔐

4 He

will not grow faint or be crushed until he has established justice in the earth; and for his instruction, the coastlands wait. 5 Thus says the God, Yhwh, the creator of the heavens and the one who stretched them out, the one who hammered out the earth and what comes forth from it, the one giving breath to the people upon it and spirit to those who walk around in it, 6 “I am Yhwh. I called you in righteousness, I will take you by the hand, and I will guard you; and I will give you as a covenant of people, as a light to nations, 7 in order to open the blind eyes, In order to bring out from the dungeon the prisoner,

from the house of confinement those who dwell in the dark.”

319

𝔗J

4 He

will not tire or be weary until he has established justice in the earth;

and for his Torah, the islands wait. says the eternal God, Yhwh, who created the heavens and suspended them, who completed the earth and its inhabitants,6 who gives breath to the people upon it, and spirit to those who walk around in it, 6 “I am the Lord. I elevated you by truth, 5 Thus

and I will seize your hand, and I will establish you; and I will give you as a covenant of people, as a light to nations, 7 to open the eyes of the house of Israel who are like those blind to the Torah,7 in order to bring out their exiles from among the nations where they are like prisoners, and to release them from servitude to the kingdoms where they are imprisoned like prisoners of darkness.”

The identity of the servant is not made explicit here. Modern commentators of the Hebrew text often identify him with Israel, the golah, or a royal figure, possibly Cyrus.8 The scribes of 𝔗J, however, considered the servant of 42:1–7 to be the Messiah. The servant is identified as the “chosen one” in 42:1, and the “chosen” “servant” is explicitly named as the Messiah in 𝔗J 43:10. The only other 6 Aram. ‫ודירהא‬, “its inhabitants,” clarifies how the Targumic scribes understood Heb. ‫וצאצאיה‬, which can be translated “its offspring.” I imagine that they had Gen 2:7 in mind as well, cued by the parallels between the next two lines and Gen 2:7b: ‫ויפח באפיו נשׁמת חיים ויהי‬ ‫האדם לנפשׁ חיה‬. 7  Translating woodenly, 𝔗J reads: “who are like the blind from (‫ )מן‬the Torah.” My understanding of ‫ מן אוריתא‬as a prepositional phrase meaning “[away from] the Torah” is based on

the tenor of this pericope and on 𝔗J 53:12, where the Servant-Messiah subjects Israel’s rebels to (‫ )ל‬the Torah. 8  E. g., Karl Elliger, Jesaja 40,1–45,7, BKAT XI/1 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1978), 228; Reinhard Kratz, Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch, FAT 1 (Tübingen: Mohr, 1991), 15–17; Ulrich Berges, The Book of Isaiah: Its Composition and Final Form, trans. Millard C. Lind (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2012), 336; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19A (Doubleday: Anchor, 2000), 209–12, esp. 212.

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character in 𝔗J Isa who is called “servant” and “chosen” is Israel (45:4), but the servant in view here cannot be Israel. One of his tasks is to “open the eyes of the house of Israel” (42:7). In addition, the servant of 42:1–7 brings justice to the poor and needy and liberates Israel from gentile rule. Both of these tasks are assigned to the Messiah (e. g., 𝔗J Isa 11:4; 52:15; 53:3, 7, 8, 11).9 The principal duties of the Servant in 42:1–7 are to establish God’s justice under the empowerment of the divine spirit (42:1b) and to bring light to the whole world (42:6–7). The two tasks are closely related. The term ‫“( דין‬justice/ judgment”; Heb ‫ )משׁפט‬appears three times in vv. 1–7: when the Servant reveals justice to the nations, when he brings justice for the poor and humble and when he establishes justice in the earth (vv. 1b, 3b, 4b). This “justice” is equated with “truth” (‫קושׁט‬, v. 3b; cf. v. 6a) and with the Torah (‫אורית‬, v. 4b; cf. v. 7a). The Torah-compliance of the Messiah’s justice is illustrated by the one example provided. In accordance with the Law of Moses, the Messiah does not tread on the humble (‫ )ﬠנותן‬or poor (‫)חשׂיך‬: see e. g., Exod 22:22; 23:6; Lev 19:15, 34; 25:35; Deut 10:18; 24:14–19 (reiterated in Isaiah at 1:17; 10:2; 11:4; and 32:7). The image of the Servant as a “light to the nations” who will bring light to the darkness and open blind eyes is closely related to this theme. The cause of Israel’s blindness and the darkness of the nations is ignorance of the Torah (42:2a). Its re-revelation will open Israel’s eyes too. The justice theme in 42:1–7 is not limited to Torah-piety, though. It also represents a return to conditions-as-they-should-be. The Servant-Messiah’s double task (expressed by the purpose clauses in v. 7) is to open Israel’s eyes and regather her from diaspora. When Israel is healed and can see, the ServantMessiah will liberate her from diaspora where she has lived in darkness like a prisoner. The main task of the Servant-Messiah in 𝔗J 42:1–7, then, is to bring about global justice in conformity to the Torah.10 The most obvious difference between 𝔐 and 𝔗J in Isa 42:1–7 is that 𝔗J removes any suggestion that the Servant-Messiah might suffer. This possibility is hinted at in 𝔐’s ‫“ לא יכהה … ולא ירוץ‬not dim and not crushed” (v. 4, the same words used to describe those whom the Servant treats gently in v. 3). 𝔗J removes the verbal links between v. 3 and v. 4 by describing the Servant-Messiah with milder terms in v. 4, as ‫“( לא יהלא … ולא ילאי‬not tired and not weary”; cf. 49:4). The result is that the Servant exerts himself to show compassion to the weak and 9  The pericope does not stop at v. 4. It continues in vv. 5–9, but those verses do not contribute to our theme. 10  The theme of universal divine justice also appears in 𝔗J Isa 26:9 and 51:4, where it is also equated with divine truth, Torah observance, and light: 26:9b: “For when your justice (‫ )דין‬is firm in the earth, they will learn truth (‫)קושׁט‬, in order to act justly in the world”; 51:4: “Receive my Memra, my people, and my congregation heed my worship. For the Torah (‫)אורית‬ will go out from before me, and my justice (‫ )דין‬will go forth like a light (‫ ;)ניהור‬nations will be gathered to it.”



The Servant-Messiah and the Messiah’s Servants

321

suffering,11 rather than suffering himself.12 This interpretive arc will continue in 52:13–53:12. 2.2  The Servant in Isaiah 52:13–53:12 The principal text in 𝔗J Isaiah to speak of the Servant-Messiah is, of course, 52:13–53:12. Two systemic differences between 𝔐 and 𝔗J are obvious at a casual reading. In 𝔐, the whole poem is descriptive of the Servant. Even when other characters or voices appear, their presence serves to add detail to the description of the Servant (e. g., 53:6). In 𝔗J, the poem describes past and future conditions of several characters: the Messiah, Israel, the nations, the kingdoms, and the wicked. In 𝔐, the Servant suffers, as he does in 𝔐 Isa 42:1–7. In 𝔗J, the ServantMessiah advocates and restores, as he did in 𝔗J Isa 42:1–7. In both texts there is vindication, but in 𝔗J righteous suffering is endured only by some of the exiles of Israel. 𝔐

13 Behold,

my Servant will prosper;

he will be high and raised up, and be greatly exalted. 14 Just as many were frightened at you,

𝔗J

13 Behold,

my Servant, the Messiah,13 will prosper, he will be high and will multiply, and be very powerful.14 14 Just as many days the house of Israel hoped for him,15 who were in darkness among the nations16

11 In 𝔗J, v. 3’s pair “humble” (‫ )ﬠנותן‬and “poor” (‫ )חשׂיך‬are interpreted as a metaphor for the righteous. 𝔗J Isaiah 26:6, for example, glosses the pair ‫ ﬠנותן‬+ ‫ חשׂיך‬with ‫צדיקיא‬: “[With] feet, he will trample the feet of the righteous (‫)צדיקיא‬, the foot of the humble (‫)ﬠנותן‬, the poor (‫)חשׂיך‬ of the people.” The distressed and oppressed are associated with righteousness in 𝔐 too; for example, 50:10; 51:12–16; 59:1–21; 60:14–22. 12  The absence of suffering by the Servant, especially in 𝔗J Isa 52:13–53:12, has led some to propose that the translators of 𝔗J were motivated by an anti-Christian sentiment. See e. g. Jeremias, “παις θεου,” 695; Hagermann, Jesaja 53, 66–94, 115–22, esp. 121. 13 Roger Syrén (“Targum Isaiah 52:13–53:12,” 203) observes a number of shared locutions between the description of the Servant in 𝔗J Isa 52:13 and David in 𝔗J 1 Sam 18:30, undergirding the identification of the Servant with the Davidic Messiah. 14  The word-substitutions in 𝔗J v. 13b appear to be influenced by Gen 12:2. Compare 𝔗J with 𝔗O: Isa 52:13b ‫ יראם ויסגי ויתקף לחדא‬// Gen  12:2 ‫ואﬠבדינך לﬠם סגי ואברכינך וארבי שׁמך ותהי‬ ‫( מברך‬note also that Aram. ‫תק״ף‬, “powerful,” is a legitimate equivalent for Heb. ‫)גב״ה‬. 15 Otto Betz and Jostein Ådna have argued that the shift in Hebrew from 3rd person singular in 53:13 to 2nd person singular in the Hebrew of 53:14a (“many who were frightened at you”) persuaded the Aramaic translator that statements of suffering and death in 52:13–53:12 must apply to others than the Servant-Messiah. This inference, they argue, allowed the Targumic scribe to render the Servant as a triumphant Messiah. As we have seen, 𝔗J Isaiah 42:4 does the same. The translator(s) of 52:13–53:12 seem to be moving along an interpretive pathway that started in 42:4. See Betz, “Übersetzungen,” 197–216; Ådna, “Servant of Isaiah 53,” 189–224. 16  The plus ‫ דהוה חשׁוך ביני ﬠממיא‬further aligns this oracle with 42:1–7, esp. vv. 6–7.

322

William A. Tooman

𝔐

so marred,17 more than any man, was his appearance and his form more than [that of ] sons of men, 15 so he will splatter20 many nations; because of him kings will shut their mouth; for that which had not been told them, they have seen; and that which they had not heard, they have perceived. 53:1 Who has believed our report? And the arm of Yhwh – to whom has it been revealed? 2 For he grew up like a young plant before him,

and like a root from a dry land.

No form he did have …

𝔗J

their appearance and their splendour18 was more than [that of ] the sons of men,19 15 so he will scatter many peoples;21 because of him kings will be silent, they will place their hand upon their mouth;22 for that which had not been told them, they have seen; and that which they had not heard, they have perceived. 53:1 Who has believed this, our report? And the strength of the mighty arm of Yhwh – to whom has it been so revealed? 2 And the righteous will be great before him,23 behold, like sprouts which fruit, and like a tree which sends its roots to streams of waters,24 so will increase generations of the holy on the land which was in need of him. Not a common appearance is his appearance

17  ‫משׁחת‬, “marred, disfigured,” may have been identified as a pun on ‫ משׁיח‬by the Targumic scribes, corresponding with their identification of the Servant with the Messiah in 52:13. 18 “Splendour,” ‫זיו‬, is used almost exclusively of God in 𝔗J Isa (2:10, 19, 21; 6:1, 3; 30:30; 35:2, etc.). It is used of the Servant-Messiah in 53:2 and for Israel here. Israel’s splendour appears to be a result of their hope in the Messiah; it is what distinguished them from the “sons of men.” 19  I. e., even in the darkness of diaspora, Israel is more ‘splendid’ than the surrounding peoples (comparative ‫)מן‬. The splendour (‫ )זיו‬of Israel accords with the splendour (‫ )זיו‬of the Servant-Messiah in 53:2. 20 The hiphil of ‫ נז״ה‬means “sprinkle, splatter” and is used both in cult contexts (e. g., Lev 16:14) and in vivid descriptions of bloodshed (e. g., 1 Kings 9:33). Both uses are appropriate to the song; see Franz Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah, vol. 2, trans. James Kennedy (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1890), 284–85. The typical English translation “astonished” is derived from ‫נז״ה‬II, “spring up, leap,” which is proposed based on Arabic naza and θαυμάσονται, “they will marvel” (𝔊B). Most texts and versions read with 𝔐 (1QIsa, 1QIsb, θ′, α′, σ′). 21 Aramaic ‫בד״ר‬, “scatter,” appears to be an attempt to render the sense of Hebrew ‫נז״ה‬, “sprinkle, splatter,” understood as a metaphor. 22  𝔗J has a double reading of 𝔐’s “shut their mouth,” offering “they will be silent” and “they will place their hand upon their mouth.” The second is an idiom best known from Job 40:4 (but also appearing in Judges 18:19; Prov 30:32; Job 21:5; 29:9). 23  The Targum supplies the antecedent of the inflected subject “he” in ‫( ויﬠל‬Heb.), making v. 2a about the righteous, not the Messiah. 24  The plus in 𝔗J is derived from Jer 17:8.

The Servant-Messiah and the Messiah’s Servants



𝔐

and no majesty and should we look at him when [he has] no appearance that we should desire him?25 3 Despised and rejected by men, a man of pain and acquainted with illness; and as when one hides the face from someone, he was despised, and we did not esteem him. 4 Indeed, our sicknesses he has borne and our pains, he has carried them; and we accounted him stricken, struck by God, and afflicted. 5 But he … … was pierced for our transgressions, crushed for our iniquities; the correction that made us whole was on him, and by his bruises we are healed. 6 All we like sheep have strayed; each to his way, we have turned and Yhwh caused to fall on him the iniquity of us all. 7 He was oppressed, and he was humiliated, 25 

323

𝔗J

and his terror is not an ordinary terror, and his splendour will be a holy splendour, that anyone who looks at him will consider him.26 3 Then

it will be scorned and cease – the glory of all the kingdoms; they will be weak and mournful, behold, like a man of pain and appointed for sicknesses and as when it was taken up – the face of the Shekinah – from us, they are despised, and they are not esteemed. 4 Then

concerning our sins he will entreat and our sins for his sake will be forgiven;27 and we were considered beaten, [with] blows from Yhwh, and afflicted.28 5 And he will build the holy house which was profaned29 for our sins, [it was] handed over for our iniquities; and by his teaching30 his peace will increase upon us, and we follow his words, our sins31 will be forgiven us. 6 All we like sheep have been scattered; each to his road, we have gone into exile; and it was the will of Yhwh to forgive32 the sins of us all for his sake. 7 He requests, and he is answered,33

Translating v. 3b as an unmarked interrogative. The negatives in Heb. of v. 2b are construed as comparatives in 𝔗J. 27  The Targumic scribes interpret Hebrew “bear” and “carry” as metaphors for the ServantMessiah intervening on behalf of the people (compare 53:6b, 7a, 12b). 𝔗J Isa 1:14; 2:9; 46:4 also interpret “carry” (‫ )סבל‬and/or “bear” (‫ )נשׂא‬as “forgive.” 28 Heb. ‫“ מﬠנה‬afflicted” (pual ptc. singular ‫ ≡ )ﬠנ״ה‬Aram. ‫“ מﬠנן‬afflicted” (pael passive ptc. plural ‫)ﬠנ״י‬. 29 Heb. ‫“ מחלל‬pierced” (polal ptc. ‫חל״ל‬II) ≡ Aram. ‫“ איתחל‬profaned” (ittaphel perf. ‫)חל״ל‬. 30 Heb. ‫“ מוסר‬correction, punishment” is rendered twice in Aramaic: once as ‫אתמסר‬, “handed over,” and a second time as ‫אולפן‬, “teaching.” Heb. ‫“ מדכא‬crushed” is not represented in the Targum. 31 Heb. ‫“ חבורה‬bruise” ≡ Aram. ‫“ חוב‬sin.” 32 The hiphil of ‫ פג״ﬠ‬can mean “cause to entreat,” which seems to be the understanding of 𝔗J, “forgive … for his sake.” 33  𝔗J understood the first two verbs of v. 7 differently: ‫“ נגשׂ‬oppressed” as ‫“ נגשׁ‬draw near [to request]” (cf. Gen 44:18 for this sense of ‫)נגשׁ‬, and ‫ﬠנה‬II “humiliate” as ‫ﬠנה‬I “answer.” 26 

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𝔐

yet he did not open his mouth; like a lamb to the slaughter is led, and like a sheep that before its shearers is silent, so he did not open his mouth. 8 By

a corruption of justice he was taken away. His future … who could have imagined? For he was cut off from the land of the living, for the transgression of my people, an affliction was his. 9 He made his grave with the wicked and with the rich at his deaths,36 although no violence did he do, and no deceit was in his mouth. 10 And

Yhwh desired to crush him with weakness. If his life will constitute a reparationoffering,38 34 Heb.

𝔗J

and before he opens his mouth he is accepted; the strong ones of the nations like a lamb to sacrifice are handed over, and like an ewe which before its shearers is silent, so there is not, before him, one who opens his mouth or speaks a word. 8 Out of suffering and by vengeance he will bring our exiles near; The wonders which will be done for us in his days, who will be able to recount?34 For he will remove the rule of the gentiles from the land of Israel; [the punishment for] the sins which my people sinned he will put on them.35 9 And he will hand over the wicked to Gehenna and those rich in possessions, which they robbed by death, which is destruction because they will not be established – the doers of sins, and they will not speak of deceptions with their mouth. 10 Yet before Yhwh it was [his] will to refine and to purify the remnant of his people,37 in order to cleanse from sins their life;

‫“ שׂיח‬imagine” ≡ Aram. ‫“ שׁﬠי‬recount.” pronoun on 𝔐’s ‫ למו‬could be singular or plural (GKC § 103f, note 3). 𝔗J reads as plural, “on them,” while most English translations render as singular “was his.” 36  𝔐’s ‫במתיו‬, “in his deaths,” is awkward. 1QIsa reads ‫( בומתו‬from ‫במה‬, “grave, barrow”). 𝔊B τοῦ θανάτου αὐτοῦ assumes ‫במתו‬, “in/by his death.” 𝔗J reads ‫במותא‬, “by the death.” 37  The Aramaic phrase ‫ ית שׁארא דﬠמיה‬indicates the scribe’s understanding of the referent of the 3ms pronoun on ‫( דכאו‬Heb.). The notion that the Messiah will refine and purify Israel when he appears is obviously derived from Mal 3:2–3. 38  The protasis ‫ אם־תשׂים אשׁם נפשׁו‬in the Hebrew text is problematic. 𝔊B reads ‫ תשׂים‬as a 2nd masculine singular (ἐὰν δῶτε περὶ ἁμαρτίας, “if you give for sin …”), as do many English translations, which requires the addition of a preposition (περὶ). A more elegant solution is that of Dahood and Battenfield, who have suggested re-dividing the words to produce ‫אמת שׂם אשׁם‬ ‫נפשׁו‬, “truly he offered his life as a reparation-offering.” See Mitchell Dahood, “Phoenician Elements in Isaiah 52:13–53:12,” in Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William Foxwell Albright, ed. H. Goedicke (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971), 63–73 (here 71); James Battenfield, “Isaiah LIII,10: Taking an ‘if ’ out of the Sacrifice of the Servant,” VT 32/4 (1982): 485. I am reading ‫ נפשׁו‬as the subject of ‫תשׂים‬, which I have understood as a 3rd feminine singular and translated as “constitute” (BDB s. v. ‫שׂום‬, ‫ שׂים‬5b; cf. Job 1:17). 35  The



The Servant-Messiah and the Messiah’s Servants

𝔐

then he will see … … offspring, he will prolong [his] days; the will of Yhwh, through him, will prosper. 11 From his life’s toil … he will see, he will be satisfied; by his knowledge, the righteous one, my Servant, will make many righteous and their iniquities he will bear. I will allot for him [a portion] with the great, and with the strong he will divide plunder because he bared his life to death, and with transgressors, he was counted; yet he bore the sin of many, and for the transgressors he will intervene.43 12 Therefore

325

𝔗J

they will see the kingdom of their Messiah, they will increase sons and daughters, and they will prolong [their] days; those who perform the Torah of Yhwh will prosper by his will;39 11 from the slavery of the nations, he will deliver their life, they will see the retribution of their adversaries.40 They will be satisfied with the plunder of their kings by his wisdom he will make innocents innocent, to subject many to the Torah; and about their sins he will pray.41 12 Then I will divide for him the plunder of many peoples, and the possessions of strong fortresses, he will divide as plunder, because he risked, unto death, his own life,42 and rebels he subjected to the Torah; and for the sins of many he will pray, and for the rebels, it will be forgiven on his account.44

The Servant of 𝔐 Isa 52:13–53:12 is not identified. The reader is required to deduce his identity from the song’s contents. The opening verse (v. 13), stands as a heading over the whole song. It describes the Servant as “exalted” and “honoured,” but the subsequent strophe (52:14–15) depicts him as disfigured and 39 Heb. ‫חפץ‬, “will,” is rendered twice: first as a cipher for ‫אוריתא‬, “Torah” (which is commonly associated with the divine will), and then as ‫רﬠות‬, “will.” Syrén (“Targum Isaiah 52:13– 53:12,” 202) understands differently. 40  𝔐 ‫יראה‬, “he will see,” has no object. 𝔗J offers a plural verb ‫יחזון‬, “they will see,” and supplies the object ‫בפורﬠנות סנאיהון‬, “the retribution of their adversaries” (1QIsa and 1QIsb have an object, ‫“ אור‬light,” which is confirmed by 𝔊). 41 Aramaic ‫בﬠי‬, though usually translated “search” or “inquire” (cf. v. 7), can also mean “entreat” or “pray.” Note Heb. “bear” ≡ Aram. “forgive” in v. 4. 42  The clause ‫ דמסר למותא נפשׁיה‬can be understood in two ways: “to surrender his life to death,” as it has typically been understood (e. g., Aytoun, “Servant of the Lord,” 177; Chilton, Isaiah Targum, 105), or “to risk his life unto death.” See e. g. b. B. Metzia 112a: “for what [reason] did this [person] ascend a ramp or climb a tree and risk himself unto death (‫מסר את‬ ‫”?)ﬠצמו למיתה‬ 43  Hiphil ‫ פגﬠ‬+ -‫“ = ל‬intervene”; see Isa 59:16. 44  𝔗J Isa 53:12 resumes the divine first-person speech from 52:13, which frames the poem. Beginning in 53:1 a first-person plural voice emerged, which appears to be the voice of collective Israel (53:3, 4, 6, 8), and which refers to God in the third person (53:1, 4, 6, 10). Only 52:13(–15) and 53:12 are first-person divine speech.

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horrifying. Just as the reader must determine his identity for herself, she must also determine how to reconcile these competing images as the song progresses. The opening lines in the Targum are quite different. They explicitly identify the Servant as the Messiah, and the friction in 𝔐 has been smoothed away. The suffering in 𝔐 has been not been removed in 𝔗J. Clauses describing the Servant’s suffering in 𝔐 have been reapplied to other characters. Israel remains blind in diaspora (52:14 // 42:6–7). The nations will be scattered when the Servant-Messiah appears (52:15). The kingdoms of the earth will become weak and mournful (53:3). It is Israel who has been beaten and afflicted by God (53:4). The temple was profaned by the people of Judah (53:5). Israel was scattered for her sins (53:6). It is the strong of the nations who will be killed like sacrificial animals (53:7). Israel lives in suffering in diaspora (53:8). The gentiles will bear the punishments for Israel’s sins (53:8), and the wicked and the rich will be handed over to Gehenna (53:9). Israel will be refined and purified by the Servant-Messiah (53:10), the Israel who endured slavery among the nations (53:11). Thus, in harmony with 42:1–7, the Servant-Messiah of 𝔗J Isa 52:13–53:12 does not suffer. In fulfilment of his role as Servant-Messiah, he both removes suffering and redistributes suffering. Because the Servant-Messiah does not suffer, there is conceptual space in the Targum’s version of 52:13–53:12 for triumphalist themes of messianic hope. The Servant-Messiah will subdue the nations (52:15; 53:3, 7, 8, 11 // 42:6–7). He will protect the righteous, establishing them and making them prosper (53:2). He will rebuild the temple (53:5) and regather diaspora (53:8 // 42:6–7). He will teach and subject “rebels” to the Torah (53:5, 12 // 42:1–4). Simply summing up the argument of 𝔗J in these two ways – as a reapplication of the Servant’s suffering and the addition of messianic triumph  – would be misleading. In developing its argument, 𝔗J Isa 52:13–53:12 enlarges on two additional themes that are intertwined in complex ways – the themes of justice and forgiveness. 2.2.1  The Theme of Justice in 𝔗J Isa 52:13–53:12

The logic of justice in 𝔗J Isa 52:13–53:12 is multifaceted and changing. Moving through the poem from top to bottom, we encounter numerous turns in the poem’s description of the Servant-Messiah’s justice. Each step, each assertion follows from the preceding one, but the operative logic changes at each step. Right away in 52:14–15 the Targum presents an analogy between Israel’s hope and the nations’ lack thereof. The nations will receive their own exile for not hoping in the Messiah (v. 15, “not told” and “not heard”), which corresponds with Israel who did hope while in exile. This analogy is not expressed as causal. That is, the nations’ fate is not described as punishment for their ignorance or for scattering Israel. The two outcomes are merely expressed as symmetrical cir-



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cumstances. It is akin to measure-for-measure justice, but lacks the punishment dimension. If the peoples and kings (52:15) did not know about the coming of the Servant-Messiah, who did? The righteous, who anticipated his coming and will be rewarded for their hope (52:14a; 53:2). Their reward is expressed in metaphors of thriving and fertility, occluding the reward’s substance. What is clear is that the reward will be received in the land. The righteous will live in the Servant-Messiah’s kingdom in the land of Israel. This seems to narrow the recipients of the Servant-Messiah’s rewards from the whole house of Israel (52:14) to the righteous among Israel (53:2). A second and different symmetry appears 53:3. The reader was told already that Israel has a splendour that cannot be shrouded even under the cloud of diaspora (52:14). Likewise, she knows that the Servant-Messiah has his own splendour, the splendour of holiness (53:2). In 53:3, the Targumist announces that the kingdoms too have a splendour, a glory of their own. When the ServantMessiah arrives, though, it will fade away until the nations appear like people who are sick and in pain (53:3). The loss of their glory is equated with Israel’s loss of the divine glory, the Shekinah. Again, no clausal link is established between Israel’s loss and the nations’ loss. The nations’ weakness and illness are not expressed as punishments. At this point, the reader is not told why the nations must suffer, and the Targum does not explain the logic of the symmetry. It is clear, though, from the next two verses (53:4–5) that the loss of the Shekinah and Temple were acts of divine justice, the results of Israel’s sins. An assortment of wicked persons and punishments appear in verse 7–9. J 𝔗 Isa 53:7 announces the destruction of the “strong ones” (‫)תקיף‬. In 𝔗J being “strong” is identified as “strength of wickedness” (1:31 and 5:18) and with “pride” (2:11–13, 17; 5:14–16), so v. 7 appears to have a rather wide perspective.45 Verse 8 turns to theodicy. Israel has suffered in diaspora for her sins. But she suffered at the hand of nations that were as sinful, if not more sinful, than she. Verse 8 assures the reader that the gentiles who inflicted punishment on Israel will be punished too. Those gentile nations who have ruled the land of Israel will have the same punishments laid on them as were laid on Israel (53:8b).46 Verse 9 then shifts from the gentile rulers of the land to the wicked and the rich. They will be sent to Gehenna by the Servant-Messiah “lest they be established.” Judgement and justice are not reserved for the rich, the powerful, and gentiles. There is judgement and justice for the remnant in diaspora, and there is a just reward for the Messiah himself. According to 𝔗J Isa 53:10–11, the survivors 45  Humbling the strong and powerful is as common a motif in 𝔐 Isa as it is in 𝔗J Isa. Isaiah 53: 7, then, merely repeats an idea that is common in both the Hebrew and Aramaic versions of the book. 46  It is impossible to determine if the expression “out of suffering” (v. 8a) indicates only that the suffering will cease or also that the suffering was sufficient to satisfy the debt incurred by Israel’s sins. See the discussion of forgiveness below.

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of Israel will be smelted, purified of sin.47 This was implied in 53:1–2, but it is now made explicit. As a result, it is only the righteous who will see the kingdom of the Messiah (cf. 28:5). The purified survivors will experience a new Exodus. Like Moses’ generation, they will be redeemed from slavery, see their adversaries punished, and plunder their captors. The second line “they will see the retribution (‫ )פורﬠנות‬of their adversaries” implies that those nations who rule Israel in diaspora deserve punishment for it (a conclusion not drawn in 52:14–15 and 53:3). The suffering endured by the nations is in fact a punishment, the righting of a wrong done to Israel. Because they were God’s tools, carrying out his punishments on Israel, this does not absolve them of the consequences of their actions against Israel. The Servant-Messiah not only delivers justice, he will be rewarded for his actions too. Alongside the purified survivors, he will receive a portion of plunder, a reward for risking his life on Israel’s behalf (53:12). How he will risk his life is not revealed, only that God will not overlook the risks that he takes on Israel’s behalf. The justice of the Servant-Messiah is many-sided. The righteous will receive all their hopes: restoration, regathering, prosperity, fertility, and power in the messianic kingdom. These rewards are reserved for the remnant who will be purified by the Messiah (their identity is discussed below.) The nations, particularly those who enslaved Israel in diaspora, will be weakened, punished, and plundered, while the wicked and the rich will be condemned to Gehenna. The Servant-Messiah will receive his own reward for the risks that he will run, being granted a share of the plunder of the kingdoms. This role accounts for everyone: Jews and gentiles, wicked and righteous, rich and poor. Even God receives his day in court, absolved of any charge of unfairness in his dealing with humans (esp. 53:8) by providing for the judgement of Israel’s persecutors. In the end, almost everyone receives their just rewards. I say “almost” because one group remains: the wicked among Israel. Their fate falls under a different economy altogether. 2.2.2  The Theme of Forgiveness in 𝔗J Isa 52:13–53:12 If bringing justice to the world is the first of the Servant-Messiah’s tasks, the second is to secure divine forgiveness for the largest number of Jews possible. The two themes are not always compatible. Forgiveness may be granted when enough punishment has been endured to satisfy the moral debt incurred by the sinner. This is an act of justice – not requiring too much or too little punishment but exactly the amount that is proportionate to one’s sin. However, forgiveness 47  The lexeme ‫שׁאר‬, “remnant,” is used most often in 𝔗J Isa for the survivors of the destruction of the two kingdoms, Israel and Judah (e. g., 10:19; 11:11, 16; 37:4; 46:3), who will be purified and restored by the Messiah one day (e. g., 28:5; 53:10). When the righteous among the remnant are in view, they are specified (e. g., 37:32).



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can also be granted freely, absolving a debt rather than requiring its repayment, which is not an act of justice but of mercy. Finally, forgiveness can be granted by surrogacy. A substitute can be offered to receive punishment on one’s behalf (e. g., sacrifice) or credit can be extended to a person in need (e. g., the merits of David extended to others, Psa 18:50; 132:10). If one person has accumulated a surplus of merit with God, that credit can be extended to another who is in deficit. Because it requires an act of divine accountancy, it also requires divine permission. God must sign off on the transfer. Supplication is required. A transfer of merit is another act of mercy, but it is not unjust per se. It is contrary to personal justice, but it is not contrary to collective justice. 𝔗J Isaiah 52:13–53:12 appeals to the first and last of these possibilities on behalf of diaspora Judaism. Two verses suggest that those in diaspora have suffered or will suffer enough to balance the books. “Out of suffering and by vengeance he will bring our exiles near … For he will remove the rule of the gentiles from the land of Israel; the punishment for the sins which my people sinned he will put on them” (53:8). There is nothing explicit in this about the exiles having fulfilled God’s punishment, but it seems to imply that the Servant-Messiah will be able to shift punishment to those nations who ruled over Israel in diaspora because her term of punishment is up. 𝔗J Isaiah 53:10a, though, is plain. The Servant-Messiah will bring his own judgements to Israel: “Yet before Yhwh it was his will to refine and to purify the remnant of his people, in order to cleanse their life from sin.” The Targum does not describe the removal of wicked persons from Israel, persons who are themselves dross and slag. Rather, it refers to the removal of sin from the people.48 In other words, Servant-Messiah will judge his own people, and having endured the purification, the people will be innocent before God. Not all have earned or will earn their forgiveness, though. The Servant-Messiah petitions God to forgive Israel’s sins three times (53:4, 6, 11). The poem’s speaking voice is confident that his requests will be granted: “our sins, for his [the Servant-Messiah’s] sake, will be forgiven” (v. 4); “it was the will of Yhwh to forgive the sins of us all for his sake” (v. 6); “he requests, and he is answered; before he opens his mouth, he is accepted” (v. 7). The speaker is confident that God will forgive, not because forgiveness has been secured by punishments endured or because he is merciful, but because it is the Servant-Messiah who makes the request. For his sake and because of his merits, the speaker will be forgiven. But who is the “us” whom the speaker represents? They appear to be Jews in diaspora. The Shekinah departed from “us” (53:3). The Jerusalem Temple was handed over to gentiles for “our sins” (53:5), and “we” went into exile (53:6). The liberality of the Servant-Messiah’s forgiveness is most evident in 53:12b: “and rebels (‫ )מרודיא‬he subjected to the Torah; and for the sins of many he will 48  The image of God smelting his people is derived from texts like Isa 1:24–26; Jer 6:27–30; 9:6–8; Ezek 22:17–22; and Mal 3:1–5. Of these, though, only Ezek 22:17–22 and Mal 3:1–5 combine the images of impurity and smelting.

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pray, and for the rebels (‫ )מרודיא‬it will be forgiven on his account.” The ‫מרודין‬ in 𝔗J Isa are always the disobedient of the house of Jacob (Isa 30:1–2; 57:3–4; 59:20), including idol-worshipping Israelites (46:8). The Servant-Messiah does not restrict his offer of credit to some in diaspora; he petitions God for the forgiveness of all Israel. He will include Israel’s rebels among those who can draw upon his account (as we will see in a moment, the credit extended to the rebels will incur a different kind of debt, a debt of subjection). Trito-Isaiah is sometimes identified as one of the first sectarian works of ancient Judaism, reserving God’s approval for the righteous remnant, the followers of the servant.49 The rewriting of Isaiah in 𝔗J, though, extends divine forgiveness to all Israel for the Servant-Messiah’s sake. Ultimately though, securing the forgiveness of Israel is a vain act if they are allowed to return to their sinful ways and their unforgiven condition. As a result, the Servant-Messiah will undertake three tasks to enable Israel to maintenance her newfound divine acceptance. In terms of prevention, he will become a teacher, instructing Israel in Torah-piety (53:5b; cf. 42:4). His efforts will not be reserved for those who willingly accept his instruction. Just as he will petition God on behalf of all Israelites, pious and rebellious alike, so he will teach all Israel. Under his tutelage, the righteous will enjoy the peace of the Messiah (53:5b). Likewise, the more recalcitrant among Israel (the ‫ )מרודין‬will be forced to submit to Torah observance (53:12b).50 They too will be protected from future punishment by their observance, even if it is not performed willingly. It is important to note that the Servant-Messiah’s efforts on behalf of the wicked among Israel and the expectation that those efforts will be successful (53:12) effectively removes them from his judgement. By seeking the forgiveness of rebel Israelites, the “wicked” who are punished are (de facto) reduced to the gentile wicked (52:15; 53:3, 7, 8, 9). Evil Jews are not included. Neither punishment, nor purification, nor transfer of merit, though, will result in a sinless Israel. As a remedy for future sins, the Servant-Messiah will rebuild the Jerusalem temple (53:5a) enabling sacrifices to be offered once again, including the ḥaṭṭaʾt and the ʾašam.51 Thus the cultic surrogacy-cycle will be reestablished.52 49  See e. g. Shemaryahu Talmon, “The Emergence of Jewish Sectarianism in the Early Second Temple Period,” in King, Cult, and Calendar in Ancient Israel (Jerusalem and Leiden: Magnes and Brill, 1986), 165–201; Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah,” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23; idem, Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 64–72. 50  Betz, “Übersetzungen,” 207–08. 51  Koch argued that the Servant-Messiah offered forgiveness of past sin and provided a new Temple to deal with future sin; see Koch, “Messias und Sündenvergebung,” 117–48, esp. 136, 148. He under-emphasized the Servant-Messiah’s role as a supplicant on Israel’s behalf, because he interpreted the poem’s language about prayer and supplication as the Servant-Messiah’s performance of priestly duties. Cf. idem, “Sühne und Sündenvergebung um die Wende



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3.  The Messiah’s Servants in 𝔗J Isaiah Just as “servant” (‫ )ﬠבד‬is used for numerous individuals in 𝔗J, the same can be said for its plural “servants” (‫)ﬠבדין‬. In agreement with 𝔐, the prophets are named God’s “servants” in 𝔗J: Who among you from those who fear Yhwh heeds the voice of his servants the prophets (‫( ?)ﬠבדוהי נבייא‬Isa 50:10a)

In most cases, however, the servants are the righteous among Israel. They are explicitly named “the righteous,” ‫צדיקיא‬, on ten occasions (all plusses in 𝔗J): 44:26; 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13 (3 ×), 14, 15; 66:14.53 The righteous have been prominent characters in 𝔗J to this point (e. g., 3:10; 5:17, 20; 11:15; 17:6; 21:12; 24:13, 15–16; 25:5; 26: 6–7; 27:10; 28:16; 30:18, 23; 32:1–8, 20; 33:15; 37:32; 40:13, 29; 44:4). They are the Torah pious among Israel who hope for the world to come and will inherit it when the wicked are destroyed. The servants, then, are not new characters in the book. “Servants” is a new title applied to the righteous.54 Because they are righteous, the servants are God’s heirs. They are “your people” from whom God will recreate the “tribes of your [God’s] inheritance.” “Return your Shekhinah to your people for the sake of your servants, the righteous, whom you established by your Memra to make their sons the tribes of your inheritance” (63:17b). Because they will inherit the new world, the servants are equated with Noah, who survived the destruction of one world to establish another. The righteous servants will enjoy restoration beyond exile and diaspora in the new heavens and earth, while the wicked of Israel endure the second death (65:15, ‫)מותא תנינא‬: 𝔗J Isa 65:8–10, 13–17: 8 Thus says Yhwh: “Just as I  found Noah righteous among the generation of the flood, and I said [I would] not destroy him so as to re-establish the world from him, so I will do for my servants’, the righteous’, sake, so as not to destroy everything. 9 I will bring forth from Jacob offspring, and from Judah the heir of my mountains. He von der exilischen zur nachexilischen Zeit,” EvT 26 (1966): 217–39; R. Le Déaut, “Aspects de l’intercession dans le Judaïsme ancien,” JSJ 1 (1970): 35–57. 52  𝔗J Isaiah 42:1–7 and 52:13–53:12 are coordinated with 𝔗J Isa 11:1–16, together presenting a tolerably complete portrait of the Messiah. In 𝔗J Isa 11:1–5, the Messiah is described as a descendant of David, who is supernaturally wise – like Solomon – and who fears Yhwh. These gifts empower him to provide true justice for behalf of the poor and humble and to judge the wicked, killing them with “the Memra of his mouth” and “the speech of his lips.” He regathers Israel from diaspora, bringing piety and divine fear to the land and judgement to the nations. The resulting justice and peace are global. He is surrounded by the righteous, his retainers. 𝔗J Isa 11:1–16 is not analyzed here because it does not refer to the Messiah as “Servant.” 53  𝔐 Isaiah 44:26 associates the servant (sg.) with God’s messengers, ‫מלאכים‬, the prophets. In 𝔗J, this servant becomes “his servants (pl.) the righteous.” 54  In a few contexts, the title “servants” is granted to those who return from diaspora and restore the land, e. g. 48:20; 49:6–7; 54:15–17. From contextual clues, these also appear to be the righteous among diaspora.

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will cause my chosen ones to inherit, and my servants, the righteous, will dwell there. 10 Sharon will be a dwelling place for flocks of sheep and the valley of Achor a stable for herds of cattle, for my people who seek my fear ….” 13 Then Yhwh God said, “Behold, my servants, the righteous, will eat, but you, the wicked, will go hungry. Behold, my servants, the righteous, will drink, but you, he wicked, will go thirsty. Behold, my servants, the righteous, will rejoice, but you will be ashamed. 14 Behold, my servants, the righteous, will praise from a glad heart, but you will cry from pain of heart and lament from a broken spirit. 15 You will leave your name to my chosen ones as an oath, and Yhwh God will kill you with the second death, but his servants, the righteous, will be called by another name. 16 He who makes a blessing in the land will bless by the living God, and he who swears an oath in the land will swear by the living God.55 Former miseries will be forgotten because they will be hidden from me. 17 For behold, I am creating a new heavens and a new earth, and the former things will not be remembered or enter one’s mind.”56

𝔗J Isaiah 65 appears discordant with 𝔗J Isa 52:13–53:12. In the latter, the Servant-Messiah petitions God for the forgiveness of all Israel, even Israel’s rebels, and he secures it. Here, the wicked among Israel (whose crimes are itemized in vv. 3–5) appear doomed. In 𝔗J Isa 65:6 God announces “I will not give respite in life to them, but I will repay them the reckoning of their sins, and I will hand over their bodies to the second death.” But the discord is not as absolute as it might appears from chap 65 alone. Elsewhere in 𝔗J Isaiah, hope is extended to wicked Jews who can learn repentance and piety. Likewise, the dichotomy between Israel and the nations becomes less absolute as the book progresses, and these two pairs – righteous and wicked, Israelites and gentiles – are mutually implicating. Hope for the wicked is clearly expressed in 42:19: Will it not be that if the wicked repent they will be called my servants, even the guilty whom I sent my prophets to them? But the wicked are about to be repaid the recompense of their sins, unless they repent. Then they will be called the servants of Yhwh (cf. 53:12b).

Isaiah 42:18–24 is a major turning point in 𝔐. A subplot begins here in which the God’s servant Israel is discovered to be blind and deaf, unfit for purpose. As the plot progresses, readers learn that God requires a new servant who can bring light, not just to Israel but to the nations (see 49:6). 𝔗J has conformed chap. 42 to this plotline. The “servant” of 42:19b is no longer Israel, as in 𝔐. The singular “servant” is adjusted to plural “servants,” the followers of the new Servant who will appear later in the book. Likewise, the wicked who are challenged to become servants are not restricted to Israelites. Any human who gives glory to the God of Israel and sings his praises can be included:

55  Note the wordplay based on ‫קו״ם‬. In the new world, the name of the wicked will be an “oath” (‫ )קיימא‬and they will die, but the name of the “living” (‫ )קיימא‬God will be a blessing. In those days, the righteous will swear (‫ )יקיים‬oaths (‫ )קיימא‬by the living (‫ )קיימא‬God. 56 Also 𝔗J Isa 66:12–14. Compare 𝔗J Isa 11:1–8; 17:6; 24:13, where the same things are said of the righteous.



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𝔗J Isaiah 42:9–12 9 The first things, behold, they have come to pass, and new things I now declare. Before they come, I announce [them] to you. 10 Praise Yhwh [with] a new song. Speak his praise from the end of the earth, O those who go down to the sea and its fullness, the islands and their inhabitants. 11 Let the desert and the cities that inhabit it praise. Let the towns inhabit the desert of the Arabs. Let the dead praise when they come out of their tombs. From the peak of the mountains let them lift their voice. 12 Let them ascribe glory to Yhwh and declare his praise in the islands.57

The inclusion of gentiles among the servants is made explicit in Isa 56, both in 𝔐 and 𝔗J. Eunuchs can become priests in the new world, and gentiles “who have been added to the people of Yhwh” will be counted among the servants: 𝔗J Isaiah 56:4–7 4 For thus says Yhwh to the eunuchs who keep my sabbath days, who are pleased with [what] I wish and hold to my covenant: 5 I will give them a place in my temple and in the land of the house of my Shekhinah, and [I will give them] a name that is better than sons and daughters. I will give them an eternal name that will not be cut off. 6 And the people of the gentiles who have been added to the people of Yhwh, to minister to him, to love the name of Yhwh, and to be his servants (‫)ﬠבדין‬, everyone who keeps the sabbath from defiling it, and holds fast my covenants, 7 I will bring them to my holy mountain, and I will let them praise in my house of prayer. Their burnt offerings and their holy sacrifices will be pleasing on my altar, because the temple will be called a house of prayer for all peoples.

Ultimately, in 𝔗J, the only criteria for being counted among the servants is Torah-piety: not birth, ethnicity, physical condition, or the cumulative demerits of one’s deeds. Even the lifelong wicked can become servants if they change their ways. Eunuchs and gentiles can be counted among the servants and live in the restored Jerusalem, if they keep the Sabbaths and adhere to the covenant. This is why “the servants” (‫ )ﬠבדין‬are repeatedly glossed as “the righteous” (‫ )צדיקיא‬in 𝔗J. They are one and the same. A question remains regarding the relationship of the servants to the ‫חרדים‬, “tremblers” (Isa 66:2, 5).58 𝔐 Isa 66:1–6 rejects the assumption that it is necessary for the temple to be restored (though chaps 56 and 60 assert that it will be). The universe is God’s throne room; he needs no other. His attention is reserved for those who “tremble at his word,” not those who bring him sacrifices. “Tremblers” appears to be another name for the servants in 𝔐. In chap 65, God, addressing the wicked, speaks about the servants. Here in 66:1–16 he addresses the tremblers about the wicked. In this way, the tremblers and the servants are coordinated.59 The designation “tremblers” does not appear in 𝔗J Isa 66:1–7. Instead, they are called the “righteous” and the “subservient”: 57  The horizon of 42:9–24 is not just global in 𝔗J, it is also trans-temporal with the inclusion of ‫מתיא‬, “the dead” in v. 11. 58  The religious zealots in the Book of Ezra also name themselves the “tremblers” (9:4 and 10:3). 59  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 83.

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𝔐 Isa 66:2b, 5a:  But this is the one to whom I will look, to the one who is humble (‫)ﬠני‬ and contrite in spirit (‫)נכה־רוח‬, who trembles (‫ )חרד‬at my word …. Hear the word of Yhwh, O tremblers (‫ )החרדים‬at his word. 𝔗J Isa 66:2b, 5a:  And this pleasure is mine, to look on him, on the one who is humble (‫ )ﬠנותן‬and lowly of spirit (‫)מכיך רוח‬, and the one who is subservient (‫ )משׁתוי‬before my word …. Accept the word of Yhwh, O righteous ones (‫ )צדיקיא‬who are subservient (‫)משׁתון‬ before the words of his will.

Are the “righteous/subservient” equated with the servants, as the “tremblers” are in 𝔐? The humble are identified as the righteous in 𝔗J, as we have seen (see discussion of 42:1–7 and n. 10). Likewise, the servants are consistently glossed as “the righteous” (44:26; 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13 [3 ×], 14, 15; 66:14). Inasmuch as the subservient are identified as the humble (66:2b) and the righteous (66:5a) in 𝔗J, they can be considered servants just as they are in 𝔐. The Targumic scribes appear to have recognized the connection between the servants and the tremblers, and identified both with “the righteous.”

4. Conclusion: The Servant(s) in 𝔐 and the Servant(s) in 𝔗J In the hands of the Targumic scribes, the Suffering Servant became the Servant-Messiah, champion of the humble and the suffering, especially Israelites languishing in diaspora.60 In 𝔐, the Servant’s righteous suffering and hope for vindication are paradigmatic for the community. The Servant has “offspring” (‫)זרﬠ‬, “servants” (‫ )ﬠבדים‬who are righteous and who emulate the Servant (e. g., 53:10; 54:17; 61:1, 6, 9, 11).61 In 𝔗J, the connection between Servant and servants is not the same. The servants are the righteous who obey the Torah, hope in the Messiah, and will inhabit the new earth under the Servant-Messiah’s reign. They do not emulate the Servant-Messiah, as the servants do in 𝔐, and because of this they are not characterized as his “offspring.” Compare 𝔐 Isa 53:10 with 𝔗J Isa 53:10: 𝔐

10 And

Yhwh desired to crush him with weakness. If his life will constitute a reparationoffering,

𝔗J

10 Yet

before Yhwh it was [his] will to refine and to purify the remnant of his people, in order to cleanse from sins their life;

60  It is unlikely that this is an anti-Christian interpretation (see above n.11). The notion of the Messiah suffering was not anathema in ancient Jewish thought. See, for example, α′ Isa 53:4; b. Sanhedrin 98b (cf. 97b); 𝔗J Zech 12:10. See also Michael Fishbane, “Midrashic Theologies of Messianic Suffering,” in The Exegetical Imagination. On Jewish Thought and Theology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 73–85. 61  Beuken, “Main Theme”; Blenkinsopp, “Servants.”



𝔐

The Servant-Messiah and the Messiah’s Servants

then he will see … … offspring, he will prolong [his] days; the will of Yhwh, through him, will prosper.

335

𝔗J

they will see the kingdom of their Messiah, they will increase sons and daughters, and they will prolong [their] days; those who perform the Torah of Yhwh will prosper by his will.

The reconceptualization of the relationship between the Servant and the servants in 𝔗J (as champion-and-righteous rather than progenitor-and-offspring) allowed for a different formulation of the servants’ identity. In many ways, it is the same as in 𝔐. The servants include the righteous among Israel, as well as gentile proselytes (Isa 56). Two of the tasks of the Servant-Messiah in 𝔗J, though, are to purify Israel and to reconcile Israel’s rebels to God, teaching them Torah-piety (53:10–12). He brings justice and judgement for all, but he reserves wicked Israelites for forgiveness and reconciliation. Thus, the category “servants” is more capacious in 𝔗J; no Israelite is necessarily excluded – not the wicked, the rebels, nor the “offspring” of unfaithful Israelites.62 𝔗J demonstrates that neither the interpretation of the “Servant(s)” theme nor the exegetical construction of community identity were monolithic in antiquity. In the minority tradition represented in 𝔗J, the Servant does not suffer; he protects the suffering, and one way or another, the Servant-Messiah will assure that most (if not all) Israelites are included among his servants.

Bibliography Ådna, Jostein. “The Servant of Isaiah 53 as Triumphant and Interceding Messiah: The Reception of Isaiah 52:13–53:12 in the Targum of Isaiah with Special Attention to the Concept of Messiah.” Pages 189–224 in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher. Translated by Daniel P. Bailey. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Aytoun, Robert. “The Servant of the Lord in the Targum.” JTS 23 (1921): 172–80. Battenfield, James. “Isaiah LIII,10: Taking an ‘if ’ out of the Sacrifice of the Servant.” VT 32.4 (1982): 485. Berges, Ulrich. The Book of Isaiah: Its Composition and Final Form. Translated by Millard C. Lind. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2012. Betz, Otto. “Die Übersetzungen von Jes 53 (LXX, Targum) und die Theologia Crucis des Paulus.” Pages 197–216 in Jesus, Der Herr der Kirche: Aufsätze zur biblischen Theologie II. WUNT 52. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1990. Beuken, W. A. M. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH.’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. 62  𝔐 contrasts the “offspring” (= followers) of sorcerers, adulterers, and prostitutes with the offspring of the Servant (e. g., Isa 57:1–13; cf. 53:10 and 54:13–17). The triad “sorcerers, adulterers, and prostitutes” is metaphorical for those who worship other gods (57:3–10).

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Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Isaiah 40–55: A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19A. New York: Doubleday, 2000. –. Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006. –. “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book.” Pages 155–75 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Edited by Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans. VTSup 70/1. New York: Brill, 1997. –. “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch.” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23. Chilton, Bruce D. The Glory of Israel. The Theology and Provenance of the Isaiah Targum. JSOTSup 23. Sheffield: JSOT, 1982. –. The Isaiah Targum: Introduction, Translation, Apparatus and Notes. ArBib 11. Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1987. Dahood, Mitchell. “Phoenician Elements in Isaiah 52:13–53:12.” Pages 63–73 in Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William Foxwell Albright. Edited by H. Goedicke. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971. Delitzsch, Franz. Biblical Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah. Vol. 2. Translated by James Kennedy. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1890 (from 4th German ed. of 1889). Elliger, Karl. Jesaja 40,1–45,7. BKAT XI/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1978. Fishbane, Michael. “Midrashic Theologies of Messianic Suffering.” Pages 73–85 in The Exegetical Imagination. On Jewish Thought and Theology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. Hagermann, Harald. Jesaja 53 in Hexapla, Targum und Peschitta. BFCT 2/56. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann, 1954. Hofius, Otfried. “Kennt der Targum zu Jes 53 einen sündenvergebenden Messias?” Pages 70–107 in Neutestamentliche Studien. WUNT 132. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2000. Jeremias, Joachim. “παῖς θεοῦ.” TDNT 5:677–717. Koch, Klaus. “Messias und Sündenvergebung in Jesaja 53 – Targum: Ein Beitrag zu der Praxis der Aramäischen Bibelübersetzung.” JSJ 3 (1972): 117–48. –. “Sühne und Sündenvergebung um die Wende von der exilischen zur nachexilischen Zeit.” EvT 26 (1966): 217–39. Kooij, Arie van der. Die alten Textzeugen des Jesajabuches: Ein Beitrag zur Textgeschichte des Alten Testaments. OBO 35. Berlin: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981. Kratz, Reinhard. Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch. FAT 1. Tübingen: Mohr, 1991. Le Déaut, R. “Aspects de l’intercession dans le Judaïsme ancien.” JSJ 1 (1970): 35–57. Levine, Étan. The Aramaic Version of the Bible: Contents and Context. BZAW 174. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1988. Syrén, Roger. “Targum Isaiah 52:13–53:12 and Christian Interpretation.” JJS 40.2 (1989): 201–12. Talmon, Shemaryahu. “The Emergence of Jewish Sectarianism in the Early Second Temple Period.” Pages 165–201 in King, Cult, and Calendar in Ancient Israel. Jerusalem and Leiden: Magnes and Brill, 1986. Wolff, Hans Walter. Jesaja 53 im Urchristentum. TVG. 4th ed. Giessen: Brunnen, 1984.

“He Will Call His Servants by Another Name” Concluding Reflections on Community Identity and the Exegesis of Isaiah Michael A. Lyons 1. Introduction How did the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument shape the identity of early readers of Isaiah, and in what sense could their engagement with this text be described as “exegetical”? This conclusion does not aim to summarize the volume essays themselves but offers a synthesis of results in light of the research questions presented in the introduction, namely: – How does one explain the continued use of the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument centuries after the composition of Isaiah, by which time the interpretation of some passages was uncertain (see e. g. Acts 8:34) and the original community who self-identified as the “servants” had long since vanished? – How are themes associated with the Servant’s identity and mission in Isaiah 49, 52–53 (particularly, righteous suffering, hope for vindication, and the universal acknowledgment of Yhwh) that are taken up in Isaiah 54, 56–66 as paradigmatic for the servants subsequently taken up by later authors and read as paradigmatic for their own communities? – When compared, how similar or different are the ways in which later authors utilized the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument? How diverse was the interpretation of Isaiah and the exegetical construction of community identity in Antiquity? – What kinds of text-handling practices were employed by the communities that read and used the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument? Were the early Jewish and Christian authors who referenced the book of Isaiah merely engaging in atomistic, ad hoc readings of the Servant figure described in chapters 49, 52–53? Or were these readers’ uses of locutions from this section of the book influenced by the larger argument structure extending into Isaiah 54, 56–66 (that is, by the passages that are already reading the Servant figure as paradigmatic for a later community of servants)?

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2.  Synthesis of Results 2.1  Community Identity-Shaping Practices The continued use of the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument over the centuries points to the power of authoritative texts to shape community identity.1 In this particular case, the power of the book of Isaiah lay in its ability to link the experience of suffering, the pursuit of righteousness, and the hope for vindication – all situated in a larger narrative about God’s transformation of Israel, the nations, and indeed the cosmos itself (Isa 65:17; 66:22) – and make these formative for reading communities. It is not the case that later communities “just happened” to appropriate the book of Isaiah in order to define their own identity. Rather, the book seems to be the kind of literature that was intended to facilitate this kind of reading. The book of Isaiah has clearly been composed by reading earlier texts (themselves heavily patterned) as having prospective significance for the present and future. The resulting network of textual allusions creates “an analogical history whereby the shape of the past continuously portends that of the future.”2 It is certainly true that many of the Isaian passages about the servants reflect specific settings in the past. We can see this in, e. g., the reference to temple practice in Isa 56:6–7, the indictment of rebellion in Isa 65:1–7, 12; 66:4, and the description of community conflict in Isa 66:5. Nevertheless, the language used in these passages was not so restrictive as to prevent later communities in similar situations from using them to describe their own experiences. Moreover, 1  One way in which identity can be conceived of is by the category of “social identity,” which Tajfel defines as “that part of the individuals’ self-concept which derives from their knowledge of their membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership”; see Henri Tajfel, “Introduction,” in Social Identity and Intergroup Relations, ed. Henri Tajfel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 1–12 (here 2). For the ways in which texts shaped early Jewish and Christian identity, see footnote 2 of the Introduction to this volume. For other explorations of early Jewish and Christian identity, see Cornelis Bennema, “Early Christian Identity Formation Amidst Conflict,” JECH 5.1 (2015): 26–48; Ken Brown, Alison L. Joseph, and Brennan Breed, Reading Other People’s Texts: Socieal Identity and the Reception of Authoritative Traditions, LHBOTS 692 (London: T&T Clark, 2020); Renate Egger-Wenzel and Stefan C. Reif, eds., “Religious Identity Markers – A Workshop on Early Judaism at St John’s College, Cambridge in June 2014,” BN 164 (2015): 2–130; Bengt Holmberg, ed., Exploring Early Christian Identity, WUNT 226 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008); David G. Horrell, “‘Becoming Christian’: Solidifying Christian Identity and Content,” in Handbook of Early Christianity: Social Science Approaches, ed. Anthony J. Blasi, Paul-André Turcotte, and Jean Duhaime (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2002), 309–35; Larry W. Hurtado, “Earliest Expressions of a Discrete Group-Formation among Jesus-Believers,” Estudios Biblicos 85.3 (2017): 451–70; Linda M. Stargel, The Construction of Exodus Identity in Ancient Israel: A  Social Identity Approach (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2018); J. Brian Tucker and Coleman A. Baker, eds., T & T Clark Handbook to Social Identity in the New Testament (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014). 2  So Jacob Stromberg (see the contribution in this volume); see also the contribution by D. Andrew Teeter and Michael A. Lyons.



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the hopeful visions of the future that include the servants in e. g. Isa 54:17b; 65:9; 66:14 are clearly not restricted to a single narrow socio-historical context, and the book’s descriptions of a restored Zion and restored cosmos were never historically realized. My point here is that the content and shape of these Isaian texts are such that they can easily be used to shape community identity in times and settings far removed from their point of literary origin. The authority of the book of Isaiah for later readers lay not only in its description of how Yhwh worked in the past, but also in how it contained material that could describe community experience and shape community identity in the present and give hope for the future. But how can we detect evidence of identity-shaping practices in the book of Isaiah and in later texts authored by those who read the book of Isaiah? 2.1.1 (Self-)Designation One way in which a community’s identity can be perceived is by the designations with which it is described and by its own use of self-designation practices.3 As Paul Trebilco notes, “The articulation of a self-designation by a group implies that they are a group, and that they have a distinctive identity compared to outsiders, who are to be distinguished from ‘us’ …. The way members of a group answer the question, ‘Who are we?’ has a significant impact on the group’s life.”4 It should not be surprising that some communities derived their self-designations from texts that they treated as authoritative. Well-known examples include “the poor/afflicted” (e. g., Ps 22:25, 27; 34:7; 37:11, 14; 69:33, 34; 147:6; Isa 61:1; 66:2; used in 4Q171 2.9–10; 4Q521 2.ii.6, 12; Matt 5:3, 5 // Lk 6:20)5 and “the holy ones” (e. g., Pss 16:3; 34:10; Dan 7:18, 21–22, 27; used in Acts 9:13, 32, 41; 26:10; Rom 1:7; 15:25, 26; Phil 1:1; Rev 11:18; 13:7, 10; 14:12; 17:6; 20:9; 22:21).6 3 On the importance of (self-)designation for community identity formation and maintenance, see Paul Trebilco, Self-Designations and Group Identity in the New Testament (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), esp. 1–15; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 169–221. 4  Trebilco, Self-Designations, 5. 5  For the origins and early use of this term, see Alfred R ahlfs, ‫ ﬠני‬und ‫ ﬠנו‬in den Psalmen (Göttingen: Dieterich, 1892); Christoph Levin, “Das Gebetbuch der Gerechten: Literar­ geschichtliche Beobachtungen am Psalter,” in Fortschreibungen: Gesammelte Studien zum Alten Testament, BZAW 316 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003), 291–313 (here 308–13); idem, “The Poor in the Old Testament: Some Observations,” Religion & Theology 8 (2001): 253–73, esp. 263–65; Sue Gillingham, “The Poor in the Psalms,” ExpTim 100 (1988): 15–19; Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 209–12. For later use, see W. D. Davies and Dale C. Allison, Jr., A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel according to Saint Matthew, 3 vols., ICC (Edinburgh: Τ&Τ Clark, 1998), 1:442–47. 6 See Trebilco, Self-Designations, 122–63; Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 203–9.

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Within Isaiah, the relevant communal designations are the titles “servants” (‫ﬠבדים‬, Isa 54:17; 56:6; 65:8, 9, 13–15; 66:14, constructed on the Isaianic Servant figure described in greatest detail in Isa 49:1–7; 52:13–53:12),7 and “offspring” (‫זרﬠ‬, Isa 59:21; 61:9; 65:9, 23; 66:22, based on the statement in Isa 53:10 that the Servant would “see offspring”).8 The importance of naming is reflected within Trito-Isaiah in the statement that Yhwh would “call his servants another name” (Isa 65:15).9 Both the designations “servants” and “offspring” appear in the psalms that have been edited in light of Isaiah: “servants” in Pss 69:37; 102:15, 29 and “offspring” in Pss 22:31; 69:37; 102:29. In the book of Daniel, both the character Daniel and his three friends are referred to as God’s servants (Dan 3:26; 6:21). Later in the book, a different set of designations derived from Isaian Servant passages (Isa 52:13; 53:11) are employed: “those who have insight” (‫משׂכילים‬, cf. Isa 52:13) and “the many” (‫הרבים‬, cf. Isa 53:11).10 These are used in Dan 11:33–35; 12:2–4, 10 to describe those who remain faithful to God.11 One further Isaian designation is “the righteous man” (‫הצדיק‬, Isa 57:1a), which seems to be used as a class noun to refer to the righteous community (‫אנשׁי־חסד‬, v. 1b).12 This verse references the argument that the righteous Servant 7  See Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch,” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23; repr. in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship, ed. R. P. Gordon (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 392–412; idem, “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period,” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20; idem, Opening the Sealed Book, 197–202. 8  See W. A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH,’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. 9  That is, a name that would be used in a blessing (as opposed to the name of the servants’ opponents, which would be used as a curse; see Isa 65:15–16). 10  See H. L. Ginsberg, “The Oldest Interpretation of the Suffering Servant,” VT 3 (1953): 400–404, here 403: “But why, then, doesn’t our author call the Maskilim ‘Servants’ or ‘Servants of God’? Because he doesn’t need to, since the Servant himself is called a Maskil right at the beginning of the Servant Pericope (Isa lii 13), if one will but look at it closely: ‘Behold, my Servant yaskil.’” See further G. Brooke Lester, Daniel Evokes Isaiah: Allusive Characterization of Foreign Rule in the Hebrew-Aramaic Book of Daniel, LHBOTS 606 (New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015), 94–99. 11  See Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19A (New York: Doubleday, 2002), 85; idem, Opening the Sealed Book, 174–78. On the use of ‫ רבים‬and ‫ משׂכיל‬as self-designations in e. g. 1QS 3.13; 6.8–9, see Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985), 493; Matthias Henze, The Madness of King Nebuchadnezzar: The Ancient Near Eastern Origins and Early History of Interpretation of Daniel 4 (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 232–33; Seth L. Sanders, “Performative Exegesis,” in Paradise Now: Essays on Early Jewish and Christian Mysticism, ed. April D. DeConick, SBLSS 11 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), 57–79 (here 68–70); note however the cautionary remarks of Charlotte Hempel, “The Community Rule and the Book of Daniel,” in The Qumran Rule Texts in Context: Collected Studies, TSAJ 154 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2013), 231–52, esp. 237–41. 12  Note however that Blenkinsopp understands the “righteous man” of Isa 57:1a to be the Servant himself, and the reference in v. 1b to refer to his followers the “servants”; see Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 258–59.

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would “make many righteous” (‫יצדיק צדיק ﬠבדי לרבים‬, Isa 53:11).13 This hope and promise of “righteousness” is developed – though without using the word as a designation – in e. g. Isa 54:14, 17; 56:1; 59:9, 14, 16, 17; 60:17, 21; 61:3, 10, 11.14 However, “those who are made righteous” are also alluded to in Daniel, insofar as this is a trait of the “many” that are influenced by “those who have insight” (‫מצדיקי הרבים‬, Dan 12:3; cf. Isa 53:11). The translation of Isaiah into Greek shaped subsequent designation practices.15 The Isaian ‫ ﬠבד‬became the παῖς (LXX Isa 49:6; 52:13) or δοῦλος (LXX Isa 49:3, 5, 716) or ὁ δουλεύων (LXX Isa 53:11), and the Isaian ‫ ﬠבדים‬became the δοῦλοι/δουλεύοντες (LXX Isa 56:6;17 65:8, 9, 13–15) or the θεραπεύοντες (LXX Isa 54:17).18 These terms were taken up by later reading communities as designations for exemplary figures constructed to model the Isaian values to which they aspired,19 as designations for those they revered as their community founders,20 and as designations for themselves. The terms δοῦλος/δοῦλοι/ 13 

Beuken, “Main Theme,” 69. Beuken, “Main Theme,” for how this theme is developed in TI. 15  On the numerous and important differences between the Hebrew and Greek versions of Isaiah 53, see Otto Betz, “Die Übersetzungen von Jes 53 (LXX, Targum) und die Theologia Crucis des Paulus,” in Jesus, der Herr der Kirche: Aufsätze zur biblischen Theologie II, ed. idem, WUNT 52 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1990), 197–216; David A. Sapp, “The LXX, 1QIsa, and MT Versions of Isaiah 53 and the Christian Doctrine of Atonement,” in Jesus and the Suffering Servant; Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins, ed. William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998), 170–92; Eugene R. Ekblad, Jr., Isaiah’s Servant Poems According to the Septuagint: An Exegetical and Theological Study (Leuven: Peeters, 1999). Note that the textual forms of Isaiah used in early Christian texts are not homogenous; see e. g. the non-Septuagintal textual forms of Isa 42:1 and Isa 52:7 used in Lk 3:22 and Rom 10:15, respectively. Furthermore, the interpretation of the Isaian Servant figure in LXX Isa 53 does not seem to have been taken up by early Christian authors. On this point, see Sapp, “Versions of Isaiah 53,” 186–87, and note Martin Hengel’s caution against the overly rigid categorizing of Second Temple interpretive traditions; see M. Hengel with D. P. Bailey, “The Effective History of Isaiah 53 in the Pre-Christian Period,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, trans. Daniel P. Bailey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 75–146 (here 81). 16  Reading the singular δοῦλον with Joseph Ziegler (ed.), Isaias. Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum Auctoritate Academiae Scientiarum Gottingensis editum XIV (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983), 306. LXXAB and other Greek mss have δούλων. 17  LXX Isa 56:6 specifies that the foreigners who become “servants” can be both male and female (δούλους καὶ δούλας). 18  Note the transformation in LXX Isa 66:14, in which “his servants” (‫ )ﬠבדיו‬is rendered with “those who fear him” (σεβομένοις αὐτόν). Beers argues that this term refers to Gentile God-fearers, and that it reflects the translator’s belief that Gentiles may join the servants; see Holly Beers, The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts, LNTS 535 (New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015), 59, and her contribution in this volume. If so, the translator is picking up an idea that has already appeared in Isa 56:6–8. 19  The exemplary righteous man in Wisdom of Solomon is described as παῖς (Wis 2:13) and δίκαιος (Wis 2:10, 12, 18; 3:10; 4:7, 16; 5:1). This is applied at the group level when the author speaks of “the righteous ones” (δίκαιοι, Wis 2:16; 3:1[–9]; 5:15). 20  Early Christian communities referred to Jesus as παῖς (Acts 3:13; 4:27, 30, likely exploiting the word’s multiple senses of “servant” and “son”), δοῦλος (Phil 2:7), and ὁ δίκαιος 14 See

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δουλεύοντες are used as designations in e. g. Acts 4:29; Rom 1:1; 2 Cor 4:5; Phil 1:1; 1 Pet 2:16; Rev 1:1; 2:20; 6:11; 7:3; 19:2, 5; 22:3, 6 (note also the use of διάκονοι in 2 Cor 6:4). I do not mean to suggest that every occurrence of δοῦλος as a metaphorical self-designation in early Christian writings had its source in the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument.21 This metaphor for devotion to God was undoubtedly influenced both by broader Jewish notions of “serving” God22 and by Greco-Roman social institutions.23 Nevertheless, the appearance of this term in texts that are dependent on Isaiah 40–66 is suggestive.24 Finally, the designation ὁ δίκαιος (used of the Servant in LXX Isa 53:11 and of the servants in 57:1) was taken up as a designation in Wisdom of Solomon both for the paradigmatic “righteous man” (ὁ δίκαιος, Wis 2:10, 12, 18; 4:7, 16; 5:1) and also for those who follow his example (δίκαιοι, Wis 2:16; 3:1; 5:15). We also see this word used as an early Christian designation for Jesus (Acts 3:14; 7:52; 22:14; 24:1525) and as a description for both Jesus and the righteous community he creates (Rom 3:26; 5:19, drawing on the argument of MT Isa 53:11). (Acts 3:14; 7:52; 22:14; 1 Pet 3:18; cf. Lk 23:47); see also the reference to Jesus “serving” (διακονέω, Mk 10:45). Cadbury claimed that the use of παῖς for Jesus in Acts was not borrowed from Isaiah; see Henry J. Cadbury, “The Titles of Jesus in Acts,” in The Beginnings of Christianity. Part 1: The Acts of the Apostles, ed. F. J. Foakes Jackson and Kirsopp Lake (London: Macmillan and Co., 1933), 354–75 (here 366–67). However, modern commentators are more optimistic about this possibility; see e. g. Jürgen Roloff, Die Apostelgeschichte, NTD (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981), 74; Rudolf Pesch, Die Apostelgeschichte: Apg. 1–12, EKKNT 5/1 (Zurich: Benziger; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1986), 153; Luke Timothy Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles, Sacra Pagina (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1992), 67; C. K. Barrett, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles. Volume 1, ICC (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994), 194; J. A. Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB (New York: Doubleday, 1998), 284–85; Richard I. Pervo, Acts: A Commentary, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2009), 105; Rouven Genz, Jesaja 53 als theologische Mitte der Apostelgeschichte. Studien zu ihrer Christologie und Ekklesiologie im Anschluss an Apg 8,26–40, WUNT II/398 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2015), 186–200; Carl R. Holladay, Acts: A Commentary, NTL (Louisville: WJKP, 2016), 117–18. 21  On δοῦλος as a self-designation in the New Testament, see Trebilco, Self-Designations, 14, 312. 22  See e. g. Deut 9:27; 10:12; 32:36; Josh 24:14–15; Isa 60:12; Jer 30:9; Zeph 3:9; Neh 1:6, 10; Tobit 4:14; Sir 2:1; 1QHa 4.14; 4Q381 frg. 33 + 35.5–6. 23  See Dale B. Martin, Slavery as Salvation. The Metaphor of Slavery in Pauline Christianity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Isobel A. H. Combes, The Metaphor of Slavery in the Writings of the Early Church. From the New Testament to the Beginning of the Fifth Century, LNTS 156 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998); John Byron, Slavery Metaphors in Early Judaism and Pauline Christianity, WUNT II/162 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003); John K. Goodrich, “From Slaves of Sin to Slaves of God: Reconsidering the Origin of Paul’s Slavery Metaphor in Romans 6,” BBR 12 (2013): 509–30. 24  See Lionel J. Windsor, Paul and the Vocation of Israel. How Paul’s Jewish Identity Informs his Apostolic Ministry, with Special Reference to Romans, BZNW 205 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2014), 96–112. 25  Note the reference in Acts 24:15 to the idea of a dual resurrection for the righteous and unrighteous – an idea first seen in Dan 12:2–3, a text that is also dependent on the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument.



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2.1.2  Conflict and Marginalization A second way in which community identity can be perceived is by references to conflict with, marginalization by, or polemic against others who are outside the community.26 Community conflict is clearly present in the descriptions of the servants and their opponents in Isaiah 54, 56–66 (see e. g. Isa 54:17; 57:1; 65:8–16; 66:5–6, 14).27 References to persecution and to in-group/out-group boundaries can also be seen in descriptions of the groups who shaped their identity through the use of these Isaian texts; see e. g. Ps 22:7–9, 17–19; 69:8–13; Dan 11:32–33;28 Wis 2:10, 12–20;29 Mk 13:9–13; Luke 6:22; John 15:18–21; 17:14–16; Acts 9:16; 2 Cor 4:8–11; 6:4–5; Phil 1:28–29; 1 Pet 4:13–14; Rev 6:9– 11 (note that this last text constructs a definition for martyrdom and creates solidarity between those killed in the past and those yet to be killed).30 Some have attempted to explain the distinctive interpretations in Targum Jonathan on Isaiah as due to Jewish polemic against Christian interpretation of Isaiah 53.31 But because we lack specific information about the origin of Targum Isaiah and the community in which it arose, this cannot be clearly demonstrated.

26  See Henri Tajfel and John Turner, “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict,” in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, ed. William G. Austin and Stephen Worchel (Monterey: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 33–47 (here 33): “Thus, the real conflicts of group interests not only create antagonistic intergroup relations but also heighten identification with, and positive attachment to, the in-group.” 27 See Blenkinsopp, “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah”; idem, “Jewish Sect.” 28  For attempts to reconstruct the social setting of the ‫ משׂכילים‬and the persecution referred to in Dan 11–12, see John J. Collins, “Daniel and His Social World,” Interpretation 39 (1985): 131–43; Philip R. Davies, “The Scribal School of Daniel,” in The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception, vol. 1, ed. John J. Collins and Peter W. Flint, VTSup 83.1 (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 247–64; Anne E. Gardner, “‫ שׂכל‬in the Hebrew Bible: Key to the Identity and Function of the Maskilim in Daniel,” RB 118.4 (2011): 496–514. 29  For reconstructions of the setting of Wisdom of Solomon and the community conflict reflected in it, see Andrew T. Glicksman, Wisdom of Solomon 10: A Jewish Hellenistic Reinterpretation of Early Israelite History through Sapiential Lenses, DCLS 9 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2011), 14–31. 30  For analysis of community conflict in early Jesus-communities, see Jack T. Sanders, Schismatics, Sectarians, Dissidents, Deviants: The First One Hundred Years of Jewish-Christian Relations (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1993); Travis B. Williams, Persecution in 1 Peter: Differentiating and Contextualizing Early Christian Suffering, NovTSup 145 (Leiden: Brill, 2012); Bennema, “Early Christian Identity Formation Amidst Conflict.” 31  So e. g. Joachim Jeremias, “παῖς θεοῦ,” TDNT 5:695. For a critical and nuanced evaluation, see Jostein Ådna, “The Servant of Isaiah 53 as Triumphant and Interceding Messiah: The Reception of Isaiah 52:13–53:12 in the Targum of Isaiah with Special Attention to the Concept of Messiah,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, ed. Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, trans. Daniel P. Bailey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 189–224 (here 190–97).

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2.1.3  Shared Values: Righteous Suffering, Vindication, Universal Knowledge of Yhwh A third way in which community identity can be perceived is by references to shared values and goals, often embodied by paradigmatic or exemplary figures, whether actual or literary (though in both cases, described using textuallyderived terminology).32 In Isaiah 56–66, the Trito-Isaian servants are the “offspring” of the Deutero-Isaian Servant figure (Isa 53:10; 65:8–9) and are patterned after him, a role already hinted at in Isa 50:4, 10.33 Just as the Servant suffers righteously (Isa 50:6; 53:2–12), the servants also suffer righteously (57:1–2;34 66:5); just as he is vindicated (Isa 49:4b, 7; 50:7–9; 52:13; 53:10–12), so they are promised vindication (54:14–17; 65:13–15; 66:2, 5–6);35 just as he brings about the universal recognition of Yhwh (Isa 42:1, 6–7; 49:5–7; 53:11), so they too play a role in this task.36 First, the Servant’s role of being a “light to the nations” (Isa 49:6) is extended to restored Jerusalem, whose “light” will attract the nations to come (60:3–14; 62:1–2).37 It is the servants/offspring who are the heirs and citizens of this restored Jerusalem (Isa 65:9; 66:10–14).38 Second, Isa 66:18–23 envisions the proclamation of Yhwh’s glory to distant nations, a passage that is surrounded by references to the servants (66:14) and offspring (66:22). But are the servants the products of this proclamation, or participants in this proclamation? That foreigners can become Yhwh’s servants is already clear from Isa 56:6–8. Whether the servants are those who are deputized to go and make proclamation is less clear, though it is plausible.39 32  On the function of shared norms, beliefs, and values in constructing community identity, see Daniel Bar-Tal, Group Beliefs: A Conception for Analyzing Group Structure, Processes, and Behavior (Berlin: Springer, 1990). 33  On the connection between the Servant and servants in Isa 50:4–11, see Blenkinsopp, “Jewish Sect,” 13; idem, Isaiah 40–55, 323; H. G. M. Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah: Deutero-Isaiah’s Role in Composition and Redaction (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 108–9. 34  On Isa 57:1–2, see Beuken, “Main Theme,” 69: “the victims of that sinful generation have a likeness to the Servant. They undergo his destiny: they as well as he are ‘righteous’ (53.11; 57.1) and yet they experience suffering.” 35  Whereas the Servant imagines that he has “labored in vain” (‫לריק יגﬠתי‬, Isa 49:4) due to the lack of response to his mission, the inhabitants of restored Jerusalem (Isa 65:19–24) – defined in context as the servants/offspring (Isa 65:8–15) – are promised that they will not “labor in vain” (‫לא ייגﬠו לריק‬, Isa 65:23). 36  See the contribution by Stromberg in this volume; see also Frederik Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations in Isaiah 42:1–9, FAT 2/73 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014), 222. 37  See R. E. Clements, “A Light to the Nations: A Central Theme of the Book of Isaiah,” in Forming Prophetic Literature: Essays on Isaiah and the Twelve in Honor of John D. W. Watts, ed. J. W. Watts and P. R. House, JSOTSup 235 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 57–69 (here 66–68). 38 See Beuken, “Main Theme,” 74–75, 78. 39  This text is syntactically difficult and seems to have undergone redactional revision; see Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 19B (New York: Doubleday, 2003), 313–15. Yhwh is described in Isa 57:8; 66:18 as the one who gathers the nations, and in 66:19 as the one who sends “survivors” (‫ )פליטים‬to proclaim his glory



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The idea of a righteous community being formed by a suffering prophetic figure is a result of the coordination of the book of Isaiah with the presentation of Moses in Deuteronomy.40 This is but one of the many instances in which the literary representations of persons and events are constructed in light of earlier persons and events. Such representations are the products of the pervasive use of analogy and patterned repetition as a literary convention in Hebrew scripture.41 It is not surprising, then, that reflections of the paradigmatic role of the Servant for the servants also appear in texts produced by later readers of Isaiah.42 For example, in Psalms 22 and 69, the presentation of the “afflicted one” who suffers reproach for Yhwh’s sake is editorially shaped in light of the “Servant(s)” argument, thus creating a paradigmatic righteous sufferer who trusts in Yhwh for vindication. By praying the words of the first-person speaking voice, the reader of these psalms enters into this schema.43 The placement of allusions to Isaian “Servant(s)” texts in the conclusion of the book of Daniel (Dan 12:1–3) prompts the reader to bring the earlier stories of the character Daniel and his three friends under the rubric of exemplary servants who suffer righteously (Dan 3:12–23; 6:2–17), are vindicated (3:24–30; 6:22–25), and who play a role in bringing about recognition of Yhwh by others (Dan 3:28; 6:26–28).44 In Wisdom of Solomon, the author creates from the description of the Isaian “Servant(s)” a paradigmatic “righteous man” who, though persecuted unto death, remains faithful to God and is vindicated (Wis 2:10–20; 5:1–5), creating a model for those who suffer righteously (Wis 3:1–9; 5:15–16).45 The presentation of Paul in Acts as an examong the nations. The question is whether these “survivors” are from the nations (so Beuken, “Isaiah LXV–LXVI,” 211), or from Israel (so Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 313–15); and if the latter, whether the reader is to understand them as made up of the servants. Of course, Israel has already been named as witnesses to Yhwh’s salvific activity (Isa 43:10, 12; 44:8), though the idea of proclamation is not developed in these passages. For critical reflections on how modern readers come to conclusions about “mission” and “conversion” in Isaiah, see Joel K aminsky, “A Light to the Nations: Was there Mission and or Conversion in the Hebrew Bible?” JSQ 16.1 (2009): 6–22. For a sustained defense of the possibility that “them” in Isa 66:21 refers to the nations, see Jacob Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 135–41. 40  See the contribution by Teeter and Lyons in this volume. 41  See further the contribution by Stromberg in this volume. 42  For the conception of these shared similarities between the Servant and servants as a schema that is taken up by later authors, see the contribution by Jan Rüggemeier in this volume. 43  Regarding the vindication of the individual in Ps 69, Kleinknecht observes: “Auch er versteht seine individuelle Rettung als exemplarischen Erweis der weltumspannenden ‫צדקה‬ Gottes”; see Karl Theodor Kleinknecht, Der leidende Gerechtfertigte: Die alttestamentlichjüdische Tradition vom ‘leidenden Gerechten’ und ihre Rezeption bei Paulus, WUNT II/13 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1984), 64. 44  Note that Daniel and his friends are described as among the ‫( משׂכילים‬Dan 1:3–4, 6) and are given ‫“ השׂכל‬insight” by God (1:17; 5:11, 14); cf. 12:3, 10. See the contribution by Stromberg in this volume; see also Gardner, “‫ שׂכל‬in the Hebrew Bible,” 507–14. 45  On the construction of the exemplary righteous man in Wisdom of Solomon, see the

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emplary figure who suffers and carries out Jesus’ mission (Acts 8:15–16) is likewise meant to be paradigmatic, as is Paul’s rhetoric of communal suffering and communal mission in his epistles (e. g., 2 Cor 1:5–7; 4:5, 11, 14; 5:18–20; 6:1–5; Phil 1:5, 7, 29–30).46 In 1 Peter, the author points to Christian slaves as exemplars of righteous suffering for his community.47 And in Revelation, the narrator describes himself in the language of communal suffering and vindication: “your brother and partner in the persecution and kingdom and endurance that are in Jesus” (Rev 1:9). Of course, for the early Christian communities the primary exemplar was Jesus, whom they described using Isaian Servant language.48 The paradigmatic role of the Servant for the servants in Isa 40–66 is reflected in the paradigmatic role of Jesus for his followers as a righteous suffering figure and as one who proclaimed God’s kingdom.49 This is depicted implicitly by the way Mark draws on the “teacher-disciple” relationship in Isaiah 50,50 and is made explicit in Jesus’ statement that “if anyone wishes to follow me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and follow me” (Mk 8:34–38), in the reference to “drinking the cup” that Jesus drinks (Mk 10:38–45; cf. 8:31), in Jesus’ followers being commissioned as his “witnesses … to the uttermost parts of the earth” (Acts 1:8; cf. Isa 45:22; 49:6), in the instruction to “have this mind in you that was also in Christ Jesus” (Phil 2:5 ff.), and in the reference to Jesus’ suffering as an “example” (ὑπογραμμόν, 1 Pet 2:21; cf. 4:1). Strikingly, Colossians depicts Paul’s suffering as “filling up in his flesh what is lacking in Christ’s afflictions” (Col 1:24) – a statement that presumes the paradigmatic nature of Jesus’ sufferings as the contribution by Holly J. Carey in this volume; see also Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 264–65. 46  On Paul as exemplar in 2 Corinthians, see the contribution by Mark S. Gignilliat in this volume. For a broader treatment of Paul as paradigmatic “righteous sufferer,” see Klein­ knecht, Der leidende Gerechtfertigte, 369–76. 47  See the contribution by Volker Gäckle in this volume. 48  For descriptions of Jesus that utilize Isaian Servant passages, see e. g. Mt 8:16–17 (cf. Isa 53:4); 12:15–21 (cf. Isa 42:1–3); Mk 1:10–11 (Isa 42:1); 10:45 (cf. Isa 53:11–12); Lk 2:30–32 (cf. Isa 49:6); 3:22 (cf. Isa 42:1); 22:37 (cf. Isa 53:12); 23:47 (cf. Isa 53:11); Jn 1:29 (cf. Isa 53:7); Acts 3:13 (cf. Isa 52:13; 53:11–12); 8:32–35 (Isa 53:7–8); 26:23 (cf. Isa 49:6); Rom 4:25; 5:19 (cf. Isa 53:11–12); Phil 2:7–9 (cf. Isa 52:13; 53:2, 8, 11–12); 2 Cor 5:14, 21 (Isa 53:10–12); 1 Pet 2:22, 24–25 (cf. Isa 53:4–6, 9). The passages Lk 4:16–21 (cf. Isa 61:1–2) and Lk 24:26 (cf. Isa 53) should be included as well. Beuken has argued that in Isa 61, the author “saw the Herald of good Tidings and the Servant as one and the same figure. It is according to the paradigm of this figure who combines in his person two dramatis personae that ‘the prophet’ announces himself in 61,1–2”; see W. A. M. Beuken, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55,” in The Book of Isaiah/Le Livre D’Isaïe: Les Oracles et Leurs Relectures Unité et Complexité de L’Ouvrage, ed. Jacques Vermeylen, BETL 81 (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 411–42 (here 418). On Lk 24:26, see Christoph Dohmen, “The Passion of Jesus,” Communio 30 (2003): 452–62 (here 453–55). 49  Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 134. 50 See the contribution by Elizabeth E. Shively in this volume. On the relationship between the Servant and servants in Isaiah 50, see Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 323.



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Servant for his followers as the servants.51 Similar statements can be found in 2 Cor 1:5 (“the sufferings of Christ abound to us”); 4:10 (“carrying in the body the death of Jesus”); 1 Pet 4:13 (“you share the sufferings of Christ”).52 But how do the Isaian themes of suffering, vindication, and universal recognition of Yhwh actually shape community identity? Suffering creates group cohesion because this suffering is shared, both between members of the community (Phil 1:29–30; 4:14; 1 Pet 5:9) and between the community and the exemplary figure they follow (Mk 10:39; Jn 15:18–21; Phil 3:10; 2 Cor 1:5; 4:10; 1 Pet 2:21; 4:13). The experience of suffering for the same cause becomes a defining feature of the community, and because it is the result of marginalization and/or persecution by outsiders, it strengthens in-group/out-group boundaries. This suffering is given an explanation by the community – it is because of righteousness (Wis 2:12; 1 Pet 2:20), or “for the sake of ” Jesus (2 Cor 4:11; Rev 1:9), or even “according to the will of God” (1 Pet 4:19) – but it is also the result of being a member of the community (Isa 66:5; Ps 69:8–13; Jn 15:18–21). Suffering therefore becomes a signifier: it is how individuals are assured that they are members of the group (Jn 15:18–21; 17:14–16; 2 Cor 1:3–7; 4:7–12; 1 Pet 4:12–19; cf. the description of Christians in the 2nd century Epistle to Diognetus 5, 6).53 By reflecting on the depiction of suffering in the Isaian “Servant(s)” texts, later communities found a powerful tool to interpret their own suffering. Moreover, in the texts authored by those who read Isaiah, suffering was linked to hope for vindication: those inside the community would be rewarded and declared to be in the right, while those outside the community would be shamed and judged (Dan 12:2;54 Wis 3:1–10; 51  See Joel White, “Paul Completes the Servant’s Sufferings,” JSPL 6.2 (2016): 181–98. On the economic background of the statement “filling up what is lacking,” see T. J. Lang, “Disbursing the Account of God: Fiscal Terminology and the Economy of God in Colossians 1.24–25,” ZNW 107.1 (2016): 116–36. 52  On the motif of shared suffering in 2 Corinthians and 1 Peter, see the contributions by Gignilliat and Gäckle in this volume. 53  On suffering and the construction of community identity, see Bennema, “Early Christian Identity Formation Amidst Conflict,” 38; L. Gregory Bloomquist, The Function of Suffering in Philippians, JSNTSup 78 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993); Elizabeth Boase, “Fragmented Voices: Collective Identity and Traumatization in Lamentations,” in Bible Through the Lens of Trauma, ed. Elizabeth Boase and Christopher G. Frechette (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2016), 49–66; James A. Kelhoffer, Persecution, Persuasion and Power: Readiness to Withstand Hardship as a Corroboration of Legitimacy in the New Testament, WUNT 270 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010); Judith Lieu, “‘I Am a Christian’: Martyrdom and the Beginning of ‘Christian’ Identity,” in Neither Jew Nor Greek: Constructing Early Christianity, ed. idem, 2nd ed. (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2016), 223–43; Paul Middleton, “Suffering and the Creation of Christian Identity in the Gospel of Mark,” in T & T Clark Handbook to Social Identity in the New Testament, ed. J. Brian Tucker and Coleman A. Baker (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014), 173–90; Todd D. Still and Natalie R. Webb, “‘A liens’ among ‘Pagans’, ‘Exiles’ among ‘Gentiles’: Authorial Strategy and (Social) Identity in 1 Peter,” in T & T Clark Handbook to Social Identity in the New Testament, ed. J. Brian Tucker and Coleman A. Baker (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014), 455–72; Williams, Persecution in 1 Peter, esp. 35–59. 54  In Dan 12:2, we see the binary opposition between those who are resurrected to “ever-

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4:16–20; 5:1–15; Phil 1:28–29; 1 Pet 4:17–18; 5:10; Rev 6:9–11). Such hope for vindication also creates community cohesion, because this vindication too is shared (Lk 22:28–30; Jn 16:33; Rom 8:17). Finally, the lives of community members are given meaning by being situated in a larger narrative, namely, the Isaian account of how Yhwh will restore both Israel and all creation and bring about universal recognition of himself and his salvation (Ps 69:36–37; 102:14–23; Luke 2:30–32; Acts 3:20–21;55 Phil 2:10–11; Rev 21:1, 7). And here early Christian communities adopted a specific and distinctive perspective: not only did they follow Jesus as one who took up the Isaian proclamation of “good news,” they also included themselves in the Isaian narrative of divine restoration as those who likewise took up the proclamation of “good news” (Mk 13:10–11; 16:15; Acts 8:40; 13:32; Rom 1:15; 2 Cor 5:19). This was clearly another factor that created group cohesion, as is evident in Paul’s rhetoric of shared involvement in the gospel (Phil 1:5, 7, 27; 2:22; 4:3, 18).56 Thus Ware rightly speaks of the “missionary identity” of the church at Philippi, articulated in Paul’s (allusive) statement in Phil 2:15.57 It is important to note that the reception of the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument by later communities was not monolithic. An analysis of how the values and goals of the Isaian servants (righteous suffering, the hope of vindication, and involvement in God’s mission to bring about universal recognition of himself ) were taken up in the texts under consideration will reveal both unity and diversity. On the one hand, some texts pick up in an explicit way the Isaian argument about the Servant producing a righteous community of servants:58 Dan 12:3 describes a community of ‫“( משׂכילים‬those with insight”) who replicate the Isaian Servant’s task by “making many righteous” (‫ ;מצדיקי הרבים‬cf. Isa 53:11), and early Christian texts depict Jesus in terms of the Servant who creates a righteous community (Rom 5:19; 2 Cor 5:21; 1 Pet 2:24; cf. Rom 3:26; Phil 1:11).59 On lasting life” (who in v. 3 are described in Isaian terms as the ‫ משׂכילים‬and ‫ )מצדיקי הרבים‬and those who will receive “disgrace and everlasting contempt (‫”)דראון‬ – a word found elsewhere only in Isa 66:24. Here – as earlier in Isa 65:1–15; 66:1–5, 14 – we find the binary opposition between the servants/offspring and those who have rebelled against God; these latter ones are an “object of contempt” (‫)דראון‬. 55 See Richard B. Hays, “The Liberation of Israel in Luke-Acts: Intertextual Narration as Countercultural Practice,” in Reading the Bible Intertextually, ed. Richard B. Hays, Stefan Alkier, and Leroy A. Huizenga (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2009), 101–18 (here 102). 56  On the allusion to Isa 56:6–7 in Phil 4:18, see the contribution by James P. Ware in this volume. 57  See James Ware, “‘The Word of Life’: Resurrection and Mission in Philippians,” in Paul as Missionary: Identity, Activity, Theology, and Practice, ed. Trevor J. Burke and Brian S. Rosner, LNTS 420 (New York: T&T Clark, 2011), 209–19 (here 217) and the contribution by Ware in this volume. 58  Isa 53:11; 54:17; 56:6 [cf. 56:1]; 57:1; 60:21; 61:3; 64:4. On this argument, see Beuken, “Main Theme.” 59  Compare the sentiment in MT Isa 53:11 (‫ )יצדיק צדיק ﬠבדי לרבים‬with Rom 5:19 (οὕτως καὶ διὰ τῆς ὑπακοῆς τοῦ ἑνὸς δίκαιοι κατασταθήσονται οἱ πολλοί); 2 Cor 5:21 (τὸν μὴ γνόντα



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the other hand, Psalms 22, 69, 102 and Wisdom of Solomon 1–5 presume the presence of righteousness rather than describing how it is brought about. And Revelation depicts the righteousness of the suffering community using the motif of “white robes” (Rev 3:4–5; 6:9–11; 7:13–14; 19:7–8, 14; cf. Isa 61:10; 62:1; 64:5).60 In some texts, references to suffering are couched in Isaian language or explicitly linked to Isaian allusions (e. g. Ps 22:7–9; Dan 12:1–4; Wis 2:10, 12–20; 3:2; Mk 10:38–39 [cf. v. 45];61 Phil 2:7–8; 1 Pet 2:19–25). Two of these texts in particular (Wis 2:10, 12–15, 18; 1 Pet 2:20; 3:14, 17) forcefully highlight the Isaian connection between “righteousness” and suffering. The context of Dan 11:32–35; 12:1–3 indicates that the ‫ משׂכילים‬are suffering for their piety and obedience to God.62 In Phil 2:1–8, Paul uses Isaian language about the humiliation and lowly status of the Servant to describe Jesus, then draws from this example ethical conclusions for his community – specifically, the notion of self-abasement and preference for the interests of others. This idea also appears in Mk 10:42–45. In other texts, the Isaian connection is implicit: the afflicted person in Ps 69 suffers “for the sake of ” Yhwh (Ps 69:8–13).63 In the early Christian texts surveyed here, Jesus’ followers are described as sharing in the suffering of Jesus (Mk 10:38–39;64 Rom 8:17; 2 Cor 1:5; 4:10; Phil 3:10; 1 Pet 3:21; 4:13; Rev 1:9), suffering “for the name/sake” of Jesus (Lk 6:22; 21:12, ἁμαρτίαν ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἁμαρτίαν ἐποίησεν, ἵνα ἡμεῖς γενώμεθα δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ ἐν αὐτῷ); 1 Pet 2:24b (ἵνα ταῖς ἁμαρτίαις ἀπογενόμενοι τῇ δικαιοσύνῃ ζήσωμεν). Note that 1 Pet 2:24a,c (ὃς τὰς ἁμαρτίας ἡμῶν αὐτὸς ἀνήνεγκεν … οὗ τῷ μώλωπι ἰάθητε) draws on Isa 53:12 and 53:5 respectively. 60  See the contribution by Sheree Lear in this volume. 61  Seán Freyne noted similarities in how suffering and death are treated in Daniel, Wisdom of Solomon, and the Gospel of Mark; see Seán Freyne, “The Disciples in Mark and the Maskilim in Daniel. A Comparison,” JSNT 16 (1982): 7–23 (here 11–12). 62  John Day has shown how Dan 12:3–4 refers to Isa 53:11; see John Day, “DAʿAṮ ‘Humiliation’ in Isaiah LIII 11 in the Light of Isaiah LIII 3 and Daniel XII 4, and the Oldest Known Interpretation of the Suffering Servant,” VT 30.1 (1980): 97–103. That these texts are connected is indisputable (see also ‫ דראון‬in Isa 66:24; Dan 12:2), though the meanings (and readings) of both texts are contested; the usual meaning of ‫“( דﬠת‬knowledge”) does not fit either context well. A root ‫ ידﬠ‬II meaning “humiliation” was proposed by D. Winton Thomas, “A Consideration of Isaiah LIII in the Light of Recent Textual and Philological Study,” ETL 44 (1968): 79–86, but the Arabic basis for this proposal was shown to be faulty by William Johnstone, “YDʾ II, ‘Be Humbled, Humiliated’?” VT 41.1 (1991): 49–62, and J. A. Emerton, “A Further Consideration of D. W. Thomas’s Theories about yādaʿ,” VT 41.2 (1991): 145–63. Gelston proposed emending ‫ בדﬠתו‬in Isa 53:11 to ‫“ ברﬠתו‬by his hurt” (cf. Jonah 4:6; Ecc 5:12); see Anthony Gelston, “Knowledge, Humiliation or Suffering: A Lexical, Textual and Exegetical Problem in Isaiah 53,” in Of Prophets’ Visions and the Wisdom of Sages: Essays in Honour of R. Norman Whybray on his Seventieth Birthday, ed. Heather A. McKay and David J. A. Clines, JSOTSup 162 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), 126–41. If this is the original reading, it would still find a connection in the reading ἀδικίας of OG Dan 12:4. 63 See Kleinknecht, Der leidende Gerechtfertigte, 64–65. 64  Mark uses the same vocabulary (παραδιδόναι, “handed over”) to describe the suffering of Jesus’ followers in Mk 13:9, 11–12 as he does to describe the suffering of Jesus (e. g. Mk 9:31;

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17; Acts 5:40–41; 9:16; 2 Cor 4:11; Phil 1:29; 1 Pet 4:14),65 or suffering because of their “testimony” about Jesus (Rev 6:9–11; 12:11). In the Targum on Isaiah, the Servant-Messiah does not suffer, and Israel’s suffering is not derivative of or modelled after his experience. Righteousness is indeed brought about, but this is accomplished when the Servant-Messiah reinstitutes the cult.66 These texts, then, depict suffering in a variety of ways: suffering may be presented as the result of devotion to God (Ps 22:7–9; 69:8–13; Dan 6:11–14) or of doing what is right (Wis 2:12–16; 1 Pet 2:19–20; 3:17; 4:15–16); it may be presented as an exemplary act for others to follow (e. g., the suffering of the “righteous man” in Wis 2–5; the suffering of Jesus as an example for his followers in Phil 2:5–11; 1 Pet 2:21–23; 4:1); it may be presented as something that is shared (Mk 10:39; Rom 8:17; 2 Cor 1:5, 7; 4:9–10; Phil 1:29–30; 3:10; 4:14; 1 Pet 4:13; 5:9); it may be presented as something that can bring about a benefit for others in the community (2 Cor 1:6); it may be presented as an opportunity for rejoicing (Rom 5:3); or it may be completely removed from the Servant figure and divested of any paradigmatic value (Targum Jonathan on Isaiah). It is worth noting that the motif of vicarious suffering is taken up only in early Christian writings, where it is used to describe the actions of Jesus alone (e. g. 1 Pet 2:21, 24; 3:18).67 The Isaian theme of vindication is also picked up and used in diverse ways. In some texts the vindication of the righteous sufferers is expressed using locutions from Isaian “Servant(s)” passages: e. g. Ps 22:25 (an inversion of Isa 49:7; 53:3, 4, 7); 69:36–37 (cf. Isa 65:9); 102:29 (cf. Isa 65:9); Wis 3:1–3; 4:7 (cf. Isa 57:1–2); Rev 7:15–17 (cf. Isa 49:9, 10 + 25:8).68 The Isaian “new heavens and new earth” (Isa 65:17; 66:22), which in context is the inheritance of the servants/offspring,69 appears in Rev 21:1–7 as the “inheritance of the one who is victorious” (v. 7). In Wisdom of Solomon, the use of Isaian imagery to describe vindication is complex: the vindication of the righteous after suffering and death in Wis 3:1–3; 10:33 [cf. Lk 24:7]; 14:10, 11, 18, 21, 41–42, 44; 15:1, 10, 15). The same term is used to describe the Servant’s suffering in Isa 53:6, 12. See the contribution by Shively in this volume. 65  See Isa 66:5, where the servants (here referred to as “those who tremble at [Yhwh’s] word”; cf. v. 2) suffer “for the sake of [Yhwh’s] name.” 66  See the contribution by William A. Tooman in this volume. 67  The idea that early Jesus-followers should be willing to suffer to promote the interests of others is suggested in Rom 15:1–3 (drawing on Psalm 69, an Isaian intertext) and Phil 2:3–11 (drawing on Isaiah 53), and the idea of dying for others is mentioned in Jn 15:12–13, but there is no attempt to link this latter passage with an Isaian argument or with a salvific result. For the restriction of the theme of atoning death to Jesus alone (rather than his followers) in Luke-Acts, see the contribution by Beers in this volume. 68  On the vindication of the servants expressed in terms of shared authority and inheritance in e. g. Rev 2:18–29, see the contribution by Lear in this volume. 69  Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 289; W.  A. M. Beuken, “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah,” in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989, ed. J. A. Emerton, VTSup 43 (Leiden: Brill, 1991), 204–21 (here 213–15).



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4:7 is described as peace and rest (εἰρήνῃ, ἀναπαύσις) a result modelled on the rest of the righteous sufferer in Isa 57:1–2. Yet Wisdom of Solomon also depicts vindication as a public affair: the righteous one will “stand in great boldness” before his persecutors, who are forced to acknowledge his status (Wis 5:1–14). Those who suffer righteously will “live forever” and receive salvific vindication from the Lord, described here as the Isaian Divine Warrior (Wis 5:15–20; cf. Isa 59:16–18). In other texts, the vindication of the sufferers is described using individual words or images such as resurrection (Dan 12:2–3; Acts 26:23; 2 Cor 1:9–10; 4:14, 17; Phil 3:10–11), “comfort” (2 Cor 1:4–5), “glory” (1 Pet 1:7; 5:1, 10), “blessed” (1 Pet 3:13–14),70 “reward” (Lk 6:22–23; Rev 11:18), or “salvation” (Wis 5:2; Phil 1:19, 28) – though even these words and images are thoroughly Isaianic.71 The description of the righteous sufferer’s vindication in terms of “peace” and “rest,” appearing first in Isa 57:1–2 then later in Wis 3:1–3; 4:7, may reappear still later in Rev 6:10–11; 14:13. The Isaian description of blessing for the servants and disaster for their opponents (Isa 65:8–16; 66:5) appears to have influenced the discussions of vindication in Mk 10:28–3172 and in the Lukan Beatitudes (Lk 6:20–26).73 Still other texts, such as Luke 22:28–30 and Rom 8:17, explicitly underscore the connection between joint suffering and joint vindication, arguing that suffering with Jesus necessarily implies vindication with Jesus.74 In the Targum to Isaiah, the situation is of course different: here the Servant-Messiah does not suffer, and thus there is no paradigmatic suffering and vindication to be shared by Messiah and the servants. Finally, the Isaian theme of the universal recognition of Yhwh (which is what the Servant as God’s agent works to bring about and what the servants are a result of ) is picked up in similarly diverse ways. In the three psalms examined 70  For the allusion in 1 Pet 3:13 to Isa 50:9 (the context of which describes the suffering of the Servant [vv. 5–6], his hope for vindication [vv. 7–9], and the paradigmatic relationship between the Servant and the servants [vv. 4, 10–11]), see Patrick T. Egan, Ecclesiology and the Scriptural Narrative of 1 Peter (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2016), 173–74. The statement linking “blessing” to doing “righteousness” in 1 Pet 3:14 may allude to Isa 56:1–2, another passage whose context describes the servants (v. 6). 71  For resurrection, see Isa 26:19; for “comfort,” see Isa 40:1; 49:13; 51:3, 12; 52:9; 61:2; 66:13; for “glory,” see Isa 60:1–2, 19; 62:2; for “reward,” see Isa 40:10; 62:11; for “salvation,” see Isa 49:6, 8; 52:7, 10. On resurrection as vindication in Acts 26:23, see the contribution by Beers in this volume. 72  Concerns about vindication are raised by Jesus’ disciples in Mk 10:28 and are addressed in 10:29–31; the description of reward as houses, family, persecutions, and eternal life (along with the motif of reversal) is strikingly similar to the description of the reward given to the servants in Isa 65–66. 73  For the dependence of Luke on Isaiah in these passages, see Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 134. The relationship is already recognized in the early third century CE (Tertullian, Marc. 4.14). 74  For the argument in Mark 13 that Jesus’ followers will share in his vindication, see the contribution by Shively in this volume.

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here, this theme is pronounced: in Ps 22:28, “all the ends of the earth” and “all the families of the nations” will turn to Yhwh and worship him; in Ps 69:35–37, all creation breaks into praise when God “saves Zion” so that the “offspring of his servants” may dwell there. Likewise, Ps 102:16, 22–23 envision the nations worshipping Yhwh in Jerusalem. In Daniel 1–8 the universal recognition of Yhwh is linked to the suffering and vindication of the servants,75 though it is not picked up in Dan 11–12.76 And while in Wisdom of Solomon the rulers of the world are exhorted to “love righteousness” (Wis 1:1) and “learn wisdom” (6:9), and while God desires the repentance of all (Wis 11:23–12:2, 10–11), the book does not really take up the Isaian vision of global recognition and transformation – though to be sure, the unrighteous are forced to recognize both their own wickedness and the vindication of the righteous at the final judgment (Wis 5:1ff ). The theme of the universal recognition of Yhwh takes a distinctive shape when it is picked up in early Christian texts: here it is associated with the “proclamation of good news” (εὐαγγελίζω/κηρύσσω τὸ εὐαγγέλιον), a motif that becomes constitutive of early Christian identity. In Isaiah, the proclamation of the good news of Yhwh’s salvation is attributed to a variety of voices and refers to the restoration of Zion – though it becomes clear that the nations are also involved in this restoration.77 It was subsequently applied to a number of individuals in Second Temple Jewish texts,78 but is less strongly associated with communities: the communal proclamation of good news is completely absent in Daniel and Wisdom, though it is arguably present in the references to “recounting” in Pss 22:31; 102:22–23 and “telling” in Ps 22:32. In early Christian texts, the proclamation of good news is described as taken up by Jesus (Mk 1:14–15; Lk 4:16–21; 7:18–22) – and then, remarkably, by Jesus’ followers. Some of the texts under consideration very clearly link the Isaian theme of the universal recognition of Yhwh to the motif of proclamation: Acts 1:8; 8:25–40; 9:15–16; 13:46–47; 26:16–18, 23 (cf. Isa 49:6; 52:7); 75  In Dan 3:28–30; 6:26–29, foreign kings recognize Israel’s God due to the righteousness, suffering, and vindication of the three friends and Daniel. 76  Nevertheless, as I noted above, what we do see in Dan 12:3 is that there is a community that is patterned after the Isaian Servant – namely, “those who have insight” (‫ ;המשׂכלים‬cf Isa 52:13), and that this community “makes many righteous” (‫)מצדיקי הרבים‬, thus taking up the same mission as the Isaian Servant (‫יצדיק צדיק ﬠבדי לרבים‬, Isa 53:11). 77  Isa 40:9 (Zion proclaims Yhwh’s salvation to other Judean cities); 52:7 (a messenger announces salvation to Zion); 61:1 (Yhwh’s agent – who apparently speaks as the Servant – is anointed to proclaim deliverance to the afflicted in Zion). In Isa 60:6, the nations who come to Zion will “proclaim the praises of Yhwh” (‫)ותהלת יהוה יבשׂרו‬. However, in LXX Isa 60:6, this is rendered as “proclaim the good news of the salvation of the Lord” (καὶ τὸ σωτήριον κυρίου εὐαγγελιοῦνται) – a rendering that seems to have been influenced by the sentiment of Isa 45:22. 78  The motif of the proclamation of good news in Isa 61:1–2 is taken up in 1QHa 23.15–16 (attributed to God); 4Q521 2.ii.1–12 (attributed to God or his anointed one); 11Q13 2.9, 18–20 (apparently attributed to the heavenly agent Melchizedek; note that the description of “good news” in Isa 52:7 is taken up in 11Q13 2.15–16, 23).



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Rom 10:12–21 (cf. Isa 52:7; 53:1; 65:1–2);79 15:20–21 (cf. Isa 52:15); 2 Cor 4:5, 13; 5:18–20; 6:1–2 (cf. Isa 49:8); Phil 1:5, 7, 12–18; 2:22 (cf. Isa 52:7?). Here Isaian statements about “light,” “salvation to the ends of the earth,” and “good news” – all of which are thematised in their Isaian context by repetition – have been picked up by the early Christian community and associated with their proclamation of Jesus.80 This forms the conceptual background to Jesus’ statement in Mk 13:10–11 that “the good news must first be proclaimed to all the nations” (followed by a statement that his disciples will speak publicly before their persecutors).81 Mark 16:15 depicts Jesus commissioning his followers to “proclaim the good news” – a reference likely placed here at the end of the composition in order to form an inclusio around the entire Gospel (// Mk 1:1, 14–15). Luke 2:29–32 applies the Isaian “light to the nations” image (Isa 49:6) to the infant Jesus, then describes the risen Jesus reminding his disciples that “repentance … is to be proclaimed in his name to all nations” (Lk 24:45–49).82 In Acts, the proclamation of the good news by Jesus’ followers is justified in characters’ speeches (Acts 10:36– 43; 13:47; 26:15–23)83 and is central to the plot (Acts 1:8; 8:12, 25, 40; 13:32; 14:7, 15, 21; 15:7; 16:10; 20:24). In Romans, the motif of proclaiming the good news is articulated not only in the allusions noted above but also in Paul’s selfdescriptions (Rom 1:15; 15:19–20). Moreover, Paul reflects on the response to this proclamation, admitting that the message of the “good news” about Jesus has not been universally received (Rom 10:16) – an allusion to Isa 53:1 (cf. 49:4a), where it is stated that the message about the Isaian Servant was not universally received. In Philippians, Paul depicts Jesus as the Isaian Suffering Servant (Phil 2:7–9; cf. Isa 52:13; 53:2, 8, 11–12), then uses Isa 45:23 with reference to Jesus (Phil 2:9–10), thereby applying the Divine Name to Jesus and making him the object of universal recognition. And it is the good news of the crucified and exalted Jesus that is the object of proclamation in Philippians (Phil 1:5, 18). In other early Christian texts, however, the motif of proclamation is not extensively developed with reference to Isaian “Servant(s)” argument (1 Peter, Revelation).84 79  On the use of Isaiah in Rom 10, see J. Ross Wagner, Heralds of the Good News: Isaiah and Paul in Concert in the Letter to the Romans (Boston: Brill, 2003), 170–217; see also the contribution by Rüggemeier in this volume. 80  For “light,” see Isa 42:6; 49:6; 51:4; 60:3; for “salvation to the ends of the earth,” see 45:22; 49:6; 51:5; 52:10; 56:1; 62:11; for “good news,” see 40:9; 52:7; 61:1. 81  Note that proclamation is presumed by the statement in Mk 14:9. 82  As Holly Beers notes, while Jesus is initially presented as the Isaian “light to the nations,” the fulfilment of this hope is still awaited at the end of Luke’s Gospel; see the contribution by Beers in this volume. 83  Note the allusion in Acts 10:36 to Isa 52:7, the allusion in Acts 13:47 to Isa 49:6, and the allusion in Acts 26:18, 23 to the Isaian themes of light and sight. 84  See however 1 Pet 3:15; 4:6. In Revelation, the servants’ proclamation (which is linked with their suffering) is described as “testimony” (μαρτυρία, Rev 1:9; 6:9; 12:11; 20:4) rather than as “proclaiming good news” (εὐαγγελίζω/κηρύσσω τὸ εὐαγγέλιον); see the contribution by Lear in this volume.

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While the role of the Isaian servants with respect to the proclamation described in Isa 66:18–23 is debated (see the discussion above), it is clarified in a number of early Christian texts that proclamation and mission are extended to Jesus’ followers in their role as servants.85 Indeed, Riesner has argued that in Rom 15:16–21 Paul describes his own proclamation to the Gentiles in language and imagery borrowed from Isa 66:18–23.86 It seems clear that early Jesus-followers used the paradigmatic relationship between the Isaian Servant and servants as the logic behind the way in which they saw themselves taking up the proclamation of the good news from Jesus, even though (as noted above) the relationship between the servants and proclamation in Trito-Isaiah is somewhat ambiguous. In conclusion, a synoptic presentation and examination of the texts under consideration demonstrates that the three Isaian themes of suffering, vindication, and universal recognition of Yhwh were widely taken up by later readers but were used in a variety of ways. Not all texts display or prioritize all the same themes. The vindication of righteous sufferers is linked with the restoration of Zion in Pss 69, 102 and in Rev 21 but not in Ps 22 and Wisdom of Solomon. The Isaianic universal recognition of Yhwh is present in most texts but is not developed in Dan 11–1287 or Wisdom of Solomon, and it is distinctively linked with proclamation only in early Christian texts (though this is presumed rather than emphasized in 1 Peter and Revelation). The inclusion of the Targum to Isaiah in this study is particularly important for demonstrating that the reception of Isaiah in Antiquity was not monolithic: in the Targum, the Servant-Messiah does not suffer or paradigmatically model righteous suffering for the community he creates. Instead, righteousness is created when the Servant-Messiah restores the cult for the chastened and repentant ones of Israel. 2.2  Text-Handling Techniques and Reading Strategies In the introduction to this volume we claimed that community identity is in part exegetically derived – but what do we mean by “exegetical”? Obviously we have 85  Note also that the dual objects of the Servant’s salvific activity – i. e., both Israel (Isa 49:5, 6a) and the nations (Isa 49:6b; cf. 45:22–24) – was a theme picked up in Isa 54:17 and 56:3a, 6–8 respectively: those who make up the servants include both Israelites and foreigners. The notion that Yhwh’s salvific task included both Israel and the nations was also essential for defining early Christian mission and proclamation (Lk 2:32; 24:26–49; Jn 10:16, 51–52; Acts 1:8; 3:26; 9:15; 11:17–18; 13:46–48; 14:1, 27; 15:7, 14; 26:17–18, 23; 28:28; Rom 1:16)  – though this was clearly not an uncontroversial idea. On this dual mission, see Peter Mallen, The Reading and Transformation of Isaiah in Luke-Acts, LNTS 367 (New York: T&T Clark, 2008), 87–88, 105–13; Beers, Followers of Jesus, 156–57. For a reconstruction of Jesus’ self-understanding and its relation to the concept of a Gentile mission, see Michael F. Bird, Jesus and the Origins of the Gentile Mission, LHBOTS 331 (New York: T&T Clark, 2007). 86 Rainer Riesner, Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology, trans. Doug Stott (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 245–53. 87  Though see Dan 3:29; 6:25–27.



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in mind the individual and communal reading of and reflection on texts.88 But more than this, we refer to the production of texts that use the book of Isaiah as an authoritative source – and not just to the fact of textual use but the manner of use: techniques of allusion and quotation; techniques of selection, modification, inversion, and juxtaposition; the reading and explanation of one text in light of another text; the editing of one text in light of another text; the exploitation of existing intertextual allusion; the use of comments that reflect a perception of a text’s literary shape and argument; the phenomenon of “triggered” allusion, where the words of one text recall another text to a redactor, prompting the addition of further verbal linkages; the interpretation of events in light of texts; and the use of texts to define community ethos.89 The section below will examine such textual use under the rubrics of presentation, selection, modification, and contextual awareness. 2.2.1  Techniques of Presentation One way in which the presentation of Isaianic “Servant(s)” material in later texts can be analysed is by examining the manner in which these texts reference Isaiah, that is, by means of quotation or allusion.90 By “quotation” I  mean a reference to an earlier text that replicates material from that source while calling attention to the act of referencing, to the speaker or author of the quoted material, or to the source being referenced. Such references can invoke rhetorically significant categories of authority and testimony; this is particularly evident in attributions of material to a source that is prophetic (e. g. Acts 8:28) or divine (e. g. Acts 13:47). By “allusion” I mean the use of material from an earlier text that lacks an element of “calling attention.” The lack of a quotative marker places greater demands on reader competence in identifying the source text, but it also means that borrowed material can be more easily inserted into the target text (clearly a requirement for the editing of the three psalms under investigation). The texts in this study that reference Isaiah 40–66 by means of allusion alone are Psalms 22, 69, 102; Daniel; Wisdom of Solomon; Philippians; 1 Peter; Revelation. Texts that use quotation as well as allusion include Mark (e. g. Mk 1:1–3; 11:17); Luke (e. g. Lk 3:4–6; 4:17–19; 19:46; 22:37); John (e. g. Jn 12:38); Acts 88 See Garrick V. Allen and John Anthony Dunne, eds., Ancient Readers and their Scriptures: Engaging the Hebrew Bible in Early Judaism and Christianity, AJEC 107 (Leiden: Brill, 2019); Brian J. Wright, Communal Reading in the Time of Jesus: A Window into Early Christian Reading Practices (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2017). Note the depictions of reading and explanation of texts in e. g. Neh 8:1–8; 1QS 6.6–8; 8.11–16; Lk 24:27, 44–47; Acts 17:11; 1 Tim 4:13; 2 Tim 3:16–17. 89  For a description of what constituted “exegesis” in the Second Temple period, see Andrew Teeter, “The Hebrew Bible and/as Second Temple Literature: Methodological Reflections,” DSD 20 (2013): 347–75 (here 353–66). 90  The Targum on Isaiah is obviously an exception, as it is a rewriting and translation of the source text.

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(e. g. Acts 8:27–33; 13:47); Romans (e. g. Rom 10:15, 16; 15:21); 2 Corinthians (e. g. 2 Cor 6:2). Note that in both Psalm 22 and Wisdom of Solomon, some Isaianic locutions are either placed in mouths of those hostile to a righteous sufferer (Ps 22:9; cf. Isa 53:10) or used to describe them (Wis 5:2; cf. Isa 52:14, 15). By this technique, the righteous sufferer is portrayed as persecuted for being one of the servants (cf. Isa 66:5). Another way in which the presentation of borrowed material can be analysed is by looking at the structure of the borrowing text. This is particularly significant in the case of Psalm 22, the structure of which displays what seem to be highly disparate and unconnected genre features: a complaint of the individual about righteous suffering, vv. 2–22a; thanksgiving of the individual for vindication, vv. 22b–27; universal recognition and praise of Yhwh, vv. 28–32. But this atypical psalm structure actually replicates the shape of Deutero-Isaiah’s argument about the Servant and Trito-Isaiah’s argument about the servants (who suffer righteously, are vindicated by God, and play a role in bringing about the universal recognition of Yhwh).91 Another example can be seen in the way the sequence of “new life after a flood of judgment” in the book of Isaiah is taken up in Dan 11–12.92 Yet another way in which the target texts present borrowed material is by their use of introductory or concluding framing statements that provide commentary on the material. Examples include Paul’s comment on Isa 49:8 in 2 Cor 6:2 (“behold, now is the ‘acceptable time’; behold, now is the ‘day of salvation’”) and Paul’s statement in Acts 13:47 that Isa 49:6b is “what the Lord commanded us.” In the former framing statement, Paul interprets his community’s situation in light of the Isaian text. In the latter framing statement, Paul takes Yhwh’s speech to the Isaian Servant and – in light of the paradigmatic relationship of the Isaian Servant for the servants – applies this statement to Barnabas and himself.93 A final way in which the borrowing texts (in particular, the book of Acts) can present borrowed Isaianic material is by the use of narrative instantiation. In this strategy, the configuration of plot, characterization, and dialogue is used to exemplify an Isaian argument. For example, in Acts 8:26–35 the author depicts an Ethiopian eunuch reading Isaiah 53:7–8, which the evangelist Philip explains to him with reference to Jesus. This scene is an instantiation of the Isaian “servants” argument in Isa 56:3–8, in which “foreigners” (Isa 56:3a, 6–8) and “eunuchs” (vv. 3b–5) are described as “joining themselves to Yhwh … to be his servants” (v. 6). Likewise, in Acts 9 and 26, Paul’s encounter with Jesus is described using motifs from descriptions of the Isaianic Servant(s): Paul falls to the ground after seeing a “light” (9:3; 26:13; cf. Isa 42:6; 49:6; 51:4), is transformed from a con91 

See the contribution by Lyons in this volume. See the contribution by Stromberg in this volume. 93  See Michael A. Lyons, “Paul and the Servant(s): Isa 49,6 in Acts 13,47,” ETL 89.4 (2013): 345–59. 92 



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dition of blindness into sight by the intervention of another (9:8–9, 12, 17–18; cf. 26:18; Isa 42:7; 52:10), is “filled with the Holy Spirit” (9:17; cf. Isa 59:21), is chosen to “bear [Jesus’] name before Gentiles and kings and the sons of Israel” (9:15; cf. 26:16–18, 19, 23; Isa 49:6–7; 66:19), and is described as being shown “how much he must suffer” for the sake of Jesus (9:16; cf. Isa 53; 66:5). Another instance of narrative instantiation occurs in Acts 16:16–18, where a slave-girl repeatedly describes Paul and Silas as “servants (δοῦλοι) of the Most High God, who are proclaiming the way of salvation to you.” This description is entirely made up of distinctively Isaianic vocabulary,94 and highlights the role of Paul and Silas as servants who take up the mission of Jesus (depicted as the Servant). But the technique of narrative instantiation arguably occurs already in the Gospel of Luke, which describes a man named Simeon being led by the Spirit into the temple to see Jesus (Luke 2:25–32). Simeon is described as “righteous” (Lk 2:25; cf. Isa 53:11; 54:17), as looking “for the consolation of Israel” (v. 25; cf. Isa 40:1),95 and as having the “Holy Spirit upon him” (v. 25; cf. Isa 59:21). He then self-identifies as the Lord’s “servant” (δοῦλος, v. 29; cf. Isa 65:9, 13–15) and quotes Isa 49:6; 52:10 (Lk 2:30–32). In all these cases, Isaian references are woven into the fabric of the narrative itself. 2.2.2  Techniques of Selection A second way in which later authors’ use of the Isaianic “Servant(s)” texts can be analysed is by examining their techniques of selection and the reasons behind the selections. This includes an investigation of what Isaian texts are used, what Isaian texts are not used, and what non-Isaian texts are used in conjunction with Isaiah (see the discussion of “Contextual Awareness” below). For example, Peter Mallen has argued that Luke-Acts emphasizes Yhwh’s salvation of foreign nations rather than his judgment of these nations – and that this tendency is a result of how the author selectively borrows material from Isaiah and modifies it.96 As another example, Richard Hays argues that Paul’s selection and use of Ps 44:23 [LXX 43:23] in Rom 8:36 to describe the suffering of Jesus’ followers was motivated by the use of the phrase “sheep for slaughter” in Isa 53:7 and by Paul’s use of Isaian Servant passages elsewhere in Romans – and particularly by Paul’s conviction that Jesus’ followers share his sufferings (Rom 8:17).97 94 δοῦλοι: LXX Isa 65:9, 13–15; ὕψιστος: Isa 57:15; καταγγέλλω: 66:19; ὁδός: 40:3; 41:27 (word absent in MT); 42:16; 49:11; 57:14; σωτηρία: 49:6; 52:7, 10. 95 Compare LXX Isa 40:1 (Παρακαλεῖτε παρακαλεῖτε τὸν λαόν μου) with Lk 2:25 (προσδεχόμενος παράκλησιν τοῦ Ἰσραήλ). 96 See Mallen, Reading and Transformation of Isaiah, 108–12; Mallen points to the partial quote of Isa 61:1–2 in Lk 4:18–19, and to the author’s preference for the Isaian motif of salvation going out to the nations (Isa 49:6; cf. Lk 24:47–49; Acts 1:8; 13:47) over and above the Isaian motif of humbled nations coming to Zion (e. g. Isa 55:5; 60:1–14). 97  Richard B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 62–63.

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As a final example, J. Ross Wagner shows how Paul selects and uses Isa 65:1ab, 2 (but not v. 1c!) in Rom 10:20–21 and how he splits the referent of the quote in his attempt to explain why Gentiles have enthusiastically responded to his message about Jesus while the majority of his fellow-Jews have not.98 If this was where Paul’s argument stopped, we might conclude that he equates his Jewish contemporaries with Trito-Isaiah’s rebellious Israelites who did not respond to Yhwh’s offer, implying that only non-Jewish Jesus-followers are to be identified with the Trito-Isaian servants. However, while for Paul the Trito-Isaian distinction between the servants and their opponents was analogous to the largely positive Gentile and negative Jewish responses to Jesus at the moment, this could not for many reasons (not the least being Paul’s own Jewish identity!) be a permanent analogy: for Paul, the idea that God has rejected his people is at odds with a great many other scriptural passages (Rom 11:1ff ). As Paul continues, he coordinates his reading of Isa 65:1–2 with Deuteronomy 32 (which he cites in Rom 10:19; 11:11; 15:10) – a strategy which allows him to conclude both that foreigners have been “grafted in” (Isa 11:17–25) and that “all Israel will be saved” (Rom 11:26–27).99 Paul’s conclusion here in Rom 11:26– 27 quotes a conflation of Isa 59:20–21 + 27:9, the first part of which makes an argument about the Trito-Isaian servants/offspring: those who confess their unrighteousness (Isa 59:9–15a) and are consequently visited by a righteous Redeemer (59:15b–17, 20) will be in covenant with God, receive his spirit, and pass on his word to their “offspring” (v. 21). As Beuken notes, “In these righteous ones the servants take form …. In these generations the promise is realized that the Servant ‘shall see offspring (seed) and prolong his days’ (53.10).”100 These examples show the complex relationship between attempts to interpret texts and attempts to account for social realities, and the ways in which these affected each other. 98 See Wagner, Heralds of the Good News, 190–217 (for the likely rationale behind Paul’s choice not to include Isa 65:1c in his citation, see p. 209). Paul’s split reading of Isa 65:1–2 seems to have been motivated by two formal features of the text: first, the use of the words ἔθνος in Isa 65:1 and λαός in Isa 65:2 likely suggested to Paul that two different referents were in view. For an argument that the word “nation” even in MT Isa 65:1 refers to foreigners, see Ulrich F. Berges, The Book of Isaiah: Its Composition and Final Form, trans. Millard C. Lind (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2012), 467–68. Second, in Isa 65:1 the LXX translates the Hebrew Niphal verbs ‫ נדרשׁתי‬and ‫( נמצאתי‬the tolerative sense of which reflects the offer in 55:6–7) with Ἐμφανὴς ἐγενόμην and εὑρέθην, resulting in a depiction of Yhwh’s offer as actually having been successfully received by a non-Jewish nation. Note also that the motif of foreigners joining themselves to Yhwh to be included in the servants already appeared in Isa 56:6–8. 99  Like Paul’s reading of Isa 65:1–2 in Rom 10:20–21, Deuteronomy 32 also uses ἔθνος for non-Israelite nations (Deut 32:8, 21, 43) and λαός for Israel (Deut 32:6, 9, 36, 43). What is more, Deuteronomy 32 envisions the restoration of Israel (Deut 32:36), and concludes in v. 43 by depicting the nations (ἔθνη) rejoicing together with God’s restored people Israel (μετὰ τοῦ λαοῦ αὐτοῦ) – a passage that Paul quotes in Rom 15:10. 100  Beuken, “Main Theme,” 69, 70.



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2.2.3  Techniques of Modification A third way in which later authors’ use of the Isaianic “Servant(s)” material can be analysed is by examining the ways in which they modify their Isaian source text. One kind of modification involves a change of wording. For example, Paul modifies Isa 52:7 (ὡς ὥρα ἐπὶ τῶν ὀρέων, ὡς πόδες εὐαγγελιζομένου ἀκοὴν εἰρήνης, ὡς εὐαγγελιζόμενος ἀγαθά) when he quotes it in Rom 10:15 (καθὼς γέγραπται· ὡς ὡραῖοι οἱ πόδες τῶν εὐαγγελιζομένων τὰ ἀγαθά), changing the singular “one who proclaims good news” to the plural “those who proclaim good news” – a change that reflects the inclusion of the servants in the Isaian Servant’s mission.101 Yet another kind of modification involves inversion. For example, when the author of Wisdom of Solomon constructs a paradigmatic righteous sufferer, he takes up a phrase used to describe the Isaian Suffering Servant: “numbered among transgressors” (ἐν τοῖς ἀνόμοις ἐλογίσθη, Isa 53:12). However, he places this in the mouths of the wicked opponents of the righteous sufferer and ironically inverts it so that they say of him, “We accounted his life madness … how he is numbered among the sons of God” (πῶς κατελογίσθη ἐν υἱοῖς θεοῦ, Wis 5:4, 5). This assessment is an inversion of the assessment of the Suffering Servant in Isa 53, who is supposed (incorrectly) to be guilty and is associated with the guilty, though he is actually innocent (Isa 53:4b, 9, 12). The inversion is ironic, because the language of earlier mockery (cf. Wis 2:13, 17–18) now reflects the vindication of the righteous one. Again, this change depicts the paradigmatic sufferer of Wisdom of Solomon as being persecuted precisely because he is one of the righteous servants. Still another kind of modification consists of what we see in Targum Jonathan on Isaiah. Through a series of formal changes (constituent replacements, changes in verbal person and number, or exploitation of homographic roots),102 the author of the Targum creates modifications in content, rewriting the text of Isaiah so that the Servant-Messiah does not suffer. The Servant is not despised and rejected; rather, the “glory of all the kingdoms” is (Tg Isa 53:3). The Servant does not vicariously bear the sins of Israel; rather, he entreats God to forgive the people (Tg Isa 53:4, 12). The Servant does not die; rather, he hands the wicked over to death (Tg Isa 53:9).103 While all of this seems to be evidence of a deliberate counter-reading of Isaiah, we can also find modifications showing that the 101  On the other changes, and on the textual form that Paul uses for this quotation, see Wagner, Heralds of the Good News, 170–73. 102  See e. g. Isa 53:7, where the Servant is described as “oppressed and humiliated” (‫והוא‬ ‫נגשׂ‬ ‫ ;)נﬠנה‬the Targum renders this as “he requests, and is returned a response” (‫והוא מיתבב‬ ‫)בﬠי‬. To produce “he requests,” the author has read ‫“ נגשׂ‬oppressed” as ‫“ נגשׁ‬draw near [to make a request]” (cf. Gen 44:18), and to produce “he is returned a response,” the author has read ‫ﬠנה‬II “humiliate” as ‫ﬠנה‬I “answer.” See the contribution by William A. Tooman in this volume. 103  See the contribution by Tooman in this volume.

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author of the Targum perceives and highlights arguments about the servants rising from the larger Isaian context. As I noted above, the Isaian servants are the community in which righteousness has been produced (Isa 53:11; 54:17). The Targum underscores this Isaian argument by adding the term “righteous” to occurrences of the word “servants” in Tg Isa 63:17; 65:8, 9, 13–15; 66:14.104 2.2.4  Contextual Awareness A fourth way in which later authors’ use of the Isaianic “Servant(s)” texts can be analysed is by examining the contextual awareness displayed by their text-handling practices. One technique by which early readers’ contextual awareness is signalled is the practice of quoting or alluding to both Isaiah and to another text that also alludes to Isaiah. For example, Wisdom of Solomon interweaves allusions to both Isaiah and Psalm 22 (LXX 21) in order to construct its paradigmatic righteous sufferer.105 The “righteous one” (ὁ δίκαιος, Wis 2:12; 5:1; cf. Isa 53:11; 57:1; also called the παῖς κυρίου, Wis 2:13; cf. Isa 52:13) is despised and oppressed (Wis 2:12, 19; 5:4; cf. Isa 53:3, 7–8) and becomes a term of “reproach” (ὀνειδισμός, Wis 5:4; cf. LXX Ps 21:7) but displays gentleness and patience (Wis 2:19; cf. Isa 53:7). The righteous one is condemned to death (Wis 2:20; cf. Isa 53:8–9, 12) – a death that is “accounted an affliction” (ἐλογίσθη κάκωσις, Wis 3:2; cf. Isa 53:4). Those hostile to the righteous one are characterized by “sin” and “lawlessness” (ἁμάρτημα, ἀνόμημα, Wis 4:20; cf. Isa 53:5) and by “going astray” (πλανάω, Wis 5:6; cf. Isa 53:6). They do not recognize the righteous one’s “toil” (πόνος, Wis 5:1; cf. Isa 49:4; 53:4, 11); in fact, they “have contempt” (ἐξουθενήσουσιν, Wis 4:18; cf. LXX Ps 21:7) for him and mock him by saying that God will “help” (ῤύσεται, Wis 2:18; LXX Ps 21:9). Nevertheless, the righteous one will be vindicated (Wis 5:1; cf. Isa 52:13; 53:12), and people will be “amazed” (ἐκστήσονται, Wis 5:2; cf. Isa 52:14) when they “see” (ἰδόντες, Wis 5:2; cf. Isa 52:15). In keeping with this vindication, the author argues that the righteous ones who model themselves on the paradigmatic righteous sufferer will “live forever” (εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα ζῶσιν, Wis 5:15; cf. LXX Ps 21:27). Similarly, the Gospels of Mark, Luke, and John reference both Isaiah and Psalm 22 and/or Psalm 69,106 and the Epistle to the Romans references both Isaiah and Psalm 69.107 Philippians references not only the “Servant” passages 104 Ibid.

105  For the allusions to Isaiah in Psalm 22, see the contribution by Lyons in this volume. For the allusions to Psalm 22 in Wisdom of Solomon, see Holly J. Carey, Jesus’ Cry from the Cross: Towards a First-Century Understanding of the Intertextual Relationship between Psalm 22 and the Narrative of Mark’s Gospel, LNTS 398 (New York: T&T Clark, 2009), 116–17. 106 See e. g. Mk 10:45 (Isa 53:11–12); Mk 15:34 (LXX Ps 21:2); Lk 22:37 (Isa 53:12); Lk 23:34 (LXX Ps 21:19); Lk 23:35 (LXX Ps 21:8); Lk 23:36 (LXX Ps 68:22); Jn 12:38 (Isa 53:1); Jn 19:24 (LXX Ps 21:19); Jn 19:28–30 (LXX Ps 68:22). For the allusions to Isaiah in Psalms, see the contribution by Lyons in this volume. 107  See Rom 5:8, 19 (Isa 53:11–12); Rom 15:3 (LXX Ps 68:10); Rom 15:21 (Isa 52:15).



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of Isaiah but also Daniel and Wisdom of Solomon  – two of the texts under discussion that likewise allude to the Isaian “Servants” passages.108 Revelation references both Isaiah and Daniel.109 The fact that these texts reference both Isaian “Servant(s)” passages and earlier compositions that also drew on Isaian “Servant(s)” passages – in some cases, even juxtaposing or conflating locutions from both sources  – suggests that early readers were aware of existing intertextual connections and recalled the arguments of the book of Isaiah within a matrix of compositions they perceived to be thematically connected. This should come as no surprise, given the roles of repetition, analogy, and allusion as prominent conventions in Israelite literature and given that referencing within and to these texts tends to be complex and composite.110 After all, the DeuteroIsaian suffering Servant figure himself is presented in terms of Moses, the earlier “servant of Yhwh.”111 Another technique by which early readers’ contextual awareness is signalled is by the practice of using Isaian Servant language from Isa 40–55 in light of the Isaian “servants” argument in Isa 54, 56–66.112 For example, Psalms 22, 69, and 102 use locutions from Isa 53 (about the Suffering Servant) in order to describe the righteous suffering of the afflicted individual who speaks in the psalms. But this should not be seen as a “collectivization” of the Isaian Suffering Servant figure; after all, the afflicted speaker in these psalms is not suffering as part of a divine plan or for the sake of others. Nor does the afflicted speaker actually die. Rather, the use of Isaian Servant-language in these psalms represents a paradigmatic reading of the Suffering Servant in light of the Trito-Isaian “servants” argument – as is demonstrated by the use of locutions from Isa 54, 56–66 in these 108 Phil 1:28 (Wis 5:2, 7); Phil 2:7–9 (Isa 52:13; 53:2, 4, 11–12); Phil 2:15 (Dan 12:3); Phil 4:5 (Wis 2:19). See the contribution by Ware in this volume. 109  See the contribution by Lear in this volume. 110  See e. g. Sean A. Adams and Seth M. Ehorn, Composite Citations in Antiquity. Volume One: Jewish, Graeco-Roman, and Early Christian Uses, LNTS 525 (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2016); idem, Composite Citations in Antiquity. Volume Two: New Testament Uses, LNTS 593 (New York: T&T Clark, 2018); Esther Chazon, “Scripture and Prayer in the ‘Words of the Luminaries,’” in Prayers that Cite Scripture, ed. James L. Kugel (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006), 25–41; Michael B. Shepherd, The Text in the Middle (New York: Peter Lang, 2014); Yair Zakovitch, “The Book of the Covenant Interprets the Book of the Covenant: The ‘Boomerang Phenomenon,’” in Texts, Temples, and Traditions: A Tribute to Menahem Haran, ed. Michael V. Fox et al. (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1996), 59*–64* [in Hebrew]. 111  See the contribution by Teeter and Lyons in this volume. 112  Note the similar findings of Jacob Stromberg, who demonstrates how Isa 57:14 (an instance of Fortschreibung that picks up Isa 40:3 to make a new argument) is used as a lens through which to understand Isa 40:3 when the latter is cited in 1QS 8.12–16 and Mark 1:2–5; see Jacob Stromberg, “Isaiah’s Interpretive Revolution: How Isaiah’s Formation Influenced Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation,” in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew. Essays Honoring Joseph Blenkinsopp and His Contribution to the Study of Isaiah, ed. Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014), 214–32 (here 227–31).

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psalms. In other words, these psalms follow the argument strategy that is already laid out within the book of Isaiah itself.113 Similarly, the allusions to Isaian material outside Isaiah 53 in Wisdom of Solomon114 suggest that its use of material from inside Isaiah 53 does not represent a “collectivizing” reading of the Suffering Servant figure in which a group now “sees itself as the Servant.” Rather, the author seems to recognize the existing paradigmatic relationship between the Servant and servants within the larger context of Isaiah and uses this relationship to construct an ideal righteous sufferer as an exemplar for his community. I have argued elsewhere that Paul’s and Barnabas’ quote of Isa 49:6 and their claim that “this is what the Lord commanded us” in Acts 13:47 is not a collectivizing reading of the Isaian Servant figure in which early Jesus-followers imagine themselves to be the Servant, but a paradigmatic reading of this verse in light of the larger argument in Isa 40–66 that moves from the Servant to the servants.115 While Isaian Servant-language is sometimes used to describe Jesus’s followers, this does not mean that they “saw themselves as the Servant.”116 Rather, they saw themselves as continuing Jesus’ mission,117 and understood this in terms of the Isaian relationship between the Servant and the servants. Such a paradigmatic understanding of Isaiah’s Servant is supported not only by other references in Acts (e. g., Acts 9:16; 26:23) but also by Paul’s change of the singular language of Isa 52:7 to plural in Rom 10:15 and by his choice to depict his own work in Phil 2:16 using language that describes not only the Isaian Servant (Isa 49:4) but also the Isaian servants (Isa 65:23).118 The use of Isa 49:6 as a rationale for early Christian mission was not due to ancient conceptions of “corporate per113  The paradigmatic nature of the relationship between the Servant and the servants is captured in Ps 22:30d–31a: “As for the one who did not preserve himself alive – offspring will serve him.” See Michael A. Lyons, “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isa 54, 56–66,” CBQ 77.4 (2015): 640–56, and the contribution by Lyons in this volume. 114 See the use of Isa 54:1 in Wis 3:13; Isa 56:4–5 in Wis 3:14; Isa 57:3 in Wis 3:16; Isa 59:17 in Wis 5:18. All of the other texts under consideration also reference the larger Isaian context outside of Isa 52:13–53:12; see e. g. Ps 22:28 // Isa 45:22; Ps 69:36–37 // Isa 65:9; Ps  102:29 // Isa  65:9; Dan  9:20–21 // Isa  65:11, 24, 25; Dan  12:2 // Isa  66:24; Mk  9:48 // Isa  66:24; Mk  11:17 // Isa  56:7; Lk  4:18–19 // Isa  61:1–2 + 58:6; Lk  7:22 // Isa  61:1; Jn 6:45 // Isa  54:13; Jn 16:22 // Isa  66:14; Acts  7:49–50 // Isa  66:1–2; Acts  8:27 // Isa  56:3–8; Acts  13:34 // Isa  55:3; Rom 10:20–21 // Isa 65:1–2; Rom 11:26–27 // Isa 59:20–21; 2 Cor 9:10 // Isa 55:10; Phil 2:16 // Isa 65:23; 1 Pet 2:9 // Isa 43:20–21; Rev 21:1 // Isa 65:17. 115  Lyons, “Paul and the Servant(s).” 116  Contra Paul E. Dinter, “Paul and the Prophet Isaiah,” BTB 13 (1983): 48–52 (here 48); Robert F. O’Toole, Luke’s Presentation of Jesus: A  Christology, SubBi 25 (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 2004); 95 n. 211; W. F. J. Ryan, “The Church as the Servant of God in Acts,” Scripture 15 (1963): 110–15. 117 See Beers, Followers of Jesus, 4–5, 116, 134, and the contribution by Beers in this volume. 118 Compare Isa 49:4 (καὶ ἐγὼ εἶπα Κενῶς ἐκοπίασα); 65:23 (οἱ δὲ ἐκλεκτοί μου οὐ κοπιάσουσιν εἰς κενὸν); Phil 2:16 (οὐκ εἰς κενὸν ἔδραμον οὐδὲ εἰς κενὸν ἐκοπίασα).



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sonality,”119 but to argument strategies created in the composition of the book of Isaiah and to social conditions involving early Christian groups who defined their identity in terms of the Isaian servants. Given that the readers of Isaiah surveyed in this project seem to be aware of the wider argument structure in Isaiah 40–66 (and in some cases, also aware of earlier readings of Isaiah than their own), it seems to me that the word “atomistic” is an inadequate label for describing their overall approach to using the book of Isaiah.120 In any case, a simplistic binary approach (“atomistic use” vs. “nonatomistic use”) cannot do justice to the continuum along which authors interact with the context(s) of their source texts. For example, certain elements of Paul’s treatment of Isa 65:1–2 in Rom 10:20–21 (see above under “Techniques of Selection”) can be linked to strictly local-level formal features in these two verses (and to social realities) rather than the larger context of Isaiah 65. Yet as I noted above, Paul then qualifies his reading of Isa 65:1–2 by bringing it into dialogue with a much wider scriptural context – in this case, with Deuteronomy 32 (which shares many lexical and conceptual features with Isaiah) and Isa 59:20–21 + 27:9. Indeed, the way in which Paul uses Isa 65:1–2 along with other Isaian texts about the “Servant(s)” – and the fact that he uses this passage at all! – is evidence that he perceives large-scale cohesion and coherence in Isaiah. The same can be said for the other readers of Isaiah surveyed here. Their uses of Isaian locutions and themes were influenced by a larger argument structure that runs across Isaiah 40–66 (that is, by passages that were already reading the Servant figure as paradigmatic for a later community of servants).121 119  Contra Matthäus Franz-Josef Buss, Die Missionspredigt des Apostels Paulus im Pisidischen Antiochien: Analyse von Apg 13,16–41 im Hinblick auf die literarische und thematische Einheit der Paulusrede (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1980), 138. 120  This was the claim of Cadbury and Hooker, neither of whom looked past the so-called “Servant Songs” to investigate the larger argument structures in Isaiah 40–66; see Cadbury, “The Titles of Jesus in Acts,” 369–70; Morna Hooker, Jesus and the Servant: The Influence of the Servant Concept of Deutero-Isaiah in the New Testament (London: SPCK, 1959), 21–23, 150–52 (see e. g. 114–16 for her analysis of Isaiah in Acts). By “atomistic,” Hooker meant that early Christian authors used individual Isaian words or passages without any reference to their larger Isaian context. Of course, the relationships between source and target texts must be decided on a case-by-case basis; see William A. Tooman, “Scriptural Reuse in Ancient Jewish Literature: Comments and Reflections on the State of the Art,” in Methodology in the Use of the Old Testament in the New: Context and Criteria, ed. David Allen and Steve Smith, LNTS 597 (London: T&T Clark, 2019), 23–39 (here 31–34). But it seems to me that Hooker rejects ab initio the possibility that early readers of Isaiah looked for coherence when engaging the text. On the necessity of moving beyond a search for individual words to a search for how readers perceive larger patterns, see the contribution by Rüggemeier in this volume. 121  See in particular the contribution by Shively in this volume. See also David Seccombe, “Luke and Isaiah,” NTS 27 (1981): 252–59 (here 253, 259): “With respect to Isaiah, did [Luke] use it simply as a quarry for texts or was he influenced by a deeper appreciation of Isaianic themes? Examination of Luke’s Nazareth story and his use of the Servant theme have convinced me that the latter is the case …. I conclude, therefore, with some confidence that in approaching quotations from and allusions to Isaiah there is a presumption in favour of Luke’s awareness of

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3.  The Contributions of this Project What contributions does this volume make to the study of early Judaism and Christianity? First, it fills a lacuna in scholarship by providing a full and rigorous investigation of the reception of the Trito-Isaian “servants of Yhwh” in relation to the Deutero-Isaian “Servant of Yhwh.” While there are numerous important investigations into how later texts made use of the Servant figure in Isaiah 53,122 there are by comparison far fewer investigations of the reception of the Isaian servants.123 This may to some extent be due to the way in which earlier scholarship focused on the so-called “Servant Songs” as a discrete entity apart from the larger Isaian context. Yet a focus on Isaiah 53 or the “Servant Songs” alone cannot adequately explain the interpretations of Isaiah or strategies of community identity formation of the kind we see in Psalms, Daniel, and Wisdom of Solomon. Nor can it adequately explain the origins of early Christian mission and ethics: the failure to study the Servant in connection with the servants in the broader Isaian context (and in context of subsequent Second Temple-period texts that exploited this connection) means that we lose the Isaian logic behind the shared suffering, shared vindication, and shared mission described in the their context and wider meaning within Isaiah as a whole”; Wagner, Heralds of the Good News, 356: “Paul’s citations and allusions to Isaiah are not plunder from random raids on Israel’s sacred texts. Rather, they are the product of sustained and careful attention to the rhythms and cadences of individual passages as well as to larger themes and motifs that run throughout the prophet’s oracles.” 122 Noteworthy studies of the reception of the Isaian Suffering Servant include Hans Walter Wolff, “Jesaja 53 im Urchristentum” (Ph.D. diss., Halle, 1942); idem, Jesaja 53 im Urchristentum: Mit einer Einführung von Peter Stuhlmacher, TVG, 4th ed. (Gießen: Brunnen, 1984); Hooker, Jesus and the Servant; Walther Zimmerli and Joachim Jeremias, The Servant of God, rev. ed. (London: SCM, 1965); Sydney H. T. Page, “The Suffering Servant between the Testaments,” NTS 31 (1985): 481–97; Joel B. Green, “The Death of Jesus, God’s Servant,” in Reimaging the Death of the Lukan Jesus, ed. Dennis D. Sylva, BBB 73 (Frankfurt: Anton Hain, 1990), 1–28, 170–73; Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher, eds., Der leidende Gottesknecht: Jesaja 53 und seine Wirkungsgeschichte, FAT 14 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996) = idem, The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, trans. Daniel P. Bailey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004); William H. Bellinger, Jr., and William R. Farmer, eds., Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998); Anneli Aejmelaeus, “The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 as an Intertext of the New Testament,” in Lux Humana, Lux Aeterna: Essays on Biblical and Related Themes in Honour of Lars Aejmelaeus, ed. Antti Mustakallio, with Heikki Leppä and Heikki Räisänen, Publications of the Finnish Exegetical Society 89 (Helsinki: Finnish Exegetical Society; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005), 475–94; Ulrike Mittmann-Richert, Der Sühnetod des Gottesknechts: Jesaja 53 im Lukasevangelium, WUNT 220 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008); Antti Laato, Who is the Servant of the Lord? Jewish and Christian Interpretations on Isaiah 53 from Antiquity to the Middle Ages (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2012); Genz, Jesaja 53 als theologische Mitte der Apostelgeschichte; Marc Brettler and Amy-Jill Levine, “Isaiah’s Suffering Servant: Before and After Christianity,” Interpretation 73.2 (2019): 158–73. 123  For a survey of earlier research on this theme, see the Introduction to this volume.



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New Testament.124 The essays in this volume prevent a myopic focus on Isaiah 53 as an isolated influence on early Christianity. Second, the comprehensive nature of this project sets it apart from earlier studies. This volume brings together research on Isaiah, Psalms 22, 69, and 102, Daniel, Wisdom of Solomon, Mark, Luke-Acts, Romans, 2 Corinthians, Philippians, 1 Peter, Revelation, and Targum Jonathan on Isaiah. The comprehensive and diachronic nature of this project – as well as the fact that it crosses older disciplinary boundaries125 of “Old Testament” and “New Testament” studies – allows a comparison of texts and enables us to see both unity and diversity in how later readers used the book of Isaiah. Third, this project contributes to our understanding of the history of reading strategies and text-handling techniques in the centuries immediately before and after the beginning of the Common Era. It analyses examples of textual presentation, selection, and modification, as well as the scope of ancient readers’ contextual awareness. The results point to the importance of looking beyond the individual lemmata taken up by a quoting or alluding text to examine the broader contexts of both the source text (or texts!) and the target text. Fourth, the findings of this volume necessitate a reassessment of claims that the Isaian Servant-passages were only of marginal importance to reading communities before the rise of Christianity.126 Of course, the current shape of the book of Isaiah alone should suffice to dismiss such claims. Jacob Stromberg has demonstrated how Trito-Isaiah represents a deliberate development of DeuteroIsaian material, a development which  – as Joseph Blenkinsopp and Willem Beuken have also shown – involved reflection on and extension of earlier passages about the Servant.127 The existence of a Second Temple-period community known as the “servants” (who derived their identity from the Servant) also points 124  For an example of an attempt at explaining Paul’s mission solely in light of the DeuteroIsaian Servant, see Lucien Cerfaux, “St Paul et le ‘Serviteur de Dieu’ d’Isaïe,” in Recueil Lucien Cerfaux II, ed. idem, BETL 6–7 (Gembloux: Duculot; Leuven: University Press, 1954), 439–54. 125  On the artificiality of disciplinary boundaries and the need to overcome them, see Teeter, “The Hebrew Bible and/as Second Temple Literature,” esp. 350–58, 375–77. 126  According to Brettler and Levine, “The servant songs thus did not receive substantial attention in early Judaism until they were adopted and adapted by either Jesus and/or his early followers.” They come to this conclusion on the grounds that “Daniel does not … reuse all the elements of Isa 52:13–53:12” and that “whereas Wisdom shares occasional terms with the song [viz., Isa 53], it offers no consistent treatment”; Brettler and Levine, “Isaiah’s Suffering Servant,” 165. Similarly, Orlinsky claimed that “We have seen that nothing especially significant was attached in biblical times to the so-called ʿebed sections in Second Isaiah; were it not for the theological needs of early Christianity that brought emphasis for the first time to the concept ‘servant’ in Isaiah 52–53, it is altogether doubtful that scholars would subsequently have paid special attention and granted special status to Second Isaiah’s servant passages”; Harry M. Orlinsky, The So-Called “Servant of the Lord” and “Suffering Servant” in Second Isaiah, VTSup 14 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1967), 74. See also Cadbury, “The Titles of Jesus in Acts,” 366. 127  Stromberg, Isaiah After Exile; Blenkinsopp, “The Servant and the Servants,” esp. 170–75; Beuken, “Main Theme.”

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to the importance of these passages. But the evidence from this volume goes even further in showing the influence of the Isaian “Servant(s)” argument on the literary formation of Psalms 22, 69, and 102, Daniel, and Wisdom of Solomon as well as on the social formation of the Jewish communities who read Isaiah and produced these compositions. The fact that the suffering described in Daniel is not depicted as vicarious, or that Wisdom of Solomon does not replicate every sentiment from Isaiah 40–55, can hardly be taken as evidence that the Isaian Servant passages were marginal for later readers. To the contrary, the exegetical practices described above point to a sophisticated and sustained engagement with the book of Isaiah that spanned centuries and involved multiple Jewish reading communities.128 Fifth, this volume serves as a test case for how early Jewish and Christian identity was exegetically constituted. It describes how the presentation of the Isaian Servant(s) was already shaped according to the dynamics of prospective analogy, providing readers with a patterned view of history in which the past served as a template for later generations.129 These readers drew on the Isaian description of God’s agent and the community formed around him, a description that proved to be remarkably influential for shaping readers’ values, hopes, and responses over the course of several centuries. The power of the book of Isaiah for these readers lay in the way it connects suffering, righteousness, and the hope for vindication  – all situated in a larger narrative about God’s transformation of Israel, the nations, and indeed the cosmos itself – and makes these themes formative for reading communities.

Bibliography Adams, Sean A., and Seth M. Ehorn. Composite Citations in Antiquity. Volume One: Jewish, Graeco-Roman, and Early Christian Uses. LNTS 525. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2016. –. Composite Citations in Antiquity. Volume Two: New Testament Uses. LNTS 593. New York: T&T Clark, 2018. Ådna, Jostein. “The Servant of Isaiah 53 as Triumphant and Interceding Messiah: The Reception of Isaiah 52:13–53:12 in the Targum of Isaiah with Special Attention to the Concept of Messiah.” Pages 189–224 in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher. Translated by Daniel P. Bailey. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Aejmelaeus, Anneli. “The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 as an Intertext of the New Testament.” Pages 475–94 in Lux Humana, Lux Aeterna: Essays on Biblical and Related Themes in Honour of Lars Aejmelaeus. Edited by Antti Mustakallio, with Heikki Leppä

128  129 

See also Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book; Hengel, “Effective History.” See the contributions by Teeter and Lyons and by Stromberg in this volume.



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and Heikki Räisänen. Publications of the Finnish Exegetical Society 89. Helsinki: Finnish Exegetical Society; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005. Allen, Garrick V., and John Anthony Dunne, eds. Ancient Readers and their Scriptures: Engaging the Hebrew Bible in Early Judaism and Christianity. AJEC 107. Leiden: Brill, 2019. Bar-Tal, Daniel. Group Beliefs: A Conception for Analyzing Group Structure, Processes, and Behavior. Berlin: Springer, 1990. Barrett, C. K. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles. Volume 1. ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1994. Beers, Holly. The Followers of Jesus as the ‘Servant’: Luke’s Model from Isaiah for the Disciples in Luke-Acts. LNTS 535. New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015. Bellinger Jr., William H., and William R. Farmer, eds. Jesus and the Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998. Bennema, Cornelis. “Early Christian Identity Formation Amidst Conflict.” JECH 5.1 (2015): 26–48. Berges, Ulrich. The Book of Isaiah: Its Composition and Final Form. Translated by Millard C. Lind. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2012. Betz, Otto. “Die Übersetzungen von Jes 53 (LXX, Targum) und die Theologia Crucis des Paulus.” Pages 197–216 in Jesus, der Herr der Kirche: Aufsätze zur biblischen Theologie II. Edited by Otto Betz. WUNT 52. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1990. Beuken, W. A. M. “Isaiah Chapters LXV–LXVI: Trito-Isaiah and the Closure of the Book of Isaiah.” Pages 204–21 in Congress Volume: Leuven 1989. Edited by J. A. Emerton. VTSup 43. Leiden: Brill, 1991. –. “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah ‘The Servants of YHWH.’” JSOT 47 (1990): 67–87. –. “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Interpretation of Isaiah 40–55.” Pages 411–42 in The Book of Isaiah/Le Livre D’Isaïe: Les Oracles et Leurs Relectures Unité et Complexité de L’Ouvrage. Edited by Jacques Vermeylen. BETL 81. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989. Bird, Michael F. Jesus and the Origins of the Gentile Mission. LHBOTS 331. New York: T&T Clark, 2007. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. “A Jewish Sect of the Persian Period.” CBQ 52 (1990): 5–20. –. Isaiah 40–55. A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19A. New York: Doubleday, 2002. –. Isaiah 56–66. A  New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 19B. New York: Doubleday, 2003. –. Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of the Book of Isaiah in Late Antiquity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006. –. “The Servant and the Servants in Isaiah and the Formation of the Book.” Pages 155–75 in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition. Edited by Craig Broyles and Craig A. Evans. VTSup 70/1. New York: Brill, 1997. –. “The ‘Servants of the Lord’ in Third Isaiah: Profile of a Pietistic Group in the Persian Epoch.” PIBA 7 (1983): 1–23. Reprinted as pages 392–412 in “The Place Is Too Small for Us”: The Israelite Prophets in Recent Scholarship. Edited by R. P. Gordon. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1995. Bloomquist, Gregory L. The Function of Suffering in Philippians. JSNTSup 78. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993.

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Ekblad, Eugene R., Jr. Isaiah’s Servant Poems According to the Septuagint: An Exegetical and Theological Study. Leuven: Peeters, 1999. Emerton, J. A. “A Further Consideration of D. W. Thomas’s Theories about yādaʾ.” VT 41.2 (1991): 145–63. Fishbane, Michael. Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel. Oxford: Clarendon, 1985. Fitzmyer, J. A. The Acts of the Apostles: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB. New York: Doubleday, 1998. Freyne, Seán. “The Disciples in Mark and the Maskilim in Daniel. A Comparison.” JSNT 16 (1982): 7–23. Gardner, Anne E. “‫ שׂכל‬in the Hebrew Bible: Key to the Identity and Function of the Maskilim in Daniel.” RB 118.4 (2011): 496–514. Gelston, Anthony. “Knowledge, Humiliation or Suffering: A  Lexical, Textual and Exegetical Problem in Isaiah 53.” Pages 126–41 in Of Prophets’ Visions and the Wisdom of Sages: Essays in Honour of R. Norman Whybray on his Seventieth Birthday. Edited by Heather A. McKay and David J. A. Clines. JSOTSup 162. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993. Genz, Rouven. Jesaja 53 als theologische Mitte der Apostelgeschichte. Studien zu ihrer Christologie und Ekklesiologie im Anschluss an Apg 8,26–40. WUNT II/398. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2015. Gillingham, Sue. “The Poor in the Psalms.” ExpTim 100 (1988): 15–19. Ginsberg, H. L. “The Oldest Interpretation of the Suffering Servant.” VT 3 (1953): 400–404. Glicksman, Andrew T. Wisdom of Solomon 10: A Jewish Hellenistic Reinterpretation of Early Israelite History through Sapiential Lenses. DCLS 9. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2011. Goodrich, John K. “From Slaves of Sin to Slaves of God: Reconsidering the Origin of Paul’s Slavery Metaphor in Romans 6.” BBR 12 (2013): 509–30. Green, Joel B. “The Death of Jesus, God’s Servant.” Pages 1–28, 170–73 in Reimaging the Death of the Lukan Jesus. Edited by Dennis D. Sylva. BBB 73. Frankfurt: Anton Hain, 1990. Hays, Richard B. Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. –. “The Liberation of Israel in Luke-Acts: Intertextual Narration as Countercultural Practice.” Pages 101–18 in Reading the Bible Intertextually. Edited by Richard B. Hays, Stefan Alkier, and Leroy A. Huizenga. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2009. Hempel, Charlotte. “The Community Rule and the Book of Daniel.” Pages 231–52 in The Qumran Rule Texts in Context: Collected Studies. Edited by Charlotte Hempel. TSAJ 154. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2013. Hengel, Martin, with D. P. Bailey. “The Effective History of Isaiah 53 in the Pre-Christian Period.” Pages 75–146 in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Edited by Bernd Janowski and Peter Stuhlmacher. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Henze, Matthias. The Madness of King Nebuchadnezzar: The Ancient Near Eastern Origins and Early History of Interpretation of Daniel 4. Leiden: Brill, 1999. Holladay, Carl R. Acts: A Commentary. NTL. Louisville: WJKP, 2016. Holmberg, Bengt, ed. Exploring Early Christian Identity. WUNT 226. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008. Hooker, Morna. Jesus and the Servant: The Influence of the Servant Concept of DeuteroIsaiah in the New Testament. London: SPCK, 1959.

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Horrell, David G. “‘Becoming Christian’: Solidifying Christian Identity and Content.” Pages 309–35 in Handbook of Early Christianity: Social Science Approaches. Edited by Anthony J. Blasi, Paul-André Turcotte, and Jean Duhaime. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2002. Hurtado, Larry W. “Earliest Expressions of a Discrete Group-Formation among JesusBelievers.” Estudios Biblicos 85.3 (2017): 451–70. Janowski, Bernd, and Peter Stuhlmacher, eds. Der leidende Gottesknecht: Jesaja 53 und seine Wirkungsgeschichte. FAT 14. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1996. –. The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources. Translated by Daniel P. Bailey. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. Jeremias, Joachim. “παῖς θεοῦ.” TDNT 5:677–717. Johnson, Luke Timothy. The Acts of the Apostles. Sacra Pagina. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1992. Johnstone, William. “YDʿ II, ‘Be Humbled, Humiliated’?” VT 41.1 (1991): 49–62. K aminsky, Joel. “A Light to the Nations: Was there Mission and or Conversion in the Hebrew Bible?” JSQ 16.1 (2009): 6–22. Kelhoffer, James A. Persecution, Persuasion and Power: Readiness to Withstand Hardship as a Corroboration of Legitimacy in the New Testament. WUNT 270. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010. Kleinknecht, Karl Theodor. Der leidende Gerechtfertigte: Die alttestamentlich-jüdische Tradition vom ‘leidenden Gerechten’ und ihre Rezeption bei Paulus. WUNT II/13. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1984. Laato, Antti. Who is the Servant of the Lord? Jewish and Christian Interpretations on Isaiah 53 from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2012. Lang, T. J. “Disbursing the Account of God: Fiscal Terminology and the Economy of God in Colossians 1.24–25.” ZNW 107.1 (2016): 116–36. Lester, G. Brooke. Daniel Evokes Isaiah: Allusive Characterization of Foreign Rule in the Hebrew-Aramaic Book of Daniel. LHBOTS 606. New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2015. Levin, Christoph. “Das Gebetbuch der Gerechten: Literargeschichtliche Beobachtungen am Psalter.” Pages 291–313 in Fortschreibungen: Gesammelte Studien zum Alten Testament. BZAW 316. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003. –. “The Poor in the Old Testament: Some Observations.” Religion & Theology 8 (2001): 253–73. Lieu, Judith. “‘I Am a Christian’: Martyrdom and the Beginning of ‘Christian’ Identity.” Pages 223–43 in Neither Jew Nor Greek: Constructing Early Christianity. Edited by Judith Lieu. 2nd ed. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2016. Lyons, Michael A. “Paul and the Servant(s): Isa 49,6 in Acts 13,47.” ETL 89.4 (2013): 345–59. –. “Psalm 22 and the ‘Servants’ of Isa 54, 56–66.” CBQ 77.4 (2015): 640–56. Mallen, Peter. The Reading and Transformation of Isaiah in Luke-Acts. LNTS 367. New York: T&T Clark, 2008. Martin, Dale B. Slavery as Salvation. The Metaphor of Slavery in Pauline Christianity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990. Middleton, Paul. “Suffering and the Creation of Christian Identity in the Gospel of Mark.” Pages 173–90 in T & T Clark Handbook to Social Identity in the New Testament. Edited by J. Brian Tucker and Coleman A. Baker. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014.



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Mittmann-Richert, Ulrike. Der Sühnetod des Gottesknechts: Jesaja 53 im Lukasevangelium. WUNT 220. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008. Orlinsky, Harry M. The So-Called “Servant of the Lord” and “Suffering Servant” in Second Isaiah. VTSup 14. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1967. O’Toole, Robert F. Luke’s Presentation of Jesus: A Christology. SubBi 25. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 2004 Page, Sydney H. T. “The Suffering Servant between the Testaments.” NTS 31 (1985): 481–97. Pervo, Richard I. Acts: A Commentary. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2009. Pesch, Rudolf. Die Apostelgeschichte: Apg. 1–12. EKKNT 5/1. Zurich: Benziger; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1986. Poulsen, Frederik. God, His Servant, and the Nations in Isaiah 42:1–9. FAT 2/73. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014. Rahlfs, Alfred. ‫ ﬠני‬und ‫ ﬠנו‬in den Psalmen. Göttingen: Dieterich, 1892. Riesner, Rainer. Paul’s Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology. Translated by Doug Stott. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. Roloff, Jürgen. Die Apostelgeschichte. NTD. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981. Ryan, W. F. J. “The Church as the Servant of God in Acts.” Scripture 15 (1963): 110–15. Sanders, Jack T. Schismatics, Sectarians, Dissidents, Deviants: The First One Hundred Years of Jewish-Christian Relations. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 1993. Sanders, Seth L. “Performative Exegesis.” Pages 57–79 in Paradise Now: Essays on Early Jewish and Christian Mysticism. Edited by April D. DeConick. SBLSS 11. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006. Sapp, David A. “The LXX, 1QIsa, and MT Versions of Isaiah 53 and the Christian Doctrine of Atonement.” Pages 170–92 in Jesus and the Suffering Servant; Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins. Edited by William H. Bellinger, Jr. and William R. Farmer. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1998. Seccombe, David. “Luke and Isaiah.” NTS 27 (1981): 252–59. Shepherd, Michael B. The Text in the Middle. New York: Peter Lang, 2014. Stargel, Linda M. The Construction of Exodus Identity in Ancient Israel: A Social Identity Approach. Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2018. Still, Todd D., and Natalie R. Webb. “‘A liens’ among ‘Pagans’, ‘Exiles’ among ‘Gentiles’: Authorial Strategy and (Social) Identity in 1 Peter.” Pages 455–72 in T & T Clark Handbook to Social Identity in the New Testament. Edited by J. Brian Tucker and Coleman A. Baker. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014. Stromberg, Jacob. Isaiah After Exile: The Author of Third Isaiah as Reader and Redactor of the Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. –. “Isaiah’s Interpretive Revolution: How Isaiah’s Formation Influenced Early Jewish and Christian Interpretation.” Pages 214–32 in The Book of Isaiah: Enduring Questions Answered Anew. Essays Honoring Joseph Blenkinsopp and His Contribution to the Study of Isaiah. Edited by Richard J. Bautch and J. Todd Hibbard. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. Tajfel, Henri. “Introduction.” Pages 1–12 in Social Identity and Intergroup Relations. Edited by Henri Tajfel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Tajfel, Henri, and John Turner. “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict.” Pages 33–47 in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Edited by William G. Austin and Stephen Worchel. Monterey: Brooks/Cole, 1979.

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Teeter, Andrew. “The Hebrew Bible and/as Second Temple Literature: Methodological Reflections.” DSD 20 (2013): 347–75. Thomas, D. Winton. “A Consideration of Isaiah LIII in the Light of Recent Textual and Philological Study.” ETL 44 (1968): 79–86. Tooman, William A. “Scriptural Reuse in Ancient Jewish Literature: Comments and Reflections on the State of the Art.” Pages 23–39 in Methodology in the Use of the Old Testament in the New: Context and Criteria. Edited by David Allen and Steve Smith. LNTS 597. London: T&T Clark, 2019. Trebilco, Paul. Self-Designations and Group Identity in the New Testament. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. Tucker, J. Brian, and Coleman A. Baker, eds. T & T Clark Handbook to Social Identity in the New Testament. London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2014. Wagner, J. Ross. Heralds of the Good News: Isaiah and Paul in Concert in the Letter to the Romans. Boston: Brill, 2003. Ware, James. “‘The Word of Life’: Resurrection and Mission in Philippians.” Pages 209– 19 in Paul as Missionary: Identity, Activity, Theology, and Practice. Edited by Trevor J. Burke and Brian S. Rosner. LNTS 420. New York: T&T Clark, 2011. White, Joel. “Paul Completes the Servant’s Sufferings.” JSPL 6.2 (2016): 181–98. Williams, Travis B. Persecution in 1 Peter: Differentiating and Contextualizing Early Christian Suffering. NovTSup 145. Leiden: Brill, 2012. Williamson, H. G. M. The Book Called Isaiah: Deutero-Isaiah’s Role in Composition and Redaction. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Windsor, Lionel J. Paul and the Vocation of Israel. How Paul’s Jewish Identity Informs his Apostolic Ministry, with Special Reference to Romans. BZNW 205. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2014. Wolff, Hans Walter. “Jesaja 53 im Urchristentum.” Ph.D. diss., Halle, 1942. –. Jesaja 53 im Urchristentum: Mit einer Einführung von Peter Stuhlmacher. TVG. 4th ed. Gießen: Brunnen, 1984. Wright, Brian J. Communal Reading in the Time of Jesus: A Window into Early Christian Reading Practices. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2017. Zakovitch, Yair. “The Book of the Covenant Interprets the Book of the Covenant: The ‘Boomerang Phenomenon.’” Pages 59*–64* [in Hebrew] in Texts, Temples, and Traditions: A Tribute to Menahem Haran. Edited by Michael V. Fox et al. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1996. Ziegler, Joseph, ed. Isaias. Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum Auctoritate Academiae Scientiarum Gottingensis editum XIV. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1983. Zimmerli, Walther, and Joachim Jeremias. The Servant of God. Revised edition. London: SCM, 1965.

Contributors Dr. Holly Beers is Associate Professor of Religious Studies at Westmont College Dr. Holly J. Carey is Professor of Biblical Studies at Point University Prof. Dr. Volker Gäckle is Rector and Professor of New Testament at Internationale Hochschule Liebenzell Dr. Mark S. Gignilliat is Professor of Divinity at Beeson Divinity School, Samford University Dr. Sheree Lear is Assistant Professor of Old Testament at North Central University and a Research Associate of the Department of Ancient and Modern Languages, University of Pretoria Dr. Michael A. Lyons is Lecturer in Old Testament at University of St Andrews Dr. Jan Rüggemeier is Wissenschaftlicher Assistent at Universität Zürich Dr. Elizabeth E. Shively is Senior Lecturer in New Testament at University of St Andrews Dr. Jacob Stromberg is Visiting Lecturer in Hebrew Bible/Old Testament at Duke University Divinity School Dr. David Andrew Teeter is Professor of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament at Harvard Divinity School Dr. William A. Tooman is Senior Lecturer in Hebrew Bible/Old Testament at University of St Andrews Dr. James P. Ware is Professor of Religion at University of Evansville

Index of References Hebrew Bible Genesis 1 88, 96 1–3 88 1–9 91 1:1 87 1:12 78 1:26–28 91 1:27 96 2:5 90 2:7 110, 113, 319 2:8 77 2:9 78 2:10–12 77 2:14 66, 111 2:16–17 77 2:21 111 2:23 111 2:25 77–78 2:27 96 3 88, 112 3:1–7 77 3:6 78, 111 3:6–7 77–78 3:6–15 88 3:7 78 3:8–10 111 3:10–11 78 3:14 88 3:14–15 113 3:17 91 3:17–19 111 3:18 90, 113 3:19 111, 113 3:21 78 3:23 77 5:24 138 5:28–29 91 5:29 90

6 104 6–8 112 6:5 90–91, 93 6:5–6 90–91, 104 6:6–7 102 6:9 91 6:12–13 89, 93 6:17 89, 93 6:19 89, 93 7:3 91, 102–104 7:6–9 93 7:11 112 7:16 89, 93 7:19 90 7:21 89, 93 8 104 8:1 103 8:2 90 8:4 92–93, 112 8:6 103 8:9 112 8:17 89, 93 8:20 281 8:20–21 90–91 8:21 93, 102–103, 104, 252 8:21–22 91 8:22 93 9 90–91, 104 9:1–7 90–91 9:9 91, 102 9:9–17 91, 93–94 9:11 89, 93 9:13–16 93 9:15–17 89, 93 9:16 90, 112 9:18–21 92 9:18–27 91 9:20–21 112

376 10 93 10:5 93 10:20 93 10:31 93 11:30 75 12:1–3 220 12:2 321 15:1 95 15:5 113 17 75, 104 18:12 75 19 103, 113 19:13 103 19:34 103 20:17–21:2 101 21:22 95 22 19, 32 22:1–2 19 22:12–14 19 22:17 19, 105, 113, 245 24:60 105 25:21–22 101 26:4 113 26:24 95 27:41–45 102 28:4 105 29:31–30:25 100 30:2 101 30:22–24 103 30:23 100 30:25 100 31:3 95 32:11–13 100 32:12–13 102 33:5 100 43:22 101 44:18 323, 359 46:3–4 95 47:14 101 48:21 95 49:11 301, 306 49:24 98 50:19–21 104 50:20–21 101 Exodus

1–2 29 1:13, 14 99, 306

Index of References

1:15–2:15 26 3:6 23 3:10 23 3:11 24 3:12 306 3:12–15 23 3:15 30 3:16 17 3:23 17 4:1 30 4:1–9 24, 29 4:1–17 17 4:6 30 4:10–15 24 4:12 23, 29 4:15 23, 29 4:23 306 4:31 306 5:1 17 6:9 26 6:12 24 7:13 26 7:14–18 17 9:2 17 12:1 28 12:11 99 14:11–12 26 14:31 172 15:23–25 17 15:24 18, 26 16:2–3 18, 26 16:19–20 26 16:32 17 17:1–4 18 17:1–6 17 17:2–4 26 17:3–4 18 17:7–13 17 18:15–16 17 19–34 19 19:2 19 19:3–8 17 19:10 306 19:14 306 19:21–24 19 20:18–21 19 21:1 17 21:29 175



22:22 320 23:6 320 23:7 220 23:20 159–160 24 171 24:1–5 19 24:8 146 24:11 19 28:38 282 28:39 263 28:39–43 304 28:42–43 78 28:43 282 29:5 302 29:18 262 29:25 262 29:41 262 30:11–16 175 32–34 19 32:1 26 32:6 19 32:9–11 18 32:11–14 17, 25, 31–32 32:13 19 32:30–32 17, 25, 31–32 32:31–32 31, 230 32:32 18–19, 31 33:3 32 33:12–16 32 34 171 34:1 32 34:6–7 34 34:29–30, 35 19 40 171 Leviticus

5:1 282 5:14–26 179 5:17 282 7:18 181 14:20 281 16:14 322 18:1–5 17 18:29 310 19:7–8 17, 27 19:8 282 19:15 320 19:34 320

Hebrew Bible

20:19–20 282 21:5 27 21:20 310 22:8 27 22:19 282 24:15 282 25:35 320 25:55 173 Numbers

1:7 29 4:24 263 5:6 179 5:31 282 9:6–14 17 9:13 282 11:1–2 17, 25, 31 11:10–15 18 11:25 17 11:25–26, 29 30 12:1 18 12:1–2 27, 30 12:2 17 12:5–8 17 12:7 17, 172 12:13 17, 25, 31 14:1–10 18 14:9 18 14:10 27, 30 14:11 18, 20 14:11–12 18 14:13–19 17, 25, 31 14:13–20 18 14:18 34 14:26–35 18 14:33–35 282 15:30 310 16 18 16:1–3 27, 30 16:12–14 27, 30 16:20–22 18, 31 16:20–24 17, 25 16:20–27 26 16:22 18, 26 16:28–33 17 16:41–42 27, 30 17:6–7 18 17:9–10 18

377

378 17:11–15 18 18:1 282 18:22 282 20:2–5 18, 26 20:10 20 20:12 20, 32 20:24 20 21:4–5 26 21:5 18 21:7 17, 25, 31 24:17 285 27:12–14 20 27:17–23 21 Deuteronomy

1:26 32 1:27 32 1:32 20, 32 1:34 34 1:34–35 32 1:37 18, 20, 28, 32 1:43 32 3:23–27 20, 28 3:26 18, 20 4:1 29 4:5 29 4:9–10 17 4:14–18 17 4:16 29 4:21 18 4:21–22 20, 28 4:29 34 4:31 20 4:40 17, 31 5:16 31 5:33 31 6:1 29 6:2 31 6:21 173 7:8 176 9 34 9:7, 8 34 9:18–29 17, 25 9:19 34 9:22 34 9:25–29 34 9:26 178 10:10 17

Index of References

10:18 320 11:8–9 31 13:6 178 15:15 178 16:3 99 18:15 171–172, 285 18:15–19 17, 21, 23, 28, 37, 172 18:18 23–24, 29 21:8 176 21:23 281–282 22:7 31 23:1 310 23:12–14 27 24:14–19 320 24:18 176 25:15 31 29:3 21, 33, 209 29:28 22 30:1–9 28 30:3 283 31 22 31:16–21 19, 28, 32 31:24–29 19 31:27 28, 32 31:29 28, 32 32 32, 35–36, 97–98, 358, 363 32:6 224, 358 32:8 358 32:9 358 32:9–13 97 32:15 97 32:15–30 28, 32, 35 32:21 358 32:25 97 32:29 98 32:31 20 32:36 21, 29, 32, 35–37, 342, 358 32:39 97 32:43 21, 28–29, 32, 35–37, 98, 233, 302, 358 32:47 31 32:48–52 20, 28 33 37 33:1 17 33:5 97 33:26 97



34:1–6 28 34:4–5 20 34:5 17, 29, 172–173 34:7 30 34:9 21 34:10 17 Joshua

1:1, 2, 7, 13, 15 17 8:31 17 9:24 17 11:12, 15 17 12:6 17 13:8 17 14:6, 7 17 22:2 17 22:4, 5 17 24:14–15 342 Judges

18:19 322 1 Samuel

2:11 263 18:30 321 2 Samuel

7:14 300 18:18 310 19:19 235 1 Kings

1:4, 15 235 8:52 173 9:33 322 10 81 10:22 82 13:1 17 17:18 17 19:21 235 2 Kings

2–4 17 4:7 17 7:23 176 17:23 17, 25 18:12 173 19:37 92

Hebrew Bible

21:8 173 21:10–15 25 23:26–27 25 24:3–4 25 Isaiah

1–39 106, 108 1:2 122 1:14 323 1:17 320 1:24–26 329 2:3, 4, 6 177 2:9 323 2:11–13, 17 327 3:10 124 5:1–7 168 5:14–16 327 5:23 220 6 109 6:1 72 6:10 167, 283 6:11 25 6:5–10 23–24 6:9–10 21, 25, 33, 166–167, 170, 195, 203 7 132 7:5–7 108 7:11–13 27 7:17 109 8 109 8:6–8 83–87, 89, 92–94, 107–108 8:7 87, 177 8:8 113 8:9 201 8:9–10 86 8:10 108 8:11–18 23 8:14 209 8:14–15 109 8:15 177 8:16 71 8:16–17 83 8:17 27 8:18 24 9:1–6 87 9:5–6 221 10:2 320

379

380

Index of References

10:22–23 231 10:23, 25 109 11 81–82, 92, 234–235 11:1 82, 108 11:1–8 332 11:1–10 190, 234 11:1–16 221, 331 11:2 81, 222 11:2–4 145 11:4 320 11:6–9 88, 92, 227 11:6–10 81 11:10 233–234 11:10–12 82 11:17–25 358 13:4 177 14:26–27 110 14:31 108 17:6 332 17:12 177 17:13 177 17:12–14 86 20:2–3 27 20:3 29, 318 22:20 318 22:20–23 309 22:22 303 22:23 310 24–27 112–113 24:5 112 24:13 332 24:18 112 24:22 177 25:7 113 25:7–8 303 25:10–11 113 26 112 26:6 321 26:9 320 26:19 68–69, 113 26:19–20 112 27:1 113 27:2–6 112 27:4 113 27:6 113 27:9 358, 363 28:14 27 28:16 209

29:6–8 86 29:18 33 29:22–24 106 30:1–2 330 30:9 122 30:9–11 17 30:17, 25 177 30:27–33 83–84, 86, 89 30:28, 30 86 30:31 85 30:31–33 86 32:3 33 32:7 320 32:15 222 32:17 221 33:23 177 35:5 33 35:5–7 272 35:10 230 36:21 148 36:22 161 37:1 161 37:3–32 93 37:7–9 109 37:31–32 92 37:33 318 37:36–38 109 37:38 92 38:10, 11, 17, 18 109 40 152 40–48 95, 98, 122, 245 40–53 244, 249, 268 40–55 2, 5–8, 10, 37, 45, 49, 51, 60–62, 70, 83, 88, 96, 98–99, 101, 123, 176, 179, 189–191, 214, 243, 255, 260–261, 267–268, 295, 361, 366 40–66 2, 7, 9, 29, 32, 35, 45, 47, 50, 54–55, 58–59, 69, 72, 75, 95, 105–106, 120, 143–144, 154–155, 157, 166, 173, 179, 182, 191, 211, 244, 247, 260, 262, 264, 342, 346, 355, 362–363 40:1 357 40:1–2 101



Hebrew Bible

40:2–3 163 40:3 144, 152, 159–161, 163, 361 40:5 161 40:7–8 59 40:9 144, 352 40:9–10 160, 163 40:10 77, 123, 166 40:27 244 41:8 95, 191 41:8–9 70, 260 41:8–10 94–95, 245, 318 41:14 176 41:17 55–56 41:22 98 42 128, 161, 190 42:1 30, 33, 70, 94, 96, 121, 132, 144, 154–155, 161, 168, 191, 249, 341 42:1–4 128, 139 42:1–5 165 42:1–6 133 42:1–7 318–321 42:1–9 259–260 42:3 30 42:4 29–30, 289 42:6 29, 68, 95, 128, 134, 200, 203, 233, 261, 289 42:6–7 30 42:7 30, 33, 78, 244 42:8 30 42:9–12 333 42:16 170–171 42:17 331 42:18–19 170 42:18–20 165 42:18–24 332 42:18–25 33 42:19 192, 332 42:19–24 94 42:21–22 96 42:21–25 33, 176 42:22 165 42:24 165, 170 43:1 165, 176 43:1–7 88, 334 43:3–4 175

381

43:5 249 43:8 33 43:10 70, 98, 318–319, 345 43:12 345 43:14 176 43:16 170 43:16–21 88 43:19 170 43:21 59 43:25 220 44:1 191 44:1–2 70, 121, 318 44:1–3 96–97 44:1–8 88 44:2 97 44:8 97, 345 44:18 33 44:20 124 44:21 70, 121, 318 44:23 50, 55, 95 44:24 176 44:26 54, 70, 121, 318, 331 45 266 45:1 191 45:1–7 340 45:4 70, 121, 191, 249, 318, 320 45:11 193 45:17 55 45:18–19 95, 97 45:19 249 45:22 50, 55 45:22–23 265 45:23 353 45:25 249 46:4 323 46:8 330 46:13 54 47 75 48:1 166 48:6 245 48:17–19 221 48:19 166 48:20 70, 191, 201, 331 48:21 161 48:21–22 97 49 190, 197, 236, 307, 337 49–55 76, 78, 87, 95

382

Index of References

49:1 29 49:1–6 246, 249, 257, 260, 301 49:1–13 246 49:2 301 49:3 70, 95, 121, 123, 166, 191, 245, 301, 318 49:4 55, 137, 257, 320, 362 49:4–5 202 49:4–6 197 49:5 46, 307 49:5–6 95, 123, 166, 191 49:5–7 70 49:6 58, 69, 95, 121, 129, 134, 195, 197, 200–202, 204, 233, 236, 245, 261, 268–269, 289–290, 299, 301, 306–308, 311, 332, 353, 357, 362 49:6–7 196–197, 331 49:7 30, 55, 350 49:8 55, 244, 246, 251, 307, 356 49:9 59 49:10 307 49:12 100 49:13 58 49:15 121–122 49:23 55, 310 49:24 145 49:24–25 165, 178 49:24–26 166 49:26 98, 160 50 138, 148, 155, 166, 170, 190, 304, 346 50:2 166 50:4 29, 172, 344 50:4–6 180 50:4–9 133, 138 50:4–11 71, 83, 260, 344 50:6 30, 148, 150, 170, 163, 166, 344 50:6–7 55 50:6–9 202 50:7–9 55, 224 50:7–10 224 50:8 138 50:8–9 36 50:9 71, 138, 351

50:10

70, 121, 166–167, 172, 249, 290, 321, 331, 344 50:10–11 95 51:1 166 51:1–3 95 51:1–8 71 51:3 77, 87, 89 51:3–5 74 51:4 68, 83, 166, 320 51:4–5 58 51:6 59–60, 71 51:7 166 51:8 71 51:9–10 150 51:10 68 51:11 230 51:12–16 321 51:16 29 51:17–23 172 51:19 56 52–53 120, 125–129, 132, 136–138, 233, 337 52:1 313 52:3 287 52:4 287 52:5 209 52:6–7 162–163 52:7 232, 250, 341, 352–353, 359, 362 52:8 287 52:10 55, 58, 334, 357 52:12 99 52:13 5, 36, 55, 68, 70, 121, 123, 132, 137, 154–155, 199, 321, 325 52:13–15 67, 177 52:13–53:12 69–70, 99, 106–107, 126, 128, 132, 147–148, 150, 155, 256–260, 318, 321, 325–326, 328–329, 331–332, 340 52:14 78, 95, 327 52:14–15 138, 356 52:15 67, 177, 233, 236, 320, 327 53 8–9, 31, 33, 35–36, 45, 50, 78, 126, 130, 134, 143–147, 149–151,



Hebrew Bible

155, 163, 170, 175–176, 189–190, 199, 202, 210, 218–219, 221, 243, 248, 251, 259, 265, 273, 277, 279–282, 284–286, 289, 291, 330, 359, 361–362, 364–365 53:1 5, 250, 283, 325, 353 53:1–6 133, 199 53:2 78, 95, 126, 133, 135, 327 53:2–3 72 53:2–12 344 53:3 30, 31, 78, 123, 134, 320, 325, 327 53:3–4 30, 138, 154, 350 53:4 126–127, 133–134, 137, 219, 256, 277, 281, 325, 327, 334, 346, 359–360 53:4–6 261, 282, 346 53:4–12 289 53:5 220, 277, 283, 349 53:5–6 31, 283 53:6 21, 31–32, 72, 133, 138, 147, 170, 180, 216, 218, 323, 325, 350 53:7 30, 31, 128, 148, 281, 289, 320, 327, 357, 359 53:7–8 194, 356 53:7–9 199 53:8 31, 68, 320, 325 53:9 68, 127, 281, 308 53:10 30, 31, 50, 72, 138, 154, 175, 203, 245, 247–248, 260, 290, 295, 334, 344, 350, 356, 358 53:10–11 31, 33, 45, 58, 70–71, 91, 248, 250–251, 268, 340 53:10–12 3, 32, 146, 173, 199, 218, 228, 250, 335 53:11 6, 31, 67–69, 72, 121, 123, 154, 177, 223, 247, 262, 320, 342, 348–349, 360 53:11–12 31, 67, 137, 277, 281, 283

53:12

383

31–32, 36, 55, 72, 87, 101, 137, 147, 169–170, 176–177–178, 180, 191, 194–195, 201, 203, 216, 218–219, 224, 319, 325, 332, 349–350, 359 53:12–15 67 53:13–14 221 54 7, 10, 45, 50–51, 60–62, 73, 87, 89–90, 94, 101, 129, 300, 337, 361 54–55 75, 82, 92–93 54–66 173, 249, 251, 268, 291 54:1 79, 94 54:1–3 72, 135, 250 54:1–10 103–104 54:1–17 248 54:3 105, 300 54:4 55 54:7–10 90 54:8 82 54:8–9 59, 82–83 54:8–10 58, 75, 89, 91–92, 100 54:10 73, 74–75, 82, 88 54:11 71 54:13 71, 82 54:14 33, 36, 51 54:15–17 55, 331 54:16–17 3 54:17 4, 33, 36, 45, 51, 54, 58, 70, 123, 153, 190, 192, 243, 247–248, 261, 300, 334, 339, 343, 359 55 75, 80–81, 83, 90, 202–203, 290 55–56 229 55:1 101, 300 55:1–5 200 55:3 2, 73, 77, 88, 90, 202–204, 300 55:3–5 75, 77, 91 55:4 200 55:4–5 77 55:5 74–75, 81, 218, 232, 296 55:6 56, 310 55:6–7 34–35, 75, 231 55:6–9 80 55:7–9 90, 101

384

Index of References

55:8–9 170 55:12 90 56 309, 333, 335 56–66 2, 5–7, 10, 33, 45, 50–51, 54, 60–62, 70, 96, 174, 179, 189–190, 218, 228, 243, 261, 337, 344, 361 56:1–2 351 56:1–8 34, 193, 202 56:2 133 56:3–5 310 56:3–8 198, 308, 356 56:4–5 129, 135 56:4–7 333 56:5 310, 312 56:6 33, 45, 54, 58, 70, 123, 133, 153, 193, 264, 296, 341 56:6–7 55, 263–264 56:6–8 59, 79, 221, 218, 338, 341, 344, 348, 358 56:7 193, 262–263 56:8 229, 309 56:9–63:6 248 56:11 72 56:14 361 57 71–72, 76, 130, 138, 152, 299 57–59 76, 97 57:1 33, 36, 46, 51, 134, 138, 153, 180–181, 202, 308, 340, 342–343 57:1–2 55, 129–130, 136, 138, 290, 344, 350–351 57:1–13 261 57:3 362 57:3–4 71, 248, 330 57:4 308 57:3–13 130 57:7 72 57:8 344 57:13 54, 76 57:14–21 153 57:15 49, 56, 59, 72, 76, 357 57:16–17 59 57:18 76 57:19 218, 222

57:21 97 58 97 58–59 75 58:6 198 58:7–9 75 58:9 55 58:11 77 58:11–14 97 58:12 58 58:14 97 59 130, 134 59:1 166 59:1–3 87 59:3–4 308 59:7 130 59:7–8 209 59:8–9 75 59:9–15 358 59:9–20 249 59:9–21 261 59:10 170 59:13–15 308 59:15–17 139, 358 59:15–18 301 59:15–20 59 59:16 130, 325 59:16–18 351 59:16–19 130 59:17 124, 130, 362 59:17–18 36 59:19 59 59:19–21 96–97, 139 59:20 330 59:20–21 358, 362, 363 59:21 33, 45, 54, 58, 70, 153, 218, 222, 249, 296, 308, 340, 357 60 75, 77, 81, 313 60–61 87 60–62 34, 82, 234 60:1 75, 181 60:1–2 304, 313 60:1–3 74 60:1–4 180 60:1–63:6 248, 291 60:2 58 60:3–16 313 60:5–7 178



Hebrew Bible

60:6 81, 221, 232 60:9 74–75, 77, 81 60:10 59, 78 60:12 193 60:13 79 60:14 309–310 60:14–22 321 60:16 79 60:16–17 178 60:17 221 60:18 75 60:19–17 222 60:20 76 60:21 76, 78, 82 61 76, 78, 109, 198, 309 61–63 305 61:1 59, 77, 154, 180, 222, 334, 352 61:1–2 194, 198, 352, 357 61:1–3 76 61:1–4 153, 180 61:2 36 61:3 33, 36, 76 61:4 58 61:6 36, 79, 178, 263–264, 304, 334 61:6–7 77 61:8 77 61:8–9 33, 70, 153, 218 61:9 36, 45, 54, 58, 77, 296, 306, 309, 311, 334, 340 61:10 302–304 61:10–11 78 61:11 78, 308, 334 61:13–15 33 61:23 76 62 313 62:1 302, 304 62:1–3 261 62:2 304, 312–313 62:10–12 82, 153 62:11 201 63 301 63:1 301 63:1–3 261 63:1–6 59, 100, 102, 301, 305 63:7–64:11 34, 102 63:9 35

385

63:11–12 35 63:11–13 35 63:13–15 35, 290 63:16 131, 307 63:16–17 224 63:17 34–36, 70, 123, 307, 360 63:19 160–161 63:19–22 261 64:4 59 64:5 34–35, 302, 305–306 64:8 34–35, 59 65 36, 96, 227, 332, 363 65–66 34–35, 81, 87, 102, 231, 311, 351 65:1 35, 56, 137, 209, 231 65:1–2 34, 231, 307, 358, 363 65:1–7 305, 338 65:1–9 80 65:1–15 348 65:2 231 65:5 136, 153 65:6 35, 332 65:8 35, 45, 54, 58, 192–193, 306, 344, 360 65:8–9 70, 123, 153, 296, 341 65:8–10 33, 45, 80, 305, 307, 331 65:8–11 51 65:8–16 79, 261, 343–344, 351 65:9 33, 45, 54, 56, 58, 70, 95, 97, 105, 153, 218, 225, 249, 296, 311, 339–340, 344, 357, 360 65:9–10 35, 55 65:9–16 86 65:9–17 60 65:9–25 79 65:10 35, 56, 134 65:11–15 139 65:12 338 65:12–15 36 65:13 35, 45, 54–55, 58, 174, 360 65:13–14 51, 218 65:13–15 51, 70, 123, 153, 296, 341 65:13–17 137, 153, 180–181, 250, 331 65:14 45, 54, 58, 360

386 65:15

Index of References

33, 45, 54, 58, 249, 251, 340, 360 65:15–16 88, 310, 312 65:16 88 65:17 59, 250–251, 301, 350 65:17–18 88, 95 65:17–25 227 65:19–24 344 65:20–23 290 65:23 33, 54–55, 58, 70, 218, 229, 296, 340, 344, 362 65:24 55 65:25 81, 92, 95, 229 66 79, 83, 89, 93, 97, 107, 228, 235–236, 308 66:1–2 195 66:1–7 333 66:1–15 348 66:1–16 333 66:2 5, 33, 56, 79, 228, 333–334, 350 66:4 34, 36, 307, 338 66:4–6 219 66:5 5, 33, 36, 46, 51, 55, 79, 135, 153, 202, 333–334, 338, 347, 359–351, 356 66:5–24 79 66:7–14 79, 86 66:7–24 103 66:8 309 66:10 79 66:10–14 86, 89 66:10–16 84–85 66:12 79, 83 66:12–14 332 66:14 33, 45, 51, 54–55, 58, 70, 123, 139, 153, 193, 296, 339, 341, 348, 360 66:14–16 84 66:15–16 86 66:15–18 93 66:16 89 66:18 23, 59, 308, 311, 344 66:18–19 55, 312 66:18–21 198, 231, 233, 235, 309 66:18–23 46, 354 66:19 51, 229, 233, 236, 309 66:19–21 82, 313

66:20 93, 235 66:20–24 107 66:21 70, 345 66:22 33, 45, 54, 58–60, 70, 159, 218, 296, 301, 340 66:22–23 93, 227 66:23 51, 55, 312 66:24 348–349 Jeremiah

1:4–14 29 1:6–7 24 1:7, 8 23 1:9 24, 29 1:11–14 24 1:17 23 1:18 23 5:21 33 6:10 27 6:27–30 329 7:1–7 29 7:16 25 7:25 29, 229 7:25–26 168 7:27 27 9:6–8 329 11:11 25 11:14 25 11:19 31 11:19–21 27 12:6 25, 39 14:7–9 25 14:10–12 25 14:19–22 25 15:1–3 25–26 15:10 27, 30 15:11 31 15:15 27, 30–31 15:15–18 27 15:16 24 15:18 31 15:20 23 17:8 322 17:15 27 17:18 30 18:18 27 18:18–23 25 18:20 27



20:1–2 27, 30 20:7, 8 27 20:18 31 25:4–6 25 25:15 172 26:7–11 30 29:26–27 27 30:9 342 31:9 224 31:20 220 36:5–7 25 36:23–34 27 37:2 27 37:11–16 30 37:13–14, 18 27 37:27 27 38:1–6 30 38:15 27 38:28 27 40:1 30 40:1–5 27 43:1–7 27 44:15–19 27 46:20 77 51:27 92 Ezekiel

1:1 30 1:1, 3 27 1:4 304 1:7 111 1:13 304 1:24 303–305 1:27–28 304 2:3–4 23, 28 2:4 23 2:6 23 2:7 23–24 2:8 24 2:8–3:4 24, 26–27 3:1 23 3:4 23 3:4–6 23–24 3:7 28 3:8–9 23 3:11 23, 27 3:12 28 3:14 24, 28

Hebrew Bible

3:15 27 3:22 28 3:26 28 3:26–27 26–27 4–5 26 4:3 24, 27 4:4–6 27 4:8 28 4:9–11 27 4:9–13 27 4:12–15 27 5:1 27 8:1, 3 28 8:18 25 9 311 9:3–4 311–312 9:4 309 9:8–10 26 10:20 111 11:13 26 11:14–20 26 12:1–11 27 12:2 33 12:6, 11 24, 24 12:17–19 27 14:12–21 25–26 18:20 282 22:17–22 329 23:31–34 172 24:15–18 28 24:15–24 27 24:24 24, 27 24:25–27 26 24:27 24 27 93 27:31 303 33:21 27 33:21–22 26 33:30 30 34:5–6 283 34:12 284 34:14–16 279 36:16–32 26 43:2 303 Hosea

11:8–9 220

387

388

Index of References

Joel

2:32 232 Amos

3:7

17, 229

Jonah

1:3 236 4:6 349 Habakkuk

2:1–3 285 2:15–16 172 Zephaniah

3:9 342 3:13 308 Zechariah

3:1–5 303, 305 3:4 302 9:9 150 12:10 334 Malachi

3:1 144, 159–160 3:1–5 329 3:2–3 324 3:13–21 5 Psalms

2 161, 299–300 2:7 161, 300 2:8–9 299–300 2:9 300 6:4 25 6:7–8 52 9:8 57 13:2 25 15:8–11 202 17:50 233 21:2 360 21:7–9 360 21:19 360 22 7, 9, 45, 47–51, 56, 58– 62, 146, 153–154, 214, 221, 345, 349, 354–356, 360–361, 365–366

22:2–11 47 22:2–22 47 22:3 61 22:7 48, 161, 168, 202 22:7–9 51, 62, 343, 349–350 22:9 356 22:9–12 49 22:13–14 48 22:13–19 47, 51, 349 22:16 49–50 22:17 48 22:17–19 343 22:19 49 22:21–22 48 22:22 48–50, 61 22:23 61 22:23–25 49 22:23–32 47 22:25 61, 339, 350 22:27 61–62, 339 22:27–28 49 22:28 50–51, 352, 362 22:28–32 47, 51, 60, 222 22:30–31 50, 60, 362 22:31 49–51, 61, 340, 352 22:32 51, 352 29:3 283 29:10 57 30:2 283 32:6 52 34:7 339 35:11–12 52 35:19–20 52 35:27 221 37:11, 14 339 38:20 52 40:3 52 40:5 283 40:7–9 53 40:13 52 41:4 283 43:23 357 44:23 357 48:7–10 236 49:4–5 202 49:13 56 50:6–9 202 50:7–14 53



Hebrew Bible

50:23 53 51:18–19 53 53 202 54:11 56 57:1 202 57:8–12 48 60:7–14 48 60:7–15 48 61:1 56 66:5 202 68 146 68:10 360 68:36 224 69 7, 9, 45, 47, 51–62, 214, 221, 345, 349–350, 354–355, 360–361, 365–366 69:5 55 69:7 55 69:7–11 55 69:8 52 69:8–9 55 69:8–13 55, 62, 343, 347, 349–350 69:10–11 52 69:18 55, 61 69:20–21 52 69:30 61 69:33 61–62 69:33–34 56, 61, 339 69:34 61 69:35–37 56, 60–61, 222, 352 69:36–37 54, 62, 348, 362 69:37 61, 340 71:8–10 236 71:18 50 72:3 221 72:7 221 73:2 176 74:10 25 75:8 172 76:15 176 77:42 176 79 59 79:2 130 79:11 59 80:5 25 85:11 221

389

88:6 48 88:11–13 48 89:47 25 90:13 25 100:6 235 101:29 224 102 7, 9, 45, 47, 55–62, 214, 221, 349, 354–355, 361, 365–366 102:2–12 56 102:3 61, 283 102:4 62, 176 102:5 59 102:11 59 10:12 59, 62 102:13–23 56, 58 102:14–23 348 102:15 60–61, 340 102:16 59, 352 102:17–18 61 102:19 222 102:20–22 59, 61 102:22–23 222, 352 102:23 59 102:24 62 102:24–29 56 102:26–29 60–61 102:29 56, 58, 60–62, 340 103:3 283 105:10 176 106 34 106:2 176 106:5 34 106:9–10 34 106:19–23 18 106:23 34 106:32–33 34 108 48 110:1 126, 202 115:17 48 116:1 233 116:15–16 130 119:17 45 119:82 52 124:4–5 52 132:2 98 135:13 57 141:2 53

390 147:6 339 Job

1:17 5:8 228 14:14 96 20:29 284 21:5 322 28:22 277 29:9 322 30:8 277 40:4 322 Proverbs

10:4 173 22:7 275 30:32 322 Ruth

2:13 101 Lamentations

4:21–22 172 Esther

1:10 173 2:2 173 4:17 228 6:3, 5 173 Daniel

1:3–4 345 1:4 111–112 1:6 345 1:17 111–112, 345 2:28 181 3 132 3:12–23 345 3:24–30 345 3:26 340 3:28 345 3:28–30 352 3:29 354 5:11 345 5:11–12 111 5:14 111, 345 6 132 6:2–17 345

Index of References

6:11–14 350 6:21 340 6:22–28 345 6:25–27 354 6:26–29 352 7 113, 163 7:8 111 7:13–14 174 7:14 171, 175 7:17 109 7:18 339 7:21–22 339 7:22 163 7:27 339 9:3 285 9:20–21 362 9:22–27 285 9:23 78 9:24–27 175 9:26 229 9:26–27 109 9:27 181 10 66 10:4 66, 111, 113 10:6 111 10:14 66 11 107, 112 11–12 66, 69, 106, 109, 112, 219, 354 11:4 66 11:10 68, 108 11:10–11 111 11:14 68 11:18 68 11:18–19 109 11:22 108 11:26 68, 108–109 11:28 107 11:30 66, 107 11:31 181 11:32 107 11:32–35 349 11:33 154, 177, 228 11:33–34 68, 219 11:33–35 66, 109, 340 11:33–12:10 154 11:36 109 11:39 68

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha



11:40 108 11:44 68 12 4, 69, 107, 112, 192, 214, 223 12:1 181, 219 12:1–3 109, 219, 345, 349 12:1–4 349 12:2 111–112, 347, 362 12:2–3 106, 110, 258, 342, 351 12:2–4 66, 68, 177, 340 12:3 6, 68, 113, 123, 154, 219–220, 222–223, 226, 228, 258–260, 267–268, 341, 345, 348, 352, 361 12:4 67, 219, 349 12:6–13 285 12:10 68, 177, 220, 340 12:11 181 12:12 181 12:13 111–112, 222, 226 12:44–45 109

391

Ezra

8:35 287 10:10, 19 179 Nehemiah

1:6 342 1:10 176, 342 8:1–8 355 9:4 333 10:3 333 1 Chronicles

17:21 176 21:1 235 2 Chronicles

7:14 283 16:10 22 17:19 235 22:8 235 22:20–22 22 35:16 281

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha 1 Esdras 5:7 287 Tobit

3:1 230 4:14 342 14:5–7 137 2 Maccabees

2:28 279 7 123, 137 4 Maccabees

9:17 173 Wisdom of Solomon

1–5 349 1–6 124–125, 127, 131 1:1 352 1:1–15 124–125 1:5 133

1:12–16 124 1:16 132–133 2 120, 124–125, 127–128, 131–132, 134, 136 2–5 119, 121, 138, 140, 259–260, 268 2:1–20 124–125 2:6–10 134 2:10 121, 341–342, 349 2:10–12 134 2:10–20 345 2:11 133 2:12 121, 124, 133, 341–342, 360 2:12–16 350 2:12–20 134, 349 2:12–5:13 258–259 2:13 121, 131, 359–360 2:16 121, 131–132, 341–342 2:17–18 359

392 2:18

Index of References

121–122, 126, 128, 132, 341–342 2:19 360 2:19–20 136 2:21 133 3–4 121, 125, 127–128, 130 3:1 126, 128, 342 3:1–3 222, 350–351 3:1–9 121, 219, 221, 341, 345 3:1–10 347 3:1–4:19 214 3:2 219, 349 3:2–3 128, 134 3:3 221 3:4 219 3:5 219 3:5–6 137 3:6–9 128 3:7 228 3:8 221 3:8–9 128 3:9 132, 221–222 3:10 121, 126, 341 3:11 133 3:13 122 3:13–14 135 3:13–4:6 128, 135 3:16 130 4:1 122 4:6 122 4:7 121, 126, 341–342, 351 4:10 138 4:11 136 4:15 128, 132 4:16 121, 126, 139, 341–342 4:16–20 348 4:17 136 4:18 360 4:19 128, 138–139 4:20 360 5 120, 124–125, 127, 129, 131–132 5:1 121, 126, 137–138, 341–342, 352, 360 5:1–3 125 5:1–5 345 5:1–7 134 5:1–14 251

5:1–15 348 5:1–23 128 5:2 259, 351 5:3–4 138 5:3–7 133 5:4 359–360 5:4–13 125 5:5 137 5:6–7 138 5:7 259 5:8–13 127, 134 5:15 121, 341–342 5:15–16 345 5:15–20 130, 351 5:17–20 139 5:18 124 5:20 130 5:23 138 6:1–21 124–125 6:17–19 133 7:14 133 9:4 122 9:5 122 11:23–12:2 352 12:7 122 12:10–11 352 12:20 122 15:7 122 15:10 124 16:10 122 16:21 122 17–18 134 18:1 134 18:4 122, 134 18:9 122 18:11 122 18:13 122 19:6 122 19:14 122 31:6 230 Sirach (Ben Sira)

2:1 342 35:6 262–263 47:22 234 1 Enoch

1:2 285



Qumran Material

1:8 221 5:7, 9 285 10:17 221 11:2 221 38:3 145 46:4 145 58:4 221 62:3 145 105:1 228 105:2 221

2 Enoch

Psalms of Solomon

T. Jud.

2 Baruch

T. Mos.

1:4 201 8:15 236 57:2 230

50:3–5 281 Sibylline Oracles

3.194–195 228 3.385–395 234 3.573–600 137 T. Gad

6:7 281 24:5–6 234 25:1–5 137 10:1–10 137

Qumran Material CD (Damascus Document) 1.19 220 8–10 170 12.23 162 13.9 177 15.5 177 15.17 162 16.8–9 177 1QHa

4.14 342 5.24 9 12.23 154 13.28 9 15.5–6 154 15.10 9 16.26–27 154 18.29 9 23.15–16 352 1QM

12.2–5 162 13.10–11 162 14.9 162

1QpHab

7.1–8 285 1QS

1.11–12 162 1.21–22 162 2.19 162 3.13 340 3.21–25 162 5.21 230 6.1 162 6.6–8 355 6.8 162 6.8–9 340 6.11–12 162 6.14 162 6.18 230 6.19–20 162 7.10, 13 162 8.11–16 355 8.12–16 361 1QSb

5.21–26 234

393

394

Index of References

4Q161 (4QpIsaa)

8–10.iii.11–22 234 4Q169 (4QpNah)

3+4 1.1–8

282

4Q398

14–17 230 4Q427

7.II.7–9 155

4Q171

4Q491

4Q174 (4QFlor)

4Q521

2.9–10 339 1.11 234 4Q285

5.1–6 234 4Q381

33 342 35.5–6 342

11.I 155 2.ii.1–12 352 2.ii.6, 12 339 11Q13 (11QMelch)

2.9, 18–20 352 2.11–12 162 2.15–16, 23 352 11Q19

64.7–12 282

Philo and Josephus Philo De Abrahamo 98 228 Legum allegoriae

3.43 284 De praemiis et poenis

126 230 De somniis

1.91 284

De virtutibus

64 279 Quod Deus sit immutabilis 64 275 Josephus

Antiquitates judaicae 1.127 236 10.9.4 172 Contra Apionem

2.218 137 2.291–295 228

Graeco-Roman Works Aristotle Ethica nicomachea 1156b29–30 236 1162b7–8 236 Rhetorica

3.14.7 237

Cebetis Tabula

10:1–2 230 26:2 230 27:4 230 Digesta

4.5.2.2 225

15.1.42 225 Dio Chrysostom

Chryseis 14.10 275 Epictetus

Diatribai 3.22, 53

395

New Testament



28

Gaius

Institutiones 3.84 225 4.38 225 Marcus Aurelius

Meditations 6.30 281

Plato

Res publica 553 A

279

Pliny the Elder

Naturalis historia 35.21 226 Plutarch

De capienda ex inimicis utilitate 90D 281 Galba 21 172 Xenophon

Memorabilia 2.7.1 236

New Testament Matthew 3:16 233 5:3, 5 339 5:43–48 281 6:25–33 288 8:16–17 346 8:17 257 8:19–22 288 8:20 288 9:36 283 10:4 217 10:6 283 10:5–15 288 10:38 279 11:9 160 11:29–30 289 12:18 161 12:28–34 288 13:15 167 13:17 285 15:24 283 16:24 279 20:28 175, 257 22:34–40 288 23:16 228

23:24 228 23:34 288 23:34–36 288 24:9 222 26:62–63 280 26:63 279 27:12–14 280 27:43 132 Mark

1:1 159, 352 1:1–3 144, 355 1:1–13 155, 159–163 1:2–3 178 1:2–5 361 1:7 160, 166, 178 1:10–11 168 1:11 144–145, 161, 171 1:14 163 1:14–15 167, 352 1:16–20 164 1:16–8:21 147 2:7 163 2:13–14 164 2:18–22, 23–28 164

396

Index of References

3:13–21 164 3:20–25 166 3:20–35 156 3:21–22 181 3:22 167 3:22–30 17 3:24 167 3:27 145, 165, 178 3:28–29 167 3:30–35 164 4 156 4:2 167–168 4:3–8 166 4:9 169 4:10 167 4:11 167–168 4:12 167, 169, 170 4:23 169 4:33 169 4:33–34 168 4:35–41 150 4:42 163 6:2–3 163 6:14–16 163 7:14 169 8:14–21 169–170 8:22–26 171 8:22–52 156 8:22–10:45 147, 169–170,173 8:27 163 8:27–33 171 8:29 163 8:31 170, 180, 346 8:31–32 171 8:34 279 8:34–38 178, 278, 346 8:35 179 8:38 169, 174, 179 9:7 171 9:12 147, 170 9:18–19 169 9:28, 29 169 9:31 146–147, 170, 180, 217, 349 9:33–37 170 9:48 362 10:28–31 169, 351 10:31 166

10:32–34 170, 172 10:33 147, 170, 180, 217 10:34 170 10:38–39 349 10:38–45 346 10:39 347, 350 10:42–45 170, 349 10:43–45 173–174 10:45 143, 146–148, 150–151, 168, 170, 175–178, 257, 342, 360 10:46–16:8 147 11:1–11 150 11:17 355, 362 12:1–11 168 12:10–11 169 13 156, 181 13:4 178 13:5–23 178 13:5–37 179 13:9 180–181, 349 13:9–13 180, 343 13:10 179 13:10–11 348, 353 13:11–12 349 13:19 222 13:24–27 171, 178–179 13:34 222 14–15 166 14:9 353 14:10 217 14:21 217 14:22 146 14:24 146, 150 14:36 281 14:41 217 14:53–65 181 14:58 169 14:60–61 280 14:61 148–150, 181 14:62 171 14:65 148, 150, 181 15:1 217 15:1–5 181 15:4–5 281 15:10 217 15:15 217 15:34 360

New Testament



16:15 Luke

248, 353

1:8 200 1:16–17 283 1:22 200 1:23 263 1:38–48 193 1:68 175 2:25 357 2:25–32 357 2:29–32 353 2:30–32 8, 348 2:32 195, 200 2:38 175 3:4–6 355 3:15 200 3:22 8, 191, 341 4 198 4:16–21 352 4:17–19 355 4:18–19 190, 194, 357 4:24 201 4:28–29 201 5:32 200 6:13 200 6:20 339 6:20–21 203 6:20–26 153, 351 6:22 343, 349 7:27 160 7:58 200 8:10 167 9:11 192 9:22 201 9:23 279 9:44 201 9:57–62 288 10:1–16 288 10:7 288 10:24 285 10:39 200 10:41 200 11:48 201 11:49–51 288 12:22–31 288 12:42 192 12:50 172

397

13:16 194 13:31 200 13:43 194 13:50 194 14:25–35 289 16:14 194 16:27–31 288 17:4 194 17:17 194 18:31–33 201 19:46 193, 355 21:12, 17 349 22:15 200 22:19–20 199 22:20 200 22:28–30 348, 351 22:22–23 351 22:37 191, 194–195, 201, 355 23:9 280 23:46 281 23:47 342 24:21 175 24:27 355 24:44–47 355 24:47 199 24:48 201 26:16 200 John

1:29 257, 281, 346 6:45 362 7:24 233 8:46 280 8:56 285 9:40–41 228 10:11 174 10:11–16 284 10:15 174 10:16 354 10:51–52 354 12:38 355, 357, 360 12:40–41 286 12:41 285 13:15 289 13:36 279 15:12–13 350 15:13 174 15:18–21 343, 347

398 16:22 362 16:33 348 17:14–16 343, 347 18:19–38 280 19:9 280 19:10–11 280 19:11 217 19:16 217 19:24 360 19:28–30 360 21:19 279 21:19–21 278 21:21 279 Acts

1:8

9, 200–201, 346, 352–353 1:15 353 2:18 193 2:25–28 202 2:34–35 202 2:44–45 288 3 196 3:13 217, 257, 341 3:14 342 3:19 283 3:20–21 203, 348 3:23 203 4–7 203 4:25 196 4:27 341 4:29 342 4:30 341 5:30 281 5:40–41 350 6:13 200 7:35 175 7:49–50 195–196, 362 7:52 342 7:58 200 8:12 353 8:25 353 8:25–40 352 8:26–35 356 8:27–33 356 8:28 355 8:32–33 194 8:32–35 257

Index of References

8:34 10, 337 8:40 348, 353 9:3 356 9:13 339 9:15–16 8–9, 352 9:16 201, 343, 350, 362 9:32 339 9:35 283 9:41 339 10:36 232, 353 10:36–43 353 10:39 281 11:21 283 13 201–202, 204 13:1–3 288 13:17 287 13:29 281 13:32 348, 353 13:33 202, 300 13:33–34 300 13:34 300 13:43 202 13:46–47 196, 352 13:47 195, 201, 236, 290, 353, 355–356, 362 13:48 198, 202 14:7 353 14:15 283, 353 14:21 353 14:22 202 15:7 353 15:19 283 15:19–20 353 16:10 353 16:10–17 193 16:16–18 357 16:17 196 17:3 278 17:11 355 18:2 221 18:26 221 20:24 353 20:28 199 22:14 342 23:6 203 24:15 203, 342 26:6–7 203 26:13 356



New Testament

26:15–23 353 26:16–18 352 26:18 283, 353 26:20 353 26:23 9, 195, 203, 351–352– 353, 362 28:20 203 28:26–27 195 Romans

1:1 229, 235, 342 1:5 235 1:7 339 1:15 348, 353 1:16 354 1:18–3:21 220 1:29–30 229 2:1 229 2:19 228 2:17–29 230 2:19–22 229 2:24 209, 233 3:2 230 3:13–14 229 3:15–17 209 3:19–20 229 3:22–23 220 3:26 342, 348 4:1 220 4:1–24 216, 220 4:12 279 4:23–24 285, 290 4:25 210, 216–219, 221, 224, 278 4:25–5:11 28, 222–224, 226–227, 232–233, 237, 257, 260 5:1 220–221, 230 5:1–11 219 5:3 350 5:6 220, 278 5:8 220, 360 5:9–10 227 5:10 217 5:19 223, 228, 342, 348, 360 6:4 283 6:6 225 6:9 222 6:11 283

399

6:13–14 283 6:13–23 225 6:17, 20 225 7:25 225 8 225, 228, 233 8:14–17 224, 226, 237 8:16–17 225 8:17 348–351, 357 8:18–30 226, 237 8:19–22 227, 237 8:31–34 224 8:31–39 226, 237 8:32 210, 216–217, 223–224, 227–228 8:33 225 8:35 222, 227 8:36 357 8:39 228 9–11 212, 216, 229, 231–233, 235 9:1–4 229 9:3 230 9:20 209 9:26 224 9:27 209 9:27–28 231 9:29 209 9:32 230 9:33 290 10 229, 238 10:1–4 230 10:4 230 10:11–12 231 10:12 228 10:12–21 353 10:13–15 230, 232 10:15 209–210, 233, 341, 356, 359, 362 10:16 209, 231, 260, 353 10:17 231 10:18–19 229 10:19 358 10:20–21 209–210, 230–231, 358, 363 11:1 229, 358 11:1–6 231 11:5 231 11:8 209, 231

400

Index of References

11:11 231, 358 11:13 229, 231 11:26–27 209, 358, 362 12:10 236 12:17–20 281 13:11 222 14:1–15:13 233 14:11 209 15 216, 233, 237–238 15:1–3 350 15:3 289, 360 15:7–13 233 15:7–33 211 15:4 285 15:10 358 15:10–11 234 15:12 209, 233 15:14 237 15:14–21 233, 235 15:14–24 236 15:15 235 15:16–21 354 15:19–21 353 15:20–21 260 15:21 209, 233, 236, 356, 360 15:22–33 233 15:24 235–236 15:25, 26 339 16:3 221 1 Corinthians

4:16 288 7:26 222 9:4–18 288 10:1–4 284 10:11 285, 290 11:1 278, 288 12:13 284 15:2–5 217 15:3 257, 278 15:3–4 260 15:17 218 15:54 264 15:58 222, 257 16:19 221 2 Corinthians

1:3–7 347

1:4–5 351 1:5 347, 349 1:5–7 346, 350 1:6 278, 350 1:7 222 1:9–10 251, 351 3:16 284 4:5 342, 346, 353 4:7–12 347 4:8–11 343 4:10 251, 347, 349 4:11 346–347, 349 4:13–14 251 4:14 222, 346, 351 4:15 278 4:16 251 5:6 222 5:11 222 5:14 346 5:14–15 251, 278 5:14–6:10 244, 246, 262 5:15 217 5:17 250–251 5:18–20 346, 353 5:19 348 5:20 251 5:21 251, 280, 346, 348 6:1–2 353 6:1–5 346 6:2 236, 244, 251, 356 6:3–10 251 6:4 342 6:4–5 236, 343 6:9 251 6:18 224 8:8–9 278, 289 9:10 362 12:15 278 12:18 279 13:4 289 Galatians

2:16 222, 230 3:13 281–282 3:26 224 3:28 284 4:6 224 4:8 222



New Testament

4:22–31 284 Ephesians

2:17 232 3:9 342 5:2 174, 281 5:25 174, 281 6:5 275 6:8 284 Philippians

1:1 229, 339, 342 1:1–2 267 1:5 346, 348, 353 1:6–8 267 1:7 346, 348, 353 1:11 267, 348 1:12–18 353 1:18 353 1:19 351 1:27 348 1:28 257–260, 268, 351, 361 1:28–29 343, 348 1:29 278, 350 1:29–30 346–347, 350 2:1–8 349 2:3–11 250 2:5 279, 346 2:5–8 278, 289 2:5–11 350 2:6 266 2:6–9 256 2:6–11 255–260, 265–268, 282 2:7 341 2:7–8 349 2:7–9 353, 361 2:9 257 2:9–10 353 2:9–11 265 2:10–11 348 2:11 266 2:13–14 267 2:15 224, 348, 361 2:15–16 257–260, 267–269 2:16 236, 362 2:17 235, 263–264 2:19 267

401

2:19–24 266 2:19–30 267 2:22 348, 353 2:25 235, 263–264 2:25–30 266 2:29 267 2:30 263–264 3:3 267 3:7–11 267 3:10 267, 289, 347, 349–350 3:10–11 267, 351 3:12 267 3:17 288 3:20–21 266–267 4:1–2 267 4:3 348 4:4 267 4:5 257–260, 267–268, 361 4:6 267 4:10 267 4:13 267 4:14 347, 350 4:18 262–264, 348 4:21 267 4:23 267 Colossians

1:15–20 282 1:24 278, 346 3:11 284 3:16 236 3:18–4:1 274 3:22 275 4:1 275 1 Thessalonians

1:4 174, 222 1:6 278–279, 288 1:9 284 2:20 174 3:3 222 5:11 236 5:15 281 2 Thessalonians

2:18 233 3:7, 9 288

402

Index of References

1 Timothy

1:17–19 288 2:6 174 2:8–15 274 3:16 282 4:13 355 5:3–8 274 6:1 275 6:1–2 274 2 Timothy

3:16–17 355 4:17–18 51 Titus

2:2–10 274 2:9 275 2:12 283 2:14 174–175 3:1–9 274 Hebrews

1:5 300 3:5 192 4:15 280 7:26 280 7:27 281 9:12 175 9:21 263 9:28 281 10:11 263 11:13–16 285 11:26 286 11:13–16 290 13:12 278 13:13 278–279 13:15 281 13:20 284 James

2:21 281 1 Peter

1:1 273–274, 275, 286–287 1:2 276 1:3 282 1:3 287 1:3–5 284

1:6 274, 277 1:7 351 1:10 276 1:10–12 284–285, 290 1:11 286 1:13 276, 287 1:14 284 1:15 277, 283 1:17 287 1:18 175, 284 1:20 295 1:21 287 2:4–10 276, 286 2:9, 21 277 2:9–10 284, 286 2:10 285 2:11 274, 286–287 2:11–5:11 274 2:12 274, 283 2:13 275 2:14 283 2:15 274–275, 283 2:16 275, 342 2:17 275 2:18 275 2:18–25 273–274, 286–287, 290–291 2:18–3:8 274 2:19–20 276, 350 2:19–21 274 2:19–25 349 2:20 283, 347, 349 2:21 9, 278, 282, 287–288, 346–347 2:21–23 279, 350 2:21–25 8, 257, 279, 285, 289 2:22–24 280 2:23 274 2:24 348–349 2:25 283 3:1, 2 283 3:5 287 3:6 283 3:7 276 3:9 274, 277, 281 3:11 283 3:11–13 283 3:13 274



New Testament

3:13–14 351 3:13–17 274 3:14 280, 283, 349, 351 3:14–17 274 3:15 287, 353 3:16 274, 283 3:17 277, 283, 349–350 3:18 278, 283, 342, 350 3:18–22 277 3:21 285, 349 4:1 346, 350 4:4 274 4:6 353 4:10 276 4:12–14 277, 343 4:12–19 274, 347 4:13 347, 349–350 4:14 233, 274, 280, 350 4:15–16 350 4:16 274 4:17–18 348 4:19 283, 347 5:1 351 5:5 276 5:8–10 274 5:9 274, 347 5:9–10 277 5:10 276–277, 284, 348, 351 5:12 276 1 John

3:5 257, 280 3:16 174 4:9 283 Revelation

1:1 296, 342 1:5–6 297 1:6 296, 304 1:9 296, 309, 313, 346–347, 349, 353 1:13 302 1:15 304 2:7 310 2:10 274 2:11 310 2:13 274 2:17 297, 310

2:18–29 350 2:20 297, 342 2:26 310 2:26–28 296, 299 2:27 301 3:1–4 305 3:4–5 302, 349 3:5 310 3:7 303 3:7–13 309 3:9 309–310 3:12 297, 310 3:14 310, 312 3:21 296, 310 4:1–8 304 5:5 233, 306, 310 5:6 298 5:9 302, 311 5:10 298 5:13 313 6:9 299, 302, 313, 353 6:9–11 297, 343, 348–350 6:10 302 6:10–11 351 6:11 309, 342 6:13 200 7 307 7:3 297, 342 7:3–4 312 7:4 311 7:4–9 313 7:9 302, 305 7:13–14 297, 302, 305, 349 7:14 298, 306 7:16–17 307 7:17 284 7:58 200 11:18 297, 351 12:5 299 12:11 310, 313, 350, 353 14 309 14:1 311–312 14:1–5 297 14:2 303 14:4 288 14:5 308 14:12 311 14:13 351

403

404

Index of References

15:2 310 15:3 297 17:14 305, 310–311 18 305 18:1 303 18:23 304 18:24 299 19 301–302 19:2 297, 342 19:5 297 19:6 305 19:6–10 304 19:7–8 301–302, 349 19:8 303–304 19:10 297 19:11–20 305 19:15 299, 301, 304 19:19 303

20:4 313, 353 21 354 21:1 301, 348 21:1–7 350 21:2 313 21:4 303 21:6–7 300 21:7 310, 348 21:24–27 313 21:25 306 22:2 192 22:3 342 22:3–4 312 22:4 211 22:6 297, 342 22:9 296–297 22:14 306

Early Christian Works Barnabas 5.13 281 8.5 281 12.11 281 19.5–7 274

Didache

1 Clement

5,6 347

5:6 277 5:7 279 16 257 16:17 217, 278–279 21:6–8 274 33:8 279 54:3 277 56:2 236 2 Clement

17:2 236 Clement of Alexandria

Paedagogus 1.9 [84.2] Stromateis

5.8, 49

279

4.9–11 274 11.3 288 12.3–13.1 288 Diognetus Ignatius

To the Ephesians 12.2 279 To the Romans

6.1 217 To Polycarp

4.1–6.2 274 Justin

Apologia i 50–51 267 Dialogus cum Tryphone

13 257 32 257 102.5 280

Martyrdom of Polycarp

22.1 279 Origen

Contra Celsum 2.34 280 Polycarp

Babylonian Talmud

8:1 281 8:1–2 279 9:2 217 Tertullian

Adversus Marcionem 4.14 351

To the Philippians 4:2–6:1 274

Babylonian Talmud Baba Metzi‘a 112a 325 Sanhedrin

98b 334

Sotah

14a 29

405

Index of Authors Aageson, James W. 212 Abelson, Robert P. 213 Achenbach, Reinhard 22, 23, 25, Achtemeier, Elizabeth 4, 119, 120, 190 Achtemeier, Paul J. 275, 276, 277, 278, 281, 282, 284, 285, 286 Adams, Edward 179 Adams, Sean A. 361 Ådna, Jostein 317, 321, 343 Aejmelaeus, Anneli 364 Ahearne-Kroll, Stephen P. 150 Albrecht, Ralf 281 Alkier, Stefan 211 Allen, David 150 Allen, Garrick V. 303, 355 Allen, Leslie 52 Allison, Dale C., Jr. 23, 339 Alobaidi, Joseph 30 Anderson, Bernhard W. 99 Ashby, Godfrey 195 Assmann, Aleida 214 Assmann, Jan 214 Aster, Shawn Zelig 87 Aus, Roger D. 235 Aytoun, Robert 317, 325 Baer, David A. 193, 194 Bailey, Daniel P. 67, 192, 194, 341 Baker, Coleman A. 338 Baltzer, Klaus 29, 30, 31 Bar-Tal, Daniel 344 Barrett, C. K. 145, 173, 174, 175, 201, 342 Barthel, Jörg 85, 86 Barthélemy, D. 256 Barton, John 151 Barton, Stephen C. 179 Battenfield, James 324 Bauckham, Richard 266, 305, 313, 314, 366 Bautch, Richard J. 35

Beale, G. K. 298, 299, 301, 302, 303, 306, 310, 311 Bean, George E. 236 Becker, Joachim 47, 50, 51, 54, 55, 58 Beentjes, Pancratius C. 6, 119, 120, 124, 129, 130, 136, 138, 214 Beers, Holly 7, 155, 156, 189, 190, 195, 196, 197, 198, 201, 261, 290, 341, 354, 362 Bellinger, William H., Jr. 146, 364 Ben Zvi, Ehud 16, 17 Bengel, Johann Albrecht 228 Bennema, Cornelis 338, 343, 347 Berges, Ulrich 5, 7, 31, 34, 35, 46, 47, 54, 56, 58, 198, 200, 202, 222, 319, 358 Bergmsa, John 190 Betz, O. 145, 317, 321, 330, 341 Beuken, W. A. M. 5, 33, 36, 45, 51, 54, 55, 59, 70, 71, 76, 77, 94, 119, 123, 133, 137, 139, 153, 179, 180, 190, 191, 193, 202, 203, 234, 243, 247, 248, 249, 250, 260, 261, 268, 289, 290, 291, 295, 296, 298, 299, 304, 307, 308, 309, 314, 317, 333, 334, 340, 341, 344, 345, 346, 348, 350, 358, 365 Bezzel, Hannes 30 Bird, Michael F. 354 Blank, Sheldon 25, 30, 31 Blenkinsopp, Joseph 5, 6, 7, 29, 33, 46, 47, 51, 54, 59, 72, 88, 90, 91, 96, 119, 120, 121, 123, 130, 131, 139, 151, 153, 155, 156, 165, 177, 180, 182, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 198, 235, 243, 261, 263, 268, 287, 289, 295, 296, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 317, 319, 330, 334, 339, 340, 343, 344, 345, 346, 350, 351, 365, 366 Block, Daniel L. 28 Bloomquist, Gregory L. 347 Boase, Elizabeth. 347 Bockmuehl, Markus 266

408

Index of Authors

Boda, Mark J. 25 Bolt, Peter G. 161, 162 Bortolussi, Marisa 213 Bosshard-Nepustil, Erich 90, 104, 105, 112, 113 Botner, Max 159 Breed, Brennan 67, 338 Bremer, Johannes 56 Bremmer, Jan N. 236 Brettler, Marc 364, 365 Breytenbach, Cilliers 278, 279, 281, 282, 283 Briggs, C. A. 49, 50, 54, 56, 61 Briggs, E. G. 49, 50, 54, 56, 61 Broadhead, Edwin K. 161 Brooke, George J. 1, 155 Brown, Ken 338 Brown, Michael J. 229 Brox, Norbert 275, 276, 277, 278, 282, 283, 284 Broyles, Craig C. 54 Brunert, Gunild 58 Budde, Karl 32, 91 Bultmann, Rudolf 217, 282 Buss, Matthäus Franz-Josef 363 Byron, John 342 Cadbury, Henry J. 10, 144, 189, 342, 363, 365 Caird, G. B. 296, 307, 311, 314 Calvin, John 61 Carey, Holly J. 124, 126, 360 Cavallin, Hans C. C. 154 Cerfaux, Lucien 257, 365 Chapple, Allan 236, 285, 286, 287 Chazon, Esther 361 Childs, Brevard S. 5, 25, 234, 243, 246, 247, 261, 263, 268 Chilton, Bruce D. 256, 317, 325 Clements, R. E. 23, 29, 33, 81, 234, 344 Coats, George W. 31 Cohen, Menachem 61 Cole, R. Alan 169 Collins, Adela Yarbro 171, 175, 178 Collins, John J. 9, 108, 113, 154, 155, 258, 300, 343 Combes, Isobel A. H. 342 Comblin, José 295, 299

Conrad, Edgar W. 200 Conzelmann, Hans 199 Cook, John Granger 221 Cornill, C. H. 21, 32 Cranfield, C. E. B. 220, 221, 237, 282 Dahood, Mitchell 324 Dalman, Gustaf H. 6, 124, 214, 219 Davies, Philip R. 1, 343 Davies, W. D. 339 Day, John 6, 67, 349 De Andrado, Paba Nidhani 19, 32 De Roo, Jacqueline C. R. 230 De Troyer, Kristin 121, 122, 132 Delitzsch, Franz 322 Dell, Katharine J. 31 Denis, Albert-Marie 257 Dim, Emmanuel Uchenna 5 Dinter, Paul E. 8, 362 Dixon, Peter 213 Doble, Peter 202 Dodd, Brian J. 256 Dodd, C. H. 144 Dohmen, Christoph 346 Doležel, Lubomír 210 Dowd, Sharyn 173, 175 Driver, S. R. 49, 50, 97 Duff, Paul B. 311 Duhm, Bernhard 3, 30, 47, 49, 119, 190 Dunn, James D. G. 217, 230, 232 Dunne, John Anthony 355 Eco, Umberto 158, 213 Eder, Jens 213, 215 Edwards, J. Christopher 174 Egan, Patrick T. 351 Egger-Wenzel, Renate 338 Ehorn, Seth M. 361 Ekblad, Eugene R., Jr. 161, 173, 177, 178, 194, 341 Eliot, T. S. 252 Elliger, Karl 4, 319 Ellis, E. Earle 209 Emerton, J. A. 67, 349 Emmott, Catherine 216 Eschner, Christina 278 Evans, Craig A. 233 Ewald, Heinrich 3



Index of Authors

Farley, Fred A. 30 Farmer, William R. 146, 364 Farnsworth, Ward 248 Fekkes, Jan 295, 298, 301, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 313 Feldmeier, Reinhard 275, 276, 279, 280, 281, 284 Fewster, Gregory P. 256 Finnern, Sönke 209, 212, 215 Fischer, Georg 31 Fishbane, Michael 32, 90, 91, 93, 97, 99, 114, 334, 340 Fitzgerald, John T. 227 Fitzmyer, Joseph A. 191, 342 Flanagan, Neal 266 Fletcher-Louis, Crispin H. T. 179 Fludernik, Monika 163 Ford, J. Massyngberde 307, 309 France, R. T. 143 Freyne, Seán 349 Gäckle, Volker 277, 281, 286 Gardner, Anne E. 343, 345 Gärtner, Judith 5, 83 Gaston, Lloyd 230 Gelin, A. 49 Gelston, Anthony 349 Gemoll, Wilhelm 282 Genz, Rouven 189, 195, 199, 200, 201, 342, 364 Gerstenberger, Erhard S. 56 Gese, Hartmut 287 Gignilliat, Mark 7, 8, 153, 180, 243, 245, 251, 262, 289, 291 Gilbert, M. 259 Gillingham, Sue 56, 339 Ginsberg, H. L. 6, 154, 214, 219, 340 Glicksman, Andrew T. 343 Gnilka, Joachim 177 Goldingay, John 248 Goodrich, John K. 342 Goppelt, Leonhard 282, 287 Gosse, Bernard 32 Gray, Timothy C. 179 Green, Joel B. 364 Greenberg, Moshe 26 Gregerman, Adam 134 Greimas, Algirdas J. 215, 219, 222

409

Grelot, Pierre 256 Grillo, Jennie 68, 69 Grimm, W. 175 Groenewald, Alphonso 7, 23, 51, 52, 54, 56, 60, 62, 222 Grossman, Maxine L. 1 Guelich, Robert 159 Gundry, Robert 159, 160 Gunneweg, A. H. J. 30 Haag, Herbert 192 Habel, Norman 22, 23, 25 Hagermann, Harald 317, 321 Hahne, Harry A. 227 Hall, Stuart 1, 114 Hansen, G. Walter 258, 263, 266 Hanson, Paul D. 4, 191 Harland, Philip A. 236 Harmon, Matthew 7 Harvey, John D. 226 Hatina, Thomas 150 Hawthorne, Gerald F. 266, 267 Hays, Christopher B. 68 Hays, Richard B. 144, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 209, 211, 212, 348, 357 Head, P. M. 159 Heilig, Christoph 209 Hempel, Charlotte 340 Hengel, Martin 67, 143, 192, 194, 209, 258, 341, 366 Henze, Matthias 107, 111, 340 Herman, David 158, 213 Herzer, Jens 287 Hesse, Franz 33 Hibbard, J. Todd 113 Hidal, Sten. 32 Hill, David 282 Hofius, Otfried 228, 287, 317 Holladay, Carl R. 342 Holladay, William L. 191 Holmberg, Bengt 338 Holtz, Traugott 191, 257 Hooker, Morna 10, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 173, 174, 175, 195, 216, 363, 364 Horrell, David G. 338 Hossfeld, Frank-Lothar 49, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57

410

Index of Authors

Hübner, Hans 212 Hugenberger, G. P. 29 Huizenga, Leroy Andrew 15 Hurtado, Larry W. 338 Idestrom, Rebecca G. S. 23 Irsigler, Hubert 48, 50 Janowski, Bernd 145, 249, 260, 364 Jarrard, Eric X. 19 Jeppesen, Knud 5 Jeremias, Joachim 143, 144, 145, 195, 259, 317, 321, 343, 364 Jipp, Joshua W. 202 Johnson, Luke Timothy 342 Johnstone, William 349 Joseph, Alison L. 338 Juel, Donald 15 Jülicher, Adolf 217 Kaiser, Otto 234 Kaminsky, Joel 345 Karrer, Martin 303 Keesmaat, Sylvia C. 227 Keiser, Thomas A. 32, 98 Kelhoffer, James A. 347 Kim, Hyun Chul Paul 19, 32, 36 Kim, Johann D. 229 Kimball, Charles A. 198 Klein, Anja 99 Kleinknecht, Karl Theodor 345, 346, 349 Knibb, Michael 258 Knierim, Rolf P. 17 Knight, George A. F. 190 Knohl, Israel 154, 155 Koch, Dietrich-Alex 212 Koch, Klaus 317, 330 Koet, Bart J. 198, 201 Köhler, Wolfgang 33 Kohn, Risa Levitt 23 Kolarcik, Michael 137 Kooij, Arie van der 36, 192, 194, 317 Koole, Jan L. 6, 249 Körting, Corinna 61 Kowalski, Beate 304 Kraetzschmar, Richard 32 Kraft, H. 310 Kratz, Reinhard 1, 83, 101, 113, 319

Kraus, Hans-Joachim 48 Kraus, Wolfgang 151 Kuenen, Abraham 3 Kugel, James L. 151 Kurylowicz, Marek 225 Kurz, William S. 266 Laato, Antti 9, 364 Lang, T. J. 347 Lau, Wolfgang 2, 73 Lauterbach, Jacob Z. 28 Le Déaut, R. 331 Leeuw, Venantius de 4 Leonard, J. M. 247 Lessing, R. Reed 262 Lester, G. Brooke 68, 107, 340 Levenson, Jon D. 19, 32 Levin, Christoph 339 Levine, Amy-Jill 364, 365 Levine, Étan 317 Lewis, David 213 Lieu, Judith 347 Lincicum, David 1 Liss, Hanna 1 Litwak, Kenneth D. 195 Lohmeyer, E. 263 Lohse, Eduard 282 Longenecker, Bruce W. 210 Luz, Ulrich 288 Lyons, Michael A. 7, 8, 50, 70, 153, 154, 179, 191, 195, 214, 222, 232, 261, 289, 290, 299, 356, 362 Macaskill, Grant 8 MacDonald, Nathan 79 Machinist, Peter 87, 92 Maier, Michael P. 93 Malbon, Elizabeth Struthers 173, 175 Mallen, Peter 199, 200, 202, 203, 354, 357 Manfredi, Silvana 119, 132, 133, 138 Marcus, Joel 51, 147, 159, 160, 161, 166, 167, 170, 171, 174, 175, 177 Margolin, Uri 210 Markl, Dominik 38 Marshall, I. Howard 199, 201 Martin-Achard, R. 49 Martin, Dale B. 342 Martin, Ralph P. 255, 256



Index of Authors

Marttila, Marko 49, 50, 51, 57, 58, 61, 62 Mathewson, David 305, 310, 313 McDonough, Sean 299, 301, 303, 310, 311 McKeating, Henry 23 Menken, Maarten J. J. 287 Meyer, Ben F. 143 Michaelis, Wilhelm 230 Michaels, J. Ramsay 275, 276, 278, 281, 282, 283, 284, 291 Michel, Otto 222 Middleton, Paul 347 Miller, Gideon 19 Minsky, Marvin 158 Mitford, Terence B. 236 Mittelstadt, Martin W. 198, 201 Mittmann-Richert, Ulrike 177, 195, 199, 364 Moessner, David 195, 202, 204 Montgomery, James A. 6, 214, 219 Moo, Douglas J. 222, 228 Motyer, J. Alec 231 Mowinckel, Sigmund 29 Moyise, Steve 277, 287 Murray, John 217, 221 Myers, Ched 175 Newsom, Carol A. 67, 68, 107 Nickelsburg, George W. E. 4, 6, 9, 69, 120, 123, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 154, 214, 219, 303 Nicol, George G. 109 Niebuhr, Karl-Wilhelm 229 Niehoff, Maren R. 1 Nihan, Christophe 17 Niskanen, Paul V. 6 Novick, Ricky 19 Novick, Tzvi 19 Nurmela, Risto 2 O’Brien, Kelli S. 144, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 163, 168 O’Kane, Martin 22 O’Toole, Robert F. 8, 23, 362 Oakes, Peter 258 Oeming, Manfred 1 Öhler, Markus 221 Orlinsky, Harry M. 15, 365 Osborne, Thomas P. 282

411

Oss, Douglas A. 212 Osten-Sacken, Peter von der 223 Ottley, Richard R. 193 Otto, Eckart 16, 20, 21, 22, 28, 33 Page, Sydney H. T. 120, 124, 136, 364 Paltridge, Brian 158 Pao, David W. 197, 201 Paton-Williams, David 37, 94, 245, 246 Patsch, Hermann 218 Paul, Shalom 68, 76, 77 Pavel, Thomas G. 210 Pervo, Richard I. 342 Pesch, Rudolf 177, 342 Petersen, David L. 90 Phillips, Anthony 202, 203 Pitre, Brant James 175, 176 Pleins, J. David 19 Polliack, Meira 98 Poole, Matthew 50 Portier-Young, Anathea E. 67 Poulsen, Frederik 344 Punt, Jeremy 1 Rad, Gerhard von 29 Rahlfs, Alfred 339 Räisänen, Heikki 230 Raitt, Thomas M. 25 Rapa, Robert K. 230 Reese, James M. 124 Rehfeld, Emmanuel L. 285, 287 Reicher, Maria E. 214 Reif, Stefan C. 338 Rendsburg, Gary A. 90 Rendtorff, Rolf 91 Rese, Martin 195 Reumann, John 256, 262 Reventlow, Henning Graf 260 Riesner, Rainer 235, 236, 354 Rillett Wood, Joyce 49 Rissi, Mathias 311 Roberts, J. J. M. 69 Rodríguez, Rafael 1 Roloff, Jürgen 197, 342 Romaniuk, Kazmierz 210 Romeo, Antonino 235 Rossi, Benedetta 23 Rowley, H. H. 144

412

Index of Authors

Rüggemeier, Jan 158, 163, 209, 212, 215 Rumelhart, David E. 213 Ruppert, Lothar 134, 136 Ryan, Marie-Laure 212, 215 Ryan, W. F. J. 8, 362 Safren, Jonathan D. 19 Sailhamer, John D. 91 Sanders, E. P. 164 Sanders, Jack T. 343 Sanders, Paul 32 Sanders, Seth L. 340 Sapp, David A. 341 Sargent, Benjamin 280, 281, 284, 285 Schäfer, Simon M. 220, 221, 222, 225, 227, 228 Schank, Roger C. 213 Schmid, Konrad 2, 22, 87, 88 Schmidtkunz, Petra 36 Schmitt, Hans-Christoph 20 Schneck, Richard 161 Schneider, Gerhard 195 Schneider, Ralf 210, 221 Schrage, Wolfgang 227 Schramm, Brooks 34 Schutter, William L. 282 Scott, James M. 225 Seccombe, David 363 Seeligmann, I. L. 107 Seitz, Christopher R. 6, 23, 25, 29, 156, 190, 191, 246, 249, 250, 290 Sellin, Ernst 32, 36 Senior, Donald 201 Seybold, Klaus 48 Sforno, Obadiah 36 Shaw, Brendt D. 221 Shepherd, Michael B. 361 Shively, Elizabeth E. 162, 181 Shum, Shiu-Lun 210, 211, 217, 218, 223, 224, 231 Skehan, Patrick W. 120, 124, 140 Smart, James D. 124, 130 Smith, George Adam 8 Smith, Martin S. 225 Smith, Paul Allan 32, 72 Snodgrass, Klyne 170 Sommer, Benjamin 31, 32, 96, 97, 247 Sonnet, Jean-Pierre 21, 91, 92

Spieckermann, Hermann 26, 32, 250 Stanley, Christopher D. 212, 232 Stargel, Linda M. 338 Steck, Odil Hannes 2, 34, 35, 57, 58, 62, 87 Steinmetz, Devorah 2 Sternberg, Meir 105 Still, Todd D. 347 Stock, Brian 1 Strobel, August 198 Stromberg, Jacob 2, 3, 6, 34, 35, 38, 71, 78, 79, 81, 87, 88, 92, 93, 98, 105, 106, 108, 109, 151, 152, 153, 154, 179, 191, 214, 218, 227, 234, 249, 345, 361, 365 Stuhlmacher, Peter 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 151, 175, 211, 281, 364 Stuhlmueller, Carroll 49 Suggs, M. J. 6, 120, 121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 214, 259 Sweeney, Marvin A. 6, 82, 83, 200 Syrén, Roger 317, 321, 325 Tajfel, Henri 338, 343 Talbert, Charles H. 197 Talmon, Shemaryahu 2, 330 Tannehill, Robert C. 162, 201 Tate, Marvin E. 52, 54, 60, 61 Teeter, D. Andrew 38, 98, 102, 107, 108, 109, 110, 113, 355, 365 Thomas, D. Winton 349 Tiede, David L. 198 Tiemeyer, Lena-Sofia 6, 25, 26, 34 Tooman, William A. 156, 157, 363 Trebilco, Paul 339, 342 Trench, R. C. 263 Tucker, J. Brian 338 Tucker, W. Dennis, Jr. 56 Turner, John 343 Turner, Max 195 Unterman, Jeremiah 19 Urwick, William 3 Vahrenhorst, Martin 276, 277, 278, 280, 283, 284 Van Winkle, Dwight W. 264 Vanoni, Gottfried 49 Veijola, Timo 16



Index of Authors

Venema, Herman 54, 61 Vouga, François 286, 287 Wagner, J. Ross 210, 211, 224, 231, 232, 290, 353, 358, 359, 364 Ware, James P. 7, 120, 121, 124, 126, 127, 128, 134, 135, 214, 255, 256, 259, 263, 266, 348 Watts, Rikki E. 144, 146, 147, 151, 159, 160, 167, 170, 173, 174, 176, 191 Webb, Natalie R. 347 Weidner, Alexander 82 Wells, Roy D. 263 Welten, Peter 30 Wendel, Susan J. 2 Wengst, Klaus 217, 282 Westermann, Claus 49 White, Joel 347 Wick, Peter 266 Wilcox, Peter 37, 94, 245, 246 Willey, Patricia Tull 31 Williams, Martin 278, 281, 282, 283

413

Williams, Travis B. 343, 347 Williamson, H. G. M. 23, 24, 72, 74, 82, 83, 85, 87, 94, 98, 249, 344 Windisch, Hans 282 Windsor, Lionel J. 229, 231, 342 Winston, David 259 Witetscheck, Stephan 312 Wolff, Hans Walter 273, 277, 281, 287, 317, 364 Wright, Brian J. 355 Wright, N. T. 179 Yeago, David 266 Zager, W. 145, 146 Zakovitch, Yair 19, 85, 98, 99, 101, 103, 113, 361 Zenger, Erich 49, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57 Ziegler, Joseph 161, 193, 194, 341 Zimmerli, Walther 2, 26, 32, 119, 144, 287, 364