Revelation and Mystery in Ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen Zum Neuen Testament) 3161453395, 9783161453397

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Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament • 2. Reihe Begründet von Joachim Jeremias und Otto Michel Herausgegeben von Martin Hengel und Otfried Hofius

36

Revelation and Mystery in Ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity

by

Markus N. A. Bockmuehl

J. C. B . Möhr (Paul Siebeck) Tübingen

CIP-Titelaufnahme Bockmuehl, Markus

der Deutschen

Bibliothek

N.A.:

Revelation and mystery in ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity / by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl. — Tübingen : Mohr, 1990 (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament : Reihe 2 ; 36) Zugl.: Cambridge, Univ., Diss., 1987 ISSN 0340-9570 I S B N 3-16-145339-5 N E : Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament / 02

978-3-16-157144-2 Unveränderte eBook-Ausgabe 2019

© 1990 by J . C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), P . O . B o x 2040, D-7400 Tübingen. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher's written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systems. Typeset by Computersatz Staiger in Pfäffingen; printed by Guide-Druck in Tübingen; acidfree paper by Bohnenberger & Cie in Niefern; sewn binding by Heinr. Koch in Tübingen.

For m y mother Elisabeth and in m e m o r y of m y father Klaus (May 6, 1931 - June 10, 1989) oaaVa niVoa T T ! •

p' T

a 'Ti xT n•• w: x-

inn-'tr^ xaan p a y s n a y ^ n - 1 ? ? "7?na r n i a noy? n i a n a - o a : i v s a n , n'?ir , 7R nx"v Psalm 8 4 : 6 - 8 ( 5 - 7 )

Preface It was during an undergraduate course in classical studies and philosophy that I first developed an interest in the theory of knowledge, and in religious epistem o l o g y in particular. W h e n I m o v e d into the area of biblical studies during m y subsequent w o r k in theology, I became increasingly intrigued by the meaning and significance of the Bible's talk of divine disclosures and revelations. In particular, I wanted to discover h o w revelation " w o r k s " in the texts of Ancient J u daism and the N e w Testament, i. e., at a time w h e n a significant b o d y of sacred writings (whether formally "closed" or not) had already c o m e to be generally accepted as authoritative Scripture. In order to channel this interest into a m a nageable critical investigation, I further decided to focus especially on the recurring motif of a revelation of divine secrets or "mysteries". This research, then, first took shape in something like the present f o r m as a 1987 P h . D . dissertation at the University of C a m b r i d g e . Since then it has u n dergone a n u m b e r of changes, chiefly consisting in the addition of Chapter 11 and the evaluation of such additional secondary literature as became available to m e until the spring of 1989. A comprehensive bibliography is almost by definition impossible in a w o r k like this. Nevertheless, I feel compelled to mention t w o or three w o r k s which I should very m u c h like to have seen before submitting the w o r k to the publisher. V o l u m e 2 of Peter Schäfer's Konkordanz zur Hekhalot-Literatur (TSAJ 13, Tübingen: J . C . B . M o h r [Paul Siebeck], 1988) as well as v o l u m e 1 of his Übersetzung der Hekhalot-Literatur (vol. 2 appeared in 1987 as TSAJ 17) have not been accessible to me. T h e f o r m e r especially w o u l d have been a significant help in trading the use of pertinent w o r d s such as HD, HflO, I I etc. in the Jewish m y stical writings. T w o apparently important n e w w o r k s have only just come to m y attention within the last few weeks; here I can do no m o r e than to mention them. Peter K u h n ' s Offenbarungsstimmen im Antiken Judentum: Untersuchungen zur "bat qol" und verwandten Phänomenen, TSAJ 20 (Tübingen: J . C . B . M o h r [Paul Siebeck], 1989), promises to offer m u c h additional insight especially into some of the m a terial discussed in Chapter 7 below. For the further theological integration which the results of this research call for, I should have liked to evaluate E. J.

VI

Preface

Lott, Vision, Tradition, Interpretation, Religion and Reason 35 ( B e r l i n / N e w Y o r k : de G r u y t e r , 1988). For the p r o d u c t i o n o f this b o o k I a m i n d e b t e d to the help o f m a n y — even t h o u g h its r e m a i n i n g flaws and s h o r t c o m i n g s are o f course solely m y o w n responsibility. M y special thanks, h o w e v e r , are d u e to several people w i t h o u t w h o s e counsel and s u p p o r t the project could n o t h a v e seen the light o f day. First o f all I a m deeply grateful to m y C a m b r i d g e Doktorvater, D r . W . H o r b u r y , for his tireless generosity and f r i e n d s h i p in guiding, challenging and c o r recting m y course of research t h r o u g h o u t . C h e e r f u l a n d u n a s s u m i n g in his d e p t h and c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s o f learning, always c o m m i t t e d t o a balanced and s y m p a t h e t i c reading of the ancient sources, he has been t o m e a m o d e l of the scholar o f Scripture w h o " m a k e s glad b o t h G o d and m a n k i n d " (m. A b o t 6:1, ed. H e r f o r d ) . I also w i s h to t h a n k P r o f e s s o r M . D . H o o k e r , w h o s e perceptive supervision d u r i n g m y first t e r m in C a m b r i d g e helped t o set m y research o n course. T h e Association o f C o m m o n w e a l t h Universities p r o v i d e d g e n e r o u s financial s u p p o r t o f m y p o s t g r a d u a t e research t h r o u g h a C o m m o n w e a l t h Scholarship. M y t h a n k s m u s t g o also to the T y n d a l e H o u s e C o u n c i l for library privileges, and t o the T y n d a l e H o u s e librarian, M r . D . D e b o y s , for his f r e q u e n t gen e r o u s assistance. I w i s h t o t h a n k P r o f . M . H e n g e l f o r accepting this w o r k for publication in the W U N T series. M r . U l r i c h Gaebler and his t e a m at J . C . B . M o h r (Paul Siebeck) have p r o v i d e d friendly a n d c o m p e t e n t assistance in the p r o d u c t i o n o f the b o o k . M r . Paul Spilsbury k i n d l y helped in checking the p r o o f s , while M r . B a r r y Nielsen c o m p i l e d the Index o f Passages and the Index o f M o d e r n Authors. Finally, m y deepest t h a n k s g o t o m y parents, w h o first t a u g h t m e a b o u t revelation and the m y s t e r y o f G o d in Christ. I h a v e always been assured of their faithful and u n w a v e r i n g s u p p o r t , even w h e n at times the relevance o f m y research m a y n o t h a v e seemed apparent. A n d a l t h o u g h it pleased G o d in His m e r c y and w i s d o m to call m y father h o m e b e f o r e these w o r d s could appear in print, it w o u l d be sufficient t r i b u t e if these pages occasionally s h o w e d that his son sequiturque patrem non passibus aequis. Vancouver, B. C. J u n e 15, 1989.

Table of Contents Preface Abbreviations

V XIV

Introduction: P r o b l e m Definition and M e t h o d

1

1. Thesis Statement

1

2. Definition of Terms

2

3. Problem Definition in Relation to Previous Research

3

4. Method

3

5. Order of Presentation

4

Part One: Judaism Introduction

7

1. Outline of an Old Testament Topology of Revelation 1.1. Religious Background 1.2. External Media of Revelation 1.3. Prophecy and the Social and Cultic Locus of Revelation 1.4. Revelation and the Hiddenness of God 1.4.1. The Problem of Divine Hiddenness 1.4.2. The Response of Faith 1.4.3. The Eclipse of Prophetic Revelation 1.4.4. Revelation, Torah, and Exegesis 1.4.5. The Secrets of Heaven Excursus: H/TID

7 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 14 15

2. "Ancient Judaism": Definition 2.1. General Identification 2.2. Belief and "Orthodoxy" in Early Judaism 2.2.1. Types of Functionally Representative Religious Writing .

16 16 17 17

VIII

Contents

2.2.2.

Distinguishing Doctrines: "Judaism" and "Apostasy" . . .

19

2.3. Judaism and the Pagan Religions

20

2.4. Jewish Mysteries ?

21

C h a p t e r O n e : A p o c a l y p t i c Literature

24

1. Introduction

24

2. Introductory Observations

25

2.1. O n the Nature o f Apocalyptic

25

2.2. O n History and Eschatology

26

3. T h e Visions: Scripture, Revelation, Interpretation

27

3.1. Sinai, Torah, and Tradition

28

3.2. Revelation and Interpretation

29

4. T h e Revelation o f Mysteries Excursus: djtoxaxiwixo)/djtoxd>an|jiq in the Apocalyptic Literature

31 . . .

4.1. "Cosmological" Mysteries

32 33

4.2. Eschatological Mysteries

35

4.2.1. Content

36

Excursus: Messiah/Son o f Man

37

4.2.2. Revelation

38

4.3. Illicitly Revealed Mysteries

40

Chapter T w o : Qumran

42

1. Introduction

42

2. "Secret Things and Things Revealed": Exegesis at Qumran

42

2.1. mb'W and n n r i D J in the Torah

42

2.2. "Revelation" and Exegesis o f the Torah

44

2.3. Torah and Halakhah

45

2.4. Prophets and Pesher 2.5. T h e Teacher o f Righteousness as Mediator o f Revelation

46 . . . .

49

2.6. Revelation and the Spirit

50

2.7. An Exception? T h e Temple Scroll

50

3. Other Means o f Revelation ?

52

4. Revelation o f Mysteries

53

Contents

IX

Chapter Three: W i s d o m Literature

57

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

57

2. T h e View of Prophetic Revelation

57

2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4.

N o Present-Day Prophecy Revelatory Experiences Uses of "Prophet" and "Prophecy" T h e Sages

57 58 58 59

3. Sapiential Inspiration 3.1. Development 3.2. Liturgy and Revelation 3.3. T h e Torah 3.4. T h e Spirit

60 60 61 63 64

4. "Mysteries" and Their Revelation 4.1. Wisdom 4.2. Sirach

65 65 66

Chapter Four: Philo

69

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

69

2. Epistemology and Knowledge of God

69

3. Inspiration and Prophecy

71

Excursus: Philo on the Hiddenness of God

74

4. Scripture

75

5. Revelation of Mysteries and Allegorical Interpretation

76

6. Origin and Setting of Philo's Allegorical Mysteries

78

C h a p t e r Five: J o s e p h u s

82

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

82

2. Revelation as Prophecy

82

2.1. Biblical Prophecy 2.2. C o n t e m p o r a r y Prophecy 2.3. Was Josephus a Prophet? 3. Revelation of Mysteries

83 84 87 89

X

Contents

Chapter Six: The Ancient Versions

93

1. Introduction

93

2. T h e T a r g u m s

93

2.1. Divine Revelation as Expressed b y the V e r b ' " j A n S

94

2.2. Revelation of "Mysteries"

94

2.3. T h e Revelatory Significance of Divine Titles

97

2.4. T o r a h , Spirit, P r o p h e c y

98

3. T h e Greek Versions

100

3.1. L X X Translation Patterns

100

3.2. T h e U s e o f ocjtoxaXlJjiTa)

101

3.3. " M y s t e r y " in the Greek Versions

102

Chapter Seven: Early Rabbinic Literature

104

1. Introduction

104

2. Rabbinic Views of Revelation

105

2.1. T h e Questions of C o n t e m p o r a r y Revelation

105

2.1.1. C o n t i n u i n g Acitvity of the Spirit/Shekhinah/Prophecy

105

2.1.2 T h e H o l y Spirit Replaced by Bat Qdl 2.1.3 T h e H o l y Spirit/Prophecy Transferred to the Sages 2.2. T o r a h and T o r o t 2.2.1. T h e Primacy of T o r a h

107 . . . .

108 109 109

2.2.2. T h e Presence o f T o r a h

Ill

2.2.3. T h e Study of T o r a h

113

3. Revelation of Mysteries

114

3.1. Mysteries of T o r a h

115

Excursus: Secrets of T o r a h and Early Mysticism

116

3.2. T h e Mysteries of Israel

117

3.3. Eschatological Mysteries

118

3.3.1. T h e M y s t e r y H i d d e n f r o m Biblical Saints

119

3.3.2. Various Mysteries Disclosed to Biblical Saints

119

3.3.3. N o C o n t e m p o r a r y Disclosure? 3.4. U n l a w f u l Revelation of Mysteries

120 121

Contents

XI

Synthesis: Ancient J u d a i s m

124

1. C o m m o n Features

124

2. Particularities

125

3. O u t l o o k

126

Part Two: Pauline Christianity Introduction

129

1. General Observations: T h e N a t u r e of the Material

129

2. Sectarian or Apostate?

130

3. Preview

131

C h a p t e r E i g h t : R e v e l a t i o n in P a u l

133

1. Past: Revelation of the Gospel of Christ

133

1.1. T h e Revelation in Christ 1.2. T h e Revelation to Paul 2. Present: O n g o i n g Revelation of the Gospel

133 135 137

2.1. Revelation of God's Righteousness and Wrath in the Gospel . . . Excursus: A N o t e on "Natural Revelation" 2.2. Manifestation of T r u t h in the Apostolic Ministry and Message

138 141

2.3. A N o t e on Occasional Revelations

144

142

3. Future: T h e Revelation of the Saviour Jesus Christ

145

4. Ti ouv o vo[iog; T h e O l d Testament in Paul's View of Revelation 4.1. Paul's Use of the Scriptures 4.2. " N e w " vs. " O l d " in Revelation 4.3. T h e " N e w " Intended in the " O l d " 4.3.1 T h e End of the Torah? R o m 10:4 4.3.2 Paul's Hermeneutical Key

147 148 148 150 150 153

C h a p t e r N i n e : T h e Letters to C o r i n t h and R o m e

157

1. "We Speak God's W i s d o m in a Mystery" (1 C o r 2 : 6 - 1 0 )

157

XII

Contents

1.1. Introduction 1.2.

V . 6 : T h e TEXEWH

1.3. V. 7 - 1 0 : The Revelation of God's Hidden Wisdom 1.3.1. V. 7: "God's Wisdom in a Mystery" 1.3.2. V. 8: Mystery and the Cross 1.3.3. Content: The Inheritance of the Saints (V. 9) 1.3.4. V. 10: Revelation to the Apostles by the Spirit 1.4. Summary 2. The Rest of the Corinthian Correspondence

157 158

160 160 162 163 164 165 166

2.1. 1 Cor 4:1 "Stewards of God's Mysteries"

166

2.2. 1 Cor 13:2 Love and the Limits of Prophecy

167

2.3. 1 Cor 14:2: Heavenly Worship and Church Edification

168

2.4. 1 Cor 15:51f./Rom ll:25f.: N e w Doctrine as fiDorfiQiov

170

2.5. 2 Cor 12:1-4: Paul in the Third Heaven

175

C h a p t e r T e n : Colossians

178

1. Introduction

178

2. Col 1:26 f.; 2:2 f.

179

2.1. The Colossian Situation

179

2.2. The Argument of Col 1:24-2:5

181

2.3. "Hidden from Ages and Generations"

182

2.4. " N o w Manifested to His Saints"

183

2.5. "Those to W h o m God Wished to Make K n o w n the Mystery"

185

2.6. "Christ Among You, the Hope of Glory"

185

2.7. "Everyone Mature in Christ"

186

2.8. "Full Knowledge of the Mystery of God, i. e. of Christ" 2.9. "In W h o m Are Hidden All the Treasures. . . " 3. Other Passages in Colossians

187 188 190

3.1. Col 3 : 1 - 4

190

3.2. Col 4:3f.

191

Contents

XIII

C h a p t e r Eleven: Postscript to Paul

194

1. "The Mystery of Lawlessness" (2 Thes 2:7) 1.1. The xcnixov/xaTexcov (v. 6f.) : An Insoluble Puzzle? 1.2. The Notion of a Mystery of Evil 1.3. Distinctives of the Pauline "Mystery Lawlessness"

195 195 196 197

2. Ephesians 2.1. Eph l:9f. 2.2. Eph 1:17-19 2.3. Eph 3 : 3 - 1 0 2.4. Eph 5:31 f. 2.5. Eph 6:19 f.

199 199 200 201 204 205

3. Romans 16:25-27

206

4. Excursus: A "Revelation Schema"?

208

5. The Pastoral Epistles

210

6. The Second Century

214

6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4.

TheDidache Ignatius of Antioch Justin Martyr The Epistle to Diognetus

214 215 218 219

Conclusion

221

1. Evaluation of Previous Research 1.1. Revelation 1.2. "Mystery"

221 221 223

2. Summary 2.1. Judaism 2.2. Paul

225 225 225

3. Evaluation of Results 3.1. Revelation 3.2. Revelation of Mysteries

227 227 228

Bibliography

231

Index o f Passages

276

Index o f M o d e r n A u t h o r s

304

Index o f Subjects

309

List of Abbreviations 1. T h e system of abbreviations of Biblical books as well as of periodicals, reference works, and serial publications follows that of the Journal of Biblical Literature, with the following exceptions and additions (for fuller information see the Bibliography): ADPB BHM BibSac CPJ EWNT FJB Jastrow JETS KIP

M—L MHG NHL NIGTC NJB SHR SHVL TEV T S AJ WBC a' a'

The Authorised Daily Prayer Book of the United Hebrew Congregations of the British Commonwealth of Nations Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrasch Bibliotheca Sacra Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum Exegetisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament. Edited b y H . Balz u n d G. Schneider. 3 Vols. Stuttgart: K o h l h a m m e r , 1980-1983. Frankfurter Judaistische Beiträge J a s t r o w , Dictionary Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Der kleine Pauly: Lexikon der Antike. Edited b y K. Ziegler and W. Sontheimer. 5 Vols. M u n i c h : Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, © 1979. M o n t e f i o r e / L o e w e , A Rabbinic Anthology M . H . Segal, A Grammar of Mishnaic Hebrew ( O x f o r d : Clarendon, 1972). The Nag Hammadi Library in English. Edited b y J. M . Robinson. Leiden: Brill, 1977. T h e N e w International Greek T e s t a m e n t C o m m e n t a r y T h e N e w Jerusalem Bible Studies in the H i s t o r y of Religion Skrifter U t g i v n a av. Kungl. Humanistiska V e t e n s k a p s a m f u n d e t i Lund T o d a y ' s English Version (Good N e w s Bible) T e x t e u n d Studien z u m Antiken J u d e n t u m W o r d Biblical C o m m e n t a r y Aquila Symmachus Theodotion

2. Abbreviations of the D e a d See Scrolls (DSS) are according t o j . A. Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Major Publications and Tools for Study, SBLSBS 8 (Missoula: Scholars Press, ©1977).

List of Abbreviations

XV

3. Abbreviations of A p o c r y p h a , Pseudepigrapha, Rabbinic and Patristic literature are according to J. H . C h a r l e s w o r t h (ed.), The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha [=OTP], 2 V o l s . (Garden City: D o u b l e d a y , 1985), w i t h the f o l l o w i n g exceptions and additions: Abot Apol\-2 Asclsa BM BQ CantR Dial

Pirqe A b o t Justin, Apology 1—2 Ascension of Isaiah

Baba Mesia Baba Q a m m a Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah Justin, Dialoque with Trypho Diogn Epistle to Diognetus EpApost Epistula Apostolorum EpBarn Epistle of Barnabas FT F r a g m e n t - T a r g u m s to the Pentateuch Git Gittin H e r r n Vis/ Shepherd o f H e r m a s : Visions/ H e r m S i m Similitudes IgnEph/ Ignatius: Ephesians/ I g n M a g n / Magnesians/ IgnPhld/ Philadelphians/ IgnPol/ Polycarp/ IgnRom/ Romans/ IgnSmyr/ Smyrnaeans/ IgnTrall Trallians MartPol M a r t y r d o m of Polycarp

Mek MidrPsa MM MQ Parjer Taan Tg TJ TJac TN TNgl TO TPsJ

TR VitAd VitProph

Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael M i d r a s h Tehillim MemarMarqah Mo'ed Qatan Paraleipomenta Jeremiou Ta'anit Targum T a r g u m J o n a t h a n to the P r o p h e t s Testament o f j a c o b T a r g u m N e o f i t i I to the Pentateuch Marginal Glosses to Targum Neofiti I T a r g u m O n k e l o s to the Pentateuch T a r g u m Pseudo-Jonathan (Yerushalmi) to the Pentateuch Teacher of R i g h t eousness Life of A d a m and E v e Lives of the P r o p h e t s

4. W o r k s cif J o s e p h u s are referred to as follows: Ant Ap

Biblical Against

Antiquities Apion

BJ Vita

The Jewish War Life of Josephus

5. Abbreviations for Philo's treaties f o l l o w the Loeb Classical Library edition (e.g. vol. 10, p. x x x v ) , o m i t t i n g all punctuation and w i t h the following exceptions: Cont Her Immut LA 1 - 3 LG Opif

De Vita Contemplativa Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit Quod Deus Immutabilis sit Legum Allegoriae 1—3 De Legatione ad Gaium De Opificio Mundi

Prob QE1-4 QG 1 - 2 Spec 1 - 4

Quod Omnis Probus Liber sit Quaestiones et Solutiones in Exodum 1-4 Quaestiones et Solutiones in Genesin 1-2 De Specialibus Legibus 1-4

XVI

Abbreviation

6. Other abbreviations follow established usage. Citation

Procedure

for Secondary

Literature

All secondary sources are cited by the author's name and a convenient short (or in some cases abbreviated) title. In ambiguous cases this short title will be identified under the author's name in the bibliography. Foreign language works are cited according to the original where this has been easily accessible; otherwise available translations have been used. The dating procedure for ancient Rabbis is explained in n. 1 of Chapter 7. The sigla used are e. g. T3 = third generation Tanna, A2 = second generation Amora, etc. In Chapter 9—11 the pertinent commentaries are cited by author and page n u m ber only (e. g. Cranfield 1:137).

Introduction

Problem Definition and Method

.-|n-nna ms^sa ntraxi t s - 1 ? ! Psalm 119:18. Mysteria sunt doctrinae coelestes, quae citra D E I revelationem ignorantur ab hominibus. J . A. Bengel, Gnomon,

618 (ad 1 C o r 4:1).

1. Thesis Statement Faced with the theological problems o f delayed deliverance and historical theodicy, Jewish religious thought in the Hellenistic period necessarily became engaged in a close reassessment o f the received tradition and o f the channels o f revelation. Drawing on this re-reading o f their Biblical heritage, and somewhat stimulated by the increasing secrecy o f the surrounding popular pagan religions, many Jews found in the notion o f revealed divine mysteries the key to a renewed understanding o f God's sovereignty in history and the cosmos, being offered as it were an "insider's l o o k " at God's dealings in heaven. It is significant in this respect that the theme o f revealed heavenly mysteries is continued in early Christianity with its unique affirmation o f God's decisive historical intervention in Jesus o f Nazareth as the Messiah: the later correspondence e.g. o f the apostle Paul repeatedly develops the theme o f Christ as the mystery "hidden for ages and generations, but n o w made manifest" (cf. Col 1:26). This book, then, offers a theological study o f ancient Jewish and Pauline views o f the revelation o f heavenly mysteries. Exegetical surveys o f the respective notions o f revelation will be complemented by a broadly based literary documentation o f the " m y s t e r y " m o t i f in the Old Testament and early Jewish

2

Introduction

writings, w i t h o u t thereby losing sight of the influence of the Hellenistic religious milieu. 1 T h e particular and, it is hoped, original contribution of this study will be to locate the Jewish and Pauline understanding of such divine secrets firmly within the wider f r a m e w o r k of corresponding views of revelation both "old" and " n e w " .

2. Definition of Terms "A mystery", w r o t e E. M . Forster, "is only a high-sounding term for a m u d d l e . " 2 M o d e r n society seems to use the w o r d " m y s t e r y " for any sublime and nebulous truth which is marvelled at but not fully understood. Similarly, the w o r d "revelation" today is often commandeered to describe any experience of cognitive realization ("the penny has dropped"). 3 H o w e v e r , in responsible scholarship such looseness of terminology is quite unhelpful. Before proceeding any further, therefore, I w o u l d like to offer the following as m y working definitions for the purposes of this inquiry. 1. "Revelation" designates a) any divine disclosure c o m m u n i c a t e d by visionary or prophetic means, or b) the manifestation of heavenly realities in a historical context. 2. B y " M y s t e r y " is m e a n t any reality of divine or heavenly origin specifically characterized as hidden, secret, or otherwise inaccessible to h u m a n k n o w l e d g e .

Lest I incur the charge of contrived results, I hasten to add that those w h o sailed in quest of a golden fleece must have had f r o m the outset some notion of what they were after: but as in that expedition, the w o r k i n g definitions here m a y justly be expected to receive considerable clarification in the course of interaction with the sources. 4 1

Since the chosen field of inquiry is limited to "Ancient J u d a i s m and Pauline C h r i s tianity", unfortunately n o separate study of the m y s t e r y religions can here be offered. H o w e v e r , the m o s t significant points of contact are noted w h e r e apposite; see especially C h a p t e r Four below. 2 A Passage to India, C h . 7. 3 Cf. Tillich, " O f f e n b a r u n g " , 406. 4 In any t h e m e study a w o r k i n g definition is unavoidable; this applies particularly to the subject of revelation (cf. Guillet, "Révélation", 601). T h e broadly outlined definition here suggested seems m o r e suitable than p r e - understandings of revelation as " p r o p o s i tion", as "history", as "experience", "dialectical W o r d " , etc. (Cf. in detail Dulles, Models, 1 9 - 1 2 8 . ) T h e quest for G o d ' s ^//-revelation, once fashionable (esp. in G e r m a n theology), w o u l d be another inappropriate limitation o n the study of revelation. For a v i g o r o u s criticism of the idea see D o w n i n g , "Revelation", esp. 185. H o w e v e r , D o w n i n g ' s thesis (Has Christianity a Revelation?) that Biblical faith is altogether w i t h o u t revelation does violence to a b o d y of texts w h i c h d o appeal for their statements about G o d to past divine

Introduction

3

3. Problem Definition in Relation to Previous Research There have been a number o f relevant studies on the N e w Testament understanding o f revelation. Representative o f these are the w o r k s o f E. F. Scott, R. Bultmann, A. O e p k e , H. Schulte, U . Wilckens, and D . Luhrmann. Similarly, a m o n g the various surveys o f ancient J e w i s h views o f revelation mention m a y be m a d e o f O . Betz, J . Blenkinsopp, A. Chester, J . J . Petuchowski, and G. Scholem. Studies on the term " m y s t e r y " in the N e w Testament and its environment have been offered by many, f r o m the excursus in J . A . Robinson's commentary on Ephesians and G. B o r n k a m m ' s seminal article in TWNT to the writings o f K . P r u m m , R. E. B r o w n , C . C . Caragounis, R. Penna, and A. E. H a r v e y . 5 T h e s e w o r k s and others have been taken into account in the appropriate chapters below; m y agreements and differences with several o f the m o s t important will be outlined in the Conclusion. B u t although the intimate link between divine "revelation" and divine " m y s teries" has sometimes been noted, rarely if ever have these t w o concepts been analysed together, in light o f each other, and in their larger theological context. It is here that I w o u l d like to see m y contribution: viz., in a study o f the J e w i s h notion o f heavenly mysteries as an aspect o f the view o f revelation.

4. Method In approaching this project I have attempted to include significant information f r o m a wide range o f J e w i s h literature, the delimitation o f which will be explained below. B u t since the primary interest o f this w o r k is in the examination o f an idea (rather than a precise w o r d study o f the terms "revelation" or " m y s t e r y " ) , m y approach to the texts has had at times to be fairly inductive. I have taken into account various Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic w o r d s denoting "disclosure" and "hiddenness", while trying at the same time to keep an eye open for passages where the theme in question m a y be expressed in different terms, or where in fact it occurs only implicitly. In order to limit the scope o f the investigation, the subjects o f miracles, o f epiphanies, and o f "natural" revelation have for the m o s t part been excluded (cf. the definition o f "revelation" above). Further, m y interest has not been in heavenly secrets as such but in "revealed secrets", i.e. mysteria revelata or revelanda. T h e theme o f a disclosure o f human secrets, which occurs in our texts with perhaps surprising regularity, will be addressed only incidentally. actions and disclosures as well as to future fulfilments o f promises. For the Biblical writers, G o d can be loved and obeyed only because He has made His love and His will known. Cf. Dulles, Models, 11 — 13. 5 Full references given in the bibliography.

4

Introduction

In the interest o f methodological integrity, it is appropriate at this point to issue a caveat. This study intends to treat the ancient Jewish and Pauline literature independently, each on its own terms. There is no conscious concern to present Paul as the sum and culminating "fulfilment" o fJudaism, or on the other hand to treat each in complete isolation. However, it is true that as a theologian and a historian o f ideas I am trying to understand something o f the religious context out o f which Paul speaks; and hence it is perhaps inevitable that m y investigation will be guided in part by "Pauline" questions and ideas. Nevertheless, I have endeavoured to bear this in mind, and to regard m y task as one o f critical perception and description rather than o f systemic harmonization. M y aim throughout has been to proceed from a broad textual base in the primary sources, and to note similarities as well as differences.

5. O r d e r of Presentation After a general introduction to the "Ancient Judaism" here in view, the structure o f the argument in Part O n e will be to offer first a précis o f what constitutes divine revelation in a given body o f literature. This will address, where helpful, the respective view o f the identity and theological place o f the "original" revelation (Uroffenbarung: i. e. the giving o f Torah, though this is sometimes expanded to include oral tradition). T h e presentation will then proceed in a second step to highlight the problems and possiblities o f on-going contemporary

revelation as understood in the re-

spective group o f writings. Finally, this general overview will in each case serve as the backdrop for a more specific investigation o f the nature and function o f revealed heavenly mysteries for these same writers. Part O n e concludes with a brief attempt at a synthetic presentation o f previous conclusions. Part T w o on the letters o f Paul will be organized in analogous fashion. A separate introduction will be followed by a survey o f the constituent elements o f Paul's view o f revelation. Chapters Nine and Ten will then address the "revealed mysteries" theme in the letters to the Corinthians, Romans and Colossians, while the final Chapter surveys the remaining letters o f the Pauline corpus and briefly assesses the continuing influence o f the m o t i f in the Apostolic Fathers.

Part One

Ancient Judaism

Introduction

1. Outline of an Old Testament Topology of Revelation 1.1. Religious Background At the risk of over-simplification, the Ancient N e a r Eastern v i e w o f divine revelation could perhaps be s u m m a r i z e d u n d e r three headings: the interlacing of the visible and the invisible, the w o r l d o f m a n and the w o r l d of god; secondly, the sovereign, o v e r r u l i n g i n v o l v e m e n t o f the deity in the events, i n deed all events, o f n a t u r e and o f history; 1 and finally, the disclosure of the divine character and intentions — t h r o u g h the threefold channels o f nature, m a n tic technique, and the corpus o f m y t h o l o g y and religious h i s t o r i o g r a p h y . M e s o p o t a m i a n g o d s f r e q u e n t l y reveal things t o m a n — n o t s i m p l y t h r o u g h their regular manifestations in the realm o f nature, b u t also and m o r e specifically b y disclosing in words the truths a b o u t themselves and a b o u t h u m a n fate w h i c h they w i s h to c o m m u n i c a t e . 2 Nevertheless, actual religious practice apparently never fully developed this doctrine for application in the realm of daily life. T h u s , it seems that the lack of regular effectual revelation m a y h a v e been c o m p e n s a t e d b y m e a n s o f m a n t i c p r o c e d u r e s . 3 N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the silence o f the g o d s in daily life, they could still be induced to m a k e k n o w n the answers to m a n ' s questions in o t h e r w a y s , such as signs and o m e n s . 4 1

Cf. esp. Albrektson, History and the Gods. N . B. mythic heroes such as Gilgamesh are forever receiving special dispensations of "divine secrets": e.g. Epic of Gilgamesh 1:5; 11:9f., 186f., 266f. Similarly in Poem of Adapa 57f.; the Etana Myth 2:143ff.; and often. C o m p a r e Hesiod on Prometheus: Works 45 f., 49—51. Cf. Labat, Religions, 39 n. 3: "La révélation des secrets des dieux est un ressort habituel du déroulement des mythes babyloniens. " These mysteries tend to be concerned with secret divine knowledge about the past or about nature. Secrets of haruspicy are particularly c o m m o n : Borger, "Geheimwissen", 191. O n religious secrecy in Egypt see Assmann, Re, 23 f., 195—199 and passim; Altenmuller, "Geheimnis", 510 (esp. m y s teries of Hades). 3 Lutzmann, " n m " , 98, 100. 4 See esp. Gadd, "Methods", 25. 2

8

Ancient Judaism

1.2. E x t e r n a l M e d i a o f R e v e l a t i o n Recognizable traces o f such religious t h o u g h t survive in the O l d T e s t a m e n t . 1.2.1. D r e a m s . Basic Ancient N e a r Eastern d r e a m types in the O T include (i) divine revelations; (ii) expressions o f the d r e a m e r ' s physical, spiritual, or mental state of health; and (iii) m a n t i c (predictive) d r e a m s . 5 H o w e v e r , d r e a m s as media o f revelation seem relatively rare in the O T . 6 1.2.2. Lots. Perhaps the only r e m a i n i n g mechanical m e d i u m of revelation (divination) w a s the sacred lot, " U r i m a n d T h u m m i m " , w h i c h w a s cast " b e f o r e Y a h w e h " . 7 A l t h o u g h the decision so obtained w a s regarded as Y a h w e h ' s final w o r d o n the m a t t e r , 8 a conclusive a n s w e r was apparently n o t always available (e.g. 1 Sam 28:6; cf. 14:37). In later texts, the t e r m *7TU is o f t e n used m e t a phorically o f an allotment or a p p o i n t m e n t , w h e t h e r o f land 9 o r of o n e ' s " l o t " in life. 1 0 Overall, the rare use of the lot represents a survival of "older and w i d e spread ideas and practices w h i c h Israel shared w i t h m a n y o t h e r peoples." 1 1 1.2.3. P o r t e n t s . P o r t e n t o u s events in n a t u r e or h i s t o r y d e m o n s t r a t e G o d ' s majesty, goodness, displeasure, etc.; as such they, too, are n o t peculiar to Israelite religion. 1 2 1.2.4. Miscellaneous Signs and S y m b o l s . P r o p h e t i c revelation could also be triggered b y o r d i n a r y (but timely, hence o m i n o u s ) "chance" experiences or e n counters; 1 3 e x a m p l e s include A m o s ' s p l u m b l i n e ( A m o s 7:7ff.) and basket of

5

T h u s O p p e n h e i m , Interpretation, 184. Cf. Ehrlich, Traum, 135 on revelation dreams e.g. in Gen 20:3ff., 31:24, 31:11 ff. See also, m o r e recently, Gnuse, Dream Theophany. 6 According to Fohrer, Grundstrukturen, 39, dreams are limited to " E " (Genesis), early cultic prophecy, late prophecy and apocalyptic. 7 E.g. N u m 27:21; cf. Lev 16:8 — 10. N o t e also the divinatory bronze altar of 2 K g s 16:15 (Gray, Kings, 578 assumes haruspicy). Lindblom, Gesichte, 16 recognizes h y d r o mancy in Gen 44:5. 8 Dommershausen, " " n i l " , 994; cf. e.g. Prov 16:33. 9 Cf. Josh, 1 Chr; and in the N T period see e.g. Luke 1:9; Acts 1:26; Josephus BJ 4:153 ff. 10 E.g. Isa 57:6; Dan 12:13; the meaning of "7111 in such passages approaches that of or nVn:. Even in this sense it can apply to the land of Israel (e.g. Psa 125:3). Cf. Sir 11:22 [Heb]; and e.g. 1 Q S 11:7; l Q S a 1:9, 20; 1 Q M 1:5, 15:1, 17:7, etc. (see further below on Q u m r a n ) . 11 Rowley, Faith, 30f. Lindblom, "Vorstellung", 279, suggests omens of divination in 2 Sam 5:22 ff. or N u m 23:3 ff. (cf. 24:1); but the evidence is inconclusive. 12 E.g. E x o d 19:16ff.; Psa 18:9ff. (thunderstorm); l K g s 19:12 ("gentle whisper" of the wind); 2 Sam 5:24 (sound of balsam trees); cf. possibly the pillar of cloud/fire (primarily a symbol of epiphany). O n portentous signs in E g y p t see e.g. H o r n u n g , Der Eine, 122 ff. Cf. also Rowley, Faith, 25 f. 13 Fishbane (Biblical Interpretation, 449ff.) sees this as an example of "mantological" interpretation, similar in kind to the reinterpretation of prophetic oracles e.g. in Daniel (and later thepesher at Q u m r a n ) .

Outline of an Old Testament Topology of Revelation

9

fruit (8:1 ff.), and J e r e m i a h ' s almond branch and boiling pot (Jer 1:11 — 14; cf. also 24:1 ff.), as well as his visit at the potter's w o r k s h o p (18:1 f f . ) . 1 4 O n a s o m e what different level, cultic objects such as the ark, tabernacle, sacrifice, temple, etc. serve not as media o f revelation in themselves, but as pledges o f Y a h w e h ' s presence; they may constitute loci o f divine revelation. 1 5

1.3. P r o p h e c y and the Social and Cultic L o c u s o f Revelation Revelation in the O l d T e s t a m e n t is not normally given to an individual for his private benefit. T h i s o f course is m o s t obvious for the constitutive revelation o f T o r a h . B u t elsewhere, too, individuals are chosen to receive revelation in order then to mediate it to the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y : even revelations for patriarchs or kings (e.g. 2 S a m 7; 2 K g s 20) pertain to G o d ' s intentions for His people and thus to the greater dimension o f salvation history. 1 6 T h e organized cult was a special focus o f revelation. Prophets c o m m o n l y received their visions in a cultic setting, 1 7 and priests were the primary dispensers o f r n i n , instruction. 1 8 In this sense the bearer o f revelation, whether priest or prophet (or both), is almost never properly independent o f the cult. 1 9 H o w e v e r , it is fitting to re-emphasize the importance o f the word: even where revelation in the O T involves visions as part o f the cultic experience, it expres-

14 N . B . such "stimuli" should not be reduced to "the ordinary 'mechanics' o f how the divine message came to the prophets" (thus Rogerson, Supernatural, 15). The prophets did distinguish between the triggering stimulus and the acting source of revelation: note e.g. Jer 18; also Kônig, Offenbarungsbegriff, 2:299. Cf. the sequence of "seeing" and "hearing", vision and interpretation, in apocalyptic literature. 15 Cf. e.g. Eichrodt, "Offenbarung", 1599; Sauer, " 7 S ' " , 745; Levine, "Presence", 82. 16 Cf. Haag, "Révélation", 599. 17 Isa 6 is only the most obvious example; cf. cultic theophanies in Psa 18:7—15; 9 7 : 1 - 5 ; 114; Hab 3:34ff.; Nah 1:3ff. See further Kuntz, Self- Revelation, 2 1 5 - 2 3 1 and passim; Westermann (Lob, 75 f.) and Jeremias (Theophanie, 154) relate the cultic epiphany and theophany motifs respectively to the Red Sea and Sinai traditions. The frequency o f cultic visions (not only in pre-exilic texts) would seem to militate against a sharp polarization between a visionary and a priestly party in Israel, posited by P. D. Hanson as the origin of apocalyptic (Dawn, 209 ff., 280 ff.; cf. Plôger, Theocracy, 45 ff.). Contrast e.g. Eaton, Vision, passim; Meyers, "Tôrâ", 70—74. 18 Cf. Deut [17:8-11; 19:16-19]; 31:9; 33:8, 10;Judg 18:5f.; 1 Sam 2 3 : 9 - 1 2 ; 30:7f.; Jer 2:8; 18:18; Ezek 44:23; Hos 4:6; Mic 3:11; Mai 2:7; 2Chr 15:3. See Thomson, Revelation, 42f. Also e.g. Josephus Ap 1:29. 19 Gyllenberg, "Kultus", 77. Note Clements, Prophecy, on Torah, priesthood and prophecy (71 ff.); and conversely, on the prophetic censure of cultic abuse and corruption (93 ff.).

10

Ancient Judaism

ses and brings to bear a message from God. 2 0 Rendtorff s 1961 call to arms of "revelation [sc. exclusively] through history" fails to recognize that revelation in the Bible is impossible without the word: "Il n'y a révélation qu'à partir du moment où il y a parole." 21

1.4. Revelation and the Hiddenness o f G o d The origins of the theme o f a revelation o f divine secrets can, I submit, be traced with fair probability to the Old Testament theology o f God's hiddenness. 1.4.1.

The Problem of Divine

Hiddenness

Prophetic revelation and the cult granted the believer the possibility of knowing God and His intentions. But this was not an unequivocal confession: " O Lord, by your favour you made my mountain to stand strong; but when you hid your face, I was dismayed" (Psa 30:8). The Old Testament also displays an acute familiarity with God's silence and hiddenness. This hiddenness is not an abnormality, an unfortunate occasional blemish in an otherwise predictable system o f theology. 2 2 New revelation from God may not in fact be forthcoming for long periods o f time: "In those days it was rare for Yahweh to speak; visions were uncommon" (1 Sam 3:1 NJB). Characters like Job, David, Hezekiah, Jeremiah, all have to cope at one time or another with the torment and agony o f God's silence. True, God's silence and absence are never His last word, and therefore the hiddenness o f Yahweh is not ultimately a cornerstone o f an O T theology o f revelation. Nevertheless, God is not simply "available" to man, whether in daily experience or in the cult. 23 2 0 See Psa 50:3; cf. Kraus, Psalmen, 1:80 {pace M o w i n c k e l , Weiser et al.): " D i e T h e ophanie ist ein Lautwerden der mn 1 " 1 ?!!? (Ps 2 9 , 3 f f . ) . J a h w e 'redet' ( 1 3 7 ) und 'ruft' (Hlp): Ps 5 0 , 1 . " H e also identifies this as the distinction between theophany and the " T h e o r i a " o f Greek religion: Theologie, 45. 2 1 D e Pury, "Sagesse", 26. See Rendtorff, "Offenbarungsvorstellungen", 40 and passim; he has since modified his view in " O f f e n b a r u n g und Geschichte" (1981), e.g. 48. For the "revelation through history" debate see titles by Rendtorff, Zimmerli, Barr, Muschalek/Gamper, et al. in the bibliography. 2 2 C f . Balentine's statistical observations (Hidden God, 7 f . (cf. 85)): on 26 occasions G o d is said to hide His face (1110); seven times He hides H i m s e l f ("lilO, D1?»); and ten times the things o f G o d are said to be hidden ("IDD, 12X, TrO). 2 3 C f . Weiser, " B e z i e h u n g e n " , 522: even in the cult, God's familiarity was never allowed to overshadow His mysterious awesomeness (see e.g. Psalm 68:36); this tension engendered much fruitful theological reflection in the Psalms and elsewhere. C f . Kraus, Psalmen, 80 (on Psa 80:4, 94:1); Eaton, "Self-Revelation", 331; Perlitt, " V e r b o r g e n h e i t " , 373.

Outline of an Old Testament Topology of Revelation

11

God's self-concealment is not arbitrary or capricious, but often relates to reckless disobedience and guilt on the part of His people and their leaders (e.g. Mic 3 : 1 - 4 ; Isa 59:1 ff.; Ezek 39:24, etc.). 24 The problem of God's felt absence is thus laid at the people's doorstep, so that "what had been the people's complaint against God became God's complaint against his people." 25 Nevertheless, not all occurrences e. g. of the expression "1110 4- D'3D are due to human sinfulness and the wrath of God, as Balentine points out. 2 6 God may be hidden for a number of different reasons, of which the sin of the people is only one. His sovereignty in this matter is never questioned. 1.4.2.

The Response

of

Faith

But how does the Old Testament cope existentially and theologically with the problem of God's hiddenness? Modern scholarship has variously suggested that one way of coming to terms with God's silence was in fact to take it as a sign of His saving intention. Isa 45:15 reads, "You are indeed a God who hides Himself ("innOH "7X HDM), O God of Israel, Saviour!" God's use of the Gentile Cyrus amounts to a new message of salvation amidst His continuing hiddenness. 27 Another approach is more typical: where prayers of distress are uttered before God, there is often a subtle appeal to His promises or His character as He has revealed it in the past. Thus e.g. in Exod 5:22f. Moses bitterly complains about God's failure to act — all the while appealing to past revelation: "Why did you ever send me?" 28 The attitude taken here and in many of the lament psalms is dialectical: God's silence now is indeed painfully real — but that does not make His past promise unreal. Both horns of this dilemma are fully relevant to the believer's situation. Often the Psalmist draws comfort from the one side when facing the other: he remembers the days of old and longs for God (Psa 143:5); he recalls that God saved him in battle (140:8); and a passionate historical appeal can be heard to resound in his prayer to "God my stronghold" or "the God of Israel" (Psa 59:6, 10, etc.). Such reasoning would of course be actively encouraged by the liturg24

Perlitt, "Verborgenheit", 375. Balentine, Hidden God, 161. 26 Balentine, Hidden God, e.g. 7 6 - 7 9 . 27 But w e should not go on with Westermann, Jesaja, 138, to postulate in this obscure passage a decisive turning point of O T thought, after which God's actions are on principle no longer perceptible in history. T h e glory and majesty of God are still intended to be recognizable even to the Gentiles: Psa 98:2; Isa 40:5, 52:10, etc.; cf. Zobel, "n^J", 1030f. (Some have questioned the integrity of the text, suggesting an emendation IflK for HflS: e.g. BHS; Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 110; McKenzie, Second Isaiah, 80, 82f.) 28 Cf. e.g. N u m llzlOfF.; Jer 20:7ff. 25

12

Ancient Judaism

ical use of credal and confessional f o r m u l a e relating precisely to G o d ' s past saving activity. M a n y m o r e examples could be n a m e d . 2 9 B u t the pattern is clear: in the face of Y a h w e h ' s hiddenness b o t h individual and nation could recall " H i s grace and f a v o u r to o u r fathers in distress." H e r e as in later Judaism, the insistence on G o d ' s unaltered character serves to buttress a passionate h o p e that absence and hiddenness will give w a y to epiphany and revelation. 3 0

1.4.3.

The Eclipse of Prophetic

Revelation

In the post-exilic period, the deus absconditus p r o b l e m b e c a m e subject to particular complications. C o n s i d e r i n g the great a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s of the eighthcentury prophets, an editor 3 1 confidently affirmed that "the Lord G o d does n o t h i n g unless H e reveals (H1?}) His secret counsel (1110) to His servants the p r o p h e t s " ( A m o s 3:7). B u t at the same time, individual claims to c o n t e m p o r a r y p r o p h e t i c revelation w e r e b e c o m i n g increasingly suspect, perhaps n o t least in the a f t e r m a t h of Ezra's r e f o r m s . P r o p h e t s like Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Zechariah frequently encounter the p r o b l e m o f f a l s e prophecy; "|1Tn. ("vision"), the standard t e r m for p r o p h e t i c revelation, is n o w often used negatively, as the m a r k of the false p r o p h e t . 3 2 Jeremiah in particular utters s o m e sharply critical w o r d s about the role of dreams in revelation. 3 3 Clearly there was need f o r a test criterion to distinguish canonical ("true") p r o p h e c y f r o m the p r o n o u n c e m e n t s of a host of c o n t e m p o r a r y charlatans w h o s e banner was the appeal to d r e a m s and ecstatic visions. T h e p o s t - e x ilic religious and political e n v i r o n m e n t faced the believing c o m m u n i t y w i t h the increasingly intractable p r o b l e m of h o w to interpret one's times. 3 4

29

Cf. e.g. Zimmerli, " O f f e n b a r u n g " , 31, o n Psa 44, 77. Cf. e.g. Rochais, "Apocalyptique", 284—286; also Chapter 8 below o n the threedimensional nature of revelation in Paul. 31 M o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s regard A m o s 3:7 as the w o r k of a D e u t e r o n o m i c redactor. See also Blenkinsopp, History, 89. 32 E.g. Jer 14:14; 23:16; Ezek 12:24; 1 3 : 6 - 9 , 16, 23; 21:34; Zech 10:2; 13:4. Cf. also Isa 28:7; 29:9f.; 30:10. 33 Jer 2 3 : 2 5 - 3 2 , 27:9f., 29:8f.; cf. Zech 10:2; Eccl 5:6. D e u t 1 3 : 1 - 5 and 18:14-22, being incorporated into the D e u t e r o n o m i c code, w o u l d have b e c o m e particularly influential guidelines in this respect: see e.g. Jer 28:9. 34 In practice the main test criterion appears to have been moral and spiritual, i.e. exposing sin and affirming Y a h w e h ' s sovereignty: e.g. Isa 55:8, Mic 3:5—12;Jer 23:25—29; Lam 2:14; Ezek 23:26; also Deut 1 3 : 1 - 5 ; 1 8 : 1 8 - 2 2 . Oepke, " x a M i r a o " , 578 lists four criteria: (i) the prophet's personality and motive, (ii) the manner in which the revelation is received, (iii) the fulfilment of relevant predictions, and (iv) unrelenting loyalty to the will of God rather than to the popular trends of the day. O n the general p r o b l e m cf. f u r ther C r e n s w h a w , Conflict, passim. 30

Outline of an Old Testament Topology of Revelation

13

Alongside the dispute over false prophecy, prophetic activity was b e c o m i n g a n o n y m o u s (e.g. Mai; Z e c h 9—14; I s a 4 0 — 6 6 ) . M o r e o v e r , there arose the belief that c o n t e m p o r a r y prophecy was really not to be compared with the prophets o f old. For the first time w e encounter here the suggestion that prophecy m a y altogether be c o m i n g to an end: the Psalmist writes (74:9), " W e do not see our signs; there is n o longer any prophet

"p3? I ' S , n o r is there any a m o n g us

w h o k n o w s h o w l o n g . " T h i s late O T sentiment (cf. e.g. Z e c h 13:3; L a m 2:9; also E z e k 7:26; A m o s 8:11) foreshadows a c o m m o n trend in postcanonical J e wish literature, as w e will see. Despite these emerging reservations about the possibility and legitimacy o f c o n t e m p o r a r y prophecy, there can be little doubt that prophetic activity in one f o r m or another continued until well after the exile. A t the same time, t w o i m portant theologoumena

f r o m this period gradually evolved into virtual substitu-

tes for prophetic revelation: exegesis and apocalyptic.

1.4.4.

Revelation,

Torah,

and

Exegesis

In the postexilic writings o f Scripture there is an undeniable trend towards accepting the received,

written w o r d as a significant means o f revelation. Early

indications o f this have been seen e.g. in Ezekiel's eating o f the scroll (3:1 f.) 3 5 or in recurring D e u t e r o n o m i c phrases like " t h e words o f this l a w " , which stress the givenness o f the revealed w o r d . 3 6 T o r a h piety begins to manifest itself clearly in E z r a / N e h e m i a h and in several o f the Psalms (esp. 1, 19, 119). A l o n g side the emerging influence o f the Pentateuch as canon there arose the belief in T o r a h as e m b o d i m e n t o f w i s d o m 3 7 — a conviction also c o m m o n l y found in later Judaism, and one w h i c h amounts in effect to a nationalization o f w i s d o m . T h u s Psalm 19 argues, a minore ad mains,38

that j u s t as creation declares the

glory o f E l o h i m , so even m o r e Y a h w e h ' s T o r a h is perfect, restoring the soul and making wise the simple. Instruction was n o w to be sought in the b o o k o f T o r a h and f r o m those w h o study i t . 3 9 A t the same time, although God's sovereignty in creation and history is still affirmed (see above), adverse historical circumstances increasingly drive the believer to search God's w o r d written. T h i s , above all, has b e c o m e the place where Israel is to k n o w the Lord's will: " W h e r e there is n o revelation [TITn] the people are unrestrained; but happy is he w h o keeps T o r a h " (Prov 2 9 : 1 8 ) . 4 0 Latourelle, Theology, 26. Deut 17:19; 27:3, 8, 26; 28:58; 29:28; 31:12, 24; 32:46; Josh 1:7£; 8:34, etc. Latourelle, Theology, 25. 3 7 E.g. Ezra 7:25; Psa 111:10; cf. Job 28. See Chapter 3 below. 3 8 Haag, "Révélation", 597 f. 3 9 E.g. Psa 1, 19, 119 passim; Neh 8; 2 C h r 35:6, 12f. 4 0 Cf. Bartlett, "Revelation", 23; Zobel, "H 1 ?!", 1031. Note also the exhortation to 35

36

Ancient Judaism

14

B u t o f course no mere human exegesis can replace divine revelation. W i s d o m is hidden with G o d , inaccessible to h u m a n search and understanding (esp. J o b 28; Psa 51:8); he alone can d i s p e n s e « (Prov 1:7; 2:6; 2 0 : 2 7 ; J o b 1 1 : 5 f . ; 12:22, etc.). Although this theme is only fully elaborated in the postcanonical w r i t ings, Psalm 119:18 already hints at an important implication: " O p e n m y eyes, that I may behold wonderful things [ m S ^ D J ] f r o m your l a w . " T h e suggestion here is that G o d m a y disclose the wonders o f T o r a h through the process o f e x egesis (cf. vv. 27, 129 f . ) . 4 1 J u s t as one searches and mines for treasures o f silver, so for hidden secrets o f w i s d o m and o f T o r a h — and G o d meets this search in revelation (Job 28:1 ff.; cf. 11:6; 12:22; also P r o v 2:4—6). T h i s view lies near the beginning o f a long tradition o f J e w i s h thought which held that the Scriptures contain s o m e things which are obvious and straightforward, and others which are " w o n d r o u s " and hidden but whose meaning can be revealed to the sage. It was this belief which ensured that in m a n y circles the acceptance o f a canon led not to religious stagnation 4 2 but to a dynamic process o f creative and yet theologically mature and responsible interpretation. 4 3

1.4.5.

The Secrets of

Heaven

" T h e hidden things belong to the L o r d our G o d , but the things revealed b e long to us and to our children forever, that w e may f o l l o w all the words o f this l a w " (Deut 29:28). Despite such apparent c o m m i t m e n t to the adequacy and clarity o f received revelation (cf. D e u t 30:11 — 14), we find in post-exilic thought the conviction that Scripture alone was not sufficient to explain G o d ' s sovereignty in creation and redemption. Indeed, perhaps it was precisely the "hidden things" which held the clue to God's intentions for salvation h i s t o r y . 4 4 Here for the first time in the Bible, G o d ' s plans for f u t u r e j u d g e m e n t and redemption are understood to be firmly determined and laid up in heavenly treasure stores, in order to be manifested in history at the proper t i m e . 4 5 Alongside the seeming decline o f "classical" prophecy, then, there developed a n e w f o r m o f special revelation in the prophetic tradition. T h o s e w h o thus un-

"remember the law o f Moses my servant" (Mai 3:22 [Heb]) at the conclusion o f the book o f Prophets. 41 Cf. Levenson, "Sources", 564: "in Psalm 119 God himself is the teacher" o f Torah (broadly understood: 565ff.). See further Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 540; idem, "Revelation", 350; and compare Psa 119:18 with references in the Dead Sea Scrolls to "wondrous mysteries" S^S Ml, etc. (esp. 1 Q H 1:21; 1 Q M 14:14). 42 Pace Williams, Form and Vitality, 84, 87 and passim. 4 3 Fishbane, "Exegesis", 35 speaks of the "strategic subordination o f the human exegetical voice to divine revelation". Cf. idem, "Revelation", passim. 4 4 Even the enigmatic Deut 29:28 appears to pertain to salvation history; see vv. 21 ff. 4 5 Deut 32:34f. Cf. Jer 50:25; Mai 3:10.

Outline of an Old Testament Topology of Revelation

15

derstood and communicated God's "secrets" no longer posed as traditional prophets; yet at the same time they quite specifically absorbed and reapplied the concerns of the prophets to the vexing questions of a new day. 46 We obviously stand here on the brink of apocalyptic; Chapter One will further treat of this subject and its origin in prophecy and mantic wisdom.

Excursus: H / I I O O f particular significance for their use in postcanonical literature (e.g. in the Dead Sea Scrolls) are the Hebrew terms 710 and (only Daniel) T"l. We will repeatedly have occasion to return to these words, but this may be a suitable moment to give an initial overview of their use in the Old Testament. The word 110 appears to be related to the root 10' II "to associate, conspire together" (Psa 2:2; 31:14). 47 It is found 21 times in the Old Testament, always in the singular. It never appears in apocalyptic material, and only once in the Pentateuch. The meaning is perhaps best summarized as a "fellowship of intimate friends taking counsel [for action]." All of the occurrences in the Old Testament can be accounted for by this description. Nevertheless, we can distinguish between two semantic categories, each in turn supporting two related shades of meaning: (i) a confidential human fellowship 48 or counsel/plan; 49 and (ii) the divine council/fellowship 50 or secret plan. 51 Most significant appears to be the element of intimate fellowship and consultation, and the resulting plan; 52 both are intended to be kept from inappropriate disclosure. Reference to a divine counsel or plan may be further qualified in the context as pertaining to God's sovereign action in history through judgement or redemption. 5 3 The word T"1 occurs nine times and is found only in the Aramaic section of Daniel. 54 While its meaning shares certain similarities with that of 110, never46 D a n 9:2ff., 22ff. (cf. Jer 25:11) and Zech 6:12f. (cf. J e r 2 3 : 5 f . ) are but t w o obvious examples of the « a p p r o p r i a t i o n of earlier prophecy. See m o r e fully Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, esp. 458 —499. For the idea of a p r o p h e c y as " h i d d e n " or "encoded" until the latter days cf. already Isa 8:16; 29:11 f.; H a b 2:2 £ ; and see below. 47 Cf. K o e h l e r / B a u m g a r t n e r , Lexikon 4 (3rd ed. 1983): 709. 48 Gen 49:6; Jer 6:11; 15:17; Ezek 13:9; Psa 55:15; 64:3; 111:1; J o b 19:19. 49 Psa 83:4; P r o v 11:13; 15:22; 20:19; 25:9. 50 Jer 23:18, 22; Psa 89:8 [there explicitly the heavenly council]; J o b 15:8; [29:4]; P r o v 3:32. 51 A m o s 3:7; Psa 25:14. 52 Cf. Sicba, "710", 146; Fabry, "710", 104; Fohrer, "Aspects", 103; Wewers, Geheimnis, 191 f. 53 E . g . Jer 2 3 : 1 6 - 2 2 ; A m o s 3 : 3 - 8 ; and cf. P s a 2 5 : 1 3 f . 54 D a n 2:18, 19, 27, 28, 29, 30, 47 (2x); 4:6. Its use in D a n closely resembles that at Q u m r a n : Finkel, "Pesher".

16

Ancient Judaism

theless a clear semantic distinction is possible. Prima facie

the term designates

the solution o f an inscrutable problem o f divination, especially the exposition o f dreams and visions. T h i s solution can be the object o f inquiry (2:18, 27; [4:6]) and o f revelation (2:19, 28—30, 47), and it pertains to events o f the near or distant future (cf. 2:21, 28 f.; and passim). As such, it is clearly r e m o v e d f r o m the sociological dimension suggested b y "T10: T"1 implies neither a confidential c o n sultation n o r a plan thereby conceived. 5 5 It is, however, at the same time the e x clusive property o f G o d and can only be revealed by H i m as an act o f grace to a man o f His favour (2:22, 28; 4:5 f., 15). W e will discuss the Greek versions in due course, but it is significant to m e n tion for the time being that in the L X X (xvatiigiov never renders H e b r e w 110, and that outside Daniel (where it consistently translates T"1) the w o r d occurs only in the apocryphal b o o k s (see Chapter Six below).

2. "Ancient Judaism": Definition It n o w remains for us to indicate the chronological, literary, and religious scope o f the " J u d a i s m " w h o s e beliefs 5 7 are here under examination.

2.1. General Identification W e will trace our theological theme in the J e w i s h literature o f the period bounded very approximately b y the Maccabean uprising and the collapse o f the revolt under Hadrian. T h e validity o f m y results will o f necessity be limited b y m y reconstruction o f J u d a i s m f r o m literary sources, inasmuch as these are still the main quarry o f evidence. Greater emphasis will be given to the Palestinian sources, although important diaspora writers have also been included. 5 8

55 Willi-Plein, "Geheimnis", 70f. keenly observes the difference between the two terms; I"l in this sense is "ein statischer Begriff'. 5 6 This foreshadows the fact that, despite a degree of interchangeable usage in Rabbinic literature, IT is for our purposes the more important word. N. B. Fiddes, "Hiddenness", 225—228 asserts, pace many authors (cf. recently Couturier, "Visions"), that 110 and the idea o f the divine council "cannot be maintained to be the explanation for the basic idea of divine mysteries" (227). 57 It must be noted that beliefs are, o f course, only one aspect of a religion in which beliefs and practices form a complex whole. 5 8 I have not included one ambiguous body of literature, the magical texts (cf. P. S. Alexander in Schurer/Vermes, HJPAJC 3.1:342—379). However, if even "mainstream" Jewish writers exhibit both positive and negative attitudes to various forms of magic (e.g. Philo Spec 3:100—102; Josephus Ant 8 : 4 5 - 4 9 ; cf. Cohen, Talmud, 274ff. and Ur-

"AncientJudaism":

17

Definition

The headings chosen for the discussion are apocalyptic literature, Q u m r a n , wisdom literature, Philo, Josephus, the T a r g u m s and Greek versions, and rabbinic literature. This selection reflects to some extent the approach of m y research; but it is also intended as a basic structuring device to help present the data in meaningful and somewhat representative units. Clearly some of the categories are vague, and some documents in turn of a character which matches more than one description (e.g. Jub, 3En). The following paragraph, therefore, will attempt to assess the degree to which such a collection of evidence may in fact be considered representative of the Judaism here examined.

2.2. Belief and " O r t h o d o x y " in E a r l y J u d a i s m Since the classic treatments of the early 20th century, 5 9 there has been increasing discussion of whether any "mainstream" of belief can be detected, especially in pre-Rabbinic Judaism. A full discussion would obviously require detailed interaction with a vast and growing body of literature. T w o observations may here suffice: one, regarding the type of writing most likely to e m body religious homologoumena; and the other, pertaining to the question of "distinguishing" beliefs and practices which would mark off a confessing Jew f r o m an apostate. 2.2.1.

Types of Functionally

Representative

Religious

Writing

Clearly some religious documents are more ephemeral and partisan expressions of faith than others. But it is usually safe to regard a public credal statement as more broadly representative of a community's belief than an occasional polemical treatise on a matter of current concern. Similarly, liturgical texts by their very nature and use are likely to express ideas of wider currency than an individual writer's w o r k — witness four centuries of the Book of C o m m o n bach, Sages, 1:101 f. on the Rabbis), it w o u l d seem that the importance of "mysteries" in the magical texts further accentuates the broad influence o f j e w i s h t h o u g h t on mysteries, illustrating the varying significance of the concept in G r a e c o - R o m a n as well as in specifically J e w i s h settings. T h u s , " m y s t e r y " (NH) can denote on the one h a n d the magical ritual or f o r m u l a (a òewnevov): e.g. Isbell, Corpus, N o s . 3:13; 8:1; 11:11; 25:8; 36:4, 5; 38:4; 58:1, 10; M o n t g o m e r y , Incantation Texts, N o s . 38:6; 39:7; N a v e h / S h a k e d , Amulets, A m u l e t 3:3; B o w l 1:7 (cf. M o n t g o m e r y 37:8); 6:1; Genizah 6.2.1, 9. Cf. the theurgic mysteries of Hekhalot texts; and note e.g. 1 E n 9:6 (the illegitimate mysteries o f the Watchers, w h i c h are also " p e r f o r m e d " ) ; cf. V i t P r o p h 2:5. O n the other hand there seem to be cosmological " m y s teries of heaven" (e.g. N a v e h / S h a k e d B o w l 1:3 (cf. M o n t g o m e r y 37:4); 5:2; 13:21; Sefer Ha-Razim 2:1 ff. ; 3:1 ff. ; 4:1 ff.; 8:13 f.) resembling those m o r e fully discussed below. 59 See the w o r k s of Weber, Bousset, M o o r e , Montefiore, Schurer, Billerbeck, et al.

18

Ancient

Judaism

P r a y e r . 6 0 C o n g r e g a t i o n a l prayers m u s t clearly f o r m u l a t e a piety held in c o m m o n . W h a t is m o r e , such " p u b l i c " texts, along w i t h older d o c u m e n t s w h i c h are either explicitly or implicitly (e.g. b y f r e q u e n t citation) accorded a status of s o m e a u t h o r i t y , m a y in t i m e b e c o m e part of the w a y in w h i c h a c o m m u n i t y defines and u n d e r s t a n d s itself o v e r against its e n v i r o n m e n t . Finally, a n o t h e r literary category likely to contain w i d e l y held v i e w s includes w r i t i n g s w h o s e p u r p o s e is partly or entirely apologetic. A w r i t e r w h o acc o u n t s for his religious beliefs and practices b e f o r e a hostile or skeptical audience will p r o b a b l y p o r t r a y his faith in a f a v o u r a b l e light and to the best of his k n o w l e d g e ; he is in any case unlikely to d e f e n d " e x t r e m e " views held only b y minority fringe groups. Given these criteria, the d o c u m e n t s here u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n are " r e p r e s e n t a tive" to quite different degrees. T h e apocalyptic w r i t i n g s , t h o u g h s o m e t i m e s idiosyncratic in detail, share the claim to be speaking for the (or a) believing c o m m u n i t y . T h e y also agree in the shaping o f certain influential m o t i f s such as t h r o n e visions, i n t e r p r e t i n g angels, the heavenly architecture, c o o r d i n a t i o n o f celestial a n d earthly forces, a n d the n a t u r e o f mysteries. Philo distinctly betrays the perspective o f an A l e x a n d r i a n p h i l o s o p h e r , J o s e p h u s that of a R o m a n historian; yet because of their f r e q u e n t l y apologetic p u r p o s e b o t h w o u l d appear to s u p p o r t inter alia a basic stock o f views w h i c h appertain to a " m a i n s t r e a m " J u daism. 6 1 A n u m b e r ( t h o u g h b y n o m e a n s all) of the D e a d Sea Scrolls are m o r e clearly sectarian in content, b u t they have nevertheless revolutionized o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f early Palestinian hermeneutics. F r o m f r e q u e n t citations, the b o o k o f B e n Sira is k n o w n to have been w i d e l y influential a m o n g the Rabbis; m o r e o v e r , its translation and inclusion in the L X X suggests that it was a significant b r i d g e b e t w e e n Palestinian and diaspora J u d a i s m . 6 2 Early R a b b i n i c discussion contains s o m e h i g h l y academic subject m a t t e r (e.g. technical halakhic debate o r exegesis), b u t also material w h i c h will h a v e been m o r e c o m m o n l y k n o w n in the s y n a g o g u e s (prayers, homiletical m i d r a s h i m , p o p u l a r teachings o f the f a m o u s sages). Ancient liturgical texts such as T a r g u m s and prayers offer recurring indications of being influenced b y n o t i o n s developed e.g. in apocalyptic and even mystical circles. 6 3

60 Thus see e.g. Psalms; PssSol; 18 Benedictions; Piyyutim; Targumim; also 1 Q H , Lukan Canticles, OdSol. 61 Josephus in particular turns out to be a helpful source of contemporary Palestinian views on prophecy. See below, Chapter 5. 62 Josephus's works are a similar bridge; cf. further Esther 10:3/ LXX. 63 Cf. Baeck, "Mysticism", 103; Petuchowski, "Liturgy", 39.

"AncientJudaism": 2.2.2.

Distinguishing

Doctrines:

19

Definition

"Judaism"

and

"Apostasy"

If the debate o f recent years 6 4 has taught us anything about the nature o f doctrine in Second T e m p l e Judaism, it is the impossibility o f establishing the existence o f an " o r t h o d o x y " which could be precisely delineated by means o f credal or doctrinal statements. But are there criteria which might distinguish those w h o were clearly J e w s from those w h o were clearly not? Latet dolus in generalibus;

but at the risk o f caricature, the pillars o f " m a i n -

stream" Jewish belief might be summarized as a) exclusive monotheism, b) " r e velation" 6 5 and orthopraxis, and c) election and redemption. Heretics and apostates appear to have been identified chiefly on the grounds not o f specific doctrinal dissent but o f the denial o f and practical non-conformity with this religious basis o f j u d a i s m ; 6 6 criteria for such an identification were obtained from the laws pertaining to (i) ritual fitness for membership in the congregation, and (ii) faithfulness to the covenant. 6 7 A good example o f "apostasy" by this definition is Elisha b. Abuya (T2), w h o a) allowed for the heresy o f " t w o powers (flVlttn) in heaven" (e.g. b . H a g 15a); b) consciously rebelled against T o r a h and the " p o w e r " o f God although he knew better; 6 8 and c) denied the eschatological reward for the righteous and the resurrection from the dead. 6 9 Several other pertinent examples could be cited. 7 0 Whether or not such people were explicitly excommunicated, clearly they were regarded as falling outside the framework o f "acceptable" Judaism. See e.g. the articles of Aune, McEleney, Grabbe, Dexinger, Horbury. I.e. Torah, tradition and interpretation. Cf. Schiffman, "Crossroads", 125: conversion requires the acceptance o f both written and oral Torah. See also t.Dem 2:5 (R. Jose b. Judah T4); b.Shab 31a (Hillel/Shammai). 66 But see Dexinger, "Limits", 111 f.: "One should never forget . . . that behind . . . orthopraxy there is always a significant amount o f orthodoxy." Cf. e.g. SifDeut 329 (on 32:39; ed. Finkelstein, 379) regarding those who say "there is no power/there are two powers in heaven", and those who claim "He has no ability either to kill or to make alive, to do evil or to do good". M.Sanh 10:1 excludes "the one who denies that the Torah is from heaven" from the world to come. See more generally Philo Spec 1:324—345. 67 Horbury, "Extirpation", 16f.; cf. also Schiffman, "Crossroads", 145 ( = idem,Jew, 48). 68 E.g. RuthR 6:4/EcclR 7.8.1; b.Hag 1 5 a - b ; y.Hag 2, 77b; N. B . see also Heb 6:4-6. 69 RuthR 6:4/EcclR 7.8.1 (in view of R. Judah the baker's martyrdom). But although a bat qol denied him the possibility of repentance (b. Hag 15a; RuthR 6:4/EcclR 7.8.1 [on Jer 3:22; Mai 3:7]), there was apparently no absolute consensus about Aher's final salvation or perdition. Cf. b. Hag 15b; esp. RuthR 6:4/Eccl 7.8.1 (R. Meir T3, Aher's student); see further Segal, Two Powers, 60 ff. and passim. 7 0 (i) Dositheus the son of Drimylus left Judaism (|XETafiaXo)v t a voui^ra x a i tcbv itaxgicov ftoy^dTtov ajlT]^X,OTQia>|ievog: 3Macc 1:3) and became a priest of Alexander and the deified Ptolemies Adelphoi and Euergetai (CPJ 3:235f., No. 127d-e; cf. p. 230f.). Note the exclusion ofinitiates in the Mysteries as JtoXenioi xou eftvoug (3Macc 2:32f.); 64 65

20

Ancient Judaism B u t conversely, o n these s a m e premises the so-called Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y

w i t h its r a n g e o f s e c t a r i a n beliefs a n d p r a c t i c e s 7 1 s h o u l d p r o b a b l y not b e s e e n t o fall o u t s i d e t h e p e r i m e t e r o f t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n : f o r d e s p i t e their criticism of the temple these people did n o t a b a n d o n circumcision, engage in i d o l a t r y , o r t h e l i k e . 7 2 M o r e o v e r , if t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e s e c t a r i a n s w i t h t h e E s s e n e s b e c o r r e c t , w e h a v e all t h e m o r e r e a s o n n o t t o s u s p e c t t h e m o f apostasy: Philo and Josephus, while allowing for their distinctiveness,73 regard t h e E s s e n e s as a n i n t e g r a l a n d i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f P a l e s t i n i a n J u d a i s m . 7 4

2.3. Judaism and the Pagan Religions T h i s is n o t t h e p l a c e f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f " H e l l e n i s m " o n J u d a i s m in g e n e r a l . N o r i n d e e d c a n t h e u l t i m a t e l y r e l i g i o u s H e l l e n i s t i c o r i g i n o f t h e t e r m |j/uaTf|Qiov h e r e b e e x a m i n e d . 7 5 T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e s e r e m a r k s is, r a t h e r , t o i n d i c a t e in b r i e f t h e v i e w I h a v e t a k e n o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c m y s t e r y r e l i g i o n s as r e g a r d s m y thesis in p a r t i c u l a r : v i z . , t h a t t h e i r p o p u l a r i t y s e r v e s as a n a p t i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a n E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n m i l i e u i n c r e a s i n g l y f a s c i n a t e d w i t h secret k n o w l e d g e a n d e s o t e r i c r e l i g i o u s t r u t h . T h e i n t e r e s t in p r i v i l e g e d access t o t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l w a s " i n t h e a i r " , s o t o s p e a k — m a n i f e s t e d in t h e a c c e l e r a t e d p r o liferation of personal d r e a m revelations, oracles and their interpretation, m a g i c a n d a s t r o l o g y , a n d n u m e r o u s e x c l u s i v e g r o u p s o f f e r i n g initiates h i g h e r k n o w ledge for their personal weal and salvation.76 B u t while the a m o u n t of cross-fertilization b e t w e e n J u d a i s m and the general H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r e w a s clearly v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l , t h e o l o g i c a l parallels in t h e s u b cf. further H o r b u r y , "Extirpation", 23. (ii) T h e Hasmoneans revolted against the enforced apostasy ( à j i o o x a o i a v , 1 Macc 2:15) of idolatry and other offences against the covenant (cf. 2:27 and passim), (iii) Tiberius Julius Alexander (Philo's nephew): see Josephus Ant 20:100; BJ 5:45 and passim, (iv) Miriam daughter of Bilgah: t.Suk 4:28. 71 Peculiar exegesis and halakhhah as well as conscious separation f r o m the temple and f r o m the life of the nation at large clearly mark Q u m r a n as sectarian. Furthermore, criteria for apostasy appear here to have been rather m o r e strictly defined: cf. Sanders, PPJ, 2 5 5 - 2 5 7 . 72 With regard to the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y ' s reserved attitude about the Jerusalem temple, note the surprisingly limited criticism ofLeontopolis (T3n ITS) in m . M e n 13:10. 73 Josephus BJ 2:128 describes their piety as lôiœç. 74 Josephus BJ 2:126—161; Philo Prob 75—91; Hyp 11:1 — 18. Contrast Josephus's treatment of the Samaritans: Shechem was inhabited i m ô tojv «jiootgitwv t o û 'Iouôaioov £i)vouç, Ant 11:340 (cf. 9:291; l l : 1 9 ( f f . ) , 84(ff.), 114f., 174f., 341, 346; 12:257). 75 T h e most comprehensive discussion of the Hellenistic religious use of "mysteries" is still Priimm, "Mystères", 1—225; on the religious origin of the [1X)0TT|Q10V terminology also Caragounis, Mysterion, 3—19; Harvey, "Mystery Language", esp. 321 — 324; and most recently Wedderburn, Baptism, 148 ff. 76 See further Hengel, Judentum, 3 8 1 - 3 9 4 ; Festugière, Révélation, 1:309-354.

"AncientJudaism":

Definition

21

ject matter here under consideration would appear for the most part to lie in the realm o f religious commonplace, i.e. o f the phenomenology and psychology o f religion. 7 7 Outsiders began, rightly or wrongly, to regard the Jewish preoccupation with a mysterious lawbook and with enigmatic rules o f cleanliness as an obvious parallel to more familiar patterns o f religion. 7 8 At the same time the more cosmopolitan Jewish writers seized upon this comparison as an apologetic device to demonstrate h o w Judaism matched and surpassed even the finest o f Greek spirituality and morality (e.g. Wisd, EpArist, Artapanus); and thereby, as Cerfaux says, they "faisaient vibrer une corde très sensible de l'âme religieuse de leur temps. " 7 9 And although these J e w s maintained all the while a deep-seated antipathy to the substance o f the pagan religions, the spread o f Greek language, culture, and commerce (even in Palestine) created a milieu in which "Hellenistic" reflection about Yahweh's secret counsels was further encouraged. After initial resistance (see below on the L X X ) , some o f the new religious and philosophical terminology was used positively to express existing and developing ideas o f Jewish thought.

2.4. Jewish Mysteries? In modern scholarship the name o f E. R. Goodenough has become associated with the idea that Diaspora Judaism itself became for all practical considerations a mystery religion. 8 0 Inscriptional evidence from the Diaspora clearly confirms that in many places Jewish religion was significantly influenced by pagan s y m bolism and pagan religious ideas; 81 indeed the existence o f even thoroughly syncretisticjews in the Diaspora cannot be denied. 82 Goodenough's main assertion is not all-out syncretism, but the use o f pagan symbols with Jewish meanings in order to frame Jewish religious practice in conscious analogy to the religious symbolism o f the pagan mysteries. 8 3 It is o f course true that ancient Judaism exercised a considerable attraction on many pagan contemporaries. And although outright proselytes may have been

T h e m a j o r literary exception may be Alexandrian Judaism. See esp. Juvenal Sat 14:102—104: "Tradidit arcano quodcumque volumine Moyses, N o n monstrare vias eadem sacras nisi sacra colenti, Quaesitum ad fontem solos deducere v e r p o s . " Cf. the Gentile Christian perspective voiced in S i b O r 8:307 f. 77

78

Cerfaux, "Influence", 63. See the classic statement in Goodenough, Light, 5 and passim, and its painstaking elaboration in the massive Jewish Symbols (13 vols.). 81 E.g. Jewish Symbols, Vols. 2, 9. 8 2 C f . Gnostic and magical texts, also e.g. 1 M a c c 1:11 — 15, 4 3 - 53; 2 M a c c 4 : 1 0 - 1 7 ; 3 M a c c 2:28—31; Acts 13:6; regarding nonobservant J e w s in the Diaspora. 8 3 E . g . Jewish Symbols 9:6—8. 79

80

22

Ancient Judaism

limited in n u m b e r , o u r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t J e w s in the R o m a n e m p i r e is quite c o m p a t i b l e w i t h w i d e s p r e a d religious and cultural interaction. Especially (but n o t only) the u n e d u c a t e d o n b o t h sides o f the "fence" m u s t be considered a likely source of m u c h indiscriminate folk religion, as indeed w e find it in m a n y o f the charms, amulets, epitaphs, images, etc. w h i c h G o o d e n o u g h adduces. 8 4 O n the o t h e r h a n d , G o o d e n o u g h has c o m e in f o r a g o o d deal o f criticism. T h e Jewishness o f s o m e of his evidence has been challenged. 8 5 M o r e significantly, f e w scholars h a v e accepted his u n d e r l y i n g claim that religious s y m bols carry an inherent e m o t i o n a l " v a l u e " w h i c h is u n c h a n g i n g and i n d e p e n d e n t o f an interpretive f r a m e w o r k . 8 6 In particular (and m o s t d a m a g i n g f o r his o v e r all a r g u m e n t ) , his n o t i o n o f a universal p a g a n sacramental m y s t i c i s m has n o t been accepted. 8 7 M o r e o v e r , it remains d o u b t f u l to w h a t extent o n e can fairly r e c o n s t r u c t the n a t u r e of J u d a i s m o n the basis largely o f a Philonic reading o f n o n - l i t e r a r y evidence. 8 8 N o clear reference, either critical or s u p p o r t i v e , is m a d e t o J e w i s h m y s t e r y rites b y the literary s p o k e s m e n o f j u d a i s m (or for that m a t t e r of C h r i s tianity). 8 9 T h e statements o f pagan writers, w h e t h e r c o m p a r i n g J u d a i s m to o t h e r foreign cults 9 0 or a b h o r r i n g its distinctives as alien to piety a n d d e c o r u m (profana illic omnia quae apud nos sacra)]), t e n d to reflect i g n o r a n c e rather than considered j u d g e m e n t s o f c o m p a r a t i v e religion. Nevertheless, the case m o u n t e d b y G o o d e n o u g h s h o u l d alert us t o the p o s sibility that J e w i s h use o f Hellenistic m y s t e r y l a n g u a g e m a y at times h a v e been more than a m e r e " b l u f f 9 2 to a f f i r m the superiority o f j u d a i s m . W e m u s t allow that various s y m b o l s , t e r m s and patterns o f Hellenistic religion w o u l d in s o m e

84

E.g. Jewish Symbols 2:121-295. Cf. Smith, "Symbols", 67f. (Additional N o t e 2). 86 Jewish Symbols 12:70; cf. e.g. Smith, "Symbols", 55f. 87 Cf. Smith, "Symbols", 58f. 88 (Even his interpretation of Philo is open to question.) F. Millar's recent assessment of diaspora archaeological evidence comes to rather different conclusions (Schiirer/Vermes, HJPAJC 3.1:1 — 176, esp. 138-149). 89 G o o d e n o u g h himself admits (Jewish Symbols, 9:8), "We k n o w no Jewish literature that shows any need of pagan symbols to express itself." T h e supposed "sacramental" references of JosAsen have been thought to point to some kind of Jewish initiatory rite or meal, but against this see Burchard, "Importance", 112ff.; Wedderburn, Baptism, 157 f.; also Sanger, Judentum, passim (though N . B. Kee, "Setting", 399 ff. envisions substantial influence f r o m the Isis cult.) 90 E.g. Juvenal Sai 6:542—547 (in context); Tacitus, Hist 5:5; Valerius Maximus, Facta et Dicta Memorabilia 1.3.3 (cult of Jupiter Sabazius); Plutarch, Quaestiones Convivales 4.6. I f . 91 Thus Tacitus Hist 5:4. Cf. Dio Cassius Hist 37:17.2; Philostratus, Vita Apollonii 5:33. But N . B . J u v e n a l Sat 15:1 ff. speaks with similar derision about Egyptian religion. 92 Thus Lagrange, "Mystères", 152. 85

"AncientJudaism":

Definition

23

settings have been employed as ways of expressing Jewish religious truth. 9 3 This m i g h t occur for internal or for propaganda purposes (a clear example of the f o r m e r is the use of TTDOn in rabbinic literature; the latter is present e.g. in Philo's description of the Therapeutae). What is more, in a pagan environment such adiaphorous religious idiom (much like the pattern of synagogal architecture) could be expected to develop quite naturally. 9 4 T h e extent to which pagan t h o u g h t has ultimately "influenced" the Jewish and/or Pauline idea of revealed mysteries cannot here be discussed; indeed in the realm of religious commonplace (e.g. secrecy, mysticism, divine disclosure) a call for absolute distinction is quite futile. T h e discussion below is limited to a m o r e or less representative range of relevant Jewish religion; and it will lend further support to the n o w widely held view of a fundamentally Palestinian Jewish origin of Paul's idea of divine mysteries. 9 5 Nevertheless it will attempt to remain vigilant regarding any obvious double entendre, intentional or unintentional, of metaphors f r o m the pagan cults. 9 6 T h e following chapters examine the Jewish material on revealed mysteries in its o w n right; Part T w o will then discuss Paul's t h o u g h t both in its novel ideas about revelation and in its fundamental continuity with Jewish views of revealed mysteries.

93

Cf. also P e t u c h o w s k i , " M y s t e r y " , 141 f., 152. W e d d e r b u r n , offering a m u c h fuller discussion, argues a similar point (indirect c o n ceptual familiarity; separate development) w i t h regard to Paul: Baptism, passim, esp. 1 5 8 - 1 6 1 , 393 f. 95 C h a m p i o n e d m o s t confidently (perhaps too confidently) in the w o r d study of B r o w n (Mystery, esp. 69). 96 N o t e the critical (perhaps too critical) w o r d s of A. E. H a r v e y ("Mystery Language", esp. 331), calling for greater awareness of a possible residual "echo" of the Greek m y s t e r y - m e t a p h o r in the N e w T e s t a m e n t texts. 94

Chapter O n e

Apocalyptic Literature

1. Introduction

"Si nous hésitons à parler d'Apocalyptique, c'est parce que nous voudrions savoir si elle est un genre littraire ou bien un pudding théologique." 1 This somewhat comical confession o f J . Carmignac captures well the quandary besetting any treatment o f "apocalyptic". T o forestall a long discussion (and without losing track o f the distinction), the term shall here be used in both customary senses: viz., o f the literary genre o f apocalypse 2 and o f a more broadly defined theological perspective. 3 If for this reason m y deliberations may at times incur Carmignac's charge o f spooning out a "theological pudding", I would call on the reader's patience and considered judgement: the subject matter is undeniably complex and may at any rate better suit the Dickensian description o f a "highly geological home-made cake." 4 T h e following remarks offer some general observations regarding the locus o f apocalyptic thought within Second Temple Judaism.

Carmignac, "Description", 163. N . B . the most c o m m o n genre in "apocalyptic literature" may well be that o f testament rather than apocalypse: von Rad, Theologie, 2:330 n. 28; cf. K . Miiller, " P r o p h e ten", 180. 3 Aune, Prophecy, 107 (following Hanson, "Apocalypticism", 28—34), discerns three distinct phenomena: the literary genre, the system o f religious beliefs, and "a religiously motivated social m o v e m e n t called 'apocalypticism'." M y o w n remarks are primarily concerned with literary and theological considerations. 4 Martin Chuzzlewit, C h . 5. At the same time Davies ( P R J , 9) gives pause for thought with his remark that apocalyptic literature is on the whole remarkably free o f significant sectarian tendencies and thus may well represent a type o f piety close to the mainstream o f Jewish life. 1

2

Introductory Observations

25

2. Introductory Observations

2.1.

O n the N a t u r e o f Apocalyptic

T h e r e is undoubtedly foreign influence on apocalyptic t h o u g h t ; 5 but motifs such as Y a h w e h ' s revelation and hiddenness, His election and deliverance o f Israel, and His c o m i n g day o f j u d g e m e n t are all inherited f r o m a prophetic tradition reaching f r o m Ezekiel and Deutero-Isaiah to J o e l , Zechariah, and Daniel. O t h e r antecedents o f apocalyptic thinking are to be found in passages like G e n 15, 28; E x o d 2 4 and Isa 6 (arguably the determining exemplars o f all later throne visions); and the visions o f N u m 24; 2 K g s 2; Isa 2 4 - 2 7 ; J o b 4, 28, 38 ff. 6 B u t the apocalyptic visionaries are not simply heirs o f the prophetic tradition. Significantly, these writers do not on the w h o l e adopt prophetic pseudon y m s or claim to dispense prophecy; 7 and n o w h e r e do they appear particularly perturbed b y the canonical prophets' vexing p r o b l e m o f false p r o p h e c y . 8 T h e apocalyptic writings notably constitute a scribal p h e n o m e n o n , thus inviting comparison with the Israelite sapiential tradition. 9 G . v o n Rad's statement 1 0 that w i s d o m is the origin o f apocalyptic has b e c o m e one o f the classic antilegomena

o f c o n t e m p o r a r y scholarship; 1 1 the pre-

ferred option has been to describe apocalyptic as being m o s t closely indebted to the prophetic tradition. B u t H . - P . Miiller, while j o i n i n g the critics o f von R a d in questioning the derivation o f apocalyptic f r o m O T didactic w i s d o m , has advanced a shrewd case for a significant influence f r o m mantic w i s d o m ; 1 2 j o i n e d

E.g. Persian dualism, Babylonian and Hellenistic astronomy. Otzen ("Heavenly Visions", 200—204) argues for an origin of the apocalypses in O T cultic theophany and prophetic call visions (and even for a priestly Sitz im Leben, 204—212). Cf. also Hamerton-Kelly, "Temple", passim; Lebram, "Apokalyptik", 523 f. 7 Prophetic pseudonyms are generally later and occur only after a crystallization of the canon (e.g. Asclsa; Parjer; AssMos; ApZeph; cf. 4Ezra [1:1]; 12:42. Cf. also Willi-Plein, "Geheimnis", 65; Aune, Prophecy, 109 and n. 54. Note 2 Bar 85:3 ("the prophets have gone to sleep"), etc.; but contrast the explicit claim to prophecy in Rev 1:3; cf. 19:10. 8 Russell, Method, 163 n. 1. An important exception is Asclsa (2:12, 15; 3:1, 7; 5:2, etc.); cf. Rev 2:2, 14f., 20. 9 Cf. e.g. Aune, Prophecy, 113; also J. Z. Smith, "Wisdom", 135—140, 154. Jeremias, Jerusalem, 271 in fact believes that the apocalyptic writings contain the secret doctrines o f the scribes, being as it were esoteric midrashim (272 n. 1). Cf. n. 53 below. 10 Theologie, esp. 2 : 3 1 9 - 2 1 . 11 But see e.g. Grelot, "Eschatologie", 177; Lührmann, Offenbarungsverständnis, 101 n. 3; H. W. Kuhn, Enderwartung, esp. 149—153; Küchler, Weisheitstraditionen, 67ff. 12 "Mantische Weisheit", passim: esp. on the O T image ofjoseph and Daniel (271 ff.). Cf. also e.g. Jacob's dream (Gen 31:10 ff.) and the view o f Balaam as a mantic prophet 5 6

26

Apocalyptic

Literature

with prophetic eschatology, this helps to explain the unique apocalyptic blend of interpretation, determinism, and universal history. 13 The interaction of mantic wisdom and classical prophecy provides a plausible origin for the apocalyptic interest in secret symbolic visions and their divinely revealed interpretation. 14

2.2. O n H i s t o r y and Eschatology R. H. Charles rightly stressed that apocalyptic thought must not be defined just in terms of eschatology. The literature in question contains no homogeneous eschatology; indeed often an equal or greater interest in other subjects (e.g. heavenly cosmology) prevails. 15 However, while apocalyptic fascination with the secrets of heaven betrays a significant alienation between present and ultimate reality, 16 it need not diminish the writers' deep commitment to the outworking of God's plan of deliverance within history. T h e r e was an air of eager, even desperate, expectancy that soon, very soon, G o d ' s rule w o u l d suddenly and devastatingly break in and G o d himself, either in person or t h r o u g h his Messiah, w o u l d right all w r o n g s and reward the patience and longsuffering of the righteous. 1 7 and d r e a m interpreter (e.g. LAB 18:2, 12; Josephus Ant 4:104, 125; b u t cf. already N u m 2 3 f . and the Balaam inscription of Deir 'Alia). 13 Miiller, "Mantische Weisheit", 281—283. His proposal is taken up b y V a n d e r K a m , " O r i g i n s " , 167 f.; cf. further Hengel,Judentum, 345 f. Nickelsburg, "Apocalyptic M e s s age", 327 f. sees in Ben Sira and Baruch a possible locus for such a combination of wisd o m and prophetic elements. 14 A return to dreams and visions after the passionate resistance e.g. of Isa 28:7; Jer 23:25 ff.; Ezek 13:6 ff.; Z e c h 10:2; even Sir 34:1—8, etc. m a y be possible inter alia because of the e m e r g i n g "canon": thus the authority of the b o o k o f j e r e m i a h is never in d o u b t in D a n 9. In relation to the Scriptures, apocalyptic visions are only "metar-evelations" w h i c h do n o t threaten canonical w o r k s (even in 4 E z r a 14; cf. b e l o w on T o r a h and Sinai). After D a n itself came to be accepted as canonical (see e.g. J o s e p h u s and the Synoptic gospels), 4 Ezra 12:11 based further revelation o n D a n 9; H e r m Vis 2.3.4, on "the b o o k of Eldad and M o d a d " ; also cf. TLevi 14:1, 16:1; TJud 18:1; T N a p h 4:1, etc. regarding the " B o o k of E n o c h " . Charles, Development, 26, also points to Ezek 38:17. 15 Charles, Development, 17; idem, History, 178. Cf. m o r e recently R o w l a n d , Open Heaven, esp. 23ff.; idem, Origins, 56—58. 16 Cf. Suter, "Apocalyptic Patterns", 10. 17 Russell, Method, 263. Cf. similarly R o w l a n d , Open Heaven, 38; N o t h , "Geschichtsverstandnis", 264. Pace the ahistorical eschatology supposed e.g. by M u r d o c k , " H i story", 187; L o m b a r d , "Character", 25f.; Betz, " C o n c e p t " , 199ff. S o m e deny any n o tion of Heilsgeschichte in postbiblical Judaism: N o a c k , Spatjudentum, 84; M u r d o c k , " H i story", 180; v o n Rad, Theologie, 2:316. Against such a view stands the sequentialization of eschatology; the fervent activity of apocalyptic visionaries e.g. in Jerusalem d u r i n g the

The Visions: Scripture, Revelation,

Interpretation

27

Combined with this expectation was a universalistic and firmly deterministic view of history. 1 8 Despite an abundance of possible indications to the contrary, the God of Israel was still in sovereign control of the history of all the nations. 1 9 And the corollary of this conviction was not a historical defeatism 2 0 or escapism, 2 1 but the dialectical 22 conviction that external circumstances notwithstanding, the complete plan of Israel's salvation was already waiting to be implemented. 2 3 The apocalyptic view of history thrives on the paradoxical assurance that divine deliverance is guaranteed to take place in defiance of the present historical phenomena. 2 4

3. T h e Visions: Scripture, Revelation, Interpretation Having established a few general coordinates for the discussion, we must now consider the apocalyptic writers' estimation of their own teaching in relation to the Scriptures. T w o perspectives suggest themselves: first, revelation as expressed at Sinai, in Torah, and in tradition; and secondly, the apocalyptic "revelations" as interpretation.

J e w i s h revolt (Josephus, BJ 6); or R a b b i A q i b a ' s identification o f S i m o n B a r K o s e b a (nicknamed K3D1D cf. N u m 24:17) as the p r o m i s e d K i n g M e s s i a h ( y . T a a n 4:8, 68d48—50). 1 8 C f . already H a b 2:2 f.; D a n 8:17, 19, 26; Gen 41:32; etc. O n determinism see also R o w l a n d , Open Heaven, 90 f., and p a s s i m . 1 9 C f . R o w l a n d , Open Heaven, 144 ("there is no s u g g e s t i o n that the present age is in any sense abandoned by G o d " ) . 20 Pace L o m b a r d , " C h a r a c t e r " , 25; von R a d , Theologie, 2:318. 2 1 With Russell, Method, 102. Pace R o w l a n d , Open Heaven, 22 ("flight f r o m reality"), 445 (contact with the realm a b o v e " u n d e r m i n e s the concern for the historical fulfilment o f the divine p r o m i s e s " ) . C o n t r a s t his p. 144, cited above; see the m o r e circumspect statement in Origins, 101 — 104. 2 2 C f . e.g. Russell, Method, 2 2 3 f . , q u o t i n g H. W. R o b i n s o n . Aune, Prophecy, 121, appropriately describes the apocalyptic literary effort as both " q u i e s c e n t " and " r e v o l u t i o nary". 2 3 K o c h aptly speaks o f apocalypse as "the revelation o f the divine revelation" (Rediscovery, 33), i.e. the anticipatory g l i m p s e o f the i m p e n d i n g eschatological manifestation. 2 4 C f . Bertholet, Theologie, 2:369. Nevertheless, the apocalyptists are not unfamiliar with the p r o b l e m o f " d e l a y e d p a r o u s i a " : e . g . D a n 9:16—19; 4 Ezra 3:1 £F.; 2 B a r 3:3 ff., etc.

28

Apocalyptic Literature 3.1. 3.1.1.

Sinai, T o r a h , and T r a d i t i o n The

Status

of

Torah

Several modern authors have argued that the L a w exercises at best an incidental function for apocalyptic t h e o l o g y . 2 5 While s o m e documents m a y indeed s h o w a certain skepticism about the sufficiency

o f the written b o o k s o f the O T

(e.g. 4 E z r a 14), 2 6 it is nevertheless reductionistic to conclude that the apparent lack o f explicitly exegetical passages and the quest for additional revelation i m ply eo ipso a reduced relevance o f the L a w . 2 7 For in point o f fact apocalyptic literature abounds with both implicit and e x plicit allusions to the T o r a h . T h u s 1 E n pronounces w o e to those w h o distort " t h e eternal l a w " (99:2), and to the law-transgressing Watchers ( 1 0 6 : 1 3 f . ) . 2 8 T L e v i 14:4 speaks o f the "light o f the l a w " given for the enlightenment o f every man, and 2 B a r describes the law as an eternal lamp (17:4—18:2; 59:2; 77:13, 15 f.) 2 9 and fountain (77:13, 15 f.) for the nation o f Israel. T h e T o r a h is dialectically opposed to the w o r k s o f Belial as light is to darkness (TLevi 19:1; cf. T N a p h 2:6). O n several occasions the newly revealed "secret k n o w l e d g e " turns out to be identified with insight into the Law, a proposition not without parallels at Q u m r a n . 3 0 A t the heart o f concern in 2 B a r is the substitution o f T o r a h for T e m p l e after the calamity o f A. D . 7 0 . 3 1 D . S. Russell rightly concludes that " t o the apocalyptists every bit as m u c h as to the Pharisees the written T o r a h was the revelation o f G o d to his p e o p l e . " 3 2 25 E.g. Róssler, Gesetz, 49; cf. Wilckens, "Bekehrung", 288; de Villiers, "Revealing", 64 (on 1 Enoch). The notion o f apocalyptic disinterest in Torah in general and commandments in particular is rightly criticized by Nissen, "Torah", 260ff.; cf. Blenkinsopp, Wisdom, 152; Rowland, Open Heaven, 30; the most serious weakness o f this view is its negligence of books like Jubilees. 26 Thus e.g. Lebram, "Piety", 207. 27 Pace e.g. Myers, I and IIEsdras, 326, who believes that the apocalyptic books "were obviously valued more highly than the canonical books"; cf. similarly Rowland, "Literature", 183. 28 Cf. Black, Enoch, 321. 29 For Torah as light see e.g. in the O T Psa 19:9; 119:105, 130; Prov 6:23; Isa 51:4. Also cf. LAB 9:8; 11:1; 12:2; 15:6; 19:6; 23:10; 33:3; Sir 24:27; Wisd 18:4; 4Ezra 10:22; 14:20f.; Bar 4:2; 2 B a r 17:4; 59:2; TLevi 14:4; 19:1; TBenj 11:2; TJ Isa 2:5; 21:12; 24:16; 42:7; 45:17. See further Lührmann, Offenbarungsverstandnis, 49; Hollander/dejonge, Testaments, 170. 30 E.g. 1 En 99:10; 4Ezra 8:12, 13:54f.; 2Bar 3 8 : 1 - 4 , 44:14, 4 6 : 4 £ , 48:24, 7 7 : 1 3 - 1 6 . Cf. Kuhn, Enderwartung, 149. 31 See 2 B a r 31:4-32:1; 4 4 : 5 - 7 ; 7 7 : 1 3 - 1 6 ; 85:3, 14. Cf. also Bogaert, Apocalypse, 1:391; Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 286f.; Murphy, Structure, esp. 113—116. That this is perhaps only a temporary substitution until the eschaton (pace Murphy, 113) is borne out e.g. by 2Bar 7:9; 32:4f.; 68:5. 32 Russell, Method, 26.

The Visions: Scripture, Revelation,

3A.2.

Interpretation

29

The Visions and Mt. Sinai

This close commitment to the Scriptures on the one hand is matched by a high estimation of the apocalyptic visions on the other. Thus the new revelations themselves are described in terms of the image of a "spring" or "fountain", used elsewhere of the Torah. 3 3 The apocalyptic teachings were believed to be handed down by God at Mount Sinai along with the written Torah. 3 4 This notion becomes understandable on the basis of an increasing canonical sedimentation: in light of the prior authority and givenness of a written Bible (esp. the Torah), any contemporary claim of additional divine disclosures must of necessity have recourse to Mount Sinai as the unquestioned touchstone and reference point. In a sense, all new revelation (even genuine revelation, which some at least of the apocalypses undoubtedly claim to be) now will always be "meta-revelation". 35

3.2. Revelation and Interpretation Apocalyptic literature shares the post-biblical reluctance to recognize present-day prophetic revelation, although explicit manifestations of this are comparatively rare. 36 The agency of the Holy Spirit tends to be invoked only on behalf of the ancient worthy in whose name an author is writing. 3 7 At a time when prophecy has ceased and history is still awaiting a decisive act of God, the word of the Lord for the present generation must be expressed in other ways. 38

33

E . g . 4 E z r a 14:47; 1 E n 48:1; 49:1; O d S o l 6:8ff.; cf. Chapters 2, 3 below. M a n s o n ("Reflections", 142 n. 2) cites approvingly the interesting statement of Sabatier that "l'apocalypse est à la prophétie ce que la Mischna est à la T h o r a . " 34 J u b Prologue; 1 : 1 - 5 ; (cf. 6:30); 4 E z r a 1 4 : 3 - 6 (cf. 2:33);AssMos 1:1 ff.; 10:11, 11:1; LAB 19:10. Cf. e.g. M a n s o n , "Reflections", 145; Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 73; Russell, Method, 86. Stone also cites 1 E n 93:11 — 14 ("Lists", 425). T h e reference to m e diating angels need n o t be incompatible w i t h this: see Acts 7:53; Gal 3:19; H e b 2:2; cf. D e u t 33:2 L X X ; J u b 1:29f.; Philo Somn 1 : 1 4 1 - 1 4 3 ; Josephus Ant 15:136. Cf. further n. 86 b e l o w and C h a p t e r 7 on "oral T o r a h " . 35 I.e. revelation w h i c h in s o m e w a y takes previous revelation as its object or starting point. Cf. also Willi-Plein, "Geheimnis", 66 (apocalyptic revelation as indirect and " i m mer schon vermitteltes W o r t " ) ; R o w l a n d , "Literature", 180. 36 Cf. e.g. 2 B a r 85:3; D a n 3:38 L X X . See also on the w i t h d r a w a l of w i s d o m , 4 E z r a 5:9f.; 1 En 42:1—3; contrast 1 En 48:1, etc.; and cf. Küchler, Weisheitstraditionen, 70. 37 ( N . B . all the while leaving the reader in d o u b t about the writer's self-estimation!) E.g. 1 E n 70:2, 91:1; 4 E z r a 5:22, 14:22; Asclsa 1:7, 5:14; T A b r (A) 4:7; 2 B a r 6:3, 7:2(?). O n the apparent absence of the Spirit cf. K u h n , Enderwartung, 119f.; Russell, Method, 160 and n. 1. 38 B u t one need not therefore speak of mere "pseudo-revelation" (e.g. Fishbane, Interpretation, 517). For while the literary features are often stylized and stereotyped, w e find

30

Apocalyptic

Literature

Closely related to the role of Torah in apocalyptic literature is the question of interpretation. In Dan 9 and 4 Ezra 12, mentioned earlier, a mediating angel gives further insight as to the apocalyptic significance of a previous prophetic revelation. But in most other cases, too, the new revelation involves interpretation, whether of visions, dreams, or Scripture; 39 Collins aptly calls this process "prophecy by interpretation". 40 It might be objected that there are only relatively few occasions when this interpretation explicitly takes as its object a written text of Scripture: e.g. in Daniel the hermeneutical disclosure is based on a Biblical passage only once, but pertains in most cases to a dream or vision. Apocalypses are on the whole not properly commentaries on Scripture. 41 Having said that, however, there is a wide range of hermeneutical activity left to explore. Thus in 2Bar 38:1—4 Baruch requests an interpretation of the vision he has received: "Your law (nmws) is life and your wisdom the true guide. Explain to me, therefore, what this vision means" (38:2f.). The angel's subsequent interpretation concerns the four kingdoms and the time when the Messiah will be revealed. The passionate appeal to "your law" in 2 Bar 38, followed by the Danielic idea of the four kingdoms, demonstrates a specific dependence on Scripture without needing to be an explicit "commentary". Numerous texts e.g. in 1 En or Rev show similar characteristics; 42 indeed inthe authors at times going out of their w a y e.g. to describe the means by w h i c h such visions were induced: prayer, fasting, special f o o d or drink, etc. — see e.g. Ezek 3:1—3(?); D a n 9:3; 4 Ezra 9:23f.; 14:39; 2 B a r 21:1; 47:2; A p A b r 9:7; Asclsa 2:11 (hallucinogens?); P a s t H e r m Vis. 2.1.1, 3.1.1; and as early as 1 Sam 28:20. Cf. Russell, Method, 158ff. passim; R o w l a n d , Open Heaven, 234 ff.; further Francis, " H u m i l i t y " , 167—171. See also Baeck, "Mysticism", 102f. on m e r k a b a h visions; esp. on t . M e g 4(3):28 ( " m a n y e x p o u n d e d the m e r k a b a h but never beheld it") and his quotation of H a i Gaon (c. A. D . 1000): "he should fast on certain days, put his head between his knees, and whisper into the earth m a n y songs and h y m n s exactly as they are written. T h e r e u p o n he beholds . . . the p o r ticos. . . . " 39 (An exception is e.g. J u b 32:21 ff.) Cf. V a n d e r k a m , Enoch, 190; Willi-Plein, " G e heimnis", 63, 66. Hellenistic parallels include e.g. the Egyptian D e m o t i c Chronicle: cf. Collins, "Jewish Apocalyptic", 32f.; Fishbane, "Pesher", 101; also Hengel, Judentum, 390 f. regarding Thessalos of Alexandria. 40 T h u s Collins, "Jewish Apocalyptic", 32. Willi-Plein, "Geheimnis", 66 regards the angel as almost a hypostasis of interpretation; cf. 3 Bar 11:7 "interpreter of revelations". 41 Cf. Aune, Prophecy, 113; O . Betz, "Vision", 114; R o w l a n d , "Literature", 170. 42 E . g . 1 E n 2 - 5 , 6:1 ff.; Rev 1:11 ff., 4:1 ff., etc. Suter, Tradition, finds in l E n m i drashim on the following texts: Gen 6:1—4 (p. 37); E x o d 14—15 (pp. 113ff.); Isa 24:17 - 23 (pp. 39ff.); D a n 7 : 9 - 1 4 (p. 14 and passim). Cf. also EzekTrag 6 8 - 8 1 w i t h D a n 7. Aune, Prophecy, 108 (cf. 112) sees "the tendency to m a k e frequent allusion to, but n o t quote, the O T " as one of the m a j o r characteristics of apocalyptic literature. R o w l a n d (e.g. Origins, 62) points to clear elements of bereshit/merkabah meditations (i.e. on Gen 1/ Ezek 1): see his references, and cf. A p M o s 2 f . ; 22:3; VitAd 25:3; TIsaac 11:4; JosAsen 17:6.

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stances of such " i m p r o m p t u midrashim" occur already in prophetic texts of the OT.43 The main paradigm of apocalyptic revelation, therefore, seems to be that of inspired interpretation — i.e. an indirect, "hermeneutical" revelation. 4 4 Although this involves prima facie the interpretation not only of Biblical passages but of a range of symbolic phenomena in dreams and visions, the substance of apocalyptic discourse does depend most typically on Biblical precedents and source materials. 45 Christopher Rowland speaks of Scripture as "being in the imaginations of the apocalyptic visionaries a door of perception in which the text could become a living reality as its details merged with parallel passages to f o r m the distinctive visions.. . Z' 46 O n e may cautiously accept the hypothesis that both visions and interpretations were frequently received while the author was meditating on a Scripture passage or passages relating e.g. to unfulfilled prophecy or the secrets of heaven. 4 7

4. The Revelation of Mysteries " T o speak of apocalyptic, therefore, is to concentrate on the theme of the direct communication of the heavenly mysteries in all their diversity." 4 8 While this statement may be something of a caricature, 49 it renders due account of the extraordinary apocalyptic interest in divine "mysteries" and their revelation. For these writers, "mysteries" subsist in heaven at present but a glimpse of their reality and relevance can be disclosed to select visionaries w h o pass on this

43

See Fishbane, Interpretation, esp. 292ff.; Buchanan, " W o r d " , 192. Cf. v o n Rad, Theologie, 2:321: " Ü b e r h a u p t w i r d m a n die geistige Leistung der Apokalyptiker ziemlich erschöpfend mit d e m Begriff 'Interpretation' umschreiben können." 45 Cf. R o w l a n d , "Literature", 180: "lack of midrashic precision should not blind us to the clear scriptural archetype w h i c h undergirds the apocalyptic f r a m e w o r k of the revelations. " 46 R o w l a n d , "Literature", 173. Cf. also H a r t m a n , Prophecy, 102—141 passim. 47 Paradigmatic examples include D a n 9 and 4 Ezra 12 f. Cf. Frey, "Apocalyptique", 339f.; Charles, History, 1 8 4 - 1 8 7 ; Russell, Method, 183ff.; Willi-Plein, "Geheimnis", 76f.; R o w l a n d , Origins, 60—62; G r u e n w a l d , Apocalyptic, 219ff. (also w i t h reference to Qumran). 48 R o w l a n d , Open Heaven, 14; cf. idem, Origins, 64; similarly B o r n k a m m , "(iuatriQiov", 821. 49 W e should not ignore e. g. the literary and theological significance of the almost i n variably present narrative f r a m e w o r k of the revelations, be it ever so skeletal (Rowland himself n o w allows for the significance of this f r a m e w o r k : "Literature", 174). T h e n , too, n o t all parts of the revealed message are designated as "mysteries". 44

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information to the faithful few (the " w i s e " , i.e. the righteous 5 0 ) to encourage t h e m in waiting for the impending deliverance (1 E n 1:1—9, 37:1—5, etc.). At present the divine w i s d o m is k n o w n only through such revealed mysteries, since her abode is in heaven (1 E n 42:1—3; 48:1, 49:1 f.). O l d T e s t a m e n t antecedents notwithstanding, this notion o f heavenly mysteries appears to have b e c o m e popular only in the w a k e o f early apocalyptic documents like Daniel and 1 Enoch.51 T h e term " m y s t e r y " applies to a wide variety o f subjects. Nevertheless, m o s t o f the pertinent material can here be divided under the t w o general headings o f cosmological and eschatological mysteries. 5 2 In addition, there is a third and separate category o f evil or illegitimate mysteries. ( T h e specifically exegetical mysteries o f the D S S and other writings are here rather less obviously represented.) 5 3 In the following remarks a short excursus on the use o f anoxakvnTO) and djtoxdXui|)i5 will precede a discussion o f the " c o s m o l o g i c a l " and " e s c h a t o l o g ical" mysteries and their revelation as encountered in the literature at hand. T h i s section concludes with a b r i e f discussion o f illegitimate mysteries as well as o f the occasional Hellenistic use o f " m y s t e r i e s " .

E x c u r s u s : d j i o x o d t m t o ) / djTOxdXAJiJJig in t h e A p o c a l y p t i c L i t e r a t u r e T i m e and space do not permit a full w o r d study, desirable though this might be.54 In the Septuagint the noun djtoxdX.u,i|n5 is never, and the verb ajtoxaAtixtco only rarely, used to denote theological revelation. Instead, the t w o words carry

5 0 E. g. 1 En 82:3 f.; 4 Ezra 14:6, 26, 45 f.; also 2 Bar 54:5; Asclsa 4:20 (public vs. private prophecies). The suggestion that the motif o f secrecy in apocalyptic lore may be a mere literary device (cf. Stemberger, "Esoterik", 368) or natural corollary of the subject matter (cf. Collins, Athens, 202 f.) should probably be rejected. Cf. below on the Dead Sea Scrolls and on 1 Cor 2:6. 51 Cf. Black, Enoch, 131. See above on Dan; relevant uses in 1 En (outside 37—71) include 9:6; 10:7; 16:3; 104:10; 106:19. B u t N . B . the frequency of the term may itself imply a previously established usage: cf. Dexinger, Zehnwochenapokalypse, 87. 52 Similarly e.g. Collins, "Morphology", 9; Rowland, Open Heaven, 10; Kuhn, Enderwartung, 152; Sjóberg, Menschensohn, 109; Willi-Plein, "Geheimnis", 79. 5 3 But see perhaps JosAsen 16:1—8; 17:2 f., 6. Note also that some o f the major visionary pseudonyms are o f scribes (and thus exegetes?): Baruch, Ezra; but also Enoch. From Ben Sira through Qumran and to the Rabbis it is consistently the scribal office which is most closely linked with the mysteries revealed through exegesis. Cf. n. 9 above. 5 4 See Oepke, "xaXtjjtxa)" and recently Smith, "History"; cf. also Section 3.2 in Chapter 6 below.

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a wide range of secular connotations, many of which broadly relate to the notion of "uncovering". 5 5 Outside the L X X the noun is never and the verb rarely found before the first century B. C. 5 6 N o comparable religious usage occurs until much later. 57 In light of the scant surviving literary evidence from Hellenistic sources, we may with M. Smith register surprise at finding in the apocalyptic writings and the N T 5 8 such a widespread idiomatic usage of a term whose suitability for the description of theological revelation is by no means obvious: "Apocalyptic revelations are not customarily effected by removing a cover; the heavens are not stripped away, nor the lid of the earth taken off.. . ," 59 While the secular usage has not completely disappeared in apocalyptic literature, 60 its significance is overshadowed by the specifically theological application to (mostly visionary) divine disclosures. 61

4.1. " C o s m o l o g i c a l " Mysteries The apocalyptic writings (esp. 1 and 2 En, 3 Bar) speak in considerable detail of the secrets of creation, astronomy, and the heavenly worlds. One example is 1 En 41:1—7:62 A n d after this I saw all the secrets of heaven, and h o w the k i n g d o m is divided, and h o w the deeds of m e n are weighed in the balance. T h e r e I saw the dwelling of the chosen and the resting-places of the holy; and . . . all the sinners w h o deny the n a m e of the Lord of Spirits being driven f r o m there . . . . A n d there m y eyes saw the secrets of the flashes of lightning and of the thunder, and the secrets of the winds . . . and . . . of the clouds and of the dew. . . . A n d there I saw closed storehouses f r o m w h i c h the w i n d s are distributed, and the storehouses of the hail, and the storehouses of the mist, and the storehouses of the clouds. . . . A n d I saw the chambers of the sun and the m o o n , w h e n c e they go out and w h i t h e r they return. . . .

55 T e r m s such as sexual "uncovering", "uncovering the ear", etc. agree w i t h the O T use of n"71. 56 Smith, " H i s t o r y " , 12 cites as a reference point Philodemus (110—40 B . C . ) , w h o uses b o t h verb and n o u n . 57 Cf. O e p k e , "xaXiOTTOi", 572. 58 Especially Pauline and Deutero-Pauline writings: cf. Smith, " H i s t o r y " , 14. 59 Smith, " H i s t o r y " , 12. 60 E . g . P a r j e r 5:26 (uncovering a fig-basket); TJud 16:4. 61 E . g . T L e v 1:2, 18:2; TJos 6:6; T B e n j 10:5; JosAsen 16:7; 3 B a r P r o l o g u e 1 f., 4:13f., 11:7, 17:4. Also cf. 1 E n 9:6 (Greek). 62 M y ignorance of Ethiopic necessitates, and our purposes w o u l d seem to permit, that the terms xabu" ("hidden, secret") and mestir ( " m y s t e r y " , ¡MJcrrr|Qiov) will be treated on an equal footing. Cf. Dillmann, Lexicon, 181, 600; and Sjoberg, Menschensohn, 105, b o t h w i t h references.

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This passage is quite representative of the kinds of subjects generally featured in lists of the "cosmological" class of secrets: the topography of heaven and hell, as well as the intricacies of creation, meteorology and astronomy. 6 3 Certainly a concern for God's sovereignty in the unfolding of history is here not at first apparent. It is, rather, the common apocalyptic interest in understanding the nature and significance of the given, otitic structures of the universe, which Biblical scholars have often tended to discount or overlook. 64 Such "lists of secrets" are in many ways anticipated in wisdom texts like Job 9:2-12; 26:5-14; or 38:1 ff. 65 The revelation of "cosmological" secrets fulfills both an evident literary and a more or less subtle theological function. With regard to the former, M. E. Stone observes that lists of secrets tend to occur "at the high point of a revelation, where a brief statement of its contents is desired, or else as a summary." 6 6 The literary effect of such lists is to convey an impression of the comprehensiveness of the revelation and hence of the message which accompanies it. 67 More important, however, is the theological purpose of these esoterica about heaven and the universe. 68 Having lamented before God the fate of Israel, Baruch receives this answer: "Argue with God no more, and I will show you mysteries, greater than these. . . . Come and I will show you the mysteries of God" (3 Bar 1:6, 8). In other words, the disclosure of the orderly operation of the heavenly spheres is intended to reassure the audience of God's sovereign lordship over all of reality. 69 But in the same vein these mysteries also bear upon the authors' soteriological expectations. For the revelation of cosmological secrets demonstrates, as Frey observes, "comment le gouvernement divin s'étend aux moindres détails de la 63 E. g. 1 E n 22:1 ff.; 43:2; 60:11 ff.; 71:4 ff.; 2 E n 3 ff., 24 ff.; 2 Bar 4 8 : 2 - 6; 5 9 : 4 - 1 2 (in context); 3 B a r 1 : 6 - 1 7 : 1 ; TLevi 3:2; LAB 19:10, 2 8 : 6 - 1 0 . Cf. H o l l a n d e r / d e j o n g e , Testaments, 137. A particular interest in hell occurs e.g. in ApPet; Paradise and Gehenna (BHM 5 : 5 0 . 3 0 - 5 1 . 1 3 ) ; etc. 64 Similarly R o w l a n d , "Visions", 138. 65 Cf. also Stone, "Lists", 435; B r o w n , Mystery, 18. O T references to heavenly "storehouses" include D e u t 28:12 (rain); Jer 10:13 (wind); Psa 33:7 (waters of the deep); J o b 38:22 (snow/hail). V a n d e r K a m (Enoch, 140) considers the cosmological interest to reflect an "early", "scientific" stage of apocalyptic t h o u g h t , whereas surveys of history first entered the E n o c h tradition in the "Epistle of E n o c h " , the "Apocalypse of Weeks", the " B o o k of D r e a m s " , and the " A n i m a l Apocalypse". B u t N . B . historical surveys are in s o m e w a y s already implicit e.g. in Gen 49; D e u t 33. 66 Stone, "Lists", 418. B u t longer passages occur in 1 E n 60:11 ff., 3 B a r 1:6ff. 67 A desire for comprehensiveness is indicated by the recurring phrase "all the secrets": B o m k a m m , "(iuarr|Qiov", 822. 68 Pace e.g. Charles, Enoch, 147 ("the a u t h o r has n o other interest save a scientific one"). Cf. B r o w n , Mystery, 20. 69 Sjoberg (Menschensohn, 110) stresses the f u n d a m e n t a l link of cosmological secrets w i t h the glory of God; B r o w n ( M y s t e r y , 14f.), the connection w i t h divine providence.

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machine du monde et dispose toutes choses pour le plus grand bien des j u stes." 70 The secrets of lightning and thunder at God's direction "flash to bring blessing and satisfaction" ( l E n 59:2f.), as indeed the secrets of raindrops, wind, and snow demonstrate the creator's sovereignty. 71 There is an intimate link, then, between the cosmological mysteries of heaven and the questions of theodicy addressed by the visionaries. 72 These mysteries, moreover, are associated with those of mercy and righteousness (1 En 71:3 ff.), and the secrets of the depth of the earth relate to the resurrection (1 En 61:5). 73 Cosmological and eschatological secrets repeatedly occur in tandem; 74 some instances deal specifically with the heavenly localities where the righteous are rewarded and the wicked are punished. 75 There is, as Stone suggests, ultimately "no real distinction between the meteorological and other eschatological or religious spheres" — that is, at least in regard to their relevance for the believer. 76 While the revelation of cosmological mysteries gives assurance of salvation through God's a priori sovereignty over creation and the heavens, eschatological secrets constitute God's pre-existent heavenly plan of redemptive action in the imminent climax of history.

4.2. Eschatological Mysteries T h e r e m y eyes saw the secrets of heaven, everything that will occur o n earth. . . . A n d I asked the angel w h o w e n t w i t h me, saying, W h a t are these things w h i c h I have seen in secret? A n d he said to me, All these things w h i c h you have seen serve the authority of his Messiah, that he m a y be strong and p o w e r f u l on the earth. 70

Frey, "Apocalyptique", 330. Cf. H a n s o n , Dawn, 381. Cf. Stone, "Lists", 434. C o s m i c secrets are linked w i t h G o d ' s e n t h r o n e m e n t in 2 E n 24:3—25:4. For the relevance of the contents of heaven for the believer's present life in early Christian apocalyptic see Rev; also e.g. Passio Perpetuae: Perpetua's vision of the rewards of heaven serves at least inter alia to strengthen her for m a r t y r d o m (pace R o w l a n d , Open Heaven, 399). 72 T h u s also Hengel, " A n o n y m i t a t " , 266f.; cf. Barton, Oracles, 256; R o w l a n d , "Literature", 185. Cf. already Isa 40:12—31, a passage to w h i c h Paul appeals in 1 C o r 2:16; also J o b 38—40 (though this deals w i t h personal theodicy rather than national r e d e m p tion). H a n s o n , Dawn, 380 argues similarly for Zech 14:6—9. 73 Cf. Stone, "Lists", 433. 74 See also 1 E n 2 : 1 - 5 : 3 , 4 1 : 1 - 7 , 43:4; poss. 5 2 : 1 - 9 ; 2 B a r 4 8 : 2 - 8; 51:10; T N a p h 3:2; 4 E z r a 7:97, 125; A s s M o s 10:9; cf. Sir 16:28; 4 M a c c 17:5; TJ Isa 14:13. A n d see Stone, "Lists", 430f. 75 E . g . 1 E n 41:1 f.; 2 B a r 59:5—11; cf. above on " t o p o g r a p h y " . 76 Stone, "Lists", 433. Hengel, Judentum, 377 firmly links cosmological mysteries and Heilsgeschichte in 1 E n o c h . B u t H a n s o n (Dawn, 381) discusses 1 E n 60:11—24 as a list w h i c h in his opinion merely serves to "stress the immutability of the natural order". Even if this is not entirely adequate (cf. 60:24 Garden of Righteousness, v. 24 f. j u d g e m e n t and punishment), it does provide a p r o p e r balance to Hengel's suggestion. C o n trast also the "de-historicized" eschatology e.g. of 3 B a r . 71

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This quotation from 1 En 52:2—4 is but one example of a large number of texts which speak of "mysteries" bearing a clearly discernible historicaleschatological relevance: "everything that will occur on earth". It seems that while much of the Enoch literature and parts of 3 Bar show greater interest in the "cosmological" mysteries, the secrets of an eschatological/ historical kind stand closer to the centre of attention in Daniel, 77 4Ezra, 7 8 2Bar, 7 9 as well as in the Similitudes (37-71) and "Epistle" (91-108) of l E n , 8 0 and other books. 81 O f course here too the constitutive quality of these "mysteries" is not in the first instance their hiddenness, but their belonging to the heavenly world. 8 2 4.2.1.

Content

What are the subjects of these soteriological mysteries? Quite commonly we find references to "everything that will occur on earth", "for how long the generations will endure", the "advent of the hours", etc. 83 — i.e. in other words, the time and course of events of the divinely appointed eschaton. These "mysteries" are best understood as the individual components of God's salvific design. Among the mysteries to be realized at the eschaton is the heavenly city o f j e rusalem with its temple; 84 also the eschatological judgement and its aftermath, decribed as the secrets of righteousness ( l E n 49:2, 58:5; cf. 38:3; 49:2; 4 Ezra 7:70). 85 Similarly we hear of the judgement of hidden things ( l E n 49:4, 61:9, 68:5), and of a mystery, sometimes read on heavenly tablets, 86 consisting of the 77 T h e term H in Dan always relates in some w a y to a disclosure of the future. Pace B r o w n , Mystery, 8 this is not likely synonymous with 710 as in A m o s 3:7; moreover the author of Dan arguably does not present himself as a "prophet". 78 E.g. 4Ezra 8:54, 10:38, 12:36, 14:4f. (cf. LAB 19:10). 4Ezra seems to feature only this eschatological type of mystery (cf. B r o w n , Mystery, 21 £); indeed a reaction against the concern with cosmological esoterica may be present in 7:39—42. 79 E.g. 2 B a r 48:3 (gl' + r'z), 81:4; cf. 83:2f. 80 E.g. 1 En 52:2, 68:1 f., 103:2ff., 104:10-13, 106:19. 81 E.g. TLevi 2:10; Parjer 9:22, 28 (in context with 9 : 1 3 - 1 8 ) ; A p A b r 9:6; also VitP r o p h 2:10, 19 (cf. 1:7). 82 Cf. rightly Sjoberg, Menschensohn, 106 f. 83 1 En 52:22; 2 Bar 48:3, 81:4; cf. also 1 En 18:16 ("year of mystery"), etc. 84 4Ezra 7:26, 8:52; 10:27, 44, 5 0 - 5 5 ; 13:36; 2 B a r 4 : 3 - 6 ; l E n 90:29; Rev 2 1 : 1 0 - 2 7 (but note v. 22!); also cf. 5 Q 1 5 ; and e.g. Sefer Eliahu BHM 3:65.12fF.; Mysteries of R. Shim'on b. Yohai BHM 3:80.26ff. Hamerton-Kelly, "Temple", 1 - 1 5 (cf. Otzen, "Heavenly Visions", 199—204) suggests a priestly origin for the idea of a heavenly sanctuary, also present e.g. in E x o d 25:40, 1 C h r 28:19; Ezek 40:2; cf. Heb 8:5. See further Himmelfarb, "Ascent", 2 1 0 - 2 1 7 . 85 Probably the enigmatic phrase "the secrets of all the sin of the earth" of 1 En 83:7 refers to the eschatological j u d g e m e n t (see 83:4, 7 f £ ) . Cf. Black, Enoch, 255. 86 E.g. 1 En 81:1; 103:2; 106:19, etc. Heavenly tablets containing future events occur

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reward of the righteous and punishment of the wicked. 87 Related eschatological revelations are the community of the righteous (1 En 38:1, 53:6), the attacking nations (2Bar 70:7; cf. TLevi 3:3), the joy and rest of heaven (2Bar 73:1), Behemoth and Leviathan (2Bar 29:4; cf. 4Ezra 6:49ff.; 1 En 60:7-10; also Rev 13:1 ff., 11 ff.), and of course hell and paradise (e.g. 4Ezra 7:36; 8:52; 2Bar 4:6). 88 Excursus: M e s s i a h / S o n of M a n O n a number of occasions especially in 1 Enoch the eschatological mystery is substantively linked with the Messiah and/or the Son of Man. 8 9 Since this constellation of motifs (i.e. mystery / Messiah) becomes significant in our examination of Paul's letters, it seems appropriate to devote a brief excursus to it. We already encountered above a link between the eschatological mysteries and a "pre-incarnate" Messiah ( l E n 52:2-4; cf. 46:2, 49:2-4, 62:7 f.; 63:3, 11). Indeed 1 En frequently features the conviction that the Messiah/Son of Man is already present and hidden with God since the beginning of the world, in order to be revealed in the eschaton ( l E n 38:2, 4 8 : 2 - 7, 62:6f., 69:26-29). 9 0 Simialready in Babylonian m y t h o l o g y ; cf. f u r t h e r J u b 5:13 and passim; T A s h 7:5; P r j o s frg. B, C (Charlesworth, OTP2:714); 4 Q 1 8 0 1:3; also Eth. A p P e t 3 (on Christ's right p a l m the image of that w h i c h shall be fulfilled at the last day). Secret books, tablets etc. c o n stituted a favourite channel of revelation in the ancient Hellenistic w o r l d : cf. e.g. Hengel, Judentum, 383 ff. For a recent treatment see Garcia Martinez, "Tablas" ( N . B . bibliog r a p h y p. 333 n. 1). H e distinguishes five categories of heavenly tablets in J u b (dependent on 1 En): tablets containing the Torah; a record of g o o d and evil works; destiny; calendars and feasts; n e w halakhot (the last t w o should probably be merged). M o s t significant is his conclusion that in m o r e than half the cases in J u b the heavenly tablets are the functional equivalent of O r a l T o r a h (p. 348 f.). 87 2 B a r 21:12; 59:2; 4 E z r a 7 : 3 5 , 8 3 £ , 93; 3 B a r 2 : 7 - 4 : 9 ; 10:1 ff. Cf. further 1 E n 11:2, 25:7, 103:3; 2 B a r 52:7, 81:4, 84:6; 4 E z r a 7:14, 13:18; also 2 M a c c 12:45; Rev 2:10, 17; 22:12; 1 Pet 5:4; Jas 1:12; 2 T i m 4:8; Asclsa 8:26. 88 For Rabbinic parallels see e.g. b.Pes 54a (the n a m e of the Messiah, T o r a h , repentance, Garden of Eden, Gehenna, t h r o n e of glory, T e m p l e are pre-existent); b . H a g 12a (the light of the first day of creation is stored u p for the f u t u r e world); G e n R 1:1 (the n e w heavens). 89 W . H o r b u r y has recently (in the face of oppposition e.g. f r o m Lindars, Jesus, 3£F.; Vermes, World, 95—98) m a d e a n e w case for the existence of an established messianic understanding of the t e r m "Son of M a n " by the time of Christ at the latest ("Associations", esp. 38ff.); cf. also Bittner, " G o t t " , 343—72. K i m , Son, 20—22 cites Fitzmyer's restoration of 4 Q P s D a n A a ( = 4 Q 2 4 3 ) in s u p p o r t o f a pre-Christian, messianic link of the Danielic Son of M a n w i t h a "Son of G o d " . 90 T h e date of 1 E n 37—71 continues to be disputed. Nickelsburg (Jewish Literature, 222 f.) rightly discounts Christian influence; n o Christian w o u l d identify the Son of M a n w i t h E n o c h (59:10, 71:14). T h e Messianic Son of M a n here as in 4 E z r a could plausibly derive f r o m D a n 7:13. Cf. also Suter, Tradition, 1 2 f . , 2 3 f f . (he sees an influence of the Si-

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larly, 4 Ezra knows of the future revelation of the Messiah hidden in heaven (7:28; 12:32; 13:25 f.; 13:26; 13:32). At least in 1 En and 4Ezra it would seem to be reasonable to suggest that even in the absence of an explicit identification of Messiah and "mystery", the complex and substantive 91 connection between the Messiah and the hidden heavenly realities encourages a view of the "pre-existent" Messiah himself as one of the mysteries. 92 Although 2Bar is less specific, here too one reads of a "revelation" (Ethpe'el gl') of the Messiah (2 Bar 29:3) and of his kingdom (39:7)93 — making it reasonable to assume his previous hiddenness. 94 A large number of other relevant texts make at least implicit reference to the hidden Messiah being revealed. 95 In 1 En this Son of Man/Messiah w h o is the mystery to be revealed becomes in turn a source of revelation of the secrets of wisdom (cf. on Col 2:3 below, Chapter Ten). 9 6 In sum: the Messiah and/or Son o f M a n figures prominently in relation to the eschatological mysteries which, though presently concealed, are already existent in heaven and await their imminent manifestation. 4.2.2.

Revelation

Having established some of the objects of the revelation of eschatological mysteries, we must now inquire into the mode of their disclosure. The apocalyptic description of soteriological mysteries (i.e. the components and modali-

militudes on the Gospel of Matthew). Milik's argument (in Enoch, 4, 78, 89 ff.) for a late date in view of the absence of 1 En 37—71 f r o m the DSS, is too one-sidedly e silentio. A date between 50 B. C. and A. D. 50 seems not impossible. For a recent s u m m a r y of the debate see Charlesworth, OT Pseudepigrapha and NT, 89f.; also pp. 103—106, 108—110 regarding the views of Milik and Black. 91 Similarly Kamlah, "Untersuchungen", 110. 92 Cf. Russell's (somewhat unguarded) statement, "The greatest secret is the Son of M a n h i m s e l f ' (Method, 329). 93 For a revelation of the k i n g d o m cf. SibOr 3:47 f.; AssMos 10:1; 3 E n 44:7; Luke 19:11; and see below, Chapter 6. T h e k i n g d o m ' s "appearance" does not a priori imply its pre-existence (cf. LAB 62:2 "tunc apparebit David regnum") — but the c o m m o n apocalyptic idea of eschatological soteriologoumena hidden in heaven nevertheless requires such an understanding. 94 Bogaert, Apocalypse, 418•, pace Rowland, Open Heaven, 177. 95 E.g. 1 En 48:2 (the name of the Messiah: cf. 69:26, b.Pes 54a); PssSol 18:5; TLevi 2:10; John 1:31 (?); Justin Dial 8, 109f.; also Protjames 12:2 (Gabriel's annunciation to Mary as disclosure of mysteries); b.Sukk 52a; b.Sanh 98a (the Messiah comes f r o m Rome); PesR 36:2 R. Isaac [T4?]; and cf. Chapter 6 below. See Volz, Eschatologie, 208f.; Vermes, Jesus the Jew, 137—139; Hartman, Prophecy, 37; most fully Schimanowski, Weisheit, passim. 96 See 1 E n 46:3, 51:3; cf. TLevi 18:2; SeferEliyahu (HebApEl: Ibn Shmuel Text, trans, in Buchanan, Revelation, 436). T h e origin of this idea may well lie in passages like Deut 18:15; Isa 42:4.

The Revelation of Mysteries

39

ties of the future salvation) commonly presents them as already objectively existent in heaven, only to be manifested in the eschaton at God's behest. 97 4.2.2.1. Revelation as Historical Dialectic. This dual conviction of present transcendental concealment and impending historical actualization gives rise to a strong salvation-historical dialectic. Thus 2 Bar 55:5—8 contrasts the mere announcement of judgement and of the coming day of the Lord, which Baruch has only seen in his vision, with the actual arrival of the same as "happening before your eyes", "when the event reveals marvels". And yet the eschatological "mysteries" of God are revealed not simply as designs, but as actually existent in heaven. 98 It is clear how such an idea could be a powerful device to assure believers of the certainty of the coming salvation. Pre-existence and eschatological revelation are then not mutually exclusive, 99 but together constitute the apocalyptic argument: the mystery is already there, and it is about to be materially concretized. 100 4.2.2.2.

Apocalyptic

Preview for the Saints.

Mediating between the t w o poles

of present hiddenness and future manifestation is the belief that select individual saints of the past have, as it were, been granted a glimpse of the mysteries of God; 101 their visions — duly recorded in the apocalyptic books! — now give a share in this knowledge to the believing remnant. O f course the visionary is well aware that his anticipatory "glimpse" cannot itself be equated with the eschatological revelation of the mysteries, but merely constitutes a selective disclosure of their content. 102 Thus Ezra is granted a fleeting glance at the heavenly city and sanctuary awaiting the final implementation on earth (4 Ezra 7:26, 10:27, 10:50—5, 13:36). Other recipients of this celestial "tourist's view" of the mysteries are Adam, Enoch, Jacob, Moses, Abraham, Baruch, and Jeremiah. 103 From their privileged visions of the salvific realities in heaven, belie97

For further d o c u m e n t a t i o n of the following discussion cf. also Volz, Eschatologie,

114 £ 98

See also Volz, Eschatologie, 116. Pace de Villiers, "Revealing", 56, w h o seems to envision an exclusive relationship between "eschatological events" and "the present existence of the heavenly secrets". 100 Cf. M u r d o c k , " H i s t o r y " , 186; B o r n k a m m , "HUOTIÍQIOV", 822. 101 N o t e 4 E z r a 13:52 ("only to you this has been revealed"). 102 Pace Róssler, Gesetz, 61: the disclosure of the divine mysteries is not eo ipso one of the Heilsgiiter. Unlike gnosticism, J e w i s h apocalyptic does n o t equate the disclosure of hidden i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h salvation — a point well put e.g. b y C h e r n u s , Mysticism, 15; cf. R o w l a n d , "Literature", 182. B u t neither are the mysteries disclosed exhaustively and w i t h o u t remainder {pace Lacocque, Daniel, 147 f.). 103 Cf. e.g. J u b 1:4, 26; 4:19, 21; 32:21; 1 En 5 2 : 2 - 9 ; 2 B a r 4 : 3 - 5 , 5 9 : 4 - 1 2 ; 4 E z r a 3:14; Life of A d a m and Eve 2 9 : 4 - 5 ; A p A b r 9 : 6 - 1 0 ; also cf. Parjer 9 : 1 3 - 2 8 ; LAB 19:10; Rev 21:2ff.; and E z e k T r a g 68—81 (cosmological mysteries). Cf. also b . B B 16b—17a on A b r a h a m , Isaac, and Jacob. 99

40

Apocalyptic Literature

vers derive c o m f o r t and hope regarding the events to c o m e : for "as it is on high, so also is it on earth: what happens in the vault o f heaven happens similarly here on earth" (Asclsa 7 : 1 0 ) . 1 0 4

4 . 3 . Illicitly R e v e a l e d M y s t e r i e s T h e idea o f evil and/or illegitimately revealed mysteries is occasionally found in apocalyptic literature and elsewhere (see below, Chapter T w o , on Q u m r a n ; 2 T h e s 2:7). Here it is particularly prevalent in the B o o k o f Watchers ( l E n 1 — 17), where in fact only illicit mysteries are referred t o . 1 0 5 U n d e r the leadership o f Semyaza and Azazel (or Asael), the fallen angels ( " W a t c h e r s " ) take human wives and disclose "eternal secrets which were made in h e a v e n " (1 E n 9:6, cf. 10:7). T h e s e secrets should not have been revealed, since on earth they lead to great sin and destruction (8:2, 9:8): a m o n g t h e m are weapons o f war and w o men's cosmetics (8:1), as well as magic, divination, and astrology (8:3). H o w ever, E n o c h is told to advise the Watchers on behalf o f G o d that the secrets they disclosed to the w o m e n are not in fact the mysteries o f G o d but are worthless (1 E n 16:3): You were in heaven, but its secrets had not yet been revealed to you and a worthless mystery you knew. This you made known to the women in the hardness o f your hearts, and through this mystery the women and the men cause evil to increase on the earth. T h e s e " m y s t e r i e s " fall outside the cosmological or eschatological mysteries o f G o d assuring the salvation o f His people, constituting instead a kind o f true but inferior 1 0 6 celestial k n o w h o w which is inappropriate and harmful for h u man society, disclosed only as a result o f an angelic revolt against G o d ' s authority. 1 0 7 Such secrets are evil and " w o r t h l e s s " inasmuch as they do not advance the lordship o f G o d in creation, history, and salvation. 1 0 8

104 Cf. e.g. Barrett, "Eschatology", 138f.; Rowland, Open Heaven, 169; Barth, Diesseits, 98; Thoma, "Apokalyptik", 143. This belief is common to O T and Ancient Near Eastern religion: see e.g. Ringgren, Religions, 95; Knierim, "Offenbarung", 212ff. 105 With Brown, Mystery, 13 n. 50. 106 Pace Bietenhard, Himmlische Welt, 268 (who cites 1 En 8:3 — but unfortunately not 16:3 — in claiming that the Watchers do reveal "wirkliche und echte Geheimnisse"); similarly Sjöberg, Menschensohn, 112 f. 107 Cf. VanderKam, Enoch, 125. For other cases of illicitly disclosed divine secrets cf. LAB 25ff., esp. 26:6; 27:10; 34:2f.; also b.Yoma 67b; EpArist 315. Frequently encountered is the notion o f an illegitimate human inquiry into hidden things: see Deut 29:28; Sir 3:21 f.; LAB 25:13, 26:6; cf. subsequent chapters. 108 Illegitimate disclosure o f divine secrets can also occur through drunkenness: e.g. TJud 16:4; cf. NumR 10:8. Closely related (but outside the purview o f this study) are fre-

The Revelation of Mysteries

41

"In den Apokalypsen ist der tote Schutt der Phantastik oder Reflexion so hoch über die pneumatischen Erlebnisse . . . gehäuft, daß das eigentlich Lebendige . . . längst ertötet ist." 109 Such assessments, still all too common, must be judged to be quite inadequate appraisals of the apocalyptic experience of divine revelation. Instead, a fervent belief in the universal sovereignty of God came to spiritual and literary fruition in revelations of the eschatological and cosmological secrets of heaven. Often arising out of a deep interaction with Scripture, such "meta-revelation" opens up the divine perspective on the world, and from this vantage point addresses pressing issues of cosmic and historical theodicy. 110

quent passages about a betrayal of h u m a n secrets: e.g. TJud 12:6; 16:4 T Z e b 1:6; T G a d 6:5. In J u b 27:1 Esau's secret intention is divinely disclosed in a d r e a m to Rebecca; similarly (with a dream angelophany) T R e u b 3:15 and TJos 6:6. In 2 Bar 60:1 the mysteries [dr'zyhwn] of the Amorites (i.e. idolatrous Gentiles: J u b 29:11; m . S h a b 6:10; m . H u l l 4:7; cf. C o h e n Talmud, 291 f.) are pagan cultic and magical rites perhaps a conscious allusion to the m y s t e r y religions. Cf. possibly S i b O r 12:64. 109 Biichsel, Geist, 62 f. 110 Cf. R o w l a n d , "Literature", 185 f.: " B y its appeal to revelation and its stress on the need to pierce behind appearances to the realities w h i c h explain the incoherent j u m b l e of history, apocalyptic supports continued attachment to Scripture and tradition."

Chapter T w o

Qumran 1. Introduction The major Qumran manuscripts published to date give the impression of a community marked by a particularly rigid compliance with the Torah and the Prophets. 1 In contrast e.g. to the Rabbinic writings, we find here no allowance for debate in matters of exegesis, much less any concession of different possibilities of interpretation. Instead, generous abuse is heaped upon the promoters of explanations which deviate from what to the Qumran writers seems the only authorized and acceptable exegesis. One looks in vain for prophecy, or dreams and their interpretation 2 (or indeed affirmations of divine action in contemporary history). What factors, then, fuelled this community's faith and its understanding of revelation? With this question as a springboard for our inquiry, the following remarks evaluate the material from several different angles, starting once again with the relationship of Scripture and revelation.

2. "Secret Things and Things Revealed": Exegesis at Qumran 2.1.

nV?aj and rmnoj in

the T o r a h

1 QS 5:1 If. nicely illustrates the distinction commonly drawn at Qumran between two categories of legal material in the Torah. Here the outsiders and opponents of the sect ("?137n 'IPJK) are excluded from God's covenant because a) 1

T h e identification of the Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y w i t h the Essenes (on w h i c h see Josephus, BJ 2 : 1 1 9 - 1 6 1 and A n t 12:171 f., 1 8 : 1 8 - 2 2 ; Philo, Prob 7 5 - 9 1 ; Pliny, Hist.Nat. 5:37) is here taken as likely b u t not established b e y o n d d o u b t . See e.g. Ringgren, Faith, 2 3 5 - 2 4 2 ; Vermes, Scrolls, esp. 1 2 5 - 1 3 0 ; Yadin, Message, esp. 1 7 3 - 1 8 6 . 2 Except in writings w h o s e provenance is not distinctively Essene, such as 1 Q a p G e n 19:14ff., 4 Q E n G i a n t s b 2:3 ff., etc.

"Secret Things and Things Revealed": Exegesis at Qumran

43

they have not searched the commandments to discover the hidden things ( n n n o w ) regarding which they went astray, and b) they have done the revealed things (m^Jin) wantonly. Without at once taking for granted the identity of these "revealed" and "hidden things", it is clear that the writer assumes the latter to be accessible through intensive searching (ttHT/tPpD) of the Torah (similarly 1 QS 8:11 f., 15 f.). The "revealed things", on the other hand, appear to be known to the offenders already, since they have "done" (i.e., presumably, "transgressed against") them wantonly. 3 Thus it seems reasonable to take the as referring to matters in the Torah which are clear to everyone (cf. C D 15:13?), whereas i m n O J are commandments not immediately obvious, and ascertainable only to careful scrutiny of the Torah — the particular kind of scrutiny, thatis, which is carried out only by the Qumran sectarians (1 QS 8:1, l l f . , 15 f.; also C D 3:14). 4 Proceeding from here to inquire into the identity of the flnflOl, we come upon an interesting discovery in C D 3:12—16, one of the earliest sectarian documents. B u t w i t h the r e m n a n t w h i c h held fast to the c o m m a n d m e n t s of God, H e m a d e His C o v e n a n t w i t h Israel for ever, revealing to t h e m the hidden things in which all Israel had g o n e astray ( ^ ¡ a w "73 0 3 ISIl HPN m U l O J HiV? m^A*?). H e unfolded before t h e m His holy Sabbaths and His glorious feasts, the testimonies of His righteousness and the w a y s of His truth, and the desires of His will w h i c h a man m u s t d o in order to live.

Here the "hidden things" are by apposition identified as "God's holy sabbaths and glorious feasts" (ITDD HinSl ltiHp n i M t f ) . These Sabbaths and feasts 5 have been disclosed by revelation 6 to the righteous remnant, i.e. the community itself. m~in03, then, are matters in the Torah whose interpretation is not self-evident to all, and to which the sect claims privileged access. 7

3

nn-l T 3 : cf. E x o d 14:8; N u m 15:30, 33:3; C D 8:8, 10:3. Cf. Schiffman, Halakhah, 22 ff.; Leaney, Rule, 172. T h e idea of ignorant sin occurs already in Psa 19:12; 90:8; J o b 34:32; b u t cf. Kosmala, Hebräer, 256: the fact that Israel sinned against the "hidden things" is not expressed in terms of u n w i t t i n g sin but of going astray, HSTl — cf. 1 Q S 5:11; C D 3:14. N o t e that even D a v i d did not keep the "sealed b o o k of the law", C D 5:1—5 (i.e. l l Q T e m p l e and its stipulation of m o n o g a m y , 57:17f.? Cf. C D 4:21). 5 T h e specific reference here w o u l d appear to be to Q u m r a n ' s solar calendar, closely patterned on that o f j u b . Cf. 1 Q S 10:1. Aside f r o m this theological usage, is also used transitively w i t h the h u m a n ear (1 Q H 1:21, 6:4, 18:4f.; C D 2:2; 11 Q t g j o b 27:3f.), heart (1 Q H 12:34, 18:24), and eyes (1 Q H 18:19, C D 2:14) as its object - cf. already 1 Sam 9:15; 2 S a m 7:27/1 C h r 17:25; J o b 33:16, 36:10, 15. H1?! "to go into exile" occurs only in C D 7:14f. (quoting A m o s 5:27); sexual " u n c o v e r i n g " (frequent in the O T ) is f o u n d e.g. in 11 Q T e m p l e 66:12f. 7 Cf. Gabrion, "L'interprétation," 820f.; also N ö t s c h e r , Terminologie, 71; and Wieder, Scrolls, 54, w h o notes a similar distinction in Karaite exegesis {SI—62). Cf. also Phi4

44

Qumran

The in turn, are neither simply Scripture 8 nor merely its revealed inter9 pretation; rather, as O. Betz keenly observes, they include both the self-evident subjects in the Torah (as above) and interpretations previously revealed to the sect (as e.g. 1 QS 1:9; 5:9; 9:13, 19).10 All of the Torah must be kept, including both the "revealed" and the "hidden" things — and the non-sectarians have failed on both counts. 11

2.2. "Revelation" and Exegesis of the T o r a h Revelation from the Torah occurred nj?D DS7 ("from time to time": 1 QS 8:15, 9:13), and thus was probably "progressive" in character. 12 In 1 QS 9:13 the Instructor ('j'atPQ)13 is to "do the will of God according to all that has been revealed from time to time. He shall measure out all knowledge discovered according to the times, together with the statute of the time. .. ." 14 What, then, is the manner in which this revelation was received? The primary (possibly the only) means of present-day revelation appears to have been the intensive searching of the Torah, as was tentatively suggested above (cf. e.g. 1 QS 8:15; C D 6:7, 7:18). It is clear from 1 QS 5:9, 11 f. that the Torah is opened up and revealed to the priests, the searchers of the will of God (IJIJH ' B m i ) . "Revelation" takes place, then, where the diligent search of the

lo's reference to the Essenic exegesis of the "things not u n d e r s t o o d " ( ö a a [rr| yvoioijxa): Prob 82. 8 Pace Schiffman, Halakhah, 32; Wacholder, Dawn, 89 and 254 n. 350 ( N . B . on p. 89 Wacholder considers "Scripture" at Q u m r a n to include Jub, a view w h i c h unfortunately he does not sufficiently substantiate). 9 W e s t e r m a n n / A l b e r t z , "H1?*," 426; cf. Zobel, "n 1 ?!", 1031. 10 Betz, Offenbarung, 1 ("den schon früher klargelegten oder selbstverständlichen Weisungen"). 11 Cf. D e u t 29:28, apparently (intentionally?) never quoted: " T h e secret things ( m n o j n ) belong to the Lord our G o d , but the things revealed (n'TUm) belong to us and to o u r children forever, that w e m a y observe all the w o r d s of this T o r a h . " Cf. 4 Q 5 0 8 [ = PrFêtes] 2:4 ( n V j U m n n n o i n n r u n ' n n s i ) and passim. 12 T h u s e.g. Gabrion, "L'interprétation," 820; N ö t s c h e r , Terminologie, 68f.; Schiffman, Halakhah, 22 ff. 13 Vermes, DSSE (2nd ed.), 22—25 argues f r o m DSS and post-exilic Biblical texts (Dan 11:33; 12:3; Ezra 8:18; 2 C h r 30:32, etc.) that the maskîlîm m u s t be the levitical instructors of post-exilic Israel; and further, that at Q u m r a n one such maskîl w a s singled out, as a " G u a r d i a n " (lp3B). Cf. Leaney, Rule, 72f., 229 f.; he also (118) follows C a r m i gnac, " C o n j e c t u r e " , 8 5 - 8 7 in reading 1 Q S 1:1 as "ISO lIT^N]1? Vofra] 1 ? TITTI "I["10, i.e. dealing in the first instance w i t h this eminent Instructor. 14 Cf. Vermes, DSSE, 74, w h o translates the w o r d IIS as "age". This implies successive dispensations of redemptive history, at least one of w h i c h for Q u m r a n falls into the present.

"Secret Things and Things Revealed": Exegesis at Qumran

45

p r i e s t l y e x e g e t e - t e a c h e r is m e t b y G o d ' s g i f t . 1 5 I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r u l e t h a t c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s w e r e to s p e n d o n e third o f e v e r y n i g h t in t h e s t u d y o f " t h e b o o k " (1 Q S 6:7), o n e m a n i n t e n ( o r , p o s s i b l y , i n a minyan

often)16 was

r e q u i r e d t o " s e a r c h i n t h e T o r a h b y d a y a n d b y n i g h t " (1 Q S 6:6). S i g n i f i c a n t discoveries i l l u m i n a t i n g the " h i d d e n t h i n g s " in the T o r a h h a d to b e disclosed to t h e r e s p o n s i b l e c o u n c i l o f t w e l v e m e n a n d t h r e e p r i e s t s (1 Q S 8 : 1 1 f.; cf. p . 4 9 b e l o w ) , a n d t h u s p r e s u m a b l y b e c a m e an integral p a r t o f t h e halakhic c o d e o f "revealed things".17

2.3.

Torah and Halakhah

T h e Scrolls appear to b e unfamiliar w i t h t h e R a b b i n i c distinction b e t w e e n t h e " w r i t t e n T o r a h " o f S c r i p t u r e (31133® m i n ) a n d t h e " o r a l T o r a h " o f t r a d i t i o n (HS *73?3tP m i l l ) . 1 8 B i b l i c a l a n d s e c t a r i a n l a w a r e f o u n d s i d e b y s i d e o n e q u a l t e r m s , a n d t h e Q u m r a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s b r e a t h e a n air o f f i n a l i t y w h i c h p e r m i t s o f n o f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n . 1 9 C o n v e r s e l y , t h e h i g h a u t h o r i t y v e s t e d in t h e " n e w " , exegetically derived halakhic20 revelation o f h i d d e n t h i n g s goes h a n d in h a n d w i t h a strict a d h e r e n c e to the letter o f the l a w . 2 1 S o m e h a v e c o n c l u d e d that therefore n o qualitative distinctions b e t w e e n the T o r a h and Q u m r a n ' s Halakhah can remain.22

15 " H u m a n exertion and divine illumination are interdependent elements of the p r o cess of uncovering the hidden portions of the T o r a h " (Wieder, Scrolls, 81 f.). Cf. Psa 119, discussed in the Introduction above. See also Gabrion, "L'interprétation", 827; m o r e generally Hengel, Judentum, 416 on the trend of "intellectualizing" of religion and piety. An appeal to 1 Macc 3:48 (Betz, Offenbarung, 48), albeit intriguing, is perhaps not entirely fair. 16 See 1 Q S 6:3 and cf. Leaney, Rule, 181, 184. 17 Cf. Schiffman, Sectarian Law, 29. N . B . Patte, Hermeneutic, 221 rightly cautions that not every Biblical precept was subject to such exegesis, b u t apparently only difficult ones. 18 Cf. e.g. Gabrion, "L'interprétation," 822. 19 Cf. B a u m g a r t e n , " U n w r i t t e n L a w " , 15ff. on 1 Q S a 1:1 ff.; l l Q T e m p l e ; 4 Q 1 5 9 (Ord); a l s o j u b , etc. 20 T h e m "11103 all appear to be in the realm of halakhah. Patte, Hermeneutic, 227 offers a helpful t w o - p h a s e distinction between these "hidden things" and "mysteries" (D'TI, cf. §§ 2.4; 4 below): the latter pertain to a first stage of reflection, which interprets " c o n t e m porary salient history" in light of Scripture, thus arriving at statements constitutive for the c o m m u n i t y ' s self-estimation as the end-time elect. T h e discovery o f h a l a k h i c niHlOJ is, in turn, epiphenomenal u p o n this self-appraisal, being concerned w i t h interpreting the life of the n e w l y constituted eschatological c o m m u n i t y . 21 Driver, Scrolls, 579, compares M a t t 5:17 ff. B u t the difference, he concedes, lies in Q u m r a n ' s e x t r e m e legalism. 22 E . g . B a u m g a r t e n , " U n w r i t t e n Law", 17.

46

Qumran

But is this conclusion sound? I would submit that such a reading fails to give due appreciation to the implicit structural priority of the Torah in the sectarian hermeneutic. Any and all so-called "revelation", authoritative and idiosyncratic though it may appear, is in fact an epiphenomenon to the primary writings of Scripture. Qumran's halakhah always derives f r o m exegesis — as poorly or well executed as that may be. In a very real sense, therefore, it carries no independent authority of its own. 2 3 This is not of course to deny that a posteriori the sectarian pronouncements share in the Biblical authority: indeed they can even assume a kind of "topical" epistemological priority (inasmuch as the understanding of certain parts of the Torah depends on them). 2 4 However, that is merely a consequence of the community's fervent devotion to the Torah and its unceasing search for the true interpretation. 2 5 Thus, in the extensive garden parable of 1 Q H 8:1 ff. (where the covenant community is compared to a plantation which sends forth roots to the water channels 26 ), the interpretive work of the author serves as the crucial instrument for the provision of water; yet this work is obviously in turn dependent on the prior God-givenness of the spring. Given the presuppositional framework of Q u m r a n ' s principles of exegesis, then, the T o rah does retain at least a hermeneutical priority over the authoritative halakhic "revelation" which derives f r o m it. 27

2.4. P r o p h e t s and

Pesher

A famous passage in 1 Q p H a b reads, A n d G o d told H a b a k k u k to write d o w n that w h i c h w o u l d happen to the final generation, but H e did not m a k e k n o w n to h i m w h e n time w o u l d c o m e to an end ( l s n i n si 1 ? r p n n m n t o ) . . . . This concerns the Teacher of Righteousness, to w h o m G o d m a d e k n o w n all the mysteries of the w o r d s of His servants the Prophets

23

Cf. Gabrion, "L'interprétation", 822 n. 204, 823. Cf. Gabrion, "L'interprétation", 823, n. 210. 25 See also Josephus on Essene devotion to the Scriptures, BJ 2:159. A n d cf. Philo Prob 82. 26 Cf. C D 3:16; 6:3ff.; cf. 19:33£: exegesis as the digging of a well. Cf. Psa 1; Sir 24:30f. Wieder, Scrolls, 6 2 - 6 7 lists Karaite parallels. 27 Cf. Gabrion, "L'interprétation," 822 n. 204. H e continues (823 n. 210), "L'autorité de la halakha essénienne ne vient pas tant du fait qu'elle est issue d ' u n e révélation que du fait qu'elle repose u n i q u e m e n t sur la seule autorité scripturaire, sur l'autorité de la Loi de Moïse vénérée par la C o m m u n a u t é de Q u m r â n " . N . B . only the T o r a h itself is quoted (e.g. " H e has said" or "it is w r i t t e n " , cf. esp. C D 9:2 ff.); but see b e l o w on 11 Q T e m p l e . 24

"Secret Things and Things Revealed": Exegesis at Qumran

47

(D'X3:n 1H3S 1 3 1 ' H "713 riK IJPTin HPS). . . . T h e final age shall be prolonged, and shall exceed all that the Prophets have said; for the mysteries of G o d are a s t o u n d ing. 2 8 Irenaeus's c o m m e n t o n E b i o n i t e exegesis s e e m s strangely apposite to this fascinating passage: " Q u a e autem sunt prophetica curiosius e x p o n e r e n i t u n t u r " (Contra

Haereses

1 . 2 6 . 2 ) . It w o u l d s e e m t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s ( i n c l u d i n g D a v i d 2 9

and thus p r e s u m a b l y the Writings30) are here treated differently f r o m the T o rah: w h i l e sectarian exegesis of t h e latter seeks to u n c o v e r the " h i d d e n " (but n e v e r t h e l e s s given)

i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e M o s a i c L a w , t h e p r o p h e t i c w o r d is in f a c t li-

m i t e d a n d incomplete

i n itself. A l t h o u g h it is a s s u m e d t o b e " r e v e a l e d " ( e . g . 1 Q S

8 : 1 5 f . ; 3 1 C D 5:21 f.; 11 Q P s a 27:11) a n d c a n e v e n b e m e n t i o n e d t o g e t h e r w i t h M o s e s ( e . g . 1 Q S 1:3), it h a d t o b e a u g m e n t e d b y Q u m r a n ' s T e a c h e r o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s , t h e i n t e r p r e t e r par excellence

w h o received the c o m p l e m e n t and cul-

mination of the prophetic w o r d directly " f r o m the m o u t h of G o d "

1

DD,

1 Q p H a b 2:2f.). T h e prophets received revelation about eschatological m y s teries, b u t o n l y t h e T e a c h e r o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s w a s g i v e n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e TpH

( " t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n o f t h e t i m e " 3 2 ) , i.e. k n o w l e d g e o f t h e t i m e o f t h e

e s c h a t o n . 3 3 T h e T e a c h e r m a y n o t h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d special v i s i o n s , 3 4 b u t his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n e v e r t h e l e s s is d i v i n e l y a u t h o r i z e d . 3 5

28 1 Q p H a b 7:1—8 (Vermes, DSSE, 286). For the mysteries of "His servants the p r o phets" cf. esp. Rev 10:7. 29 See 11 Q P s a 27:11 (on which see Worrell, " W i s d o m " , 359—364); note the existence of a pesher o n Psa 37. Cf. Acts 2:30; Asclsa 11:2; Josephus Ant 6:166; Philo Agr 50; Her 290; Justin Dial 85, 110; b.Suk 52a; and esp. T g Psa 45:1; 46:1, 49:16; 51:13; 103:1 and passim. T h e idea itself m a y derive f r o m passages like 1 Sam 16:13; 2 S a m 23:1 (DN2), 2; etc. 30 Cf. possibly the "three b o o k s " 4 Q M e s s ar; also Philo Cont 25. 31 Betz, Offenbarung, 7 and n. 1 takes 1 Q S 8:15 f. to indicate that the prophets, too, are merely revealing the T o r a h , j u s t as this is d o n e " f r o m time to time" in the sect's interpretation. H o w e v e r , this reading is not as obvious f r o m the text as Betz w o u l d have it. 32 For this and similar phrases see also 2 Bar 30:3; 59:4, 69:4; A s s M o s 1:18; T R e u b 6:8; TLevi 10:2; T Z e b 9:9; T o b 14:5; V i t P r o p h 2:10, 19; 4:13; also e.g. 1 C o r 10:11; Gal 4:4; E p h 1:10; etc. Wieder, "TP", 22f. observes that TP means "period" or " t i m e " ; cf. M e r tens, Daniel, 146—148; pace Silberman, " U n r i d d l i n g " , 345f. (TP = ITTPt). See further p. 138 f. b e l o w . 33 See 1 Q p H a b 2 : 6 - 9 , 7:2, etc. (cf. D a n 9 : 2 4 - 2 7 ; also e.g. 4 E z r a 12:11 f., for a similar procedure; and n o t e J o s e p h u s ' c o m m e n t about Essene predictions of the f u t u r e on the basis of the prophetic writings, BJ 2:159). Cf. Betz, Offenbarung, 82; H o r g a n , Pesharim, 237; Elliger, Studien, 154; Brownlee, Midrash, 110; pace Wieder, Scrolls, 86 f. A late example of striking similarity is N a h m a n i d e s ' s Book of Redemption 4:3 (in Buchanan, Revelation, 166): Daniel u n d e r s t o o d the Secret b u t n o t the time of the end. 34 Patte, Hermeneutic, 218 explicitly contrasts apocalyptic literature. B u t cf. Section 3.4 below. 35 Rigaux, "Révélation", 247.

48

Qumran A s h a s v a r i o u s l y b e e n o b s e r v e d , t h e p a t t e r n o f this s o c a l l e d midrash

pesher

ex-

e g e s i s — a l s o f o u n d o u t s i d e t h e D S S 3 6 — is in s o m e w a y s c l o s e l y a k i n t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f d r e a m s . 3 7 P a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g parallels o c c u r in D a n i e l 3 8 : t h e m y s t e r y (T"l) g i v e n in an o b s c u r e n o c t u r n a l d i s c l o s u r e m u s t b e " d e c o d e d " (1tt?D) b y an i n t e r p r e t e r w h o m a y ( e . g . D a n 2 ) o r m a y n o t ( e . g . D a n 4) h a v e b e e n g i v e n a s e p a r a t e r e v e l a t i o n f o r this p u r p o s e . T h e t w o b a s i c i n g r e d i e n t s o f t h e pesher

t y p e o f " r e v e l a t i o n " , t h e n , are t h e TT

( o f t e n p l u r a l ) a n d its c o r r e s p o n d i n g H P S : 3 9 t h e f o r m e r is s u p p l i e d b y t h e p r o phets, the latter b y the T e a c h e r o f R i g h t e o u s n e s s (or his subsequent agents). " R e v e a l e d " interpretation thus attained thrives on allegory and clever s e m a n tics (cf. a l s o P h i l o , Prob 8 2 ) , a n d d o e s n o t s h y a w a y f r o m c h a n g i n g t h e l e t t e r s o r w o r d s o f t h e p r i m a r y t e x t w h e r e n e c e s s a r y t o suit a p a r t i c u l a r e x p o s i t o r y p u r pose. F i n a l l y it is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e b r i e f l y t h e e t h i c a l i n t e n t i o n o f pesher

revela-

t i o n : 1 Q S 9 : 1 9 m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t t h e a i m o f s u c h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is t o e n a b l e t h e s e c t a r i a n t o l i v e his life in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e r e v e a l e d w i l l o f G o d (i.e.

an1? n"?:un ^an msn ns bps cran i^n1?) and thus to be one of the ¡rn'nn, i.e. t h e m a t u r e (1 Q S 4 : 2 2 ) . 4 0

3 6 Fishbane, Interpretation, 4 5 4 f. discusses the development o f pesher in T a l m u d , M i drash, 4 Ezra, T a r g u m i m , etc. For the identification o f the genre cf. further B r o o k e , "Pesher", 483—503. Silberman, " U n r i d d l i n g " , 324—330 compares esp. the Rabbinic Petirah Midrash. 3 7 See esp. Fishbane, Interpretation, 455: pasaru " t o solve, interpret" is used in A k k a dian magical, divinatory, and dream contexts. In the O T cf. further Gen 40:12, 18; see Fishbane, " P e s h e r " , 105 — 110. T h e connection between Scriptural prophets and dream interpretation may derive from the idea that the books o f the prophets contain their visions and dreams: see Silberman, " U n r i d d l i n g " , 327—31 (followed by Patte, Hermeneutic, 301 f.), with reference to S i f N u m 12:6. 3 8 See esp. Bruce, " E x p o s i t i o n " , 7 7 f . ; Horgan, Pesharim, 2 5 2 f f . Wacholder, Dawn, 90 f., even suggests the influence might have gone in either direction (assuming an early date for 1 Q p H a b ) . Another significant parallel is 1 E n 106:19 = 4 Q E n c 5 . i i . 2 6 f . (ed. M i lik, 2 0 9 £ ) : " I k n o w the mysteries o f G o d which the Holy Ones have told me and shown to m e and which I read in the heavenly tablets." N o t e also XH'JS W O T ^ S N in T g j o b 15:8. 3 9 Vermes ("Interpretation", 91) lists four basic logical principles o f the pesher: (i) the mysteriousness o f the prophetic writings and their need o f new revelation; (ii) the eschatological character o f this new revelation; (iii) the imminence o f the end o f the world and hence the application o f prophecy to the present generation; and (iv) the T e a cher o f Righteousness himself is the recipient o f this revelation. Cf. also Horgan, Pesharim, 2 4 4 f. 4 0 C f . Rigaux, " R é v é l a t i o n , " 248: " L e parfait était celui qui acceptant cette doctrine la vivait intégralement." See ibid., 237—241; Betz, Offenbarung, 7 4 f i ; Nôtscher, Terminologie, 74. O n the ethical import o f "revelation" cf. further Philo, Prob 82 f.; and see below, e.g. section 1.2 in Chapter Nine.

"Secret Things and Things Revealed": Exegesis at Qumran

49

2.5. T h e Teacher of Righteousness as Mediator of Revelation The author of the Qumran Hymns (1 QH) makes some remarkable claims of having received and passed on divine revelation (e.g. 1 Q H 1:21; 4:23ff.; 8:16ff.; 12:12f., 33f., etc.). 41 Although not expressly stated, all indications are that the intended speaker is the Teacher of Righteousness himself. Besides this Teacher and of course certain Old Testament figures,42 only the priests ("sons of Zadok") are specifically mentioned as recipients of revelation (see above; cf. C D 5:5 [Hilkiah]). 43 The primary function of the priests is to carry on the heritage of the Teacher of Righteousness, whose access to revelation is considered to be unmatched (see also C D 1:11).44 He is the primary mediator of the sectarian revelation; the priests are its primary stewards; the whole community (N. B. only they), 45 its ultimate addressees. While the Teacher of Righteousness resembles Moses in some ways and the prophets in others, he is different from both: being neither lawgiver nor prophet but a teacher, 46 his revelation is based on the interpretation of Scripture. His person and his work are constitutive for the self-understanding and theology of the community at Qumran.

41 Cf. H o l m - N i e l s e n , Hodayot, 285; also Casciaro Ramirez, " H i m n o s " , 34, w h o sees here a precedent for Paul's self-understanding as a mediator of revelation and steward of mysteries. 42 E . g . Moses (e.g. 1 Q S 1:3; 1 Q 2 2 [ = D M ] ) , A m r a m ( 4 Q ' A m r a m ) , Samuel ( 4 Q 1 6 0 [ = VisSam]), and the prophets (e.g. 1 Q p H a b 7). 43 Rigaux ("Révélation", 243—245) includes the council of twelve elders and three priests (1 Q S 8:1) and the Instructor - e.g. 1 Q S 3:13); but it remains unclear in the texts w h e t h e r these figures do anything m o r e than to preserve and handle received revelation. Betz, Offenbarung, 11 f. (followed e.g. by Schnabel, Law, 174) includes Ezra, but his p r o o f t e x t C D 1:6—12 seems less than convincing. A different situation m a y p r e vail in 1 Q M 10:10—12, w h e r e Israel (the "true Israel"? cf. n. 45) is granted the revelation of celestial secrets. 44 Schreiner, "Geistbegabung", 180 n. 75; Foerster, "Geist", 125. 45 H o l m - N i e l s e n , Hodayot, 284: the n e w revelation is n o t addressed to all Israel but only to those w h o accept it, i.e. the m e m b e r s of the n e w covenant. See 4 E z r a 14:26, 46; cf. also R o m 9:6 ff. Leaney, Rule, 72 observes that the c o m m u n i t y ' s image of itself as the people of the n e w covenant, receiving n e w revelation, is reflected in its organization as a "miniature Israel", w i t h fully f o r m u l a t e d functions for priests, Levites, etc. 46 Rigaux, "Révélation," 246f.; Betz, Offenbarung, 6 2 f . , 67f., 92, 98. Kosmala, Hebräer, 263 insists that the absence of prophetic n o m e n c l a t u r e need n o t i m p l y that the Teacher's office had n o prophetic overtones.

50

Q umran

2.6. Revelation and the Spirit An important passage for the doctrine of spirit at Qumran is 1 QS 3:17—4:26. T w o spirits have been assigned to the world by God: the spirit of truth and the spirit of falsehood (they also carry a number of other names), 47 who continually wage war with each other. 48 However, most relevant for this inquiry is the view of the Holy Spirit or spirit of God (probably not to be equated with the "spirit of truth", which moreover does not seem to bear on revelation). 49 The main function of the Holy Spirit as God's gift to the community seems to be the purification and sanctification of the believer ( 1 Q H 3:21, 4:20—22, 14:25—27, 16:10—12, etc.). 50 In a number of cases it is instrumental in dispensing revelation (e.g. 1 Q H 13:18f.; cf. 1 QS 4:2—6), including the revelation of mysteries (1 Q H 12:11 f.). 51 Indeed the Spirit grants a knowledge of mysteries both to the prophets and to the Qumran community; 5 2 the latter benefits from the special charisma of the Spirit which the Teacher of Righteousness has received in his exegesis. 53 Betz aptly summarizes the relationship between Scripture, the Spirit, and the giving of revelation: "Die Offenbarung ist für die Sekte an die Schrift gebunden und Werk des Heiligen Geistes, der den Menschen reinigt, erleuchtet, stärkt und mit Gott verbindet." 54

2.7. A n Exception? T h e T e m p l e Scroll O n numerous occasions the Temple Scroll renders divine discourse in the first person singular, when its O T source text refers to God's speech in the third person, or not at all. Examples of the latter include the passages about marriage

47 Significant for our concern is the fact that the spirit of falsehood, w h o governs the " m e n of perdition", is later also called "spirit of secrecy" ("inOH PITO, 1 Q S 9:22). 48 Cf. Schreiner, "Geistbegabung", 180; Schäfer, "Geist", 173 f. See also TJud 20:1 ff.; TAsh 1:3-9. 49 Betz, Offenbarung, 147 ff.: as minister o f t r u t h , the g o o d spirit (angel of light, etc.) only intervenes in the eschaton. 50 See also Betz, Offenbarung, 140; Foerster, "Geist", 129f.; Schreiner, "Geistbegab u n g " , 175ff.; Schäfer, "Geist", 173f. 51 Betz, Offenbarung, 18 (cf. (Hengel, Judentum, 403; Schnabel, Law, 173) notes a stronger emphasis o n Spirit-given revelation in 1 Q H and on revelation t h r o u g h Schriftforschung e.g. in 1 Q S . T h e different emphasis seems due primarily to the prayerful and poetic language of 1 Q H ; here too revelation is mediated by virtue of G o d given k n o w ledge of T o r a h : 1 Q H 4:10; 5:11 f. See f u r t h e r Schäfer, "Geist", 173. 52 Bruce, "Spirit", 51; cf. C o p p e n s , " M y s t è r e " , 146; Schäfer, "Geist", 174. 53 E . g . 1 Q p H a b 7:1 ff.; 1 Q H . Cf. Schreiner, "Geistbegabung", 179; pace K u h n , Enderwartung, 147, w h o denies a special charisma. 54 Betz, Offenbarung, 149 (cf. 141).

"Secret Things and Things Revealed": Exegesis at Qumran

51

w i t h a niece (66:15—17; cf. C D 5:7), death penalty f o r betrayal (esp. 64:9—11), and a n e w , detailed charter for the k i n g (56:12ff.). 5 5 O b v i o u s l y the n a t u r e and intention o f 11 Q T e m p l e is of f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r tance. If it is for Q u m r a n , as W a c h o l d e r suggests, the authoritative and surpassing Second T o r a h , 5 6 then (at least in large part 5 7 ) it cannot constitute "revelat i o n " m e r e l y in the sense of authoritative T o r a h interpretation. T h e fact that G o d here speaks a n e w w o r d in the first p e r s o n singular w o u l d have to m e a n that 11 Q T e m p l e contains indeed a m a j o r b o d y o f n e w and u n d e r i v e d revelation. O b v i o u s l y a great deal rests o n o u r assessment o f the origin, n a t u r e and use o f 11 Q T e m p l e . W i t h o u t being able to enter fully i n t o this o n - g o i n g discussion, I w o u l d v e n t u r e t o suggest that in f o r m , if n o t perhaps in intention, this d o c u m e n t does in fact diverge f r o m the p a t t e r n o f exegesis described above. A m o n g the o t h e r d o c u m e n t s discovered at Q u m r a n , o n l y 4 Q 1 5 9 [ O r d ] and 1 Q 2 2 [ D M ] s o m e w h a t r e s e m b l e it. S c h i f f m a n for o n e contrasts the halakhah o f I I Q T e m p l e (part o f the original revelation t o Moses) w i t h that o f the o t h e r Scrolls (the result o f o n g o i n g exegesis). 5 8 W h a t is m o r e , in a n u m b e r o f w a y s the T e m p l e Scroll m a y be functionally similar to the M i s h n a h . Despite undeniable f o r m a l differences b e t w e e n 11 Q T e m p l e and R a b b i n i c literature (esp. the feature of direct divine speech, t h o u g h N . B. e.g. m . A b o t 2:2), m a n y topics are addressed in b o t h bodies o f l i t erature — even those n o t f o u n d in Scripture. It m a y be that 11 Q T e m p l e r e p r e sents a p r e - M i s h n a i c r e s t a t e m e n t o f T o r a h (mishneh torah) in w h i c h m i n o r i t y opinions are n o t included and the first-person address is i n t e n d e d to emphasize the divine origin o f the rules. 5 9

55

Cf. the tabular arrangement in Wilson/Wills, "Sources", 278 ff.; and see Yadin, Temple Scroll, 1:46 f. 56 Dawn, passim; his argument is based inter alia on the identification of 11 Q T e m p l e with the Book of Hagu ( ' i n / l l i l - 1 QSa 1 : 6 - 8 ; C D 1 0 : 4 - 6 , 13:2-3), the "sealed B o o k of the Law" ( C D 5 : 1 - 5 ) , and the "Book of the Second L a w " ( 4 Q p P s 3 7 4 : 6 - 8 , 4 Q C a tena a 1—4:13f.). Cf. Yadin, Temple Scroll, 1:392—397; also Vermes in Schiirer/Vermes, HJPAJC 3:411 f., Wacholder considers 11 Q T e m p l e to be the w o r k of the Teacher of Righteousness (= "Zadok"). 57 A n exception might be the rule (11 Q T e m p l e 66:17) about marriage with a niece, which in C D 5:7 is in fact defended on exegetical grounds. 58 Schiffman, Review, 124. What is more, he considers the terminological, m o r p h o logical, and orthographical affinities with the Mishnah to be significant enough to question "the assumption that the Temple Scroll was authored by the same group that authored the sectarian scrolls." 59 See Falk, " Temple Scroll", 33—44; Schiffman, Review, 124; pace Wacholder, Dawn, passim; Yadin, Temple Scroll, 1:392 (but contrast 1:87); Maier, Temple Scroll, 6 ( " U r deuteronomy"). Apart f r o m the book of D e u t e r o n o m y itself, precedents of such a phen o m e n o n are admittedly rare.

52

Qumran

Whether the Temple Scroll can actually offer us further substantive information about the idea o f revelation at Qumran will have to await further research.

3. Other Means of Revelation? 3.1. N o properly prophetic revelation appears to have been experienced at Qumran. T h e prophets were a phenomenon o f the past (e.g. 1 Q S 8:16), and the eschatological prophet promised in Deuteronomy 18:15 was still to come in the future (see 1 Q S 9:10f.). 6 0 3.2. There are frequent references to the "lot" (^Tli); this can either designate a person's portion in life (e.g. 1 Q S 11:7; 1 QSa 1:9, 20; 1 Q M 1:5; 15:1; 17:7; etc.), or be linked with communal decision making (1 Q S 5:3, 6:16ff., 9:7, C D 13:4). However, the texts imply that the reference is not to an actual "casting o f lots" but periphrastically to a decision taken by the council o f the community. 6 1 3.3. Neither is divine revelation in the proper sense intended in 4 Q 1 8 6 and 4 QMess ar, both o f which could be classified as horoscopes. 6 2 While there is an attempt to predict what otherwise would be hidden to man, there is no appeal to God for this information. Perhaps such horoscopes were purely literary devices. 63 3.4. Instances o f explicit visionary language are rare and non-specific in the major sectarian documents; they can best be explained as poetic descriptions o f the exegetical insights o f the community and their soteriological impact (e.g. 1 Q S 11:3, 6, 19). 64 A possible exception is 1 Q M 1 0 : 1 0 - 1 2 , which speaks about visions o f angels (N. B . cf. Josephus BJ 2:142) and o f heavenly secrets; perhaps 1 Q H 4:18 (fljn T)Tn) should also be mentioned. Beyond this, the only clearly identifiable non-Biblical accounts o f visionary experiences are to be found in 1 QapGen (2:10f., 19:14ffi, 20:22, 21:8ff., 22:27 ff.); 6 5 4 Q ' A m r a m b (1:10 ff.); and 5 Q15 [ = J N ar; cf. 1 Q32; 2 Q 2 4 ] . 6 6 But E.g. Burrows, "Prophecy", 225f. See e.g. 1 QS 6:16, 18, 22; contrast poss. 4 Q 1 7 6 [ = Tanh] 16:2. See further Betz, Offenbarung, 49; Beardslee, "Lots", 245ff.; Dommershausen, ""7111", 998. Cf. also p. 85 n. 22 below regarding Urim and Thummim. 62 Vermes, DSSE, 305 f. On 4 QMess ar contrast Fitzmyer, "Elect o f God", esp. 370 ff. 63 Vermes, DSSE, 305. 64 Cf. Kuhn, Enderwartung, 173; Betz, Offenbarung, 141 f.; Foerster, "Geist," 131. However, such passages do indicate a strong belief in the proleptic participation o f the community in the glory o f heaven and the angels; cf. e.g. Rowland, OpenHeaven, 116 ff. 65 Dehandschutter ("Rêve", 54) suggests that the dreams in 1 QapGen follow a standard "schéma de révélation visionnaire" o f apocalyptic literature. 66 Despite its title, 4 Q160 [ = 4 QVisSam] does not really describe a vision; moreover 60 61

Revelation of Mysteries

53

these documents are written in Aramaic, not in Hebrew, and nothing in the content of 1 QapGen and quite arguably also 4 Q ' A m r a m and 5 Q 1 5 betrays doctrinal biases peculiar to Qumran. Possibly, therefore, these writings were merely "imported" in much the same way as several other known apocrypha. Although several documents manifest apocalyptic perspectives, 67 the genre of apocalypse seems to be absent from the sectarian Scrolls. 68 Despite their detailed descriptions of celestial worship, even the recently published Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice do not supply an explicit revelatory framework. 6 9

4. Revelation of Mysteries The Qumran texts speak frequently about "mysteries" which are known to God but inaccessible to man except by revelation. Through the Teacher of Righteousness and its exegetes, the community has been granted a disclosure of such mysteries, as we saw, but it must guard them from outsiders unable or unworthy to understand. 70 The most important word for our purposes is T"), which occurs approximately 65 times in the texts I have been able to see. 71 Other significant terms include 710, n n o (esp. nifal ptc.), l U n / r n n , etc. The frequent occurrence of T"1 and 110 in similar contexts (e.g. 1 Q H 4:28) might seem to imply their synonymity. 7 2 However, a semantic differentiation becomes desirable when it is realized e.g. that T"1 invariably denotes a mystery

its subject matter closely parallels 1 Sam 3:15 ff. Visionary material is arguably contained in the Angelic Liturgy and merkabah fragments (4Q$ir$abb), but an explicit narrative f r a m e w o r k is there lacking. l l Q M e l c h is a midrash; on its relation to apocalyptic thought cf. e.g. Kobelski, Melchizedek, esp. 49—83. 67 Cf. Philonenko, "L'Apocalyptique", 217. 68 Rowland, Open Heaven, 3 9 - 4 2 ; Russell, Method, 24. 69 Cf. N e w s o m , "Merkabah Exegesis", 29: "Unlike many of the uses of Ezekiel's vision in contemporary apocalyptic literature, the Sabbath songs do not associate the m e r kabah with a scene of revelatory disclosure." 70 1 Q S 4:6, 17, 22; 5:11; 1 Q H 13:13 f.; and cf. Josephus RJ 2:142. Patte, Hermeneutic, 219 suggests this secrecy may be a secondary development arising f r o m external o p p o sition. 71 l Q p H a b 7:5, 8, 14; 1 Q S 3:23; 4:6, 18; 9:18; 11:3, 5, 19; 1 Q M 3:9, 15; 14:9, 14; 16:11, 16; 17:9; 1 Q H 1:11, 13, 21, 29; 2:13; 4:27; 5:25, 36; 7:27; 8:6, 11 (2x); 9:23; 11:10; 12:13, 20; 13:2, 13; 1 Q H frg 3:7; 6:5; 17:3; 25:1; 50:5; 1 Q 2 6 1:1, 4; 1 Q 2 7 [= Myst] I 1:2, 3, 4, 7; 13:3; 1 Q 3 0 4:1; 1 Q 3 6 9:2; 16:2; 1 Q 4 0 1:2; 4 Q M a 12; C D 3:18; 1 Q a p G e n 1:2, 3; 1 Q 2 3 9/14/15:2; 4 Q M e s s ar 1:8 (2x); 4 Q 1 7 6 [= Tanh] 16:2; 4 Q 4 0 1 14.ii:24, 17:6; 4 Q 4 0 3 l.ii:27 (2x); 4 Q 4 0 5 3.ii:9; Q511 [ = Shir b ] 2 II 6; 4 4 - 4 7 I 6; 4 8 - 5 1 II 7. A few of these readings are based on admittedly conjectural reconstructions. K u h n ' s listing (in his Konkordanz) of 1 Q H 13:13 is almost certainly incorrect. 72 Thus Couturier, "Vision", 40 f.

54

Qumran

or secret purpose, while 110 often does not. 7 3 Wewers suggests the useful distinction between the chiefly sociological import of 110 (as the private, hence "secret" communication of the "in-group" in its privileged access to God), and the more narrowly theological meaning of T"1 (as primarily an "apocalyptic" designation of the divine plan and order of salvation). 74 R. E. Brown has identified four different categories of mysteries at Qumran, which form a useful starting point for the present discussion: (4.1) mysteries of divine providence (including eschatology); (4.2) mysteries of the sect's interpretation of the law (on which see § 2.1 above); (4.3) cosmic mysteries (above all the phenomena of nature); and (4.4) mysteries of evil. 75 This structure may not be comprehensive, 76 but it covers the vast majority of pertinent examples. 4.1. The first category of soteriological mysteries may be said to include the mysteries of knowledge (e.g. 1 QS 4:6) and understanding (1 QS 4:18), of marvellous truth (1 QS 9:18), and a host of similar terms — in so much as they appear to refer quite generally to the counsels and decrees of God's plan and will. These divine purposes, pertaining in particular to eschatology, 77 are divinely revealed only to the Teacher of Righteousness and thus to his community. 7 8 As for the hiddenness of these mysteries, it too proves to be eschatological in orientation: the final phase of history has been inaugurated, but its consummation still appears to tarry 79 and must thus remain a "mystery of God", to be realized shortly. It is interesting in this respect that the Messianic dimension of the mys-

73 E . g . 1 Q S 6:19; l l : 7 f f . ; 1 Q H 4:25; 14:18, etc. C f . C a s c i a r o R a m i r e z , " R e g l a " , 487 a n d n. 3. 74 W e w e r s , Geheimnis, 192 ff. C f . F a b r y , "110", 100; see also p. 15 f. a b o v e . T h e use of I I specifically of halakhic secrets is c o m p a r a t i v e l y rare (but cf. e . g . 1 Q S 9:18f.). 75 B r o w n , Mystery, 22—29. C o m p a r e C o p p e n s , " M y s t è r e " , 145 f.; V o g t , " M y s t e r i a " , 256 f. 76 W h a t , f o r e x a m p l e , is t h e c a t e g o r y o f " m y s t e r i e s of t h e casting of t h e l o t " ( 4 Q 1 7 6 [ = T a n h ] 16:2)? 77 E . g . 1 Q 2 7 1:1, 3 - 6 ( i l ' n j ' H w i t h nVl) a n d p a s s i m . F o r t h e f o r m H'HJ H cf. 1 Q 2 7 1:1, 4; 1 Q S 11:3. T h a t this w a s indeed u n d e r s t o o d as a f u t u r e participle is clear f r o m Sir 42:19; 48:25 H e b . ( = L X X xà èaô|xeva); cf. also N ô t s c h e r , Terminologie, 7 4 f . ; Betz, Offenbarung, 84; M e r t e n s , Daniel, 125 f. 78 V o g t , " M y s t e r i a " , 257; cf. C o p p e n s , " M y s t è r e " , 144; also N ô t s c h e r , Terminologie, 74; B r u c e , Exegesis, 19. 79 C f . l Q p H a b 7 : 5 - 1 3 ; 4 Q p P s 3 7 2 : 7 f . ; C D 20:14; a l s o j u b 5 0 : 2 - 4 . Lincoln, Paradise, 143 believes 1 Q S 11:5—8 t o b e p r o o f that s o m e m y s t e r i e s are already presently realized. Such realized e s c h a t o l o g y (joint w o r s h i p w i t h t h e angels, etc.) is u n d o u b t e d l y a m o t i f f o u n d in t h e Scrolls (cf. e.g. A u n e , Cultic Setting, 31 ff.; a n d see C h a p t e r 9 b e l o w ) , b u t 1 Q S 11:6 s u g g e s t s that t h e r e nevertheless r e m a i n s a f u t u r e c o m p o n e n t . (Present realization m a y also o c c u r in 1 Q H 8:11 — 13, w h e r e t h e f r u i t o f t h e s y m b o l i c p l a n t a t i o n (the p s a l m i s t ' s c o m m u n i t y ) is p r o t e c t e d " b y t h e m y s t e r y o f m i g h t y h e r o e s and o f spirits of holiness a n d o f t h e w h i r l i n g flame of fire.")

Revelation of Mysteries

55

tery motif, so prominent in apocalyptic literature (notably 1 En), is virtually absent in the Scrolls. 80 Passing over (4.2) the secrets of halakhah (discussed above), we come to (4.3) mysteries of a cosmological dimension. Perhaps one of the most comprehensive texts is 1 Q H 13:1 — 13; but other examples are the contents of heaven in 1 Q M 14:14, celestial dimensions and beings in 1 Q M 10:11 f., and astronomical and meteorological wonders in 1 Q H 1:11 f. Further interest concerns the ocean and the deep and its inhabitants (1 Q H 1:14; 1 Q27 [= Myst] frg. 13:3) as well as the human voice (1 Q H 1:28 f.). However, not all of the relevant texts actually use the word H or the like. What is more, the precise type of mystery intended is not everywhere plain; nor is a clear distinction between "cosmological" and "soteriological" mysteries always possible (cf. Chapter One above). O f particular significance in this regard are the mystical Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice with their intricate descriptions of the mysteries of heavenly worship; these texts appear to substantiate Gershom Scholem's claim of a continuum of tradition linking the esoteric Hekhalot literature of Rabbinic mysticism with the celestial visions of the earlier apocalypses. A study of the secrets of the heavenly doxologies reveals the author's keen awareness of the liturgical and theological significance of these celestial mysteries for the worshipping community on earth. Nevertheless, in the writer's description of the "incremental" worship of the seven exalted angelic princes, phrases like "his wonderful mysteries" (4Q401 14.ii: 1) or "seven mysteries ofknowledge in the wondrous mystery of the seven [most] holy precincts" (4Q403 l.ii:27) do not permit of a distinction between cosmological and soteriological concerns. 81 (We observed a similar overlap in many of the apocalyptic texts; cf. Chapter One above.) Revelation of both kinds of mysteries illustrates and derives from God's wisdom and understanding (naan, run etc.). 82 4.4. The last kind of mystery, secrets of iniquity (SIPS T l : 1 Q27 [= Myst] 1:2-4; 1 Q H frg. 50:5; 1 QapGen 1:2; cf. VWD ' T I 0 \ 4Q402 1.5) or of Belial (1 Q H 5:36; 1 Q M 14:9), carries a more negative value. 83 Although the roots of

80 Cf. Penna, Mysterion, 21. N o t e however that a m o n g the predicates of the psalmist of 1 Q H are some which were at times applied to the Messiah: e. g. the speaker is afflicted (1 Q H 4:8f.); he (and God's Torah) is kept hidden until a final revelation (1 Q H 5:11 f.; cf. 5:25 f.; 9:24; poss. 8:11); he is involved with labour pangs leading to the birth of a male child w h o is m n a j DS f SV S^S (1 Q H 3 : 7 - 1 0 ; see Isa 9:5). Cf. the (Christian) messianic references in O d S o l 17, 22, 36, 42, poems which often resemble 1 Q H . Coppens is led to conclude that the Teacher of Righteousness is himself a "mystery" ("Mystère", 145). 81 Cf. also 4 Q 4 0 1 14 ii; 4 Q 4 0 1 1 7 . 4 - 6 ; 4 Q 4 0 2 4.11 (par. Masada SirSabb i.l), 14 (par. Masada Sir Sabb i.4f.); 4 Q 4 0 3 1 i. 1 8 - 2 0 . 82 See below, Chapter 9 on 1 C o r 2:6; also cf. Casciaro Ramirez, "Regla", 490—495; idem, " H i m n o s " , 15, 29. 83 Cf. further God's hatred of the 110 of the evil spirit (1 Q S 4:1); the fellowship of de-

56

Qumran

this notion must be seen in the Old Testament idea of secret counsels of evil, 84 its occurrence here is a function of Qumran's fundamentally dualistic cosmology: good and evil (or light/darkness, truth/falsehood, Melchizedek/Melchiresha', etc.) engage in universal conflict until God brings victory to the good. 8 5 The term "mysteries of evil", then, is simply an expression of the fact that the workings and devices of the evil one are equally real, and equally inscrutable to man, as the mysteries of God. 8 6 To sum up: the DSS conceive of new revelation as received by the Teacher of Righteousness and a leading council of priests through a process of exegesis. Halakhic "hidden things" in the Torah have been disclosed only to the covenant community and enable it to live according to a full knowledge of the will of God. Similarly, the eschatological meaning (fpH "IH1) of the "mysteries of the prophets" has been revealed to the Teacher of Righteousness. This helps to explain the confident confession in the "Daily Prayers" that "God has made His design known to us by the counsel of His great understanding" (4Q503 51.v:13).

ceit and counsel of Belial VS'^a m i l K11T 110 (1 Q H 2:22); the 110 of violence (1 Q H 6:5) or of vanity (1 Q H 7:34); and the destruction of those w h o detain the w o n d r o u s m y s teries of G o d ( 1 Q 2 7 I 1:7). 84 See e.g. Psa 1:1 D'SUn flXS/trX 1 ? DtPIS; 2:2; 64:3 D ' S i a 110; also 31:14; 83:4; specifically of evil p o w e r s in J o b 1:7 ff.; 1 C h r 21:1; a l s o j u d g 9:23; 1 Sam 16:14; 1 Kgs 22:22). Cf. Saeb0, "710", 145. In the N T the scheming and plotting of evil p o w e r s occurs e.g. in M a t t 13:19par, 39; Luke 22:31; J o h n 8:44; esp. 2 C o r 2:11; 4:4; 11:3, 14f.; 1 Thes 2:18 (?); E p h 2:2; 4:11; 6:11; also 1 Pet 5:8f.; and cf. Rev 2:9f; 17. See m o r e especially on 2 T h e s 2:7 below. 85 N o t e the inscription o n t r u m p e t s of the eschatological battle: "mysteries of G o d for the destruction of evil" (1 Q M 3:9). 86 V o g t , "Mysteria", 257: "Iniqua mysteria Belial sunt eius decreta atque consilia o p posita consiliis divinis." Cf. N ö t s c h e r , Terminologie, 75. See further C D 4:15 — 17; 4 Q 2 8 0 2:6; 4 Q 2 8 6 [Ber a ] 10.ii.2—12 ( N . B in Milik, "Milki-sedeq", 127, 130f.) on the evil plans and snares of Belial (also e.g. T D a n 2:4); and cf. the idea of interpretations of evil/deception in 1 Q H 2:31, 34; 4:7 ff., specifically in the context of the devices of Belial. C o m p a r e f u r t h e r Rev 2:24 (tot ß o f r e a xof) a a x a v ä : for ß a d e a see below, C h a p t e r 9, n. 38 on 1 C o r 2:10); and cf. esp. C h a p t e r 11 b e l o w on 2 T h e s 2:7.

Chapter Three W i s d o m Literature

1. Introduction T h i s chapter focuses o n Sirach and the b o o k o f W i s d o m , a l t h o u g h it will also consider pertinent sections f r o m the Letter o f Aristeas, Baruch, T o b i t , 4 M a c cabees, the T e s t a m e n t s of Issachar and o f j u d a h , and Pirqe Abot.1 W e will begin w i t h a l o o k at the v i e w of p r o p h e t i c revelation in these w r i t ings; this will be f o l l o w e d b y the t r e a t m e n t o f a cluster of issues pertaining to the idea o f scribal inspiration, including views o f the cult, T o r a h , a n d the Spirit. T h e chapter concludes w i t h a discussion o f divine " m y s t e r i e s " in relation to the preceding observations.

2. T h e View of Prophetic Revelation 2.1. N o Present-Day Prophecy " W e did n o t heed the voice o f the L o r d o u r G o d in all the w o r d s o f the p r o phets w h o m he sent to u s . " T h e s e w o r d s f r o m B a r 1:21 indicate the essentially past-tense perspective o f p r o p h e c y and p r o p h e t i c revelation w h i c h prevails in the post-Biblical J e w i s h w i s d o m literature. 2 A l t h o u g h the c u r r e n t generation can refer to itself as " t h e sons o f the p r o p h e t s " , there is n o direct claim to c o n -

1 N.B. this is the only non-halakhic Mishnah tractate; Davies ("Tradition", 27) describes it as "a miniature Book of Proverbs, designed especially for rabbis and their students". 2 Even broader in its pessimism (at least on this score) is PrAzar: "And at this time there is no prince, or prophet, or leader. . ." (15). Cf. e.g. Sir 49:10 (and by implication the Prologue: cf. Frey, "Révélation", 480); further 1 Macc 4:46; 9:27; 14:41; Matt 23:35 (cf. VitProph 23:2); also SibOr 1:386 (post-apostolic Christian perspective).

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temporary jtQoq)T)Teia.3 After the 8co6exa jtQoqpfjxai (49:10), Ben Sira names no other prophets. 4 But is this really the last word on the matter? Perhaps not. The next three sections will deal with possible exceptions and alternatives.

2.2. Revelatory Experiences At least some of the wisdom writings do occasionally speak of relevant contemporary phenomena, though the term "prophet" is sparingly used. The Letter of Aristeas mentions a dream revelation to warn one Theopompus against his meddlesome desire to disclose divine matters to the common man, 5 and Tobit allows for an extended angelophany in the form of Raphael.

2.3. Uses of " P r o p h e t " and " P r o p h e c y " In fact the term "prophet" does occur now and then, though not always with favourable connotations. Clearly those who "prophesy" in the context of idolatrous Hellenistic (mystery) rites in Wisdom 14:28 are in fact false prophets at their worst. 6 But even true prophets are sometimes mentioned at least in passing. Thus, TJud 18:5 describes the man given to fornication and money as one who "holds back the sacrifices due to God, and ignores his blessing, and pays no heed to a prophet when he speaks." Wisd 7:27 goes further in asserting about the figure of wisdom that "in every generation she passes into holy souls and makes them friends of God, and prophets." Wisdom herself, it is implied, can give to him who longs for experience and savoirfaire (jto/omELQia) many of the privileges associated with prophets: "She knows the things of old, and infers the things to come; .. . she has foreknowledge of signs and wonders and the outcome of seasons and times" (Wisd 8:8). The book of Wisdom, then, does not subscribe to

3 T o b 4:12 (utoi JtQOcpr|TOOV ea(XEv). Note the pungent inversion of this claim injesus's remark to the Pharisees, m o i BOTE TÜ>V cpcovEuadvTcov xovg JtQO|xaTi) of understanding; he will pour forth words of w i s d o m and give thanks to the Lord in prayer. H e will direct his counsel and knowledge aright, and meditate on his secrets (anoxoijtpoig). H e will reveal (excpavei) instruction in his teaching, and will glory in the law of the Lord's covenant.

T h e activity o f the sage here is certainly described in t e r m i n o l o g y w h i c h i n dicates a spiritual giftedness analogous to that o f a p r o p h e t (cf. M a t t 23:34). " T h e place of p r o p h e c y , " writes N i c k e l s b u r g o n this passage, "has been taken b y the scribe's s t u d y and interpretation o f the ancient writings, especially the T o r a h . " 8 T h i s suggestion of a p r o p h e t i c analogy is explicitly c o n f i r m e d elsew h e r e in B e n Sira. C h a p t e r 24 gives w h a t m a y best be u n d e r s t o o d as an e x p r e s sion o f the a u t h o r ' s v i e w of himself and his legacy (24:32—34): I will again make instruction shine forth like the dawn, and will make it shine afar; I will again p o u r out teaching like prophecy (bibaaxakiav obc; jtQotpT]Teiav), and leave it to all future generations. Observe that I have not laboured for myself alone, but for all w h o seek instruction.

In o t h e r w o r d s , Ben Sira maintains a conscious analogy, mutatis mutandis, b e t w e e n the gift o f p r o p h e c y and his o w n inspired teaching of w i s d o m and T o rah. B o t h are inspired, and b o t h are channels o f revelation — i n a s m u c h as b o t h convey Torah.9 A t the s a m e time, 8 t 6 a o x a X i a v ¿ 5 JtQOtpriTEiav (Sir 24:33) implies that at issue is n o more than an analogy w i t h p r o p h e c y . 1 0 B e n Sira studiously refrains f r o m calling himself a p r o p h e t ; his self-understanding m a y indeed be m o r e sig7

Cf. Wisd 8:21; 9:17; 3Ezra 4:59; also Gen 41:16, 38f. (Joseph); 1 Kgs 3:12, 28, etc. (Solomon); Dan 2 : 1 9 - 2 3 (Daniel), etc. 8 Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature, 60. See further Chapter 7 below; cf. e.g. Hengel, Judentum, 246ff.; Blenkinsopp, Prophecy and Canon, 128—132. 9 N o t e Isaiah's charge, "Seal ¡11111 a m o n g m y disciples" (8:16). Ben Sira's grandson places h i m in the succession of the writers of Scripture: cf. JtQorixfrn x a L 0111x65, Prologue 12. 10 Cf. the poetic parallelism with 24:32, Jiai6eiav ¿>5 oqOqov. Contrast, however, the Syriac bnbywt': cf. Marbock, "Sir., 3 8 , 2 4 - 3 9 , 1 1 " , 309.

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nificantly characterized by his view of priests and sages. 11 As Stadelmann shows, another reason for this reluctance is Ben Sira's view of the function of Biblical prophecy: the Biblical prophets bridge the gap between on the one hand the union of spriritual and secular rule under the "trilogy of priests" in the desert (Moses, Aaron, Phinehas: Ch. 45), and on the other hand the restoration of this union after the exile (Zerubbabel, Jeshua, Nehemiah, 1 2 and ultimately Simon son of Onias (Ch. 50). The mission of the prophets was to guard the patriarchal heritage in the meantime. 1 3 Given this limited view of the function of the prophets, Stadelmann concludes, Ben Sira clearly no longer counts himself as one of their number. 1 4

3. Sapiential Inspiration 3.1. Development In the Old Testament, man was initially encouraged to "seek" wisdom actively; he was promised success in his search if it was conducted in the fear of the Lord. 1 5 But the history of later times brought to bear some of the complexities and problems of the moral world order. As we noted in the Introduction, stress was increasingly laid both on the elusiveness of wisdom (Eccl, Job, Prov 30:1—4) and on God's sovereign grace in bestowing it. 1 6 Wisdom is n o w prayed for (2Chr 1:10; Wisd7:7ff.; Sir51:13ff., etc.) rather than independently sought; and she is bestowed as a special gift of grace rather than merely "found". 1 7 God's dispensation of wisdom is restricted ethnically by being

11 T h u s Stadelmann, Ben Sira, 265; cf. 237 f. Pace Maier, Mensch, 39 ("In F o r m u n d B e w u ß t s e i n lebt hier echtes P r o p h e t e n t u m weiter"); similarly Hengel, Judentum, 247f.; van Imschoot, "Sagesse", 34; Peters, Sirach, 206. N o t e the i m p o r t a n c e of Simon son of Onias II in Sir 50, c r o w n i n g the ITDS rntP. 12 Sir 4 9 : 1 1 - 1 3 ; cf. Ezra 3:2; H a g 1:12; 2:23; also 3 Ezra 6:1 f. 13 N o t e also the idea of prophets as sent by w i s d o m (Luke 11:49). Bousset (Religion, 346) cites Luke 7:35 in support of the prophets as the children of w i s d o m . 14 Stadelmann, Ben Sira, 265f.; cf. also 214—216, 149—167. H e argues specifically (215) against Snaith, " I m p o r t a n c e " , 68, w h o fails to recognize the continuity of the priestly motif; and (266) against Maier's claim (Mensch, 163) of a shared, living prophetic consciousness between Ben Sira and Q u m r a n . 15 Prov 1 : 2 0 - 2 3 , 2:4, 8:17, 15:14, etc. 16 E . g . P r o v 1:23; 2:6, etc.; J o b 3 2 : 7 - 9 ; 3 8 - 4 2 . N o t e also Eccl 12:11 L X X : Xóyoi oocpüv . . . E0ó5] one inspired). Contrast the purely secular meaning o f evfrouoi&w (BJ 1:443; 6 : 2 6 0 ) and evOouoiacruxo^ (Ant 15:240). 7

Ant 4 : 1 1 9 f , 122. Cf. 6:166, 222; 8:408; 10:239, 2 5 0 .

Cf. e.g. Delling, "Prophetie", 118; Schlatter, Theologie Dienstfertig, Prophetologie, 2 5 f. 8

desJudentums,

58—60. Pace

9 Cf. e.g. Ap 2 : 2 8 6 , Ant 4 : 3 2 9 . Cf. Delling, "Prophetie", 110 (the primary concern is not Vorhersagen but Hervorsagen o f the divine message). Y e t Moses, too, fulfills an i m portant predictive function; see Ant 4 : 3 0 3 , 320. 10 Ant 5 : 1 2 0 . N . B . in Judg 1:1 f. Phineas is not the mediator o f the revelation (cf. Delling, "Prophetie", 110). Cf. further Dienstfertig, Prophetologie, 31. O n priesthood and prophecy see below. N o t e , however, Ant 4 : 2 1 8 , where Deut 17:8 is understood to mean that a superior court consisted o f o xe «QXiepeiig x a i o JtQO(pr|xr)c; x a i f) yegovaia. It is difficult to k n o w whether for Josephus this office o f a judiciary " p r o p h e t " still existed in the present (Blenkinsopp, " P r o p h e c y " , 257 appears to think so).

84

Josephus

However, while Josephus's depiction of Biblical prophecy is not purely predictive in character, nevertheless his predominant interest seems to lie in this direction. 11 None can deny the pleasure he takes in lining up a long series of prophets who engaged in the forecasting of future events: among these are Adam, Moses, Joshua, Samuel, Nathan, Elijah, Elisha, Daniel, et ai12. Prophecy does here seem to consist for the most part in prediction. 13 Indeed, Josephus shows a recurring interest in the specific intervals which elapsed between a prophet's prediction and its fulfilment. 1 4 This seems to be motivated primarily by an apologetic desire to stress the antiquity and continuity of the Jewish faith (e.g. Ap 1:1 f£; Ant l:5ff.) as well as God's providence in history (esp. Ant 10:277, 280). 15 Perhaps for similar reasons men like Moses, Isaiah, and Daniel seem to assume the familiar Hellenistic guise of detoi avSpeg: men privileged to converse with God, and endowed with divine qualities. 16 Through them God spoke His Word to His people, and by fulfilling their predictions He manifests His providential sovereignty in history.

2.2. C o n t e m p o r a r y P r o p h e c y Unlike e.g. the Mishnah or 1 Maccabees, Josephus never offers a statement of principle on the question of the end of prophecy. 17 Nevertheless, he speaks of the Holy Spirit 18 — and indeed of "prophets" — only in respect to Biblical events. 19 The boundaries of the "canon" (however vaguely defined) do seem to mark a subtle shift of religious attitude regarding prophecy which, while perhaps most evident in terms of lexical statistics, implicitly pervades Josephus's assessment of contemporary phenomena. 2 0 The latest figure whose prophetic status Josephus asserts with any degree of confidence is John Hyrcanus, high priest in the years 135 —105 B. C., who united in himself "three of the highest privileges: the supreme command of the na-

11

B u t N . B . Ap 1:37: prophetic k n o w l e d g e of the distant past. E . g . Ant 3:60, 4:125, 303, 312, 320; 8:232, 407; 9:27, 74, 183. Cf. f u r t h e r Delling, "Prophetie", l l l f f . 13 Cf. Hill, Prophecy, 27. Russell, Method, 97, compares apocalyptic literature. 14 Ant 9:242; 10:276; 11:5£; 12:322, etc. Cf. Delling, "Prophetie", 114ff. 15 Cf. Attridge, Interpretation, 100 ff. 16 E . g . Ant 3:180; 10:35; 10:250, 267f., 277. Cf. also 8:243; 18:64; 19:289 (Augustus); Ap 1:279 (Moses, as seen by the Egyptians). See Schlatter, Theologie des Judentums, 60. 17 See b e l o w o n Ap 1:41. 18 N o r m a l l y fteiov n v e i ^ a : e.g. Ant 4:108; 6:166, 222; 8:408. 19 Cf. also Best, " P n e u m a " , 221—225; Blenkinsopp, " P r o p h e c y " , 262; and Schlatter, Theologie des Judentums, 58. 20 Cf. Schlatter, Wie sprach Josephus von Gott?, 78; Blenkinsopp, " P r o p h e c y " , 262. 12

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t i o n , t h e h i g h p r i e s t h o o d , a n d t h e g i f t o f p r o p h e c y (jtDO(pr|Teiav)." 2 1 U p o n his d e a t h , U r i m a n d T h u m m i m ( w h i c h J o s e p h u s v i e w s as s a f e g u a r d s a g a i n s t false p r o p h e c y , Ant 3:214) ceased t h e i r l u m i n e s c e n t i n d i c a t i o n o f G o d ' s w i l l . 2 2 A f t e r t h i s , J o s e p h u s n o l o n g e r s p e a k s o f " p r o p h e t s " . E x c e p t i o n s t o this r u l e i n c l u d e p o l e m i c a l r e f e r e n c e s , e . g . t o T h e u d a s ( A n t 20:97), t o t h e E g y p t i a n i m p o s t o r ( A n t 20:169), a n d t o t h e m e n h i r e d b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o lull t h e p e o p l e i n t o d e c e p t i v e h o p e s 2 3 — all o f w h o m in J o s e p h u s ' e s t i m a t i o n a r e p r o p e r l y t o b e u n d e r s t o o d as false p r o p h e t s . 2 4 M u s t w e c o n c l u d e , t h e n , t h a t J o s e p h u s d i s c o u n t s a n y a n d all p r o p h e t i c p h e n o m e n a in his o w n d a y ? A p p a r e n t l y n o t : a l t h o u g h n o c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u l d l e g i t i m a t e l y c l a i m t o b e a p r o p h e t o r t o p o s s e s s t h e H o l y Spirit, J o s e p h u s relates a s u f f i c i e n t n u m b e r o f r e l e v a n t i n c i d e n t s t o a s s u r e u s t h a t in his o p i n i o n at least 21 BJ 1:68 f.; Ant 13:299f. Similarly TLevi 8:14 f. (reference to one of the Maccabean priest-kings?); for the same triad of attributes see further Philo Mos 2:187). Cf. the somewhat earlier High Priest Jaddus, w h o receives a dream revelation (Ant 11:327). 22 See Ant 3:218: cf. Thackeray in Josephus, 4:420 f., n. "b". See also Blenkinsopp, "Prophecy", 240; and Attridge, Interpretation, 99 n. 3. Josephus in this regard is at variance with Rabbinic Tradition: m. Sota 9:12 sees the end of U r i m and T h u m m i m at the death of the first prophets; b.Sota 48b, at the destruction of the Temple (586 B.C.). VitProph 23 cites as terminus the murder of Zechariah benjehoiada at the hands o f j o a s h (cf. Matt 23:35). EpArist 97 appears to assume the undiminished function of U r i m and T h u m m i m ; cf. possibly Protjames 5:1 (see de Strycker, Protevangile, 85; also Lindblom, Gesichte, 16). In the DSS the U r i m and T h u m m i m , if not actually functional, are a theological symbol of ongoing revelation: 4 Q t e s t 14, 17 f. (cf. Deut 33:10 LXX); 4 Q p I s a d 4f. (re the council of twelve?); 11 Q T e m p l e 58:18—21; and poss. the neologism 0UTT1X in 1 Q H 4:6, 23; 18:29 (cf. Licht, Thanksgiving Scroll, 91). T h e subject continued to fascinate Jewish religious thought after the fall of the temple: see esp. b . Y o m a 73a—b; but cf. also the piyyutim: Yose b. Yose speaks of the outcome of a battle being revealed to the high priest, D n i t t t 0StP»3 710 V? n V r {The Penguin Book of Hebrew Verse, 211; cf. N u m 27:21). 23 BJ 6:286. T h e context (i|iei)6oitQocpf|Tr)5, 6:285; the motive of instilling false hope, 6:286; and Josephus's reflections about the nature of deception in adversity) makes it clear that w e are dealing with intentional false prophecy. T h e use of JtQOCprjTrig here m a y be no m o r e than a reflection of the accompanying publicity granted to these men: i.e. "numerous so-called 'prophets' were at this time set up by the tyrants to delude the people. . . . " Pace Aune, " U s e " , 419. 24 N . B . the parallel account BJ 2:261 calls the Egyptian yof|c; and i[)0)ftojiQQ(pr|Tr|5. Fascher ( I I P O < P H T H E , 161) aptly summarizes: "Die Nachrichten des Josephus über Prophetie lassen sich in zwei Gruppen teilen. Er berichtet 1. von Sehern, denen er nicht den Prophetentitel zuerkennt, 2. von politischen Schwärmern, die er als Pseudopropheten hinstellt." Josephus's source Cleodemus/Malchos "the prophet" (Ant 1:240 — quoting Polyhistor) is probably n o exception (pace Aune, "Use", 419—21). Josephus k n o w s this writer only indirectly, and cites him not as a prophet but as a historian; the term JiQoq)T|xr)5 is used by Polyhistor. Short of additional evidence to establish that for Josephus (rather than just for his source) Cleodemus was a "prophet", w e cannot assume the title jroocpr|tr|g to be instrumental to the argument in Ant 1.

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the predictive element of prophecy is hardly extinct. Blenkinsopp's s u m m a r y is quite correct: Henceforth none could claim the title nabi' in the proper sense until God should bring in the Kingdom in his own way and at his own time. Despite this conviction, Josephus believed that God still made use of certain individuals as instruments for revealing the course of the future and guiding the destinies of his people. These could not be called prophets . .., though those who abusively claimed to be such could be called false prophets. 25 W h e n one surveys the passages in question, one particular aspect stands out and calls for attention: viz., the apparent abundance of Essene personalities credited with near prophetic gifts. T h u s w e find e.g. Judas with his disciples, 26 M e n a h e m , 2 7 and Simon, 2 8 all of w h o m are introduced as Essenes, and w h o s e predictions are concerned with developments in the political realm. 2 9 Josephus was generally critical of apocalyptic tendencies, particularly those promising political salvation for Israel (cf. esp BJ 6:285 ff.), since they stood in direct conflict with his o w n endorsement of the R o m a n s . 3 0 But never, as Blenkinsopp keenly observes, "does he describe Essene prophecy as pseudo-prophecy or associate Essenes with the apocalyptic Schwärmerei that he never tires of c o n d e m ning; and this despite the fact that they did take part in the war and were punished by the R o m a n s . " 3 1 Perhaps Josephus's sympathies are due in part to his o w n early Essene training (Vita 11; see below). A n apparently non-Essene example of contemporary political (and ecstatic?) prophetic activity is Jesus son of Ananias, a peasant w h o for over seven years preceding the fall of Jerusalem publicly cried out his m o n o t o n o u s message of impending d o o m for the city. 3 2 D r e a m s are one acknowledged source of prophetic revelation: in sleep "the soul . . . holds converse with G o d . . . and foretells m a n y things that are to c o m e " (BJ 7:349). 33 Similarly, w e have occasional references to the equivalent 25 Blenkinsopp, " P r o p h e c y " , 256 [Part of this paragraph reappears almost v e r b a t i m in Hill, Prophecy, 31, but w i t h o u t any a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t . ] 26 Ant 1 3 : 3 1 1 - 3 1 3 ; BJ 1:78ff. H e predicted A n t i g o n u s ' s death. 27 M a v d r j u o g , Ant 15:373—378, w h o predicted that H e r o d w o u l d be king. 28 BJ2:113; Ant 17:346 f. H e interpreted the (political) meaning of Archelaus's dream. 29 Cf. also Blenkinsopp, " P r o p h e c y " , 242. 30 Apart f r o m his dramatic defection to Vespasian, one of Josephus's clearest expressions of s u p p o r t for the R o m a n s is the statement (BJ 5:367, 412) that G o d has fled the Jewish sanctuary and is n o w o n the side of the R o m a n s . See further the g l o w i n g paean to the R o m a n a r m y in BJ 3:70—109; cf. also Lindner, Geschichtsauffassung, 2 8 f f . , 4 2 f . 31 Blenkinsopp, " P r o p h e c y " , 259. 32 BJ 6:300—309 (Poznanski, " A n s c h a u u n g e n " , 25 compares b . B B 12b). Archelaus has a prophetic dream in BJ 2:112 f. ( = A n t 17:345 — 348), but this is interpreted by Simon the Essene. N o t e also the passing c o m m e n t in Ant 17:43 about Pharisaic predictions. In BJ 2:411 J o s e p h u s appears to render the traditional triad D'N'aJ, D'lrD, D'HP by the Greek terms S u v a i o i , aQ/LEOEic;, O a o i a a i o i (thus Ploger, "Prophetisches E r b e " , 292). 33 Cf. Zeitlin, " D r e a m s " , 10—13; Schlatter, WiesprachJosephus von Gott?, 49. Cf. f u r -

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of a bat qol, a heavenly voice, perhaps most significantly in the departure of the divine p r e s e n c e f r o m t h e t e m p l e (|X£TCißaivo|i£V EVTEÜ^EV) , 3 4 B y a n d large,

however, Josephus remains silent on the revelatory process resulting in the p r o nouncements of contemporary figures, stating only (in the case of the Essenes) their close familiarity with Scripture (see BJ 2:159). His lean descriptions of these prophetic p h e n o m e n a tend to stress the irrational (and even portentous, esp. BJ 6:288 ff.) nature of the predictions. 3 5 T h e only theological weight which Josephus attaches to these predictions seems once again to be in the area of G o d ' s providence, which is being ignored by the misguided Jewish people: Reflecting o n these things one will find that G o d has a care for m e n , and b y all kinds of p r e m o n i t o r y signs (jtavToiwc; JlQoar) |xaivovxa) s h o w s His people the w a y of salvation, while they o w e their destruction to folly and calamities of their o w n c h o o sing. (BJ 6:310)

This view of prophecy is decidedly non-eschatological, 3 6 although it does affirm historical manifestations of divine providence. Michel considers the treatment of those Jerusalem portents to betray Josephus' belief that the fall of the city initiated a whole n e w paradigm of Heilsgeschichte: "Gemeint ist doch wohl, daß eine geschichtstheologische Wende durch den Plan Gottes planmäßig v o r bereitet wird. " 3 7

2.3. Was J o s e p h u s a P r o p h e t ? It is an interesting corollary to his Essene background that Josephus probably regarded his o w n vocation in life in prophetic terms. Neither at Q u m r a n nor in Josephus do w e find the term "prophecy" used to describe present-day relither Ant 1 7 : 3 4 5 - 4 8 (=BJ 2:112f.), 351f.; Vita 2 0 8 - 2 1 2 ; also Philo, Som 1:2. As an aside w e m i g h t m e n t i o n that J o s e p h u s does relate the use of the lot in decisionmaking, b u t like Philo (Her 179; Spec 4:151) he does n o t value it highly or attribute its verdicts to G o d ' s agency (see e.g. BJ 4:153—57 o n the zealots' a p p o i n t m e n t of the H i g h Priest b y lot; n o t e also the Slavonic version (LCL 3, p. 654 f.) w h i c h ascribes to the priests the fear that because of this misdeed p r o p h e c y m i g h t cease). 34 BJ 6:300; cf. Tacitus, Hist. 5:13. 35 Michel, " P r o p h e t e n t u m " , 61: " D a s irrationale E l e m e n t innerhalb dieser Weissag u n g tritt stark heraus. . . . Ein klares Bild v o n der E n t s t e h u n g dieser G o t t e s s p r ü c h e hat J o s e p h u s sicherlich nicht g e h a b t . " 36 C f . A u n e , Prophecy, 143 (though I w o u l d question his contention that J o s e p h u s ' s view of Biblical p r o p h e c y is " n o n m e s s i a n i c " as well; cf. BJ 6:313). N o t e also J o s e p h u s ' s ignorance of apocalyptic literature outside Daniel, and his disparaging appraisal of the popular apocalyptic enthusiasts (on w h i c h see Barnett, "Sign P r o p h e t s " , 679—697) as inexperienced («Ttsiooi), unskilled ( i S i w t a i ) , etc.: BJ 6:291, 295. 37 Michel, "Studien", 2 4 3 f . N . B . see also BJ 5:367, 412; and similar statements.

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gious p h e n o m e n a , b u t in b o t h cases there is a claim to authoritative k n o w l e d g e o f G o d ' s s c h e m e o f Heilsgeschichte, a n d hence o f the o r d e r o f f u l f i l m e n t o f the Biblical prophecies. 3 8 J o s e p h u s s u p p o r t s the c o m m o n J e w i s h v i e w that the p r o p h e t i c gift resides in the religious leadership, 3 9 and he places considerable stress o n his o w n priestly status and pedigree. 4 0 A d d e d to this is the significant n u m b e r of accurate political p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n s b y divine inspiration to w h i c h J o s e p h u s lays claim, 4 1 as well as his special angelic vision (Vita 208 f.). In particular, he b e c o m e s possessed o f the spirit (evdcvug yev6[xevo5, BJ 3:353) and speaks to Vespasian as a m e s senger o f G o d (3:400). B l e n k i n s o p p fairly c o m m e n t s , " H o w e v e r w e evaluate the claim in itself, it makes perfectly g o o d sense in the c o n t e x t of traditional and c o n t e m p o r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f b o t h p r o p h e c y and p r i e s t h o o d . " 4 2 H e subtly c o m p a r e s his role w i t h that o f the Biblical p r o p h e t s Elijah, 4 3 J e r e m i a h , 4 4 Ezekiel, 4 5 and Daniel. 4 6 Indeed a c o m p a r i s o n o f j o s e p h u s ' o w n histor i o g r a p h y w i t h his description o f the w o r k o f the p r o p h e t s suggests implicit b u t definite parallels: the p r o p h e t s w r o t e b y inspiration an account of h i s t o r y past and present ( A p 1:37). T h e y w e r e faithful historiographers w h o recorded events u p to the t i m e o f A r t a x e r x e s (Ap 1:40). N o w it has fallen to J o s e p h u s ' s lot to record the h i s t o r y since Artaxerxes, a l t h o u g h this "has n o t been d e e m e d w o r t h y o f equal credit w i t h the earlier records, because o f the failure o f the e x -

38 Cf. BJ3:351-354. Cf. Volz, Geist, 133f.; Aune, Prophecy, 139; Blenkinsopp, "Prophecy", 247; Johnson, "Josephus", 340. 39 E.g. Ant 13:282, 299; BJ 1:68f. (Hyrcanus); cf. John 11:51 (Caiaphas); and below, Chapter 7. O n priesthood and prophecy in general see e.g. Aune, Prophecy, 138ff.; B a m mel, " A P X I E P E Y Z " , 3 5 1 - 3 5 6 ; Blenkinsopp, "Prophecy", esp. 250 ff. 40 Vita I f . ; BJ 1:3, 3:352£; cf. Volz, Geist, 134; Blenkinsopp, "Prophecy", 242. 41 See BJ 3:351-353; 400ff.; 4:625; 6:312f. 42 "Prophecy", 256. 43 See n. 46; Betz, "Problem", 32f.; idem, Offenbarung, 106f. 44 Cf. nn. 44f.; van Unnik, "Prophetie", 52f. 45 Ant 10:79 f.: both Jeremiah and Ezekiel were priests and prophets w h o predicted Jerusalem's downfall. 46 Elijah, Jeremiah and Daniel were at various stages of their careers all misunderstood and plotted against. Jeremiah and Daniel were rescued f r o m a "cave", so to speak, while God spoke to Elijah at the cave on M t . H o r e b (cf. BJ 3:340 ff: the cave atjotapata). D a niel, like Josephus, was later honoured by the king when his interpretation/prediction proved true. M o r e importantly perhaps, Daniel specifically prophesied (Ant 10:276) that the Romans would capture Jerusalem — a vindication o f j o s e p h u s ' s o w n view of history. See also Bruce, "Josephus", 159; Johnson, "Josephus", 340ff., esp. 346; Aune, Prophecy, 139 ff. O t h e r parallels have been drawn with the patriarch Joseph, the book of Esther, and J o h n Hyrcanus (see Daube, " T y p o l o g y " , 27 ff.; Thackeray in Josephus, 2:674 f., n. "b"; Johnson, "Josephus", 339).

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act succession of the prophets" (Ap 1:41).47 We may note here that this failure of axQifiriq SiaSoxri need not imply the failure of prophecy as such. 48 Josephus's political prophecy has been compared to that of Yohanan ben Zakkai. 49 There are significant differences between the two men's oracles (unlike Yohanan, Josephus appeals to dreams: BJ 3:351 ff.; Vita 208 ff.), but both are said to derive their inspired knowledge from exegesis: A R N 4:67 (12a, on Isa 10:34); BJ 3:352f. Lindner contends that Josephus's experience in BJ 3:351—354 falls outside the Pharisaic tradition, since Scripture is adduced only as a secondary supplement to the charismatic experience. 50 But although the appeal to Scripture is logically and chronologically secondary to the dreams, Josephus apparently could not have properly interpreted the latter without the revealed interpretation of the meaning of the Biblical prophecies (BJ 3:352 f.). 51 Finally, Josephus places perhaps his highest self-appraisal in the mouth of none other than Vespasian himself: '"It is disgraceful,' he said, that one who foretold my elevation to power and was a minister of the voice of God (6idxovov tfjc; TOT} deoij qpojvfjg) should still rank as a captive and endure a prisoner's fate'; and calling for Josephus, he ordered him to be liberated." 52 In other words, Josephus explicitly considers himself to serve as the minister of the bat qdl, i.e. precisely the mode of divine communication which in Rabbinic Judaism is said to have taken the place of the Biblical prophecy. 5 3

3. Revelation of Mysteries Not much need be said on this subject. Josephus rarely uses mystery language, and then almost never of divine secrets. Explicit references to the mystery religions are uncommon (Ant 19:30, 31, 104; Ap 2:266). Josephus is concerned on the one hand to contrast the open simplicity o f j e w i s h temple ritual with the clandestine proceedings of Hellenistic mysteries (Ap 2:107); he in47 Cf. Blenkinsopp, " P r o p h e c y " , 241. Cf. also Dienstfertig, Prophetologie, 27f., w h o contrasts Philo's view of prophecy b u t compares m . A b o t 1:1; b . B B 14b. 48 Cf. van U n n i k , "Prophetie", 48; R. M e y e r , " P r o p h e t e n t u m " , 817. 49 A R N 4:64 (12a); b.Git 56a/b, etc.: see Michel, " P r o p h e t e n t u m " , 63; Aune, Prophecy, 141. 50 Geschichtsauffassung, 54. 51 See further M . Smith, " O c c u l t " , 246. 52 BJ 6:626. T h e historical facticity of Josephus's prediction receives s u p p o r t f r o m Suetonius, Vespasian 5:6 ("Iosephus . . . constantissime asseveravit fore ut ab e o d e m brevi solveretur, v e r u m iam imperatore"); cf. also Tacitus, Hist 1:10; 2:1. Jewish d r e a m interpretation was not u n k n o w n to the R o m a n s : Juvenal, Sat 6:542—547. 53 Cf. Schlatter, Theologie des Judentums, 55; Delling, "Josephus", 304. For bat qol (fteia (pcovf|) in Josephus cf. e.g. Ant 1:185; 3:90 (?); 8:352; 13:282 ( N . B . J o h n Hyrcanus); 19:60 f. See f u r t h e r C h a p t e r 7 below.

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sists that the guiding precepts of Judaism are not kept secret (Ant 16:43; cf. 1:11).54 Yet on the other hand he is not loath to describe the ethical life o f j u daism metaphorically as a kind of perpetual rite of initiation (Ap 2:189). 55 His general attitude acknowledges the eminent respect commanded by the pagan mysteries among his Gentile audience; yet at the same time he attempts to demonstrate that Judaism as the religion of revelation is not dependent on secret ritual but instead practises its truth openly before all. The wisest of the Greeks may have shared some of Moses's views about God, but they restricted their teaching to the few. Moses, however, spoke openly and without secrets (Ap 2:168 f f ) , ensuring that all should be thoroughly familiar with their laws (Ap 2:178; cf. Ant 4:209-211). Van Unnik writes, It is a distinctive m a r k of superiority that the Jewish nation is n o t kept together by such a difference between esoteria and exoteria [sic], but is built on revelation of that true G o d w h o m the philosophers secretly confessed. T h e r e f o r e it is the fulfilment of their ideas. 5 6

Nevertheless, Josephus's attitude of unrestricted accessibility is not entirely unequivocal 57 — even if there are but a few faint echoes of the familiar apocalyptic and Rabbinic concerns with secrets. O f course Josephus subscribes to Jewish commonplaces such as that God knows the secret sins of man (BJ 5:402, 413; Ant 9:3, etc). But he also declares it impermissible for him to speak about (jtegi) the divine name revealed to Moses in Exod 3 (Ant 2:276) or, strangely, to give an explicit quotation of the Decalogue (3:90).58 This is quite in keeping with the common concern not to communicate "mysteries" to the unworthy (i.e. here: to Gentiles); Josephus himself on one occasion appeals to Plato (sic) for the notion that God's truth must not be disclosed to the ignorant mob (Ap 2:224). In a similar vein we learn about a dream telling Theopompus that his 54 T h e "secret l a w " (legem ineffabilem) of the J e w s in Ap 2:94 is part of A p i o n ' s accusation (cf. Juvenal Sat 14:102 "arcano. . . . v o l u m i n e Moyses"). In light of this and the c o n text concerned to stress precisely the absence of secrecy f r o m the Jewish cult, Ap 2:82 ("purissimam pietatem, de qua nihil nobis est apud alios effabile") is probably to be e m e n d e d (with Thackeray in Josephus, 1:326 £ n. " b " , following Reinach) to read inejfabile. 55 Cerfaux, "Influence", 82—86 compares this w i t h EpArist and Alexandrian J u daism; he considers that the J e w s saw themselves as constituting " u n collge sacerdotal, un peuple de mystes et de hirophantes" (p. 87). 56 Van U n n i k , "Josephus", 272; cf. 268 ff. 57 Pace van U n n i k , "Josephus", 277 ("no hidden truth"). N o t e also M . Smith's sharp criticism of van U n n i k : " O c c u l t " , 245. 58 Perhaps because it contains the divine name? B u t cf. possibly y.Ber 1:8, 3c31—33: the Decalogue is n o longer read because of the M i n i m w h o say only this was given to Moses on Sinai (cf. Vermes, "Decalogue", 232—240). Contrast m . T a m 5:1. M . Smith's m e n t i o n ("Occult", 245) of the hidden graves of the kings (Ant 7:394) in this context w o u l d seem to be less apposite.

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mental affliction was due to excessive curiosity about divine matters and to his desire to disclose them to the unworthy (eig xoivoiig avflgcimoug, Ant 12:112; cf. EpArist 314f.). 59 One or two statements about enigmatic Scriptural prophecies are probably also pertinent here: e.g. BJ 3:352 ( t a dficpi|36X.i05 vxd xoi fteiou Aeyoiieva); 6:312 (x0T|O|j.65 djicpipoXo^). Such language is reminiscent of talk about the prophetic mysteries in the DSS or apocalyptic literature; yet it is phrased so as to remain intelligible to those more familiar with the oracles of Delphi. Josephus also reports the Essene vow to preserve (awTT]gECO: and keep secret?) the books of the sect and the names of the angels (BJ2:142). However, his own preoccupation with this matter is doubtful. Other items of interest are haggadic remarks made in passing about a number of Biblical characters. Thus Joseph's rather enigmatic Egyptian name m»D rUDX is, in keeping with traditional Jewish interpretation, rendered "he who finds secrets" (xqujttoiv ei)Q£TT]5, Ant 2:91). 60 Isaiah's Cyrus prophecy is described as a secret communication from God (Ant 11:5 ev ajTOQQiytq) = 1103?). Daniel was one of the greatest prophets (Ant 10:266ff.), admired by God for his wisdom (Ant 10:200); he was devoted to the interpretation of dreams, knew God's supernatural truth, and God became manifest to him (to fteiov aiixtl) cpavegov EyivETO, Ant 10:195; cf. 10:237, 239). And although he refuses to discuss this in his work, Josephus cryptically suggests that the reader may discover eschatological mysteries by studying the book of Daniel. 61 In stark contrast to the apocalyptic tradition, however, Josephus does not develop the Enoch legend beyond the bare Scriptural minimum. Enoch "returned to the Deity" (Ant 1:85) and both he and Elijah became invisible (Ant 9:28, dcpavEig); no one knows of their death. 62 Possibly related is Josephus's igno59

Cf. also, perhaps, the Slavonic addition after BJ 2:110, where J o h n the Baptist tells his detractors, "I will not disclose to you the mystery that is a m o n g y o u . " 60 " Z a p h e n a t h - P a n e a h " is linked w i t h a revelation of secrets to Joseph in GenR 90:4 (R. Yohanan [A2?]); T P s J / T N and Peshitta Gen 41:45 (but N . B . in T O this reading occurs only in Yemenite and Tiberian MSS, see Sperber ad loc.; pace Thackeray in Josephus 4:206f., n. "b"; Franxman, Genesis, 245; and Vermes, "Haggadah", 162 f., w h o appear to follow the Miqra'dt Gedoldt). Cf. quite differently Philo, Mut 91. 61 Ant 10:210: jieqi t w v a5r|X.cov t i ysvrioeTai. Cf. similarly Ant 4:125 about the oracles of Balaam. M . Smith, "Occult", 245 also cites Ant 8:73: the cherubim in Solomon's temple were too w o n d e r f u l to describe or imagine. But this passage m a y pertain to a conceptual difficulty rather than a religious secret. 62 Cf. Ant 4:326 on the death of Moses (a cloud descends on h i m and he disappears [cupavi^ETdi]), presumably in conscious comparison (sympathetic or sardonic?) w i t h Enoch: "But he has written of himself in the sacred books that he died, for fear lest they should venture to say that by reason of his surpassing virtue he had gone back to the Deity." An agnostic or mildly skeptical attitude t o w a r d Enoch is shared in T P s J / F T / T N Gen

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ranee or omission of apocalyptic evil mysteries, and for that matter of Satan. 63 He does, however, believe in the ability of ghosts to disclose human secrets (BJ 1:599). Finally we also find the popular, metaphorical use of |_iDaxf|Qiov as an activity or process which is awesome and shrouded in secrecy, e.g. the habitual secret wickedness of Antipater (xaxiag |iiJ0Tf|0l0V, BJ 1:470)64 or the eerie silence of the Essenes (BJ 2:133). Over all, then, Josephus's stated (though perhaps not his private) interest in the revelation of divine mysteries is minimal by comparison with that found in much contemporary Palestinian literature. His view of prophecy, however, despite a superficial reluctance and ambivalence, shows a considerable openness to accept various contemporary phenomena as genuine. Most prominent among these is his own prophecy to Vespasian which, while sparked by Godgiven dreams, is complemented by a revealed interpretation of the prophetic Scriptures.

5:24. M o r e negative is G e n R 25:1, in contention w i t h the Minim: G o d t o o k E n o c h away because he was fickle and was b e c o m i n g wicked (cf. already Wisd 4:10f.). H i m m e l f a r b ("Report", 2 5 9 f f . , 266) concludes that there are no positive statements on E n o c h in the T a l m u d i c period; b u t note e.g. 3 E n 4:2f. and passim; D E Z 1 (end); P R E 7:40. Cf. also Asatir 2:32 f.: E n o c h died. 63 Cf. Schlatter, Wie sprach Josephus von Gott?, 41. Perhaps the absence of the story of J o b is due to its m e n t i o n of Satan (but see Ant 2:178). 64 Harvey, " M y s t e r y Language", 324: "a systematic discipline of evil". Antipater's life was a continual o r g y of hidden wickedness. B u t that the analogy is specifically of the rigours of initiation, rather than of the ritual celebration in general, is perhaps not as selfevident as H a r v e y assumes.

C h a p t e r Six

T h e Ancient Versions 1. Introduction Vernacular renditions of the Bible accompanied the public reading of Scripture in the synagogues of both Palestine and the Diaspora. 1 A Greek version at least of the Pentateuch existed in Alexandria by the early third century B. C. 2 We also know of the existence of written Targums in the first century A. D.; a Pentateuchal Targumic tradition may be assumed to be earlier. 3 Jonathan b. Uzziel, a disciple of Hillel, is said to have produced a Targum to the prophets (b.Meg 3a). Because of their widespread use in synagogues the Targums, as a kind of first-hand reception of Scripture, can serve as useful indicators of the type o f j e w i s h "theology" which would perhaps have been familiar on a wider basis. 4

2. The Targums 5 For our purposes the best approach to the ancient versions is through an examination of theologically significant translation patterns. The following remarks, then, will address (i) the Targumic use of ^ i n K , especially with divine subject or object; (ii) the application of such revelation terminology to the subject of divine mysteries; (iii) the significance of divine titles; and (iv) Targumic notions of Torah and prophecy. 1

Cf. B o w k e r , Targums, 12 f. See esp. EpArist; Sir P r o l o g u e (late 2nd cent. B . C . ) k n o w s a translation of T o r a h , Prophets, and "the other b o o k s " . Cf. G o o d m a n in Schiirer/Vermes, HJPAJC 3.1:476 f. 3 See esp. 11 Q t g j o b ; cf. b . S h a b 115a; m . M e g 2:1; m . Y a d 4:5. T h e T a r g u m , apparently unlike the Greek version, carried n o authority o f i t s o w n ( m . M e g 1:8, 2:1; m . Y a d 4:5). 4 B u t for the current disarray of scholarly discussion about dating the T a r g u m s (difficile est saturam non scribere!) see e.g. K a u f m a n , " M e t h o d o l o g y " , 118. 5 T h e following remarks are aided particularly by the i n f o r m e d and circumspect w o r k of A. Chester, Divine Revelation and Divine Titles in the Pentateuchal Targumim. 2

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2.1. Divine Revelation as Expressed by the Verb '^iriN A. Chester gives the surprising count of 104 uses o f ' ^ D S with divine referent in the Pentateuchal Targums. This indicates a distinctively Targumic development in the use o f the verb. 6 T w o different but compatible motives for this interesting shift can be recognized. 2.1.1. Anti-Anthropomorphism. On the negative side, we find the wellknown avoidance o f anthropomorphic descriptions o f God's activities, in order to safeguard God's transcendence and otherness. Thus '^IDS frequently replaces nifal HS1 and (less consistently) verbs o f motion with divine subject in the Targums to the Pentateuch 7 and Prophets. 8 2.1.2. Theological Purpose. But a corresponding positive use of '^SflX is borne out e.g. by the treatment of the Sinai theophany. 9 Unlike some other Jewish documents, the Targums virtually pass over in silence the mediating role o f Moses in the giving o f the Law; 10 their prime concern here is to emphasize God's sovereign work in revelation. 11 The function of 'V^nx is to indicate a theologically consistent, orthodox, and yet relevant manner o f speaking about the crucial theme o f divine theophanies in Scripture. 12 As a standardized exegetical device, it paradigmatically describes and liturgically "actualizes" times and places by which and in which God has made Himself manifest to His people in the course o f salvation history. 13

2.2. Revelation o f "Mysteries" The root HVJ/S^J is also used in theologically significant contexts with subjects or objects other than the deity. Thus we find references to the eschatolog-

6 Chester, Revelation, 238—240 and passim; cf. also the usage o f the Peshitta (p. 239; in this regard Brock, Review, 550 f. suggests Targumic influence on the earliest stratum o f the Peshitta text). At Qumran and in the book o f Daniel, too, the use o f nVl/R 1 ?! is almost entirely theological, although n1713/,17jnK with divine subject is not found. 7 Chester, Revelation, 95-99, 151-155. 8 Nifal rnn: e.g. TJ Isa 30:30, 60:2, 63:15; Zech 9:14. Verbs o f motion: e.g. TJ Isa 26:21, 30:27, 31:4, 40:10; Hab 3:3; Zech 2:14, 1 4 : 3 - 5 ; Mai 4:24. Cf. also Potin, Fête, 1:67. 9 Cf. Potin, Fête, 233 on the frequency o f ^ i n x . 10 Potin, Fête, 233 cites as an exception only TgPsa 68:8 (sic: read 68:19?) — Moses the prophet ascends the mountain to obtain the Law. 11 Potin, Fête, 234. 12 Cf. Chester, Revelation, 261 f. 13 Cf. Chester, Revelation, 262—264. T N g l Exod 3:14: "and I am the one who will be your help in every generation" n i l TT "733 [l]1373;on 'lin 1 ? T i m Sin H3K1.

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95

ical "revelation" e.g. of the Messiah 14 or the Kingdom of God. 1 5 O f particular significance is the interest in a "revelation of secrets"; while this is by no means ubiquitous in the Targums, 1 6 two Pentateuchal instances in particular deserve mention. T N / T P s J Gen 49:1 sees the sons of Jacob gathered around their father's deathbed "after the end had been revealed to him" [KS'p 17,17 ''¡UiltO 10], expecting him to tell them (as promised) about the redemption in the Messianic age: "the concealed secrets [K"8'X1D S " n ] , the hidden ends a ,, S , i?] > the giving of the rewards of the just and the punishment of the wicked and what the happiness of Eden is." However, according to Talmudic tradition God then prevented Jacob from doing so. 18 This tradition must be what lies behind the enigmatic words, "When the time (DX'p) was revealed to him, the mystery (ST"1) was hidden from him. . . . (But) when the mystery was revealed to him, it was hidden from him and when the door was open to him, it was closed from him." This differentiation between f p (a technical term for an age or epoch, esp. the appointed time of redemption) 1 9 and T"l (apparently the actual events and circumstances ordained for that future time) can be compared with our findings 14

E . g . T P s J / F T Gen 35:21; TPsJ E x o d 12:42; TJ Isa 28:16; Jer 30:21; M i e 4:8; Z e c h 3:8, 4:7, 6:12; T N E x o d 12:42. See also C h a p t e r 1 above; cf. M c N a m a r a , New Testament, 246-252. 15 See TJ Isa 24:23, 31:4f., 40:9, 52:7; Ezek 7:7, 10; O b a d 21; M i e 4:7; Zech 4:7; 14:9. Cf. above, C h a p t e r 1. O n the k i n g d o m of G o d in TJ Isa ( " G o d ' s strong action on behalf of his people") see Chilton, Glory, 81. Koch writes that in the T a r g u m s the eschatological rule O'JB) of Y a h w e h is replaced by the revelation of the K i n g d o m (fl'D'jB) as the decisive t u r n i n g point of the eons, previously n o t visible on earth ( " O f f e n b a r e n " , 161 f.). [ H o w e v e r , his distinction (163 f.) between a "revealing" of G o d ' s k i n g d o m and a "com i n g " of the Messiah's k i n g d o m is m a d e less likely by TJ M i e 4:7 f. (synthetic parallelism).] 16 T O uses TT only in Gen 49:6. Chester, Revelation, 213—216 considers that (with the exception of passages like Gen 49:1; E x o d 12:42) it is only TPsJ of the Pentateuchal T a r g u m i m w h i c h widely develops apocalyptic themes of revelation — a fact w h i c h may well reflect Rabbinic reservations about the public discussion of esoterica. T g Eccl is pessimistic about the possibility o f k n o w i n g mysteries. See e.g. TgEccl 1:8 ("a m a n cannot say w h a t will be after him, n o r can the eye see all that is to be in the world"); 3:11; 7:24 ( " w h o can find out by his w i s d o m . . . the secret of the day w h e n the King Messiah will come?"). For the T a r g u m i c notion of m a n ' s inability to k n o w G o d intimately see e.g. Smolar/Aberbach, Studies, 137. 17 Sic\ i.e. n'1?, as in the next t w o lines. 18 See Aberbach/Grossfeld, Genesis 49, 1; cf. Chapter 7 below. 19 Cf. Le Déaut, Nuit, 274: " t e m p s fixé p o u r la redemption"; "le début de l'ère m e s sianique". In the O T f p is m o r e frequently applied to eschatological j u d g m e n t ; but see e.g. H a b 2:3; D a n 12:9, 13; and cf. D'HTI n n n » e.g. in Isa 2:2/Mic 4:1; Jer 23:20; H o s 3:5; D a n 10:14. For T N / T P s J Gen 49:1 (and the N T ) see Pérez Fernández, Tradiciones, 1 0 2 - 1 0 9 . Cf. futher Delling, "xéÀog", 53f.; and p. 47 n. 32 above.

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on 1 Q p H a b 7: the prophets were told about the end times Op-inxn rp>n20), but not about their c o n s u m m a t i o n ( f p i l "IQl). O n l y the Teacher of Righteousness has been privy to divine revelation regarding the "mysteries" of the prophetic oracles (D'K3Jn TH3V m "713, 1 Q p H a b 7:4 f.). In each case }>P defines the Heilszeit in which the T"1 (i.e. the Heilsplan, as it were) is to be actualized. 2 1 Jacob is given the privilege of k n o w i n g the appointed age of Messianic redemption (i.e. "the giving of the rewards, etc."), but h o w this will c o m e about (the actual "mystery", G o d ' s plan) is hidden f r o m him. 2 2 This perspective again recalls the attitude to divine mysteries in Rabbinic literature. 2 3 T h e other m a j o r reference is Balaam's prophetic oracle 24 in T N / F T / T P s J N u m 24:3 f. T h e passage extols his privileged status: "What has been hidden f r o m all the prophets has been revealed to him. . . . A n d the mysteries of p r o phecy were revealed to h i m ¡1*7 l ^ A Q 11X133 ' T i l . " B o t h here and in the virtually identical parallel 24:15 f. this mention of a revelation of prophetic mysteries is closely followed by descriptions of the future age (24:5 f.?) and the Messiah (24:7, 17 25 ). 26 Balaam was a privileged recipient of divine mysteries because G o d granted him a close k n o w l e d g e of the Messianic salvation in store for Israel. 2 7 N o t unlike the Biblical Daniel or Q u m r a n ' s Teacher of Righteousness, Balaam here receives revelation which was concealed f r o m the prophets of Scripture.

20

1 Q p H a b 7:7, 12; cf. V n n x n i n n , 7:1. Cf. e.g. 1 Q S 3:23; C D 2:9f. O n the connection between T N Gen 49:1, Q u m r a n , and Daniel cf. Le Deaut, Nuit, 274 f. 22 Cf. also TPsJ Gen 49:1, " A n d after the Glory of the Shekhinah had been revealed to h i m , the designated time the king Messiah w o u l d c o m e was concealed f r o m 21

him r r : a •'Dans TPs'? xrrtra sd1?» r n s n s x y . "

23 See C h a p t e r 7 below. Cf. Chester, Revelation, 188 f.; a n d 2 1 5 f . (revelation of m y s teries is largely repressed in the Pentateuchal T a r g u m i m ) . B u t cf. also TJ M i c 4:12: the enemies of Israel have n o k n o w l e d g e of the mysteries of the Lord. 24 M T OS: is rendered n p j n i p l a j ^ n o a in T N / F T / T P s J . 25 T h e L X X also renders b o t h these verses messianically. Cf. C D 7:19f., 1 Q M 11:6, 4 Q t e s t 9—13; TJud 24:1. 26 N . B . in light of the Messianic context and of the use of I"l elsewhere, the intervening statement about Balaam's prediction of his o w n death (v. 4, 16) is unlikely to be the intended point of reference. 27 This positive evaluation of Balaam is not universally shared in Judaism. Indeed even in the Pentateuch his image in "J/E" m a y differ f r o m that in "P": e.g. N u m 31:16. Later writings sometimes designate h i m as "Balaam the w i c k e d " (e.g. m . A b o t 5:19, b.Sanh 106a), t h o u g h he can also be seen as a p r o p h e t to the Gentiles (e.g. b . B B 15b), and perhaps in his o w n right even greater than Moses (SifDeut 357 [on 34:10]; ed. Finkelstein, p.410). T h e N T casts a negative light on him: 2 P e t 2:15; J u d e 11; Rev 2:14; cf. Philo Mut 202f. See further Grintz, "Balaam", 123f.; Vermes, Scripture, 127ff. This image of Balaam in the T a r g u m s suggests that his reception of heavenly secrets was a w i dely popular and influential tradition; cf. Chester, Revelation, 202.

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Other pertinent "divine mystery" passages could no doubt be cited; 28 a comprehensive treatment is unfortunately beyond the scope of this inquiry.

2.3. T h e Revelatory Significance of Divine Titles This subject cannot be properly addressed here; it must suffice to indicate the relevance of the subject and to point out significant recent discussions. 2.3.1. Memra. This uniquely Targumic 2 9 term occurs over a thousand times as a replacement of (or in conjunction with) God or Yahweh. 3 0 Suggestions about its meaning have ranged from a theologically meaningless verbal buffer 31 to the creative, salvific and revealing Word of God in hypostatized form. 3 2 The two most recent studies have been offered by Hay ward and Chester; the former substantially links it with the divine name, 3 3 while the latter sees it as a limited and inconsistently used exegetical device expressing in a general sense "the effective utterance and word of Y. " 3 4 2.3.2. Shekhinah/Glory. Glory, Shekhinah, and "Glory of the Shekhinah" similarly serve to safeguard the transcendence of God; 35 unlike Memra, they are common also in the Rabbinic writings. 36 Chester observes that both Memra and Shekinah are "used in an apparently colourless or stereotyped manner in a great many instances. " 3 7 Nevertheless, both are characterizations of God enabl28

E . g . TPsJ E x o d 28:30a ( U r i m disclose the secrets [ITBB] of the house of Israel), b (secrets revealed by calling on the n a m e of the Lord); T O / T N / T P s J / F T D e u t 33:19; TJ Ezek 13:9 (false prophets are not 'as 1 ? t ' j n m o n a , and are not written in the b o o k of eternal life). Cf. also TJ Ezek 28:3[£] (Daniel). 29 Chilton, Glory, 66; M c N a m a r a , Targum, 108—110; N . B . H a y w a r d (Name, e.g. 136 f.) nevertheless believes in an early origin of this notion. Cf. 1 Q a p G e n 22:30f.; J u b 12:4; 36:7; 1 E n 14:24; 4 E z r a 6:38; Psa 107:20. In the L X X cf. Wisd 16:10, 12; 18:15; possibly D e u t 8:3 (see B r o c k i n g t o n , "Septuagint", 80—86); H a b 3:5 (Thackeray, Septuagint, 53 f.: the Logos shod in Perseus's w i n g e d sandals!). Cf. already I S a m 3:21; Isa 45:23, 55:11; Jer 23:29. (Cf. Aber, " M e m r a " , 2 n. 22: comparable oblique references to G o d ("name", "glory") are c o m m o n in the O T . ) 30 H a y w a r d , " M e m r a of Y H W H " , 412 cites 338 occurrences in T N and 628 in T N g l alone. Cf. Sabourin, " M E M R A " , 79. 31 M o o r e , "Intermediaries", 53 f. 32 M u ñ o z León, Dios-Palabra, 139. Cf. H a y w a r d , Review, 94—96; Chester, Revelation, 299 ff. 33 H a y w a r d , Name, e.g. 147 (cf. T N E x o d 3:12; 4:12). 34 Chester, Revelation, 3 0 8 - 3 1 3 . 35 E . g . T O / T P s J / T N / F T E x o d 24:10; T O E x o d 33:20; T N / T P s J / F T D e u t 33:16. 36 Except for the phrase "Glory of the Shekhinah", w h i c h is rare outside the T a r g u m s ; cf. Goldberg, " V e r w e n d u n g " , 61. For detailed discussion see e.g. G o l d b e r g , Untersuchungen\ idem, " V e r w e n d u n g " ; Chester, Revelation-, also M u ñ o z León, Gloria de la Shekina en los Targumim del Pentateuco, M a d r i d 1977, w h i c h I have not seen. 37 Chester, Revelation, 322.

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ing the believing community reverently to affirm its faith in God's verbal and visible involvement with the world throughout the unfolding of history. 38

2.4. T o r a h , Spirit, P r o p h e c y Finally, the Targumic understanding of Torah and Prophecy shows itself to be consistent with widespread Jewish belief. 2.4.1. The Torah. The Targums continue the traditional exalted view of the Torah as the word of God; 39 the traditions about the Sinaitic revelation are richly developed. 40 Here it may be useful to single out two familiar images: Torah as light and as a spring of water. We begin with the latter. TJ Zech 13:1 reads, "At that time the teaching of the Law will be revealed ICI'TIX ID^IX) like a spring of water to the house of David. . . . " A similar metaphor was earlier encountered in Sir 24:30 f. and 1 Q H 8, where it denoted the inspired exegesis of the Torah. 4 1 Allusions to this motif recur on several other occasions in the Targums, e.g. when in TJ Isa 12:3 "you will joyously draw water from the springs of salvation" becomes "you will joyously receive new teaching (TDVIN) from the righteous elect. " 42 The idea has been sufficiently discussed above; its meaning here is that (at least in the eschaton) new revelation will be received from the Torah. The familiar metaphor of the Torah as a light (cf. above Ch. 1 n. 29) is exploited in numerous Biblical references. 43 Anticipated in the O T itself (Psa 119:105; Prov 6:23), this symbolic emphasis on the Torah as revelation is further encouraged by the suggestive similarity of the Aramaic words involved ( s n m s and x m i s ) . 4 4 38

Cf. Chester, Revelation, 3 2 2 - 3 2 4 . So literally TJ 2 Sam 22:31b, w h e r e HSIS mrp m a x becomes T l x r ' 1 1 8 NTI t O T D (cf. Smolar/Aberbach, Studies, 161 and n. 215). God Himself has taught T o rah to the tribes of Israel (TJ H o s 5:9b S f l ' I l X r P J n m •jsniP'T X ' t n t m ) , and H e spends three hours each day studying T o r a h ( T N / T P s J D e u t 32:4; cf. e.g. b. A Z 3b). T h e T o r a h is written b y God's right hand ( T O Deut 33:2; cf. 9:10 — note the absence o f a n t i - a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c circumscriptions). 40 Cf. Potin, Fête, passim. 41 G o r d o n , "Study", 373 points out that C D 6:3 f. specifically equates the "well" of N u m 21:18 w i t h the T o r a h . N o t e also O d S o l 30. Teaching flaVlK) pertains to the Torah: e.g. TJ Isa 2:3, 12:3; Mic 4:2, etc. 42 Smolar/Aberbach, Studies, 160 n. 206: S p I S T T Q are "the greatest scholars". For the motif of revealed n e w teaching cf. also e.g. TJ Isa 1:27—30; 12:3 (cf. M T ) ; 30:14f.; 58:11 f. 43 E.g. TJ Isa 2:5; cf. TJ Isa 42:7; T g j o b 29:13; TgPsa 89:16; etc. In the L X X cf. 2 K g s 12:3, 17:28 ((partira)); cf. Gaster, " Q u m r a n Reading", 218. 44 Cf. Vermes, " T o r a h " , 437. In TJ Isa KiTHIX also frequently renders " k n o w l e d g e " , run. 39

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2.4.2. Prophecy and the Holy Spirit. In Targum Jonathan the use of the root X33 fulfills a harmonizing function similar to that of'"riflX. Thus e.g. God's "calling" (Sip) becomes the prophets' "prophesying" (""SinX).45 Other examples include the substitution of ¡1X133 for TlTn (and cognates);46 or of "word of prophecy from before Y " ('V Dip 71X133 DJilD) for m : T " 1 3 T 4 7 The root X33 appears to be restricted in its application to prophecies of the Biblical past and the eschatological future. The Holy Spirit in the Targums is often 48 seen as the source of prophecy, very commonly by reference to the "Spirit of prophecy" (¡1X133 f i n , a phrase not used in the OT). 4 9 The Spirit functions as a divinely given medium by which the prophet can receive revelations;50 as such it is not cited in the context of "direct" Biblical revelations, e.g. at Sinai or the burning bush. 51 Though on the whole the Spirit occurs frequently, in some cases a Biblical instance is in fact removed in favour of God's Memra (TJ Zech 4:6, 8:12) or His prophets. 52 As we have begun to see, there was no universal Jewish consensus about the termination of the Spirit's activity in prophetic revelation. However, in the Targums the departure of the Shekhinah, and the corresponding end of the prophetic age, seem to be presupposed;53 this is at the same time specifically accompanied by a belief in the restoration of prophecy in the eschaton. 54 At the same time Chilton shrewdly discerns in TJ an "implicit claim to speak with almost prophetic authority": 55 often the meturgeman will add the phrase

45 E.g. TJ Isa 22:12, 40:12, 41:27; Jer 7:13, 35:17; Zech 1:14, 7:13. Also cf. Gordon, "Study", 332. 4 6 E.g. TJ Isa 1:1; 2:1; 13:1; 22:1, 5; 21:2; 29:11; Hab 1:1; 2:2f. 47 E.g. TJ Isa 38:4; 51:16; 59:21; Hag 1:1, 3; 2:1, 10, 20; Zech 1:1, 7. 4 8 Though not always; see Schäfer, "Termini", 313; Chilton, Glory, 50. 4 9 Cf. Schäfer, Vorstellung, 23(ff.); Gordon, "Study", 299f. See also e.g. Rev 19:10; Justin Dial 43, 91. 50 Chilton, Glory, 51; cf. Schäfer, Vorstellung, 62. 51 Chilton, Glory, 51; Schäfer, Vorstellung, 66. 52 Hag 2:5 "My Spirit is standing in your midst" becomes "My prophets are teaching (I'S'ja) among you": cf. n. 41 above on 1S"71X. (Cf. also Seeligmann, Septuagint, 109 on L X X Amos 3:7.) Other unexpected references to prophets and prophecy include T O Gen 49:24 0oseph's dreams); TJ Judg 2:1, 4; 5:23; Hag 1:13 (cf. Smolar/Aberbach, Studies, 224f.); also TJ Isa 8:2 (Uriah the Priest). Conversely, "prophets" can also become "scribes": cf. e.g. TJ 1 Sam 1 0 : 5 - 1 2 ; J e r 6:13; 8:10; 14:18; 18:18; 23:11, 33, 34; 26:7, 8, 11, 16; 29:1; and see Hayward, "Scribes", 210—221. 53 E.g. T O / T P s J Deut 31:17f.; T O 32:20; TJ Isa 8:17; 35:5 45:15; 54:8; 57:17; 59:2; Jer 33:5; Ezek 39:23 f.; TgLam 2:9. However, this need not be the last word. Cf. Tg Ruth 1:1 (in allusion to Amos 8:11): in the days of Ruth, too, there was a famine "ofhearing the word of prophecy from before the Lord"; similarly TJ 1 Sam 3:1 X' 1 ?! HX133 n,17; and see below. 5 4 E.g. TJIsa5:4f., 29:10, 35:5; Ezek 39:29; TgPsa 45:3. Cf. also Chilton, Glory, 54. 55 Chilton, Glory, 53.

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" t h e prophet said" (N'ni "ION) before introducing significant midrashic material reflecting his o w n theological concerns. 5 6 T h u s the T a r g u m i s t speaks to his o w n situation in the n a m e o f the Biblical prophet — rendering n o doubt what he believed the prophet would have said to express his message for the c o n t e m porary synagogue congregation. In this w a y the speaker's words participate in the revelatory status o f the words o f prophecy.

3. The Greek Versions T h e date and provenance o f the Septuagint are nearly as problematical as in the case o f the T a r g u m s . 5 7 B u t the Septuagint is a very different document f r o m the Aramaic paraphrases; as a m u c h m o r e literal translation on the whole, its theological stance on specific issues is often difficult to determine. N e v e r t h e less, the official use o f the L X X reflects a high view o f the authority o f T o r a h : its function was to approximate as far as possible the very T o r a h itself, 5 8 so that it represents as it were the Alexandrian Authorized V e r s i o n 5 9 — a status s e e m ingly recognized even in Palestine. 6 0

3.1. L X X Translation Patterns M a n y o f the Septuagint's relevant theological translations are well k n o w n 6 1 (though there would certainly appear to be r o o m for further research in this area). U r i m and T h u m m i m are rendered b y the phrase 6f|X(i)ai5 xod dXr|dEia, which clearly indicates their revelatory significance for the translators. 6 2 T h e

TJ Isa 5:1, 3; 21:12; 22:14; 24:16, and passim. Cf. recently Lust, "Messianism", 180. 58 Cf. EpArist 302, 307, 310 f. Philo Mos 2:34, 3 7 - 4 1 considers the Septuagint to have been given as revelation: its translators were inspired, under divine dictation Mos 2:37; they were "prophets and priests o f the mysteries, whose sincerity and singleness of thought has enabled them to go hand in hand with the purest o f spirits, the spirit o f Moses" (40). And "to this day" the Alexandrians celebrate an annual festival on the isle of Pharos, commemorating "the place in which the light of that version first shone out (eS;eXanopE)" (41). 59 Cf. Schurer/Vermes HJPAJC, 3:474 f. 60 See m.Meg 1:8 and cf. Schurer/Vermes, HJPAJC 3:496 f.; but cf. also L X X Esth 10:3/, giving Palestinian sanction (see Swete, Introduction, 25). 61 Thus e.g. ni;r = KUQiog, Hir/mS3S = jtav-toxQdttog. The rPHX o f Exodus 3:14 becomes o a>v (a favourite title for God in Philo). m i = Jivei^d, TO 3 = So^a: both Greek terms experienced a significant change o f meaning over against secular usage (cf. Forster, "Ao^a", 312; Kittel, "8o|a", 245 f.). 62 N . B . 5r]X.6co translates VV (qal, nifal [esp. Exod 6:3], hifil/afel), n T (hifil), HiCI 56 57

The Greek Versions

101

occasional use of the suggestive term Xoyiov63 for the words of God goes some way toward explaining the Jewish Hellenistic idea of Scripture as containing divine "oracles". 64 Anti-anthropomorphic concerns are also present. 65

3.2.

T h e U s e o f ajtoxaA/ujTTa)66

This word is the main Septuagintal equivalent to n1?!,67 and like the latter it carries primarily secular connotations. But even where it is found with divine subject or object, a.KOxakvxxu> may still frequently convey a non-technical meaning, e.g. of uncovering something previously obscured from perception. 69 Where it does carry specifically theological weight, this is most often in keeping with the underlying n*7A (and hence does not disclose any particular Tendenz).70 It is particularly Theodotion's version of Daniel which (unlike LXX) makes frequent use of djloxaXtmico in the sense of an "apocalyptic" (visionary) disclosure of transcendent realities;71 this meaning of the word is also common in the New Testament. The rare noun djioxaX/uiIng72 is not used with theological connations in the LXX.

(nifal), V m (hifil), nin (afel), ÌÒ1. N o t e also i|> 118:130 Siftoooig tojv Xóyojv aov for " I ' l m n n s . Cf. further p. 85 n. 22 above. 63 N o t e esp. N u m 24:4, 16; D e u t 33:9; 1|) 118 passim; cf. Wisd 16:11. 64 E . g . EpArist 177; Philo Fuga 60; Cont 25; Congr 134; Josephus 6 / 6 : 3 1 1 - 3 1 3 . Cf. Acts 7:38, R o m 3:1 f., etc. 65 E . g . E x o d 4:16; 24:10; D e u t 14:23, etc. Cf. Fritsch, AntiAnthropomorphisms, 62—65 and passim; idem, " S t u d y " , 53—55 (on the treatment of the "seeing G o d " motif, e.g. E x o d 3:6; 24:10f.; N u m 12:8; 1 Sam 28:13; Isa 38:11). 66 For the history of usage cf. O e p k e ("xaX/UJUCtì", esp. 567 ff.); Smith, " H i s t o r y " , 9—20. N . B . cpavEQÓco occurs only in Jer 33(40):6, w h e r e it appears to render n"71; h o w ever, the text here differs widely f r o m M T . Also C o d e x Coislinianus op 50:8 (ed. Field, Hexapla 2:174). 67 Cf. the frequency list in Zobel "n 1 ?!", 1020. 68 Sexual uncovering: e.g. E x o d 22:26; Lev 18:6ff.; 20:11 ff.; Ezek 16:36, 57; 23:29. W i t h xò cimov, m e a n i n g to " i n f o r m , announce": 1 Sam 9:15; 20:2, 13; 22:8, 17; 2 Sam 7:27; R u t h 4:4. Similarly w i t h toi)g òcpftaXnovg: e.g. N u m 22:31; 24:4, 16; i|> 118:18. Cf. G e h m a n , " A d v e n t u r e s " , 126. T h e usage in Philo and Josephus is similar. 69 It is of course difficult t o d r a w firm distinctions in this respect, b u t see e.g. 1 Sam 2:27; Isa 52:10; 53:1; Sir 1:6. 70 Cf. e.g. N u m 24:4, 16; 1 Sam 3:7, 21; Isa 56:1; i|> 118:18. O f course, once a m o r e theological usage of n ^ / a j t o x a W m T O ) had been adopted (cf. already Sir), such passages w o u l d invite special attention. 71 See D a n ft' 2:19, 22, 2 8 f . , 30, 47; 10:1 (all JÒl/n 1 ?!). N o t e also e.g. Isa 40:5 a ' a ' f t ' ; H a b 3:3 a ' ft'. Cf. O e p k e , "xaA/uirtaj", 579; Liihrmann, Offenbarungsverstdndnis, 75. 72 O n l y 1 Sam 20:30 and Sir 11:27; 22:22; 42:1.

102

The Ancient

Versions

3.3. " M y s t e r y " in the Greek Versions The LXX is reluctant to join the Targums in venturing forth into the realm of divine mysteries. This is perhaps clearest in its use of the word [xuorriQiov: w i t h the exception of Daniel 7 3 (where L X X multum ab Hebraica veritate discor-

dant74), the term occurs only in apocryphal works. 7 5 In the earlier books the theme of a revelation of mysteries is only rarely exploited beyond the Hebrew Vorlage; passages where the Targums tend to exercise the Palestinian penchant for haggadah (Gen 49; N u m 24; Deut 32f., etc.) are here left without elaboration. 76 Other versions make a little more frequent use of nucrtriQiov, though it is still quite rare. In addition to previously cited references, Theodotion uses it to translate H in Dan 4:6. 110 is rendered (xucrrriQiov in Job 15:8 (d', a'); Psa 24(25):14(d', Quinta)-, Prov 11:13 (a'); Prov 20:19 (ft'). Another interesting case is Isa 24:16, where in certain versions 77 (as in some Jewish interpretations) the puzzling phrase ' ^ " ' H '^"'TT ("Woe is me, woe is me") is rendered TO [XU0TTIQIOV (XOD e[xoi, XT k. Relevant uses of other terms such as OOT;6QQT]TOV (Amos 3:7 a', 110), iutoxgucpov (Isa 45:3 LXX, 11800) are also rare. One reason for the reluctant use of mystery language esp. in the LXX could be that at the time of its completion such terminology was still felt to be too obviously tainted with unacceptable pagan overtones. The Septuagint betrays its abhorrence of contemporary mystery religions by bringing to bear upon them the Biblical prohibitions of Canaanite practices. 78 Positive stress is placed instead on the revelatory sufficiency of the Torah. 7 9 73

D a n 2:18, 19, 27, 28, 29, 39, 47 (2x). J e r o m e on D a n 4:6 (Migne 5:514). 75 T o b 12:7, 11; J d t 2:2; Wisd 2:22; 6:22; 14:15; 14:23; Sir 3:18; 22:22; 27:16, 17, 21; 2 M a c c 13:21. T h e same incidentally applies to the other w o r d s of the (iuax-root: (iU 24:6; 40:13; 89:2; 92:2; 102:17; 105:48; 118:52; Isa 46:9; 64:4; Jer 2:20; 25:5; 35(28):8; Ezek 32:27; Mic 5:2; Sir 14:17; 39:20; 44:2; 51:8; 3Macc 5:11; Tob 4:12; 6:17; also Dan 2:20 ft'; Luke 1:70; Acts 3:21; 15:18. Cf. the Hebrew D^IV», Q^liH 1», etc. Cf. however the notion of a plurality of Q,a171»/ma'715;: God rules many worlds (MidrPsa 18:15; CantR 1:9); cf. b.Sanh 100a; LevR 4:7. See further Str-B 3:672; also 1 QapGen 2:7, 21:2, etc. The plural a1»1?!» is common in the O T and e.g. at Qumran. 27 Moule, Idiom-Book, 73 on John 9:32 EX TOU altbvog: "from time immemorial". 28 See above on qpavEQOCO. Cf. also de Wette 26: "eqpavEQtöftr) ist nicht = COTExaXtjcpiir], . . . sondern bezeichnet die geschichtliche Verwirklichung". 29 The two uses often overlap and can be difficult to distinguish. Cf. Robertson, Grammar, 538; also BDF § 188:2. 30 See D. W. B. Robinson, "Saints", 45—47; and passim.

184

Colossians

While n o absolute case can be established and sufficient exceptions can be f o u n d , in m a n y cases aplausible reading o f the definite oi. a y i o i is in reference to a specific g r o u p of people w i t h i n the b o d y of believers. T h i s is perhaps clearest in reference to the collection and the m i n i s t r y to the m o t h e r church in J e r u s a lem: R o m 15:25, 31; 1 C o r 16:1; 2 C o r 8:4; 9:5; etc). 3 1 B u t o t h e r instances also seem to i m p l y a distinction: thus P h o e b e is to be received (xijicog xcov ayicov ( R o m 16:1) — does this m e a n only "receive her as a Christian"? T h e "saints" m a y include heavenly figures, as perhaps in C o l 1:12 32 (cf. E p h 1:18) or I T h e s 3:13. Ephesians offers additional examples of the saints as a distinct g r o u p : E p h 2:19 stresses that the [sc. Gentile] Christians are n o w ou | i J t o / à i a i xcov ayicov, and the s t a t e m e n t (3:8) that Paul is the éÀaxiaxóxEOog Jtàvxcov ayicov is n o t dissimilar f r o m the èhàyioxoq toiv àitooxóXcov in 1 C o r 15:9. In 3:18 the C h r i s tians are to a p p r e h e n d the full d i m e n s i o n s o f salvation w i t h the saints ( w h o apparently have d o n e so already). 3 3 T h r e e specific a r g u m e n t s can be b r o u g h t in f a v o u r of a reading of "the saints" in C o l 1:26 as those to w h o m the Gospel w a s first revealed and entrusted. First, it is consistent w i t h Paul's v i e w of revelation as spelled out above: apostles and p r o p h e t s as the chosen vehicles and s t e w a r d s o f the G o s pel. 3 4 T h i s is m o r e than could be said f o r the alternative v i e w of a blanket revelation of the m y s t e r y given indiscriminately to all Christians. Secondly, it preserves the logical distinction in 1:26 f. b e t w e e n the a y i o i (recipients of revelation) on the o n e h a n d a n d the parallel e'Ovr] / i)|XEÌ5 ( m o d i f y i n g the subject matter of that revelation) o n the o t h e r . 3 5 A n d thirdly, v. 28 (like v. 25) clearly speaks o f the apostolic ministry, so that the logical sequence w o u l d seem to be once again that o f (i) revelation to the apostles, (ii) p r o c l a m a t i o n to the Gentiles (cf. 1 T h e s 2:4, and see C h a p t e r Eight above). T h e trend of m o d e r n c o m m e n t a t o r s is to o p t for the inclusive reading o f o i a y i o i . B u t others, including e.g. C e r f a u x and Penna, a d o p t a n a r r o w e r reading of " t h e saints" as the leading ministers of the Gospel; 3 6 the present s t u d y lends a cautious e n d o r s e m e n t to this interpretation. 31 32

Seeesp. Holl, "Kirchenbegriff', 5 8 - 6 0 . O n this passage as referring to angels see recently Benoit, ""Ayioi", 94f. and pas-

sim. 33

See further e.g. Jude 3 (recipients of the "faith once for all delivered"); 1 Clem 46:2 (outstanding examples of faith and discipleship); IgnPhld 5:2 (the Christian prophets). 34 Contra Luhrmann, Offenbarungsverstandnis, 121 and passim, w h o denies the presence in the Pauline homologoumena of this view of apostleship as mediating revelation. 35 Cf. rigthly Bengel, Gnomon, 786, 750 (on Col 1:26 par. E p h 3:8): "Sancii hie o p p o nuntur gentibus." 36 Cerfaux, Christian, 488 f.; Penna, Mysterion, 31 f.; also T h e o d o r e o f M o p s u e s t i a (ed. Swete, 1:281); further Percy, Probleme, 346f. Cerfaux, "Saints", 515f. argues for an identification of the "saints" in the first instance with the believers of the Jerusalem

Col i : 26f. ; 2,2f.

185

2.5. " T h o s e to W h o m G o d Wished to M a k e K n o w n the M y s t e r y " Further support for the cr/toi as a limited group of leaders may come from v. 27a. The saints are evidently those "to whom 3 7 God wished to make known the richness of the glory of this mystery among the Gentiles": not, it would seem, all Christians, but those specifically appointed to receive this mystery's full dimensions, in order then (v. 28) to apply and dispense it to their flock. Penna rightly points to the interesting conceptual parallel in Acts 10:41: God manifested the risen Christ "not to all the people, but to previously chosen witnesses, i.e. to us who ate and drank with him after he rose from the dead." 38

2.6. "Christ A m o n g Y o u , the H o p e of G l o r y " If the word (ruarr|Qiov in 1:26 is in close syntactic alignment with the ^.oyog TOi) deoD of v. 25, its second occurrence in 1:27 is more specifically linked with the phrase Xpicrxog ev i>|iiv, r| eXiug xrjq 66^r)g. The debate over whether to translate "Christ in you" 3 9 or "Christ among you" 4 0 has been long and protracted. Although one rendering tends to bear out a more mystical and the other a more objective slant, the question is perhaps less important than is sometimes assumed: each of the two emphases is consistent with Paul's thought 4 1 and in light of the other can be said to obtain at least by implication. Ceteris paribus the reading "Christ among you" is probably to be preferred on contextual grounds (see n. 41). m o t h e r church, w h o are apostles and witnesses of the resurrection. A similar view is already assumed in Codices F and G (omitted f r o m N T G 2 6 but see Tischendorf, Novum Testamentum, 2:732: xoîç àyioiç ànoaxôXoiç airtov), and of course in E p h 3:5. 37 B o w e r s , " N o t e " , 110—114 makes the interesting and plausible proposal of reading the relative oîç as an accusative p r o n o u n by attraction to xoîç dyioiç, thus m a k i n g it the subject oiyvwQÎoai. H o w e v e r , failing m o r e cogent considerations, the less fanciful prima facie reading of oîç as a regular dative is to be preferred in view of the lack of any real N T parallels. 38 Penna, Mysterion, 32. 39 T h u s e.g. A V , RV, RSV, N A S B , N E B , N I V ; B o r n k a m m , "jnjcrnÎQiov", 827; Schneider, " M y s t e r i o n " , 270; Caragounis, Mysterion, 30; Schmithals, Gnosis, 63; Lightfoot 167; O ' B r i e n 87; Schlier, Epheser, 61. 40 T h u s e.g. J B / N J B ; A b b o t t 235; Lohse 121 f.; M o u l e 83; Gnilka 102; M a r t i n 72; Schweizer 88; Best, "Revelation", 23; Rigaux, "Révélation", 250; Schnackenburg, Epheser, 138; Meuzelaar, Leib, 44 n. 3; Wolter, "Weisheit", 307. Poole, Synopsis, 4:902 cites Estius and Zanchius. 41 T h u s also Bruce 86. "Christ a m o n g y o u " : cf. the parallel èv xoîç ëftveaiv; adducing further Pauline p r o o f passages w o u l d be superfluous. "Christ in y o u " : see 3:11, 15 f. ; and cf. R o m 8:10; Gal 2:20; 2 C o r 13:5; E p h 3:17, t h o u g h N . B . all (except E p h 3:17?) could also be read as dativus modi (BDF § 198).

186

Colossians

T h e r e w o u l d appear to be two levels o f m e a n i n g to w h i c h the " m y s t e r y " here corresponds: (i) " t h e w o r d o f G o d " , i.e. the gospel and its p r o c l a m a t i o n (cf. 1 C o r 14:36; 2 C o r 2:17; 4:2; Phil 1:14; I T h e s 2:13); and (ii) b y m e t o n y m y a p a r ticular aspect o f that Gospel, viz. here its bearing u p o n the Gentiles, w h i c h b e c a m e the h u b and centre o f Paul's ministry. ( N . B. a similar t w o f o l d distinction w a s suggested earlier for 1 C o r 2:1, 7. A closely related aspect of the gospel is called a |ruatf|Qiov in R o m 11:25—27.) " C h r i s t preached a m o n g the Gentiles" is the m y s t e r y here in v i e w , and it is given eschatological p r o m i n e n c e b y its identification as " t h e h o p e o f g l o r y " (cf. 1:5; 3:3f., 24). 4 2 W h a t is m o r e , this s h o w s that despite the emphasis o n the m y s t e r y ' s decisive revelation to the saints, there is in Paul's m i n d even n o w a d i m e n s i o n o f residual hiddenness, an a w a r e ness o f that w h i c h is yet to be revealed (cf. b e l o w o n 2:3; 3:3f.; and p. 165 above). 4 3

2 . 7 . " E v e r y o n e M a t u r e in C h r i s t " Paul goes o n to describe the apostolic 4 4 l a b o u r in the o i x o v o f u a entrusted to h i m as an act o f p r o c l a i m i n g , correcting, and teaching " e v e r y o n e in all w i s d o m " , in o r d e r to present " e v e r y o n e m a t u r e in C h r i s t " . T h i s is evidently a statement o f general principle, n o t of particular pedagogical application — and so it w o u l d be i n a p p r o p r i a t e to postulate a f u n d a m e n t a l difference b e t w e e n this and the a r g u m e n t o f 1 C o r 2:6 ff. Indeed o n e m i g h t a l m o s t regard C o l 1:28 f. as the rationale o n the basis o f w h i c h the C o r i n t h i a n p a t t e r n is f o r m u l a t e d : in b o t h cases Paul's desire is for all believers to b e c o m e xe^eioi 4 5 and to attain to a full and deep u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the salvific w i s d o m o f G o d .

42 Cf. 1 T i m 1:1; hope in God as Saviour: cf.PssSol 17:3; 8:31; 9:19; 15:1; T A s h 7:7; 2 M a c c 2:18; 4 M a c c 11:7; Sir 34:13, etc.; hope in God for the resurrection: 2 M a c c 7:11, 14, 20; 1 En 40:9; Acts 23:6; 24:15; 26:6f.; 28:20, etc. N E B appropriately paraphrases "the hope of a glory to come"; cf. also von Soden, " M Y Z T H P I O N " , 193; Schweizer 89 ("Vorgabe der Herrlichkeit"); Penna, Mysterion, 46f. Contra O ' B r i e n 84, w h o denies the future dimension of the mystery. 43 O n this see esp. Penna, Mysterion, 46 f.: the mystery is still in fieri; "il Mistero oggi n o t o alla Chiesa racchiude ancora in sé qualcosa di inedito, un aspetto di sorpresa non ancora svelata." 44 N . B . fijieig, i.e. presumably the a y i o i to w h o m the mystery has been revealed. 45 O'Brien 89 f. (following Bruce, Pfitzner) suspects that this term here has an eschatological orientation, i.e. that this "perfection" will be fully realized only at the Parousia.

Col l:26f.;

2,2f.

187

2.8. "Full K n o w l e d g e of the M y s t e r y of God, i.e. of C h r i s t " In Col 2:1—5 the apostle applies this principle of ministry to the situation of the Laodiceans and Colossians. His labour for them is that y o u r hearts m a y be e n c o u r a g e d h a v i n g b e e n k n i t t e d t o g e t h e r in love, a n d [attain] t o t h e w e a l t h of fully assured u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t o t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e m y s t e r y of G o d , viz. o f C h r i s t in w h o m all the treasures o f w i s d o m and k n o w l e d g e are h i d d e n .

The syntactical function of XQIOTOU in the phrase xoi) |HjaTT)oiot) xofi -frecO has baffled interpreters for a long time. Proposed solutions range from the adoption of one of the numerous textual variants, to a possessive genitive ("the mystery of Christ's God") 46 or an apposition ("the mystery of God, i.e. Christ"). 47 The textual problem, albeit obstinate and intractable, is probably to be settled in favour of the UBS text. 48 As for the option of a possessive genitive, it has only marginal support among scholars; and though the idea is possibly Pauline, its closest parallels are formulated differently (Rom 15:6; 2 Cor 1:3; Col 1:3; Eph 1:3, 17). Despite its popularity, the third option of a straightforward apposition seems to lack contextual plausibility and grace of syntax: "If this is the apostle's meaning, he has expressed himself very obscurely." 49 We find ourselves without an obvious explanation; not impossibly the text is corrupt. 5 0 Certainly Benoit's shorter reading TOD fleoC' is the smoothest and makes reasonable sense of the context; but its limited MS support makes this option unadvisable. Given xoi decu Xgiaxoi) as the best available reading, it is in the end difficult to avoid the somewhat inelegant conclusion that Xpioxoi) XTX. must be loosely appositional to xoi |xuarr|Qtou xoi deoii; so that the desired "full knowledge" of God's mystery stands in parallelism with the "full knowledge" of Christ. We seem at any rate to witness a development (or at least a hitherto unattested tenet) in Paul's thought at this point: for nowhere previously are "mysXQIOTOT}

46

VonSoden41. T h e o b j e c t i v e genitive asserted b y Zeilinger, Erstgeborene, 110 n. 132 and M e u z e laar, Leib, 45 f. ("the m y s t e r y o f G o d as revealed in C h r i s t " ) a m o u n t s t o m u c h t h e s a m e t h i n g . " M y s t e r y o f G o d " is gen. auctoris ( w i t h P e n n a , Mysterion, 55). 48 Pace B e n o i t ' s recent e r u d i t e a r g u m e n t f o r t h e r e a d i n g TOII freot) ( D 1 H P 1881.2464 pc sa m s ), " C o l o s s i e n s 2:2—3", 46—49. T h i s w o u l d indeed r e m o v e t h e difficulty m o s t elegantly, b u t it lacks early M S s u p p o r t ; a n d t h e U B S r e a d i n g can also explain t h e o t h e r v a r i a n t s . See f u r t h e r M e t z g e r , Text, 236—238. 49 A b b o t t 239. 50 T h u s Beare 185. 47

188

Colossians

t e r y " and " C h r i s t " linked quite so i m m e d i a t e l y . Yet at the same t i m e s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s w o u l d appear to h a v e read into the text certain conclusions a b o u t this connection w h i c h Paul himself does n o t d r a w . T h u s P e n n a sees this " m y s t e r i o l o g i c a l " passage as ontologically linking C h r i s t and m y s t e r y . O t h e r s infer f r o m the seemingly " g r a n d e r " use of m y s t e r y here a m a j o r difference b e t w e e n this letter and the Pauline homologoumena.51 B u t a glance at the s y n t a x should suffice to d e m o n s t r a t e that the a u t h o r ' s concern is n o t ontological b u t epistemological: 5 2 emyvoooig o f the m y s t e r y of G o d . W e expect the t e r m jiuorriQiov x o i deoi) to be s y n o n y m o u s w i t h Paul's gospel message: and if this identification holds, the appositional XQiaxot) comes as m u c h less of an i n n o vation. Paul can use the t e r m s eiiayye^iov a n d Xoioxog almost i n t e r c h a n g e ably. 5 3 A n d j u s t as "preaching the gospel about C h r i s t " can be elliptically rendered "preaching C h r i s t " , so Paul is i n t r o d u c i n g n o theological res novae b y equating full k n o w l e d g e o f G o d ' s m y s t e r y w i t h full k n o w l e d g e o f the C h r i s t w h o has manifested it. 5 4 Seen in this light, the occurrence in 4:3 of t o |iD0Tf|@i0V T o i X q u j t o v (clearly to designate the gospel) also c o m e s as n o surprise.

2.9. "In W h o m A r e H i d d e n All the T r e a s u r e s . . ." T h e antecedent of ev (b in v. 3a m u s t be Xqiotox), b o t h o n g r a m m a t i c a l and conceptual g r o u n d s . For if, as it were, a c o m m a o f apposition separates X q i oxoi) f r o m w h a t precedes (thus the U B S text), the i m m e d i a t e l y s u b s e q u e n t relative clause cannot very well m o d i f y the [XUOTT|QlOV TO!) fteoi).55 W h a t is m o r e , to take ev (b w i t h the m y s t e r y o f G o d w o u l d effect a m a l a p r o p i s m : o u r earlier results suggest that "treasures" [of w i s d o m and k n o w l e d g e ] can h a r d l y be h i d den in a " m y s t e r y " , since the f o r m e r are instances of the latter. 5 6 Instead, the thrust of v. 2 f. is that e v e r y m y s t e r y of heaven, every treasure o f w i s d o m is already h i d d e n in C h r i s t . 3 7 H e n c e there is n o need f o r the Colossians 51

E.g. Schenk, "Christus", 155 and passim; Steinmetz, Heils- Zuversicht, 108. T h o u g h Theodore of Mopsuestia is undoubtedly correct in linking cognitio and participate (Latin ed. Swete, 1:283). 53 See esp. 1 C o r 1:23, 15:12; Gal 2:2; Phil 1:15; Col 1:23; etc. - and, not implausibly, 1:27. Cf. e.g. Stuhlmacher, Evangelium, 277; Friedrich, "djayYEXi^onai", 730. 54 Cf. also Zeilinger, Erstgeborene, 110 and n. 132. 55 With O ' B r i e n 95; Martin 75; Gnilka 111; Penna, Mysterion, 64. Pace von Soden 41; Abbott 241; de Wette 31. 56 See esp. 1 En 41:1—7. Regarding treasures of w i s d o m see also 2 Bar 44:14; 54:13; Sir 1:25; cf. Isa 33:6 L X X ; Philo Fug 79; Her 76; LA 3:104f.; b . H a g 12b (on this cf. Bietenhard, Himmlische Welt, 222, 228). 57 These treasures of w i s d o m presumably include on an equal footing with eschatological mysteries the secrets of Scripture as well as of cosmology (note e.g. the 52

Col í:26f.;

2,2f.

189

and Laodiceans to be beguiled " t h r o u g h philosophy and vain deceit" (2:8). In other words: what the Colossian opponents are claiming to be their privilege is in fact the rightful property o f all Christians b y virtue both o f their incorporation in the Christ (in w h o m God's fulness is already manifest: 1 : 1 9 f . ; 2:9; etc.), and o f their assured share in the "inheritance o f the saints in l i g h t " (1:12). Paul's concentration o f hidden treasures in Christ may well be a polemical 5 8 appropriation and extrapolation o fJ e w i s h views about the T o r a h for his purposes o f expressing full revelation in C h r i s t . 5 9 A n d yet, h o w can it be maintained that all the treasures o f w i s d o m are still hidden in Christ (eEoiv OOTÓXQtxpoi) — not least after what has j u s t been said in l : 2 6 f . ? It is important to r e m e m b e r that the revelation o f 1:26 f. is given specifically to the ciyioi; neither this reference nor our k n o w l e d g e o f Paul's general view o f revelation (see Chapter E i g h t above) allows us to assume that the celestial mysteries and treasures o f w i s d o m have in the Christ event already been openly disclosed. 6 0 T h e universal public revelation

o f Christ, as w e saw earlier,

is an event which is yet to c o m e at His parousia. H e is still hidden, and the b e liever's life is stored up with H i m in G o d ( 3 : 3 f . ) ; Paul too might have said, ototco ecpaveQc!y&T| t í éaófxdkx ( l j o h n 3:2). A n d so also the mysteries o f G o d ' s wise purposes are treasured up in Christ w h o subsumes and crowns them all. A m o s t interesting parallel to Paul's statement exists in the Messianic expectation o f the Similitudes o f E n o c h . For there the Messianic Son o f M a n , hidden in heaven, is revealed by the " w i s d o m o f the Lord o f Spirits" to the holy and the righteous ( 4 8 : 6 f . ; cf. 62:7). T h i s too takes place before the eschaton (cf. 48:7b), apparently in order to c o m f o r t the righteous w h o will be saved in the name o f the Lord o f Spirits. In the eschaton (cf. 51:1) the Messiah (Chosen O n e ) will "sit on his throne, and all the secrets o f w i s d o m will flow out f r o m the counsel o f his m o u t h " (51:3); he will "reveal all the treasures o f that which is secret" (46:3). Paul's desire, then, is for the Laodicean and Colossian Christians to be presented as TÉXeiOL in Christ. In the course o f such maturing he wants them to be scope o f 1:15—20). At issue is not a reduction of cosmology to theology and christology (pace Bietenhard, Himmlische Welt, 253 f.), but an expansion of christology to encompass cosmology. 58 The polemical force of 2:1—3 is indicated by 2:4; cf. Bandstra, "Errorists", 339 f. 5 9 Cf. e.g. L X X Isa33:6 (ev vo^w j t a Q a 5 o ^ o o v x a i , EV^oaxiQoig^ oa)TTiQiaf||X(av, exel oocpia x a i ejiiaxr||xr) x a i ruaEpEut jigogxov xijoiov- oiixoi eioiv ih)o«uooi Sixoaoa-uvrig); 45:3 (note M T D'HIOS; cf. Knox, Gentiles, 228); and above, Chapters 2, 7, passim. Occupation with Torah results in revelation o f secrets (m.Abot 6:1; b.Hag 14a), enables one "to see the face of the Shekhinah in this world" (MidrPsa 105:1), etc. See further Lightfoot 172; Zeilinger, Erstgeborene, 115; Davis, "Wisdom", 92; also O'Neill ("Source", 87—100), who argues that the christological passages o f Col use excerpts o f Jewish thought to show that Christ fulfils the hope of Judaism. 6 0 Cf. Chrysostom Horn. 5: it is still hidden inasmuch as it was only manifested to the saints.

190

Other Passages in Colossians

"knitted together in l o v e " (the ethical c o m p o n e n t o f xeXeicooic;) 61 and to c o m e to an ever deeper k n o w l e d g e and appreciation o f the salvific mystery o f G o d as s u m m e d up in Christ.

3. Other Passages in Colossians While 1:26 f. and 2 : 2 f. are clearly the m o s t important occurrences o f our motif, t w o other passages were mentioned in passing above and ought briefly to be acknowledged.

3.1. Col 3 : 1 - 4 In C o l 3:1—4, immediately following on his refutation o f the Colossian error, and as a transition to the ethical section which follows in 3 : 5 — 4 : 6 , 6 2 Paul encourages the church at Colossae to " k e e p seeking the things a b o v e " . T h a t x a avoo is indeed a reference to the heavenly world and its contents 6 3 is made clear by the modifying clause, " w h e r e Christ is, e t c . " B u t this clause at the same time sets the agenda o f any quest for the heavenly world: the " t h i n g s " above are o f relevant interest insofar as they relate to the enthroned Christ; anyone lacking this perspective misses the point altogether. V . 2 reiterates the call to an " u p w a r d orientation", but here an ethical c o m p o n e n t is added (qpQOVECt)).64 T h e relevance o f the heaven-earth dualism for ethics is that Paul affirms t w o opposing dispositions, the way o f l i f e o f the heavenly sphere vs. the earthly w a y o f life. 6 5 In v. 3 Paul cites the reason (ydQ) for this call to the lifestyle o f the w o r l d above: in baptism the believer has already died (ajxeftavexe) to the things o f earth, and has been raised with Christ (v. 1). T h e n e w life is, h o w e v e r , still "hidden with Christ in G o d " , and so the Christian's orientation must clearly be to the m o d e o f l i f e appropriate to the heavenly w o r l d (3:5—4:6 goes on to spell this o u t ) . 6 6 Its future dimension, i.e. manifestation with Christ in glory at the parousia

Cf. Brown, Mystery, 54, who compares 1 Cor 2:7—10. See O'Brien 157 f. and others cited there. 6 3 Cf. 2:3 (the treasures); 1:5 (the hope stored up); and most importantly 3:3 (Christ/ your life). 6 4 Lincoln, Paradise, 125 (comparing Rom 8:5f.); O'Brien 163f. (Phil 2:5 etc.). 6 5 In Phil 3:19 f. the contrast is between xà EJtiyeia cpgovoivxEc; and Christians whose jro/viteuua is èv xolg oiioavoig. Cf. O'Brien 164; Lincoln, Paradise, 126. 6 6 The argument here as elsewhere can be summarized as "be what you are" (see the classic statement of Bultmann, Theologie, 334): you have died with Christ and been raised with him so that your life is hidden in the heavenly world — therefore now "put to death" your earthly nature (3:5). 61

62

Other Passages in Colossians

191

(v. 4), is a central aspect of Paul's view of the drama of salvation (see esp. Rom 8:18-25; 1 Cor 15:43; 2 C o r 5:1-10; Phil 3:20f.); he therefore does not suppress it even where circumstances call for a reduced emphasis on eschatology. 67 We have in Col 3:3 f., then, another clear confirmation of the idea of a continuing residual hiddenness of God's mysteries which was encountered in 1 Cor 2:6-10; Col 2:3. 68

3.2. C o l 4:3 f. The general exhortation to pray (4:2) is followed by a request of prayer for Paul himself (and for his fellow labourers). His specific desire is that God might open a door for "the word", i.e. the preaching of the gospel, X a X f j o a i TO I X U A T ^ Q L o v t o i

XQIOTOV-

6 i o x a l dedencu, i v a qpavEQiboco aiixo, .011x05 t o t j X o l o x o i i (cf. R o m 1 1 : 3 3 ) ; 3 : 1 0 f| JtoX.imoixtX.og a o c p i a t o t )

freoi);

and l:9f. (see above). We are merely dealing with a change in emphasis, seconded by a concomitant shift (noted by K i m et al.) in the presentation of the gospel, viz. f r o m a christological (Gal 1:12, 15) to an ecclesiological focus. 4 6 It is this shift which lends the Ephesian |xuott|qiov, despite its continuing christological dimension (l:9f.; 3:4), a s o m e w h a t unfamiliar look. 4 7 T h e grace of the revelation 4 8 of this mystery was given to Paul in order that 42

T h e infinitive £ i v a i is epexegetical; cf. A b b o t t 83; Schlier 151. See esp. K i m , Origin, 59 and passim. 44 A p o i n t also raised b y K a m i a h , " U n t e r s u c h u n g e n " , 100. O f course w e m u s t allow f o r the possibility that the i n c o r p o r a t i o n of the Gentiles here stands f o r t h e m y s t e r y of C h r i s t m o r e as pars pro toto t h a n as an actual definition. 45 Pace e.g. M i t t o n , Epistle, 8 9 f . 46 K i m , Origin, 24; cf. 82; f u r t h e r M e r k l e i n , Amt, 2 0 2 - 2 0 9 . ( T h e absence o f t h e theologia crucis f r o m this c o n t e x t (cf. e.g. Steinmetz, Heils-Zuversicht, 107) m i g h t b e relevant in this respect; b u t cf. o n 1:7 above.) H o w e v e r , M e r k l e i n (208 f.) also clarifies the "logical c o n n e c t i o n " b e t w e e n Paul and E p h : Paul's christological gospel has a missiological intent, w h i l e the E p h e s i a n ecclesiological emphasis is still f u n d a m e n t a l l y centred in christology. M e r k l e i n sees the ecclesiological " m y s t e r y " of E p h 3 as the interpretation, o n the basis of C o l 1:26 f., of the christological " g o s p e l " o f Gal 1. 43

47 B u t w h e t h e r this m a k e s f o r a m y s t e r y " o f a m o r e Hellenistic t y p e " ( K n o x , Gentiles, 190) I a m n o t certain. M e r k l e i n , Amt, 214 and n. 316 is right to p o i n t o u t that at Q u m r a n the closest parallel to the eschatological community as a " m y s t e r y " is in the use o f 110. A n d of course the f u n c t i o n o f 710 is n o t p r i m a r i l y heilsgeschichtlich (a fact n o t n o t e d b y M e r k l e i n ) . Nevertheless, the eschatological manifestation o f t h e Messiah and his c o m m u n i t y does appear e.g. in 1 E n 38:1; 53:6; and cf. R o m 8:19; C o l 3:4; l j o h n 3:2. 48 M e r k l e i n , Amt, 181, 189 supposes a basic difference b e t w e e n the specifically aposto-

Ephesians

203

he should preach it to the Gentiles (3:8). His task is to shed light on (qpumacu) 49 the administration (oixovojua) of the mystery, hidden since eternity in God who created heaven and earth (cf. l:9f.). 5 0 Expressed in this mystery is the multi-faceted (itoXuJtoixi/.og) wisdom of God (v. 10b; surely an indication that the writer still recognizes various specific aspects of the abstract mystery). 51 The purpose (iva, v. 10a) of Paul's enlightening preaching, however — and herein lies one of the novelties of Ephesians — is that this rich wisdom should now be made known through the church to the heavenly powers. 5 2 Pace certain commentators, 5 3 there is here no hint that the church is itself the central mystery. 5 4 However, as the visible evidence of the mystery of Gentile incorporation into the Messianic community it is well suited to serve as a manifestation of God's inscrutable saving wisdom to the hitherto ignorant angelic powers. 5 5 God uses the church as an instrument (ftioc) of revelation to the spiritual "rulers", i.e. presumably the heavenly forces and their earthly (political, cf. on 1 Cor 2:8 above) counterparts. 56 The church functions as the visible testimony to God's wisdom victorious over "all things in heaven and on earth". 57 Her role in God's disclosure of the mystery to the powers would seem to be primarily understood as that of acclamation: viz., the acclamation of His wisdom in the universal dvaxecpa/.uitooig (1:9; cf. 1:21; 4:10) accomplished in Christ (cf. also Rev. 4:11; 5:9, 10, 12; etc.). lie revelation here and the open manifestation to the saints in Col 1:26. But m u c h depends on one's reading of a y i o i g in Col 1:26 (see above). 49 H e r e probably not in a properly revelatory sense (pace Barth 342; Lona, Eschatologie, 279, 281 on 3:3, 8) but in that of "publish, shed light on, bring to light", as in 1 C o r 4:5 (cf. Psa90:8);but cf. also E p h l : 1 8 ( N . B . pass.). This of course is not to deny the claim of a revelatory function for Paul's ministry, which was amply demonstrated above. 50 According to Gnilka 173 this reference to creation stresses that G o d also has the wherewithal to i m p l e m e n t His mystery. Cf. also the theological function of " c o s m o l o gical" mysteries in apocalyptic literature; and E p h 1:10; Col 1:16. 51 Cf. Penna, Mysterion, 53: "cosa assai variegata". 52 Perhaps b o t h g o o d and evil angels are intended, w i t h Bengel, Gnomon, 750; Bruce 321 n. 68; pace Schlier 155 et al. Hiddenness of the m y s t e r y f r o m angelic p o w e r s is a m o t i f encountered earlier. 53 E . g . Schlier 157; idem, "Kirche", 307 and passim; Schnackenburg 142. Gnilka 174 comes a little closer w h e n he sees the church as the realized m y s t e r y of Christ (see below). 54 So rightly Barth 356. 55 T h e divine passive YVCOgiafb] s h o w s that the church is not itself an agent of revelation (with Merklein, Amt, 214; pace s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s ) . Barth 356 speaks of the church's "servant role in the public manifestation of G o d ' s secret and w i s d o m . " 56 Barth 365 describes the church's "assignment a m o n g intangible p o w e r s that m a k e their spiritual d o m i n i o n felt f r o m their 'heavenly' places." In a graphic analogy, Bieder ("Geheimnis", 343) speaks of the responsibility of the saints, as citizens of the k i n g d o m of Christ (2:19; cf. 5:5), to pursue not only its " d o m e s t i c " b u t also its "foreign policy". 57 Cf. Gnilka 175: In the church "hat sich Gottes Weisheit vor d e m F o r u m der k o s m i schen M ä c h t e durchgesetzt."

204

Postscript to Paul

2 . 4 . E p h 5:31 f. E p h 5:8, 11 — 13 assigns to Christians as "children of light" the f u n c t i o n of exposing h u m a n sin, b r i n g i n g to light the secret deeds of darkness. 5 8 This is a task w h i c h in Paul is assigned to Christ (1 C o r 4:5), b u t also to the p r o p h e s y i n g c o m m u n i t y (1 C o r 14:24 f.). O f greater significance as a divine secret is E p h 5:31, w h i c h stands w i t h o u t parallel in the Pauline corpus. H a v i n g adduced Gen 2:24 (LXX) to his f a m o u s analogy of a husband's love for his w i f e in Christ's love for the church, the aut h o r tersely remarks, TO UT>axf|oiov xoiixo p e y a eaxiv- EYCB be Xeym EIQ X o i a x o v x a t etc; xf)v exxX.T}aiav — b e f o r e m o v i n g on almost immediately to another subject. This is n o t the place to adjudicate b e t w e e n a host of available elucidations of this passage. H o w e v e r , in light of o u r previous results any explanation concerned w i t h a cognitive n o t i o n of " m y s t e r y " (i.e. s o m e t h i n g primarily to be "solved" or " u n d e r s t o o d " ) is unlikely to be sufficient. 5 9 Better, b u t still rather questionable (and imprecise), are suggestions to the effect that ¡J,uoxf|Qiov here denotes a religious " s y m b o l " . 6 0 M o s t plausible, and consistent w i t h the practice n o t only of the N e w T e s t a m e n t , but also e.g. of Q u m r a n , Philo, and the R a b bis, w o u l d seem to be the idea that w e are dealing here w i t h an exegetical m y s tery: a deeper (in this case either allegorical or prophetic) m e a n i n g of a Scriptural text w h i c h has been elicited by m e a n s of s o m e f o r m o f i n s p i r e d exegesis. 6 1 In other w o r d s , the deeper m e a n i n g of G e n 2:24 points typologically to Christ and the church. This idea is familiar and closely related to Paul's v i e w of the revelatory value of the O l d T e s t a m e n t , as discussed earlier. It m a y be, as B o r n 58

Cf. 4 Q ' A m r a m e 9 f. : pin 1 ? pS'Wri XDlttm ['33 "731] ynn1? TTTI3 [KTirU '33 "?3[, etc. Pace Caragounis, Mysterion, 30 ("unsearchable and inexplicable"). Similarly the proposal of Harvey ("Mystery Language", 326) remains doubtful. H e considers that the background is in Hellenistic rather than in Jewish religion; so that "the analogy in question, because of its sexual overtones, was felt to be a dangerous one to use in the c o m pany of any but 'initiates'." 60 Thus e.g. Robinson 209; Hatch, Essays, 60f.; Kennedy, Paul, 127; Deden, " M y s tère", 411; Steinmetz, Heils-Zuversicht, 107; similarly Abbott 175; Schlier 262f.; Gnilka 288; Schnackenburg 261; Bieder, "Geheimnis", 336. Several speak of the "mystery of the conjugal union": e.g. Westcott 86; de Wette 153; Mitton 207; Coppens, "Mystery", 147; also Cambier, "Mystère", 231; and perhaps Lincoln, Paradise, 164. Cf. earlier c o m m e n tators cited in Schlier 262, n. 5. D e Wette 153 also [implausibly] cites the use of 110 for marriage in Yalkut Re'ubeni 171.4b. 61 Various forms of this view are held by Zunz, Vorträge, 174 n."a)"; B o r n k a m m , "(tt)0xf|Qi0v", 830; Bonsirven, Exégèse, 270; Luz, Geschichtsverständnis, 287 n. 92; B r o w n , Mystery, 65f.; Merklein, Amt, 215; Mussner, "Contributions", 162 [?]; Sjöberg, Der verborgene Menschensohn, 16; Barth 2:641—646; Bruce 394; also T E V ; and cf. earlier commentators cited in Schlier 262, n. 4. Pace Cambier, "Mystère", 84, 88, w h o emphatically denies that nuaxr|Qlov could ever be so used in Pauline writings: see above on R o m 11:25-27; 1 Cor 15:51. 59

205

Ephesians

kamm suggests, that through the application of this exegetical mystery to Christ and the church (5:32b) the central ecclesiological mystery of Ephesians is implicitly reintroduced as well. 62

2.5. E p h 6:19f. This reference needs little explanation; once again the apostle's stewardship of the mystery is at stake. The epexegetical genitive |il,'axf|0i0V x o i EvayytA,LOD, albeit hitherto unparalleled, expresses the familiar notion of 1 Cor 2:1; Col 4:3. Eph 6:19f.

Col 4:3 f.

6 e f | o e i . . . imeQ e^oi),

jtooaetixo^Evoi... jtepifmcov,

l'va [xoi 6o#f| Xöyoc, ev avoi^et

iva o -öeög ävoi|r) f||j.iv fKipav

TOTJ OTÖ[XAXÖ5 [XOD

xof)

ev jtaQQTjoia yvcogioai xo [ruaxr|Qiovxoi EXjayyeXioD-

XaXfjaai xo LiuoxriQiov xoü

LOTEQ OL) JXQEOßE'UCO EV CTXTJOEL

öiö xai, ÖEÖEfxai

iva EV ai)X(p jraQ0T]oidoconai,, cog Sei (iE X.aX.rjaai.

iva (pavEQCüooD aivtö, cög öei jxe X.aX/rjaai.

Xoyov

XQIOXOTJ-

If (as seems plausible) the writer's point of departure parallels Col 4, he has taken slight liberties with the rendering of {hjQav x o i Aoyou; and with the expansion of AaXf|oai to EV jtaQQT|CRA yvcoQioai. The thought introduced by i)Jt£Q oil, though a little more ornate, overlaps with that of the parallel: the apostle serves in chains so that in regard to the gospel [EV crincp] he may speak boldly, as indeed he must. If, as was argued earlier, Paul's external bonds and his speaking the gospel are in some way related in Col 4:3, a similar idea may be present here. The apostle is "an ambassador in chains" (a jolting image on any reckoning) 63 in order that he should speak the gospel boldly, 64 as he is bound to do. His chains manifest that he is under obligation. 62

B o r n k a m m , "|Xuaxr|Qtov", 829 f.; M e r k l e i n , Amt, 215. In t h e absence o f m o r e s p e cific a r g u m e n t s K n o x ' s claim (Gentiles, 183 f.) that this use of [iuaxriQlov derives (in a n y real sense) f r o m t h e Hellenistic cults is less t h a n c o n v i n c i n g . H o w e v e r , in t h e light o f P h i l o ( C h a p t e r 4 above) a link w i t h Hellenistic allegoresis is n o t i m p l a u s i b l e . 63 W e s t c o t t 98 calls it an o x y m o r o n ; B e n g e l 765 a n d G n i l k a 319, a p a r a d o x . ( B a r t h 2:782 uses b o t h . ) C f . P h l m 9. 64 N o t e t h e d o u b l e e m p h a s i s o n JiaQQT]aia. B o l d n e s s in t h e w o r d of C h r i s t is a r e c u r -

206

Postscript to Paul

3. Romans 16:25—27 Since the "revealed m y s t e r y " in the c o n c l u d i n g d o x o l o g y o f R o m a n s is o f t e n c o m p a r e d w i t h that in Ephesians, this m a y be an a p p r o p r i a t e m o m e n t t o discuss it. Because o f the familiar textual p r o b l e m s , the d o x o l o g y is t o d a y n o t usually considered to be part of the original epistle. H o w e v e r , in v i e w of the fact that of the m a j o r M S S only F and G lack it altogether, discussion o n the m a t t e r s h o u l d n o t perhaps be closed. Its relocation in s o m e texts (to 14:23 or 15:33) m a y possibly be d u e to the letter's use in public reading, in w h i c h the o n e or t w o last chapters w e r e t h o u g h t to be unsuitable and an a p p r o p r i a t e conclusion needed to be supplied. 6 5 H o w e v e r , M a r c i o n i t e influence o n the textual h i s t o r y also cannot be ruled o u t . 6 6 O n balance, the a u t h o r m a y or m a y n o t be Paul: at any rate he s h o w s a t h o r o u g h familiarity w i t h m a j o r m o t i f s o f the letter. 6 7 T h e issue need n o t here be f i r m l y resolved. T h e s e verses contain several points o f interest: according to the revelation of the mystery which has been kept in silence [aeaiYTlHEvou] for eternal ages, but n o w is manifested; and through prophetic Scriptures, according to the c o m m a n d of the eternal God, has been made k n o w n for obedience of faith a m o n g all the nations.

N o indication of the content of the m y s t e r y is in fact given. H o w e v e r , the t w o x c a a - c l a u s e s in v. 25 closely correlate the eschatological disclosure o f the m y s t e r y w i t h Paul's preaching of Jesus C h r i s t . 6 8 While this use of " m y s t e r y " is n o t f o u n d in R o m , it was applied earlier in 1 C o r 2:1 (cf. 4:1); m o r e o v e r , the revelatory effect of the apostolic preaching is affirmed in R o m 1:16—18, as w e saw. T h e use o f OEOiyrinevog is odd; 6 9 w e m i g h t have expected a:rcoxexQt)|xjA£Vog or

rent mark of the early Martyrs' Acts: note esp. JiaoQî)oiâ[Çouai| in Eus. EH 5.1.18, 49 (Blandina & Alexander of Lyons); 6.3.4f. (Alexandrians). Cf. Wisd 5:1; 4 M a c c 10:5. 65 Thus perhaps esp. p46; cf. P r ü m m , "Mystères", 203; Penna, Mysterion, 25; Cranfield 1:9 and Wilckens 3:147 also consider a liturgical Sitz im Leben. But the question arises w h y the doxology should not have been placed after 15:13 or 21 rather than 14:23. 66 See Metzger, Textual Commentary, 536. 67 For a recent, even-handed review of the status quaestionis see Hurtado, " D o x o l o g y " . 68 Cf. Wilckens 3:149. Cranfield 2:810; Michel 487 and n. 14; and Herold, Zorn, 266 regard the second x a x d as explaining and supplementing the first. 69 Indeed its transitive use is hapax legomenon in the N T . But cf. Josephus Vita 338 eqco xct |0.É/Ql VÙV oeaia)JtT)néva. For the (cultic?) idea of silence before revelation cf. Job 4:16; 1 Kgs 19:12; Hab 2:20; Zeph 1:7; Zech 2:13; esp. Wisd 18:14-16; Rev 8:1; also EpArist 95; and see below on IgnEph 19:1; M a g n 8:2. Wilckens 3:148 f. is right to question those (like Käsemann 407 or Penna, Mysterion, 25 n. 31) w h o appeal to the Jewish notion specifically of silence before creation (e.g. 2 Bar 3:7; 4 Ezra 6:38 f.; 7:30; LAB 60:2). T h e point here is heilsgeschichtlich. [In mystery religions silence forms an important part of the secret proceedings, as just before the climactic epopteia. Cf. Penna, Mysterion, 25 n. 32.]

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the like. The silence at any rate must surely be God's silence o f keeping the mystery to himself. 7 0 T h e mystery is here simply described as "manifested" ((pavEQwfrevtog), with no specification o f the recipients (contrast 1 Cor 2; Col 1; Eph 3). But this might well be related to the forensic emphasis o f R o m 3:21 (see above), where cpaveQOV) is also used. T h e two steps o f the mystery's manifestation and then dissemination through prophetic scriptures are distinguished by the insertion o f te. 7 1 Interesting for our purposes, however, is that the act ofyvooQi^eiv for obedience o f faith 72 is seen not as an ongoing but a completed action (aorist). 73 Another significant departure from the accustomed pattern o f revealed mysteries consists in the statement that the disclosure o f the mystery occurs "through prophetic scriptures". 7 4 The identity o f these writings is debated. O n the one hand it is possible that reference is made to Christian scriptures, prominent among which would presumably be the letters o f Paul himself (cf. 2 Pet 3:16). 7 5 But it would seem an odd understanding o f the apostolic mission to suppose that the evangelization o f the Gentiles had taken place through apostolic writings rather than through preaching. However, if (with most commentators) O T prophets are in view, a similar problem besets us 76 — unless S i a be taken not instrumentally but as signifying environment or related circumstances.77 What is meant in this case, then, is perhaps very similar to the |AaQTUQOUH£VT] iijto xcvu vo^iou x a i XOJV jtQocpr|Tcov o f R o m 3:21, 7 8 leaving us with an implicit connection between apostolic preaching and the familiar idea o f charismatic exegesis o f the prophets. 7 9 T h e doxology, therefore, appeals to the notion that the 7 0 Thus Dewailly, "Mystère", 116. Whether the perfect participle eo ipso implies the idea o f a continued hiddenness (thus Dewailly 116f.) must remain doubtful. Certainly ite(pav6QCUH6vr) in Rom 3:21, taken in context, would seem to refer unequivocally to the past Christ event. 71 On this see e.g. Cranfield 2:811 f.; Wilckens 3:150 n. 708. For the distinction of these two steps o f disclosure (revelation proper; missionary propagation) see also Penna, Mysterion, 42. 7 2 Cranfield 2:812 and nn. 2, 5: eîç Jtávxa t à Êôvr| with eîç í)jta>coT|V Jtiatewç, not with YVûjQicriiévToç. 7 3 A fact which, incidentally, may also militate against Pauline authorship (contrast 1:14-18; 15:19, 23f.; and e.g. 1 Cor 2:13; Col l:28f.; 4:3; Eph 6:19). 7 4 yoacpàiv jtgocpr|XL5C¿>v: an odd phrase, unique in the N T . The gloss Mai xrjç ÊJTwpavEÎaç xxL in Or Hier mss is clearly secondary. 7 5 Thus e.g. Lührmann, Offenbarungsverstàndnis, 123 f. (citing also Holtzmann, Godet, Jülicher, and Corssen); Wolters, "Weisheit", 310f. n. 57; and cf. Wilckens 3:150. 7 6 Kásemann 406. 77 See Moule, Idiom Book, 57; cf. Schmidt 264. See esp. Rom 2:27 (xóv ôlà Yoà|j.|xaxoç x a l jtEQixoufjç jtaQa|3áxT|v VÓ^OXJ); 4:11; 8:25; 14:20. 7 8 Cf. Cranfield 2:812; his instrumental reading o f ó l á compels him to reduce yvtOQicrftévxoç to denote only this O T attestation o f the gospel, and not the apostolic preaching. 7 9 Michel 488 n. 19; Zeller 251; and Penna, Mysterion, 43 rightly compare 1 QpHab.

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fulfilling revelation o f the prophetic mysteries in Christ (cf. R o m 1:2) n o w renders the O T an attendant witness to the proclamation o f the gospel. 8 0 W i t h o u t these prophetic Scriptures the mystery could not be properly understood. 8 1 S o m e have suggested that " G o d ' s w i s d o m in a m y s t e r y " , which Paul in 1 C o r 2:6—10 reserved for the mature, is actually disclosed in Ephesians. 8 2 C e r tainly w e have found that the texts discussed in this section go further than any others in developing the Pauline theme o f Christ and the gospel in relation to G o d ' s eternal plan o f salvation.

4. Excursus: A "Revelation Schema"? T a k i n g up a proposal o f N . A . D a h l , 8 3 continental f o r m critics for the last 3 0 years have followed the convention o f grouping together a n u m b e r o f Pauline and Deutero-Pauline texts under the heading o f "revelation s c h e m a " . 8 4 T h e popularity o f this nomenclature makes a b r i e f discussion advisable. Although the meaning o f the term is really an arbitrary matter o f scholarly c o n v e n t i o n , 8 5 few writers take the trouble to provide a clear definition. It w o u l d seem that the basic constituents o f this schema are t w o aspects o f G o d ' s saving counsel: the fact that it was " o n c e hidden" and secretly foreordained; and that in Christ it has " n o w been revealed" or made manifest. 8 6 Various authors have nevertheless asserted that the " s c h e m a " is not specifically Christological in content. 8 7 Y e t while it is true that the focus is never narr o w l y or exclusively on the person o f Christ, it will be apparent f r o m our earlier treatment that C h r i s t o l o g y in one w a y or another is crucial to all the texts For a more general view on the use of the Scriptures in the apostolic enterprise cf. e.g. 2 T i m 3:14ff.; 4:13. 80 Cf. Benedict Justinianus (1613), quoted in del Páramo, "Misterio", 258: "Idem vero mysterium ait esse revelatum per scripturas prophetarum secundum praeceptum aeterni Dei, quo voluit per Apostolos prophetarum oracula explicari, atque adeo mysterium in illis occultum in lucem evocari in eum finem, ut omnes gentes fide Christi percepta, legi evangelicae obtemperent." 81 Thus Penna, Mysterion, 43, citing Baúles. 82 Schlier 21 f., 156; Bruce 245f., 321. 83 Dahl, "Beobachtungen", 4f. 84 Also sometimes known as "mystery formula": e.g. Gloege, "Offenbarung", 224; cf. Aune, Prophecy, 333; Schulte, Offenbarung, 23 and n. 1. The various authors give differing lists o f the texts in view, including 1 Cor 2:6—10; Col 1:26 f.; Eph 3:4—7, 8—11; Rom 16:25f.; and sometimes 2 T i m 1 : 9 - 1 1 ; Tit 1:2f.; IPet 1 : 1 8 - 2 1 ; l j o h n 1 : 1 - 3 ; IgnMagn 6:1; HermSim 9:12. 85 Thus rightly Wolter, "Weisheit", 298. 86 Cf. recently also Wolter, "Weisheit", 298. 87 E.g. Dahl, "Beobachtungen", 5; Lührmann, Offenbarungsverstandnis, 131 and passim.

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in question. 8 8 It is generally acknowledged that Jewish eschatology with its doctrine of t w o eons is basic to an understanding of the "schema", although the actual derivation is a matter of dispute. 8 9 At the same time, Wolter goes so far as to suggest that the specific Jewish background of the schema gives it an antiTorah bias in the Pauline context: its intention here is to stress that the wisdom of God's age-old redemptive design was not disclosed in the law and in Israel's election, but only in the gospel and its proclamation among the Gentiles. 90 The problem with the "revelation schema" ultimately arises f r o m its imprecise definition. In 1 Cor 2 the theme is, as Conzelmann recognized, only in statu nascendi.91 Several components integral to the form of later texts are still missing or not yet fully integrated, such as the strong missionary element 92 or the emphasis on a decisive recent disclosure (see above). The absence of these ingredients would seem to exclude this text from the definitive group of examples of the "schema", and to cast doubt on the idea of the latter as a distinct liturgical formula. 9 3 Liihrmann 9 4 defines the formula more precisely (albeit rather arbitrarily) by the presence of vuv and (iliaxr|Qiov — thereby reducing the number of relevant texts to three: Col l:26f.; Eph 3:4 f., 9f.; Rom 16:25 f. This appears at first sight to remove some of the difficulties and possibly to strengthen his case that the schema is not Pauline. But he fails to recognize that a Gattung of only three texts is not a particularly meaningful proposition; moreover, he ignores differences 95 between the three texts chosen. The question can be pressed further still. If structural elements fail to give accurate definition to this "schema", one might consider the general theme of a once hidden mystery being revealed in Christ or the gospel to be a sufficient description. This would also allow for a continuity of development between Paul and the "Deutero-Pauline" writings. However, a closer look makes it apparent 88

Luz, Geschichtsverständnis, 287 f. and n. 94 offers a similar critique of Liihrmann. Wolter's view ("Weisheit", 305), that 1 C o r 2:6—10 differs f r o m all the other ("DeuteroPauline") texts in linking the mystery with the cross, w o u l d seem to be untrue at least for Col 1:26 f. (see 1:22, 24). 89 T h o u g h Lührmannn, Offenbarungsverständnis, 114, 126—129, 133 f. also sees a gnostic background. 90 Wolter, "Weisheit", 317. 91 Conzelmann, Korinther, 75; "Weisheit", 239. 92 Cf. Liihrmann, Offenbarungsverständnis, 131 f. and passim; also recognized by Penna, Mysterion, 3 4 - 3 9 ; Wolter, "Weisheit", 314, 317. 93 Pace Dahl, "Beobachtungen", 4f.; Liihrmann, Offenbarungsverständnis, 133; cf. Kamiah, "Untersuchungen", 101, 121. 94

Offenbarungsverständnis, 124—133. E.g. content (Rom 16:25 f. the gospel o f j e s u s Christ; Col l:26f. w o r d of G o d / Christ a m o n g you; Eph 3:5 f. the Gentiles are fellow heirs) and recipients (Rom 16:25 f. unspecified; Col 1:26f. "His saints"; Eph 3:5 apostles and prophets). 95

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that in this case the whole idea of a distinct "schema" collapses under the weight of numerous conceptual parallels both within and without the bounds of the NT. 9 6 What is more, the theme of a saving divine counsel once hidden but now revealed occurs also in contemporary Judaism, e.g. at Qumran (lQpHab 7:2ff.) or among the Rabbis. 97 Thus, more helpful than the forced definition of a distinct form-critical unit will be the recognition that Paul views the Christ event and its revelation to the apostles as the decisive historical 98 implementation of God's hidden, age-old plan of salvation. Other early Christian writers thought similarly. This theme was developed in a number of ways, though obviously the use of motifs like "mystery", fulfilment, revelation, and the turn of the ages would be likely. We are dealing, therefore, not with a clearly defined liturgical "schema", but with recurring traditional terms and phrases used to express the patterns of realized eschatology: revelation, redemption, and fulfilment.

5. The Pastoral Epistles The writer's use of apocalyptic motifs such as the revelation of heavenly mysteries is on the whole rather muted by his own distinctive interests. [Perhaps he is taking his own advice to avoid 'Iou&aixoi [rudoi, Tit 1:14?]. 1 Tim 3:9 speaks of the need for deacons to hold uprightly to the "mystery of faith" (ixuaxfiQiov xfjq Jiiaxewg). This reference in the middle of a passage on church order comes without warning, as it were, i.e. without any of the customary contextual markers indicating a connection with hiddenness, revelation, soteriology, eschatology, or the like. Thus it could be considered doubtful whether this text in fact belongs to our discussion or not. There are no clear parallels to this use of |iucrcr|oiov in the accepted Pauline corpus. Assuming that the genitive is epexegetical and that the same correlation of "faith" and "conscience" is in view in 1:19, the reference may be to the mo-

9 6 Examples might include Gal 3 : 2 3 - 2 5 ; 4 : 3 f . ; 2 T i m 1 : 9 f . ; Tit 1 : 2 f . ; 1 Pet 1 : 1 0 - 1 2 , 20; Heb 9:8, 11, 26; R e v 10:7; M a t t 1 1 : 2 5 - 2 7 ; 1 3 : 1 6 f . par.; J o h n 1 : 1 - 1 8 ; IgnMagn 6:1; E p D i o g n 8 : 9 - 1 1 ; H e r m S i m 9 . 1 2 . 1 , etc. 9 7 E.g. the idea that the T o r a h w a s hidden w i t h G o d since 9 7 4 generations before creation, until its revelation at Sinai (b.Zeb 116a; b.Shab 88b — a v i e w deriving f r o m Psa 1 0 5 : 8 and the 2 6 generations f r o m A d a m to Moses); cf. also A s s M o s 1:12—14; Memar Marqah 6:7 and see W o l t e r , "Weisheit", 3 1 7 . Schweizer, Kolosser, 8 7 n. 2 5 3 explicitly refers to this idea in relation to the "schema". 98 Contra Lührmann's existential interpretation {Offenbarungsverständnis, 125): "Dem Schema geht es also nicht so sehr u m die geschichtliche Einordnung der O f f e n b a r u n g als u m die Frage. . .: 'Wie b e k o m m e ich teil am Heilsgut?'" A historical intention o f the schema is recognized e.g. b y Gloege, "Offenbarung", 224.

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ral, spiritual a n d d o c t r i n a l content o f C h r i s t i a n faith (i.e. fides quae creditur).99

A f o r m a l appeal to J e w i s h b a c k g r o u n d material r e m a i n s s o m e w h a t i n c o n c l u sive; 1 0 0 here at any rate o n e s h o u l d consider (with H a r v e y ) the c o m m o n H e l l e n istic analogy o f a discipline of initiation into the m y s t e r y cults. 1 0 1 Prima facie the only real p r o b l e m w i t h this latter derivation is that the Hellenistic i m a g e occurs a l m o s t invariably in the plural, w h e r e a s 1 T i m 3:9 e m p l o y s the singular.

B u t the n a t u r e o f the ¡XD0Tf|gi0V in 1 T i m 3:9 is perhaps n o t to be resolved in isolation. T h e closely related v. 16 m a y shed light: " U n d e n i a b l y great is the m y s t e r y o f godliness". 1 0 2 H e r e the content o f the m y s t e r y is clearer: " H e w h o w a s manifested in t h e flesh, was justified in the Spirit; he appeared to angels, w a s preached a m o n g the nations, believed in the w o r l d , taken u p in g l o r y . " O b v i o u s l y this is n o t the place f o r an exegesis a n d interpretation o f this disp u t e d text. H o w e v e r , it is clear that this eiiaePeiag |iucrrr|Qiov carries a distinctly christological definition 1 0 3 - and o n e w h i c h , despite its interpretive u n certainties, is expressed in u n m i s t a k a b l y J e w i s h , indeed apocalyptic t e r m s . A l t h o u g h the f o r m and style o f 3:16 are unfamiliar in Paul, the conscious c o n n e c tion o f the m y s t e r y w i t h 05 1 0 4 eqpavEQCD'ih) Y.xk. implies that the w r i t e r k n e w this m y s t e r y to be G o d ' s saving p u r p o s e in the incarnation, exaltation, and p r o clamation o f C h r i s t . In this case the differences w i t h the Pauline homologoumena certainly d o n o t vanish, 1 0 5 b u t w e are given additional indications that the a u 99

Thus many commentators. B r o w n , Mystery, 68 refers to 1 En 58:5; w e might add for comparison the Rabbinic notion that Israel are "keepers of secrets"; as well as the various features of halakhah which are described as "mysteries of Israel" (Sabbath, Mishnah, circumcision, etc.). 101 Harvey, "Mystery Language", 332. That such metaphors were widespread and possibly employed even without any conscious connection to the pagan cults, can be seen e.g. f r o m Ps-Phoc 229 (his ethical treatise as 6IKCUOcrrr|gia); and e.g. E p Diogn 4:6; but cf. Josephus Ap 2:189. 102 N . B. H u t h e r 152, 162; Holtz 90; Spicq; 107; Wohlenberg 139; Dibelius/Conzelmann 61; Kelly 89; Hanson 84; W. Metzger, Christushymnus, 67 et al. declare the m y s teries of these t w o verses to be synonymous. T o w n e r , "Structure", 167 f. wishes to differentiate: 3:9 refers to the content of faith, whereas 3:16 includes in addition "the m a n ner of life that is tied to it." This observation is shrewd, but it w o u l d seem not to detract f r o m the likelihood of a substantial overlap between the t w o mysteries. 103 For this point cf. e.g. Huther 162; Spicq 106 f.; Kelly 90; Schlatter 113; Lock 44; W. Metzger, Christushymnus, 63 f. N o t e also the fteoosfSeiag |xwrr|giov in E p D i o g n 4:6, which, being taken up in 5:3, 7:1 ff. (cf. Meecham, Diognetus, 107), is explained in similar terms: G o d sent His son. 104 For the superiority of this reading cf. Metzger, Textual Commentary, 641. 05 has no grammatical antecedent, and so is best understood as an integral part of the quoted liturgical fragment. 105 E.g. Christ personally is manifested rather than the mystery (cf. l j o h n 3:5, 8); no clear reference to the eternal design of God (but cf. 1 T i m 2:6; 4:1?); vindication ( N . B . ¿Sixaioyfhi) in the spirit and ascension in glory (but cf. R o m l:3f. ; Phil 2:9?). M o s t curious is Christ's appearance to "angels" (but cf. Col 2:15; Eph 3:10?), for 100

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thor u n d e r s t o o d |xl)0Tr|Qi0V in a sense akin to that o f P a u l . 1 0 6 For Paul t o o c o u l d speak o f the c o n t e n t and substance o f faith, i.e. the g o s p e l , as a m y s t e r y (1 C o r 2 - 1 ; C o l 4:3; cf. E p h 3:4; 6:19). 1 0 7 A n d a l t h o u g h w e are n o t told explicitly o f the m y s t e r y ' s h i d d e n n e s s (and s u b s e q u e n t revelation), its c o n t e n t here s u g g e s t s that this d i m e n s i o n m u s t also be present in the writer's m i n d . 1 0 8 [ A n d if to b o o t the " m y s t e r y o f g o d l i n e s s " and the " m y s t e r y o f faith" are in fact substantially the same, a potential parallel w i t h Paul's v i e w in Gal m i g h t arise. For there, t o o , Paul can use Tlioxiq n o t o n l y o f the subjective exercise but also o f the o b j e c t i v e f o r m and c o n t e n t o f faith, 1:23 1 0 9 (cf. perhaps 3:23—25, w h e r e Jiicnxg, m u c h like a m y s t e r y , is first h i d d e n and t h e n revealed).] B y calling the m y s t e r y "great" or " p r o f o u n d " (^leya: cf- E p h 5:32) and linking it w i t h the Christian c o n f e s s i o n (6|xoX,oyou(A£VU)5),110 the writer elevates the c o n t e n t o f the m y s t e r y in this h y m n to near credal status. 1 1 1 2 T i m 1:9—11 offers the familiar s o u n d i n g t h e m e o f the d i v i n e s a v i n g c o u n s e l o f grace h a v i n g b e e n foreordained (here i n d e e d e v e n given,

6of)eioav) before

the ages, but n o w m a n i f e s t e d b y the Christ e v e n t and entrusted to the apostle's which perhaps the closest parallels are Asclsa 10:7—15; IgnTrall 9:1; also cf. the delightful quotation in Poole, Synopsis, 4:1052: "Christus nunciantibus Angelis conceptus est, natus cantantibus, tentatus ministrantibus, passus consolantibus, suscitatus apparentibus, assumptus comitantibus & tentantibus." But on purely structural grounds the arguments of Micou ("wcpih]", 201—205) in favour of ayye^oi as human messengers cannot simply be dismissed. O f particular significance is the apparent disruption of the chronological order by the reading "angels", and the fact that this interpretation leaves us with the unlikely scenario of a christological h y m n lacking any reference to the resurrection (the angels at the e m p t y t o m b are an implausible explanation; cf. W. Metzger, Christushymnus, 97). And since 1 T i m 3:16 is a h y m n i c quotation, w o r d statistical arguments against ayyE^oi as "messengers" are rather precarious; cf. at any rate Matt 11:10 par M a r k 1:2/Luke 7:27; Luke 7:24; 9:52; [Acts 12:15?; Gal 4:14?]; Jas 2:25; and often in L X X (e.g. Gen 32:3, 6; Josh 7:22; J u d g 7:24; H a g 1:13; Mai 1:1; etc.). Recent w o r k in agreement with Micou includes W. Metzger, Christushymnus, 91 — 101 (esp. 96f.); M u r p h y O ' C o n n o r , "Redactional Angels", 178—187; earlier Wohlenberg 142; Seeberg, Katechismus, 119f. and others cited there. 106

Cf. B r o w n , Mystery, 68 (though he perhaps somewhat overstates the case): "Thus the mystery of religion . . . sums up admirably all the aspects of the Pauline mysterion already seen in the other epistles." 107 Cf. Spicq 99. 108 Cf. Dibelius/Conzelmann 61; Kelly 89; Sjoberg, Der verborgene Menschensohn, 28. Spicq 99; Jeremias 22 predicate the same for 3:9. 109 Cf. Bammel, "Galater 1,23", 108 and n. 1, 111 (though he does not think this signifies content, fides quae creditur: 108 and n. 3). 110 Hapax legomenon in N T . T h e reading 6|J,oXoYoi3(iev obg (D* 1175 syr.lect.; cf. Wohlenberg 138f.; Spicq 107; Lewis, "1 T i m o t h y iii.16", 80f.) could theoretically underlie all uncial MSS. (The only reason w h y the separation is obvious in D * is that, as Tischendorf, NTC 1:849 writes, "haec enim sticho seiuncta sunt".) Hanson, "Phrase", 123 n. 1 calls this reading "obviously inferior", but I fail to see w h y this need be so. 111 Cf. Spicq 107f.; Dibelius/Conzelmann 61.

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dissemination. Here too a number of phrases and ideas are not paralleled in the Hauptbriefe (¿JUcpavEia; the incarnate Christ as oo)xf|Q; v. 10b Christ's w o r k as "bringing to light life and immortality through the gospel", etc.). Other aspects of the customary "revealed [xuott|qiov" idea may be missing or not clearly stated (e.g. its previous hiddenness, the role of the cross). But overall the outline of the Pauline view of the revealed saving design of God is still visible. 112 Another passage on the revelation of God's ancient salvific design is found in Tit l:2f. The phraseology and structure of these verses are in some ways closer to Pauline diction than other relevant passages in the Pastoral Epistles: in the hope of eternal life, which God, w h o cannot deceive, promised before eternal ages (jtqo xqovcov aicovicov) and manifested at the proper time (¿(paveQWoev Se xoaQ015 18(015),113 [viz.] His w o r d expressed in proclamation, with which I was entrusted on the order of God our Saviour.

The identification of the object hidden and revealed (hope of eternal life, w o r d of God) is unusual but not without parallel (see esp. Col 1:27 — X.oyog toij deoij, eAJtig; cf. Eph 1:18). 114 The decisive revelation of God's purpose is here, as often in Paul, expressly linked with the apostolic office of proclamation; indeed the apposition t o v Xoyov atixoi ev XT)QtJY(xati would appear to include Paul's appointed task of preaching the gospel in the very manifestation of the foreordained "hope of eternal life". This rather daring claim is, nevertheless, sufficiently underwritten in Paul's o w n views on revelation. 1 1 5 Other references to our theme in the Pastorals are only marginally relevant. Thus 2 T i m 4:8 speaks of Paul's crown of righteousness stored up in heaven — a motif familiar f r o m apocalyptic thought (cf. also Rev 22:12 with Isa 40:10; 62:11). 116 Another example might be the statement in Tit 2:11 — 13; 3:4 on the past "epiphany" of the saving grace of God for all people, and on the future "epiphany" in glory of "the great God and our Saviour Christ Jesus." 112

O f course one might legitimately ask in what sense this is any m o r e "Pauline" than, say, 1 Pet 1:20. See also above on the transferability and unspecificity of the "revelation schema". 113 A c o m m a should be inserted after [6(01,5, t o v Xoyov being epexegetical. Cf. Lock 126. 114 Contrast Col 1:5, where hope is stored up but has not yet been manifested; also R o m 8:24 f. 115 See above. T h e various similarities lead Kamlah, "Untersuchungen", 128—130 to consider 2 T i m l:9f.; 4:17f. and Tit 1:1—3 to be dependent on R o m 16:25 f., and possibly by the same author. 116 Hanson 156, citing Dibelius/Conzelmann and Brox, asserts the blatantly un-Pauline character of this idea. But Paul himself clearly speaks in prize/reward language in 1 Cor 9:25; Phil 3 : 1 2 - 1 4 . Cf. further Isa 28:5; Ezek 28:12 L X X ; Wisd 5:16; 1 Pet 5:4; Jas 1:12; Rev 2:10; 3:11; T B e n j 4:1; Asclsa 7:22; 9 : 2 4 - 2 6 ; OdSol 9 : 8 - 1 1 ; 1 Q H 4:7; 9:25; b.Ber 17a [Rab T6]. Regarding "all w h o love his appearing" see on 1 Cor 2:9 above.

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O n the whole, then, while the stylistic and conceptual character of the Pastoral Epistles tends to differ from the accepted letters of Paul, various aspects of the apostle's treatment of the "revealed mystery" theme survive intact. Chief among these is the notion that in Christ God's saving purpose has been manifested, and that Paul's divinely appointed ministry is instrumental in its proclamation.

6. T h e Second Century The field here is vast; and in light of the topic's importance in early Judaism and Paul it most certainly merits a full-scale treatment in its own right. 117 Here I can offer no more than a superficial "spot check" of some of the writings whose date and/or content might be considered to follow most closely upon the period of the N e w Testament. My selection is based largely on the criteria of both an early date and an explicit development of the theme at hand; the texts discussed are (in this order) the Didache, Ignatius of Antioch, Justin Martyr, and the Epistle to Diognetus.

6.1. The Didache Suggested dates for this early Syrian church order range from the middle of the first to the middle of the second century. Only one passage here is potentially of interest to us, viz. Did 11:11. Pending some significant new discoveries, however, the interpretation of the notoriously obscure phrase [ii)(Jxf|Qiov xoajuxov exxXr)aiag is bound to remain pure guesswork. Suggestions have ranged from references to celibacy or spiritual cohabitation between an ascetic and a virgin (syzygy speculation) 118 to a dubious prophetic practice or teaching. 119 The context (11:7—12) concerns the distinction between true and false prophets. The one who teaches [5tSaoxeiv] truth but does not practise [jtoieiv] it 117

Items of interest include the Apocalypse of Paul, Epistula Apostolorum; Passio Perpetuae; the teaching of Elchasai (cf. m o s t recently Luttikhuizen, The Revelation ofElchasai; N . B . "Elchasai" = ' 0 3 ^'il [p. 181 £]); the N a g H a m m a d i Library [cf. only the n u m e r o u s entries in Siegert, Register under OY6NH (pp. 123—126); HoP (p. 166f.); QoLP (p. 192); mysterion (p. 273); sige (p. 300); also apokalypsis etc. (p. 216); apokryphon (p. 217); phaneroun etc. (p. 318)]; the H e r m e t i c Writings; Mandaean texts; also Tertullian and Clem e n t of Alexandria; etc. 118 So Harnack, Lehre, 121 f.; also cf. K r a f t 171; Aune, Prophecy, 413 n. 214, 429 n. 96; and see others cited in Draper, " C o m m e n t a r y " , 247. For this idea, an appeal is s o m e times m a d e to E p h 5:22—32. 119 T h u s Lake in Apostolic Fathers, 1:327 n. 2; B r o e k - U t n e , "Did. 11/11", 5 7 7 - 8 1 (with a criticism of Harnack); Draper, " C o m m e n t a r y " , 248.

The Second Century a c c o r d i n g l y is r e j e c t e d . B u t t h e j u d g e m e n t o f a genuine

215 p r o p h e t w h o enacts

[ j t o i e i v eig] " t h e m y s t e r y " , b u t d o e s n o t t e a c h [ 6 i 8 d o x e i v ] o t h e r s t o p r a c t i s e [tcoieiv] it, is t o b e l e f t u p t o G o d — " f o r t h u s a l s o d i d t h e p r o p h e t s o f o l d " . T h u s it w o u l d s e e m t h a t t h e " m y s t e r y " m u s t b e s o m e t h i n g w h i c h t h i s C h r i s tian p r o p h e t shares w i t h the O T p r o p h e t s (despite H o s e a this connection w o u l d s e e m t o r u l e o u t t h e i d e a o f s p i r i t u a l c o h a b i t a t i o n ) , 1 2 0 b u t w h i c h is n o t f r e e l y a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e c h u r c h at l a r g e . T h e p a r t i c i p i a l c l a u s e jiT] 5 i 5 d o x c o v 8 e j t o i e i v c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d in either a m o d a l (concessive: " w i t h o u t teaching") o r a conditional sense ("if h e does n o t teach").121 G i v e n o u r i g n o r a n c e o f the historical setting, w e m a y n o t b e able to say m o r e t h a n t h a t t h e t e x t h a s in v i e w t h e p r i v i l e g e d e s o t e r i c a c t i o n o f a p r o p h e t w h i c h must not be impugned.122

6.2.

Ignatius of Antioch

I g n a t i u s , B i s h o p o f A n t i o c h (d. c . 1 1 0 ) , s t a n d s i n m a n y w a y s c l o s e t o P a u l i n his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e G o s p e l . 1 2 3 H e also c l a i m s t o h a v e s p e c i a l k n o w l e d g e o f t h e h e a v e n l y w o r l d . W r i t i n g t o t h e T r a l l i a n s (5:1 f.), h e a f f i r m s his o w n i n s i g h t a n d k n o w l e d g e o f celestial m y s t e r i e s , f e a r i n g all t h e w h i l e t h a t h i s r e a d e r s a r e not m a t u r e e n o u g h to digest such matters: 120 B r o e k - U t n e , "Did. 11/11", 577f. observes, moreover, that this practice (or celibacy, for that matter) w o u l d not likely have been the special prerogative of prophets. 121 T h e apparent contrast between Jioiuv XTX. and 8i6aaxa)V tizk. w o u l d seem to c o m m e n d the concessive reading; but this need not affect the significance of the " m y s tery". 122 T h e reference m i g h t be an action (perhaps mystical?) which demonstrates that prophet has access to the counsel and the mysteries of God, as did the prophets of old; cf. A m o s 3:7 ( N . B . 110: Aquila aji0()0r|T0v); 1 Q p H a b 7:5; also N u m 12:8 [LXX], etc. [If, moreover, a H e b r e w O^lffn P or Aramaic/Syriac XaVSH KH were to stand behind (j,uaTr|Qiov xoofiixov, the passage m i g h t well refer to a mystery of the w o r l d to come.] That the specific privilege of the prophets in this context m i g h t consist in the k n o w l e d g e of eschatological mysteries was already suggested by B r o e k - U t n e , "Did 11/11", 579 f. T h e particular action of the prophet could be, as B r o e k - U t n e suggests, unusual decisions such as a sudden j o u r n e y (Acts l l : 2 7 f . ; 21:10f.) or request for m o n e y (Acts 1:27£; cf. Did 11:12), which cannot be suggested to others; or it could be a specific secret mystical practice, such as those k n o w n f r o m the Rabbis or Hekhalot literature. A parallel (to m y k n o w l e d g e hitherto unnoted) to the use of Jtoiio) w i t h h d o t t | q i o v is in Sir 8:18 (Hebrew): " D o not do before a stranger what is to be kept secret ("IT 'JS1? n iP»n 'PN), for you do not k n o w h o w it will turn out (ISO TV HS)." An admittedly m o r e far-fetched (and enigmatic) parallel might be the later Rabbinic idea of " w o r king in the mystery of the w o r l d " (Q^lff 1T~Q p0157 = jioicbv ev (XuaTr]Qiqj xoajnxm?). In its context (b. Sanh 42a etc.) this expression is a possible reference to j u d g i n g . Prophets as judges in the eschatological age are mentioned e.g. in S i b O r 1:782. 123 Carr, Angels, 136, 142; cf. Bultmann, "Ignatius", 3 7 - 5 1 .

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Surely I am not unable to write you of heavenly things? But I am afraid lest I harm you w h o are infants. Pardon me, lest you be choked by what you cannot bear. For I myself, although I am b o u n d and can understand the heavenly things and the angelic places and the archontic formations, not for this I am already a disciple. N o t u n l i k e P a u l in 1 C o r 2:6; 3:1 f. (or f o r t h a t m a t t e r t h e R a b b i s ) , 1 2 4 I g n a t i u s b e l i e v e s t h a t a d i s c l o s u r e o f h e a v e n l y k n o w l e d g e t o his r e a d e r s h i p at l a r g e m i g h t b e d e t r i m e n t a l , since t h e y a r e n o t m a t u r e e n o u g h t o c o p e w i t h i t . 1 2 5 In his o p i n i o n , t r u e C h r i s t i a n d i s c i p l e s h i p d o e s n o t at a n y r a t e d e p e n d o n t h e i n itiation into esoteric k n o w l e d g e , b u t rather o n an e x e m p l a r y lifestyle o f m e e k n e s s , f a i t h , a n d l o v e ( I g n T r a l l 8:1 f . ) . 1 2 6 B u t at t h e s a m e t i m e I g n a t i u s k n o w s himself to be a prophet with k n o w l e d g e of heavenly mysteries.127 P e r h a p s t h e b e s t k n o w n " m y s t e r y " p a s s a g e in I g n a t i u s is I g n E p h 19:1 ( a n o t h e r c o n f i r m a t i o n o f his s e l f - e s t i m a t i o n as a c h a r i s m a t i c ) : 1 2 8 " T h e v i r g i n i t y o f M a r y , a n d h e r g i v i n g b i r t h , as w e l l as t h e d e a t h o f t h e L o r d , e l u d e d t h e R u l e r o f this w o r l d : t h r e e m y s t e r i e s o f a c r y , w h i c h w e r e a c c o m p l i s h e d in t h e stillness o f G o d . " T h e t e r m ^ i u o t t i q i o v is h e r e u s e d o f t h r e e i n d i v i d u a l a s p e c t s o f G o d ' s e t e r n a l d e s i g n in C h r i s t (cf. 19:2; 18:2) 1 2 9 — b u t i n t e r e s t i n g l y t h e stress lies less o n their revelation than o n their c o n c e a l m e n t . 1 3 0 T h e fact that these items are l i n k e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f " m y s t e r y " 1 3 1 is eo ipso less s u r p r i s i n g : w e k n o w f r o m 1 C o r 2:8 t h a t t h e c r o s s as a n i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f " G o d ' s w i s d o m in a m y s t e r y " e l u d e d t h e r u l e r s o f this w o r l d ; 1 3 2 a n d in A s c l s a 11:16 t h e v i r g i n b i r t h is

124

Schoedel 144 n. 7 thinks the imagery is Hellenistic, and cites references to this effect. But the metaphor of not giving a child adult's food would seem rather to be a c o m monplace of any culture. Given Ignatius's largely Biblical and Pauline treatment of the mystery motif (so also Nock, "Hellenistic Mysteries", 813), citation of Paul is certainly in order. Carr, Angels, 138 affirms that the passage is "consciously modelled u p o n Paul." 125 T h e exception seems to be Polycarp, w h o is actually enouraged (IgnPol 2:2) to "pray that the invisible things may be revealed to you [tci 6e aoQCXTa a i t e l i v a a o i cpavsQO){h)], that you may lack nothing and abound in every gift." 126 T h e situation which Ignatius envisions (N.B. 8:1) at Tralles differs somewhat f r o m that at Corinth, in that the Trallians are clearly threatened by docetic opponents w h o neglect the incarnate Christ in favour of esoteric pursuits (cf. chs. 6—10). 127 Cf. also IgnEph 20:1 f.; IgnPhld 7:1 f.; IgnSmyr 5:1 f.; cf. further Aune, Prophecy, 291—296; and esp. Schlier, Untersuchungen, 140—152. 128 Indeed Cerfaux, Christian, 53 considers that the reference to mysteries and the whole style of the passage "indicate heavenly vision which has become doctrine". 129 Cf. Bauer/Paulsen 44 (the nuatriQLa consist of the christological Heilsdaten). 130 N o t e , however, the significance of XQauyii in this regard (cf. Bauer/Paulsen 44). 131 But note the absence in this passage of a central notion of "the mystery" (of faith or the like). T h e virgin birth as [iucn:f|giov occurs also in Justin, Dial 43. 132 Lightfoot 2:78 thinks that the clear reference to 1 C o r 1:20 in 18:1 implies here a specific allusion to 1 C o r 2:8; cf. also Bauer/Paulsen 44.

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spoken of in similar terms. But the paradox is that the three self-interpreting 133 "mysteries of a cry" were wrought as God kept silent, ev r|cruxioi "freoi).134 If these "mysteries" were implemented in the stillness of God, h o w then was Christ publicly manifested to the world (and the powers)? IgnEph 19:2 provides Ignatius's answer: by his heavenly appearance. The atroveg here may 1 3 5 or may not 1 3 6 be the astral/demonic powers allied with the Ruler of this world; but the revelation of Christ is given to them by the manifestation in heaven of his unspeakable light. 137 The historical incarnation of Christ (cf. 19:3 decu dv&QG)mvtog (pav£00U|iev0u), then, eluded the evil powers and was only revealed to them by the glory of its manifestation in heaven. 138 The decisive cosmic revelation is here not an earthly but a heavenly event. At the same time, the incarnation or "going forth" (jtQ0£Q%0j«xi)139 o f j e s u s 133 T h e y are seemingly unaccompanied by a word of revelation. Lightfoot 2:76 renders the genitive XQauyrjg " t h o u g h destined to be proclaimed aloud"; cf. p. 80, "xQatiyil is the correlative to f|Ot)xia, as revelation is to mystery". Similarly Schoedel 91 ("The unheralded events of salvation cry out their meaning to those w h o are able to grasp their significance"). Pace Daube ("xgia |Xuarr|Qia", 128 f.; similarly Grant 50), w h o somewhat i m plausibly tries to link each item with a cry uttered by Elizabeth, Mary's midwife, and Jesus, respectively. N o t e the explicit absence of a midwife in Asclsa 11:14; OdSol 19:9; etc., in the context of the early tradition of the miraculous birth o f j e s u s ; cf. Danilou, Jewish Christianity, 2 1 4 - 2 1 6 . 134 Ignatius's notion of God's stillness or silence (Bauer/Paulsen 43: a "characteristic of the divine sphere") gives an interesting hue to his idea of revelation. Thus he writes (IgnMagn 8:2), "There is one God, w h o manifested himself [¿qpavEQCoaev e a u t o v ] through Jesus Christ his son, w h o is his w o r d proceeding f r o m silence [atrtO'U Xovo; euro OLyrjg jiooE/.itmv]." Schoedel 120 f.; Grant 62 et al. deny the need to appeal to Gnostic categories: the parallel with Wisd 18:14—16 can just as easily support a j e w i s h derivation. We might further point out the popular Biblical and Jewish idea of a cosmic silence preceding a theophany: see e.g. Hab 2:20; Z e p h 1:7; Zech 2:13; Rev 8:1; also E x o d R 29:9. Ignatius speaks also of the stillness of the earthly Jesus, IgnEph 15:1 f.; cf. the Messianic secret in the Synoptics and in John (e.g. Matt 26:63par M a r k 14:61; 27:12, 14; John 19:9); also 1 Pet 2:23; Isa 42:2; 53:7. Bartsch's denial (Gnostisches Gut, 54 [ff.]) of any concrete Jesus tradition behind Ignatius's statement lacks persuasiveness. 135 E.g. Lightfoot 2:80; Schlier, Untersuchungen, 28; Schoedel 91 and n. 24; Danielou, Jewish Christianity, 221—224. 136 E.g. Grant 50. 137 Lightfoot 2:80f.; Bartsch, Gnostisches Gut, 151, 153f.; Grant 51; and Schoedel 92 see the "star" of 19:2 as alluding specifically to the star of Bethlehem. Be that as it may — a higher, symbolic meaning of this star must clearly also be intended: this is not simply the star of Matt 2 (though Matt doubtless also allegorizes the astrological meaning, 2:9b; cf. N u m 24:17?). Cf. Lightfoot 2:82: "the symbol and the thing symbolized might be blended together". 138 N . B . a glorious manifestation in heaven which, unlike Phil 2:9; 1 T i m 3:16; [Eph 3:10]; Asclsa 11:23-32; T B e n j 9:5; Justin Dial 36:5f., is linked with the nativity/epiphany rather than with the resurrection/ascension of Christ. See also the previous note. 139 IgnMagn 7:2; 8:2. For a similar idea see already J o h n 8:42; 13:3; 16:27 f.; 17:8, but with e^eqxo^c 1 ; cf- Schlier, Untersuchungen, 35.

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is crucial also for the revelation of God's mysteries; H e was f r o m eternity with the Father and was manifested (IgnMagn 6:1). N o t only is Christ the Xoyoc, and self-manifestation of God proceeding out of silence, but He is also the only one to w h o m the secrets of God have been entrusted (05 [xovog jrejuaxEUxai xa XQimxa x o i •fl-eofi, Phld. 9:1). 140

6.3. J u s t i n M a r t y r With this early Christian apologist (d. c.160) we encounter an author whose knowledge and use of the motif of "mysteries" would again merit an independent study — if only for the frequency with which the term |iucrtr|0i0V occurs (more than 50 X). The following remarks can be no more than prolegomena to such a study. Justin essentially follows and develops the use of "mystery" found in Philo. Its broad definition is that of a symbol or (exegetical) allegory; indeed it has been pointed out that [iuaxr|Qiov functions synonymously with words such as jtaQa|3oX,r|, cru[i|3oX.ov, or xtiitog. 141 In the plural it can regularly designate pagan mystery rites. 142 But in the singular its most significant reference is either to O l d Testament typologies (often with reference to a particular text, as in Philo's allegoresis), or to the saving events and realities of Christianity (the antitypes, as it were). Examples of the former are the flood (cf. already I P e t 3:20f.); the sawing asunder of Isaiah with a wooden saw; 143 the linking of God's blessings for Jacob with the horns [sic] of a unicorn (Deut 33:17LXX, as a type of the cross); or similarly of the outstretched arms of Moses in Exod 17; etc. 144 T h e latter use applies e.g. to the sonship of the crucified Christ; to the symbol of Christ as a lamb; to the idea of regeneration; or generally to the "mystery of salvation". 1 4 5 In a sense, therefore, the non-cultic uses of |xi)oxf|Qiov in Justin could be s u m marized as referring broadly to the allegorical (i.e. Christian) meaning of various Old Testament motifs. In a particularly clear passage (Dial 44) Justin spells this out. T r y p h o is told that the blessings of the Old Testament will not 140 Cf. E p D i o g n 8:9. This combination of ideas (Christ, silence, revelation of m y s teries) occurs also in R o m 16:26 and later in Gnostic writings, esp. Trimorphic Protennoia, XIII 3 7 : 4 - 3 0 (NHL, p. 463); and cf. Schlier, Untersuchungen, 41 f. 141 H a m i l t o n , " C h u r c h " , 484; earlier B o r n k a m m , "|iuaTr|Oiov", 832; v o n Soden, " M Y 2 T H P I O N " , 202. 142 E.g. Apol 1:25, 27, 54, 66; Apol 2:12. 143 For this popular legend see H e b 11:37 and esp. Asclsa 5:1, 13; 11:41; V i t P r o p h 1:1; b . Y e b 49b; y.Sanh 10, 28c.43ff. 144 See e.g. Dial 40, 91, 111, 120, 138, 139, etc. 145 Apol 1:13; Dial 40, 74, 85, etc.

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Century

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be inherited by the Jews simply by virtue of being the descendants of Abraham; they are rather dependent on z faith akin to that of Abraham, i.e. one which akknowledges Scripture's mysteries (typological meanings). Indeed all those commandments not specifically laid down for righteous living were in fact spoken F] E L ? |xuaxr|Qiov tot) X Q L O T O I I f| 8 I A t o O>TXR)0oxdg6iov xoti X D O U I ) ( I T O V , "either in relation to the mystery of Christ or on account of your people's hardness of heart." Elsewhere he affirms that the gift ( / C I Q 1 5 ) of the interpretation of Scripture has now been transferred to the Christians (Dial 82), to w h o m God has revealed (cutExaX.'ui|>EV)146 its true meaning (Dial 100). Though Justin does not appear to employ the familiar Jewish and Pauline notions of the revelation of heavenly mysteries, he nevertheless represents an interesting development in the Christian use of mystery language. For here we find Philo's idea of charismatic, allegorical interpretation of Scripture fused with a specifically Christian notion of the typological fulfilment hinging on the person and work of Christ. This hermeneutical approach has its roots above all in Paul (e.g. 1 Cor 10:4; Gal 4:21-31), in 1 Peter (e.g. 1:10-12; 3:20f.), and Hebrews (e.g. 7; 9; 10:1; 12:18—24); but in Justin it comes to flourish fully and richly.

6.4. T h e Epistle to D i o g n e t u s Date and authorship of this document are disputed and uncertain to a considerable degree, although the relatively pristine state of doctrinal development 147 may be tentatively taken to indicate a date around the middle of the second century. 148 The theological centre of the Epistle is in Chapters 7— 9. 149 Although neither the Old Testament nor the earthly life ofJesus receives more than a passing reference, 150 the writer's christology is explained with reference to the mysteries of heaven (7:2). The mystery of the Christian religion has been assigned as a stewardship (ofocovo|wa 7:1; cf. 1 Cor 4:1, 9:17) not of human but of divine origin (4:6; 5:3); God's sending of His Son (7:4f.) was the establishment of 146 Justin can occasionally use this w o r d in an apparently less theological sense of " t o divulge": Dial 90, 94 — once of the w o r d s of the p r o p h e t s and once o f j u s t i n (with |ruaTrjgiov as object). 147 E . g . christology; b u t n o t e also the concern to distinguish Christianity f r o m Judaism rather than f r o m Gnosticism or pagan cults. 148 T h u s M e e c h a m . A l t h o u g h esp. G e r m a n scholarship has o f t e n o p t e d for a considerably later date, Baumeister, " D a t i e r u n g " , 105— 111 has recently presented a r g u m e n t s for a date j u s t b e f o r e A . D . 200. 149 M e e c h a m 19. 150 M e e c h a m 20 explains this in t e r m s of the Gentile orientation.

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to Paul

heavenly truth on earth in form of the Logos, the very Creator of the world (7:2).151 God's design of salvation had at first been communicated to this Son alone, 152 but then He disclosed it publicly through His Son's manifestation (8:9—11) — the identification of the incarnation with the revelation of the saving mystery of God is not far from the mind of Paul. Those who love God and become His imitators among men are given to speak His mysteries (10:7); this suggests a rather "democratic" understanding of the propagation of God's mystery, viz. by anyone who cares to obtain full knowledge (ejuyvooai^) of it (contrast 1 Cor 2:6—10).153 The probably secondary appendix (Chapters 11 —12)154 speaks of the Christian truth as conveying a knowledge of the mysteries of the Father (11:2), revealed by the Son (11:4, 8; 12:9). In the Epistle to Diognetus, then, the trend to a generalization of the Pauline "revealed mystery" motif has been further generalized. Here too, however, it refers first and foremost to the gospel of the saving purposes of God as revealed in Jesus Christ.

151 Note the cosmological dimension of christology here in relation to the Christian mystery. This emphasis is more tentative in Paul, e.g. Col 2:3. 152 Meecham 125 traces this notion to Gen 1:26 LXX Jtoir|aa)|xev avOoomov, y.x).. 153 But see 11:8, with its more familiar notion of a disclosure of the things revealed to the author; cf. Meecham 139. 154 Cf. Meecham 64—68: possibly by Melito or Hippolytus.

Conclusion

In these concluding remarks I will begin by summing up and assessing the fruits o f earlier research from the perspective o f the present study, before proceeding to a summary and specific conclusions.

1. Evaluation of Previous Research A proper history o f research, albeit a desideratum, would unfortunately exceed the present limitations o f space. The following remarks are simply to show in brief how my results relate to a few o f the more important studies on revelation and on mysteries.

1.1. l.t.i.

Revelation Judaism

Comprehensive examinations o f Jewish views o f revelation in their own right have been rare indeed. J . B . Frey's lengthy article was a noble attempt in its time, but was not widely followed up. Certainly his ultimately negative conclusions about revelation in post-Biblical Judaism were, and all too often continue to be, characteristic o f N T scholars: the Jews searched the Torah, but their approach was mistaken. 1 Oepke's "word/concept" study in TWNT devotes less than two pages to the question as here in view; 2 and like the work o f numerous other scholars, it is rather dominated by his reading o f passages like IMacc 4:46 on the one hand, and the dismissal o f apocalyptic on the other. However, since the discovery o f the Qumran material, a number o f major specialized studies have appeared, from which my work has drawn considerable benefit. Rylaarsdam on Jewish Wisdom literature was perhaps somewhat insubstantial, but O . Betz on Qumran, Blenkinsopp on Josephus, Chester on 1 2

Frey, "Révélation", 509 f. TWNT 3:580 f.

222

Conclusions

the T a r g u m s , and the w o r k s o f S c h o l e m , Goldberg and others on Rabbinic literature have certainly been s o m e o f the milestones along the n o w

more

travelled road o f historical and literary investigations into J e w i s h apocalyptic, exegesis, and views o f Scripture.

1.1.2.

Paul

M u c h m o r e w o r k has o f course been done on the Pauline and N T view o f revelation, although s o m e o f the major studies have suffered from serious ideological and methodological weaknesses. E . F. Scott's b o o k is rather popular in character and shows no interaction with the J e w i s h background. B u l t m a n n ' s seminal essay on revelation takes a distinctly anthropological and existential approach, and is thus perhaps o f limited value — although it clearly influenced a n u m b e r o f his students. O e p k e w o r k s in m o r e appropriately theological terms, but emphasizes Heilsgeschichte

and eschatological drama at the expense o f re-

velation as divine c o m m u n i c a t i o n . H. Schulte's b o o k is essentially a collection o f w o r d studies, with a neglect o f J e w i s h and a penchant for Gnostic parallels, and with the explicit refusal (p. 85) to provide a conclusion. Wilckens (1961) o f fers a m o r e useful overview o f the N T concept o f revelation, although he is perhaps unduly constrained b y the p r o g r a m m a t i c orientation ("revelation as his t o r y " ) o f the collection in which his essay appears. D o w n i n g ' s 1964 tour

deforce

on revelation (or the absence o f it) in the N T proves really only the relative unimportance o f divine seZ/^-revelation,3 but not o f revelation as such. B y far the m o s t valuable and substantial contribution to date has been the published dissertation o f Liihrmann. T h i s contains m u c h that is useful: e x e g e tical interaction with the Pauline texts and with m a j o r secondary literature, theological evaluation, and at least a basic awareness o f J e w i s h (and Gnostic) background material. H e does not, however, devote a separate section to the study o f j e w i s h sources (but see pp. 8 4 ff., 98 f f ) , and his reference index shows relatively meagre gleanings f r o m the O l d Testament, Josephus, the Rabbis, and the T a r g u m i m (absent). 4 Although his stated m e t h o d o f evaluating the Pauline data is, expressly like Schulte's (p. 11), s o m e w h a t statistical (viz., based on the occurrence o f particular Greek verbs), fortunately in practice he rises above this to an examination o f w h o l e contexts (e.g. Chapter Four on 2 C o r ) . M y main disagreement with his conclusions is over his basic Bultmannian orientation (p. 155 and passim), which leads h i m to deny the historical and christological aspects o f Paul's view o f revelation, and to focus instead on the existential and k e r y g m a t i c . 5 Note e.g. "Revelation", 185. In part this may be due to his declared presupposition (p. 14 n. 4) that the background to Paul's view of revelation is to be sought in "Jewish wisdom including Philo". 5 This is a criticism also mounted by earlier readers, e. g. Merklein, Amt, 194; Luz, Ge3 4

Evaluation of Previous Research

1.2.

223

"Mystery"

In both major and minor contributions, the notion of "mystery" has long received rather more sustained attention. While the so-called History of Religions School had for the most part favoured a flowery array of popular Hellenistic religious motifs, the groundwork for an approach through the O T and Jewish texts was laid by G. B o r n k a m m and a little earlier by D . Deden in a relatively neglected article (Gallica sunt, non legunturl). The latter's conclusion, twelve years before the decisive discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, is substantially the same as that of R. E. B r o w n : N o u s possédons dans les présupposés juifs tout ce qui est nécessaire pour expliquer le vocabulaire et la formation des idées chrétiennes. . . . En pratique, nous excluons du m ê m e coup toute influence réelle de l'hellénisme et de la phraséologie religieuse du paganisme sur la langue de l'Apôtre. 6

A clear death-knell of the theory of pagan derivation was rung by K. Priimm, w h o in 1960 concluded a series of articles with a learned but lumbering contribution on "mysteries", in which after detailed study of the Hellenistic evidence he arrives inter alia at the conclusion that the Pauline |J.DOTT|QIOV is to be understood on the basis of Q u m r a n and the L X X (i.e. Daniel). 7 T h e t w o most valuable and substantial works are by B r o w n and Penna. B r o w n has perhaps done the most to sway scholarly opinion to a j e w i s h reading of the Pauline notion of mystery. His background w o r k in the Jewish sources is careful and thorough (though he omits specific treatment of the Targums and Rabbinic literature), and this bears good fruit in his reading of the Pauline texts. M y discussion above records agreement with him on most exegetical points. However, he pursues what is essentially a w o r d study, largely ignoring thematic/theological connections (e.g. with the O T ) as well as words in paradigmatic correlation to (j,ucrtr|Qiov (e.g. cutÔQQTytov, ôutôxoucpov, -XQimx-, etc.). Penna takes for granted B r o w n ' s conclusions, without offering much independent w o r k in the Jewish sources (Qumran being a partial exception). But his thematically organized presentation on the whole betrays a good understanding of the texts; unlike B r o w n he goes on to evaluate some of the attendant theological themes. He also offers (as promised, p. 9) a rather fuller biblioschichtsverstàndnis, 287 n. 94. Cf. m y C h . 8, § 1.1 passim. T h e dissertation of K. L. B u r res, "Semantics", is primarily an exercise in structuralist methodology; that of R. E. Sturm, "Apokalyptô", I have been unable to obtain. A. Schweitzer's famous Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, despite the title, is not of direct relevance to the subject here in view. 6 Deden, "Mystère", 434; cf. B r o w n , Mystery, 69. Deden's critique of the prevailing History of Religions position (e.g. A. Loisy) focuses on the absence of important pagan terminology f r o m the N e w Testament (p. 426). 7 Priimm, "Mystères", 180. See already "Mysterion", 135.

224

Conclusions

graphy than his predecessors. My main hesitation about this work is that its wholly synthetic and thematic layout has enticed its author into confident generalizations 8 which, though often true, sometimes do less than justice to the texts. Thus e.g. his conclusions about the ecclesiological (67ff.), anthropological (79 ff.) and non-cosmological (87) nature of the Pauline mystery are based on a good deal of extrapolation. 9 T w o other works deserve a brief mention here. Caragounis's book on (XDOT T | Q I O V in Ephesians is a welcome attempt to remain sensitive to the flavour of the word |it)(Xtf|0i0v in Hellenistic religion; but overall the book is unfortunately a disappointment. Chapter 5 on the Jewish background lacks depth and perspective. He employs a diachronic word study of piucrcriQiov as something "incomprehensible, hard to understand" and then goes on — oblivious to J. Barr's strictures — to impose this on "all subsequent times to the present day". 1 0 This leads to an emphasis on form rather than content of the mystery: incomprehensibility becomes its essence. Apart from this it is difficult to perceive a central thesis, not least because much time is spent on extraneous matters. 11 Finally, A. E. Harvey, while allowing for the dominance of a Jewish determination of the Biblical and Pauline concept of mystery, has called for greater awareness of "overtones" of Hellenistic mystery metaphors. This of course is a helpful balance to Brown's approach: "Even if all the instances of [ii)0tr|Qi0v can be explained' in terms of raz, it does not follow that the writer did not intend, and the reader did not pick up, some echo of the Greek mystery-metaphor." 1 2 However, two points of criticism are in order. First, if the meaning of e.g. the Pauline uuoxf|()iov is predominately Jewish, any intentional double entendre in a given context would need to be demonstrated rather than assumed. And secondly, the bridge between "what the writer intended" and "what the reader picked up" is not as secure as Harvey supposes. In any case, "reader re-

8 B e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e preface, p. 10: the Pauline |XVarf|QI0V " c o n t a i n s in nuce all t h e elab o r a t i o n s of s y s t e m a t i c t h e o l o g y . " O n e m a y (as t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r ) or m a y n o t b e inclin e d t o agree, b u t such c o n f i d e n c e in t h e prolegomena to an exegetical s t u d y is h a r d t o match. 9 M o r e o v e r , e.g. the claim (p. 17) that t h e Hellenistic m y s t e r i e s are o p p o s e d t o t h e Pauline m y s t e r y in e v e r y o n e o f their characteristics (including their "absence o f m o r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s " ) , is m a n i f e s t l y incorrect. 10 Mysterion, 32 f.; h e calls this " t h e first a n d f o r e m o s t c o n c l u s i o n o f this s t u d y " . It leads to s o m e unlikely i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , as of 2 T h e s s 2:7; M a r k 4 : l l p a r ; R e v 1:20. 11 Fully half of t h e text is spent o n a general discussion o f E p h ; little a t t e n t i o n is g i v e n e.g. to t h e relationship w i t h C o l . 12 H a r v e y , " M y s t e r y L a n g u a g e " , 331: clearly a critique of B r o w n ' s c o n c l u s i o n ( M y s tery, 69).

Summary

225

sponse criticism" in Paul is a risky enterprise at best, and in respect to our topic would merit a separate study. It remains here to summarize and assess our results.

2. Summary We set out to inquire into notions of divine revelation and mysteries, and to show that the latter are profitably studied within the framework of the former. It would appear that this endeavour has been successful — not only with regard to Paul, whose notion of God's mysteries is firmly integrated with his understanding of the fundamental revelation in Jesus Christ, but also with regard to early Judaism, where the mysteries of Torah and the mysteries of heaven are consistently associated with special revelation (or lack of it, as the case may be).

2.1. J u d a i s m (cf. the earlier synthetic statement pp. 124—126) As a corollary to the belief in a fading of the Spirit and of prophecy after the exile, we noted in Judaism a certain reluctance to speak of revelation outside the Torah. But alongside this was a wealth of evidence to suggest that God continued to speak even to the present generation, chiefly through inspired insights (whether exegetical or visionary) granted to privileged interpreters of God's word written. "Mystery" is the name frequently given to the content of such revelation — be it the hidden treasures of Torah or the intricacies of uranography and the heavenly plan of salvation. While the soteriological secrets of heaven serve a purpose of theodicy (thus connecting with O T antecedents of "mystery") and help the writer's community to identify its place within history, halakhic mysteries delineate the distinctive way of life appropriate to that place.

2.2. Paul In coming to Paul we found, despite a good deal of structural continuity, a fundamental shift in the approach to revelation, in which the Torah has become (not "replaced" by Christ and the gospel, but) the attendant witness to the surpassing end-time revelation of God's righteousness and saving design. Qualified and gifted Christian exegesis unlocks its true message, which was written "altogether for our sake." 13 13

N e x t to the " w o r d s of the L o r d " (including, perhaps, Jesus's approach to halakhah)

226

Conclusions

2.2.1. In the recent past, God has manifested His righteousness in the historical events of the sacrificial death and resurrection ofjesus; at the same time He has revealed the dispensation of faith in Christ, by which Jews and Gentiles alike are justified. 2.2.2. This revelation of the gospel has been uniquely granted in the past to the apostles (apparently with the resurrection appearances, Gal 1; 1 Cor 15). But it has n o w been "kerygmatized" in that the present preaching of the gospel continues to reveal the eschatological righteousness and wrath of God, and the apostolic ministry itself constitutes a living demonstration of the truth and knowledge of God. Paul affirms other present-day (esp. prophetic) disclosures as important; indeed they are given as manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 12:7, etc.) and in response to prayer (2Cor 12:8 f.). But these phenomena do not appear to be of permanent, foundational significance to his overall view of revelation. 2.2.3. Against the backdrop of first-century Judaism, the past and present dimensions of revelation suggest the inauguration of the eschaton. Nevertheless the ultimate revelation o f j e s u s Christ as saviour and judge in glory, and of the believers with Him, is still to come; all that precedes this must be seen in its light. 2.2.4. In Paul as in Judaism, the notion of divine mysteries is intricately linked with revelation. 14 T w o levels 15 of publicly taught mysteries have been revealed by the Spirit (1 Cor 2:10ff.) 16 to the apostles (and prophets), w h o act as their responsible stewards and dispensers. 17 (i) "Mystery" or "mysteries" can refer collectively to the saving purposes of God, especially as these are summed up in the message of the gospel of Christ. This usage occurs in 1 Cor and more fully in Col; it is further developed in Eph and later writings. (ii) A mystery can at the same time denote one particular (sometimes detailed) aspect of God's plan of salvation, especially as this relates to the eschaton. Examples include R o m 11:25f. and 1 Cor 15:51.

the T o r a h continues to play a s u p p o r t i n g ethical role, of a kind not unrelated to certain Jewish Hellenistic ideas. 14 Cf. Penna's observation (Mysterion, 27) that in all 13 (sic) Pauline [At)arr|Ql,ov texts a v e r b of revelation is present: cttioxaWitTO), yvojoiio), yivaxwa), cpam'Ço), or XaXéa). Cf. earlier Deden, " M y s t è r e " , 419f. 15 Similarly P r u m m , "Mystères", 219f. ; van R o o n , " W i s d o m " , 216. 16 This n o t i o n is absent f r o m Col; contrast E p h 3:5 etc. Cf. f u r t h e r Part I above; p. 165 n. 37; also p. 144 f. T h e specific function of the Spirit in Paul's view of revelation w o u l d merit further study. 17 N . B . Illegitimate or evil mysteries do n o t figure significantly, t h o u g h 2 T h e s s 2:7 ([iuaTriQiov xfjç à v o n i a ç ) appears to present a parallel to Q u m r a n ' s " c o u n t e r - m y s teries", the evil designs of Belial; cf. e.g. 2 C o r 2:11; 4:4.

Evaluation

of Results

227

2.2.5. T h e latter category o f mysteries o f particular doctrine seems to be disclosed with considerable caution, being couched in contexts o f traditional language and careful Scriptural proof. Such mysteries are introduced only under certain circumstances, the criteria being the maturity o f the audience and its edification on an issue o f particular concern. 2.2.6. T h e mystical revelation ofheavenly mysteries and the participation in angelic worship was part o f the religious experience both o f Paul and o f the C o rinthian (and perhaps Colossian?) charismatics. However, the apostle considers such matters best reserved for private contemplation; charismatic CtftoxaXuipi? at any rate is incomplete where it cannot be rationally formulated and intelligibly communicated to the church for its edification. 2 . 2 . 7 . In keeping with this principle, Paul himself never bases his authority for the disclosure o f a particular [u>atf|Qiov on a vision. Rather, each item o f new revelation is placed squarely against the background o f Scripture and o f familiar tradition. 1 8 2 . 2 . 8 . In the doubtfully Pauline and post-apostolic material examined in Chapter 11, we observed a number o f significant changes in terminology and orientation. In particular, we found a further continuation o f the increasingly collective and general use o f " m y s t e r y " to denote the gospel o f Christ as a whole, or the totality o f God's saving purposes for mankind as revealed in him (and pertaining especially to the church). Ignatius and the Epistle to Diognetus stress that the theme o f hiddenness and revelation turns decisively on the incarnation o f Christ, while Justin Martyr could be said to apply Philo's allegorical interpretation (and mystery terminology) to Paul's christological hermeneutic o f the O l d Testament.

3. Evaluation of Results 3.1.

Revelation

O n e implication o f this view o f the Pauline pattern o f revelation is its logical symmetry, mutatis mutandis, with the corresponding pattern o f Judaism. For a similar three-dimensional perspective applies there as well: (i) past salvation event (Exodus) and constitutive revelation (the Torah given to Moses); (ii) present revealed elaboration (through tradition and interpretation) o f the past revelation; and (iii) future crowning revelation o f the Messiah and/or the K i n g -

18 For a context o f congregational worship his envisioned procedure may in fact be similar, since prophecy is subject to testing (1 C o r 14:29), presumably by (inter alia) the same criteria o f Scripture and tradition. See further Dunn, "Testing", 189 f., 192.

228

Conclusions

d o m o f G o d . For Paul the f u t u r e d i m e n s i o n has already b r o k e n into the past and the present; similarly s o m e J e w i s h w r i t e r s (notably those o f Q u m r a n ) share the c o n j u n c t i o n o f f u t u r e a n d present eschatology, 1 9 as well as the sense o f a f u n d a m e n t a l revelation in the recent past. 2 0 W e c a n n o t t h e r e f o r e p r o p e r l y speak of a " b u r s t i n g " or " a b a n d o n m e n t " o f the apocalyptic p a t t e r n of revelation as disclosure in this age and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n in the age to c o m e . 2 1 Paul retains the apocalyptic schema, a l t h o u g h he subjects it to considerable m o d i f i c a t i o n in light o f the actual incursion, in C h r i s t and the Gospel, of G o d ' s eschatological righteousness into the present. 2 2 T h r e e t e m p o ral d i m e n s i o n s r e m a i n in place, but are subject to a christocentric redefinition and consolidation.

3.2. Revelation o f Mysteries As m e r e esoterica, mysteries of heaven are of relatively little interest to Paul; in this he is at o n e w i t h the M i s h n a h and early Rabbinic J u d a i s m . W h i l e he c o n sistently distinguishes b e t w e e n the s t e w a r d s and the addressees o f revelation, his differentiation in 1 C o r i n t h i a n s b e t w e e n t w o levels of teaching is n o t explicitly developed in Colossians (and the later letters). Instead, Paul seems to c o n dense his teaching a b o u t mysteries into a " g r a n d e r " , m o r e universal conception o f " t h e m y s t e r y o f C h r i s t " , in w h i c h C h r i s t o l o g y and soteriology are one. T h u s he counters the threat o f esoteric aberrations b y h o m i n g in o n the central gospel message in a m o v e m e n t o f increasing exotericism a n d global perspectives. It m a y be this inclusive v i e w o f the christological m y s t e r y , t o g e t h e r w i t h his reserve a b o u t esoteric matters, w h i c h also obviates the need to speak a b o u t the m o r e cosmological secrets o f heaven. T h i s m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e m y s t e r y is also the o n e w h i c h later w r i t e r s in the Pauline tradition take as their starting point. A curious feature, prima facie, is the c o m p l e t e absence o f the category o f halakhic mysteries of exegesis, so c o m m o n in c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h w r i t i n g s — this despite a considerable a m o u n t of concrete ethical instruction, b y n o m e a n s all o f w h i c h is s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f c o m m o n l y accepted n o r m s . B u t , as w e saw, Paul's exegesis generally avoids large areas o f halakhah. M o r e o v e r , it m i g h t well be a violation o f his o w n criteria o f oixoSo(if| and T015 Tcdoiv Jtavxcc, w e r e 19

See esp. K u h n , Enderwartung, 176—181 and passim. Cf. also e.g. JosAsen 15:4f. N o t e esp. the function of the Teacher of Righteousness. 21 Pace e.g. Luhrmann, Offenbarungsverstandnis, 79, 108; Kim, Origin, 73. Cf. also Stuhlmacher, Evangelium, 79; and 81 n. 2 for his criticism of Luhrmann. (Kim appears to have misread Stuhlmacher, since he [74 n. 1] acknowledges indebtedness to the former's pp. 76ff.) 22 Cf. also Beker, Paul, 145 f.; Soards, "Paul", 149. 20

Evaluation

of

229

Results

he to stun his Gentile churches with exegetical wizardry o f the kind practised at Qumran or in the Palestinian beth ha-midrash.23

Nevertheless, where necessary

Paul is quite willing to propose an eschatological mystery derived by exegetical revelation (Rom 11:25; 1 C o r 15:51). Over all it seems to be true for Paul as for Judaism that the written Torah requires an oral Torah (in his case, christological hermeneutics, gospel tradition, kerygma) to become audible as the word o f God £15 r||X£T£Qav

bibaoKakiav,

"paV?. What is more, it would not be conceptually alien to contemporary J u daism to speak o f a revealed Messianic " m y s t e r y " as the hermeneutical key to the reading o f Scripture and o f Heilsgeschichte

(cf. Qumran, etc.). In this way

the interconnection o f revelation past and present may help one to see from a different perspective h o w Paul "reasoned his way into" his understanding o f the complex interpretation o f Torah: it could be that precisely where Paul's views on revelation seem most removed from Judaism, they in fact remain logically compatible with one o f the latter's most basic structures o f thought. 2 4 Finally, we note the relative subsidence o f the theodicy question in Paul's discussion o f the revelation o f mysteries. 2 5 While such revelation still accentuates God's sovereignty in history and cosmos, no longer does it serve to hold in hopeful abeyance the believer's painful question, " H o w long, O h Lord?" Much o f this is no doubt to be attributed to Paul's conviction that in Christ God has in fact manifested His righteousness ( R o m 3:21 ff., etc.) and thus made the question obsolete: " F o r all the promises o f God find their Yes in h i m " (2 C o r 1:20; cf. R o m 5:1 — 11; also e.g. T i t 3:4—7). Potential issues o f theodicy do arise (suffering, death), but they seem less intractable. T h e death o f believers proves to be reconcilable with an imminent eschaton, and suffering (at any rate apostolic suffering) is as it were taken on board, made into an integral and necessary part o f God's unstoppable movement towards victory and new creation. In a sense Paul's theologia cruris can be seen to turn the theodicy problem on its head: what seems God's folly to "the wise, the scribe, the debater o f this age", has in fact become the wisdom o f God — "Christ crucified". T h e hidden salvific dimensions o f God's wisdom in this mystery are known by revelation only (1 C o r 2 : 6 - 1 0 ; cf. 2 C o r 4 : 3 - 1 8 , etc.). But perhaps one area in which Paul does face an abiding issue o f theodicy (apart from his more personal trouble with the axoAoty tfj a a p x i ) is the hardheartedness o f Israel. Paul struggles seriously with this issue in R o m 9—11, and after much interaction with Scripture it is finally resolved — again, by revela23

N o t e in this regard the observation o f Harnack, p. 156 n. 144 above.

24

In this respect one o f the weaknesses o f T . Williams's Form and Vitality is his failure

to recognize that revelation as " m e t a - r e v e l a t i o n " , as interpretation o f previously received revelation, is foundational to the logic o f doctrinal stability and creativity in both J u daism and early Christianity. 25

Cf. further B u l t m a n n , Theologie,

350.

230

Conclusions

tion of a mystery: a partial hardening has happened to Israel until26 the fulness of the Gentiles has come in. Paul's theology of revelation and mystery had a lasting impact on the early post-apostolic age. The later letters of the Pauline corpus, along with the Apostolic Fathers, continue the emphasis on the universal (and especially the ecclesiological) dimensions of the divine mystery revealed in Christ. Thus the moving passage in the Epistle to Diognetus 8:9—11, in some ways almost an exposition of Paul, supplies a most fitting conclusion: H a v i n g f o r m e d a great and unspeakable design, [God] c o m m u n i c a t e d it to this Child alone. A n d so long as he kept it in a m y s t e r y and guarded His wise counsel, he seemed to neglect us and to be careless; b u t w h e n he revealed it t h r o u g h his beloved Child, and manifested the things prepared f r o m the beginning, he gave us all things at once, b o t h to share in his benefits and to see and understand — and w h i c h of us w o u l d ever have expected these things?

26 N o t e Zeller o n the O.%QI oi>, above, p. 173 f. n. 82. Cf. further D u n n , 2:278 f.

Romans,

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Zeilinger, Franz. Der Erstgeborene der Schöpfung: Untersuchungen zur Formalstruktur und Theologie des Kolosserbriefes. V i e n n a : H e r d e r , 1974. Zeitlin, S o l o m o n . " D r e a m s and their I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . " JQR 66 (1975—76): 1 — 18. Zeller, D i e t e r . Der Brief an die Römer. R e g e n s b u r g e r N e u e s T e s t a m e n t . R e g e n s b u r g : P u s t e t , 1984. Zeller, D i e t e r . Juden und Heiden in der Mission des Paulus: Studien zum Römerbrief. F o r s c h u n g z u r Bibel 1. S t u t t g a r t : K a t h o l i s c h e s B i b e l w e r k , 1973. Z i e g e r t , Paul. " Ü b e r die A n s ä t z e zu einer M y s t e r i e n l e h r e a u f g e b a u t auf den a n t i k e n M y sterien bei P h i l o J u d ä u s . " TSK76 (1894): 7 0 6 - 7 3 2 . Z i m m e r l i , W a l t h e r . " ' O f f e n b a r u n g ' i m A l t e n T e s t a m e n t : E i n G e s p r ä c h m i t R. R e n d t o r f f . " EvT 22 (1962): 1 5 - 3 1 . Z o b e l , H a n s - J ü r g e n . "n"71." TW AT 1 (1973): 1 0 1 8 - 1 0 3 1 . Z u n z , [Leopold]. Die gottesdienstlichen Vorträge der Juden, historisch entwickelt: Ein Beitrag zur Alterthumskunde und biblischen Kritik, zur Literatur- und Religionsgeschichte. Edited b y N . Brüll. 2 n d ed. F r a n k f u r t : K a u f f m a n n , 1892.

Additions to the Bibliography D a h l , N i l s A l s t r u p . " F o r m g e s c h i c h t l i c h e B e t r a c h t u n g e n z u r C h r i s t u s v e r k ü n d i g u n g . " In Neutestamentliche Studienfür Rudolf Bultmann, 3—9. E d i t e d b y W a l t e r Eltester. B Z N W 21. Belin: T ö p e l m a n n , 1954. G l o e g e , G e r h a r d . " O f f e n b a r u n g u n d Ü b e r l i e f e r u n g . " TLZ 79 (1954): 2 1 3 - 2 3 6 . G u t h r i e , D o n a l d . New Testament Introduction. 3 r d ed. D o w n e r s G r o v e : I n t e r - V a r s i t y , 1970. G u t h r i e , D o n a l d . The Pastoral Epistles. T y n d a l e N e w T e s t a m e n t C o m m e n t a r i e s . G r a n d R a p i d s : E e r d m a n s , 1957. H a m i l t o n , J. D . B. " T h e C h u r c h a n d t h e L a n g u a g e o f M y s t e r y : T h e First F o u r C e n t u ries." ETL 53 (1977): 4 7 9 - 4 9 4 . H a t c h , E d w i n . Essays in Biblical Greek. O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n , 1889. Hill, R. " S y n o p t i c 'Basileia' a n d P a u l i n e ' M y s t e r i o n ' . " EstBib 45 (1987): 3 0 9 - 3 2 4 . [ N o n Vidi.] K e n n e d y , H . A. A. St. Paul and the Mystery Religions. L o n d o n : H o d d e r & S t o u g h t o n , 1913. Lock, W a l t e r . A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles. I C C . E d i n b u r g h : T . & T . C l a r k , 1978 [ = 1924].

Index of Passages

Genesis 1-3 1:26 2:2 (LXX) 2:7 2:24 6:1-4 6:2 (LXX) 6:4 (LXX) 9:12 12:2f 13:15f 17:11 17:14 19:13 20:3ff. 25:23 28:12 28:12 31:1 Off 31:11 31:24 32:3 37:19 40:12 40:18 41:16 41:32 41:38f 44:5 49 49:1 49: Iff 49:6

141 220 102 72 204 30 102 183 183 152 152 131 131 119 8 119 121 169 25 8 8 212 58 48 48 59 27 59 8 34 95, 119 152 15

4:16 (LXX) 5:22 6:3 (LXX) 12:41 12:42 12:43 14-15 14:3 14:8 15:1 15:7 15:7f 18:4 19:16 19:4 19:18 (LXX) 20:18 20:2 20:6 22:26 (LXX) 23:2 24:7 24:9ff 24:10 (LXX) 25:22 25:40 27:21 30:21 32:15f 32:32 33:11 33:17ff 33:20

Testament 101 11 100 106 95 118 30 109 43 114 139 139 113 8 113 71 73 73 164 101 108 117 74 74, 101 134 36 183 183 143 143 143 74 119

Leviticus Exodus 2:12 2:15 3:lff 3:6 (LXX) 3:14 (LXX)

143 143 74 101 100

6:18 7:26 10:9 16:8-10 17:7 17:8

183 183 183 8 183

17:10 17:12f 18:5 18:6ff (LXX) 20:llff (LXX) 23:14 23:21 23:31 23:41 24:3 27:34

155 155 152 101 101 183 183 183 183 183 111

Numbers 7:89 10:8 11:1 11:10 11:16-30 11:33 12:6-8 12:8 15:15 15:30 16:31-47 18:23 22:31 (LXX) 23f. 23:3 24:1 24:4 (LXX) 24:15-24 24:16 (LXX) 24:17 25:3 (LXX) 25:5 27:21 27:21 31:16 33:3

134 183 139 11 64 139 111,152 101, 143, 167, 214 00

Old

43 139 183 101 26 8 8 101 152 101 26, 102 102 78, 102 8 85 96 43

Old Ruth

Deuteronomy 1:9-16 3:26 4:6 8:3 (LXX) 9:18-20 13:1-5 13:2 14:23 (LXX) 17:8-11 17:8 17:19 18:14-22 18:15 18:18f 18:20 18:22 18:28ff 19:16-19 23:17(18) 27:3 27:8 27:26 28:12 28:15-68 28:58 29:24-27 29:28 30:11-14 30:12 30:12f 31:9 31:12 32:2 (LXX) 32:34f. 32:46 33 33:8 33:9 (LXX) 33:10 (LXX) 33:17 34:10

64 143 63 97 139 12 145 101 9 83 13 12 38, 152 152 145 145 152 9 79 13 13 13, 155 34 155 13 139 13f, 40, 44, 66,116 14 108,110 152f 9 13 29 14 13 34 9 101 85 218 143, 152

Joshua 1:7 7:22 8:34 24:29ff

13 212 13 83

Judges l:lf 7:24 9:23 18:5

83 212 56 9

4:4 (LXX) 1 Samuel 2:27 (LXX) 3:1 3:7 (LXX) 3:15ff 3:21 (LXX) 6:19 9:15 14:37 16:13 16:14 20:2 (LXX) 20:13 (LXX) 20:30 (LXX) 22:8 (LXX) 22:17 (LXX) 23:9-12 9 24:15f 28:13 (LXX) 28:20 28:6 30:7 1 Samuel 5:22ff. 5:24 7 7:27 23:1 1 Kings 3:12 3:16-27 3:28 13:18 19:12 22:19 22:22 56

277

Testament

101 101 10 101 53 97, 101 139 43, 101 8 47 56 101 101 101 101 101 139 101 30 8 9

Q O

8 9 43, 101 47 59 107 59 145 8, 206 116

1 Kings 3:15 4:30 12:3 (LXX) 16:15 17:28 (LXX) 20 22:13 23:26

62 119 98 8 98 9 154 139

1 Chronicles 16:36 (LXX) 17:25 21:1

183 43 56

25:1-3 28:18 28:19 29:10 (LXX) Chronicles 1:10 15:3 9 20:18-23 29:30 30:32 35:6 36:21f

62 116 36 183

2

60 175 62 44 13 143

Ezra 2:63 3:2 7:25 8:18

61 60 13 44

Nehemiah 7:65 8 9:5 (LXX)

61 13 183

Esther 10:3 / (LXX)

18, 100

Job l:7ff 4:16 4:21 (LXX) 9:2-12 9:9 (LXX) 11:5 11:6 11:7 12:22 15:8 19:19 26:14 26:5-14 28:13f, 28:1 28:12ff 32:7-9 33:16 43 34:32 36:10 36:15 38-40 38-42 38: Iff 38:22 42:14 (LXX) 42:17 (LXX)

56 206 158 102 14 14, 67 165 14, 115, 165 15, 102 15 67 63 14 161 60 43 43 43 35 60 34 34 102 103

278 Psalms 1

13, 46 56 15, 56 139 139 139 139 139 174 9 8 13,63, 110 28 117 43 183 15 15, 102, 108, 115, 117f 29:1 169 29:3 10 30:8 10 31:14 15, 56 31:20 164 33:7 34 37 47 41 (40): 13 (LXX) 183 12 44:77 50:1 10 50:3 10 51:15 62 51:8 14, lOlf 55:15 15 59:10 11 11 59:6 59:9 62 64:3 15, 56 68:19 152 68:36 10 74:9 13 76:9 110 78:49f 139 139 78:59 10 80:4 15, 56, 114 83:4 89:8 15, 114 89:46 174 90(89) :2 (LXX) 183 90:8 43, 203 174 90:13 93(92) :2 (LXX) 183 94:1 10 9 97:1-5 98:2 11 1:1 2:2 2:12 7:10 7:12 7:7 11:6 13:1 18:7-15 18:9ff. 19 19:9 19:10 19:12 25(24):6 (LXX) 25:13 25:14

Index of Passages 103(102):17 (LXX) 183 105:8 210 106(105):28 (LXX) 183 106(105):48 (LXX) 183 97 107:20 111:1 15 13 111:10 9 114 119 13, 45 119:18 14, 101 119:27 14 119(118) :52 (LXX) 183 119:104 28 119:105 98 119:129 14 119:130 28, 101 125:3 8 140:8 11 11 143:5 148:2 169 103 151 (LXX) Proverbs 1:7 1:20-23 1:23 2:4-6 2:4 2:6 2:64 3:16 3:32 6:23 8 8:17 8:22 8:30 10:12 11:13 15:14 15:22 20:19 20:27 25:9 29:18 30:1-4

14 60 60 14 60 14, 60 73 64 15 28, 98 66 60 110 110 112 15, 102, 199 60 15 15 14, 102 15 13, 63 60

Ecclesiastes 5:6 12:9 12:11 (LXX)

12 109 60

Isaiah 2:2 3:3

95 102, H i

6 6:lff 6:3 6:10 8:16 9:5 10:5-11 10:34 11:10 19:19-25 20:3f 23:18 (LXX) 24:16 24:17-23 28:5 28:7 29:9 29:11 f. 30:10 30:27-30 30:27 (LXX) 33:6 38:11 (LXX) 40-66 40:5 40:10 40:12-31 42:1-4 42:2 42:4 45:3 (LXX) 45:15 45:19 45:23 (LXX) 46:9 (LXX) 48:6 48:16 51:4 52:1011, 1 53:1 (LXX) 53:7 55:4 55:8 55:11 (LXX) 56:1 (LXX) 57:6 58:12 58:14 (LXX) 59:1 62:11 63:1-6 63:4 64:3 64:4 65:16 66:10-16

9 74, 116 169 102, 174 15, 59, 102 55 139 89 173 173 144 102 102, 119 30 213 12, 26 12 15 12 139 139 188, 189, 201 101 13 11, 101 213 35 173 217 38 102, 189 11 66 97 183 66 66 28 1 101 217 173 12 97 101 8 183 102 11 213 139 139 163f 119, 183 163 139

Old Jeremiah 1:9 1:11-14 2:8 2:20 (LXX) 6:11 7-10 10:13 11:20 (LXX) 12:4 14:13-16 14:14 15:17 18 18:1 18:18 20:7 21:4 23:5 23:9-15 23:16-22 23:16 23:18 23:20 23:25-29 23:25ff 23:25 23:29 (LXX) 25:5 (LXX) 25:11 27:9 28:9 29:8 32:6-15 33(40):6 (LXX) 35:8 (LXX) 50:25 50:34

143 9 9 183 15 139 34 140 174 145 12 15 9 9 9 11 9 15 145 15, 145 12 15 95 12 26 12, 58 97 183 15 12 12 12 144 101 183 14 139

Lamentations 2:9 2:14 Ezekiel 1:15-21 2:9f 3:1-3 3:1 3:12 3:27 7:26 12:24 13:6-9 13:6ff 13:9 16:36 (LXX)

13 12

116 143 30 13 169 143 13 12 12 26 15 101

16:57 (LXX) 101 21:34 12 12 23:26 23:29 (LXX) 101 28:12 213 201 28:3 32:27 (LXX) 183 36:27 105 38:17 26 11 39:24 40:2 36 9 44:23 Daniel 1:17 2 2:18 2:19-23 2:19 2:20 2:21 2:22

279

Testament

201 48 15f, 102 59, 161 15f, 101, 183 16, 201 16, 101, :115, 118, 165 2:27 15f, 102 2:28 15f, 102 2:28f (fl') 101 2:29 15f, 102, 2:30 15f, 101 2:39 (d') 102 2:47 15f, lOlf 3:38 (LXX) 29 4 48 4:5 16 4:6 15f, 102, 4:15 16 4:31 (LXX) 107 7:9-14 30 7:9f 116 713 37 8:17 27 8:19 27 8:26 27 9 26, 31 9:2ff. 15 9:3 30 9:16-19 27 9:22ff. 15 9:24-27 47 9:24 174 10:1 lOlf, 201 10:14 95 11:33 44 12:3 44 12:9 95 12:12 164 12:13 8, 95

Hosea l:2ff

3:5 4:6 6:5 (LXX) 6:6

144 95 9 140 112

Joel 3:lf

105, 144

Amos 1 3:7 5:27 7:7 8:1 8:11 9:11

155 12, 15, 36, 102, 114, 119 43 8 9 13, 99 173

Micah 3:1-4 3:5 3:11 4:1 5:2 (LXX)

11 12 9 95 183

Nahum l:3ff. Habakkuk 1:2-4 1:5-11 1:12-14 1:15-17 2:1 2:2

2:2f. 2:3 2:3f 2:4 2:6-20 2:20 3:lfF 3:3-6 3:3 (a'#') 3:5 (LXX) 3:12 (LXX) 3:34

140 140 140 140 143 27 15 95, 164 140 138, 140 140 206, 217 140 139 101 97, 139 139

Zephaniah 1:7 3:8

206, 217 164

280

Index of Passages

Haggai 1:12 1:13 2:23

60 212 60

Zechariah 1:12 2:13

174 206, 217

6:12f. 9-14 10:2 12:3 13:3 13:4 14:6-9

New Matthew 3 3:17 5:17 5:48 10:20 11:10 11:13 11:25-27 11:25 159, 175 11:29 13:16 13:19 13:39 13:40 13:49 13:52 17:5 19:21 21:15ff 21:43 23:2f 23:31 23:34 23:35 24:3 24:14 24:31 25:34 26:63 28:20

140 107 45, 151f 158 143 212 152 160, 210 67, 109, 67 210 56 56, 135 135 135 166 107 158 109 173 113 58 59 57, 85 135 173 172 182 217 135

172f 163 217 217 217

Luke 1:9 1:67-79 1:70 2:13 2:20 2:32 3:18 4:21 7:24 7:27 7:35 9:52 10:21 11:49 12:42 13:3 19:11 21:24 195 22:31 23:13 23:35 24:20 24:27 24:44

212 135 163 163, 224 163 113 163 163 182

1:1-18 1:31 1:45 5:45-47 7:3 8:42 8:44 8:56-58 9:32

Malachi 1:1 2:7 3:10 3:22

212 9, 143 14 14

11:51 12:34 12:41 13:2 13:3 14:15 14:30 14:6 16:27 17:8 19:9

61, 88 152 197 163 217 152 163 152 217 217 217

Testament

8 62 183 169 169 173 140 152 212 212 60 212 159 60 166 140 38 135, 172f, 56 163 163 163 152 152

John

Mark 1:2 1:15 3:22 4:11 7: Iff 7:3f 8:11 9:14 10:6

13:10 13:32 14:61 27:12 27:14

15 13 12, 26 173 13 12 35

210 38, 198 152 152 198 217 56, 163 197 183

Acts 1:26 2:3 2:16ff 2:30 2:4 3:17 3:21 7:38 8:34 9:3 9:4 9:17 10:41 10:44 10:46 11:27 11:28-30 12:15 13:2 13:6 13:11 13:27 14:8-10 15:18 15:20 15:29 16:6-10 16:9 16:18

8 114 105 47 62 163 183 101 154 136 107 136 185 62 62 214 144 212 144 21 158 163 158 183 155 155 144 175 158

New 18:9-11 18:9 18:13 19:1 If 20:9 20:22 21:10 21:10f 21:17 21:21 21:28 22:3 22:6 22:9 22:14 22:17-21 22:18 22:22 23:6 23:11 23:16 24:15 24:17 25:24 26:6 26:13 26:16 26:18 27:23 27:23f 28:3-5 28:8 28:20 28:23

144 175 131 158 158 192 214 144 131 131 131 82 136 136 136 144, 175 136 131 82, 186 144, 175 131 186 131 131 186 136 136 136 175 144 158 158 186, 192 152

Romans 1:2 1:3 l:3f 1:4 1:13 1:14-18 l:14f 1:16-18 1:16 l:16f 1:17 1:18 1:19 l:19f l:19ff 1:20 1:21 1:26-30 2:1 2:5

148, 197, 208 137, 211 130, 147 134 170, 172 207 155 138, 142, 206 158 138 140 138ff 141 133 142 182 139 155 148 141, 145

2:8 2:16 2:27 3:lf 3:5 3:8 3:21 3:21ff 3:24 3:25f 3:26 3:27 3:28 4:2 4:3 4:5 4:11 4:15 4:16 4:23 4:23f 4:24f 4:25 5:1-11 5:1 5:6-11 5:9 5:9f 6:lf 7:12 7:14a 8:2 8:3 8:3f 8:10 8:15 8:15f 8:18-25 8:18 8:19-22 8:19 8:23 8:24 8:24f 8:25 8:26f 8:28-30 8:30 8:32-39 8:33 9-11 9:3 9:4 9:6 9:6fF.

281

Testament 141 140 207 101, 141 131 135, 152, 133, 146 130, 146 174 146 146 148 146 207 141 147 154 154 134 130 229 146 134 141 146 131 148 148 155 135, 134 185 145 144 166, 145 142 146, 145 213 146 207 144 164 146 134 146 131 143 148, 148, 49

148

141f, 149 207, 229 138 134

9:22 9:23 9:30 9:31 10:2 10:4 10:5-8 10:6 10:7 10:9-13 10:9 11:25-27 11:25

154

191

202

11:26 11:29 11:33-36 11:33 12:lf 12:7 12:19 13:1-4 13:7 13:13 14:2ff 14:15-23 14:20 15:4 15:6 15:8 15:19 15:23 15:25 15:31 16:1 16:25-27 16:25 16:25f 16:26 1

Corinthians

1:2 1:5 1:7 1:8 1:18 1:20 1:23 1:24 1:30 2:1-5 2:1 151 151

141 160 152 152 152 151fF 150, 152, 154 152f 153 153 146 170, 173f, 186, 202, 204 172, 175, 182, 197, 226, 229 146 148 175 202 158 156 141 185 151 155 131 131 207 154 187 155 158, 181, 207 207 184 184 184 199f, 206 191, 208f, 213 66 137, 197, 218

2: If 2:2

160 160 145ff 147 146, 158, 160,162 157, 163, 216 188 153, 160, 162 153, 158, 160,162 130, 157, 164 160, 162, 182, 186, 191, 206, 212 158 134

282 2:4f 2:6-10

2:6-16 2:6

2:6f 2:7-10 2:7 2:8 2:9 2:10-16 2:10-12 2:10 2:13 2:14 2:16 3:1-3 3:1 3:2 3:7ff 3:13 3:15 3:18 3:1£F 3:22 4:1 4:5 4:6-13 4:6 4:7 4:10 5:1 5:5 5:9-11 6:9f 6:11 6:20-23 7:10 7:19 8:6 9:1 9:7 9:10 9:14 9:16 9:17 9:25 10:1 10:4

Index of Passages 158 157, 166, 168, 191, 208f, 220, 229 158, 174 55, 159, 160, 165, 167, 172, 186, 216 153 160, 190, 201 158, 160, 162, 166, 182 162, 197, 203,216 163, 164, 165, 176, 213 201 165 56, 67, 164,201, 226 165, 166, 207, 143 35 158 216 160 143 141 146 143 159 166 164, 166, 182, 206, 219 145, 203, 204 143 143 143 143 155 146 129, 155 155 146 159 149, 172, 174 155 142, 153 136, 137, 174 149, 182 154 149, 174 192 219 213 170, 172 197, 218

10:11 10:33 11:10 ll:14ff 11:18 11:23-26 11:23 11:25 11:27 11:30 ll:32f 12:1 12:5 12:7-11 12:7 12:9 12:28 12:28f 12:31-13:2 12:35 12:38 13:1 13:2 13:8-10 13:8 13:10 13:12 13:13 14:1 14:lff 14:2 14:5 14:6 14:7-9 14:7 14:13-15 14:18 14:19 14:53 14:21 14:24 14:24f 14:26 14:29 14:29f 14:30 14:36 14:37 14:37f 14:43 15 15:l-3a 15:1-8 15:1 15:2 15:3-7

47, 135, 151, 154 163 163 149 163 130 149, 174 150 163 143 143 170, 172 143 144 144, 168, 226 143, 177 163 156 144 163 163 168, 169 164, 167, 168 145 144 144 167 145 163, 167, 168,201 244 168, 169 175, 201 144, 168, 201 168 149 169 169, 177 169 163 152, 168 201, 204 144 62, 144, 168,201 227 144 144, 168, 201 144, 186 174 144 163 137 172 136 163 146 130

15:3 15:3ff 15:8 15:9 15:12-19 15:12 15:24 15:28 15:29-32 15:31 15:35ff 15:42 15:43 15:49 15:50-55 15:51-55 15:51

15:52 15:53 16:1

134, 149 137, 130 172 172, 158 200 172 163 149 146 191 146 171 170 172, 198, 229 172 172 184

2 Corinthians 1 1:3 1:5 1:8 1:20 1:22 2:3f 2:11 2:14-17 2:14f 2:15 2:15f 2:17 3:1 3:2f 3:6 3:7 3:12-18 3:14 3:18 4:2 4:3-18 4:3f 4:4 4:6 4:10 5-7 5:1-10 5:13 5:14-17 5:17 5:18

175 187 181 170, 172 154, 229 145 129 56, 226 143 142 146 140 186 143 143 149, 150 149 156 154 143 143, 186, 192 229 162 56, 143, 163, 226 133, 136, 137,142 181, 192 175 191 175 134 146, 150 146

New 5:19f 5:20 8:4 8:10 9:2 9:5 ll:14f 11:24f 11:3 11:32 11:6 12 12:1-4 12:1-7 12:1-10 12:1 12:4 12:7-10 12:7 12:8 12:9 12:10 12:12 12:20f 13:3 13:4 13:5

146 143 184 182 182 184 56 131 56 174 143 174f 144, 136 145 143, 117, 175 144 226 143, 181 158 155 143 134 185

175

170 170

149

134 134 136 174 137 136 137, 130 82 202 136f 135 144, 202 131 130 136, 143 147, 155 147 155 134 134, 135 146 135

135 135 210 146 47, 151 134 136, 144f 212 131 181 219 149 145 135 131 155 155 135 143 146, 150 143

Ephesians

Galatians 1:1 1:4 1:6-2:9 1:6 1:8 l:llff 1:12 1:13 1:14 1:15 1:16 1:23 2:2 2:9 2:12 2:15 2:20 3:1 3:8 3:10 3:11 3:13 3:13f 3:23-25 3:23 3:23f 3:25

3:26-29 4:1-7 4:3 4:4-7 4:4 4:4f 4:6 4:14 4:17 4:19 4:21-31 4:24 5:5f 5:6 5:12 5:19-21 6:2 6:10 6:14 6:15 6:17

146, 174,202

188

143, 185 197

210

1:3 1:4 1:6-7 1:8 1:9-10 1:9 1:10 1:10 1:17-19 1:17 1:18-23 1:18 1:21 2:2 2:5 2:8 2:15 2:19 3 3:1 3:2-9 3:2 3:3-10 3:3 3:4-7 3:4 3:5 3:6 3:8-11 3:8 3:9

283

Testament

187 182 200 161 200 199, 135, 47 200 187 201 136, 199 56 146 146 150 184 160 192 165 182, 201 199f 208 202, 185, 209 202 208 184 182,

202 182, 203

184, 203

3:10 3:14-19 3:17 4:1 4:7-10 4:10 4:11 4:17-19 4:24 4:27 5:8 5:11-13 5:16b 5:22-32 5:31 5:32 6:11 6:19 6:20

163, 199, 211, 217 201 185 192 152 199 56, 156 162 150 199 204 204 199 214 204 205, 212 56 205, 207, 192

Philippians 1:7 1:12 1:14 1:15 2:8f 2:9 2:9ff 2:10 3:2f 3:5 3:7f 3:10 3:12-14 3:12 3:15 3:19 3:20 3:20f 4:12

192 192 186 188 134 211, 137 158, 180 82 131 181 213 136 158, 190 146, 146 102

217 180

174, 191

Colossians

201

209, 212 191, 201

209

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 12 13-2:5 13 15-20

160 179 183 187 178, 186, 182 178, 182 183f 179 136 142,

183 190, 213 181

189, 200

284

1:27 1:28 2 2:1-5 2:1-3 2:1 2:2

2:2f 2:3 2:4 2:8

2:9 2:11 2:14 2:14f 2:15 2:16 2:18 2:20 2:21 2:23 3:1-4 3:1 3:3 3:4 3:5-4:6 3:5 3:6 3:8 3:10 3:11 3:12 3:15 3:24 4 4:2 4:3

153 203 181 189, 199 134 183 181 181 134, 146, 183 188 181 179 181 185, 202 1, 166, 179, 184f, 189f, 20If, 208f 188, 213 181, 184, 186, 191, 207 160 187 181, 189 178 179, 181, 190, 200 142 38, 142, 153, 161, 186, 190f, 220 181, 189 180, 189 134, 189 181 181 158 211 178f 169f, 174, 179f 178 179 179f 190 181 186, 189f 145f, 202 190 155 141 155 146 185 183 185 186 160 191 182, 191, 205, 212

4:3b-4 4:12 4:16 i

Thessalonians

1:5 1:9 l:9f 1:10 2:4 2:13 2:16 2:18 3:13 4:1-8 4:13-18 4:13-17 4:13 4:15-17 4:15 5:8f 5:9 5:14-22 5:26f 2

158 129 140, 141, 186 141, 56 184 155 170 170 170, 172 149, 146 141 160 160

Thessalonians

1:5-8 1:7-10 1:7 l:7f 2:3-10 2:6 2:7 2:8 1

140 140 145f 145 197 195 40, 56, 195, 197f, ' 224, 226 146

Timothy

1:1 2:2

2:6

3:9 3:16 4:1 2

192 158 129

00

15-18 16 19-22 19 19f 20 21-23 21 22 23 23b-29 24-2:5 24 25 26

Index of Passages

1:14 2:11-13 3:4-7 3:4 3:5

213 182, 208, 213 210 213 229 213 146

Philemon 1 9 13

179 192 192

Hebrews 1:2 3:5 4:8 5: Iff 7:9 8:5 8:13 9:8 9:11 9:26 10:1 10:37 11:37 12:18-24 12:22

135 197 197 160 219 36 150 210 210 135, 210 152, 219 140 218 149, 219 169

James 1:12 2:1 2:25 5:20

37, 164, 162 212 112

1 Peter 186 195 211 210f 21 If, 217 211

Timothy

1:9-11 1:9 2:9 3:14 3:15 4:8 4:13 4:17

Titus 1:1-3 1:2

208, 212 146, 182, 210,213 192 208 154 37, 164 208 213

1:9 1:10-12 1:12 1:18-21 1:20 2:14 2:23 3:19 3:20 4:8 5:4 5:8f

151 210, 219 163, 197 208 210, 213 195 217 196 218f 112 37, 213 56

2 Peter 2:15 3:3-13 3:16

96 140 207

Old Testament 1 John 1:1-3 3:2 3:5 3:8 4:3 Jude 3 6 11

208 189, 202 211 211 198

184 196 96

Revelation 1:3 l:llf. 1:20

25 30 224

2:1-3:20 2:2 2:9f 2:10 2:12 2:14 2:17 2:24 3:11 4:1 4:11 5:9 6:10 7:1 8:1 9:14 10:7

Old Testament Baruch 1:21 3:9-4:4 3:16-23 3:29f 3:29ff 3:36-4:1 4:2

57 61 158 153 64 63 28

2 Baruch 3:3 3:7 3:9 4:3-5 4:5 4:6 6:3 7:2 7:9 13: If 14:8 17:4-18:2 17:4 21:1 21:12 22: If 29:3 29:4 29:7 30:3 31:4-32:1 32:4f. 38:1-4

27 206 152 39 152 37 29 29 28 107 165 28 28 30 37 107 38, 135 37 110 47 28 28 28, 30

Apocrypha

and

143 25 56 37, 203, 213 203 96 37 56, 165 213 30 203 203 174 196 206, 217 196 47, 210

Apocrypha

39:1-8 39:7 44:14 44:5-7 46:4f. 47:2 48:2-8 48:2-6 48:24 48:3 50:1-51:5 51:10 52:7 54:13 54:5 55:5-8 55:8 59:2 59:4-11 59:4-12 59:4 59:5-11 60:1 68:5 69:4 70:7 73:1 73: Iff 77:13-16 77:13 77:15f 81:3 81:4 83:2f

195 38, 135 28, 188 28 28 30 35 34 28 36 172 35 37 188 32 39 167 28, 37 152 34, 39 47 35 41 28 47 37 37 135 28 28 28 174 36, 37 36

and

285

Pseudepigrapha 13:lff 13:llff 14:3 14:6ff 15:4 17 17:5 17:7 19:10 20:1-10 21:2ff 21:10-27 21:10 22:12

37 37 170, 176 140 140 56 196 196 25, 99 196 39 36 168 37, 213

Pseudepigrapha 84:6 85:14 85:3

37 28 25, 28

3 Baruch Prol. If 1:6-17:1 l:6ff 1:6 1:8 2:7-4:9 4:13f 10:lff 11:1 11:7 14:1 15:1 17:4 3

33 34 34 34 34 37 33 37 176 30, 33 176 176 33

SlavBar

11:3 14:1 17:1

176 176 191

1 Enoch 1-17 1:1-9 2-5 2:1-5:4 2:1-5:3 5:8 6:lfF 8:1 8:2

40 32 30 64 35 162 30 40 40

286

8:3 9:4 9:6 (Greek) 9:6 9:8 10:4 10:7 10:11 11:2 14:24 14:8-24 16:3 18:16 21:6 22: Iff 25:7 32:3 37-71 37:1-5 38:1 38:2 38:3 40:9 41:1-7 41:1 41:lf 42:1-3 43:2 43:4 46:2 46:3 48:1 48:2-7 48:2 48:6 48:6f 49:1 49:2-4 49:2 49:2f 49:4 51:1 51:3 52:1-9 52:2-4 52:2-9 52:22 53:6 58:5 59:2f 59:10 60:11-24 60:llff 60:7-10 61:5 61:9

Index of

40 183 33 17, 32, 40 40 196 32, 40 196 37 97 116 32, 40 196 196 34 37 162, 176 37, 38 32 202, 37 37 36 186 33, 188, 35 167 35 29, 32 34 35 37 135, 189, 38 29, 32, 162 37 38 189 135 29, 32 37 36, 115 161 36 189 38, 189 35 36, 37 39 36 37, 202 36, 211 35 37 35 34 37 35 36

62:6f 62:7 62:7f 63:11 63:3 63:3f 68:lf 68:5 69:26-29 69:26 70:2 71:11 71:14 71:3ff 71:4ff 81:1 82:3f 83:4 83:7 90:29 91:1 91:7f 91:10 91:14 93:11-14 99:10 99:2 103:2 103:3 104:10-13 104:10 104:12 106:13 106:19

37 189 37 37 37 162 36 36 37 38 29 169 37 35 34 36 32 36 36 36 29 162 135, 139 29 28 28 36, 65, 170, 172 37 36 32, 170, 172 170, 172 28 32,36,48

2 Enoch

3ff 8:1 17 24:3-25:4 24:3 24ff

34 176 176 35 163 34

3 Enoch

4:2f 5:4 11:1 18 18:16 26:12 41-48 44:7 45 48:7

Passages

92 65 114 180 120 120 120 38 120 120

3

Ezra

4:59 5:40 6:lf 4

59 61

60

Ezra

1:1 1:35 2:33 2:40 3:14 3:lff 4:35 5:22 5:9f. 6:12 6:38 6:49ff 7:14 7:26-28 7:26 7:28 7:30 7:35 7:36 7:39-42 7:70 7:83f 7:93 7:97 7:125 8:12 8:52 8:54 9:6 9:23 10:22 10:27 10:38 10:50-5 12 12:11 12:llf 12:32-34 12:32 12:36 12:42 13:18 13:25f 13:26 13:32 13:36 13:52 13:54f. 14 14:4

25 173 29 173 39 27 173 29 29 151 97, 206 37 37 135 39 38 206 37 37 36 36 37 37 35 35 28

37, 162 36 151 30 28 39 36 39 31 26 47 140 38 36 25 37 38 38 38, 135 39 39 28 26, 28

36

Old Testament Apocrypha 14:6 14:20 14:22 14:26 14:3-6 14:38 14:39 14:45f 14:46 14:47

32 28 29 32, 49 29 107 30 32 49 29

21 131 20 20 45 57, 61, 221 57 57, 61

2 Maccabees 2:4 2:7 2:18 4:10-17 7:6 7:11 7:14 7:20 12:41 12:45 13:21 15:11-16

152 65 186 21 152 186 186 186 115 37 102, 199 58

3 Maccabees 1 -1 1o 2:28-31 2:32 3:10 5:11

21 19 102 183

4 Maccabees 4:21 10:5 11:7 17:5

287

Pseudepigrapha

Apocalypse

of Moses

Ezekiel

2f 22:3 37:5

30 30 176

68-89 68-81 68ff 83-89

Apocalypse

of Zepha

8:4 12:5 12:7

169 139 139

the

Tragedian 152 30, 39 116 122

History of the Rechabites 12:9d

118

16:8

115, 169

Judith

/ Maccabees 1:11-15 1:15 2:15 2:27 3:48 4:46 9:27 14:41

and

140 206 186 35

Apocalypse

of

9:lf 9:6-10 9:6 9:7 10:1 10:4 17:4-6

107 39 36 30 107 107 169

Abraham

Ascension of Isaiah 1:7 2:11 2:12 2:15 3:1 3:7 4:20 5:1 5:2 5:13 5:14 7:15 7:20 7:22 7:27 7:30 7:36 8:3 8:16-20 8:26 9:7 9:24-26 9:31-33 10:7-15 10:8ff 11:2 11:14 11:16 11:19 11:23-32 11:34 11:41

29 30 25 25 25 25 32 218 25 218 29 169 169 213 169 169 169 169 169 37 176 213 169 212 163 47 217 216 1663 217 164 218

Assumption

of Moses

l:lff 1:12-14 l:17f 1:18 10:1 10:11 10:8 10:9 11:1

29 210 152 47 38 29 195 35 29

2:2 13:11 13:14 16:2ff

102 63 63 63

Joseph and

Asenath

15:4 16:1-8 16:7 17:2f 17:3 17:6

228 32 33 32 114 30, 114, 116

Jubilees Prologue 1:1-5 1:4 1:4 1:26 l:29f 4:19 4:21 5:13 6:30 7:20f 12:4 15:11-14 15:26-29 15:33f 24:30 27:1 29:11 32:21 32:21fF 36:7 48:15 50:2-4

29 29 39, 152 39 39, 152 29 39 39 37 29 155 97 131 131 131 140 41 41 39 30 97 196 54

Letter of Aristeas 95 97 142 144-170 177

206 85 177 155 101

288 200 213-215 267 270 314f 315

Index of Passages 61 58 60 60 91 40, 58

Life of Adam and Eve 25:3 29:4-5

30, 176 39

Lives of the Prophets 1:1 1:7 2:5 2:10 2:19 4:13 23 23:2

218 36 17 36, 47, 151 36, 47, 151 47 85 57

Odes of Solomon 6:lf 6:8ff. 9:8-11 14:8 16:5 17 19:9 22 23:21f 23:5-10 36 38: Iff 42

62 29 213 62 62 55 217 55 143 143 55 116 55

Paraleipomena of Jeremiah 5:26 9:13-28 9:13-18 9:22 9:28

33 39 36 36 36

Prayer of Joseph frg. B,C

37

Pseudo-Philo, Biblical Antiquities 9:8 28 11:1 12:2 15:6 18:2 18:12 19:6 19:10

28 28 28 26 26 28 29, 34, 36, 39

23:10 25:13 25ff 26:6 2613 28:6-10 32:8 32:14 33:3 53:3 60:2 62:2

28 40 40 40 164 34 110 62 28 107 206 38

Pseudo-Phocylides 229

78

Psalms of Solomon 4:21 4:24f 8:31 8:8 9:19 15:1 15:4-6 17:3 18:5 Sibylline 1:267f 1:275 1:386 1:782 3:8-45 3:47f 3:211 3:654-6 3:812 4:31-34 4:159-61 5:414-33 8:58 8:307f. 11:311-14 12:64

140 140 186 139 186 139 186 38 Oracles 107 107 57 214 155 38 151 140 191 155 139 140 196 21 139 41

Sirach 1:6-10 1:6 1:10 1:15 1:25 3:18 3:19 3:21 3:21f 3:22

60 101 164 63 188 102 67 122 40, 111 66, 121

3:23 4:13 4:18 5:6 6:22 6:29 6:31 7:29-31 7:44ff 8:18 9:16 11:4 11:22 11:27 12:10 13:15 14:17 14:22 15:9f 16:11 16:28 17:11-14 20:30 22:22 23:1-33 24:3-29 24:10 24:1 Of 24:15 24:23 24:27 24:30f 24:32-34 24:8 24:33 27:16-21 27:16 27:17 27:21 33:3 34: Iff 34:1-8 34:13 39:1-5 39:1-8 39:5 39:6-8 39:6 39:7 39:20 42:1 42:18 43:31-33 44:2 45:10 46:1

58 65 67, 118 140 66 65 65 62 62 214 61 67 8 101 76 111 183 60 62 140 35 63 67 101, 102, 199 67 64 62 61, 63 110 63 28 46, 64, 98 59 61 59 199 102 102 102 61 58 26 186 61 62 62 59, 61 62 67 183 101 67 161 183 61 152

Old Testament Apocrypha 47:8-10 48:24 48:25 49:8 49:10 49:11-13 50:1-21 51:8 51:13ff

62 165 67 116 57,58 60 58 183 60

Testament of Abraham (A) 4:7 10:15

29 107

2:10 3:2 3:3 8:2 8:9ff 8:14f 10:22 14:1 14:4 16:1 18:2 18:12 19:1

36, 38, 191 34 37 61 61 85 47 26 28 26 33, 38 196 28

Testament of Asher

Testament of Naphtali

1:3-9 7:5 7:7

2:6 3:2 4:1

50 37 186

Testament of Benjamin 4:1 9:2 10:5 11:2

213 173 33 28, 173

Testament of Dan 2:4

56

Testament of Gad 6:5

41

Testament of Isaac 4:54 11:4

140 30

Testament offacob 8:8

164

28 35, 64 26

Testament of Reuben 3:15 6:8

41 47

Tobit 4:12 6:17 8:3 12:7 12:11 14:4-7 14:5-7 14:5

58, 183 183 196 67, 102, 199 102 174 173 47

Testament of Zebulon 1:6 9:8 Q-Q

41 173 n

Testament of Job 48:3 49:2 50:1

169 169 169

Testament ofJoseph 6:6

33, 41

Testament ofJudah 12:6 16:4 18:1 20:lff 24:1

40 33, 40, 41 26 50 96

Testament of Levi 1:2 2:6ff

33 176

Wisdom of Solomon l:lf 1:7 1:16-2:20 2:12 2:22 4:lff 4:10-15 4:10f 4:20 5:1 5:16 5:17-22 6:4 6:8 6:22 7:1

289

and Pseudepigrapha

60 63 65 63 102, 162 63 63 92 63 206 213 139 63 63 66, 102 63

7:7 7:7ff 7:17-22 7:17 7:21 7:24 7:25 7:27 8:8 8:21 9:1-18 9:1 9:1£F 9:4 9:10f 9:13-17 9:17 ll:9f 12:3-6 12:6 14:12-27 14:15 14:23 14:28 16:6 16:10 16:11 16:12 18:4 18:4 18:9 18:14-16 18:14f 18:15 18:17-19

60, 63 60 66 65 66 63 65 58 58 59,60 66 63 60 60 65 161 59, 60 140 102 102 155 66, 102 66, 102 58 63 97 101 97 28, 61 63 63 206, 217 66 97 58

Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah see Ascension of Isaiah Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum see Pseudo-Philo Ben Sira see Sirach Ecclesiasticus see Sirach Vitae Prophetarum see Lives of the Prophets

290

Index of Dead Sea

CD 1:6-12 1:11 2:14 2:2 2:9f 3:12-16 3:14 3:16 3:18 4:15-17 4:21 5:1-5 5:7 5:21f 6:3f 6:3ff 6:7 7:14f 7:18 7:19f 8:8 9:2£F 10:3 10:4-6 13:2-3 13:4 15:10f 15:13 19:33 20:14 20:20

49 49 43 43 96 43 43 46 53 56 43 51, 43 51 47 64 46 44 43 44 96 43 46 43 51 51 52 159 43 46 54 139

1Q22

49

1Q23 9/14/15:2

53

1Q26 1:1 1:4

53 53

ÎQ27 1.1.6 1:1 1:2 1:3-6 1:2-4 1:3 1:4 1:7 13:3 frg 13:3

139 54 53 54 55 53 53 53, 56 53 55

Passages Scrolls

1Q30 4:1

53

1Q32

52

1Q36 9:2 16:2 16:2

53 166 53

1Q40 1:2

53

lQapGen 1:2 1:3 2:10f 2:7 19:14ff 20:22 21:2 21:8ff 22:27 22:30f

53, 55, 197 53 52 183 42, 52 52 183 52 52 97

1QH 1:11 1:1 If 1:13 1:14 1:21 1:28 1:29 2:13 2:22 2:31 2:34 3:7-10 3:21-23 3:21 4:6 4:7 4:7ff 4:8f 4:10 4:16 4:18 4:20-22 4:23 4:23ff 4:25 4:27 4:28

53 55 53 55 14, 43, 53, 55 53 53, 201 56 56 56 55 169 50 85 213 56 55 50 106 52 50 85 49 54 53 53

5:1 If. 5:25 5:25f 5:36 6:4 6:5 7:27 7:34 8 8:lff 8:6 8:11-13 8:11 8:16ff. 9:23 9:24 9:25 11:10 11:14 12:1 If. 12:12f. 12:13 12:20 12:33f. 12:34 13:1-13 13:2 13:13 13:13f 13:18f. 14:15f 14:18 14:25-27 16:10-12 18:4f 18:19 18:24 18:29 frg 3:7 frg 6:5 frg 17:3 frg 25:1 frg 50:5

50, 55 53 55 53, 55, 197 43 56 53 56 64, 98 46 53 54 53, 55 49 53, 161 55 213 53 169 50 49 53, 161, 201 53, 167, 201 49 43 55 53 53 53 50 139 54 50 50 43 43 43 85 53, 199 53 53 53 53, 55

1QM 1:5 3:9 3:15 10:10-12 10:11 10:1 If 11:6 14:9

8, 52 53 53 49, 53 165 55 96 53, 55, 167,

Dead Sea 14:14 15:1 15:2 16:11 16:16 17:7 17:9

14, 53, 55 8, 52 197 53 53 8, 52 53

ÌQpHab 2:2f 2:6-9 2:8 7 7:1-8 7:lff. 7:1 7:2 7:4 7:5-13 7:5 7:7 7:8 7:12 7:14 7:15 12:7

47 47 61 49 47 50 96 47, 135, 210 96 54 53, 167, 214 96 53 96 53, 199 161 153

1QS 1:3 1:8 1:9 2:2 3:3 3:9 3:13 3:17-4:26 3:20-24 3:23 4:1 4:17 4:18 4:2-6 4:6 4:6 4:6 4:6 4:22 5:3 5:9 5:11 5:1 If 5:24 6:3 6:6 6:7 6:16

47, 49 159 44 159 159 159 49 50 197 53, 96 55 53 53, 161 50 53 53 53 67 48, 53, 159 52 44 43, 53 42 159 45 45 45 52

6:16f 6:16ff 6:18 6:19 6:19f 6:22 8:1-12 8:lf 8:1 8:10-12 8:llf 8:14f 8:15-18 8:15f 8:15 8:16 8:20f 8:9f 9:5f 9:7 9:8f 9:10 9:13 9:18 9:19 9:2 9:22 10:1 11:19 11:3 11:5-8 11:5 11:6 11:7 ll:7ff 11:19

Scrolls

159 52 52 54 159 52 159 159 43, 49 159 43, 45 153 159 43, 47 44 52, 165 159 159 159 52 159 52 44 53, 54, 44, 48, 159 50 43 52, 53, 54 53 52, 54, 8, 52 54 52, 53

1:3

37

4Q186

52

4Q280 2:6 4Q286 10.ii.2-12

56

4Q401 14.ii:24 14.ii 17:4-6 17:6

53 55 55 53

4Q402 4:11 4:14

55 55

4Q403 l.i:18-20 l.ii:27

55 53,

4Q405 3.ii:9

53

4Q502 1:5

55

4Q503 51.v:13

45 51 8, 52 159 8, 52

IQSb

2:4

56

2II6 44-47 1 6 48-51II7

53 53 53

4QAmram

53

169 159

2Q24

52

l:10ff

4Q159

45

4QCatena"

4Q160

49, 52

4Q176 52, 53, 54

44

4Q511

4:22-26 5:22

16:2

56

4Q508

IQSa 1: If 1:6-8 1:9 1:17 1:20

4Q180

4QAmraml

1-4:13f.

52

51

4QEnc 5.ii:26 5.ii:26f

161 48

292

Index of

4QEnGiants 2:3ff 42 9:3 167

4QPsDan

4QFlor

4Qtest

l:6f

A'

112

4QM 12

Passages HQTempl

37

14 17f 9-13

85 85 96

5QÏJ

36, 52, 53

HQMelch

53

53

4QMess 1:8

ar 53 47,52

54:8ff 56:12fF. 57:17 58:18-21 64:9-11 66:12f 66:15-17 66:17

106 51 43 85 51 43 51 51

UQtgJob 27:3f

llQPs

4QpIsaJ 4f

e

154: lOf

85

4QpPs37

112

llQPs"

2:7f

54

4:6-8

51

18:5f 27:11

62 47

Philo De

Abrahamo

52 79f 80 99 200 236 De

77 74 71 79 76, 77 76 Agricultura

50 De

47, 76 Cherubim

27

73

42 48 48f 49 94 121

78, 159 78, 159 77 74, 76, 77 79 79

De Confusione 44

21-39 25 28 64-90 78 De

77 47, 77, 78, 101 77 77 76, 77

18f 32 33-35 35 37 46f

73 73 73 73 73 73

Quod

Deterius

13 39 89 126f 161

75 78 74 78 74

De

Ebrietate

143

De

Congressu

85

76

De Fuga et

134

101

60 79 85 166

D e Fí'ía 17

Contemplativa 80

Gigantibus

47 54 60f

74 74 70

Qmí'í Her es

Decalogo

Linguarum

76

De

76 Inventione 101 188 77, 78 72

68 76 179 249ÍT 259f 259ff 290

71 188 87 71 73 72 47

Hypothetica 11:1-18

20

Quod Deus Sit 61 62

Immutabilis

77 71, 74

Legum

Allegoriae

1:37 1:60 1:82 1:104 3:3 3:11 3:27

72 79 71 77 77, 78 76 74

Philo 3:27 3:43f 3:45 3:47f 3:71 3:82 3:99 3:100 3:103 3:104 3:110 3:175f 3:206

77, 71 78 74 74, 72 70 74, 78 188 76 74 75

De Legatione 6 56

Mosis

7 91 103 125f 139 169 208 De Opificio 69-71 69f 70

75 72 78 78 70, 72 100 100 77 77 79 112 70, 72, 74, 85,152 78 75 Nominum

71 91 74, 152 74, 152 71, 76 76 78 Mundi 74 71 72

79

13-16 14 15 15f 21 173

74 70 71 71 74 74

Caini

De Praemiis et Poenis

Abrahami

D e Mutatione

7

43f 44f 95 163ff

13 43 75-91 75 82 Quaestiones 2:29 2:37 2:40 2:45 2:51

72 74 20, 42 77 46, 48 in

Exodum

74 74 74 71 70

Quaestiones • m 1:40 1:76 3:3 3:9f 4:8 4:26 4:74 4:90 4:178 4:196

Genesin

70 80 80 72 77 71 80 72 80 71

De Sacrißciis 8-10 74 33 60 62 130

De Specialibus

74 74 78 78

Quod Omnis Probus Liber

77 77, 159 77 74, 152

Somniis

1:1 1:2 1:133 1:141-143 1:164 1:190 1:191 2:1 2:78 2:113 2:172 2:189 2:252

Gaium

73 76, 80 76

1:4 1:187 1:264 1:290 2:6 2:34 2:37-41 2:37 2:71 2:103 2:108 2:187 2:288 2:291

De

76 112 76

De Posteritate

71 77

34f 89-93 196

Plantatione

36 126 138

ad

De Migratione

De Vita

De

Sit

1:20 l:36ff 1:41 l:41f 1:42 1:56 1:65 l:153ff 1:214 1:315 l:319f l:319flF 1:323 1:324-45 2:23 3:40 3:100-102 4:48f 4:49 4:51 4:151 De 12 77 178

71, 72 87 71 29 77 71 76 71 74 71 76 74, 152 73 Legibus 71 74 70 71 74 71, 102 72 73 77 73 79 69 77, 79 19 76 79 16 73 71, 72 73 87

Virtutibus 70 78 74

294

Index of Passages

Josephus

83 83 83 47, 83, 90 16 91 151 84 84 83

89 y00

84 90 80, 80 91 89 85 151 91 92 90 84 83 82 89 80 84 134 85 61, 134 82 134 26 84 83 83 83 83 26, 83 82 90 83 83, 84 83, 75, 83

8:352 8:408 8:407 9:3 9:27 9:28 9:35 9:74 9:183 9:242 10:35 10:79 10:195 10:200 10:210 10:237 10:239 10:250 10:266fF 10:267f 10:276 10:277 ll:5f 11:5 11:327 11:340 12:112 12:171f 12:322 13:282 13:297 13:282 13:299 13:311-313 15:136 15:240 15:373-378 16:43 17:345-348 17:346 17:351f 18:64 18:18-22 18:85 19:30 19:31 19:104 19:60-61 19:60 19:289 20:97 20:100 20:169

84 90 84 91 83 84 84 84 84, 88 91 91 91 91 83, y00

l:5ff 1:11 l:18ff 1:24 1:85 1:185 1:240 2:73 2:91 2:178 2:276 3:60 3:84 3:89-101 3:90 3:180ff 3:180 3:212 3:214 3:218 3:222 3:273 3:312 4:104 4:108 4:118 4:119f 4:121 4:122 4:125 4:183 4:196f 4:209-211 4:218 4:303 4:312 4:320 4:326 4:329 5:20 5:120 6:56 6:76 6:166 6:222 7:394 8:45-49 8:73 8:218 8:232 8:243 8:346

Judaicae

y00

Antiquitates

91 84 84 84 84 91 85 20 58, 42 84 107 113 88, 85, 86 29 83 86 90 86, 86 87 84 42 65 89 89 89 107 89 84 85, 20 85,

Contra

Apionem

l:lff 1:29 1:37 1:40 1:41 1:54 2:82 2:94 2:107 2:154-189 2:168ff 2:178 2:189 2:218 2:224 2:255 2:266 1:279 2:286

84 9 84, 88 88 84, 89 82 90 90 89 82 90 90 90, 21 : 83 90 80 89 84 83

De Bello Judaico 1:3 l:68f l:78f 1:443 1:470 1:599 2:110 2:112 2:113 2:119-161 2:126-161 2:128 2:133 2:142 2:159 2:261 2:411 3:70-109 3:340ff 3:351fF 3:351-354 3:351-353 3:352f 3:352 3:353f 3:353 3:400ff 4:33 4:153ff. 4:153-57 4:387

82, 88 85, 88 86 83 92, 19< 92 91 86 86 42 20 20 92 52, 53, 46, 47, 85 86 86 88 89 88 88 89 91 88 83, 88 88 83 9 87 151

Rabbinic 4:388 4:625 5:45 5:367 5:376 5:395 5:402 5:404-412 5:412 5:413 6 6:260

83 88 20 86, 87 195 195 90 195 86, 87 90 27 83

6:285ff 6:288ff 6:286 6:291 6:295 6:300ff 6:300-309 6:300 6:310 6:311-313 6:312f 6:312

Literature

86 87 95, 109 87 87 109 86 87, 107 87 101 88 91

Rabbinic

6:313 6:626 7:349

87 89 86

Vita Iosephi If 10 12 208ff 208-212 208f

88 82 82 89 87 88

Literature

(Tractates are listed in alphabetical order) Mishnah

1:1 l:lf l:lff 1:2 2:2 2:15 2:19 3:2 3:3 3:6 3:15 3:17 5:19 6:1 6:2

64, 89, 109 112 61 110 51, 112 114 120 105, 195 108, 113 105 122, 131 121 96 vi, 64, 67, 113, 114, 189 113

Hagigah 2:1

116, 121, 122,170

41

11:1 11:2 11:5

106 19, 75, 111, 172, 173 106 112 106

Shabbat 6:10

41

Shebuot 2:2 Shekalim 6: If

5:1

93, 100, 111 93 111 111 111 122

4:5

13:10

109

Hagigah 2:1 2:3f 2:6

122 117 122

2:18

180

5:1

115

4(3) :28

30

Shebuot

90

Sotah

93

12:5 13:2f 13:3-6 13:3f 13:4

108

105 105 107 106 105

108 Sukkah

Abodah 20

1:1

3:8

4:28

Tosefta Menahot

Eduyot

Megilah 105 85 106

Yebamot 16:6

19

Ketubot 65

Sotah 9:6 9:12 9:15

2:5

Hullin 106, 109

Yadayim

Megillah 1:8 2:1 2:2 3:1 4:4 4:10

1:5 10:1

Tamid

Hullin 4:7

Demai

Sanhedrin

Aboth

8:4

Zarah 155

20

Yadayim 2:13

111

296

Index

Babylonian Talmud Abodah

Zarah

3b 17a 20b 42b Baba

98 107 106 180 Bathra

4a 12a 12b 14b 15b 16b-17a 134a

110 105, 109 86, 109 75, 89 96 39 106, 169

of

Passages Qiddushin

Hagigah 3b 5b 12a 12b 13a-14b 13a 14a 14b 15a 15b 16a

114 115 37 114, 116 111, 121, 120, 116, 19 112 106

51a

45b

180

108

106 Ketubot

Berakhot 3a 5a 10a 17a 22a 32b 34b 52a 55b 58a 61b 64a

107, 108 112 121 213 118 112 108, 119 108 109 115 107 109

Besa

59b 85b 92a

117

116, 117, 118

Megillah 3a 14a 27a 29a 31a

93, 121 111 111 106, 107 117

Menahot 29b 45a Moed

16a Baba

Illa 112a

17a 29a

115 122 Qatan 109 109

Mesia 107, 108 114, 120, 121 118

Nedarim 38a

106

Niddah Baba 92b

Qamma 111

Erubin 7a 13b 65a

108 107, 112 106

Gittin 56a/b

89

20b

114

Pesahim 49b 54a 54b 56a 66b 68b 111b 119a

115

31a

106

Rosh 114, 116, 122 189 117

Kallah Bekhorot

115

176, 188

Hullin 40a

8a 10b

Hashanah

20b

118

24a

180

Sanhédrin lia 17a 22a 42a 48b 56a 74a 94a 97b 98a 99a 100a 100b 106a 106b

105, 106, 107 106 106 214 114 155 155 107, 119 164 38 75 183 111 96 114

Shabbat 6b 13a 13b 30a 30b 31a 77b 88a 88b 89a 92a 104a 115a 119b 128b 145b 156a

118 122 111 111, 112 110 19, 113 115 110, 117 110, 115, 210 115 106 111 93 109 113 119 118

Sotah 122 37, 38 120 119 106 110 115 115

4b 10a 48b

114 114 85, 105, 106

Sukkah 28a 52a

106, 114, 169 38, 47

Rabbinic Taanit 8a 9a 25b

106, 111 107

Taanit 1:1 2:1 4:8

111, 2 1 8

Other Rabbinic Works

153 105 27

Yebamot 49b 63b 121b 122a

111 108 108

Yoma 9b 21b 67b 73a-b 85b

105, 107, 108,109 105 40 85 155

Zebahim 116a

210

Palestinian T a l m u d Abodah

Zarah

2:8 Baba

Bathra

Berakhot 107, 109 90 180 106

1:7 1:8 9 9:1 Mesia

9

166

Hagigah 2:1 Moed

117, 121, 122 Qatan

3.1

107

Sanhédrin 10 10:2

De-Rabbi

4 4:64 11 15:10ff

Nathan

112 89 110 113

218 109

15:22 15:27 19:1 19:6 25:12 28:6 29:9 30:9 32:1 36:3 42:8 45:6 47:1

115 118 119 118, 122 153 111 217 117 105 110 111 164 112

Leviticus Mekhilta De-Rabbi Bahodesh 2 113 109 Beshalh 7 106 Pisha 1 106 Pisha 14 114 Shirata 1 114 Shirata 6 Wayassa 6.61-64

120

Midrash

Rabbah

Genesis

Rabbah

109

166

Baba

Aboth

297

Literature

1:1 1:5 1:10 1:14 2:4 8:2 9:1 16:6 22:6 25:1 34:13f 34:8 37:7 49:2 50:9 59:5 65:12 68:12 71:5 85:12 90:4 96 98:2 99:5

37, 110 110 121 110 122 110 121 155 112 92 155 155 105 117 119 110 120 119 117 107 91 119 119 119

Ishmael

Rabbah

1:14 4:7 9:9 21:8 32:4 35:7

167 183 108 108 118 106, 109

Numbers

Rabbah

3:13 10:4 10:8 14:4 14:19 15:5 15:10 15:25 19:6

116 116 40 111, 112 134 110 105 105 112, 120

Deuteronomy 1:21 5:15 6:14 7:2 7:3 7:4 8:6 11:10

Rabbah 155 108 105 106 110 117 110 143

Song of Songs 1:1.8 1:2.5 1:4 1:9 4:11 8:9.3 8:13.2

Sotah 1:4 9:14

108 105

Exodus 1:29

Rabbah 118

Ruth 6:4

Rabbah

109 112, 116, 122 117 183 111 105, 106, 108 106 Rabbah 19

298

Index of Passages

Lamentations 1.16.45

Rabbah 105

Eccl (Qohelet) 7:8.1 7:16 9:7.1 10:16 11.5.1 12:12 12:7

Rabbah

19 107 107 108 120 111 105

Midrash Tanhuma

9:6 18:15 68:11 95:2 105:1 108:1.1

119 183 152 153 189 106

Pesiqta Rabbati 1:2 5:1 14:13 20:4 21:13

105 118 112 120 119

121 110 108 38

Pirae De-Rabbi 7:40

Hekhalot Literature Hekhalot Eliezer

92

Seder Eliahu Rnhhûh 30

109

Sifra (Leviticus) (Buber)

Lekh Lekha 23 117 Wayera 6 118 Midrash Tehillim

21:21 21:4 35:1 36:2

89:1

114

Rabbati

1:1

120

Ma'yan Hokmah

120

Mysteries of R. b. Yohai 36

Paradise and Gehenna 34 Seder Gan 'Eden

Sifre

164

Sifre Numbers (Psalms)

12:6 27:12 69 84 95

Shim'

48 164 116 106, 114 106

Seder Gan 'Eden B 120, 164 Sefer Eliahu 36, 38, 120

Sifre Deuteronomy 27 37 329 331 351 356 357

114 110 19 140 113 119 96, 114

Sefer

Ha-Razim

2:1 3:1 4:1 8:13

17 17 17 17

24:15f 24:17

96 96

Targums Targum Onkelos Gen 49:6 49:10 49:24

Gen 95 173 99

5:24 35:21 41:45 49:1

97 97

Exod

Exod 24:10 33:20 Deut 9:10 31:17f 32:20 33:2 33:19

T a r g u m Pseudo-Jonathan

98 99 99 98 97

12:42 20:20 24:10 28:30

91 95 91 95, 96, 116

95 180 97 97

Num 24:3f 24:7

96 96

Deut 31:17f 32:4 33:16 33:19

99 98 97 97

T a r g u m Neofiti Gen 5:24 41:45 49:1

91 91 95, 96

299

Targums Exod 3:12 3:14 4:12 12:42 24:10

97 94 97 95 97

Num 24:3f 24:7 24:15f

96 96 96

Deut 32:4 33:16 33:19

98 97 97

Fragment Targum Gen 5:24 91 35:21 95 Exod 24:10

97

Num 24:3f 24:7 24:15f

96 96 96

Deut 30:12f 33:16 33:19

153 97 97

Targum Jonathan Judg 2:1 99 2:4 99 5:23 99 iSam 3:1 3:3 10:5-12 2Sam 22:31b

99 107 99

1:27-30 2:1

2:3

Jer 6:13 7:13 8:10

98

Isa 1:1

2:5 5:1 5:3 5:4f 8:2 8:17 12:3 13:1 14:13 21:2 21:12 22:1 22:5 22:12' 22:14 24:16 24:23 26:21 28:16 29:10 29:11 30:14 30:27 30:30 31:4 31:4f 35:5 38:4 40:9 40:10 40:12 41:27 42:7 45:15 45:17 51:16 52:7 54:8 57:17 58:llf 59:2 59:21 60:2 63:15

99 98 99 98

14:18 18:18 23:11 23:33 23:34 26:7 26:8

28, 98 100 100 99 99 99 98 99 35 99 28, 100 99 99 99 100 28, 100 95 94 95 99 99 98 94, 139 94 94 95 99 99 95 94 99 99 28, 98 99 28 99 95 99 99 98 99 99 94 94

99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99

26:11 26:16 29:1 30:21 33:5 35:17

99 99 99 95 99 99

Ezek 1:3 7:7 7:10 13:9 28:3f 39:23f 39:29

106 95 95 97 97 99 99

Hos 5:9b

98

Amos 3:7

99

Obad 21

95

Mie 4:2 4:7 4:7f 4:8 4:12

98 95 95 95 96

Hab 1:1 2:2f 3:3 3:3f

99 99 94 110

Hag 1:1 1:3 1:13 2:1 2:5 2:10 2:20

99 99 99 99 99 99 99

Zech 1:1 1:7 1:14 2:14 3:8 4:6 4:7

99 99 99 94 95 99 95

6:12

300 7:13 8:12 9:14 13:1 14:3-5 14:9

Index of Passages 99 99 94 98 94 95

Mai 4:24

94

T a r g u m s of the Hagiographa Psa 45:1

45:3 46:1 49:16 51:13 68:8 89:16 103:1

99 47 47 47 94 98 47

Job 15:8 29:13

98

Ruth 1:1 3:18

Lam 2:9

Eccl 1:8 3:11 7:24 10:20

Cant 47

5:10

120

Peshitta Gen

Sir 3:19 39:2

41:45

Jewish Magical

Ed. Isbell 3:13 8:1 11:11 25:8 36:4 36:5 38:4 58:1 58:10

17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

2:32f 10:8ff 12:26

92 180 115

Bowl

Ed. Montgomery 37:8 17

1:7 6:1

38:6 39:7

17 17

Ed.

Naveh/Shaked

17 17

Genizah Amulets 3:3

6.2.1

17

6.2.9

17

3:4 3:6 4:1 5:3

65 115 115 115

17

Samaritan Asatir

Texts

Memar 1:1 1:1 2:9 2:1 If

Marqah 115 115 115 115

Literature

Patristic Patristic

[Ethiopie] Apocalypse

Apostolic

37

Constitutions

8.7.1

John

115

Chrysostom

Homilies N o . 10 on 1 Cor on Rom 11:25-27 N o . 5 on Col N o . 10 on Col

Clement

of

160 173 189 192

4:21

151 151

of Rome

161 164 165 161 161

2Clem 164

Didache 10:5 11:11 11:12 11:7-12 16:6-8

Barnabas

5:3 6:10

133 161

Epistle of

Diognetus

order)

Magnesians 6:1 7:2

208, 210, 218 217

8:2

206, 217

Philadelphians

4:6 4:6 5:3 7:1 7:2 7:4 8:9-11 8:9 10:7 11:2 11:4 11:8 12:9

211 219 219 166 219, 220 219 210, 220, 218 220 220 220 220 220

5:2

184

7:1

216

9:1

218

Letter to

Polycarp

2:2

216

Smyrneans 5:1

216

Trallians 5:1 8:1 9:1

214 216 212

Irenaeus History

3.27.4 5.1.18 5.1.49 6.3.4 2.17. Iff 2.4.3

132 206 206 206 77 69

Preparation 8.10.2 9.27.36 9.27.21 9.27.24ff

of the 79 107 107 118

172 214 214 214 172

Gospel

Apostles

163

Ephesians 8:1 15:1 18:1 18:2 19:1 19:2 19:3 20:1

Contra

Haereses

1.26.2

47, 132

Jerome

Ignatius

Epistle of the 13

Epistle of

Ecclesiastical

1 Clem

11:7

alphabetical

Eusebius

(Ps-)Clement

24:6b 34:8 40:1 48:5 60:1

(in

Alexandria

Stromateis 2:9

Literature

of Peter

EthAp Pet 3

301

Literature

183 217 216 216 163, 206, 216 183, 216, 217 217 216

Letter 57 to Pammachius C o m m . on Dan 4:6 C o m m . on Isa 64:3

Justin Apology

Martyr I

1 13 1 25 1 27 1 45 1 54 1 66 Apology 2:12 Dialogue

164 102 164

218 218 218 196 218 218 II 218 with

8

38

17

180

Trypho

302

Index of Passages

36:5 40 43 44 74 82 85 91 108 109f 110 111 120 128 138 139

217 218 99 218 218 219 47, 218 99, 218 180 38 47 218 218 197 218 218

Martyrdom of Polycarp 2:3

Similitudes

164

9.12.1

Comm.

VI

8.70. lOff 8.78.22ff

170 170

Apocalypse of Paul I A 25-29

on Matt

27:9

164

Contra Celsum 1:12

Protevangelium

81

of James

5:1 12:2

85 38

Dio

80

Homer 79

Juvenal

160, 163,184, 188

Texts Trimorphic Protennoia 37:4-30

164

218

Poimandres 1:6

170

Ancient

Sources 90 21 22

Timaeus 37C 52A

Mesopotamian Texts Epic of Gilgamesh 7 Etana Myth 7 PoemofAdapa 7

Pliny

Philostratus

Plutarch

Vita Apollonii

5:33

22

70 70

Republic

22, 89

377d-e 510Bff

Natural

History

5:37

79 70

42

De Iside

9 20ff. 56ff.

Plato

Satires

6:542-547

Commentaries

22

Chrysostom

Iliad 20

Theodore of Mopsuestia

17

14:102 14:102-104 15:lff.

History

ll:17f

30 26 30 151 107

164

Dio Cassius

37:17.2

2.1.1 2.3.4 3.1.1 3.3.2 4.4.1

Gospel of Thomas

Other

Roman

208, 210

Visions

Origen

Gnostic Asclepius

Shepherd of Hermas

Quaestiones 4.6. I f .

81 81 81 Convivales 22

XIII

303

Other Ancient Sources Tacitus Histories 1:10 2:1

89 89

5:4

22

5:5

22

5:13

87, 107

Valerius Maximus Facta et Dicta 1.3.3

Memorabilia 22

Index of M o d e m Authors Aageson, J. W. 153 Abbott, T. K. 185, 187f., 192, 200, 202, 204 Aber, F. 97 Aberbach, M./Grossfeld, B.95 Albrektson, B. 7 Alexander, P. S. 16 Allo, E.-B. 143, 162f., 168 Altenmüller, H. 7 Altmann, A. 169 Amir, Y. 76 Assmann, J. 7 Attridge, H. W. 84 f. Aune, D. E. 19, 24f., 30, 73, 85, 87f., 143f., 156 ,167, 175, 208, 214, 216 Badenas, R. 150, 151, 152, 153 Baeck, L. 18, 30, 108, 110 Baird, W. 136, 137 Balentine, S. E. 10 f. Bammel, E. 61, 88, 143, 151, 212 Bandstra, A. J. 180, 189 Barnett, P. W. 87 Barr, J. 10, 224 Barrett, C. K. 40, 139, 142f., 158, 161 Barth, C. 40 Barth, M. 194, 197, 200 ,203 ff. Bartlett, J. R. 13 Barton, J. 35 Bartsch, H.-W. 217 Bauckham, R. 181 Bauer, W. 216 Baules 208 Baumann, R. 158fT., 162, 165 Baumeister, T. 219 Baumgarten, J. M. 45 Beardslee, W. A. 52 Beare, F. W. 187

Beker, J. C. 147, 149, 178, 194, 228 Bengel, J. A. 136, 138, 161, 172, 183f., 203, 205 Benoit, P. 184, 187 Benz, E. 136, 175 Berchman, R. 71 Bertholet, A. 27, 63 Bertram, G. 63, 102, 139 Best, E. 84, 185, 191, 196 Betz, H. D. 26, 130, 134, 136, 143 Betz, O. 3, 30, 44f., 47, 49f., 52, 54, 88, 221 Bieder, W. 199, 203 f. Bietenhard, H. 40, 152, 176, 188, 189 Bikerman, E. 112 Billerbeck, P. 17 Bittner, W. 37 Black, M. 28, 32, 36 Blank, J. 149 Blenkinsopp, J. 3, 12, 28, 59, 62, 65, 83f., 86, 88, 89, 105, 108, 221 Bockmuehl, M. 134, 191, 192 Bogaert, P. 28, 38 Böhl, F. 65 Böhlig, A. 67 Bonsirven, J. 148, 154, 156, 204 Borger, R. 7 Bornkamm, G. 3, 31, 34, 39, 139, 158, 160, 168, 174, 185, 191, 204, 205, 218, 223 Botterweck, G. J. 70 Bousset, W. 17, 60, 65 Bowers, W. P. 185 Bowker, J. W. 93, 118, 176 Braun, H. 78 Brehier, £ . 72, 81

Brock, S. 94 Brockington, L. H. 97 Broek-Utne, A. 215, 214 Brooke, G. J. 48 Brown, R. E. 3, 7, 23, 34, 36, 40, 54, 66, 116, 161, 166ff., 171, 190, 197, 199, 201, 204, 211 f., 223f. Brownlee, W. H. 47 Brox, N. 213 Bruce, F. F. 48, 50, 54, 88, 136 f., 141, 170, 174, 180, 185f., 191, 194, 198, 203f., 208 Buber, S. 117, 119 Buchanan, G. W. 31, 47 Büchler, A. 106 Büchsei, F. 41 Buffiére, F. 80 Bujard, W. 178 Bultmann, R. 3, 70, 133, 143, 174ff., 192, 215, 229 Burkhardt, H. 72, 76 Burres, K. L. 223 Burrows, M. 52

Caird, G. B. 163, 194 Callan, T. 168 Cambier, J. 204 Caragounis, C. C. 3, 20, 104, 170, 176, 185, 196, 199, 201, 224 Carmignac, J. 24 Carr, W. 163, 215 f. Casciaro Ramirez 49, 54 f. Cerfaux, L. 21, 74, 81, 91, 184, 201, 216 Chadwick, H. 69, 71 ff., 78, 81, 170, 194 Charles, R. H. 26, 31, 34

Index of Modem Chernus, I. 39, 97, 110, 116, 117 Chester, A. 3, 93ff., 98, 221 Chilton, B. D. 95, 97, 99 Christiansen, I. 76 Cohen, A. 16, 41, 106, 109f., 1133 Cohen, N. J. 106 Collange, J. F. 142 f. Collins, J. J. 30, 32 Collins, M . F. 65 Colson, F. H. 72, 79 Conzelmann, H. 148, 158f., 167, 171, 209, 212 f. Copleston, F. 74, 76 Coppens, J. 50, 54, 166, 204 Corssen, P. 207 Couturier, G. 53 Cranfield, C. E. B. 131, 134, 138 ff., 144, 146, 148, 151, 153, 172, 174, 206 f. Crenshaw, J. L. 12 Cullmann, O. 163 Dahl, N. A. 208 f. Daniélou, J. 217 Daube, D. 217 Dautzenberg, G. 165, 167, 170 Davies, W . D. 24, 57, 64, 130, 132, 149, 154 Davis, J. A. 164, 166, 189 De Lestapis, S. 194 De Pury, A. 10 De Strycker 85 De Villiers, P. G. R. 28, 39 De Wette, W . M . L. 181, 188, 204 Dean-Otting, M . 74 Deane, W. J. 65 f. Deden, D. 79, 162, 204, 223, 226 Dehandschutter, B. 52 del Paramo, S. 191 Delling, G. 72, 73, 83f., 84, 89, 95 Dewailly, P. 207 Dexinger, F. 19, 32 Dibelius, M . 212f. Dibelius, M./Conzelmann, H. 211 Dickens, C. 24 Dienstfertig, M . 83, 89

Authors

Dillmann, C. F. A. 33 Dommershausen, W . 8, 52 Dotan, A. 122 Downing, F. G. 2, 222 Draper, J. A. 214 Driver, G. R. 45 D r u m m o n d , J. 65, 72 Duganzic, I. 154 Dulles, A. 2 Dunn, J. D. G. 131, 134, 138f., 152, 175, 230 Dupont, J. 176 Eaton, J . H. 9f. Eckstein, H. J. 141, 152 f. Ehrlich, E. L. 8, 58, 110, 112 Eichrodt, W . 9 Eising, H. 63 Elliger, K. 47 Ellis, E. E. 147, 158, 179 Evans, C . A. 180 Fabry, H.-J. 15, 54 Falk, Z. W . 51 Fascher, E. 58, 85 Fee, G. D. 167, 194 Festugière, A.-J. 20 Feuillet, A. 158, 160, 164f. Fichtner, J. 61, 63f., 139 Fiddes, P. S. 16 Findlay, G. G. 160 Finkel, A. 15 Finkelstein, L. 110, 113,119 Fishbane, M . 8, 14f., 29ff., 48, 76, 107 Fitzmyer, J. A. 37, 52 Flemington, W . F. 181 Foerster, W . 4 9 f . , 52 Fohrer, G. 8, 15 Fohrer, G./Foerster, W . 146 Forster, E. M . 2 Francis, F. O. 30, 180 Frankel, Z. 102 Franxman, T. W . 91 Frey, J . - B . 34f., 57, 71, 76, 221 Friedrich, G. 188 Fritsch, C. T. 101 Früchtel, U . 70, 74 f. Fryer, N. S. L. 134 Furfey, P. H. 198 Furnish, V. P. 142, 175 f.

305 Gabrion, H. 43 ff. Gadd, C. J. 7 Garcia Martinez, F. 37 Gärtner 141 f. Gaston, L. 132 Gehman, H. S. 101 Georgi, D. 65 Gerleman, G. 102 Gilbert, M . 64 Ginzberg, L. 110, 114, 119 Gloege 208, 210 Glombitza, O. 174 Gnilka, J. 185, 188, 197, 199, 203 ff. Gnuse, R. K. 8 Godet 207 Goldberg, A. M . 97, 114, 117, 153, 222 Goldenberg, D. 82 Goodenough, E. R. 21 f., 74, 78 Goodman, M . 93 Goppelt, L. 144 Gordon, R. P. 98, 99 Grabbe, L. L. 19 Grant, R. M . 79ff., 217 Grässer, E. 191 Gray, J. 8 Grelot, P. 25 Grintz, Y . M . 96 Grotius 140 Grözinger, K. E. 169 Grudem, W . A. 144f., 167 Gruenwald, I. 31, 120, 169 Guillet, J. 2, 136 Guthrie, D. 194 Gyllenberg, R. 9 Haag, H. 9, 13 Hafemann, S . J . 142f. Hagner, D. A.74 Hall, W. S. 175 Halperin, D. J. 117 Hamerton-Kelly, R. G. 25, 36, 161 f. Hamilton 218 Hanson, A. T. 154, 161, 163f., 21 Iff. Hanson, P. D. 9, 24, 35 Harnack, A. 156, 195, 214, 229 Harrington, D. J. 63, 67

306 Harris, M. 171 Harris, R. 76, 81

Index of Modern Authors Käsemann, E. 135, 139, 175, 206

Levenson, J . D. 14 Lévèque, P. 80

Hartman, L. 31, 38

Kaufman, S. A. 93

Levine, B . A. 9

Harvey, A. E. 3, 20, 23, 78,

Kee, H. C. 22

Lewis, A. S. 212

81, 92, 159, 167, 204, 211,

Kelly, J . N. D. 194, 211 f.

Lewy, H. 72

224

Kennedy, H. 204

Lieberman, S. 107

Hatch 204

Kertelge, K. 136 f.

Lightfoot, J . B . 134, 185 ,189,

Hayward, C . T . R. 97, 99

Kiley, M. 178

Hecht, R. D . 71 f., 77

Kim, S. 37, 133, 137, 146,

Hegermann, H. 70

202, 228

216 f. Lim, T . H. 157 Lincoln, A. T , 54, 143, 144,

Heinemann, J . 63

Kloppenborg, J . S. 63

175 f., 179, 190, 194, 199,

Heinemann, J./Petuchowski,

Klöpper, A. 159

204

J . j . 112 Heinisch, P. 63, 65 Heinrici, G. 161, 165

Knierim, R. 40

Lindars, B . 37

Knox, W. L. 63, 76f., 81,

Lindblom, J. 85, 136, 165, 175

125, 165, 167, 202, 205

Lindner, H. 86

Hemer, C. J . 180

Kobelski, P. J . 53

Lock, W. 211, 213

Hengel, M. 20, 26, 30, 35,37,

Koch, D . - A . 154

Lohmeyer, E. 110, 142, 182,

45, 50, 59, 60, 63, 102 Herold, G. 139, 140, 206 Hill, D. 84, 144, 170, 171

Koch, K. 27, 95 Koehler, W./Baumgartner, L. 15

191 Lohse, E. 185, 191 Loisy, A. 223

Himmelfarb, M. 36, 92

Kohler, K. 82

Lombard, H. A. 26 f.

Hofius, O . 175

König, E. 9

Lona, H. E. 181

Holl, K. 184

Kosmala, H. 43, 49, 168

Lott, E.J. vi

Hollander, H. W./deJonge,

Kraft, R. A. 214

Lowy, S. 115

Krämer, H. 176

Luck, U . 136, 151

Holm-Nielsen, S. 49

Kraus, H. J . 10

Lueken, W. 180, 196

Holtz, T . 155

Kremer, J . 181

Lührmann, D. 3, 25, 28, 74,

Holtz, G. 211

Krüger, P. 111

Holtzmann, H. J . 207

Küchler, M. 25, 29, 63

142 ff., 152, 158, 165, 184,

Hooker, M. D . 141, 154, 180

Kuhn, P. v. 105

192, 207ff., 222, 228

Horbury, W. 19f., 37, 102,

Kuhn, H . - W . 25, 28, 29, 32,

M . 28, 191

110, 131 f., 151, 158 Horgan, M. P. 47 f.

101, 133, 135 ff., 139,

Lust, J . 100

50, 52, 53, 159, 162, 169,

Luttikhuizen, G. P. 214

228

Lutzmann, H. 7

Hornung, E. 8

Kümmel, W. G. 166

Hruby, K. 113

Kuntz, J . K. 9

Luz, U . 133, 148, 151, 154, 156, 166, 174, 204, 209, 222

Hübner, H. 149, 151, 172, 175 Hurtado, L. W. 206

Labat, R. 7

Macdonald, J . 115

Huther, J. E. 211

Lacocque, A. 39

Mack, U . 63

Ladd, G. E. 133, 137, 146, 162

Macleod, C. W. 73

Jacob, E. 63

Lagrange, M . - J . 22, 116

MacMullen, R. 79

Jastrow, M. 121, 169

Lake, K. 214

Maier, G. 60f.

Jeremias, Joachim 118, 122,

Lampe, G. W. H. 71, 105, 180

Maneschg, H. 63

Lapide, P. 151

Manson, T . W. 29, 134

Jeremias, Jörg 9, 25

Larcher, C. 61, 65 f.

Marböck, J . 59, 62 f.

Jewett R. 195

Latourelle, R. 13

Mariotti, S. 83

Johnson, L. T . 194

Lauterbach, J . Z. 106, 109,

Marshall, I. H. 196 f.

194, 212

Johnson, G. L. 88

113 f.

Martin, R. P. 134, 175f., 185, 188

Johnson, S. E. 165

Le Deaut, R. 95 f.

Jülicher, A. 207

Leaney, A. R. C. 43ff., 49

Marxsen, W. 195

Lebram, J . 25, 28, 67

Masson, C. 160

Kadushin, M. 108 f.

Leenhardt, F. J . 140

Mayer, R. 82

Kamlah, E. 38, 202, 209, 213

Leisegang, J . 76, 79

McEleney, N . J . 19

Index of Modem McKenzie J. L. 11 McNamara, M. 95, 97, 135 Meecham, H. G. 211, 219f. Meeks, W. A. 125 Merkelbach, R. 81 Merklein, H. 182, 200, 201 ff., 205, 222 Mertens, A. 47, 54 Metzger, W. 211 f. Metzger, B. M. 130, 158, 187, 206, 211 Meuzelaar, J. J. 185, 187 Meyer, R. 89 Meyer, B. F. 134 Meyers, E. M. 9 Michel, O. 87, 89, 134, 136, 140, 148f., 174, 206f. Micou, R. W. 212 Milik, J. T. 38, 56, 161 Miliar, F. 22 Miranda, J. P. 66 Mitton, C. L. 196, 202, 204 Molitor, F. J. 113 Montefiore, C. G. 16f., 108 Montgomery, J. A. 17 Moore, G. F. 17, 97, 116 Morris, L. 196 Morris, J. 72, 75 Moule, C. F. D. 136, 178, 181, 183, 185, 194, 207 Mühlenberg, E. 70 f. Müller, U. B. 144 Müller, P.-G. 192 Müller, H.-P. 25 f. Muller, K. 24 Muñoz León, D. 97 Murdock, W. R. 26, 39 Murphy, F. J. 28 Murphy-O'Connor, J. 212 Muschalek, F. 10 Mussner, F. 134, 136, 199, 204 Myers, J. M. 28 Myers, J. M./Freed, E. D.143 Naveh, J./Shaked, S. 17 Neusner, J. 104, 109, 112 f. Newsom, C. A. 53 Nickelsburg, G. W. E. 26, 28f., 37, 59, 63 Nikiprowetzky, V. 69 Nissen, A. 28 Noack, B. 26

Authors

Nock, A. D. 78, 81, 216 Noth, M. 26 Nôtscher, F. 43 f., 48, 54, 56 Novak, D. 155 Nygren, A. 134 O'Brien, P. T. 180ff., 185f., 188, 190 f. O'Neill, J. C. 138, 189 Oepke, A. 3, 32f., 134, 136, 146, 221 f. Olford, D. 134 Oppenheim, A. L. 8 Otte, K. 75 Otzen, B. 25 Pascher, J. 78 Patte, D. 45, 47, 48, 53 Paul, A. 83 Paulsen, H. 216 Penna, R. 3, 55, 137, 161, 165, 167, 170, 184 ff., 199 f., 203, 206ff., 223, 226 Pépin 79, 80, 81 Percy, E. 178, 184, 194 Perdue, L. G. 61 f. Pérez Fernández, M. 95 Periitt, L. 10, 11 Pesce, M. 163 Peters, N. 60 Petuchowski, J.J. 3, 18, 23, 112, 118

Pfitzner 186 Philonenko, M. 53, 164 Piñero-Sáenz 72 f. Plôger, O. 86 Plummer, A. 142f., 176 Ponsot, H. 164 Poole, M. 141, 185, 212 Potin, J. 94, 98, 110 Poznanski, A. 80, 86 Prato, G. L. 67 Prigent, P. 164 Prümm, K. 3, 20, 81, 106, 159, 161, 166, 223, 226 Ràisànen, H. 149 f. Ramsay, W. M. 180 Raurell, F. 65 Reese, J. M. 63 Refoulé, F. 171 Reicke, B. 194

307 Reinmuth, E. 155 Reitzenstein, R. 159 Rendtorff, R. 10 Rengstorf, K. H. 156 Reumann, J. 166, 182 Riehes, J. 155 Ricoeur, P. 114 Ridderbos, H. N. 134, 139, 194 Riedweg, C. 77, 79, 81 Riesner, R. 163 Rigaux, B. 47, 48f., 159f., 185 Ringgren, H. 40, 42, 63 Robertson, A./Plummer, A. 164, 168, 171 Robinson, J. A. 3, 167, 200, 204 Robinson, J. A. T. 179, 194 Robinson D.W.B. 183 Robinson H. W. 27 Rochais, G. 12 Rogerson, J. 9 Rokeah, D. 69 Rössler, D. 28, 39 Rowland, C. 26 ff, 34f, 38 ff, 52 f., 114 ff, 136 f., 146, 175, 180 Rowley, H. H. 8 Russell, D. S. 25 ff, 38, 53, 84 Rylaarsdam, J. C. 60, 63, 65, 221 Sabatier 29 Sabourin, L. 97 Saeb0, M. 15 Saldarini, A. J. 116 Sanday, W./Headlam, A. C. 141 Sanders, E. P. 20, 109, 114, 131 f., 134, 149 ff, 154 f. Sanders J. A. 155 Sandmel, S. 70, 7 2 f f , 77f., 112, 131, 145 Sänger, D. 22, 172 Sauer, G. 9 Schäfer, P. v, 50, 99, 105f., 108 ff, 113, 117, 120, 169, 176 Schenk, W. 188 Schiffman, L. H. 4 3 f f , 51 Schimanowski, G. 38

308 Schlatter, A. 83f., 86, 89, 92, 130, 138, 162, 165, 174, 211 Schlier, H. 135, 142, 185, 194, 201 ff., 208, 216ff. Schmidt, H. W. 175, 207 Schmithals, W. 166, 185 Schmitt, W. O. 79 Schnabel, E. 49f., 63 Schnackenburg, R. 185, 200, 203 f. Schneider, J. 181, 185, 197 Schniewind, J. 163 Schoedel, W. R. 216 f. Schoemaker, W. R. 65 Scholem, G. 3, 111 ff., 116, 120f., 176, 222 Schreiner, J. 49, 50 Schulte H. 3, 208, 222 Schürer, E. 17 Schürer, E./Vermes, G. 22, 69, 76 ff., 100, 117, 140 Schweitzer, A. 223 Schweizer, E. 185f., 210 Scott, E.F. 3, 222 Seckler, M. 70 Seeligmann, I. L. 102 Sellin, G. 162 f. Senft, C. 168 Sheppard, G. T. 63 Siegert, F. 144, 148, 153, 155, 170, 214 Siegfried, C. 77 Silberman, L. H. 47 f. Sjöberg, E. 32ff., 36, 40, 204, 212 Sjöberg, E./Stählin, G. 140 Skehan, P. W./di Lella, A.A. 67 Smend, R. 67, I I I Smith, M. 22, 32 f. 89, 91, 101, 131, 136 Smith, D. M. 148, 152, 154 Smith, J. Z. 25 Smolar, L./Aberbach, M. 95, 98 Snaith, J. G. 60, 62, 64 Soards, M. L. 228 Sparks, H. F. D. 164 Sperber, A. 91 Spicq, C. 194, 212 Staab, K. 163 Stadelmann, H. 60ff., 68 Steinmetz, F. J. 188, 202, 204

Index of Modern

Authors

Stemberger, G. 32, 107, 118, 120 ff., 171 Stone, M. E. 29, 34 f. Strack, H. L./Stemberger,G. 118 Strack, H. L./Billerbeck,P. 75, 107 f., 108, 183 Strobel, A. 140, 194 Stuhlmacher, P. 130, 132ff., 136 ff., 146, 154, 163, 171, 188, 228 Sturm, R. E. 223 Styler, G. M. 155 Suggs, M. J. 153 Suter, D. W. 26, 30, 37 Sweet, J. P. M. 63 Swete, H. B. 102, 160,184, 188 Tasker, R. V. G. 176 Thackeray, H. S. J. 88, 91, 97 Thiselton, A. C. 168 ff. Thoma, C. 40 Thomson, J. G. S. S. 9 Tillich, P. 2 Towner, P. H. 211 Trilling, W. 195, 197 Urbach, E. E. 16, 114, 132 Van Brüggen, J. 194 Van Imschoot, P. 60, 65 Van Roon, A. 165, 194, 226 Van Unnik, W. C. 80, 88f., 91 VanderKam, J. C. 26, 30, 34, 40 Vanderlinden, E. 77 Vermes, G. 37f., 42, 44, 48, 51 f., 82, 91, 96, 98 Vielhauer, P. 148, 154, 155 Vogt, E. 54, 56, 197 Volz, P. 38f., 61 f., 88 Von Dobschütz, E. 195 Von Nordheim, E. 164 Von Rad, G. 24ff., 31 Von Soden, H. 162, 166, 186ff., 192, 218 Wacholder, B. Z. 44, 48, 51 Ward, R. A. 194

Watson, F. 150 Weber, F. 17 Wedderburn, A.J. M. 20, 22f. Wehrli, F. 79 Weinfeld, M. 122, 169 Weiser, A. 10, 134 Weiss, J. 166 ff. Wenham, D. 171 Werner, J. 79 Westcott, B. F. 204 f. Westerholm, S. 155 Westermann, C. 9, 11 Westermann, C./Albertz, R.44 Wettstein, J. J. 140 Wewers, G. A. 15, 54, 118, 119, 121 White, J. L. 130 Whybray, R. N. 11 Widmann, M. 158 Wieder, N. 43, 45ff., 104 Wilckens, U. 3, 28, 133f., 134, 138 ff., 158 f., 161 ff., 206f., 222 Willet, A. 140 Willi-Plein, I. 16, 25, 29ff., 116 Williams, A.L. 180 Williams T. 14, 229 Wilson, A. M./Wills, L. 51 Wilson, S. G. 194 Winston, D. 65, 71 Winter, M. 159 f. Wohlenberg, G. 211, 212 Wolfson, H. A. 70ff., 75f., 78, 112 Wolter, M. 185, 207 ff. Worrell, J. E. 47 Wright, N. T. 180, 191 f. Wyschogrod, M. 155 Yadin, Y. 42, 51 Yates, R. 180, 181 Zeilinger, F. 181, 187 ff. Zeitlin, S. 86 Zeller, D. 170, 172, 207, 230 Ziegert, P. 77 Zimmerli, W. 10, 12 Zobel, H.-J. 11, 13, 44, 101 Zunz, L. 116, 122, 204

Index of Subjects Allegory, allegorical i n t e r p r e tation 76 fF. Angels 18, 5 0 n . , 52, 5 4 n . , 5 5 ,

False p r o p h e t s 58, 73, 85 (n.), 106 Fulness of the t i m e 135

vealed 95 K n o w l e d g e of G o d in Philo 69ff.

58, 88, 91, 1 1 7 n n . , 119, 120, 121, 137, 163 f., 168 f.,

K i n g d o m of G o d to be re-

Gentiles and m y s t e r y , in R o -

179 f., 196, 200, 202,

m a n s 173f., in Ephesians

L a w see T o r a h

211 —12n., 216

202

L a w of C h r i s t 155

Anti-esotericism 66 f., 118f., 121, 170, 175, 228 See also

Gilgamesh, revelation o f di-

Lots 8, 52, 87

vine secrets to, 7 n . G l o r y of G o d 97 f.

M a g i c 16—17 n.

Apocalyptic, definition 2 5 f f .

Glossolalia 144, 168ff.

Manifestation of the gospel in

A p o s t a s y 19 f., 130ff.

Gnosticism 21 n . , 39 n . , 72 n.

Illicit Mysteries

Asceticism to induce visions 29—30n., 178 A u t h o r s h i p of Pauline letters 129 n.; 178 f.; 194 n.

117n., 1 2 2 n . , 143, 1 5 8 n . , 159, 1 6 3 - 4 , 2 0 9 n . , 2 1 4 n . ,

Maskilim

217n. 218n., 219n.

M e m r a 97

Gospel revealed 136, 138ff. passim

Balaam legend 96

Greek, Paul's use o f 129

Bat Qôî (heavenly voice) 87, 89, 107 f., 119, 121

117 f. C a n o n 62, 73, 75 f., l l O f . C i r c u m c i s i o n 117, 1 1 8 n . , 131

H e a v e n l y Ascent 7 0 n . , , 7 4 n . , sim. See also H e k h a l o t m y sticism H e b r e w , Philo's k n o w l e d g e of 69 H e k h a l o t m y s t i c i s m 17n., 55,

D a m a s c u s , revelation o n the road to 130, 136, 148 D e c a l o g u e 73, 82, 90, 110 Divination 7, 107 D r e a m s , 8, 42, 48, 52 f., 58, 71 f., 74 n., 85n, 86, 89, 90

44 n.

Messiah - as m y s t e r y 37 f., 55, 95, 119, 187ff. — and passim

116, 120 f., 175 f. and pasCalendar, intercalation o f

Paul 144, 191 f. and passim M a n t i c technique 7

104, 114n., 116f., 120f., 122, 176, 180, 215 n. See also H e a v e n l y Ascent Hiddenness/Silence o f G o d , in O T 10ff., in Philo 74 f. H o r o s c o p e s 52

- pre-existent 37 f. " M e t a - r e v e l a t i o n " , 29, 41, 44 f., 48, 64, 110, 124 Miracles 3, 63 M o n o t h e i s m , as criterion of " o r t h o d o x y " 19 Mysteries and initiation 66 Mysteries — cosmological, 3 3 f f . , 55, 65 f. — eschatological, 3 5 f f . , 54 f., 65, 7 8 , 9 1 , 9 5 , 118ff. and passim - halakhic 37 n., 4 2 f f .

Elchasai 214 n.

Initiation at Q u m r a n 159

E n o c h legend 91 f.

Inspiration in Philo 7 1 f f .

E n o c h , Similitudes of, date,

Isis vs. W i s d o m 63

— in J e w i s h magic 16—17n.,

J o s e p h u s as a p r o p h e t 8 7 f f .

— lists of, in A p o c a l y p t i c 34

"Judaism", defined 16ff.

- o f e v i l 4 0 f . , 5 5 f . , 78,

37 n. Epiphanies 3 Essene P r o p h e c y 86

died 40 f., 66 f., 121 f., 176 116n.

J u d g e m e n t 138ff., 145 and Faith revealed 134

- illicitly disclosed or s t u -

passim

91 f., 195ff. - o f heaven (in O T ) 14 f.

310 - of Israel 49 n., 117 - Samaritan Theology 115 - of Scripture 14, 42ff., 67, 77, 115, 174 f., 204 "Mystery" Defined 2 Mystery Religions, Hellenistic 20ff., 66, 77 n., 78 f., 81, 89 f., 102, 167 n., 196 n., 211, 218, 224 n. Natural revelation 3, 63, 141 f. Noachide commandments 155 "Orthodoxy" in Judaism 17ff. "Orthopraxis" 19 f. Passover lamb 118 Paul as a prophet 166 n. Philo as a prophet 73 Portents 8 Praise, revealed 62 Prayer replacing sacrifice 112n. Priesthood and prophecy/ revelation 9, 49, 61, 88 Prophecy - Christian 144f. - e n d o f 12f., 29, 52, 57ff., 84 f., 105 - in Philo 70ff. - in Josephus 83ff. - replaced by apocalyptic 13 - replaced by exegesis 13, 59ff. - transferred to the Sages 108 f. - test of 12 n. Prophecy and reason 72, 83 Providence 63, 84, 87 Pseudonyms, scribal, in apocalyptic 32 n. Realized Eschatology, at Qumran 54 n., in Paul 146 f. Residual hiddenness of revealed mysteries 165, 186, 189, 191 Resurrection appearances as revelation 137

Index of Subjects Revelation and priesthood 9 Revelation as human act 70 n., 75, 191 f. Revelation by interpretation, in apocalyptic 29ff., Qumran 44 f., Josephus 89, 113 f., Paul 147ff., 174, Justin 219 and passim "Revelation Schema" 208ff. Rewards and punishments 19, 35, 37, 95, 119n., 120 n., 140, 172n., 213n. Righteousness of God revealed 133 f., 138ff. Sabbath 117 "Saints" 183 f. Salvation in Paul, mostly future 146 Scribes as prophets 59 f. Scribes, inspired 61 Scripture quotations in Apocalyptic 30 Scripture as revelation, in OT 13 "Secondary rationalization" in Paul 149 Secrets, human 3, 40—41 n. Self-Revelation of God 2 Septuagint - authority of 100 - avoidance of Hellenistic mystery terminology 102 - translation of, as prophecy 77 n. Shekhinah of God 97 f., 106, 119 Signs and symbols 8 Silence before revelation 206n., 210n., 217-218. See also Hiddenness Son of Man, messianic significance, 37 n. Spirit and revelation/prophecy 29(n), 50, 64f., 99f., 105ff. and passim Suffering 143, 181, 192. See also Theodicy, Weakness Teacher of Righteousness 47, 49ff., 61

Temple furnishings, hidden 65 n. Temple sacrifice replaced by Torah, prayer, works of kindness 112(n.) Theodicy 1, 27, 34f., 41, 124 f., 140, 147, 173, 225, 229 f.

Therapeutae 23, 77, 78 n. Tongues, see Glossolalia Torah and halakhah, at Qumran 45 f. Torah - as a light 28 n., 98, 136 - as a spring of water 46, 64, 98, 113n. - as Word of God 98, 109 f. — in Apocalyptic 28 f. - replaced by Christ 149, 154 — as replacing the Temple 112 — hidden before its revelation 210n. — oral Torah 37 n., 112f. - precedence over Prophets 111 — prophetic function 151 f., 154

Urim and Thummim 8, 61, 85 (n.), 105

Virgin birth 216 Visions at Qumran 52 f.

Weakness 143 f.; see also Suffering Wisdom — as Torah 63 f. — cultic setting 61 f., 63 — mantic wisdom as origin of Apocalyptic 25 f. Wrath of God revealed 138ff., 145

Yohanan ben Zakkai's prophecy 89

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der ersten u n d zweiten Reihe Appold, Mark L.: T h e O n e n e s s M o t i f in the Fourth Gospel. 1976. B a n d II/1. Bammel, Ernst: Judaica. 1986. Band 37. Bauemfeind, Otto: K o m m e n t a r u n d Studien zur Apostelgeschichte. 1980. Band 22. Bayer, Hans Friedrich: Jesus' Predictions of Vindication and Resurrection. 1986. B a n d 11/20. Betz, Otto: Jesus, der Messias Israels. 1987. Band 42. - Jesus, der H e r r der Kirche. 1989. B a n d 52. Beyschlag, Karlmann: S i m o n M a g n u s u n d die christliche Gnosis. 1974. Band 16. Bittner, Wolfgang J.: Jesu Zeichen i m Johannesevangelium. 1987. B a n d 11/26. Bjerkelund, Carl ].: T a u t a Egeneto. 1987. Band 40. Bockmuehl, Markus N.A.: Revelation and M y s t e r y in Ancient J u d a i s m and Pauline Christianity. 1989. B a n d 11/36. Böhlig, Alexander: Gnosis u n d Synkretismus l . T e i l . 1989. Band 47. - Gnosis u n d Synkretismus 2. Teil. 1989. Band 48. Büchli, Jörg: D e r P o i m a n d r e s — ein paganisiertes Evangelium. 1987. Band 11/27. Bühner, Jan A. : D e r Gesandte u n d sein W e g im 4. Evangelium. 1977. B a n d II/2. Burchard, Christoph: U n t e r s u c h u n g e n zu Joseph v o n Aseneth. 1965. B a n d 8. Caragounis, Chrys C.: T h e Son of M a n . 1986. B a n d 38. Das E v a n g e l i u m u n d die Evangelien. H r s g . von P. Stuhlmacher. 1983. Band 28. Dobbeler, Axel von: Glaube als Teilhabe. 1987. B a n d 11/22. Drei hellenistisch-jüdische Predigten. Erl. v o n F. Siegert. 1980. Band 20. Ebertz, Michael N.: Das C h a r i s m a des Gekreuzigten. 1987. Band 45. Eckstein, Hans-Joachim: D e r Begriff der Syneidesis bei Paulus. 1983. B a n d 11/10. Ego, Beate: I m H i m m e l w i e auf Erden. 1989. Band 11/34. Ellis, E. Earle: P r o p h e c y and H e r m e n e u t i c in Early Christianity. 1978. Band 18. Feldmeier, Reinhard: Die Krisis des Gottessohnes. 1987. B a n d 11/21. Fossum, Jarl E: T h e N a m e of G o d and the Angel of the Lord. 1985. Band 36. Garnet, Paul: Salvation and A t o n e m e n t in the Q u m r a n Scrolls. 1977. B a n d II/3. Gräßer, Erich: D e r Alte B u n d im N e u e n . 1985. B a n d 35. Green, Joel B.: T h e Death of Jesus. 1988. Band 11/33. Gundry Volf, Judith M.: Paul and Perseverance. 1990. B a n d 11/37. Hafemann, Scott J.: Suffering and the Spirit. 1986. B a n d 11/19. Heiligenthal, Roman: W e r k e als Zeichen. 1983. B a n d II/9. Hemer, Colin J.: T h e B o o k of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History. 1989. Band 49. Hengel, Martin: J u d e n t u m u n d Hellenismus. 3 1988. B a n d 10. Hofius, Otfried: Katapausis. 1970. B a n d 11. - D e r V o r h a n g v o r d e m T h r o n Gottes. 1972. Band 14. - D e r C h r i s t u s h y m n u s Philipper 2 , 6 - 1 1 . 1976. B a n d 17. - Paulusstudien. 1989. Band 51. Kamiah, Ehrhard: Die F o r m der katalogischen Paränese im N e u e n Testament. 1964. Band 7. Kim, Seyoon: „ T h e , S o n of M a n ' " as the Son of God. 1983. Band 30. - T h e O r i g i n of Paul's Gospel. 2 1984. B a n d II/4. Kleinknecht, Karl Th.: D e r leidende Gerechtfertigte. 2 1988. B a n d 11/13. Klinghardt, Matthias: Gesetz und Volk Gottes. 1988. B a n d 11/32.

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Köhler, Wolf-Dietrich: Rezeption des Matthäusevangeliums in der Zeit vor Irenaus. 1987. Band 11/24. Kuhn, Karl G.: Achtzehngebet u n d Vaterunser u n d der Reim. 1950. B a n d 1. Lampe, Peter: Die stadtrömischen Christen in den ersten beiden J a h r h u n d e r t e n . 2 1989. B a n d 11/18. Maier, Gerhard: M e n s c h u n d freier Wille. 1971. B a n d 12. - Die J o h a n n e s o f f e n b a r u n g u n d die Kirche. 1981. Band 25. Markus-Philologie. Hrsg. v o n H . Cancik. 1984. Band 33. Marshall, Peter: E n m i t y in C o r i n t h : Social C o n v e n t i o n s in Paul's Relations w i t h the Corinthians. 1987. Band 11/23. Meade, David G.: P s e u d o n y m i t y and C a n o n . 1986. B a n d 39. Mengel, Berthold: Studien z u m Philipperbrief. 1982. B a n d II/8. Merkel, Helmut: Die Widersprüche zwischen den Evangelien. 1971. Band 13. Merklein, Helmut: Studien zu Jesus u n d Paulus. 1987. Band 43. Niebuhr, Karl-Wilhelm: Gesetz u n d Paränese. 1987. B a n d 11/28. Nissen, Andreas: G o t t u n d der N ä c h s t e im antiken J u d e n t u m . 1974. Band 15. Okure, Terese: T h e Johannine A p p r o a c h to Mission. 1988. B a n d 11/31. Räisänen, Heikki: Paul and the Law. 2 1987. Band 29. Rehkopf, Friedrich: Die lukanische Sonderquelle. 1959. B a n d 5. Reiser, Marius: Syntax u n d Stil des Markusevangeliums. 1984. B a n d 11/11. Riesner, Rainer: Jesus als Lehrer, 3 1988. B a n d II/7. Rissi, Mathias: Die Theologie des Hebräerbriefs. 1987. Band 41. Röhser, Günter: M e t a p h o r i k u n d Personifikation der Sünde. 1987. Band 11/25. Sänger, Dieter: Antikes J u d e n t u m u n d die Mysterien. 1980. B a n d II/5. Sato, Migaku: Q u n d Prophetie. 1988. B a n d 11/29. Schimanowski, Gottfried: Weisheit u n d Messias. 1985. Band 11/17. Schlichting, Günter: Ein jüdisches Leben Jesu. 1982. Band 24. Schnabel, Eckhard J.: Law and W i s d o m f r o m Ben Sira to Paul. 1985. B a n d 11/16. Schutter, William L.: H e r m e n e u t i k and C o m p o s i t i o n in I Peter. 1989. B a n d 11/30. Siegert, Folker: N a g - H a m m a d i - R e g i s t e r . 1982. B a n d 26. - A r g u m e n t a t i o n bei Paulus. 1985. B a n d 34. - Philon v o n Alexandrien. 1988. Band 46. Simon, Marcel: Le christianisme antique et son contexte religieux I/II. 1981. Band 23. Snodgrass, Klyne: T h e Parable of the Wicked Tenants. 1983. B a n d 27. Speyer, Wolfgang: Frühes C h r i s t e n t u m im antiken Strahlungsfeld. 1989. Band 50. Stadelmann, Helge: Ben Sira als Schriftgelehrter. 1980. Band II/6. Strobel, August: Die Studie der Wahrheit. 1980. B a n d 21. Tajra, Harry W.: T h e Trial of St. Paul. 1989. B a n d 11/35. Theißen, Gerd: Studien zur Soziologie des U r c h r i s t e n t u m s . 3 1989. B a n d 19. Wedderburn, A.f.M.: Baptism and Resurrection. 1987. Band 44. Wegner, Uwe: D e r H a u p t m a n n v o n K a f a r n a u m . 1985. B a n d 11/14. Zimmermann, Alfred E.: Die urchristlichen Lehrer, 2 1988. B a n d 11/12.