Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis [The Standard Edition.] 9780871401185

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1

.

Introductory Lectures on

Psychoanalysis

THE PENGUIN FREUD LIBRARY General Editor:

Angela Richards (i073S2) Albert Dickson (1982-^

VOLUME

)

1

INTRODUCTORY LECTURES ON PSYCHOANALYSIS Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud was born

in 1856 in

Moravia; between the

home was

ages of four and eighty-two his

1938 Hitler’s invasion of Austria forced in I..oiulon,

began

where he died

witli several years

him

thirty

whcn»

after a period

his interests first

years

of

clinical

Vienna:

in

in the following year. His career

of

brilliant

work on

tlic

anatomy

He was

physiology of the nervous system.

aiui

in

to seek asylum

of study under Charcot

almost in Paris,

turned to psychology, and another ten

work

in

Vienna

(at first in

collaboration

with Brener, an older colleague) saw the birth of his creation,

psychoanalysis. This began simply as a

treating neurotic patients it

by

method of

investigating their minds, but

quickly grew into an accumulation of knowledge about

the workings of the healthy. Freud

mind

in

was thus able

whether

general,

to demonstrate the

sick

or

normal

development of the sexual instinct in childhood and, on the basis of an examination of dreams, arrived at ,

largely his

fundamental discovery of the unconscious forces dhat

influence our everyday thoughts and actions. Freud’s

life

many

was uneventful, but

his ideas

specialist disciplines,

but the whole intellectual climate of

the

last

half-ccntury.

have shaped not only

THE PENGUIN FREUD LIBRARY

VOLUME

I

INTRODUCTORY LECTURES ON PSYCHOANALYSIS Sigmund Freud

Translated by James Strachey Edited by James Strachey

and Angela Richards

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Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: Harmonds worth, Middlesex, England

Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis

Present English translation (by James Strachey)

Volumes

first

published in

Edition of the Complete Psycho loj^ical fVorks of Sij^mund Freud,

The Standard

XV and

XVI, by the Hogarth Press and the Institute of by arrangement with George Allen Sc Unwin, London 1963

Psycho-Analysis,

‘Sigmund Freud: First

published in

A

Sketch of

Two

his Life

and

Ideas’

Short Accounts of Psycho-Analysis

in Pelican

Books

Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis

Published in Pelican Books 1973

Reprinted

in

Penguin Books 1991

579

13

10

8642

Translation and Editorial Matter copyright

and the

Institute

© Angela Richards

of Psycho-Analysis, 1962, 1963

Additional Editorial Matter copyright

© Angela Richards

1973,

All rights reserved

Printed in England

by Clays Ltd, St

Ives pic

Except in the United States of Amercia, this

that

be

it

book

is

sold subject to the condition

shall not,

lent, rc-sold,

by way of trade or otherwise,

hired out, or otherwise circulated

without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which

it is

published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed

11

CONTENTS VOLUME

I

The Penguin Freud Library

Introduction to

Sigmund Freud:

A

7

Sketch of his Life and Ideas by

James Strachey

1

Chronological Table

25

INTRODUCTORY LECTURES ON PSYCHOANALYSIS (I9i6-I7[i9i5-I7l) Editor’s Introduction

3i

Preface [1917]

35

PART

I.

PARAPRAXES

(l9l6[l9I5])

Lecture I

I

Introduction

2

Parapraxes

3

Parapraxes (continued)

39 50 66

4

Parapraxes (concluded)

87

j

!

I

I

PART n. DREAMS (l9l6[l915-l6]) and

Approaches

5

Difficulties

6

The Premisses and Techniques of Interpretation The Manifest Content of Dreams and the Latent Dream-Thoughts Children’s Dreams The Censorship of Dreams Symbolism in Dreams

7 8

9 .10

First

1 1

129

143 1 57 x68

182

CONTENTS

6 11

The Dream-Work

12

Some

13

The Archaic

14

Wish-Fulfilment

15

Uncertainties and Criticisms

Analyses of Sample

PART

204 219

Dreams

Features and Infantilism

of Dreams

235 250 266

GENERAL THEORY OP THE NEUROSES {i9I7[i9I6-I7]) III.

16

Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry

281

17

The

Sense of Symptoms

296

18

Fixation to

19

Resistance

Traumas - The Unconscious

21

and Repression The Sexual Life of Human Beings The Development of the Libido and the Sexual

22

Some Thoughts on Development and Regre^on -

20

Organizations

313

327

344 362

Aetiology

383

The Paths to the Formation of Symptoms 24 The Common Neurotic State 25 26

Anxiety

27 28

Transference

404 425 440 461 482

Analytic Therapy

501

Bibliography and Author Index List

519 527

Index of Dreams

531

23

The Libido Theory and Narcissism

of Abbreviations Index of Parapraxes Index of Symbols

533

General Index

537 %

“Hie Prisoner’s Dream’ by Schwind (Reproduced by kind permission of

Inside front cover:'

the Schack Gallery, Municii)

-

INTRODUCTION TO THE PENGUIN FREUD LIBRARY The Penguin Freud Library (formerly The Pelican Freud Library) intended to meet the needs of the general reader by providing all Freud's major writings in translation together with an appropriate linking commentary. It is the first time that such an edition has been produced in paperback in the English language. It docs not supplant The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological of Sigmund Freud, translated from the (Jerman under the general editorship of James Strachey, in collaboration witli Anna Freud, assisted by Alix Strachey and Alan Tyson, editorial assistant Angela Richards (Hogarth Press, 24 volumes, 1953-74). The Standard Edition remains the fullest and most authoritative collection published in any language. The present edition does, however, provide a large enough selection to meet the requirements of all but the most specialist reader in particular it aims to cater for students of

is

sociology, anthropology, criminology, medicine, aesthetics

and education,

all

of them

fields in

which Freud’s

ideas

have

established their relevance.

The

texts are reprinted unabridged,

the Standard Edition.

The

editorial

with corrections, from

commentary

*-

introduc-

tions, footnotes, internal cross-references, bibliographies

indexes - is also based

upon

the Standard Edition, but

abridged and where necessary adapted to

it

and

has been

suit the less special-

and purposes of the Penguin Freud Library. Some corrections have been made and some new material added.

ized scope

Selection of Material

This

is

not a complete edition of Freud’s psychological works

still less

of his works

as a

whole, which included important

1

THE PENGUIN FREUD HBRARY

8

contributions to neurology and neuropathology dating

the early part of his professional writings, virtually

all

life.

Of

from

the psychological

the major works have been included.

The

arrangement is by subject-matter, so that the main contributions to any particular theme will be found in one volume.

Within each volume the works are, for the main part, in chronological sequence. The aim has been to cover the whole field of Freud’s observations and his theory of Psychoanalysis: that is to say, in the first place, the structure and dynamics of human mental activity; secondly, psychopathology and the mechanism of mental disorder; and thirdly, the applicaton of psychoanalytic theory to wider spheres than the disorders of individuals which Freud originally, and indeed for the greater part of his life, investigated - to the psychology of groups, to social institutions and to religion, art and literature. In his ‘Sigmund Freud: A Sketch of his Life and Ideas’ (p, 1 ff. below), James Strachey includes an account of Freud’s discoveries as well as defining his principal theories and tracing their

development.

Writings excludedfrom the Edition

The works

that

have been excluded

are, (i)

writings and most of those very early

The neurological

works from the period

before the idea of psychoanalysis had taken form.

(2) Writings of treatment. These were written specifically for practitioners of psychoanalysis and for analysts in training and their interest is correspondingly specialized. Freud never in fact produced a complete text on psychoanalytic treatment and the papers on technique only deal with

on the

actual technique

of difficulty or theoretical interest. (3) Writings which cover the same ground as other major works which have

selected points

been included; for example, since the Library includes the

and the New Lectures, it of the shorter expository

Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis

was decided to leave out

several

THE PENGUIN FREUD LIBRARY works

ill

which Freud surveys the whole- subject.

9 Similarly,

because the Interpretation of Dreams is included, the shorter writings on this topic have been omitted. (4) Freud’s private

much of which

has now been published in not to imply that such letters are without interest or iniportance though they have not yet received full

correspondence,

translation h This

is

(5) I'hc numerous short writings such as reviews of hooks, prefaces to other authors’ works, obituary

critical

treatment,

- all of which lose interest to a large extent when separated from the books or occasions to wliicli they rcl'er and which would often demand long editorial

notices and

little pieces

dhycemion

make tliem comprehensible. of these excluded writings (with the exception of the wtirks tui neurology and the private letters) can be found in the

explanations to All

Standard Edition.

Editorial

Commentary

'Fhe bibliographical information, included at the beginning of

the Editor's Note or Introduction to each work, gives the title of the C'ycrman (or other) original, the date and place of its first publication and the position, where applicable, of the work in Freud's Cxcsammelte IVerke, the most complete edition at present available of the works in German (published by S, Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main). Details of the first translation of each work into English are also included, together with the Standard Edition reference. Other editions are listed only if they contain significant changes. (Full details of all German editions published in Freud's lifetime and of all English editions prior to the Standard Edition arc included in the Standard Edition.)

The date of original publication of each work has been added with the date of composition included in square brackets wherever it is different from the former date. to the title-page,

I.

[Sec the

p.52iff.I

list,

p.

z^n below, and the details in the Bibliography

THE PENGUIN FREUD LIBRARY

10

Further background information

is

given in introductory

notes and in footnotes to the text. Apart from dealing with the

time and circumstances of composition, these notes aim to make it possible to follow the inception and development of

important psychoanalytic concepts by means of systematic cross-references. Most of these references are to other works included in the Penguin Freud Library. date additions and alterations revisions of the text versions.

No

and

A secondary purpose is to

made by Freud

in certain cases to

attempt has been

made

to

in successive

pro vide the

do

this as

earlier

compre-

hensively as in the Standard Edition, but variants are given

whenever they indicate

a definite

change of view. Square

brackets are used throughout to distinguish editorial additions

from Freud’s text and his own footnotes.

It

will be clear

from

this

account that

I

owe an overwhelm-

ing debt to the late James Strachey, the general editor and chief translator

of the Standard

Edition.

He

indeed was mainly

and for the of contents. I have also had the advantage of discussions with Miss Anna Freud and the late Mrs Alix Strachey both of whom gave advice of the greatest value. I am grateful to the late Mr Ernst Freud for his support and to the Publications Committee of the Institute of Psycho-Analysis for

responsible for the idea of a Penguin Freud Library, original plan

help in furthering preparations for this edition.

ANGELA RICHARDS, I976

SIGMUND FREUD A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE

AND IDEAS

SiGMtJHD Freud was bom on 6 May 1856 in Freiberg, a town in Moravia, which was at that time a part of

small

Austria-Hungary, In an external sense die eighty-three years of his life were on the whole uneventful and call for no lengthy history.

He came of a

middle-class Jewish femily and was the eldest of his fathcr^s second wife. His position in the family was a little unusual, for there were already two grown-up sons by his father $ first wife. These were more than twenty years older than he was and one of them was already married, with a little boy; so diat Freud was in fact bom an tincle. This child

nephew played years as his

were

at least as

important a part in

his

own younger brothers and sisters,

very

earliest

of whom seven

bom after hum.

His father was a wool-merchant and soon after Freud’s birth

found himself in increasing commercial difficulties. He therefore decided, when Freud was just three years old, to leave Freiberg, and a year later the whole femily setded in Vienna, with the exception of the two elder half-brothers and thek children,

who

established themselves instead in Manchester,

At more than one stage in his life Freud played with the idea of Joining them in JEngland, but nothing was to come of this for nearly

d^ty years.

In Vienna during die lived in the

most

father’s credit that

whole of Freud’s childhood the Bimily

straitened cemditions; Init

it is

much

to his

he gave invariable priority to die charge o£

Freud’s education, for the .boy was obviously inteUigent and was a hard worker as well. The result was that he won a place in the ‘Gymnasium’ at the early age of nine, and for the last six of the eight years he spent at the school he was regularly

S1GMUN0

la

top of his

class.

prexjd: his life

and ideas

When at the age of seventeen he passed out of

still undecided; his education so far had kind, and, though he seemed in any general most hpfn of the

school his career was

case destined for die University, several faculties lay

open to

him. Freud

insisted more than once that at no time in his life did he feel ‘any particular predilection for the career of a doctor. I was moved, rather', he says, ‘by a sort of curiosity, which was, however, direaed more towards human concerns than towards natural objects.’* Elsewhere he writes; ‘I have no knowledge of having had any craving in my early childhood to help suffering humanity. ... In my youth I felt an overpowering need to understand something of the riddles of the world in whidh we live and perhaps even to contribute something to their solution.’* And in yet another passage in

which he was years:

discussing the sociological studies

of

his last

‘My interest, after making a lifelong ditour through

the

natural sciences, medicine, and psychotherapy, returned to the

which had fascinated me long before, whm enough for thinking.’* What immediately determined Freud’s choice of a scientific career was, so he tells us, being present just when he was leaving school at a public reading of an extremely flowery

cultural problems

I

was a youth

essay

But

scarcely old

on ‘Nature’, was to be

if it

attributed (wrongly,

it

seenos) to Goethe.

science, practied considerations

the choice to medidne.

And

it

was

narrowed

as a medical student that

Freud enrolled himself at the University in the autumn of 1873 at the age of seventeen. Even so, however, he was in no hurry to obtain a medical degree. For his first year or two he

on a

of subjects, hut gradually conon biology and then on physiology. His very first piece of research was in his third year at the University, when he was deputed by the Professor of Comparative

attended lectures centrated

variety

first

[An Autobiographical Study (i925(0> near the opening of the work.1 The Question cfLay Analysis’ (192711).] 3. [‘Postscript (193s) to AnAutobiogrt^hied Study’ (1935a).] I.

a. [‘Postscript to

SIGMUND FEEUD: HIS Anatomy

LIFE

to investigate a detail in the

AND IDEAS

I3

anatomy of the ed.

Soon afterwards he entered the Physiological Laboratory under Briicke, and worked there happily for six years. It was no doubt from him that he acquired the main oudines of his attitude to physical science in general. During these years Freud worked cliiefly on tlie anatomy of the central nervous system and was already beginning to produce publications. But it was becoming obvious that no livelihood which would be sufficient to meet the needs of the large family at home was to be picked up from these laboratory studies. So at last, in 1881, he decided to take his medical degree, and a year later, most unwillingly, gave up his position under Brucke and began work in the Vienna Genersd Hospital. What finally determined this change in his life was something more urgent than fiunUy considerations: in June 1882 he became engaged to be married, and thenceforward all his efforts were directed towards making marriage possible. His fiancee, Martha Bemays, came of a well-known Jevrish fiimily in Hamburg, and though for the moment she was living in Vienna she was very soon obliged to return to her remote North-German home. During the four years that followed, it was only for britf visits that he could have glimpses of her, and the two lovers had to content themselves with an almost daily interchange of letters. Freud now set himself to establishing a position and a reputation in the medical world. He worked in various departments of the hospital, but soon came to conemtrate on neurcKuiatomy and neuropathology. Durii^ this period, too, he published the first inquiry into the possible mediad uses of cocaine; and it was this that suggested to

employment as a local anaesthetic. He soon formed two immediate plans: one of these was to obtain an appointment as Privatdozent, a post not unlike that of a Roller the drug’s

university lecturer in England, die other was to gain a travelling

bursary which

would enable him to spend some time in Paris

where the reigning figure was the great Charcot. Both of

14

SIGMUND FREUD: HIS

these aims, if they

UIFB

AND IDEAS

were realized, would, he felt, bring him real

advantages, and in 1885, after a hard struggle, he achieved

them both. The months which Freud spent under Charcot Paris hospital for

Salpetriere (the famous brought another change in the course

nervous

at the

diseases)

and this time a revolutionary one. So far his work had been concerned entirely with physical science and he was still carrying out histological studies on the brain while he was in Paris. Charcot’s interests were at that period concentrated mainly on hysteria and hypnotism. In the world from which Freud came these subjects were regarded as barely resprmation of what is going on unconsciously in its mind. We psychoanalysts were not the first and not the only ones to utter ^s call to introspection ; but it to be our fate to give it its most forcible expression and to support it vrith empirical material which affects every individud. Hence arises the general revolt against our science, the disregard of all considerations of academic civility and the releasing of the opposition from every restraint of impartial logic. Amd beyond all this we have yet to disturb the peace of i-hk world in still another way, asyou Will shortly hear.

will have suffered

its

third

LECTURE

19

RESISTANCE AND REPRESSION^ Ladies and Gentlemen, - Before we can make any

fur-

of the neuroses, we stand in need of some fresh observations. Here we have two such, both of which are very remarkable and at the time when they were made were very surprising. Our discussions of last year will, it is true, have prepared you for both of them.^ ther progress in our understanding

In the

when we undertake to restore a him of the symptoms of his illness, to relieve

first place,

patient to health,

then,

he meets us with a violent and tenacious resistance, which persists throughout the whole length of the treatment. This is such a strange fact that we cannot expect it to find much credence. It is best to say nothing about it to the patient’s relatives, for they invariably regard it as an excuse on our part for the length or failure of our treatment. The patient, too, produces all the phenomena of this resistance without recognizing it as such, and if we can induce him to take our view of it and to reckon with

its

existence, that already counts as a great success.

think of

it!

The

patient,

who

is

suffering so

much

Only

firom his

symptoms and is causing those about him to share his sixfferings, who is ready to undertake so many sacrifices in time, money, effort and self-discipline in order to be freed from those symptoms - we are to believe that this same patient puts up a struggle in the interest of his illness against the person

who

is

helping him.

How improbable such an assertion must sound!

Yet it

and when

is

true;

its

improbability

is

pointed out to us,

1. [Freud’s deepest reflections on the question of repression will be found in Ms paper on the subject (i9i5 deprived of satisfaction, is driven to look for other objects and paths. The necessary precondition of the conflict is that these other paths and objects arouse displeasure in one part of the personality, so that a veto is imposed which makes the new method of satisfaction impossible as it stands. From this point the construction of symptoms pursues result

its

course, which we shall follow later. ^ The repudiated libidinal

trends nevertheless succeed in getting their

roundabout paths, though not, objection into account I. [In

it is true^

by submitting

to

way by

certain

without taking the

some

the foMow^ iecture.1

distortions

and

22. mitigations.

construction

DEVELOPMENT AND REGRESSION The roundabout

395

paths are those taken

of symptoms; the symptoms are the

by

the

fresh or

substitute satisfaction which has become necessary owing to the fret

of frustration.

The meaning of psychical conflict can be adequately expressed in another way by saying that for an external frustration to become pathogenic an internal frustration must be added to it. In that case, of course, the external and internal frustration relate to different paths and objects. The external frustration removes one possibility of satisfaction and the internal frustration seeks to exclude another possibility, about which the conbreaks out.

flict then

because

it

I

prefer this way of representing the matter

has a secret content. For

it

hints at the probability

impediments arose from real external obstacles during the prehistoric periods of human development.* But what are the powers from which the objection to the

that the internal

trend arises?

libidinal

What is the other party to the pathogenic

These powers, to put

conflict?

sexual instinctual forces. instincts’.

gives us

The

it

quite generally, are the non-

We class them together as the ‘ego-

psychoanalysis of the transference-neuroses

no easy access to a further dissecting of them;

at

most

we come to know them to some extent by the resistances which oppose analysis. The pathogenic conflict is thus one between the ego-instincts cases, it

and the sexual instincts. In a whole number of

looks as though there might also be a conflict between

is the same one is conflict, are that in trends sexual two of Ae thing; for, proother while the ‘ego-syntonic’,* always, as we might say,

different

purely sexual trends. But in essence that

vokes the ego’s defence.

It therefore still

remains a conflict

between the ego and sexuality. Over and over again. Gentlemen, when psydioanalysis has claimed that some mental event is the produrt of the sexual 1,

[Cf. p.

neurosis

418 bdow. The whole question of firustration as a cause of discussed by Freud in a paper on ‘Types of Onset of

was

Neurosis’ (1912c).] 2. |I.e. in

consonance with the ^o.]

GENERAL THEORY OE THE NEUROSES

396

instincts, it has been angrily pointed

that

out to it by way of defence

human beings do not consist only of sexuality,

that there

and interests in mental life other than sexual ones, that it ought not to derive ‘everything’ from sexuality, and so ouron. Well, it is most gratifying for once in a way to selves in agreement with our opponents. Psychoanalysis has

are instincts

&d

never forgotten that there are instinctual forces as well which are not sexual. It was based on a sharp distinction between die sexual instincts tions, it

and the

ego-instincts, and, in spite

of all objec-

has maintained not that the neuroses are derived from

due to a conflict between the ego and sexuality. Nor has it any conceivable reason for disputing the existence or significance of the ego-instincts while it pursues the part played by the sexual instincts in illness and in ordinary Ufe. It has simply been its fate to begin by concerning sexuality but that their origin

itself with

is

the sexual instincts because the transference neuroses

made them cause

the most easily accessible to examination and bewas incumbent on it to study what other people had

it

neglected.

Nor

is it

a fact that psychoanalysis has paid

no

attention

whatever to the non-sexual part of the personality. It

is

pre-

between the ego and sexuality which has enabled us to recognize with special clarity that the egoinstincts pass through an important proc^ of development a development which is neither completdy independent of die libido nor without a counter-effect upon it. Nevertheless, we are far less well acquainted with the development of the ego than of the Hbido, since it is only the, study, of the narcissistic neuroses* that promises to give us an insight into the structure of the ego. We akcady have before us, however, a notable cisely the distinction

attempt

of the

by Ferenezi

[1913] to

make a

theoretical construction

of development of the ego, and there are at least two points at which we have a sohd basis for judging that development. It is not our beHef that a person’s libidinal stages

interests are

from the first in opposition to his self-preservative I.

[Discussed in Lecture 26.]

DEVELOPMENT AND REGRESSION

22. interests;

on the contrary, the ego endeavours

remain in harmony with

to

fit itself

time and to

into

at

397

every stage

its

sexual organization as it

it.

The

succession

of the

is

at the

different

development probably follows a prescribed be rejected that this programme. But the possibility cannot and we may expect ofevents can be influencedby the ego, phases of libidinal

course

parallelism, a certain correspondence, equally to find a certain developmental phases of the ego and the libido;

hetwecn the

that correspondence might provide a indeed a disturbance of now faced by the important conare pathogenic factor. if its libido leaves a strong behaves the ego

We

of how development. at some point in its (the libido’s) behind fixation to that become consequently The ego may accept this and It in&ntile. is die same thing, ^y, extent perverse or, what attimde to the libidos non-compliant a adopt however, down in this position, in which case the ego experiences

sideration

settling

a

repressioit

where the libido has experienced a fixation.

Thus we discover that the third factor neuroses, the tendency to confiict,

is

as

in the aetiology of the

much

dependent on the

oftheUbido. Our insight mto development of the ego as onthat neuroses is thus made more complete. First - finistration; next, the most general precondition

die causation of the diere

is

fixation

of the Hbido which forces it into

particular directions;

conflict, arisingfirom the devel^ and thirdly, the tendency to these Ubidit^ mpulses. The mcnt of the ego, which rejects very confused and hard to penetrate situation, then, is not so

it IS

nowcvci, viAcii. ^ There is something

.11

trae,

with

it.

already familiar to

new

1

to be added and

somethu^

be further examined.

you the influence -which the In order to demonstrate to the comtruction of confecte development of the ego has upon put neuroses, I should l^e to and upon the causation of compete a is it is^^. example before you - one which, ftom probabihty. I divorced nowhere is wHch invention but

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

398

shall describe it

(on the basis of the title of one of Nestroy’s Basement and on the First Floor The care-

forces^) as ‘In the

of the house inhabits the basement and its landlord, a wealthy and respectable gentleman, the first floor. Both have children, and we may suppose that the landlord’s little daughter is allowed to play, without any supervision, with the proletarian girl. It might very easily happen, then, that the children’s taker

games would take on a ‘naughty’ - that character, that they

would play

to say, a sexual

is

at ‘father

and mother’,

-

that

they would watch each other at their most private business

and excite each other’s

genitals.

The

caretaker’s girl, though

would have had an opportunity of of adult sexuality, and she might well

only five or six years old, observing a good deal

all this. These experiences, even a long period, would be enough over continued were not ifthey

play the part of seductress in

work in the two children; and, after their games together had ceased, these impulses would for to set certain sexual impulses to

several years afterwards find expression in masturbation.

much for the

two

their experiences in

common;

children will be very different.

The

caretaker’s

daughter will continue her masturbation, perhaps,

A few years later she will find

till

her

up with no a lover and perhaps

menstrual periods begin and she will then give difficulty.

So

the final outcome in

it

have a baby. She will take up some ooiupation or other, possibly become a popular figure on the stage and end up as an aristocrat Her career is more likely to be less brilliant, but in any case she will go through her life undamaged by the early exercise of her sexuality and free from neurosis. With the little girl things will be different. At an early stage and while she is still a child she will get an idea that she has done something wrong; after a short time, but perhaps only after a

landlord’s

severe struggle, she will give

up her masturbatory satisfaction,

Qohann Nestroy (i8oi- the reality the ego’s is one of the most important steps forwar din unwiEand late only is that it already know

nleasure

development.

We

instincts join in this piece of development, ingly that the sexual human beings of shall hear later the consequences for

we

and

die feet that their

sexuality’is content with such a loose

connec-

And now in conclusion one last process of developremark on this subject. If man s ego has its

tion

with external

reality.

surprised to hear that there

ment like the Ubido, you will not be and you will he anxious to also ‘regressions of the ego’, are

know too what part may be played in neurotic

illnesses

phases of its development. return of the ego to earHer

hy this

LECTURE

23

THE PATHS TO THE FORMATION OF SYMPTOMS laymen the symptoms conLadies and Gentiemen, - For stitute

moval

its cure comists in the r&. the essence of a disease and attach importence to of the symptoms. Physicians

symptoms from the. disease and decide tmt curing the of the symptoms does not amount to

distinguishing the

getting rid

disease after the

But the only tangible thing left of the capacity to form new symptoms have been got rid of is the

disease.

we will for the moment adopt the that to unravel the symptoms assume layinans position and the chsease. understand the same thing as to dealing now with psyare we - and of course

symptoms. For

that reason

Symptoms

symptoms and

chical (or psychogenic)

psychical ilbess

-

are

useless, to the subject’s life as a acts detrimental, or at least unwelcome and bringing whole, often complained of by him as main damage they do unpleasure or suffering to him. The which they themselves inresides in the mental expenditure that becomes necessary for volve and in the further expenditure is an extensive formation there Where against them.

fighting

expendime can result in an of symptoms, these two sorts of the subject in regard to the of extraordinary impoverishment so in paralysing him for all and mental energy available to him outcome depends mainly the important tasks of life. Since this you will on the quantity of the energy which is thus absorbed, easily see that

*

being

ill

is

in

its

essence a practical concept.

But if you take up a theoretical point of view and we are all ill matter of quantity, you may quite well say that disregard this

diat

is,

neurotic

-

of symptoms can

since the preconditions for the formation

also

be observed in normal people.

We already know that neurotic symptoms are the outcome

THE PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION 405

23 .

arises over a new method of satisfying the two forces which have fallen out meet The libido [p. 394]symptom the and are reconciled, as it were, by in again once the of symptom that has been constructed. It die compromise

of a

is

conflict

which

for that reason, too, that the

supported

from both sides.

parmers to the conflict repulsed

by

satisfaction. is

is

symptom

is

so resistant:

it is

We also know that one of the two

the unsatisfied libido which has been

now seek for other paths to its If reality remains relentless even though the Ubido reality

and must

ready to take another object in place of the one that has been

refused to

it,

then

it

will finally be compelled to take the path

and strive to find satisfaction either in one of the organizations which it has aheady outgrown or from one of the objects which it has earlier abandoned. The Ubido is lured into the path of regression by the fixation which it has left of regression

behind

it at

diese points in

its

development.

The path to perversion branches off sharply from that to neurosis. If these regressions rouse no objection from the ego, no neurosis will come about either; and the Ubido will arrive at some real, even though no longer normal, satisfaction. But if the ego, which has imder its control not only consciousness but also the approaches to motor innervation and accordingly to the realization of mental desires, does not agree with these regressions, conflict will follow. The Ubido is, as it were, cut off and must try to escape in some direction where, in accordance with the requirements of the pleasure principle, it can find a discharge for its cathexis of raergy. It must withdraw from the ego. An escape ofthis kind is offered it by the fixations on the path of its development which it has now entered on regressively - fixations from which ihe ego had protected itself in the past

by

repressions.

By

cathecting these repressed peti-

flows backward, the Ubido has withdrawn from the ego and its laws, and has at the same time renounced all the tions as

it

It was beckoned to it; but under the double pressure of external and internal frustration it becomes

education docile so

it

has acquired under the ego’s influence.

long as

satisfaction

general theory of the neuroses

406

refractory,

and

recalls earlier

and

better times.

Bbido’s fundamentally unchangeable character.

which

it

now

transfers its

energy

as a cathexis

Sucb

The

is

the

ideas to

belong to the

system of the unconscious and are subject to the processes which are possible there, particularly to condensation and displace-

ment. In

this

way conditions are established which completely The dream proper,

resemble those in dream-construction.

which has been completed in the unconscious and is the fulfilment of an unconscious wishful phantasy, is brought up against a portion of(pre) conscious activity which exercises the office of censorship and which, when it has been indemnified, permits the formation of the manifest dream as a compromise. In the same way, what represents* the libido in the unconscious has to reckon with the power of the preconscious ego. The opposition which had been raised against it in the ego pursues it as an ‘anticathexis'^ and compels it to choose a form of expression which can at the same time become an expression ofthe opposition itselfThus the symptom emerges as a many-times-distorted derivative of the unconscious libidinal wish-fulfilment, an ingeniously chosen piece of ambiguity with two meanings in complete mutual contradiction. In

this last respect,

however,

there is a distinction between the construction of a dream and of

a symptom. For in dream-formation the preconscious purpose is

merely concerned to preserve

sleep, to

allow nothing that

would disturb it to make its wayinto consciousness; it does not insist upon calling out sharply ‘No on the contrary !’ to the unconscious wishful impulse. It can afford to be more tolerant because the situation of someone sleeping is less perilous. The state of sleep in itselfbars any outlet into reality. You see, then, that the libido’s escape under conditions of conflict is made possible by the presence of fixations. The !

regressive cathexis of these fixations leads to the circumvention 1. [Le. the representative in psychical terms of the libido regarded as something somatic.] 2, [That is, a force acting in a sense contrary to the primary instinctual

caeigy.l

the paths to symptom-formation 407

23 .

of the repression and to a discharge (or satisfaction) of the to the conditions of a compromise being ob-

libido, subject

By the roundabout path via die unconscious and the old fixations, the libido finally succeeds in forcing its way through

served.

to real satisfaction though to

one which is extremely restricted

and scarcely recognizable as such. Let me add two comments to this conclusion. First, I should like you to notice how closely

and the unconscious on one side and the ego, and reality on die other are shown to be inter-

here the libido consciousness linked, all.

although to begin with they did not belong together at

And secondly,

I

must ask you to bear

in

mind

that every-

have said about this and what is still to follow relates only to the formation of symptoms in the neurosis of hysteria.

diing I

Where, then, does the

libido find the fixations

which

it

requires in order to break through the repressions? In the activities and experiences of infantile sexuality, in the aban-

doned component trends, in the objects of childhood which is to them, accordingly, that the libido

have been given up. It

The significance of this period of childhood is twofold: on the one hand, during it the instinctual trends which the child has inherited with his innate disposition first become manifest, and secondly, others of his instincts are for the first time awakened and made active by external impressions and accidental experiences. There is no doubt, I think, that we are justified in making this twofold division. The manifestation of die innate disposition is indeed not open to any critical doubts, but analytic experience actually compels us to assume that returns.

purely chance experiences in childhood are able to leave fixations

of the libido behind them.

Nor do

I see

any

dxeoretical

difficulty in this. Constitutional dispositions are also

undoubt-

of experiences by ancestors in the past; they too were once acquired Without such acquisition there would be no heredity. And is it conceivable that acquisition such as this, leading to inheritance, would come to an end precisely with the generation we are considering? The significance of infantile edly after-effects

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

408

as people like experiences should not be totally neglected, the subject’s doLg, in comparison with the experiences of they call for contrary, the on maturity; own his of ancestors and consideration. They are all the more momentous particular

development and because they occur in times of incomplete effects. The traumatic have to liable reason are for that very others have and Roux^ by mechanics developmental studies

on

of a needle into an embryonic germinal a severe disturbance of layer in the act of cell-division results in or fully development. The same injury inflicted on a larval

shown

that the prick

grown animal would do no damage. Thus fixation of the libido in the adult, which we introduced as representing the into the aetiological equation of neurosis purposes, into

constitutional factor [p. 39i]>

two further parts z the inherited constitution and the disposition a diagram is acquired in early childhood. As we all know, So I will students. from reception certain of a sympathetic

•

summarize the position diagrammatically:^ Causation of Neurosis

= Disposition due + Accidental [Adult] to Fixation of

Experience

Libido

(Traumatic)

Infantile Experience

Sexual Constitution (Prehistoric Experience)

The 1,

hereditary sexual constitution presents us with a great

[Wilhelm Roux (1850-1924) was one of the founders of experi-

ment embryology.] 2. [Readers

gentogical

may

find this diagram easier to follow in the

form of a

tree:

Sexual Constitution

+

Infantile Experience

(Prehistoric Experience)

Disposiuon due to Fixation of Libido

+

Accidental [Adult] Experience (Traumatic) ^

,NcurojasJ„;

23.

THE PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION

409

according as one component instinct or combination with others, is inherited in

variety of dispositions,

anodxer, alone or in

The sexual constitution forms once again, with the factor of infantile experience, a ‘complemental series’ exactly similar to the one we first came to know between disposition and the accidental experience of the adult

particular strength.

together

we find the same extreme cases and between the two factors concerned. And the same itself suggests of whether the most striking here the question [p.

392].

In both of them relations

- riiose to earlier stages of the may not be predominantly determined organization

kinds of libidinal regressions sexual

by the hereditary constitutional factor. But it ‘is best to postpone answering this question till we have been able to take a wider range of forms of neurotic iUness into account. Let us dwell now

on the fact that analytic research shows the

libido of neurotics tied to their infantile sexual experiences.

It

thus lends these the appearance of an enormous importance for the life and illness ofhuman beings. They retain this importance

work of therapeutics is concerned. But if we turn away firom that task we can nevertheless easily see that there is a danger here of a misunderstanding which might mislead us into basing our view of life too one-sidedly on the neurotic situation. We must after all subtract firom the undiminished so far as the

importance of infantile experiences the fact that the libido has returned to them regressively, after being driven out of its later

In that case the contrary conclusion becomes very tempting that these hbidinal experiences had no importance

positions.

they occurred but only acquired it regressively. will recall that we have akeady considered a similar

at all at the time

You

alternative in our discussion of the Oedipus complex.[p.

379 f-]*

Once again we shall not find it hard to reach a decision. The assertion that die libidinal cathexis (and therefore the patho-

genic significance)

of the infantile experiences has been largely

by the regression of the libido is imdoubtedly correct, but it would lead to error if we were to regard it alone intensified

GENERAI.

410

as decisive.

THEORY OP THE NEUROSES

Other considerations must be allowed

well.

-^peight as

m .

a manner that place observation shows, experiences have an impor-all doubt, that the infantile

In the excludes

first

already in childhood. tance of their own and give evidence of it the factor of diswhich in neuroses, their have Children too

placement backwards in time is necessarily very much reduced onset of the illness or is even completely absent, since the The study of immediately. experiences follows the traumatic these infantile neuroses protects us firom

more than one

dan*?

gerous misunderstanding of the neuroses of adults, just as the dreams of children gave us the key to an understanding of very common, much adult dreams.’^ Children s neuroses are

commoner than

is

supposed.

They

are often overlooked, re-

of a bad or naughty child, often, too, kept under but they can always be easily recogauthorities; by the nursery appear in the form of anxiety usually They nized in retrospect. garded as signs

hysteria.

We shall learn on a later occasion what that means

below]. If a neurosis breaks out in later life, analysis regularly reveals it as a direct continuation of the infantile ill-

[p.

448

ness

f.

no more than a veiled hint. however, tlicre are cases in which these signs of

which may have emerged

As I have said,

as

neurosis in childhood proceed uninterruptedly into a lifelong have been able to analyse a few examples of these

We

children’s neuroses in childhood itself-

when they were actu-

ally present but far more often we have had to be content with someone who has fallen ill in adult life enabling us to obtain a

deferred insight into his childhood neurosis. In such cases we must not fail to make certain corrections and take certain precautions.

In the second place,

we

must

reflect liiat it

would be

in-

conceivable for the libido to regress so regularly to the period his analysis 1. [See Lecture 8. Freud was no doubt thinking here of of the ‘Wolf Man’ (19186), which he had already completed though it was not yet published.] 2. [C£ the case history of ‘litde Hans’ (19096).]

23 *

the paths to symptom-formation

411

of cbil&ood unless there were somedhing there to exercise an attraction on it. The fixation which we have supposed to be present at particular points in the course of development can only have a meaning if we regard it as consisting in the reten-

of a certain quota of libidinal energy. And finally I may you that between the intensity and pathogenic importance of infantile and oflater experiences a complemental

tion

point out to

we have already disThere are cases in which the whole weight of causation falls on the sexual experiences of childhood, cases in which those impressions exert a definitely traumatic effect and call for no other support than can be afforded them by an average sexual constitution and the fact of its incomplete development. Alongside of these cases there are others in which the whole accent lies on the later conflicts and the emphasis we find in the analysis laid on the impressions of childhood appears entirely as the work of regression. Thus we have extremes of ^developmental inhibition* and ‘regression* and between them every degree of co-operation between the two factors. These facts have a certain interest fiom the point of view of education, which plans the prevention of neuroses by intervening at an early stage in childrens sexual development. So long

relationship exists similar to the series cussed.

one focuses attention principally on infantile sexual experiences, one must suppose that one has done everything for the prophylaxis of nervous illnesses by taking care that the child’s development is delayed and that it is spared experiences of the sort. We already know, however, that the preconditions for the causation of neuroses are complex and cannot be influenced in as

general if tection

we

take account of only a single factor. Strict prois powerless against

of the y oung loses value because it

the constitutional factor. Besides,

it is

than educationists imagine and

it

more difficult to carry out it two firesh

brings with

dangers which must not be underestimated: the fact that it may

much - that it may encourage an excess of sexual repression, wdth damaging results, and the fiict that it may send achieve too

the chil d out into life without

any defence

against the onrudi

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

412

for of sexual demands that is to be looked

at puberty.*

Thus it

prophylaxis in childhood remains extremely doubtful how far an altered attitude whedier and advantage can be carried with a better angle of offer not may to the immediate situation neuroses. approach for die prevention of

symptoms. They aeate a substisatisfaction by means of a regrestute, then, for the frustrated with whicharetum to earher times, earlier to libido sion of the or of the organization is object-choice of stages developmental some time ago that discovered We up. inseparably bound Let us

now go back to

neurotics are anchored

now that it is

the

somewhere

in their past;®

at a period of their past in which their

we know Ubido did

happy. They search not lack satisfaction, in which they were a period of that find they about in the history of their life till when they time the even if they have to go hack as far as sort,

were infants in arms - as they remember it or as they imagine it early from later hints. In some way the symptom repeats this kind of satisfaction, distorted by the censorship arising and from the conflict, turned as a rule to a feeling of suffering,

mingled with elements from die precipitating cause of the ill1. the symptom brings has ness. The kind of satisfaction which much that is strange about it.

We may disregard the fiict that

it is

imrecognizable to the

contrary, feels the alleged satisfaction as transformation is a function sn ffrring and complains of it. This symptom the psychical conflict under pressure of which the

subject,

who, on the

of had to be formed. What was once a satisfaction to the subject is,

bound

to arouse his resistance or his disgust to-day.

but instructive model of this who once eagerly sucked the child same The change of mind. millr from his mother’s breast is likely a few years later to

We

are familiar with a trivial

display a strong dislike to drinking inilk,whichhis upbringing pTetid daborated diis difficulty in Lecture 34 of the New IntroAKtoryLefitores (1933 a), pp. 184-5.] i above.] 2. [See for instance the beginning of Lecture i8, P*' 3 3

23-

THE PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION

413

in overcoming. Hiis dislike increases to disgust on die milk or the drink containing it. We forms if a skin

lias difficulties

cannot exclude the possibility, perhaps, that the skin coiyures up a memory of the mother’s breast, once so ardently desired.

Between the two situations, however, there lies the experience of weaning, with its traumatic effects. something

else besides that makes symptoms seem and incomprehensible as a means of libidinal satisfaction. They do not remind us in the very least of anything from which we are in the habit of normally expecting It is

strange to us

Usually they disregard objects and in so doing can see that this abandon their relation to external reality. is a consequence of turning away from die reality principle and satisfaction.

We

of returning to the pleasure principle. But

it is

also

a return to

a kind of extended auto-erotism, of the sort that offered the

of a change in die substitute change world these a in the subject’s own external act an internal an set in place of external one, an body: they once again, something that adaptation in place of an action sexual instinct its first satisfactions. In place

corresponds,

We

phylogenetically, to a highly significant re-

only understand

this in connection with have still to learn from the analytic researches into the formation of symptoms. We must further remember that the same processes belonging to the unconscious play a part in the formation of symptoms as in the formation of dreams - namely, condensation and displacement. A symptom, like a dream, represents something as fulfilled: a satisfaction in the infantile manner. But by means of extreme condensation that satisfaction can be compressed into a single sensation or innervation, and by means of extreme displacement it can be re-

gression.

something

stricted to

shall

new

that

one small

we

detail

of the entire libidinal complex.

It is

not to be wondered at if we, too, often have difficulty in recognizing in a symptom the libidinal satisfaction whose presence we suspect and which is invariably confirmed. I have warned you that

we still have something new to learn;

GENERAL THEORY OB THE NEUROSES

414

indeed something surprising and perplexing. By means of analysis, as you know, starting from the symptoms, we arrive

it is

at a is

knowledge of the infantile experiences to which the libido and out of which the symptoms are made. Well, the

fixated

from infancy are not always true. Indeed, they are not true in the majority of cases, and in a few of them they are the direct opposite of the his-

surprise lies in the fact that these scenes

As you will see, this discovery is calculated more any other to discredit either analysis, which has led to this result, or the patients, on whose statements the analysis and our whole xmderstanding of the neuroses are founded. But there is something else remarkably perplexing about it. If the mfantile torical truth. tVian

experiences brought to light

by

analysis

were

invariably

we should feel that we were standing on firm ground;

real,

they

were regularly falsified and revealed as inventions, as phantasies of the patient, we should be obliged to abandon this shaky ground and look for salvation elsewhere. But Neither of these things is the case the position can be shown to be that the :

childhood experiences constructed or remembered in analysis

and sometimes equally cercompounded of truth and falsehood. Sometimes, then, symptoms represent events which really took place and to which we may attribute an influence on the fixation of the hbido, and sometimes they represent phantasies of the patient’s which are not, of comrse, suited to playing an aetiological role. It is difficult to find one’s way about in this. We can make a first start, perhaps, with a similar discovery - namely, that the isolated childhood memories that people have possessed consciously firom time immemorial and before there was any such filing as analysis [p. 236 above] may equally be falsified or at least may combine truth and falsehood in plenty. In their case there is seldom any difficulty in showing their incorrectness; so We at least have the reassurance of knowiog that the responsibility for this unexpected disappointment lies, not with analysis, but in some way with the patients. After a little r^ectioa we shall easily understand what it is

are sometimes indisputably false tainly correct,

and in most

cases

THE PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION

23.

415

about this state of things that perplexes us so much. It is the low valuation of reality, the neglect of tie distinction between

and phantasy.

it

We are tempted to feel offended at the patient’s

up our time with invented stories. Reality seems worlds apart from invention, and we set a very something to us on it. Moreover the patient, too, looks at things different value in this light in his normal thinking. When he brings up the material which leads from behind his symptoms to the wishful situations modelled on his infantile experiences, we arc in

having taken

doubt to begin with whether we are dealing with reality or we are enabled by certain indications to come

phantasies. Later,

we are faced by the task of conveying it to the however, invariably gives rise to difficulties. Ifwe begin by telling him straight away that he is now engaged in bringing to light the phantasies with which he has disguised the history of his childhood (just as every nation disguises its forto a decision and patient. This,

gotten preliistory by constructing legends), we observe that his interest in

pursuing the subject further suddenly diminidies in He too wants to experience realities and

an undesirable fashion. despises

everything that is merely ‘imaginary’. If, however, we

leave him,

till

this piece

ofwork is finished, in the belief that we

are occupied in investigating the real events

we nm

of his childhood,

the risk of his later on accusing us of beiag mistaken and

laughing at us for our apparent credulity.

It

will be a lor^ time

before he can take in our proposal that we should equate phantasy and reality and not bother to begin with whether the childhood experiences under examination are the one or the other.

Yet

this is clearly

these It

the only correct attitude to adopt towards

mental productions. They too possess a

reality

of a

sort.

remains a fact that the patient has created these phantasies

for himself,

and

this fact is

neurosis than if he contain.

The

had

of scarcely

less

really experienced

importance for his

what the phantasies

phantasies possess psychical as contrasted with

material reality,

and we gradually learn to imderstand that in the

world of the neuroses

it is

psychical reality which

is the decisive kind.

general theory oe the neuroses

4i6

Among the occurrences which recur again and again in the - which are scarcely ever absent - there are a few of particular importance, which also deserve on that account, I diink, to be brought into greater prominence than the rest. As specimens of this class I will enumerate these: observation of parental intercourse, seduction by an adult and threat of being castrated. It would be a mistake to suppose that they are never characterized by material reality; on the conyouthful history of neurotics

trary, this is often established incontestably through inquiries from older members of the patient’s family. It is by no means a

who is beginning to way and is not yet aware that

rare thing, for instance, for a little boy,

play with his penis in a naughty

one must conceal such activities, to be tlireatened by a parent or nurse vwth having his penis or his sinful hand cut off. Parents will often admit this when they are asked, since they think they have done something useful in making such a threat; a number of people have a correct conscious memory of such a threat, especially if it was made at a somewhat later period. If the threat is delivered by the mother or some other female she usually shifts its performance on to the father - or the doctor. StmwwelpeteTy^ i^^ famous work of the Frankfurt paediatrician Hoffmann (which owes its popularity precisely to an understanding of the sexual and other complexes of childhood),

M

you

will find castration softened into a cutting-off

of the punishment for obstinate sucking. But it is highly improbable fiiat children are threatened with castration as often as it appears in the analyses ofneurotics. shall be satisfied by

thumbs

as a

We

of diis kind together in his imagination on the basis of hints, helped out by a knowledge that auto-erotic satisfaction is forbidden and under the impression of his discovery of the female genitals. [C£ p, 3 59 above.]

realizing that the child puts a threat

Nor is it only in proletarian families that it is perfectly possible for a child, while he

understanding or a

between sibility

is

not yet credited with possessing an to be a witness of the sexual act

memory,

his parents or other grown-up people; and the poscaimot be rejected tha he will be able to understand

23 -

the PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION

417

and react to die impression in retrospea. I£ however, the intercourse is described with the most minute details, which woidd he difEcult to observe, or if, as happens most frequently, it turns out to have been intercourse from behind, more ferarum

manner of animals], there can be no remaining doubt that the phantasy is based on an observation of intercourse between animals (such as dogs) and that its motive was the [in

the

child’s unsatisfied

achievement

on

scopophilia during puberty.

these lines

The extreme

a phantasy of observing parental

is

while one is still an unborn baby in the womb. of being seduced are of particular interest, because so often diey are not phantasies but real-memories. Fortunately, intercourse

Phantasies

however, they are nevertheless not real as often as seemed at first to be shown by the findings of analysis. Seduction by an older child or by one

ofthe same age is even more frequent than of girls who produce such an hy of their childhood story their father figures fairly event in the regularly as the seducer, there can be no doubt either of the imaginary nature of the accusation or of the motive that has led to it.* A phantasy of being seduced when no seduction has occurred is usually employed by a child to screen the autoerotic period of his sexual activity. He spares himself shame an adult;

and

if in the case

about masturbation

by

retrospectively phantasying a desired

object into these earliest times. that sexual

You must not suppose, however,

abuse of a child by

its

nearest

male

relatives be-

Most analysts will have were real and cOuld be

longs entirely to the realm of phantasy.

treated cases in which such events unimpeachably established; but even so they related to the later

years

of dbildhood and had been transposed into

earlier

times.

The only impression we gain is that these events ofchildhood demanded as a necessity, that they are among the essential elements of a neurosis. If they have occurred in reality, somuchto the good; but if they have been withheld by reahty, are somehow

I.

[Freud has

more

to say

on

this subject in .Lecture

Introductory Lectures{i933a), p. 154.]

33 in die

New

general theory op the neuroses

4 i8

put together from hints and supplemented by phanThe outcome is the same, and up to the present we have

tliey are tasy*

not succeeded in pointing to any diifFerence in the consequences, whether phantasy or reality has had the greater share in these events of childhood. Here we simply have once again one of the

complemental relations diat I have so often mentioned; moreover it is the strangest of all we have met with. Whence comes the need for these phantasies and the material for

them? There can be no doubt that their sources lie in the instincts; but it has still to be explained why the same phantasies with the same content are created on every occasion. I am prepared with an answer which

I

know will seem daring to you.

primal phantasies, as I should like to call

I

believe these

them, and no doubt a

experience at

endowment. In them the beyond his own experience into primaeval points where his own experience has been too

rudimentary.

It

are a phylogenetic

few others as well, individual reaches

seems to

me

quite possible that

all

the things

that are told to us today in analysis as phantasy - the seduction

of children, the inflaming of sexual excitement by observing of castration (or rather castration itself) - were once real occurrences in the primaev4 times of the humanfamily, and that children in their phantasies

parental intercourse, the threat

are simply filling in the gaps in individual truth vdth prehistoric truth. I have repeatedly been led to suspect that the psychology

of the neuroses has stored up in it more of the human development than any other sourced

The

antiquities

things I have just been discussing. Gentlemen,

of

compel

me to enter more closely into the origin and significance of the mental activity which tion’].* I.

As you

is

described as "phantasy' [or ‘imagina-

are aware,

[This discussion

it

eiyoys a univers^y high reputa-

of ‘primal phantasies* and the

possibility

of their

being inherited was based to a considerable extent on Freud*s findings

m his ‘Wolf Mm* case history a.

prend’s main

‘Creative tasies

and

(ipiSfc).]

of phantasy wH! be found in Wnters and Day-Dreaming* (1908c) and ‘Hysterical Phanearlier discussions

their Relation to

BisexuaMty * (i9o8a).l

23-

THE PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION

419

without its position in mental life having become clear. following remarks to make about it. The human ego I have the slowly educated by the pressure of external as you know, tion,

is,

reality necessity to ap|)reciate in the course

of this process

and obey the

it is

reality principle;

obliged to renounce, tempor-

permanently, a variety of the objects and aims at arily or striving for pleasure, and not only for sexual pleasure, its which

B

But

directed.

pleasure;

men

have always foimd

it

hard to renounce

diey caimot bring themselves to do

kind of compensation. activity in

which

all

They have

these

it

without some

therefore retained a mental

abandoned sources of pleasure and

methods of achieving pleasure are granted a further existence _ a form of existence in which they are left free from the claims of reality and of what we form takes before long the

call ‘reality-testing’.*

there

is

no doubt

of

diat dwelling

Every

desire

own

fulfilment;

upon imaginary

wish-fulfil-

picturing

its

it does not interfere ments brings satisfaction with it, although is concerned is not real. Thus in the what that knowledge with a of phantasy human beings continue to enjoy the free-

activity

dom from

external compulsion

which they have long

They have

since

contrived to alternate be-

renounced in reality. and being once more a tween remaining an animal of pleasure subsist on the scanty cannot they aeature of reason. Indeed, from reality. ‘We simply which diey can extort satisfaction

cannot

auxiliary constructions’,

do without

as

Theodor

p^-

realm of Fontane once said.* The creation of the mental ‘ the establishment of reservations’ tasy finds a perfect parallel in the requirements ofagriculor ‘naturereserves’ in places where communications and industry threaten to bring about ture,

which will quickly make chaises in the original face ofthe earth its original state preserves reserve nature it unreco^zable. sacrificed to been regret our has to

A

whidi everywhere

else

necessity. Everything,

nosdous, can 1. [I.e.

including what is useless and even wl^is

grow and

proliferate there as it pleases.

The

real or not] the process of judging whedier things are

x\h.)mnoY

420

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

mental realm of phantasy

is just

such a reservation withdrawn

iSrom the reality principle.

The best-known productions of phantasy ‘day-dreams',

imagined

which

are the so-called

we

satisfactions

have already come across [p* 127], of ambitious, megalomanic, erotic

wishes, which flourish all the more exuberantly the

more reality

modesty and restraint. The essence of the happiness of phantasy - making the obtaining of pleasure free once more from the assent of reality - is shown in them unmistakably. We know that such day-dreams are the nucleus and prototype of night-dreams. A night-dream is at bottom nothing other than a day-dream that has been made utilizable owing to the liberation of the instinctual impulses at night, and that has been distorted by the form assumed by mental activity at night. We have already become familiar with the idea that even a daydream is not necessarily conscious -• that there are unconscious day-dreams, as well [p. 415]. Such unconscious day-dreams are thus the source not only of night-dreams but also of neurotic symptoms. The importance of the part played by phantasy in the formation of symptoms will be made clear to you by what I have to tell you. I have explained [p. 405] how in the case of frustration the Hbido cathects regressively the positions which it has given up but to which some quotas of it have remained adhering. I shall not withdraw this or correct it, but I have to insert a counsels

connecting link. How does the libido find its way to these points

of fixation? All the objects and trends which the libido has given up have not yet been given up in every sense. They or their derivatives are

phantasies. tasies

Thus the

still

retained with a certain intensity in

libido

need only withdraw on to phanopen to every repressed fixation.

in order to find the path

These phantasies have enjoyed a certain amount of toleration: they have not come into conflict with the ego, however sharp

them may have been, so long as a parThis con6iuon is o£ ql quantitative nature and it is now upset by the backward flow of libido on to the contrasts between

ticular condition is observed.

the paths to symptom-formation

23.

As

the phantasies.

of the phantasies

421

a result of this surplus, the energic cathexis so much increased that they begin to raise

is

they develop a pressure in the direction of becoming realized. But this makes a conflict between them and the ego inevitable. Whether they were previously preconscious or conscious, they are now subjected to repression from the direcclaims, that

tion

of the ego and are at the mercy of attraction from the

of the unconscious. From what are now unconscious back to their origins in the unconscious - to its own points of fixation. direction

phantasies the libido travels

The

libido’s retreat to

phantasy

is

an intermediate stage on

the path to the formation of symptoms and it seems to

call for

a

special name. C. G. Jung coined the very appropriate one of ‘introversion’, but then most inexpediently gave it another

We

will continue to take it that introversion meaning as well.* denotes the turning away of the libido from the possibilities of real satisfaction

and the hypercathexis* of

have hitherto been tolerated as innocent. yet a neurotic,

develop

but he

symptoms

is

introvert

in an unstable situation: he

at the

next

some other outlets for his

shift

which

phantasies

An

is

is

not

sure to

of forces, unless he finds

dammed-up

libido.

The

unreal

character of neurotic satisfaction and the neglect of the distinction

already

between phantasy and reality are on the other hand determined by the fact of lingering at the stage of

introversion.

You will no doubt have observed that in these last discussions I

have introduced a fresh factor into the structure of the aetio-

logical

chain

- namely

energies concerned.

everywhere.

A

the quantity, the magnitude, of the

We have

still

to take diis factor into account

purely qualitative analysis of the aetiological

not enough. Or, to put it another way, a merely dynamic view of these mental processes is insufficient; an economk lhxc of approach is also needed. We must tell ourselves determinants

1. it

is

"who introduced the term in 1910, at one stage applied dementia praecox. (Cf. Jung, 1911-12).] charging with an extra amount of psychical energy.]

exclusively to a. [Le.

GENERAL THEORY OP THE NEUROSES

423

between two trends does not break out till of cathexis have been reached, even though it have long been present so far as their for determinants the In the same way, the pathogenic concerned. is subject-matter factors must be weighed constitutional the significance of one of component instinct than of according to how much more

that the conflict

certain intensities

is present in the inherited disposition. It may even be supposed that the disposition of all human beings is qualitatively alike and that they differ only owing to these quantitative

another

conditions.

The quantitative factor is no less decisive

capacity to resist neurotic

illness. It is

as regards

a matter of what quota of

unemployed libido a person is able to hold in suspension and of how large a fraction of his libido he is able to divert from sexual to sublimated aims. The ultimate aim of mental activity, which may be described qualitatively as an endeavour to obtain pleasure and avoid unpleasure, emerges, looked at from the economic point of view, as the task of mastering the amounts of excitation (mass of stimuli) operating in the mental apparatus and of keeping down their accumulation which creates unpleasure.^

This, then,

is

what I wanted

to

tell

you about the formation

of symptoms in the neuroses. But I must not fail to lay emphasis expressly once again on the fact that everything I have said here applies only to the formation of symptoms in hysteria.

Even in obsessional neurosis there is much - apart from fundamentals, which remain unaltered - that will be found different. The anticathexes opposing the demands of the instincts (which we have already spoken of in the case of hysteria as well [p. 406]) become prominent in obsessional neurosis and dominate the clinical picture in the form of what are known as ‘reactionI.

[Here Freud appears to be equating the ‘pleasure principle* and though in the earlier passage above (p.

‘tbe principle of constancy*,

403 £), where this subject this.

At

a later date he

is

touched on, there is a hint at a doubt about

drew a

clear distinction

‘The Econonaic Probleni of Masochisni*

between the two :

(1924^).!

see

23 -

THE BATHS TO SYMBTOM-EOHMATIOH

formations*.

423

We discover similar and even more far-reacliuig

divergences in the other neuroses,

where our researches into of symptom-formation mechanisms are not yet concluded the at

any point.

you go

to-day, however, I should like to direct little longer to a side of the life of phantasy a your attention the most general interest. For there is a path which deserves

Before

that leads art.

An

I let

back from phantasy to reality - the path, that is, of once more in rudiments an introvert, not far

artist is

removed from neurosis.

He is oppressed by excessively power-

He desires to win honour, power, wealth, fame and the love of women but he lacks the means for achievful instinctual

needs.

;

ing these satisfactions. Consequently, like

any other unsatisfied

man, he turns away from reality and transfers all his interest, and his libido too, to the wishful constructions of his life of

whence the path might lead to neurosis. There must no doubt, a convergence of all kinds of things if this is not to be the complete outcome of his development; it is well known, indeed, how often artists in particiilar suffer from a partial inhibition of their efficiency owing to neurosis. Their constitution probably includes a strong capacity for sublimation and a certain degree of laxity in the repressions which are decisive for a conflict. An artist, however, finds a path back to reality in the following manner. To be sure, he is not die only phantasy, be,

one who lead a

of phantasy. Access to the half-way region of phantasy is permitted by the universal assent of mankind, and everyone suffering from privation expects to derive alleviation and consolation from it. But for those who are not artists the yield of pleasure to be derived from the sources of phantasy is very limited. The ruthlessness of their repressions forces them life

to be content with such meagre day-dreams as are allowed to become conscious. A man who is a true artist has more at his disposal. In the first place, he understands how to work over his day-dreams in such a way as to make them lose what is too personal about them and repels strangers, and to make it possible

424

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

for others to share in the too,

enjoyment of them.

He understands,

how to tone them down so that they do not easily betray

Furthermore, he possesses particular material until some shaping of power die mysterious phantasy; and he knows, of his image faithful it has become a pleasure yield of to this reprea large so moreover, how to link

their origin from proscribed sources.

sentation of his unconscious phantasy that, for the time being

outweighed and lifted by it. If he is able to accomplish all this, he makes it possible for other people once more to derive consolation and alleviation from their own sources of pleasure in their unconscious which have become inaccessible to them; he earns their gratitude and admiration

at least, repressions are

and he has thus achieved through his phantasy what originally he had achieved only in his phantasy - honour, power and the love of women.

LECTURE 24

THE

COMMON NEUROTIC

and GENTtSMEN, — Nowthatwehavedisposedof

Ladies

such a difficult piece for a

of work

in our last discussions, I propose

time to leave the subject and turn to

For

STATE

am

I

aware

tliat

you

‘Introduction to Psychoanalysis’

expected to hear

were

you yourselves.

are dissatisfied.

very

You

pictured an

differently.

What you

lively examples, not theory.

On

one

you say, when I told you the parable of ‘In the Baseon the First Floor’ [p. 398], you grasped something and ment of the way in which neuroses are caused; the observations should have been real ones, however, and not made-up stories. Or when at the start I described two symptoms to you (not occasion,

invented ones this time, let us hope)

and their relation to the

and described

their solu-

patients’ lives [p.

300 ff.], the ‘sense’ of symptoms dawned on you. You hoped I should go on along those lines. But instead I gave you long-winded tion

theories,

hard to grasp, which were never complete but were

always having something fresh added to them;

worked with concepts which I had not yet explained to you; I went firom a descriptive accoimt of things to a dynamic one and from that to what I called an ‘economic’ one; I made it hard for you to understand how many of the technical terms I used meant the same thing and were merely being interchanged for reasons of euphony; I brought up such far-reaching conceptions as those of the pleasure and reality principles and of phylogenetically inlierited endowments; and, far firom introducing you to anything, I

I

paraded something before your eyes which constantly

grew more and more remote from you. Why did I not begin my introduction to the theory of neuroses with what you yourselves know of the neurotic state and what has long aroused your interest - with the peculiar tharacteristics

of neurotic

people, their incomprehensible

GENERAL THEORY OB THE NEUROSES

426

reactions to

human intercourse and

irritability, their incalculable

external influences, their

and inexpedient behaviour? Why

not lead you step by step firom an understanding of the simpler, everyday forms of the neurotic state to the problems of its enigmatic, extreme manifestations? did

I

Indeed, Gentlemen, I cannot even disagree with you. I am skill in exposition that I can declare not so enamoured of

my

each of its that

it

artistic faults to

be a peculiar charm. I think myself to your advantage if I had pro-

might have been more

ceeded otherwise ; and that was, indeed, my intention. But one cannot always carry out one’s reasonable intentions. There is often

sometWng

in the material itself

which

takes charge of

one and diverts one from one’s first intentions. Even such a trivial achievement as the arrangement of a familiar piece of material is not entirely subject to an author’s own choice; it takes what line it likes and all one can do is to ask oneself after the event why it has happened in this way and no other.

One reason is probably that the title analysis’ is

no

‘

Introduction to Psycho-

longer applicable to the present section, which

supposed to deal with the neuroses. An introduction to psychoanalysis is provided by the study of parapraxes and

is

dreams; the theory of the neuroses

]

}

is

psychoanalysis

itself. It

have been possible to give you a knowledge of the subject-matter of the theory of the neuroses in so short a time except in this concentrated form. It was a question

would not,

I believe,

of presenting you with a connected account of the sense and significance of symptoms and of die external and internal determinants and mechanism of their formation. That is what I have tried to do; it is more or less the nucleus of what psychoanalysis has to teach today. It

about the libido and

involved saying a great deal

development and a little, too, about that of the ego. Our introduction had already prepared you in advance for the premisses of our technique and for the major considerations of the imconscious and of repression (of resistance). You will discover from one of the next lectures its

[Lecture 26] the points

from which the work ofpsychoanalysis

34 ntolfffi its

*

the

common neurotic

state

427

further organic advance. For the time being I have

made no

secret of the

ftom the

study of a

faa that everything I have said is derived group of nervous disorders - what

single

termed the ‘transference neuroses’. Indeed, I have traced mechanism of symptom-formation in the case only of the hysterical neurosis. Even if you have acquired no thorough knowledge and have not retained every detail, yet I hope that you have formed some picture of the methods by which psychoanalysis works, of Ae problems which it attacks and of are

the

the results at

which it has arrived.

I have credited

you with a wish that I might have.started my

of the neuroses firom the behaviour of neurotic from an account of the manner in which they suffer under their neurosis, of how they defend themselves j^ainst it and how they come to terms with it. No doubt that is an interesting topic, worth investigating ; nor would it be very difficult to handle. But it would be of debatable wisdom to start with it. There would be a risk of not discovering the unconscious and at the same time of overloo^g the great importance of the hbido and ofjudging everything as it appears to the ego desaiption

people,

of the neurotic subject.

It is

obvious that this ego is not a trust-

worthy or impartial agency. The ego is indeed die power whidi disavows the unconscious and has d^aded it into being re-

how can we trust it to be fair to the unconscious? The most prominent elements in what is thus repressed are the repudiated demands ofsexuaHty, and itis quite self-evident that we should never be able to guess their extent and importance from the ego’s conceptions. From the mommit the notion ofrepression dawns on us, we are warned against making one of die pressed; so

two contesting parties (and the victorious one, at diat) into being judge in the dispute. are prepared to find that the

We

ego’s assertions will lead us astray. If

we are to believe the ego,

was active at every point and itself willed and created its symptoms. But we know that it puts up with a good amovmt of passivity, whichit afterwards tries to disguise and gloss over. It it

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

428 is

true

the

tliat it

does not always venture

symptoms

on such an

attempt; in

obliged to admit that confronting it and against

of obsessional neurosis

it is

something alien which is which it can only defend itself with difficulty. Anyone whom these warnings do not deter from taking the ego’s counterfeits as sterling coin will have an easy time of it and will avoid all the resistances which oppose the psychoanalytic there

is

emphasis upon the unconscious, sexuality and the passivity of He will be able to declare like Alfred Adler that the

the ego.

‘neurotic character’^

is .the

cause of neuroses instead of their

consequence; but neither will he be in a position to explain a single detail of symptom-formation or a single dream.

You will ask whether it may not be possible, however, to do by the ego in neurotic states and in the formation of symptoms without at the same time grossly neglecting the factors revealed by psychoanalysis. My reply is

justice to the part played

that that

must

certainly be possible

and will sooner or later be

done; but the road followed by the work ofpsychoanalysis does not admit of actually beginning with this. It is of course possible to foresee

when psychoanalysis will be confronted by this task.

are neuroses in which the ego plays a far more intensive There 1. part than in those we have studied hitherto; we call them the ‘narcissistic’ neuroses. The investigation of these disorders

form an impartial and trustworthy judgement of the share taken by the ego in the onset of neuro'es,*

will enable us to

One ofthe ways in which the ego is related to its neuroses is, however, so obvious that it was possible to take it into account from the first. It seems never to be absent; but it is most clearly recognizable in a disorder

which

we are even

today

far

from

understanding - traumatic neurosis. For you must know that the

same

factors always

come

into operation in the causation and

[Vber den nervosen Charakter (1912) was the title of one of Adler’s works. The title of its English translation is The Neurotic Con-

earlier

sHtution.] 2.

[Freud deals fiirth^ with this in Lecture 26 below.]

24-

the

common neurotic

state

429

of every possible form of neurosis; but die chief construction of the symptoms falls now upon •mportance in the upon another of these factors. The position is like one and now the members of a theatrical company. Each of them

m.echanis’®

^tamong is

regularly, cast

for his

own stock role - hero, confidant, vil-

will choose a different piece and so on; but each of them performance. In the same way phantasies which for his benefit symptoms are nowhere more obvious than inhysteria;

lain,

tuminto

or reaction-formations of the ego dominate the obsessional neurosis; what in the case of dreams we

the anticathexes

picture in

revision’ [p. 216 £] stands in the foreof delusions, and so on. shape the in front in paranoia

bve termed ‘secondary

particularly in those brought Thus in traumatic neuroses, and are unmistakably presented we of war, about by the horrors part of the ego, seeking for the motive on with a self-interested advantage - a motive which cannot, perhap, protection

and

by itself but which assents to it and maintains motive tries to preserve it has come about. This it when once

aeate the illness

threat of which was the preego fiom the dangers the and it will not allow recovery to cipitating cause of the illness these dangers seems no longer occur until a repetition of compensation has been received for the danger

the

possible

or until

that has

been endured.

m the development .

,

,

1

The ego takes a similar interest, however, in every other case. I have and maintenance of the neurosis symptoms are supported by t^ already shown [p. 405] that they offer satasbecause they have a side with which ego, too,

fiiction to

Moreover, settlmg the repressing purpose of the ego. conyement constructing a symptom is the most

by way out and the one most agreeable the conflict

it

to the pleasure prmaple:

ainount of mtemal unquestionably spares the ego a large there are cases which is felt as distressing. _Indeed

m

work

that for a conmet to en which even the physician must admit tolera e so ution. socially and in neurosis is the most harmless may the p ysician You must not be surprised to hear that even is not It combating. he is occasionally take the side

of the illness

430

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

his business to restrict himself in

every situation in life to being

a fanatic in favour of health. He knows that there is not only neurotic misery in the world but real, irremovable suffering as

may

even require a person to sacrifice his a sacrifice of this kind made by a single person can prevent immeasurable unhappiness for many

well, that necessity

health; and

others. If

he

learns

Aat

we may say, then,

diat

whenever a neurotic is faced

by a conflict he takes ‘flight into illness’, yet we must allow that in some cases that flight is fully justified, and a physician who has recognized

how

the situation Hes will silently and

solicit-

ously withdraw.

But let us disregard these exceptional cases and proceed with our discussion. In average circumstances we recognize that by escaping into a neurosis the ego obtains a certain internal ‘gain firom illness*. In some circumstances oflife this is further accom-

panied by an appreciable external advantage bearing a greater or

less real

sort.

value. Consider the

commonest example of

this

A woman who is roughly treated and ruthlessly exploited

by her husband will fairly regularly find a way out in neurosis, makes

too cowardly or too moral to console herself secretly with another man, if she is

if her constitution

it

possible, if she

is

not strong enough to separate from her husband in the face of every external deterrent, if she has no prospect of supporting

husband and if in addition she is by her sexual feelings. Her illness now becomes a weapon in her battle with her dominating husband - a weapon which she can use for her defence and misuse for her revenge. To complain of her illness is allowable, though to lament her marriage was probably not. She finds a

herself or obtaining a better still

attached to this brutal husband

helper in her doctor, she forces her usually inconsiderate hus-

band to look after her, to spend money on her, to allow her at times to be away firom home and so firee firom her married oppression. When an external or accidental gain firom illness like this is really considerable and no real substitute for it is available, you must not reckon very high the chances of influencing

Ae neuroas by yotur treatment.

24-

the

common nbusotic

state

431

You will now

protest that what I have told you about the from ilbess argues entirely in frvour of the view I have rejected - that the ego itself wills and creates the neurosis* Not too fast. Gentlemen! It may perhaps mean noth[p. 427]. ing more than that the ego puts up with the neurosis, which it cannot, after all, prevent, and that it makes the best of it, if anything can be made of it at all. That is only one side of the gain

it is true. So fer as the neurosis has ego no doubt accepts it; but it does not only have advantages. As a rule it soon turns out that the ego Im made a bad bargain by letting itself in for the neurosis. It has paid too dearly for an alleviation of the conflict, and the to the symptoms are perhaps an equivalent jnffprings attached torments of the conflict, but they probably the for substitute implcasure. in The ego would like to free increase involve an itself from this unpleasure of the symptoms without giving up the gain from illness, and this isjust what it cannot athieve. Thfr shows, then, that it was not so entirely active as it bought it was; and we shall bear this well in mind. In your contact as doctors with neurotics, Gentlemen, you will soon give up expecting that the ones who raise the most lamentations and complaints about their illness will be the most eagCT to co-operate and will offer you the least resistance. It is raber be opponte. But of course you will easily realize that everything bat contributes to be gain from illness will intenresistance due to repression and will increase be therapeutic difiSculties. But to be portion of gain from illness which is, so to say, bom wib be illness we have to add anober portion which arises later. When a psychical organi2ation like an illness has lasted for some time, it behaves eventually like an

business,

the pleasant side,

advantages the

^^

independent organism;

it

manifests something like a

self-

preservative instinct; it establibes a kind o£ tnoius vivendi between itself and ober parts of be mind, even wib bose whib are at bottom hostile to it; and bere can scarcely frilto be

occanons

when it proves once again useful and expebent and

acquires, as it

were, a secondary junction

vrlusix

strengbens

its

^

GENERAL THEORY OB THE NEUROSES

432

.

Stability afresh. Instead

m

of an example from pathology, let A capable working-man, crippled by an accident in the course of

take a glaring instance from daily life.

who earns his living, is his occupation.

The

injured

man

can no longer work, but

eventually he obtains a small disablement pension, and he learns

by begging. His new, though is based precisely on the very thing that deprived him of his former means of livelihood. If you could put an end to his injury you would make him, to begin with, without means of subsistence; the question would arise of whether he was still capable of taking up his earlier work again. What corresponds in the case of neuroses to a

how

to exploit his mutilation

worsened, means of livelihood

secondary exploitation like this of an illness may be described as the secondary gain from illness in contrast to the primary one.* In general, however,

I

should like to recommend

that,

while

not under-estimating the practical importance of the gain from illness, you should not let yourselves be impressed by it theoretically. After all, apart from the [p.

429

f.], it

always

calls to

intelligence^ illustrated

exceptions I recognized earlier

mind

the examples of ‘animal

by Oberlander in

Fliegende Blatter

An

narrow path cut in the steep face of a mountain. At a turn in the path he suddenly found himself face to face with a lion, which prepared to make a spring. He saw no way out: on one side a perpendicular cliff and on the other a precipice; retreat and flight were impossible. He gave himself up for lost. But the animal thought otherwise. He took one leap with his rider into the abyss - and the lion was left in the lurch. The help provided by a neurosis has as a rule no better success with the patient. This may be because dealing with a conflict by forming symptoms is after all an auto-

Arab was riding his camel along

1.

[The question of the gain from

a

illness

had been discussed

at

some

length in the ‘Dora’ case history (19056) about the middle of the first chapter, where an a long footnote, added in 1923, Freud corrects his

own earlier analysis and gives what the matter, Cf. P,FX., S, 75-6 «.] 2. [See footnote,

54.^

is

probably the clearest account of

24. THE

COMMON NEUROTIC

STATE

433

matic process which cannot prove adequate to meeting the demands of life, and in which the subject has abandoned the use of his best

would be

and highest powers. If there were a choice, it go down in an honourable struggle

preferable to

with fate.

But I still owe you further enlightenment, Gentlemen, on my reasons for not starting my account of the theory ofthe neuroses

with the common neurotic state. You may perhaps suppose that it was because in that case I should have had greater difficulty in proving the sexual causation of the neuroses. But you would be wrong there. In the case of the transference neuroses one must work one’s way through the interpretation of symptoms before one can arrive at that discovery. In the common forms of what are

known

significance

of sexual

as the ‘actual neuroses’* the aetiological life is

a crude fact that springs to the

more than twenty

observer’s eyes. I

came upon

when one day

asked myself the question of

I

it

examination of neurotics their sexual larly

in the

were so regu-

excluded from consideration. At that time I sacrificed

popularity with after

activities

years ago

why

my

only a brief effort I was able to declare that

sexualis is

my

patients for the sake of these inquiries ; but

normal, there can be no neurosis’

‘if the vita

- and by

this I

meant no ‘actual neurosis’.* No doubt this statement passes too lightly

over people’s individual differences;

the indefiniteness inseparable

‘normal’.

But as a rough guide it

I had by then reached the point 1. [^Aktualneurose

it suffers,

too, firom

from the judgement of what

is

retains its value to this day.

of establishing specific relations

t* *Akiual\ like the French *actuel\ has the sense

of

‘contemporary*, *of the present moment*. The epithet is applied to this group of neuroses because their causes are purely contemporary and do not, as in the case of the psychoneuroses, have their origin in the patient*s past life. ‘Actual neuroses* is the accepted translationj 2. [This is quoted from a paper on sexuality in the aetiology of the neuroses (1906^1). Ircud had already expressed the same opinion much earlier: see

follows

is

a paper on anxiety neurosis (18956), where rduch of what

already to be found.]

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

434

between particular forms of neurosis and particular sexual noxae; and I have no doubt that I could repeat the same observations today if similar pathological material were at

stiU

my disposal I found often enough that a man who indulged in

a certain kind of incomplete sexual satisfaction (for instance, manual masturbation) had fallen ill of a particular form of *

actual neurosis \

another

and that this neurosis promptly gave place to

if he replaced this sexual regime

by another

equally far

ftom being irreproachable. I was then in a position to change in a

patient’s sexual

mode of life from an

infer the

alteration in

by my had overcome the patients’ disingenuousness and compelled them to confirm my views. It is true that thereafter they preferred to go to other doctors who did not make such keen inquiries about their sexual life. Even at that time I could not fail to notice that the causation of the illness did not always point to sexual life. One person, it was true, fell ill directly from a sexual noxa; but another did so because he had lost his fortune or had been through an exhausting organic illness. The explanation of these varieties came later, when we gained an insight into the suspected interrelations between the ego and the libido, and the explanation be-

his condition. I also learnt then to stand obstinately

suspicions

till I

came the more satisfactory the deeper that insight extended.

A

person only falls ill ofa neurosis ifhis ego has lost the capacity to allocate his libido in

some way. The stronger

is

his ego, the

Any weakening of his ego from whatever cause must have the same effect as an excessive increase in the claims of the libido and will thus make it possible for him to fall ill of a neurosis. There are other and more intimate relations betweai the ego and the libido:^ but these have not yet come within our scope, so I will not bring them up as part of my present explanation. What retrains essential and makes things clear to us is diat, in every case and no

easier will it

be for

it

to carry out that task.

matter how the illness is set goii^, the symptoms of the neurosis I.

pMo doubt an

allusion to the subject

discussed in Lecture 26.]

of

iiarcissism,

which

is

34.

common neurotic

the

state

435

by die libido and are consequently evidence that employed abnormally. it is being I must draw your attention to the decisive Now, however, difference between the symptoms of the * actual’ neuroses and are sustained

those of the psychoneuroses, the first group of which, the tranS“ ference neuroses, have occupied us so

much

hitherto. In

both

symptoms originate from the libido, and are thus abnormal employments of it, substitutive satisfactions. But the symptoms of the actual neuroses - intracranial pressure, sensacases the

‘

tions

of pain, a

’

state

of irritation in an organ, weakening or - have no ‘sense’, no psychical mean-

inhibition of a function ing,

They are not only

(as are hysterical

manifested predominantly in the

symptoms, for

body

instance, as well), but they are

also themselves entirely somatic processes, in the generating

which

all

the complicated mental mechanisms

of

we have come

know are absent. Thus they really are 'what psychoneurotic symptoms were so long believed to be. But if so, how can they correspond to employments ofthe libido, which we have recogto

nized as a force operating in the mindl Well, Gentlemen, that

me remind you of one of the very were brought up against psychoanalysis. It was said then that it was occupied in finding a purely psychological theory of neurotic phenomena and this was quite hope^ less, since psychological theories could never explain an illness. People had chosen to forget that the sexual function is not a purely psychical thing any more than it is a purely somatic one. It influences bodily and mental life alike. If in the symptoms of the psychoneuroses we have become acquainted with manifestations of disturbances in the psychical operation of the sexual is

a very simple matter. Let

first

objections that

function,

we

shall

not be surprised to find in the ‘actual’

neuroses the direct somatic consequences of sexual disturbance.

an and one that has been

Clinical medicine has given us a valuable pointer towards

interpretation

of

these disturbance,

taken into account by various inquirers. in the details

The ‘actual’ neurose,

of their symptoms and also

in their characteristic

ofinfluencing every organic system and every function, exhibit

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

436

an unmistakable resemblance to the pathological

states

which

from the chronic influence of external toxic substances and from a sudden withdrawal of them - to intoxications and conditions of abstinence* The two groups of disorders are brought arise

together

still

more

closely

by intermediate

conditions such

as

Graves’ disease which we have learnt to recognize as equally due to the operation of toxic substances, but of toxins which are not introduced into the body from outside but originate in the subject’s own metabolism. In view of these analogies, we cannot,

I

think, avoid regarding the neuroses as results of

disturbances in the sexual metabolism, whether because more of tliese

sexual toxins is produced than the subject can deal with, or

whether because internal and even psychical conditions restrict the proper employment of these substances. The popular mind

from time immemorial paid homage to hypotheses of this kind on the nature of sexual desire, speaking of love as an intoxication ’ and believing that falling in love is brought about by love-philtres - though here the operative agent is to some extent externalized. And for us this would be an occasion for recalling the erotogenic zones and our assertion that sexual excitation can be generated in the most various organs [p. 366]. But for the rest the phrase ‘sexual metabolism’ or ‘chemistry of sexuality’ is a term without content; we know nothing about it and cannot even decide whether we are to assume two sexual substances, which would then be named ‘male’ and ‘female’,* or whether we could be satisfied with one sexual toxin which we should have to recognize as the vehicle of all the stimulant effects of the libido. The theoretical structure of psychoanalysis that we have created is in truth a superstructure, which will one day have to be set upon its organic foundation. But we are still ignorant of this. What characterizes psychoanalysis as a science is not the material which it handles but the technique with whidh it works. It can be applied to the history of civilization, to the has

‘

i. [In the

New Introductory Lectures

rgects such a notion.]

(1933a), p. 165

f,

Freud strongly

^

24 the .

common neurotic

state

437

and to mythology, no less than to the theory of the neuroses, without doing violence to its essential nature. What it aims at and achieves is nothing other than the unscience of religion

covering of what is unconscious in mental life.

The problems of

the-actuaT neuroses, whose symptoms are probably generated

by

damage, offer psychoanalysis no points of can do little towards throvdng light on them and

direct toxic

attack. It

must leave the task to biologico-medical research.

And now perhaps you imderstand better why I did not choose to arrange *

my material differently.

If I

had promised you an

Introduction to the Theory of the Neuroses* the correct path

would certainly have led from the simple forms of the neuroses to the

‘

actual^

more complicated psychical illnesses due to

dis-

turbance of the libido. As regards the former I should have had

from various sources what we have learnt or believe and in connection with the psychoneuroses psychoknow, we have come up for discussion as the most imporwould analysis tant technical aid in throwing light on those conditions. But what I intended to give and what I announced was an ‘Introduction to Psychoanalysis’. It was more important for me that you should gain an idea of psychoanalysis than that you should obtain some pieces of knowledge about the neuroses; to collect

and for that reason the as psychoanalysis is

‘actual’ neuroses,

improductive so far

no longer have a place that I have made the better

concerned, could

in the foreground. 1 believe, too,

choice for you. For,

on account of the profundity of its hy-

potheses and the comprehensiveness of its connections, psychoanalysis deserves a place in the interest of every educated person, while the theory of the neuroses is a chapter in medicine like any other.

Nevertheless

some

you will

rightly expect that

interest to the ‘actual’ neuroses as

clinical

we should devote

weU. Tbeir intimate

connection with the psychoneuroses would alone comdo so. I may inform you, then, that we distinguish

pel us to

three pure forms

of

‘actual’

neuros^: nmrasthenia^ anxiety

438

GENElAIr

THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

neurosis and hypochondria.

Even this assertion is not uncontradio

names are in use, it is true, but their content is indefinite and fluctuating. There are even doctors who oppose any dividing lines in the chaotic world of neurotic phenomena, ted. All the

any segregation of clinical entities or individual diseases, and who do not even recognize the distinction between the ‘actual* neuroses and the psychoneuroses. I think they are going too far and have not chosen the path which leads to progress. The forms ofneurosis which I have mentioned occur occasionally in their pure form more often, however, they are intermixed with ;

each other and with a psychoneurotic disorder. This need not lead us to abandon the distinction

between them. Consider the ofrocks in minera-

difference between the study ofminerals and

logy.

The

minerals are described as individuals,

no doubt on

the basis of the fact that they often occur as crystals, sharply separated

from

their

environment. Rocks consist of aggrega-

tions of minerals, which, we may be sure, have not come together by chance but as a result of what determined tlieir origin. In the theory

of the neuroses we

still

know too little of

the course of their development to produce anything resem-

bling petrology. But we are certainly doing the right thing ifwe start by isolating from the mass the individual clinical entities which we recognize and which are comparable to the minerals. A noteworthy relation between the symptoms of the actual* neuroses and of the psychoneuroses makes a further important contribution to our knowledge of the formation of symptoms in the latter. For a symptom of an ‘actual* neurosis is often the nucleus and first stage of a psychoneurotic symptom. A relation of this kind can be most clearly observed between neurasthenia ‘

and the transference neurosis known as ‘conversion hysteria*, between anxiety neurosis and anxiety hysteria, but also between hypochondria and the forms of disorder which will be mentioned later [p. 473 ff.] under the name of paraphrenia (dementia praecox and paranoia). Let us take as an example a case of hysterical headache or lumbar pain. Analysis shows us that, by condensation and displacement, it has become a sub-

24*

THB COMMON NEUROTIC STATE

stitutive satisfaction for a

or memories.

But

this

439

whole number of libidinal phantasies

pain was also at one time a real one and

was then a direct sexual-toxic symptom, the somatic expresof a libidinal excitation. We are far from asserting that all hysterical symptoms contain a nucleus of this kind. But it remains a fact that this is especially often the case and that whatever somatic influences (whether normal or pathological) are it

sion

brought about by libidinal excitation are preferred for the construction of hysterical symptoms. In such cases they play the part of the grain of sand

which

a mollusc coats with layers

of mother-of-pearl. In the same way, the passing indications

of sexual excitement which accompany the sexual act are employed by the psychoneurosis as the most convenient and appropriate material for the construction of symptoms.

A

similar course

of events affords peculiar diagnostic and

therapeutic interest. case

of a person who

suffering

It is

not at

infrequently happens in the

all

disposed to a neurosis without actually

from a manifest one,

that a pathological somatic

change (through inflammation or injury perhaps) sets the activity of symptom-formation going; so that this activity hastily turns the

symptom which

has been presented to

it

by

reality into the representative of all the unconscious phantasies

which have only been lying in wait to seize hold of some means of expression. In such a case the physician will adopt sometimes one and sometimes another line of treatment. He will either endeavour to remove die organic basis, without bothering about its noisy neurotic elaboration; or he wiU attack the neurosis which has taken this favourable opportunity for arising and will pay little attention to its organic precipitating cause. The outcome will prove the one or the other line of approach right or wrong; it is impossible to make general recommendations to meet such mixed cases.

LECTURE 25

ANXIETY^ Ladies and Gentlemen, - What

I said to

lecture about the general neurotic state will

you in my last no doubt have

most incomplete and inadequate of all my know that is true, and nothing will have surprised you more, I expect, than that there was nothing in it about anxiety,^ of which most neurotics complain, which they themselves describe as their worst suffering and which does in fact attain enormous intensity in them and may result in their adopting the craziest measures. But there at least I had no intention of giving you short measure. On the contrary, it was my intention to attack the problem of anxiety in neurotics particularly keenly and to discuss it at length with you. I have no need to introduce anxiety itself to you. Every one ofus has experienced that sensation, or, to speak more correctly, that affective state, at one time or other on our own account But I think the question has never been seriously enough raised ofwhy neurotics in particular suffer from anxiety so much more and so much more strongly than other people. Perhaps it has been regarded as something self-evident: the words ^nervos* and *mgstlicV^ are commonly used interchangeably, as though they struck

you

as the

pronouncements.

I

major discussion of this subject was in a paper on last in Inhibitions^ Symptoms and Anxiety (i 926) and his

ofMs New

Introductory Lectures

[Angst.*

Though

colloquial one,

render

it

is

‘anxiety’, in a sense quite different

the technical translation,

by such words

from the

we often find it necessary to

as ‘fear*, being ‘fHghtened*

or

‘afraid’,

and

so on.] 3. [lliese

words are by no means equivalent to fhe colloquial English

25.

ANXIETY

441

meant the same thing. But we have no right to do so there are *mgstlich* people who are otherwise not at all *nkvos* an(h moreover, ^nervos* people who suffer from many symptoms, among which a tendency to *'Angst'' is not included. :

However that may be, there is no

question that the problem

a nodal point at which the most various and important questions converge, a riddle whose solution would

of anxiety

is

be bound to throw a flood of light on our whole mental existence. I will not assert that I can give you this complete solution; but you will certainly expect psychoanalysis to approach this subject too in quite a different way from academic medicine. Interest there seems mainly to be centred on tracing the anatomical paths along which the state of anxiety is brought

about

We are told that the medulla oblongata

is

stimulated,

and the patient learns that he is sufiering from a neurosis of the vagus nerve. The medulla oblongata is a very serious and lovely

remember quite clearly how much time and trouble I devoted to its study many years ago. Today, however, I must object. I

remark that I know nothing that could be of less interest to me for the psychological understanding of anxiety than a

know-

ledge of the path of the nerves along which its excitations pass. It is possible at

the start to

work upon the subject of anxiety

for quite a time without thinking at will understand

all

of neurotic states. You

me at once when I describe this kind of anxiety

as ‘realistic^anxiety in contrast to ^neurotic* anxiety. Realistic

anxiety strikes us as something very rational and intelligible.

We may say of it that danger -

it is

a reaction to the perception of an

of an iiyury which is expected and foreseen. It is connected with the flight reflex and it inay be regarded as a manifestation of the self-preservative instinct. On what occasions anxiety appears - that is to say, in the free of external

that

is,

^nervous’ and ‘ anxious V *Mervds* might be rendered by ‘nervy* or •jumpy* and ^angstlich* by ‘nervous* in its colloquial sense. ‘Anxious* in its ordinary usage is more like the German *bekumjnert' or *besor0\]

,

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

442

what objects and in what situations - will of

course depend tn

on the state of a person’s knowledge and on bi! sense of power vis-^-vis the external world. We can ouit,. understand how a savage is afraid of a cannon and frighS by an eclipse of the sun, while a white man. who knows how to handle the instrument and can foretell the eclipse, large e^rtent

without anxiety in these circumstances.

remains

On other occasions'iS

actually superior knowledge that promotes anxiety, because it makes an early recognition of the danger possible. Thus the savage will be terrified at a trail in the jungle that tells an uninformed person nothing, because it warns him of the proximity of a wild animal; and an experienced sailor will look with terror at a small cloud in the sky that seems trivial to a passenger, because it tells him of an approaching hurricane. On further consideration we must teU ourselves that our judgement that reahstic anxiety is rational and expedient calls for drastic revision. For the only expedient behaviour

when a own

danger tfceatens would be a cool estimate of one’s ^tte^th comparison with the

m

magnitude of the threat and, of that, a decision as to whether flight or defence or possibly even attach, offers the best prospect of a successful issue. But m this situation there is no

on the

basis

every^ng

place at

all

^ppens would be achieved just probably better if no anxiety were generated. And

indeed,

;*

^at

rhm

if

j a

J

for anxiety

that

one

as

weU and

youcan see

Ae anxiety is excessively great it proves

—T

feels

tempted to

acuon.

A ternfaed animal

Assert that the generation

help

SreS

^reMly. The fint

in the

^g about it

situation

of

m

of a£dety more

preparedness £ot the danger

on. This o^ectant preparedness can be unhesitatingly

25 . anxiety recognized as

an advantage; indeed,

responsible for serious consequences.

its

443 absence

From

it

may be

there tlapn pro-

on the one hand motor action - flight in the first instance and at a higher level active defence - and on the other baud what we feel as a state of anxiety. The more the generation of anxiety is limited to a mere abortive beginning - to a signal* ceeds

die more will the preparedness for anxiety transform itself without disturbance into action and the more expedient will be the shape taken by the whole course of events. Accordingly, the preparedness for anxiety seems to me to be die expedient

clement in

what we call

anxiety,

and due generation of anxiety

the inexpedient one. I shall

avoid going

our linguistic usage

by

different

[fright]’. I

more closely into the question of whether

means die same thing or something clearly

‘Angst [anxiety]’, ‘Furcht [fear]’ and ‘Schreck

will only say that I think ‘Angst' relates to the state

and disregards the object, while ‘Furcht' draws attention precisely to the object. It seems that ‘Schreck', on the other

Wd, does have a special sense; it lays emphasis, that is, on the effect produced

by a danger which is not met by any prepared-

ness for anxiety.

protects

We

might

himself firom fiight

say, dierefore, that

a person

by anxiety.

A certain ambiguity and indefiniteness in the use ofthe word ‘Angst' will

not have escaped you.

By

‘anxiety’

we

usually

which we are put by perceiving the ‘ generation of anxiety’ and we call this an affect. And what is an affect in the dynamic sense? It is in any case understand die subjective state into

something highly composite. place particular certain feelings ;

An

affect includes in the first

motor innervations or discharges and secondly the latter are of two kinds - perceptions of the

motor artions that have occurred and the direct feelings of pleasure and unpleasure which, as we say, give the affect its notion of anxiety serving as a ‘signal’ (which appean again was to play a central part in Freud’s later accounts of anxiety, in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (ipatSd) and in the New I. [TTiis

below on

p. 453)

Introductory Lectures (19334), p.

117 £]

GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES

444

keynote. But I do not think diat with this emimeration we have seem to see deeper in the arrived at the essence of an affect.

We

case of some affects and to recognize that the core which holds the combination we have described together is the repetition of

some

particular significant experience.

This experience could

only be a very early impression of a very general nature, placed in the prehistory not of the individual but of the species. To intelligible - an affective state would be same way as a hysterical attack and, like it, would be the precipitate of a reminiscence. A hysterical attack

make myself more

constructed in the

may thus be likened to

a freshly constructed individual

affect,

and a normal affect to the expression of a general hysteria which has

become a heritage.*

Do not suppose that the things I have said to you here about affects are the recognized stock-in-trade

of normal psychology.

They are on the contrary views that have grown up on the soil of psychoanalysis and are native only to it. What you may gather about affects from psychology - theJames-Lange theory, for example - is quite beyond imderstanding or discussion to us psychoanalysts. But we do not regard our knowledge about affects as

very assured either;

it is

a first attempt at finding our

bearings in this obscure region. I will proceed, however.

We

of the affect of anxiety we know what the early impression is which it repeats. We believe that it is in the act of birth that there comes about the combination of unpleasurable feelings, impulses of discharge and bodily sensations which has become the prototype of the effects of a mortal danger and has ever since been repeated by us as the state of anxiety. The immense increase of stimulation owing to the interruption ofthe renovation ofthe blood (internal respiration) was at the time the cause of the experience of anxiety ; the first

believe that in the case

I. prhis account of hysterical attacks had been suggested by Freud in a paper on that subject many years carliar (i909ecific

Abel, K.

(1884) tJber den Gegensinn der Urwoffe^ ‘Die psychosexuellen Difierenzen der Hysteric

Abraham, K. (1908)

find der* Dementia praecox’, ZentbL Nerpenheilk., N.F. 15^ 521. (464^-5)

‘The Psycho-Sexual Differences Between Hysteria and Dementia Praccox*, Selected Payers^ London, 1927 J New York, [Trans.:

1953, Chap. H.} pragenitale Entwick(1916) ‘UntersucJhungen fiber die firuheste

Z.

lungsstufe der Libido’, [TViMW.?

Papers, Lond^on, 1927;

(1965)

drztl. Psychoanal.^ 4* ji. (370)

‘The Pint Pregmtal Stage of the Libido’, Setod

With Freud,

New York,

S^ 5ce

I 953 i

FREUW^^

BIBLIOGRAPHY

$20

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(1912) Vber den netvosen Charaktery Wiesbaden. (428) [Trans,:

The Neurotic

Constitutiotiy

New

York, 1916; London,

1918.]

Andreas-Salom^,

L. (1016)

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4,

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(1911-13)

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Brill, A. A. (1912) Psychanatysis: tts Theories and Practical Appli^ cation, Philadelphia and London. (2nd ed., 1914; 3rd ed., 1922.) (57,80,83)

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m

FiiESS,

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{1906)

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