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English Pages [557] Year (1966 [1917])
1
.
Introductory Lectures on
Psychoanalysis
THE PENGUIN FREUD LIBRARY General Editor:
Angela Richards (i073S2) Albert Dickson (1982-^
VOLUME
)
1
INTRODUCTORY LECTURES ON PSYCHOANALYSIS Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was born
in 1856 in
Moravia; between the
home was
ages of four and eighty-two his
1938 Hitler’s invasion of Austria forced in I..oiulon,
began
where he died
witli several years
him
thirty
whcn»
after a period
his interests first
years
of
clinical
Vienna:
in
in the following year. His career
of
brilliant
work on
tlic
anatomy
He was
physiology of the nervous system.
aiui
in
to seek asylum
of study under Charcot
almost in Paris,
turned to psychology, and another ten
work
in
Vienna
(at first in
collaboration
with Brener, an older colleague) saw the birth of his creation,
psychoanalysis. This began simply as a
treating neurotic patients it
by
method of
investigating their minds, but
quickly grew into an accumulation of knowledge about
the workings of the healthy. Freud
mind
in
was thus able
whether
general,
to demonstrate the
sick
or
normal
development of the sexual instinct in childhood and, on the basis of an examination of dreams, arrived at ,
largely his
fundamental discovery of the unconscious forces dhat
influence our everyday thoughts and actions. Freud’s
life
many
was uneventful, but
his ideas
specialist disciplines,
but the whole intellectual climate of
the
last
half-ccntury.
have shaped not only
THE PENGUIN FREUD LIBRARY
VOLUME
I
INTRODUCTORY LECTURES ON PSYCHOANALYSIS Sigmund Freud
Translated by James Strachey Edited by James Strachey
and Angela Richards
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Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
Present English translation (by James Strachey)
Volumes
first
published in
Edition of the Complete Psycho loj^ical fVorks of Sij^mund Freud,
The Standard
XV and
XVI, by the Hogarth Press and the Institute of by arrangement with George Allen Sc Unwin, London 1963
Psycho-Analysis,
‘Sigmund Freud: First
published in
A
Sketch of
Two
his Life
and
Ideas’
Short Accounts of Psycho-Analysis
in Pelican
Books
Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
Published in Pelican Books 1973
Reprinted
in
Penguin Books 1991
579
13
10
8642
Translation and Editorial Matter copyright
and the
Institute
© Angela Richards
of Psycho-Analysis, 1962, 1963
Additional Editorial Matter copyright
© Angela Richards
1973,
All rights reserved
Printed in England
by Clays Ltd, St
Ives pic
Except in the United States of Amercia, this
that
be
it
book
is
sold subject to the condition
shall not,
lent, rc-sold,
by way of trade or otherwise,
hired out, or otherwise circulated
without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which
it is
published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed
11
CONTENTS VOLUME
I
The Penguin Freud Library
Introduction to
Sigmund Freud:
A
7
Sketch of his Life and Ideas by
James Strachey
1
Chronological Table
25
INTRODUCTORY LECTURES ON PSYCHOANALYSIS (I9i6-I7[i9i5-I7l) Editor’s Introduction
3i
Preface [1917]
35
PART
I.
PARAPRAXES
(l9l6[l9I5])
Lecture I
I
Introduction
2
Parapraxes
3
Parapraxes (continued)
39 50 66
4
Parapraxes (concluded)
87
j
!
I
I
PART n. DREAMS (l9l6[l915-l6]) and
Approaches
5
Difficulties
6
The Premisses and Techniques of Interpretation The Manifest Content of Dreams and the Latent Dream-Thoughts Children’s Dreams The Censorship of Dreams Symbolism in Dreams
7 8
9 .10
First
1 1
129
143 1 57 x68
182
CONTENTS
6 11
The Dream-Work
12
Some
13
The Archaic
14
Wish-Fulfilment
15
Uncertainties and Criticisms
Analyses of Sample
PART
204 219
Dreams
Features and Infantilism
of Dreams
235 250 266
GENERAL THEORY OP THE NEUROSES {i9I7[i9I6-I7]) III.
16
Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry
281
17
The
Sense of Symptoms
296
18
Fixation to
19
Resistance
Traumas - The Unconscious
21
and Repression The Sexual Life of Human Beings The Development of the Libido and the Sexual
22
Some Thoughts on Development and Regre^on -
20
Organizations
313
327
344 362
Aetiology
383
The Paths to the Formation of Symptoms 24 The Common Neurotic State 25 26
Anxiety
27 28
Transference
404 425 440 461 482
Analytic Therapy
501
Bibliography and Author Index List
519 527
Index of Dreams
531
23
The Libido Theory and Narcissism
of Abbreviations Index of Parapraxes Index of Symbols
533
General Index
537 %
“Hie Prisoner’s Dream’ by Schwind (Reproduced by kind permission of
Inside front cover:'
the Schack Gallery, Municii)
-
INTRODUCTION TO THE PENGUIN FREUD LIBRARY The Penguin Freud Library (formerly The Pelican Freud Library) intended to meet the needs of the general reader by providing all Freud's major writings in translation together with an appropriate linking commentary. It is the first time that such an edition has been produced in paperback in the English language. It docs not supplant The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological of Sigmund Freud, translated from the (Jerman under the general editorship of James Strachey, in collaboration witli Anna Freud, assisted by Alix Strachey and Alan Tyson, editorial assistant Angela Richards (Hogarth Press, 24 volumes, 1953-74). The Standard Edition remains the fullest and most authoritative collection published in any language. The present edition does, however, provide a large enough selection to meet the requirements of all but the most specialist reader in particular it aims to cater for students of
is
sociology, anthropology, criminology, medicine, aesthetics
and education,
all
of them
fields in
which Freud’s
ideas
have
established their relevance.
The
texts are reprinted unabridged,
the Standard Edition.
The
editorial
with corrections, from
commentary
*-
introduc-
tions, footnotes, internal cross-references, bibliographies
indexes - is also based
upon
the Standard Edition, but
abridged and where necessary adapted to
it
and
has been
suit the less special-
and purposes of the Penguin Freud Library. Some corrections have been made and some new material added.
ized scope
Selection of Material
This
is
not a complete edition of Freud’s psychological works
still less
of his works
as a
whole, which included important
1
THE PENGUIN FREUD HBRARY
8
contributions to neurology and neuropathology dating
the early part of his professional writings, virtually
all
life.
Of
from
the psychological
the major works have been included.
The
arrangement is by subject-matter, so that the main contributions to any particular theme will be found in one volume.
Within each volume the works are, for the main part, in chronological sequence. The aim has been to cover the whole field of Freud’s observations and his theory of Psychoanalysis: that is to say, in the first place, the structure and dynamics of human mental activity; secondly, psychopathology and the mechanism of mental disorder; and thirdly, the applicaton of psychoanalytic theory to wider spheres than the disorders of individuals which Freud originally, and indeed for the greater part of his life, investigated - to the psychology of groups, to social institutions and to religion, art and literature. In his ‘Sigmund Freud: A Sketch of his Life and Ideas’ (p, 1 ff. below), James Strachey includes an account of Freud’s discoveries as well as defining his principal theories and tracing their
development.
Writings excludedfrom the Edition
The works
that
have been excluded
are, (i)
writings and most of those very early
The neurological
works from the period
before the idea of psychoanalysis had taken form.
(2) Writings of treatment. These were written specifically for practitioners of psychoanalysis and for analysts in training and their interest is correspondingly specialized. Freud never in fact produced a complete text on psychoanalytic treatment and the papers on technique only deal with
on the
actual technique
of difficulty or theoretical interest. (3) Writings which cover the same ground as other major works which have
selected points
been included; for example, since the Library includes the
and the New Lectures, it of the shorter expository
Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis
was decided to leave out
several
THE PENGUIN FREUD LIBRARY works
ill
which Freud surveys the whole- subject.
9 Similarly,
because the Interpretation of Dreams is included, the shorter writings on this topic have been omitted. (4) Freud’s private
much of which
has now been published in not to imply that such letters are without interest or iniportance though they have not yet received full
correspondence,
translation h This
is
(5) I'hc numerous short writings such as reviews of hooks, prefaces to other authors’ works, obituary
critical
treatment,
- all of which lose interest to a large extent when separated from the books or occasions to wliicli they rcl'er and which would often demand long editorial
notices and
little pieces
dhycemion
make tliem comprehensible. of these excluded writings (with the exception of the wtirks tui neurology and the private letters) can be found in the
explanations to All
Standard Edition.
Editorial
Commentary
'Fhe bibliographical information, included at the beginning of
the Editor's Note or Introduction to each work, gives the title of the C'ycrman (or other) original, the date and place of its first publication and the position, where applicable, of the work in Freud's Cxcsammelte IVerke, the most complete edition at present available of the works in German (published by S, Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main). Details of the first translation of each work into English are also included, together with the Standard Edition reference. Other editions are listed only if they contain significant changes. (Full details of all German editions published in Freud's lifetime and of all English editions prior to the Standard Edition arc included in the Standard Edition.)
The date of original publication of each work has been added with the date of composition included in square brackets wherever it is different from the former date. to the title-page,
I.
[Sec the
p.52iff.I
list,
p.
z^n below, and the details in the Bibliography
THE PENGUIN FREUD LIBRARY
10
Further background information
is
given in introductory
notes and in footnotes to the text. Apart from dealing with the
time and circumstances of composition, these notes aim to make it possible to follow the inception and development of
important psychoanalytic concepts by means of systematic cross-references. Most of these references are to other works included in the Penguin Freud Library. date additions and alterations revisions of the text versions.
No
and
A secondary purpose is to
made by Freud
in certain cases to
attempt has been
made
to
in successive
pro vide the
do
this as
earlier
compre-
hensively as in the Standard Edition, but variants are given
whenever they indicate
a definite
change of view. Square
brackets are used throughout to distinguish editorial additions
from Freud’s text and his own footnotes.
It
will be clear
from
this
account that
I
owe an overwhelm-
ing debt to the late James Strachey, the general editor and chief translator
of the Standard
Edition.
He
indeed was mainly
and for the of contents. I have also had the advantage of discussions with Miss Anna Freud and the late Mrs Alix Strachey both of whom gave advice of the greatest value. I am grateful to the late Mr Ernst Freud for his support and to the Publications Committee of the Institute of Psycho-Analysis for
responsible for the idea of a Penguin Freud Library, original plan
help in furthering preparations for this edition.
ANGELA RICHARDS, I976
SIGMUND FREUD A SKETCH OF HIS LIFE
AND IDEAS
SiGMtJHD Freud was bom on 6 May 1856 in Freiberg, a town in Moravia, which was at that time a part of
small
Austria-Hungary, In an external sense die eighty-three years of his life were on the whole uneventful and call for no lengthy history.
He came of a
middle-class Jewish femily and was the eldest of his fathcr^s second wife. His position in the family was a little unusual, for there were already two grown-up sons by his father $ first wife. These were more than twenty years older than he was and one of them was already married, with a little boy; so diat Freud was in fact bom an tincle. This child
nephew played years as his
were
at least as
important a part in
his
own younger brothers and sisters,
very
earliest
of whom seven
bom after hum.
His father was a wool-merchant and soon after Freud’s birth
found himself in increasing commercial difficulties. He therefore decided, when Freud was just three years old, to leave Freiberg, and a year later the whole femily setded in Vienna, with the exception of the two elder half-brothers and thek children,
who
established themselves instead in Manchester,
At more than one stage in his life Freud played with the idea of Joining them in JEngland, but nothing was to come of this for nearly
d^ty years.
In Vienna during die lived in the
most
father’s credit that
whole of Freud’s childhood the Bimily
straitened cemditions; Init
it is
much
to his
he gave invariable priority to die charge o£
Freud’s education, for the .boy was obviously inteUigent and was a hard worker as well. The result was that he won a place in the ‘Gymnasium’ at the early age of nine, and for the last six of the eight years he spent at the school he was regularly
S1GMUN0
la
top of his
class.
prexjd: his life
and ideas
When at the age of seventeen he passed out of
still undecided; his education so far had kind, and, though he seemed in any general most hpfn of the
school his career was
case destined for die University, several faculties lay
open to
him. Freud
insisted more than once that at no time in his life did he feel ‘any particular predilection for the career of a doctor. I was moved, rather', he says, ‘by a sort of curiosity, which was, however, direaed more towards human concerns than towards natural objects.’* Elsewhere he writes; ‘I have no knowledge of having had any craving in my early childhood to help suffering humanity. ... In my youth I felt an overpowering need to understand something of the riddles of the world in whidh we live and perhaps even to contribute something to their solution.’* And in yet another passage in
which he was years:
discussing the sociological studies
of
his last
‘My interest, after making a lifelong ditour through
the
natural sciences, medicine, and psychotherapy, returned to the
which had fascinated me long before, whm enough for thinking.’* What immediately determined Freud’s choice of a scientific career was, so he tells us, being present just when he was leaving school at a public reading of an extremely flowery
cultural problems
I
was a youth
essay
But
scarcely old
on ‘Nature’, was to be
if it
attributed (wrongly,
it
seenos) to Goethe.
science, practied considerations
the choice to medidne.
And
it
was
narrowed
as a medical student that
Freud enrolled himself at the University in the autumn of 1873 at the age of seventeen. Even so, however, he was in no hurry to obtain a medical degree. For his first year or two he
on a
of subjects, hut gradually conon biology and then on physiology. His very first piece of research was in his third year at the University, when he was deputed by the Professor of Comparative
attended lectures centrated
variety
first
[An Autobiographical Study (i925(0> near the opening of the work.1 The Question cfLay Analysis’ (192711).] 3. [‘Postscript (193s) to AnAutobiogrt^hied Study’ (1935a).] I.
a. [‘Postscript to
SIGMUND FEEUD: HIS Anatomy
LIFE
to investigate a detail in the
AND IDEAS
I3
anatomy of the ed.
Soon afterwards he entered the Physiological Laboratory under Briicke, and worked there happily for six years. It was no doubt from him that he acquired the main oudines of his attitude to physical science in general. During these years Freud worked cliiefly on tlie anatomy of the central nervous system and was already beginning to produce publications. But it was becoming obvious that no livelihood which would be sufficient to meet the needs of the large family at home was to be picked up from these laboratory studies. So at last, in 1881, he decided to take his medical degree, and a year later, most unwillingly, gave up his position under Brucke and began work in the Vienna Genersd Hospital. What finally determined this change in his life was something more urgent than fiunUy considerations: in June 1882 he became engaged to be married, and thenceforward all his efforts were directed towards making marriage possible. His fiancee, Martha Bemays, came of a well-known Jevrish fiimily in Hamburg, and though for the moment she was living in Vienna she was very soon obliged to return to her remote North-German home. During the four years that followed, it was only for britf visits that he could have glimpses of her, and the two lovers had to content themselves with an almost daily interchange of letters. Freud now set himself to establishing a position and a reputation in the medical world. He worked in various departments of the hospital, but soon came to conemtrate on neurcKuiatomy and neuropathology. Durii^ this period, too, he published the first inquiry into the possible mediad uses of cocaine; and it was this that suggested to
employment as a local anaesthetic. He soon formed two immediate plans: one of these was to obtain an appointment as Privatdozent, a post not unlike that of a Roller the drug’s
university lecturer in England, die other was to gain a travelling
bursary which
would enable him to spend some time in Paris
where the reigning figure was the great Charcot. Both of
14
SIGMUND FREUD: HIS
these aims, if they
UIFB
AND IDEAS
were realized, would, he felt, bring him real
advantages, and in 1885, after a hard struggle, he achieved
them both. The months which Freud spent under Charcot Paris hospital for
Salpetriere (the famous brought another change in the course
nervous
at the
diseases)
and this time a revolutionary one. So far his work had been concerned entirely with physical science and he was still carrying out histological studies on the brain while he was in Paris. Charcot’s interests were at that period concentrated mainly on hysteria and hypnotism. In the world from which Freud came these subjects were regarded as barely resprmation of what is going on unconsciously in its mind. We psychoanalysts were not the first and not the only ones to utter ^s call to introspection ; but it to be our fate to give it its most forcible expression and to support it vrith empirical material which affects every individud. Hence arises the general revolt against our science, the disregard of all considerations of academic civility and the releasing of the opposition from every restraint of impartial logic. Amd beyond all this we have yet to disturb the peace of i-hk world in still another way, asyou Will shortly hear.
will have suffered
its
third
LECTURE
19
RESISTANCE AND REPRESSION^ Ladies and Gentlemen, - Before we can make any
fur-
of the neuroses, we stand in need of some fresh observations. Here we have two such, both of which are very remarkable and at the time when they were made were very surprising. Our discussions of last year will, it is true, have prepared you for both of them.^ ther progress in our understanding
In the
when we undertake to restore a him of the symptoms of his illness, to relieve
first place,
patient to health,
then,
he meets us with a violent and tenacious resistance, which persists throughout the whole length of the treatment. This is such a strange fact that we cannot expect it to find much credence. It is best to say nothing about it to the patient’s relatives, for they invariably regard it as an excuse on our part for the length or failure of our treatment. The patient, too, produces all the phenomena of this resistance without recognizing it as such, and if we can induce him to take our view of it and to reckon with
its
existence, that already counts as a great success.
think of
it!
The
patient,
who
is
suffering so
much
Only
firom his
symptoms and is causing those about him to share his sixfferings, who is ready to undertake so many sacrifices in time, money, effort and self-discipline in order to be freed from those symptoms - we are to believe that this same patient puts up a struggle in the interest of his illness against the person
who
is
helping him.
How improbable such an assertion must sound!
Yet it
and when
is
true;
its
improbability
is
pointed out to us,
1. [Freud’s deepest reflections on the question of repression will be found in Ms paper on the subject (i9i5 deprived of satisfaction, is driven to look for other objects and paths. The necessary precondition of the conflict is that these other paths and objects arouse displeasure in one part of the personality, so that a veto is imposed which makes the new method of satisfaction impossible as it stands. From this point the construction of symptoms pursues result
its
course, which we shall follow later. ^ The repudiated libidinal
trends nevertheless succeed in getting their
roundabout paths, though not, objection into account I. [In
it is true^
by submitting
to
way by
certain
without taking the
some
the foMow^ iecture.1
distortions
and
22. mitigations.
construction
DEVELOPMENT AND REGRESSION The roundabout
395
paths are those taken
of symptoms; the symptoms are the
by
the
fresh or
substitute satisfaction which has become necessary owing to the fret
of frustration.
The meaning of psychical conflict can be adequately expressed in another way by saying that for an external frustration to become pathogenic an internal frustration must be added to it. In that case, of course, the external and internal frustration relate to different paths and objects. The external frustration removes one possibility of satisfaction and the internal frustration seeks to exclude another possibility, about which the conbreaks out.
flict then
because
it
I
prefer this way of representing the matter
has a secret content. For
it
hints at the probability
impediments arose from real external obstacles during the prehistoric periods of human development.* But what are the powers from which the objection to the
that the internal
trend arises?
libidinal
What is the other party to the pathogenic
These powers, to put
conflict?
sexual instinctual forces. instincts’.
gives us
The
it
quite generally, are the non-
We class them together as the ‘ego-
psychoanalysis of the transference-neuroses
no easy access to a further dissecting of them;
at
most
we come to know them to some extent by the resistances which oppose analysis. The pathogenic conflict is thus one between the ego-instincts cases, it
and the sexual instincts. In a whole number of
looks as though there might also be a conflict between
is the same one is conflict, are that in trends sexual two of Ae thing; for, proother while the ‘ego-syntonic’,* always, as we might say,
different
purely sexual trends. But in essence that
vokes the ego’s defence.
It therefore still
remains a conflict
between the ego and sexuality. Over and over again. Gentlemen, when psydioanalysis has claimed that some mental event is the produrt of the sexual 1,
[Cf. p.
neurosis
418 bdow. The whole question of firustration as a cause of discussed by Freud in a paper on ‘Types of Onset of
was
Neurosis’ (1912c).] 2. |I.e. in
consonance with the ^o.]
GENERAL THEORY OE THE NEUROSES
396
instincts, it has been angrily pointed
that
out to it by way of defence
human beings do not consist only of sexuality,
that there
and interests in mental life other than sexual ones, that it ought not to derive ‘everything’ from sexuality, and so ouron. Well, it is most gratifying for once in a way to selves in agreement with our opponents. Psychoanalysis has
are instincts
&d
never forgotten that there are instinctual forces as well which are not sexual. It was based on a sharp distinction between die sexual instincts tions, it
and the
ego-instincts, and, in spite
of all objec-
has maintained not that the neuroses are derived from
due to a conflict between the ego and sexuality. Nor has it any conceivable reason for disputing the existence or significance of the ego-instincts while it pursues the part played by the sexual instincts in illness and in ordinary Ufe. It has simply been its fate to begin by concerning sexuality but that their origin
itself with
is
the sexual instincts because the transference neuroses
made them cause
the most easily accessible to examination and bewas incumbent on it to study what other people had
it
neglected.
Nor
is it
a fact that psychoanalysis has paid
no
attention
whatever to the non-sexual part of the personality. It
is
pre-
between the ego and sexuality which has enabled us to recognize with special clarity that the egoinstincts pass through an important proc^ of development a development which is neither completdy independent of die libido nor without a counter-effect upon it. Nevertheless, we are far less well acquainted with the development of the ego than of the Hbido, since it is only the, study, of the narcissistic neuroses* that promises to give us an insight into the structure of the ego. We akcady have before us, however, a notable cisely the distinction
attempt
of the
by Ferenezi
[1913] to
make a
theoretical construction
of development of the ego, and there are at least two points at which we have a sohd basis for judging that development. It is not our beHef that a person’s libidinal stages
interests are
from the first in opposition to his self-preservative I.
[Discussed in Lecture 26.]
DEVELOPMENT AND REGRESSION
22. interests;
on the contrary, the ego endeavours
remain in harmony with
to
fit itself
time and to
into
at
397
every stage
its
sexual organization as it
it.
The
succession
of the
is
at the
different
development probably follows a prescribed be rejected that this programme. But the possibility cannot and we may expect ofevents can be influencedby the ego, phases of libidinal
course
parallelism, a certain correspondence, equally to find a certain developmental phases of the ego and the libido;
hetwecn the
that correspondence might provide a indeed a disturbance of now faced by the important conare pathogenic factor. if its libido leaves a strong behaves the ego
We
of how development. at some point in its (the libido’s) behind fixation to that become consequently The ego may accept this and It in&ntile. is die same thing, ^y, extent perverse or, what attimde to the libidos non-compliant a adopt however, down in this position, in which case the ego experiences
sideration
settling
a
repressioit
where the libido has experienced a fixation.
Thus we discover that the third factor neuroses, the tendency to confiict,
is
as
in the aetiology of the
much
dependent on the
oftheUbido. Our insight mto development of the ego as onthat neuroses is thus made more complete. First - finistration; next, the most general precondition
die causation of the diere
is
fixation
of the Hbido which forces it into
particular directions;
conflict, arisingfirom the devel^ and thirdly, the tendency to these Ubidit^ mpulses. The mcnt of the ego, which rejects very confused and hard to penetrate situation, then, is not so
it IS
nowcvci, viAcii. ^ There is something
.11
trae,
with
it.
already familiar to
new
1
to be added and
somethu^
be further examined.
you the influence -which the In order to demonstrate to the comtruction of confecte development of the ego has upon put neuroses, I should l^e to and upon the causation of compete a is it is^^. example before you - one which, ftom probabihty. I divorced nowhere is wHch invention but
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
398
shall describe it
(on the basis of the title of one of Nestroy’s Basement and on the First Floor The care-
forces^) as ‘In the
of the house inhabits the basement and its landlord, a wealthy and respectable gentleman, the first floor. Both have children, and we may suppose that the landlord’s little daughter is allowed to play, without any supervision, with the proletarian girl. It might very easily happen, then, that the children’s taker
games would take on a ‘naughty’ - that character, that they
would play
to say, a sexual
is
at ‘father
and mother’,
-
that
they would watch each other at their most private business
and excite each other’s
genitals.
The
caretaker’s girl, though
would have had an opportunity of of adult sexuality, and she might well
only five or six years old, observing a good deal
all this. These experiences, even a long period, would be enough over continued were not ifthey
play the part of seductress in
work in the two children; and, after their games together had ceased, these impulses would for to set certain sexual impulses to
several years afterwards find expression in masturbation.
much for the
two
their experiences in
common;
children will be very different.
The
caretaker’s
daughter will continue her masturbation, perhaps,
A few years later she will find
till
her
up with no a lover and perhaps
menstrual periods begin and she will then give difficulty.
So
the final outcome in
it
have a baby. She will take up some ooiupation or other, possibly become a popular figure on the stage and end up as an aristocrat Her career is more likely to be less brilliant, but in any case she will go through her life undamaged by the early exercise of her sexuality and free from neurosis. With the little girl things will be different. At an early stage and while she is still a child she will get an idea that she has done something wrong; after a short time, but perhaps only after a
landlord’s
severe struggle, she will give
up her masturbatory satisfaction,
Qohann Nestroy (i8oi- the reality the ego’s is one of the most important steps forwar din unwiEand late only is that it already know
nleasure
development.
We
instincts join in this piece of development, ingly that the sexual human beings of shall hear later the consequences for
we
and
die feet that their
sexuality’is content with such a loose
connec-
And now in conclusion one last process of developremark on this subject. If man s ego has its
tion
with external
reality.
surprised to hear that there
ment like the Ubido, you will not be and you will he anxious to also ‘regressions of the ego’, are
know too what part may be played in neurotic
illnesses
phases of its development. return of the ego to earHer
hy this
LECTURE
23
THE PATHS TO THE FORMATION OF SYMPTOMS laymen the symptoms conLadies and Gentiemen, - For stitute
moval
its cure comists in the r&. the essence of a disease and attach importence to of the symptoms. Physicians
symptoms from the. disease and decide tmt curing the of the symptoms does not amount to
distinguishing the
getting rid
disease after the
But the only tangible thing left of the capacity to form new symptoms have been got rid of is the
disease.
we will for the moment adopt the that to unravel the symptoms assume layinans position and the chsease. understand the same thing as to dealing now with psyare we - and of course
symptoms. For
that reason
Symptoms
symptoms and
chical (or psychogenic)
psychical ilbess
-
are
useless, to the subject’s life as a acts detrimental, or at least unwelcome and bringing whole, often complained of by him as main damage they do unpleasure or suffering to him. The which they themselves inresides in the mental expenditure that becomes necessary for volve and in the further expenditure is an extensive formation there Where against them.
fighting
expendime can result in an of symptoms, these two sorts of the subject in regard to the of extraordinary impoverishment so in paralysing him for all and mental energy available to him outcome depends mainly the important tasks of life. Since this you will on the quantity of the energy which is thus absorbed, easily see that
*
being
ill
is
in
its
essence a practical concept.
But if you take up a theoretical point of view and we are all ill matter of quantity, you may quite well say that disregard this
diat
is,
neurotic
-
of symptoms can
since the preconditions for the formation
also
be observed in normal people.
We already know that neurotic symptoms are the outcome
THE PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION 405
23 .
arises over a new method of satisfying the two forces which have fallen out meet The libido [p. 394]symptom the and are reconciled, as it were, by in again once the of symptom that has been constructed. It die compromise
of a
is
conflict
which
for that reason, too, that the
supported
from both sides.
parmers to the conflict repulsed
by
satisfaction. is
is
symptom
is
so resistant:
it is
We also know that one of the two
the unsatisfied libido which has been
now seek for other paths to its If reality remains relentless even though the Ubido reality
and must
ready to take another object in place of the one that has been
refused to
it,
then
it
will finally be compelled to take the path
and strive to find satisfaction either in one of the organizations which it has aheady outgrown or from one of the objects which it has earlier abandoned. The Ubido is lured into the path of regression by the fixation which it has left of regression
behind
it at
diese points in
its
development.
The path to perversion branches off sharply from that to neurosis. If these regressions rouse no objection from the ego, no neurosis will come about either; and the Ubido will arrive at some real, even though no longer normal, satisfaction. But if the ego, which has imder its control not only consciousness but also the approaches to motor innervation and accordingly to the realization of mental desires, does not agree with these regressions, conflict will follow. The Ubido is, as it were, cut off and must try to escape in some direction where, in accordance with the requirements of the pleasure principle, it can find a discharge for its cathexis of raergy. It must withdraw from the ego. An escape ofthis kind is offered it by the fixations on the path of its development which it has now entered on regressively - fixations from which ihe ego had protected itself in the past
by
repressions.
By
cathecting these repressed peti-
flows backward, the Ubido has withdrawn from the ego and its laws, and has at the same time renounced all the tions as
it
It was beckoned to it; but under the double pressure of external and internal frustration it becomes
education docile so
it
has acquired under the ego’s influence.
long as
satisfaction
general theory of the neuroses
406
refractory,
and
recalls earlier
and
better times.
Bbido’s fundamentally unchangeable character.
which
it
now
transfers its
energy
as a cathexis
Sucb
The
is
the
ideas to
belong to the
system of the unconscious and are subject to the processes which are possible there, particularly to condensation and displace-
ment. In
this
way conditions are established which completely The dream proper,
resemble those in dream-construction.
which has been completed in the unconscious and is the fulfilment of an unconscious wishful phantasy, is brought up against a portion of(pre) conscious activity which exercises the office of censorship and which, when it has been indemnified, permits the formation of the manifest dream as a compromise. In the same way, what represents* the libido in the unconscious has to reckon with the power of the preconscious ego. The opposition which had been raised against it in the ego pursues it as an ‘anticathexis'^ and compels it to choose a form of expression which can at the same time become an expression ofthe opposition itselfThus the symptom emerges as a many-times-distorted derivative of the unconscious libidinal wish-fulfilment, an ingeniously chosen piece of ambiguity with two meanings in complete mutual contradiction. In
this last respect,
however,
there is a distinction between the construction of a dream and of
a symptom. For in dream-formation the preconscious purpose is
merely concerned to preserve
sleep, to
allow nothing that
would disturb it to make its wayinto consciousness; it does not insist upon calling out sharply ‘No on the contrary !’ to the unconscious wishful impulse. It can afford to be more tolerant because the situation of someone sleeping is less perilous. The state of sleep in itselfbars any outlet into reality. You see, then, that the libido’s escape under conditions of conflict is made possible by the presence of fixations. The !
regressive cathexis of these fixations leads to the circumvention 1. [Le. the representative in psychical terms of the libido regarded as something somatic.] 2, [That is, a force acting in a sense contrary to the primary instinctual
caeigy.l
the paths to symptom-formation 407
23 .
of the repression and to a discharge (or satisfaction) of the to the conditions of a compromise being ob-
libido, subject
By the roundabout path via die unconscious and the old fixations, the libido finally succeeds in forcing its way through
served.
to real satisfaction though to
one which is extremely restricted
and scarcely recognizable as such. Let me add two comments to this conclusion. First, I should like you to notice how closely
and the unconscious on one side and the ego, and reality on die other are shown to be inter-
here the libido consciousness linked, all.
although to begin with they did not belong together at
And secondly,
I
must ask you to bear
in
mind
that every-
have said about this and what is still to follow relates only to the formation of symptoms in the neurosis of hysteria.
diing I
Where, then, does the
libido find the fixations
which
it
requires in order to break through the repressions? In the activities and experiences of infantile sexuality, in the aban-
doned component trends, in the objects of childhood which is to them, accordingly, that the libido
have been given up. It
The significance of this period of childhood is twofold: on the one hand, during it the instinctual trends which the child has inherited with his innate disposition first become manifest, and secondly, others of his instincts are for the first time awakened and made active by external impressions and accidental experiences. There is no doubt, I think, that we are justified in making this twofold division. The manifestation of die innate disposition is indeed not open to any critical doubts, but analytic experience actually compels us to assume that returns.
purely chance experiences in childhood are able to leave fixations
of the libido behind them.
Nor do
I see
any
dxeoretical
difficulty in this. Constitutional dispositions are also
undoubt-
of experiences by ancestors in the past; they too were once acquired Without such acquisition there would be no heredity. And is it conceivable that acquisition such as this, leading to inheritance, would come to an end precisely with the generation we are considering? The significance of infantile edly after-effects
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
408
as people like experiences should not be totally neglected, the subject’s doLg, in comparison with the experiences of they call for contrary, the on maturity; own his of ancestors and consideration. They are all the more momentous particular
development and because they occur in times of incomplete effects. The traumatic have to liable reason are for that very others have and Roux^ by mechanics developmental studies
on
of a needle into an embryonic germinal a severe disturbance of layer in the act of cell-division results in or fully development. The same injury inflicted on a larval
shown
that the prick
grown animal would do no damage. Thus fixation of the libido in the adult, which we introduced as representing the into the aetiological equation of neurosis purposes, into
constitutional factor [p. 39i]>
two further parts z the inherited constitution and the disposition a diagram is acquired in early childhood. As we all know, So I will students. from reception certain of a sympathetic
•
summarize the position diagrammatically:^ Causation of Neurosis
= Disposition due + Accidental [Adult] to Fixation of
Experience
Libido
(Traumatic)
Infantile Experience
Sexual Constitution (Prehistoric Experience)
The 1,
hereditary sexual constitution presents us with a great
[Wilhelm Roux (1850-1924) was one of the founders of experi-
ment embryology.] 2. [Readers
gentogical
may
find this diagram easier to follow in the
form of a
tree:
Sexual Constitution
+
Infantile Experience
(Prehistoric Experience)
Disposiuon due to Fixation of Libido
+
Accidental [Adult] Experience (Traumatic) ^
,NcurojasJ„;
23.
THE PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION
409
according as one component instinct or combination with others, is inherited in
variety of dispositions,
anodxer, alone or in
The sexual constitution forms once again, with the factor of infantile experience, a ‘complemental series’ exactly similar to the one we first came to know between disposition and the accidental experience of the adult
particular strength.
together
we find the same extreme cases and between the two factors concerned. And the same itself suggests of whether the most striking here the question [p.
392].
In both of them relations
- riiose to earlier stages of the may not be predominantly determined organization
kinds of libidinal regressions sexual
by the hereditary constitutional factor. But it ‘is best to postpone answering this question till we have been able to take a wider range of forms of neurotic iUness into account. Let us dwell now
on the fact that analytic research shows the
libido of neurotics tied to their infantile sexual experiences.
It
thus lends these the appearance of an enormous importance for the life and illness ofhuman beings. They retain this importance
work of therapeutics is concerned. But if we turn away firom that task we can nevertheless easily see that there is a danger here of a misunderstanding which might mislead us into basing our view of life too one-sidedly on the neurotic situation. We must after all subtract firom the undiminished so far as the
importance of infantile experiences the fact that the libido has returned to them regressively, after being driven out of its later
In that case the contrary conclusion becomes very tempting that these hbidinal experiences had no importance
positions.
they occurred but only acquired it regressively. will recall that we have akeady considered a similar
at all at the time
You
alternative in our discussion of the Oedipus complex.[p.
379 f-]*
Once again we shall not find it hard to reach a decision. The assertion that die libidinal cathexis (and therefore the patho-
genic significance)
of the infantile experiences has been largely
by the regression of the libido is imdoubtedly correct, but it would lead to error if we were to regard it alone intensified
GENERAI.
410
as decisive.
THEORY OP THE NEUROSES
Other considerations must be allowed
well.
-^peight as
m .
a manner that place observation shows, experiences have an impor-all doubt, that the infantile
In the excludes
first
already in childhood. tance of their own and give evidence of it the factor of diswhich in neuroses, their have Children too
placement backwards in time is necessarily very much reduced onset of the illness or is even completely absent, since the The study of immediately. experiences follows the traumatic these infantile neuroses protects us firom
more than one
dan*?
gerous misunderstanding of the neuroses of adults, just as the dreams of children gave us the key to an understanding of very common, much adult dreams.’^ Children s neuroses are
commoner than
is
supposed.
They
are often overlooked, re-
of a bad or naughty child, often, too, kept under but they can always be easily recogauthorities; by the nursery appear in the form of anxiety usually They nized in retrospect. garded as signs
hysteria.
We shall learn on a later occasion what that means
below]. If a neurosis breaks out in later life, analysis regularly reveals it as a direct continuation of the infantile ill-
[p.
448
ness
f.
no more than a veiled hint. however, tlicre are cases in which these signs of
which may have emerged
As I have said,
as
neurosis in childhood proceed uninterruptedly into a lifelong have been able to analyse a few examples of these
We
children’s neuroses in childhood itself-
when they were actu-
ally present but far more often we have had to be content with someone who has fallen ill in adult life enabling us to obtain a
deferred insight into his childhood neurosis. In such cases we must not fail to make certain corrections and take certain precautions.
In the second place,
we
must
reflect liiat it
would be
in-
conceivable for the libido to regress so regularly to the period his analysis 1. [See Lecture 8. Freud was no doubt thinking here of of the ‘Wolf Man’ (19186), which he had already completed though it was not yet published.] 2. [C£ the case history of ‘litde Hans’ (19096).]
23 *
the paths to symptom-formation
411
of cbil&ood unless there were somedhing there to exercise an attraction on it. The fixation which we have supposed to be present at particular points in the course of development can only have a meaning if we regard it as consisting in the reten-
of a certain quota of libidinal energy. And finally I may you that between the intensity and pathogenic importance of infantile and oflater experiences a complemental
tion
point out to
we have already disThere are cases in which the whole weight of causation falls on the sexual experiences of childhood, cases in which those impressions exert a definitely traumatic effect and call for no other support than can be afforded them by an average sexual constitution and the fact of its incomplete development. Alongside of these cases there are others in which the whole accent lies on the later conflicts and the emphasis we find in the analysis laid on the impressions of childhood appears entirely as the work of regression. Thus we have extremes of ^developmental inhibition* and ‘regression* and between them every degree of co-operation between the two factors. These facts have a certain interest fiom the point of view of education, which plans the prevention of neuroses by intervening at an early stage in childrens sexual development. So long
relationship exists similar to the series cussed.
one focuses attention principally on infantile sexual experiences, one must suppose that one has done everything for the prophylaxis of nervous illnesses by taking care that the child’s development is delayed and that it is spared experiences of the sort. We already know, however, that the preconditions for the causation of neuroses are complex and cannot be influenced in as
general if tection
we
take account of only a single factor. Strict prois powerless against
of the y oung loses value because it
the constitutional factor. Besides,
it is
than educationists imagine and
it
more difficult to carry out it two firesh
brings with
dangers which must not be underestimated: the fact that it may
much - that it may encourage an excess of sexual repression, wdth damaging results, and the fiict that it may send achieve too
the chil d out into life without
any defence
against the onrudi
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
412
for of sexual demands that is to be looked
at puberty.*
Thus it
prophylaxis in childhood remains extremely doubtful how far an altered attitude whedier and advantage can be carried with a better angle of offer not may to the immediate situation neuroses. approach for die prevention of
symptoms. They aeate a substisatisfaction by means of a regrestute, then, for the frustrated with whicharetum to earher times, earlier to libido sion of the or of the organization is object-choice of stages developmental some time ago that discovered We up. inseparably bound Let us
now go back to
neurotics are anchored
now that it is
the
somewhere
in their past;®
at a period of their past in which their
we know Ubido did
happy. They search not lack satisfaction, in which they were a period of that find they about in the history of their life till when they time the even if they have to go hack as far as sort,
were infants in arms - as they remember it or as they imagine it early from later hints. In some way the symptom repeats this kind of satisfaction, distorted by the censorship arising and from the conflict, turned as a rule to a feeling of suffering,
mingled with elements from die precipitating cause of the ill1. the symptom brings has ness. The kind of satisfaction which much that is strange about it.
We may disregard the fiict that
it is
imrecognizable to the
contrary, feels the alleged satisfaction as transformation is a function sn ffrring and complains of it. This symptom the psychical conflict under pressure of which the
subject,
who, on the
of had to be formed. What was once a satisfaction to the subject is,
bound
to arouse his resistance or his disgust to-day.
but instructive model of this who once eagerly sucked the child same The change of mind. millr from his mother’s breast is likely a few years later to
We
are familiar with a trivial
display a strong dislike to drinking inilk,whichhis upbringing pTetid daborated diis difficulty in Lecture 34 of the New IntroAKtoryLefitores (1933 a), pp. 184-5.] i above.] 2. [See for instance the beginning of Lecture i8, P*' 3 3
23-
THE PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION
413
in overcoming. Hiis dislike increases to disgust on die milk or the drink containing it. We forms if a skin
lias difficulties
cannot exclude the possibility, perhaps, that the skin coiyures up a memory of the mother’s breast, once so ardently desired.
Between the two situations, however, there lies the experience of weaning, with its traumatic effects. something
else besides that makes symptoms seem and incomprehensible as a means of libidinal satisfaction. They do not remind us in the very least of anything from which we are in the habit of normally expecting It is
strange to us
Usually they disregard objects and in so doing can see that this abandon their relation to external reality. is a consequence of turning away from die reality principle and satisfaction.
We
of returning to the pleasure principle. But
it is
also
a return to
a kind of extended auto-erotism, of the sort that offered the
of a change in die substitute change world these a in the subject’s own external act an internal an set in place of external one, an body: they once again, something that adaptation in place of an action sexual instinct its first satisfactions. In place
corresponds,
We
phylogenetically, to a highly significant re-
only understand
this in connection with have still to learn from the analytic researches into the formation of symptoms. We must further remember that the same processes belonging to the unconscious play a part in the formation of symptoms as in the formation of dreams - namely, condensation and displacement. A symptom, like a dream, represents something as fulfilled: a satisfaction in the infantile manner. But by means of extreme condensation that satisfaction can be compressed into a single sensation or innervation, and by means of extreme displacement it can be re-
gression.
something
stricted to
shall
new
that
one small
we
detail
of the entire libidinal complex.
It is
not to be wondered at if we, too, often have difficulty in recognizing in a symptom the libidinal satisfaction whose presence we suspect and which is invariably confirmed. I have warned you that
we still have something new to learn;
GENERAL THEORY OB THE NEUROSES
414
indeed something surprising and perplexing. By means of analysis, as you know, starting from the symptoms, we arrive
it is
at a is
knowledge of the infantile experiences to which the libido and out of which the symptoms are made. Well, the
fixated
from infancy are not always true. Indeed, they are not true in the majority of cases, and in a few of them they are the direct opposite of the his-
surprise lies in the fact that these scenes
As you will see, this discovery is calculated more any other to discredit either analysis, which has led to this result, or the patients, on whose statements the analysis and our whole xmderstanding of the neuroses are founded. But there is something else remarkably perplexing about it. If the mfantile torical truth. tVian
experiences brought to light
by
analysis
were
invariably
we should feel that we were standing on firm ground;
real,
they
were regularly falsified and revealed as inventions, as phantasies of the patient, we should be obliged to abandon this shaky ground and look for salvation elsewhere. But Neither of these things is the case the position can be shown to be that the :
childhood experiences constructed or remembered in analysis
and sometimes equally cercompounded of truth and falsehood. Sometimes, then, symptoms represent events which really took place and to which we may attribute an influence on the fixation of the hbido, and sometimes they represent phantasies of the patient’s which are not, of comrse, suited to playing an aetiological role. It is difficult to find one’s way about in this. We can make a first start, perhaps, with a similar discovery - namely, that the isolated childhood memories that people have possessed consciously firom time immemorial and before there was any such filing as analysis [p. 236 above] may equally be falsified or at least may combine truth and falsehood in plenty. In their case there is seldom any difficulty in showing their incorrectness; so We at least have the reassurance of knowiog that the responsibility for this unexpected disappointment lies, not with analysis, but in some way with the patients. After a little r^ectioa we shall easily understand what it is
are sometimes indisputably false tainly correct,
and in most
cases
THE PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION
23.
415
about this state of things that perplexes us so much. It is the low valuation of reality, the neglect of tie distinction between
and phantasy.
it
We are tempted to feel offended at the patient’s
up our time with invented stories. Reality seems worlds apart from invention, and we set a very something to us on it. Moreover the patient, too, looks at things different value in this light in his normal thinking. When he brings up the material which leads from behind his symptoms to the wishful situations modelled on his infantile experiences, we arc in
having taken
doubt to begin with whether we are dealing with reality or we are enabled by certain indications to come
phantasies. Later,
we are faced by the task of conveying it to the however, invariably gives rise to difficulties. Ifwe begin by telling him straight away that he is now engaged in bringing to light the phantasies with which he has disguised the history of his childhood (just as every nation disguises its forto a decision and patient. This,
gotten preliistory by constructing legends), we observe that his interest in
pursuing the subject further suddenly diminidies in He too wants to experience realities and
an undesirable fashion. despises
everything that is merely ‘imaginary’. If, however, we
leave him,
till
this piece
ofwork is finished, in the belief that we
are occupied in investigating the real events
we nm
of his childhood,
the risk of his later on accusing us of beiag mistaken and
laughing at us for our apparent credulity.
It
will be a lor^ time
before he can take in our proposal that we should equate phantasy and reality and not bother to begin with whether the childhood experiences under examination are the one or the other.
Yet
this is clearly
these It
the only correct attitude to adopt towards
mental productions. They too possess a
reality
of a
sort.
remains a fact that the patient has created these phantasies
for himself,
and
this fact is
neurosis than if he contain.
The
had
of scarcely
less
really experienced
importance for his
what the phantasies
phantasies possess psychical as contrasted with
material reality,
and we gradually learn to imderstand that in the
world of the neuroses
it is
psychical reality which
is the decisive kind.
general theory oe the neuroses
4i6
Among the occurrences which recur again and again in the - which are scarcely ever absent - there are a few of particular importance, which also deserve on that account, I diink, to be brought into greater prominence than the rest. As specimens of this class I will enumerate these: observation of parental intercourse, seduction by an adult and threat of being castrated. It would be a mistake to suppose that they are never characterized by material reality; on the conyouthful history of neurotics
trary, this is often established incontestably through inquiries from older members of the patient’s family. It is by no means a
who is beginning to way and is not yet aware that
rare thing, for instance, for a little boy,
play with his penis in a naughty
one must conceal such activities, to be tlireatened by a parent or nurse vwth having his penis or his sinful hand cut off. Parents will often admit this when they are asked, since they think they have done something useful in making such a threat; a number of people have a correct conscious memory of such a threat, especially if it was made at a somewhat later period. If the threat is delivered by the mother or some other female she usually shifts its performance on to the father - or the doctor. StmwwelpeteTy^ i^^ famous work of the Frankfurt paediatrician Hoffmann (which owes its popularity precisely to an understanding of the sexual and other complexes of childhood),
M
you
will find castration softened into a cutting-off
of the punishment for obstinate sucking. But it is highly improbable fiiat children are threatened with castration as often as it appears in the analyses ofneurotics. shall be satisfied by
thumbs
as a
We
of diis kind together in his imagination on the basis of hints, helped out by a knowledge that auto-erotic satisfaction is forbidden and under the impression of his discovery of the female genitals. [C£ p, 3 59 above.]
realizing that the child puts a threat
Nor is it only in proletarian families that it is perfectly possible for a child, while he
understanding or a
between sibility
is
not yet credited with possessing an to be a witness of the sexual act
memory,
his parents or other grown-up people; and the poscaimot be rejected tha he will be able to understand
23 -
the PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION
417
and react to die impression in retrospea. I£ however, the intercourse is described with the most minute details, which woidd he difEcult to observe, or if, as happens most frequently, it turns out to have been intercourse from behind, more ferarum
manner of animals], there can be no remaining doubt that the phantasy is based on an observation of intercourse between animals (such as dogs) and that its motive was the [in
the
child’s unsatisfied
achievement
on
scopophilia during puberty.
these lines
The extreme
a phantasy of observing parental
is
while one is still an unborn baby in the womb. of being seduced are of particular interest, because so often diey are not phantasies but real-memories. Fortunately, intercourse
Phantasies
however, they are nevertheless not real as often as seemed at first to be shown by the findings of analysis. Seduction by an older child or by one
ofthe same age is even more frequent than of girls who produce such an hy of their childhood story their father figures fairly event in the regularly as the seducer, there can be no doubt either of the imaginary nature of the accusation or of the motive that has led to it.* A phantasy of being seduced when no seduction has occurred is usually employed by a child to screen the autoerotic period of his sexual activity. He spares himself shame an adult;
and
if in the case
about masturbation
by
retrospectively phantasying a desired
object into these earliest times. that sexual
You must not suppose, however,
abuse of a child by
its
nearest
male
relatives be-
Most analysts will have were real and cOuld be
longs entirely to the realm of phantasy.
treated cases in which such events unimpeachably established; but even so they related to the later
years
of dbildhood and had been transposed into
earlier
times.
The only impression we gain is that these events ofchildhood demanded as a necessity, that they are among the essential elements of a neurosis. If they have occurred in reality, somuchto the good; but if they have been withheld by reahty, are somehow
I.
[Freud has
more
to say
on
this subject in .Lecture
Introductory Lectures{i933a), p. 154.]
33 in die
New
general theory op the neuroses
4 i8
put together from hints and supplemented by phanThe outcome is the same, and up to the present we have
tliey are tasy*
not succeeded in pointing to any diifFerence in the consequences, whether phantasy or reality has had the greater share in these events of childhood. Here we simply have once again one of the
complemental relations diat I have so often mentioned; moreover it is the strangest of all we have met with. Whence comes the need for these phantasies and the material for
them? There can be no doubt that their sources lie in the instincts; but it has still to be explained why the same phantasies with the same content are created on every occasion. I am prepared with an answer which
I
know will seem daring to you.
primal phantasies, as I should like to call
I
believe these
them, and no doubt a
experience at
endowment. In them the beyond his own experience into primaeval points where his own experience has been too
rudimentary.
It
are a phylogenetic
few others as well, individual reaches
seems to
me
quite possible that
all
the things
that are told to us today in analysis as phantasy - the seduction
of children, the inflaming of sexual excitement by observing of castration (or rather castration itself) - were once real occurrences in the primaev4 times of the humanfamily, and that children in their phantasies
parental intercourse, the threat
are simply filling in the gaps in individual truth vdth prehistoric truth. I have repeatedly been led to suspect that the psychology
of the neuroses has stored up in it more of the human development than any other sourced
The
antiquities
things I have just been discussing. Gentlemen,
of
compel
me to enter more closely into the origin and significance of the mental activity which tion’].* I.
As you
is
described as "phantasy' [or ‘imagina-
are aware,
[This discussion
it
eiyoys a univers^y high reputa-
of ‘primal phantasies* and the
possibility
of their
being inherited was based to a considerable extent on Freud*s findings
m his ‘Wolf Mm* case history a.
prend’s main
‘Creative tasies
and
(ipiSfc).]
of phantasy wH! be found in Wnters and Day-Dreaming* (1908c) and ‘Hysterical Phanearlier discussions
their Relation to
BisexuaMty * (i9o8a).l
23-
THE PATHS TO SYMPTOM-FORMATION
419
without its position in mental life having become clear. following remarks to make about it. The human ego I have the slowly educated by the pressure of external as you know, tion,
is,
reality necessity to ap|)reciate in the course
of this process
and obey the
it is
reality principle;
obliged to renounce, tempor-
permanently, a variety of the objects and aims at arily or striving for pleasure, and not only for sexual pleasure, its which
B
But
directed.
pleasure;
men
have always foimd
it
hard to renounce
diey caimot bring themselves to do
kind of compensation. activity in
which
all
They have
these
it
without some
therefore retained a mental
abandoned sources of pleasure and
methods of achieving pleasure are granted a further existence _ a form of existence in which they are left free from the claims of reality and of what we form takes before long the
call ‘reality-testing’.*
there
is
no doubt
of
diat dwelling
Every
desire
own
fulfilment;
upon imaginary
wish-fulfil-
picturing
its
it does not interfere ments brings satisfaction with it, although is concerned is not real. Thus in the what that knowledge with a of phantasy human beings continue to enjoy the free-
activity
dom from
external compulsion
which they have long
They have
since
contrived to alternate be-
renounced in reality. and being once more a tween remaining an animal of pleasure subsist on the scanty cannot they aeature of reason. Indeed, from reality. ‘We simply which diey can extort satisfaction
cannot
auxiliary constructions’,
do without
as
Theodor
p^-
realm of Fontane once said.* The creation of the mental ‘ the establishment of reservations’ tasy finds a perfect parallel in the requirements ofagriculor ‘naturereserves’ in places where communications and industry threaten to bring about ture,
which will quickly make chaises in the original face ofthe earth its original state preserves reserve nature it unreco^zable. sacrificed to been regret our has to
A
whidi everywhere
else
necessity. Everything,
nosdous, can 1. [I.e.
including what is useless and even wl^is
grow and
proliferate there as it pleases.
The
real or not] the process of judging whedier things are
x\h.)mnoY
420
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
mental realm of phantasy
is just
such a reservation withdrawn
iSrom the reality principle.
The best-known productions of phantasy ‘day-dreams',
imagined
which
are the so-called
we
satisfactions
have already come across [p* 127], of ambitious, megalomanic, erotic
wishes, which flourish all the more exuberantly the
more reality
modesty and restraint. The essence of the happiness of phantasy - making the obtaining of pleasure free once more from the assent of reality - is shown in them unmistakably. We know that such day-dreams are the nucleus and prototype of night-dreams. A night-dream is at bottom nothing other than a day-dream that has been made utilizable owing to the liberation of the instinctual impulses at night, and that has been distorted by the form assumed by mental activity at night. We have already become familiar with the idea that even a daydream is not necessarily conscious -• that there are unconscious day-dreams, as well [p. 415]. Such unconscious day-dreams are thus the source not only of night-dreams but also of neurotic symptoms. The importance of the part played by phantasy in the formation of symptoms will be made clear to you by what I have to tell you. I have explained [p. 405] how in the case of frustration the Hbido cathects regressively the positions which it has given up but to which some quotas of it have remained adhering. I shall not withdraw this or correct it, but I have to insert a counsels
connecting link. How does the libido find its way to these points
of fixation? All the objects and trends which the libido has given up have not yet been given up in every sense. They or their derivatives are
phantasies. tasies
Thus the
still
retained with a certain intensity in
libido
need only withdraw on to phanopen to every repressed fixation.
in order to find the path
These phantasies have enjoyed a certain amount of toleration: they have not come into conflict with the ego, however sharp
them may have been, so long as a parThis con6iuon is o£ ql quantitative nature and it is now upset by the backward flow of libido on to the contrasts between
ticular condition is observed.
the paths to symptom-formation
23.
As
the phantasies.
of the phantasies
421
a result of this surplus, the energic cathexis so much increased that they begin to raise
is
they develop a pressure in the direction of becoming realized. But this makes a conflict between them and the ego inevitable. Whether they were previously preconscious or conscious, they are now subjected to repression from the direcclaims, that
tion
of the ego and are at the mercy of attraction from the
of the unconscious. From what are now unconscious back to their origins in the unconscious - to its own points of fixation. direction
phantasies the libido travels
The
libido’s retreat to
phantasy
is
an intermediate stage on
the path to the formation of symptoms and it seems to
call for
a
special name. C. G. Jung coined the very appropriate one of ‘introversion’, but then most inexpediently gave it another
We
will continue to take it that introversion meaning as well.* denotes the turning away of the libido from the possibilities of real satisfaction
and the hypercathexis* of
have hitherto been tolerated as innocent. yet a neurotic,
develop
but he
symptoms
is
introvert
in an unstable situation: he
at the
next
some other outlets for his
shift
which
phantasies
An
is
is
not
sure to
of forces, unless he finds
dammed-up
libido.
The
unreal
character of neurotic satisfaction and the neglect of the distinction
already
between phantasy and reality are on the other hand determined by the fact of lingering at the stage of
introversion.
You will no doubt have observed that in these last discussions I
have introduced a fresh factor into the structure of the aetio-
logical
chain
- namely
energies concerned.
everywhere.
A
the quantity, the magnitude, of the
We have
still
to take diis factor into account
purely qualitative analysis of the aetiological
not enough. Or, to put it another way, a merely dynamic view of these mental processes is insufficient; an economk lhxc of approach is also needed. We must tell ourselves determinants
1. it
is
"who introduced the term in 1910, at one stage applied dementia praecox. (Cf. Jung, 1911-12).] charging with an extra amount of psychical energy.]
exclusively to a. [Le.
GENERAL THEORY OP THE NEUROSES
423
between two trends does not break out till of cathexis have been reached, even though it have long been present so far as their for determinants the In the same way, the pathogenic concerned. is subject-matter factors must be weighed constitutional the significance of one of component instinct than of according to how much more
that the conflict
certain intensities
is present in the inherited disposition. It may even be supposed that the disposition of all human beings is qualitatively alike and that they differ only owing to these quantitative
another
conditions.
The quantitative factor is no less decisive
capacity to resist neurotic
illness. It is
as regards
a matter of what quota of
unemployed libido a person is able to hold in suspension and of how large a fraction of his libido he is able to divert from sexual to sublimated aims. The ultimate aim of mental activity, which may be described qualitatively as an endeavour to obtain pleasure and avoid unpleasure, emerges, looked at from the economic point of view, as the task of mastering the amounts of excitation (mass of stimuli) operating in the mental apparatus and of keeping down their accumulation which creates unpleasure.^
This, then,
is
what I wanted
to
tell
you about the formation
of symptoms in the neuroses. But I must not fail to lay emphasis expressly once again on the fact that everything I have said here applies only to the formation of symptoms in hysteria.
Even in obsessional neurosis there is much - apart from fundamentals, which remain unaltered - that will be found different. The anticathexes opposing the demands of the instincts (which we have already spoken of in the case of hysteria as well [p. 406]) become prominent in obsessional neurosis and dominate the clinical picture in the form of what are known as ‘reactionI.
[Here Freud appears to be equating the ‘pleasure principle* and though in the earlier passage above (p.
‘tbe principle of constancy*,
403 £), where this subject this.
At
a later date he
is
touched on, there is a hint at a doubt about
drew a
clear distinction
‘The Econonaic Probleni of Masochisni*
between the two :
(1924^).!
see
23 -
THE BATHS TO SYMBTOM-EOHMATIOH
formations*.
423
We discover similar and even more far-reacliuig
divergences in the other neuroses,
where our researches into of symptom-formation mechanisms are not yet concluded the at
any point.
you go
to-day, however, I should like to direct little longer to a side of the life of phantasy a your attention the most general interest. For there is a path which deserves
Before
that leads art.
An
I let
back from phantasy to reality - the path, that is, of once more in rudiments an introvert, not far
artist is
removed from neurosis.
He is oppressed by excessively power-
He desires to win honour, power, wealth, fame and the love of women but he lacks the means for achievful instinctual
needs.
;
ing these satisfactions. Consequently, like
any other unsatisfied
man, he turns away from reality and transfers all his interest, and his libido too, to the wishful constructions of his life of
whence the path might lead to neurosis. There must no doubt, a convergence of all kinds of things if this is not to be the complete outcome of his development; it is well known, indeed, how often artists in particiilar suffer from a partial inhibition of their efficiency owing to neurosis. Their constitution probably includes a strong capacity for sublimation and a certain degree of laxity in the repressions which are decisive for a conflict. An artist, however, finds a path back to reality in the following manner. To be sure, he is not die only phantasy, be,
one who lead a
of phantasy. Access to the half-way region of phantasy is permitted by the universal assent of mankind, and everyone suffering from privation expects to derive alleviation and consolation from it. But for those who are not artists the yield of pleasure to be derived from the sources of phantasy is very limited. The ruthlessness of their repressions forces them life
to be content with such meagre day-dreams as are allowed to become conscious. A man who is a true artist has more at his disposal. In the first place, he understands how to work over his day-dreams in such a way as to make them lose what is too personal about them and repels strangers, and to make it possible
424
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
for others to share in the too,
enjoyment of them.
He understands,
how to tone them down so that they do not easily betray
Furthermore, he possesses particular material until some shaping of power die mysterious phantasy; and he knows, of his image faithful it has become a pleasure yield of to this reprea large so moreover, how to link
their origin from proscribed sources.
sentation of his unconscious phantasy that, for the time being
outweighed and lifted by it. If he is able to accomplish all this, he makes it possible for other people once more to derive consolation and alleviation from their own sources of pleasure in their unconscious which have become inaccessible to them; he earns their gratitude and admiration
at least, repressions are
and he has thus achieved through his phantasy what originally he had achieved only in his phantasy - honour, power and the love of women.
LECTURE 24
THE
COMMON NEUROTIC
and GENTtSMEN, — Nowthatwehavedisposedof
Ladies
such a difficult piece for a
of work
in our last discussions, I propose
time to leave the subject and turn to
For
STATE
am
I
aware
tliat
you
‘Introduction to Psychoanalysis’
expected to hear
were
you yourselves.
are dissatisfied.
very
You
pictured an
differently.
What you
lively examples, not theory.
On
one
you say, when I told you the parable of ‘In the Baseon the First Floor’ [p. 398], you grasped something and ment of the way in which neuroses are caused; the observations should have been real ones, however, and not made-up stories. Or when at the start I described two symptoms to you (not occasion,
invented ones this time, let us hope)
and their relation to the
and described
their solu-
patients’ lives [p.
300 ff.], the ‘sense’ of symptoms dawned on you. You hoped I should go on along those lines. But instead I gave you long-winded tion
theories,
hard to grasp, which were never complete but were
always having something fresh added to them;
worked with concepts which I had not yet explained to you; I went firom a descriptive accoimt of things to a dynamic one and from that to what I called an ‘economic’ one; I made it hard for you to understand how many of the technical terms I used meant the same thing and were merely being interchanged for reasons of euphony; I brought up such far-reaching conceptions as those of the pleasure and reality principles and of phylogenetically inlierited endowments; and, far firom introducing you to anything, I
I
paraded something before your eyes which constantly
grew more and more remote from you. Why did I not begin my introduction to the theory of neuroses with what you yourselves know of the neurotic state and what has long aroused your interest - with the peculiar tharacteristics
of neurotic
people, their incomprehensible
GENERAL THEORY OB THE NEUROSES
426
reactions to
human intercourse and
irritability, their incalculable
external influences, their
and inexpedient behaviour? Why
not lead you step by step firom an understanding of the simpler, everyday forms of the neurotic state to the problems of its enigmatic, extreme manifestations? did
I
Indeed, Gentlemen, I cannot even disagree with you. I am skill in exposition that I can declare not so enamoured of
my
each of its that
it
artistic faults to
be a peculiar charm. I think myself to your advantage if I had pro-
might have been more
ceeded otherwise ; and that was, indeed, my intention. But one cannot always carry out one’s reasonable intentions. There is often
sometWng
in the material itself
which
takes charge of
one and diverts one from one’s first intentions. Even such a trivial achievement as the arrangement of a familiar piece of material is not entirely subject to an author’s own choice; it takes what line it likes and all one can do is to ask oneself after the event why it has happened in this way and no other.
One reason is probably that the title analysis’ is
no
‘
Introduction to Psycho-
longer applicable to the present section, which
supposed to deal with the neuroses. An introduction to psychoanalysis is provided by the study of parapraxes and
is
dreams; the theory of the neuroses
]
}
is
psychoanalysis
itself. It
have been possible to give you a knowledge of the subject-matter of the theory of the neuroses in so short a time except in this concentrated form. It was a question
would not,
I believe,
of presenting you with a connected account of the sense and significance of symptoms and of die external and internal determinants and mechanism of their formation. That is what I have tried to do; it is more or less the nucleus of what psychoanalysis has to teach today. It
about the libido and
involved saying a great deal
development and a little, too, about that of the ego. Our introduction had already prepared you in advance for the premisses of our technique and for the major considerations of the imconscious and of repression (of resistance). You will discover from one of the next lectures its
[Lecture 26] the points
from which the work ofpsychoanalysis
34 ntolfffi its
*
the
common neurotic
state
427
further organic advance. For the time being I have
made no
secret of the
ftom the
study of a
faa that everything I have said is derived group of nervous disorders - what
single
termed the ‘transference neuroses’. Indeed, I have traced mechanism of symptom-formation in the case only of the hysterical neurosis. Even if you have acquired no thorough knowledge and have not retained every detail, yet I hope that you have formed some picture of the methods by which psychoanalysis works, of Ae problems which it attacks and of are
the
the results at
which it has arrived.
I have credited
you with a wish that I might have.started my
of the neuroses firom the behaviour of neurotic from an account of the manner in which they suffer under their neurosis, of how they defend themselves j^ainst it and how they come to terms with it. No doubt that is an interesting topic, worth investigating ; nor would it be very difficult to handle. But it would be of debatable wisdom to start with it. There would be a risk of not discovering the unconscious and at the same time of overloo^g the great importance of the hbido and ofjudging everything as it appears to the ego desaiption
people,
of the neurotic subject.
It is
obvious that this ego is not a trust-
worthy or impartial agency. The ego is indeed die power whidi disavows the unconscious and has d^aded it into being re-
how can we trust it to be fair to the unconscious? The most prominent elements in what is thus repressed are the repudiated demands ofsexuaHty, and itis quite self-evident that we should never be able to guess their extent and importance from the ego’s conceptions. From the mommit the notion ofrepression dawns on us, we are warned against making one of die pressed; so
two contesting parties (and the victorious one, at diat) into being judge in the dispute. are prepared to find that the
We
ego’s assertions will lead us astray. If
we are to believe the ego,
was active at every point and itself willed and created its symptoms. But we know that it puts up with a good amovmt of passivity, whichit afterwards tries to disguise and gloss over. It it
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
428 is
true
the
tliat it
does not always venture
symptoms
on such an
attempt; in
obliged to admit that confronting it and against
of obsessional neurosis
it is
something alien which is which it can only defend itself with difficulty. Anyone whom these warnings do not deter from taking the ego’s counterfeits as sterling coin will have an easy time of it and will avoid all the resistances which oppose the psychoanalytic there
is
emphasis upon the unconscious, sexuality and the passivity of He will be able to declare like Alfred Adler that the
the ego.
‘neurotic character’^
is .the
cause of neuroses instead of their
consequence; but neither will he be in a position to explain a single detail of symptom-formation or a single dream.
You will ask whether it may not be possible, however, to do by the ego in neurotic states and in the formation of symptoms without at the same time grossly neglecting the factors revealed by psychoanalysis. My reply is
justice to the part played
that that
must
certainly be possible
and will sooner or later be
done; but the road followed by the work ofpsychoanalysis does not admit of actually beginning with this. It is of course possible to foresee
when psychoanalysis will be confronted by this task.
are neuroses in which the ego plays a far more intensive There 1. part than in those we have studied hitherto; we call them the ‘narcissistic’ neuroses. The investigation of these disorders
form an impartial and trustworthy judgement of the share taken by the ego in the onset of neuro'es,*
will enable us to
One ofthe ways in which the ego is related to its neuroses is, however, so obvious that it was possible to take it into account from the first. It seems never to be absent; but it is most clearly recognizable in a disorder
which
we are even
today
far
from
understanding - traumatic neurosis. For you must know that the
same
factors always
come
into operation in the causation and
[Vber den nervosen Charakter (1912) was the title of one of Adler’s works. The title of its English translation is The Neurotic Con-
earlier
sHtution.] 2.
[Freud deals fiirth^ with this in Lecture 26 below.]
24-
the
common neurotic
state
429
of every possible form of neurosis; but die chief construction of the symptoms falls now upon •mportance in the upon another of these factors. The position is like one and now the members of a theatrical company. Each of them
m.echanis’®
^tamong is
regularly, cast
for his
own stock role - hero, confidant, vil-
will choose a different piece and so on; but each of them performance. In the same way phantasies which for his benefit symptoms are nowhere more obvious than inhysteria;
lain,
tuminto
or reaction-formations of the ego dominate the obsessional neurosis; what in the case of dreams we
the anticathexes
picture in
revision’ [p. 216 £] stands in the foreof delusions, and so on. shape the in front in paranoia
bve termed ‘secondary
particularly in those brought Thus in traumatic neuroses, and are unmistakably presented we of war, about by the horrors part of the ego, seeking for the motive on with a self-interested advantage - a motive which cannot, perhap, protection
and
by itself but which assents to it and maintains motive tries to preserve it has come about. This it when once
aeate the illness
threat of which was the preego fiom the dangers the and it will not allow recovery to cipitating cause of the illness these dangers seems no longer occur until a repetition of compensation has been received for the danger
the
possible
or until
that has
been endured.
m the development .
,
,
1
The ego takes a similar interest, however, in every other case. I have and maintenance of the neurosis symptoms are supported by t^ already shown [p. 405] that they offer satasbecause they have a side with which ego, too,
fiiction to
Moreover, settlmg the repressing purpose of the ego. conyement constructing a symptom is the most
by way out and the one most agreeable the conflict
it
to the pleasure prmaple:
ainount of mtemal unquestionably spares the ego a large there are cases which is felt as distressing. _Indeed
m
work
that for a conmet to en which even the physician must admit tolera e so ution. socially and in neurosis is the most harmless may the p ysician You must not be surprised to hear that even is not It combating. he is occasionally take the side
of the illness
430
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
his business to restrict himself in
every situation in life to being
a fanatic in favour of health. He knows that there is not only neurotic misery in the world but real, irremovable suffering as
may
even require a person to sacrifice his a sacrifice of this kind made by a single person can prevent immeasurable unhappiness for many
well, that necessity
health; and
others. If
he
learns
Aat
we may say, then,
diat
whenever a neurotic is faced
by a conflict he takes ‘flight into illness’, yet we must allow that in some cases that flight is fully justified, and a physician who has recognized
how
the situation Hes will silently and
solicit-
ously withdraw.
But let us disregard these exceptional cases and proceed with our discussion. In average circumstances we recognize that by escaping into a neurosis the ego obtains a certain internal ‘gain firom illness*. In some circumstances oflife this is further accom-
panied by an appreciable external advantage bearing a greater or
less real
sort.
value. Consider the
commonest example of
this
A woman who is roughly treated and ruthlessly exploited
by her husband will fairly regularly find a way out in neurosis, makes
too cowardly or too moral to console herself secretly with another man, if she is
if her constitution
it
possible, if she
is
not strong enough to separate from her husband in the face of every external deterrent, if she has no prospect of supporting
husband and if in addition she is by her sexual feelings. Her illness now becomes a weapon in her battle with her dominating husband - a weapon which she can use for her defence and misuse for her revenge. To complain of her illness is allowable, though to lament her marriage was probably not. She finds a
herself or obtaining a better still
attached to this brutal husband
helper in her doctor, she forces her usually inconsiderate hus-
band to look after her, to spend money on her, to allow her at times to be away firom home and so firee firom her married oppression. When an external or accidental gain firom illness like this is really considerable and no real substitute for it is available, you must not reckon very high the chances of influencing
Ae neuroas by yotur treatment.
24-
the
common nbusotic
state
431
You will now
protest that what I have told you about the from ilbess argues entirely in frvour of the view I have rejected - that the ego itself wills and creates the neurosis* Not too fast. Gentlemen! It may perhaps mean noth[p. 427]. ing more than that the ego puts up with the neurosis, which it cannot, after all, prevent, and that it makes the best of it, if anything can be made of it at all. That is only one side of the gain
it is true. So fer as the neurosis has ego no doubt accepts it; but it does not only have advantages. As a rule it soon turns out that the ego Im made a bad bargain by letting itself in for the neurosis. It has paid too dearly for an alleviation of the conflict, and the to the symptoms are perhaps an equivalent jnffprings attached torments of the conflict, but they probably the for substitute implcasure. in The ego would like to free increase involve an itself from this unpleasure of the symptoms without giving up the gain from illness, and this isjust what it cannot athieve. Thfr shows, then, that it was not so entirely active as it bought it was; and we shall bear this well in mind. In your contact as doctors with neurotics, Gentlemen, you will soon give up expecting that the ones who raise the most lamentations and complaints about their illness will be the most eagCT to co-operate and will offer you the least resistance. It is raber be opponte. But of course you will easily realize that everything bat contributes to be gain from illness will intenresistance due to repression and will increase be therapeutic difiSculties. But to be portion of gain from illness which is, so to say, bom wib be illness we have to add anober portion which arises later. When a psychical organi2ation like an illness has lasted for some time, it behaves eventually like an
business,
the pleasant side,
advantages the
^^
independent organism;
it
manifests something like a
self-
preservative instinct; it establibes a kind o£ tnoius vivendi between itself and ober parts of be mind, even wib bose whib are at bottom hostile to it; and bere can scarcely frilto be
occanons
when it proves once again useful and expebent and
acquires, as it
were, a secondary junction
vrlusix
strengbens
its
^
GENERAL THEORY OB THE NEUROSES
432
.
Stability afresh. Instead
m
of an example from pathology, let A capable working-man, crippled by an accident in the course of
take a glaring instance from daily life.
who earns his living, is his occupation.
The
injured
man
can no longer work, but
eventually he obtains a small disablement pension, and he learns
by begging. His new, though is based precisely on the very thing that deprived him of his former means of livelihood. If you could put an end to his injury you would make him, to begin with, without means of subsistence; the question would arise of whether he was still capable of taking up his earlier work again. What corresponds in the case of neuroses to a
how
to exploit his mutilation
worsened, means of livelihood
secondary exploitation like this of an illness may be described as the secondary gain from illness in contrast to the primary one.* In general, however,
I
should like to recommend
that,
while
not under-estimating the practical importance of the gain from illness, you should not let yourselves be impressed by it theoretically. After all, apart from the [p.
429
f.], it
always
calls to
intelligence^ illustrated
exceptions I recognized earlier
mind
the examples of ‘animal
by Oberlander in
Fliegende Blatter
An
narrow path cut in the steep face of a mountain. At a turn in the path he suddenly found himself face to face with a lion, which prepared to make a spring. He saw no way out: on one side a perpendicular cliff and on the other a precipice; retreat and flight were impossible. He gave himself up for lost. But the animal thought otherwise. He took one leap with his rider into the abyss - and the lion was left in the lurch. The help provided by a neurosis has as a rule no better success with the patient. This may be because dealing with a conflict by forming symptoms is after all an auto-
Arab was riding his camel along
1.
[The question of the gain from
a
illness
had been discussed
at
some
length in the ‘Dora’ case history (19056) about the middle of the first chapter, where an a long footnote, added in 1923, Freud corrects his
own earlier analysis and gives what the matter, Cf. P,FX., S, 75-6 «.] 2. [See footnote,
54.^
is
probably the clearest account of
24. THE
COMMON NEUROTIC
STATE
433
matic process which cannot prove adequate to meeting the demands of life, and in which the subject has abandoned the use of his best
would be
and highest powers. If there were a choice, it go down in an honourable struggle
preferable to
with fate.
But I still owe you further enlightenment, Gentlemen, on my reasons for not starting my account of the theory ofthe neuroses
with the common neurotic state. You may perhaps suppose that it was because in that case I should have had greater difficulty in proving the sexual causation of the neuroses. But you would be wrong there. In the case of the transference neuroses one must work one’s way through the interpretation of symptoms before one can arrive at that discovery. In the common forms of what are
known
significance
of sexual
as the ‘actual neuroses’* the aetiological life is
a crude fact that springs to the
more than twenty
observer’s eyes. I
came upon
when one day
asked myself the question of
I
it
examination of neurotics their sexual larly
in the
were so regu-
excluded from consideration. At that time I sacrificed
popularity with after
activities
years ago
why
my
only a brief effort I was able to declare that
sexualis is
my
patients for the sake of these inquiries ; but
normal, there can be no neurosis’
‘if the vita
- and by
this I
meant no ‘actual neurosis’.* No doubt this statement passes too lightly
over people’s individual differences;
the indefiniteness inseparable
‘normal’.
But as a rough guide it
I had by then reached the point 1. [^Aktualneurose
it suffers,
too, firom
from the judgement of what
is
retains its value to this day.
of establishing specific relations
t* *Akiual\ like the French *actuel\ has the sense
of
‘contemporary*, *of the present moment*. The epithet is applied to this group of neuroses because their causes are purely contemporary and do not, as in the case of the psychoneuroses, have their origin in the patient*s past life. ‘Actual neuroses* is the accepted translationj 2. [This is quoted from a paper on sexuality in the aetiology of the neuroses (1906^1). Ircud had already expressed the same opinion much earlier: see
follows
is
a paper on anxiety neurosis (18956), where rduch of what
already to be found.]
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
434
between particular forms of neurosis and particular sexual noxae; and I have no doubt that I could repeat the same observations today if similar pathological material were at
stiU
my disposal I found often enough that a man who indulged in
a certain kind of incomplete sexual satisfaction (for instance, manual masturbation) had fallen ill of a particular form of *
actual neurosis \
another
and that this neurosis promptly gave place to
if he replaced this sexual regime
by another
equally far
ftom being irreproachable. I was then in a position to change in a
patient’s sexual
mode of life from an
infer the
alteration in
by my had overcome the patients’ disingenuousness and compelled them to confirm my views. It is true that thereafter they preferred to go to other doctors who did not make such keen inquiries about their sexual life. Even at that time I could not fail to notice that the causation of the illness did not always point to sexual life. One person, it was true, fell ill directly from a sexual noxa; but another did so because he had lost his fortune or had been through an exhausting organic illness. The explanation of these varieties came later, when we gained an insight into the suspected interrelations between the ego and the libido, and the explanation be-
his condition. I also learnt then to stand obstinately
suspicions
till I
came the more satisfactory the deeper that insight extended.
A
person only falls ill ofa neurosis ifhis ego has lost the capacity to allocate his libido in
some way. The stronger
is
his ego, the
Any weakening of his ego from whatever cause must have the same effect as an excessive increase in the claims of the libido and will thus make it possible for him to fall ill of a neurosis. There are other and more intimate relations betweai the ego and the libido:^ but these have not yet come within our scope, so I will not bring them up as part of my present explanation. What retrains essential and makes things clear to us is diat, in every case and no
easier will it
be for
it
to carry out that task.
matter how the illness is set goii^, the symptoms of the neurosis I.
pMo doubt an
allusion to the subject
discussed in Lecture 26.]
of
iiarcissism,
which
is
34.
common neurotic
the
state
435
by die libido and are consequently evidence that employed abnormally. it is being I must draw your attention to the decisive Now, however, difference between the symptoms of the * actual’ neuroses and are sustained
those of the psychoneuroses, the first group of which, the tranS“ ference neuroses, have occupied us so
much
hitherto. In
both
symptoms originate from the libido, and are thus abnormal employments of it, substitutive satisfactions. But the symptoms of the actual neuroses - intracranial pressure, sensacases the
‘
tions
of pain, a
’
state
of irritation in an organ, weakening or - have no ‘sense’, no psychical mean-
inhibition of a function ing,
They are not only
(as are hysterical
manifested predominantly in the
symptoms, for
body
instance, as well), but they are
also themselves entirely somatic processes, in the generating
which
all
the complicated mental mechanisms
of
we have come
know are absent. Thus they really are 'what psychoneurotic symptoms were so long believed to be. But if so, how can they correspond to employments ofthe libido, which we have recogto
nized as a force operating in the mindl Well, Gentlemen, that
me remind you of one of the very were brought up against psychoanalysis. It was said then that it was occupied in finding a purely psychological theory of neurotic phenomena and this was quite hope^ less, since psychological theories could never explain an illness. People had chosen to forget that the sexual function is not a purely psychical thing any more than it is a purely somatic one. It influences bodily and mental life alike. If in the symptoms of the psychoneuroses we have become acquainted with manifestations of disturbances in the psychical operation of the sexual is
a very simple matter. Let
first
objections that
function,
we
shall
not be surprised to find in the ‘actual’
neuroses the direct somatic consequences of sexual disturbance.
an and one that has been
Clinical medicine has given us a valuable pointer towards
interpretation
of
these disturbance,
taken into account by various inquirers. in the details
The ‘actual’ neurose,
of their symptoms and also
in their characteristic
ofinfluencing every organic system and every function, exhibit
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
436
an unmistakable resemblance to the pathological
states
which
from the chronic influence of external toxic substances and from a sudden withdrawal of them - to intoxications and conditions of abstinence* The two groups of disorders are brought arise
together
still
more
closely
by intermediate
conditions such
as
Graves’ disease which we have learnt to recognize as equally due to the operation of toxic substances, but of toxins which are not introduced into the body from outside but originate in the subject’s own metabolism. In view of these analogies, we cannot,
I
think, avoid regarding the neuroses as results of
disturbances in the sexual metabolism, whether because more of tliese
sexual toxins is produced than the subject can deal with, or
whether because internal and even psychical conditions restrict the proper employment of these substances. The popular mind
from time immemorial paid homage to hypotheses of this kind on the nature of sexual desire, speaking of love as an intoxication ’ and believing that falling in love is brought about by love-philtres - though here the operative agent is to some extent externalized. And for us this would be an occasion for recalling the erotogenic zones and our assertion that sexual excitation can be generated in the most various organs [p. 366]. But for the rest the phrase ‘sexual metabolism’ or ‘chemistry of sexuality’ is a term without content; we know nothing about it and cannot even decide whether we are to assume two sexual substances, which would then be named ‘male’ and ‘female’,* or whether we could be satisfied with one sexual toxin which we should have to recognize as the vehicle of all the stimulant effects of the libido. The theoretical structure of psychoanalysis that we have created is in truth a superstructure, which will one day have to be set upon its organic foundation. But we are still ignorant of this. What characterizes psychoanalysis as a science is not the material which it handles but the technique with whidh it works. It can be applied to the history of civilization, to the has
‘
i. [In the
New Introductory Lectures
rgects such a notion.]
(1933a), p. 165
f,
Freud strongly
^
24 the .
common neurotic
state
437
and to mythology, no less than to the theory of the neuroses, without doing violence to its essential nature. What it aims at and achieves is nothing other than the unscience of religion
covering of what is unconscious in mental life.
The problems of
the-actuaT neuroses, whose symptoms are probably generated
by
damage, offer psychoanalysis no points of can do little towards throvdng light on them and
direct toxic
attack. It
must leave the task to biologico-medical research.
And now perhaps you imderstand better why I did not choose to arrange *
my material differently.
If I
had promised you an
Introduction to the Theory of the Neuroses* the correct path
would certainly have led from the simple forms of the neuroses to the
‘
actual^
more complicated psychical illnesses due to
dis-
turbance of the libido. As regards the former I should have had
from various sources what we have learnt or believe and in connection with the psychoneuroses psychoknow, we have come up for discussion as the most imporwould analysis tant technical aid in throwing light on those conditions. But what I intended to give and what I announced was an ‘Introduction to Psychoanalysis’. It was more important for me that you should gain an idea of psychoanalysis than that you should obtain some pieces of knowledge about the neuroses; to collect
and for that reason the as psychoanalysis is
‘actual’ neuroses,
improductive so far
no longer have a place that I have made the better
concerned, could
in the foreground. 1 believe, too,
choice for you. For,
on account of the profundity of its hy-
potheses and the comprehensiveness of its connections, psychoanalysis deserves a place in the interest of every educated person, while the theory of the neuroses is a chapter in medicine like any other.
Nevertheless
some
you will
rightly expect that
interest to the ‘actual’ neuroses as
clinical
we should devote
weU. Tbeir intimate
connection with the psychoneuroses would alone comdo so. I may inform you, then, that we distinguish
pel us to
three pure forms
of
‘actual’
neuros^: nmrasthenia^ anxiety
438
GENElAIr
THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
neurosis and hypochondria.
Even this assertion is not uncontradio
names are in use, it is true, but their content is indefinite and fluctuating. There are even doctors who oppose any dividing lines in the chaotic world of neurotic phenomena, ted. All the
any segregation of clinical entities or individual diseases, and who do not even recognize the distinction between the ‘actual* neuroses and the psychoneuroses. I think they are going too far and have not chosen the path which leads to progress. The forms ofneurosis which I have mentioned occur occasionally in their pure form more often, however, they are intermixed with ;
each other and with a psychoneurotic disorder. This need not lead us to abandon the distinction
between them. Consider the ofrocks in minera-
difference between the study ofminerals and
logy.
The
minerals are described as individuals,
no doubt on
the basis of the fact that they often occur as crystals, sharply separated
from
their
environment. Rocks consist of aggrega-
tions of minerals, which, we may be sure, have not come together by chance but as a result of what determined tlieir origin. In the theory
of the neuroses we
still
know too little of
the course of their development to produce anything resem-
bling petrology. But we are certainly doing the right thing ifwe start by isolating from the mass the individual clinical entities which we recognize and which are comparable to the minerals. A noteworthy relation between the symptoms of the actual* neuroses and of the psychoneuroses makes a further important contribution to our knowledge of the formation of symptoms in the latter. For a symptom of an ‘actual* neurosis is often the nucleus and first stage of a psychoneurotic symptom. A relation of this kind can be most clearly observed between neurasthenia ‘
and the transference neurosis known as ‘conversion hysteria*, between anxiety neurosis and anxiety hysteria, but also between hypochondria and the forms of disorder which will be mentioned later [p. 473 ff.] under the name of paraphrenia (dementia praecox and paranoia). Let us take as an example a case of hysterical headache or lumbar pain. Analysis shows us that, by condensation and displacement, it has become a sub-
24*
THB COMMON NEUROTIC STATE
stitutive satisfaction for a
or memories.
But
this
439
whole number of libidinal phantasies
pain was also at one time a real one and
was then a direct sexual-toxic symptom, the somatic expresof a libidinal excitation. We are far from asserting that all hysterical symptoms contain a nucleus of this kind. But it remains a fact that this is especially often the case and that whatever somatic influences (whether normal or pathological) are it
sion
brought about by libidinal excitation are preferred for the construction of hysterical symptoms. In such cases they play the part of the grain of sand
which
a mollusc coats with layers
of mother-of-pearl. In the same way, the passing indications
of sexual excitement which accompany the sexual act are employed by the psychoneurosis as the most convenient and appropriate material for the construction of symptoms.
A
similar course
of events affords peculiar diagnostic and
therapeutic interest. case
of a person who
suffering
It is
not at
infrequently happens in the
all
disposed to a neurosis without actually
from a manifest one,
that a pathological somatic
change (through inflammation or injury perhaps) sets the activity of symptom-formation going; so that this activity hastily turns the
symptom which
has been presented to
it
by
reality into the representative of all the unconscious phantasies
which have only been lying in wait to seize hold of some means of expression. In such a case the physician will adopt sometimes one and sometimes another line of treatment. He will either endeavour to remove die organic basis, without bothering about its noisy neurotic elaboration; or he wiU attack the neurosis which has taken this favourable opportunity for arising and will pay little attention to its organic precipitating cause. The outcome will prove the one or the other line of approach right or wrong; it is impossible to make general recommendations to meet such mixed cases.
LECTURE 25
ANXIETY^ Ladies and Gentlemen, - What
I said to
lecture about the general neurotic state will
you in my last no doubt have
most incomplete and inadequate of all my know that is true, and nothing will have surprised you more, I expect, than that there was nothing in it about anxiety,^ of which most neurotics complain, which they themselves describe as their worst suffering and which does in fact attain enormous intensity in them and may result in their adopting the craziest measures. But there at least I had no intention of giving you short measure. On the contrary, it was my intention to attack the problem of anxiety in neurotics particularly keenly and to discuss it at length with you. I have no need to introduce anxiety itself to you. Every one ofus has experienced that sensation, or, to speak more correctly, that affective state, at one time or other on our own account But I think the question has never been seriously enough raised ofwhy neurotics in particular suffer from anxiety so much more and so much more strongly than other people. Perhaps it has been regarded as something self-evident: the words ^nervos* and *mgstlicV^ are commonly used interchangeably, as though they struck
you
as the
pronouncements.
I
major discussion of this subject was in a paper on last in Inhibitions^ Symptoms and Anxiety (i 926) and his
ofMs New
Introductory Lectures
[Angst.*
Though
colloquial one,
render
it
is
‘anxiety’, in a sense quite different
the technical translation,
by such words
from the
we often find it necessary to
as ‘fear*, being ‘fHghtened*
or
‘afraid’,
and
so on.] 3. [lliese
words are by no means equivalent to fhe colloquial English
25.
ANXIETY
441
meant the same thing. But we have no right to do so there are *mgstlich* people who are otherwise not at all *nkvos* an(h moreover, ^nervos* people who suffer from many symptoms, among which a tendency to *'Angst'' is not included. :
However that may be, there is no
question that the problem
a nodal point at which the most various and important questions converge, a riddle whose solution would
of anxiety
is
be bound to throw a flood of light on our whole mental existence. I will not assert that I can give you this complete solution; but you will certainly expect psychoanalysis to approach this subject too in quite a different way from academic medicine. Interest there seems mainly to be centred on tracing the anatomical paths along which the state of anxiety is brought
about
We are told that the medulla oblongata
is
stimulated,
and the patient learns that he is sufiering from a neurosis of the vagus nerve. The medulla oblongata is a very serious and lovely
remember quite clearly how much time and trouble I devoted to its study many years ago. Today, however, I must object. I
remark that I know nothing that could be of less interest to me for the psychological understanding of anxiety than a
know-
ledge of the path of the nerves along which its excitations pass. It is possible at
the start to
work upon the subject of anxiety
for quite a time without thinking at will understand
all
of neurotic states. You
me at once when I describe this kind of anxiety
as ‘realistic^anxiety in contrast to ^neurotic* anxiety. Realistic
anxiety strikes us as something very rational and intelligible.
We may say of it that danger -
it is
a reaction to the perception of an
of an iiyury which is expected and foreseen. It is connected with the flight reflex and it inay be regarded as a manifestation of the self-preservative instinct. On what occasions anxiety appears - that is to say, in the free of external
that
is,
^nervous’ and ‘ anxious V *Mervds* might be rendered by ‘nervy* or •jumpy* and ^angstlich* by ‘nervous* in its colloquial sense. ‘Anxious* in its ordinary usage is more like the German *bekumjnert' or *besor0\]
,
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
442
what objects and in what situations - will of
course depend tn
on the state of a person’s knowledge and on bi! sense of power vis-^-vis the external world. We can ouit,. understand how a savage is afraid of a cannon and frighS by an eclipse of the sun, while a white man. who knows how to handle the instrument and can foretell the eclipse, large e^rtent
without anxiety in these circumstances.
remains
On other occasions'iS
actually superior knowledge that promotes anxiety, because it makes an early recognition of the danger possible. Thus the savage will be terrified at a trail in the jungle that tells an uninformed person nothing, because it warns him of the proximity of a wild animal; and an experienced sailor will look with terror at a small cloud in the sky that seems trivial to a passenger, because it tells him of an approaching hurricane. On further consideration we must teU ourselves that our judgement that reahstic anxiety is rational and expedient calls for drastic revision. For the only expedient behaviour
when a own
danger tfceatens would be a cool estimate of one’s ^tte^th comparison with the
m
magnitude of the threat and, of that, a decision as to whether flight or defence or possibly even attach, offers the best prospect of a successful issue. But m this situation there is no
on the
basis
every^ng
place at
all
^ppens would be achieved just probably better if no anxiety were generated. And
indeed,
;*
^at
rhm
if
j a
J
for anxiety
that
one
as
weU and
youcan see
Ae anxiety is excessively great it proves
—T
feels
tempted to
acuon.
A ternfaed animal
Assert that the generation
help
SreS
^reMly. The fint
in the
^g about it
situation
of
m
of a£dety more
preparedness £ot the danger
on. This o^ectant preparedness can be unhesitatingly
25 . anxiety recognized as
an advantage; indeed,
responsible for serious consequences.
its
443 absence
From
it
may be
there tlapn pro-
on the one hand motor action - flight in the first instance and at a higher level active defence - and on the other baud what we feel as a state of anxiety. The more the generation of anxiety is limited to a mere abortive beginning - to a signal* ceeds
die more will the preparedness for anxiety transform itself without disturbance into action and the more expedient will be the shape taken by the whole course of events. Accordingly, the preparedness for anxiety seems to me to be die expedient
clement in
what we call
anxiety,
and due generation of anxiety
the inexpedient one. I shall
avoid going
our linguistic usage
by
different
[fright]’. I
more closely into the question of whether
means die same thing or something clearly
‘Angst [anxiety]’, ‘Furcht [fear]’ and ‘Schreck
will only say that I think ‘Angst' relates to the state
and disregards the object, while ‘Furcht' draws attention precisely to the object. It seems that ‘Schreck', on the other
Wd, does have a special sense; it lays emphasis, that is, on the effect produced
by a danger which is not met by any prepared-
ness for anxiety.
protects
We
might
himself firom fiight
say, dierefore, that
a person
by anxiety.
A certain ambiguity and indefiniteness in the use ofthe word ‘Angst' will
not have escaped you.
By
‘anxiety’
we
usually
which we are put by perceiving the ‘ generation of anxiety’ and we call this an affect. And what is an affect in the dynamic sense? It is in any case understand die subjective state into
something highly composite. place particular certain feelings ;
An
affect includes in the first
motor innervations or discharges and secondly the latter are of two kinds - perceptions of the
motor artions that have occurred and the direct feelings of pleasure and unpleasure which, as we say, give the affect its notion of anxiety serving as a ‘signal’ (which appean again was to play a central part in Freud’s later accounts of anxiety, in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (ipatSd) and in the New I. [TTiis
below on
p. 453)
Introductory Lectures (19334), p.
117 £]
GENERAL THEORY OF THE NEUROSES
444
keynote. But I do not think diat with this emimeration we have seem to see deeper in the arrived at the essence of an affect.
We
case of some affects and to recognize that the core which holds the combination we have described together is the repetition of
some
particular significant experience.
This experience could
only be a very early impression of a very general nature, placed in the prehistory not of the individual but of the species. To intelligible - an affective state would be same way as a hysterical attack and, like it, would be the precipitate of a reminiscence. A hysterical attack
make myself more
constructed in the
may thus be likened to
a freshly constructed individual
affect,
and a normal affect to the expression of a general hysteria which has
become a heritage.*
Do not suppose that the things I have said to you here about affects are the recognized stock-in-trade
of normal psychology.
They are on the contrary views that have grown up on the soil of psychoanalysis and are native only to it. What you may gather about affects from psychology - theJames-Lange theory, for example - is quite beyond imderstanding or discussion to us psychoanalysts. But we do not regard our knowledge about affects as
very assured either;
it is
a first attempt at finding our
bearings in this obscure region. I will proceed, however.
We
of the affect of anxiety we know what the early impression is which it repeats. We believe that it is in the act of birth that there comes about the combination of unpleasurable feelings, impulses of discharge and bodily sensations which has become the prototype of the effects of a mortal danger and has ever since been repeated by us as the state of anxiety. The immense increase of stimulation owing to the interruption ofthe renovation ofthe blood (internal respiration) was at the time the cause of the experience of anxiety ; the first
believe that in the case
I. prhis account of hysterical attacks had been suggested by Freud in a paper on that subject many years carliar (i909ecific
Abel, K.
(1884) tJber den Gegensinn der Urwoffe^ ‘Die psychosexuellen Difierenzen der Hysteric
Abraham, K. (1908)
find der* Dementia praecox’, ZentbL Nerpenheilk., N.F. 15^ 521. (464^-5)
‘The Psycho-Sexual Differences Between Hysteria and Dementia Praccox*, Selected Payers^ London, 1927 J New York, [Trans.:
1953, Chap. H.} pragenitale Entwick(1916) ‘UntersucJhungen fiber die firuheste
Z.
lungsstufe der Libido’, [TViMW.?
Papers, Lond^on, 1927;
(1965)
drztl. Psychoanal.^ 4* ji. (370)
‘The Pint Pregmtal Stage of the Libido’, Setod
With Freud,
New York,
S^ 5ce
I 953 i
FREUW^^
BIBLIOGRAPHY
$20
Adler, A. (1910) ‘Der PsycWsclie Hermaphroditismus im Leben und in der Neurose’, Fortschr. Med.^ 28, 486. (276)
(1912) Vber den netvosen Charaktery Wiesbaden. (428) [Trans,:
The Neurotic
Constitutiotiy
New
York, 1916; London,
1918.]
Andreas-Salom^,
L. (1016)
*“Anal” und “Sexual”*, ImagOy
4,
249. (357) (1966) With Freud, S. See Freud, S. (1966a) Aristotle, De somniis and De divinatione per somnum, (116) [Trans.: by W. S. Hett (in volume On the Soul, Loeb Classical Library,) London and New York, I935-] Artemidorus of Daldis, Oneirocritica. (114, 274-5) [Trans.: (abridged): by R. Wood, The Interpretation of Dreams,
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(1886)
De
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la
thirapeUtique, Paris. (502)
(1891) Hypnotisme, suggestion et psychothirapk: itudes nouvelles, Paris. {502)
Binet, a.
(1888) Etudes de psychologic expMmentale:
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(1902-3) Beitrdge zur Atiologie der Psychopathia sexualis (2
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(1911-13)
Das
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Brill, A. A. (1912) Psychanatysis: tts Theories and Practical Appli^ cation, Philadelphia and London. (2nd ed., 1914; 3rd ed., 1922.) (57,80,83)
Darwin, C. (1872) The Expression ofthe Emotions in Man and Animals, London. (444, 447) (1958) The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809-1882, With Original Omissions Restored (ed. N. Barlow), London. (104-5) Du Peel, C, (1885) EHe Philosophic der Mystik, Leipzig. (165) Fechner, G. T. (i860) Ekmente der Psychophysik, Leipzig. (2nd ed., 1889.) (119)
Federn,
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Fbrenczi,
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m
FiiESS,
W.
Ablauf des Lebens, Vienna. (362)
{1906)
Freud, M. (1957) Glory Reacted, London. (22) Freud, S. (1888-9) Translation with Preface and Notes of H. Bemheim’s De la suggestion et de ses applications d la th^apeutique, ¥ms, 1886, under the
title
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Standard Ed.,
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(iSgib)
(i 892^) Translation
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