Integrating the Subsistence Economy 9780860542322, 9781407333175

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Integrating the Subsistence Economy edited by Martin Jones

Symposia of the Association for Environmental Archaeology No. 4 BAR International Series 181 . 1983

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hartds, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D .R • Walker. M.A.

B.A.R.-S181,198J : ©

'Integrating the Subsistence Economy'

The Individual Authors,198J.

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542322 paperback ISBN 9781407333175 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542322 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CO N T E N T S

P age I ntroduction

1

M artin J ones S ECTION

1

T he

I NTEGRATING A RABLE A ND P ASTORAL A CTIVITIES

i dentification o f a gricultural a ctivity

u sing p ollen a nalysis D avid J .

5

M aguire

A rable/pastoral r atios

f rom i nsects?

1 9

M ark R obinson S ECTION 2

I NTEGRATING P OLLEN,

M ACROFOSSIL A ND S ETTLEMENT

E VIDENCE E arly l and u se o n D artmoor - p alaeobotanical a nd

p edological

D avid M aguire,

i nvestigations o n H olne M oor

5 7

N icholas R alph a nd A ndrew F leming

N ew a pplications o f p alaeoecological

t echniques:

i ntegrating e vidence o f a rable a ctivity i n p ollen p eat a nd s oil G raeanog,

s tratigraphies,

C efn 1 07

N orth W ales

F rank C hambers P ollen a nd p lant m acrofossil a nalysis o f d eposits f rom t he

I ron A ge d itched

e nclosure a t S hiels, 1 23

G ovan, G lasgow D . R obinson T he A ssendelver P olders p roject: e cological W . S ECTION

i ntegrated 1 35

r esearch

G roenman-van W aateringe a nd J .

P .

P als

3 I NTEGRATING P LANT A ND A NIMAL E VIDENCE

M an a nd

t he e nvironment a t F reswick L inks:

p reliminary o bservations

f rom a l ater N orse

s ettlement i n C aithness A . K . G . J ones, C . E . B atey, D .

J .

1 63 C .

D .

M orris a nd

R ackham

I ron A ge t o l ate S axon l and u se

i n t he B reckland

1 77

P eter M urphy S ECTION

4

A SPECTS O F A NIMAL S TUDIES

S ize a nd s hape,

t ime a nd p lace:

i n c attle a nd s heep B .

A .

N oddle

s keletal v ariations 2 11

P age

M ilk P roducts M .

L .

F aunal i n

s ample

5

t o

s ubsistence

e conomy:

s ome p roblems

r econstruction

J ames S ECTION

2 39

R yder

2 51

R ackham

T HE W IDER C ONTEXTS O F E CONOMIC I NTEGRATION

A gricultural a nd m illenium B .C.

s ubsistence

s ystems o f t he

i n n orth-west

P akistan:

t hird

a

s peculative o utline K .

D .

2 79

T homas

E conomic

p lants

i n A msterdam:

q ualitative a nd

q uantitative a nalysis N orbert

F eeding L incoln T .

P .

3 15

P aap

O 'Connor

i n

t he

1th c entury - a s peculation

3 27

L IST O F C ONTRIBUTORS

C olleen B atey, D epartment o f A rchaeology,

4 6 S addler S treet,

D urham.

D H1

3 NU

F rank C hambers, D epartment S T5 5 BG

o f

G eography,

U niversity

o f

K eele,

K eele,

S taffordshire.

A ndrew F leming, D epartment o f P rehistory S heffield. S 10 2 TN

&

A rchaeology,

W illy G roenman-van-Waateringe, U niversiteit v an A msterdam, I PP, A ndrew J ones, E nvironmental A rchaeology U nit, Y O1 5 DD

U niversity

S ingel 4 53,

o f

S heffield,

1 012 W P A msterdam.

U niversity o f Y ork ,

H eslington,

Y ork.

M artin J ones, D epartment o f A rchaeology, D avid M aguire, D epartment o f L ancaster.

L A1

4 6 S addler S treet,

G eography,

U niversity

o f

4 6 S addler S treet,

P eter M urphy, U niversity o f E ast A nglia,

E arlham H all,

B arbara N oddle, D epartment o f A natomy,

3 NU

L ancaster,

B ailrigg,

U niversity

D urham.

N orwich.

C ollege,

D H1

3 NU

N R4 7 TJ

P .O.

B ox 7 8,

C ardiff.

1 XL

T erry O 'Connor, E nvironmental A rchaeology U nit, Y O1

D H1

4 YN

C hris M orr 4 Q , D epartment o f A rchaeology,

C F1

D urham.

U niversity o f Y ork,

H eslington,

Y ork.

5 DD

N orbert P aap, U niversiteit v an A msterdam,

I PP,

S ingel 4 53,

1 012 W P A msterdam.

J an-Peter P als, U niversiteit v an A msterdam,

I PP,

S ingel 4 53,

1 012 W P A msterdam.

J ames R ackham, D epartment o f A rchaeology,

4 6 S addler S treet, D urham. D H1 3 NU

N ic R alph, D epartment

o f

&

S heffield.

S 10 2 TN

P rehistory

A rchaeology,

U niversity

o f

S heffield,

D avid

R obinson,

D epartment M ark,

o f B otany,

U niversity o f G lasgow.

G 12

8 QQ

R obinson,

U niversity M useum, M ichael

P arks

R oad,

O xford.

O X1

3 PW

R yder,

A .R.C.

A nimal

R oslin,

M idlothian.

K en

T he

B reeding E H25

R esearch

O rganisation,

F ield

L aboratory,

9 PS

T homas,

U niversity L ondon.

o f

L ondon,

W C1H O PY

I nstitute

o f

A rchaeology,

3 1-34

G ordon

S quare,

T he

f ollowing c onventions

( i)

' be',

' bp'

r adiocarbon

a nd

h ave b een o bserved

' ad'

y ears,

value o f 5 568 y ears

( ii)

' BC'

a nd

' AD'

a re

a re

u sed

c alculated f or

t o

i n t his v olume:

d enote

u sing

t he

d ates

m easured

c onventional

i n

L ibby

t he h alf-life o f r adiccarbon.

u sed

t o

d enote

d ates

m easured

u sed

t o

d enote

a p iece

i n

c alendar

y ears.

( iii)

' Meadow' i s

m own

grazing.

h as f or

b een h ay,

a nd

' pasture'

a p iece

o f

g rassland

o f g rassland

w hich

u sed

f or

1 .

IN T R O D U C T I O N

M artin J ones

I t d etailed s ea

o f

i s

o ne

t he

o f

i gnorance.

e ver

d eeper

p ast

d iscovering

i ronies

p ast

W hile

i nto

w ish t o k now, w hen

o f

k nowledge

s ome

o ur

m odern

a ctivity

a rchaeology

t hat o ur m ost

i s

s tranded

i ncreasingly

a spects

t hings

o f

h uman o f

t hat

t he

t hey

s o

r efined

p rivate

w ould

o ften

n ot

i n a

t echniques

l ives o f p eople t hemselves

p robe i n

k now o r

t hey b arely s cratch t he s urface o f o ther a spects.

l ooking a t

s ubsistence

p atterns w e m ay b e a ble

t he e ven T hus

t o e stablish t he

s tructure o f f lock o r h erd,

a nd t he w ay i n w hich a f armer m anipulated

a nd

W e

o f

u tilised t he

t he

h is

s ieve

h e

s ymptoms

a nimals. u sed

o f

t o

m ay

c lean

l eprosy

b e

a ble

h is g rain,

h e

w ould

t o

e stimate

a nd o bserve

c ontract

t he m esh-size f rom h is

a fter

b ones

c onsuming

t he

s aponin-rich s eeds o f A grostemma g ithago t hat t he s ieve h ad f ailed t o r emove.

Y et

w ith

a ll

t his

w e

m ay

r emain

i gnorant

o f

t he

r elative

i mportance o f p lants a nd a nimals t o h is c ommunity. I n p art t his i llustration r eflects t he l imitations i nherent i n o ur

d ata

n ot

f ully

b ase,

b ut

t here

a re

b een e xplored.

p ossibilities w ithin

I n p art

i t r eflects

t he d ata

t hat h ave

t he d ivisions t hat a re

a rtificially i mposed b y t he c ircumstances o f r esearch b etween d ifferent f orms o f e nvironmental a nalysis, a nd t here a re c ertainly p ossibilities h ere f or d evelopment a nd c hange.

I t w as t o t he v arious

p ossibilities o f i ntegration b etween d ifferent f orms o f e nvironmental e vidence,

b etween d ifferent l ines o f r esearch,

a nd u ltimately b etween

d ifferent

s trands o f s ubsistence

t he

e conomy

t hat

1 982 c onference o f

t he A ssociation f or E nvironmental A rchaeology w as a ddressed. A s p roblem

t he

o f

p apers

r eflect,

i ntegration,

t he v olume.

a nd

t here

a re

a n umber

o f

a n umber t hemes

o f a spects

w hich

r ecur

o f

t he

t hrough

I s hall a ttempt t o c omment o n s ome o f t hose t hemes.

M ultidisciplinary s tudies I n o f

t he

a dvocating

o ther

e xamining

p ollen

o ccur

c lose

i n

a gainst f rom

a nd

c lose

multidisciplinary

o ther

D avid t ypes

j uxtaposition'

t he o ther.

t raditional

t he

c ontributors,

T he o f;

o f

s uch

a pproach

e nvironmental t hat

a dopted

s tresses o ne

m ay

t he

b y

e vidence b e

m any

n eed

f or

' which

' calibrated'

c ollection o f a v ariety o f f orms o f e vidence

j uxtaposition s ources

M aguire

f or

i s

n o

e xample,

s traightforward p ollen a nd

m atter.

T he

s nails r espectively,

may b e s egregated i nto d istinct a nd s eparate g eographical a reas. T he G eoffrey

p apers D imbleby

i n o f

s ection

t wo

p ursue

t he

c ourse

p ioneered

b y

t aking p ollen a nalysis o ut o f t he r emote p eat

b ogs

a nd

l ate

l andscape. a longside p otential

i s

i ndividual

s ediments l atter

f rom

t he

l evel

a nd

r egional

v ariations

c onstrain

t he

f our i n

t he

j uxtaposition

t he

r ather

t han

t he

t he

a l.).

B recklands

s ites

f rom

u pland f loor

p rovides

v alley

a reas, w ith

t hereby

h e

f loors,

i s

b uried

a ble

v alley

t o

a lkaline

s oils

r efuse b earing b ones a nd c harred

b ones,

e t t he o f

l and

d emonstrates

t he

b etween

t his

d emonstrate may

f orms o f e vidence.

h ow s till

I n

s ome

t he s cale o f t he l andscape t he

P eter

t erraces, p eat

t he

o f

i n w hich a lkaline

d oes

e xample.

i n

T he

r epertoire

mammal

e xploiting

c omplement

h uman

( Maguire

e nvironment

a r egion.

e legant

a nd

l evel

c ontrast

t wo

d epositional

w ithin

a n

a nd

T he

o f d ifferent

s ite,

e nvironments

t he

r emains,

a reas t his m ay b e o vercome b y o perating a t d epositional

t o

o n a s ite

s ection

s ettled e vidence

s tratigraphy.

l andscape

P als)

p lant

t he

p ollen

s ediments,

b ird

s tudy

e t i n

o f

p lace

A c omplementary

f ish,

c harred

( Jones

t he

o f

a nd

R obinson).

c omprising

p redominate

h eart

t o

t he c ultural

W aateringe

a nd

v ery

a gricultural

o f a m ultidisciplinary

p aper

t he

p ossible

s eeds,

( David

e vidence

molluscs

i nto i s

i t d irectly t o

G roenman-van

f eature

m arine

i t

f rom

i llustrated

e nvironmental p ossibility

a nd

w ay

a nd r elate

C hambers;

a nd

t his

e vidence

h abitation, a l;

s ediments,

I n

d iversity

M urphy's

o f

s tudy

o f

B y

s tudying

a r ange o f

t he

a djacent

s lopes

d eposits

u pland

a nd

f rom

t he v alley

a nd

s ettlement

a reas

s eeds i n t he i ntervening z one.

Taphonomy I f

t hese

c ompared, of

e merge.

o f p lay

M ark

d ifferent

e specially

t aphonomy

s tate i n

a nd

i n

I n

t he

R obinson's

f orms i f

a rt

D avid

e nter

t he

h ow

e xamination

P ollen t hat

a ny

t aphonomy

e xamine

s ettled

p ollen

i s

o f

l andscape.

t he

i nsects

c ritique

j uxtaposed

a nd

t hen p roblems

o f

i ndices

r espectively

m ay

c entral

t he

T hese

h e

t he

c urrent

f rom p ollen,

p ossibility

I n

q uanta

c ourse

f rom

o f

t o

q uantified,

M aguire's

r ecord.

d erived

p ollen

a re

b e

o f

a nd

d eriving

s uch

e ach a uthor e mphasises t he i mportance o f

a nd

a rchaeological

u nderstanding,

t o

o f a rable/pastoral

i ndices f rom i nsect r emains, u nderstanding

o f e vidence

t hey a re

c omplex

p apers

t he b e

t o

a re

d ispersed

a bsence

d ifficult t he

p apers

d epositional

n evertheless

o f t o

a nd

s uch

a n

i nterpret.

i n

s ection

e nvironment

d emonstrate

t hat

t wo o f

a

s i ch

c omplexity, i f h andled i n t he r ight w ay, may b e a s ource of e vidence r ather t han e rror. I t i s i nteresting t o o bserve t hat b oth p apers t hat

a ttempt

c ontrast

a s ubdivision

b etween

Groenman-van i nteresting

t he

W aatering a nd

o f

p ollen

c ereal a nd

a nd

r easonable

p ollen

c harred

P als).

i nto

M aguire

s uggestion

g enus-type

c ereals

t hat

t he

( Maguire e t

a l.

p ollen

f ind

a

e t

a l.;

make

t he

e vidence

i n

t his c ase i s more l ikely t o r eflect t he l ocal s ituation t han t he c harred g rains. T aphonomic c onstraints w ill o perate o n e ach f orm o f e vidence.

T heir i mplications f or

r igourously e xplored

t he q uantifi ation o f b one d ata a re

i n t his v olume b y

J ames R ackham.

E cology a nd P opulation B iology I n t he s ame w ay d ata

b ase

c annot

p opulations, ' land-use

b e

n either markers'

t hat c an

c ase

o f

a s

t hose

f locking

a nthropologically d efined i n t he

t he d eath a ssemblages t hat c onstitute o ur

t reated

i nsects,

s imple l iving

u nbiased

r eligiously

l and-unit.

s amples

p opulations t o

•t he

A s p ointed o ut

o f

l iving

u nswerving a ppropriate

b y M ark R obinson

e ach s pecies i s c onstrained

2

a s

b y a d ifferent

s et

o f

e nvironmental

p erceived, d ung

l et a lone

b eetle m ay

c ow-pat

t han

b e

w ith

p lant a nd a nimal l andscapes, t hen

f actors,

s ome

c onsidered

f ar m ore

o f

w hich

i mportant,

c oncerned

w ith

t he m acrotopography

o f

m ay

n ot

b e

e ven

b y t he h uman o bserver.

A

t he m icrotopography o f a

a n

a grarian

l andscape.

I f

s pecies a re t o b e u sed a s i ndicators o f p ast h uman i t m ust b e d one t hrough, a nd n ot i n s pite o f, t he

e cology a nd p opulation b iology o f e ach s pecies c oncerned. S uch a pproach m ay e nhance p owers o f d iscrimination i n s ome a spects l andscape w hile

r econstruction,

R obinson

r eflecting

a rgues

a rable

w hile

t hat

t empering o thers w ith c aution.

i nsects

a ctivity,

t he

m ay

n ot

n uances

b e

i deally

o f

t heir

a n o f

T hus

s uited

e cology

t o a nd

p opulation b iology m ay a llow g rasslands t o b e u sefully s ubdivided a nd c haracterised. O n a nother a spect o f b iological d iversity, B arbara N oddle d emonstrates t hat s ome o f t he v ariations i n d omestic a nimal b ones m ay b e a ttributed t o d ifferences i n b reed. T he

a dvantages

o f

f raming

o ur

i nfluence

w ith

a

c lear

u nderstanding o f e cology a nd p opulation b iology i s n ot l imited t o t he v arious

p lants

p opulations e cological e conomic

a nd

a t

a nimals

t he

c entre

t erms.

I n

e vidence

w e

e xamined.

o f

s uch

h andling

may

t end

O ur

a pproach

i nference t he

t o

m ay

v arious

t hink

i n

t o

a lso

e lements

r ather

t he

b e

h uman

f ramed o f

s tatic

i n

p alaeo-

t erms,

o f

s ome p ast l andscape o n w hich t he v arious k inds o f l and-use a re m apped o ut.

K en T homas a rgues t hat w e s hould i nstead

t hem,

i nvolving

m oving

a way

p refers r ather

t he

f rom

t o

m ovement

a m ap

i dentify

t han

o f

a pproach

p otential

q uantify

e nergy,

a reas

t o

a n

l and

a nd

e nergy-flow

r outes

o f

' apply s ome d ynamic t o

m aterials t hrough

u se.

t he

p eople'.

a pproach, e nergy

I n

T homas

p athway,

S uch a n a pproach i s e choed

b y t he p oint made b y M aguire e t a l. t hat t he r atio b etween p astoral a nd a rable l and i s a d ifferent t hing f rom t he r atio b etween p astoral a nd

a rable

p roducts,

w hich

b ears

a

c loser

p athways.

T he

p athways

s o

c onstructed

c hains,

t he

d iversity

o f

r outes

a nd

i s

w ell

R yder's d iscussion o f a s ingle c omponent, S uch

a n

' subsistence

a pproach

e conomy'

l eads

w e

a re

T homas

t rying

m ay

i llustrated

d efine

m ore

i ntegrate,

a t w hich i t o perates, a nd h ow t hese r elate t o l andscapes f rom w hich o ur d ata i s d erived. d efinition

o f

p rodu2tion

a re

a s ubsistence t he

s ame

a s

e conomy t he

a s

u nits

t o

e nergy

i ntricate b y

f ood-

M ichael

m ilk.

t o

t o

r elation f orm

o ne

o f

i n

p recisely

t he

t he v arious s cales t he a rchaeological T aking T homas's

w hich

' the

c onsumption',

u nits

t he

o f

q uestion

b ecomes n ot s o much w hether s omething m ay b e t reated a s a s ubsistence e conomy,

b ut w hat

i s t he s cale a t w hich i t i s a ppropriate t o d o s o.

T erry O 'Connor c an i n t his w ay t reat L incoln a s a s ubsisteace e conomy, s imply b e e xpanding t he u nit o f a nalysis t o e ncompass t he w hole

c ounty.

r ural

s ettlements,

o f

s uch

e conomic

B y

d oing t hat

s ettlements i nferences

i n

t his,

c ould

s ome

n ot

b e

i solation.

w ithin

a

i mportant

p oints

d iscerned

f rom

T he

h ierarchy

n eed o f

t o

e merge

f rame

n ested

a bout

a c onsideration o ur

s ystems

p alaeoi s

m ade

c lear b y t he v arious p apers t hat d raw a ttention t o t he i ntimate l inks b etween P aap's

a gricultural u seful

a ttempt

p roduction t o

a nd

f ollow

d ivisions w ithin a n u rban c ontext

t he

t hese

w ider l inks

e conomy. t hrough

i s a p rime e xample.

3

N orbert t o

s ocial

I n

s ummary,

c onference

s ome

v aluable

p roceedings.

multidisciplinary

s tudies

a nd

miscellany o f e vidence c an b e w ish b e

t o

p erceive

c onstrained

a lternative o wn

m ay

v arious

i n

d oing i s

t he

b ut

v arious

s ound

t he

T he

i ntegrated, i nto

v ery

t hat

t he u nfortunate l eper w ho g enerated t rophic l evels t hat l ie b eyond. T he

c ontributors

c onstrained n eed

t hey

b y

b e

t he

h ave

c onstrained

b y

a

c hain,

t o

l imitations t he

w ith a nd

t heir t he

f ew p ersonal

of m arkers

t hat

may

h opefully

o f

t he

a nd

t he

l andscape f lowing c ase

t he

t o

t he

i ntention d ata

t he

o f

h igher

n ot

b ase.

t o

b e

N either

c omments o ffered

guide

A n

t heir

e nergy

w hich a re i ntended n ot a s a s ummary o f t he p roceedings, a s eries

o f

i n

d iscussion,

o f

W e m ay

b iology, s tatic

h umans,

t his

t erms

o ur

b ut m ay

c omponents

i nto

o f

e vidence.

i n

o wn

d emonstrated

p resumed

t he

t heir

f ood

l ead

o f

s ystems

t he

t hat

o f l and-use map,

b iological

o f

n ot

a d ynamic

p athways

f rom

f ramework

g uidelines

n ature

t hose

t erms

d rawn

a

i nto l iving s ystems.

k ind

v arious

i n

b e

t aphonomic

s ome

p erceive

m ay

w ithin

t ranslated

b y

t o

u nderstood

c omponents

i s

s ystems a s

s tructure.

b e

r econstruction, a long

s o

a pproach

i nherent

s ystem

t hose

p oints

I t

a bove,

b ut m erely a s

r eader

t hrough t he

many v aluable c ontributions t o t his v olume. A cknowledgements M any c olleagues i n t he A EA w ere i nvolved i n s ome a spect o f t he r ganisation N eil L ang, V een.

W e

D epartments nffice,

o f

t he

c onference,

J ames R ackham, a lso o f

a nd S t.

a nd

t hanks

I an S immons,

b enefited

A rchaeology,

f rom

t he

B otany

a re

p articularly

d ue

t o

J udy T urner a nd M aryke V an d er e xtensive

a nd

c o-operation

G eography,

t he

A idan's C ollege a t D urham U niversity.

o f

t he

A dministrative T he c over l ogo

and v arious i ncidental g raphics w ere e xecuted b y Y vonne B rown a nd t he e ntire

manuscript

w as

t yped

b y

D eborah

i s e xtended.

4

C lough

t o

w hom

o ur

g ratitude

2 .

T HE I DENTIFICATION O F A GRICULTURAL A CTIVITY U SING P OLLEN A NALYSIS

D avid J .

M aguire

I NTRODUCTION T he

o bjective

i dentification

o f

much

p alaeoenvironmental

o f a gricultural

w ithin

t errestrial

1 981).

F ollowing

s ediments

a ctivity ( see

f rom

E dwards

p ollen a nalytical

t he

r esearch p ollen

1 979;

S immons

i nvestigations,

i s

t he

i ncorporated a nd

T ooley

s tatements a bout

w hether o r n ot a gricultural a ctivity w as p ractised a re f requently m ade. I t i s s tatements a bout t he a mount o f a gricultural a ctivity i n a g iven

a rea,

i nteresting

d uring

a nd

r elationships,

a

p articular

u seful.

B efore

t aphonomic

e xamined c ritically

s uch

t ime

p eriod,

r emarks

p rocesses

a nd

c an

d ata

w hich

p rove

b e made

m ost

e cological

c ollection

m ust

b e

( Fig 2 :1).

T his p aper c onsiders i n t he f irst s ection, t he t aphonomic p rocesses w hich l ead t o t he f ormation o f t he f ossil a ssemblage i n t he s econd d ata

s ection

a nd

i n

t he

t he

p rocedures

t hird

i nvolved

s ection

t he

i n

a ctivity and i ts a ssociated v egetation. s ection, p roblem

a re

t he

t hree

o f

i dentifying

s tatistical

a pproaches.

T he

d iscussion

a lthough

s ome

i n o f

S ome

t he

i s

a rguments

o f

p ollen

a gricultural

a pproaches

i ndicator,

b e

w ith

t o

c omparative

a pproaches

c oncerned m ay

b etween

a dopted

t he

a dditional

p aper

c ollection

A lso c onsidered i n t he t hird

t raditionally

a griculture:

t his

t he

r elationship

a re

p roposed.

t errestrial

r elevant

t o

t he a nd

s ites,

l acustrine

a nd

m arine s ites. T APHONOMIC P ROCESSES P roduction T he w ell

a nthers o f p lants

k nown

T rifolium, p lants,

t hat

C alluna

s uch

a s

p roduce v arying a mounts o f p ollen.

e ntomophilous a nd

( insect

T ilia,

V iola,

a re

a nd

l ow

p ollinated)

p lants,

c leistogamous

( closed

p ollen

p roducers.

I n

I t i s s uch

a s

f lower) g eneral,

a nemophilous ( wind p ollinated) p lants, s uch a s Q uercus, P inus a nd A lnus, p roduce more p ollen p er a nther. P roduction o f p ollen p er u nit a rea

o f

l and

p er y ear), p lant

p er

c ommunities

B radshaw p roducers,

u nit

o f

t ime

( measured

i n

g rains

p er

s quare m etre

i s h owever o f m ore r elevance t o t he r econstruction o f p ast ( 1981) s uch

i n

s pace a nd

a nd

o thers

a s

T ilia,

t ime, h as

a ctually

m etre p er y ear t han s ome g rasses,

a s

t he w ork o f A ndersen ( 1973),

i ndicated. p roduce

C ertain m ore

g rains

f or e xample S ecale,

o f t heir g reater v ertical e xtension.

5

l ow

p ollen

p er

s quare

l argely b ecause

C ereals, p ollinated

w ith

a nd

J ascewiczowa

t he

t end

e xception

t o

1 968).

I n

o f

p roduce v ery

t he

l ow

g eneral

g enus

S ecale,

a mounts

t erms

o f

t he

a re

p ollen

s elf-

( Nalska-

p roduction

o f

p ollen

i n g rains p er s quare m etre p er y ear w ill t end t o b e i n t he o rder t rees > p astoral a griculture > a rable a griculture ( see f or e xample P ohl 1 937). D ispersal D ispersal a gencies.

o f

p ollen

g rains

P ollen g rains

a ccording

t o

s peaking,

l arge h eavy g rains

r atios

t end

t he t o

m ove

w hich

c onsider

1 967)

c onsidered

w ooded

a reas,

p ollen

d erived

s ite. 1 982)

a nd

T he

a nd

a nd

w ith

w hich

p arts

t he

i s

a re

m odels

T auber

t he

p ollen

a nd

G enerally

s urface a rea

m oved

e xtended

( 1981)

d ispersed

o f g eneral

d eveloped.

p ollen

a nd

b iological

a re

l ow v olume:

A n umber

o f

o r

p articles.

i nvestigated

d iscussed

B radshaw

w ater

a tmosphere

s mall

b een

( 1966)

v arious a re

a ll

h ave

w ind,

t he

t hose

i n

J anssen

f rom

b y

d istances.

m ovement

s ituations

m odels

b e i nto

g overn

s horter

p ollen

J acobson

1 975)

w hich

w hilst

T hese

( 1970,

l aws

m ay

l iberated

t o

i n

p roportion

o f

s ource b y

( 1965,

s ites a rea

E dwards

e mbodied

i n

o f

a

( 1979,

T urner's

t hree-dimensional a pproach t o v egetation r econstruction.

i mportance

o f

t hese

s tudies

t o

t he

p roblem

c onsidered

h ere

i s

t hat t hey a llow q uantitative r ather t han q ualitative e stimates o f t he a mount o f a griculture i n s pace a nd t ime. I n w oodlands p ollen d ispersal of

f lowering,

( Tauber

b ecause

1 965).

agriculture

w ind

T herefore,

i n

w ooded

i s

s peeds t he

p ollen

e nvironments

w ays.

C ertain

w ash-off

w ater

r emoving

v egetation f low

may

p lants

t end

t o

f unctions a s a d ispersal mechanism a t o f

( Krzywinksi a lso

b e

1 977).

t axa m ay

b e

p ollen

O verland

i mportant

t he

t ime o f y ear

t ree

l eaves

o pen

a ssociated

w ith

m ove

f urther

i f

f ully o pen.

a n umber o f d ifferent e ffect

b y

a fter

o f

w ill

l iberated b efore t he t ree l eaves a re W ater

i nfluenced

d ecrease

d ispersal

t errestrial s ites i n c oncentrated

g rains

f low,

i nterflow

m echanisms,

b y t he

d eposited a nd

o n

c hannel

p articularly

o n

s loping s ites. A n umber

o f

b iological

of p ollen g rains. p rocesses,

a re

a re

i mportant

e xpelled

i n

f orcibly

t he

d ispersal

b y a ctive p lant

o thers may b e t ransported b y man a nd o ther a nimals.

C ereal

p ollen

t endency

of

( Vuorela

1 973,

a gencies.

a gencies

S ome g rains

g rains,

T riticum, B ehre

H eim

b ecause

H ordeum

1 981)

( 1962)

a nd

o f

t heir

A vena

t o

l arge

r emain

s ize

i n

a nd

t heir

t he

h ulls,

a re n ormally p oorly t ransported b y n atural

h as e stablished t hat m odern c ereal

p ollen w ill

a ttain p ercentages of 3 -4% w hen a rable a griculture i s b eing p ractised w ithin

a bout

p ercentages

2

k m

o nly

o f r ise

t he

s ampling

a bove

4 -5%

s ite. w hen

H e c rops

a lso

m entions

a re

g rown

t hat

i n

t he

i mmediate v icinity of t he s ite. T he a round n atural p ollen H ordeum

a nthropogenic

a rchaeological a gencies. d eposition

t ransport s ites,

V uorela h as

may

o f c ereal b e more

( 1973)

i n

d emonstrated

a nd A vena i s v ery l imited,

6

h er t hat

b ut

p ollen g rains,

i mportant

t han

i nvestigations t he

n atural

e specially

t ransport i nto

b y

r ecent

d ispersal

o f

i ncreases c onsiderably d uring

t he h arvesting a nd c ereal

p ollen

h arvesters

u sed.

p ollen

c ereal

f ragments.

b e

g rains

A .E.A.

a nd

b e

i mportant

b een

s he w as a ble t o s how t hat

H ubbard

a long ( 1977)

t ransported

o n

m anured.

meeting,

a limentary

m ay

A lso,

c oncentrated t o

c ereal

t racts

s ites

A s

p ollen

a nd

s o

t he

r outes

h ave

w hich

s uggested

a rchaeological

A nthropogenically i nduced

p articularly h ave

w ere

R obinson

c ereal

w hich

t hreshing p eriod.

g rains

w ith

p laggen

( man-made)

p ointed

o ut

c ould

b e

may

o n

t ransport m echanisms m ay

K rzywinksi g rains

t hat

s ites

s urvive

t ransported

a t

t ransport b y

s oils

t he

1 980

t hrough

a nimals

a nd

i n

m anure. W hen d ealing w ith l ow p ollen v alues, i dentification g rains

o f

c aught

i n

f orgotten.

a nimal,

B irks

p robability o f t he

a gricultural

w orld.

a nd

a s i s o ften t he c ase i n t he

a ctivity,

o r

d eposited

B irks

( 1980)

t he

i n

' chance'

b ird,

p oint

f aeces

o ut

o verlooked a s,

l ong

d istance

f or e xample,

t ransport

T yldesley's

( 1973)

o f b e

t here

f inding a p ollen g rain o f a ny g iven

S imilarly

m ovement must i s

n ot a

s mall

t axon a nywhere i n

b y

w ind

m ust

n ot

b e

w ork s hows.

S edimentation T he o nly

a bility

o n

o f a s ediment

t he p osition a nd

s urface

t o

o rientation o f

p ollen s ource a nd d ispersal m echanism, t he s urface. p ollen

c ollection might

b e

p er

t han

d ry

p olsters S almi

c ould

( 1962)

d eposition a nd

r elative

n ot

t o t he

b ut a lso u pon t he c haracter o f

c haracteristics. e xpected s mooth

c ollect

h as

i n

P icea

p ollen d epends

s ediment

D ifferent v egetation t ypes w ill o bviously v ary i n t heir

p aribus, y ear

c ollect

t he

p ollen

a nd

may

a nd

m ay

w et

p er

t han

b e

t he

s quared

s ide

o f m oss

d ownwind

d ifferential

b lown

o f

t o

f or

t he

c eteris

m etre

t he w indward

b ladders

b e

s urfaces,

p ollen

g rains

t here

g rains

f loat

m ore

S imilarly

t hat

p ools;

t o

R ough

c ollect

o nes.

m ore

s hown

b og

t end

t o

s ide.

h orizontal

e xample,

d ownwind

P inus

s ide

o f

p ools. I t

i s

o ften

s imply

p reserved

R owley

( 1956)

C lymo's d epth

of

t he

t o

1 0

l anding

a round

d ifferential

c m.

a s eries

M ovement

o f

u pon

i t.

a b og

s urface

A lthough

R owley

d ownward m ovement

i s a nd

o f g rains,

s hort

t erm

m ay

s till

b e

a gricultural

i mportant

e pisodes

o r

w hen t aking

f or a nalysis.

P ollen g rains t end ( Dimbleby

p ollen g rows

s tudies i ndicate t hat a c ompact l ayer o ften f orms b y a

5

t hin s amples

t hat p eat

d emonstrated

( 1973)

c onsidering

a ssumed a s

1 961),

s edimentation

m ay

t o move s lowly a nd c ontinuously t hrough s oils

p ossibly b e

w ith

f urther

d ifferential

c omplicated.

s orting

T his

p roduces

a nd

s o

a c ertain

a mount o f b lurring i n t he p ollen r ecord w ith g rains o f d ifferent a ges p resent

a t

a ny

a rchaeological p loughing, P ollen

g rains

a gencies.

b y

a re

o f

T he

i n s oil r ather

v ery b oth

i n

( summarised d ifferent

d ecay

1 975

E vans m odel

r esistant

H owever,

o xidation

H avinga

( see

s implistic

m ay

F ig

b e

3 5).

O n

c omplicated

b y

manuring o r b urial o f t he s oil.

c ontent.

s usceptibility s ediments.

l evel

t his

f ertilizing,

s poropollenin b reakdown

g iven

s ites

o f

t han p eat

t o

t hey

a erobic

p ollen

1 974)

o f g rains

g rains

s amples.

7

t ends

b ecause

s till

s ediments

i n H avinga

t ypes

d ecay

a re

t o t o

a nd

h as

o f

t heir

s usceptible b y

i nvestigated

c orrosion

t o

b iological i n

c ause m ore

t he

v arious p roblems

T he c ontain A gain

f ossil

a ssemblage

p ollen

t his

w hich

h as

p rocess

o f

a s ite

b een

m ay

b e

e specially

c ontexts

b ecause

e rosion.

T here i s a s uggestion t hat

C efn

G raeanog

S imilarly

a rable

m ay

t he

a nd

h ave

i n

t o

f arming

c ircumstances,

s ediment i n

e rosion.

a rchaeological

f requently

i nstitute

s ome o f t he p ollen i n t he

r edeposited

d itch

c ertain

d ue

i mportant

p astoral

b een

m edieval

may,

r edeposited

f rom

( Chambers

H olne

M oor

p robably c ontains r eworked s ediment a nd p ollen ( Maguire, F leming a nd R alph t his v olume).

b og a t

t his

v olume).

p robably

c ontains

f rom

e arlier

p eriods

C OLLECTION O F P OLLEN D ATA S ampling a nd c ounting U nfortunately t aphonomic H owever,

i n

m ay

a g ood

h ave

p ollen

p rocesses t he

a nalysts

w hich

h ave

c ombine

t o

l ittle

p roduce

c ollection o f p ollen d ata d eal

o f

e rroneous r esults. c ounting w hich a re

c ontrol

o ver

c ontrol f ossil

( Fig 2 :1),

t he

e vents

o ver

t he

a ssemblages.

p ollen a nalysts

w hich c ould

l ead

t o

C onsideration o f t he m ethods o f s ampling a nd u sed t o e stimate t he f ossil a ssemblage i s

t herefore o f i mportance. T he h as

s uggest s izes a t

t hat

o f

s ite. b og,

o f

b een

s ites

r eviewed

d ifferent

p ollen

a s mall

d erived

t o

s election

r ecently

f rom

s izes

s ource

s ite,

f or b y

p alaeoenvironmental

J acobson o f

a reas.

s ampling

T hus

s uch a s a f orest

t he

l ocal

a rea,

t he

w ill

d erive m ost

f orest

k m

o f

a way.

s ites

c learings

i ts

w ill

i s

p ollen

majority

w ithin

r econstructing

s hould

b e

u sed

w hen

r ain

s ites

p rovide

r econstructing l ocal a griculture, e xtralocal t rying

h ave

o f t he

a bout

f rom

s uch

t he

p ollen r ain

s mall p eat

r econstruct

w ill b e

m o f

t he

s uch a s a b lanket

a cid

most

T hey

d ifferent

2 0-30

s everal

a s

a griculture

t o

( 1961).

w ill

c learing 2 5 m i n d iameter,

t hat

C learly

r econstruction

B radshaw

B y t he s ame r easoning a l arge s ampling s ite,

s everal

f or

a nd

h undred m etres

s oils

u seful

a nd

s mall

r ecords

f or

b ogs w ill b e

b est

s uited

a nd

p eat

s ites

b lanket

r egional

a griculture.

I t

must n ot b e f orgotten t hat h uman i nfluences u pon v egetation, f or e xample d eforestation a nd a griculture, c ould c hange t he s ize o f a s ampling s ite a nd c onsequently may a ffect S ediment w hen

r esolution

a ttempting

marginal s hort

t o

u pland

p eriods

p astoral

s ites

o f

( accumulation

i dentify

t he

a rable

t ime,

a ctivity.

a mount

a ctivity

i ntercalated I n

( traditionally 1 c m t hi ,pk) may b e c ompletely m issed.

t he p ollen r ain.

p er

y ear)

a nd

t ype

t ends

t o

c ould o f

b e

i mportant

a griculture.

o ccur

f or

I n

r elatively

b etween

m uch

l onger

p eriods

w here

t he

d epth

o f

s ediments

o f

s ample

r epresents 1 0-20 y ears, a rable a griculture I f t he s ample r epresents 1 00-200 y ears

s everal p hases o f a griculture c ould b e p resent. T raditional p ollen

g enerally

t reatment g lycerol O ne

w ith j elly

m ajor

p ollen 1 960),

m ethods i nvolve

h ydrofluoric

making

i dentification.

t end i t

t o t o

e xtracting

t he

o f

w hen

d ifficult

A ndersen

o r

I versen

u se

s well

a nd

c oncentrating

i n p otassium h ydroxide,

a cid

( see F aegri a nd

o bjection

g rains

o f

b oiling

( 1960)

o xidation

m ounting

i n

1 975 and M oore a nd W ebb 1 97d).

g lycerol m ounted

t o

a nd

f ossil

a cetolysis,

j elly i n

e mploy t herefore

i t

i s

t he

( Faegri

s ize

f act a nd

t hat D euse

s tatistics

p roposes

t he

u se

i n o f

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the field into a brown podzolic soil (Fig. 4:4); the thin peat cover of early medieval times was completely destroyed and has not yet re­ formed. Perhaps it never will. In other Lobes (e.g. Central Lobe 1 - Fig. 4:2), probably abandoned somewhat earlieR than the North Lobe, a new, often very thin peat now blankets the plough strips. In some of these areas the old plough soil takes the form of an exceptionally thick and light-coloured Ah/E horizon beneath a mere 59 cm of peat. In the outfields two patterns are evident. In some areas, the peat has a relatively high content of mineral soil; loss­ on-ignition values (LOI) range from 25-50%, compared to a typical range of 55-80% in the virgin soils beyond the bounds of the outfields. It is thought that in these 'Low LOI' zones brief and probably relatively late outfield episodes f 16th century?) with minimal land preparation simply mixed the peat horizon with the underlying mineral soil; the process would also have led to organic matter losses, and the present peat is usually significantly thinner than the peat in virgin land. The Iron-pan stagnopodzols adjacent to the North Lobe corn-ditch are of this type, and the profile sampled for pollen as a 'control' at this site (Fig. 4:4) may have been affected by these processes. In other parts of the outfields a thinning of the peat is the principal sign of human intervention; LOI values span a slightly wider range than those in virgin land, and include some lower values. However, in general the peat in these zones has'much the same amount of mineral material as the peat outside the enclosures. In this case it is thought that the peat visible today has re-formed after a single episode of tillage at the time when the outfield boundaries were constructed ( 13th century); total destruction of the original peat cover seems likely, and this could reflect the employment of more intensive methods of land preparation (e.g. paring and burning) and/or more prolonged cultivations. Some 12-15 cm of peat now covers these zones, which include the area surrounding site F and thus the 'control' profile adjacent to the prehistoric palaeosol (Fig. 4:3). It is worth mentioning that, due to the depradations of peat cutters and a fairly high level of natural variability in peat depth and quality, the recovery of these sort of patterns requires very dense sampling over substantial areas, with particular attention being paid to the way in which soil properties change at land boundaries. The soil evidence recovered using these techniques has backed up the information about medieval land use obtained by more traditional archaeological field surveying (see Fleming an ) L . o c d c o l c a ) z . P : 3 0 1 o E 4 J 0 C . c d < V C 4 4 , C

( 1 ) !X I

B i

r 1 c d > a ) . 4 V W A

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O r 4 ,

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M e d i e v a l P e r i o d

P o s t m e d i e v a l

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Period I soil (under Hut J) in the first millennium BC. The bAh/AB boundary is thought to correspond with an assumed break in occupation between Period II and Period III of the Cefn Graeanog II hut-group when the Period II hut (J) became a grass-grown ruin in the first two centuries BC. Hence horizon AB probably accumulated during cultivation associated with the later periods (III, IV) of this hut­ group in Roman and post-Roman times. Kelly (1982) argues that the upper part of horizon Ah2 (Fig. 5:2) is contemporary with occupation of the medieval farmstead. Hence, the lower part of horizon Ah2 corresponds either with cultivation associated with the preceding timber phase of the farmstead or with other, earlier settlement in the period since the abandonment of the Cefn Graeanog II hut-group in the 6th century AD. There were traces of "round-cornered rectangular structures, perhaps of early medieval date" (Kelly 1982: 887) to the north of the Cefn Graeanog II hut group (Fig. 5:1) but these were not excavated. Nevertheless, it became clear in analysing the palynological and palaeobotanical results from the two recent excavations that the accumulation of the whole of horizon Ah2 clearly post-dated the demise of the Cefn Graeanog II hut-group. This conclusion was reached after comparing pollen spectra in buried soils and colluvium horizons with records of charred weed seeds recovered from flotation samples taken from the two recently excavated sites. Hillman (1982) recorded abundant corn marigold (Chrysanthemum segetum) seeds in flots from the medieval farmstead, whilst this species was not apparently a feature of the segetal flora at the time of the Cefn Graeanog II hut-group. In the colluvium section, pollen of Compositae Tub. is conspicuous in horizon Ah2 but was not previously abundant; the increase in Composi tae Tub. pollen records above the AB/ Ah2 boundary was attributed to the importation of corn marigold into the area as an arable weed (Chambers 1982: 900). This would accord with the view that corn marigold is an introduction to Britain According to Godwin (1975), seed (Clapham, Tutin & Warbug 1981). records of Chrysanthemum segetum are confined to Roman and medieval occupation levels, though Iron Age records have since been reported from Hampshire (Monk and Fasham 1980; Jones, in press). At Graeanog, its arrival may be considered to have been in the medieval period. A break in arable land use may be inferred for the Ah2/Ah boundary after the abandonment of the medieval farmstead in the first half of the 13th century AD. Post-medieval and modern tillage led to the accumulation of horizon Ah above. This interpretation of the colluvium stratigraphy is summarised in Table 5:1. The Valley Mire A monolith of peat was extracted from the valley mire to the west of the excavations at a point 20 metres from the margin. Detailed results of the valley mire pollen and radiocarbon dating analyses will appear elsewhere (Chambers, forthcoming). The results of pollen analyses and humus determinations on the top 75 cm of the valley mire peat are summarised in Fig. 5: 3. The base of this sequence apparently dates from circa. 850 be. 114

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F luctuations i n t he A .P./N.A.P. c urve i n t he d iagram a re i ndicative o f a s eries o f f orest c learances a nd r egeneration e pisodes i n t he G raeanog a rea s ince t he s econd m illennium B C. C orrelation B etween A .P. I t t he

i s

n otable

a rboreal

d eclining

t hat

p ollen

t rend, t he

t he

p ercentage i n

F ig.

o n

t his

m agnitude

d irections

e quivalence o f p eaks A

t he c urve

s uperimposed

W hile

e quivalent,

b oth

( A.P.)

b ut

f luctuations.

L evels a nd D egree o f H umification

o f

e xhibit

t rend

o f

t he

h umification 5 :3

t he

a re

c urve a n

s imilar

m arked

f luctuations

c hanges

d o

a ppear

a nd

o verall i s

n ot

s o.

T he

s eems e specially m arked.

S pearman's

r ank

c orrelation

o f

3 6

p airs

o f

A .P.

a nd

h umification v alues g ave a c oefficient ( rs ) o f + 0.83, s ignificant a t t he 0 .001 l evel. I t m ust b e a cknowledged t hat t his c oefficient l argely

s ummarises

b ut

a c oefficient

i n

t he

c urves

c oefficients c oefficients

m ay

0 .68

d egree

b e

c ontrolled

i n

c losely

d eclining t hat

a nd

P artial

c orrelation

c ase)

w ere

s trongest a nd

t au(ax,d)=0.38; p ollen

o f

h umification

s ignificance

o f

a ssessed.

A n

( x).

p artial

( As

a

c orrelation

a lternative

i s

( a)

t au(ad,x)=0.48;

t herefore

v alues.

d escriptive

c oefficients

a pproach

w ould

T he

( with t he t hird f actor

c orrelation

a rboreal

a nd 0 .64

d epth).

b e

a

l evels a nd

s tatistic,

c annot

t o

b etween

H owever,

c onsiderable d egree o f c o-variance d oes e xist b etween A .P. d egree

t rends,

f luctuations

i nverse

c orrelation c oefficients

( d)

o verall t he

l evels a nd i nverse d epth),

h umification

T he

d epth

t he

i ndicates

c orrelated.

( between A .P.

e ach

t au(xd,a)=0.36.

i n

m agnitude

c alculated f rom K endall's r ank c orrelation 0 .65 ( between A .P. l evels a nd d egree o f

o f

c orresponding p artial

d ecreasing

e quivalence

t his

w ere t hen ( tau) o f

h umification), ( between

t he o f

a dapt

t he

e asily

b e

e stablished

c urve-matching t echniques f or t hese d ata.) P eat H umification a nd P ollen R ecords o f A gricultural T ypes F ig. p lants

5 :3

a nd

p ercentage

c ontains

p robable

a s ummation

w eeds.

h umification

P lantago l anceolata)

c urve

A S pearman's

a nd

r ecorded

o f

p ollen

r ank

p ollen o f

r ecords

o f

c orrelation

t hese

t axa

c rop

b etween

( excluding

p roduced a n egative c orrelation c oefficient

o f 0.74, s ignificant l anceolata i ncluded).

a t

t he

0 .001

l evel

( r

=

0.83

( rs )

w hen

P .

D ISCUSSION S ignificance o f C hanges i n Humification A aby

& T auber

r aised-bog

p eat

i s

d ue

s econdary

d ryness.

I nterpretation i n

s uggested

t hat

p eats

b e

c an

d rier), a nd

t erms

w etter

t o

o f

o f w ith

h igh

w ith

p eriods

c onditions ( cp.

d egree

h umidity

o f w hen

G ranlund

l ow a

r e-growth

16

G odwin

t ime

d uring

i ts

t herefore,

v alues

I t i n

c limate

c orrespond

( recurrence) 1 954;

o f

p eriods

c hanges.

e quable

h umification

1 932;

h umificabion o f t he

s tratigraphy,

h umification o f

o f a t

a lteration

r aised-bog

h orizons h orizons

t he

t o

c limatically-induced

c orrelated

w hereas

s timulated

t hat

r elated

a nd

b een

s howed

c losely

f ormation l argely

n ot

( 1975)

h as

o f h as

b een

r aised-bog ( warmer w ith

o f

1 975).

a nd

c ooler

p eat

i s

W eber's

G renzhorizont t ype.

w as

T his

d emonstrating ( recurrence

t hought

t o

m ark

i nterpretation t he

o ccurrence

s urfaces)

a c limatic

h as o f

b een

s everal

o f d ifferent

s urfaces w ith d ifferent a ges

a ges

d eterioration

m uch

m odified

s imilar

b oundary

i n S weden,

i n t he s ame m ire

o f

t his

b y

w ork

h orizons

a nd o f r ecurrence

( Lundquist

1 962;

G odwin

1 975) D espite

t he

c onflicting

e vidence

f rom

c ontinental

E urope,

s ome

s tratigraphic c hanges i n r aised m ires h ave b een s olely a ttributed t o c limatic c hange. T he ' flooding h orizons' o f t he S omerset L evels w ere i nterpreted w hich

a s

c limatically d etermined

p rehistoric

w ater-level:

" The

c limatic s hift

t rackways

h ad

t rackways

a re

t o ..

t owards f looding.."

( Clapham & G odwin

b e

b uilt

t o

i ndicative

( Godwin

1 975:

A pparently r egular s hifts f rom d ark t o D anish r aised m ires h ave b een i nterpreted c hanges

w ith

a p eriodicity

h ydrological a nd

t he

r elations

s urrounding

o f

2 60

y ears

h ave

o f

t he

u pon

r ise

s uccessional

i n a nd

4 2).

l ight-coloured p eat , i n a s r ecording c limatic

( Aaby

b etween a r aised m ire

l andscape

1 948),

c ounter

1 976).

f ound

H owever,

t he

i n a r iver v alley

b een r ather n eglected:

t he

e ffect

o f n earby f orest c learance u pon t he d rainage o f s uch a r aised m ire i s u nclear. I t m ay b e n oted a t t his p oint t hat i n c ertain i nstances, marked r ecurrence s urfaces a ppear t o b e a ssociated w ith p eriods o f i ncreased a gricultural n ot

a ctivity

c onsistently

S omerset L evels c hange T he

L evels

( cf.

T urner

b orne

o ut

b y

( Coles

e t

a l.

1 964),

t he

b ut

a c lear

e vidence.

1 975

e t

c orrelation

C urrent

f f)

a nd

i n

w ork

t he

i n

i s t he

H umberhead

( B.M. S mith, i n p rep.) m ay a llow c omparison b etween c limatic a nd e vidence o f p eriods o f i ncreased a gricultural a ctivity.

d ifficulty h ere

i s

t hat

s ome

o f t he

e vidence o f p ast w eather a nd

c limate is d irectly d erived f rom s tratigraphic s tudies i n w hich a c ausal r elationship b etween c limate a nd p eat h umification w as a ssumed ( cf.

L amb T he

1 977). m atter

i s

u nlikely

t o

b e

r esolved

w ithout

f urther

d etailed

s tudy. A gricultural A ctivity a nd H umification o f V alley-Bog P eat I n a reas o f m arginal a griculture, P arry ( 1975) c laimed a d irect r elationship b etween i ntensity o f a gricultural l and-use a nd s ecular c limatic

c hange:

o ne m ight

e xpect,

t herefore,

i n m arginal a reas

s uch

a s C efn G raeanog, t o f ind a c orrelation b etween d egree o f h umification a nd l evel o f a gricultural a ctivity, v iz, a gricultural a ctivity

i s

s timulated

a t

t imes

o f

m ore

e quable

c limate;

a m ore

e quable c limate i ncreases t he d egree o f h umification. A lthough w as

m ainly

1 960's i t

i s

w ith

r ecent

y ears

a rable

o ccasional

b elieved

c enturies.

i n

p astoral,

c rops

t his m ay h ave

C harred

r emains

t he

u se o f

m ade

b arley,

b een o f

f arming

w as t he

c rop

a ctivity o f

l and

o f i n

C efn t he

G raeanog

1 950's

a nd

r oots

a nd

w inter-'own

p ractice

f or

t he p receding t wo

p lants

( Hillman

1 982)

a nd

o ats; s oil

p ollen r ecords i ndicate t hat t he a rea h as e xperienced a rable a ctivity ( though

i ntermittent)

f or

m illennia.

17

T here s hould t herefore b e a

p ositive

c orrelation

p ercentage

b etween

h umification

p ollen

i f

e vidence

p ostulates

A

f or

a griculture

( humification

a nd

r elates

d irectly t o c limate) a nd B ( more e quable c limate s timulates m arginal a griculture) a re t rue. I n f act, a s trong n egative c orrelation w as f ound.

I n v iew o f t his,

i n t his

i nstance.

e ither

( or b oth)

p ostulate m ust b e i ncorrect

H umification i n V alley-Bog P eat R aised m ires a re b elieved t o b e s ensitive t o c limatic c hange b ecause t hey a re o mbrogenous: t heir e xistence i s s aid t o b e d irectly d etermined b y t he p recipitation s ubject ( Godwin 1 975). V alley

m ires

i nfluenced

b y

h ydrological o ff. t he o f

I f

t he

a mount

s aid

o f

t hrough

c learance

t he

a

m ovement

p lace

b een

' wetter'

( 1975)

f ound

h umification

t herefore

w hich

a nd

a re

A n

p roduce

a re

d irectly

r atio

a d rainage

i ncrease. t o

t hey

o f

o f g roundwater

w ithin

s hown

e nvironment

t heir

a nd

r un-

b asin,

t hen

i ntensification

t he

i s

a c lear n egative

a nd

c reated

s ame

r esult:

e specially

( Riezebos & S lotboom

h umidity

a t

1 978:

i n

8 1).

t he A aby

c orrelation b etween d egree

t ime

o f

f ormation:

i t

o f

f ollows

t hat t he c reation o f a w etter l ocal e nvironment w ill r educe

t he d egree t o w hich p eat i s h umified. p roduced b y f orest c learance: t here p eat

a rboreal

w hich

g rassland a nd c utting w oods r esults g enerally i n a e vapotranspiration a nd a n i ncreasing r unoff.

C onsequently,

p eat

t o

t opogenous

d rastically

h as

d epressions o f t he l andscape.." & T auber

b e

t akes

r un-off may

a griculture

" Breaking u p d ecreasing

t o

e vaporation

p recipitation/evapotranspiration

c atchment

f orest

a rable

a re

a nd

h umification

p ollen

i n

l evels.

v alley I t

i s

T he w etter e nvironment c an i s t hus a c lear m echanism

m ire

d eposits

p ostulated

c an

t hat

b e

t his

r elated

e xplains

b e b y t o t he

c orrelation o bserved a t C efn G raeanog. I n r ecords

v iew o f t he h igh n egative c orrelation b etween t he p ollen o f a gricultural t ypes a nd p ercentage h umification, i t s eems

a ppropriate m ire

a s

t o

r egard

b eing

t he

c hanges

s trongly

r egeneration o f w oodland a nd

i n p eat h umification

i nfluenced

b oth

b y

t he

i n

t he v alley

c learance

o r

b y t he p ractice o f a rable a griculture o n

t he r idge. D ating A gricultural A ctivity a t G raeanog T he

c olluvium

i ncreased

s ection

a gricultural

i ndicating

b reaks

i n

e pisodes w ere p roposed

( or

p roduced

a ctivity, l and

e vidence

w ith

f our

o ccupation.

o f

f ive

e pisodes

' still-stands'

T entative

d ates

w ith

t he

U nfortunately

t he

w ere

a

n ot

s uspect

i n

r adiocarbon-dated

r adiocarbon

c hronological

( Chambers,

f or

t hese

i n T able 5 :1.

I t w as i ntended t hat t hese t entative d ates m ight b e o therwise) b y c omparing t he p ollen s pectra i n t he

s ection

o f

p ossibly

d ates

s eries;

f orthcoming).

m ire

o btained t wo

F urther,

f rom

d ates

c onfirmed c olluvium

p ollen t he w ere

a lthough

m ire

d iagram. s ection

p articularly t here

w as

n o

s tratigraphic e vidence f or h iatus o r d isturbance i n t hat m ire s ection ( apart f rom t he t op 1 0 c m - s ee F ig. 5 :3), t wo m onoliths t aken a s ' replicates'

f rom t he v alley m ire s howed c lear s igns o f d isturbance.

18

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l i a s

0

0

, r 3

_ a

0 0,1 ( 'f l • •

0 C \ . 1 L C 1

C o C \ I r -

0 Co

t o r e c e n t 0 S Y 1 4 -

.

0 4 )

0 4 . )

1 0 3

1

0 I n . 1 D

« I

C D 4 '

•

•

•

°I

°l

01

( v a l e y

T a b l e 5 : 2 :

H o r i z o n s

m i r e )

E l F A O N , -

0 C r l

.

0

. oI

0 4 )

4 )

0 . n

0 . 0 1

0 L r l

0 L C \

( Y )

C o I -

0

• Cs )I

E l 0

1

0 L C 1

i

i n

I

t i-)

• CO

O D I n

0 1

4) > r 4 4 ) C Z /

S . Z

C O

0

c n G. )

W

f . . 0 C )

c d G . ' › , C / )

4 3 I 1 • r 1

V Q . ) 4 -,

c 0 . )

a )

•Z • r 4 r 1

a l 4, . )

a c ) o V .

0 b p X R I C I )

W g . ,

C l . o r l )

C O 0

C O

1 C 1

I

E 4 r i

CO

>

› ) . o

. • p b 1 2 ,

. 4N-

0

C O ‚ . O\ 0 ea l ' -

• 0

I • . VD

2 0

• c m

C d

Z • 7 : 3 ,c 2 1 ( 1 . ) C V 1 ) , c a s

0 . C )

•

•

>

W

. , C . ) I Z 0 f O N 4 ) • r 4 • r I , 4 4 ) f . 4 0 3 0 0

E l

a ) L

a s o

n . 4

.

9 , :

Z . b 0 a l (4 -

0

a ,

0 C 0 4 3 c o

0

L . 0 H

c cd H

0

Hence there must be some doubt as to the date of clearance episodes in the mire pollen diagram. However, these reservations apart, it may be no coincidence that humification peaks in Fig. 5: 3 would correspond closely with the suggested ages of still-stands in the colluvium section if the two 'inverted' radiocarbon dates were excluded from calculations ( the other six radiocarbon dates fit a smooth deposition-rate curve). Dates calculated on this selective basis are shown in Table 5:2. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Excavations of two archaeological sites on Cefn Graeanog, Gwynedd, Wales by G.A.T. Ltd., included a programme of sampling for Pollen samples were taken from beneath environmental analysis. structures on the sites, from a stratified accumulation of hillwash (colluvium) and from the margins of an extensive valley mire nearby. The layered colluvium provided evidence of five episodes of intensified downslope soil movement since the Brcnze Age, which appeared to be related to periods of increased local cultivation separated by still-stands of little or no arable activity, these possibly corresponding with breaks in land occupation. Pollen analyses and humus determinations of the valley mire peat produced a positive correlation between arboreal pollen levels and degree of humification, and a negative correlation between the latter and records of pollen of crop plants and lik��J ·e�ds. It is suggested that decreased evapotranspiration anc i.ncreased run-off accompanied woodland clearance and arable activity. The local environment of the valley mire thus became wetter and hence reduced the degree of peat humification. Periods of reduced arable activity apparently allowed woodland regeneration, reducing run-off and producing a drier environment in the valley mir8 an, hence increased There may be implicat�ons ln the results peat humification. presented here for peat humification studies of raised mires in certain topographic situations. Determination of valley mire peat humification !flay therefore be a useful technique for evaluating the impact of human activity in a catchment, and when combined with soil pollen studies, may allow reconstr-uction of both sequent occupance and periods of increased arable activity. However, there is evidence to suggest tnat some of the Graeanog valley mire depo$it.S may be disturbed and radi.ocarbon ddtes on the peat monolith are not in a chronological sori8s. Acknowledgements The author is indebted to Professor A. G. Smith for laboratory facilities and to Mrs. M. Patrfok for drawing Fig. 1 and Table 1. I should like to thank R. B. White (Director) and R. S. Kelly (Deputy Director) of the Gwynedd Archaeological Trust for information on the archaeological sites and for helpful discussions and encouragement.

120

B ibliography A aby,

B .

( 1976) C yclic c limatic v ariations i n c limate o ver t he p ast 5 ,500 r eflected i n r aised b ogs. N ature 2 62 2 81-284

A aby,

B .

& T auber, H . ( 1975) R ates o f p eat f ormation i n r elation t o d egree o f h umification a nd l ocal e nvironment, a s s hown b y s tudies o f a r aised b og i n D enmark.

B arber,

B oreas 4

1 -17

K .E. ( 1976) H istory o f v egetation. I n: M ethods i n P lant E cology. ( ed C hapman, S .B.) O xford: B lackwell S cientific P ublications p p. 5 -83

C hambers,

F .M . R .S.

( 1982) T he

A ppendix 3 , P alynological s tudies. I n: K elly, e xcavation o f a m edieval f armstead a t C efn

G raeanog, C lynnog, G wynedd. B ulletin C eltic S tudies 2 9 ( 4) p p. 8 98-900 C hambers,

F .M .

( forthcoming)

R eport

o f

o n p alynological

t he

B oard

o f

i nvestigations,

C efn G raeanog. I n: W hite, R .B. C efn G raeanog I I - a n I ron A ge, R oman a nd p ost-Roman f armstead i n A rfon G wynedd. C ambrian A rchaeological A ssociation M onographs a nd C ollection N o. C lapham,

2

A .R. & G odwin, H . ( 1948) S tudies o f t he p ost-glacial h istory o f B ritish v egetation. V III. S wamping s urfaces i n p eats o f t he S omerset l evels. P hilosophical o f t he R oyal S ociety B 2 33 2 33-273

C lapham,

C oles,

T ransactions

A .R., T utin, T .G. e t W arburg, E .F. ( 1981) E xcursion F lora o f t he B ritish I sles, 3 rd E d. C ambridge: U niversity P ress

J .M .

G odwin,

( 1975 e t f f) S omerset L evels P apers.

H . ( 1954) R ecurrence-surfaces. U ndersogelse R II ( 80) 2 2-30

G odwin,

H . ( 1975) T he H istory o f C ambridge: U niversity P ress

t he

C ambridge D anmarks

B ritish

F lora,

g eologi. 1 -193

G eologiske

2 nd

E d.

G ranlund,

E . ( 1932) D e S venska h ogmgssarnos G eologiska U ndersokning S er C 2 6 ( 373)

H illman,

G .C. ( 1982) A ppendix 4 , C rop h usbandry a t t he m edieval f armstead, C efn G raeanog: r econstruction f rom c harred r emains o f p lants. I n: K elly, R .S. T he e xcavation o f a m edieval f armstead a t C efn G raeanog, C lynnog, G wynedd. B ulletin o f t he B oard o f C eltic S tudies 2 9(4)

H ogg,

p p.

S veriges

9 01-906

A .H.A. ( 1969) C efn G raeanog: a n ative s ite o f t he R oman p eriod. T ransactions o f t he C aernarvonshire H istorical S ociety 3 0 8 -20

J ones,

M .K.

( in

D aneburg,

p ress) H ants

T he ( ed.

P lant

R emains

C unliffe,

1 21

B .W.)

I n: L ondon:

E xcavations C BA

o f

K eeley,

H .

( 1982)

A ppendix

e xcavation o f a C lynnog, G wynedd. 2 9(4) K elly,

L amb,

p p.

8 95-898

R .S. ( 1982) T he e xcavation o f a m edieval f armstead a t C efn G raeanog, C lynnog, G wynedd. B ulletin o f t he B oard of C eltic S tudies 2 9(4) 8 59 -9 08 H .H.

( 1977) C limate; P resent, P ast a nd F uture. H istory a nd t he F uture. L ondon: M ethuen

L undquist,

G .

( 1962)

S tockholm 5 6 M onk,

2 , T he S oils. I n: K elly, R .S. T he m edieval f armstead a t C efn G raeanog, B ulletin o f t he B oard o f C eltic S tudies

M .A.

( 589)

a nd I ron

G eological

s tation.

r adiocarbon

S veriges

V ol.

2 C limatic

d atings

f rom

t he

G eologiska U ndersokning S er

C

8 -12

F asham, A ge

P .J.

s ites

( 1980)

i n

C arbonised

c entral

p lant r emains

H ampshire.

f rom t wo

P roceedings

o f

t he

P rehistoric S ociety 4 6 3 21-344 P arry,

M .L.

( 1975)

S ecular c limatic

T ransactions 1 3 R iezebos,

P .A.

& o f

t he

p eat

c hange a nd m arginal

a griculture.

I nstitute o f B ritish G eographers 6 4

S lotboom,

H usterbaach s tudy

o f

R .T.

( 1978)

P ollen

( Luxembourg):

i ts

s ub-recent g eomorphological

a nalysis

s ignificance e vents.

o f f or

1 -

t he t he

B oreas 7 7 5-

8 2 S tuiver,

T urner, I .

M . ( 1982) A h igh-precision c alibration o f t he A D r adiocarbon t ime s cale R adiocarbon 2 4(1) 1 -26 J .

( 1964)

T he a nthropogenic f actor i n v egetational h istory.

T regaron a nd W hixall M osses.

W hite,

R .B.

( 1978)

G oodburn, W hite,

R .B.

C efn R .)

N ew P hytologist 6 3 7 3 -8 9

G raeanog.

I n:

R oman

B ritain

i n

1 977

( ed

B ritannia 9 4 06 -4 07

( forthcoming)

C efn

G raeanog

I I

- a n

I ron

A ge,

R oman a nd

p ost-Roman f armstead i n A rfon, G wynedd. I n: C ambrian A rchaeological A ssociation M onographs a nd C ollections N o. 2 W .S.D.G.

( 1978) C efn

W elsh

S oils

G raeanog,

A berystwyth:

D iscussion B ryncir,

W .S.D.G.

1 22

G roup

S ummer

G wynedd

F ield

( Field

M eeting: G uide).

6 .

P OLLEN A ND P LANT M ACROFOSSIL A NALYSIS O F D EPOSITS F ROM T HE I RON A GE D ITCHED E NCLOSURE A T S HIELS,

D .

G OVAN,

G LASGOW

R obinson

I NTRODUCTION T he d itched s ituated

o n

t he

a t S hiels,

C lyde

G ovan,

f loodplain,

G lasgow

0 .5

k m

( NS

f ort a t B earsden

( Fig.

i s

l east

c a.

5 0

6 k m

m

d eposits.

w ide.

B .O.D.)

I t

i s

T he v alley i s a d eep

i nfilled

b ounded

t o

w ith

t he

T he

monument

K .

g round

S .

w as

S t.

N o

m arine

s outh

b y

a nd

( to

a t

f luvial

d rumlin

f ields

1 50 m A .O.D.

o n

p art

a erial

o f

t he

p hotographs t aken b y

s tructure

w as

v isible

a t

l evel a s i t w as c overed b y a s hallow p loughed s oil.

E xcavation d irection a dvance

o f

of

o f

t he

M r.

J .

f actory

r evealed a n 4 2 m b y 3 6 m .

t ook

S cott

p lace

o f

i n

1 973

K elvingrove

c onstruction.

M echanical

a nd

1 974,

M useum,

u nder

t he

G lasgow,

s tripping

o f

t he

i n a rea

o val e nclosure e longated e ast-west a nd a pproximately T here w as a s ingle e ntrance t o t he e ast ( Fig. 6 :2). A

e nclosure a nd

r epresent

s ite

G .

5 m b y 3m ,

r ectangular b uilding, t he

d etected

J oseph.

a nd

v alley

a nd b eyond t hat b y h igher g round

o f s ubdued l ocal r elief r ising t o c a.

J .

i s

w hich a t t his

f luvial

g lacial,

n orth

( aligned a pproximately w est t o e ast)

D r.

6 67)

6 :1).

T he s ite l ies n ear t he c entre o f t he C lyde V alley, p oint

5 23

s outh o f t he p resent

7 km w est o f G lasgow c ity c entre a nd 6 k m s outh of t he

r iver c ourse, A ntonine

e nclosure R iver

t he

h ad

t races o f s everal

r emains

o f

h ouses,

b een s et a cross t he e ntrance t o

c ircular w ere

s tructures,

p resent

a s

p resumed

s tains

i n

t o t he

s ubsoil. T he d itch s urrounding t he e nclosure w as c ut i nto t he w ashed s and a nd g ravel o f t he f loodplain a nd t he s oil w as u sed t o c onstruct a b ank o n i ts o uter e dge. T he b ank w as l ater d estroyed, p resumably b y n atural o f

t he

e rosion a nd s and

a nd

r epeated

g ravel

p loughing o f t he a rea.

p resented

p roblems

f or

T he

t he modern

i nstability e xcavators

a nd a lso a pparently, f or t he o riginal b uilders. I n a ntiquity v arious a ttempts h ad b een m ade t o s tabilise t he s ides of t he b ank a nd d itch. C lay-lining, a nd

4 t o

6 .5

m

c onsequence i s c omplex. s and

t erracing

a nd

r epeated

c ollectively t hey r esulted

a nd

b ut

w hich

w as

a t

o f t hese m easures

r ecutting

h ad

a ll

i n a d itch w hich v aried most

t he

o nly

2 .5

t o

b een

e mployed

i n w idth f rom

3 m d eep.

A s

S ections r evealed m any a lternating l ayers of c lay, g ravel,

e ach

a

s tratigraphy o f t he d itch d eposits

c ontaining

1 23

v ariable

a mounts

o f

s ilt,

o rganic

C omps ie

_An ton ine

F e l ls

Wa l l B eo rsden- R oman F o r t

S HIELS

•

G LASGOW

P a Is ley

•E as t K i lb r ide

0

F ig.

6 :1

5

M k m

( above)

L ocation

m ap

f or

S hiels.

F ig.

S ketch p lan o f t he d itched e nclosure a t t he l ocation o f t he s ection s ampled a nalysis. S H IELS

d i tched e nc losu re

a na lysed s ec ti c r

D ITCH

t r aces o f h u t c i rc les a nd

o the r

c onstruc t ions

D ITCH

4 0m

1 24

E NTRANCE

6 :2

( below)

S hiels s howing f or b otanical

m aterial.

' Vegetation,

a m ussel

s hell'

c omm.). a long t wo

M any

w ith

o f

1 640

4* 8 0

w ood

c hips,

s everal

t he

a nd

w orked

p roduced

( SRR-577),

a nimal t eeth a nd w hat a ppeared t o b e

f rom t he e xcavation

t wigs

l arger

' stakes' b p

b eetles,

w ere a ll n oted

b ark

' stakes'.

d ates

o f

s uggesting

G .

1 40

u sage

o f

S cott p ers.

w ere

R adiocarbon

1 930

t he

( J.

f ragments b p

r ecovered

a nalysis

( SRR-576)

t he m onument

o f a nd

d uring

t he R oman I ron A ge. A n

e xcavation

d rawings

a nd

s ummaries

r eport

p lans

o f

a re

t he

i s

n ot

i n

p reparation

y et

a vailable

e xcavations

E xcavation i n S cotland

( Scott

a re

1 973,

( Scott, f or

f orthcoming)

p ublication.

p ublished

i n

a nd

S hort

D iscovery

a nd

1 974).

S AMPLING A ND A NALYSIS O F T HE D EPOSITS S ections w ere c ut a t s everal p oints t hrough t he d itch d uring t he 1 974

e xcavation.

O ne

s ection

m etal m onolith t ins. m ore

o r

l ess

s ealed

b y

T he

( Figs.

o rganically-rich

s everal

6 :2

s ection a t

l ayers

l ayers

o f

a nd

t his

6 :3)

p oint

o verlying

s terile

s and.

w as

s ampled

u sing

r evealed a n umber o f t he

T he

p rimary

s ilt

s ediments

a nd

s ampled

r anged f rom t he p rimary s ilt a t a d epth o f 1 70 c m ( below t he s ubsoil s urface) t o t he l owest o f t he s terile s and l ayers a t a d epth o f 9 0 c m.

T he

s ampled

s ediments,

w ood

f ragments

a nd

s takes

w ere

l ater

s ubmitted f or b otanical a nalysis. I n

t he

a nalysis

o f

t he

r emoved w here p ossible. t han o f

t his

a nd

s maller

s ubsample

w as

t echniques

( Birks

p ollen

a dopted

w as

m onolith

s ubsamples

p repared a nd

B irks

a nd

s amples

1 0

t his

h ad

f or

t o

1 980). w as

b e

u sed.

p ollen

( ideally

m acrofossils. 1 %

N aOH

s ieves

T he

s olution ( 1250

m acrofossil

1 00

A p ollen

r eached

c m3 , b ut

m aterial b efore

m icron

d ata

a re

s ubsamples

w ere

w as

b eing

a t

s um

m ost

a nd

often

l ess)

b roken

d own

w et

1 50

s ieved

m icron

c alibrated

t o

A pproximately 2 g

a nalysis

5 00

s tandard t otal T he

l and

p ollen

T he r emainder o f t he

w as

a nalysed

e ither

i n

t hrough

m esh

g ive

u sing

o f

l evels.

d ata a re e xpressed a s a p ercentage o f t his s um. s ubsample

m m

S ome l ayers w ithin t he s ection w ere n arrower

f or

p lant

w arm w ater

c oarse

a nd

r espectively).

v alues

o f

o r

f ine T he

m acrofossils

p er

1 00 c m3 o f s ubsample. T he d ata i n

p ollen d ata a re

p resented

f igure 6 :5 a nd t ables 6 :1

i n

f igure

6 :4

a nd

t he m acrofossil

a nd 6 :2.

D ATA A ND I NTERPRETATION I t

w as

h oped

b y

t he

e xcavator

t hat

t he

a nalysis

o f

t he

d itch

s ection w ould p rovide i nformation a bout b oth t he r egional l andscape a nd l ocal e vents d uring t he o ccupation o f t he e nclosure, w ith p articular

i nterest

i nhabitants. p roblems t ime

i n t he w ith

t he

o ver

s urface.

w hich

f rom O ther

I n a ddition,

b y t he

o rigins

s ediments

s oil

b eing

a g reat

p resented

c oncerning t he

T o

t his

r elative

a ges

a ccumulated.

d itch

p lant

t he

b een

s ides,

m aterial

t he

w ould

o f

M uch

i s o bviously o f l ocal t he

i n

h as

e conomy

p ossible

c omplex s tratigraphy a nd

a nd

t hey

e xpressed

e xtent

t he o f

o rigin, b ank

h ave

a nd b een

t he

o f

d espite

t he t he

u ncertainties

v arious

l ayers

a nd

t he o rganic m aterial h aving b een w ashed i n t he

s urrounding

w ater-

o r

l and

a ir-borne.

t he p resence o f b oth c arbonised a nd u ncarbonised r emains

1 25

o f

h eath

p eat

a nd

b og

" pebbles"

b een b rought d itch w ould

p lants

a t

1 23

t o t he b e a

i n

c m

m any

o f

( Table

s ite, r ich

t he

6 :2),

s amples

( Fig.

s uggests

t hat

6 :5)

a nd

p eat

m ay

t he h ave

p erhaps f or f uel. P eat f alling i nto t he s ource o f n on-local p ollen a nd p lant

m acro f ossils. T he

p ollen

i nput

w ith o nly a s mall

i nto

a d itch

i s

o rigin D itch

r ich t o

S hiels w ere

i dentified. l ocal

t he

w eed

I t

i s

f lora

o penness

o f

u nusually r ich,

p ossible

a nd

t he

r egional

l ocal

t axa.

d eposits a t

t he

o f

d eposits a re e xpected t o y ield o nly a l imited n umber o f p ollen b eing

f rom

e ssentially

p ollen r ain.

T he

c ontribution

a n

s ite

t hat

i ncreased w ere

w ith

5 7

l and

a c ombination i nput

o f

r esponsible

p ollen t axa

o f a s pecies-

r egional

f or

p ollen d ue

t his.

D espite t he

l arge number o f t axa r ecorded a nd t he c omplexity o f t he s tratigraphy, t he c onditions r eflected i n t he p ollen d iagram a re r emarkably u niform o ver

t he

d epth

a nalysed.

W ith

r egard

t o

t he

e ffects

of

t he

h uman

p opulation t wo main f eatures a re a pparent:1 .

T he l ow l evels o f t ree p ollen. t ree p ollen, t otal. b irch

2 .

T he

D eciduous ( Betula)

h igh

w eed

m ostly a lder

b elow

i ncidence

5 0%

o f

t otal

m inor

i s

p lantain

P lantago,

t han

a rable

C ereal

c ereal i n t he

t ype

p ollen

e lm

1 0% o f t he ( Ulmus)

a nd

p astoral t he

p astoral

o f

o ther

m ost

a nd

t he

p ollen

o f

t he

a rable

i s m ore

a re

r ib-wort

T here

a nd

a s

s pecies

a griculture

r epresented

l owermost

4 0

a lso

s uch

W eed

w ith

R umex a nd R anunculus, i n

a re

s pecies

s triking. a s

o ver

T here

a rable

d iagram,

c lover ( Rumex),

g rains

w eed

f all

( Calluna

a nd s orrel

( Artemisia).

a griculture,

r arely

h eather

a mounts.

a nd

t he

a gricultural

l anceolata),

d ocken

mugwort

t houghout

p ollen

( Gramineae

o f

b oth

p ollen

p ollen

( Plantago

a nd

T rifolium,

C henopodiaceae,

t he

c onsiderable

a griculture

t ype

a nd

( Ranunculus),

b eing

t hat

( Gramineae)

t ype)

a lmost

c urve

i ndication o f

o f

w ith

r epresented

( Quercus),

f rom o pen-habitat a nd

p lantain

a nd

( Spergula

a ssociated

makes u p l ess t han

o ak

g rass

p ollen

p resent

o ccurences

s purrey

o f

b uttercup

( Urtica)

m icrons)

t rees,

o f p ollen

V alues

r ib-wort

( Trifolium), n ettle

f orest

a re p oorly r epresented.

s pecies.

v ulgaris),

A part f rom t wo i solated s amples,

( Alnus),

i s b y

s ome p ollen

p rominent

u ppermost

s amples.

i ndicators

s uch

a s

P olygonum a nd C ruciferae t ends n ot t o b e p resent

i n t hese s amples. P lant M acrofossil D ata P lant l ocal

m acrofossil

r ecord

o f

t he

r emains

p reserved

v egetation

t han

i n

a d itch

d oes

t he

p rovide

p reserved

a m ore p ollen,

h owever t he d eposits o f S hiels a re a gain u nusually r ich. T he i s

o verall

s imilar

t o

' Plants

U seful

r achis

s egments

f ragment

a re

h owever, o ccupation

of

p resent t he

r evealed

r evealed

t o M an',

p resent o f

p icture

t hat

p lant

m acrofossil

a nalysis

I n t he c ategory

o nly a c arbonised g rain a nd

s even c arbonised

( Hordeum)

a s ingle

t hroughout s ite

t he

p ollen a nalysis.

b arley i n

b y

b y t he

w as

a nd

s ubsample

t he

s ection,

p robably

t hat t he d eposits w ere a ccumulating.

1 26

a a t

h azel 1 48

( Corylus)

c m.

i ndicating

c ontinuous

n ut

C harcoal t hat

t hroughout

t he

i s,

h uman t ime

S HIELS — s ec t ion

a na lysed

i nner e dge

o u t e r

g o —

e dge

2 2 2 0

C C lay

2 1

C S

Sf Fin e S and

I LIA -1 12 1" P

1 9

Sc C oa re S and

1 B

S i S i l t

Sf c C S TONE

C S

O C

1 7

0 O r gan ic

HL ens o r

1 6

I n c lus ion . . I r on P an

1 5 ' 1 4 O CS

130

s andy p a r t ing 1 2

1 3 140

1 0 0C

150

S f

7

C S i [ S t} 4 CS i

6

160 —

Sc

2

S C

F ig.

6 :3

S tratigraphy o f t he s ediments s ampled f or b otanical a nalysis.

1 27

•e .

•• •

• •

• ••

_

•

.

••

-

•

••

a ) L I U I H 1 I 1

•

P o l e n S u m

•

.

4 - •

•

•

•

00 • • •• a Q

I

. .

.

-.

44 .

•

•

iii

• I

•

•

•

•

uh u .

• ••

i ,

" I

I I 1i ,I I 1 1 1 1

-I

•• •

V 4 4-

a ,

*

u J a

•I

.i l k II ▪

. 4

a

•

• •

•

•

-

• ••

> • • 1

I h i

11 :

l i d

i l

_ 3 -

•

4.

• •

. 1`.

• -

•

C C • 1

•

I

= U n d i f e r n t i a t e d

L 11

c i

o_

••

F

• •

••

1 a ,

•

I

•

4 ,

.

•

444

•

44 .

•

1

i nupt I l 1. I I II I; 1 1I II ,

II l ap

l ii i

I I II I ITß l ii

C 7 )

F ig.

6 :4

P ollen t otal

d ata

f rom

l and

S hiels,

p ollen.

T he

e xpressed p resences

a s

p ercentages

o f m inor

t axa

o f a re

i ndicated w ithin t he b ar d iagrams b y t he f ollowing a bbreviations: U = U lmus, P = P inus, P r = P runus T ., F = c .f.

F rangula,

O nobrychis

T .,

L ythrum,

R h

L abiatae

U .,

R

=

G e

R hinanthus

T .,

T

M = M entha L a

c lavatum,

=

a nd W ebb

T r

G = G enista T .,

T .,

M yriophyllum, r hizopod)

E = E mpetrum, = R ubus

( Pollen

=

T .,

M y

L ycopodium

T richuris a nd

s pore

1 978).

12 8

e gg,

= G eum =

T .,

= M yosotis

T ., L c

=

=

L

=

T eucrium,

a nnotinum, A

0 =

L y M r =

A mphitrema

n omenclature

a fter

= L . ( a

M oore

= p o l e n t o s p a r s e t o c o u n t

▪ . 1 . 1 1 .

S o n c h u s p . ( a )

7 3— . 2 k ` 2 0 . 7 5 v .

I I

i n27 , E 0 c -

7 , 2

+ 1 ! • ' '

ä )L eg o g z› E

++

l e

g

09 o c E 2 E c at L •

L s I

1 + ii

o

H A B I T A P L A N T S

a , 0

: , > t )

1 3 Ti E • e a ,c 1 E

2

g

P o t e n t e r e c t a ( a )

E

f 3 i

a _• E L 5 E

( J )

•

< a .

§

0-e c s.

1 5. g o E 8-

a • g

: g

k r 2 )

o

•

S U B S A M P L E

A N D W A S T E

22 E E 2

o

3 . H E A T H L A N D

— 1 ( 6 1 . 1

▪( b ' 2

_ C

J

< •

w C J Ö

• 37 , c g t . )= c oo

o J

L _E oo

2 0

" E

M A C R O F S I L S / 1 0 c m 3

4 •

I L ,

u
e

c d

+

+

> 4

c d

L t 1

c m

3o f s a m p l e )

4-

0

c d

‘ c ' e t

+

+

+

t— on

+

0

c d

a l

c i

0

N

c o

t -

t 1 1

t o n u m b e r o f m a c r o f o s i l s p e r

C 7 % r e l

•

c d

c i

+

c d

c d

+

+

c i

+

+

c t i

+

rn

c i

o

+

+

+

co

L t 1

40 / 1

l e

L c d

c . . ,

V 0 0

x

2 a o a ) c o

c . )

c . . ,

4 -1 c d L

i — i c d 0

I n s e c t r e m a i n s

M i s c e l a n e o u s M a c r o f s i l s R e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e D i t c h a t S h i e l s

c d

' C i n d e r s '

ä . e . 0 a c l ) c z

+

e g c a s e s

0 0 › 0 0 o

r ,

+

a n d S h a l e

4 / 1 . 0

c d

f rom a n earby h edge o r t hat

t he

m ajority

c harcoal b eing

w as

t he

s tones

t he

i dentified

c ase.

t ends

t hicket

o f

T he

t o

h ave a lso

w ood

f rom

t he

a pparent

s uggest

t hat

i s

d itch

a bsence t he

t o

b e c onsidered.

w orked

a nd

t hat

a rgues

a gainst

o f C rataegus

l atter

s ituation

T he f act

n o

C rataegus t he

f ormer

p ollen a nd i s

a lso

f ruit

u nlikely.

I t may b e t hat C rataegus b ranches w ere b rought t o t he s ite a s s ources o f

s takes

d itch

a nd

a nd

b rushwood,

b ank

s ides

W hatever

t he

r oute,

a nd

t he

C rataegus

t hat

t he

a nd

i t

t wo

b eing

i ncrease

d oes d id

t he

a ppear n ot

t hat

a rrive

c ombined d efences a h uman

b y

t o

s tabilise

o f

t he

a gency w as

n atural

m eans,

t he

e nclosure. i nvolved

f or

e xample

a s d riftwood d uring a f lood. C onclusions T he p ollen a nd p lant macrofossil d ata s how t hat t he e nclosure a t S hiels

w as

b uilt

e stablished l andscape

a nd

p astoral

o f g rassy h eath

w hole

a rea

i n

a rable a nd

f ew

a n

o pen

l andscape

a griculture. t rees

i s

A

r ecorded

6 km t o t he w est ( Boyd 1 982).

f rom L inwood M oss, t his

o ccupied a nd

s outh

o f

t he

C lyde

h ad

b een

w ith

w ell

s imilar

o pen

f or t his p eriod

I t i s o bvious t hat

h eavily

u sed

b y

h uman

p opulations p rior t o t he o ccupation o f t he s ite a t S hiels. T he f ertility o f t he s oil m ay h ave b een maintained b y r egular f looding o f t he

R iver

C lyde,

s ettlement. w ater

T he

l evel

i n

m aking C lyde

t he

C lyde

p ossibly b y a s much a s t herefore, a bandoned

h ave

b een

d uring

t he

t he

d oes

a rea

n ot

E stuary

2 m ( W.E. o n

a

a

f lood w as

B oyd

d ue

t o

a ttractive

a rea a t

h igher p ers.

s easonal

w inter

v ery

t he

d uring

c omm.).

b asis,

t he

f or

b ut

I ron

t he A ge,

O ccupation may,

t he

f looding

o ne

p resent,

e nclosure

a nd/or

b eing

w aterlogging.

R epairs and r eoccupation w ould t ake p lace i n t he s pring. I t

h as

d eposits

t o

b een

i mpossible

a ccumulate

i n

t o

t he

e stimate

d itch

d ue

t he

t o

t ime

t he

t aken

a bsence

f or

t he

o f s uitable

r adiocarbon d ates a nd i nformation r egarding t he r ate o f a ccumulation. T he p resence o f s everal w ell-developed i ron p ans s uggests t hat s ediment l ayers, a re

a ccumulation r esponsible

n ot

w as

f or

c ontinuous

n ot

r apid.

i mpeding

a cross

t he

t he

H owever,

m ovement

d itch,

t he

o f

p ans

s ince i ron

may

c lay-rich

i n

s olution,

h ave

d eveloped

c ontemporaneously r ather t han s uccessively. T herefore t hey c annot b e t aken t o i nfer a n e xtended p eriod o f s ediment a ccumulation. T he u niformity o f t he p ollen a nd p lant macrofossil c ontents o f t he d itch, d espite t he h eterogeneous n ature o f t he s ediments, o r h undreds,

r ather t han t housands,

s uggests t hat t ens

of y ears m ay h ave b een i nvolved.

A cknowledgements T his

w ork

w as

s upported

( Ancient M onuments), T hanks

a re

a lso

b y

t he

S cottish

D evelopment

D epartment

E dinburgh. d ue

t o

M rs.

K .

a nd 8 :5.

1 33

M cKechnie

w ho

d rew

f igures

6 :1

B ibliography B irks,

H .J.B.

a nd

L ondon: B oyd,

W .E.

( 1982) r aised

B irks,

H .H.

( 1980)

Q uaternary

P alaeoecology.

E dward A rnold T he

s tratigraphy a nd

c oastal

d eposits

W estern S cotland.

c hronology o f L ate Q uaternary

i n

U npublished

R enfrewshire P h.D.

a nd

T hesis,

A yrshire,

U niversity o f

G lasgow C lapham,

A .R., o f

T utin,

t he

T .G.

a nd

B ritish I sles

W arburg, ( 3rd

E .F.

E dition).

( 1981)

E xcursion F lora

C ambridge:

U niversity

P ress M oore,

P .D.

a nd

W ebb,

a nalysis. S cott,

J .G.

( 1973)

( 1973) S cott,

J .G.

S cott,

J .G.

S hiels.

( 1978)

A n

i llstrated

g uide

t o

p ollen

H odder a nd S toughton D iscovery

a nd

E xcavation

i n

S cotland

D iscovery

a nd

E xcavation

i n

S cotland

6 6-67

( 1974)

( 1974)

D .A.

L ondon:

S hiels.

8 2-83

( forthcoming)

R eport

o n t he

G lasgow

1 34

e xcavation a t S hiels,

G ovan

7 .

T HE A SSENDELVER P OLDERS P ROJECT: I NTEGRATED E COLOGICAL R ESEARCH

W .

G roenman-van W aateringe a nd J .

G ENERAL E NVIRONMENTAL B ACKGROUND

P .

P als

( W.G.v.W.)

I ntroduction T he A ssendelver P olders a re s ituated a bout 2 5 k m n orth w est o f A msterdam ( fig. 7 :1) a nd a bout 2 0 k m e ast o f t he p resent c oastline o f t he

N orth

S ea.

A mateur

s ites

h ere

s ettlement t he

E arly I ron

a gain

A ge

a rchaeologists

( fig.

7 :2).

h ave

( circa 6 th c entury b e)

i n t he m edieval p eriod.

s urveyed

m ore

T he o ccupation c an b e u ntil

t he

t han

t raced

7 5

f rom

R oman p eriod a nd

T his p aper d eals w ith t he

I ron A ge a nd

R oman p eriods. R oman i mports f rom t he r eign o f T iberius a nd C laudius-Nero p oint t o c ontacts w ith t he " Romans" ( Brandt, i n p ress), e ither w ith t he a dvanced m ilitary o utpost i n V elsen 1 980)

a bout

2 k m

s outh-west

o f

t he

A ssendelver

( Morel & d e W eerd

P olders,

o r w ith

t he

R oman a rmy s tationed a long t he R hine L imes. T he p urpose o f t he A ssendelver P olders P roject w as t o s tudy t he s patial o rganisation a nd d evelopment o f t he s ettlement s ystem f rom a n e conomic,

s ocial

W aateringe

a nd

& v an d er

t echnological

v iewpoint

L eeuw i n p reparation).

( Brandt,

G roenman-van

F our l evels o f r esearch

h ave t o b e d iscerned: 1 .

t he s upra-regional

2 .

t he r egional

l evel

3 . 4•

t he h ousehold l evel.

l evel

t he c ommunity l evel

T his h as a ll t o b e s een i n t he c ontext b oth o f e nvironmental c ircumstances, w hich i n t he c oastal a rea o f t he w estern p art o f t he N etherlands h eight c omplex

o f

a re

t he

m ainly

s ea

" Roman"

d etermined

l evel,

a nd

o f

b y

t he

t he

c hanges

p ossible

i n

t he

i nfluence

r elative

o f

t he

m ore

s ociety a nd o rganisation.

T he e xcavations

t ook p lace m ainly i n t he y ears

1 979-1981.

T o u nderstand t he s ettlement h istory o f a n a rea r elatively y oung i n g eomorphological t erms, a d etailed

w hich i s k nowledge

i ts

i s

g enesis

i nteraction

i s

a bsolutely

b etween

p alaeoethnobotanical d etermine,

t his a nd

n ecessary,

a nd

b ecause

h abitability.

z oo-archaeological

b oth q ualitively a nd q uantatively,

1 35

t here

D etailed r esearch

a

a s o f

d irect

p edological, i s

n eeded

t he e conomic p attern

t o

L

F ig.

7 :1

A SSENDELVER P OLDERS

( above)

L ocation

D rawing

I PP

o f

F ig.

t he

7 .2

A ssendelver

( opposite)

P olders.

L ocation

o f

t he a rchaeologication s ites i n t he A ssendelver P olders.

D rawing I F?.

L egend: 1 .

S ites

s urveyed

2 .

S ites

e xcavated

3 . C reek a nd n atural l evee d eposits 4 .

L agoonal a nd

5 .

B ack-swamp d eposits

b ack-swamp d eposits

6 . F en p eat 7 . O ligotrophic p eat 8 .

F en

9 .

d eposits M aximal e xtension o f o ligotrophic

p eat

b etween

o n

t he

t op

D K

o f

0

t ransgression p hases.

1 36

D K

a nd

I

t he

c layey p eat D K

I

1 1 3 1 1 1

1 37

a t e very s pace. T he

l evel

( supra-)

o f

o rganisation

a nd

i ts

v ariation

i n

t he

t ime

a nd

r egional d evelopment o f t he l andscape

T he s ettlement h istory o f t he a rea o f t he A ssendelver P olders i s e ntirely d etermined b y i ts p ositioning a t t he e dge o f a g reat e stuary- t he O er-IJ. T he c hanging p icture o f t his e stuary a nd t he a ttendant p ossibilities f or h abitation w ill b e b riefly o utlined h ere ( Zagwijn

1 971).

A bout

5 000

l ast g lacial

b p.

t he

p eriod,

h itherto

s trong

r ise

b egan t o d ecrease.

s ince

t he

M ore o r l ess p arallel t o

i n

s ea

l evel,

t he

p resent c oastal

c oastline a s eries o f l ow a eolian r idges, b arriers w ere f ormed i n t wo m ajor p hases,

p artly o verlying t he e astern o ne

b etween

4 800-4100

a nd

S traaten i nto

1 965).

b p,

t he

w estern

e xistence,

i ts

c layey a nd

b elow O D. A c oastal A ssendelver P olders. I n

t he

o ne

B ehind t hese c oastal

n ext

p hase,

b etween

4 200

b arriers a t idal

s andy s ediments

i nlet

f ormed

f rom a bout

3 800

3 500

b p

( van

f lat a rea c ame

n ow l ying

c irca 4 -5 m

t o

t he

s outh-west

b p,

t his

c oastal

o f

t he

i nlet moved

m ore t o t he n orth-west, c aused b y s outh t o n orth t ransport o f m aterial a long t he c oast a nd t he a ccretion o f t he c oastal b arriers a t t heir n orthern e nd.

T he i nlet w as n ow m uch n arrower.

d ischarged i nto t he b each p lains) a nd

e stuary. T he l and i nbetween b ehind t he c oastal b arriers

p rotected f resh

a gainst

w ater

e stuary

f rom

a nd

O mbrogenous p eat,

s ea,

c hannel) p eat,

a

r emaining w ere

p attern t he

( DK) o f

f ormed

s upplied

w ith

f en

p eat b egan a long t he

a

b rackish

s till

o f

i slets

s urrounded

b y

I t ransgression p hase t he

s and

E rosion

c haracter.

b elts

o f

f en

a rea a nd

c hanged t he

t he

l agoon.

b ars

o f

a

a nd a way

a mount

T he

t he

p eat

( ebb

w estern T he

B locked o f

I n t he m outh o f

g ulleys

l agoon.

d rastically.

e xcess

( circa 2 500-2000

a rea i ncreased.

c leared

f ormation

p eat i nto

a s

s ea o n

r e-opened

d ischarge

w as

f ormer b etter

f ormer d rainage c hannels.

t he

d eveloped.

c ausing

w as

f ormed

t he D unkerque o f

a l agoon

T he g rowth o f

O er-IJ w as

i nfluence

e stuary

a nd

r ivers.

r epresenting t he

t he

t he

t he p eat

D uring b p)

t he t he

S everal r ivers

( i.e. t he w as n ow

w ater

a nd

f lood

e dge

o f

t he

s ituation

i n

t he

d rainage w as

c onsequently

c hannels

t hen

a ble

d ried

o ut

t o a nd

b ecame i nhabitable. S edimentation o nly t ook p lace i n t he n orth-west p art o f t he P olders. H ere c lay w as d eposited i n a n a quatic m ilieu a nd

v ia

a

d eveloped, t he

f iner,

t idal

f lat

i ntersected

p hase b y

a n

c reeks

a rea w ith

w ith

s andy

s alt-marsh l evees,

i n

c haracter

c ontrast

t o

c layey m aterial d eposited i n t he b ack-swamp a reas.

A bout 2 000 b p t he m outh e ntirely s ilted u p. T here

o f t he e stuary i n t he N orth h ad a lmost r emained o nly a f ew r ivulets f or t he

d rainage o f t he h interland a nd a long w hich t ransport t o s ea w as p ossible. T he s outhern p art b ecame a g reat f resh w ater l ake - t he 1 J.

T he p eat w as s ubsided a s a r esult o f d rying o ut.

s ubsidence b eds

i n

m arsh l onger

i n t he c layey b ack-swamps m ore t han i n

t heir

a rea. t ake

s andy

l evees

T his m eant

t hat

p lace v ia

t he

T here w as a lso

t he s ilted u p c reek

, a s a r esult o f d rying o ut t he

d rainage

c reeks,

1 38

b ut

i n

t he

s alt-

o f t he

h interland c ould n o

t hat

r un-off w as i nstead

d ischarged i nto t he b ack-swamp a rea. T his b ecame i ncreasingly w et l eading t o p eat f ormation. T he p eat g rowth m ust h ave r eached i n t he e nd a t l east t he h eight o f t he l evees, b ecause t he t hickness o f t he o verlying D K I II s ediments i s n early e verywhere t he s ame. P ossible s ites f or h abitation ( a)

I n t he a rea o f t he a eolian r idges, t he s o-called O lder f rom t he L ate N eolithic o nwards. T his t ype o f l andscape r epresented n ear

i n

t he

A ssendelver

n eighbourhood

w as

P olders a s a s ource k inds o f w ood, w ild

P olders

e ssential

f or

b ut t he

i ts

D unes, i s n ot

p resence

p eople

l iving

i n

t he

i n

t he

f or m any p roducts n ot g rowing t here ( all e dible f ruits) a nd a s a d ry n orth-south

c onnection a long t he c oast. ( b)

I n

t he

p eat

a rea,

w hen

t hrough

n atural

( and/or

m an

m ade)

d rainage t he p eat b ecame d ry a nd s olid e nough t o b uild h ouses o n. A s f ar a s w e n ow k now t he o ldest h abitation i n t he P olders d ates

f rom

t he

t ransgression

6 th

t he

n eighbourhood

o f

c entury

p eat

t he

b c,

a rea

w as

s outhern

p art

h abitation w as e stablished i n t he p ossible c reeks

b y

i n

d rainage

t he

A pparently

t hrough

s alt-marsh

a s

l ate

w hen

a s

a rea

t he

b etter o f

o f

n orth-west

c hannels h ad

c entury

t he

d rained.

t he

3 rd c entury b e.

p eat t hat

i st

b ecause

n ot

D Y

I

I n

t he

c lay

d eck

T his w as m ade

c onnecting

a s

y et

w ith

s ilted

A D y ear-round

u p.

h abitation

w as p ossible, t he s ize o f t he f armsteads ( circa 6 x 2 4 m ) n ot p ointing t o a m ere s easonal o ccupation ( Groenman-van W aateringe 1 961).

H abitation

c onsisting

h ad

e ntirely

b een

o f

e stablished

r eed

p eat,

o n

w ith

o verlying i n t urn a t hin l ayer o f r eed p eat, p eat

a nd

a n

o ligotrophic

p eat

w ith

A t s everal s ites M yrica g ale t he d rying-out o f t he p eat. ( c)

I n t he B olders T he

c lay a rea i n o n t op o f t he

c reeks

o f

a s ection

r eed-sedge

p eat

a m eso-oligotrophic

o f

E ricaceae

e xpanded

a s

p ollen.

a r esult

o f

t he n orth-west p art o f t he A ssendelver n atural l evees o f t he s alt-marsh c reeks.

i nitially

p rogressive

a l ot

s trongly

t op a

p rovided

s ilting-up

o f

t he

g ood

d rainage.

H owever,

m ain

c reeks

s tronger

a nd

s ubsidence o f t he c layey b ack-swamps r elative t o t he s andy c reek b eds a nd t he

l evees

l ed

h interland.

t o

T his

f urther l ed

t o

p roblems o f w ater d ischarge

t he

e ventual

s wamps a nd s ubsequently t o r enewed p eat g rowth. T he p eat t hen b ecame t oo w et a nd h ence u ninhabitable, a s d id t he a rea.

T owards

a rtificial f ailed

t he

e nd

h eightening

o f

o f

t he

t he

o f

t he

p eople

w as

c entury

s ettlement

t o r emedy t he s ituation.

s trategy

2 nd

f rom

d rowning o f t he b ack-

s ites

A .D. o n

a rea e lay

e ven t he

t he

l evees

M oreover t he e ntire s ubsistence

e ndangered

w hen

f ields

a nd

p astures

b ecame s imply t oo w et. S tratigraphy a nd p eat d evelopment i n t he A ssendelver P olders T he d eposits l ocation i n

t he

b asis a t

o f

c irca

t here

i s

t he

b elow

e ither

C henopodiaceae

h alophilous

s o-called

4 m

v egetation,

H olland

O D.

c ontinuous

i n

t he

p eat

D epending p eat

p ollen

a re o n

g rowth w ith

d iagram

a s

t he

t he

C alais

p ossible

i ndication

p eaks f or

c orrelating w ith c lay d eposits e lsewhere,

1 39

I V

g eographical a o r

t here i s a s edimentation. d ifferent a vailable. b rackish

p henomena P eaks i n

a lternate

w ith

s ettlement d rainage

b ut

Y ounger a s ingle

P olders

n ot

w hen n ot e nough r adiocarbon d atings a re t he C henopodiaceae c urve c an o ccur b ecause o f

c onditions,

o ccupation. b eds, a nd t he

d iscontinous p eat g rowth, i nterrupted b y c lay I t i s, h owever, r ather d ifficult t o c orrelate t he

p eat g rowth.

i n

g reat

h istory

i n

a lso

t he

a nd

h abitation o n

t he

I t

d etail

i n

p eat

p ossible

a s

a

p henomenon

a ccompanying

h uman

c lay b ands c an b e i ntercalated i n o lder p eat t ransgression p hase c lay s edimentation m ay

s pace

a nd

a rea,

e ach

i n

i s

b e

t o

t o

i n

b e

s tudy

t he g enesis o f

u nderstand

B ecause

a s

m ust

n ot

a ble

t ime.

t ime

s ite

p eat

i s n ecessary

t o

o f

s pace,

t he

t he

e ntire

d ifference

i n

g eneralisations a re

s tudied.

A s

s o m uch d ependant

o n

w e

h ave

s een

t he s tage r eached

i n t he p eat d evelopment a s o n t he d rainage p ossibilities. I n a ny c ase t he t op o f t he p eat m ay b e e roded o r r emoved a s a r esult o f *h uman

i nterference p urposes). T he

p eat

( e.g.

d evelopment

i n

d eliberate

b urning

t he

i f n ot

P olders,

f or

c ultivation

i nterrupted

b y man

o r n ature i s a s f ollows O n t he c layey s ubsoil a r eed o r r eed-sedge p eat d evelops, t urning v ia a r eed-fern p eat t o a S phagnumreed p eat a nd

t hen

p eat

w here

g rowth

s uccession t here b ut

i s

i s

n o

m ainly

w hen

o nly

t he

t o

c ircumstances

a t rue

S phagnum

a rrested

p eat

a t

a vailable

b ecause

o f

a

b lack

p ersists.

t hin

A s

a n

w e

f avourable

w ith

a nalysis,

h eavy

w ithout

w anted

o ligotrophic E lsewhere

s tage.

I n t he

p artly

b ecause

c ompaction

l ayer

n evertheless

f or

E ricaceae.

i ntermediate

f or

t he

w ere

b og

b y

t he

o f

e rosion,

D k I II s ediments,

r ecognisable

i nformation

p lant

f rom

t he

r emains

i mmediate

e nvironment o f t he s ettlement o n t he l evees i n t he c lay a rea, f rom

t he

s ettlements

f ields, h ouse a nalysed.

e ven i deal i n

m ounds

A ll

t hese

t he

b est

m edium

t he

f or

( a)

P ollen

p ollen

t he

f ar o f

c reeks,

a nd

h ouses,

f rom

i deal

m arkedly

p reservation.

s amples

m ay

h ave

p resent

i n

a nd

f or

h umic

a rrived

( refuse)

p ollen t he

f rom

s amples

d itches

a round

p its

a nalysis

c lay w hich

M oreover

t he

I t i s o ur e xperience

c onsiderable. r ecognised a s

d rainage

i s

p ollen

w ere

s ince

n 3t

t he

c ontained

v arious

s ources,

f ollowing c ategories:-

a lready

d eposition.

r egion.

a re

c omposed

s andy-clayey

i n

( terpen)

s amples a re

w hich c omprise

i tself,

t he

b ack-swamps

s ediment

a t

t he

t ime

o f

t hat t he a mount o f t his c an b e

O f t his p ollen o f A bies a nd P icea c an e asily b e s uch b ecause t hese g enera a re n ot n ative t o o ur

H owever,

i t

i s

m ore

d ifficult

t o

d efine

t he

e xtent

o f

t he r emaining s econdary p ollen. ( b)

P ollen f rom t he v egetation p resent i n t he r egion a t t he t ime o f s edimentation. T his i s t he p ollen p roduced i n t he H olland p eat a s d escribed a bove.

( c)

L ong-distance

p ollen

s edimentation

a nd

P alynological

a nalysis

i ndicates T ilia, t he

i n

w ith

o f t he

b y

t he

t he

o f

F raxinus,

p eat

t he

F agus

a nd

O lder D unes.

1 40

w ind

f illing-up d eposits

t hat t he p otential h abitats

U lmus,

a rea

b lown

l ater

b oth

a t

o f

t he

i n

t he

t he

t ime

o f

c reeks

e tc.

c oastal

b elt

f or t rees s uch a s Q uercus,

C arpinus

s hould

b e

s ought

i n

F rom t he s alt-marshes w est a nd

n orth o f t he P olders p ollen m ay h ave b lown i n a nd t he s ame h olds t rue f or t he e astern p eat a rea. ( d)

P ollen o f t he l ocal v egetation i n a nd a round t he s ettlement.

I t

i s t his p ollen t hat i s o f t he g reatest i nterest i n r elation t o t he e conomy o f t he s ettlements e xcavated. I t i s t herefore e specially

i mportant

p resent

t he

i n

t o

d etermine

a nalyses

a nd

t o

t he

c omponent

i solate

i t

o f

f rom

t his

t he

p ollen

o ther

t hree

s ources. S ources S ource p ollen

a a nd

b c an

b e

e liminated

b y

a nalysing

t he a rea o f o rigin h as c hanged t hroughout t ime. b e

r ecognised o n t he b asis o f s ix c riteria.

1 .

t he p resence o f A bies a nd P icea r elatively h igher v alues f or P inus,

2 .

t he p resence o f,

3 .

t he

s ubsoil.

c c annot b e i solated, b ut w ill o nly d iffer f rom t he i ncluded i n t he s ubsoil i n s o f ar a s t he v egetation i n

t he

o ccurrence

l aid

d own

D elfos

1 980:

w ith

o r r ather h igher v alues

o f

u nder

s pore

m arine

t ypes

o ccasionally

f or,

14-116,

c onditions

S ources a -c c an

T hese a re:

P ediastrum,

r estricted

( see

P als,

t o

v an

c lay

G eel

&

4 03),

4 .

t he o ccurrence o f H ystrichosphaeridae,

5 .

p ercentages o f a rboreal p ollen h igher t han 5 0%

6 .

r egular a ppearance, i f i n l ow q uantities, o f s pore t ype 1 27, w hich s eems t o b e i ndicative o f a d ry, m ore a cidic e nvironment

A pplying

2 .

t he

v an G eel & D elfos

t hese c riteria t o t he a nalyses

t o c onclude 1 .

( Pals,

( cf.

4 01,

f ig.

4 08).

7 :3)

a llows u s

t hat

l ocal

v egetation

w as

t reeless

b ut

f or

s ome

a lder

( straight c urves

f or a ll o ther t rees),

f resh

w ater

s tood

t he

m ust

p eriod

o f

h ave

h abitation

i n

s ome

a rable

a nd

p astoral

o f

( presence

i ndicative f or s hallow e utrophic G eel & D elfos 1 980: 4 07)),

3 .

1 980:

f arming

t he

o f

f resh

t ook p lace

w illow

d itches

s pore w ater

n ear t he

a nd

d uring

t ype ( Pals,

1 28, v an

s ettlement

( presence o f C erealia a nd p asture p lants), 4 .

t here

w as

e rosion

a

n ear

c onsiderable t he

b ottom

w ashing

o f

w ere d eliberately b ackfilled

t he

i n

f rom

d itches,

t he

a nd

s ides

s everal

a nd p its

( presence o f c haracteristic o f

s ubsoil m aterial),

5 .

i n t he u pper p art o f t he d itches t he p ollen r epresents l ocal v egetation ( absence o f s ubsoil c haracteristics),

1 41

t he

j . ; SAMPLE NO

W

D EPTH B ELOW OD \6 1 1 1

WL \

` 1 \ 1 1 1K IL

W IA I M I

S TRAT IGRAPHY

8 6 .‘ 1 1

AP /N AP

P INL IS P ICEA P/ ABES A

-•

-• •

-

% ,, , \ r -' \ I \1 \ 1II ' ,

S AL I X

• - •B ET U LA

A LNUS C YPERACEAE

G RAM INEAE

T YPHACEAE

MYR ICA

D RYOPTER IS

1I 4 2

—

E R ICACE A E S PHAGNAL E S

C HENOPOD IACEAE

C OMPOS ITAE T UB

UMBELL IFERAE

C RUC IFERAE

L n

G AL IUM T YPE

P AP IL IONACEAE

P LANTAGO M AJOR/MED IA

" " " • •+ p s ,

C EREAL IA A RTEM IS IA P LANTAGO L ANC

s a m i s o d p u o s p a ! ;

C ARYOPHYLLACEAE R UMEX A T YPE

C OMPOS ITAE L I G

T YPE 1 2 8

( J 1 N

F ig.

7 :3

1.

0

L n

4 . 7 1

5

S UM

A P

P ollen a nalysis o f a s ection a t s ite B , s election o f c urves. D rawing I PP. L egend 1 . 2 .

D K I II c lay P eaty c lay

3 .

S andy s ubsoil

1 43

6 .

t he

s uccession

t hose

i n

t he

b ack-swamp

i n t he p eat a rea,

r eed-sedge

p eat

S phagnum reed

a nd

T his

a cross

a rea

i s

c omparable

w ith

t he p eat g rowth s tarted w ith a

d eveloped

b og.

c ontemporaneous

i .e.

v ia

a r eed-fern

s uccession

t he

i s

a rea,

p eat

n ot

i ts

i nto

a

n ecessarily

d evelopment

i s

e ntirely d ependent o n l ocal c onditions, 7 .

r ather e arly i n t he w hole d evelopment t all f orbs a ppear. T his m ay r eflect a n atural p henomenon o f w ashing u p o f o rganic

m aterial,

i nterference c utting,

b ut

w ith

c ould

t he

a lso

n atural

a ccumulation o f w aste

b e

c aused

b y

v egetation,

h uman

e .g.

r eed

f rom m an a nd h is a nimals.

P ollen a nalytical e vidence f or c ereal c ultivation S everal

s ites,

p ercentages

f or

e specially

c ereal

i n

p ollen,

t he

m ost

c lay

o f t he c ereals q uite n ear t he s ampling s ite o f t he h igh n umber o f c ereal t ype p ollen w orthwhile

t o

p resent

m easurements

e tc.

( Groenman-van

t he

i n

d ata

c oncerning

s eparate

W aateringe

a rea,

p robably

& T roostheide

g iven

t o

h igh

p rocessing

( Vuorela 1 973). B ecause p er s ite w e t hought i t l ength

d iagrams

h ave

p ointing

f or

i n

o f

p ollen,

t he

p rep.)

a nnulus

d ifferent ( fig.

s ites

7 :4,

f rom

a

s ection t hrough a c hannel a nd a t erp-ditch c ut i nto i t). T he

p oint

o f s egregation b etween w ild g rass

w as e stablished l arger t han 4 0 c ontrast S ecale f or

a s 4 0 m icrons. I n m icrons w as, w here

f or g rouping

t ype

a nd

u nder T riticum t ype,

d efinitely

i dentification w ere

w ith

p eriodic

w ild

g rass

g rass

c riteria

( 1961: m et b y

( 1979).

p ollen a nd

C erealia

t he G ramineae p ollen e xamined u nder p hase

H ordeum t ype,

t ype.

T he

e stablished

A vena

g uiding

t ype,

p rinciples

b y F aegri

& I versen

2 1-42, a nd e specially 3 1 f or C erealia p ollen), G rohne ( 195 ) 4),

t he a nd

I n a d istrict s uch a s t he A ssendelver P olders,

m arine

p ollen

w ild

t he

( 1964: 1 95-197), B eug c riteria w hich m ust b e a lso A ndersen

a ddition, f easible,

i nfluence

m ay

h ave

i t

i s

b een

s till,

h owever,

i ncluded

u nder

p ossible

t he

t hat

c ereal

t ype

p ollen. I n m ost T riticum t ype A vena T he

t ype

o f t he s amples, i f p ollen w as d ominant,

w as

o nly

d ominance

o f

f ound

o nce.

T riticum

c ereal t ype p ollen f ollowed b y H ordeum

S ecale

t ype

t ype

m eans

d id o ccur, t ype, w hile

i s m issing a ltogether.

t hat

t here

i s

a

s erious

d iscrepancy b etween t he d ata p rovided b y t he s eed a nd f ruit a nalysis a nd t he p ollen d ata. T hus w e m ust c onsider t he p ossibility t hat a ll ( or o f)

p art) o f o ur a s T riticum t ype i dentified p ollen b elongs t o ( one t he w ild g rasses, m entioned b y B eug ( 1961: 4 0) u nder T riticum

t ype

t hat

s ome

p ollen

g rasses

i s,

i n

v iew

a nd

t ype o f

t he

a nd

d iameters

i n

m icrons.

S uch

t he

i n

f ig.

1 0)

c an

l ength

w idths f ig.

i s

b e

o f

o f

7 :4

h igh

B romus,

l ies

v alues

t o

t ype i s

t his

p ollen c lear

n othing

t he

t he

p ollen

b etween

3 -7

t he

t ype. a t

o f

t hese

g iven

l east

b ut

e xample w ith

a nd

a lso t he

o ur B eug

of

o ur

e specially

o f

t he

p ore

r ange o f p ore

p eaks

e qually

a t

4 a nd

h igh

w idth o f t he a nnulus a nd p ollen l ength a re o nly t o b e

1 4 ) 4

a nd w ild

b y

p art

T riticum,

m icrons

c ombination

A gropyron, C omparing

t hose

t han

g rains, F or

a nd

p ollen

w ith

t hat

o ther

a nnulus. i n

H ordeum

a lthough

p art

T riticum

p ollen

d iameters

f or

t he

o f

a renarius,

o nly

f or

3 1-33

T riticum

s pecies

E lymus

b elongs

m easurements ( 1961:

c ertain

o f

5

v alues f ound

T R I T C U M T Y P E

P o r e d i a m e t r

A n u l u s w i d t h

H O R D E U M T Y P E

P o r e d i a m e t r

L e n g t h o f p o l e n

s e c t i o n a t

A n u l s w i d t h

L f )

C O

CD

C D

1 45 C T ,

L i )

c

L . 4 ' C I C V

w ithin t he T riticum t ype

i n T riticum s pecies,

i .e.

T riticum c ompactum

H ost, T . a estivum L . a nd T . s pelta L . T hese h igh v alues c annot b e t he r esult o f e xcessive s welling o f t he p ollen b ecause o f t he s izes f or t he

C orylus p ollen

i n o ur

m easurements

f or

s amples

t he

r anges g iven b y B eug,

w ere

H ordeum

w hereas

b etween

t ype

2 5 a nd

p ollen

3 0 m icrons a nd

f all

n eatly

A ll t he d iagrams g ive m ore o r l ess t he s ame m easurements f or H ordeum t ype r estricted t o a r ather t hose f or T riticum t ype p ossible t hat d ifferent

s howing a m uch l arger T riticum s pecies a re

T riticum d icoccum S chubl.,

i n

t he

t he s ame m ounting m edium w as u sed.

T .

c ompactum H ost.

p icture: t he n arrow r ange,

v ariation. I s i t r epresented, e .g.

a nd T .

s pelta L .?

D iatom a nalysis T wo m ethods h ave s o f ar b een u sed: a r ough i nventory o f s everal s ections o f t he P olders c onducted b y V os ( 1982) a nd a q uantitative a nalysis o f a t idal c hannel/creek n ear o ne o f t he l arger s ites i n t he c layey a rea ( site F ) c onducted b y F ontaine ( 1981). O nly c layey s ediments

c ould

u nfavourable g aining

m ore

c ontent

o f

made

b e

u sed,

m edium

f or

i nsight

p otsherds

p eat

b eing

d iatoms.

i nto w ere

t he

v ery

B esides

g enesis

a nalysed,

p oor t he

o f

t o

i n

s ilicon

a nalysis

t he

l andscape

d etermine

i f

a nd

a n

e xecuted

t he

t he

f or

d iatom

c eramic

w as

f rom l ocally a vailable c lay o r n ot.

T he r ough i nventory V os d istinguished a mong t he d iatoms f our m ain g roups ( a)

C oastal

a llochthones.

s pecies,

a lways

s ufficiently

A g roup

f ound

c lear

i n

o f

m arine

c oastal

t o

m arine

s ediments,

b ut

i ndication o f a m arine m ilieu t o

- b rackish w ithout b e

a

r egarded

a s a llochthonous. ( b)

A

h ighly

v aried

d iatom

g roup,

c haracteristic

o f

a m eso-

t o

o ligihalobous l agoon w ith w aterplants. ( c)

S coliopleura t umida f lora,

( d)

D iploneis

i nterrupta

f lora,

l ots o f o rganic m aterial, I n

t he

f ollowing v aried

a rea

w ith

s uccession:

d iatom

f lora

p ointing

t o

a

t idal

o n

o r

i n

l agoonal

p hase

u nderlying

b y o f

( drowning o f t he s ediments)

V os

a nd

h umic

f ound

t umida

a D iploneis

p hase

p lace

i n

f lats. r eed-clays

w ith

i n s alt-marshes.

I s ediments

f lat

t he

o ccurring

e .g.

S coliopleura

c apped

s ediment t he

D K a

t ypical o f t idal

( the t he

t idal

t hen

f irst

g radual

o f

t he

b y

f lora,

d eposition p eat),

b ecause

o f

f ollowed

i nterrupta

H olland f lats

i ndications

f lora,

m arine

f ollowed

b y

o f c ompaction

s ilting-up

t o

a

t hus

r eed

a o f

m arsh

l evel. T he q uantative a nalysis T he 7 :5)

a nalysis

b y

F ontaine

i s d ifficult t o i nterpret.

o f

t he

c reek

f illing

a t

s ite

F ( fig.

O ne o f t he m ain p roblems w ith d iatom

1 46

E S S AMPLE N O .

C r ,

D EPTH B ELOW O D

0

0

S TRAT IGRAPHY

C YMATOS IRA B ELG ICA

MELOS IRA S ULCA TA

3 O PEPHORA P AC IF ICA

T HALASS IOS IRA D EC IP IENS

v re . R HAPHONE IS AMPH ICEROS

RS UR IRELLA

N ITZSCH IA P UNCTATA

S UR IRELLA O VAL 1S

A CHNANTHES D EL ICATULA

D IPLONE IS I NTERRUPTA

N ITZSCH IA A P ICULATA • •

•• « .

N .N AV ICULAR IS N .S IGMA NH UNGAR ICA

C OCCONE IS P LACENTULA

F RAG ILAR IA P INNATA

N AV ICULA H UNGAR ICA c o c o

F ig.

7 :5

r c o

c x , 0

0

c o

r c r t

N . )

( 0

c o C O

c r , c o c o

0,

D iatom a nalysis o f a s ection t hrough c hannel a t s ite F , s election o f D rawing I PP.

c o

< ,

e • 5 9 ,S UM D IATOMS 1

a t idal c urves.

L egend 1 .

D K I II c lay

2 .

B rown-grey c lay

3 .

G rey c lay

4 .

M arine m olluscs

5 .

S ubsoil,

g rey

c lay

r emains.

1 47

w ith

r eed

a nd

w ood

a nalysis i s t hat t here i s a lways a h igh n umber o f s econdary d iatoms, i .e. d iatoms t hat d id n ot l ive w here t hey w ere f ound, b ut w ere d eposited

t here

a utochthonous t his

i s

a fter

v ersus

h ighly

t heir

d eath.

a llochthonous

d ependent

o n

t he

O ne

i s

o f

t he

u nbroken

s ize

a nd

s mall r ound s pecies h aving m uch b etter d uring t ransport t han a l ong t hin o ne.

s hape

c hance

c riteria

f or

b roken,

b ut

a gainst o f

o f

t he

d iatoms,

s taying

a

u ndamaged

T he s ame s ection h as b een a nalysed f or p ollen ( fig. 7 :6) a nd t he c ombination o f b oth d ata m ay g ive u s a n a nswer t o o ur p roblem. T he s tratigraphy o f t he s ection f rom t op t o b ottom i s s amples

1 - 2 :

g rey c lay w ith r eed a nd w ood r emains, m aterial

s ubsoil

s amples

3 -13:

l ight g rey c lay w ith s hells, h omogenous f inely l evigated m aterial, d istinct l ayer o f m arine s hells i n l iving p osition a t 2 .30 m m inus O D ( sample 1 2)

s amples

1 4-16:

b rown-grey s andy c lay

s amples

1 7-18:

D K I II c lay

I n

d iagrams

b oth

( not a nalysed f or p ollen).

s pecies

( genera)

c haracteristic

b rackish c onditions o n t he o ne h and a nd o ther h and a re t o

t he

p ollen

f ound.

r esults, a nd

f resh w ater s pecies. I n h igher A round

t he

o f

s ediments

b rought

t his

o f

h interland

d iagram

3 -9

s amples

C henopodiaceae

t he

a re

n ot

k ind

p rovided

d ifferences v ery

g reat,

i n

a ll

t he

a nd

t he

s ediment t he

f resh

b etween

t he

a mounting

t o

o ccur

o ccur,

a nd

i n

s ample

d ecipiens h as

o nly

f or

i nterrupta

p eak

1 2

t ies

i n

w ith

t he

l evel

t he s ection. B etween t he s ubsoil a nd t he a lso s light c hanges i n t he d iatom d iagram.

T halassiosira

p ollen

marine

w ater

s ubsoil s lightly

A P p ercentages a nd m inor d ifferences i n t he o ther c urves. s ample 9 t here a re f luctuations i n m ost c urves. T he

s hells i n t here a re o vata

f rom

p ollen

a nd

t he

c haracteristic

i nflux

t he

s amples

a nd

I t i s c lear t hat b oth e nvironments c ontributed

w hereby

d iatoms

o f m arine

f resh w ater c onditions o n t he

i n

e xample c urve

h igh v alues

s amples i n

a nd

5 -13.

t he

t he

d iatom a nalysis

i n s amples

F rom

N itzschia

C occoneis o ne g ets

s ample

o nwards t he

c urve.

i mpression

F rom

t hat

t he

c hannel w as a n e vent r ather s traight c urves

a nd

l ayer

d iagrams).

A round

t he

o f

m arine

c hanges

D iploneis

i n o f t he l owermost p art o f t he d uration ( very h omogenous m aterial, d iatom

m arine

4 -9 a nd S urirella 1

p unctata,

p laeentula t he

o f

s amples 3 -11 F or e xample

b oth

f illingo f s hort i n p ollen

s hells

t here

i s

p robably a s tandstill o r a t l east a d ecrease i n t he s ilting-up o f t he c hannel,

w hich

o nwards.

T he

A bies,

P icea,

s ediment. s alt-marsh

s hows

c learly

p resence t ypes

T he

r ise

i n

14-116 i n

c onditions,

t he t he

i n

t he

a c hange p ollen

p oints D iploneis

r ise

i n

o f

s ediment

d iagram

t o

r ight

a s teady

i nterrupta

f rom s ample

1 3

t o

o f

t he

u nflux c urve

C occoneis p lacentula

t op

o f

m arine

may

i ndicate

t he

p resence

o f w aterplants a nd t hus m uch q uieter w ater m ovements T HE E CONOMY

( J.P.P.)

T he g eological e vidence o utlined a bove i s h ere c onsidered i n t he c ontext o f o ther

f orms o f i nformation.

1 48

•

9

c r

5 , NJ

c n S AMPLE N O —

NJ

D EPTH B ELOW O D I N CM S TRAT IGRAPHY

1

A P

: 7 7

= -

( J 1

NAP

D

>

D -0

>

o

P INUS / ABES A /P ICEA P ..

—

. . • • .. .. . .. . .. . .. I

. . ..

,

/ -

.. . . . / •' " •. . . , , ..

•. •

. . . _

B ETULA

—

A LNUS

-

C YPERACEAE

—

G RAM INEAE

.

••

—. •. . . e•.

S AL IX

. ...

. ...

/ ./ •

• .., . .

.

.

.

.

.

_ . . . .. . , . . _

.

. .. . . , .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

• . ,

.

— -

NJ 01

D RYOPTER IS

• • •— • P LANTAGO MAR IT IMA -

T YPE

-

C HENOPOD IACEAE

, . .„ __ _ , . ., . .. . . . , . . _ . _ __ . „_, _ . . _ _ _.

01

MYR ICA

1 2 8

P LANTAGO MAJOR / MED IA P LANTAGO L ANCEOLATA

C EREAL IA

- -- T YPE 1 4-1 16

01

H YSTR ICHOSPHAER IDAE

NJ

F ig.

7 :6

r ,

S UM A P

P ollen a nalysis o f t he s ame s ection a s i n F ig. 7 :5 m inus t he t wo t opmost s amples, s election o f c urves. D rawing I PP.

L egend:

s ee F ig.

V 49

7 :5.

T he a rchaeobotanical a nalysis T he d esigned a nd

s ampling p rogramme f or t he t o p rovide i nformation a bout

i n r elation t o t he l atter t he

a rchaeobotanical a nalysis w as e nvironment a nd p lant e conomy,

f ollowing q uestions w ere a sked:

w hich c rops w ere s pace a nd t ime?

c ultivated,

i s i t p ossible i nvolved?

t o

a nd

e stablish

w hat w as

t he

t heir d istribution

c rop

p rocessing

a ctivities

I t w as c onsidered u nrealistic t o p ose q uestions o f a s ophisticated n ature. A part f rom t he s amples f or p ollen a nd a nalysis,

t he

m acroscopic

t able

f ollowing m aterial w as a vailable f or t he e xamination o f

t he c lay a rea t hose c reek o r d itch f ills b elow t he w ater e xpected t o b e c ontemporaneous w ith t he s ettlements.

T hese c ontexts r emains.

y ielded

w aterlogged a nd

f ills o f d itches

a nd

f lotation,

b ut

t he

o ccasionally c arbonized

p ostholes a bove

t he o nly i dentifiable f eatures). f rom a ll t hese f eatures i n o rder b y

e xtreme

s carcity

o f

c arbonized

f irst a nd s econd e xcavation c ampaign,

y ielded

o ne

o r m ore

m ade

u s

c oncentrating m aterial. o nly

1 00

c ereal

o f t he b ut

o n

E ven

7 0%,

1

s eeds a nd

s hift

t he

s o,

t he

t he

s trategy

a ppearing

e fficiency

w hereas

b e

c ould

s amples o ut o f o ver 2 00

g rains,

p lant

( being s amples r emains r emains

o nly 3 0% o f t he s amples

t owards

t o

p lant

t able

d ifficulty o f p rocessing

s ampling

c ontexts

t he w ater

T he i ntention w as t o t ake t o e xtract c arbonized p lant

( in t he c lay,

m ore w ood

p lant r emains:

( 1) I n w ere

( 2)

i n

b e

a n

r ich

r aised

' fertile'

a d

t he s tiff h oc

i n t o

b asis,

c arbonized

n o

m ore

t han

o nes y ielded m ore t han

c haff w as e xtremely s carce.

H and-sieving

f lotation r esidues r esulted i n o ccasional a ddition o f c ereals,

f ailed t o p roduce c haff r emains. ( 3)

s uch a s

F rom

t he

p eat

a rea:

i nfilling l ayers,

v arious

f eatures

f loors a nd h earths.

w ithin

h ouse

p lans,

M ost s amples c ontained

b oth w aterlogged a nd c arbonized p lant r emains. ( 4) I t

F rom b oth c lay a nd p eat a rea: i s

o bvious

t hat

a s traightforward

r emains f rom a ll t hese t ypes E ach t ype o f s ample h as i ts r eflect d itch,

t he a nd

l ocal

s tand

p ossibly

o f

b e

p resent.

v egetation

c ontain

s amples

a re

p resent

t hroughout

t hat

h ave

e lements

t hreshing

t he

w eeds,

t he

b e t o

e specially a nd

w hich i s u sed

t o t inder.

o f

r efuse,

a nd t he

o f

o f

t he

p lant

t he

c onsisting

w aste

f rom

T he p eat s amples

p ossible

f rom

o f

b eing

t he

c reek

t he a

r emains c rop

t ype

o f

p lants

p lants

p arched

2

' noise' w ith

p rior

t o

p rocessing a ctivities,

( type

3 )

c ontain a ll k inds

m ixed w ith l itter a nd/or d ung,

1 50

o r

v egetation,

o rigin,

c arbonized:

c ereals,

t he

f rom t he s ettlement

r emains

h eterogenous

b ecome t he

a round r egional

w aste

p lants

s ettlement,

c hance

o r g rinding,

d omestic

t o

i n o f

I n a ddition,

c arbonized

c onsidered

h ad

a ssociated

T he

c omparison

o f s amples w ould n ot b e j ustifiable. o wn i nterpretive v alue: T ype 1 w ould

t ransported b y w ind o r w ater. m ay

c ontents o f p ots.

w hich

p rovides

a r eflection

o f

t he

a rea

t hat p art o f t he g razing a rea n ear

g razed t he

b y

t he

a nimals

f armstead).

T he

( at

l east

f ind o f a p ot

c ontaining a nalysable c harred p lant r emains ( type 4 s amples) i s o bviously a c hancy m atter: s ome c ases w ill b e d iscussed i ndividually. T he s amples O nly

s ize

o f

c irca

a s mall

t ype

2 s amples

1 l itre, p art

o f

w hereas t he

c irca t ype

s amples

1 2

l itres

4 s amples

h as

b een

o f t ype

d id n ot

a nalysed

1a nd t ype

3

e xceed 5 00 c c.

a s

y et,

s o

t hat

t he c onclusions d rawn a re n ecessarily o f a t entative n ature. T ype

1 s amples

A s ynopsis o f t he v egetation u nits r epresented i s s hown i n t able 7 :1.

s ite 4 . d ating

( 1st b e

2 nd A D)

7

i n t ype

( 13E- A D)

( 2nd-jr -d A D)

3( x ) 3( xxx)

w ater p lants d rying, m ineral-rich m ud a nnual r uderals & f ield w eeds g rassland

1s amples

4( xxx ) 5 ( xxx)

4 ( x)

3 ( x)

r eedland

7 ( xx) 4 ( xx)

4 ( x) 8 ( xxx)

m esotrophic p eat

2(x)

2(x)

s alt marsh

4 ( xx)

T able

7 :1:synopsis s amples:

o f

t he

t ypes

o f v egetation

r epresented

i n

t ype

1

n umber o f s pecies w ith i ndication o f s eed q uantity

( x = 1 -10,

x x = 1 0-100,

x xx = 1 00-500)

T his r ecord w ould s uggest a n i ncreasingly w et e nvironment a nd d iminishing i nfluence o f t he s ea d uring t he f irst c enturies A D, w hich i s

c ompletely

i n

a greement

w ith

t he

g eological

e vidence.

T his

m aterial d oes n ot p rovide i nformation a bout l and u se. T ype 2 s amples

t o

T able 7 :2 p roduce a n

s ites

s uch

a s

d emonstrates t hat a g reat n umber o f s amples i s n eeded a cceptable l evel o f p resence f or e ach c rop s pecies, D a nd

H w ere

t oo

s mall

t o p roduce a r easonable n umber

o f f eatures w hich c ould b e s ampled, a nd t herefore, s pecies w ith a s mall c hance o f b ecoming c arbonized, s uch s L inum, m ay b e e asily m issed

w as

i n t he a nalysis.

I t a ppears t hat H ordeum v ulgare L . e mend ( hulled s ix-row b arley) t he m ain c rop, L inum u sitatissimum ( flax), T riticum d icoccum

S chubl. ( emmer w heat), P anicum m iliaceum s ativa ( gold-of-pleasure), a nd p ossibly a dditional s pecies c oastal

c rops,

o ats

a nd

e mmer

( broomcorn m illet), C amelina A vena s ativa L . ( oats) w ere

p ossibly

o nly

a dmixtures.

T his

c ombination i s q uite f amiliar i n I ron A ge s ites i n a rea ( cf K orber-Grohne 1 967, B ehre 1 976) e xcept f or

a bsence

o f

s amples

i s

e xtremely

V icia n ot w ell

f aba v ery

( horsebean). s urprising,

p reserved

T his b ut

m aterial

e specially w ould b e e xpected

f rom

t o a ppear

1 51

s pecies'

i t ( cf.

w as s ite

a bsence

a lso Q ,

B ehre

i n

l acking w here

1 976).

t he

t he t he

t ype i n

2

t he

i tems

a ) 4 4

a ▪ r • •

0 L -

N

O •( n , C )

0 n4 )

C _ )

r

0 N

t • •‘ 0 )

C f l

i n N I

L f l - ' -

t N L C N C O 0 1 • • 1 / 4 0 C r l • •

N N r " "

N r -

O

( 1 1 e ( N J

a p

C . '1

4 ) C I )

C 7 4

c e l

c s

C c l

• C r) '- 1

4 ) C a

L C-1 N

N • . . . N

4

. . . N . . . . / 4 1 / D 1

ti

l

l 4 1

N . . . . , N 0 1

1

I

e n i n

I

1

4- t -

II

1

1

1

1

• , . . . . O 4-

C . )

C O 4 3

4 sO c 0 00

V J

. . L C ' t . -

t r ,

S i t e +

o f s a m p l e s

d a t i n g

. -

. . . . .#

i n . — —

e n

4 -

1 • • N

S y n o p s i o f t h e c a r b o n i z e d p l a n t r e m a i n s

T—

. .

' . .. ./

1

N

. . . . . . . - r n e - T'

. . . -

I

N

s . . . ., , . . . . . •

1

40 / 1

• - N

t - t r t

C Y 1

40 / 1

N 0 1

C O r f t N

1--

r -

. -

1

C rop p lants 2

A vena s p. H ordeum v ulgare

5 72 4 3

C erealia i ndet. i d.,

o ats h ulled s ix-row b arley u nidentified c ereals

s tem f ragments

A nnual r uderals & f ield w eeds C henopodium a lbum C h. f icifolium

4 1

f at h en ' fig-leaved g oosefoot°

H yoscyamus n iger

5

h enbane

P olygonum a viculare S tellaria m edia

2

k not g rass

2

c hickweed

P erennial r uderals S ambucus e bulus

6 danewort

U rtica d ioica

1

s tinging n ettle

D amp g rasslands C arex o trubae

1

G alium p ulustre M entha c f.

1

f alse f oxsedge m arsh b edstraw

a rvensis

1

m int

P otentilla a nserina

1 4

s ilverweed

R annunculus r epens R . s ardous

2

c reeping b uttercup h airy b uttercup

R umex s p.

1 4 1 4

P oaceae F abaceae

t he d ocks g rasses l eguminous p lants

M esotrophic p eat C arex f lava a gg.

3 l esser s pearwort 7 y ellow s edge

C .

2

R anunculus f lammula r ostrata

D rying,

b eaked s edge

m ineral-rich mud 1 3 1

A triplex s p. P olygonum l apathifolium

o rache p ale p ersicaria

1

c elery-leaved c rowfoot

C arex p aniculata

4

p anickled s edge

C .

1

s edge

R anunculus s cleratus R eed l ands s p.

2 19 1

E leocharis p alustris M yosotis s corpioides

c ommon s pike r ush w ater f orget-me-not

3 b links

M ontia c hondrosperma

1

R umex h ydrolapathum

2 42

S cirpus s p.

g reat w ater d ock b ulrush/club r ush

O thers C alluna v ulgaris

2

h eather

J uncus g erardii

2

m ud r ush

T able 7 :3 C arbonized

p lant

r emains

f rom

s ix

s ite F .

1 53

s amples

f rom

d itch

5 0800/2.2

a t

I n c ereals

s ix s amples w ere f ound

t able

7 :3).

s traw

f or

T his

f rom a h ouse d itch a t s ite F , s tem f ragments o f t ogether w ith m any w eed a nd c ereal s eeds ( see

m ight

t hatching

w ell

( cf.

r eflect

R eynolds

t he

w aste

1 981:

o f t he

19).

p rocessing o f

T able

d emonstrates t he w eed a ssemblage: n ot o nly t hose p lants a s w eeds a re p resent, b ut a lso s pecies f rom d amp, a nd h abitats; s triking.

t he

a bundance

o f

E leocharis

a nd

S cirpus

7 :3

a lso

k nown t oday e ven m arshy

i s

e specially

T ype 3 s amples

s ite

T he o nly s ite w here s amples Q ( dated c irca 6 00 b c).

o f t his t ype h ave b een a nalysed i s T he r esults o f t hese s amples a re

p ublished b y B eemster ( forthcoming) a nd T herkorn e t a l. a nd w ill o nly b e d iscussed b riefly h ere. T he ( a)

( forthcoming)

f ollowing c onclusions w ere a rrived a t:

c oncerning w ith

t he

h eath;

e nvironment:

i n

o ne o r m ore w ater m arsh.

t he

o n

v icinity

o f

t he t he

s pot

t he

s ite,

i t

p eat w as

w as

c overed

i ntersected

b y

t idal c reeks, a nd s tood i n c ontact w ith a f reshI n t he g radient z ones t he v egetation w as d ominated

b y b og m yrtle. ( b)

c oncerning p lant h usbandry: t he m ost i mportant c rop p lants w ere b arley a nd g old-of-pleasure; e mmer w heat, b room c orn m illet, o ats a nd f lax w ere o ccasionally f ound, o rache ( Atriplex) s eeds may h ave b een g athered

f or c onsumption.

T he a bundance o f g old-of-pleasure p ods a nd s traw i ndicated t hat t his c rop w as g rown n ear t he f armstead a nd, c onsequently, o n t he p eat. E vidence v icinity

o f

n umerous, 0 .51),

f or

t he

t he

e ven

c ultivation

f armstead

m ore

s o

w as

t han

n ot

t he

o f

c ereals

f ound:

g rains

b ut s tems a nd p ollen w ere a bsent,

i n

b arley

( grain:

t he

i mmediate

i nternodes

i nternode

w ere

r atio

=

t he l atter m ay e ven i ndicate

t hat t he p rocessing o f b arley t ook p lace s omewhere e lse.

R emarkably,

T riticum-pollen

g rains

s pikelet a nd

w as

f ound

r egularly,

f orks w ere s carce.

s eeds

a lso

o ccurs

s atisfactorily e xplained.

a lthough

e mmer

a nd

T his d iscrepancy b etween T riticum p ollen

a t

o ther

s ites,

a nd

h as

n ot

y et

b een

( See a bove d iscussion.)

T ype 4 s amples F ive p ots B ,

a p ot

S ince

n o

a re

d iscussed,

c ontained e vidence

5 8

f or

w ith v ery d ifferent

c arbonized

S tellaria m edia

t he g athering o f w ild

c ontents.

f ruits w as

f ound,

s uggested t hat c ertain p lants s uch a s S tellaria a nd R umex w ere c onsumed p lants w ould ( glasswort),

a s v egetables t o s upply t he n eed h ave b een c ooked, i n c ontrast w hich

i s

p resently

h ighly

t he p eat s ites.

1 54

e ven

s ite

s eeCs. i t w as

( the d ocks)

o f v itamin C . T hese t o, e .g. S alicornia

a ppreciated

must h ave b een c ommon a nd e asy t o g ather,

A t

( chickweed)

( Mabey

1 975)

a nd

f or t he i nhabitants o f

A t s ite H , a p ot c ontained 1 21 H ordeum, 2 5 S tellaria, 1E leocharis, a ll c arbonized. T his i ndicates:

a nd -

7 S cirpus

o nce m ore t he a ssociation o f S cirpus a nd E leocharis w ith c ereals ( see a bove)

-

t hat b arley w as p repared i n p ots, a nd c onsequently h uman c onsumption, a nd n ot o nly a s a nimal f odder.

u sed

t hat t he s trong.

n ot

c ase

f or

S tellaria

b eing

a

v egetable

i s

f or

v ery

A p ot a t s ite Q , l ocated n ear t he e ntrance o f t he f armstead a nd i nterpreted a s a n o ffer p ot, c ontained t hree c arbonized H ordeum g rains a nd w as f urther b ackfilled w ith p eat. I f t he i nterpretation a s

o ffer

p ot

i s

c orrect,

t hen

t he

o riginal

c ontents

m ust

h ave

d isappeared. T he m ost i nteresting p ot s amples a re f rom s ite P : h ere t wo p ots f ound w ith c harred c ereals i mmediately v isible t o t he n aked e ye.

w ere T he

a rchaeological

h ouse-ditch,

t he

a s

o ffer

i nterpretation t han

7 0%

o f t he

e mpty g lumes, c haff b asal

c ontext,

n ear

a c oncentration o f s herds a nd

s upposed p ots,

a nd

c rop a ppeared

a nd

t he g rains

e ntrance

t o

t he

b e

c ontents

b ones

a ffirmed

t he

t his:

m ore

t o c onsist o f

w ere m ixed w ith w eed

g lumes a nd a wns, F ull r esults a re

i n a

e xcluded

u nder-developed o r

( barley)

( fragments o f r achises, n ode o r s tem f ragment).

v irtually

s eeds a nd

a nd a n o ccasional p resented i n t able

7 :4. T hus t he

c rop

t he m aterial p rocessing

a ppears

s equence

t o

b e

t he w aste

d escribed

h ave a pparently b een u sed a s d ustbins d itch t ogether w ith o ther r ubbish.

b y

f rom s tage 5 o r

H illman

( 1981).

a nd d isposed

o f i nto

1 0 o f

T he

p ots

t he h ouse

W ood a nd c harcoal a nalysis T he t o

t he

a nalysed

h ave

b een

a rea,

a t

w attle

m aterial

u nfavourable s ampled s ites

b een o f

s ystematically:

L a nd

w alls w ere

S tuyts, s pectra

h as

c onditions Q ,

o f

t wo a t

w hich

p reserved.

s ampled r ather h apharzardly, p reservation.

n ot

S ites

s ite

o nly

F a nd

F our

F ,

a nd

t he

c onstructional

t imber,

a t

s ite

t wo

p osts, T he t able

d ue

p lans

i n t he p eat

b ut

a lso

L w ere a nalysed b y D rs.

a nd s ite Q b y E . v an H oorn-van B erkel. d o n ot s how s pectacular d ifferences ( see

i s a d ifferentiation i n t he w ood a re made o f a lder, w hereas t he

h ouse

t he I .

o verall w ood 5 ) b ut t here

u sed f or t he p osts: a t s ite F t hey p eat s ites s how o ak a s t he m ain

Q s upplemented

b y

a sh

f or

t he

s tall

e nd. D uring t he o ccupation o f s ites L a nd Q , w as n ot a ble o f

t hese

t he p eat a rea a pparently

t o s upply l arge s tems o f a ny s pecies,

s ites

h ad

t o

r ely o n

t he

d unes

f or

s o t he i nhabitants

t heir s upply o f b uilding

w ood. T he

u se

o f

a lder

a t

s ite

F m ay

h ave

e xtension o f t his s pecies o ver t he l evees p ollen

i n

t he

a rea d uring t he

b een

m ade

p ossible

b y

a n

( a s trong i ncrease o f A lnus

f irst c enturies A D i s r ecorded b y D e

1 55

F ind n umber

1 6202

H ordeum v ulgare i ncl. i d.,

1 6207

5 60

2 300

( 3.9 g m.)

e mpty s pikelets

c haff f ragments

2 1.2 g m.

m. 5 6.2 g

A vena s ativa A vena f atua

4 5 3 2

3 50 5 9

B idens

1 1 7

7 5 2 6

P olygonum l apathifolium

6 5

1 69

S onchus a sper

2 2

4 8

t ripartitus

A triplex s p.

S .

h ulled s ix-row b arley

m.) ( 12.6 g

a rvensis

c ultivated o ats w ild o ats t ripartite b ur-marigold o rache p ale p ersicaria s piny s ow-thistle c orn s ow-thistle

C henopodium a lbum

2

7 5

C h.

f icifolium

2

6

f ig-leaved g oosefoot

C h.

r ubrum/glaucum

4

r ed/glaucous g oosefoot

B romus m ollis/secalinus

1 3

f at h en

c hess

1

hickweed 3 c ommon s pike-rush 1 c

S cirpus l acustris

1

2

R umex s p.

1

C arex p aniculata

1

C .

1

S tellaria m edia E leocharis p alustris

s p.

P oaceae

T able 7 :4.

t he d ocks p anickled s edge s edge

9 grasses

3

C arbonized p lant r emains

b ulrush

f ound i n t wo p ots a t s ite P .

S ite F raxinus

+

-

+

a sh

A lnus

+

+

+

a lder

S alix

+

+

+

w illow

Q uercus

+

+

+

o ak

P yrus/Malus

+

+

_

p ear/apple

B etula C orylus

+ +

+

+ -

b irch h azel

P icea J uniperus

+ +

+

-

s pruce j uniper

C ar us

-

+

-

c a mel

R hamnus

-

-

+

b uckthorn

T able 7 :5.

P resence o f w ood s pecies i n t hree s ites i n t he A ssendelver P olders

1 56

J ong, o f

i n

o ak

p ress), b y

t he

b ut

a lso

R omans

h ave

f or

h arbour w orks n ear V elsen

b een

t he

i nduced

b y

c onstruction

o f

( Morel & d e W eerd

l arge s cale c hopping t heir

c astellum

a nd

1 980).

Z ooarchaeological a nalysis Z ooarchaeological c onditions i n

t he

i dea

f or

t he

s carce,

d ue

p reservation o f b ones.

T he

c lay a rea a nd

o f

t he

m eat

d ata

o ne

a re

f rom

t he

c onsumption

p eat,

p atter.

t o

l isted S ite

t he

f inds

u nfavourable

f rom

f our s ites

i n t able 7 :6,

Q w as a nalysed

g ive a n

b y D r.

L .

H . v an W ijngaarden-Bakker a nd t he o ther s ites b y S eeman ( 1980). C attle w as o bviously t he m ost i mportant d omestic a nimal, e ven i f o ver r epresentation i s

a ccounted

m )

a nd

s lender,

b etter P ig

( bias t owards l arger b ones c aused b y b ad p reservation)

f or.

T he

a nd

o f

m inor

s carcity

o f

f orest

r epresented a bsence

o f

i n

w ere

t he

t he

p eat

h orse.

Q

( cf.

t he

s ize)

s ites

c ould

e asily

S heep/goat i s

a lso

e nvironment

n ot

b e

t raced.

e xplained i s

b y

r elatively

c haracterized w as

t oo

d amp

t he w ell

b y

f or

t he t his

i n v iew o f t he d isc-wheels f ound a t

e t

i ndication

a l.,

f or

f orthcoming).

p ossible

f ind o f c hicken b ones a t s ite N .

c ontact w ith

( See

T he t he

s ite

B

C

c attle s heep/goat

7 7

7 1

1 8

2 3

p ig h orse

2 2

d og o ther

T otal n umber o f b ones

o nly

R omans

p eat

D

F

7 8

6 0 2 8

6

4 4 5 1

1

5

4

6

3

+

1

-

+

-

+

4

5

5

2

1 39

1 8

1 05

P ercentages o f a nimal b ones

i s

f ootnote.)

c lay

T able 7 :6.

1 .05-1.15

i n t erms o f

a lthough t he l and m ust h ave b een d ry e nough

T herkorn

z ooarchaeological

y ounger

i s

w hich

t he

t o a llow t ransportation b y w agon, s ite

o f

a rea.

( shoulderheight

t he

w hich

s ite,

P erhaps

t o b e o f m uch u se,

i n

( increase

i mportance, i n

s mall

i nfluence

b reeding/selection

w as

a nimal

a nimals

R oman

3

1 66

f ound a t

7 0 f ive s ites i n t he

A ssendelver P olders I ntegrating t he r esults; I f

w e

l andscape e vidence w ith

w ant

t o

c onclusions

m ake

o bservations

o n

i n t he A ssendelver P olders b y t he i s

n ot

s talls o r

v ery

c attle

h elpful. b oxes

I n

o ccur,

b oth

o f

t he

I ron A ge i nhabitants,

t he

t he

p eat

w hereas

i n

t he

l and;

T here

c lay

i s,

a rea,

i n

h owever, t he

i n t he p eat a rea,

e vidence

f orm

o f

f or

a nd

p its,

o ther s tructures a ssociated w ith c rop s torage l acking.

e xploitation

( cf.

c rop

1 57

f ound.

a rea,

B uurman

f ields

s hallow d itches

d itches w ere n ot

c lay

h ouses

r aised g ranaries o n

1 979) t he

o r

w ere

l evees

e nclosing p lots

o f

T he

e vidence

p resented

i n

t he

p receding

o utline t entatively s ome a spects o f A ssendelver P olders s ettlement s ystem.

s ections

t he

a llows

s ubsistence

u s

o f

t o t he

A t s ite Q , c onsidered w ith r espect t o s ubsistence t o b e t he t ype s ite f or t he p eat a rea, i n w hich i t w as t he b est i nvestigated s ite, t he f irst i nhabitants, h aving t raversed t he p eat w ith o ne o r m ore w agons

d rawn

h illock. f rom

b y

T he

t he

o xen,

w ood

c oastal

s ettled

f or

t he

d unes,

d own

a round

c onstruction

w hich

w ere

6 00 o f

a bout

b c

o n a h eath-covered

a f armstead

7 k m

a way.

w as

M ost

b rought p robably

t he b asis o f s ubsistence w as s tock r aising: t he p eat w as p rimarily u sed f or g razing g oats ( Therkorn e t a l. f orthcoming) a nd c attle, t he l atter p robably c overing a m ore e xtended a rea,

i ncluding t he b anks o f

a t idal c hannel. A griculture o n t he p eat w as r estricted t o t he c ultivation o f g old-of-pleasure; c ereals ( predominantly b arley) w ere c onsumed,

b ut

w hether t he

n ot

g rown

l ocally.

I t

i s

i mpossible

i nhabitants o f s ite Q h ad t heir o wn c ereal

d istance f rom t he s ite, e .g. i n t he d une a rea l evee o r t hat t he c ereals w ere b eing t raded. F rom t he s econd c entury b e o nwards, i nhabitable, a nd a r ather d ense o ccupation

o r

t o

d etermine

f ields a t s ome

o n

a s andy

c reek

t he c lay a rea b ecame d eveloped. T he l ocal

e nvironment w as a ble t o p rovide w ood f or c onstruction, a lthough t here i s e vidence t hat t he d une a rea w as s till b eing e xploited. B oth a griculture

a nd

s tock

r aising

w ere

p ractised

h ere,

t he

f ields

b eing

s ituated o n t he s andy c reek l evees. T he m any p lant s pecies o f m arshy h abitats t hat w ere a ssociated w ith t he c rops s uggest t hat t he f ields must h ave b een r ather d amp, c onsequent

p eat

r estricted

i n

g rowth

a rea.

a nd i n v iew o f t he r ising w ater t able a nd

d uring

t he

f irst

P robably

t he

h igh

c enturies w ater

A D,

t able

i ncreasingly

w as

p rohibitive

f or s torage o f c rops o n o r u nder t he s oil s urface. A part c ontact a round

f rom

w ith

p ottery,

t he

t here

R omans:

t he

i s

f ind

o nly o f

o ne

i ndication

c hicken

b ones a t

f or

p ossible

s ite

N ( dated

t he b eginning o f o ur e ra).

N otes R esults o f s ite N a re n ot l isted, z ooarchaeological m aterial a re s till u nder c ompletion w ere

o f

f ound

t he

m anuscript,

i n a s ample

t wo

s ince b otanical a nd i nvestigation. A fter

c arbonized

h ilums

o f

V icia

f aba

f rom a d itch.

A cknowlegements T his p ublication i s o nly a n i nterim r eport. a re

w orking

p roject t he

a nd

m ain

d etails

P .

J .

H allewas M .

e nvironmental

s pecialized

y et

w ork,

J ansma,

C .

t he

o utline

A mersfoort) D .

a ll

h ave

p ublished J .

o n

o f t o

b ut

M .

t he

b e

a nd

D rs.

i s m ainly

l aboratorium,

P .

a nd

i n.

c omposed D rs.

v oor

V os

T he P .

h et

( geology,

( Palaeoethnobotany),

U niversity

o f

o f

M ore t han

b ackground

i s

p edology), D r.

B .

D r.

v an G eel

m any

p artly o n b y D r.

( diatom a nalysis)

O udheidkundig

P olders A lthough

k nown

i s b ased

o n u npublished d ata V os

1 5 p eople

A ssendelver

i n p rogress.

f ollowing

A msterdam),

1 58

t he

s till

e nvironmental

( Rijksdienst

B eemster

s tudies a re

f illed

F ontaine

p art

D rs.

M . D .

B odemonderzoek, J .

P .

P als a nd

( Hugo d e V ries

P rofessor W .

G roenman-van

W aateringe, J . d e J ong ( Rijks G eologische D ienst, H aarlem, C .D. T roostheide a nd H . v an V eluwen ( palynology), E . v an H oorn-van B erkel a nd D rs. I . S tuyts ( Biologisch-Archaeologisch I nstituut, S tate U niversity,

G roningen)

( wood

W ijngaarden-Bakker, F . U nless o therwise s tated, e xcavations D r. 1 980

S .

E .

b y

r esearch

w ere

v an t he

L aarman a ll a re

c onducted

u nder

d er L eeuw a nd N etherlands

( Z.W.0.),

i n

a rchaeological r esearch

D rs.

i dentification), a nd M . s taff o r t he A . b y

( ARCHON).

1 59

L .

H .

d irection o f D rs.

R .

W .

f or t he

v an

B randt,

V oorrips w ere s upported i n

o rganisation 1 981

D r.

S eeman ( zooarchaeology). s tudents o f t he I PP. T he

t he

a dvancement

Z .W.O.

1 979-

o f

p ure

f oundation

f or

B ibliography A ndersen,

S .Th.

( 1979)

p ollen. B eemster,

D .C.M.

I dentification

( forthcoming)

v an e en b oerderij P olders. B ehre,

K .-E.

o f

w ild

g rass

a nd

D anmarks G eologiske U ndersegelse A rbog B uis Q v an A t ot

D ie

b otanische a nalyse

u it d e v roege I jzertijd i n d e A ssendelver

I nternal R eport I PP.

( 1976)

Z :

c ereal

1 978 6 9-92

A msterdam

P flanzenreste

a ns

d er

f rühgeschichtlichen

W urt E lisenhof. S tudien z ur K üstenärchäologie S chleswigH olsteins, s erie A , b and 2 . B ern: F rankfurt/Main B randt,

R .W. ( in p ress) f rontier. I n: S lofstra,

B randt,

R .W.,

W .

J .

a nd B randt,

G roenman-van

( forthcoming) B uurman,

J .

A s hort-lived r elation a long t he n orthern R oman a nd N ative i n t he L ow C ountries ( eds

( 1979)

R .W.)

W aateringe

C ereals

i n c ircles:

K . & J . I versen C openhagen.

F ontaine,

J .M.

( 1981)

( 1964)

D iatomeenonderzoek

v an

D ie

d e

A .E.

v an

R .W.

( 1981)

( 1975)

J .M.A.W. V elsen. W .S.

A nalysis.

g rondmonsters

G lasbergen, p p.

e n

W .

a m

B eispiel

& W .

10-115

P hasenkontrastverfahrens

d argelegt

d er

f ur d ie

G ramineenpollen

P hotographie u nd F orschung 7 2 37-248 P ollenanalytical

R econstructuring o f c rops.

( ed M ercer,

K örber-Grohne, U . ( 1967) F eddersen W ierde.

M orel,

( eds

G roningen.

d ating o f t wo T he A ssendelver

r emains

p rehistory

R .

P ollen

i nvestigation

a nd

c ored s ections a t A ssendelft P olders P apers I ( eds B randt,

e t a l.)

c harred

M abey,

o f

v an

u it

G iffen.

b edeutung d es

( forthcoming)

r adiocarbon ( NL). I n:

G .

i n

e erste e euw I n: I n h et

v om G etreidetyp.

H illman,

e ds

W aateringe, W . ( 1961) E en b oerderij u it d e C hr. t e K rommenie ( N.H.). D e b oerderij.

( 1957)

J .

L eeuw,

I

I nternal

P ollen analyse,

J ong,

d er

A ssendelft.

V oetspoor

U .

v an

A rchaeo-Physika 8 2 1-37

T extbook

G roenman-van W aateringe) G rohne,

& S .E.

c rop p rocessing a ctivities

( NL).

a ardewerk-scherven a fkomstig R eport I PP. A msterdam G roenman-van n a

B ARS

T he A ssendelver P olders P apers

B ronze A ge B ovenkarspel F aegri,

O xford:

M .D. I n:

d e R oman

a nd K eppie,

h usbandry

p ractices

F arming p ractice

E dinburgh.

G eobotanische W iesbaden

F ood f or f ree. &

R .)

c rop I n:

p p.

f rom

i n B ritish

1 23-162

U ntersuchungen

a uf

d er

F ontana

W eerd

( 1980)

f rontier

L .J.F.)

O xford:

1 60

E arly

s tudies

R oman 1 979.

B ARS 7 1

p p.

h arbours ( eds

4 75-494

i n

H anson,

P als,

J .P.,

B .

v an

G eel

& A .

D elfos

( 1980)

P alaeoecological

s tudies

i n t he K lokkeweel b og n ear H oogkarspel ( prov. o f N oordH olland). R eview o f P alaeobotany a nd P alynology 3 0 3 71-418 R eynolds,

S eeman,

P . ( 1981) D eadstock a nd l ivestock. I n: F arming p ractice i n B ritish p rehistory. ( ed M ercer, R .) E dinburgh. p p. 9 7-122

M .

( 1980) d e

O nderzoek a an

A ssendelver

I nternal R eport I PP S traaten,

L .M.J.U.

v an

d ierlijke

P older

( 1965)

N orth-Holland,

r esten

g edurende

d e

u it

o pgravingen

j aren

1 978

e n

i n

1 979.

A msterdam C oastal

i n

b arrier d eposits

p articular

i n

t he

i n

S outh- a nd

a reas

a round

S cheveningen a nd I Jmuiden. M ededelingen v an d e G eologische S tichting, n ew s eries 1 7 4 1-75 T herkorn,

L .,

R .W.

B randt & J .P.

f armstead:

s ite

Q

P als

o f

( forthcoming)

t he

A ssendelver

A n E arly I ron A ge P olders

P roject.

A ntiquity V cs,

P .

( 1982)

E en

( sites N , V uorela,

I .

d iatomeeninventarisatie P e n Q ).

( 1973)

R elative

p ollen

A cta B otanica F ennica Z agwijn,

W .H.

( 1971)

D e

z ijn o mgeving.

i n

d e

I nternal R eport I PP r ain

a round

A ssendelver

P older

A msterdam c ultivated

f ields.

1 02

o ntwikkeling

v an

W esterheem 2 0

1 61

h et

1-18

' Oer-IJ'

e stuarium

e n

8 .

M AN A ND T HE E NVIRONMENT A T F RESWICK L INKS:

P RELIMINARY O BSERVATIONS F ROM A L ATE N ORSE S ETTLEMENT I N C AITHNESS

A .

K .

G .

J ones,

C .

E .

B atey,

C .

D .

M orris a nd D .

J .

R ackham

I NTRODUCTION

L ate h ave

P reliminary a nalyses o f a nimal a nd p lant r emains e xtracted f rom N orse d eposits a t F reswick L inks ( NGR N D 3 765 6 760), C aithness, h ighlighted

a n umber

o f

i nteresting

p roblems

c oncerning

t he

a ccumulation o f a rchaeological d eposits w ithin a d eveloping s and d une s ystem.

I n

a ddition

t o

o utlining

a rchaeological r esearch i n C aithness,

t he

h istory

o f

t he d evelopment of a s ampling s trategy f or t he s ite; k inds of b iological o ccupation a nd,

a nd

f inally,

d epositional

N orse

t o e xplore w hich

r emains w ere d eposited a s a c onsequence o f h uman

w hich

t o

L ate

t his p aper a ttempts t o d escribe

f ormed

p art

of

t he

d emonstrate d ifferences

n atural

b ackground

i n t he r emains

b iota;

f ound

i n t wo

e nvironments - a m idden d eposit a nd a n a rea s urrounding

d omestic b uildings. T HE C AITHNESS C ONTEXT C aithness

i s

f ormed

m ainly

w hich i ncludes mudstones, i s

o verlain

b y

P leistocene

d eposition.

A ll

a re

b y

c overed

G lacial

b ut a

a citivity

t he

d rift

O ld

t ill

l argely

R ed

a nd

u pon

S andstone,

f lags.

d eposits

s outhern

s helly i s

o f

s andstones a nd

w ith

w estern w hich

r esponsible

i ce

p arts

s oils

f or

a f ormation

M uch o f t he c ountry

t he

a nd o f

i ce/water

t he

h ave

c ountry

d eveloped.

g ently

u ndulating

l andscape

( mostly b elow 1 00 m 0 .D.)

s treams.

T he h eart o f C aithness i s c lothed b y a d eep b ed o f p eat,

t o

6 m

d omestic T he r ocky

d eep

i n

f uel

p laces,

w hich

( Sharpe a nd S axon

s pectacular

c oastline

i nlets w ith c haracteristic

c ut b y d eeply i ncising r ivers a nd

i s

s till

1 972;

t he

O mand

c omprises

most

1 972a;

h igh

c ommon O mand

o f

1 962).

s andstone . cliffs

f lagstone l ayering,

u p

s ource

a nd

a nd

a f ew l arge

s andy b ays b acked b y e xtensive d unes, e .g. S andside B ay, S inclair's B ay a nd F reswick B ay. C aithness i s c haracterized b y a l ack o f t reec over

w hich

( Peglar

a ppears

1 979:

n orth-east C anisbay,

c orner n ow

t o

d ate

2 45-6). o f

i ncludes

b ack

A lthough t he

t o

c ountry,

r ich

t he

r ather

f armland

l ast b leak

p eriod a nd

p articularly s upporting

o f

g laciation

w indswept,

t he

t he

p arish

c ereals

a nd

b eef

o f

t o

h ave

c attle. • b een

S ettlement,

p robably

c oncentrated

a long

f rom t he

p rehistoric c oastal

1 63

t imes,

z one

w ith

a ppears s ome

i nland

1 64 c o p y r i g h t .

c olonization s tressed

a round

t hat

l ochs

f ield

a nd

a long

w ork h as

b een

r ivers.

H owever,

f ocussed

a long

t he

t races of e arly o ccupation m ay l ie u ndiscovered. t he

c ounty

c ontain

c onsiderable N icolaisen a nd

e ast

t he

p arish

m odern,

O ld

s ettlement

( 1982)

o f t he o f

i n

e lements

t he

d istinguished c ounty

a nd

C anisbay,

b etween

G aelic

a ll

t he

A rchaeological

e vidence

s parse.

T he

G roats,

h as

b een

w alking

a nd

e xcavation

s imilar

S hetland

k nown

p eriod

a s

a re

( Wainwright

( D.

w ell

1 962:

t he

N orse

e arly

k nown

o n

17-62;

a nd

w est.

I n

w here

n ot

c omm.).

L ate

N orse

a ctivity

i s

5 k m

s outh

o f

o '

o f

t he

S mall

s uggest p eriods.

e lements,

o ccupation

p art

b e

n ames o f t he n orth

W augh p ers. a nd

a nd

N orse

s outh

n ame

F reswick,

t he

1 972b) L ate

N orse

i n

V iking

o f

a L ate

s ince

t he

s urviving

f or

s ite

a nd

n ames

s hould

M any p lace n ames i n

( Omand

V iking

a re N orse o r N orse-derived

r elatively

o f

N orse

i t

c oast a nd m any

s ite

t his

f rom

f ield

c entury.

i slands

1 968;

J ohn

o f

M orris

S ites

O rkney

a nd

f orthcoming),

b ut u ntil r ecently F reswick w as t he o nly s ettlement s ite i n C aithness p roducing c oast,

L ate

N orse

R obertshaven

m aterial.

( NGR

h ave r ecently y ielded

N D

H owever,

3 880

7 360)

t wo

a nd

s ites

o n

t he

n orth

( NGR

N D

3 995

7 358)

H una

p ottery w hich i s v ery s imilar

t o

t hat

f ound a t

F reswick. B roadly i nclude

C astletown 1 940: a nd

c ontemporaneous

p agan

V iking

( Anderson

2 1-2)

a nd

A nderson,

b een

1 874:

a f ine

1 903:

s ettlements

a rchaeological

g raves

a t

5)4 9-51),

R unic

3 6-7).

s ince

a nd

t he

i n

( Anderson

R eay,

c ross-slab

T he

e vidence

W esterseat

f rom

t he

S andside T hurso

c ountry

1 874:

5 51-2)

B ay

( Grieg

( Romilly

A llen

t owns o f T hurso a nd H alkirk m ay h ave

e leventh

c entury;

h owever,

a ttestable

a rchaeological e vidence o f t his p eriod i s r emarkably e lusive. F RESWICK L INKS: W ork b y A . 1 941

T HE L ATE N ORSE S ITE O .

( 19 ) 43:

5 -17)

i nformation

f rom

C urie i n

1 937-8

( 1939:

7 1-108)

a nd V .

G .

C hilde i n

c oncentrated o n r ecovering a rtefacts a nd s tructural t he

s ite.

C hilde's

e xcavations

w ere

c onducted

i n

a dvance of e xtensive s and-quarrying w hile C urie's w ork c ontained m ore o f a r esearch c omponent. a ssociated

w ith

t he

d etailed s crutiny. s hort-horned c attle q uantities o f p ig, ( Curie

1 939:

I n

more

U niversities s ite

d og,

T his

h orse,

p hase

y ears,

o f

v isits

e vidence

a rchaeological e rosion.

t he

t hese

w ere

n ot

s ubjected

t o

r ed d eer,

s eal,

i nvestigation

a t

g annet a nd c od t he

s ite

i s

r e-

( 1982).

r ecent

w here

F irstly,

s heep,

p roduced

c onsiderable

b ut

M argery P latt s imply r eported t hat b ones o f w ere t he m ost a bundant t axon, w ith s maller

1 09).

a ssessed b y B atey

B oth e xcavators e ncountered m idden d eposits

s tructures,

s and

T wo

d une

b y

t hat

m embers F res s eick

d eposits major

t errace

a re

k inds

o f

f ronting

o f

G lasgow

L inks

i s

b eing e rosion

t he

s ea

a nd

a n

D urham

e xtensive

s ubjected a re

i s

t o

r ecognize r i.

r eceding

a s

a

r esult of s and-quarrying a nd c onsequent e xposure a nd d estabilization; a nd

s econdly,

c onsequence

a reas

o f

t he

t o

t he

a ctivities

l andward o f

a re

a l arge

e xamination o f t he e roding c liff f aces h as a rtefacts h uman

i n

a ddition

o ccupation.

S cottish

D evelopment

t o

T he

a nimal

a nd

I nspectorate

D epartment a greed t o

1 65

b lown-out c olony.

r evealed

p lant of

b eing

r abbit

a

l arge n umbers o f

r emains

A ncient

a s

D etailed

a ssociated

M onuments

o f

w ith t he

f und a s mall-scale s urvey

o f t he

s ite

c olumn

i n S eptember

s amples

e rosion

a nd

p hosphate

f or

t he

a nd

a nd

t raced

i nland.

o f

1 50

a nalysis,

o f

w ere

d eposits

m a long

A s a c onsequence,

t he

I n

s patial

e dge

t he

o f

e xtent

l inks;

a nd

s upported

t he

e xcavation,

n orth

a nd

s outh

f inanced

b y

t he

o f p arts

o f

t his

w hile

o ther

d esigned o f

t he

I nspectorate w ork h ave

a spects

( Batey e t a l.

t o

a re

s ample

a rea a nd

b y

U niversity

p ublished

c urrently

f orthcoming a ,

m idden

e xcavated

t he

b een

t he

b eing

t o

T wo

m

f urther

d eposits C urie,

b oth

h ave

e t a l.

p repared

1 00

f urther s urvey

o f D urham.

( Batey

t hese e xtent

d eposits

u p

w ork i n t he s pring a nd e xcavation i n t he s ummer o f 1 980. s easons

o f i n

m idden

d unes

of

l imited

R esults

d ifferences

t he

I nspectorate

t he

a ddition,

u ndertaken.

a cross

t he

t he c ollection of

r ecording

a rtefacts.

c onsiderable

m idden

f or

T his w ork i ncluded

s urveys

i ndicated

t hickness

w ere

c ollection

a uger

i nvestigations

1 979.

l aboratory

R esults

1 981;

f or

t o

b een 1 982)

p ublication

b ).

T HE E VOLUTION O F A S TRATEGY F OR S AMPLING T HE D EPOSITS A s

a m ajor c omponent

t wo

s mall

c olumn

a nd

p rocessed

A rcheaology, b een

o f

a nd

n umber

c harred

i nvertebrate

e roding

c liff

r emains,

m ainly

o f

b ones

B iological e t

a nimal

( Rackham

a l arge

( including

t he

( Batey

t he

p ublication t hat

i n

p reliminary i nvestigations o f

( approximtely

e t

1 981:

s hells f rom

a nd a nd

t he

k inds

s eaweed,

c arapace

c od

f rom

o f

w ere

t he

b oth

T his

o f

f ish,

b ird

f ragments)

P articularly

f amily

t hese

a nd

mammal

r emains b ones,

p resent

d id

i n

w ere

H owever,

s amples

of

a waits

d emonstrated p lant

a bundant

( Gadidae).

s mall

r esults

a nd

w ere

of

f irst h ave

c olumns

w ork

a nimal

1 979,

c ollected

D epartment

D etailed

f rom

f orthcoming).

d eposits.

c ollected

s quare)

9 -10).

r emains

d ifferent

g rain

c m

s ummary r esults o f t he

p lant

a l.

o f

e dge

a l.

a nd

2 5

L aboratory

U niversity o f D urham;

p ublished

a nalyses

o f t he

s amples

t he f ish

t he n umber

n ot

p rovide

s ufficient d ata f or t he f ishery t o b e u nderstood. I n o rder t o o btain s uch d ata, i t w as a greed t o s ieve l arge q uantities o f a rchaeological d eposits

f rom

t renches' s tructures p roducing t hat

a n umber

o f

l ocated a long e xcavated

b y

i nterpretable

s ieving

l arge

s mall

t he

t renches

c liff

C urie

f ace

( see

o f

o f

r epresentative s amples o f s hells,

k nown

t he

f igure

a ssemblages

q uantities

t o

a s

8 .2).

f ish

' environmental

s outh a nd

r emains,

t he

n orth o f t he

I n

d eposits

a ddition

i t

w as

t o

t hought

w ould

p roduce

b ones a nd o ther s mall r emains w hich

a re o ften o verlooked b y e xcavators. I n e ntire

1 980

a n

a ttempt

f ills

o f

a t rench

d ivided

i nto

d ensity

a nd o f

( usually

m ade

t o

s ieve,

4 x 1 x 1 .25

u sing

m ( Area

1 m m

4 ).

T he

s ieves,

t he

t rench

w as

4 metre s quares i n o rder t hat s patial v ariation i n t he k inds

d eposits w ere l ength

w as

t he

2 -5

o f

f ind

m ay

u sually 5 -10 t rench.

c m)

c m

b e

L ayers

l ayers

o f

o bserved.

T he

t hick a nd c ould o f

c lean

m idden

w ind

w ere

b lown

i ndividual

b e s een

s eparated

s and.

m idden

t o r un f or t he b y

t hin

U nfortunately,

s evere p ractical p roblems w ere e ncountered b ecause o f t he i nstability o f

t he

s and

t rench.

w hich

T hus,

m ade

a t

i ts

i t

n ecessary

d eepest

t he

t o

t rench

b atter h ad

t he

m easure 3 .5 x . 75 m .

I n t he l ight o f t his e xperience,

m w ere

l ater

e xcavated

c entral s ections. t renches

s trip T he w as

5 0

i n c m

w ide

r emainder e xcavated

o f

s easons. w hich t he

w as

S ieving d ivided

d eposits

b y h and.

1 66

w as

i n

o f

t he

t he

a rea

t o

t renches 4 x 2

r estricted

i nto

w ithin

I n a ddition,

s ides

d ecreased

4

m etre

t o

a

l ong

e nvironmental

s mall c olumn s amples

F RESW ICK L INKS 1 9 8 2

0

4 50 -

5 0m A r ea 6\\

Z on e C( S ou th ) • ,Z one D ( Nor th ) 4 ( X )-

A r ea 4j ;Z one D ( S ou th )

Z one E( Cen t r e ) A r ea 7

Z one E ( L ink ) Z one E( S ou th )

3 50

3 00 -

T op o fc l if --- I n land e dg eo fl i nk s

A r ea 1 3 1„ 1. 1 : 1

E x cav a t ion a r ea s : 1 9 80-8 1 1 9 80 / 8 1-8 2 1 9 8 2 1

C on tou rS u rv ey a r ea s : 1 9 8 1

2 50 -

1 9 82 A r ea 1 4le;

e(

/ C l if fs e c t ion r e co rd ing : 1980- 8 1 1 9 8 2 9 F ig.

8 :2

2 00

P lan of F reswick B ay s howing l ocation of t renches R ains).

C rown c opyright. 1 67

( M.

J .

( approximately 2 5 t rench

a nd

monitor

c m s quare)

s ieved

i n

b iological

p rovide

a

t he

r emains

p reliminary

w ere

c ollected

l aboratory n ot

f rom

u sing

c ollected

i ndication

o n

o f

t he

5 00

s ection o f e ach

m icron

1 m m

t he

s ieves

s ieves

r ange

t o

a nd

o f

t o

m aterial

i ncorporated i nto t he d eposits. I n c it)

A rea

a nd

f airly

2 ,

w hich

d ark m idden

l arge

a rea

s quares o n t he

i ncluded

a b uilding

e xcavated

l ayers i mmediately s urrounding

w as

e xcavated

s ite g rid w ere

a round

t he

b y

t he

b uildings

s elected a nd a ll

C urie

( op.

s tructure,

a nd

d eposits

a

f our m etre

b ulk-sieved.

I n s itu d eposits w ithin t he s tructure w ere n ot i nvestigated. M ost

s amples

c omprised v olume

a n

o f

i n

w eighed

s itu

e ach

s ample

e xcavated v olume. a nd

t he m eshes

a t

b etween

v olume

o f

w as

r ecorded

a nd

1 00

k g

a nd

s quare b y 2 -5

p rior

t o

c m

s ieving

g enerally

t hick.

T he

a nd

t he

i s

U nder c ertain c ircumstances b oth t he a reas s ampled

u sed w ere a ltered.

f requencies

5 0

1 m etre

g reater

t han

W here c harred g rain w ere o bserved

a pproximately

1 5

g rains/15

k g

f loating

materials w ere c ollected o n a 5 00 m icron r ather

t han a 1 m m s ieve i n

o rder

o f t he

t o

c ollect

s mall

c harred

s eeds.

I n

t wo

e nvironmental

t renches s tructural r emains w ere r ecovered. T o c ontinue c ollecting s amples f rom a c entral 5 0 c m s trip f rom t hese t renches i gnoring t he s tratigraphy s amples,

a nd

u sually

w alls

w as

5 0

1 00

-

j udged k g,

t o

o f

b e

e ach

i nappropriate.

c ontext

w ere

S o

l arge

c ollected

a nd

t heir e xtent c arefully p lotted. W here p ossible s amples w ere t aken o n a m etre s quare g rid b ut f requently t he s ize o f t he t renches r estricted t he s ample a rea. I n

s ummary,

r ecovery c olumns

o f

a t hree-tiered

a nimal

c ollected

a nd f or

p lant

s trategy h as

r emains.

d etailed

s imply

s ieved

o f

m idden,

a nd

l arge

u sing

f or o f

5 00

t he

s mall m icron

d eposit f rom s tandard t he d eposits a ppear t o

q uantities

o f s oil

h ave b een

f rom a reas o f t he s ite w hich c ontain t he r emains of b uildings.

T hirdly, r ecovered t o b e

l ayers

d eveloped a s eries

l aboratory a nalysis

m eshed s ieves. S econdly, l arge a mounts o f s ized t renches h ave b een s ieved t o 1 m m w here b e

b een

F irstly,

a ll

u nsieved

b y h and.

d eposits

w ere

c arefully

t rowelled

a nd

f inds

T his a pproach h as a llowed r elatively l arge a reas

e xcavated w hile o bjectively t esting

t he

l evels o f r ecovery a nd

a ssessing v ariation a cross t he s ite. D uring

t he

1 980

e xcavation,

c lear

d ifferences

w ere

o bserved

i n

t he n ature a nd i ngredients o f s amples f rom m idden d eposits a nd a round t he

s tructures.

T he

o f

p reliminary

r esults

r emainder o f t he f rom

t hese

p aper c onsists o f a c omparison t wo

d ifferent

a rchaeological

c ontexts. A REAS 2 A ND 4 A rea 4 ,

O ne t rench, D ( see w here t his b lown

f igure c lean

t rench

t ank H all

c onsisted N o

f rom

f itted

a nd

w ind-blown

s and.

d eposits

8 :2)

s and

A rea

4 w ere

1 m m

( 1981).

t o

w as

m esh

a d epth o f a pproximately

e ncountered.

o f a lternate

s tructural

w ith

a nd J ones

w as e xcavated b ehind t he c liff e dges i n Z one e xcavated

a nd

o f m idden

d eposit

w ere

r ecovered.

A ll

u sing

a m odified

f lot

s ieve

a s

1 .25 m

s tratigraphy

b ands

r emains s ieved

T he

t he

' Siraf'

d escribed

b y

m idden s ieving

K enward,

T he s ame m ethod w as u sed t o s ieve s amples,

1 68

of

a nd w ind

1

m etre s quare, r ecognized a s

t aken o n B uilding

r egular g rid V I, p robably

f rom a reas a round a b uilding a h ouse, e xcavated b y C urle.

T his p art o f t he s ite i s k nown a s A rea 2 ( see T he B urn. t o

s oil

T he

s amples

w eight

r educe

t he

d iameter

o f

o f

a nd

8 :1

u sing

w ater

s tored,

c lassified

s hows

p umped

e ach s ample w as

m aterial

w eighed

T able

w ashed

v olume

a mount

w ere

d iscarded.

w ere

a nd

f igure 8 :2).

t he

s tones b y

b asic

l arger

t ype

d ata

f rom

F reswick

r ecorded.

t han

b efore

f or

t he

I n o rder 2 .5

c m

t hey

w ere

s amples

h ere

c onsidered. A rea

N umber o f

T otal w t.

S amples

M ean w t.

M ean v ol.

M ean % s tone

( kg)

e xcavated

b y w eight

( kg)

d eposit ( 1) 2 4

1 7 2 0

T able

8 :1:

8 79 9 75

T he

n umber

5 2 4 9

o f

s amples,

a nd

p ercentage o f d iscarded

4 ,

F reswick

L inks,

s tone

C aithness

3 9 3 7

t otal

1 2 1 4

w eight

f rom s oil

s ieved,

s amples

( information

m ean

w eight

f rom A reas

a bstracted

b y

2 a nd

M r.

J .

M aytom). W hile d ating t hat

t he

d eposits

f rom

t hem t o

t he L ate

N orse

t he

materials

R egrettably F urthermore, c ollected

f rom

p recise i t

f rom

b e

A rea

t wo

4 c ontain

t here

a reas

i s n o

w ere

e vidence

n oted

4 a nd

A rea 2 a re c onsidered. t wo a reas m ay a lter

t he

2 a nd

p eriod

d ating

s hould i n

A reas

t hat

l aid

i s

o nly

s imilar

p ottery

e vidence t o s uggest d own

n ot

s ynchronously.

y et

a q uarter

a pproximately h alf of

a vailable.

o f

t he

t he

s amples

s amples

f rom

W ork o n t he r emainder o f t he s amples f rom t he

s ome o f t he g eneral

o bservations p resented h ere.

D efinitive c atalogues a re n ot y et a vailable f or a ll t he a nimal a nd p lant r emains, n either a re d etailed d escriptions o f t he s ediments. N evertheless, a pproach t o

t his

p aper

p rovides

a n

o pportunity

t o

s ampling l arge c oastal m idden d eposits.

i llustrate I n a ddition,

o ne a n

a ttempt i s m ade t o p resent a g eneral p icture o f t he n ature o f t he d eposits a nd t heir c ontents, a nd t o g ive p reliminary o bservations i n a dvance s amples

o f d etailed a naylses. F igures 8 :3 s hows t he p ercentage o f w hich c ontained t he d ifferent k inds o f m aterial f rom A reas 2

a nd 4 . T HE M INERAL C OMPONENT T he ( Area

2 )

made

u p

d erived

d eposits w ere

a t

mainly

o f

s hell

f rom

t he

t he

c liff

b lown

p articles l ocal

t ended

t he

( see

a nd

n ear

c omponent

s ome

q uartz,

r ocks.

A round

o f

t able o f

s and

t he

V I w as

mainly

b uilding

t he

c ontaining c lay a nd o ther f ine p articles

s oil d amp a nd

8 :2),

B uilding t he

p resumably

s ticky.

A t

t he

c liff e dge t he s ediment

t o b e l ighter i n c olour a nd r ather m ore f riable.

p roportion o f d iscarded a mounts

w ith

4 )

( Area

a l arge

s andstone

d eposits t ended t o b e b lack, w hich made

e dge

s and;

s tone

i n

t he

t he

t ype

o f

f lagstone

w ere

p resent

s tone

A lthough t he

t wo

s ets o f s amples w as s imilar

w as

m arkedly

a round

t he

d ifferent.

h ouse.

T his

L arge i s

n ot

s urprising s ince t he f loors a nd w alls of t he b uildings c ontained l arge amounts o f r ather c rumbly f lagstone. B y c ontrast t he m idden

1 69

E I

A REA

1 00

•

A REA

2

4

7

r 8 0 7 N/9 --

s a m p l e s p r o d u c i n g m a t e r i a l

6 0

4 0 . /

P e r c e n t a g e

2 0

' t ' , ,( P e ' ' . $ •' 5 ' e •' . < 5 ' . 7e p c ' o 4 . ,i . 4 .e , ,, \d , , e . ' , › ' '. ` P e k • d P e i , < A e s, P ' 4 5, y e . ? 1' ` P . { d> ' t ' ' ?" 1 5 e 4 1 y e . ,d , > - ' , ' 1' e9e,9 1' •t ' . ` )e 7

. 7

, • \

92

c f >

9 i ,

c , , f >

F ig.

8 :3

( above)

H istogram

s amples k inds F ig.

f rom

o f 8 :4

b readth v irens

A reas

f inds

( J.

( below)

s howing 2 a nd

M aytom).

M aytom).

C rown

c opyright.

o toliths

o f

s aithe

f rom s quare

P ollachius 4 A rea

4 ( J.

C rown c opyright.

n =23 8

n

4 2

1

2

o f

H istogram s howing t he maximum

m easurements ( L.)

p ercentage

4 c ontaining v arious

3

4 1 1 1 70

5

6

7

8

d eposits

c ontained

p ebbles.

H ow t hese

p redominately s tones w ere

f ire-cracked

u sed

i s

i nclude t hat t hey w ere h earth-stones,

s andstone

i n s ome d oubt:

b each

p ossibilities

p ot-boilers u sed i n c ooking,

o r

i n p reparation o f g rain p rior t o m illing. A lthough t he

e xcavators

d eposits

a t

g rass-tempered s amples s mall

i n

a nd

l ess

b oth

i t

i s

w hile

D r.

D .

d ifferent

w ere

f ound

i n

a lso

p resent

t he i n

i n

m idden

t he

W illiams w are

p robably

s amples

o f

t aken

c omm.)

o rigin.

t he

t he

s ieved

t ended

w ere

t o

l arge

b e a nd

h as n oted t hat t his

o f s imilar

f rom a round

w ithin

t hey

f rom

o f h and-made

f rom

s herds

d eposit

O rkney

p ottery

f ragments

b uilding,

l ocal

a ll

r ecovered

( pers.

f rom

r emove

t aken,

t he

F .

d eposits

w ere

t o

n evertheless

A round

f rom

t herefore

i nstructed

s amples

w ere

a reas.

n umerous

i s

t ime

p ottery

a bundant.

p ottery a nd

t he

w ere

f orm a nd

d ate

P ockets o f p ure

c lay

t he

b uilding,

s tructure,

b ut

c lay b eing

a bsent

f rom

t he

m idden. A NIMAL R EMAINS B ones A rea

T able

T otal w t.

M ean w t.

mammal b one

T otal W t.

mammal b one

f ish b one

f ish b one

( g)

( g)

( g)

( g)

2

120

6 6

3 31

2 0

4

6 47

3 2

1 600

8 0

8 :2:

L inks,

T he

M ean w t.

mammal

C aithness

a nd

L arge mammal b ones, s amples

4 .

f rom

B ones

A rea

o f

f ish

b one

f rom

mainly c attle,

2 b ut

w ere m uch

a mphibia,

m ice,

s hrews

P .

A llison),

l ike

l arge

J .

2 a nd

4 ,

F reswick

M aytom).

w ere a m ajor c omponent o f t he

l ess

c ommon i n t he m idden o f A rea a nd

d istributed i n t he t wo s ets o f s amples. E .

A reas

( information a bstracted b y M r.

v oles

w ere

B ird b one

mammal

b one,

f airly

e venly

( identified b y M s.

w as

f ound

i n

l arger

q uantities i n t he m idden a nd c onsisted o f b ones o f d omestic f owl G allus g allus L ., a nd v arious s eabirds: g annet S ula b assana ( L.), m anx s hearwater P uffinus p uffinus ( Brunnich), c ormorant P halacrocorax c arbo

( L.),

s hag

( Pontoppidan)

a nd gulls L arus s pp. B ird

b ones

P .

a ristotelis

r azorbill

w ere

( L.),

A lca t orda L .,

g uillemot

U ria

q uantities i n

o f

g enerally

i mmature

s ummer

s hearwater

v ery

b irds

m onths

s uggest

( L.)

- t he l ast b eing t he m ost a bundant w ild s pecies. f ragmentary

a nd

a pproximately

h alf o f t he s pecimens f rom t he midden w ere i dentifiable. b reed

a alge

p uffin F ratercula a rtica

e .g.

t hat

a nd

s pecies

g uillemot,

f owling

w hich

o nly

r azorbill,

a ctivities

w ere

o nly

S ubstantial

c ome

t o l and

p uffin

a nd

c oncentrated

t o

manx

i n

t he

s ummer. F ish

b ones

w ere a bundant

i n m ost

o f t he

l ayers e xamined.

s pecies, c od G adus m orhua L ., s aithe P ollachius v irens ( L.) M olva s p., a ppear t o h ave b een t he m ost i mportant s pecies b ones w ere a bundant o f o toliths c alipers. o f

k nown

w ere

S imilar s ize

i n b oth A reas

p resent

a nd

m easurements

s hows

t hat

2 a nd

t hese a

h ave

4 .

R elatively l arge numbers

b een

o n m odern

T hree

a nd l ing a s t heir

m easured

s aithe

u sing

o toliths

v ernier

f rom

f ish

f ish o f 2 0 c m t otal l ength w ill h ave

1 71

o toliths

o f

3 m m

a pproximately

b readth,

f ish

5 0

c m

t otal

l ength

a pproximately 5 m m, a nd f ish 15 c m o ver 8 m m. T he h istogram ( figure 8 :4) o f b readth m easurements f or s aithe o toliths f rom A rea 4 s uggests t hat

t wo

s ize

c lasses

w ere

c aught:

s mall

i ndividuals

u sually

l ess

t han 2 0 c m t otal l ength a nd l arger s pecimens r anging f rom 3 5 t o 9 0 t otal

l ength.

G enerally

f ish

f ragmentary

t han

( Triglidae),

h addock M elanogrammus

f ish

( Selachii)

t hose

t he

f rom

b ones

t he

f rom

m idden.

A rea

2

R emains

a eglefinus

( L.)

w ere

o f

a nd

c m

more

g urnards

c artilaginous

t ended t o b e m ore c ommon a round t he b uilding

S hells a nd o ther i nvertebrate r emains S hells i nto

w ere

t hree

m olluscs L impets

v ery

g roups:

( identified P atella

c ommon

e dible b y

s p.

i n

M s.

w ere

b oth

marine, E .

t he

a reas.

T hey

i nedible

P .

A llison

most

a bundant

h ave

marine,

a nd

D r.

( L.)

T he

f or

S ample

n umber

m ean

n umber

m ean

7 87

4 6

A part mussel

f rom

s hell

J .

r ecovered

t hese

S everal ( L.),

L .

e dulis

a nd

a ddition,

h ave

b een t he

s pecies.

c omprised

R ecluz,

a nd

2 a nd

4

( information

o ccasional

s pecimens

s pecimens

G ibbula

s ubject

o f

f ragments of c ommon

w helk

s urface

a brasion

R issoa T hese

w hich

s culpturing p arva

( Montagu),

O dostomia e ulimoides H anley.

A cmaea

v ir ,ginea w ere

a lso

p roblems o f i dentification a s

A f ew i ndividuals c ould o f

( L.),

i n

l ittoralis

p rosobranch m olluscs

s pecial

c haracteristic

s emicostata

L ittorina

f ormed a g roup o f l arge i nedible

marine t o

o f

c ineraria

( Montagu)

s mall

s pecimens

C ingula

o f

p resented

r emoved

d ifferent

s pecies,

L .

n umbers

( Olivi),

T his g roup

s hells

c ases,

A reas

o f i nedible m arine m olluscs w ere r epresented

S mall

I n

p resent.

1 5

w ere r ecovered.

a nd T rivia a rtica

molluscs. t he

s pecies

s axatilis

( Muller)

2 99

a nd w inkle a pices a nd t he mean

f rom

v ery a bundant

M ytilis

d eposits.

9 1

M aytom).

B uccinium u ndatum ( L.),

t he

1 829

5

number o f l impet

s ample

a bstracted b y M r.

A rea 4 T otal

8 1

t otal

e ach

w ere

w ere a lso p resent.

S ample

L ittorina l ittorea

n umber

a nd

A s maller n umber

T otal

P atella s p.

T able 8 :3:

O 'Connor).

e dible m olluscs

A rea 2 T axon

t errestial

P .

T .

p robably u sed a s b ait f or f ishing o r a s h uman f ood. o f c ommon w inkles L ittorina l ittorea

b een d ivided

a nd

b e

i dentified

( da

C osta),

C hrysallida

s pecies m ust

i n m ost

h ad

t ypical

o f

t he

t o s pecies R .

o btusa

& uerini

B rown

h ave a rrived

a nd

i n

t he

d eposits a s a c omponent o f t he b each s and b lown i nto t he d unes. T he r estricted

l and

( Draparnaud), w ere

t he

( Limacidae

molluscs

r ange

o f

a re

t axa

C ochlicopa

m ost s pp.)

l ubrica

w idespread a nd

o ther

a ssemblage

f rom

s table,

s uggested

t hat

t he

r ather w ere

( Muller)

s pecies, s pecies

r ather

m idden

m ore

i nformative

p resent.

d amp

w hile f rom

1 72

a nd a A rea

S uccinea g roup

f o

2 w ere

g rass-land.

s ediments

a lthough

A egopinella

putric s lug

t ypical

T hose

a

n itidula

f rom

( L.)

s hells o f A rea

a n 4

w ere l aid d own f airly s lowly

a llowing a f ew p ioneer t o

a

p oint

w here

s pecies

s pecies

t o c olonize

i ntolerant

t he

o f

a rea b ut

n ever s lowed

d isturbance

c ould

b ecome

e stablished. C rab

( Crustacea,

s mall

q uantities

l arge

numbers,

p rosobranchs, a ddition, u rchin

D ecapoda)

i n m ost

p articularly w ere

c arapace

s amples.

m ainly

i n

A rea

b lown

n umerous b rittle s tar

( Echinoidea)

s hell

f ragments

B arnacles 4 a nd,

i nto

t he

w ere

p resent

i n

o ccured

i n

( Cirripedia) l ike

d unes

( Ophiuroidea)

t he b y

s mall

t he

m arine

w ind.

I n

o ssicles a nd a f ew s ea-

f ragments h ave b een r ecognized.

T HE P LANT R EMAINS B urnt p eat f ragments w ere a bundant a round t he b uilding a nd s mall q uantities

w ere

r ecovered

p resent

m ost

s amples

s hoots 4 .

i n o f

l ing

S eaweed

g rains, s mall

C alluna

f rom

b ut

t he

m idden.

i n

v ery

s mall

v ulgaris

( L.)

H ull,

f ragments w ere n ot v ery c ommon

mainly

b arley

H ordeum

numbers,

t otals

of

2 98

s p.

a nd

a nd

3 63

C harcoal

f ragments

q uantities w ere

c harred

f ind

i n A rea

a r are

i n a ny d eposits.

o ats

A vena

c harred

s p.,

g rains

w ere

w hile

C harred

o ccurred

w ere

i n

r ecovered

f rom A reas 2 a nd 4 r espectively. T his i s a d ensity o f b etween 0 .3 a nd 0 .4 s eeds/kg f or t he t wo a reas. M odern r oots, moss f ragments a nd s ome

u ncharred

r ecovered

s eeds

f rom most

of

w eed

s amples

s pecies

i ndicating

g rowing

o n

t he

l inks

w ere

t hat m odern c ontamination m ay

b e a p roblem w hen a ssessing t he s maller a nimal a nd p lant r emains. D ISCUSSION I t p lant

i s

c lear

r emains

a gencies. b rought

S ome

o nto

t hat

w hich t he

t he

h ave

d eposits b een

h ave

b een

s ite

b y M an.

c ontain

t ransported

b lown

i n

b y

a m ixture b y

t he

w ind,

A n umber a re

o f a nimal

a n umber

o f

w hile

a nd

d ifferent

o thers

w ere

t he r emains of o rganisms

w hich o nce c olonized t he s ite, w hile o thers may h ave b een i ntroduced b y s eabirds. N evertheless, d ifferences b etween t he f inds i n A reas 2 a nd

4 s uggest

d epositional

t hat

p oorly p reserved, t he 4 ) t he

m idden

t hese

r egimes. w ere

d omestic

b uilding

w ere

l aid

d own

r emains

f rom

A rea

2 a re

c onsistent w ith t rampling.

s amples

c ontains

d eposits

T he

w ell

r efuse

( Area 2 )

p reserved. i ncluding

c ontrasting

g enerally

H owever most

I n

b ulk

u nder

b rief, f ish

r ather

f inds f rom

t he m idden

w aste,

w hile

( Area a round

f ragments o f b uilding materials a re p resent

i n

a ddition t o d omestic d ebris. S UMMARY O F T HE R ESOURCES U SED I t

i s

v ariety a vailable t he

p robable

o f

main

t hat

n atural

t he

f rom F reswick B urn. d une-hills

c ultivation,

w ith

s ite

r esources

s elected

t he

a n

c ollected

b ecause

v icinity.

A reas o f l ight

p rovided

s eaweed

w as

i n

i deal f rom

s hell

o f

s and

s ubstratum t he

t he

F reshwater

b each

w as

l andward o f f or

a s

w ide

c ereal

a r eadily

a vailable f ertilizer. E vidence f or c ultivation o f t he l inks w as n ot r evealed i n t he e xcavation o f A rea 4 b ut w as n oticed i n t he c liff s ection i n Z ones D a nd E a nd

f ound i n s ubsequent e xcavations i n A reas

6 , 1 and 1 4. F lagstones s andstone

f rom

f rom t he t he

s outh o f F reswick B ay a nd

t he

J ohn o 'Groats

n orth o f t he B ay a nd w ater-rolled b each p ebbles

1 73

p rovided

b uilding m aterials.

p ebbles

w ere

p ottery e xposed f rom

a lso

manufacture i n t he B urn

t he

n ow

w ere

a lso

t he

l arge

L inks

q uantities o f b each

a nd

h eated.

C lay

f ishing

g rounds

o f

n orth-east

C aithness,

f or

u sing

f rom t he r ocks e xposed a t l ow t ide i n t he B ay.

a vailable

t he s ite.

o nto

m ay w ell h ave b een t aken f rom t he s hally t ill b ank t o t he w est o f t he s ite. F ish w ere c aught

f amous

l impets a s b ait

I n a ddition,

b rought

l ocally

o n

t he

c liffs

t o

t he

T he b each p rovided a c onvenient b ase

n orth a nd

B irds

s outh of

f or s mall b oats w hile

t he e xtensive p eat b anks w ere a vailable f or f uel. W ith p erhaps c lear

s uch

s urprising

a t

o f

t hat

r esources

t he

h ave

s ite

s hould

e merged

i nvestigation.

a vailable b e

f rom

t o

b e

a

m ajor

H owever,

c ontains

a w ealth

c lues

t he

t o

i s h oped

o f

a nimal

l ifestyle t hat

a ctivity a nd

a nd

a t

t he

t he

p lant

a ctivities

w ith d etailed

t o

s ettlers

a bandoned.

d ocumentary l ater

S taxigoe a nd W ick m ay n ot b e w ithout

a ppears

I t

r ange

i ndications

a rchaeological p ort

a

A s

i t

i s

y et

n o

r esearch

g rowth

o f

o r

f ishing

s ignificance a s f ishing

s ite.

C learly

r emains,

m any

o f p eople

o f

t he

s ite

w hich

h old

l iving

o n t he s ite.

a nalyses o f t he m aterial

c ollected t o

d ate a c lear p icture w ill e merge o f t he c omplex r elationship b etween M an a nd n ature i n C aithness d uring t he L ate N orse p eriod. A cknowledgements T his w ork c ould n ot h ave t aken p lace w ithout t he a ssistance o f a l arge number o f p eople.

D uring t he e xcavation most o f t he s ite s taff

t ook s amples, l abelled b ags, t ransported s acks a cross t he l inks a nd h elped w ash t he s oil s amples. H owever, w e a re p articularly e ndebted t o

M s.

C arol

G arbutt

f or

h er

c onscientious

w ork

o n-site

w ashing

a nd

r ecording t he s amples. A fter

t he

e xcavation,

t he

s amples

h ave

b een

s orted

a t

t he

E nvironmental A rchaeology U nit, U niversity o f Y ork, a nd p articular t hanks a re d ue t o M s. E . P . A llison a nd M r. J . M aytom f or t heir p ainstaking w ork,

i n a ddition t o t heir c ontributions t o t he t ext.

a re a lso i ndebted t o D rs.

T .

P .

O 'Connor a nd D .

F .

W e

W illiams f or t heir

s pecialist w ork. F inally ( Ancient

w e

w ish

M onuments

t o

t hank

B ranch)

t he

t hrough

S cottish M r.

N .

D evelopment

R eynolds

w ho

t he e xcavation a nd a nalysis o f s oil s amples c ollected i n

1 7 2 4

D epartment f unded

1 980.

b oth

B ibliogr ehy A nderson,

J .

( 1874)

N otes

N orthmen

i n

o n

t he

r elics

S cotland.

A ntiquaries o f S cotland B atey,

C .E.

( 1982)

T he

L ate

C aithness.

A

E dinburgh: B atey,

C .E.,

J ones,

L inks

B atey,

C .E.,

N orse

A .K.G.,

s ite

J ones,

A .K.G.

J ones,

C .D.

C astle,

M orris,

r eport

R eports

A .K.G.,

( forthcoming

o f

C aithness.

I n:

B aldwin,

J .)

( ed

a nd

R ackham,

a nd

S urvey

1 979-80.

D .J.

( 1981

a t

F reswick

S ummary

R eport.

a )

C .D.

1 981.

F reswick

U niversities

L inks,

o f

1 981. D urham

5 4-8

M orris,

F reswick

( 1982)

o n s urvey a nd e xcavation,

f or

C .D.

L inks,

o n s urvey a nd e xcavation,

B atey,

S ociety

4 5-59

a nd N ewcastle U pon T yne p p.

1 982.

t he

F reswick,

Excavations

a nd

P rogress

A rchaeological

C .E.,

o f

o f

5 36-94

C rossroads

M orris,

F reswick

V iking P eriod o f t he

D epartment o f A rchaeology

C aithness:

B atey,

t he

( 1872-4)

C ultural

C aithness.

a nd

D urham:

1 0

E dina P ress p p.

F reswick,

o f

P roceedings

a nd

C aithness:

1 982.

R ackham,

D .J.

P rogress r eport

A rchaeological R eports f or

U niversities o f D urham a nd N ewcastle U pon T yne

C .E. J ones, A .K.G., M orris, C .D. a nd R ackham, D .J. ( forthcoming b ) F reswick L inks, C aithness. E xcavation a nd s urvey a t F reswick L inks, 1 98-1 -2. S ummary R eport. D urham: D epartment o f A rchaeology

C hilde,

V .G.

( 1943) A nother L ate V iking H ouse a t F reswick,

P roceedings ( 1942-3) C urie,

A .O.

o f

t he

S ociety

o f

A ntiquaries

o f

C aithness. S cotland

7 7

5 -17

( 1939)

T he

V iking

S ettlement

a t

F reswick,

C aithness.

R eport o n E xcavations c arried o ut i n 1 937 a nd 1 938. P roceedings o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland 7 3 ( 1938-9) G rieg,

S .

( 1940) i n

V ikine A ntiquities

G reat

O slo: K enward,

7 1-110

B ritain

a nd

i n S cotland

I reland,

e d.

( =Viking A ntiquities

H .

S hetelig,

V ol

I I),

A schehous & C o.

H .K., H all, t echniques

A .R. f or

m acrofossils

a nd J ones, A .K.G., ( 1980) A t ested t he e xtraction o f p lant a nd

f rom

w aterlogged

a rchaeological

s et o f a nimal

d eposits.

S cience a nd A rchaeology 2 2 3 -15 M orris,

C .D.

( forthcoming)

( ed. N icolaisen,

R enfrew,

W .F.H.

C .)

( 1982)

V iking

O mand,

D .

( 1972a)

J .)

I n:

a nd

O rkney.

i n

T he C aithness B ook 2 6-32

C aithness:

t he

A C ultural C rossroads

E dina P ress p p.

H ighland P rinters p p.

1 75

P rehistoric

C elts

C aithness.

E dinburgh:

T he I ce A ge.

I nverness:

I n:

I n

E dinburgh U niversity P ress

S candinavians

p lace n ame e vidence. ( ed B aldwin,

O rkney.

E dinburgh:

7 5-85 ( ed O mand,

D .)

O mand,

D .

( 1972b)

S ome C aithness P lace-Names.

( ed O mand, O mand,

D .

( 1982)

D .)

I nverness:

T he

making

C aithness.

A

E dinburgh: P eglar,

S .

( 1979)

o f

t he

C ultural

E dina P ress p p.

C aithness,

T he C aithness Book

C aithness

2 22-8

l andscape.

C rossroads.

( ed

I n:

B aldwin,

J .)

6 -23

A r adiocarbon-dated

W inless,

I n:

H ighland P rinters p p.

p ollen

n orth-east

d iagram

S cotland.

f rom

N ew

L och

o f

P hytologist

8 2 2 45-63 R ackham,

D .J.,

B atey,

C .E.,

( forthcoming)

J ones,

F reswick

E nvironmental

S urvey

A .K.G.

L inks,

1 979

a nd

M orris,

C aithness:

s ubmitted

t o

C .D.

R eport

P roceedings

o f

o n t he

S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f S cotland R omilly

A llen,

J .

M onuments

a nd o f

A nderson, S cotland.

J .

( 1903)

E dinburgh:

T he

E arly

S ociety

o f

C hristian

A ntiquaries

o f S cotland S mall,

A .

( 1968) A c olonisation

h istorical g eography o f o f t he S cottish I slands.

T idsskrift 2 2 S harpe,

R .M.

a nd

S axon,

( ed O mand, W ainwright,

F .T.

( ed)

D .)

t he N orse V iking N orsk G eografisk

1 -16 J .

( 1972)

I nverness:

( 1962)

G eology.

I n:

T he N orthern I sles.

1 76

T he

C aithness Book

H ighland P rinters p p.

3 -16

E dinburgh:

N elson

9 .

I RON A GE T O L ATE S AXON L AND U SE I N T HE B RECKLAND

P eter M urphy

I NTRODUCTION D rawing a ncient f ormer a reas t he

t ogether

f arming

s o

s ubsistence of

marginal

r ange

o f

s andy

t he

r eclaimed

f rom

o f

i deal

p erhaps

l and

o f

a nd

m ost

o n o f

e asily

I n

a rea:

i t

i n

t o

t his

a ttempted

i n

c onstraints

o n

r espect

T he v ery t erm

w hich

a llowed

a vailable

r econstruction

e nvironmental

u se.

t he

' brecks'

h eathland

a re

i nformation

o verall

s tudy a rea.

n ature

o r

o f

s ome

t here

f orms

marginal f ields

i s

w here

i s a n

t ypes

p ropose

e conomies

p ossible

o pen

d iverse

t o

l and

A nglian B reckland r eflects

t he

a s

r efers

t o

h istorical

r evert

t o

t he

E ast

' Breckland' t he

l arge

t imes

h eath

w hen

w ere p rices

f ell o r w hen s oil n utrients w ere e xhausted. T he

s oils o f t he a rea h ave b een d escribed

b y C orbett

( 1973)

a nd

s ome r elevant a spects w ill b e d iscussed f urther b elow, b ut i n g eneral t hey a re s andy a nd v ery w ell d rained. T here i s e vidence i ndicating t hat

s oil

d egradation h ad a lready o ccurred

b efore t he p eriod c onsidered h ere: B h

h orizon

o f

B reckland

p odzols

i n p arts o f t he

B reckland

r adiocarbon d ating o f h umus i n t he

b y

P errin

e t

a l

( 1964)

i ndicates

a

m inimum a ge o f f ormation o f 3 000 y ears. O ther s oils h ave c learly u ndergone c hanges o ver t he l ast t hree m illennia, n otably a s a r esult o f w indblowing a nd m arling w ith c ultivation

( Cornett

1 973:

9 4-5)

b ut

c onsidered i n b road t erms t he p resent-day d istribution o f s oil-types i s t hought t o b e s imilar t o t hat o btaining b etween t he I ron A ge a nd t he

L ate

S axon

p eriod.

T he

c limate

o f

t his

p art

o f

A nglia

i s s emi-continental w ith a l ow a verage a nnual

i n,

5 84-634mm

o r

m oisture

d eficit

e xtremes

w ith

T he s heep

a nd

1 925:

i n

5 1,

h igh

p otential

T emperatures

g round

D uffey

f rosts

1 976:

o r

h as

b een

c limate a nd

a lso

i ncludes

b y

c oastal

o thers

( e.g.

a nd

s ummer.

o f

1 7,

v egetation

I t

m arked

a nd

c onditions E urope

1 973:

o f s oil a nd

r abbits.

g rassland

s edge)

a nd

i ncidence

s emi-natural

c ommon

B reckland)

s pring

a nd

T he

s oil

t end

h igh

6 2).

E ast

( 23-25 t o

s ummer

p ossible

f or f arming o f c limatic c hange i s c onsidered b elow.

f eatures

m ore

s outhern

t he

( Corbett

t hese a nd

t he

i n

a h igh

t emperatures s ignificance

i n

c entral

r ainfall

t he

P etch

a nd

a re

t ypical

o f

t he

p erennis,

S wann

o f

h abitats

c haracteristic S cleranthus

d istinctive

p resence

d une

w hich

s ome

s trongly

( e.g.

o f

C arex

o f

s teppe

3 1).

t ypes

a n umber

p erennial

1 968:

i nfluenced

b y

b y g razing p ressure f rom o f h eathland p lant

c ontinental g rasslands k nawel)

T he

s pecies

a renaria, o f

c entral

( Clarke,

f actors

s and

c limatic W .

G .

i nfluencing

v egetation h ave a lso h ad e ffects o n l and u se i n h istorical a nd m odern t imes.

I n

t he

l ater

M iddle

A ges

1 77

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T he t fo rd

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B reckland

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1 78

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1 935).

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T he

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1 6th

c entury

o nwards

o f

s and-storms,

o vergrazing

u nstable

n otably

s urface

i n

1 668

t he

e arly

1 9th

c enturies

o f

f eature

S cots

o f

f arming

t he

l andscape,

r otation.

d epressions

s helter-belts, a nd

L ater

r esulted

i n

t he

3 ).

1 9th

o n

o f

s oils

i s

d ate,

i n

t he

o ccasional

R iver

L ittle

o verlay

w idespread c atastrophic

O use

w as

b locked

D uring t he

1 8th a nd

e nclosures a ssociated w ith

w hich

a nd

s heep

F rom a t l east t he

a re

n ow a v ery

i ntroduction

a l ong-term

r abbit

o f

S tow i n S uffolk a

w ith

t here w ere e xtensive

P ine

a nd

c entury

l arge

c entury

1 969:

s oil D arby

A ges

1 9th

o f

W est

a nd t he v illage o f S anton D ownham p artly b uried. p lanting

M iddle

t he

e ffects

r esulted

s and

w hen

a t 1 3th

1 2th-13th c entury r idge-and-furrow ( West o ccurrence

t he

2 0-1;

W ind-blowing

A ges:

o f

t he

i ntroduction

1 975).

p erhaps

1 925:

u ntil

s upplementing

t he

m aintaining

W .G.

i mportant

S heail

i n

f arming

( Clarke,

e stablished

1 31-145).

a n ew

s and

m arling

e conomically

( Crompton

w ind-blown

i nfield-outfield

a nd

2 0th

o f

a

c entury

p opulation

f amiliar

f our-course a gricultural

d ecline.

D uring

t he

1 920s t he F orestry C ommission b egan p lanting c onifers a nd t oday a bout 2 1,000 t wo

h a o f t he

B reckland c onsists o f p lantations,

t hirds o f t he

r egion

i s a gricultural

l and,

p roducing m ainly s pring b arley a nd s ugar b eet 4 ;

C orbett

1 973:

O ur

p resent

f rom

p ollen

p alynology man

u nderstanding

a nalysis

o f

L egge

t han

M ere

a nalysis

a t

v iew t hat

H ockham

t he

o f

b eing

b y

S ims

W .G.

1 925:

2 0-

h as

o f

f rom

c limatic h as

r emains

p rovided

H e

f orest

B ronze A ge

f arming s ettlement.

t he

A ge

a nd

L ate

a nd

p roposed t o

f rom

i n

t he

h eath

t he

t hen-

i ndicated

b y

l ater d eforestation b y

o rigin.

b uilt

s pecific

l and-use

i nterpretation o f h is r esults

M ere.

c hange

( 1978)

b iological

( 1981) I ron

p re-medieval

( 1944)

w as a c onsequence o f n eolithic

r ather

H ockham

( Clarke,

2 3-30).

B reckland i s b ased u pon G odwin's c ontroversial

t hough m ore t han

p redominantly a rable,

u pon

M ore

r ecent

t his

f oundation,

e xcavations i nformation

a t

G rimes

o n

t he

w ork

a t a nd

G raves

e conomy

b y

o f

a

I n t he p resent p aper l and u se b etween

S axon

p eriods

w ill

b e

c onsidered.

T he

s election o f t his p eriod h as t o a l arge e xtent b een d etermined b y t he e xigencies o f R escue A rchaeology, a nd

d istinct

p hase

c haracterised e lement

i n

c ontinuous main

t he

a s

t here

o f t o

s cale

a nd

w as

f orest

t o

e arly

b y

S ims

t here

o n

t he

i n

h as

b ut

a rable c ases, o f

t he

d istinguished

f or

i ncreased

c over,

s ome

b .p.,

e vidence

S ubsequently

f orest

B reckland,

t erraces

2 750-1860 f or

t he

a nd,

( 1978)

i s

a nd

o f

p redominant

r epeated

s ites

e conomy. i n

t imes,

B etween

c learance

l ittle c hange

S axon

a t

a t

p eriod A ge,

o f a m ixed

i n c ereal c ultivation.

a nd

u se.

I ron

d evelopment

a nd,

f arming

t his

l and

t he o f

p art

e conomic

e conomy

W ithin

p hases

i ncreased c ereals

t he

s ubstantial

a grarian

r ivers.

s everal

i n

a

o ccupation

c orresponding

b .p.

b y

b ut i t d oes s eem t o c omprise a r eal

a

p eriod

a m arkedly

d ependence

b etween

o n

1 860-1610

a f urther i ncrease

T his t rend w as r eversed d uring t he L ate R oman

p eriod

( 1610-1300

b .p.)

w hen

c ereal

c ultivation

d eclined b eing r eplaced b y p astoralism.

D uring t he s ubsequent M iddle

S axon

S ims

b ecame

p eriod, f or t he

h owever,

( 1300-1140

b .p.)

f irst t ime " the m ajor p roduct".

c onsiders

t hat

c ereals

T hese r esults p rovide

a n o verall p icture o f l and-use c hanges w ithin t he H ockham M ere p ollen c atchment.

M ore

d iffentiation

o f

d etailed

c onsideration

w ill

b e

g iven

b elow

t o

t he

l and u se b etween t he m ain l andscape s ub-regions o f

1 80

t he

B reckland,

d iscussed

a s

w ill

d efined

b e

t he

b y

r iver

C orbett

( 1973).

v alleys,

u pland a reas a t e levations o f o ver 3 0m.

r iver

T he

s ub-regions

t erraces,

s lopes

a nd

O .D.

T HE R IVER V ALLEYS T he r ivers L ark, w estward

f rom

f loodplains a bout

a re

B reckland

f lanked

f loodplain

l esser o f

b y

W issey a nd t heir t ributaries d rain

t o

t he

g ravel

e xtent

v alleys

a nd

( Corbett

t he M eres t he

t o

T heir

t hey

b road

c ontain

s ands a nd g ravels.

r egular

s ome

1 973).

T he

w ere o f c rucial

s ettlements.

t o

B asin. a nd

u p

t o

O rganic s oils

a re f ormed o n t he p eats w ith s andy g ley s oils a t

m argins

B reckland

a ttention

F en

t erraces,

3 m o f p eats o verlying c oarse

( Adventurers s eries) t he

L ittle O use,

t he

C larke

s pacing

u nusual

W .G.

( 1925:

o f m odern

f eatures

r iver

v alleys

i mportance

o f

a nd

f or t he 1 8-19)

v illages

B reckland

t o

f irst

a long

p arish

a

e conomies t he

d rew r iver

b oundaries

l aid o ut t o e nsure a ccess t o w ater. T wo a nd

v alley

b oth

u se.

f loor

p rovide

T he

f irst

s ites

s ome

h ave

l imited

o f t hese,

a t

b een

i nvestigated

i nformation

a bout

L ackford B ridge

i n

i n

r ecent

v egetation

y ears,

a nd

l and

t he L ark V alley,

w as

a s ection e xposed i n a g ravel p it,

a nd w as u nfortunately r ecorded a nd

s ampled

i n

c ircumstances

s ection

s howed

c harcoal, h azel

h urried a

m ainly

( Corylus

a bundant o verlay d eposit

w ood

a nd 2 3cm

o f

t hick

a lder

s p.), a nd

a dverse

l ayer

( Alnus),

o verlying

f ruits

o f

o f

b ut

a

a lder

s ome

( 5cm)

a nd

o ak

o ak

d ate o f d ates

3 940

t he

1 .5m. ± 7 0

C harcoal b p o r

main

1 990

p eriod

f rom

t he

b .c.

( HAR 2484)

c onsidered

a nd a nd

p eat

w ith

T he

p eat

w ood.

w ith a n e stimated

a rchaeological

i n

f lint

A bove t he a rchaeological p eat m erging u pwards i nto

d ark f en p eat s howing s andy l ayers a nd l aminations, o f

T he

( Quercus)

b rushwood

s ome

c oarse g rey f luviatile s and. w as a 7 cm t hick a lder b rushwood

t hickness

9 .2a).

h eat-shattered

w ith

t hin

( Fig.

d eposit

g ave

a

a nd t his s ite t hus p re-

t his

p aper.

T he

s ection

r epresents a l ocal c learance a nd b urning o f v alley-floor a lder w oodland. T he b rushwood p eat o ver t he a rchaeological l ayer e vidently i ndicates r egeneration, a nd t his w as n ot, t herefore, a p ermanent c learance. T here i s n o c lear e vidence f or t he s ite's f unction. A s econd

p eat

s ection

w as

e xposed

a t

t he

n orthern

e dge

o f

t he

e xcavation o f I ron A ge a nd M iddle S axon s ettlement s ites l ocated o n a s and

h ummock

M eadow, t he

o ver

B randon,

f lood

p lain

r iver

g ravels

S uffolk

( Fig.

m argin.

i n

t he

9 .2b).

O verlying

L ittle T his

O use

v alley a t S tanch

s howed

6 3cm

o f p eats a t

a g reyish-brown

s and

a t

t he

b ase

w as 8 cm o f d ark r eddish b rown t o b lack v ery s andy p eat w ith i rregular s andy p atches. T his w as s omewhat l ess s andy p eat. C alluna f ired

c harcoal

c lay

h umified o f

p eat

d ate

w ith

f ragments.

a nd

d isturbed

g ave

a d ate

1 350

+ 7 0

o f

c harcoal

b and.

c omplete.

T he

s ummarised

s uch

g rass

a s

b .p.

r esults

9 .2 a nd

c harred

s hoots,

F urther

p eats

b y

o f

P ollen

o r

4 -

a .d.

s amples o f

a nd

8 0

6 00

C arex

t his

A s ample

b .p.

o r

a d

t aken

b ut

a nalysis

M ore d elicate u tricles

a re

a nd

s ome

c harcoal

a nd

l ayer

w ere

f rom

l owest

1 40

( HAR 4086)

w ere

m acrofossil

9 .3 .

c apsules

a bove

e arthworms.

1 810

i n F ig.

f ruits

c overed b y 2 4cm o f d ark r eddish b rown A bove t his w as a t hin ( 1.5cm) b and o f s eeds t he

( HAR 4087),

w as

o btained

a nalysis a re

i s

l isted

5 cm

a nd

a

f or

t he

n ot

y et

i n

T able

t ypes o f m acrofossils

r are

i n

t hese

s amples,

a nd t here w as a r elatively h igh p roportion o f p oorly-preserved p artly

1 81

0

-

Om

-

\/ \/ \/ N ./ \/ \/ \/ \ , / \/ \/ ' . , / \ ,/ \ ./ \/ \/ \ ./ \/ \/ \ s/ \ ./ \7

'// 7/ / / / / / 7 /

- 1 350+70b .p .

1 -

50 -3 940+70 b . p .

- 1 8 10+80b .p .

b

\/ \/ \ ./ \/ \/ N . / \7 \/ \/ \/ \ /

a

F ig.

9 :2

T wo v alley-floor p eat s ections. a . L ackford B ridge; S tanch M eadow, B randon. S ee t ext f or d etails.

1 82

b .

e y

0

N g

: e r C r \ i

2 ( 9

0

t i ) H

•

H

o . Z C ) 4) • C d 4 )

f a )

c l ) 1 2 0 c d 4 )

I

c • a ) o • , 4 4 ) C ) ( 1 ) U ) I n

4 )

4 ) c r i

a )

C 1 4

e \C

r I

▪ c e W E • , 1 • T . • O 0

c p-

C Y9 1 4 ) Lc d c • . 4 ) t i o

( < 4, m a c r o f o s i l

c d

c d

c d 4 , 9 4 O " c 1 g a 0 ▪4 1 C 9 1 • 9 4 c p a ) I C 0 >I

•

0

S rl • V )

( Y ) ••

E9 L )I

•

1

I

I

1 83

b i ( ) r i d

C

0

T able

9 :2:

P lant r emains s amples).

f rom t he B randon p eat c olumn.

A ll

u nless o therwise

D epth

( 1kg.

t axa r epresented b y f ruits o r s eeds

( cm)

i ndicated.

3 0-31

3 1-40

4 0-50

5 0-55

6 0-63

4

3

R anunculus a cris/repens

-

-

1

R anunculus f lammula L .

-

1 2

3

R anunculus s celeratus L .

-

1 61

1 6

2 7

4

R anunculus s p.

-

-

-

-

1

R eseda s p.

-

-

-

1

-

-

H ypericum s p.

-

1

-

3

-

-

L ychnis f los-cuculi L .

-

2

1 0

3 6

c .f.

-

9

1 3

1 8

-

1

C erastium s p.

C aryophyllaceae

i ndet.

M ontia f ontana L .

1

6

5 5-60

9 9

-

13

1 -

3

9 1 1 4

1 _

s ubsp

c hondrosperma

-

-

-

-

-

2

C henopodium a lbum L .

-

1

-

c .f.1

-

-

C henopodiaceae

-

1

-

-

-

-

-

6

-

2 7

4 1

2 6

i ndet.

P otentilla s p. c .f.

F ragaria v esca L .

( a)

-

-

1

-

-

-

C icuta v irosa L .

-

-

-

4

1

-

H ydrocotyle v ulgaris L .

-

-

1

-

3

2

B erula e recta C olville

_

7

1

1

1

6

R umex a cetosella a gg.

-

2

P olygonum a viculare a gg.

-

-

-

P olygonum c .f.

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

1 2

( Hudson)

h ydropiper

U rtica d ioica L . C alluna v ulgaris H ull

-

1

-

3 -

1

1

( L)

( b)

H yoscyamus n iger L .

1

M entha a rvensis/aquatica

-

-

L ycopus e uropaeus L .

-

G aleopsis t etrahit/speciosa

-

-

-

-

B idens c ernua L .

-

3 3

1 9

1

C irsium s p.

-

-

-

-

4

2 -

-

6 -

1

-

9

_

1

-

1

-

S cutellaria c .f. g alericulata L .

( c)

1 81 4

5

2

1 7 1

1 -

D epth

( cm)

3 0 -3 1

S onchus a rvensis L .

-

S onchus a sper

-

A lismataceae

( L)

H ill

i ndet.

3 1 -4 0 1 -

-

J uncus s pp.

2

-

I ris p seudacorus L .

+

4 0 -5 0

5 0 -5 5

-

-

-

-

1

1

1

+

5 5 -6 0

+

1

T ypha s p.

2

E leocharis s p.

1

C arex r ostrata S tokes

-

+

+

2

3 1

3

5 2

( e)

C arex s pp.

( L.)

R .Br.

G ramineae i ndet.

2 6

-

1

3 6

1 28

3 6

7 9

2 2

2 0

-

1 0

9

-

-

( f)

-

-

+

+

+

f ragments

+

-

-

-

+

I ndet.

1 2

3 0

2 6

T otals

2 87

1 42

4 00

S teudel C harcoal

N otes

( a)

1 8

2 3

-

P hragmites a ustralis

-

-

C arex e chinata M urray

I solepis s etacea

-

( d)

L emna s p.

C arex s p.

6 0 -6 3

4

1 5

1 8 -

( Cav)

F orm + s ize a ppropriate f or t his s pecies,

4

3 07

1 4

2 54

b ut p attern o f

r idges o bscure. ( b)

C harcoal,

( c)

I ntermediate m inor.

c harred

l eaves,

c apsules + s eeds.

i n s ize b etween S .

g alericulata a nd S .

N o r eference s pecimens o f t he r are B reckland

p lant S cutellaria h astifolia w ere a vailable. ( d)

S eed

( e)

A ll o ne s pecies. A ttempts t o i dentify t hese n utlets u sing t he k ey o f N illson + H jelmquist ( 1967) w ere

f ragments s howing

' spongy'

i nternal

t issue.

u nsuccessful + t hey c ould n ot b e m atched w ith a vailable r eference s pecimens. ( f)

C ulm n odes + f ragments.

1 85

d egraded f ruits a nd s eeds w hich h ave n ot b een i dentified. A lso p resent b ut n ot i ncluded i n t his d iagram w ere J uncus s eeds, f ragments o f I ris p seudacorus a nd,

b etween

4 0

a nd

6 0cm r are v egetative r emains

o f P hragmites. T he i rregular s andy p atches i n t he p eat b elow 5 5cm d o n ot a ppear t o i ndicate f luviatile d eposition o f s and, d isturbance e vidence d ate

f or

f or

r esulted r elated a t

o f

s and

o n

t he

s ettlement

a t

t his

l ower

f rom

t rampling

i t

a m inor

p eak

( Urtica

d ioica,

m arsh

p articularly a nd

g round

1 953). l ess

s ubsp.

f our p eat

a l. i n

3 1-50cm

s how marked t he m ost

a nd

m ud

t ypically

( Clapham e t a l.

o r

i n

i n

h igher

a t

R .

3 1-40cm.

m ineral-rich

s oil o n

S wann i n

h owever,

c onditions

v ulgaris,

t he

I n

a nd

s celeratus,

c onditions.

b are

W alters

p eat.

o ccurs i n

C arex

d amp,

1 968;

s celeratus

f requency.

s pecies

a re,

c ommon

a nd

R anunculus

h ave

f rom t his p eat

a cid

i s

P etch

m ay

p loughing

C irsium s p.,

l evel

s pecies

d amp

n o

f rom r uderal p lants

H ydrocotyle

f requency

i ncreases

a bundant

f ound b y s treams,

T hree

s etacea

1 962;

d ecline

s eeds

i s

r adiocarbon

p robably,

f rom t his

o f w et

I solepis

e t

t here

t he

d isturbance

l ess

o f

t o

t etrahit/speciosa,

p lants.

b etween

b y f ar

i ndeterminate

f en

a f ourth,

c ernua o n

f requencies

c hondrosperma,

( Clapham

A ll s andy

a nd

S ince

t his

o r,

G aleopsis

c haracteristic

f ontana

e chinata), s andy

t hat

c attle

T he majority o f s eeds

f rom g rassland, ( Montia

i n

b ut r ather s ome a rtificial

t errace.

c orresponding

s eems

b y

t o

a re

a p eriod

p eat

5 5-60cm

S onchus a sper).

a djacent

t he

B idens

w hich

i s

s hallow-water

B idens

c ernua

i s

p articularly w here w ater s tands o nly i n t he w inter.

1 962.)

F ruits o f a quatics

A lismataceae)

a re

p resent

( Lemna,

a t

l ow

C icuta v irosa a nd

f requencies

i n

t his

a d

p eat

p eat. T he

s equence

f ormation

b egan

m argin.

T he

w et

s oil

a cid

a cidic

i s

o ver

p resence

a s

s ands

o f

t he

t errace s eeds

c onditions

g roundwater

S ubsequently

i nterpreted t he

o f

w ere

f rom

f ollows. a t

c alcifuges

i nitially

t he

1 40

p resent

s eems

t o

m aintained

b y

d ecalcified

s eed a ssemblages a ppear

F rom

t he

s andy

f loodplain

i ndicate t hat a n

i nflux

t errace

t o r epresent more

o f

s oils.

e utrophic

c onditions, p erhaps r elated t o i ncreased f requencies o f s easonal r iver f looding. I ncreasing w etness may p erhaps b e c orrelated w ith d eteriorating r ates o f f reshwater d rainage a ssociated w ith f reshwater f looding o nwards b e

i n

t he

i nvolved.

b eaver W est

s outhern

( Churchill

1 960:

I t may,

w ere

f or

i dentified

H arling

a djacent

F en

b asin

1 42).

e xample,

i n t o

a n t he

f rom

t he

l ater

R oman

p eriod

A lternatively s ome l ocal f actor c ould b e r elevant

I ron

A ge

R iver

t o n ote t hat b ones o f

c ontext

T het

( Clark

a t a nd

M icklemoor F ell

1 953:

H ill, 3 6).

T hroughout t he s equence h erbaceous p lants p redominate a nd t here i s n o s ign

o f

w oody

s pecies

s uch

a s

F rangula

S alix o r V iburnum o pulus w hich a re o pen

f en

t ogether

w ith

t hought t he

t o

T ansley t he

t o

t hought

a .d.

t o

h ave

a djacent

1 939:

e vidence

i ndicate

f loodplain

d ated t he

( cf.

s uppression

margins. 6 00

w hich

b een

s and

T he

n or

o f

s crub b and

t hese

d uring

p rior

a ny

d isturbance

t hin

s eals

p roduced

h ummock

c ommonly t he

6 57)

f or

a lnus,

t o

s ettlement.

1 86

R hamnus

p rimary c olonists o f

a lder o f

f ruits.

t he

l owest

d evelopment o f

p eats

c harred i s

c learance

c onstruction

c atharticus,

b y

i s

g razing

a t

C alluna

i n-washed b y

f ire

o f

t he

T his, p eat

r emains m aterial

o f h eath

o n

M iddle S axon

R esults f rom t wo i solated p eat s ections c learly d o n ot p rovide a f irm

b asis

f loors. s ome

f or

B y

a ny

z onation

o f

e xpected.

M uch

d etermined

w hen

b egan.

w ith

m odern

v egetation

m ore t wo

t ypes

c learance

o f

a bout

E ast

t he

w ill

u se

o f

o f

w oods

v alley

a re

i n

t he

v alleys

r equired

t he a nd

u se

v alley-floor

r iver

b e

a ctivity

a lder

l and

A nglian

a cross

i nformation

l arge-scale

H owever

t emporary

g eneralisations

a nalogy

b efore

f loors

i s

t o

b e

i t

c an

b e

f or

p asture

d istinguishable:

a l ater

v alley

w etlands

a n

m aintenance

e arly

o f

o pen

v egetation a pparently b y g razing. S ettlement f urther C harred S axon

s ites

o n

f or

t he

e vidence c ulm

f ragments

f eatures

a t

c utting

f or

u se

H arling

r emains

B randon,

a s

L ate

1 954:

S axon

r iver

a nd

t hatch.

o f

c rane

1 09).

t his

w ere

p ossibly t o

t he

t o

p resent

i ndicate

b eaver

i dentified.

i n M iddle

s ome

r emains

r eed-

f rom

W est

( Peterson

f or r iver

S t.

f ishing

B arnabas'

h ave

i s a t p resent s canty:

H ospital,

T hetford

c onsisted

a lthough r emains o f p erch,

b een

i dentified

r ecovered

F inally,

T he

s ome

r esources.

l ightly-wooded s wamps a nd r eed-beds

F ish-bone

b e e xamined.

p rovided

b reeds o n

t ench

( forthcoming). y et

h ave

v alley-floor

c rane

f rom

a lso

l argely o f i mported m arine f ish, a nd

o f

s eems

B esides

E vidence

f ishbone

t erraces

e xploitation

p robably o f P hragmites w ere

t he g round i n w et b ogs, e t a l.

t he

b y

t here

b y

b ulk-sieving

i s

r eason t o

p ike,

A ndrew a t

e el

J ones

B randon

h as

s uspect t hat i n t he

M iddle a nd L ate S axon p eriods f lax a nd h emp c ultivation e xtended f rom t he

t errace

m argins

o nto

t he

o rganic

f loodplain

s oils.

I t

i s

u pland

s lopes

t o

f arming o n t he t erraces t hat I n ow t urn. R IVER T ERRACE S ITES B etween b road

f lat

a reas

( e.g.

s oils

o f

a re

o n

a t

t he

b racken

a nd

( Watt

a re

g enerally

C harred

s oils

c rop

p ottery

c rop

p lant

a nd

T hetford,

m ineralised

h umus 1 973:

' natural'

b lown

a renaria)

o verlain,

s and

A t

4 9,

i s

i s

c ommon.

o n

W est

o n

S tow

I n

u ncultivated

u nstable

w ith

b lown

p lant

h eath

r aw

m argins

C alluna-heath

T hese

T he

a nd

f loodplain

6 5-72).

a rc s ome

b rownearths

( Redlodge)

t he

w hilst

i n

d eposits.

s tony

p odzols

v egetation

g rass-heath,

L ittle

f rom

r emains

f rom

a nd

c rops

r epresented a nd

S tow w et

C rops S o

i n

a t

l ow

R iver

s and

c ommunities

( Darrah

b een

d eposits f rom a s

r ecovered L ark

F engate

I n a ddition,

h ave

a t

F arm,

c ereal

e t

a l.

h ave

b een

f rom

A ge a nd h ulled

s ome

h ave

a nd

f requencies

1 87

( Hordeum

w ild

t he

s pelt

v ulgare

a t

B randon s ome

s ites

a re

p rinciple ( Triticum L .Emend).

o r c ultivated o ats

i n t he

o n

u ncharred

p roduced

t errace

R oman s amples w ere b arley

a nd

W eeting a nd

r ecovered

t hese

s everal S tow

i mpressions

i dentified,

I cklingham

f rom W est

c ereals a re c oncerned,

( Triticum d icoccum S chübl.) o ccurred

b een

t he

i dentified

f ar

I ron

s ix-row

h ave

O use a t B randon,

s amples

9 :3.

o f

T hetford.

W est

s eeds.

T able

r emains

t erraces

H ospital

i n

L .)

p lant o n

t he

s hown

s p.)

b y

s eries).

( Corbett

t he

g ravels

w ell-drained

s eries),

a nd

( Carex

s ites

B arnabas'

E mmer

S tow)

a re

w ell-represented

I cklingham a nd

s pelta

W est

a nd

f luvial

a lthough p ure s tands o f b racken a re v ery r are.

s ettlement S t.

o f

( Broomhouse

1 955)

s and-sedge

S axon

a nd

C roxton s and

g ley

f loodplains

t erraces

p resent-day

t he

1 980),

r iver

c onsisting

B randon

b lown

d amper

a reas

m ain

t hese

( Freckenham s oils

t he

t erraces

I ron A ge s amples,

( Avena a nd i n

C D

+

C D

C)

+

C D

+

+

+

C D

+ +

+ +

+

+

+ +

+ +

+

C D

+ + + + + + +

C D

C D C D

+ C D C D

C7 N

T h e t f o r d

0

c d

+

+

+

C D

C D 0

+

0

0

0

0

L C )

C D C D C D

t o d a m g e d / f r a g m e n t a r y s p i k e l t

W e s t S t o w

C D C D

+ C D

i n l a r g e s a m p l e s

d

+

+

0

0

0

0

0

4 3 ( 1 ) c d 44

4 ) +

C D

+

( 1 )

C D

C D 0

0

C D

+

c o

+

a )

I c k l i n g h a m 4 )

+

+

+

+ +

+ +

0

+

C D

0

0

0

0

0

0

C

C 0

C C 1 : 1 L 4

+

+

+

C D

a )

_ 4 1 H

a . E i l C d C I )

4 )

I C 1 r I C 0 c d

C / ) 04 a 0 C

t n 4 4a . ) O H a )

Cr )

C D C D 0

0 ) C d • , I 0 )

+

+ + +

0

+ +

+ C D +

+

0

0

C D 0

0 0 . t) C I ) 5 . 4

L C )

C D C D 0

0 .

0 c • -

a 2

4 0

+

+

C D

4 )

+

+ CD

+

C D

C D 0

0

0

0

4 1 C 9 1

0

+

c d

r t

a )

C I , 9 1 0 ( 1 )

0

c d c o 5 ( P a )

c x i

4 -4 f a .

4 ) a ) 0 4

o

g

4 )

0 .

0 . c ; c t i

4 ) a ) C / 1 0 : 1

•

a.

> . • 4 )

P r u n s d o m e s t i c

0 a 4

C d

( P r x 4

•

C

4 . ) c d

0

• t o . 0

E 1

H

0 . ) L 4

• 4 )

I +

I +

C D

g c d

5 4

0 4 4 C

1 ( C I O SH

t i O

0 c d >

a ) < 4 4 4 ( P 4 4 L

o

c ]

c d ci

a . )

( 1 ) Q. 4 . 3 C 4 -4

c o

— 4 . r 1I 4 - R )

C ; H 0

H

H 4 ) 4 . ) C c d

a

c r t 0 9 : 1

H.n c d0 L 4 0 C d

c D

0 9 1 0 0 4 I 0

r ' • 0

c a )

a . a l 0 4 3 X C . ) a )

4 1

T r i t i c u m

4 )

C D "

H

1 38

r H

4

c d

H

c d

0 .

4 )

H 0

f a . o

Q +

0 a b s e n t

H

0

0 . r n

d

C a n a b i s

0 4 ) ( / )

0.

C d E l

C ••

W e s t S t o w

C D C D + C D C D

1Z ,

• r 4

o r s e c o n d a r y c r o p

C D

C • + + C D

I +

+ + +

> 4 ) C d

0 C / ) -1

a )

a

F ig.

9 :4

S elect c harred c ereal r emains f rom W est S tow . a ,b T riticum a estivum s .1., c aryopses. H ut 6 3, m id-5th c entury; c . T riticum c .f . s pelta, c aryopsis. P it 4 72, R oman; d . T riticum c .f . s pelta, G erminated c aryopsis. P it 4 72; e ,f . S ecale c ereale, c aryopses. H ut 6 3; g . H ordeum s p., c aryopsis. H ut 6 3; h . A vena s p., c aryopsis. H ut 6 3; i . T riticum c f. s pelta. R achis i nternode. H ut 6 3; j . T riticum s pelta G lume b ase. H ut 6 3; k . S ecale c ereale. R achis f ragment. P it 4 72; 1 . S ecale c ereale. R achis f ragment. P it 5 9. A nglo-Saxon ( unphased); m . H ordeum s p. R achis i nternode f ragment. P it 4 72; S cales g raduated i n m m.

1 89

a ddition

r are

r emains

a estivocompactum

o f

S chier n .)

f ree-threshing

a nd

r ye

i dentified i n R oman s amples. s ites c ontained m ainly r ye a nd t hreshing w heat ( 63)

p roduced

a nd

o ats.

r emains

i ts o f

S axon

l ater o ats

g enus t he

a s

i s o at

a c rop

p lant

o r

s ight

C rops

( Clarke,

f rom

W est

r ecovered a t

S tow.

T hetford c onfined t errace a nd

w et

a re,

c ultivated, a nd

a ll o r

t han

s eeds

o f

r ye.

p rior

T he

p eriods,

a wn

s ince

t emperate

t o

s tatus

f ragments.

o ther

w as

c ertainly

a t

t his S ince

c ereals

g rown

r ural

h orse-beans

B randon a nd

o f

a

u sual

a re f lax

a L ate

( Linum

f ragmentary

d amper,

m ore

o rganic

h emp

1 918:

f lax

i n

i s

c rops

c an

3 49).

o ne a t

B ugg's H ole,

s oils v ery

s eed

( Malus

s p.)

c ame

f rom

M iddle

S axon

p it

f ill

a t

b e

( Cannabis

of

t he

( 1981) r eport

t wo

h emp

b asin s ites

i n t he v alley o f t he ( Prunus

c ontexts

B randon

( Renfrew

i ndicating

f ruitstone

R oman

v alley

s hallow-rooted,

d ate a t f en

w ere

o btained o n d eep

s tudies

a s mall

c herry

v ar

B reckland must

B radshaw e t a l.

r etting p robably o f m edieval

p oorly

B arnabas'

f ruit t he

o nly

m acrofossil

A m ineralised

t he

f aba

f rom S t.

h emp

c rops

s ince

s ites,

( Vicia

u sitatissimum)

S axon s ample

f ibre

a nd

i n

a v etch o r s mall p ea

t hese

m argins

( Percival

A nglia, O use.

a s

s amples a t

t he

p ollen

c ultivation a nd i n E ast

b e

a t

c rop

s eeds

s atisfactory

f rom

L ittle

t he s ample

m oisture d uring e arly s tages o f d evelopment

r ich h umic b ar ns r esults

a t W est S tow

a nd

2 3).

p ulse

p roduced t o

t he

c ereals

p roduction

a mple

1 24)

t o

g rains

w ater

1 925:

C harred

h ave

1 973:

c rops,

w heats

u ncertain n aked

B randon a nd

T he a nd

i s

t hough

o nly

s ativa). f loors

c ereal

c ontained

m ore

f rom M iddle S axon

r equiring

t hese

b een S axon f ree-

t o r epresent a t ransitional p hase i n t he

b y

W .G.

t han

T he

a lso

a pple

w eed

i mprobable,

o ther

b een

o f

f ree-threshing

o nly

h ave

9 8) l arge-scale c ultivation i n t he B reckland s eems a t

r epresented.

H ospital,

( Triticum

L .)

S amples f rom M iddle a nd L ate b arley w ith l esser a mounts o f

s pelt

b y

r equires

1 973:

1 3th c entury

m inor)

w hen

r epresented

( Renfrew f irst

p eriod

r eplacement

w heat

c ereale

A m id-5th c entury s unken h ut

o f m ost

f rom t his c ontext i s t hought e arly

( Secale

a t

p roduced

a vium)

a nd

I cklingham a nd

a

a p lum

f ruitstone

p lants

a ssociated

( Prunus d omestica). T he

c harred

s eeds

w ith

t he

c ereals

f rom

v iew

t o

f ields

p roducing t hough

q uantitative B randon,

f ew

a nd

s ome o f

f or e xample,

r emains

t errace

i nformation

t he

a nalysis.

i mpurities.

o ther

t hese

s amples T he

o f

s ites o n

s oil

c ontain

m ajority

o f

w ild

h ave

b een

e xamined w ith a

c onditions s ufficient

M iddle

i n

t he

w eed

S axon

a rable

s eeds

s amples

f or f rom

c onsist o f f ully-processed p rime grain w ith f ew

O ther

s amples

p robably

c ontain

o nly

a

s elected

a ssemblage o f l arger w eed s eeds p roduced d uring c rop p rocessing ( e.g. a r ye

s ample

g ithago

f rom

a nd

W est

g rass

p resent).

H owever,

a ssemblages

f rom

s pecies 1 962; 1 .

H ind

1 889;

S eeds

o f

t hese

a re

i n

s ix

i dentified

S tow,

a re

a re

T able

o f

t he

9 .4

d ivided

w ith

c alcifuges,

t he

w hich

s eeds

t he

o nly

c omposition

s amples

i nto

s even

i s

o f

A grostemma

c ontaminants of

w eed

s eed

s ummarised.

g roups

( Clapham

T he e t

a l.

1 968):

a ffinities o thers

f or

o ccur

s oils 2 .

i n

a lmost

l arger

P etch a nd S wann

w eeds

5 9,

P it

c aryopses

H eathland s pecies

1 90

d ry o n

s andy

b oth

s oils.

a cid

a nd

S ome b asic

of d ry

3 .

C atholic w eed s pecies

4 .

W eed

p lants

w ith

p reference

f or

h eavy

c lay

s oils

( Anthemis

c otula) 5 .

G rassland s pecies

6 .

P lants c haracteristic o f d amp o r m oist s oils

7 .

U nidentified, T he

r ange

w eed

i n

w ould o f

s amples

d ate

n evertheless b e

o r o therwise u ninformative,

f rom

a re

d isturbed

d ry,

s imilar

a re

s andy

t hree

A ge

c atholic w eed

h abitats,

o n

f rom

I ron

b roadly

e xpected,

f requent

c ome

t he

v ery

s oils

t o

i n

p lant r emains.

s eparate t he

t errace

e arly

S axon

c omposition.

I n

p lants,

w hich o ccur

c ommon

( 68.6 -8 8.4%).

a ccount

f or

u p

t o

s ites

a nd

p eriod,

b ut

e ach

c ase,

a s

i n a w ide r ange W eed

1 6.9%,

s pecies

b ut

a re

n ot

p resent i n a ll s amples. T he p resence o f A nthemis c otula i n h ut 6 3 a t W est S tow i s u nexpected a nd u nexplained, s ince t his w eed i s n owadays m ore f requent o n h eavy c halky t ill s oils i n E ast A nglia. w as

a

c ontaminant

s oils. b ut

t he

s eeds

o f

t he

a djacent

4 .1%),

g roups

i mported

b ut

f lood-plains, p lants

w as

v ulearis

f rom

a n

P ossibly i t

a rea

o f

t hought

p eriods t hat

a re

w as

p robably

T hey

t o

i nclude

3 .3%)

a nd

i ndicate

l argely

c ultivation

h eath

p lants

I n s ummary,

t o

d erived

h eavier

f rom

s poradically i n t he c rop,

l and. ( up

( up t o 2 .0%).

t he

e xtended

( up

t o

c haracteristic

p lants

o f

t he r elative f requencies

t hat

o n

p lants

s preading

t he

d ry

o nto

a rea

s and t he

p loughed

s oils

e dges

o f

o f

a t t he

r iver

w here s ome c olonisation o f f ield margins b y d amp-ground

p ossible.

a nd

s pecies

s pecies a re

d ifferent

t erraces,

t hese

u nploughed

g rassland

t hese

t hese

c orn

f ield margins a nd

d amp o r w et s oils o f

s eed

T he r emaining p lants a re n ot c haracteristically a rable w eeds,

g rowing a t f rom

o f

C harred c apsules,

p innules

o f

P teridium

l eaves a nd

a quilinum a re

s hoots o f C alluna t hought

t o

r eflect

t he p roximity t o t he a rable l and o f h eath a t B randon a nd W est S tow. A t y ields t his a s

t he o n

p resent d ay o ne o f t he

s andy

s oils

u ndoubtedly

i n

t he

a pplied

o r d rier t han

t hat

p rinciple

B reckland

e qually

o f t oday.

d uring

i s

f actors

m oisture

p ast

l imiting c ereal a vailability

c limatic

p hases

a s

a nd d ry

I n d ry y ears n owadays b arley y ields

c an b e r educed t o l ess t han h alf n ormal y ields ( Corbett 1 973: 2 9). T race e lement d eficiencies m ay f urther r educe y ields a nd w ind e rosion o f s urface o ccasionally

s oil i n d ry s pring m onths making r e-drilling n ecessary.

r educed b y m inimum c ultivation,

a nd,

o ccurs i n m ost M oisture l osses

a s L egge

( 1981)

y ears, m ay b e

h as p ointed o ut,

t he r elative i nefficiency o f e arly p loughs m ay i n t hese c ircumstances h ave p roved t o b e a n a dvantage. L osses d ue t o w ind e rosion a nd t o d rought a t t he w inter c rops,

s eedling s tage c ould h ave b een r educed b y c ultivating s o a s t o e nsure t hat t he y oung p lants w ould b e

r elatively w ell-developed 1 978:

2 5)

s ystems

d uring

a bundant s own

a nd

t hat t he

c ereals

c rops 12)

u nder

' primitive'

t he

f ruits

s uggests R ye

b efore s oil

s pring.

i n

t hough

( 1981:

e xamined.

t he

i s

S pelt

s amples o f

s pring a nd

s urface a nd

a re

a re

a parine,

c haracteristic

c onditions

r ye,

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G alium

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b e

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r are

b y

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t he

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( Limbrey

s tabilised

i n

a utumnR eynolds

c ereals t he

g rown

s amples

i s p articularly w ell a dapted t o g rowth o n d ry s oils.

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a pparently o ne

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( Renfrew

p ermitting

f rom

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a nd,

a s

a c onsequence

1 973:

8 5).

i ncreased c ultivation o f r ye

f actor

e vidence

e xtensive r oot

1 .6-1.8m

a n

e xtension

H ockham M ere

a nd

a rable

I t

i s

i n t he

o f

t he

m oisture-holding

i n

t he

p eriod

c apacity

a nd

p ost-Roman

a rable

i s

a rea:

s tatus

t he

t here

i s

f requencies

b p.

o f

l ess

t hat

p eriod w as

p ollen

1 300-1140

b ase

e xtending t o t his,

p robable

f or m arkedly i ncreased

w eeds

o f

( Sims

t hese

1 978:

t erräce

s oils c ould h ave b een i mproved b y m arling. C halk i s n ot a vailable i n s urface o utcrops i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f t he t erraces, b ut c halk l umps

w ere

i mported

p resent

t o

t he

U ndoubtedly, c onsistent

c ereal

p astoral

m anure. t he

p its

s ite

t he

m oisture

s lope

S tow

a reas

( WSW

a bove

0 30),

t he

h ave b een a c lose

f arming,

c apacity

a nd

W est

h aving

r iver

b een

t erraces.

p rinciple a daptation e nsuring a dequate a nd

y ields m ust

M anuring w ould

d eficits

a t

f rom

h owever,

a rable

a nd

i n

s o

h ave

a s

t o

e nsure

i ncreased

o f

t he

s tabilising

t he

s oil,

a s

t o

r educe

w ell

a s

b etween

s upplies

t he o rganic c ontent

h elping

s urface,

r elationship

s ufficient

o f

a nd h ence

s oil

m oisture

r eplacing m inerals

l ost b y c ropping a nd l eaching. T here i s, n evertheless, s ome e vidence f or s oil n itrogen d eficiencies. A lthough c harred s eeds o f V icia a nd L athyrus n ever a ccount a ssociated w ith t he

f or m ore

c ereals,

f rom t he e arly S axon d eposit n umbers

o f

b adly

T rifolium-type: s ample ( 1354). T he

o nly

much

s mall

a s

s ubstantial

4 8%

l eguminous

o f

t otal

A ge

s ite

s heep, a t

p ig,

W est

c ollection

r ed

d eer,

H arling

f rom B randon a nd

o f

s eeds

w eed

a re

b eaver,

g iven

b y

of

s eeds

f aunal

B reckland t errace s ite i s t hat f rom W est S tow. o f c attle,

o f t he w eed s eeds

f rom h ut 6 3 a t W est S tow c ontained l arge

d eformed

a s

t han a f ew p ercent

s ome I ron A ge d eposits

M edicago

i n

r emains

o r

o ne

B randon

f rom

a r ural

A f ew i dentifications

d og a nd c rane C lark

a nd

f rom t he I ron

F ell

( 1953),

b ut

o ther r ecent e xcavations h ave e ither b een t oo s mall t o p roduce u seful b one

a ssemblages

a ssemblage S axon

o r

f eatures.

a nalysis

e lse

c omprises

o f

h erbivores

s heep

f rom

a re

e ruption a nd w ear, y ears

f ully

o f

l ife,

e rupted

c ompleted. f ragments

h as

p hase.

n umerically

T he

m ainly

d iscussed A mongst

p redominant,

E stimates o f a ges a t

b ut

a bout

4 4%

S ome

o f

t he

c attle

m andibles

s urvived

t o

M easurements o f m etacarpals s how t hat c ows.

m eat

F or

p roduction. a s

T hese s heep

i ndicating

d ata

t he

a

s uggest

d airying

d istribution

c ombination

o f

o f

o f

d omestic

b y

c attle,

b ased o n d ental i n t he

e xamined w ell

f irst h ad

o ver

a

f ive

t he majority o f i n a ddition t o

a ges

m eat

S tow

A nglo-

r esults

l arge

f ollowed d eath,

W est f rom

t he

t he

i ndicate a h igh m ortality f or c attle

m ature c attle w ere i nterpreted

y et b one

( 1981) t his

d entition.

y ears o f a ge.

n ot

2 00,000

C rabtree

m aterial

w ith s ome p ig a nd g oat. t wo

a re

s ome

a t

d eath

p roduction

i s a nd

d airying, w ith n o s ign o f l arge-scale w ool p roduction. T he h ighest m ortality f or p igs i s s een i n t he e arly t hird y ear, c orresponding t o t he

s tage

w hen

t he

a nimals

r eached

b odily m aturity.

C rabtree

n otes

t hat t he o pen l andscapes o f t he v icinity p rovide l ittle o r n o p annage f or p igs a nd s uggests t hat s ty h usbandry, w astes,

m ay

m easurements

h ave

b een

i ndicate

t hat

p ractised. t he

W est

I ron A ge s tock.

1 94

f eeding o n c ereals a nd f ood S ize

S tow

e stimates

a nimals

w ere

f rom

b one

l arger

t han

O R G A N I C A N D G L E Y D S O I L S

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o n t he l ength r atio h as b een c arried o ut o wing t o t he n umber o f l ambs i n

s ome

o f

a ppendix h orn

t he

A .

g roups.

I t

f orms

i n

c an

t he B y

c ore

c ircular

t he

m ore

e wes

i n

c ontrast,

t he

i n

t han

o f

s een

t hose

t he

t hat

t hese

t hat

o f t he

m ore

o f

b reeds

t here

m odern

t he

c arrying

a ppears

f rom

s hort

s curs

p reliminary

r am.

f ifteen

m onths

( rudimentary

s tudies

o ld)

t hat

( the

t he

a re

i s

s et

a w ide

o ut

i n

r ange

of

f emale b eing s trongly b reeds I t

f lock o f M ouflon a vailable t o

p olled, moment

d etails

r eadily

p rimitive S oay,

e lliptical. i s

T he

b e

e we's

h orn

i s u nfortunate

t he

t hat

t he a uthor a re l argely

h orns)

t est

a t

t he

a nimals

c astrate

m ale

o f

m ost.

b eing t his

I t

a t

t he

t ype

w ill

a lso o nly c arry s hort s curs. I t i s a lso u nfortunate t hat b ovine h orn c ores o f t he p resent d ay a re

s o

r are

d ehorning

o wing

t o

c alves.

c ollection,

t he

a lmost

M easurements

s upplemented

u niversal o f

t he

b y t hose o f t he

o f Z oology a nd o ther m useums,

B ritish

a uthor's

p ractice

own

of

i nadequate

C ambridge U niversity M useum

a re s et o ut i n t able

1 0:1,

f rom t his i t

c an b e s een t hat c ows t end t o h ave r ounder h orn c ores t han b ulls, t hat

s teers

o ccupy

B rook

( 1976)

b reed

d ifferences,

o val

c ame

o nes w here

F riesian b ull,

a n t o

i ntermediate t he

i t a nd

e ven t his

b reeds h orn

r elated

h ave

i s

l ess

H owever,

w ith

T he most

s even 1 .57.

t hem

I t

a nd

C lutton-

t here

a r atio

e llipical

a nd

a re

b elow

a lso

1 .2

a nd

s pecimen h ere i s a

e xtreme t han t he

C eltic o x;

t he

s pecimens d escribed i n A rmitage & T he b asal s hape d oes n ot d epend o n

i s

y oung t he

d ecided

i n

f rom

h orn

s heep.

H atting v ery

t he

i s

n ot

c ores, t hin

b e

s ome a ll

b eing

B ronze

t he

a bove

v ariation

i n

A ge

o f

d ate

a s imple

w hether s hould

u pon o f

t here b e

w hich

c attle,

a nd

e asy b ut

( 1975) w alls,

t o t he

h as s o

m ay

w ill

b e

t hat

t hey

h orn a re

H iggs

f rom

f emale

u nlikely

o f t o

h as

s hould

b e

p artially c ores

a nd

( 1983)

d ifferent

b e

m ay

a nd

of t he

o f o ne s ex,

e asily

p roblem t he

c lay,

a s pecimen

b etween

i ntact. T hus i t s eems l ikely t hat c ores w ill b e f emale o r i ntact m ale,

F en

a verage o btained

d istinguish s hown

s pecimens

A rmitage

o f

of o ne

s ome q ualification,

t hese

a ges

w ith

T hough m ost

( Shawcross

e xcluded. a ge

s hort

C lutton-

a nimals

t hese

i s a p redominance

t he

c hronological

a nd

b ulls

t ime.

I sland

a nd

a mongst b e

p re-Holocene

i n

t hat

t o

u ndated

p oints

C hannel L ong

A rmitage

a ppear

f ound

w as

a s

a lthough

s eparated

t he

c ollection.

i n a n a ssemblage m ay n eed

c ase

a lthough I t

m ay

s pecimens

c astrate d evelop

a s

w hereas

t he

d istinguished,

H owever,

c riteria t he

i n

a uroxen

b e a scertained

d efined

a nimal.

w ell

w idely

s pecimen

c lear

l onghorn,

h orns

T here

f rom

h orn-cores

v ery

T exas

t he

d escribed

s hould

s heep,

f airly

e xception.

f arm

t he

t he

t ype;

c ome

a re

L owe's 1 961).

t o

s hortest

o ut.

a nd

p ossible

a nd

a re

p ointed

s ex

p robably

i t

t he

t ypes

B rock

a ll

b reeds

A rmitage

t he S panish o x w as a 1 9th c entury a nimal o f e normous h orn s pan,

p ossibly

o ne

c onclusion.

h orned

i s h igher.

a verage v alue f or t he C lutton-Brock ( 1976) i s s ize;

s ame

r ound

p osition;

u sed f rom

t his

a nd

m ale

a voided

w ether b e

b e f or

i n

s heep

e xcavated

t he m ajority o f c omplete e asily d istinguished, a nd

h orn t hat

p rofiles o f w ether h orn c ores a re m ost l ikely t o b e o btained f rom t he b roken s tumps o n t he

f rontal b one.

2 16

N on-Metrical D ifferences.

T he P ostion o f t he N urient F oramen o f t he

F emur I n e arly e mbryonic l ife t he s haft o f t he d eveloping l ong b one i s s upplied t o

b y a n umber o f a rteries,

s upply t he m arrow a nd

s ome o f w hich p enetrate

e ndosteum

( Pinard

1 952;

B rookes

t he c ortex 1 963).

T he

n umber o f t hese i s r educed i n l ater f oetal l ife a nd a fter b irth t here i s

n ormally o nly o ne

c onstant

a re u sually t hree r educed

t o o ne.

a nd

d o

t wo

s heep

f or

e ach b one,

f or t he s pecies.

s o

t he

t he

p osition o f w hich i s u sually

I n t he c ase o f t he a rtiodactyl f emur t here

f oramina a t a bout t he t ime o f b irth w hich a re l ater I t

i s

p ossible

o ccasionally,

t hree

f or a ny o ne o f t he t hree t o s urvive,

p articularly

p ositions

a re

t he

i n

c ross-bred

a nterior

p osterior d istal s haft a nd t he p osterior m idshaft, o f

f requency,

n umber

o f

b ut

b ones

a ssemblage. p osition t he

d istal

a ny

p ositions o ne

p roximal.

p osition

u sually

g roups.

s ires

f rom

E vidence

a

n umber

h owever.

o r

b reeds W ith o nly

f rom

o f

a re

b reed,

s hort-tailed

u sually

i nbred

i nherited,

t hree

f rom

I n

i s

a ll

a ny

b reeds

t han

d ominates

i n

t rial

s uggests

t he

f ound

l arge

a l arge

S hetland

o f

t he

s mall w hich

t he

i n

a rchaeological

t he

e xception

a b reeding

I n

s haft,

i n d eclining o rder

u sually

o ther t he

a nimals.

p roximal

t he

S waledale

i solated i nvolved

d istal

o r

f ive

p osition

i s

D ata o n v arious m odern b reeds a nd a rchaeological

m aterial i s g iven i n N oddle

( 1978).

I n c attle t he p ositions a re u sually e ither i mmediately a bove t he s upracondylar f ossa c entimetres m edial t o t he a nterior l ess

c ommon

d istal

o n t he d istal p osterior s haft o r a f ew t his, b ut t he f oramen i s o ccasionally f ound i n

p roximal t han

i n

p ositions.

p osition a s s heep

T able

p resent

d ay

b reeds a nd

a uroxen

a nd

a f ew

c ollections a re

a ll

m odern

f rom a nd

o ther

w ith

p ossibly a nd

o n

p resents

t he

t he

t he

i n

t hey

i n

t he

t wo

a n umber o f

t he o r

C ambridge p rivate

c ross-bred

a nimals

p redominates

B lack a nd b reed.

u biquitous

t he

i n

p osition W elsh

C hillingham t he

i n

b y

museums T he

f oramina a re

i nvolve

p ositions

s upplemented

m edial o f

D ouble

o ccur

p resent

T he

a ncient a re

s heep.

C ontinent.

e xception

m edial

t hey

c rosses,

c ows.

t he

i n t he

w hen

s pecimens

o r

F riesian

a uroxen

1 0:2

f irst

B ritain

b reeds,

c rosses e ight

i n

a nd

i n

C harrolais

F ive

F riesian

o ut

t he

o f

m edial

p osition i s j ust t he most f requent. W ilson ( 1909) t ried t o d erive a h istory o f B ritish b reeds f rom t heir p redominant c olouring, b lack a nimals b eing t he a ncient B ritish s tock a nd r ed b reeds b eing S axon i mports. R ed b reeds h ave a h igher p roportion o f f oramina i n t he m edial

p osition t han t he

A ngus,

w hich i s a f airly r ecent b reed d eriving f rom a s mall n umber o f

f oundation

s tock.

O rcadian a nimals, m aterial.

I t

b lack b reeds w ith t he e xception o f A berdeen

H owever,

i s

t rue

t hat

s upracondylar

s haft

i s

c ontaining

m edial

f oramen

l atter,

t he

a lmost

w ithout

e xception

o ther

t han

t he l ateral p osition p redominates i n a rchaeological a

e asier

f ragment t o

a nd

i s

o f

f emur

i dentify p robably

i ncluding

t han m ore

t he

r obust

t he

f ragment t han

t he

b ut c are h as b een t aken t o m inimise t his p ossibility.

S keletal P rofiles o f M odern B reeds a nd A rchaeological A ssemblages I t o ther

i s c onsidered t hat b y u sing a c ombination o f m easurements a nd

v ariables

d iscussed

a bove

i t

m ight

b e

p ossible

p rofile o f a n a ssemblage w hich m ay d istinguish i t s ites o r p eriods,

t o

c onstruct

a

f rom t hose o f o ther

b ut i t w ould n ot b e p ossible t o d istinguish b etween

2 17

t wo

t ypes

f ound

i n

f ound

c an

d ifferences

t he b e

s ame

a ssemblage.

c ompared

w ith

T he

s imilar

e xtent

p rofiles

o f

a ny

c onstructed

f rom m odern b reeds, t his i s o nly p ossible i n t he c ase o f s heep, o wing t o t he l arge s ize a nd f requent l ack o f a vailability o f c omplete a dult c attle s keletons. b reeds,

n one

p roducing o f

o f

T able w hich

c onformation

p rimitiveness,

g iven

i n

a ppendix

P ortland a nd

t he

t o

a ny

( Hammond

1 932).

M ouflon,

S oay

a re

J acob a nd S waledale.

1 0:3 p resents p rofiles o f f ive m odern s heep

p ossesses

A m ore

g reat T he

d egree

b reeds,

( both

a m odern

s hort-tailed)

P ortland,

d etailed d escription o f t hese

A .

T here

a re

t wo

s mall

o ther

t hree

a re o f s imilar

m eat

i n a ssumed o rder

b reeds,

t he

s tature,

b reeds i s

S oay a nd

t he

t hough n ot b ody

w eight. T he b ones w hose d imensions h ave b een e mployed t o g ive a n e stimate o f s tature h ave b een s elected p artly o n t he g rounds o f t heir f requent o ccurrence i n a rchaeological a ssemblages. C onsidering r oughly c ore o n

e qual

t he

i ndividual

s ize,

a nd

i ndex a re a lso

t he

s capula

b oth

s imilar.

i ndex

a nd

p rofiles,

t he

H owever,

t he

S oay

m etacarpal t he

f emoral

a nd

a nd

l arge

d ifferences

d ifferences

i n

i n

t he

t he

b asal

h orn c ore

l iving

s keleton.

a nimal

T hus

p osition.

o f

h orn

s how

r esults

T he

t hree

S waledale c an a nd t he J acob

i ndices.

m ay

o nly

a re

b asal

t wo c an b e d ifferentiated

f oramen

l arger b reeds a re a ll o f s imilar s ize, b ut t he d istinguished o n t he b asis o f i ts s capula i ndex m eans o f t he m etacarpal a nd

P ortland

a verage

H owever,

u p

a s

f rom

q uite

l arge

b e b y

q uite s mall

s amples

a re r eally c redible. T hree T he

g roups

f irst

n eolithic

g roup i n

s ites

t able

1 0:5.

1 st,

2 nd

t he a re

s ites

a nd

t wo

S kaill

P icts

a nd

p resented

S econdly

a nd

h ave

c omprises

d ate

p opulations, t hese

o f

5 th

c entury

4 th c entury m aterial

c hosen

O rcadian w hich

t he i n

t wo

b een

1 0:4

s ites

h ave

a ssemblages

f rom S egontium

T he a nd

f ro

o ut

S kara

i nhabited

V ikings.

R oman

t ry

s ites,

w as

t able

t o

B rae

b y

t wo

c attle t hose

b een

t he m ethod. w hich

p rofiles

o f

t he

W roxeter

f rom

s heep

c ompared,

( North W ales).

i n

s eparate

( Shropshire)

a nd

T his m aterial

s et o ut i n t able 1 0:6 ( cattle) a nd 1 0:7 ( sheep). T he c omprises t wo t hirteenth c entury s ites, H ereford ( urban)

i s

s ucceeding

i s

t hird group a nd L oughor

C astle ( South W ales) w hich a re p resented i n t ables 1 0:8 ( cattle) a nd 1 0:9 ( sheep). F urther d etails o f a ll t hese s ites a re s et o ut i n a ppendix B . I n

t he

c ase

o f

t he

O rcadian

y ears b etween S kara B rae e xpected a nd i s r eadily c onsiderable d ecrease

i n

s ites

t here

i s a g ap o f a bout

a nd S kaill. G enetic c hange a pparent. F or c attle a part

s ize

t here

i s a d istinct

c hange

2 000

i s t o b e f rom t he f rom a l ong

h orn t o a s hort-horn t ype. I t i s n ot e asy t o d ecide w hether t here a re g enetic c hanges i nvolved i n t he d ifferences b etween P ictish a nd V iking

S kaill.

T he

s ize

r eduction

i ndicated

b y

t he

a stragalus

m easurements c ould b e n utritional i n o rigin a nd t he a mount o f V iking material i s t oo s mall t o d ecide w hether t he s mall d ifferences i n a ll o ther

o ther

s heep

t here

i t

l ess m arked

i s

o f t he

p rofile i s

a re

a d ifference

t han

t hat

m ore

e vidence

l ike

o f t he

l ike

t he

i s

a gain

t he n eolithic

V iking

i n

t he

i nconclusive

s ignificant.

b etween n eolithic c attle.

P ictish a nd V iking a ssemblages

s heep a re more b ut

c onstituents

a gain

I n

t he

a nd

c aes

P ictish

T he e vidence i n t he c ase

i s a gain

u nclear.

T he P ictish

i n r espect of t he metacarpal c ase

o f t he

o f b ut

s capula.

i ndex

T he h orn c ore

b ut t he f emoral f oramen s uggests a

2 18

d ifference t hat

t he

b etween

V ikings

a ll

t hree

i mported

p eriods.

n ew

s tock

O n

b ut

b alance

a s

m ight

i t b e

s eems

l ikely

e xpected

t here

w as i nterbreeding w ith t he o ld. C onsidering

t he

R oman

s ites,

i t

i s

a pparent

t hat

t here

w ere

d ifferent t ypes o f c attle a t W roxeter a nd S egontium d uring t he 4 th t o 5 th

c enturies.

d ifferences a lthough p assage t hat

t he o f

t he

T he

l arge

i n t he b asal s ize

t ime

f irst

i s

a t

n umbers

s imilar.

W roxeter

s ettlement

l ocal n ative l ivestock.

o f

i ndex a nd

c ores

v alidate

t he

s mall

f emur d ifferences a re m arked,

C hanges

a re

a t

h orn

t he

l ess

t hat

t ook

c lear.

W roxeter,

I t

p lace w ould

a m ilitary

o ne,

d uring

t he

s eem

l ikely

w ould

a qüire

H orn c ore b asal i ndex a nd f emur d ata s uggest

t hat c hanges h ad a lready t aken p lace d uring t he s ubsequent

1 00 y ears,

a long w ith h usbandry.

a s light i ncrease i n s ize t hat m ight i ndicate i mproved C hanges d uring t he f ollowing c enturies a re l ess marked,

a part

a c onsiderable

f rom

s tock w as i mported, e xisting i s

o f

a nimals m ight

t he

o pinion

i mportations, E ngland, T he

a ccount

t hat

b ut

i ncrease

i n

s ize.

I t

i s

l ikely

t hat

n ew

b ut t he p assage o f t ime a nd s elective b reeding o f

t he

t he

b ulk

f or t he

R omans o f

d ifferences.

d id

h is

n ot

m ake

e vidence

A rmitage massive

c omes

f rom

( 1982)

l ivestock S outh

E ast

a r ather d ifferent a rea f rom t he W elsh B orders. R oman

s heep f rom S egontium d iffer

t hat t hey w ere b igger.

H owever,

f rom t hose a t W roxeter

i n

t he s light d ifferences i n m etacarpal

a nd s capula i ndeces a re b ased o n v ery s mall s amples a nd t here w ere n o h orn t he

c ores. f irst

more

A gain

1 00

a dvanced a lso

i ncludes

a nimals

t hat

b e

t he

s heep

R omans.

o f

a nd

t he

a S oay

r esult

i s

o f

l ong

t o

g enetic

t here

w ith

s eem

h ave

W roxeter.

s uggests

c enturies

c ould

a t

a nimal,

a verage, l ater

t here

y ears

T he

i ndex

c hange.

T he

t ype

i mproved a nd

c hanges

s capula w hich

a c hange

t ails

b een

m etarcarpal

i n

a re

s ize

r ange, h orn

t hough

t han

R yder

f leeces

w ere

f ully d omesticated s heep

d uring

n ot

b asal

s ubsequently

i ts

i ndex

l ost. t ype,

( 1964)

I n w hich

b elieves

i mported

C ertainly t hey managed t o i mport f allow d eer,

e asy t o m anage t han t he

s tock

c ore

r ather

h usbandry. w hite

i n

i ndex i ndicates a

b y

t he

a n a nimal l ess

( Chapman a nd C hapman

1 975). T he m edieval s tock a t H ereford a nd L oughor a re v ery s imilar,

a nd

t he s mall n umber o f s peciments f rom L oughor d oes n ot w arrant a ny f irm c onclusions.

T he

s heep

e vidence

i s

c ontradictory,

w ith

a

p rimitive m etacarpus a nd a l ess p rimitive s capula a t L oughor, t wo t ypes p robably t hat s tock b ought s elected,

w hereas

w ere d istinct. H owever, i n f or t he c astle a t

t hat

f rom

H ereford

t own

more

b ut t he

t he p ossibility e xists L oughor w as c arefully

c omprised

a m cre

c omplete

c ross s ection o f l ocal t ypes. I t i s c oncluded f rom t he a bove e xamples t hat i t i s p ossible t o s uggest g enetic d ifferences b etween s heep a nd c attle p opulations f rom d ifferent

l ocations

c ertainty w ith u pon b ut

t he a lso

w hich

e xtent u pon

o r

o f

t he

f rom

t hese

t he s ize

d ifferent

s uggestions

d ifferences o f

t he

i n

s ample

p eriods.

c an t he

b e

T he

m ade

v arious

a vailable.

d egree

d epends i tems

n ot

o f

o nly

c omprising,

T his m ethod

s hould

n ot b e a ttempted w ith s mall a ssemblages u nless t hey a re o f p articular p otential i mportance.

2 19

S keletal P roportions i n t he W hole A nimal A ll

t he

a bove

c alculations

a re

b ased

u pon

b one

a ssemblages

and

m easurements u pon c omplete m odern s pecimens h ave b een a malgamated f or c omparison.

H owever

a rchaeological u sing

t hese.

T he

l engths o f t he w ork o n h as

t he

a lso

b ut

I h ave

e xtended

b one

b e

i nvestigated

c attle,

a re

g reatly

c attle

i n

t he

p roportions

f ound i n

a n

d erived

D r. I t

l ack

p rimarily t he

o f

1 932).

f or

f rom

o f

T he i dea

c attle a re s et t he

N atural

l iterature, m ade

i s

o n

H istory,

O ther

t here

t he

r elative

o f m odern m aterial

A rmitage. t hat

t he

m easurements

M useum

P hilip a ny

( Hammond

a gain

b y

a ppears

b etween

a re

b y H ammond's p ioneering

d ata a vailable

B ritish

b y

t able.

s heep

b ut

a ssisted

t he

s upplied

o n

t o

a nd

h ere

a s tudy s uggested

s omewhat m eagre

1 0:10, b een

k indly

i ndicated i n

T he

t able

C hillingham w ere

t o

b ones,

c onformation o f t he m eat

b een

i n

s keletons a re o ccasionally

a nd o ther m ethods o f c omparison a re p ossible

d ata

l ong

i s a p roblem. o ut

c omplete

c ontext,

t he

w hich

s ources

a re

l ittle d ifference

s pecimens

o ther

t han

a urcx

m ales a nd t he e arly n eolithic D anish b ull w hich w as l ikely t o h ave b een c losely r elated t o t he w ild t ype. T he u se o f t his m ethod o f a pproach i n c attle m ay b e

l imited

t o

t hese e arly s ites.

T he r easons

w hy t he d omesticated b ull a ssumed t he p roportions o f t he f emale a urox w ould

b e o f g reat

s ince

l arge

a urox,

T he o rder

p roportions

o f

o f

T able

t he

h ave

t o

a ssume

i ncluded

l engths

o f

b e d emonstrated,

t he

s uch

i s

a s

t he

p roportions

e ven

b ut

o f

t he

m ore

t he

o f

l ikely t o

a re

r ather

b reeds

i n

more

a ssumed

s hort-tailed M ouflon a nd b ut

b reeds

n o o r

r eally m odern t he

v ery l arge

h ave o ccurred

b efore

t he

T here i s l ittle d ifference b etween r elative

m etapodials, marked

f emur;

s heep

F orest, D own

b ut

t he

b ones

t ibia a re r elatively l onger

h umerus a nd

i n

a n umber

C lun

n either o f w hich a re t he

b ones

i ncluding

a dvanced

a gricultural r evolution. r adius a nd

l ong

p resents

a gain

r elatively

b een

l ustrewools,

t his

i f t hey c ould e ver t end

t he

1 0:11

p rimitiveness,

a nd

t ypes

a nimals

t he c ause m ay b e n utritional.

i nformative. S oay

i mportance

m odern

t his

i n

i s

t he

i n

b ones

o f

t he

t he

m iddle

l ong-tailed

o f t he

p roximal

i n k eeping w ith H ammond's

s egment,

b reeds a nd

s egment,

( 1932)

t he

t heories

o n t he s election o f a g ood m eat b earing c onformation. T he b asal h orn c ore a nd s capula i ndices a re i ncluded i n t able 1 0:11 a s a s upplement t o

t he

r elative

a rchaeological R oman

e ra.

b one

l engths.

e xamples

T he

f rom

A lso

t he

i ncluded

l ater

a re

p rehistoric

a

n umber

p eriod

o f

a nd

t he

N ew W intles a na G arton S lack s pecimens d ate f rom t he

B ronze a nd E arly c entury A D. T he

I ron A ges r espectively, w hilst t he o thers a re 4 th e arliest s pecimens a ppear t o b e t he m ost p rimitive

a nd

t he

t he t he

S oay e we. I t w ould a ppear t hat t he 4 th c entury a nimals w ere o f s hort-tailed t ype, b ut i t i s t hought t hat t he B arnsley P ark a nd

N ew W intles

t he

E taples

a nimal

t he

g eneral

r obust

t he

l atter

b ecause

t he

a nimal

( Vadet

l ength. t he

0 11ercain

c rossing

i ntermediate

o f

a nimal

w ere

e t

l ength,

l ength o f t he m other.

o f

t ail

1 978)

s hort

a nd

a l a nd t he

i ts

i ndicate

( 1974) l ong e xact

s hape

s pecimens,

b ones,

v ertebrae a nd

t he

a lthough w ere

t hat

b reeds

p roportion

t o t hat

f ormer i t

w as

a ctually i t

S helton

t ailed

s imilar

b ecause f emale,

e xcavated

h ad

a t ail

( 1977)

h ave

r esults

d epending

i n o n

o f

o f a nd

w ith

o f m edium s hown

t hat

a t ail t he

o f

t ail

I t h as b een d emonstrated t hat t he s hort-tailed

s keletal

c haracters p redominate

s capula

( Noddle

1 978),

a h orn c ore

c rossbred

n ature t he

h as

i n

f irst

c rosses w ith r espect t o

a nd c alculations u sing

2 20

t he

i st a nd 2 nd c rosses o f

F innish L andrace s heep

( a m odern s hort-tailed b reed)

i ndicate

t hat

t he

o verall

w ith l arge m odern m eet

p roportions

o f

t he

r elative

b one

l engths a re i nherited i n t he s ame w ay. M ore

m aterial,

d emonstrate

m ore

b oth

m odern

c learly

t he

a nd

a rchaeological,

d ifferences

i n

l engths b etween d ifferent b reeds a nd t ypes. t hat

i f

m odern

l ikely

t hat

o riginal

p roportions

l ong

t ailed

i ntroduction

a re

o f

t his

t ype

a re m ay

f or

w ell w ell

n ecessary

r elative

H owever,

d emonstrated

c haracters

i s

l imb

b one

i t w ould a ppear

a s pecimen,

e stablished

h ave

t o

t aken

i t

a nd

p lace

i s t he

s ome

t ime p reviously. S ummary B ones d iffer

f rom

d ifferent

f rom e ach o ther

d emonstrated

b y

s pecimens

i n a bsolute

d ividing

o ne

b reeds

f or

t hem

of s heep

c attle

h ave

f actors, r ecent

b een

i n

o rder

b reeds

p eriods

a re a nd

s ame

s uch

a s

d iscussed

i ndividually.

made

w ell

a s

a nimals

f rom

c onsiderable

c hanges

s eem

may f ew

P ictish

m ay

o btain

h ave

o f

a nd

V iking

t aken

t he

o r

p ossible

i nfluenced e ach

a bove

p lace

l arge

c hanges

c ase

must

R oman

i n b e

c an

( Orkney)

a t

o f

d ifferent

d istinctions

S kaill

a nd

t hose

w ith

b y

d ay

s heep

t o

a n t he t he

p resent

b oth

s ites

c onclusive

a nd

o f

c omparable

i s

b e

i nfluences,

t o

t o

c ombination

T his

W hilst

b etween

a

s ite.

g enetic

s pecies

d ifferent

a rchaeological

d ifferences

h usbandry

a nother

o f

d ifferences

d ifferent

a nimal

a ssemblages

u sing

d emonstrate

t he

b ut

i nto

P rofiles

c onstructed

b etween

w ithin

a ssemblages

d iscussed.

s ame

i n p roportions w hich c an b e

T he p roportional l engths of v ary. T hese d ifferences a nd

o f a rchaeological

t o

t he

d imension

i ndex, a nd i n n on-metrical w ays. d ifferent b ones i n a l imb m ay a lso r easons

o f

s ize,

b e

q uite

W roxeter

d uring t he 2 nd c entury. T he

p roportional

l engths

o f

t he

s keleton h ave a lso b een a ssessed. t here

i s

n o

s ex d ifference,

l onger u pper a rchaeological p eriods. t hat

t hat

b ones

i n

t he

i ndividual

s heep i t w ould a ppear t hat

m odern

l ong-tailed

b reeds

h ave

l imbs t han p rimitive s hort-tailed b reeds a nd s pecimens f rom t he l ater p rehistoric a nd R oman

T he

males

b ut

l imb

I n t he

p osition

of

B os

i n

c attle

p rimigenius

i s

a nd

l ess

c lear,

r ecently

i t

w ould

s eem

d omesticated

b ut

s tock

h ave

r elatively l onger u pper l imbs t han p rimitive f emales o r b oth s exes i n l ater

s tock,

b ut

i t

i s

p ossible

t hat

a bsolute

s ize

m ay

i nfluence

t his. A cknowledgements T he s ources, a nd

b ones

o f

i ndividuals:-

E mbleton), B rock),

A RC

M eat

a nd

U niversity

o f

t he

a nimals

a nd

C ambridge

c ome

U niversity o f

D epartment

A nimal I nst.

M rs.

( Mr. M .

M useum

t he

A rkle

o f

t he

( Mr.

( Mr.

M .

a nd

Z oology, U niversity

W elsh

O wen,

M essrs.

D r.

number

B abraham A .

C inderey),

A lso

o f

O xford

a l arge

o f

f ollowing i nstitutions

P hysisiology, B ristol

R .

f armers.

f rom

t o t he

C ommission

L ondon

P urefoy,

D epartment

Z oological

o f

L iverpool, G .

I nst.

R esearch

L ivestock

S ociety

H istory

m odern

A .R.C.

M eat

Z oological M arsland

t he

b ut I a m p articularly g rateful

K . D r.

M r.

D r.

J .

K .

S .

J oysey, G .

M .

M useum,

N ational

B rown, D .

( Mr.

G .

M r.

D .

T reble), R .

B aker,

B riggs,

P .

d irector

o f

K ing, D r.

M useum,

K .

N atural M organ, a nd

t he

e xcavators of t he s ites m entioned i n a ppendix B f or p ermission t o u se d ata f rom u npublished r eports. 2 21

A ppendix A

N otes o n t he B reeds o f M odern S heep d escribed a nd o n t he A rchaeological S ites

T he

s heep

b reeds

a re

d escribed

i n

a ssumed

o rder

o f

p rimitiveness. M ouflon.

T his

i s

o ne

o f

t hree

f orms

o f

t he

w ild

O vis

a ries

f rom

w hich d omesticated s heep t ake t heir o rigin. I t i s s hort-tailed a nd h as a h air c overed s kin. T he s pecimens d escribed c ome f rom a s mall f lock

o f

l ong

L ondon.

s tanding

T hey

a re

m aintained

b y

i nbred.

T he

r ather

t he

Z oological

o riginal

S ociety

a nimals

c ame

o f

f rom

C orsica, w here i t i s s uggested t he a nimals w ere n ever b ecame f eral a t a v ery e arly p eriod ( Ryder 1 983).

t ruly w ild b ut

S oay.

most

f orm

T his o f

a nimal

d omestic

i s

g enerally

s heep.

I t

b elieved

b ecame

t o

f eral

b e

a t

t he

a n

p rimitive

u nknown

d ate

a nd

s urvived o n t he r emote S t. K ilda g roup o f i slands ( Outer H ebridees). I t i s v ery s imilar t o t he B ronze a nd I ron A ge s heep o f S . W . E ngland ( Jackson

1 971).

P ortland.

T his

s mall

b reed

i s

b elieved

t o

b e

a s urvivor

o f

t he

m edieval s heep b reeds o f W essex ( Ryder 1 964). V ery s mall n umbers a re s till e xtant, b ut t he material h ere d escribed o riginates f rom t wo f locks, s o i t i s n ot p articularly i nbred. J acob.

T his

p iebald

s heep

i s

w ell

k nown i n

i ts

p olycerate

f orm a s a

p arkland s heep k ept f or i ts f leece a nd d ecorative c haracter. H owever t here i s a lso a t wo h orned c ommercial v ariety w hich i s a p rofitable m eat

p roducer.

l atter,

A ll

t he

h orn

m aterial

d escribed

o rigin o f t his b reed r emains s omething e ssay o n t he s ubject b y W erner ( n.d.). S waledale. i s

i s

d erived

f rom

t he

b ut s ome o f t he l imb b ones c ome f rom p olyeerate a nimals.

T his

c onsidered

t o

m ountain b e

v ery

b reed o ld,

h as

b ut

o f

a m ystery

r ecently

i s

b ecome

n ot m entioned

d espite

T he

a l ong

w idespread. i n

1 8th a nd

I t 1 9th

c entury l iterature p ossibly b ecause i t w as t hen t oo l ocalised. T he c haracteristic g rey m uzzle o f t he a nimals i s v ery s imilar t o t hat o f t he p rimitive O rkney, a nimals

h ere

s uggesting c onsiderable a ntiquity.

d escribed

c ame

f rom

p edigree

f locks,

b ut

S ome o f t he material

h as

a lso b een c ollected

f rom m oorland a reas w here t he b reed p redominates.

C lun

i s

F orest.

b elieved o f

t o

C entral

p reserved s pecimen

T his h ave

W ales.

a n

f airly A t

u pland

e arly

o ne

b reed

o rigins

t ime

t he

o f

t he

f rom

W elsh

o ther

r ams w ere

b orders.

b lack

h orned

f aced

a nd

i n t he C lun museum h as f eatures s imilar t o t hose f rom

N evertheless,

t he

S axon p resent

H ereford d ay b reed

( Noddle

i n

i s

a s pecimen f ound i n a

S hoesmith

i s q uite m odern

I t

b reeds

1 983).

i n c onformation,

a lthough n one o f t he a nimals d escribed i n t his p aper h ave t he e xtreme " meaty"

c onformation o f t he D ownland s heep.

2 22

D orset H orn T he

D orset

P ortland, H owever a lso

( with E xmoor H orn)

i t

b ut

h as

l arger

H orn

may h ave i n

a m ore s ize.

c ame

o riginally

a n a dmixture m odern I t

f rom

o f m erino

c onformation a nd

t he

t he

s ame

b lood

t han

c losely

t he

P ortland

r elated

c haracterised b y l aterally p rojecting h orns i n t he e we. v ery

i ndividual

f acial

e xpression

s everal m edieval m anuscripts.

2 23

o f

t his

b reed

t ype

( Alderson

a re

a s

t he

1 978). a nd

i s

E xmoor

a re

T his a nd

t he

p ortrayed

i n

A ppendix B A rchaeological S ites B arnsley P ark.

T his i s t he s ite o f a 4 th c entury R oman v illa i n

N orth G loucestershire. o f

t he

e xcavation

a nd t he o ther p art, Garton I ron

A ge

t he

R oman-British

h as

a lready

T his

i s

Y orkshire

f arm.

T he

a c omplex

W olds.

H ayton. b y C anby N ew G ray.

T his

i s

s ite

e xcavator w as

t he

J ohnson.

s ite

T .

i s d ue i n

d ating w as

C .

o f

a R oman

t he b y

a

w hose r eport,

( Brewster i n

f rom

o ccupied

B rewster,

f ort

1 982)

1 984.

m ainly

l ater

i s a vailable

P art

( Webster

1 980).

E ast

Y orkshire,

T he b ovine s keleton w as d escribed i n d etail

( 1977). W intles.

T he

T his

s keletons

i s

L oughor

a s ite

d escribed

s ome B ronze A ge e arthworks, C astle

i n

h ere

O xfordshire

w ere

f ound

e xcavated

i n

b y

a ssociation

M .

w ith

b ut m ay b e o f a l ater d ate.

w as

M useum). I t g uards t he 1 3th C entury.

R .

G raham W ebster.

p ublished

s ite

T he

i ncluding t he a uthor's b one r eport,

e xcavated b y S .

b een

t o i nclude t he b one r eport,

S lack.

i n

I t w as e xcavated b y D r.

r eport

e xcavated

a r iver

b y

e stuary

P .

i n

L ewis

S outh

( Welsh

W ales,

a nd

N ational

d ates

f rom

H ereford. A l ong s eries o f e xcavations h as b een c arried o ut b y S hoesmith i n H ereford. P art 1 o f h is e xcavation r eport h as

a lready

a ppeared,

S kara e xcavated f rom

T his

C hilde

a l imited

A ntiquities) S kaill.

i n

b one T he

n eolithic

1 930s.

b y

t he

f orthcoming).

f amous

t he

e xcavation

i n

c ontaining

( Shoesmith

B rae. b y

3 ,

P art

p ublished s hortly h ere i s m edieval.

D .

T he

C larke

v illage

b ones

h ere

( Scottish

w ill

w as

T his

s ite

T his

e xcavated o ver a l ong

o riginally

d escribed

N ational

h as

b een

R oman

f ort

p eriod

p eriods)

T he

e xcavations a nd

P .

M useum

a nd

a ssociated

O rkney m ainland

o f

B arker

R oman o ver

t own a l ong

f rom

s ettlement h ave b een

b y a n umber o f w orkers.

T he s ite i s n ow p art o f C aerrirvon, W roxeter.

r esult

e xcavated o ver a n umber o f y ears b y

T he b ones h ere

d escribed w ere e xcavated f rom a r elatively s mall a rea b y P .

e xtensive

b e

d escribed

1 974.

P . G elling. I t i s o n t he o pposite s ide o f t he S kara B rae, o n t he D eerness p enninsula. S eguntium.

r eport, m aterial

J .

C asey.

N orth W ales. o f

V irconium

p eriod

( 5th c entury).

b y

D r.

B arker

i s

t he

G .

s ubject

W ebster

( 1982)

h as

o f

( earlier

p ublished a

p reliminary r eport. F rocester C ourt. f rom

t he

2 nd

c ontinuing,

c entury,

T his

i s

t he

o verlying a n

s ite

o f a p rosperous

I ron A ge s ite.

v illa d ating

T he e xcavation i s

b ut a n i nterim r eport i ncluding t he a uthor's b one r eport,

w as p ublished

i n

1 979

( Noddle i n G racie a nd P rice,

2 24

1 979).

B iblio _eraphy A lderson,

L .

( 1978) T he C hance t o S urvive L ondon:

A rmitage,

P .

L .

( 1982)

C ameron a nd T ayleur

D evelopments i n B ritish c attle h usbandry.

T he

A rk 9 5 0 -5 4 A rmitage,

P .

L .

o f

c attle

1 8th

( 1983)

A s ystem

f rom

c entury)

L onghorn

w ith

A rmitage,

P .

I n:

S ites

s exing

p ost-medieval

s pecial

c attle.

A rchaeological S .)

f or a geing a nd

B ritish

r eference

A geing ( ed.

a nd

t he h orn c ores

s ites t o

( 17th

S exing A nimal

W ilson,

R .,

B ones

G rigson,

G .,

L .

a nd

C lutton-Brock, a nd

J .

( 1976)

d escription o f t he

f rom a rchaeological

e ary

A

f rom

P ayne,

1 09 3 7 -5 4

B ritish A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries

c lassification

t o

u nimproved B ritish

s ystem

f or

t he

h orn c ores o f c attle

s ites J ournal o f A rchaeological S cience

33 29 -3 48 A rmitage,

P .

L .

a nd G oodall,

s heep:

t he

A ntiquaries' B arker,

P .

( 1982)

J .

A .

( 1978)

a rchaeological

M edieval

a nd

h orned a nd p olled

i conographic

e vidence.

J ournal 5 7 7 3 -8 9

W roxeter R oman C ity:

E xcavations

1 966-1980 L ondon:

D epartment o f t he E nvironment B artosiewicz,

L .

( 1980)

R elationships

b etween

t he

c ranial

m easurements o f c attle O ssa 7 1 9 -3 2 B rewster,

T .

C .

L .

( 1980)

T he E xcavation o f G arton a nd W etwang S lacks

L ondon N ational M onuments R ecord B rooks,

M .

( 1963)

C ortical

t ubular b ones. C anby,

J .

I .

( 1977)

d egree, C hapman,

D .

a nd

( available o n m icrofiche)

v ascularisation

J ournal o f A natomy

a nd

g rowth

( London)

i n

f oetal

9 7 5 97 -6 09

T he A nimal B one f rom H ayton D issertation f or B .A.

U niversity C ollege, C hapman,

N .

( 1975)

C ardiff, F allow

U npublished

D eer

L avenham:

T errance

D alton L td. D egerbdl,

M .

a nd

F redskild,

B ojanus)

a nd

d omesticus

B .

L inn)

i n

H .

( 1971)

T he

O rigin

C .

( 1969)

U ses

d istinction c attle

i n

A nimals

a nd

b etween

o f

U cko

( Bos

p rimigenius

c attle

K ongelige

t he

( Boa

D anske

t auru9

V idensk-

D omestic

t he P .J.

D uckworth

2 25

A nimals

o f

A frica

A fricana P ublishing C orporation

l imitations

D eomestication ( eds

u rus

1 7 5 1-234

V olumes I a nd I I N ew Y ork: G rigson,

T he

d omesticated

D enmark.

a ernes S elskab S krifter E pstein,

( 1970)

n eolithic

b ones a nd a nd

i n

a bsolute

o f

a urochs

E xploitation D imbleby,

s ize a nd o f

i n

P lants

G .W.)

t he

d omestic a nd

L ondon:

G rigson,

C .

( 1974)

T he

c raniology

a nd

r elationships

o f

f our

s pecies

o f B os. 1 B asic c raniology: B os t aurus L inn. a nd i ts a bsolute s ize. J ournal A rchaeological S cience 1 3 53-379 G rigson,

C .

( 1975)

i bid

P roportions

2 .

a nd

B asic

a ngles

c raniology:

J ournal

B os

t aurus

A rchaeological

L inn.

S cience

2

1 09-128 G rigson,

C . ( 1976) i bid 3 . S agittal p rofiles

B asic c raniology: B os t aurus L inn. a nd o ther n on-measurable c haracters.

J ournal A rchaeological S cience 3 3 53-379 G rigson,

C .

( 1978)

i bid

B ojanus

a nd

p hylogeny

4 .

T he

B os

o f

r elationship

t aurus

t he

L inn.

d omestic

a nd

b etween B ad p rimigenius

i ts

b reeds.

i mplications

J ournal

f or

t he

A rchaeological

S cience 5 1 23-152 G rigson,

C . ( 1983) S exing n eolithic d omestic c attle s kulls a nd h orn c ores. A geing a nd S exing A nimal B ones f rom A rchaeological S ites

( ed.

W ilson,

R .,

G rigson,

C .

a nd

A rchaeological R eports B ritish S eries H aak,

D .

( 1965)

P ayne,

S .)

B ritish

1 09 2 5-35

M etrische u ntersuchungen a n r ohrenknochen b ei D eusche

M erionland-schafen

u nd

H eidenschnucken.

D issertation,

U niversity o f M unich H ammond,

J . ( 1932) G rowth a nd d evelopment s heep E dinburgh: B oyd a nd B oyd

H arcourt,

R .

A .

( 1974)

G adebridge R eports

T he

P ark,

o f

H atting,

T .

( 1975)

t he

T he

e xcavation

H emel

t he

R oman

1 963-68:

C ommittee

t he

o f

v illa

i n

a nimal b ones

t he

S ociety

o f

2 56-262

i nfluence

A rchaeological

o f

H empstead

R esearch

A ntiquaries L ondon 3 1

o f t he m utton q ualities o f

S tudies

o f

c astration

( ed.

C lason,

o n

A .

s heep

T .)

h orns

N orth

i n

H olland

P ress H erre,

W .

( 1969)

T he

S cience H iggs, H igham,

C .

F .

W .

s cience

L ondon: a nd

M essage,

t echnique

A rchaeology

2 nd

W .

e dition

M .

R .

a nd J arman,

d omestic

( ed.

( 1969)

b ovine

( ed.

H .N.

A .

D .

i n a nd

2 57-272

A n

a ssessment

h usbandry

B rothwell,

a nimals

B rothwell,

D .

o f

i n

S cience

a nd

H iggs,

a i n

E .)

3 15-330

A nimals

B ullied,

A ntiquarian S ociety p p. J arman,

M .A. o f

D omestic

1 ( ed.

o f

e dition

T hames a nd H udson p p.

( 1917)

V olume

h istory

2 nd

T hames a nd H udson p p.

p rehistoric

J .

a nd

A rchaeology

E .)

L ondon: J ackson,

i n

i n

a nd

G lastonbury G rey,

H .Stg.)

L ake

V illage

G lastonbury

6 48-672

( 1968)

T he

f auna a nd

e conomy o f e arly

n eolithic K nossos A nnals o f t he B ritish S chool i n A thens 6 3 2 41-262

2 26

J ones,

C .

B .

( 1939)

C rannog

N otes

N o.

o n

2 C o.

s ome

s kulls

W estmeath

o f c attle

a nd

L agore

f rom B allinderry

C rannog

C o.

M eath.

I rish N aturalists J ournal 7 2 05-211 J ope,

M .

a nd G rigson, A vebury

i n

C .

( 1965)

S mith I ) O xford: K necht,

G .

( 1966)

F aunal r emains f rom W indmill H ill a nd

E xcavations

b y A lexander K ieller

C larendon P ress p p.

M ittelaltenlich-Fruhneuzietliche

a us O berosterriech ( Linz u nd E ns)

1 925-1939

( ed.

1 42-167 T ierknochenfunden

D issertation.

U niversity

o f M unich M cCance,

R .

A .

( 1960)

S evere

u ndernutrition

a nimals B ritish J ournal N utrition N oddle,

B .

A .

( 1978)

I nstitute P roblems D . N oddle,

B .

S ome

i n

A rchaeology

a nd C lutton-Brock,

A .

1 33-141

( 1979).

P rice,

E .G.)

T .

( 1982)

P .

v ariability

E .

A .

B .

( ed.

a dult

s heep.

esearch P ublication 3 R

b ones

e rim R eport

T he a rchaeological British

a nd

i n

d ifferences

B rothwell,

T he a nimal

2 nd I nt.

i n

a nd

g rowing

D .

R .,

T ho i Las,

K .

J .)

U niversity of L ondon, 0 11ercain,

s keletal

o f A rchaeology O ccasional

R oman v illa I n:

O 'Connor,

m inor

i n

1 4 5 9-73

s heep

f rom F rocester C ourt

( ed.

G racie,

H .

S .

a nd

i mportance o f m orphometric

l imb

b ones.

P h.D.

t hesis,

u npublished.

B oyle,

W .

J .

( 197) 4)

I nheritance

o f

t ail-

l ength i n c ross-bred F inn s heep J ournal H eredity 6 5 3 31-334 P inard,

A .

( 1952)

S tructure e t

v aisseaux d e l a d iaphyse d cs o s l ongs

c hez l e f oetus h umain A cta A natomica 1 5 P itt-Rivers,

A .

( 1888)

E xcavations

i n

C ranborne

1 88-216 C hase

V olumes

1 -3.

P rivately p ublished R yder,

M .

L .

( 196) 4)

T he

h istory

o f

s heep

b reeds

i n

B ritain

e ricultural R eview 1 2 6 5-82. R yder,

M .

L .

S hawcross,

( 1983)

F .

W .

S heep a nd M en L ond,

a nd

H iggs,

p rimigenius

a t

E .

S .

L owe's

D uckworth

( 1961)

T he

F arm,

e xcavation

L ittleport.

o f

a B os

P roceedings

C ambrid e_Antiquarian S ociety 5 4 3 -16 S helton,

M .

( 1977)

S tudies

i n

t ail

l ength

s heep J ournal H eredity 6 8 S hoesmith,

S tampfli,

i n

R ambouillet a nd M ouflon

1 28-130

R . ( forthcoming) H ereford C ity e xcavations B ritish A rchaeology R esearch R eport H . e ine

R .

( 1981)

R aritat

D as v on

" Torf"

r indskellett

i nternationaler

J ahrbuch 1 980 B iel 4 5-54

2 27

i n

3 .

M useum

B edeutung.

C ouncil

S chwaab-

N eus

B ieler

T row-Smith,

R .

( 1959)

1 900 L ondon: V adet,

A .

( 1978) e t

A H istory

O ssements

a

L 'Est

o f B ritish L ivestock Husbandry

a nimaux

D 'Etaples

e t

h umains

B ulletin

M onument H istorique P as-de-Calais W alker,

C .

A .

G allo-Romaine

C ommission

D .

M .

G .

N ord

( 1964) T he g rowth a nd d evelopment o f t he b eef q ualities

S .

( 1931)

T he

V illage C hilde, W ebster,

a n

D epartmentale

1 0 8 2-85

o f t he A ngoin c attle ( east A frican A gricultural S cience ( Cambridge) 6 3 1 35-172 W atson,

1 700-

R outledge a nd K eegan-Paul

( 1984

V .

a nimal G .

f orthcoming)

T ransactions

B ristol

b ones

L ondon:

S kara

B rae,

K egan P aul p p.

E xcavations a nd

i n

Z ebu)

a t

G loucester

J ournal

a P ictish

1 98-204

B arnsley

P ark

3 .

p art

A rchaeological

S ociety

1 01 W erner,

A .

R .

( no

' Jacob' W ilson,

J .

d ate)

A n

( 1909)

J .

N .,

B ond,

R eynolds, f eed b eef

i nto

t he

o rigin

a nd

W .

J ., L .,

o f

p iebald

W inkliegh,

T he E volution o f B ritish C attle a nd

o f B reeds L ondon: W iltbank,

e nqiry

s heep R are B reed S urvival T rust,

o r

D evon

t he F ashioning

V intner W arwick, M azen,

E . M .

J .,

D avis,

R .

W .,

( 1965)

I nfluence

E .,

C ook, o f

A .

C .,

t otal

p rotein i ntake o n r eproductive p erformance o f t he

f emale

t hrough

s econd

c alving.

D epartment o f A griculture T echnical B ulletin

2 28

U nited 1 314

S tates

T able

1 0:1:

D imensions o r B ovine H orn C ores

B reed

S ex, ( Age i n y ears) w here k nown

B .prlmigenius

C ollection i f o ther t han a uthors

( mm.) L ength O uter C urvature ( a)

B asal C ircumferance ( b)

R atio a

I T

C am C am C am C am C am

7 20 6 40 6 00 6 00 6 00

3 80 3 40 3 55 3 25 3 10

, 1 .89 1 .89 1 .69 1 .85 1 .94

W el W el C am'

7 85 6 60 6 60 5 75

3 42 3 35 3 35 2 95

2 30 1 .97 1 .97 1 .95

2 00

1 55

1 .29

( Lowes F arm)

G reatest B asal

( c )

L east b asal D iameter ( d)

1 36 15 17 1 07 1 04 1 06 1 05

9 6 9 6 6 9 0 9 6 7 6 4 6 2

1 .39 1 .20 1 .31 1 .20 1 .20 1 .26 1 .26

1 00 1 00 9 1 4 6

1 .15 1 .05 1 .05 1 .26

15 15 1 0U 6 3

R atio

M odern A yrshire

F

5 3

4 0

1 .33

C adzow

M

C am

a

6 3

1 .30

C hartley

M

C am

8 0

6 5

1 .15

C hillingham

M

C am

5 8

5 0

1 .15

D exter

C (5) C (3 1/2 )

3 05 2 20

1 65 1 60

1 .84 1 .38

6 0 5 5

4 5 4 1

1 .33 1 .34

F riesian

F M C (J)

1 20 2 10

10 1 80

1 .09 1 .17

4 0 6 4 4 2

3 5 4 4 3 9

1 .14 1 .45 1 .09

G uernsey

F

9 5

1 00

0 .95

3 1

3 0

1 .03

H ereford

F (11) F M (1 1/2 ) M (3)

2 40 2 20 1 50 2 90

1 55 1 45 1 40 2 05

1 .54 1 ,52 1 .07 1 .41

5 2 4 9 5 1 7 4

4 3 3 9 3 8 6 1

1 .21 1 .25 1 .34 1 .21

10

1 20

0 .92

4 0 5 ) 3 5

3 2 4 5 3 2

1 .25 1 .22 1 .09

1 70

1 35

1 .26

4 4

3 7

1 .26

1 02

1 30

0 .78

3 3 5 1

3 2 4 4

1 .03 1 .16

4 3 6 6

3 8 5 0

1 .16 1 .22

5 0 5 5

4 5 4 7

1 .11 1 .17

1 02

9 8

1 .04

15

9 0

1 .20

3 1

2 6

1 .17

H ereford x F riesian

F C C (J)

xW elsh B lack

F (3)

J ersey

F (9) C (2 1/2 )

L onghorn

F

N orth D evon

F C

S pain A nkole

C ( African)

W el W el

W el

C am C am 2 60 2 80

1 50 1 65

C am

F

G aynah ( Indian)

F (12)

O xf

1 20

1 95

K ey t o s ymbols

C am O af W el • • •

J uvenile S pecimen S pecimen S pecimen S pecimen M ale F emale C astrate

1 .73 1 .70

t erm d efined A rmitage 1 983 f rom C ambridge U niversity M useum Z oology f rom O xford U niversity M useum N atural H istory f rom W elsh N ational M useum l abelled f orgery

M ale

2 29

1 .26

r e-) c r % t . r ) c r % i n L c-) t " -

I M

I

N

C

‘ >

C 7 3 t -. 0 N-- '

I

I

I

I

I i n

p e r c e n t a g e i s i n b r a c k e t s w h e r t h e n u m b e r s

I

( N J c )

S-

( 11

I N

1 . C 1

C I N

C r l c o

v —

4 r %

V I n 1 / 4 0 N ( Y " )

O Q '

C I N (f l

N-

c o N - . = c f.)

C O c \ . 4 t C O

N

N

, . c )

c o

M e d i a l P o s i t o n

S u s e x a n d L i m o u s i n .

0

4 r )

o ' c c'L C-

B o n e s E x a m i n e d

N u m b e r o f

-

E -4

2 30

R e d B r e d s C r o s

W e l s h B l a c k C r o s

H e r f o r d o r S i m e n t a l

C h a r o l a i s

C r o s b r e d

P u r e b r e d

( 3 1

W e l s h B l a c k

c )

T able

1 0:3:

P rofiles o f M odern S heep B reeds

S ample N umber i .

A verage m easurement ( mm.) R ange i n b rackets

M ouflon

M etacarpal l ength

3 2

1 31

A stragalus l ength M etacarpal p roximal i ndex S capula I ndex

3 5 5 6

2 83 1 .30

( 26 3 1) ( 1.2 ) 4 - 1 .50)

1 7

1 .06

( 0.90 - 1 .35)

H orn c ore b asal i ndex ( male o nly) F emur. P osition f oramen

1 3 2 1

( 121

-

1 40)

1 .35 ( 1.00 - 1 .56) P roximal 8 6% D istal 1 4%

S oay M etacarpal l ength A stragalus l ength M etacarpal p roximal i ndex S capula I ndex H orn c ore b asal i ndex F emur. P osition f oramen

i ii.

2 9 4 2 4 8 2 2 3 3 7 9

15 2 3.06

M idshaft

1 %

( 100 ( 2) 4 -

P ortland 1 4 1 2

11 2 5.08

M etacarpal p roximal i ndex

1 3 1 2

1 .42 0 .95

S capula I ndex H orn c ore b asal i ndex F emur. P osition f oramen

8 1

1 .48 P roximal

18) 2 7)

( 1.36 - 1 .47) ( 0.87 - 1 .00) ( 1.35 - 1 .71) 1 7> D istal 7 3%

J acob

M etacarpal l ength A stragalus l ength M etacarpal p roximal i ndex S capula I ndex H orn c ore b asal i ndex F emur. v .

1 25) 2 7)

1 .45 ( 1.27 - 1 .5) 4) 1 .17 ( 1.00 - 1 .38) 1 .51 ( 1.13 - 1 .95) P roximal 8 5% D istal 1 4%

M etacarpal l ength A stragalus l ength

i v.

( 105 ( 22 -

P osition f oramen

9 8 9 6 2 5 9

1 28.08 3 0.04

( 114 ( 29 -

1 ) 40) 3 2)

1 .45 ( 1.42 - 1 .52) 1 .05 ( 0.96 - 1 .22) 1 .43 ( 1.2) 4 - 1 .61) P roximal 6 6% D istal 3 3%

S waledale

M etacarpal l ength A stragalus l ength M etacarpal p roximal i ndex S capula I ndex H orn c ore b asal i ndex F emur. P osition f oramen

1 4 1 3

1 22 2 9.07

2 5 1 9

1 .35 0 .96

1 2 6

2 31

( 108 ( 28 -

1 28) 3 1)

( 1.2) 4 - 1 .50) ( 0.90 - 1 .01)

1 .18 ( 1.18 - 1 .58) P roximal 5 0% D istal 4 6% M idshaft 4 %

b r a c k e t s

•

: Xj

3C) e •— •

i n i n r n t -

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C D ,

•

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O r k n e y P r o f i l e

( 1 )

232

4 1

F e m u r P o s i t o n

H o r n C o r e

A s t r a g l u s

. 0 C a

M e t a c r p a l l e n g t h

a )

b r a c k e t s

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r . . - 0

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▪

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r -

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( 11

N

( Y )

( Y1

N

• • .

S . .. .,

2 35

P o s i t i o n

F e m u r F o r a m e n

H o r n c o r e

S c a p u l a i n d e x

A s t r a g l u s l e n g t h

M e t a c r p a l

R o m a n S h e p P r o f i l e

••_ ,I

r

n

T able

1 0:8 & 1 0:9:

P rofile M edieval S ites 1 . 2 .

H ereford L oughor

S ample N umber

C 13 C 13

A verage m easurement ( mm) R ange i n b rackets

C attle M etacarpal L ength

A stragalus

( 1) ( 2)

1 6

1 75

( 159

1 89)

1 3

1 73

( 157

1 85)

( 1)

1 6

5 9.7

( 54 -

6 6)

( 2)

3 5

6 1.3

( 55

6 5)

H orn C ore L ength

( 1)

8

0 .97

( 83 - 18)

I ndex C ore B asal

( 2)

7

0 .93

( 74 - 13)

H orn C ore B asal I ndex

( 1) ( 2)

3 9

F emur. % m edial F oramen

( 1) ( 2)

9 1 9

M etacarpal L ength ( 1) ( 2)

8 1

1 .21

( 0.98 1.39)

4 4 3 7

S heep

A stragalus

12 17

( 1) ( 2)

3 5 9

M etacarpal

( 1)

4 5

1 .36

( 1.28 1.50)

P roximal I ndex

( 2)

4

1 .41

( 1.32 1.50

S capula I ndex

( 1) ( 2)

1 4 4

1 .03 0 .97

( 0.09 1.13) ( 0.95 1.00)

H orn C ore B asal

( 1)

1

1 .40

( 1.32 1.56)

I ndex

( 2)

F emur. F oramen

P osition

( 1) ( 2)

2 7.2 2 6.4

( 104 - 1 20)

( 24 ( 23 -

3 1) 2 9)

)

2 2 P roximal 4 5% D istal 5 0% M idshaft 5 % 2

1 007 6

2 36

O D

9 19 g.9

AO as

0

0 00, , C t .

L

01 u rt 2 C1 a -

c y ,

D2

I

. 4 . . ' r

c s ,

CU

0, cl al

1

g < 1 .

>.

2 . 0

c a 4 2 . 2

1 4

Z .

0 0

,

CC 0 I -4 s e 0 ) 1 , 1 0

a . c z

< N I 02 0 cr 4 .0 1 cheese

s ou r >Whey ( f ed t o p i gs )

M i lk

S k immed m i lk 2 5 1b .m i lk ( 4%fa t ) s tand

F ig.

c hu rn ' C ream ---i ll bb u t te r( 85% f a t )

1:2 B utter a nd c heese r elationships

2 41

( from R yder,

1 966).

U ntil c heese,

r ecently

b ut

p roducts

t hey

s uch

m odern

a re a s

t echnologist

d airy

b eginning

t o

y oghurt.

i gnores

b ooks

T he

h istory

c overed

d escribe

t he

t rouble

a nd

i s

i s

t herefore

t raditional

c onsiderable

p roducts

s omething t hat

b efore

s cope

t hey

f or

d ie

b utter

t hat

t raditional

d efinition o f m odern l aboratory-controlled a nd T here

o nly

m anufacture

a nd

o f o ther

t he

m odern

m ethods

i n

h is

f actory-made p roducts.

b iochemical

o ut,

d efinition

w hich

i s

o f

a pparently

f ew e thnographers a re a ble t o d o.

B UTTER I t s ince

w ill

t hey

b e

u seful

m ake

m ilk

t o

s tart

p roducts

w ith

i n

t he

p astoral

a l ogical

n omads

s equence

o f

T ibet

( Fig.

1:3).

T hey u se s ome m ilk t o m ake y oghurt,

w hich I w ill d eal w ith l ater,

t he

i s

r est

t o

m ake

b uttermilk. c ould

W hereas

h ave

d iscovery p ositive

b utter.

b een t hat

C heese

c urdling,

d iscovered c hurning

s uch a s

t he

p roduces o n

m ade

f irst

m erely

c arrying m ilk

t hen f rom

f rom

t he

o f

c heese

s tage m ilk

b utter

l eft

m aking,

s tanding,

r equired

s omething

a j ourney i n a s kin

a nd

r emaining

b ag.

t he m ore

I ndeed,

n omads s till u se s kin b ags a s c hurns t o m ake b utter.

c ome c an

T he f irst s tage i n m odern b utter m anufacture i s t o l et t he c ream t o t he s urface. T he d ivision h ere i s i nto s kimmed m ilk w hich b e

u sed

t o

m ake

c heese,

a nd

c ream w hich c ontains 2 5

t o 5 0%

f at.

M odern t echnologists l ist s everal d efinitions f rom w hipped c ream w ith

3 5% f at.

f at, t hrough d ouble c ream w ith 4 8%, t o c lotted c ream w ith C hurning o f t he c ream p roduces s olid b utter w ith 8 5% f at

5 5$ a nd

l eaves b uttermilk. B utter u sed t o b e s tored i n t he g round i n p laces a s f ar a part a s P akistan T his

a nd

S cotland

i ncidentally

w here

p rovides

i t

o ccasionally

a s ource

o f

c rops

a nimal

u p

a s

h airs

b og

f o l '

b utter.

s tudy.

I n

t he M iddle E ast b utter m ade f rom s heep's m ilk i s d istinguished b y t he " fuzz" a gainst

o f

w ool

t he

t hat

l ight.

c an

b e

S heep

s een

a re

a long

m ilked

t he

f rom

e dge

w hen

b ehind,

i s

h eld

w hich m eans

i t

t hat

w ool i s n ot t he o nly f oreign b ody t hat f inds i ts w ay i nto t he m ilk! B ecause i nto a nd

b utter

a l iquid i s

s olids

m ade

d oes

k nown

b y

i n

h eating

f ormed.

S ome

n ot

I ndia

k eep a s

b utter

o r

v ersions

w ell

i n

g hee. c ream,

m ight

a h ot

T his

b e

a nd

c limate

i t

i s c larified t hen

r egarded

i s

f iltering

a s

m ade

b utterfat, o ff

t he

a c ombination o f

b utter a nd c heese b ecause i n A frica g hee i s b utter c hurned

f rom w hole

m ilk t hat h as b een c urdled w ith u rine C HEESE A s

I i ndicated

t he

T ibetans

m ake

c heese

f rom

b uttermilk,

b ut

s kimmed m ilk i s a lso u sed e lsewhere a s w ell a s w hole m ilk w hen b utter i s

n ot

b eing

m ade,

r esulting

m ixtures a re o ften u sed.

p rocessing w hich a llows m ilk t o p roduct t o

i s

h ighly

5 % i n m ilk,

a nd

n utritious 1 5

t o

i n

a

r icher

p roduct.

I n

a ddition

C heese m anufacture i s b asically a m ethod o f

2 0%

b e

s tored

c ontaining i n

m eat.

w ith 3 0% i n m eat.

2 42

f or w inter

2 5%

p rotein

C heese

h as

u se.

T he s olid

c ompared 3 5%

f at

w ith

4

c ompared

F e rmen t

M i lk

K e f i r ,K um iss , Y oghu r t

S tand C ream I Chu rn B u t te rm i lk

S k immed m i lk

B u t te r

S ou r S o f t c heese Whey

a nd

C u rds H a rd c heese

H ea t

Swee t z e tyca

>Whey c heese S t ra in

F e rmen t L ean w hey ( f ed t o p i gs )

S ou r z e tyca ( d r ink ) F ig.

1 1:3 S ome

r elationships

o f

m ilk

1 983).

» 43

p roducts

( modified

f rom

R yder,

O rdinary s ouring p roduces a n a cid c urd a nd u sually s oft c heese, b ut c urdling c an b e s peeded u p w ith t he e nzyme r ennin, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t his p rocess w as d iscovered b y c arrying m ilk i n a b ag m ade

f rom

a n

c ontainers

b y

w hich

i s

a nimal's n omads,

a n

s oluble

i mpure

p rotein

s tomach.

a nd

t hey

f orm

o f

c aseinogen

S tomachs

a re

a lso

r ennin. i nto

a re

u sed

R ennin

c asein

c ommonly

u sed

a s

a s a s ource o f r ennet, a cts

w hich

t o

f orms

c onvert a n

t he

i nsoluble

c alcium c asein c ompound. A lthough s tages f rom

o f

t he

t here

c heese c urds

a re

m any

m anufacture

f ollowed

b y

v ariations a re

v arying

a mounts

t o r emove t he l ast t races o f t he w hey. s tone

i nstead

o f

a n

e laborate

o f

S oft

c heese

a nd

s tuff

i s

s uch

s uch a s

e ither

c heese

l ike

l arge w hite

w hen

i t

i s

G reek

e aten

i nto

o r

g oatskins

W ith

h ard

m ain

t he

w hey

p ressing

o r

w hich

I n

b lock

o f t he c urds

i n

i n

s alt

R omania t hat

t elemea

i n b rine.

p ass

c heese

f act o f

R omanian

s tored

b alloons w hen t he h air

o utside.

t he

s eparate

o f

p ress.

f etta

f resh

p rocess

t o

T his c an b e d one w ith a l arge

c heese

1 982 o ne s hepherd w as u sing t he l arge e ventually b e b roken u p f or h is s heep.

l ess,

t he

a s training

p reased

I n T urkey t hey

l orry

i s i nside,

i s

i n

w ould

o r

t he c urds a re

l oads,

l ooking

l ike d ead d ogs r epeatedly c ut,

a nd t here i s c onsiderable p ressing b efore a f inal m aturation p rocess. W hey

i llustrates

t he

i nter-relationships

o f

f arming

o perations

s ince c heese-makers h ave t raditionally k ept p igs t o c onsume p roduct, a s s till d one i n R omania. T he s ame s ystem

t his b yo perates

t hroughout

s outhern

t he

C arpathian

r egion

w hich

e xtends

t hrough

R ussia a nd C zechoslovakia t o s outhern P oland. I n P oland t hen

s moked

P oland k nown

a s

w ell

a s

t he c heese m ade i s a h ard o ne c alled o scypek w hich i s

i n

t he a s

s weet

r oof

o f

R omania t he z etyca

i n

t he

m cuntain

c heese-making

w hey i s m ade i nto

P oland

i s

m ade

s hed.

t wo d rinks.

b y

h eating

I n

W hat i s

w hey.

T he

p recipitated s olids r ise t o t he s urface a nd t he d rink c ontains t hese. I t i s t he c lear l iquid r emaining b elow k nown a s f ed t o t he p igs. T he s econd d rink, f ermenting s weet z etyca f or 2 t o 3d ays. b e

m ade

u rda. b y

i nto

w hey

R icotta

h eating

a cidified

c heese

w hich

i n

R omania

a nd

i s a l acto-albumin c oagulate,

t he

w hey

w ith

a t

8 8 °C o ften

v inegar

t he

w ith

p recipitated

" lean z etyca"

t hat i s

s our z etyca, i s made b y T he p recipitated s olids c an Y ugoslavia

w hich i s m ade

5 t o

1 0%

p rotein

m ilk

i s

c alled

i n S icily

a dded.

e ntangles

W hen

w ith

t he

l ess t han 1 % f at a nd f loats t o t he s urface. T he S candinavian v ersion o f w hey c heese k nown a s m yoset c ontains b rown c aramelised l actose. W hey

c heese

p robably

w as

w ith

m ade

i n

s heep's

S cotland

m ilk,

a nd

a s t he

l ate

a s

t he

w idespread

1 8th

n ature

c entury, o f

t hese

p roducts s uggests t hat t hey a re v ery a ncient. A v ery

h ard,

d ry

c heese

i s

m ade

f rom

M ongolia

t hroughout

t he

M iddle E ast a s f ar a s N orth A frica b y d rying p recipitated c asein o n a t ent r oof. I t i s o ften c arried a s a p owder a nd r econstituted w ith w ater

t o

k nown a s i t

f rom

b e a dded b esleg, y oghurt

t o a nd

b y

v arious t he

d ishes.

I n M ongolia t his d ry c heese i s

B edouin o f t he M iddle

b oiling,

s training

s aid t o m ake g hee b y c hurning y oghurt.

2 44

a nd

E ast

d rying,

a re s aid j ust

a s

t o m ake t hey

a re

C ows 'm i lk 1 F resh m i lk c oo l t o2 8 °C I I nocu la te w i th s ta r te r 4 , I ncuba te a t 2 8 °C u n t i l A c id i ty r eaches 0 -7-1 .8% l a c t ic a c id 1 B o t t le

4 ,

I n cuba te f o r 2h ou rs

4 ,

C oo l a nd s to re a t 5 °C

F ig,

1:4 M odern f low d iagram o f k umiss m anufacture ( from H ayes, 1 981).

2 45

T he

i nvolvement

d imension

t o

t he

o f

t he

f ermented

i nter-relationships

p roduct

o f

t he

y oghurt

r ange

o f

a dds

a n ew

p roducts,

a nd

t here i s a t l east o ne p roduct t hat i s i ntermediate b etween c heese a nd y oghurt.

T his

p roduced

b y

i s

t he

I celandic

r ennets

c ream c heese

c ontaining

l actic

k nown a s

f lora

a nd

s kyr,

s o

w hich i s

r egarded

a s

a

y oghurt c heese. F ERMENTED P RODUCTS I h ave s o a nd

t he

f ar f ound t he

f ermented p roducts l ess-well d ocumented,

i nter-relationships

f rom m are's m ilk

a fter

l ess

c lear.

c hurning

t o

K umiss

r emove

t he

i s

m ade

b utter.

i n

M ongolia

T he

s kin

b ag

i n w hich k umiss i s f ermented i s n ever c leaned o ut s o t he b acteria a re a lways

p resent.

T he

b uttermilk

k umiss i s r eady f or d rinking i n F ig.

1:5

s hows

t he

m odern

i s

s tirred

w ith

1 4 d ays w hen i t

t echnologists'

a p addle

a nd

t he

i s a s s trong a s b eer.

i mitation

o f

t he

p rocess,

w hich i ncidentally i s a b iotechnological m ethod o f p roducing a lcohol. T his c an b e c ompared w ith t he

f ermentation o f f ruit j uice i n t he w est

f or s torage a s w ine. O ne E uropean m edieval c ommentator W illiam of R ubruck, w rote o f k umiss t hat " it b ites t he t ongue l ike v inegar, b ut l eave

t he

t aste

o f

a lmonds,

g reatly p rovoking u rine". t he

1 9th c entury, W ith

t he

a lthough w ith

f ermented

( Fig.

k efir

I n

f ermenting

t he

i nner

m an,

and

t echnology

w hich

y easts

a nd

f ermentation g oes

f urther

K efir i s a l iquid p roduct of R ussia a nd

I k now n othing o f t he

m odern

g rains

p roducts t he

1:5).

I h ave d runk i t

m anufacture.

d elighting

t he p roduct b eing n amed a rkhi o r m ilk v odka.

o ther

t o p roduce a cid

g reatly

T he d istillation o f k umiss i s d escribed i n

a re

t he

d ried

b acteria.

t raditional m ethod of

f ermentation

m ilk

s olids

F ig.

i s

c arried

c ontaining

1:5indicates

o ut

l actose-

a l ow

a lcohol

c ontent. M ongolia

h as

a

s our

m ilk

n amed

t areg

w hich

i s

i ntermediate b etween l iquid k efir a nd s olid y oghurt. s our

m ilk

c ream. t hese

i n

R omania

A gain a re

I a m

p robably

c alled n ot

c ovasit,

a ware

w hat

t he

o f

a nd

a ny

modern

R ussia

h as

e thnographic

d airy

s aid

t o

b e

T here i s a lso a a d istinct s our d efinitions,

t echnologist

b ut

r efers

t o

a s

i n

W est.

c ultured b uttermilk a nd c ultured c ream. U ntil Y oghurt I ndia,

a f ew

i s

t he

y ears

B alkan

a go n ame

y oghurt a nd

i t

w as i s

n ot

w ell

k nown

k nown

b y

a nd A rab c ountries i ncluding N orth A frica,

o xygen.

f or

t he

T hese

S treptococcus

t hermophilus

i n t he a nd

b ulgaricus w ith t he h elp o f L actobacillus a cidophilus A lthough s ouring

t hese o rganisms a re

o ther

b acteria

m aking y oghurt

i s

B ulgaria

( which

s immered

i n

m ilk

i s

s ource

t hen o f

4 0 °C ,

g ave

a p ot

t o

b oil i ts

S .

w hereas L .

c an

b e

f ound

f irst,

s o

k ill

n ame

o f

t o

t he

w ith

o ne

v olume

a m ixture

e xisting

a bsence of

L actobacillus ( Fig.

n aturally i n m ilk, t he

t he m ilk t o

r educe

r einoculated

w hich

m ade a t h ome.

t o

g row

y oghurt.

e ssential

1:6). i n n ormal

f irst

s tep

o f u nwanted b acteria.

t he b y o f

o rganisms)

o ne

t hird.

t he

i n

I t may

s ince t he b acteria

f ormation o f y oghurt g row b est

a re

n ames

a nd T urkey.

h ave b een d iscovered i n t he u dder o f a d ead a nimal r esponsible

t he

d ifferent

r ight

Y oghurt

c an

i n I n

t he

m ilk

T he

t reated

b acteria, t herefore

i s t he b e

t hermophilus s tarts t o g row f irst a nd g rows b est a t b ul ericus,

w hich g rows l ater,

o f 4 6 °C . 2 1 46

p refers a t emperature

Who le ,s k im , L ow -fa t m i lk ( Cows : ewes ' , g oa ts ' o r ma res ' m i lk ) H ea t a t 8 5 °C f o r 3 0m ins . Coo l t o 2 2 °C f o r 2 4h ou rs K e f i r g ra ins

* I Y

1

* Incuba te a t 2 2 °C u n t i l a c id i ty= .8%

F i l te r-

e thano l : -1 9 6

*recove red k e f i r g ra ins

P ackage s to re a t 0 ° -5 °C

P ig.

1:5 M odern 1 981).

f low

d iagram

o f

k efir

2 47

m anufacture

( from H ayes,

M i lk m ix H ea t t r ea t H omogen ize Coo l t o i n cuba t ion t empe ra türe I nocu la te w i th s ta r te r I n cuba te Coo l A dd i t ion o f f r u i t a nd o r f l avou r ing P ackage a t 45 °C D espa tch 4a t 2 °C 4 °C

F ig.

1:6 M odern f low d iagram o f y oghurt m anufacture 1 981).

2 48

( from H ayes,

T he

b est

B ulgaria. h ave t he

f ruit

S ince y oghurt

I e ver

t asted

w as

m ade

f rom

t he

t hese

y oghurt m ust

t he

i nvolved

n ot

c ulture

h ave ( I

o nly

M ilk

i n

o f

v iable

w ith

t he

n ot

i ndicate

m aturing

s ome

o f

a nd

t hat

m ilk

p rovide

e arly

1 t o

2

i n

d ays,

Y oghurt

t heir

a lso

c ontrol

m icro-organisms

c heeses,

t herefore

a chievements

o nly

a nimals.

m icro-organisms

d id

p roducts

b iotechnological

r emains

s pread

i mportance

p roducts.

o thers.)

s heep's

a nd o f c ourse d id n ot

f lavouring w hich i s a r ecent d evelopment i n t he W est.

m aking

i llustrates a ll

y oghurt

I t w as s emi-solid a nd n ot v ery a cid,

b ut a n

i n

" starting"

e xample

p astoralists

i n a re

i n

o f

t he

w hich

t hey

w ere a ble t o e xert a n a mazing d egree o f c ontrol w ithout r ecourse t o a m odern b acteriology l aboratory. L ACTOSE I NTOLERANCE T he o ut

i n

m ilking

l ivestock

p arts o f A frica n or

s o

u sed

a n

u nusual

t o

t he

d rinking

c ustom.

d igesting m ilk, A siatic a re

o f

r aces

t wo

n ot

i n t he

u niversal.

S outh E ast

o f m ilk t hat

A dult

mammals

I t

A sia,

i s

n ot

a nd E uropeans a re

f ew o f t hem r ealise i n

g eneral

c arried

h ave

t hat

i t

i s

d ifficulty

i n

a nd t he a version t o m ilk s hown b y c ertain A frican a nd i s

d ue

s chools

d eficiency

i s

t o

o f

w hich

a d eficiency

t hought

l eads

t o

o f

c oncerning

l actose

t he

e nzyme

t he

b asis

i ntolerance,

a n

l actase. o f

T here

t his

l actase

e nvironmental

w hich I f avour, a nd a g enetic o ne w hich a ppears l ess l ikely. a nthropologists ( e.g. S imoons 1 977) h ave g iven c redence t o t he

o ne M any i dea

t hat l actose i ntolerance i n n on-pastoral p eoples h as a g enetic b asis, w hen t here a re s everal a rguments f avouring a n e nvironmental o rigin:

1 )

o ne

d oes

n ot

h ave

t o

b e

l actose-tolerant

t o

c onsume

m ilk

p roducts s ince c heese m anufacture, f ermentation a nd e ven b oiling a ll d estroy l actose, a nd p astoralists a ctually u se s uch p roducts a s 2 )

f ood r ather t han f resh m ilk.

T he

h igh

d airying m ilk

3 )

p roportion

c ountries

f rom

i nfancy

C hina

w ith

t aste

f or m ilk.

T he

f ew

l actose

a lways r elieve

o f

l actose-tolerant

c ould i nto

c ows,

a dult

t here

t olerance

a ssociated v itamin

w ith D

r esult i s

f rom

l ife,

F inally,

n ot

a n a nd

a ppreciable t here

i s

i n

o pportunity

p eoples

i n

n orthern

m ilking

o f

l ivestock,

t o

w hich

c ould

t hese

i n modern

d rinking

c ountries

o f

t o

E urope b ut

n orthern

b e

t ested

a s

a cquire

i s

r aces

o n

a

n ot

h elps

( Flatz a nd R otthauwe

i deas

o f

s uch

t o a re

1 973). n omadic

b ut a l actose-intolerant p erson h as t o d rink

a mount

o f

f requently

d iscussion i n R yder

i ndividuals c ontinued

t he

d eficiency

o nly

p astoralists t oday,

a nd

l ittle

s usceptible t hrough l ack o f s unshine 4 )

t he

f resh v ery

1 983) '.

2 49

m ilk

b efore

l ittle

m ilk

a n

u pset

a vailable

d evelops, ( see

f ull

B ibliography C heke,

V .

( 1959)

T he

s tory

o f

c heese-making

i n

B ritain

L ondon:

R outledge a nd K egan P aul D avis,

J .G.

( 1976)

E dinburgh: F latz,

G .

a nd

C heese

v ol.

I II.

M anufacturing

m ethods

C hurchill L ivingstone

R otthauwe,

H .W.

( 1973)

L actose

n utrition

a nd

n atural

s election L ancet 2 7 6-77 H ayes,

S .

( 1981)

R yder,

M .L.

D airy m icrobiology

( 1966)

T he

o f S cience 2 3 R yder,

M .L.

S imoons,

( 1983)

L ondon:

N ational D airy C ouncil

e xploitation o f a nimals

b y m an.

A dvancement

9 -18

S heep a nd M an

L ondon:

D uckworth

F .J. ( 1977) G eographic p erspectives o n m an's f ood q uest I n: F ood, M an a nd S ociety ( ed. W alcher, D .N.) N ew Y ork: P lenum P ress

V eyret,

P .

( 1951)

G eographie

d e

G allemard

2 50

L 'elevage.

6 th

e dn.

P aris:

1 2.

F AUNAL S AMPLE T O S UBSISTENCE E CONOMY: S OME P ROBLEMS I N R ECONSTRUCTION

J ames R ackham

I NTRODUCTION I t

i s

t en

y ears

s ince

H ans

P eter

U erpmann

( 1973)

p ublished

h is

c ritique o f t he o steoarchaeological m ethod a nd a part f rom a n umber o f s ophisticated m inimum T urner

d evelopments

n umber

o f

1 982),

a

m ethodological r ealisation B asic o f

a nd

t he

v ery

b ut

o ut

t he

o f

o ne

r ecent

w ork

i n

s patial

a n

a nalysis

h as

o f

o n

t echniques

1 988;

h e a

n evertheless o f

F ieller m inimum

b een

a nalytical

o rigins

d ifferential

c onsiders,

1 980;

i ndicates

e xisting

t he

L ie

t he

& o f

a g rowing

t echniques.

s ample,

p reservation,

m ethods

d egree

o f

s imilarities a nd d issimilarities a re b eing

e ndeavour i s

t he

r eports

T here

f ragmentation, a nd

o f

( Krantz

i nadequacy

n ecessary

c ollection,

c arried

s tudy

d evelopment.

o f

c ontamination

o f

i ndividuals

s till

t o

u nderstand

d ependant

a nd

w ith

i nterpret

l ittle

c hange

t he

m inimum

t he

s ample

u pon

t hose

r outines d iscussed b y U erpmann. T he

n ew

i ndividuals

t echniques

a nalysis

a nd

v alidity

i n

s tudy

m ore

s ample

m ay

w ell

a re

t hat

f locks

b e d etermined. a ssemblage

i s

a lthough

h unter-gatherer

a nd

o ften

d oubt

a nd

e stablishing

a s ample, a nd

t he

o f t he I t

t he

t he

n ature

d ifferent.

t he

q uestions

t heir

a ssemblage',

t he

m uch

l ess

w here

t he

b eing

a gricultural i n

a nd

t hat

c an b e u sed t o r econstruct t he l ive p opulations.

c ase

a bundance, a n t he

a sked

s ocieties

t his

a ctual

i s a b asic m isconception t hat ' death

h ave

o f

i n

f actors m ight b e e xpected t o

p opulation, i n

n umber

i mportance

c ommunities

W ithin

t arget f armers

o f

o f

c ommunities

u rban

s election a nd t aphonomic

c omplicated

t he

h erds

o f

b y

a gricultural

p redepositional b e

f or

r epresented

t he

l ive

c an

e ver

' archaeological' d eath

a ssemblage

T he o nly s ituations

w here t his a pproaches t he t ruth a re t he b ison k ill s ites o f A merica ( e.g. F rison 1 974) a nd s imilar s ites w here t he p opulation ( target) i s p redictable b ecause i n a s ingle e vent; b ut e ven t hese t ake

o f o ne

N orth l ive

t he w hole h erd w as k illed n o a ccount o f t he ,t her

s pecies i mportant t o man a nd t heir a bundance. I n i nto

a n

t he

e ndeavour

t o

s ubsistence

s ettlement'

' integrate'

e conomy

o f

t he s ay,

t his

a rticle

r ecovered

a

f rom

f aunal

' prehistoric

a nalysis

a gricultural

c ertain q uantifications a nd d etails o f t he c ull s tructure

a nd h erd m anagement a re e ssential. o f

r esults

f rom

t o

t he

a ssess

t he

i t i s t he o bject o f t he r emainder

d egree

a nalysis o f t he

t o

a nimal

w hich

t hese

b ones a lone.

d etails L yman

c an

( 1982)

h as r ecently c onsidered t he p ath f rom a rchaeofaunas t o s ubsistence

2 51

b e

s tudies b elow.

a nd

d eals

w ith

m any

a dditional

a spects

t o

t hose

c onsidered

M ODELS F OR T HE F ORMATION O F B ONE A SSEMBLAGES M eadows ( 1981) h as p ublished a m odel o f ' the c ausation o f a nimal b one d ata' ( see F ig. 1 2:1B) t hat d eals w ith t he c ontrollable a nd n onc ontrollable

f actors g overning t he e nd p roduct f rom a ' potential b one

p opulation'. t otal w ere

o f

H is

a ll

' potential

t he

d eposited

b ones

a t

o f

t he

b one

a ll

p opulation'

t he d ead

s ite',

b ut

n ot

c orresponds t o a ll t he i ndividuals F ig. 1 2:1A) o ne o r m ore o f w hose d eposited a t t he s ite.

i s d efined

a s

' the

s um

a nimals a ny o f w hose r emains n ecessarily

r ecovered.

a t t he l evel o f b ones c ontribute

T his

' butcher' ( see t o t he s ample

T his n eed n ot n ecessarily b e t he w hole o f t he

s ample a t t he l evel o f

' butcher',

' household'

o r e ven

' dustbin'

s ince

t he b ones o f i ndividuals r epresented a t a ny o f t hese l evels m ay b e r emoved b efore d eposition. M eadows' m odel d etails t he l oss f actors o ccurring b etween t he g eneration o f s laughter) a nd t he r ecovery o f t he p ublication.

T he

m odel

d oes

n ot

t he b one p opulation ( i.e. a fter b one s ample a nd i ts s ubsequent

c onsider

t he

' cultural

t hat m ight p roduce h is ' potential b one p opulation'. c onstructed a s implistic m odel f or t he s teps f rom p rimary

d isposal

p laced

i t

( 1982)

g ive

i n a n a griculturally b ased

b efore

f ormation

a

a v ersion

m ore

f actors

o f

M eadows'

d etailed

t hat

i s

t able

o f

m ore

s ociety

m odel.

o f

t he

( Fig.

1 2:1A)

G ilbert

b iases

g eneral

p ractices'

I h ave t herefore f lock o r h erd t o a nd

a nd

a nd

S inger

a ssemblage

a pplication.

T he

m ost

s ignificant d ifference b etween t he m odel o f M eadows a nd t hat p resented h ere i s t hat h is ' potential b one p opulation' c orresponds t o o nly

a p ortion

t arget t arget i n

t he m odel

i n

s ome

v aries

t o

c orrespond

t he

f or

o n

s ite

h ave

t he

t he

t argeted ' primary r emoved

o r

w hich

t he

' wild

o f a t

t he

i n

s ubsistence

t hree

t hat

t he

s ociety and

f armers

w here

t hey

m ay

m ay

b one

a nd

w orking

b e

w ell

T his i s v ery i mportant

d ifferent

a nalytical

s ample

p opulation'.

s ite

a nd

l ater

c omes

T hese

t echniques

t o

o r

s kin.

w ith

t he

f rom

f urther

A t,

a nimals

a nimals

d istributed

r emoved

f rom

s ubjected s ample

n o t he

t o

f rom

t he

s pecific

w hich t he

g reater t he

u se,

b ut

s tages

d epositional

a ny.

f lock.

m ay

b e

a ctivity

I n e ach c ase

T hat

t hat

i ts

a nalysis

t he

m odel

r ather

f lock o r h usbandry p attern.

2 52

t han

n ot

s tages,

o r

c an

t o

s ay

w ith

f ollows e ase o f

t hat a n

o f t he

s uch

a s

m ost

u sefully

i mmediately t he

b one

b iases

t herefore

c hance

i s

m any

e ven

t he

E ach o f t hese s teps I t

t he

t hrough

making

r eliability/validity

h as

o f

p ass

i ntentional

c ome.

m odel

p oint'

m ay 1 2:1A,

a nd

t hey

g reater i f

F ig.

l ive

t he w hose

b ones

b y

s tages

a nd

a s ite

t heir

i llustrated

r econstruction

o f

s ite

b one

t hose

f ewer

s ubsequent i s

b asic

t wo

t o

t he

a nimals

b een

r econstruction

s ite,

i llustrates

m erely a s ample o f a T he n umber o f s tages

t he a ctivity a rea i s o nly t wo s teps f rom t he l ive i tself a s ample o f t he ' wild p opulation'. O n a n

t han

t o

a nalysis

v ery

o nly

t he

o ff

s ample m any s tages

t hat

a nd

d egree o f s tratification

a nd

d egree

c onsumption,

s tages

r espect

t o

f rom o r

t he s ample f rom a nimal w hich i s

w ill

t he

a m esolithic

d irectly

' butchered'

u rban

' butcher'

f or r econstruction a t d ifferent l evels o f t he m odel.

e xample,

t aken

m ore

a t

t o a ctivity a reas w ithin t he s ite.

c an b e u sed

a reas

s ample

w ith

r educe

c onsidering

f or

t he

h unter/gatherers

e xpected i n

o f

p opulation o f t he a nalysis i tself i s p opulation a t a h igher c ultural l evel.

t he

u rban

p receeding

b e t he

r econstruction o f a f ar

R ECONSTRUCTION W hen

a nalysing

l ivestock

i t

i s

t hat

p art

o f

p otentially

t he

s ubsistence

p ossible

' consumer o r h ousehold'

l evel

T his

p redepositional

s ample

i tself. b one

i s o nly t wo

t o

e conomy

b ased

r econstruct

f rom a s tudy o f t he

i t

p opulation'

i ncrease

b y

i n

a nd

t he

t he

c ertainly

s tages r emoved

t hose

i nadequacies

n umber

o f

e arlier

o f t he

i n

f rom t he

t he

a nalytical

i mponderables

a nd

t he

' bones r ecovered'.

T o e xtrapolate b ack b eyond t his s tage e ven t o t he

c omplicated

u pon

a t

m odel

b ecomes

t echniques,

t he

n eed

f ood

' potential

t o

b y

a n

m ake

a n

a ssumption a s t o t he n umber o f s tages b etween f lock a nd h ousehold. T here o f

a re

r elevance

f our m ajor c ategories o f o bservation a nd

w hen

c onsidering

a n

e conomic

c onstruction

r econstruction

f rom

t he

d erive,

a nd

b one e vidence a nd t hese a re: 1 .

S tratigraphy a nd s patial d istribution.

2 .

I dentification a nd q uantification of s pecies.

3 .

S ex

o f

t he

a nimals

f rom

w hich

i ndividual

b ones

q uantification o f t he r atio. 4 .

A ge

o f

a nimals

f rom

w hich

t he

b ones

d erive

a nd

t he

q uantification o f t he s laughter p attern. A part i gnoring d erived

f rom

f or

m inor

s pecific

t he m oment

m aterial,

a nomalies

s uch

a s

p athology,

a nd

t he major p roblems s uch a s c ontamination a nd

t hese

c ategories

e ncompass

t he

m aximum

r ecordable

a nd d educible i nformation of r elevance i n a n e conomic r econstruction. I n

c ertain

b e

r elevant

s ituations, t o

t he

p articularly u rban,

r econstruction,

b ut

e xclude t his c ategory o f i nformation.

b reed

f or

t ypes

a nd

s ize

m ay

s implicity's s ake w e w ill

W ithin t hese

f our h eadings a re

t hree l evels: ( a)

d ata - i .e.

( b)

l evel o ne o f a nalysis - i nferred a ge a nd s ex f rom m orphological o r m etrical d ata ( in s ome s ituations s ex m ay b e d etermined w ith

s tratigraphy,

d istribution,

i dentification

c ertainty r ather t han s imply i nferred) ( c)

l evel t wo o f a nalysis - q uantification o f s pecies,

s ex r atio a nd

a ge o r s laughter p attern f rom d ata a nd l evel o ne i nformation. I gnoring o therwise p roduce ( b)

f or

t hat

l et

u s

a bove,

m oment

t he

s uccessive

p resume

i .e.

d istribution,

a

t hese w e

a 1 00% h ave

s pecies,

s ex

p ractical

r ecovery

a ll a nd

d egree

o f

a ccuracy

o r

l evels of r ecording a nd a nalysis m ay t he a ge,

o f

i nformation

i nformation t o

w hat

o n

d egree,

u nder

( a)

a nd

s tratigraphy, t heoretically,

c an w e r econstruct t he a nimal e conomy. W e

h ave

p articular must

n ow

d etermined

l ocale c onsider

p recisely

w ithin t he

t he

d egree

t he

s ite t o

a nd

m aterial i n

w hich

t he t he

i n

t he

s ite

i n

d eposits g eneral.

t raditional

t ools of o steoarchaeology c an f ashion o ur d esired r esult.

2 53

o f a W e

a nalytical

N a tu r a l &C u l tu ra l L o s s

P r eda to r s ,d i se a se ,e t c . S a le f o r s t o ck ing R en t

P u rcha se o f s t o ck

R i tua l F a rm a nd l o ca l c on sump t ion

L i v e c u l l

T raded l i ve s to ck I npu t f r om o t he r h e rd s

' T rade r o r d rover '

S a le o rl o s s o n r o u te

S a le f o r s t o ck ing

L ives to ck m a rke t I npu t f r om o t he r

s o u r ce s

' V i l lage o r t own '

L i v es tock t oo t he r m a rke t s R i tua l I ndu s t ry a nd o t he r b u tche r s

S e le c t iv e

p u rcha s e I n du s t r ia l a c t iv i t ie s M ea tm a rke t

B u tchery m e thod

' Bu tche r '

B u tch e r s w a s te O the r c on sum e r s

S e le c t iv e p u r cha s e F ed t o d og s ,e t c P r epar a t ion a nd c ook ing

I ndu s t r ia l a c t iv i t ie s

A l te rna t iv e d i spo sa l m e thod s

(W a s te m a te r ia l )

F ig.

1 2:1a

A s implistic m odel o f t he s tages f rom a f lock d omestic a nimals t o t he w aste f rom c onsumption c ommercial a ctivities.

2 5 1 4

o f o r

C u l tu r a l a nd T aphonom ic f a c to r s

' Dus tb in ' T o ta l b one p opu la t ion g ene ra ted b y ' Hou seho ld '

P r ima ry d i spo sa l — —— — —

S econda ry d i spo s a l

—— I . '

B one l o s s

— —— ›

B one l o s s

T e r t ia ry d epo s i t ion D if f e r en t ia l p r e se rv a t ion

P r e se rv ed

F a c to r s C on t ro l lab le b y : A r chaeo log i s t( &Ana ly s t )

f r ac t ion

A rea c ho s en f o r e x cava t ion B one s i n e x cav a ted v o lume

R ecove ry p roceedu r e s

B one s r e cov e r ed

B one d i sca rded

4-

A na ly s t A n a ly t ica l p r oceedu rc s

4

A na ly s t s e xpe r t i s e B one s i d en t if ied t o s p e c ie s

B one s w i th a g e a nd s e x d a ta

F ig.

1 2:1b

A m odel

o f

t he

c ultural

a nd

t aphonomic

f actors

a nd

r ecovery a nd a nalysis p rocedures t hat a ct o n a s ample b etween i ts g eneration a s w aste a nd i ts f inal r ecording ( developed f rom m eadows

1 980).

2 55

A BUNDANCE W e

w ill

i ndicated

d eal

b y

m ethodological y ears

a nalyses S inger t he

b ones,

a spect

( White

K ubasiewicz

i nitially

t heir 1 953; 1 956;

a nd

( 1982).

a nd

h as

i n v iew,

a bundance

r eceived

o thers).

v ariety

t he

a rchaeological

1 972;

r ecently

T he

s ame o bject

w hich

C haplin

m ost

w ith

o n

C lason

I t

i s

h as

b een

o f

t echniques,

s pecies, T his

m ost

d iscussion

1 972;

G rayson

d iscussed

i t

o f

s ites.

i n

s ummarised

t he

o ver

t he

1 973;

m any b y

1 979;

i ndividual

G ilbert

a lthough o stensibly

f requently c alculate

a s

i s

' different'

a nd w ith

t hings a nd

t herefore n ot u nexpectedly g ive d iffering r esults. I d on't m ethods, 1 978;

p ropose

s ince

G rayson

t hem

i n

e ach

m ethod

1 979;

T able

d eal c an

G ilbert

1 2:1.

i s

d iscussion.

t o

r eaders I t

t he

i nadequacies

t hese

a nd

S inger

d iscussed 1 982)

c alculating

u se

t he m odel

s ince

i n F ig.

o f

t he

d ifferent

e lsewhere

b ut

i s h owever o f i nterest

a ctually

I w ill

w ith f ind

I h ave

( Casteel

s ummarised

h ere t o c onsider w hat

t his

i s

i mportant

t o

t he

1 2:1A & B t o i llustrate a t

w hat l evel a t echnique a cts. 1 .

F ragment

c ounts - a re

t he

a ctual

of e ach s pecies a t t he l evel o f w hich i n m ost T hey

c an

b e

i nstances

u sed

t o

s hould

i ndicate

n umber

b e

t he

s pecies

o nly w ith a n umber o f a ssumptions. a ll

f ragments

d erive

t he

c ount

f ragments

l east

o f

p roportions)

o f

b one p opulation'). f or

m any

f rom

i n

( 1973)

s pecies

number

( i.e.

t he

s ample

s uggests t hat

i ndividuals t he

1 2:1B)

' bone r ecovered'.

p roportions

d ifferent

f ragments

( see F ig.

s ame a s

P erkins

r epresents e ach

o f i dentified

' bone r ecorded'

a nd

of

t herefore

a nimals

M eadows'

( at

p otential

T his i s b latantly a n u nreasonable a ssumption

s ites

a nd

p ostdepositional

m akes

f actors

n o

t hat

a llowance

m ay

a ct

f or

p re

a nd

d ifferentially

u pon

s pecies. 2 .

J oint c ounts - b y a n a nalysis o f t he

f ragments i t i s p ossible t o

r econstruct t he r elative a nd a ctual a bundance o f d ifferent p arts o f

t he

s keleton t o

a s tage

i ntends

t o

c onstruct

t he

b est

e xcept

T his

w here

f ragmentation p rimary

h ad

t o

d etermining

o ccurred.

p roduce

i n

o rder

t he

t hat

t hat

n ecessary

p rerequisite

' deposited

f raction'.

t o

c ounts

c ould

v alidate

b e

l oss

a s

l evel a nd

' deposited

s hould b e

t he

t he

n ot

v iewed

p rimary

d amage,

s tages m ay

u nder

e ven

d o t he

r econstruction

t he

T hey

i t a nd

p ost-depositional

m ust

u pon t he

s ample.

a nd

o r

e conomic

s urvival,

i ntervening

i t

c ounts

f raction'

a nd

a re

h ave a cted

r ecovered t he

s uch

r econstruction

f ragment

' dustbin'

f ragment

f or

w hich o f

t he

p re-

A s

l evel

a

t o

' deposited

i mmediately

f actors

t aphonomic)

t o

p rior

i ndicate

s omething

f ragments t he

B eing

m odel

a ctual

m ay

i s

n o

s ample.

t he

t he

i nformation

c ontrast ( i.e.

t he i n

c ircumstances

' household'.

3 .

i n

b elongs

b e

i n f or

r ecovery f raction'

u sed

t ogether

r econstructable,

c onstruction

o f

a

t he

M inimum n umber o f i ndividuals, M NI - m ost f requent s keletal p art ( see C lason 1 972: 1 41 a ). A lthough i n c ertain c ircumstances t his

f igure

m inimum

m ay

n umber

c ircumstances

a pproximate o f

t o

i ndividuals

i t w ill

t he

r eal

p resent

o r i n

a ctual t he

v alue o f t he

s ample,

i n

m ost

i llustrate a c ulturally s elective o r p ost

2 56

4 ) X

> 4

R e l a t i v e a b u n d a n c e

a )

C Y ,

0

R FP e r k i n s

X

X

> 4

X

. . . . , X X . . . . . . . .

X

X

L X

4 0 t j 4 4 a l 0 2 0 0 0 . 4 C 0 C 4 . ) 0 C a ) 4 ) 4. ) E l

r r f 4 4 0 0 .

4 0

4 : 0

X

X

> 4

> 4

X

> 4 > 4

X

0

X

C

( 6 0 -4 2 0 0 C 4 0 4 ) . 0 s . . M 9 0 . 0 < V c i 3 X . i . , L . 0 0

E . 4 . )

> 4 X

X

X

X

X

>
4 > 4

> 4

X

X

X

X

X

C . ) L . 0 L s 0 . . 4 a l L . 9 0 . 1 9 0

oN

0 . 0 C t i ) 0 -4

a ) 4 4 4 4

4 )

+ X

0 a )

4 ) 4 . ) . 4 c . . . . C d > 0 ) 4 ) ( I ) r 4

> 4

> 4

> 4

X

X

X

X

. 1 X . 0 4 ) 0 . 0

0 > 4

2 0 0

> 4

X

X

X

> 4 X

> 4

f 4 M 4' ) C

> 4

> 4 > 4 X

X

X

>
4 >4

0

0

O . r . )

0 M f . O . a l a a l a ) i n

4 > C 4 ) 4 . )

. 0 cl 0 0 E 0 . 0

a l

0 • m i > 4

0

> 4

a ) c M

> 4 X

0

r e c o v e r y

C o n t r o l a b l e f a c t o r s

P r o b l e m s

0 C a 2 0 .0 a l

L . a ) 0 0 0

N f . v ) 0 o . E l c d c f )

I ) 0 0 4 0 C )

0 .

0 . 4 . 3 r I 0 1 C

A . . 1 a 0 0 9 4 4 > 0 0 3 0 0 a : 4 C L . b o . 4 2 4 3 0 a L 0 0 . 0 4 4 E .

> 4

a a 0 .-04 • , 1

4 ) 4 . ) c 1 . 4 C ) 4 > 0 1 6

> 4 X

> 4

> 4

4 0

g 0 0

0 3 0 0 9 1 b 0 0 . 0 f . . 4 C 0 4 c < I . 0 C ) 0 4 4

a 0 . r 4 0 0 : 1

C 0. . . 1 0 ( i b i 0 4 0 C L . b o 0 0 c d

V ) 0 0 o L . 0 .

0 C 0 ) W r 1 . 1 r 1 6 0 c x ,

• ; >4 4 L I 4 . ) a l E g

42

a

2 57

P r e s r v a t i o n

. 0

X

> 4

4 .

4 . 4 0

4 > , t . a l a

O . r . ( 6 0 .

N o n c o n t r o l a b l e f a c t o r s

0 0

> 4

0 , 4 C a l c . ) r i -

0 . r 1 I . ) . 1 4 0 >I 0 L . 0 .

E l . 0 " C l 6 0 0 1 C 6 4 ) C D L L

0 1 4 4 0 0 0

0 . r 1 1 . ) 4 1 0 ) 0 0 .

• 0 . 0 L . 0 .

0 0 ( 1 3 0 0 . L . . 1 0 : 1 . 9 0 V I a 0 0 C . 1 . 0

, 4 ( 6 C 0 . i . 1 -, • , 4 a 0 0 .

,I

0 X

i f l

L . , 4 0 . 0 0

I D a l a l

9 4 3 6 0

9 • • 4

0 2 . 1 0 . c l ) t .

1 : 1 . 1 › . . 1 ' a 9 4

0 0 a 0 C D 0 V 4 9

0 3 t . , I 0 1 C ) C D 0 2 0 0 0 Z 0 C L . f . 0 0 4 X C I I

0 C s . 0 . C D 0 C I I

. 1

• . 1 0 0 0 . 0 ' 0

r 4 0 3

a ) C

L

a )

4 . 0

» e

. 4 ( 6 4 ) • 1 f . 4 3 o C 4 ) 0 ) T . a ) a ) 0 ) ' 4 ( 6 ‚ 4 . 4 . 4 .0 l a 0 4 ) 0 ) . 0 0 . 0 C X a l 0 0 a a ) 4 ) > r I

q . . o . o0 o. D 0

0 C 0

6 . 9 0 0

4 > a W E 1 E 0 0 ,4

M I, r 1 1 4 0 > . . . 0 4 ) C 4 ) t . 0 I . . 1 0 C 2 0 . 1 1 > 0 . C 1 : / • 4 . 0 C D

0 ' 0 0 0 0 I 4 4 . 0 1 C D 0 • . . . Z . L L a l >

. 0 C )

a 4 , i . 0

C D L . a l

. 1 3 0 3 4 . ) a ) 2 • , ) -0 0 3

4 0 . 1 ) 0 a 0

( 6

L C .

1 : 1 a ) . 0 a , . 4 r i

0 ) 0 9 E . .

0 a 0 r 4 . 0 0

• c o 4 ) . 4 0 4 )

. 0 0 2 9 0 c . )

0 .

0 )

C D . a . 0

C a ) 4 ) X 4 . )

+

. 4

. 0

I

, i

d epositional

b ias

f or

t he

b one

a nd

a s

s uch

i s

i nformative

b ut

n ot a s a m easure o f a bundance. 4 .

5 .

M NI - n umber o f m andibles ( see C lason 1 972: 1 41 c ). T his m ethod f alls i nto t he s ame c ategory a s 3a bove a lthough s ince t he s ame b one

i s a lways

s elected

t he b ias m ay b e p ositive o r n egative.

M NI

-

m inimum

n umber,

G rand

C haplin's a nimals

m ethod

t hat

g ives

c ould

a ccurate

m ethod

t he

e lements

b one

u nrepresented

a

h ave

f or

c ase

t he

t he

m odel

M eadows'

( Fig.

1 2:1A

p otential

p retends

t o

b one

t his

f igure

i s

n umerous

e lement,

t o

7 4).

n umber

s ample.

d ifferent

i nclude

a ge

o r

t his

o f

A m ore a ll

s ex

a re

m ay

a dd

T he r esult g enerally h as n o p lace

e s B ),

I t

1 971:

s mallest

r ecovered

n either

p opulation'

r epresent.

C haplin

t he

o f

i ndividuals t o C haplin's G MT. i n

t he

a nimals

m ost

( see

f or

p roduced

d etermining

i n

b y

G MT

f igure

i s

n ot

i s

i t

a lthough

t he

a ctual

e quivalent

t his

i s

w hat

t o i t

n umber o f a nimals

r epresented i n t he s ample s ince i t w ill v ary w ith t he e fficiency o f t he w orker a nd t he e ase o f r ecognition o f p aired e lements T he p roblems w ith t his i t

( a)

p resumes

m eat

f or

t hat

t he

r epresented

( b)

t he m ost i s

f or t he

i n

o r

s laughtered m ore

o f

t o

t o

i ts

s ample'.

d efinition

b one s ample'

p roduce

b ones

a re

( Notice

t hat

o f

t he

M eadows'

o n p age 2 52.)

f requent b one u pon w hich t he m ethod l argely r elies

s ubject

w hen

a nimal

o ne

' recovered

t his

t o

t he

u sed

a s

s ame

c ultural

a nd

p ost-depositional

i n 3a bove.

b iases a lluded t o ( c)

e very

' household' i n

d ifference ' potential

t echnique a re t hat:

a b asis

f or

a r atio

o f

s pecies

r ather

t han

a ctual n umbers o r r ank o rdering i t r elies o n t he a ssumption t hat s electivity o r b ias i n t he b ones o f o ne s pecies i s m irrored

i n

c ontrary

m ight

a ll

c omprehensive

t he b e

o thers

b eing

e xpected.

c riticism,

a nalysed

i s

T his

G rayson

w hereas

b y

( 1979)

n o

t he

m eans

d iscusses

a t he

v alidity o f t his m easure i n s ome d epth. T he

o ccasions

d etermining s uppose

w hen

t his

a bundance

t hat

p oint

a ,

r elationship b etween t echnique i ntends t o

t echnique

a re

t hose

a bove

i s

w hen

i s

t he

m ost

t here

t rue.

O n

i s

s uitable

e very

t hese

r eason

f or t o

o ccasions

t he

M NI a nd a ctual a bundance i s o ne a nd r econstruct t o t he l evel o f ' butcher'

t he ( or

p otential b one p opulation). T his l evel i n a gricultural a nd u rban s ites m ay s till b e a n umber o f s teps b elow t he l evel o f f lock

o r

h erd.

c onsideration t he

p recise

o f

t he

T his

M NI

n umber

a nalyst',

s tatement

a rticle may

F ieller o f

( 1982)

c onceptually

P erkins

( 1973)

i ndividual

b ones

t his

M eadows'

n ot

t rue

m uch

m ore

b e

i s

T urner

t o

p ossible b e

p ractice t he

t o

b elieved

r ecovered,

b ones

i n t o

p oint

a rrive i t

i s

t he

b e b one

a nd o n a t

l ie

s uch t o

r ecent

i n

f ront

p opulation'.

T urner's t his

e qual

m ost

' unambiguously

a ctually

p otential

i n t o

( 1982) i ndex

o f a nimals w hose i .e.

i s i s

a nd

c onsider

e arlier

m easure. a t he

f igure, n umber

I t i f o f

b ut i n p ractice t he M NI i ndex i s t he

2 58

s mallest

n umber

o f

d ifferent

i ndividuals

t hat

t he

a nalyst

h as

b een a ble t o i dentify i n t he s ample a nd n ot t he a ctual n umber o f d ifferent i ndividuals r epresented i n t he s ample. T his m akes i t a n e xtremely d oubtful m easure f or i ntero r i ntra-site c omparisons

p articularly

f ragmentation

a nd

s ince

m odern

f actors

b reakage

s uch

( Wilson

a s

i ncreased

1 975)

m akes

t he

e xercise m ore d ifficult a nd t ends t o r educe t he n umber o f r ecognised i ndividuals. O ne o f i ts m ost a wkward a spects f rom a n i nterpretive

p oint

o f

v iew

i s

t hat

i t

h as

n o

k nown

o r

t heoretically c onstant r elationship w ith t he a ctual M NI o f t he ' deposited f raction', ' dustbin', ' household' o r ' butcher'. / et s ince

i t

c ounts

i nOividuals

a nd

n ot

b ones

o r

j oints

i t

m ust

s urely p urport t o r epresent a bundance o f c arcasses a nd t herefore ' butcher' 6 .

N umber 1 982).

l evel i n t he m odel.

e stimation ( Krantz A ll t echniques

1 968; L ie 1 980; F ieller a nd T urner w hich e ndeavour t o e stimate t he

p opulation f rom w hich t he b one s ample c omes a re f aced w ith t he s ame p roblems a s m ethods 3 - 5 a bove. W hereas t he m ethods a bove m ay o nly g ive g ood r esults w here t he a ssumption m entioned u nder 5 a a pplies, e stimation m ethods e ndeavour t o r econstruct t he l evel o f ' butcher' i n F ig. 1 2:1A w ithout m aking t he p resumption t hat a ll a nimals a re r epresented b ut r ather t he o pposite. I t c an b e s een y et a gain t hat a lthough t he o bjective i s i dentical, q uantification

o f

s pecies,

t he

d ifferent p oints i n t he m odel. m ore

a ccurate m ethod

n oted

p roducts o f t he

a nalysis a ct a t

F or C haplin's ( 1971) G MT

a bove

i n

5 t o

( or t he

b e a r eal e stimate o f

t he t hanatocoenosis a nd n ot a ' totally a rtificial f igure' i t p resumes t hat a ll t he b ones n ot b eing u tilised i n t he a nalysis d erive f rom t he s ame a nimals t hat p roduced t he b ones t hat a re a nd t hat t he a ssumption 5 (a) i s t rue, a s ituation c learly u nlikely t o a pply o n a ny a rchaeological s ite. T he e stimation t echniques o f K rantz, L ie a nd F ieller a nd T urner o n t he o ther h and m ake n o s uch c laims, b ut o n t he c ontrary u tilise t he d egree o f l oss a s t he b asis f or e stimating t he o riginal p opulations. T he

t echnique

a s

p resented

b y

F ieller

a nd

T urner

p resumes

a

r andom a nd i ndependent l oss o f l eft a nd r ight b ones o f a ll e lements b etween t he s tage o f ' butcher' a nd ' bones r ecovered'. I f t here i s a ny a ctive s election o r b ias ( non-random) a t a ny o f t he v arious s tages b etween b utchery a nd s ample ( such a s d ifferential d istribution o f r ight a nd l eft c arcass s ides) w hether p ositive o r n egative t he c oncept f alls d own. T heoretically t he T urner's t echnique

m ost i nteresting a spect o f F ieller a nd i s t hat i t m akes a n e stimate o f a n o riginal

p opulation ( death a ssemblage) t hat m ay i nclude i ndividuals n one o f w hose b ones w ere e ver d eposited u pon t he s ite b ecause t hey w ere

s ubject

t o

o ther l ocations.

p reconsumption

a nd

p re-depositional

l osses

t o

I f a d ifferent s et o f r andom f actors h ad a cted

o n t he o riginal p opulation t hen d ifferent i ndividuals c ould h ave b een r epresented

i n t he s ample b ut

c alculating

t he

o riginal

r andom

n ot

a nd

l oss

b utchery.

e ndeavours c arcasses

t o

o nly a fter I t

i s

c onstruct

b eing

t he s tatistic w ould s till

p opulation.

T he

d eposition b ut

t herefore a ctual

d istributed,

2 59

o ur

n umbers b ut

t echnique

a lso o nly

o f

a fter

s laughter

t echnique

a himals

i n

b e

p resumes t hat

t erms

o f

i t a cts f rom t he m oment t he

l eft

a nd

r ight

i ndependent

s ides

a nd

o f

n ot

t he

c arcass

b efore

s ince

o f

t he

e ach

i ndividual

a ssociation

o f

b ecome

l eft

a nd

r ight b ones w ould n egate t he s tatistical p rinciple u pon w hich t he m ethod i s f ounded. T herefore t he r esult, N , f or r abbits o r l amb

w ill

c onsumed

r econstruct a nd

' butcher'

t o

d eposited

f or

c attle

s eparated

b efore

o bviously

a

' household'

o n

s ite

s ince

l eft

a nd

d istribution

c omplication

s ingle

t echnique.

T he

p airs

i n

a ssignment

t he

e xtremely

o f

b ones

t he

t he

o f

d ifficult

i s

p ratice

p aired

l ess

a t

b ones

a re

t o

p robably

c onsumer.

r eliable a h igh

e lements

a rrive

w ere

r econstruct T his o f

i s

r elative

t he t arget p opulation m ight s pecies e ven w hen u sing a

a nd

t o

c arcasses

w ill

a ssessment

m ethod i n

w hole

i t

r ight

t o

f or

a bundance o f s pecies a nd s hows t hat n ot b e a t t he s ame l evel f or a ll matched

i f

w hereas

i s

f or

i f

t here a re

l evel

i mportant,

a ll

n o

o f a ccuracy s omething

f ragments

o f

a b one.

V arious o ther p roblems w hich m ake t he t echnique i mpracticable on l arge

s ites

T he

r andom

a nd

r ight

a re

p resented

n ature b ones

o f

b y

t he

a re

t he

F ieller

l oss

a nd

m ost

a nd

t he

p roblematic

t o M NI w hich i s d irected t owards t he o f M eadows

( 1980)

t hat

h ave

c ould

t he

T urner

b ones

5 7-58).

o f t he l eft

a spects.

I n

c ontrast

' potential b one p opulation'

e stimation m ethod

c ontributed

( 1982:

i ndependence

t o

p ertains t o a ll a nimals

t he

' deposited

f raction',

r ather t han r estricting i tself t o t hose t hat a ctually d id.

7 .

W eight

m ethod

s pecifically m eat

d irected

c ontribution

i llustrates s pecies

h alves

v iew

of

o n

b ut

b e

t he

i mportant s pecies

t he

a re

' butcher' e stimate

i n

t he

o f

y et

d iet

t he

t he a nd

b y

a nd

t he

c onsumption a t

t hat

s ince

t he

i s

b oth

l evel a

t he

a s t he

T his

g ive

i ndicates

o ne

p oint of

of

b etter

d egree

p re-depositional

m isrepresents

i f

s ample.

n umbers

b elow

o f e ach

a s econd

i ndicates

t he

i s

r elative

e xample, f rom

H owever

e xample

t he

e xample

p roportions

M NI

i n

m inimum

T he t hat

of

c arcasses

a bundant

c hanged

w ay

t he

T his m ethod

t he

s implest

r epresented.

b e

a s

t hen a bundance

e qual

l evel

c an a

t o

w hole

a s

a bundance. M NI

s election

i s

' slaughter'

o f

w hich

a s

t wice

e qually

o r

t he

i s

1 978).

c alculation

t ake

s ite

c onsumer

a t

t he

e quivalent T o

t he

C asteel

s pecies

t wice a s m any,

s pecies

w hich

e ach

n ot

a rrives

l eft

l atter

n eed

t owards

o f

s laughtered.

s pecies

1 956;

( Kubasiewiez

t o

c ultural

r eality,

a nd

t he

t heoretical p remise t hat t he w eight o f t he b ones o f e ach s pecies i s

a

m ore

a bundance T he

a ppropriate

i n

t erms

c riticisms

( 1971)

a nd

a ll

w hom

o f

w ith

t his

o f

m ore

o f

m easure t he

t he

m ethod

r ecently

r eject

m ethod

i ts

a re

t he

p racticalities

a nd

o vercoming

b y

h ave S ome i n

w eighing

p roblems

o f

b een

C asteel

u se.

a ssessing

c ontribution

s ummarised

o f

f or

m eat

a nd

t he

T able

' clean'

t he

r elative

e ach

s pecies.

d etailed

( 1978) o f

o f

b y

p roblems 1 2:1.

( 1979)

a ssociated

L eaving

a rchaeological

d ifferential

C haplin

G rayson

a side

m aterial

p reservation

t he

m ost

c onspicuous p roblem w ith t he m ethod i s t hat t he r atio o f b one t o t issue o r d ressed c arcass m ust b e a ssumed t o b e c onstant f or a ll a ge

g roups,

O therwise u sed

f or

a n

b reed

e ach

e xperimentally t o

m inimum

t ypes,

e ndless

s pecies, ( see

n umbers

t heoretical p remise,

s exes

n umber S mith

o f

a nd

e ach

of

1 975

f or

r ather

s izes

w ithin

multiplication

t han

w hich a n

m ust

b e

a pplication

w eight

o f

s pecies. m ust

a rrived of

b ones).

i f f actors c ould b e a rrived a t

2 60

a

f actors

b e a t

t his s ort A s

a

f or e ach a ge

g roup, m eat t o

s ize a nd s ex t hen t he

t hat

b e

m ost

f rom t he

8 .

e xcavated

p redicted.

u nder t o

t he

t he

t echnique w ould a llow t he a mount o f

b one

H owever,

s ituations

w ould

j oint m ethod

i t

c onstruction

s ample

t he

s eem

i s

o f

s pecies

t o

m ake

i t

t he o nly m ethod

t he

r elative

s pecies e aten a t t he

' household'

R elative

R F

f requency,

o f e ach

i mpracticality

( see

o f

r epresents

t he

t echnique

u nusable.

A part

t hat a pplies i tself

a mounts

o f

m eat

o f

e ach

l evel.

P erkins

1 973).

P erkins'

a pproach

w as t o d iscover t he r elative a bundance o f i ndividual s pecies n ot t he

' actual'

c ompared t he

n umber

t he

a verage

s pecies

o f

f or t he

e stimate

e ndeavours r ecovery t he

a nimals

t hese

a bundance.

o btained a n

o f

f requencies

t o

f igure

a ny

g eneral

e stimate

s keletal

a s

w as

s pecies.

t he

b ypass

b ias.

o r

d ifferent

f requencies

T his

o ther

o f

o f

t he

o f

s uch.

e lements

i ndication

t hen

c ompared

H e

t aking of

w ith

t he

t hose

T his m ethod c an t herefore g ive p roportions

p roblems

o f

t he

s ample

a nd

p redepositional

e lement

a nd

P resuming n o d ifferential

i n

p reservation i t g ives

a verage o ccurrence o f e lements of e ach s pecies w hich m ay b e

t aken

t o

s pecies t he

r epresent a nd

i f e lement

s pecies

method

i s

e lements Which

t he a verage c ontribution t o

a t

t he

t hat l east

h e

s election

l evel d oes

n ot

e ffected

e lements

t hese

o f

b y

a re

i s

u se

a ll

c ultural

i s

( see b elow)

v ary b etween s pecies

e stimate

t he

T he

t he o r

a rrived

p rocedure i s u nnecessary t he

r andom,

' butcher'

t he d iet o f e ach p roportions

c riticism

b ones

b ut

o nly

p reservational

a t

o f

t hose

f actors.

s ubjectively.

a nd s ince t hese

of t he

S uch

a

f actors may

f or s ome s pecies m ay b e

b ased

u pon f ewer a nd d ifferent d iagnostic e lements f rom a nother. 9 .

R elative

a bundance.

p articular u tilises i s

t he

t his

b one

t hese

P ayne

e lements

t o

make

( 1972:

6 9)

b etween

p resents

t wo

a s ubjective

d ecision

b est m easure o f r elative a bundance.

d ecision

i s

p rinciples

t o

i llustrated

b elow.

u nnecessary.

t hat

o f I t

i s

( 1973)

a m easure

a s

t o

r atios

o f

a pparently w hich

r atio

s ubjectivity o f

w hich

a nd

o f

a nd

T he

A t echnique

P erkins

t he

s pecies

o n

P ayne

r elative

s imilar

( 1972)

i z

a bundance

a nd

n ot a ctual n umbers o f a nimals a nd i s i llustrated b elow b y r eference t o t he L erna s ample t hat P ayne u ses a nd a s ample f rom B each V iew, I n

t he

e ach

B irsay,

L erna

b one

r esulting r atio

i n

a nd

s ample

t ype

i n

1 2:2)

s ample i s

t his

r ange. g ive

a re

T he

f our

of

r atio

d ispersed

t o c ow of

a nd

u neven

T he

w ith

a

t hat m any o f t he b ones h ave a e ntries

s heep/goat

a nd

s heep/goat

p lotted o n a b ar d iagram.

b roadly

r atios

t arsals

i n p reparation).

t he

i s

1a nd 2 i llustrating

w hich

1 :16

( Lamden,

( Fig.

t he

d istribution

mode b etween d iagram

O rkney

t o

t o

p halanges.

t he

c ow

l eft

o f

T hese

o f

t he

b etween

1 :4

l ow

r atios

c ontrasting w ith t he m ain b ulk o f t he b ones m ay h ave a n umber o f i nterpretations r ecovery,

b ut

c ertainly

t he

m ost

o bvious

i s

d ifferential

t he s maller e lements o f s heep/goat b eing m issed.

p robable

r ecovery

p roblem

m akes

t he

u se

o f

t he

T his w hole

d istribution i nappropriate

f or e stimating t he r elative a bundance

b ecause

w ill

b e

t he

p roportions

t he

a ctually ' deposited

m edian

r epresent f raction'.

I n

d isplaced

t his

2 61

t o o f

t he t he

l eft

a nd

n ot

b ones

i n

t he

i nstance a n a ctual m easure o f

Med ian 6

-F 2

F rag . r a t io -F 34 M NI r a t io -2 . 7 1

0 06

0 . 2 5 0 . 125

1

2

4

8

0 5

R a t io o fs h eep/goa t t oc ow

F ig.

1 2:2

A f requency p lot o f t he i ndividual b one e lements a nd

c ow

P ayne

f rom

L erna.

r atios o f t he o f s heep/goat

( data

1 972.)

2 62

t aken

f rom

1 0

— A r ea s D& E M ed ian - 0 . 6 7 E pi phy s e a l f r ag .r a t io -0 . 60

Il a

MN! r a t io ( GMT) -0 ° 6 1

I»

5

u

« I MP

0—

T o ta l f r ag . r a t io -0 . 69

0 4 3 6 I0 . 25 0 125

R a t io o f c g t le t o s h eep

8 1 6

0 . 5

4 1 1 .

Med ian -0 . 23 E p iphy sea l f r ag .r a t io -0 . 26 MNI r a t io ( GMT ) -0 . 42 T o ta l f r ag . r a t io - . 3 7

•

5

« M P

A r eal

F ig.

1 2:3

A f requency e piphyses V iew

B irsay,

L amden T he

p lot

o f

f rom

o f

t he

r atios

c attle

a nd

s heep

O rkney

( unpublished

e xcavations

S cottish

o f

d irected

D evelopment

I nspectorate).

2 63

t he

f rom

D ept.

t wo

d ata b y

C .

i ndividual a reas

a t

s upplied D .

A ncient

b one B each b y

M orris

B . f or

M onuments

a bundance 4 :1

m ay

b e

s neep/goat

i nappropriate t o

o verestimate. t he b road a nd

c ow

b ut

w ould

P ayne's

a t

a ny

( 1972)

r ate

e stimate

a ppear

t o

o f

b e

a n

I n t he a bsence o f s atisfactory e xplanations f or i rregular d istribution a m easure o f a bundance

s hould b e b ased u pon n on-parametric e stimates. I n

c ontrast

a reas more t he

a t

t o

t he

L erna

B each V iew,

u niformly r elative

s ample

B irsay,

a bout

a m ode.

f requency

of

t he

r atios

O rkney

( Fig.

T hey

f rom

i llustrate

s pecies

t wo

1 2:3)

b etween

e xcavation

a re d istributed t hat

t he

a c hange i n

t wo

a reas

i s

a

c haracteristic o f a ll t he e lements a nd n ot j ust t he m ost c omm o n, t he

w hole

t he most o f

d istribution

h as

r elative a bundance.

u neven

r ange

r emembered b iassed

m oved.

T he

f requent r ange o f r atios a nd c an

t hat

b y

b e

p re-

D istributions t hat

c alculated

t his

u pon

d ispersion

a nd

d istribution

i ndicates

t herefore g ives a m easure t he

w ould

s how a d ispersed a nd

m edian

s uggest

p ost-depositional

b ut

i t m ust

a s ample

f actors

a nd

b e

h eavily

i t

m ay

b e

u nwise t o e ven t ry a nd a ssess t he r elative a bundance o f s pecies. T he

l arger

t he

d istribution d iagnostic

n umber

a nd

i f

z ones

s uch

o f t he

e lements r atios

a s

t hose

t he

a re

m ore

b ased

s uggested

c redible o n

b y

t he

r epeatable

W atson

( 1979)

0

n umber o f a dvantages a ccrue:

3 o r m ore z ones p er b one a llow a l arger number o f r atios

( a)

a nd t herefore a m ore r eliable d istribution. ( b)

t he

s maller

t he

f ragmentation a nd

f ragment, t he n eed

t he t o

l ess

e nsure

c hance

t hat

t he

o f

f urther

s ame

z one o f

a s ingle b one i s n ot c ounted t wice. ( c)

t he

g reat

s imilarity

( morphological)

o f

t he

f ragment

b etween s pecies w ill m inimise p ost-depositional b ias. ( d)

t he

m easure of r elative a bundance

s ample

n ot

j ust

a

p ortion

o f

i s

s upplied

i t.

I n

b y t he w hole

F ig.

1 2:3

t he

d istributions a re d ifferent n ot j ust t he modes. e )

w hether

b ones

e xercise,

a re

l eft

a lthough

t he

o r

r ight

r atios

b ecomes

c an

b e

i rrelevant

c alculated

t o

f or

t he l eft

a nd r ight b ones i f d esired. T his

l ast m ethod o f a ssessing a bundance

i nterpretable

a pplicability

f ar

b eyond

( 9) i ts

h as a w ide r ange o f e stimate

o f r elative

a bundance. ( i)

I t a llows a n a ssessment of t he d egree t o w hich p re- a nd p ost-depositional affected

t he

f actors

s ample.

m ay

h ave

O utliers

o n

d ifferentially t he

b ar

d iagram

r equire s ome e xplanation. ( ii)

I t p ermits a n a ssessment o f w hether s pecies p roportions w ould b e a m eaningful e xercise o n t he s ample o r n ot.

( iii)

I t a nd

a llows

a r eal

i nter-site

c omparison

a ssessment

o f

c omparisons

t he b y

v alidity

o f

a llowing

i ntrad irect

a t t he d ata l evel r ather t han t he c onstruct

2 64

l evel

( i.e.

F ig.

1 2:3).

I t

c an

u tilise

a ny

p revious

a nalysis i f t he p rimary d ata r ecord i s a vailable. ( iv)

I t

( v)

( vi)

c an

o perate

a t

t he

l evel

o f

' bones

' potential b one p opulation',

' household'

I t

a ffected

i s

a

t echnique

l east

b y

i nherent i n t hese t ypes o f s tudies

( Table

W here

c an

s amples

o ut

t he

a re

l arge

r elative

e nough

i t

p roportions

r ecovered',

a nd

t he

b iasses

1 2:1).

b e

o f

' butcher'.

u sed

t o

w ork

d ifferent

a ge

c ategories a nd s ex g roupings w ithin a s ingle s pecies. ( vii)

R ecovery

b ias,

m inimised

s uch

b y

a s

l ack

s election

o f

o f

s ieving,

c an

a ppropriately

b e

s ized

d iagnostic z ones t hereby p ermitting c omparisons b etween s ites w ith d ifferential r ecovery. ( viii)

S keletons

c an

b e

i ncluded

w ithin

t he

c ounts

w ith

m inimal b ias s ince o nly o ne o r t wo b ones w ill a ppear i n e ach r atio. ( ix)

L eft a nd r ight c ategories o f b one a nd f used a nd u nfused c an

b e

c onsidered

i ndividually

w here

s ample

s izes

a re

l arge e nough.

T he major d rawback o f t his m ethod i s t hat i t t echnically g ives a r ange f or t he p roportion of s pecies t o s pecies r ather t han f igure ( unless t he m edian i s u sed), b ut t his may i n f act b e more

r ealistic

e ncourage

r esult

t han

a

away

f rom

t he

p eople

m ore

t he

a ccurately

a lternative

f ragment

e stimated

e xperiments

m ethod

o f

s pecies

a nd

t his

c ounts r atios

w ould

d etermining

o r

t he

t o

r elative

M NI

( 1982)

t han

t end

w ould

a ccuracy

b y

s imulation

f rom

I

o f

I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat G ilbert a nd S inger R F

o btained

a nd

s ense

i ndex. c omputer

r atio

r atio,

s purious

i mplied f ound

t he

s pecific

a a

M NI

i n

s upport

a bundance

s uggested h ere.

I h ave t his

s pent

s ome

a spect

material. s ample

t ime

h ave

o r

t he

o n

c entral

D espite

w e

a nimals

i s

b een

t he t o

t he

c onsideration o f a bundance

a ll

1 00%

u nable

r elative

l ines

d ata

t o

o f

a nalysis

r ecovery

r econstruct

p roportions

of

f rom

t he

o f

o ur

a ctual

s pecies

w ith

c riticised

t he

s ince f aunal

o riginal number a ny

o f

g reat

c onfidence.

I t

i s

a ll

t oo

o ften

t hat

h aving

c ount

o f

f ragments a s a m easure o f t he a bundance o f s pecies a nd u sed s ome o ther

t echnique

f ragments measure

i n o f

a n

a uthor

p articular t he

a bundance

d iscussion o n a ge a nd

s ex

h as

a ge

g one

o n

c ategories o f

s hould

t hese

t o o r

u se s ex

g roups.

t he T he

a s

o f a

f ollowing

t herefore b e c onsidered

l ight of t he t echniques a vailable f or q uantification.

2 65

n umber

g roupings

i n t he

A GE T here h ave b een many d iscussions a nd a rticles o n t he methods of a geing, t heir u ses a nd i nterpretations. T he q uantification o f a ge c ategories m ay b e d ifferent

c onsidered

t echniques

s pecies.

t hat

D ifferent

a ge

t o

b e

h ave

s ubject t o a ll a lready

g roupings

b een

w hen

t hose

p roblems a nd

o utlined

a bove

e stablishing

f or

r elative

o r

a bsolute f requencies c an b e v iewed a s a nalogous t o s pecies a nd t herefore h ave t he s ame q uantification p roblems. H owever a ge i s n ot a d iscrete t he

v ariable

e ffects

of

m aturation r ate, f or i ntersite o r a t

w hat

w eeks,

l evel f or

s pecies

a ge

o f

b ut

s ite,

i s

a c ontinuous

s ex,

b reed,

o ne.

c ategory

o r

y ears

e ach

s tage

i n

i s

d etermined,

m odern

w ill

n ot

s tages

a nimals,

b e

t he

c onsistent

O wing

t o

e tc.

on

n utrition,

f ixed r elative a ge c ategories t hat a re i nterspecies c omparisons c annot b e made.

t he

months

a nimals

l ike

t he

e quivalent N o m atter

c orresponding

a bsolute t hrough

a ge

o f

p eriod,

t o t he

s ex,

b reed e tc. T he

d etermination

i nterpretative s ample

i t

i s

d ifferential E inford

v alue

a nd

a ge

B ertram

c ategories

a n umber

i mportant

s urvival

f raction'.

of

a t

o f

a s

a

t he

b ones

1 977)

D ifferential

o f

a nd

i n

b asis f or

o f b one

i mportant

t he

s upplied. c ategories

A t n o a ge

' household'

d ifferent

a ge

l evel

t o

o f

a ssessing t he

d iet

o f

d ifferent

1 982) m ay b e t he

a nd

t he ( see

' deposited

f rom

a nd M altby

of

b one

g roups

t he

e lements

i n

c lasses

a ge

i s o f

r elative

h ow

t hey a re

A t t he l evel o f ' butcher' t he r elative a bundance o f age i s n ecessary f or a r econstruction of t he k ill p opulation.

D epending i ndicate

o f

l evel

c onsideration

c onstruction

o ccurrence

s ample

t he

d ifferent

( see B inford a nd B ertram 1 977;

a t

b one

A t

f or

o f

a ge c ategories c ontribution

a

l evels.

o n t he

t he

n umber

l ive c ull

t ime e xcept

c lasses

i n

f or t he

of

s tages

p rior

t o

t his

o r m erely a l ater c ultural t hose

l evel

s ites a lready m entioned d o

s ample

n ecessarily

r eflect

t his

may

s election p rocess. t he

t he d ifferent o riginal

l ive

p opulation. I t a geing

may

n ow

b e

t echniques

w orth a nd

i nterpretive b rackets. f rom

t heir

c losure, m ethod

b ones

a nd

u pon

t he

d egree

a ssessment

c an

b e

t o

w hich

u sed

d ifferent

w ithin

t hese

T here a re f our m ain m ethods o f a geing a nimals t eeth.

t ooth e ruption, b ased

c onsidering

t heir

T hese

a re

e piphyseal

t ooth w ear a nd

m easurements

w ill

f usion a nd

i ncremental b e

l ayers.

d iscussed

s uture A f ifth

t hat

h as

m ore

l imited a pplicability. 1 .

E piphyseal

f usion

d escription.) a ssociated

a nd

s uture

c losure.

W atson

( 1978)

h as

w ith t he

s uture c losure

u se o f f usion d ata.

i n w hich s ex

R ackham 1 982).

( see

d etailed

i s a lso

S ilver

many

o f

1 969

t he

f or

a

p roblems

E qually t hese a pply t o

v ery i mportant

( Bullock a nd

T he m ain e lement i s t hat t he a ge a t w hich f usion

o f i ndividual e piphyses o ccurs v aries b etween i ndividuals i n t he s ame p opulation a nd may d iffer i n s ome c ases b y w ell o ver a y ear ( see

B ullock

v ariation m oment t he

a nd

R ackham

i s d istributed

v ariation

a verage

a ge

b etween a t

1 982).

I t

m ay

b e

s upposed

s exes,

f usion.

a nd

H owever

t hat a s

t his W atson

m ean

b e

b e

( 1978)

i ndicated i n a s ample o f a nimals a t t his m ean a ge, a lready

t hat

n ormally a bout a m ean i gnoring

t his

f or t he u sed

a s

h as a lso

u p t o 5 0$ m ay

f used a nd t herefore c annot b e i dentified a s o f t his

2 66

a ge.

T he

v isible

m ean

a nd

a ge

s een

s ample

s howing

t akes

f rom

i s

b e

t his

i ts

must

t han'

b e

d ata

i n

w hich

o f

t he

a ge

H owever

M altby

merely

f rom

( 1982)

h as

e ach

p oint

f or

f urther,

w ill

o f

b e

a n

b ones.

a t

t he

i s

m ay

t herefore

b e

o f

n ot

a ge

r ange.

t o

o f

o f

t o a nd

a n

t he

o f

t here

u nfused

t hat

a nd

b y t his

t ime

a b one

a ware

a dult

u nfused

c onsider

f used

b e

t he

a nd

r espect

f usion

a

d ata.

e xtended

T o

( with

o f

i n

t he

u sefully d rawn

f used

r eadily

n umber

b oth

r esult ' younger

d escribe

s laughter

b y

a

a nd

t he

f usion

s imultaneously

e ssential

r epresented

A s

t han'

t o

a ge

e qual

of

t ime

u p

b ut

m ean

a pproximately

I t

c lass'

a r andom

a nimals

t he

i nference c an b e

w hole

f usion i s

a ppear

f requency

t he

o n

' older

c an

e lement,

t hrough

t he

p roportion

c ompletion.

d rawn

s hown

T he

d epend

u pon

b one

r elative

q uantification f usion)

t o

c lasses

t he

w ill

b ased

o ne

o nly o f u se w hen

p rogress.

c ondition

number

o f

i n

i nception

i nterpretation

e piphyses

t herefore

t o

' age

j uvenile

c ondition. E piphyseal f usion t herefore p oses c onsiderable p roblems f or q uantification a nd a t p resent i t w ould a ppear t hat i nference t he

a nd

f used

i nterpretation

a nd

u nfused

m ust

b e

b ased

c ondition

i n

i ndividual

o n

t he

f requency of

e lements.

I t

w ould b e i ncorrect t o g roup e piphyses of s imilar f usion a ges a nd u se

t he

p ercentage

o f

u nfused

a s

s laughtered b efore a nd a fter t he i ndicated

a bove

' fusion s tage' f igures T his

w ould

i s

many ( i.e.

b e

o f

t he

e stimate

f used

e lements

a ge o r a ge c lass)

h eavily

l ikely

a n

t o

b iassed

b e

o ne

o f

t he

p roportion

' fusion s tage'since a s h as b een

t owards

o f

m ay

b e

a s t hose

t he

t he

o lder

major

a t

t he

s ame

u nfused a nd a ge

t he

g roups.

c ontributors

4 ‘ ;

i ncompatibility w ith a ges o btained f rom t ooth e ruption d ata.

I t

may b e p ossible t o a rrive a t a m ethod o f q uantification b y u sing a s uccession

o f

o verlap a t a ll, m istakenly w here

e piphyses

c ounted

t here

w hose

t his w ould

w as

a ge

e nsure

r ange

t hat

i nto o lder g roups

n o

a pparent

b ut

s keletal

f or

f usion

d oes

n ot

y ounger c lasses w ere n ot s hould o nly b e a pplied

s election

s ince

t his

m ay

e xaggerate a n o lder o r y ounger g roup w ithin t he s uccession. 2

Tooth

e ruption

( 1971)

( see

S ilver

1 969

f or

a d escription).

C haplin

d iscusses t his m ethod o f a geing a s d o a n umber o f a uthors

i n a r ecent v olume ( Wilson, G rigson a nd P ayne 1 982). I t r elies on a n a ssessment o f t he n umber o f a nimals a t e ach d evelopmental s tage of t he j aw ( Ewbank e t a l. t he

s ame

s tage

e xplained modern

a re

t here

s tock

t o

e vent

w hose

t hose

a nimals

s pecified

of

t he

i s

s ome

t he

e ruption

d istribution i n

a n

s tage a re

1 964)

s ame

a nd p resumes t hat t hose a t

a ge.

v ariation o f

i s

A s

a nd

a t ooth

l ikely

a rchaeological

t o

C haplin

a n

a ge

i s

a m ean

b e

s ample

( 1971) a ge

n ormal. t hat

h as

a ttributed

a n

T herefore

h ave

p otentially o nly a p roportion

i n

f or

r eached

a

f rom t hat a ge

c lass, many o f w hich may n ot y et h ave r eached t he s tage, o r h ave a lready p assed i t. T hose a nimals a ctually a t t he s tage may a lso c ontain i ndividuals f rom y ounger o r o lder a ge c lasses i f t hese c lasses a re c lose t ogether i n a bsolute a ge. O ne m ay a rgue t hat t hese e ffects w ill t his

c an

c lasses;

o nly

b e

b e e vened o ut t rue

w here

i s

t he a ge c lasses b ut c onstant

f or

a ll

a ge

b ut w here s elective s laughter o ccurs i f n on-overlapping

d evelopmental

e vents a re n ot

I n

o f

a

t hroughout

s laughter

s ample

p articular

t ooth

t wenty

u sed

s heep

a pproximately

2 67

t he

o f

p attern may g o u nnoticed.

m ean

a ge

o f

e ruption

o f

a

h alf w ill h ave e rupted a nd t he

r emaining

t en

w ill

s till

p rocess o f d evelopmental

e ruption. s tages t he

t he

o f

d irection

h ave

t his

t ooth

u nerupted

o r

i n

t he

T herefore w hen c ounting t ooth s laughter f igures w ill b e b iassed i n

j uveniles

( in

c ontrast

t o

e piphyses)

t hereby

e xaggerating t he d iscrepancy b etween e piphyseal

f usion a nd t ooth

e ruption.

r ealise

I t

i s

q uantification

o f

t herefore

i mportant

d evelopmental

t o

s tages

t hat

i t

i s

i n

a ny

n ot

a ge

c lasses t hat a re b eing c onsidered a nd i f t his i s r emembered t hen i nference a nd i nterpretation c an b e m ade.

3 .

T ooth w ear

( see

P ayne

1 973;

G rant

1 975;

1 982).

T his m ethod

of

a ge d etermination i s i nevitably s ubject t o t he s ame p roblems a nd i nadequacies h as

a lready a lluded

a dditional

p roblems

t o

m any

f or t ooth e ruption.

of

w hich

a re

H owever

d iscussed

b y

1 978. G rant ( 1982: F ig. 4 ) i n h er r ecent r eview t echnique i llustrates t he r esult of t he a nalysis i n t he a b ar

d iagram

o f

t he

b ased u pon t he w ear

f requency

of

s tages o f t he

m andible

i ndividual

w ear

i t

G rant

o f t he f orm o f

s tages

( MWS)

t eeth i n t he j aws.

T he p roblem w ith t hese a s w ith f reqency d iagrams o f e ruption s tages i s t hat t he i ntervals a re w ear s tages a nd n ot a ge c lasses a nd

a re

n ot

mutually

i llustrated b y P ayne d ifferent g oats

of

H 2, E n early

w ear t he

e xclusive ( 1982,

s tages

s ame

o n

a ge,

i n

F igs.

a s ingle

a nd

o ne

t erms

1 3-15)

o f

a ge,

a f act

w ell

w here a s m any a s s even

t ooth

w ere

p articular

f ound

w ear

i n

f emale

p attern o n

t he

n t w as f ound i n a nimals f rom t wo a nd a h alf y ears t o e ight y ears of a ge, a ll w ithin a s ingle p opulation.

T hese

f actors

a lthough u nlikely t o e ffect t he

i nterpretation of

a p ronounced p attern v isible i n t he w ear a nd e ruption s tages may w ell

d isguise

r ate' a l,

a p attern

a nd

g ive

t he

1 964).

T he

p roblem

i s

s till

o ne

t hat f all i nto m utually e xclusive

4 .

I ncremental t he

a ppearance

of a ' constant

o f s laughter s uch a s t hat s uggested f or B arley

L ayers.

l iterature

p rinciple

i s

s easonal

o n

t hat

a spect

t he

i ntervals

( 1982)

of a geing

i ncremental a nd

e t

' age c lasses'.

S tailibrass

t his

( Ewbank,

o f g etting g roups o f d ata

h as a nd

l ayers

t he

r ecently i ts

a re

t echnique

r eviewed

p roblems.

a dded

a t

s hould

T he

u niform b e

t he

o steoarchaeologists l ifebelt s ince i t e ndeavours t o e stimate t he a bsolute a ge o f a n a nimal f rom w hich a t ooth o r j aw s urvives a nd n ot

a n

a ge

r elative

t o

t he

w ould

i mmediately a nswer,

j aws,

a ll

d eath t he

a nd

c ull

t hose

a t

l east

s ome

h usbandry

o f

t he

t echnique

o n modern

w ild

i n

t he

w ith r egard t o

s ample.

t o

t he

n ecessary

f or

a

t o

T urner

c onditions

1 982) w hich

w here a re

a nd

c ementum i ncremental l ayers, I t

i s

t his

s urprising a rea

t emperate f orm,

i t

o f

a reas i s

t hat

s tudy

t here

i s

s ome

d oubt a s

w here

s ex,

n utrition t o

i nfluence

a nd

( Coy,

f ormation

of

a re u nknown.

a nd

H igham

i ncremental

p otentially

t o

J ones

o verwintering

t he

o steo-archaeologists h ave n ot ( Saxon

p ermit

A lthough m any authors h ave u sed

s pecies

t hought

t eeth and

r econstruct

s pecies,

i ts s uitability f or a rchaeological d omestic m aterial a nd

T his

t he a ge of t he a nimals a t

d ata

p ractices

d etailed i ntersite c omparisons. t he

r emains

q uestions r elevant

w ould g ive a nd

o ther

o f

2 68

l ines

g reater

1 969). m ight

f ollowed

C ertainly b e

e xpected

i nterpretive

v alue

u p i n t o i n

4 040

a )

4 ,

. r. 4

2 4 >

c 4 „

g

E l C _ )

4 )

T a t e r s h a l

c s ) a )

7 : 1 c ' d C Z a ;

a ) c o c o ( i )

c o ( 0 c o t • r ) 7 1 . 0

E

N

c \ J ä , e e

C u m u l

Z

• •

C \ I

L b c r ) L U

L L o

L b i n

L b

2 69

e conomic a nd t echniques. 5 .

O ther

m ethods.

a nimal t he

l ong

s ome

b ones o nly

g rowth.

a nd o ne

o f

j aws, more

a ge

e xpected.

t here

i n

i s

o nly

o f a ge

i n

l ines

i n

i ncremental

a

e tc.

u se

u seful

o ccupation

c ircumstances

o ther a geing

i ndicators

r estricted

s easonal

t hese

o ther

t he

d evelopment,

v ery

s ize

t han

f eatures,

a ntler

o f

w here

I n

a re

q ualitative

I ncrease

e stimation

r econstruction

A lthough

b ones,

c onsider

b e

a gricultural

t he

I w ill

a nd

t hat

t ool

o r

i s

f or

t he

s laughter m ight

n ormal

s ize

r ange

of

o ne y ear g roup i s s ufficiently d istinct f rom o thers f or i t t o b e r ecognised a nd i s u seful u p t o t he a ge a t w hich i ncrease i n s ize d iminishes e ssential

o r

c eases.

t hat

t he

W here

s exes

s exual

a re

m etapodials ( Wilson 1 975; R ackham s eparating s ize c lasses i n b ison ( 1954)

( see

F ig.

1 2:4).

d imorphism

s eparated.

T hese

o ccurs

M idshaft

i t

i s

w idth

of

1 982) h as p roved u seful f or a fter t he manner o f C assie

c lasses

a re

i nterpreted

a s

age

e ffect

any

g roupings w hose a bundance i n t he s ample c an b e c alculated. T here

a re

t hree

r econstruction T he i s

p oints a nd

w orth

r eiteration

s ubsequent

t hat

i nterpretation

must of

a geing

d ata.

f irst i s t hat t he t echniques a re n ot r eadily c omparable. n ot

e ven

s ufficient

c haracterise

t he

t o

w hole

u se

o nly

s ample

t he

j aws

( Maltby

a s

t hese

1 982).

I t

n eed

n ot

S econdly,

t he

a rchaeological d ata i s i nformation o n t he d evelopmental s tage of t he

a nimal,

n ot

i ts

t hese t echniques c ategory i n t heir d iscussion C haplin i n

t he

t ake

o n

( 1982)

r elative

( 1971)

a bundance

n umber.

a f undamental

t o

T echniques

o f p ossible

w ould

T hirdly,

c ounts a lready

h ave

p oint,

a ll

w ithin e ach s een i n t he

i nherent

p roblems.

r ecommended t he a geing o f e ach of t he i ndividuals

m inimum

a ccount

a ge.

m ake u se o f f ragment a nalysis w hich w e h ave

r ecommend

matched

t he

u se

r elying

p airs,

o f

t he

o n

a nd

t he

F ieller

e stimation

j aws

s hould

a nd

T urner

t echnique

e ach w ear s tage b efore t he d istribution i s p lotted,

on

h olding t hat

t he n umber o f l eft, r ight a nd matched p airs ( of j aws) i s c entral t o t he numerical r epresentativeness o f t he s ample t o t he a ge c ategory of w hich i t i s p art. D espite t he a lready d epressing c ollection of p roblems a ssociated w ith

t he

a rises

a t

c urves' t he

a geing t he

o f

( i.e.

L awrence

c ontemporary i s

f rom

s laughtered

i ndicated

t he

b y

s tage.

1 980,

F ig.

p opulation

r epresent t he

a rchaeological

i nterpretive

a ge

F ig.

o f

1 2:5

o f

of

t his

4 .2)

s o

a nother

c alled

p roblem

' survivorship

i mply t he s urvivorship of

a s pecies.

s tructure p ortion

m aterial T he

W hat

a s ample

t he

l ive

d eath

o f

t hey

a ctually

b ones

d eriving

p opulation.

a ssemblage

n eed

A s

i s

h ave

n o

c onsistent r elationship w ith t he l ive p opulation. D espite d eath l ayers t his

1 00%

r ecovery

of

t he

of a nimals r epresented i n

p art

s tructure

t he o f

t eeth t he

f or

c ontemporary n evertheless

t he l ive

b e

h ave

s ample

i nformation i n o ur

a ctually a nd

d eath

e ven

p ossible

g iven h ad

a ssemblage

p opulation t o

i s

r elated

t o

s ample o nly t he a n

a ge

d etermined

t he

s tructure

w hat

m an

a ge

s tructure

w e

t he

f or a ge

o f

t he may

s elected

f rom

t his l ive p opulation f or s laughter a nd t he r easons f or t his

2 70

a t

I t

u nattainable.

d etermine

t he

i ncremental

4 0X

L iv e g oa t s: 1 9 80 c en su s o fw ho l e p opu la t ion N =10 5

2 0%

. 9 1m m m um m m '

'

I mo m mu m m

•

• • • •

• • • • 1 • • • • • • • • • •

• • • •

• • • •

1• • • • I • • • • I /

e •••• %•••••••••• 0 000 00 :: ': :••N••••, •••• > _-• ••• t • • •• d • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • d i •

0 %

•• • • % • • • • 1 • • • • j • • • • _ • • • •

2

3 4

, e•••

5 6

•• • • •• • •

7

• • • • • • • • I •

• • • 1 1• 1 1• 1 1 M 1

8

9 1 0 1

1 2

Y ea r s

3 0%

F ema le

Ma le

2

3

4

5 6

7

8

9

1 0

1

1 2

Y ea r s D ead g oa ts 1 9 79 N a tu ra l mo r ta l i ty ( d ea th a s semb lage) . F ig.

1 2:5

N= 3 1

A ge c lass f requencies f or l ive a nd d ead f eral g oats f rom M offatdale, S cotland. ( data f rom B ullock a nd R ackham, 1 982; a nd S . P ickering, u npublished.)

2 71

s election. f lock

I t

c ould

t his n eed

i s

b e

n o

d oubt

p ossible

c onstructed

s laughter p attern, t o b e p rogrammed

s urvival,

c limate,

p redation

e tc.

a nd i n,

o ne

t hat

c ould

i nput,

i s

a c omputer

t o

r espond

t o

b ut s o m uch w ould l amb y ield, l amb

l ivestock

i nclined

s imulation

c ontinually

s till s urvive, l ambing t ime,

s tocking

t hat

k nown w hat t he

t hat

r emoval,

t hink

t hat

d isease,

w e m ust h ave

f lock w as b efore e ver a nalysing t he b ones.

S EX T he

d etermination

c ontributed

t o

t he

t he

s ex

s ample w hilst

d ietary

c ontributions

i s

p articularly a n

m ore

o f

b one

b y

d ifferent e ssential

o f

i ndividuals

u seful

t hat

h ave

i n c onsidering m eat a nd

s pecies a t

t he

p rerequisite

' household'

l evel

o f a ny r econstruction

of t he s tructure o f t he m eat s upply o r c ull. O nly w ith t his i nformation c an a ny a ssessment a nd i nterpretation o f p rehistoric m ans d ecisions w ith r egard t o h is l ivestock b e m ade. T he

d etails

d escribed

of

t he

b y C haplin

( Boessneck

1 969;

a ttributable

t o

methods

( 1971)

G rigson s ex

a nd

f or

f or

of

d etermination

s pecific

1 982).

i n many

t he

R ackham

t he

b ones

s pecies ( 1982)

o f

s ex

i n o ther

f ound

a re

p apers

d imorphism

o f B ison c f p riscus

( Boj).

I n d omestic a nimals c astration s everely c omplicates t he p icture. H owever

i t

d etermination c oncern

u s

H owever t here

I n

t hat

f or

a re i n

p rohibit t he

t he

t he

much

t he

b e

i n

o verlap

d ata

i n

t echnical

of

t he

of

t he

o f

s ex

d ata

t hat

q uantification of t he d ata on i ndividual f emale,

metrical t he

i ndividual

d ifferent

p roblem

a nalysis

t he

t his

b etween

o f

f or

t he t hat

e xclusive,

a ssignment

t he

s ubsequent

a nalysis

d istribution

w ell

m etrical

s o

o f

s pecies,

mutually

t he

may

n ot

t hose

h ere.

s ex m irrors s pecies,

i s

b ut

d ata

s exes

b ones

s exes

a nd

f or

w hich

t o

d oes

e lements,

m ale

a b one

t ype

l arge

w ill

i f

a s ex

n ot

l ike

c astrate.

c lass.

o verlap

W here

s everely,

c umulative f requency d istribution p lots ( e.g. F ig. 1 2:4) c an b e u sed t o c alculate t he p roportion o f e ach s ex i n t he s ample ( Cassie 1 954). Q uantification

o f

t his

a lso h as i ts p roblems a c onsideration

of t he

i n

a s ample

t o

s election

b ias

t o

c arcasses

of

s tructure t erms s uch

o f

p roduced

c an

l evel a ge

d ue

t o

a ges.

b ehaviour H e

o ccur

a lso

a s ite,

p reservation.

a lso

w ith

e stablish

t he

f ragments a ssigned t o e ach.

s ex

r atio

t hose

must

l ikely

t o

r atio

b e

f or

e stimated

b e

f or

i n t he m anner a lready s uggested A ssuming b e

t hat

t he

o vercome

t he

s ex

i nformation

c an

b e

d escribed

u nder

e stablishing

t he

c alculated

' Abundance',

p atterns

w ell

e lements

a ttributed

w ith

r espect

h ow

h is

b e

p articularly

t he

a ge

e xample

t he

c ase

c ull

i n

t hat

b ehaviour

e lements

r ather

t han

m erely

T his i nevitably m eans t hat t he

a number

o f

d istributed,

e lements

a nd

t he

p articularly

r atios

c ompared

f or s pecies r elative a bundance.

t echnical

s tructure

s ample

I t i s t herefore i mportant t o

i ndividual

s electively

b e

i llustrated

m ay

s ex,

t otal t he

s keletal

c ould

e xplaining

I t

w ill b e s elective f or b oth a ge a nd s ex. s ex

t hat

t he

h as i llustrated h ow

o f d ifferent

r esults

d ifferent o n

t hroughout

M altby ( 1982)

s tructure

s patially

d ifferential

d iscrepancies

i nformation

c ontradictory

d ifferent

v ary

o ne

( See a bove).

d ifficulties of d etermining

o f

o ur

s ample

u sing

a ny

a lthough m ethod

p roportions o f t he

s exes

w ith o r

1 00%

a ll

s ex c an

r ecovery

t hose

9 i s most suitable f or

i n t he

s ample.

S ubsequent

i nterpretation may b e c omplicated b y a l ack o f a geing i nformation. 2 72

of

m ethods

C ONCLUSIONS I t

i s

a pparent

a nalytical s tudies of

a re

m an's

t he

f rom

t echniques i nadequate

h usbandry

d eath

t he

d iscussions

c urrently

b eing

a s a b asis

p ractices,

a ssemblage,

a nd

f or

t he

t he

a bove

a pplied t he

m any

o f

t he

i nterpretive c onsideration

e stablishment

b ehaviour

t hat

i n o steoarchaeological o f

w hich

t he

s tructure

g enerated

i t

a nd

o f n o

d oubt many o f t he o ther i nterpretive e nds t o w hich f aunal m aterial i s p ut.

I f

l evel s uch

t hese

g oals

o f d etail w ill t hat

a re

a ge

a nd

s ex

o f

t he

s ample

p roportion

t o

b e

b e r equired c an

b e

a pproached i n

s ite

e stablished

t han

i s

i n

a ny

d egree

a g reater

b one r ecording a nd a nalysis m ore r eliably f or a h igher

c urrent.

O f

c ourse

m uch

o f

t his

w ill o nly b e p ossible w ith a c onsiderable a mount o f r esearch i nto t he a geing

a nd

a nimals,

o f

s exing t hose

c haracteristics s pecies

a nd

f or

b reeds

k nown

l ikely

a ge

t o

a nd

b e most

s ex

modern

r elevant

t o

a rchaeological m aterial. I n

t he

m eantime,

much

l ater p ortions o f t he model n ow

r eceiving

B inford

s o

m uch

a nd B ertram

more

w ork

( Fig.

a ttention

1 977;

c an

b o

1 2:1B). i n

u sefully

d one

o n

t he

T hose t aphonomic p rocesses

A merica

( Binford

B ehrensmeyer a nd H ill

1 980;

1 978;

1 981;

S hipman

1 981),

t he s patial d istribution of e lement a nd a ge c lasses i llustrated b y M altby ( 1982) a nd W ilson ( 1978), f ragmentation a nalysis ( Wilson 1 975) a re

a ll

i mportant

d istribution u npatterned

of i n

i n

t his

r espect.

s heep/goat

c ontrast

a nd

t o

t hat

W e

c attle f rom

B each

e xtrapolate t o c ull a nd h usbandry p ractices. o ur t o

s ample a t t he

s ome b e

l ive

h unter

t he

l evel

f lock. g atherer

s omething

o f h ousehold w e

C ertain o r

s imilar

t o

t hat

u sed.

N otwithstanding

t heir

k now

a t

w hy

L erna

O rkney

t he

i s

s o

b efore

w e

I f w e c annot u nderstand

may

s ites,

a dvocated

c onsiders t hat t he f aunal s ample r equirements b efore a t echnique, i n

V iew,

t o

s hould c ertainly n ot p roceed

s ituations

p alaeolithic

n eed

e lements

b e b ut b y

e xceptional, t he

a pproach

G rayson

s uch a s s hould

( 1978)

w ho

must f irst f ulfill c ertain t his c ase m inimum n umbers, i s

v alidity

i t

i s

r evealing

n ote

t hat

a ll t he m ethods o f e stimating a bundance a r c omplimentary r ather a lternative s ince t hey r elate t o d ifferent t arget p opulations.

t han

I n c onclusion I c oncur w ith B rothwell ( 1978) a nimal growth a nd d emography t hat a d iversion, s olving

t he

p roblems o utlined a bove,

w ould

p erhaps

t o

i n h is a rticle i n t his c ase

o n t o

' stop s ome p eople

w riting s cience f iction w hen i t c omes t o d emographic i nterpretation'.

2 73

B ibliography B ehrensmeyer, A . K . a nd H ill, A . P . ( eds.) ( 1980). Fossils i n t he M aking: V ertebrate T aphonomi a nd P aleoecology. U niversity o f C hicago P ress B inford,

L .

R .

( 1978)

N unamiut E thnoarchaeology.

N ew Y ork.

A cademic

P ress B inford,

L .

B inford,

R .

( 1981) B ones,

M yths a nd M en

L . R . a nd B ertram, J . a ttritional p rocesses. A rchaeology:

E ssays

S patial

A nalysis

B inford)

N ew Y ork:

B oessneck,

J .

( 1969)

B .

o n

F aunal

a nd

r emains,

S ystematic

A cademic P ress,

O steological

A ries L innä)

( 1977) B one F requencies - a nd I n F or T heory B uilding i n

a nd G oats

p p.

d ifferences

b etween H iggs)

P roblems

B ullock,

D .

i n

Z ooarchaeology

a nd

R ackham,

J .

e ruption

o f

f eral

( eds.

G alloway,

S cotland.

( 1982) g oats

R .

D .

R .

R .

W .

( 1978)

F aunal

J .

L ondon:

i n

T hames

F usion

M offatdale,

K .

I nstitute 9 1-96 a nd

D . of

t ooth

D umfriess

a nd

( eds. B . W ilson, 1 09 p p. 7 3-80

C .

G rigson

a nd

S .

5 :

5 13-522

a ssemblages

a nd

t he

' Wiegemethod'

R . E . ( 1971) T he s tudy o f a nimal b ones f rom s ites. N ew Y ork a nd L ondon. S eminar P ress A .

T .

( 1972)

P .,

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T .

f rom

r emarks

a nd

o n

t he

u se

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a rchaeology.

o r

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a rchaeological d ata. C oy,

( Ovis

M . ( 1954) S ome u ses o f p robability p aper i n t he a nalysis o f s ize f requency d istributions. A ustralian J ournal o f

w eight m ethod.

C lason,

s heep

I n S cience

B rothwell,

E piphysial

f rom

M arine & F reshwater R esearch,

C haplin,

R .

I n A geing a nd S exing a nimal b ones f ron

A rchaeological S ites P ayne) O xford B AR. B S

C asteel,

L .

D . ( 1978) G rowth a nd D emography; n eglected a spects of mammal s tudies i n r elation t o A rchaeology. I n R esearch T homas a nd J . C lutton-Brock) L ondon: A rchaeology O ccasional P ublication N o. 3 p p.

C assie,

R esources,

( ed.

7 5-153

( Capra H ircus L innä).

A rchaeology ( eds. J . B rothwell a nd E . a nd H udson, p p. 3 31-358 B rothwell,

A quatic

m odeling

K .

A .

p resentation

of

1 39-153 ( 1982)

s ections

I n W ilson,

a nd

a rchaeological

A bsolute a geing o f

a nd

i ts

G rigson a nd

P ayne

r elevance ( eds.)

p p.

t o 1 27-

1 40 D eniz,

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a nd

P ayne,

d entition W ilson,

a s

S .

( 1982)

a g uide

E ruption t o

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a nd

a geing ( eds.)

2 7 1 4

w ear

T urkish

p p.

i n

t he

A ngora

1 55-206

m andibular g oats.

I n

E wbank,

J .

M ., E .

P hillipson,

S .

( 1964)

D .

W .

a nd

S heep

i n

t he

W hitehouse, I ron

R .

A ge:

D .,

w ith H iggs,

a m ethod

o f

s tudy.

P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 3 0 4 23-426 F ieller,

N .

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a nd

V ertebrate

T urner,

S amples

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( 1982)

J ournal

N umber

e stimation

i n

o f A rchaeological S cience 9 4 9-

6 2 F rison,

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C .

( ed.)

( 1974)

T he C asper S ite:

t he H igh P lains N ew Y ork, G ilbert,

A .

S .

a nd S inger,

B .

q uantification. G rant,

A .

( 1975)

T he

H .

( 1982)

A .

a nimal

b ones.

I n

E xcavations

W .

C unliffe)

a t

P ortchester

L ondon.

S ociety

( 1978) V ariation i n d ental a ttrition i n mammal a nd i ts r elevance t o a ge e stimation. I n R esearch P roblems i n Z ooarchaeology C lutton B rock,

( D. R . e ds.).

B rothwell, K . D . T homas a nd J . L ondon. I nstitute o f A rchaeology

O ccasional p ublication N o. G rant,

R eassessing z ooarchaeological

W orld A rchaeology 1 4 2 1-40

C astle, V ol. 1 R oman, ( ed B . o f A ntiquaries p p. 3 78-408 G rant,

A H ell G ap b ison k ill o n

A cademic P ress

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( 1982)

T he

d omestic

G rayson,

u se

o f

t ooth

u ngulates.

p p.

9 1-108

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K .

( 1973)

O n

3 p p.

I n

t he

w ear

1 03-106 a s

W ilson,

a g uide

G rigson

m ethodology

o f

t o

a nd

t he P ayne

f aunal

a ge

o f

( eds.)

a nalysis.

American A ntiquity 3 9 4 23-9 G rayson,

D .

K .

( 1978)

M inimum

n umbers

a nd

s ample

s ize

i n

v ertebrate

f aunal a nalysis American A ntiquity 4 3 5 3-65 G rayson,

D . K . ( 1979) a rchaeofaunas.

G rigson,

T heory

V ol.

P ress,

p p.

2 ( ed.

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B .

S chiffer).

N ew

v ertebrate M ethod a nd

Y ork.

A cademic

1 99-237

C . ( 1982) S ex a nd a ge d etermination o f s ome b ones a nd t eeth o f d omestic c attle: a r eview of t he l iterature. I n W ilson, G rigson a nd P ayne

K rantz,

O d t he q uantification o f I n A dvances i n A rchaeological

G .

S .

( 1968)

( eds.)

p p.

7 -24

A n ew m ethod o f c ounting m ammal b ones.

A merican

J ournal o f A rchaeology 7 2 2 86-288 K ubasiewicz,

M .

( 1956)

k ostnych

0 m etodyce

s qierzecych.

b adan

w ykipaliskowych

M aterialy

s zczatkow

Z achodnio-Pomorskie,

p p.

2 35-244 L awrence,

B ( 1980)

C hapter

I V

P rincipal

f ood

a nimals

a t

C ayonu.

P rehistoric V illage A rchaeology i n S outh-Eastern T urkey S .

B raidwood

a nd

R .

J .

B raidwood,

e ds.)

B AR

S 1 38 p p

I n ( L. 1 75-

1 99 L ie,

R .

W .

( 1980)

s amples.

M inimum

number

of

i ndividuals

f rom

o steological

N orwegian A rchaeological R eview 1 3 2 4-30 2 75

L yman,

R .

L . ( 1982) A rchaeofaunas a nd S ubsistence S tudies. A dvances i n A rchaeological M ethod a nd T heory V ol. 5 ( ed. B .

M altby,

J .

S chiffer) M .

( 1982)

e ffects ( eds.) M eadows,

R .

A cademic P ress,

d ata.

3 39-393

p p.

v ariability

a geing

p p.

H .

T he

o n

o f

f aunal

I n

W ilson,

S .

( 1980)

A nimal

( 1972)

O n

t he

a rchaeological ( ed. P ayne,

S .

E .

( 1973)

b ones:

P roblems

S .

D .

H iggs).

K ill

J r.

R ackham,

D .

M atolcei) J .

S axon,

A .

A

i n

C UP,

t heir P ayne

f or

t he

a rchaeologist

P aleorient 665-77

of

b one

o n

E conomic

p p.

s amples

f rom

P rehistory

6 5-81

s heep a nd g oats:

c ritique

o f

f rom

t he

methods

t he m andibles

o f

a rchaeological

f orschung

a nd G eschiehte

q uantifying

s ites.

I n

d er Haustiere

A kad6miai K iadö,

M id-Devensian M ammals

t hesis,

a nd

a nd a nd

A natolian S tudies 2 3 2 81-303

B udapest:

( 1982)

M .Sc.

P apers

C ambridge,

r emains

D omestikations J .

I n

o ff p atterns

( 1973)

f aunal

I nterpretation

s ites.

f rom A v an K ale. P erkins,

s amples G rigson

8 1-90

t ogether w ith s ome p ossible s olutions. P ayne,

I n M .

( ed.

3 67-9

p p.

i n B ritain.

U npublished

U niversity o f B irmingham

H igham,

C .

F .

W .

( 1969)

A n ew

r esearch

m ethod

f or

e conomic p rehistorians A merican A ntiquity 3 4 3 03-311 S hipman,

P .

( 1981)

L ife

H istory

o f

a

T aphonomy a nd P aleoecology. S ilver,

I .

A .

( 1969)

T he

A rchaeology L ondon. S mith,

B .

D .

R .

o f d omestic

B rothwell

T hames a nd H udson,

( 1975)

y ield

a geing

( D.

o f

T oward

a m ore

a t

A rchaeozoological

S tudies

( A.

o f

S .

I ntroduction

t . )

a nimals. S .

I n S cience

H iggs

e ds.)

2 nd

i n E d.

e stimation

o f

a rchaeological T .

C lason

t he

meat

s ites.

e d.)

I n

A msterdam.

9 9-108

( 1982)

T he

mammalian

w ith

A n

2 50-268

a ccurate

s pecies

S tallibrass,

& E .

p p.

a nimal

E lsevior p p.

f ossil:

H arvard U niversity P ress

u se

t eeth:

s uggestions

a pplications.

o f c ement a s elective

f or

f urther

I n W ilson,

l ayers

f or

a bsolute

r eview o f

t he

s tudies

a nd

G rigson a nd P ayne

a geing

l iterature, a lternative

( eds.)

p p.

1 09-

1 26 U erpmann,

H .-P.

( 1973)

c ritical

A nimal b one f inds a nd,

s tudy o f t he

e conomic a rchaeology:

' osteo-archaeological'

m ethod.

a

W orld

o f A rchaeology 4 3 07-22 W atson,

J .

P . I n K .

N .

( 1978)

R esearch D .

T he i nterpretation o f e piphyseal

P roblems

T homas

I nstitute

o f

a nd

i n J .

Z ooarchaeology. C lutton-Brock

A rchaeology,

9 7-102

2 76

O ccasional

D .

f usion d ata. R .

( eds.).

p ublication

B rothwell, L ondon, N o.

3 pp.

W atson,

J .

P .

N .

( 1979)

mammalion

T he e stimation o f t he r elative f requencies o f

s pecies:

K hirokitia

1 972.

J ournal

o f

A rchaeological S cience 6 1 27-37 W hite,

T .

E . of

( 1953) A m ethod f or c alculating t he d ietary p ercentages v arious f ood a nimals u tilised b y a boriginal p eoples.

A merican A ntiquity 1 8 3 93-399 W ilson,

B . ( 1978) M ethods a nd r esults o f b one a nalysis. I n T he e xcavation o f a n I ron A ge S ettlement, B ronze A ge R ingd itches

a nd

A bingdon

O xfordshire R eport 2 8,

R oman

f eatures

( Oxfordshire) A rchaeological p p.

a t

1 974-76 U nit,

A shville ( ed. R eport

T radine. E state, M .

I .

P arrington). C BA.

R esearch

10-126

W ilson,

B ., G rigson, C . a nd P ayne, S . ( eds.) ( 1982) A geing a nd S exing A nimal B ones f rom A rchaeological s ites. B AR B S 1 09

W ilson,

M ( 1975) T he C asper l ocal f auna a nd i ts b ison. S ite: A H ell Gap B ison K ill o n t he H igh F rison e d.)

A cademic P ress.

2 77

I n T he C a uer P lains ( C. C .

1 3.

A GRICULTURAL A ND S UBSISTENCE S YSTEMS O F T HE

T HIRD M ILLENNIUM B .C.

I N N ORTH-WEST P AKISTAN:

K .

D .

A S PECULATIVE O UTLINE

T homas

P ROLOGUE A ND O UTLINE O F P APER T his

p aper

s ettlement, m illenium

B .C.

i ntegration t wo

c ontains

b oth

a gricultural i n

o f

s tages:

B annu

s uch

t he

a nd

i nformation

s ubsistence

D istrict,

s ystems

i s

o f

s peculation

n orth-west

a m ajor

i dentification

a nd

s ystems

t heme

t he

o f

t he

o n

t hird

P akistan.

w hich

i ndividual

i s

T he

d iscussed

e lements

o f

i n t he

s ystem a nd t hen t he c onstruction o f m odels w hich p lace t hese e lements i nto

s ome

q uestions d efined

d ynamic a s

h ow

a nd

r elationship t he

w hat

a re

t he

b etween g roups o f e lements Much

o f

t he

w ith

b oundaries

o ne

o f

a nother.

T his

v arious

s ystems

t he

h ierarchical

a nd

s patial

r aises

s uch

s hould

b e

r elationships

( or s ub-systems).

d iscussion

i s

f ocused

u pon

i ndividual

n uclear

s ettlements w hich a re r elated t o e conomic s ystems b ased u pon d ry-land f arming a ctivities. t erms

of

t heir

t erritories

o f

m ovement

t hese

T he o f

a nd

s ystems.

a gricultural

a nd

i ntegration o f t hese s ystems

e nergy

a nd

m aterials

b etween

t he

i dentified,

T he

r ole

p astoral

o f

t he

a ctivities

i s

b etween

i s a nalysed s ettlements

a nd

i nferred,

s econdary

p roducts

c onsidered

t o b e

i n a nd

e lements o f

b oth

f undamental

t o i ntegration. P erturbations e nvironmental,

i n

t hese

s ocial

s ystems

a nd

m ay

p olitical

r esult

f rom

f actors.

a w ide-range

I nter-annual

o f a nd

s patial v ariation i n r ainfall i s a p articularly s ignificant f actor i n t he

a rea

t oday

f lexibility

( and

of

d ecision-making, t herefore

t he

a ctivities. a ge-

a nd

t his

r esponse

w as b y

p robably f armers.

p articularly

p otential T he

a nnual

s ex-related

f or

S uch

r egarding

t he

i nter-annual

s cheduling

d ivisions

t rue

o f

i n

t he

a nnual

m ay b e a n

d emanding r ests

u pon

s cheduling

( and

r escheduling)

a ctivities,

o f l abour,

p ast),

f lexibility

w ith

o f

a rable

a ssociated

i mportant

f actor

i n i ntegrating a gricultural a ctivities i nto t he s ubsistence s ystem, a nd s ubsistence a ctivities i nto t he e conomic s ystem ( see s ection V I f or a d iscussion o f t hese t erms). T he m ain s ections o f t his p aper a re: I I ntroduction. t hat

i n

W hy i s

t he n orth-west

S outh

A sian a griculture,

o f t he

s ub-continent,

a rchaeologist?

2 79

a nd

p articularly

o f i nterest

t o

t he

I I T he F ieldwork A rea. D istrict

A n o utline o f a rchaeological

w ork i n B annu

I II E nvironment a nd S ubsistence i n t he B annu B asin t oday I V P ast E nvironments i n t he B asin V S ome t heoretical c onsiderations 1 .

D efinitions a nd a pproaches

2 .

L evels o f a nalysis

3 .

F ocusing o n t he s ite

4 .

Q uantification

5 .

S imple m odels

V I A griculture

a nd

S ubsistence

i n

t he

B annu

B asin

i n

t he

t hird

m illennium B .C. 1 .

I ntroduction

2 .

C rops

3 .

P roducts A rable a ctivities

4 . 5 .

P astoral a ctivities

6 .

S econdary p roducts ( i) ( ii)

f rom a rable a ctivities f rom p astoral a ctivities

V II A pproaches

t o

t he

I ntegration

o f

a gricultural,

s ubsistence

a nd

p alaeoenvironmental

a nd

e conomic s ystems V III P ostscript T he

p resentation

p alaeoeconomic a nd

h ypothetical

s ynthesis i s

d ata,

m ore

i ncludes

m odels.

T his

o f a l ong-term a nd

o f

a n

b ased i s a s y et

t he

u se

o f

a nalogy w ith p resent-day s ystems

h euristic

p aper

d oes

n ot

i n t he

r epresent

r egion,

t he

f inal

w ide-ranging p rogramme o f f ieldwork,

e xercise.

T he

f ield-work

u pon

w hich

i t

i t i s

i n i ts i nfancy.

I I NTRODUCTION A gricultural

a nd

e conomic

s ystems

o f

t he

p rehistoric

a nd

p rotohistoric p eriods i n t he I ndian S ub-continent a re o f i nterest f or a n umber o f r easons, d ay

a griculture

( 1976)

p ointed

d iverse

r ange

a pplies

n ot

s upposed

o f

c rops

o f

u nderstanding o f t he o rigins o f p resent-

a nd

i s

o rigin

o f

o f

m any

( Bos),

o f t he

t hem.

A s

J oseph H utchinson

i s

n otable

a nimals.

T his

s pecies

e xploited

v arious

d omesticates.

( e.g.

c otton

w ater

o f

a griculture

d omesticated

r ange

s pp.),

o ne

I ndian

t he

a ncestors c attle

a n

r egion

m odern

t o

( Brassica

( Capra),

a nd

t he

o ut,

o nly

a reas

p otential m ustard

i n

r ice

( Oryza

( Gossypium

b uffalo

s p.),

s p.),

( Bubalus)

b ut

m ay o ccur

i ts

d iversity

a lso

t o

t he

W hile

t he

s ome

s heep

f or

l egumes,

( Ovis), i n

g oat

t he S ub-

c ontinent,

t his n eed n ot i mply i ndigenous d omestication o f a ll o r a ny

o f

R ice

t hem.

e ast A sia. a long

w ith

a nd

S heep,

w ater

b uffalo

m ay h ave

c ome

f rom

C hina o r S outh-

g oat a nd c attle c ould h ave c ome f rom w estern A sia,

l entils,

p eas,

w heat,

2 80

b arley

a nd

o ats.

S orghum a nd

E leusine p robably c ame f rom A frica. T he N ew W orld c ultigens, s uch a s m aize, p otatoes a nd c hili p eppers, p ose f ew p roblems o f i nterpretation. o bscure

T he

( Hutchinson

h istory 1 976),

i n a u nique p osition t o c ast T he

I ndian

c limate,

o f

i s

I ndian

o f

i nterest,

a lthough r ather

a nd

a rchaeology

i s

l ight o n t his.

S ub-continent

t opography a nd

a griculture,

g reat

i s

e cology.

e xtremely

S opher

v aried

( 1980)

i n

t erms

h as n oted

t hat

o f

t here

i s a marked e ast-west g radient i n h umidity w hich i s a ssociated w ith a c line t he

i n

a gricultural

e ast

i n t he w est.

a rchaeological h as

p roduced

d omestication 1 980).

o f

( the

i s

i ncreased

i n

r esearch p lants

t he

i n

F ig

n eolithic

s ite,

1 3:1.b),

s uggests

e arly

h usbandry

( south-west

t he

i ndigenous

( Jarrige

d eposits

a nd

a t

M eadow

t he

s ite

a nd o f o thers m entioned

o n

t he

K acchi

p erhaps

P lain,

h ave

c rops

i nclude

v arieties)

p roduced

A nalysis o f t he a nimal b ones l ocal

S chubl)

a nd

n ot

( Jarrige a nd M eadow

2 -row

a nd

a nd

e inkorn

b read w heats

o nly

i s

6 -row

( Triticum ( T.

m ixed

d omestication

1 980;

b arley

( both

a estium L .).

w estern I ndian S ub-continent,

M eadow

o f

s heep,

o f

I t

g reat

- a nd

1 981).

h ulled

m onococcum L .),

f arming

o f

i n t his

c attle a nd w ater b uffalo b efore t he s ixth m illennium B .C.

p robably much e arlier

t hat

a nd

f or

a nimals

a bundant r emains o f a nimals a nd p lants. g oat,

i n

p astoral c omponent

B aluchistan

e vidence

a nd

d eep

l ocation o f t his

s hown

i n

c ompelling

c ertain

E xcavations

M ehrgarh

f rom r ice-dominated a griculture

f arming w ith a n

T his p aper i s c oncerned o nly w ith t his l atter a rea.

R ecent P akistan)

p aper,

a ctivities,

t o m ixed-grain

E arly

a nd

e mmer

( T.

n aked

d icoccum

w ould a ppear t herefore

a ntiquity

i n

t he

n orth-

i t may a lso h ave e volved i n s itu.

A griculture i n n orth-west I ndia i s r emarkable f or i ts d iversity, c onservatism W hen

f arming w heat,

c rop

d egree

( kharif)

b arley a nd

c rops.

R ice

m illets

m ay

c ropping ( Indus

b e

g rown

i mprints

i s

A llchin

o f

t he

t he

v illage

i rrigation

y ear.

a nd

h usks i s

u nknown. s ites

A llchin a re

1 982)

G ujarat.

a nd

S avithri

1 982:

2 07).

H arappan

s ites

i nclude

i n

t he

O ther c .f.

t he

i n

r ice

p ossible

S etaria

c lay

s ummer

a nd

c .f.

f rom

b een a nd

H arappan m illenium o f

a nd

r eported b e

t he

l egumes

i n t he m ay

t he

d ouble-

d iscussion b arley

marshes

a nd

o f

t hird

r emains a re

b aked

l ocal

t he main s ummer

r emains

h as

a nd

i nclude

S orghum

m id-late w heat,

r ice

( rabi)

a ntiquity

a r ecent

b y

b ut

T he

s pikelets

c ommon

T he

f or

d ominated

S avithri i n

1 982

b ut

P lant

o f

l evel.

p ossible,

W inter c rops

i rrigation

d ry-lands.

l argely

a nd

R angpur

w hich

e ach

r equires

o n

C ivilization)

a nd

a t

a nd

i ntensive w ith b oth a w inter c rop b eing g rown

C ivilization)

( VishnuMittre L othal

i ntegration

f avourable

l egumes w hile r ice a nd m illets a re

s ystems

( see

o f

a re

g enerally

V alley

H arappan

r ice,

h igh

p atterns

i s p articularly

a s ummer

B .C.

a nd

r ainfall

f rom

f orm o f o f

w ild

( VishnuMittre c rops

E leusine

r eported c oracana

a nd f rom f rom

S urkotada a nd S orghum f rom L ate H arappan D aimabad ( VishnuMittre a nd S avithri 1 982). T hese i dentifications a re t entative a nd r efer t o o nly

a

f ew

s pecimens;

i t

a ppears

t hat

s ummer

c rops

w ere

n ot

a n

i mportant e lement i n H arappan a griculture.

T he e arliest e vidence f or

s ummer

f rom

a nd

w inter

m illennium B .C. i n

S wat

B .C.,

c rops

r ice,

P akistan

c omes

R ice h as b een r eported

( Costantini

a nd

i n

1 979),

S orghum

a nd

d ating g rape

P irak i n B aluchistan ( Costantini

2 81

o f

t he

s econd

f rom L oebanr I II a nd A ligrama

f rom

t he

( Vitis)

1 981).

s ites

l ate h ave

s econd b een

m illennium

r eported

f rom

I t h as n ot b een d emonstrated

i . . -)

u .

eg b

e

i

.

e

, P. %

. .r * Peshawa

B annu

, 1 . 7 ., L ahore. '

i , ( . 2 . .4 . . .

/

C e l t \

i x

; , . .3

; *Que . _ . . . - i t ta

.. . .

t i

• A

IR AN Z

1

•

K arach i A rab ian

F ig.

1 3:1a

t‚j

s ea

( above)

M ap

D istrict.

o f P akistan, F ig.

1 3:1b

s howing t he

( opposite)

n orth-west I ndia s howing t he s ites m entioned i n t he t ext. M ehrgarh;

3 : 7 :

l ocation o f B annu

M ap

o f

P akistan

a nd

l ocation o f r egions a nd 1 : t he B annu B asin; 2 :

4 : R angpur; 5 : S urkotada; 6 : L oebanr; 8 : A ligia-m a; 9 : P irak; 1 0:

L othal;

D aimabad; K alibangan; 1: B ahawalpur a nd 1 3: S arai K hola.

2 82

D istrict;

1 2:

R ehman

D heri

7 &8

2&9

0 0 010

60

2 83

a rchaeologically t hat t hese s ummer t echnology. A lthough m uch m ore

c rops w ere g rown u sing i rrigation w ork n eeds t o b e d one o n t he

d iversification

n orth-west

p articularly B .C.,

i t

o f

i n

w ould

p atterns

w ere

c ultigens

t he

p eriod

a ppear

i n

f rom

t hat

e nvironmental

t he

f ourth

t he

major

c onstraints

I ndia

t o

l ate

a nd

d eterminants

a nd

t he

P akistan,

s econd

m illennia

o f

c ropping

a vailability o f b oth

s uitable c ultigens a nd i rrigation t echnology. D ouble a spect

o f

o r

t he

b )

S uch

d emonstrated

e lements

w ith

t he

B annu

D istrict a nd

t he

I n

f or

a ll

c ommunities

s ystem

o verall

t heir

b y B laikie

o f o rganization -

a nd

b etween

h ow

s ocioeconomic

v ariety

i ntegrated

t he

a nd

t hese

s ystem.

c omplexity,

e xploitation

N orth-West

b y

o f c rops,

F rontier

P rovince

i t

of

s ite

o f M ehrgarh

P lain l ies a t I ndia

t he

w as

t he

n orth

o f

t he

( 1878),

d rained

b y

t he

I ndus.

T he g eneral

1 978-9

a m ajor

e lsewhere

a

t eam

( Rendell

c onsisting

t he

I ndus w as

K acchi

t o

A fghanistan

t wo

p lains

a nd

o f

I ,

o f

e arly b asin,

t he

h ills

i n

w here t he T he K acchi

w hich h as b een a r oute

c enturies,

C omparable p asses o ccur i n t he B annu b asin;

a nd

i nterest

a bove).

i t

t he

i n B aluchistan,

s ection

f rom

( 1971),

v iewpoint l ocation

B olan P ass, f or

a part

D ani

o f c onsiderable

P lain

( see

t he

F irst, a nd

t he

l ocation

b orderland,

d iscovered

( 1928)

f rom

of

a nd

B annu D istrict h ad b een

r easons.

S tein

u nknown

o f t he

G omal

i s

o utlined

b asin.

g eographic

e ntrance

a nd

j oin

t wo main

b etween

t hat

t he

t he

f urther d etails a re g iven b elow.

a nd

i n

f or

R averty

A fghan

r esembles

t o b een

a nd

1 977-8

s ites,

z one

t he

t hat

e ast h ave

t o

b asin

a rchaeologists u ndertook s ite-surveys,

r elatively

p iedmont

a nd

T he

f lows

b asin

o f

S econd,

o f

V alley

1 3:2).

i nvestigation

a rea

m ountains

b etween

t he

t he

a nd i n p ress)

B ritish

s urveys

a n t he

t he

e xcavations o n

s ettlement. i n

a nd

w inters

a nd

s elected w as

o f

i n

w hich

o f

1 981

t he

P akistani

l imited

a nd

P eshawar

1 3:1

K urram,

T homas

l imited

l evel

o ne

I ndian

B ANNU D ISTRICT

i s

t he

( Figures

c haracteristics 1 981;

h igh

o nly

o ccupying a t opographical b asin l ocated t o t he s outh o f t he

R ange

r iver,

c ourse,

n orth-west

w ild b iological r esources a nd t he l andscape.

P akistan, P lain

o f o f

a gricultural i n

e xamples

I I T HE F IELDWORK A REA:

S alt

t he

s ystems,

e xcellent

a nimals,

o f

a re,

i ntegration

a gricultural

t he

e nvironment

a gricultural

p rovide

p atterns

a nd

A nalyses o f r ecent h ave

d iverse

i nteract

c ropping

d iversification

a griculture. ( 1971a,

s ingle

t he

i f

n ot

m illennia.

t he v alleys o f t he K urram

a nd T ochi h ave l ong b een u sed a s a m eans o f t rade a nd c ontact b etween t he I ndian S ub-continent a nd A fghanistan. W e h ad h oped t o l ocate e arly s ettlements i n B annu D istrict w hich w ere

c omparable

t o

M ehrgarh

e arly d omestication, f rom

t he

L ewan

l ate

a nd

b ut s o

i n

t erms

f ourth m illennium B .C.

T arakai

Q u a

( Fig

4 ,

a nd

V I.1, t he t hey

i n

p ress).

b elow.)

v iewpoint d epended.

I n of

( These

t his t he T he

p aper

s ites

1 3:2 a nd

n umbers

e vidence

a re

d iscussed

c onsider

a nd

p resented

f or

t hese

O f t hese,

1 3)

h ave

1 981a,

b riefly

s ubsistence a re

1 3:3).

5 a nd

( Allchin a nd K nox

I w ill

a gricultural d ata

( Fig

s ite

s ubject t o e xploratory e xcavations 1 981

o f c hronology a nd

f ar t he e arliest s ites w e h ave f ound d ate

b ; i n

s ection

e arly s ites s ystems

p rovisional

e xtensive a nd i ntensive f ieldwork a nd l aboratory a nalysis.

b een

T homas f rom

o n

w hich

u pon

more

I II E NVIRONMENT A ND S UBSISTENCE I N T HE B ANNU B ASIN T ODAY O nly a s ynopsis

i s

p resented

w ill b e p ublished e lsewhere T he

c limate

t he y ear,

i s

a rid

h ere

( Thomas,

o r

a s

a m ore

d etailed

t reatment

i n p ress).

s emi-arid

a nd

r ainfall,

a t

a ll

t imes

o f

i s h ighly u npredictable i n q uantity a nd s patial . o ccurrence.

T he monsoon r ains o f J uly-September p rovide t he h eaviest r ains o f t he y ear,

a lthough

t he

m onsoonal

i nfluence

i s

v ery

n orth-westerly p art o f t he I ndian l and-mass. e vapo-transpiration p ossible

i n

c oncentrated e phemeral s ystems

m ean

t he i n

t he

s treams ( mostly

c oncentrated.

t hat

a griculture

s ummer.

M odern

n orth-west

e merge

o f

f rom

d eveloped

w ithout

b asin,

h ills

s ince

t he

i n

i rrigation

a gricultural t he

t he

a ttenuated

t his

H igh l osses o f w ater b y

w here

a nd

i s

n ot

s ettlements

a re

p ermanent

w here

t he

m id-nineteenth

a nd

i rrigation

c entury)

a re

T he n orth-west o f t he b asin i s a lso w atered b y r ain i n

t he w inter a s a r esult o f t he e astwards p enetration o f M editerraneant ype d epressions. r ates, t he

p rovides

i rrigated

T his w inter r ainfall, t he

b asis

n orthern

f or

a nd

c oupled w ith l ow e vaporation

r ain-fed

w estern

a griculture

h ills

a nd

t he

( barani) e astern

i n

b oth

p lains

o f

t he b asin. Bannu w ith i n

C ity

a w ide

t he

i s

t he

f ocus

f or

r ange o f s ummer,

a rea.

E lsewhere

i ntensive,

w inter

i n t he

a nd

b asin,

m arket-based,

v egetable

c rops

l and-use,

b eing g rown

away f rom t he i rrigated a reas,

a griculture d epends e ither u pon d irect r ainfall ( dry-land f arming) o r o n c oncentrated r un-off a t t he b ottom o f s lopes o r i n s tream c hannels.

I n

t hese

a reas

o nly a s ingle

( winter)

c rop i s g rown e ach

y ear a nd p astoralism i s a n i mportant e lement i n t he e conomy. d etails

o f

p rehistoric

r ecent

f arming

p ractices

f arming

( section V I,

a re

d iscussed

i n

F urther

r elation

t o

4 and 5 ).

I V P AST E NVIRONMENTS I N T HE B ASIN There d ischarge

i s

a bundant

a nd

s tream

e vidence

o f

i ncision

c hanges

i n

( Thomas, i n p ress). I t i s n ot s ecular v ariations o f c limates

t he

r ainfall

a t

s hort-term, manifest

p resent

l ikely

d ay

e vents

o f

I t

p attern

o f

w ater

H olocene

t imes

c hanges w ere d ue t o a s3ociated w ith t he

r ainfall a nd I nter-annual

e normous s hifts

a nd

t he c orrelated v ariation i n

p robably

i n

c limate.

e xceeds

i n

T herefore,

s hifts i n t he w eather a re m ore l ikely t o b e

d epositior ial t rends.

i s

l onger-term

y ear-to-year,

i n

l onger-term v arious

t he

a ny

t he

d uring

c lear i f t hese o r t o f actors

t orrential n ature o f ( especially s ummer) i nstability o f c hannelled r un-off. magnitude

i n

b asin

a nd

e rosional

h as n ot,

i ncision

a nd

a s

s equences

je t,

p roved

d eposition

t han

a re

s ubtle

p ossible t o d ate t he

w hich

a re

e vident

i n

t he

n orth-west o f t he b asin. E vidence

f or

m illennium B .C. i n

n orth-west

l akes

( Singh

w etter d uring c ertain t o

a n

c limate

i s l acking;

o f

n orth-west

H ere,

p ollen

e t

1 974)

s uggest

a l.

t he p eriod

i ncrease o f

t hese i n

t he

a nalyses t hat

5 000-3500 B .P.

c hanges m ean

r ainfall.

P akistan

i n

t he

t hird

t he n earest e vidence c omes f rom R ajasthan

I ndia.

w hether

d istribution

t he

i n

l ocal

a nnual T oday,

2 85

o f

t he

t he

t han i t f loras

r ainfall

d eposits

c limate i s

i n o r

w as

t oday. R ajasthan

t o

i n

s alt

m arkedly I t i s n ot w ere

a c hange

i n

d ue t he

t he s ummer m onsoon p rovides t he

A

el • 2 1

j

W indb lown Bou lder Channe l

A nc ion t s i tes

s ands

f ans d epos its

A l luv ia l , a eo t ian & l acus tr ine d epos its

F ig.

1 3:2

M ap o f t he B annu B asin s howing t he m ajor g eomorphological f eatues, d rainage c hannels, e phemeral t orrents a nd t he d istribution o f a rchaeological s ites. S ites o f t he t hird m illennium B .C. a re c ircled.

2 86

6

F ig.

1 3:3 S ites

o f

B annu

t he

r elate

t o

t ext).

I :

t he

t hird

B asin:

v arious

I V:

t opographic r egional T ochi

t he

v alley w ith

o f w ith

K urram

r espectively), ( Vc),

t he G omal

o f

I II:

t he

t he

d efined

A fghanistan,

K ohat

t he

a nd

I ndus

( see

t he

V : .

b y t he i nter-

v ia a nd

t he V b,

P eshawar

v alley

( Vd)

p lain a nd B aluchistan

( Ve).

2 87

I I:

s ettlement

b asin; ( Va

t he

w hich

a nalysis

v alleys

w ith w ith

i n

c atchment;

r egional u nit,

l imits

B .C.

2 5

b oundaries

r esources

n exus;

c ontacts

a nd

l evels

l ocal

i nter-site

p attern;

m illennium

h ypothetical

t he

km

a nd

33°5 '

71-

CANAL

rT 7 LRENMENT

K u rr a t j F o r t

-

M arna

---------c

/

,

0

. s . . , 4•

5 8

Shabez Khe l p

. .

0

8

r,J handu

K he l

0

1 00 k landeo

s‘s‘‘

1 5 0

0

1 8

D a r D e r iz

0 13

0

•

•1

1 4

K ak i k la m Khe l

21

0

4Hawed 0 23

J an i o l eM

T akh t i8 Khe l

P asann i

3 2.45 '

F ig.

1 3:4

M ap o f t he n orth-west o f t he B annu B asin, s howing t he d istribution o f a rchaeological s ites a nd r ecent s ettlements. T he s ites d iscussed i n t his p aper a re: 3 : I slam C hauki; 5 : T arakai Q ila; 7 : D ad K ala K achkot; 1 3: L ewan; 1 9: M irz A li K han D heri; 2 1: L aklargai.

2 88

e ffective r ains o f t he y ears, a re c oncerned. F urther, i t g lobal c hanges,

i rrigation

i nto

t hese

a rable

t ranspiration

E ven i f t he m onsoon h ad a m ore e ffective

n orth-western

a griculture

r ates

w ere

r ange-land

p roduction

o utput.

I f

d istribution

f ar a s p lant g rowth a nd a griculture n ot c lear i f t hese t rends r eflect

t hus h aving h ad a n i mpact i n t he p lains a nd f oothills

o f t he N orth-West F rontier. p enetration

a s i s

a lso

c ould

c limatic of

m ay

i t's

b een

h ad

a nnual

i mpact

m inimal,

c orrespondingly

h ave

c hanges

t otal

a res,

h ave

l owered.

a p ositive

w ere

e ffect

m anifest

r ainfall,

o r

e astwards p enetration o f w inter d epressions,

u pon

u nless

i n

n on-

e vapo-

I ncreased o n

i n

a

a

m ore

p astoral

m ore

e ven

e ffective

w inter c rop p roductivity

c ould h ave b een g reatly i ncreased. T hus,

a lthough

c limate

i n

t he

d iffered t o s ome e xtent f rom t oday, f rom

w ithin

c hanges

t he

c an

d egradation

B annu

b e a nd

b asin.

r elated r emoval

M any

t o

o f

t hird o f

man's

t he

m illennium

B .C.

m ay

h ave

w e h ave n o r eliable d ata f or t his t he

o bservable

a ctivities,

v egetation.

e nvironmental

p articularly

M ost

p lant

t he

c ommunities

r epresent g razing c limaxes a nd many s pecies o f t rees a pd s hrubs s urvive o nly b ecause t hey a re u seful t o m an a s a s ource o f f ruits, f uel

o r

a nimal

f odder.

( non-agricultural)

T here

i s

l ittle r eason t o d oubt t hat p rimary

p roductivity a nd r ange p roductivity w ere h igher i n

p rehistoric t imes t han t hey a re t oday. L astly,

i t

i s

w orth

n oting

t hat

t he

o bserved

d istribution

p attern o f a rchaeological s ites o f a ll p eriods ( Fig 1 3:2) i s r emarkably s imilar t o t he d istribution o f a gricultural s ettlements i n t he

b asin t oday.

s ettlement i n

t he

T his

l ocation

e arlier

s uggests

t hat

i n t he r ecent

h istoric a nd

t he g eneral

f actors i nfluencing

p ast w ere b roadly s imilar t o

p rehistoric

p eriods.

t hose

A ccess t o r eliable

s ources o f w ater a ppears t o b e a major d eter inant.

V S OME T HEORETICAL C ONSIDERATIONS 1 .

D efinitions a nd a pproaches A lthough d iet'

( e.g.

' subsistence'

t he

p resent

a re

s ynonymous.

( 1979:

i s

C lark a nd H aswell c ontext

1 22)

o ften

1 970:

I c onsider

T his

i s

e quated

x i;

t hat

s imilar

w ith

S chneider

s ubsistence

t o

t he

a

' minimal

1 974: a nd

a pproach

2 52),

i n

p roduction o f

D ennell

w ho b elieves t hat t he a nalysis o f s ubsistence s hould

i nclude a ll

p roducts a s w ell

a s

t he

t echnology n eeded

t o o btain

t hem. S ubsistence s ystems, w hich

t he

u nits

c onsumption. u se

o f

A s a nd

s uch

s ubsistence p ossible. t ogether, a ctivities,

models

a re

a re

( Spedding

a nd

f orm

a

o f

n ested

a s

t o

u nits

i nvolving ( or

t erms

h ierarchy

t he

a nalysis

p aper

s ystems ., t hese

f ollows:

2 89

t his

s ystems

e conomic

o r b ehaviour a s

s ame

1 979),

T hroughout

u nderstanding

a re t aken t o b e t hose i n

t he

s usceptible

a gricultural

s ystems t hey

t hey

o utputs.

a s

M y

o r e conomies,

p roduction

s uch

s ystems

t hrough-puts t erms,

of

b y

of t he

i nputs,

I u se

: ous

s ub-systems),

a s i s

c arefully t hat,

r elating

t o

a s

t aken h uman

a gricultural s ystems: f unctional a ssociations b etween m an a nd d omesticated c rops ( plants a nd a nimals) i n w hich t he l atter a re m anipulated f or t heir p roducts a nd i n w hich a ll t he e lements a re u nited

b y

t he

m ovement

o f

e nergy

a nd

m ovement

o r

c ycling

o f

m aterials. s ubsistence s ystems: l andscape

i n

f unctional a ssociations b etween m an a nd t he

w hich

t he

l atter

i s

e xploited

f or

p roducts.

A gricultural s ystems a re n ested w ithin s uch s ystems, e xploitation o f n atural m aterials. s ubsistence e mbedded p roducts, o ther

e conomies:

a nd

w hich

s urpluses,

s ystemic

s ystems

i nvolve l oans,

u nits.

i n w hich s ubsistence

t he

manipulation

d ebts,

T he

u nits

a nd

a nd

a long w ith

s ystems a re

m anagement

p ossibly s ome

o f p roduction

a re

o f

t rade w ith e ssentially

t he s ame a s t he u nits o f c onsumption. P ractical O ne

m ajor

a pplications

p roblem

g round.

A s

H arris

b oundaries

o f

s hould

d one

b e

p opulation. ( i.e.

l ies

f rom

I n

t he

h ousehold,

t he

s ettlements

( or

t hese

h as i n

t he

k nown

p resent

s ites)?

o r

I f t he

b ehaviour

t he of

o f

a

b ehavioural I s

l ocalised

h ow

o n

t erritories

d efine.

a

l atter,

of

i ndividual

t o

o r

s tudy

d efinition

t erms,

t he

s ite)

of

t he

i nferred

d ifficult

( or

u nits o ut,

p ractical

c ontext

i s

v illage

t he

p ointed

o r,

u nit

c oncepts r emain d ifficult.

d efining

( 1978)

s ystems

s ubsistence)

o f

i n

i t

t he

g roup

' localised'

d o

of t hey

h ave t o b e i n o rder t o b e i ncorporated i nto o ne p articular s ubsistence s ystem a s o pposed t o a nother? C learly, t he q uestion o f

b oundaries

s cales

o r

a nd

t heir

l evels

o f

d efinition

a nalysis

i s

( c.f.

c losely

B utzer

r elated

1 982,

t o

2 33-4,

t he w ho

d iscusses o rganization a t v arious l evels). 2 .

L evels o f a nalysis I i ntend o n

t he

t he

t o

f ocus

p articular

s ix

s ites

r elation

t o

t he

p roblems

w hich

d ate

t heoretical

r est o f

o f

t he

f rom

t his

B annu

t he

t heoretical

d iscussion

b asin.

1 3:3 s hows

t hird

b oundaries

F ig

m illennium

w hich

d escribed

B .C.

i n

p otential

l evels of a nalysis. L evel

I :

c atchment. p roduction b oundary

o f t he

w ell-defined, T his

t he

l evel

i n

r elation

s ettlement,

t hat

o f

o f

i t's

a nalysis

f ollowing s ection L evel

s ite

t o

i ts

l ocalised

r esource

T he s ite may b e c onsidered a s a n a utonomous u nit of a nd c onsumption. A major p roblem i s t hat w hile t he

I I:

a s

i t

s urvives

e xploitation

i s

t oday,

i s

t erritory

c onsidered

i n

m ore

r easonably

w ill

n ot

b e.

d etail

i n

t he

( V.3). c omparisons

b etween

s ites

may

r eveal

t he

v ariation i n s ubsistence s ystems w ithin t he p opulation o f s ites. T here

a re

s ites

w ere

e xcavated t he

t hree

major

o ccupied

a t

p roblems t he

s ame

h ere:

w e

t ime;

d o

o nly

n ot k now i f a ll t wo

( and o nly i n a p reliminary f ashion),

i ndividual

s ubsistence

b ase

o f

e ach

s ite;

t he

s ites h ave b een

s o w e d o n ot k now l astly

t here

i s

t he p roblem o f a ssessing f unctional r elationships b etween a ll o r s ome o f t he s ites.

2 90

L evel I II: t he s ettlement p attern i n r elation t o l ocal e nvironmental v ariables. I rrespective o f a ssumed r elationships b etween

t he

t hose

s ites,

f actors

a griculture.

t he

g ross

d istribution

w hich

w ere

f avourable,

o r

i ndicate

l imiting,

t o

A nalysis a t t his l evel m ust a ssume t hat t he s urvey

d ata a re a dequate, o verlooked

p attern m ay

o r

i .e.

t hat

d estroyed

s ites

i n o ther a reas h ave n ot b een

b y n atural

p rocesses.

T he a vailability

of r elevant p alaeoenvironmental d ata i s a f urther c onstraint. L evel f or

I V:

t he

t otal

e xploitation,

w hole

b asin.

p articularly p ermit

a s

A t he

d iversity o f l andscape

d efined

n umber a bsence

i nferences

b y

o f

t opographic

p roblems

o f

a bout

t he

e xist

a rchaeological

l and-use

u nits a vailable

a nd

u nits

a t

o f

t his

d ata

w hich

r esource

t he

l evel, w ould

e xploitation

o utside t he a pparent c ore-area o f s ettlement. L evel V :

s ystems o f i nter-regional c ontact.

a f ew e asily n egotiated may

r easonably

s ettlement

s ystems,

C ontemporary a nd

t he

a ssume

r outes t hat

i n

P lain

b ut

a ny

o ther

s ettlements

G omal

i nto a nd o ut

o ccur i t

i s

T here a re o nly

o f t he

c ontacts

w ith

r egions

o ccurred

i n

t he

P unjab,

d ifficult

b asin a nd w e

s ettlements, v ia

t he

I ndus

t o a ssess

t he

o r

t hese. V alley

l evel

o f

e conomic o r s ocio-political c ontact b etween t hese a reas. A ccording e ach

o f

t he

t o

w here w e

l evels

c hoose

d escribed

t o d raw a rbitrary b oundaries,

a bove

( except

f or

l evel

V )

m ay b e

a nalysed a s s ubsistence s ystems o r e conomies.

3 .

F ocusing o n t he s ite T he

s ite

i s s elected a s

t he

u nit o f a nalysis b ecause

i t , i s

t he o nly s imply-defined a nd l east a mbiguous s patial u nit t hat w e h ave. T arakai Q ila ( Fig 1 3:4, s ite n umber 5 ) p ermanently o ccupied n ucleated s ettlement s o f ar t he b asin,

i s t he o nly e xcavated i n

t herefore c omments a pply e specially t o t his s ite.

S ome

models

i llustrating

a pproaches

t o

t he

i nterpretation

of n on-nucleated u rban s ettlements a re s hown i n F ig 1 3:5 ( Fig 1 3:5.4 m ay a lso a pply t o t he u rban c ase). I n F ig 1 3:5.1, t he nucleated

s ettlement

( S)

c onsists

i ndependent s ubsistence u nits of

t hese

c ontributes

' village a re

e conomy'

o therwise

T arakai s ite,

Q ila,

s ome

T his

b ut

o f

T his

p roblem

c ommunal

s izes

( Fig a nd

o f

f airly

o f

t heir

p roduction

a f unction

m ay

t he

b e

o f

t he

( 1 31--B n )

b ut

a r ealistic

p roduction

E ach t o

u nits

m odel

f or

w ithin

t he

f arm p lots w ithin t he

a re d ifficult t o d efine. b e

o vercome

u nits

1 3:5.2). f unctions

a re

s ettlements

s hared

T arakai

m ay

n umber

b y

a nalysing

t he

s ite

a s

a

r epresenting t he s um o f t he p roduction u nits w ithin

s ettlement t he

c onsumption a nd

s ize

a

a nd t he a rea a nd d istribution o f t he

' black b ox', i n

a s

a utonomous.

c atchment o r t erritory,

t he

f raction

( represented t he

o f

( household o r f amily u nits).

i gnored.

w here

c onsumption

I n o f

o f

t here

s uch a m odel, t he

i ndividual

T his i s

p roducts.

m odel

j oint

2 91

p roduction a lso

p roductive

S ince

Q ila w ere e ssentially v ertical,

m ay

h eterogeneities

t he

a pply

a nd t o

e ndeavour

e xcavations

a t

r ather t han h orizontal,

2

a 1 ( S) A ; B

3

4

a2

A4 ;64 1h-a4

A2; B2

a 2

A

A2; 62

A 1 ; B I

( S ) A1 ; B 1

( S) f( 6 1 ---Bn )

A 4; B4e

F ig.

1 3:5

M odels

o f

n ucleated

s ubsistence i ndividual

s ettlements

b ase.

i n

N ucleated

p roduction

a nd

r elation

c onsumption

u nits

a nd

m aterials

b etween

s uch

u nits,

( S):

t he

n ucleated

p roduction; o f

s ettlement;

t he

Bn : t he u nits o f c onsumption;

l and

e xploited

p roduction/consumption p roportion

An :

o f

t he

t otal

b y u nit;

w ell

o f

an : t he a rea i ndividual

f (Bi

Bn ) : ' n'

a s

S ymbols: u nits

e ach

p roduction of

a nd

( a) a re f low o f

a s

t he h ierarchical r elationships b etween t hem.

t he ( S),

( A/B)

t he a rea o f l and e xploited b y s uch u nits e nclosed i n b oxes; a rrows i ndicate t he n et e nergy

t o

s ettlements

t he

p roduction/

c onsumption u nits w hich c ontributes t o t he maintenance of

t he

f unction,

n ucleated f ,

s ettlement

( represented

a s

o f t he s um o f t he i ndividual u nits).

2 92

s ome

w e k now l ittle a bout t he i ntra-settlement s ocial o rganization o f t his s ite. O ther, F ig

m ore c omplex, m odels m ay a lso a pply t o T arakai Q ila.

1 3:5.3

e ngaged o ther,

s hows

i n

s atellite,

r epresent

f arming

s easonally, of

L ewan

c ould

a s ituation

a gricultural

o r

m ay

. be

s ettlements

o r

f rom

a n

e xample

t he

n uclear

F ig

t he

s ubsistence p roduction. v arious

a s

r epresents

i t

I nstead,

s atellite

s atellite

w ith

u nits m ay

t emporary s ettlements o ccupied

b y t ranshumant g roups.

o f

t his.

T he

s ettlement,

t he m ost

n ucleated

u nit

T hese

s ettlement

e conomically

T he

t ranshumant

f rom

t he

s ite

g roups

s atellitic

o r f rom e lsewhere.

1 3:5.4 s hows

w hich

a n ucleated

i nteracts

u nits.

i ntermittently, b e

w hich

s ubsistence

p ermanent s ettlements,

i n

i n

p roduction

e xtreme d evelopment o f t he m odel

s ettlement

i s

n ot

d oes

e ngaged

i n

n ot

r epresent

p rimary

a

a gricultural

i t a cts a s a m arket f or t he p roduce o f t he

s ubsistence

a p roto-urban

s ystems,

t rend,

a lbeit

o r

u nits,

o n

a s mall

a nd

a s

s uch

( 'village')

s cale. W hich o f t hese m odels a re m ost A nalysis t hat T his

o f

t he

p lant

c rop-processing w ould

s uggest

r emains

( especially

t hat

t he

a pplicable t o T arakai Q ila?

r ecovered

f rom

t he

t hreshing)

m odel

o utlined

s ite

w as i n

s uggests

c arried

o ut.

1 3:5.4

d oes

F ig

n ot a pply t o t his s ite. M odel 3 ( Fig 1 3:5) m ay b e r elevant b ut s ubstantive d ata a re l acking b ecause o f t he l ow a rchaeological v isibility o f

' farmstead'

c losely r elated: w e

h ave

s een,

m odel

t he

modern c ontext,

u nits.

M odels

1 a nd 2 ( Fig

1 3:5)

a re

1 i s p otentially v ery i nteresting b ut,

u nits

a re

s tudies o f

d ifficult

t o

d efine.

' households'

o r

' farms'

E ven

i n

a s t he

a s p roduction

u nits i s d ifficult.

F arm p lots a ssociated w ith d ry-gain f arming

i n

a re

s emi-arid

( 1982:

5 3)

g enerally

z ones

i napplicable

' black b ox'

u sually

e mphasizes,

a t o

a pproach i s,

n on-contiguous

" Eurocentric

o ur

a nd,

n otion

o f

d ry-grain m ode".

a t p resent,

a s

H ill

' farm'

i s

T herefore,

t he

t he o nly p ractical s olution

t o o ur p roblem. T he

d ifficulty

' subsistence

o f

r emains N o

a pproach

i s

a dopted.

c atchment

o f

s ites

s uch u se b y

a s o f

t he

r adii

o r t o

g eomorphological

i s

o ne-hour d efine

i nstability

a gain,

m ade

t o

w alking t he

( c.f. h as

i s

B annu

h ave o ccurred i n t he H olocene.

s ite-catchment H iggs

a nd

models

V ita-Finzi

p ointed

o ut

f or

b ased 1 972)

v illages

n ucleated v illages a re " embedded v isible

t he

p arameters,

d istances.

u pon

T he

c onstrained b asin;

m ay

A nyway, m odern

n ot

b e

( even i f t he e nvironments h ad n ot c hanged o ver t ime) H ill

o r

' define'

t emporal

t erritories o f

a rea'

a p ragmatic

g reat

p articularly i n t he l ocation o f p ermanent a nd e phemeral

d etailed

d ata

' catchment

h ere,

a ttempt

b oundaries

s tream c hannels, of

t he

a nd

b y a rbitrary s patial o r

1 k ilometre n atural

c hanges,

d efining

t erritory'

o r

w ell-known

p articular v illage"

( Hill

i n

2 93

w e

d o

a ppropriate b ecause, n ot

k now

i n a t ract of a rable l and,

b oundaries, 1 982:

I ndia,

t he u se

e cological

8 1).

w hich

p ertain

t o

a s i f

w ith t hat

I n t hs

v iew

s tudy

o f

t hese

i s n ot

c onsisting

o f a v ariable

l imitations

( c.f.

c haracteristics e nvironmental p atterns

s et

B utzer

o f

t he

c atchment

T able

1 3.3).

c atchments

a ssociated

w ith t he v arious 2 a nd F ig

o r

t erritory

u nit

i n

b ut r ather a s

o f e nvironmental o pportunities a nd

1 982

s ubsistence

d ata

a nd

( section V ,

4 .

p roblems,

v iewed a s a d efined s patial

b oth

T herefore,

a re

w ith

d educed

g eneral

t he

f rom

t he

s ettlement

l evels o f a nalysis o utlined

a bove

1 3:4).

Q uantification F or

a n umber

o f

r easons,

b oth

t heoretical

a nd

p ractical,

t he a pproach a dopted i s e xplicitly n on-quantitative. W e of

h ave

s een

s ystems.

p roduction

i s

h ow

t he

c losed

o ther

h ow d ifficult

T herefore, v ery

d ifficult.

s ystems

s ubsistence

i mpossible, W e

i s

t o

A dded

w ere;

u nits

t o

m ovements w ould

d efine i n

t his o f

t he

t erms i s

o utput

t he

p roducts

m ake

b oundaries

of

o r

p roblem o f t o

a nd

q uantifation

f rom

a lmost

o r o f d ubious v alidity.

d o

n ot

p roduction,

a nd

s ufficiently c omparative d ensities, 1 982: 1 8) e normous

i t

q uantification

k now t he

i f

r esembles

t hat

( comparable?) e tc. a nd

t he

m ethods

t echnology

o f

i ts

o f

t oday

m odern

t o

a gricultural i n

p ermit

t he

t he

d ata o n c rop y ields,

S uch m odern d ata a re u sually d o n ot t ake

i nterannual

f or

a pplication,

v ariation

i n

p ast

u se

o f

l ivestock

a nyway u nreliable ( Hill i nto c onsideration t he

o utput

i n

t hese

s emi-arid

r egions. U sually p alaeoeconomic

t he

a rchaeological,

d ata

f rom

e xcavated

d etailed q uantitative a nalysis, r elative

i mportance

q uestions h igh

m ay

l evels

l evels

of

n ot

o f

b e

s ay

a nd

a rable

m eaningful

o f e nvironmental

p roduction,

g rain

a nd

c ontribution o f t hese e lements

v alidly

a pply

s ystems,

t he

o ften

b ear

t erms

o f

f low

t o

h igh-risk a griculture,

r isk-spreading n o

m odels

c lose

a re

n ot

a ctivities

s o c an

t o

s imple

e asily

a nd

a dequate

p roduction. T he

m eat

f or

t o

S uch

z ones

i dea

o r

t he e conomy,

a nd

s trategies.

t he

T he

b ased

I n

s uch

p roduction,

a chieved

c onstructed.

t he

d oes n ot

w here s ystems a re

e nergy-budgetting

w ith

o f a verage

m ilk,

e specially f or a rable

r elationship

y ields),

n ot

s emi-arid

d ecision-making

l evels o f i nput,

c rop

s ubsistence

a nd

i n

u ncertainty.

o f

a verage u pon

a re

s uch a s t he d etermination o f t he

p astoral

e ven

p alaeoenvironmental s ites

o utput a nd

( in

e nergy-

s cheduling

o f

c hange g reatly f rom y ear-to-year a nd

r e-scheduling w ill o ccur i f t he w inter r ains f ail. 5 .

S imple m odels T he

s ubsistence

n ecessary

f or

materials,

s tone

s implicity, e lements

of

i n

s ystem

s ustaining a nd

t his

m ay

a rtefacts,

p aper

s ubsistence

I a m

1 3:6.

c lay

a ll

f ood, f or

t hose f uel,

p ottery,

c oncentrating

s ystems,

p roducts a nd i ncluding t he s oil. F ig

i nclude

e xistence:

o n

c omprising

t he a ll

f actors b uilding

e tc.

F or

b iological b iological

T he m ain e lements a re s hown i n

T his m odel i s g reatly s implified a nd o mits a number

2 94

l c

• M . 0

r I

o C

c d 0

• H 5 . 4 C D . Z

E ! l c a l

04

t 7 4 0 wW

t ) c d . a

0

( r )

( i ) 4 . ) i n ' 3 0 >3

C IS

C i)

t4

n j • , 1

4 )

M I E l

ai

ti)

0

Cd

4 ) r I 0

r f ) 4 )

( 1 )

0

0 1 0) C D 4 )

L . t i ) C D

e .

E l

l c o E

o c a

m o d e l o f ' a n

I

4 ) r14-) ( t 1

0

4 )

.X o ,

0

M

r i

Q4 . )

9 4 -) C a

c d

40 / 1

.•

S t IR I T MD R IDV •

a o

2 95

E l o

O ' Z . M

>

u Tpat !b no i d

O

e w

G e l

o f

v ariables,

p opulation S ome

o f

t he

t hrough ( where of

i n

o n

d ung

p atterns 1 3:7),

o f

d ung

g raze

o f

a nd

o n t he

o f

m ovement

a nd

v ariable

t o

a nd

s oil o n

t he

u tilization f ew

o ccur

a ftermath

o f

a

t ransportation

d ung

a re

of

i n s itu

r angelands.

o f

p athways

o ccur

m ovements

m ay

t he

h uman s ystem.

c ould

t he

a r esult o f t he o r

t he t he

m aterials

f ields,

a s

f rom f rom

e xample, t he

s ettlement

( a

a nd

F or

f allow o r

i nputs

m aterials

e nergy

l ivestock

c rop)

e ither

e nergy

p athways.

f rom

a f orage

f rom

c omplex

t he

o f e nergy

t ransactions

a nimals

o r

a s

l osses

a v ariety

n utrients c rop

s uch

a nd

O verall

may

b e

q uite

i llustrated

i n

F ig

e specially i n r elation t o t he a vailability of a lternative

f uel r esources. V I A GRICULTURE

A ND

S UBSISTENCE

I N

T HE

B ANNU

B ASIN

I N

T HE

T HIRD

( Fig 4 ,

s ites

M ILLENNIUM B .C. 1 .

I ntroduction L imited e xcavations a t T arakai Q u a a nd L ewan 5 a nd

1 3)

T arakai

h ave y ielded e vidence o f p ast a gricultural a ctivities. Q ila

s ettlement h undred w ere

y ears.

w ill

o nly

t he

b e

b ones

r ange t he

n atural

s uggesting

g ravel

t errace

o f

w as

s ite

n umerous

s pread

( Rendell

s mall

s ome

2 23)).

b ut,

( late

r emains

o f

p lants

a lso

c rop-

a nalysis of

4 th

- l ate 3 rd

b ut w ith v ery s hallow

s hort-term t he

p lant

d etailed

L ewan

v illage

f our o r f ive

r emains

g rown

1 0 h a)

( probably 1 981:

T he

( a m ore

( circa

a

f or

c arbonized

c rops

e lsewhere).

i s a l arger s ite

s tratigraphy,

a nd

e xcavations.

o n

p ublished

m illennium)

w hich p ersisted

t he

a ctivities

m illennium)

a lluvial

f rom

n ot

p rocessing t his

3 rd

B oth a nimal

r ecovered

i ndicated

l ow

( mid-late

( circa 7 .5 h a)

o ccupations

d egraded

r emnant

E xcluding

o n

a

o f an

f ragments of

w ood c harcoal, n o c arbonized p lant r emains w ere r ecovered f rom t he e xcavations a t t his s ite. A nimal b ones w ere r ecovered f rom p its. O f t he o ther C hauki

( Fig

1 3:4,

m illennium, of

c oarse

s ites o f t his s ite

l ocated

3 )

i s

p eriod,

a s mall

l ittle i s

m ound

o n a g ently s loping a lluvial

r iverine

g ravels

i n

t he

k nown.

I slam

o f t he m id-late 3 rd f an.

s tratigraphy

o f

D eposits t his

s ite

i ndicate t hat i t w as o verwhelmed b y f looding a t l east t wice, s econd e vent a pparently c ausing i ts f inal a bandonment. K achkot

a nd

M irz

A li

K han

D heri

( Fig

1 3:4,

s ites

t he

D ad K ala

7 a nd

1 9)

a re

s mall n ucleated s ettlements d ated, b y t he s urface p ottery, t o t he m id-late 3 rd m illennium. L aklargai ( Fig 4 , s ite 2 1) i s a l arge m ound, l ocated a rea

a pparently o f t he s ame p eriod a s t hese o ther s ites,

i n a n a rea w here

a round

t his

s ite

i s

t here a re n o m odern s ettlements. n ow

q uite

b arren

a nd t he n earby c hannels c arry o nly e phemeral

( Rendell

T his

1 981:

t orrents.

2 24)

T he s ize

o f t he s ite w ould s uggest t hat e nvironments w ere o nce f avourable f or

h ighly

p roductive

a gricultural

a ctivities

i n

t his

p art

of

t he B asin. 2 .

C rops T he T arakai

r ange Q u a

o f i s

s pecies q uite

e xploited

w ide.

2 96

b y

t he

D omesticated

i nhabitants p lants

of

i nclude

a n d n u t r i e n t s :

4 . )

I a

\ . /

1 .•

2 97

h exaploid h ulled

f ree-threshing

a nd

n aked

w heats,

v arieties)

2 -row

a nd

a nd

l entils.

6 -row

b arleys

O ther

s eeds

( both

i nclude

t hose o f V icia/Lathyrus, w hich m ay h ave b een e xploited f or f ood. H owever, t hese s mall s eeds a re o nly c ommon i n p lant a ssemblages d ominated m odels t he

b y

r achis

d eveloped

w aste

f rom

a nd

a wn

f ragments

b y H illman

( 1981),

c rop-processing

w hich,

o n

t he

a re c onsidered

a ctivities.

b asis

t o

S eeds

of

r epresent

o f M alva m ay

r epresent e ither e xploitation o f t his p lant o r i ts o ccurrence a s a w eed. ( Bos

D omesticated

i ndicus,

a nimal), s imilar s ites

s heep, r ange

h ad

B oth

o f

T arakai

g oat o f

b ones

h emionus,

a nimals

j udging

b y

a nd

f rom

t he w ater

d omesticates

o f

a n

e quid,

T arakai

Q ila

t erracotta b uffalo w as

( Bubalus

r ecovered

p robably

i nclude

f igurines

t he

c attle

o f

t his

b ubalis).

a t

L ewan.

w ild

A B oth

h alf-ass

E quus

w hile T arakai Q ila a lso y ielded t he b ones o f w ild p ig.

t hese

s pecies

m ay

Q ila

i nclude

a

f reshwater

f ish

a nd

h ave

b een

w ild

e aten.

f elid

m olluscs;

b oth

O ther a nimals f rom

( Felis t hese

c .f.

c aracal)

l atter

a nd

c ategories m ay

r epresent e xploitation f or f ood.

3 .

P roducts C ostantini c annot f orm

b e

o f

t rue,

( 1981)

m ere

a nd

t he

r econstruct c onsidered

p roducts

g eneralization

( i.e.

o thers a nd

i nferred

a gricultural

w ith

s ystem;

s uggest

w hich i n

f orm

c an

b e

t he w ays

t he i s

i nclude

b e

u sed

t o

s uch

c rops

a re

d erived

f rom

t hem).

o btained

f rom

t he

c rops

1 3:1.

S ome

o f

t hese

t he

a rchaeological

d egrees

b iological

o f

i n t his

t o

c an

u ses

t he

d ata

r emains;

e xtended

t he b e

i n

v arying

t he

b e

T able

d irectly

t herefore

i f

c ould

l isted

p lant

i nformation

s ystems

w hich

a re

a rchaeological o f

c an

S uch

p roducts

a ttested

p roducts

c an a lso

t he

a bove

a re

d ata.

p roducts

a re

f rom

c atalogues

a gricultural

v arious

d iscussed

d irectly

t axonomic

z ooarchaeological

T he

h as p ointed o ut t hat a gricultural s ystems

i dentified

o f

r ecord,

c onfidence.

b asic

e lements

r equirements

i n w hich t hey w ere

of

C rops o f

t he

t he c rops

p robably e xploited

a nd manipulated.

4 .

A rable a ctivities T he

d omesticated

c haracteristic ( kharif) a rable

w ere r ecovered.

a ctivities,

t he

n on-irrigated

t he

c harred

a ll

t he

s eeds t rue w ere

t he

a nd

r achis

i mportance

w atered

p arts

t hat

o f

main f ields

i s

f rom t he

f rom

o f

T arakai ( rabi);

b arley

T arakai

Q ila n o

a re

s ummer

a ll c rops

a ctivities.

t o

M ay

B asin). Q ila:

i t

d ominant

( as

t oday

i n

B arley

d ominates

o ccurs

i n

b oth

i n

a lmost

t erms

of

I f t his r epresentation r eflects t he i n

t he

( barani)

b ordering

N ovember

B annu

n umerically

s egments.

r ain-fed

f rom c rops

T his i ndicates a m arked s easonality of

p robably

a ssemblages

s amples

a nd

s uggest

p lants

w inter/spring

W heat t he

a ncient

a rable

a nd/or r un-off m ay

T ochi

s ystem,

( sailaba)

h ave

b een

r iver,

o r

w e m ay f arming

g rown i n b etter e ven

w ithin

t he

c hannel. B arley

i s

s till

a n

i mportant

c rop

i n

b asin w hich a re n ot a rtificially i rrigated. a nd

t hose

p arts

S uccessful

o f

t he

r ain-fed

r un-off f arming i n t he b asin t oday d epends u pon a number of

2 98

T able

1 3:1:

T he

m ain

a rable,

a t T arakai Q u a;

p astoral a nd w ild p roducts u tilized

i nferred c ategories a re i n b rackets.

F ood f or m an: W heat,

B arley,

L entils

( Malva, V icia/Lathyrus, w ild f ruits) M eat o f B os, B ubalus, O vis, C apra ( Milk o f t hese s pecies) ( Meat o f .E quus, S us, f reshwater f ish, f reshwater m olluscs) F eed f or a nimals: ( Forage o n t he a ftermath o f h arvest) ( Fodder a s b y-product o f c rop-processing) ( Forage c rops) ( Grazing a nd b rowsing w ild p lants) F ibres: ( Wool,

h air,

f ur,

t endons,

( Straw) ( From w ild p lants, C rotalaria,

i ntestines)

s uch a s G ramineae,

e tc.)

L eather: ( Skins a nd h ides) B uilding m aterials: W ood,

t wigs,

g rasses

( Dung) F uel: W ood,

( charcoal)

( Dung) O ther materials: B one,

s hell,

( horn)

W ork: T ransport,

( traction),

( threshing)

2 99

C alotropis,

f actors.

W inter

s patial

r ainfall

d istribution.

i s

h ighly

A s a r esult,

v ariable

f ields

i n

t end

q uantity

t o

b e

a nd

s mall a nd

d ispersed: m ore f ields a re s own t han a re e ventually h arvested. B arley i s p lanted i n t he d rier s oils, a lthough l ess d esirable t han

w heat,

o ften

o f

i t

i s

w heat

r egarded

a nd

a s

b arley

a s afer

o r

o f

o ption.

b arley

a nd

M ixed c ropping,

p ulses,

i s

a nother

s trategy t o i nsure a gainst t otal l oss o f c rops. S uccess h usbandry.

o f

c rops

a lso

d epends

u pon

i ntensive

s oil

T illage o f t he s oil o ccurs i n t he s ummer m onsoon,

t hat

b efore ( hence

a nd d uring t he w inter r ains. T illage r educes w eeds w ater l oss b y t ranspiration), i ncreases i nfiltration of

w ater,

a nd

S eeds

a re

a m aximum

r educes s own

a mount

l oss

t hinly

o f

t o

o f

w ater

w ater

r educe

a nd

e nters

t opsoil

c ompetition

t he

s oil,

t o

e nsure

t hrough

f or

a nd

r un-off.

w ater.

F ields

w ith c rops a re r egularly h oed a nd w eeded t o r educe w ater-losses. F ields

a re

l eft

f allow

t o

a llow

r ecovery

o f

b oth

t he

w ater

c ontent a nd o rganic m atter i n t he s oil. T hese s ome

t echniques

i dea

o f

t he

of T arakai Q ila. a pplied,

b ut

t he

o f

r ange

s oil-water

c onservation

o f a ctivities

W e c annot

u ndertaken

s ay i f a nd

l ong-lived

m ay

b y

g ive

t he

u s

f armers

h ow s uch t echniques w ere

n ature o f t he

s ettlement a t

T arakai

Q ila a ttests t o t he f act t hat i ts i nhabitants w ere s uccessful i n t heir u pon

c rop-growing t he

e fforts.

u se o f a nimals

A rchaeological

T oday,

f or

e vidence

a rable

t raction

f or

t his

a ctivities

( ploughing)

i s

d iscussed

a nd

d epend

t ransport.

b elow

( section

V I.6.ii). H arvesting w as p robably d one b y h and, B asin.

L unate

d escribed

f rom

m icroliths T arakai

w ith

Q ila

( Allchin

i ndicating t heir u se i n s ickles. a bove t he

g round e ars

l evel

o nly.

b ut

i n

T his

i s

a rchaeological

r ecord

a ctivities

r elatively

a re

t he

a s

a s i t i s t oday i n t he

' silica

g loss'

1 981:

h ave

2 34),

b een

p robably

T oday t he c ereals a re c ut j ust

p ast

h arvesting m ay

d ifficult t he

t o

r esidues

c lean

o f

w eed

h ave

e stablish o f

b een of

f rom

t he

c rop-processing

s pecies

( could

t his

s uggest r egular w eeding o f c rops, a s p ractised t oday?), e xcept f or s eeds o f V icia/Lathyrus. I f t he f ield w ere s ome d istance f rom t he

t he

s ettlement,

c rops

t ransportation

w ere h arvested a t

t he

w ould

b ase

c ould b e c arried i n b askets o r s kins). a v aluable b y-product o f t he c rop b edding,

mud-brick,

f loors e tc.)

h ave

b een

e asier

i f

( although h eads o f c ereals S ince t he s traw w ould b e

( for t hatch,

b asketry,

f odder,

i t i s u nlikely t hat i t w as l eft

i n t he f ields. C rop of

p rocessing

T arakai

Q ila.

a ppears t o

S ome

r achis a nd a wn f ragments. a lso

h ave o ccurred a t

c arbonized

a ssemblages

s ettlement

d ominated

b y

S addle q uerns a nd r ubbing s tones w ere

f ound a t t he s ite. N o p lant r emains w ere r ecovered f rom L ewan.

t hat

t he

a re

t his

a rable

a ctivities o r t he p rimary p rocessing o f h arvested c rops.

S ilica

t his

s ite

n ot

w as

b een r eported

( Allchin

1 981),

n ot

i nvolved

i n

I t i s p ossible e ither

g loss h as

s ettlement

a s o ccurring o n t he m icroliths

f rom

b ut s addle q uerns a nd g rinding s tones

3 00

LE WAN 1 00

N= 57

& r ind

1 1"•••••••1

j uven i les 04 : 1

( » i s / C a p r a

a du lts

TARAKA I

O ILA

1 00

N= 96

(mn i

1j uven i les

1

0/ 0

F ig.

a du lts

1 3:8

T he

r elative

a bundance

a nimals

f rom

m inimum

n umber

a ssessed

b y

L ewan o f

b oth

a nd

b y

m inimum

T arakai

i ndividuals). d ental

c riteria.

3 01

a nd

n umber

Q ila

( mni

o f =

J uveniles b one-fusion

w ere o f

r ecovered.

p urposes

S uch a rtefacts

o ther

t han

t he

m ay h ave

b een

p reparation

of

u sed

f or a r ange

p lant

f oods

( e.g.

A lexander 1 969), b ut n onetheless c ould i ndicate t he e xploitation of p rocessed g rain b rought t o t he s ite. 5 .

P astoral a ctivities F ig

1 3:8 s hows t he r elative a bundance,

i ndividuals, L ewan. d ata a nd

o f

t he

mammals

S ome c aution

b ecause m ay

b e

t he

i s

r equired

b ones

a b iased

r ecovered

f rom

i n t he

L ewan

s ample.

T arakai

f rom

r ubbish

a ssemblage

b ones o f t he l arger b ovids, p articularly B os b e d ue t o t aphonomic f actors a ssociated d isposal t hrown more

o f

f ood

i nto

r efuse;

r ubbish

l ikely

t o

l arge

p its

t han

p ersist

i n

b ones

a re

s maller

t he

i s

m ore

o nes

l ikely

a nd

a re

a rchaeological

f or L ewan i s o f i nterest, may

e conomy' h and,

o f t he s ite.

n ot

b e

o nly b y

r elevant

t o

b e

t herefore

r ecord.

p roportions

t axa

p its

i ndicus. T his m ay w ith p atterns of

t he s pecies l ist r ecorded t he

a nd

d ominated

a nalagous c ase h as b een d escribed b y M eadow ( 1975). o f

Q ila

i nterpretation o f t hese

c ome

T he

b y m inimum n umber o f

f rom

A n

T hus, w hile t he r elative

t o

t he

T he b ones f rom T arakai Q ila,

' animal

o n t he o ther

d erive f rom a b roader r ange o f a rchaeological c ontexts a nd

may s uffer l ess A mong ( Bos)

t he

a nd

w ater

f rom t his b ias. d omesticated

s heep/goat

b uffalo

( Bubalus)

i ndividuals. j uvenile c ent

o f

d ied.

a nimals

( Ovis/Capra) i s

P articularly

i ndividuals, t he

f or

w ere

T arakai

e qually

r epresented

s triking

e xcept

i ndividuals

f rom a re i s

b y

t he

t han

o f

t he

s elective

b ones

c ulling

w as

o f

a dult

r epresentation

t heir

e xploitation

n ot

y oung o f

f or

p ossible m ales

1 .5

c attle

s o

w as

a nd

w e

w ater

y ears

3 0

w hen

of p er

t hey

u nfortunately,

h ave

n o

i dea

T he

b uffalo ( see

f ew

f requency

p ractised.

s econdary p roducts

w hile a

w here ' s ome

T his p robably r epresents c ulling f or m eat;

s exing

c attle

o nly

l ow

s heep/goat

y ounger

Q ila,

a bundant

m ay

i f

w holly r eflect

s ection V I.6.ii,

b elow). T oday, w ater b uffalo a re r arely h erded w ith c attle, s heep a nd g oats, o r d riven o ut o nto r angelands t o g raze. U sually t hey a re

k ept

c lose

t o

w ater.

W ater

r ich m ilk b ut a re a lso u sed I n r ural s ettlements, w ith

t hose

o f

t he

b uffalo

f or t ransport

a re

v alued

f or

t heir

( rarely f or t raction).

t heir n umbers t end t o b e l ow i n c omparison

h erded

b ovids;

t he

d ata

f rom

T arakai

Q ila

r esemble t his p attern. O f n ot

c ourse,

r eflect

s laughtered, t o

t he

p eriod.

a nd

w hich

H owever,

( as

o f

( 1966)

a re

t he

m ay

b e

Q ila n eed

a nimals

t he b ones h ave

b een

of

( e.g. c attle

w ere

s ubject

o ver-represented,

u nder-represented,

w orkers

r emains

T arakai T he

M eadow i n

i n

t he

1 981)

h ave

s ites

o f

t his

h as s uggested t hat i n I ndia l arge n umbers

n eeded

a t

o ther

f rom

h erds.

C attle

s heep/goat

a bundance

b egin

D istrict

p reservation. o f

H arris

c attle

b ones

p robably f or m eat,

a ssemblages.

s tructure

o f

t he

j uveniles

n oted

a ssemblage o f

d ifferential

a nd

of

t he

t he

f or

o nset

t he o f

i ntensive t he

w e h ave s een a bove),

3 02

p loughing

m onsoon

p eriod.

o perations I n

B annu

l arge n umbers of a nimals a re

r equired d uring,

f or

i ntensive

t he

w inter

s oil

h usbandry i n

r ains.

T hat

i nhabitants o f T arakai Q u a d ominance of h umped c attle

c attle

t he

w eeks

w ere

b efore,

i mportant

a nd

t o

t he

i s s hown b y t he o verwhelming a mong t he n on-anthropomorphic

t erracotta f igurines. A s

w e

h ave

s een

( section

r epresent a n ucleated, b een

i nterpreted

( Allchin

s easonally-occupied manufacture h ave

o f

f or

a rable

1 981;

s ite

p astoral

a nd

T he

W hat

t he

A llchin

d oes

a nd

K nox

i nhabitants b ut

a ppear

v illages

t he

i f

i n

a

t he

s ite

n o

m ay

e vidence

a ny,

t he

a s

w ith

i s

t o

I t h as

1 981a)

o f

t here

r elationships,

n ucleated

n ot

s ettlement.

p rincipally

a ctivities,

a ctivities.

L ewan

L ewan

c oncerned

s tone-tools.

u ndertaken

b etween

V I.1),

p ermanently o ccupied,

e xisted

a rea?

L ewan

c ould r epresent a w holly n omadic c ommunity w hich t raded w ith t he l ocal

s ettled

q uestion t hat t he f rom

c ommunities.

A f ull

d iscussion

o f

t his

c omplex

i s b eyond t he s cope o f t his p aper; s uffice i t t o s ay p resence o f w ater b uffalo i n t he a ssemblage o f a nimals

L ewan m ilitates

a gainst

a n omadic

w ay

o f

l ife.

L ewan m ay

r epresent s easonally-transhumant v illages ( Mirzali K han D heri i s

e xploitation b y t he n ucleated t he n earest s uch s ettlement),

b eing

w ere

a nd

a s ite

p astoral

s uch

s ites

e astern

a t

w hich

a rtefacts

a ctivities c arried-out. r emain

a rea

t o

c ould

b e

h ave

f ound b een

m ade I t

i n

( perhaps

f or

i s p ossible

t he

B asin;

i ncorporated

t hat

e ven

i nto

t rade)

t he

o ther

t he

a rid

p astoral-

c atchment o f t he n ucleated s ettlements o f t he n orth-west. A ny s uch a ctivities w ould p robably h ave o ccurred d uring t he s ummer m onths,

w hen

p atterns

a nd

p astoralism w hen

t here

w ould

w ould

d ominate

b e

a n eed

t he t o

h uman

e xtend

a ctiviity

t he

a rea

o f

g razing d uring t his p eriod o f l ow p lant p roductivity. 6 .

S econdary _ products M any p roducts

o f

t he

A rchaeological p roducts

p roducts

a rising i s

f rom

l isted

b oth

e vidence

d ifficult

f or

t o

i n

a rable t he

T able a nd

1 3:1

a re

p astoral

e xploitation

i nterpret

( see

of

S herratt

s econdary

a ctivities. s econdary

( 1981)

f or

r eview) a nd s ome o f t he p roducts d iscussed h ere a re i nferred, t he b asis of l ikelihood, r ather t han d emonstrated. ( i)

S econdary

p roducts

f rom

a rable

a ctivities.

d iscussions o f s econdary p roducts c oncentrate i mportant

w holly

p roducts

c rop-growing. a v aluable

i t

c an

m atter. f eed,

a s

b ut

d erived

s ource o f g razing

b e

p loughed

S traw

c an

w ell a s

c haff a s

a nimals, b e

a s

a

b e

f or

a f iller

m ay

1 981)

n umber

b y-products

o f o f

f or d omestic a nimals;

i nto

t he

u sed

f or

b askets,

i n p ottery,

s oil

t o

a nimal

a dd

h ave

b een

g rown,

o rganic

b edding

t hatch e tc.

T he

a nd

u se o f

m udbrick a nd mudplaster

i s s hown b y i mpressions i n t hese m aterials. c rops

M ost

S herratt

T he a ftermath o f t he h arvested c rop m ay

b e

a lso

o n m ay

( e.g.

a o n

e ither

t o

S econdary

p rovide

g reen

f orage f or a nimals o r g reen m anure f or f ields. ( ii)

S econdary p roduction

p roducts h as

f rom

p astoral

a ctivities.

A nimal

often b een v iewed a s o riented t owards

3 03

t he p rovision o f m eat f rom t he s laughter o f h as

s uggested

t hat

m illennium B .C., m ain

p roducts

a nd t he

i n

w ork,

o ther c onsumables d erived a nimals. S herratt ( 1981)

E urasia

s ince

t he

l ate

I t th

w ool a nd m ilk m ay h ave b een t he

o btained

f rom

d omesticated

a nimals;

p ossibly t hese w ere m uch m ore i mportant t han m eat. s hould

n ot

s econdary R yder,

a ssume

t hat

' secondary

s ignificance

i n

p roducts'

a gricultural

W e

w ere

s ystems

of

( see

t his v olume).

W e h ave i nterpreted t he a nimal r emains f rom T arakai Q ila a s i ndicating

t he

e xploitation

o f,

a t

l east,

b uffalo f or s econdary p roducts ( section may i nclude w ork, f ibre, d ung a nd m ilk. W ork:

S herratt

( 1981:

2 66)

h as

c attle

V I.5).

n oted

t hat

a nd

w ater

T hese

p roducts

" there

a re m any

e xamples o f m odels s howing s olid-wheeled c arts f rom t he H arrapan ( sic)

c ulture

( sic)

I ndia".

f rom

t he

a nimals

o f

t he

m id

t hird

W heels

a nd

' carts'

e xcavations

f or

a t

t ransport

i ndicus w ere i ntended i s

n o e vidence

p loughmarks a t

( perhaps f or

K alibangan

b een

i n

t erracotta

B ahawalpur,

P akistan

s uggesting

t erracotta

n orth-east r ecovered

t he

u se

of

o f B os

w ith t hese m odel c arts?).

T here

e xcavated

f or t he

u se o f t he p lough ,

b eneath t he

I ndia o f

( Mugal

i n w ere

f igurines

Q ila

m odels

B .C.

t erracotta

Q ila,

t he

' use'

n orth-west

d iscovered

i n

T arakai

f rom T arakai

h ave

m illennium

( Lal

1 971).

p loughs

1 981:

o n

P late

b ut

p re-Harappan l evels M ughal

H arappan

1 7).

I t

h as

s ites

s eems

i n

l ikely

t herefore t hat t he p lough w as u sed b y f arming c ommunities o f t he 3 rd

m illennium

B .C.

i n

B annu

t hat

c attle w ere

u sed

f ree

t he

a lthough

f rom

T arakai

g rains, ( I lia

i n

o r

D istrict.

t hreshing, t here

f rom

i s

o ther

L astly,

i t

b y t rampling n o

e vidence

s ites

o f

i s

f or

t his

p ossible

t he h arvest t his

p eriod

t o

e ither

i n

S outh

A sia. F ibre:

t he

e xploitation

s uggested a s a p ossibility; D ung: b uffalo)

b ecause w ood

m ixed

s ubcontinent

w ith

( Sopher

s carce,

i s

1 980:

a nd

a n

d ung

1 91).

T his

a shy material w hich h as a " felted"

( based

u pon c urrent

c onstituent p ottery.

o f

mud

e vidence

d ung

u sage

c an

o nly

b e

c omes

c akes? a nd

f uel

f rom

O ther

i n t he a rea)

p laster

( of c attle a nd w ater m ay

f riable

o f b urned

h air

i mportant

Q ila;

r esidue

o nly

w ool

T arakai t he

t he

i s s o

s traw

of

d irect e vidence i s l acking.

t he b een

h earths

I ndian s o

a t

c ontaining

a ppearance - p erhaps p ossible

i nclude:

mudbrick,

I Lli . 12 1 . 2 1 . 11_ 2 1 2 1 22 2 :t he

i n

h ave

a nd

u ses o f d ung

a s m anure, a s

a

a s a

f iller

i n

p redominantly a dult c omposition

of t he c attle a nd w ater b uffalo r emains f rom T arakai Q ila p oints t o

t he

a s

w ork.

m ilk. males

p ossibility

t hat

f emale

U nfortunately, t o

s pecies) e vidence d iverse

A dult

f emales t he i s

r atio v ery

f orms

o f

o r

t hey

w ere

k ept

s heep

a nd

g oats

w e

h ave n o

( for

of m ales d ifficult p ottery

t o

a lso

m ilk a s w ell h ave y ielded

r eliable d ata o n t he r atios of

p otential

w ork

t o

c astrates

t o

i nterpret;

w ere

3 0 1 4

p rovide

c ould

u sed

a nd

t o i n

m ilk

f emales.

p erhaps t he

y ielding A rtefact

s ome

o f

t he

c ollection a nd

I

b 0 Z • r 1 4 > a ) W

c e

X 0 t I O r 1

1 I

a l

L 0 j . 0

0

4 1 . S 4 0 t 1 0 C 4 ) r i 0 1 1 : , 0 C > 0 9 4 E 4 , 1

O

C r o p r o c e s i n g

. 0 4 0 4 0 C r n C d • r l 1 : 1 r f I C u 1

S o w i n g c r o p s

I

r i E 4

0 . r i c . ,

3 05

t e C • r 1 0 ) 0 )

1 0 C C I

0 . 0 4 > t i ) C d C l a r i L N W c d 4 ) L -, 0 c t i

t d )

4 )

1 : 1 i — f W . r ) 0 ) •H L 0 1 ( V • 0 1 0 . 0 0 , O . r 1 C i I

0 : 3 E i f Z . 0 0 2 Z c r t L 4 )

0 0 0 " C , L O C l . 5 . a •. t e . 2 C f — I • , 1 . r 4 . S 4 E l r i . , I C . g Z O

t 4 0 C d

. r i r i c d

4,) . 0 4 ) . . L C t e 0 0 Z 0 . , . 1 1 • r I 0 ) 4 ) . b d C 0 L C O ( 1 , O L L 4 ) 4)

p rocessing o f m ilk

( c.f.

S herratt

1 981:

2 80-282 a nd R yder,

t his

v olume). V II A PPROACHES

T O

T HE

I NTEGRATION

O F

A GRICULTURAL,

S UBSISTENCE

A ND

E CONOMIC S YSTEMS T he l ike

e lements

T arakai

o f

t he

Q u a

a rchaeological

r ecord

i ntegrated

a pplying

b y

a gricultural

h ave o r

e ither i nferred.

s ome

s ystems

b een T hese

d ynamic

o f

s ettlements

d etermined e lements

t o

t hem,

f rom c an

t he

o nly

i nvolving

b e t he

movement o f e nergy, m aterials a nd p eople. I n c onstructing a g eneral m odel w hich a ttempts t o i ntegrate t he d iverse c omponents o f

t he

s ystem,

m ovements

I h ave

a re

a ssumed

t herefore

a r ational

p urposive

m otivation

( i.e.

f rom

a nd

p laces

t hat w here

materials a nd/or e nergy a re s uperfluous t o r equirements t o o ther p laces f rom

w here

a reas

( e.g.

t hey o f

a re

movements

movements

o f

d eficient).

p roduction o f

t o

c rops

w astes

f rom

T o

a reas

a nd

t he

s tate

o f

i t

m ore

c onsumption

p roducts

t o

s ettlements

t o

o bviously: o r

t he

s torage

s ettlement,

m anure

t he

f ields,

e tc.). S ome

a spects

c atchment a re t he

o f i ntegration b etween t he

s hown

i mportance

o f

i n

F igs

1 3:6

s econdary

a nd

1 3:7.

p roducts

i n

s ettlement F ig

t he

i ntegration o f

a gricultural s ystem, a nd s hows h ow t hey c omponents o f t he r est o f t he s ubsistence materials,

p ottery,

s pinning a ctivities,

s econdary p roducts). a nd

t heir

a re

m eans

u seful,

a nd

b ut

f eedback

t emporal f ields

o f

p erhaps

i ntegrating

t hey

d o

l oops;

n ot

i n

d ifferent

o n

t he

l ink w ith s ome s ystem ( building

a nd o ther p rocessing o f

a d aily

t he

w orking

i nclude

n either

v ariations

w ith

i ts

M ovements o f l ivestock b etween s ettlements

t erritories,

i mportant

a nd

1 3:9 e mphasises

d o

a ll

t hey

t he

s ystem,

c rops

a nd

p rovide

r elationships

t he

t he

a n

S uch m odels

p ossible

r eveal

s uch a s

t he

b asis, s pace.

s patial

d istribution

d istribution

o f

a nd of

a vailable

g razing l and. T able

1 3:2

p resents

a m odel

a rable a nd p astoral a ctivities. r ainfall

w as

f rom

O ctober

h ere

w ere

males may c rop

a ge

u sually

h oe,

w eed

p robably t o

a m ajor

M ay.

o r

N o

s ex

a nd

p rocessing.

w hile

t ending

s ome

a s

t illage

h arvest, T he

i n

s ociocultural W e

h ave

a ctivities

l inking

o f

n oted

i mportance f armers

u pon of

m ay

t hey

o ptions.

a re

c onsequences.

o f a ctivity t he

of

p atterns

a ctivities

o ften a re

f emales

p lay i s

l isted

t oday.

m ales

l ivestock

a nd

A dult f emales

a m ajor o ften

S uch r oles a re

n ot T he

t hat

t he

F ig

t o

t he

v agaries

v arious

h ave

o ptions w hich m ay a rise o ptions

o f

a gricultural

e lsewhere

d epends

r elative

s hort-term

t he

s cheduling

r ole

t he

i n

j ob of

f undamentally

s ystem

i nto

t he

s ystem.

y ear

a nd

a nnual

a ctivities,

e ither o lder c hildren o r o ld m en. i mportant

t he

d eterminant

d oubt

s pecific,

u ndertake

f or

T he t ime a nd q uantity o f w inter

p roducts

e xercise

1 3:10

s hows

a nnual o f

s cheduling

t he

m ay

v ary

a r ange s ome

w eather. f rom

y ear-to-

o f l ong-term a nd

o f

t he

s hort-term

f rom a f ailure o f t he w inter r ains.

s imple;

i ndeed,

e ach

m ay

o f T he

h ave

T he

i mportant

r eduction o f t he s ize o f h erds c ould r educe

3 06

> b

r / I

c d c d 0 I : 1 C c f ) O 0 4 c d O O a ) L . a

4 )

d i

4 4

e

C S I C D

t -

O

t O t o N 4

H O z O C i z j 0 0

z s i r t s c 2 u p1 a z i

c d

• O4 . .

4 ) 0 . 1

G O

C i .

C d

> ,

•

c d

0 4

e

_

• o o a ) ( n

1C ,

a )

i n w h i c h t h e

• c t l 0

H

c l

-

t o

u )

0 b o

U )4 . ) a4 ) c d c o 4 ) 1 7 ) > b 0 0 • • * M I G I O 0 ▪H • O c d c d

4 . )

c

a E l ( U

O ) •

O • H 4 ) L « s z O

5 -

9 1

i a )

c h 0 H

z

a )

4 4 o

b o

a ) o

( 1 ) L i 4 >

e . s

z

>

3 07

a ) > i • 0

▪

i n

a )

•

C )

0 4

• l a

▪4 ) c a E 1 X

V )

r a s

C

3

* g

z

▪ 0 • i 4 • " m s • 0 ' Tj r 4 t .

! E m l

>

t a i)

4 )

• ( / ) a ) 4 •) 4 )

( 1 ) C

O t > i o "

c d ▪_ c •

i t E

•• r n

•

CX>

0

w

--------->

Fig. 13: 10

be

faced

I

Selective culling of livestock for meat - and to lOvJer fcxrl requirement of the herd

OPTION

Lower livestock production

/,

Less fcxrl for hurnan J;X)pulation

as a result of inter annual

--------->

---------->

which might

Less fcxrl for livestock

\!I

Reduced crop yields

Decision-making: short term optic 1s fluctuations in rainfall (see text).

Increase area of land grazed; transhumance

Reduced range -----------> productivity I OPTION

'\!/

.Lc:wer than average rainfall, especially November to !v1a.rch

OPTION

t

Exchange with other lX)pulations

t he o utput o f i mportant

s econdary p roducts f or a n umber o f y ears

a fterwards.

e xchange

T rade

s ettlements i ncrease

h ave

t he

s uffered

a rea

c ommunities.

p lots; m ore

f orage

s ystem;

r angeland

m ay

l ead

t o

a nd

t rade

p roduction ( e.g.

s upport

t he a nd

T his t he W e

t heme

o f t he

d ifferent B asin. a s

t hat

m odes

( see

r epresent

s ummer

p ossibly Q ila. B annu

i s

f rom

B asin

c ould

b e

g rowing i n

g razing 1 981,

e xtended

t he

l and;

1 69)

w ith

L ewan

t he

b eyond

c atchment

a bove,

a nd

o f

n o

o f

t o

a nd

F ig

i n

t he

i nclude 1 3:3).

r epresent

l andscape

o ther

s ites

t ranshumant

n ucleated

t hat

h ave

s torage;

q uite

t he

B annu

f or t his s ituation i s t hat s ites s uch

t he

p ossible

o f

i ts

V .2,

Q ila

k now

c amps

d erived

I t

w e

a rable

e lement

( O'Shea,

a nd

s ection

e xploitation

( although

a rea

o f

p lots;

o f

m ixed-cropping;

c ould

s ettlement

O ne p ossible m odel

L ewan

s uch

d ifferent

p astoral

s torage"

T arakai

o f

w ith

o r w ith n omadic g roups.

i ntegration

s ystem

s ee

o ther

t o e nsure a dequate

a l arger

" social

c ope

t o

w ith

d istribution

b arley);

' recognized'

i ndividual

s ettlement h ave

o f

t he

o ther

d iversification

b etween

w idening

o ther s ettled c ommunities,

l evel

t imes

a

i f

A ttempts

c onflict t o

i nclude:

s owing

t o

e xtending

s trategies

c ould

c rops

c rops

e ncouraging

t erm

a nnual

d ependable

p ossible

d isaster.

n umber

m aximizing

g rowing

b e

s ame

t he

t he

n ot

t he

s tresses

v arying

i ncreasing

o f

m ay

f rom

L onger

e nvironmental c rops;

o r

t he

b een

o f

s ettlements

w hole

t his

p astoralist

r ange

i ntegrated

t ype) g roups,

l ike

T arakai

o f h abitats

b y

s uch

i n

p atterns

t he o f

s easonal e xploitation. F inally, ( Fig 1 3:3, t he

3 rd

t here

m illennium

f acies.

i s

l evel V ).

B .C.

C omparable

P lain,

s uch a s

S arai

K hola

1 981;

M ughal

p robably

t he i n

R ehman D heri

( Halim

1 972)

1 981).

e conomic

m ay

h ave

t hese

c onnections P owindahs

a nd

a nd

B asin

v ia

,

( Robinson t he

t he

p olitical

i n

1 982:

5 8),

F ig

t he

H arappan a nnually

t he

i n

t he

G reater f or

c ontact

t his

a nd

a lthough

A fghanistan

m ay

b e

d ue

E ven

a nd

a nd

i s

d uring t he

n omadic

t he

T ochi

n o

t his

B annu R ivers

p ossible e vidence

p eriod

l ack

l inks

s imilar

t oday,

w ere a lso

t here

a nd

a reas.

f ound a t L ewan

p ostulated

K urram

t o

t hese

i ndirect t rade a , b ). N omadic

A fghanistan

t he

( Khan

c ontact

c ommunication

h as

G omal

s uch a s

V alley

w ere

s ettlements). b y

D ijian

t he

P unjab,

b etween o r 1 979

K ot

o n

l east

( L)

s uch m ovements

B .C.,

s outh-east

t rade ( 1979)

o f

I ndus

a t

r elations

a re s ites

1 982),

b etween

c reated

N o d oubt

m illennium

s ettlement

B asin

o ccur

X ancus p yrum

( Possehl

p asses

1 934).

t hird

B annu

a rgues

p rovided

b etween

i nter-regional

a ttesting t o d irect I ndian O cean ( Durante

a reas

m igrate

o f

( Durrani

T his

B angles o f t he c hank s hell

b etween

t he

m anifestations

a nd T arakai Q ila, c onnections w ith t he groups

q uestion

T he c ultural a ssemblages f rom t he s ites o f

o f

i n o f

( Ball

i ntensive

a rchaeological s urvey i n t his d ifficult b order a rea. V III P OSTCRIPT M uch f ieldwork t o

t est

of

t his

p aper

i s

s peculative

( both s urvey a nd e xcavation) a nd

i ncorporate

r efine

v arious

a nd

m ore

a rchaeological

n eeds t o b e d one i n o rder

h ypotheses.

M y

a im

h as

b een

t o

t he v arious e lements o f t he s ubsistence s ystem i nto

3 09

a

d ynamic

m odel,

e nvironment i ts

a t

c atchment,

r egion,

a nd

l evels

h as,

f ocused

l inking

v arious t he

o ther

t he

t he

d ata

p rovided

f or

n exus,

b een

s ettlement t his,

o ne

a nother

a nalysis

r egions).

n ecessity,

u pon

t o

o f

i nter-site

w ith o f

t hem

l evels

t he

( the

a nd

s ettlement

A nalysis u neven,

a t

w ith

i ts

c atchment.

a nd

w as

t he

t he

s ystem,

t hese m ost

a nd

t o

s ettlement

f ocus

t he

v arious

a ttention

T arakai f or

a nd

t he

Q u a

m odel.

T he r elationships w ithin t he s upposed s ystems h ave b een i nferred b y a nalogy w ith r ecent d ry-land

f arming c ommunities,

b oth w ithin

t he r egion a nd e lsewhere i n n orth-western S outh A sia. A cknowlegements w ish

t o

t hank

n umerous

c olleagues

f or

t heir

h elp

a nd

e ncouragement: m -.

M .

I shtiaq

K han,

P rofessor

F .A.

D urrani,

P rofessor

F an d

K han,

D r. A bdur R ehman, D r. B ridget A llchin, D r. R aymond A llchin, M r. J . R . K nox a nd D r. H elen R endell f or t heir h elp i n t he f ield; G ill T aylor p rovided M r. o f

i nvaluable

a ssistance

i n

G ordon H illman k indly e xamined m y

i dentifications c omments

a nd o n

t he

c onfirmed p art

a nalysis

t he

o f

c harred

o thers;

m ade

v aluable

F ig.

1 3:1b w as d rawn b y Y vonne B rown.

a n

t he

a nimal

d raft

D .

o f

s ome

R .

H arris

t his

p aper.

f ieldwork w as s upported b y

r esearch g rants f rom t he U niversity o f L ondon H ayter F und.

3 10

b ones;

c orrected

P rofessor

e arlier T he

o f

s eeds,

B ibliography A lexander,

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i ndirect

T he

d omestication

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U cko,

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a nd

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e xploitation

D imbleby,

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G .W.)

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cation.

p lants

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I n:

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D uckworth

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Q ila

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L ak

a rchaeology

R eimer

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2 33-239 A llchin,

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a nd

A llchin,

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a nd P akistan. A llchin,

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K nox,

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A llchin,

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L ewan

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F .R. a nd K nox, e xcavation a t V erlag p p.

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a )

P reliminary

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r eport

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o n

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t he

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a rchaeology

B all,

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a t

a rchaeology V erlag p p.

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C ambridge:

R .J. ( 1981 b ) P reliminary r eport o n t he T arakai Q u a ( 1978-79). I n: S outh A sian

1 979.

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H .)

B erlin:

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A rchaeological

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E ditions R echerche s ur l es c ivilisations B laikie,

P .M. ( 1971 a ) n orth I ndian

S patial o rganization v illages. P art I .

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( 1971

n orth

b )

S patial

I ndian

P art

B utzer,

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A rchaeology

a s

o f a griculture

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I nstitute o f B ritish G eographers 5 3 h uman

i n

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t he

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T ransactions

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s ome

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N aples:

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P lain, H ärtel, D ani,

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P alaeoethnobotany

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E xcavations

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I n:

U niversitario

a t

P irak:

A sian

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i n

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O rientale

G omal

t he

a rchaeology

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a c ontribution

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s ubsistence

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a griculture

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M acmillan p alaeoethnobotany o f A sian a rchaeology 1 977.

I stituto

S eminario d i S tudi A siatici. C ostantini,

e conomics

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t o

S ibi-Kacchi 1 979.

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A ncient P akistan

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t hought. D urante,

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P rehistoric

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T he

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b )

S outh

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I n

N aples:

S outh

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R ehman

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1 8

D heri

f or

f or

( L.)

a t S hahr-i

S hahr-i

t rade

i n

1 977.

( ed

v an

2 7-42 S okhta

a ncient

( ed

a nd

I ndo-

T addei,

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( for

D .R. ( 1978) C omments o n

3 17-344

a nd

t he

b irth

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1 981)

E xcavations

o f

c ivilization I nstitute

i n o f

1 91-207

a t

S arai

1 970-71)

I n:

o f

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P art

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2 3-89

G roup t erritories o r a n i nterdisciplinary

e cology.

S ocial

t erritorial p roblem i n

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a nd

g roups? c ultural

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A rchaeology a nd G eography.

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a nd

G reen,

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( Supplementary) H arris,

f ood

1 975.

B rill p p.

B alakot,

a rchaeology

B ulletin

A rchaeology 7 ( for H arris,

f rom

S eries M inor V I p p.

A rchaeology M .A.

s ome

I stituto U niversitario O rientale S eminario d i S tudi

P akistan.

H alim,

E .J.

s ignificance

A sian

p yrum

a rchaeology

L eiden:

s hells

t heir

A siatici. D urrani,

n utrition:

1 21-135

A sian

J .E.)

M a Hne

Y ahya:

a nd

1

u tilization o f X ancus

I n:

L ohuizen-de L euw, D urante,

d iet

W orld A rchaeology

M .

( 1966)

T he

N o.

4 7 p p.

c ultural

C .

R eports

M .)

O xford:

I nternational

S priggs,

S eries

1 87-196

e cology

o f

I ndia's

s acred

c attle.

C urrent A nthropology 7 5 1-59 H iggs,

E .S.

a nd

V ita-Finzi,

t erritorial ( ed H iggs, H ill,

P .

( 1982)

D ry

K arnataka H illman,

G .

g rain

f arming

( India)

H utchinson,

f amilies:

R econstructing

c rop

M ercer,

e conomies:

e conomic

H ausaland

C ambridge:

r emains of c rops.

a

p rehistory. 2 7-36

( Nigeria)

a nd

U niversity P ress

h usbandry

p ractices

I n:

F arming p ractice

R .)

E dinburgh:

f rom

i n B ritish

U niversity

P ress

1 23-162 J .

( Sir)

( 1976)

P hiloso h ical

1 29-141

J .-F.

M eadow,

a nd

c ivilization

I ndia:

T ransactions

S eries B 2 75 J arrige,

i n

U niversity P ress p p.

c ompared.

( ed.

P rehistoric

P apers

C ambridge:

p rehistory. p p.

( 1972) I n:

E .S.)

( 1981)

c harred

C .

a pproach.

i n

t he

l ocal o f

R .H. I ndus

t he

( 1980) V alley.

a nd

i ntroduced

R o a l

S ociety

T he

c rops.

o f L ondon

a ntecedents

o f

S cientific A merican 2 43

1 22-133 K han,

F .A.

( 1981)

K ot

C ivilization: C entre

f or

D iji

c ulture

-

i ts

n ew p erspectives.

t he

S tudy

o f

t he

Q uaid-i-Azam U niversity p p.

3 12

g reatness.

( ed D ani,

C ivilization 1 5-24

I n:

A .H.) o f

I ndus

I slamabad:

C entral

A sia,

L al,

B .B.

M eadow,

( 1971) P erhaps t he e arliest p loughed f ield s o f ar e xcavated a nywhere i n t he w orld. P uratattva 4 1 -3 R .H. ( 1975) M ammal m ethodology. I n: A .T.)

A msterdam:

r emains f rom H ajji F iruz: A rchaeozoological s tudies.

N orth

a s tudy i n ( ed C lason,

H olland P ublishing C ompany p p.

2 65-

2 83 M eadow,

R .H. ( 1981) E arly a nimal d omestication i n S outh A sia: a f irst r eport o f t he f aunal r emains f rom M ehrgarh, P akistan. I n: S outh A sian a rchaeology 1 979. ( ed D ietrich R eimer V erlag p p. 1 43-179

M ughal,

H ärtel,

H .)

B erlin:

M .R. ( 1981) N ew a rchaeological e vidence f rom B ahawalpur. I n: I ndus C ivilisation: n ew p erspectives. ( ed D ani, A H.) I slamabad: C entre f or t he S tudy o f t he C ivilization o f C entral A sia,

O 'Shea,

J .

( 1981)

Q uaid-i-Azam U niversity p p.

C oping w ith s carcity:

3 3-41

e xchange a nd s ocial

s torage.

I n: E conomic a rchaeology. ( ed S heridan, A . a nd B ailey, G .) O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational S eries N o.

9 6 p p.

1 67-183

P ossehl,

G .L. ( 1979) P astoral n omadism i n t he I ndus C ivilization: a n h ypothesis. I n: S outh A sian a rchaeology 1 977. ( ed T addei, M .) N aples: I stituto U niversitario O rientale S eminario d i S tudi A siatici. S eries M inor V I p p. 5 37-551

R averty,

H .G. ( 1878) N otes o n A fghanistan a nd B eluchistan. L ondon. ( Reprinted i n L ahore: S ang-e-Meel P ublications, 1 976)

R endell,

H . ( 1981) A p reliminary i nvestigation o f t he s edimentary h istory o f t he B annu B asin i n t he l ater H olocene. I n: S outh

A sian

a rchaeology

1 979.

D ietrich R eimer V erlag p p.

( ed

t i

H artel,

H .)

B erlin:

2 19-225

R obinson,

J .A. ( 193) 4) N otes o n n omad t ribes o f e astern A fghanistan. L ondon. ( Reprinted i n Q uetta: M /S N isa T raders, 1 978)

S chneider,

H .K. ( 197) 4) E conomic m an: N ew Y ork: T he F ree P rers

S herratt,

A .

( 1981)

p roducts

t he

a nthropology o f

P lough a nd p astoralism: r evolution.

I n:

P attern

a spects o f t he s econdary o f t he

p ast:

h onour o f D avid C larke. ( ed H odder, I ., H ammond, N .) C ambridge: U niversity P ress p p. S ingh,

e conomics.

s tudies

I saac, G . 2 61-305

i n a nd

G ., J oshi, R .D., C hopra, S .K. a nd S ingh, A .B. ( 197) 4) L ate Q uaternary v egetation a nd c limate o f t he R ajasthan D esert. P hilosophical T ransactions o f t he R oyal S ociety o f L ondon S eries B 2 67 4 67-501

S opher,

D .E. ( 1980) I ndian e nvironment. I n: ( ed H arris,

D .R.)

c ivilization a nd H uman e cology i n L ondon:

3 13

t he t ropical s avanna s avanna e nvironments.

A cademic P ress p p.

1 85-207

S pedding,

S tein,

A .

C .R.W. L ondon:

( 1979) A n i ntroduction t o a gricultural A pplied S cience P ublishers L td.

( Sir)

( 1928)

A n

a rchaeological

n orthern B aluchistan.

t our

i n

s ystems.

W aziristan

a nd

M emoirs o f t he A rchaeological S urvey

o f I ndia 3 7 2 9-30 T homas,

K .D.

( 1981)

s ources

P alaeoecological

o f

( ed H ärtel, T homas,

K .D. I n:

( in

O xford:

t he

D ietrich R eimer V erlag p p.

T arakai Q u a:

e nvironment

a nd

A sian

B annu B asin:

H .)

B erlin:

S outh

i n

I n:

p ress)

S ite,

s tudies

e vidence.

s ite,

a rchaeology

e conomy

e conomy.

( ed

a nd

t he

1 979.

2 27-232

e nvironment.

P roudfoot,

V .B.)

B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational S eries

( forthcoming) V ishnuMittre I n:

a nd

P ossehl, p p.

S avithri,

H arappan G .)

R .

( 1982)

C ivilization: W arminster,

2 05-221

3 14

F ood

e conomy o f t he

H arappans.

a c ontemporary p erspective. E ngland:

A n s

a nd

P hillips

( ed L td.

1 4.

E CONOMIC P LANTS I N A MSTERDAM:

Q UALITATIVE A ND Q UANTITATIVE A NALYSIS

N orbert P aap

I NTRODUCTION O ver

t he

c arried o ut f rom t he 2 7

p ast

2 5

y ears

i n A msterdam. s ites f rom t he

a rchaeological

e xcavations

h ave

b een

A c atalogue h as b een m ade o n t he f inds f irst 2 0 y ears ( Baart e t a l. 1 977). I n

t his c atalogue a re a lso i ncluded t he r emains f rom t he f our s ites t hat w ere b otanically i nvestigated of

t hese

s ites

g ave

D uring t he l ast

( Baart e t a l.

i nformation

o n

s eeds.

T hese

t here

4 92-494).

p lants

i n

O nly t wo A msterdam.

f ive y ears t hree e xcavations h ave t aken p lace.

w ere a lso i nvestigated b otanically, S o

1 977:

e conomic

l ast

o ne f or p ollen,

t wo g ave a bundant

a re a ltogether

f our

s ites

i nformation o n e conomic

t hat g ive

T hese

t he o ther t wo f or p lants.

i nformation o n e conomic

p lants i n A msterdam: 1 .

R emains o f a w atchtower w ith p art o f t he w ooden t own w all, 1 375-1425.

I n t he d itch o utside t he

t he w atchtower w ere 2 .

3 .

H ouse w ith c esspit " Nieuwendijk" p eriod. ( circa

f ound

( Pals

" Damrak 4 9",

( New

D ike).

w all

l atrine

d ated

d eposits

f rom

1 972). d ated

T his

1 580-1590

s ite

( Pals i n p ress).

c overs

a

c onsiderable

U ntil n ow i t r epresents t he e arliest p hase o f A msterdam 1 225)

a nd i t g oes o n i nto t he 2 0th c entury.

A t t his s ite

t he f irst s ettlers b uilt a long t he r iver A mstel a t erp o f a bout 2 5 m . w ide a nd w ith a l ength o f p robably o ne k ilometer. T he w eight t he t o

o f

p eat

t he

h eighten c ame

f urther

t heir h abitation

a l ayer

o f

h eightening

u nderstood f inding

l ayers

t erp w as

c aused

b uilt.

l evel

t hem T his

a bout

t o

s ink

t hat

s eeds

t his o f

s everal

m eters

u nnecessary s ite

o ffered

e conomic

v ery

p lants,

i nto

e very f ive y ears.

t hick.

( Baart

d own

f orced t he s ettlers

1 6 h eightening l ayers, d ated 1 225-1350.

r esult i s t his

h eightening

o n w hich t he

F oundations

1 982). g ood

T he

O n t he t op o f I t

i s

m ade

e asily

o pportunities

e specially

s ince

t he

f or 1 5th

c entury w hen c esspits a ppear. 4 .

" Waterlooplein"

( Waterloo S quare).

p osition of t his s ite A mstel. c entury T he

a rea

T he a nd

b end

w as

a m ap

o f

o riginally

i ncreasing

w as o ccupied

n umber

r apidly 1 625

h ad

1 6th c entury, b end

f illed

s hows

a m ixed

o f J ews,

D uring t he b y a g reat

t he

i n a t a rea

t he e nd o f t he c overed

p opulation,

b ut

t he

i n t he R iver w ith w ith

1 6th

h ouses. t ime

a n

e specially f rom S pain a nd P ortugal,

3 15

s ettled 6 0

t he

s ite.

I n t he

b eginning o f t he

a nd 8 0% o f t he o ccupants w ere

f ind

o f

k osher

1 982).

T aking

h ome,

t his

p ersonal J ews t he

t okens

f or

f igure

t his

r itually

c ould

b e

a rea

c ould

n eighbourhood

b e

( Vaz

t he

D ias

f igure

s laughtered t o

f or

8 5%

t he

( Baart

s laughtering a t

( Elize

v an

D ienst:

c oncentration o f t he

i nstallation

1 938).

b ased o n t he

a nimals

( illegal)

i ncreased

A r eason

1 8th c entury b etween

t his

i nto c onsideration t he

c ommunication).

i n

j ews,

o f a s ynagogue

W hatever

t he .r eason,

r esult w as t hat r ich a nd p oor l ived t ogether i n o ne a rea, i n

d ifferent

a part

s treets.

T his

s ituation

f rom q ualitative a nalysis,

s ee i f e vidence c ould b e

o ffered

t o c ompare

t he

t he

i n t he

t hough

p ossibility,

f ood

f ound o f d ifferent s ocial

r emains t o

s tatus.

M ETHODS W hile

t he

a ccidental

o lder

f inds,

a rchaeologist

J an

e xcavations

w ith B aart

t he

w ere

m ainly

" Nieuwendijk"

t reated

a s

e xcavation

s tarted a p eriod o f s ystematic

s eparate t he

t own

i nvestigation

t o p roduce a n a rchaeological

f ramework i nto w hich t he r esults o f e ach

s ubsequent

b e

m eant A t

e xcavation

f or

t he

t he

c ould

e conomic

" Nieuwendijk"

p lants, a ll

t he

f itted.

A s

s ystematic l ayers

t his

t hat

f ell

p eriod w ere s ampled a t t he m ost p romising s pot. l itre

w as

f ully

i nvestigated.

T he

f ramework

w as

a lso

s ampling b ecame n ecessary.

r esults

w ithin

o ne

c eramic

F rom e ach s ample o ne

o f

t hese

s amples m ade u p

t he b asis o f a d iagram t hat s hows t he i ntroduction a nd p eriod o f u se o f a w ide r ange o f f ruits a nd f ood p lants, f rom 1 225 u ntil t he 1 9th c entury ( figures 1 4:1 & 1 4:2). T he r esults f rom t he o ther s ites g ave a dditional i nformation t hat w as i ncorporated i n t he d iagram. B efore a nalysis t he s amples w ere s ieved t hrough s ieves w ith m esh 2 m m, 1 m m, 0 .5 m m a nd 0 .25 m m. I n g eneral o nly f inest f raction w as e xamined, e xcept w here t he

1 0% b y v olume o f t he t otal s ample v olume

f ell

W hile

b elow

s amples l ittle t he

1 00

o f t o

i nsititia

w hen

c esspits

p roduce

s tones

V itis

m l,

t he o f

1 0 i t

w as

e xamined. t hat

o ne

q uantifiable a mounts o f t he P runus

( damson),

v inifera

m l.

a ppeared

a vium/cerasus

P runus

d omestica

( grape).

A t

t he

s amples w ould c ome f rom c esspits,

l itre l arger

( sweet/sour ( plum)

a nd

t o

a nalysing

s ediment

t he

w as

t oo

r emains s uch a s c herry),

P runus

a c ertain

e xtent

" Waterlooplein"

n early

a ll

t he

i t w as n ecessary t o modify s ampling

t actics a ccordingly. A part f rom q ualitative r esults t he m ain p urpose o f t he b otanical i nvestigation w as h ere t o o btain q uantifiable a mounts

t o

s ee

i f

s ocial

d ifferences

c ould

b e

t raced.

T herefore

5

l itre s amples w ere u sed o f w hich a ll b ut a h alf l itre s ub-sample w as s ieved a t 2 m m, a nd t he s ub-sample w as p assed t hrough a s tack o f f iner

s ieves.

A t rial

a nalysis h ad m ade

i t c lear

t hat i n m ost c ases

h alf a l itre w . aS s ufficient f or t he s maller f ractions; g reater v olumes p roduced o nly g reater a mounts, n ot m ore s pecies. T he w hole m ethod t akes n o m ore t ime t han a f ull g ives b etter r esults

f or t he

i nvestigation of o ne l itre,

b ut

f ood p lants.

R ESULTS

t he

Q ualitative

a nalysis.

q ualitative

a nalysis.

c enturies. b roken

T he

1 4:1

R oman

& 1 4:2 f igures

s how a t

t he t he

r esults t op

i ndicates

t hat

t he

o ccurrence

b ut r emains h ave n ot b een f ound. 3 16

i n

t hat

p eriod

o f

d enote

A s olid l ine i ndicates t hat t he s pecies h as b een f ound,

l ine

p robable,

F igures

i s

a

v ery

P y r u s / M a l u s P y r u s p . M a l u s R u b s R u b s c a e s i u s R u b u s i d a e u s C o r y l u s a v e l a n J u g l a n s r e g i a F r a g a r i a s p . F i c u s c a r i c a P r u n s p . P r u n U s c e r a s u s P r u n s i n s i t i a P r u n s a v i u m P r u n s d o m e s t i c a P r u n s p e r s i c a P r u n s a r m e n i a c a V i t s v i n i f e r a M o r u s n i g r a V a c i n u m y r t i l u s V a c i n u m u l i g n o s u m M e s p i l u s g e r m a n i c a C a s t a n e a s a t i v a C u c m i s s a t i v u s C u c m i s m e l o C u c r b i t a p e o R i b e s s p . S a m b u c u s n i g r a C o c s n u c i f e r a P r u n s d u l c i s P u n i c a g r a n t u m O l e a e u r o p a e a P h o e n i x d a c t y l i f e r a A r a c h i s h y p o g a e a

f r u i t s , n u t s

f r u t i c o s u

e t c .

a g .

, -. a ), _ a ), L) r- I P r 1 r 1 0 , C) PA Q C r 3 C t i P4c d 3 c f ) N r- 1 G ) i a . ) Pir1a ) C t j a j c b

R< -

3 0 . ) P

, ,

, .

,

, , i , , , i

i

I ' , ,

I _,_ 1 , , , , , , ,, ,, , , . ,

, ,

3 17

,. , ,, ,, , , , ,

,

, I , , 1

C o c o n u t A l m o n d P o m e g r a n a t e O l i v e D a t e 1P e a n u t

e l

C h e r y S o u r c h e r y D a m s o n S w e t c h e r y P l u m P e a c h A p r i c o t G r a p e B l a c k m u l b e r y B i l b e r y B o g b i l b e r y M e d l a r S w e t c h e s t n u t C u c u m b e r M e l o n P u m p k i n C u r a n t

S t r a w b e r y

FI P 4 P 4

› . F 4

, , '

i i

F . 1

4

4 4 4

,

,

,

, , , , ,

I _ L_

1

,

, , , ,

1

1

t i n c t o r i u s

1

1 i

1 1

t

1

B a r l e y R y e O a t M i l e t B r i c k w h e a t R i c e W h e a t

› ; a i P a ) c d H f 1 a ) c d c p 0

,

i i I i 1 , I 1 i 1 i i i I 1 1 I 1

1 i

I

H H H R

i , i 1

gi- 1 (D c t 5 . H H H P u ) P Z 0 a ) c d 0 4 . 1 i

. 0

g g Oce g I a ) , . a ) a ) P H a ) r c b c ) 0 u ) 4 > u ) P H a ) P E c d H c d c i ) d d c b P g c b P c l p • Ac i )

1 I

3 18

c ) H a ) z g a ) P T 4

I

I

1 1

i

I

H e m p R a p e / T u r n i p L i n s e d P o p y S a f l o w e r W e a v e r ' s t e a s e l D y e r ' s r o c k e t B o g m y r t l e H o

a )

I n d u s t r i a l s e d s C a n a b i s s a t i v a B r a s i c a n a p u s / r a p a L i n u m u s i t a i s i m u E h p a v e r s o m n i f e r u m C a r t h a m u s D i p s a c u s s a t i v u s R e s d a l u t e o l a M y r i c a g a l e H u m l u s l u p l u s

1

H e r b s a n d v e g t a b l e s A p i u m g r a v e o l e n s C a r u m c a r v i A n e t h u m g r a v e o l e n s C o r i a n d r u m s a t i v u m L e n s c u l i n a r i s P e t r o s e l i n u m c r i s p u m A t r i p l e x h o r t e n s i s B r a s i c a n i g r a L e p i d u m s a t i v u m P i m p i n e l a n i s u m B e t a v u l g a r i s F o r t u l a c a o l e r a c e a S a t u r e j a h o r t e n s i F o e n i c u l u m v u l g a r e

C e r a l s a n d t h e l i k e H o r d e u m v u l g a r e S e c a l e c e r a l e " A v e n a s a t i v a P a n i c u m i l a c e u m F a g o p y r u m e s c u l e n t u m O r y z a s a t i v a T r i t i c u m s p .

" d , g P U ) c ) ( 2 c o c d 4 ) a ) › , p 0 > c d P a ) a )

1 1 1

1

!

1 1 i . I I

I

i i i

1 1 i

1 i

i 1

1

1 1 1

1

1

I I 1

1

1 1

1

1 1

I

i

I

T he s pecies h ave b een o rdered i n f our m ain g roups: 1 .

F ruits,

2 .

C ereals a nd t he l ike.

3 .

H erbs,

4 .

I ndustrial T he

m ore s p.

o r

n uts e tc.

s pices a nd v egetables. s eeds.

f irst a nd l ess

( pear)

l ast g roups a re

c omparable

a nd

M alus

c hronological,

s pecies

s p.

( apple).

a ccording

r epresentative

c f

a gain d ivided

a ppear

t o

t he

a c luster.

s ide

T he

o rder

f irst

W ithin

i n c lusters

b y

s ide, o f

t hese

o ccurence

t he

c luster

s uch

o f

P yrus

c lusters t he

t he

s o t hat a s

i s

e arliest

o rder

i s

a lso

c hronological. T he

s carcity o f s pecies

t he n ature o f t he s amples. o f

t he

t hey

h eightening

c ome

a lso

l ayers

f rom

A msterdam b efore t he T he

l ines

f or

i n

t he

e arlier c enturies h as

T hey o riginate a t

t he

c esspits,

" Nieuwendijk".

w hich

t o d o w i t h

f rom t he h abitation l evels I n

l ater

p eriods

a re

n ot

g enerally

f ound

P runus

s p.

c orrespond

t o

i n

1 6th c entury. P yrus/Malus

a nd

s eeds

t hat w ere t oo d amaged t o a llow c loser i dentification. 1 .

F ruits, W hen

n uts e tc.

l ooking

a rise:

a t

w hat

t he

w as

d iagram,

l ocal,

a lmost

w hat

i mmediately

w as

i mported,

t he

q uestions

w hen

d id

t he

i mportation o f f ood p lants s tart? T o a nswer t hese q uestions i n d etail, a t horough s tudy o f h istorical s ources s hould b e u ndertaken. a vailable

A s

l ong

S angers

( 1952).

o riginate C orylus

t his F or

M any

i s

n ot

d one,

A msterdam

o f

t he

( hazelnut)

a nd

o ne

a g ood

h as

t o

u se

p iece

o f

w ork

i nterpretive

r emarks

t he i s

b elow

f rom t his w ork. a vellana

n early

a s

l iterature.

a lways

f ound,

a lthough

p artly o f n ative o rigin, f rom

G ermany

h ere

i n

i n

g reat

t he

J uglans

i n

s mall

r egia

( walnut)

a mounts.

T hey

a re

m ay

b e

b ut w alnuts w ere a lready b eing i mported

1 4th

q uantities

c entury, f rom

a nd

t he

h azelnuts

B altic

a rea

h ave

s ince

a rrived t he

1 6th

c entury. F ragaria s p. ( strawberry) m ay h ave b een p icked o nly i n t he e arlier c enturies, b ut w hen i mportation s tarted i t i s h ard t o d iscover b y s eed e vidence a lone. morphological d ifference b etween p ips

T here s eems t o b e n o o f w ild a nd c ultivated

s trawberries. I t i s c ertain h owever t hat s ince t he 1 7th c entury B everwijk, a l ittle v illage a bout 2 0 k ilometers n orth-east o f A msterdam w as k nown a s c entre o f c ultivation o f s trawberries a nd e xported

t hem

a lmost

e xclusively

t o

A msterdam.

( grape) w ould b e n ormally i mported f rom a broad, H oorn, a t own a bout 3 0 k ilometers n orth o f growing

g rapes o f

o f

" Waterlooplein".

t he

a llowed

t he

s olely

o rigin

t o

g rapes

d rink

f or

c ould

A msterdam. b e

T he

t he

A

v inifera

h ighly

s peculative

h ome g rowing o f t hem b y

r eason w ould

b e

w ine p roduced b y n on-Jews

3 19

V itis

b ut a round 1 800 A msterdam, w as

t hat

J ews

t hey w ere n ot

( Elize v an D ienst:

p ersonal c ommunication). T he l ast c luster o f h ighly e xotic f ruits d oes n ot i nclude c itrus-fruits. T hese f ruits a re n ever l isted a mong t he f ood r esidues f rom a rchaeological c ontexts, a nd i t s eems p robable t hat t heir r emains v ery e asily a nd c ompletely d ecompose. 2 .

C ereals a nd t he l ike. W ithin t his c omponent.

g roup O ryza s ativa ( rice) i s a n i nteresting I t o ccurs i n n early e very c esspit a t t he

" Waterlooplein". T he w ay o f l ife a mong P ortuguese a nd S panish J ews i s s aid t o h ave h ad s ome o riental a ffinities, a nd r ice w as a c ommon

s taple

f ood

( Encyclopadia

o f t he r ice m ay h ave b een I taly. f ind o f S cirpus m ucronatus, r icefields, w ith I taly.

a nd

J udaica:

F ood).

T he o rigin

I ndications f or t his a re t he a w eed f rom m editerranean

t he k nown i ntensive t rade c ontacts o f A msterdam

T he s pecies H ordeum v ulgare L . e mend ( barley), S ecale c ereale L . ( rye), A vena s ativa L . ( oat) a nd T riticum s p. ( wheat) a re r epresented b y o ccasional c haff f ragments o r a ccidently m ineralised g rains w hich a re i n m ost c esspits. T he a mounts a re t oo s mall t o d raw c onclusions a bout t heir o ccurrence.

3 .

H erbs,

s pices a nd v egetables

T he l ast c omment o n t he c ereals i s e qually v alid f or t his g roup. A part f rom a f ew s pecies o f w hich t he s eeds w ere u sed, l ike B rassica n igra ( black m ustard) a nd P impinella a nisum ( anise), m ost s pecies b elonging t o t his g roup a re g rown f or t heir l eaves. I t i s t herefore a ccidental t hat s eeds o f t hese s pecies a re f ound i n a c esspit. T he o nly p ossible w ay f or t his t o h appen s eems t o b e t he g athering a nd d rying o f t he p lants i n a utumn ( Greig 1 982: 5 1). I t i s c lear h owever t hat t his g roup i s u nderrepresented, i n s pecies a s w ell a s i n p eriods o f o ccurrence. 4 .

I ndustrial s eeds T his g roup s tarts w ith a c luster o f o ilseeds. O f g r>at i nterest h ere i s t he s pecies C arthamus t inctorius ( safflower), n owadays u sed a s a s ource o f v egetable o il f or m argarine p roduction. P apaver s omniferum ( poppy) i s g rouped h ere w ith t he o il s eeds, b ut a t t he " Waterlooplein" i ts m ain u se w as d ifferent. T he J ewish s abbath b read " challe" w as s prinkled a bundantly w ith p oppy s eeds, w hile t he H aman's e ars, s mall p ies e aten a t P urim, w ere s tuffed w ith t hem. ( Encyclopaedia J udaica: F ood). T he f inds o f D ipsacus s ativus ( weaver's t easel) a nd R eseda l uteola ( dyer's r ocket) i ndicate t he p resence o f s omeone w ho w as e mployed i n t he f inishing p rocess o f t extile m anufacture. T he d ried-out i nflourescences o f t he t easel w ere u sed t o r oughen f abrics. T his p lant w as c ultivated f or t his p urpose i n G ermany a nd F rance ( Chomel 1 778: 1 370). T he g reat q uantities o f M yrica g ale

( bog m yrtle)

" Nieuwendijk", A lthough

t his

a nd

s uggest

H umulus t he

l upulus

p resence

( hop),

o f

a lso

a b rewer

f ound a t i n

c onclusion i s o ften d rawn t o e agerly,

3 20

t his

t he

a rea.

e ven b ased

o n o nly a f ew h op-seeds, i t s eems j ustified h ere. O ne s ample c onsists o f m yrtle b ranches, l eaves a nd s eeds, w hile a s ample f rom t he n ear v icinity a nd t he s ame d ate c ontains a bout s eeds. Q uantitative

a nalysis.

e xcavation

offered

A s

g ood

m entioned

d ifferences c ould b e t raced i n t he T he

e xcavated a rea w as

r ich p art p resent f irst

a nd

a l ower

a nalysis

h alf o f

o bserved

d ifference

p ersonal

i n

d iscriminant

a nalysis

f rom

p ottery w as

w as

w hether

s ocial

o f a w ell-to-do t o v ery

p art

( Baart

1 982).

F or t he

w ere r andomly c hosen e ach d ated

c entury

c ommunication)

" Waterlooplein"

s ee

f ood r emains.

t o v ery p oor

s amples

1 8th

t he

t o

k nown t o c onsist

c lass

f ive

t he

a bove,

p ossibilities

1 .5% h op

e ach p art.

b etween

r eally

t he

a

t hought m ost

T o t est

t wo

p arts

d ifference

t he t he

( Jan.

o n

a ppropriate.

t o

w hether

B aart:

a ll

l evels,

I ts a pplication

c onsists o f f inding a c ombination o f d iscriminating v ariables t hat i s r esponsible

f or t he g reatest

d ifference

b etween t he g roups.

S pecies

w ere u sed a s d iscriminating v ariables t hat o ccured i n b oth g roups a nd i n

a t

l east

v olume,

s o

t hree

s amples

t hat a bsolute

p er

g roup.

a mounts c ould

A ll b e

s amples

h ad

t ransformed

t he

s ame

t o p roportions

i ndicating t he r elative i mportance o f t he s pecies w ithin a s ample. A s

d iscriminant

v ariables

h ave

a

a nalysis

n ormal

a ssumes

d istribution,

t hat t he

t he

d iscriminating

a rcsine

t ransformation

( Sokal a nd R ohlf 1 969: 3 86-387) w as u sed o n t he p roportions c alculated t o p roduce a d istribution t hat a l east a pproximated t o t he n ormal d istribution. T he ( Klecka s pecies t he

v ersion 1 975). w as

g roups

v ariable v ariable

o f

d iscriminant

T he

c riterion

s tepwise

R ao's V .

V i s

f or e ach v ariable. t hat

t hat

T he

d iscriminates d iscriminates

a nalysis

u sed

u sed

w as

f inding

t he m easure b etween

i n

t he

t he

o ne

i n

S PSS

d iscriminating

f or d istance b etween

s tepwise m ethod

m ost m ost

f or

t he

c ombination

s elects g roups,

w ith

t he

f irst t he n ext

t he

f irst

o ne

e tc. B efore a v ariable i s a ctually a ccepted i t m ust p ass a t olerance t est t o s ee i f i t w ill r eally h ave a n i nfluence u pon t he r esult.

i nto

T he r esults t wo g roups

a re i s

s pecies,

w hich

a re

e xpected

( with

t he

groups

a re

e ach

r eally

t hat

p robability i s

4 0

t able 1 4:2. I t i s b ased n ot

t he

e xception

s tandard t he

g roup

s pecies of

t hat

M espilus

d eviations

c lassified c ases.

f rom

A n i nteresting d ivision o n a f ew d iscriminating

T he

c entroid

w ere

p robability

g enerally

g ermanica).

f rom

0 ,

w hich

i s

T he t he

p robability t hat a c ase i s

g iven

1 .0000):

s ample n umber 8

c ertainly

t he

f ar

i n

p ossible

a bout

g rand m ean o f a ll i s

s hown s een.

g roup

. 7579

1

1 09

. 8183

1

18

. 1272

1

1 91

. 5932

1

1 95

. 0325

1

1 2

. 5873

2

1 7 9 4

. 5582 . 8771

2 2

1 61

. 9325

2

1 63

. 9748

2

b elow

( maximum

T able 1 4:1

G roup 1 : r icher p art S ample n umbers

8

1 09

18

1 91

G roup 2 : p oorer p art

1 95

P yrus s p. 2 15 9 1 5 9 2 35 5 8 M alus s p. 1 30 6 9 1 00 4 63 6 0 R ubus f ruticosus a gg. 2 R ubus c aesius 3 R ubus i daeus 2 7 1 6 6 5 1 C orylus a vellana 3 0 1 1 2 1 2 5 J uglans r egia 1 1 1 F ragaria s p. 4 080 - 9 18 3 703 101 F icus c arica 2 48 8 55 2 465 2 441 1 669 P runus c erasus 1 23 6 4 1 2 1 8 P runus i nsititia 4 7 3 8 3 3 5 1 3 P runus a vium 3 4 8 6 5 8 6 2 6

1 2

8 7 2 22

1 7

9 4

1 61

1 63

1 99 -

1 51 5 0

1 05 1 68

1 51 7 0

9 2 9 1 4 7 1 9 14 1 74 5 79 2 496 8 3 0 1 4 1 6

1 76

7 9

2 4 5 4 8 1 2 5 2 2 1 1 634 169 5 40 7 19 3 504 1 958 3 4 3 5 3 0 1 5 1 4 5 3 7 1 05 1 6

P runus d omestica 9 1 1 2 4 1 V itis v inifera 7 62 4 48 1 673 8 92 9 84 7 26 2 044 7 16 1 462 5 03 M orus n igra 6 7 2 2 - •17 V accinium m yrtillus 5 1 2 6 1 - 1 31 1 50 M espilus g ermanica 4 1 3 9 9 3 5 6 4 3 9 2 4 7 C astanea s ativa 6 1 1 2 1 1 C ucumis s ativus 1 6 8 6 C ucumis m elo 2 0 8 3 C ucurbita p epo 2 R ibes r ubrum 1 460 3 6 1 931 1 233 1 020 4 338 3 942 3 171 2 546 2 296 R ibes u va-crispa 1 50 7 2 2 84 9 2 3 6 4 4 6 2 R ibes n igrum 2 2 2 3 4 6 S ambucus n igra 1 1 3 C ocos n ucifera 1 P runus d ulcis 1 1 5 P unica g ranatum 3 8 1 5 O lea e uropaea 1 2 1 0 3 8 7 2 2 2 P hoenix d actylifera 1 S ecale c erale A vena s ativa P anicum m iliaceum F agopyrum e sculentum O ryza s ativa T riticum s p.

1 4

3

A pium g raveolens 1 C arum c arvi A nethum g raveolens C oriandrum s ativum 2 2 L ens c ulinaris B rassica n igra 1 75 L epidium s ativum F oeniculum v ulgare C annabis s ativa 3 B rassica n apus/rapa 1 46 L inum u sitatissimum 1 P apaver s omniferum C arthamus t inctorius i ndet.

1

1 6 2 2 -

1

2 3

1 79 7

3 4 -

1

8 1

• 7

3 3

4

5 9

5 7

7

1 1 1

8

-

7

4

3 5 7 -

1

1

3

6

2 4 5 1

5 5 -

2 2 5

2

^ -

3 0

2 0

-

3 4

8

1 36

1 0

1 1

2 -

1 0

3 6 1

1 1 4

3

3 22

1 8

4 6

1 1 2

4 6 1

2 0

1 7

5 1 55

4-

•

.

.

• +

•

.

• +

•

•

• •

•0

•

1^-

I 1 r - e - r --

•0 • C

( 'J

N

N

N

C\ JC V C V C ‘ J

N N

N 0 . 1

• ▪•

I

•0 • + 0 .

•

•

•

+

•

•

•

+

•

•

•

+

•

•

•

E L I Z

> " '

C L A S I F C A T I O N

C L I

3 23

G R O U P C E N T R O I D S

H I S T O G R A M O F T H E G R O U P S

f o r g r o u p 2

+

I t

i s

c lear

t hat

t he

s amples

f rom

g roup

2

h ave

a

g reater

p robability o f b elonging t o t heir g roup t han t hose f rom g roup 1 . p robability o f t he s amples 18 a nd 1 95 i n p articular i s v ery l ow. T his

f irst

t rial

t o

s ee

i f

s ocial

d ifferences

c ould b e t raced s eems r ather s uccessful. v alue.

T he

s elected

s pecies

s ubset o f 1 0 s amples. w ay,

c ould

i t

i n

f ood

h owever,

r emains

n o g eneral

h ave o nly d iscriminating v alue

f or t his

O nly w hen m ore s ubsets a re t reated i n t he s ame

b e

d iscriminating.

I t h as,

T he

s hown

T hese

t hat

s pecies

c ertain w ould

s pecies

a re

t hen

g eneral

h ave

c onstantly v alue

a s

i ndicators o f d ifference b etween s amples. F INAL R EMARKS O nly c omplete w ork

t he i n

q ualitative

i tself.

r emains

s hould t heir

b e u se

e tc.

t o

u ndertaken a nd

t o

s tarted

T his

b its

b e

m ade

o nly

a nd

m ean

w hen

s o o n.

m entioned

y ou

T he

t hat

A t horough f rom

b e

h as

o nly

a cquisition

o f

t heir

s pecies

o f

a nd

p ossibility

d etailed

t o

s omeone

t here

i s

q uantitative a nalysis m any

s ubsets

w ill

p oor,

r ich

of

s ources w hen

p rice

s hould

w as

n ot

b e

c ollect m inor

i nformation

h ow

i s

a l ot

c ame,

( relative)

a h istorian t he

a r esult t hat

h istorical

i mported

w hat

b y

t o

i nterpretation

s tudy

w here

d one

l ed

a bout

" Waterlooplein" w ould a lso b e u seful.

s ay

b efore,

h as

h istorical

f inished,

w ho

T he

p eople l iving a t t he i t

t he

o ut

a nd/or

s omeone

p ieces.

f or

d one. f ind

c ould b y

a nalysis

A s

t he

W hat d oes

w ere

t he

r ich

i s h ighly p reliminary t oo. h ave

t o

b e

a nalysed

A s

b efore

t he

r esults c an b e o f g eneral v alue. A cknowledgements A part w ould

f rom

t hank

P rotohistorie s tatistics

v an

a nd

A rchaeologists A rchaeology

a ll

t he

e specially

o f

d e

t he

w ho

B .

t he

u se,

h ave

h elped

V oorrips,

U niversiteit

c omputer i n

p eople D rs.

a nd

m e

v an

A msterdam,

t he

A ssociation

p erson

o f

M artin

U niversity

o f

D urham,

p ossibility o f p ublishing t his p aper.

3 24

w ith

I nstituut f or o f

J ones, f or

t his

v oor h is

w ork P rae

h elp

I e n

w ith

E nvironmental D epartment

o ffering

m e

of t he

B ibliography B aart,

J .

B aart,

( 1982)

J .

A msterdam

( 1982)

J .,

K rook, H .

H olland

O pgravingen

A msterdam. B aart,

1 .

L agerweij,

T .,

( 1977)

N .

( 1778)

A lgemeen

J .

O ckers,

N .,

S touthart, i n

t onen

h et

o udste

V an R egteren A ltena, G .,

V an

d er

A msterdam,

A msterdam:

Z wan,

2 0

M .

j aar

F ibula-Van D ishoeck

h uishoudelijk-,

W oordenboek.

L eeuwarden:

n atuur-, J .A.

d e

z edekundig-

C halmot p p.

e n

1 369-

K aardendistel

E ncyclopaedia J udaica G reiE.

H .

O pgravingen

k onst1 370:

A .,

S toepker,

s tadskernonderzoek. C homel,

N ieuwendijk

U ns A msterdam 3 4 8 6-90

W .,

S tam,

b ij

1 4 2 14-217

( 1982)

( 1971).

G arderobes,

J erusalem p p. S ewers,

1 414-1427:

F ood

C esspits a nd L atrines.

C urrent

A rchaeology 8 5 4 9-52 W .R.

( 1975)

p ackage

D iscriminant

f or

t he

M cGraw-Hill p p. P als,

J .P.

( 1972) o nder

J .P.

S an 3rs,

S t.

( 1952)

Z wolle: S ok

L ,

R .R.

a nd

I n: ( ed

S PSS:

N ie,

s tatistical

N .H.)

N ew

Y ork:

4 34-467

O lofskapel

( ed

V an

R egteren

I n:

V ondsten

A ltena,

I nstituut v oor P rae- e n P rotohistorie p p.

( in p ress)

W .J.

A nalysis. s ciences

V ruchten e n z aden u it d e s tadsgracht. d e

A msterdam: P al ,

s ocial

H .H.) 3 9-40

P lantaardigheden o nder D amrak 4 9 D e

o ntwikkeling

v an

d e

n ederlandse

t uinbouw.

T jeenk W illink R ohlf,

F .J.

( 1969)

B iometry.

S an

F rancisco:

W .H.

F reeman a nd C ompany V a : .

D ias,

A .M.

( 1938)

b epaalde

E en

v erzoek

w oonplaats

a an

o m t e

d e

j oden

w ijzen.

i n V ijf

A msterdam e n

j aarboek v an h et g enootschap Amstelodamum 1 81-202

3 25

e en

d ertigste

1 5.

F EEDING L INCOLN I N T HE

T .

T he

u se o f t he w ord

d eliberate.

I p ropose

s ubsistence C onquest,

e conomy

t he m id

j ustification a

s ite,

o r

P .

O 'Connor

" speculation"

i n t he

t o c onsider t he m eat

o f

L incoln

1th c entury,

f or c onsidering e ven

1TH C ENTURY - A S PECULATION

f or

t he

y ears

a round

t he

N orman

w ith t he w ider i ntention o f p roviding

t he m edieval

r egional,

t itle o f t his p aper i s

p roduction s ector o f t he

b asis,

b ut

e conomy o f E ngland n ot a s

o ne

s tructure c onsisting o f m any i nterdependent o rder t o u ndertake s uch a r econstruction, i t

c oherent

o n

e conomic

m icro-economies. w ill b e n ecessary

I n t o

guesstimate n umerous i tems o f d ata, a nd t o t ake a v ery s imple v iew o f t he m eat p roduction, d istribution, a nd c onsumption p rocesses. A ccordingly,

w hat

a

t he

m odel

o f

f ollows must n ot e conomy

o f

t he

b e

s een a s a n a ttempt

c ity;

i t

i s

t o g enerate

a s eries

o f

i nformed

guesses a bout s ome a spects o f w hat m ight h ave b een h appening.

a t

T he l east

f irst p oint t o e stablish i s t he a pproximate p opulation, o r t he m eat-consuming p opulation, o f L incoln d uring t he p eriod

i n q uestion.

A t t he t ime o f t he D omesday s urvey,

t o h ave c omprised

1 270 h ouseholds

( Hill

1 948:

L incoln i s r eckoned

5 4).

I f w e a ssume t hat

e ach h ousehold w as j ust h ouseholds b eing b alanced

a l arge f amily, w ith o ut b y s olitary m aiden

d educt

f or

a

a mount

f actor

o f

t o

m eat,

a llow

1 270

s mall

h ouseholds

c hildren

c ould

u nusually l arge a unts, a nd t hen

e ating

r epresent

a n egligible a

m eat-eating

p opulation o f a round 4 000 p eople. H ow m uch m eat d id e ach o f t hese 4 000 p eople c onsume i n a s ingle, t ypical y ear? T he p resent n ational a verage c entury

i s 6 3.5 k g, c ompared w ith 4 5.5 k g a round t he e nd o f t he l ast ( Melvyn H owe 1 972: 5 4). M edieval a ccounts o f d iet a re n ot

h elpful:

i t

i s

d escribed. m edieval

s eldom

F or

t he

a verage

a pparent

p urposes

o f

2 5

w hich

o f

k g

p er

m utton a nd p ork.

i mportant

i n

c alculations, e lements. e stimate

t hey

a re

d iet,

a ssumed

n ot

s ociety

p er

I w ish

a nnum

F ish a nd

i s t o

t o

b eing t ake

a

r epresent

f owl w ere u ndoubtedly

b ut

i n

o rder

t o

h ave

b een

t o

s implify

i mportant

a s

t he b ulk

M ultiplying t his e stimate o f p er c apita c onsumption b y t he o f

p opulation

1 00,000 k g. v alues

t he

o f

s peculation,

p erson

c onsumption o f b eef, e lements

s tratum

t his

g ives

a

t otal

a nnual

m eat

c onsumption

T his c an p robably b e r egarded a s a m inimum e stimate:

o f t he

f or p opulation a nd c onsumption a re p robably b oth r ather l ow.

I n

o rder

t o c onvert

t his

t otal

a nnual m eat

c onsumption e stimate

i nto n umbers o f l ivestock,

w e n eed t o e stimate w hat p roportion o f t he

meat

b y

s upply

e vidence O 'Connor a bundance

o n

w as

p rovided

w hich

( 1982:

t he 1 2),

e stimates

e ach

f ollowing a nd

o nly

b ased

o f

c attle,

e stimates

s ummarised o n

3 27

m inimum

s heep,

a re

b ased

h ere. n umbers

a nd i s

p igs.

c ontained

T aking o f

T he i n

r elative

i ndividuals

c alculated

f or

t en

s amples

o f

b ones

f rom

t he

p eriod

u nder

c onsideration, a nd t hen w eighting t he n umbers o f i ndividuals b y f actors d erived f rom t he e stimated m eat y ield p er i ndividual f or e ach o f t he t hree t axa, w e a rrive a t f igures o f 8 0% b eef, 1 3% p ork, a nd 7 % m utton. T his i s p iling e stimate u pon e stimate, a nd t hese f igures c an o nly

b e

y ield

r egarded

p er

a s

v ery

i ndividual

b ased

a pproximate. o n d ata

p ercentages c an b e c onverted t o 4 00

p igs.

T o

g eese,

f owls

d uring

a

L incoln

t his o f

s hould

t he

t ypical

w ere

b e

a ir,

y ear

m unching

u sing

f igures

p rimitive

f igures o f 5 00 c attle,

f or

m eat

b reeds,

t he

7 00 s heep,

a nd

a dded a c onsiderable n umber o f h ens a nd

a nd

i n

B y

f rom e xtant

f ishes

t he

t heir

m id

w ay

o f

t he

1th

d eep.

c entury,

t hrough

T o t he

s ummarise, c itizens

a c onsiderable

n umber

of o f

a nimals. T he

f ull

s ocioeconomic

i llustrated

i f

b y

E xamination

s heep.

f eatures

i n

w e

c onsider

i mpact

t he

o f

s heep

t he c ity d ated

t o

of

t his

s mallest

m andibles

1 040-1070

t otal

s tock,

m eat

a nd

1 -

p roducing a nd

2 -year

f lock h oggs

w ould b eing

a nnual

t han

7 00

5 000

s heep

h ead.

b eing

p roduced

A ssuming

a

1 982:

f attened.

o f

b e

e xcavated

2 3-4).

a dult

A llowing

i t

T hus

b reeding f or

t his,

i s d ifficult t o s ee

f rom a t otal

s ystem

f rom

r equired

a nd a ssuming a m odest r ate o f l amb p roduction, t he

b est

a c oncentration o n t he

( O'Connor h ave

c an

7 % r epresented

t he

r ecovered

s hows

s laughter o f i ndividuals a ged 3 -4 y ears, t he

a ppetite

e lement,

f lock o f m uch l ess

e xtensive,

r ather

t han

i ntensive, g razing, w e c an p erhaps e xpect a g razing i ntensity s imilar t o t hat r ecorded f rom t he S ussex D owns b efore t he 1 8th c entury I mprovements m ovement. 8 0), w e c an c alculate r aised

o n

p rovide

s omething

c omparative

T aking f igures f rom F ussell ( Fussell t hat a m ere 7 % of t he m eat s upply w as l ike

2 000

f igures

t o

4 000

h ectares

f or a d ifferent

o f

1 951: b eing

g razing.

c ommodity,

T o

e ven w ith l ow

m edieval g rain y ields, t he s ame a rea o f l and ( although o bviously n ot t he s ame l and) c ould h ave y ielded b etween 2 0 m illion a nd 4 0 m illion l itres o f g rain. O bviously, s purious,

a s

p roducing

t his t he

w ool

d irect

c omparison

e stimated

a nd

m ilk

a s

5 000

h ead

o f o f

w ell.

I ndeed,

t hese

n umbers

m eat

w ith

s heep

g rain

w ould

m eat m ight

i s

h ave

b een

w ell o nly h ave

b een a b y-product. T he

p urpose

o f

a ll

h as

b een

t o

g ive

s ome

i llustration t o t he g eneral s tatement t hat m edieval c ities w ould h ave h ad

a n a ll-pervading

i nfluence o n t he

P roviding 5 00 c attle, w ould

h ave

e ngaged

L incolnshire,

q uite

p opulation.

A nd

t he

t here

f rom

w hich

t ypically

a re

w inter

d istances m arine c oast

1th

m onths, o f

f ish

6 0

( O'Connor I t

i s

p articular

o r

a lso

q uite

L incolnshire,

a bundant i mplying

1 982:

c ity

o f a n

m ore.

a ppreciable

t he

m eat

w ider

h interland.

i n

e stuarine

I n

a nd

t rade

a ddition

t o

i ndicating

o f

c oastal

o f

t hese

b ones

w ildfowl

a reas

h unted

d uring

b irds

b irds,

r egular

r ural

T he

s pecies i n

of r ural t he

e ffects.

i nclude

a s easonal

p roportion

r equirements

r anging

d eposits

r ecovered,

t rade

o ver

b ones w ith

of t he

4 4-6).

o bvious

w as

a nd

a re

e conomies o f t heir

a nd 4 00 p igs f or s laughter e ach y ear

f rom

c entury

k m

w ere

o utput

a part

r ecovered t he

7 00 s heep,

t hat

t he

i nextricably

p robably

b eyond.

3 28

s ubsistence

t ied

u p

w ith

e conomy t hat

o f

o f most

t his o f

T hus a ny e vents w hich a ffected

t he

u rban

s ubsistence

e conomy

w ould

h ave

h ad

i n

t he

s ome

e ffect

i n

d istant

a nd s upposedly r ural s ettlements. T he

e xcavation

L incoln,

p rovided

I mmediately a bout

a fter

p acifying

t owns.

O ne

b ringing

F laxengate, e xample

h is s uccess a t

t he

s uch

i mmediately

a t

a u seful

l ower

j ust

H astings,

s uch

w alled

a n

W illiam

a rea

e conomic

t he

c astle

w as

t he

h undred

c onstructed C onquest,

m ore

i n

L incoln.

t his

m eat-eaters

c astle i nto

I n

w as

t he

o f

e vent.

C onqueror

N orth o f E ngland b y g arrisoning c astles

f ollowing

s everal

o f

s et

i n m ajor t he

y ears

g arrisoned,

c ity,

a nd

t his

a ppears t o h ave h ad a f airly s triking e ffect o n t he u rban s ubsistence e conomy. s amples y oung

R oughly c ontemporaneous w ith t he g arrisoning o f t he c astle, o f

s heep

a nd

i ndividuals,

p ig

mandibles

w ith

l arge

a ppearing i n d omestic d ebris e conomy

s eems

t o

h ave

s how

a n

n umbers

f or

t he

a djusted,

f irst

a nd

i ncreased

o f

1 -

t ime.

t he

s laughter

a nd

2 -year

B y a bout

m ajority

o f

o f

s heep

1 080,

s heep

t he w ere

s laughtered a t 3 t o 4 y ears o ld, a s b efore. W hat a ppears t o h ave h appened i s t hat t he g arrisoning o f t he c astle p ut s udden p ressure o n t he m eat s upply,

a nd t he i ncreased d emand w as m et b y s laughtering t he

s heep e arlier a nd n ot w aiting c lips of w ool. I nterestingly, m aintained ( O'Connor

f rom 1 982:

t he

f or t hem t o h ave p roduced t wo a nnual t he e arlier s laughter a ge f or p igs i s

C onquest

r ight

t hrough

t he

m edieval

p eriod,

4 9).

T he e ffect w hich g arrisoning t he c astle h ad o n t he u rban e conomy c an

t hus

b e

n onetheless s mall,

i dentified

i mportant,

a nd

o stensibly r ural,

f rom t he c ity, T he

p ossible

e ffect

c ommunities

W hat

t hese

i s

l ess

c lear,

b ut

e vents w ould h ave h ad o n

l iving p erhaps

1 0

t o 2 0 k m a way

w here t he s heep w ere b eing r aised.

m oral

o r a t l east i ts c ities.

e xplained.

i s w hat

o f

t he

s tory

i s

t his.

R oman

a nd

p ost-Roman B ritain,

t he s outhern h alf o f i t, w as e conomically d ominated b y W hen e xamining e conomic e vidence f rom a r ural s ite, t he

e ffect

t hat

h istorically

r ecorded

e vents

i n

t he

c ities

h ave b een h aving i n t he c ountryside m ust b e t aken i nto a ccount. c onsidering

s ubsistence

e conomies,

i solation, o r t o c onsider a ny o ne l ikely t hat i n a reas w here u rban i nformation

d erived

f rom

o ne

w e

c annot

a fford

t o

m ay W hen

w ork

i n

s ite o n i ts o wn. I t s eems q uite c atchments o verlap, t he e conomic

c ity m ight

b e

d irectly

r elevant

t o

t he

i nterpretation o f a nother. D uring p aper,

a

t he

d ifficulties T hese

d iscussion

number

o f

i nherent

i ncluded

w hich

p oints

f ollowed

w ere

i n a ny a ttempt

s uch i mponderables a s

t he

r aised t o m odel t he

p resentation

w hich

o f

t his

e mphasised

t he

a s ubsistence e conomy.

d egree o f a dherence

t o

f ast

d ays, t he r ole o f n on-bone p roducing a nimal f oods s uch a s o ffal a nd m ilk p roducts, a nd t he a dditional e stimates w hich h ave t o b e m ade f or t he c onsumption o f t he s peculative

f igures

f ood-producing r ural p opulation.

c ontained

( preferably b y s omebody e lse) i t

i s

h oped

t hat

t his

p aper

i n

t his

p aper

w ill

t o c onstruct s uch a m odel. h as

d rawn a ttention

t o

P ossibly t he

i nitiate

a ttempts

E ither w ay,

t he n eed

t o v iew

t he e conomic e vidence f rom e ach s ite a s j ust o ne p art o f a c omplex o f i nter-related macro- a nd m icro-economies.

3 29

B ibliography

F ussell,

G .E.

( 1951)

F our

c enturies

o f

f arming

s ystems

i n

S ussex.

S ussex A rchaeological C ollections 9 0 6 0-95 H ill, M elvyn

J .W.F.

( 1948)

H owe,

O 'Connor,

G .

M edieval L incoln

( 1972)

M an

C ambridge:

E nvironment

N ewton A bbot:

D avid & C harles

T .P.

A nimal

1 500.

( 1982)

B ones

a nd

U niversity P ress D isease

f rom F laxengate,

T he A rchaeology o f L incoln X VIII-I

30

i n

B ritain

L incoln

L ondon:

c 8 70-

C .B.A.