I Could Talk Old-Story Good: Creativity in Bahamian Folklore [Reprint 2019 ed.] 9780520338296

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I COULD TALK OLD-STORY GOOD

FOLKLORE

STUDIES

:

17

I Could Talk Old-Story Good: Creativity in Bahamian Folklore DANIEL J. CROWLEY

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY, LOS ANGELES, LONDON

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS FOLKLORE STUDIES: 1 7

Approved for publication September 1 8 , 1 9 6 4

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA P U S S BERKELEY AND L O S ANGELES CALIFORNIA

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS, L T D . L O N D O N , ENGLAND

©

1 9 6 6 BY THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CALIFORNIA LIBRARY REPRINT SERIES 1 9 8 3 ISBN 0 - 5 2 0 - 0 5 0 8 3 - 5 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

T O M Y PARENTS

ELS AND MIKE

PREFACE upon which this study was based was carried out in three field trips to the Bahamas in 1952, 1953, and 1957 with private funds but under the joint sponsorship of the Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, and the Nassau Development Board. The late Dr. Melville J. Herskovits of Northwestern suggested the original research plan, and Mrs. Marion Vinson of the Development Board provided invaluable help in the field, as did my two assistants, David H. Wenzel and Jon Will Pitts. Drs. William Bascom and Richard Waterman greatly aided in the development of the project, although they cannot be held responsible for any faults in its conclusions. I would like also to express my gratitude to Dr. Richard Dorson for his advice in transcription of texts, Robert and Dudley Buchbinder for the field photography, Kenneth S. Keyes, Jr., for making possible the third field trip and a color film of narration, Patricia Rademaker and Jeanie Anderson for the typing, my parents for their continued financial and moral support, and my favorite West Indian folklore informant, my wife Pearl, for criticizing and proofreading the manuscript. Most of all, I owe eternal gratitude to the people of the Bahamas, and in particular to my hosts in Grant's Town: Stanford Lewis, his sister Maudanna Pinder, their cousin Ezekial Mackey, and their families. With the help of these kind and perceptive people, I was able to give my life new meaning and direction after a personal tragedy. I feel privileged in being able to make a permanent record of their evanescent art with its implications of individual human worth. T H E RESEARCH

Daniel J. Crowley Davis, California

CONTENTS I. Introduction: Tradition and Creativity II. Folklore in Bahamian Culture

1 8

III. The Structure of Old-Stories

19

IV. Opening and Closing Formulae

S2

V. Thematic Construction VI. Regional and Individual Stylistic Variation

40 45

Behring Point Narrators

46

Out Islands Narrators

78

New Providence Narrators

85

United States Immigrants and Contract Workers

98

Individual Styles in Variants

104

"Original" Stories

118

Written Stories

12S

.

"Planted" Stories

125

VII. Conclusions

129

Appendix. Comparative Materials

145

Literature Cited

150

Index of Tales

157

H A I T I

T U R K S IS. (JAM.)

I INTRODUCTION: TRADITION AND CREATIVITY No PRODUCT of human culture has been collected more avidly than the folktale; literally millions of stories and variants have been preserved in text or recording in the great European national archives, and even the most obscure African and Oceanic peoples have at least a few published tales to their credit. Still more astonishing is the fact that these tales are so similar in plot, characters, and purpose all over the earth that they can be classified only with difficulty into Old World, New World, and Oceanic culture areas. Unlike most other aspects of culture, tales can travel rapidly across the tremendous abysses that separate different languages and cultures. T o understand this phenomenon, the so-called Finnish historical-geographical method was developed to classify and compare tales on a worldwide basis, and ultimately to reconstruct hypothetical "original" versions of tales and the history of their dissemination. Although many of the major contributions to folklore scholarship have been produced by this method, the stress on similarity of theme in tales from different cultures and epochs has tended to obscure their great divergences in order, style, function, and manner of presentation, if not always in plot and characters. Unfortunately, few of the vast collections now available tell the names, personality characteristics, or social status of the storytellers, how the audience responded to each tale, how the narrators viewed it in reference to their own or others' stories, or why or how the tales functioned in the lives of those who heard them. Hence the material awaiting analysis by the diffusionist method is infinitely greater than that suitable for stylistic or sociological analysis. It is to be hoped that the undocumented collections will also lend themselves adequately to structural and content analyses such as those of Lévi-Strauss, Armstrong, Dundes, and Kòngàs and Maranda 1 aimed ultimately at quantifications that could be compared cross-culturally. Although it seems apparent that no tale, no matter how sacred or traditional, can be told twice in exactly the same way without improbable feats of memory, variation both intentional and accidental confuses the problem of studying diffusion patterns, and threatens the validity of anticipated results. Consequently, the leading scholars of European folklore seem to view tradition as fragile, and change as synonymous with decay. Thompson ("Folklore," 1949:11, 408) states that "the characteristic feature of the folktale is that it is traditional. It is handed down from one person to another, and there is no virtue in originality." Thus, 1 C. Lévi-Strauss, "The Structure Study of Myth," JAF, LXVIII (1955), 428-444; Robert Plant Armstrong, "Content Analysis in Folkloristics," Trends in Content Analysis, ed. Ithiel de Sola Pool (Urbana, 1959), 151-170; Alan Dundes, "From Emic to Etic Units in the Structural Study of Folktales," JAF, LXXV (1962), 95-105; Elli-Kaija KòngSs and Pierre Maranda, "Structural Models in Folklore," MF, XII (1962), 135-192.

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according to Thomson ( T h e Folktale, 1946: 436) verbatim repetition of traditional materials would be "perfect transmission." Taylor ( T h e Black Ox, 1927: 10-11) calls alterations, substitutions, and enlargements of whatever nature "subversive," and recommends that "as soon as a change is perceived to be intentional, it can be disposed of." In ballad studies, Bronson ("The Morphology of the Ballad-Tunes," 1954: 2) terms as "illegitimate deviations in tradition . . . arbitrary departures (willful substitutions, groping restorations, conscious creations)." Wesselski (Versuch einer Theorie ¿les Märchens, 1931, cited by Thompson ( T h e Folktale, 1946: 441) went so far as to deny the validity of studying variable oral tradition, bat concerned himself exclusively with written versions of tales. After brilliantly documenting the progressive "garbling" of British legends, Raglan (The Hero, 1936: 130) states categorically, "No popular storyteller has ever been known to invent anything," but allows that the folk "make minor alterations, mostly for the worse, in existing poems, stories, or plays" (p. 139). So narrow a view of the nature of the handing down of tradition does it a disservice by demeaning the contributions of the individual narrators who are its only living exponents. Anthropologists, who seek pattern phenomena with at least as much diligence as literary scholars do, have also been concerned with individual variation within a tradition. For instance Radin (Literary Aspects of North American Mythology, 1915: 43) found that much of the wide variation in versions of a myth told among any particular group could be explained as resulting from the individual literary styles of the various narrators. Among the Zuni, Benedict (Zuni Mythology, 1936: xiii, xxxiii) found that "many different variants coexist, and the different forms these variants take cannot be ascribed to different historical levels, or even in large measure to particular tribal contacts, but are different literary combinations of incidents in different plot sequences T h e narrator's skill is shown in his use of these stock incidents in elaborating these stock themes,... The way in which incidents are combined is certainly a main interest of the Zuni audience." Similar attitudes toward variation in traditional tales have been documented among the Crow, Klamath, Makah, Tillamook, Wintu and other northern California Indians, Pueblos of Isleta, and Nunivak Island Eskimos.' But lest it be thought that only New World peoples consciously modify traditional stories, Beckwith (Hawaiian Mythology, 1940: 3-9) found that although Hawaiian legends were carefully preserved and genealogies recited by rote, both forms gave evidence of the borrowing of new material and the suppression of old. In the same way, according to the Herskovitses (Dahomean Narrative, 1958: 22), the supposedly exclusive "true" clan histories of the Dahomeans contain interchangeable motifs. In discussing Negro tales. Waterman and Bascom ("African and New World •Robert Lowie, The Crow Indians (New York, 1935), p. 132; Theodore Stern, "Some Sources of Variability in Klamath Mythology," JAF, LXIX (1956), 2 S.; Robert J. Miller, "Situation and Sequence in the Study of Folklore," JAF, LXV (1952), 31 ff.; May M. Edel, "Stability in Tillamook Folklore," JAF, LVII (1944), 116-127; Cora DuBois and Dorothy Demetracopoulou, "A Study of Wintu Mythology/' JAF, XLIII (1932), 392; Edward W. Gifford and Gwendoline Harris Block, Californian Indian Nights Entertainments (Glendale, 1930), pp. 43-44; Esther Goldfrank, "Isleta Variants: A Study in Flexibility," JAF, XXXIX (1926), 70, 78; Margaret Lantis, "Nunivak Eskimo Personality as Revealed in the Mythology," Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, II (1953), 160.

Introduction

3

Negro Folklore," 1949: I, 20) conclude that "it has become evident that even within a single tribe the search for the 'correct' version of a particular tale is artificial and unrealistic The manner in which a different twist may be given to a story by a slight alteration in a familiar plot comes as no surprise if the folktale is viewed as a form of verbal art, and if the story-teller is credited with something of the creative imagination of a novelist." It is apparent that two contradictory attitudes toward the creative role of the narrator are held by reputable folklorists. This study was made in order to discover, by minute examination of a body of tales, exactly what makes up its "tradition," how and by whom it is transmitted, and where, when, why, how, and by how much it is varied. It is thus a relatively abstract research design, capable of being applied with minor changes to any culture which possesses a living narrative tradition. As such, it is part of a larger research plan which encompasses not only other cultures and epochs, but also other aesthetic media such as sculpture, ceramics, and textiles, on which extensive but largely unexamined data exist. Its ultimate goal is a cross-culturally valid description of the nature of aesthetic creativity in its relationship to tradition. The culture of the Bahama Islands was chosen for study because it is peripheral to Western culture,. and possesses a genuine "folklore" of illiterates in a literate society, rather than of non-literates in an isolated exotic society. Furthermore, the language of the texts is English, albeit a non-standard dialect. Over three hundred stories had already been published, together with an unusual amount of careful descriptive data on the narrators and the circumstances of storytelling. Extensive field research could be carried out among hundreds, even thousands, of informants all of whom control the tradition in varying degree. Unlike many another folk culture whose traditions seem to be dying, Bahamian narration is "not even sick," and in spite of competition from alien commercial entertainment forms, gives every indication of future viability. It is humbly hoped that this work will prove complementary to Jacobs' The Content and Style of an Oral Literature, Clackamas Chinook Myths and Tales (1959), a masterful study of one of the last narrators of a now-extinct tradition, and of such exegeses of tale content as Lessa's Tales from Ulithi Atoll (1961) and the Herskovitses' Dahomean Narrative. It should be pointed out that at least three excellent studies have also been made of European narrators, Asadowskij's Eine sibirische Märchenerzählerin (1926), Cammann's Westpreussische Märchen (1961) and Degh's Märchen, Erzähler und Erzählgemeinschaft (1962). Although many African and New World Negro folktale collections have been published, no systematic studies of the role of the narrator have as yet been made except for Dorson's notes on his remarkable Mississippi-born informant, James Douglas Suggs, and Abrahams' short sketches of adolescent Negro boys in Philadelphia.* The contemporary vitality of the narrative tradition in the Bahamas became 1 Richard M. Dorson, Negro Tales in Michigan (Cambridge, Mass., 1955), pp. 4-7; " T h e Astonishing Repertoire of James Douglas Suggs, A Michigan Negro Storyteller," Michigan History, X L (1956), 152-166, reprinted in Negro Tales from Pine Bluff, Arkansas, and Calvin, Michigan, Indiana University Publications, Folklore Series, No. 12 (Bloomington, 1958), pp. 139-157; "Style in Folk Narrative," Style in Language, ed. Thomas Sebeok (Cambridge, Mass., 1960); Roger D. Abrahams, Deep Down in the Jungle ... Negro Narrative Folklore from the Streets of Philadelphia (Hatboro, Pa., Folklore Associates, 1964), pp. 89-97.

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apparent when, in the course of field work on religion in 1952, informants continually offered to "talk old-story" as a means of hearing themselves on tape. Previous ethnohistorical research had shown that these tales had been the subject of two previous monographs giving a time depth of nearly seventy years. Charles L. Edwards and the indefatigable Elsie Clews Parsons had both published invaluable data on informants and audiences along with hypotheses which could now be tested by a contemporary collection. In the introduction to her first Bahamian collection (Folk-Tales of Andros Island, Bahamas, 1918; subsequent references to Parsons refer to this work unless otherwise noted), Parsons stated that "the tales allow for individualistic variation, deliberate variation, only in their conclusion," the closing formula where "the narrator is expected to connect the tale with the occasion of its telling—an opportunity for personal garnish or wit" (p. x). Both she and Edwards felt that there is little thematic or stylistic variation from island to island, and that the stories are "of a Bahamian rather than a merely local character" (Parsons, p. x), and are derived more from Africa than any other area. This study, then, will try to answer the questions raised above in the light of a sum total of 553 Bahamian texts, evidently the largest number for any Negro group except the Hausa (William Bascom, "Folklore Research in Africa," 1964: 15). Problems to be considered include innovation and tradition, provenience, regional, class, age, and individual variations, form and style, and verbalization of aesthetic value systems of narrators and audience. The implications of recording on tape rather than by longhand will be investigated, as well as the validity of the concepts of "tale type" and "variant." Sixty-three previously unpublished contemporary tales will be analyzed to provide evidence, and to show the theatrical nature of Bahamian tales, with stress on timing rather than logical exposition. Tales are numbered chronologically as collected, and frequent reference is made to tales in the contemporary collection whose texts are not included here. It is hoped that these remaining 160 tales will be the subject of a future study. Finally, an appendix will indicate some sources for future comparative studies of these tales. The earliest collection of twelve Bahamian tales without variants was made by Charles L. Edwards ("Folk Lore of the Bahama Negroes," 1889: 519-542), a biologist of the University of Cincinnati, during field work at Green Turtle Cay, Abaco Island, during the summer of 1888. In 1891 he collected twelve more tales without variants at Harbour Island ("Some Tales from Bahama Folk-Lore," 1891: 47-54 and 247-252), and in 1893 twenty-one more tales at Bimini. In 1895 he republished thirty-eight of these tales along with forty local spirituals or "anthems" in Bahama Songs and Stories. In 1906 James Fitz-James published in Montreal a small paper-backed book, Bahamian Folk-lore, containing six tales recorded in Nassau from an Abaconian and an "Out Islander" which are not included in Parsons' comparative materials. In 1917 W. T. Cleare, the resident Commissioner of Fortune Island, published four tales recorded there ("Four Folk-Tales from Fortune Island.") Parsons' first collection in 1918 contained 115 tales, some with as many as 8 variants, the whole totaling 187 stories. Musical transcriptions of the songs incorporated into the tales are included, as are some comparative materials. Nar-

Introduction

5

rators are from Andros, New Providence, Abaco, Long Cay (Fortune Island), Acklins, Watlings (San Salvador), Inagua, and Eleuthera in the Bahamas, and also from Turks and Caicos Islands, Jamaica, and Bermuda. Parsons' narrator No. 31, H. H. Finlay, published two tales from Eleuthera in 1925 ("Folklore from Eleuthera, Bahamas"). In 1928, Parsons published fiftynine more tales, three with variants, and with many of the others being variants of tales in her 1918 collection ("Spirituals and Other Folklore from the Bahamas"). Informants were from Berry Islands, New Providence, Andros, Abaco, Rum Cay, Watlings, Long Island, and Great Inagua, and one from Trinidad. In 1930 Zora Hurston contributed twenty tales from Nassau and Miami, but these are synopses too brief to be useful for our purposes ("Dance Songs and Tales from the Bahamas"). Two variants of one of the tales in the present collection were published in 1954, "Form and Style in a Bahamian Folktale," and another tale in 1955, " 'The Good Child and the Bad' in the West Indies." T h e analysis in this study is based on these 329 published tales and variants, together with 224 stories which were recorded in New Providence, Andros, Eleuthera, and Abaco Islands in the Bahamas, and among Bahamians in Florida, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Two field trips to the Bahamas were made from January through March, 1952 and from July to August, 1953, with private funds but under the sponsorship of the Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, and T h e Development Board of Nassau, Bahamas. Combined with the previously published collections, these materials provide a time depth of nearly 70 years, and a wide range of variation in story themes and in regional and individual styles. T h e stories in this collection were recorded at $s/4 inches per second speed on a double track Pentron Duospeed tape recorder, using a dynamic microphone which was either held by the narrator or by a field assistant. The recorded stories were transcribed verbatim through the use of a Webcor wire dictating machine. On the first field trip every effort was made to record the total repertory of tales and other types of local lore from each member of a limited family group. After these stories had been compared with those in the published collections, it was decided to return to the field and collect more variants to make possible a study of individual and regional styles. Narrators were encouraged to repeat stories they had told the year before, and when they were literate, to write out some of their tales, so that comparisons could be made between different times and different media. The recording of a modern counterpart of every motif published by Parsons or Edwards was attempted, as was the intensive collecting of as many motif variants as possible. Three motifs were recorded in ten or more different versions, and many others in more than five versions. Narrators were urged to create original tales, and to bring to the recording sessions anyone known to be a skilled storyteller. In 1886 Frank Cushing, in Zuni Folk Tales, told an Italian cumulative tale to a group of Zuni Indians, and a year later was surprised to record the same tale throughly recast into the mold of Zuni storytelling. T o gain some insight into the processes of borrowing, adaptation, and individual variation, the same Italian tale was told to Bahamian narrators, and later retold by them in three different versions.

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Most of the tales which form the nucleus of this study were recorded at Tinshop Corner, Grant's Town, a lower class suburb of Nassau, New Providence Island, Bahamas. Others were obtained on the steps of Winter's Barber Shop, on Blue Hill Road, Grant's Town's main street, and in the yard of Stanford Lewis, on Hospital Lane near Meadow Street. Many stories were heard in the various Out Islands and aboard inter-island schooners, but because of the lack of electricity in these places, tales could be recorded only in New Providence Island. Arrangements were made for several locally renowned Out Island storytellers to come to Nassau to record tales. In the United States, stories were recorded in the home of Mr. Willie Ferguson in South Miami, and in the barracks of contract workers in Princeton and Perrine, Florida, during the second week of July, 1953. At the same time, with the technical assistance of Kenneth S. Keyes, Jr., a four-minute color motion picture was made of a storyteller in action. On August 14, 1953, several stories were heard and one was recorded in Glencoe, Illinois, where a Bahamian informant was employed. In November, 1957, two stories were heard from Alfred Bowe aboard the Keyes yacht "Caprice" off Behring Point, Andros. With the exception of these last two cases and the several tales which were written by narrators, stories were collected in their natural settings, at the same times and places at which they would have been told without the presence of the investigator. Even in the United States, the contract workers tell their stories at the same times and in the same ways as in the Islands. While the opportunity of being recorded undoubtedly encouraged narrators to more frequent and longer storytelling sessions than would have occurred without the presence of the investigators, it must be noted that narrators never requested pay for their performances. Rum and soft drinks were served occasionally, and small parting gifts were exchanged with the most cooperative narrators. In Josh Albury's words, "I have these old-story some time, and they ain't do me no good. If they could do you good, you could take them." Narrators had no difficulty in adjusting to the presence of the microphone, but talked to it as if it were one of the audience which had gathered to watch, listen, and participate. Bahamians have a tradition of fine speech, and have ample experience with public speaking in their churches, lodges, magistrate's court, and, among the children, in school and Sunday school. The presence of foreigners is not unusual for New Providence people, and rapport was established before recording was attempted. T h e only deviation from a normal storytelling session was in playing back the freshly recorded stories at the request of the narrator. This not only gratified him, but encouraged him and others to discuss the story and to comment on the effectiveness of its telling. It also increased ability in the understanding of Andros dialect, which is nearly incomprehensible to speakers of standard English. At the suggestion of Dr. Richard Dorson, the texts have been transcribed in standard English spelling, but without altering word order or any other feature of Bahamian speech. Occasionally a particularly extreme pronunciation has been indicated by dialect spelling, i.e., "goil" for "girl," "t'iefing" for "thieving," or "fishening" for "fishing." Dialect spelling is both phonetically inexact and difficult to comprehend when reading, and it also all too easily suggests a patronizing

Introduction

7

attitude. The names of characters who are considered story personages are capitalized, such as Spirit and King, even when not being used as proper names. In contrast, a reference to "the snake" is not capitalized, though B'Snake is. A sentence begun but not completed is shown by (....). An aside in the middle of a sentence is separated from the sentence by (—) before and after the aside. Since Bahamian narrators do not necessarily speak in simple sentences, every effort has been made to group together a single idea or segment of story development, even if it means long compound sentences. Punctuation following as much as possible the speech patterns of the narrator helps keep the meaning clear. Colloquialisms such as "All right!" (pronounced "Awrightl") have been retained as expressive of the narrator's intent. The frequent use of "God damn!" and other profanity has not been bowdlerized since it is an important feature of the styles of several narrators, and is a common ingredient of everyday Bahamian speech, where it has no objectionable implications. Square brackets are used to enclose interpolations; those made by the audience are also enclosed in quotation marks. Every effort has been made to isolate the structural features of Bahamian folktales, the mechanisms of audience participation and control, and the fostering of thematic and stylistic virtuosity inherent in the form. As used here, "style" refers to individual or regional variations in idiom, handling of themes, gesture, subject matter, nuance, and all the original additions by various narrators. "Structure" is used in the sense of the traditional organizational mechanisms which in whole or in part must be present to make the folktale recognizable as Bahamian, but it is not used to describe the way motifs are arranged to make up a motif-complex or tale. The music of the "sings" that are a feature of many tales is extensive enough to require the collaboration of a musicologist. Except as noted in chapter III, they will not be considered in this study. After considerable deliberation, it was decided to mask the names of informants to protect them from embarrassment as the tellers of "lies," and from possible future exploitation. Their real names and addresses are available to bona fide scholars, and their pseudonyms were chosen at random from the rather small stock of names and "titles" used in the Bahamas. This study is only one of many which could be made with this material. Besides comparative studies, content and structural analyses, and psychological implication, one could describe Bahamian culture as depicted in its folklore through a careful sifting of the remaining 160 unpublished texts. In the words of a West Indian proverb, "Behind the mountain there are more mountains."

II FOLKLORE IN BAHAMIAN CULTURE SETTING AND F U N C T I O N S

of some 700 islands, cays, reefs, and shoals extends eight hundred miles from the east coast of Florida nearly to Haiti. Only 21 of these desolate coral islands are inhabited, and one half of the total population of over 90,000 lives on the relatively small island of New Providence, in and around the capital and resort city of Nassau. T h e 20 other inhabited islands, usually termed the "Out Islands," have few paved roads, fewer cars, no electricity, and almost no stores or other businesses except isolated resorts or trading stations. They are among the most undeveloped areas in the New World, yet several lie within 100 miles of Miami. T h e soil is shallow and poor, so that there is no fodder for cattle in the immense pine barrens and coppice that cover the islands. T h e population density is correspondingly low, 15.6 inhabitants per square mile. There is little wild life, and even birds are scarce. In contrast to the barren land, the sea teems with life. Grouper, snapper, crawfish, turtles, and conchs provide the Out Islanders with food and livelihood.

T H E BAHAMA CHAIN

T h e typical village consists of twenty or thirty weathered coral-rock houses plastered with home-burned lime, and thatched with palmetto, or roofed with shingles or corrugated metal. T h e women of the village tend gardens, where they grow yams, eddoes, bananas, okra, tomatoes, and pigeon peas, which with rice form the staff of life. Since approximately 70 percent of the land is still held by the British Crown, squatting is the common form of land tenure. In Eleuthera some lands are held by villages in common, and in a few other areas there are privately held plots. T h e average cash income of an Out Island family often does not exceed fifty dollars a year. T h e men earn this working "on shares" on a locally owned fishing boat, and the women earn pocket money by plaiting coconut and other fibers for the straw industry in Nassau. In spite of the prosperous tourist trade, for most local people, the Bahamas are indeed "one of the poorest of the British possessions."1 Eighty percent of the Bahamians are of relatively unmixed African ancestry, the descendants of West Africans who were brought directly to Nassau to be sold as slaves. Others were brought from the southern states by American Tories who were given large holdings in the Bahamas in 1783 as a reward for their loyalty to the Crown during the American Revolution. Significant for this study, Africans who had been rescued by the British Navy from illegal Spanish and Portugese 1

Rt. Rev. Roscoe Shedden, Ups and Downs in a West Indian Diocese (London, 1927), p. 169.

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Folklore in Bahamian Culture

9

slaving ships were freed and set ashore in the Bahamas until as late as 1880." This explains the native African Edwards mentioned in 1889 (p. 523), and the number of children and grandchildren of Africans that Parsons found among her informants in 1917 (pp. xv-xvi). Small numbers of people of mixed American Indian-Negro-European ancestry and British nationality were also repatriated from Florida and the Mosquito Coast and Bay Islands to the British soil of the Bahamas when their homelands were ceded to Spain." T h e only major outside influence on Bahamian Negroes comes from the local whites and near-whites, known as "Conchy Joes." These Anglo-Saxon people make up 11.5 percent of the total Bahamian population, which is the largest proportion of whites of any British West Indian territory except the Jamaican dependency of Cayman Islands. They are the descendants of the Tories, and of Scottish and Irish Dissenters, sailors, and pirates. They live mostly at Spanish Wells, on St. George's Cay (an all-white community where Negroes are not allowed to settle), and at Dunmore Town, on Harbour Island, which like St. George's Cay, is a small islet off Eleuthera. They also live at Hopetown, Marsh Harbour, and other settlements on Great Abaco, and virtually control business, social, and political life in Nassau. Although an extremely inbred group who have preserved much of the customs and lore of their Elizabethan ancestors, they associate frequently with Negroes, and have long mated across race lines (cf. Parsons, p. ix and n. 1.). Edwards (1889: 522-523) remarks that "socially the races are more nearly equal here than anywhere else on the globe. Schools and churches are occupied in common." In Nassau there is a considerable group of wealthy and socially prominent Britishers, Canadians, Americans, and continental Europeans, who employ the Negroes as servants, and who influence them only in that their employment provides opportunities to display the "grand manner" in which the Negroes are so proficient. There is a colony of Greeks who came out as sponge merchants, and a few Cantonese and Lebanese shopkeepers, but these tend to have little social contact with the Negroes. Finally, there are the tourists who come in ever-increasing numbers, mostly from the United States and Canada, but who rarely meet Bahamian Negroes in any other capacities than as servants or officials. Bahamians have been moving back and forth to the United States throughout their history, beginning with the resettling of southern Tories and their slaves in the Bahamas in 1783, and of British citizens from Florida and Honduras in the early 19th Century already mentioned. T h e "Conchy Joes" with their schooners frequently put into Florida East Coast ports, helped the Confederacy run the Union blockade, and later, along with Cubans, settled Key West. In World War I, Bahamian longshoremen were brought to work on the docks of Charleston and New York. During Prohibition the rumrunners plying back and forth between Florida and the liquor warehouses at West End, Grand Bahama "James Martin Wright, History of the Bahama Islands, with a Special Study of the Abolition of Slavery in the Colony, ed. G. B. Shattuck in The Bahama Islands (Baltimore, 1905), p. 515 et passim. For a short historical survey of the Bahamas, see Daniel J. Crowley, "Boom and Bust in the Bahamas," The Caribbean, IX, No. 10 (May, 1956), 221-224, 230, and No. 11 (June, 1956), 239-240, 253. • Parsons, p. ix; J. H. Goggin, "The Seminole Negroes of Andros Island, Bahamas," Florida Historical Quarterly, XXIV (Jan., 1946), 201-206; Kenneth W. Porter, "Notes on Seminole Negroes in the Bahamas," Florida Historical Quarterly, X X I V (July, 1945), 56-60.

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and at Nassau were largely manned by Bahamian seamen, as were the Greek sponge-fishing fleets out of Tarpon Springs. In the last fifty years Bahamians, along with other West Indians, have been attracted to the job opportunities of New York, settling mostly in Brooklyn. With the development of southern Florida, Bahamians arrived in large numbers to work as building laborers and section hands, and later as house servants, waiters, and chambermaids. This immigration was so great that today most Miami-born Negroes, whether of Bahamian origin or not, speak with a pronounced Bahamian accent unique in Florida. The flow of immigration has been slowed since World War II by legislation which removed the Bahamians from the United Kingdom quota. With the shortage of migrant labor in the United States in the late 1930's and during World War II, thousands of Bahamian men and women were brought into the United States to pick crops. They worked particularly in the Redlands tomato fields of southern Florida, in the truck gardens of New Jersey, the Wisconsin cherry country, Oregon apple and peach orchards, and vegetable fields throughout the Midwest. They were required to return to the Bahamas at the end of two years, but could return again for a second two-year period. They sent allotments home to their dependents, and returned with their savings to invest in small rental properties, fishing boats and gear, or small businesses. Contract workers often lived in very poor surroundings, camped in unheated barracks, and cooked their own food on makeshift stoves, but these difficulties were minor when compared to their dislike of cold weather. Many of the narrators who contributed to this study have had experience as contract workers or have been in close contact with other Bahamians who have lived abroad for many years. Despite the importance of contract work in recent years, the typical Bahamian Out Islander is still a fisherman. Since he has at least one boat at his disposal, he finds it easy to travel from island to island frequently. Many Andros Islanders spend three or four days a month in Nassau for shopping and visiting. The sea is a path which provides opportunity for travel, rather than a barrier which creates isolation. As with other very poor people, movement from place to place in search of better fortune is a common practice. In the past Andros has served as a " 'dump-heap'... for the other islands, a place of refuge for the restless, or a resort for the ambitious" (Parsons, p. ix). In the last twenty years, the opportunity for urban living, better schools, and higher cash incomes has drawn many Out Islanders to Nassau, where they live in "settlements" on the edges of town. In January, 1958, the Negro community successfully struck for a greater voice in government, constitutional reform, and improved economic opportunities in the tourist trade, and have since gained a greater voice in the Assembly. Tinshop Corner, Grant's Town, is the center of one of the Negro slums south of Nassau. Here Out Islanders live in crowded "yards," with six or eight makeshift houses casually arranged on one lot. The yards are usually inhabited by families or individuals who share any or all of the following in common: birthplace, Out Island residence, affinal, consanguineal, or godparent relationships, and lodge, church, burial, or "friendly" society affiliation. Yards are interspersed with larger and slightly better constructed single family dwellings, and with two-

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story wooden apartments appropriately termed "tenements." There is at least one church at every crossroads, and small shed groceries containing a few canned goods, eggs, staples, and soft drinks in many of the yards. Fresh fish and other provisions are hawked through the lanes, or bought in one of the open markets which usually center around a city water tap, the only source of water for most homes. The lanes in Grant's Town usually do not bear names, but are referred to by the name of a landmark on the corner of the nearest main street. Thus a lane is called Lily-of-the-Valley Corner if entered from one street, and Red Lion Bar Corner if entered from another. The tinshop of Tinshop Corner was torn down about the time of World War I, and recently the lane began to be called "Dr. Walker Building Corner" after a new dance hall and newspaper office was built there. The family structure resembles the general Afro-American rural and lower class pattern. A young man requests the right to court the girl of his choice by a letter to one or both of her parents. If he receives written permission, they are "engaged." Although sexual intercourse at this stage is technically forbidden, it occurs in most cases. Some couples remain "engaged" throughout their lifetime without marriage. In any case the children of "engaged" couples are considered legitimate by their families and by the community, but not by the Roman Catholic, Anglican, or other European-staffed churches, nor by the Bahamian government. If the parents refuse the boy's letter, they may be presented with a fait accompli, and forced to withdraw their objections. With or without parental approval, the couple in a union approved by neither the church nor the state are termed "sweethearts."' In the Bahamas this form of union seems to be less stable than elsewhere in the West Indies. Even when civil or religious marriage takes place after a period of engagement or being "sweethearts," it frequently ends in separation, with each mate taking another partner outside civil marriage and without legal divorce. In Grant's Town, most women have from two to five mates in their lifetimes. Children from these unions take their father's name if he supports them. Otherwise they take the name of their mother's current mate, her maiden name, the name of a grandparent or godparent, or the name of a friend who "adopts" the child. All these people are considered "kin," as are the grandparents of one's half-siblings. In practice a Bahamian household almost never consists exclusively of a man, his wife, and their children. Each mate may have one or more "outside" children by other mates; some of the children of the union may be living with other relatives in Nassau or in the Out Islands, and there are assorted grandparents, "adopted" children, godchildren, girls "engaged" to men in the family or men "engaged" to girls in the family, second cousins twice removed, and unrelated friends or acquaintances freshly arrived from the home settlement in Andros. Family life is very broadly conceived, and there are always many children of all ages in any yard, and a large number of adults well known to them. This provides an ideal situation for storytelling if not for census-taking. When the evening meal is over, the children cluster on the rickety verandahs and steps, or on rocks in the yard, and begin to tell stories and riddles. If bothered 4 Cf. Melville J. Herskovits, Myth of the Negro Past (New York, 1941), p. 168; D. Basil Matthews, O.S.B., Crisis of the West Indian Family (Port-of-Spain, 1953), pp. 1-13 et passim.

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by mosquitos or sandflies, they move into one of the shuttered houses and sit on the floor and on the beds that crowd the room. Children usually begin the storytelling, but the adults quickly join in. As the children drop off to sleep or return to their own houses in the yard, the session continues, usually lasting till midnight or later. Stories are nominally directed at the children, but the larger adult audience soon causes the artful storyteller to aim for its attention. Actually there is little differentiation between adult and child audiences as far as themes go. Since there is no desire to keep children in a world of innocence, frank and often obscenely funny situations are not bowdlerized in their presence. Terminology is also forthright, particularly in reference to biological activities more circumspectly discussed in our society. Conversely the storytellers do not simplify or explain their stories for a child audience, and never attempt to be "cute." If children do not understand every implication in a tale, their resulting curiosity will encourage them to seek the facts. But this didactic function of the tales exists in the minds of only a few of the narrators, and is definitely subjugated to the aesthetic activity. Stories are told to entertain and to gain prestige through entertaining, in contrast to their more formalized use at wakes in Trinidad and elsewhere.' Facts are mixed with fancy so that, while undoubtedly the imagination of the audience is stirred, it is not often put in possession of usable facts through the stories. The tales only rarely point a moral, such as the proverb, "The wise man see trouble and he run from it, the fool man see it and he run to it" (Tale 42), which one narrator incorporates into his story. The activities of the characters usually show the value of cleverness and skills, the dangers inherent in excessive trust of others, and the importance of thinking and acting for oneself, even against the accepted code. In one example, Booky objects to giving his catch of fish to an impoverished old woman when he rightly suspects that she is Rabby's wife in disguise (Tale 135). But a story which was consciously educative, patriotic, or otherwise designed to persuade the audience to a particular point of view would be strongly objectionable to Bahamians. This function of verbal moralizing is a feature of sermons, another form of Bahamian folklore. (See below, pp. 15-16.) Stories are told in no set order of subject or teller. A man may tell two in a row, or ten, or may not speak at all. There is never an attempt at taking turns, and very little coaxing is done. Occasionally stories are requested from a person who has won recognition as a storyteller. During the field recording, such requests were rarely refused, except when made for a story that had already been told by another narrator that same night. Even when the need for many variants of the same story was explained, the teller remained adamant, saying that the story would be "flat," but that he would be glad to tell it the following night. In a few cases the same story was recorded from two people the same evening, but only when there was an objection to the way the first variant was told. The second teller insisted on telling the story "proper," and allowing the audience to judge the two versions. However, in such a case no very strong comments were ever made, or any definite judgment. When criticism and common politeness are • Melville T. and Frances S. Herskovits, Trinidad Village (New York, 1947), p. 237, and Herskovits, 1938, p. 325.

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at odds, politeness inevitably wins out among the social-minded Bahamians. T h e storytelling sessions for recording began immediately after dinner and before nightfall. Children and adolescent boys arrived earliest, followed by adult neighbors who entered and began telling stories to each other, or asked if they might record. Other people joined the session, first by standing outside the fence along the street, then looking through the low windows, and often knocking on the door to request entrance. There were usually as many as forty or fifty people present each evening at any one time, and rarely less than ten, but the audience changed as the hours wore on. The children began as the majority, but slowly either fell asleep on the floor, or went home to bed. Bahamian mothers do not urge their children to go home to sleep but leave this decision up to them. The adult audience was also constantly changing. People stopped, listened or told a story or two, then strolled on to the corner to watch the street preachers from the "Jumper" Church, or to get a rum or a "snowball" of shaved ice and colored syrup at the comer "parlour." Later in the evening the shy young girls had all gone home, the more raffish youths arrived in their best clothes on their way to the Zanzibar, the local nightclub a few lanes away. Most storytelling sessions lasted until about midnight, when, by common consent, the people dispersed without much comment. Dispersal usually followed a moment of quiet when no one came forward with another story. Otherwise, when these moments of quiet occurred in the course of the evening, they functioned to give a kind of recess until someone thought of the next story. Although audience participation will be discussed at length later, it is important to note that there is no reverent attitude toward the storytelling. Noises such as scraping of feet, beating rhythms on table tops, walking on the concrete floor with roller skates, sneezing and coughing, all are permissible during the telling of a story. If a conversation of more than a few phrases breaks out, the narrator must employ one of the mechanisms within the story to call back the attention of the audience and particularly of those who are making the disturbance. There was a certain amount of sign-language, especially from people inside the house, beckoning those outside to come in or to bring them a cigarette. There was also a more or less constant stream of movement inside and outside the house, comings and goings, and changing places. Most of the stories recorded were told by men, and later in the field work, by the women of their families. Occasionally a group of schoolboys on their way home would stop to contribute stories or riddles, especially if one or another of them had previously been to an evening session. These were the only stories recorded outside the usual evening sessions except for the ones in Illinois (see chapter I). The maximum number of tales recorded in one session was twentyfour, with ten or twelve being far more common. It must be made clear that not all Bahamians tell stories. A few refer to them as "lies" and "trash," and explain that their parents tried to make them "logical" and would not teach them such nonsense. These people are usually of the stricter middle-class religious groups such as Seventh Day Adventists and "carnal" Baptists. Like 17th Century Puritan critics of literature, they regard the "lies" as objection-

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able because they are not actual happenings, but fictions, and hence frivolous. The narrators themselves refer to a tale as "a wonderful lie," but they mean to indicate a work of the imagination rather than an untruth, as in the folklore of many other peoples.* A much larger number claim to have forgotten the stories they knew as children, but nearly always add that they used to know a great many fine stories, the implication being that they are sorry not to be able to oblige with a well-told tale. Most boys know tales and will tell them eagerly. Girls and young women in their teens are shy with white foreigners, and could rarely be persuaded to tell stories except in the presence of men of their families. Neighborhood girls, after becoming familiar with the recording situation, provided many stories which are significantly different from those told by the boys. Most important, there are a few fine storytellers known and recognized by everyone in the community, and it is with these that this study is particular concerned. Special idioms are used with reference to these stories. One "talks old-story" when one tells any of these tales, whether about Booky and Rabby or other animals, or Jack, the Devil, or Princesses in Buckingham Palace (Edwards, p. 19; Parsons, p. x, nn. 2 and 3). Edwards mentions "fairy-stories" as being the Green Turtle Cay category for tales about people, as against "old-stories" which are primarily about animals. Parsons did not find this distinction, nor is it made today. However, the term "fairy-story" which Parsons did not hear is now used interchangeably with "old-story" to describe all the tales. Literate New Providence people in particular tend to use "fairy-story," but Mercedes Sweeting, one of the finest Behring Point, Andros Island storytellers, also uses it (Edwards, p. 19; Parsons, p. xii, n. 2). As long as fifty years ago it was thought that old-stories were disappearing because "the people are beginning to be ashamed of them" (Fitz-James, p. 8). Although storytelling may be less frequent in New Providence Island than it was before the advent of radios, motion pictures, and extensive literacy, there is little reason to forsee its extinction, considering the large number of storytellers active there. In the Out Islands storytelling is still without serious competition, and the stories are considered by many to be, if not literally true, at least possible. "Strange things happens out there, far away from this modern place." Those who prophesy extinction are usually literate adults who live in the busy European world on the other side of the hill, and have little contact with the stories as they are told in Grant's Town. There is a clear line between old-stories and all other literary and folk material. After having heard a Cinderella-like "old-story" involving a glass slipper, a group of Nassau children were told the standard Grimm-derived literary version familiar to United States children. The Bahamian children said condescendingly that they all knew that story, "it's in a book." They explained that it wasn't proper to take book stories and make them into old-stories, because they weren't "yours." A story becomes "yours" when you have told it well a few times, "and peoples •Cf. Lei-tori, the Suriname term for riddle, Herskovitses, 1936, p. 115; Florida Negro tales termed lies, Zora Neale Hurston, Mules and Men (Philadelphia, 1935), pp. 23-24, 37; Dakota "lying" tales, Martha Beckwith, Folklore in America: Its Scope and Method, Publications of the Folklore Foundation, II (Poughkeepsie, 1931), p. 30, quoted by William R. Bascom, "Four Functions of Folklore," JAF, LXVII, (1954), 336. American children term an untruth a "story."

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does know it for yours." In many cases the source of specific stories is known and readily admitted. There is no feeling of plagiarism when a teller tries his own new version of a story made famous by another. The stories are not considered as property, but merely part of a carefully garnered repertory. It is a compliment to have a story copied or borrowed by another, and the finest storytellers frequently credit others as the source of their tales. By the same token they coax each other to tell stories. Little encouragement is necessary in any case for a storyteller to "talk," but what little encouragement is given, is given by rivals. The greatest significance of Bahamian folktales is that they are still so popular a form of entertainment even in Nassau, where they must compete with films, comic books, radios, and other forms of commercial entertainment. The broad but sturdy family structure of the Out Islanders goes far to explain this seeming paradox. Although they live in the midst of the Western World and participate in many of its activities, even to the borrowing of thematic materials, the Bahamians still possess a folklore capable of being studied as an art form, according to Benedict's (p. xii) criteria: For the most profitable study of single bodies of mythology, folktales should hold an important place in the tribal life, not being relegated, for example, to children's amusements or used solely as word-perfect recitations of magic formulae; a large body of tales should have been recorded, and over as long a period as possible; the culture of the people who tell the tales should be well known; and folklore among that people should be a living and functioning culture trait. KINDS OF B A H A M I A N FOLKLORE

The folktales known as "old-stories" are clearly distinguished from other forms of folklore by the Bahamians through differences both in structure and in subjectmatter. Only traditional motifs may be used in an old-story, plus a few "original" motifs totally in the spirit of the tradition (see below, p. 118 if.). Old-stories also have a definite structural arrangement capable of extensive variation, but only rarely overlapping another traditional Bahamian form.'' The distinctness of these various kinds of material can best be shown by describing them. "Anthems" or spirituals are at least as important as folktales, both for the Bahamians and for the folklorist. The musical form and singing style are similar to American spirituals, and are sometimes actually borrowed from well-known traditional spirituals, from modern pseudo-spirituals heard on the radio, or from Moody-Sankey hymns. The words are partly traditional, partially improvised on a set theme by virtuosi who have the same prestige as skilled storytellers. The subjects may range from Biblical recapitulations or flights of mystical fancy built around such a phrase as "No Hiding Place," to reports of current events such as a case of arson or a ship sinking in a storm. Forty anthem texts and musical transcriptions are included in Edwards' 1895 collections, and thirty texts in Parsons' 1928 article. The present collection includes thirty-eight anthems. The foremost anthem singer among the Behring Point people in Grant's Town is Napoleon Seely, a thirty-one-year-old carpenter. He stutters while talking, but sings in a rapid, 7 A riddle formula was used as an opening formula in two tales, 41 and 42, recorded by Parsons, 1928, pp. 515-516. The two narrators were of the same age, and both were from Clarencetown, Long Island. This may be a regional or an individual variation, or simply the second narrator repeating a mistake or verbal slip of the first. Cf. Edwards, p. 96 and n. 1.

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tongue-twisting style without hesitation. Bertram Walters, narrator of Tale 221, is also a recognized anthem singer. The use of current events as subject matter for anthems is reminiscent of the Trinidad calypso ("Calypso," Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology and Legend, I, p. 184). The sermon must also be considered a separate traditional form among Bahamian Negroes. Whether used in a church service, preached "in the highways and the hedges," or spoken in the Magistrate's Court, it has identifiable form and recognized limits. The speech must begin softly and slowly, and then rise to a rapid, high-pitched jeremiad. This pattern may be used once or as many as four times in one sermon. There must be many Biblical quotations or allusions, and the most admired examples are almost solid quotation. Every gesture is permitted: dancing, parading, jumping, doing acrobatics, even playing a musical instrument Mopping a perspiring face with a large white handkerchief is the traditional signal for a pause. The sermon can be addressed to God, to the congregation, to the dead, to the world outside the doors of the church, to backsliders not present, to members of another church sect, to specific people, or to all of these in turn. There is very little logical progression in the "preaching." Its function is to play upon the emotions of the hearers by means of elegant phrases and a rhythmical style, and to induce a degree of excitation or hypnosis. The audience is expected to answer "Amen," or "Yes, Lord!" or some such response at the end of each of the preacher's phrases, and this intensifies the rhythmic effect (Herskovits, 1946: 11-12; 1947: 213). Various other rhythmical effects are obtained through soft accompaniment by an ensemble of electric guitar, trap drum, and cowbell beaten with drum sticks, or by handclapping, foot-stamping, handkerchief-waving, or occasional loud wailing by individuals in the congregation. A large "Jumper" church uses a number of band instruments, first played solo and then cumulatively until the whole band, playing fortissimo, is marching around the church as the preacher reaches the climax of his sermon, which in this case is broadcast over a public address system so as to be audible over the musical din. There are two sub-types of the shouting sermon. The first is a chanted prayer made up of Biblical quotations and allusions, with the congregation setting up a constant rhythmic pattern of sound, rather than merely punctuating the sermon. The second type is that used in the Magistrate's Court, where cases involving less than £25 are tried, usually without lawyers. Although often suppressed now because of considerations of time, both the plaintiff and the defendant sometimes give a long and wonderfully-wrought sermon in court, including prayers, quotations, and vituperation. Even though these sermons can all too often have reverse effect on a busy judge, the opportunity can barely be resisted even on threat of jeopardizing one's success in court. The point at which conversation becomes folklore is difficult to define among many West Indian groups. An old market woman, the village drunk, schoolchildren, almost anyone may burst into fanciful flights of verbiage at any time. Meaning in the specific sense of the term is often missing, but usually some goal or purpose can be determined after due consideration. In communities where nearly everyone speaks well, often, and with pleasure, it is not hard to see why folklore flourishes.

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Proverbs have been recorded among Bahamians (Hilda Armbrister, "Proverbs from Abaco, Bahamas," JAF, XXX [1917], 274; Basil Peek, Bahamian Proverbs, 1949) and are similar in form and content to those of other West Indian Negro groups. Among the people from whom the present old-story collection was made, proverbs are almost extinct, being used only by a few older people. One or two proverbs have been incorporated in stories (see above, p. 12, and below. Tale 42). Riddles are popular among school children, but much less so among adults. Sometimes they are introduced when no one can think of a story. They nearly always begin with the formula, "M'riddle, m'riddle, m'randio, who can clear (or 'clare, i.e. "declare") this riddle for me? My father has a thing...." Most riddles deal with common foods or fruits, described as "green outside, black inside, and white in the middle," the answer being "sugar apple" (Annona squamosa). Another type uses metaphor, such as "When the wind blow, Anansi coat tail tear," for a banana leaf. American conundrums such as "four wheels and flies," "firemen wear red suspenders," and "black and white and read all over" were successfully "planted" on the first field trip and recorded on the second. Narratives which are differentiated from old-stories are also told by the Bahamians. In general these deal with magical beings and with magic practice, termed "obeah" throughout the English-speaking West Indies. There are at least three professional obeah practitioners among Grant's Town people. Two are Bahamians who learned their skills in Cuba and Haiti, and the third is a Haitian who is very much acculturated to Bahamian ways and is a prominent lodge member. Obeah is also termed "fyak" and obeahmen "root" or "do root" when they practice, as do "root doctors," among Florida Negroes (Hurston, 1935: 340). Stories about the prowess of obeahmen are told as actually having happened, with attention to names, addresses, and family connections of participants. However, the stories are traditional, being told of a great many obeahmen, and with the varying participants always described as distantly related to the narrator. Other stories are told of the appearance of spirits, either spirits of dead relatives or humorous ghosts who speak nasally as if with a cleft palate (Parsons, p. 5, n. 2). One woman frequently reported that the recently deceased owner of the yard where she lived had been seen in his funeral clothes standing under a "fig" (banana) tree in the yard. He was considered to have come back for a visit, but although he was not thought inimical, everyone ran from him. Stories about the return of spirits, murder or curing through obeah, love-potions, "tricks" (aggressive magic) and "guards" (protective charms), are all traditional in theme, although told as actual happenings. Techniques vary from narrator to narrator, but with a much narrower range of invention. These magic stories relate to the belief system of the people, in contrast to the old-stories, where only rarely are characters called B'Spirit or B'Jumbee (Tale 54, and Parsons, Tale 60, p. 107), and then only in "jokes" having no connection with actual happenings or obeah practices. The other magical beings about which Bahamians tell stories are the Chickchannies, the Yehos, and the Little Red Men. Although the first and last are often confused in literary presentations for the tourist trade, they are clearly differentiated among Andros people. The term Chickchanny may be derived from Arabic Shitani, "Devil," or from chichiriga, the little people of the northern ter-

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ritories of the Gold Coast (A. W. Cardinall, Tales Told in Togoland, 1931: 77). The Chickchannies are large magical birds looking like flamingoes, but rapidly changing color through all shades of the rainbow. They live in miniature "trash" (thatch) houses built in a nest created by pulling together the branches of a large pine tree. They are extremely dangerous if "mocked" and can cause paralysis and death, but can also cure. One legend tells how "Bowleg" was taken as a child by Chickchannies and taught their healing arts, then released as a young man to cure the people of Nicoll's Town, Andros. According to Goggin (p. 204), one Scipio Bowleg worked as a "doctor" in Andros in about 1810. The late Hon. Elgin Forsyth, the Bahamas' leading naturalist and former Commissioner of Andros, claimed that in about 1887 he saw another famed "Bowleg" cure advanced tuberculosis and syphilis by means of herbal medicines. Parsons (p. xv) reports that "Billy Bowleg" was the vernacular on Andros for Seminole Indian immigrants, and it is now a common surname (Porter, p. 57). T h e Little Red Men are about two feet high, have three fingers on each hand, and are "bright" or light-skinned. They wear long beards and black velvet waistcoats, but no trousers. They protect animals and try to keep humans out of the Andros interior and other isolated areas. They are said to come to the aid of birds or animals wounded by hunters. T o show friendship and good will, Out Islanders hold up three fingers over their heads while walking through the high bush. T h e Yehos are large manlike spirits who stand upright, are covered with hair, and have claws like bears. They can mate with women, producing hairy babies. They are reported to live near Fresh Creek, Andros, and on Long Island. Their most spectacular trait is that their feet are on backwards like such African spirits as the Dahomean yehwe or aziza, Yoruba ijimere, and Ashanti mmoatia, and in the New World Trinidad dwen and Venezuelan dwende. Another class of folk narratives deals with famous persons, dead or alive. The most popular of these relate the exploits and skills of one Doxon Hepburn, a very old man said to be still living at Mangrove Cay, Andros. He is thought to have been friendly with the forest spirits, and to have been able to talk with animals. He could see in the dark, and could guide a boat through the reefs, and anchor it in exactly the same location every time, even on a dark night. Elgin Forsyth, who employed Hepburn as a boatman for many years, and who himself was credited with many magic skills and adventures with magical beings of the bush, stated that Hepburn had "an uncanny sense of sight." The final and perhaps most important form of narrative is the old-story. This form, with which we are concerned here, has its own structural and thematic characteristics.

Ill T H E STRUCTURE OF OLD-STORIES A B A H A M I A N CHILD begins as a narrator when he has learned a few motifs that please him, and at the same time has learned how to mount these motifs into oldstories that will be acceptable to an audience. He in time discovers what he must say, what he may include or omit, where he is allowed personal expression, where he must remain with the traditional structure, and how he must handle the various problems that confront him as a storyteller. By experimentation and close study of other narrators, he slowly learns his skill. His tradition provides him with stories to tell, and with an accepted mode of telling them. T h e mode may be summarized as follows : 1."Bunday" of opening, with response(s). 2. Formulaic opening. 3. Introduction of characters, family structure, or situation. 4. One or more motifs. 5. One or more songs in appropriate places in motifs. 6. Riddling, attention, or emphasis "Bundayl" 7. Properties, animate or inanimate. 8. Characterization through voice, idiom, gesture, dance. 9. Traditional (non-individual) stylistic devices. 10. One or more closing formulae. 11. Ending "Bunday" with response(s). Rather than each aspect of this mode being described consecutively, they have been grouped according to type. Beginning with the simplest possible story with a single motif (4), the various kinds of elaboration have been discussed more or less in the order of their frequency, from "Bunday" in its several applications (1,6, 11), to songs (5), linguistic and theatrical devices (7, 8, 9), and characterizations (3). In chapter iv the relationship of the Bundays to the various opening and closing formulae (2, 10) has been shown in tabular form, as have the tale types and motifs. T h e minimum old-story is simply a single motif without any other of the above elements. This is usually called a "joke," and is not differentiated from other oldstories (Tales 35, 63, 100, 143, 144, 198, and Parsons, 1928, Tales 40-52, pp. 519521). But a story is rarely so simple in structure. Almost all the stories have at least two of these elements, and many have all of them. The storyteller is free to choose which ones he will use, and how he will use them. The principle of a wide range of choice within a definite structure is the rule throughout Bahamian folktales. Almost any variation or reassembling of themes or structures is possible, even 19

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praiseworthy, as long as these are traditional. Just as a musician plays with his themes in a fugue, twisting them, reversing them, disassembling and reconstructing them, the Bahamian narrator handles his traditional materials in such a way that "a search for the 'correct' version of a particular tale is artificial and unrealistic" (Waterman and Bascom, p. 20). In the hands of a master, every theme and structure is capable of being given new meaning or implication, a new opportunity for humor, satire, or formal virtuosity. Three versions of "B'Head" (Tales 17,119, 194) by one narrator, and five versions of "Marble" (Tales 139, 152, 189, and Crowley, 1954, Tales A (82) and B (40), pp. 220-227) by different narrators amply illustrate this method. "BUNDAY"

The kind and degree of audience participation in storytelling is an important aspect of its total aesthetic effect, and the patterned behavior of the members of the audience is as traditional as any other structural element in the tale. T h e Bahamian audience may complete a narrator's song, or may function individually as characters in the tale. But by far the most characteristic structural mechanisms in old-stories are the audience participation patterns built around the word "Bunday," which appears at least once in virtually every story in the contemporary collection, and very frequently in the other collections. It functions as a "trademark" for old-stories, since its mere mention is the sign for an old-story to begin. The word may derive from a West African language, from Portuguese bom dia, or Creole-English bon day, "good day," or French or Creole bon Dieu, "good Lord," as in the St. Lucia opening formula Bo Dyè mète asu latè ("The good Lord put us on earth") or other sources which have so far resisted detection. Possibly French and Portuguese words or names occur in old-stories, such as Washington Sweeting's use of bateau for "a small boat" (Tale 47) or Parsons' (p. x, no. 3, and p. 96) mention of the name Sabye from sabio, "obeahman." "Cukero" for cockroach may derive from Spanish cucaracha. T o the Bahamians, "Bunday ain't mean nothing, it just mean is old-story." In the contemporary Andros folktale, it has six distinguishable functions: 1. "Bunday" of Opening. In a gathering of two or more, a person speaks or shouts "Bunday!" If he is answered by one or more people saying "Bunday!," or "Ayyyl," "Ehhhl," or "All right!," or "Yeah," or almost any other expletive, he will consider that he has received the approval of all to begin a story. In a crowded room where only one or two answer him, he will repeat "Bunday!" louder until he has the attention of most of the people. In case no one should answer him, he considers that telling an old-story would be out of place, so he remains silent. Thus this first "Bunday" functions both as a means of testing whether the crowd wants to hear a story, and as a means of getting the crowd's attention so the story can be told. 2. "Bunday" of Attention is used at any point in the story when the attention of the audience has been distracted, as a means of bringing it back to the unfolding of the tale. A good storyteller has relatively little need for this use of "Bunday," since he has no trouble holding a crowd's interest. But no matter how skillful the storyteller, most Bahamians are too self-sufficient, undisciplined, and restless to give their whole attention very long to anything. People move in and out of the

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room, sign language is used to send messages back and forth, conversations break out in whispers, girls giggle and boys nudge each other, until in desperation or pique or calm calculation, the narrator stops his story, sometimes in mid-sentence, with a loud "Bundayl" He stops talking. Until he is answered by at least one expletive, usually "Ehhh!" or "Ayyyl" he will not go on with his tale. It may be compared to a vote of confidence in a European parliament, though narrators are very rarely voted down. In one case a narrator who only occasionally attended the sessions had been telling a story which had lasted nearly a half hour, and which was made up of a series of motifs not particularly well integrated with each other. T h e recording tape was running low, and more popular narrators had stories prepared to tell. In the lull after "Bunday!" the master storyteller present suggested kindly but forthrightly that the story was getting pretty long, and that the narrator should finish it. This he did, completing the motif simply, and using only one formulaic closing (Tale 129, by Will Ross, text not included here). 3. "Bunday" of Emphasis is used to punctuate the tale, and to increase interest in a climax by a moment of suspense. Just before or just after a major event in the story, a "Bunday" serves to point up what is happening, and rivet the attention of even the most distracted member of the audience so that he at least hears the main events. Sometimes this "Bunday" expresses the narrator's approval of the action in the tale, sometimes his shock or mock disapproval. 4. "Bunday" of Pause is used whenever a storyteller is short on breath or running out of narrative. If he is having difficulty keeping the successive steps in his narrative in proper order, stumbling on words, coughing, or having a moment of mental blankness, he can cover his difficulties with a "Bunday" which will give him a chance to recover without destroying the pace of the tale. 5. Riddling "Bunday" is a special form particularly used by one narrator, Alfred Bowe of Behring Point, and may almost be considered his own individual stylistic device. Whenever possible, he asks the audience a question taken from the story, the answer to which is always "Bundayl" Thus he says, "What was the King name?" "Bundayl" "What did Jack say?" "Bundayl" "What he have in he little sailbag?" "Bundayl" This device is particularly appealing to the Bahamians because of their skill with riddles. They shout out the answering "Bundayl" as loudly and enthusiastically as they answer riddles. The employment of this exclamation in this imaginative way shows the kind of variation possible within a particular form. It is not difficult to see how this innovation would be appreciated and incorporated into the stories of others, ultimately to become a characteristic device of a family, a village, an island, or a common feature of the whole body of tales. 6. "Bunday" of Closing is used to signify to the audience that the story is ended. It can be used before, between, or after the closing formulae. Sometimes in reeling off these familiar verses, the storyteller does not wait for the answer to "Bundayl," but uses it almost as part of the verse itself. When used at the end of the last formula, "Bunday" can give a clear idea of the audience's evaluation of the story. Many a loud "Ayyyl" or "Ehhh!" or "Bundayyyyy!" or laughter indicate much interest and appreciation, while silence, conversations, or a weak, perfunctory response indicate boredom or disapproval

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The Opening and Closing Formula Tables (Tables I-XIV), whose structure and functioning are explained below in detail, catalogue the occurrences of the "Bunday" of Opening and the "Bunday" of Closing in the stories of all the collections. It will be noted that the Behring Point families almost invariably use "Bunday 1" at the beginnings of tales, and often at the end. Other Andros Islanders use it occasionally, but it occurs only rarely among the schoolboy narrators of New Providence, and not at all in the stories of contract workers or United States immigrants, except in three closing formulae. "Bunday" of Opening does not occur in the other collections at all, suggesting that it was purposely omitted at the time of recording, either by the narrator to simplify his style, or by the recorder to simplify his task by omitting the obvious and the formulaic. The uses of the "Bunday" of Closing reflect the same pattern, with the Behring Point people using it by far the most frequently. The "Bunday!" is answered by "Ayyyt" or "Ehhhl" and one narrator echoes the response with a second "Ayyy!" More commonly the audience is allowed the last word, or the "BundayI" goes unanswered in the confusion that follows the end of each story. In the earlier collections the final "Bunday!" does occur occasionally, which seems to indicate that the collector included it whenever it occurred in the last few lines. Parsons' narrator No. 10, from whom she collected thirteen tales, used the closing "Bunday!" in nearly all of her stories, suggesting the completeness of detail in Parsons' recording methods. While recording methods undoubtedly explain the sharp contrasts between the various collections in the uses of "Bunday!," regional and individual variation must also be considered. The uses of "Bunday!" are limited almost exclusively to Andros islanders. There seems no reason to assume that its absence in other areas indicates a moribund situation or a desire for "sophistication," but merely a regional variation. SONGS

Another traditional element of Bahamian folktales is the short song or "sing" which may be incorporated into a tale one or more times (Parsons, pp. xii-xiii, and p. 99, n. 2; Waterman and Bascom, p. 21; Thompson, 1946, p. 458; Herskovitses, 1936, pp. 143-144). The musical aspects of these songs require the specialized skill of a musicologist, and will be the subject of a future report. For purposes of this study, songs can be divided into four types: 1. The Story-Song is the Bahamian version of the cante fable, where the story is told completely or essentially in the song form. On request, one major narrator told a story incorporating the "Baboon Sister" song recorded by Parsons (Tale 145, by Josh Albury, and Parsons, Tale 115, pp. 166-167. For other cante-fables recorded in the Bahamas, see Parsons, p. 152 ff), and then combined it with the "Mock Wake" motif-complex, probably because the characters of both stories are monkeys. An elderly woman told an old-story which consisted of a song with no narrative at all. Since this is the only occurrence, it may have been fragmentary (Tale 174, by Lucille Riggs). 2. The Phrase-Song is connected to one motif only, but often that motif is used in many different motif-complexes. The phrase-song is short, only a phrase or two in length, but usually repeated several times during the telling of the motif. An

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example of the phrase-song is "I sharpen m'razor, shee-shaw . . . " which can be used in any story where the Devil or another villain is preparing to kill a character, chop down a tree, or use a cutting edge in any way. 3. The Characterization-Song is used like a leit-motif to introduce or describe a character on his appearance in the tale. It too is usually short, and can be used in many different thematic settings. An example is "I'm Jack Low Degree, I'm Jack High Degree" used both before and after Jack's change in status from underdog to victorious hero (Tale 2, by Paul Rolle, and Parsons, Tale 26, p. 50). An even more effective leit-motif is the whistling of "Boys of 76" or another more tuneless whistle which heralds the arrival of B'Jenerat, the most terrible of the Bahamian enfants terribles (Tale 5, by Josh; Tale 181, by Joe Sr.; Tale 150, by Andrew; and Tale 221, by Bertram Walters). 4. The Complex Song is longer than Types 2 and 3, but shorter than Type 1. Usually it is sung several times in each story, and is connected with a specific group of motifs. Each time it is sung in the story it may be varied slightly, or sung by successive characters. It may indicate the progress of the story, or sometimes actually further the narration. This type is by far the commonest among the Andros storytellers. Examples are B'Jack's onomatopoeic serenade, "Nobody here but me one, ting aling ting aling" (Tales 46 and 138, by Josh Albury) or the woman named Makaroon calling to her eel-lover, " 'Moray, Moray!' Makaroon, he sang, he sang," and the eel's response "in eel language," "Voon marimpa teya voon." (Tale 16, by Mercedes Sweeting.) It must not be assumed that a particular song is always connected with a given motif. In the Booky-Rabby stories there are several different ways to sing the house down from the sky, and to sing it back up again. In the stories about B'Jack, there are many different songs to call his dogs, and to describe their multiplication and arrival on the scene. The Devil sings different songs as he chops at the magic tree in which Jack hides. Where several songs are known for a particular situation, the narrator has a choice of which one he prefers, whichever fits his style and mood best. Usually he uses the same song every time he tells the story, though he need not. Among Behring Point people, the song is more important than among the other groups. Nearly every one of their stories has at least one song, and some have three or four, each repeated many times. This repetition is occasionally irksome, although in the unhurried atmosphere of the yards the familiar melodies and words are savored over and over again. But in Tale 203 (by Joe Rolle Jr.) a King complains about undue repetition in an old-story. The words of the songs are often partly onomatopoeic, as noted above, and others are incomprehensible "talking-in-tongues," a term derived from Biblical terminology and also used to describe the speech of a person in religious possession. Although some of the "talking-in-tongues" songs could conceivably be in an illremembered African language, most are obviously nonsense-syllables chosen for their sound (cf. Parsons, p. 121, n. 1). T h e Bahamians show a sense of theater in such auditory effects as "Tim arim aho" (Tale 95), "Tim a yerry yerry" (Parsons, Tale 70 II, p. 121), or "Low down, low low down" (Tale 139, and Crowley, 1954, Tale 8, p. 220), whether with or without specific meaning. The quicksilver nature of the words in songs is illustrated by " T h e mad bull in the land," recorded by

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Parsons (Tale 32 II, p. 67), which one narrator sings as "The Marble (or marvel) in the land" (Tale 139, and Crowley, 1954, Tale B, p. 220), and another sings as "Marty Bulla in this land" (Tale 189). The music of the songs is easily memorable, and capable of being sung by anyone. Certain songs need a fine voice for best effects, such as the "Moray-Lover" (Tale 16), and "Miss Andrio" (Tales 28, 124, 182, by Mercedes), "Pepper Tree" (Tale 23, by Luzilla) and "Children in the Chimley" (Tale 95, by Minsey). Several of the finest male storytellers were often embarrassed by their hoarse, croaking voices which spoiled some of their effects. One often cleared his throat and started over several times until he was satisfied with his "tone," which is a synonym for "sing." Parsons' narrator, Pa Black, was described as having a "muttering" song delivery (p. 157, no. 2). These skilled narrators often have unpredictable voices, but they turn them to good account in making ordinary songs much more characteristic and ludicrous. Needless to say, the kinds of singing, the melodies themselves, the lyrics, and the uses of the songs vary widely from person to person and area to area, but always within the limits of the tradition. LINGUISTIC F O R M S AND DEVICES

The English spoken by Bahamian Negroes is basically the compromise speech used between slave and master throughout the plantation area. In recent years it has been influenced by standard and southern American English heard by the contract workers, by the "B.B.C." accent of radio announcers, British civil servants, and Bahamians educated in England, the Geordie (Newcastle-upon-Tyne) and Cockney accents of hotel employees, and Jamaican as spoken by SeventhDay Adventist preachers. A certain Scottish and Irish flavor remains also in the speech of the local "Conchy Joe" whites. There are also enclaves of Haitian Creole speakers, Greeks, Chinese, and Lebanese in New Providence Island, and some Spanish has been learned by seamen visiting Cuba, or more recently from Cuban refugees. As a result, the most distinctive feature of the Bahamian dialect is its inconsistency of pronunciation. A word is often pronounced three different ways in three successive uses. This same inconsistency was noted by Edwards fifty years ago, and exists in other Caribbean areas with similar historical roots (Herskovitses, 1936, p. 135, n. 2). With so many varieties of pronunciation in his immediate environment, the storyteller tries each pronunciation in turn. T h e tradition of elegant and elaborate speech encourages this experimentation, and is still another opportunity for verbal virtuosity. A major source for Bahamian pronunciation and idiom is to be found in West African languages, as demonstrated by the Herskovitses' (1936, pp. 117-135) concordance of various forms of New World Negro English, including Bahamian, Paramaribo (Surinam), Jamaican, and South Carolina Sea Islands, with Yoruba, Ewe, Fon, Ga, Twi, Mende, and Hausa. Besides "Bunday," Bahamians believe the following words to be "African": manteen for "young girl"; pawnga for "female genital"; and koka for "gourd." But for purposes of this study, it is only necessary to differentiate the idioms and pronunciations which occur in everyday speech from those which are reserved especially for storytelling. In the Herskovits concordance, the Suriname Bush Negroes of South America

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and the Bahamians of the North Atlantic recorded by Parsons were shown to have many idioms in common. Virtually every one of these shared idioms may be found in the present collection, though a few, such as the use of "a" for "him," have become rare. However, such features as the absence of sex gender in pronouns, the use of a series of verbs to express a single action, verbs to indicate habitual or completed action, use of repetition for emphasis, and absence of a special possessive form occur frequently throughout the tales. Other features are the use of the present tense to express the past, the regularization of irregular verb forms, and the use of a continuing tense, such as "he going" for "he was going" or "he went." Other idioms which occur in present and past Bahamian collections: Tell him, s a y . . . Don't do me so Courtenin t o . . . He suck he t'eef Broke off running He does t'ief I ain't catch him yet Me one One man Why you don't stay? Mash up He pitch up He cock up He jook a fish Do, for God sake... One day more than all He didn't stand She making a baby Man, you too fool He chop her neckt off He make down toward her The headway I make He make at me Tolden a lie He rig a plan

Tell him, " . . . Don't do that to me Courting He sucks his teeth (sound expressive of disgust or contempt) Began to run He steals I haven't caught him yet Me alone, only me A man Why don't you stay? Break, hurt, destroy He jumped up He bent over with his buttocks raised He speared a fish (An intensification for any verb) One day particularly He didn't merely stand around doing nothing She is pregnant Man, you are very foolish He beheaded her He lunged at her The speed I gathered He came toward me threateningly Told a lie He made a plan

As noted before, pronunciation of a given word often varies within an idiolect, sometimes even within one version of a story, the word divergence explained by island of origin, level of formal education, or occupational experience as servants, sailors, or contract workers. But among most Andros people the following pronunciation patterns approach the universal: er or ir becomes oi, as in goil (girl) oi becomes er, as in erl (oil) I becomes y, as in yadies (ladies) th becomes t, as in t'ief (thief)

v becomes w, as in wine (vine) w becomes v, as in vife (wife) ng becomes n, as in goin (going)1

1 Cf. T. J. Woofter, Black Yeomanry (New York, 1930), pp. 48-55, for similar pronunciations in the Sea Islands of South Carolina and Georgia. Other important studies of Negro-English include Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect (Chicago, 1949) by Lorenzo Turner; Jamaican Creole, Creole Language Studies, No. 1 (London, 1960) by R. B. Le Page and David De Camp; and Jamaica Talk (London, 1961) by Frederick G. Cassidy.

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T h e sound r tends to drop out, and with the ng changing to n, "morning" sounds like "monin." Metathesis occurs in some words, notably "ask," which becomes "aks." An extra syllable is inserted before the participial ending, making "courting" become "courtenin" and "fishing" become "fishenin." Speech is very rapid, and elision is practiced wherever possible or desirable. Bahamians conversing among themselves are unintelligible to speakers of standard English, but impress foreigners by speaking to them with "beautiful English accents." Some idioms and. pronunciations are reserved for the folktale. The foremost example is that most commonly represented by B', but also by Ba, Be, Ber, Bioh, Bra, B'Bra, Brer, Bro, Bru, Bu, Bul, and Bulla. This is clearly related to the use of "Brer" in the Uncle Remus tales of the American South, where it is equated with "brother" (Joel Chandler Harris, Nights with Uncle Remus, 1911, p. 8 ff; Richard M. Dorson, Negro Folktales in Michigan, 1956, p. 32). In the Bahamas it is continually used as a prefix to a name, indicating "brother" or friend (cf. Herskovitses, 1936, p. 158, n. 2, and Fitz-James, p. 32). It seems to have a double root, English "brother" and a hypothetical "African" word, "Bulla," "buller," or "bullah." In the Bahamas the word may be equated with "buddy," like its Creole synonym Côpè (French Compère). In Trinidad the word signifies a homosexual, but in the Bahamian tales it is a form of address used between males in greeting and hailing, though never occurring in ordinary speech. Fitz-James (p. 41) reports a husband in a tale calling his wife "Ber Vife, Ber Vife." But in contemporary tales women both use and are referred to as M' rather than B'. T h e attention of a wife is gotten by "M'Wife, M'Wife," and she answers "M'Husband, M'Husband," almost always repeating the word. This M' is a form of "my," and is sometimes used in the construction M'Bra. A similar sound written as "muh" represents "me," and is used to give humor, intimacy, and intensity to such phrases as "He kill muh." T h e phrase "one day more than a l l . . . " is used to begin a new motif within a story, and "she never see the sun" describes a virgin who has never left her mother's house (Parsons, p. 34 and n. 2). "He didn't stand," meaning "He didn't stand around doing nothing, he acted," occurs so often in the narration of Josh Albury that Behring Point people consider it his individual device. However, Parsons recorded it in Tale 104 (p. 153) by a thirty-year-old woman from Mangrove Cay, Andros, suggesting that it is traditional and possibly an Andros regionalism. None of these phrases occurs in conversation. The interjection "ama" is used in tales to gain a moment for thinking, and occurs rarely in everyday speech (Parsons, p. 88, n. 3). "Ahoomaheh" is used as the exclamation of a pompous character such as the King. Onomatopoeia is a frequent device of West Indian English, and is particularly useful in the metaphoric speech of the folktale. When a man falls overboard, he goes "brigger-de-boom" (Fitz-James, p. 62), and the whip that beats B'Booky goes "Wopl Wopl" (Tale 8, by Archie Summers). Animals talk "in-tongues" or in English, as the frog's "Loggy loggy one day log" (Parsons, p. 100 and n. 3), or the rooster's "Koo-ka-roo-koo, Master, de gal gone." (Tale 47, by Washington; cf. Parsons, p. 50.) "Koo-ka-roo-koo" is the common European and African representation for the cock's crow, in contrast to the English "Cock-a-doodle-doo." The

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sounds of musical instruments are represented by "Ting aling ting ting" for the guitar and "Foomp foomp" for the bass drum (Tale 46). Oars sound like "bitta cassada, bitta cassada" (i.e. bitter cassava), and a pestle being beaten in a mortar as "Kpank Kpank Kpay meo" (Tales 46, 14, 31, 55, 128, 138). When B'Booky kisses the Tarbaby, the kiss sounds "Peeeeeuuuuuu!" (Tale 160). Nonsense syllables are used to fill out rhymes and sings, such as "Raymon soli soli" (Tales 193, 160; cf. Parsons, p. 47) or "Oh Gee Bee" (Tale 152). Fine humorous effects can be achieved with these devices, as when the ogre Bradreh is described as having thick lips, so that when he sings he sounds "Ploomp ploomp aloomp ploomp . . . I going swallow you ploomp!" (Tales 22 and 140, by John Albury). This song is also punctuated with noisy intakes of breath best described as the sound made by eating soup rapidly, supposedly another result of Bradreh's lip conformation. The range of possibilities for such personal development of the traditional devices has been widely explored by the narrators. One of the most amusing devices of the Bahamians is what they term a "double lie," wherein an impossible statement is made as if the truth, followed by a sanctimonious, "If I was going to tell you a lie (or story)," and then by another even more impossible statement: "Now the ship was so big that she had over two thousand story up from the deck. If I was going to tell a story, she had eight thousand." (Tale 21, by Washington Sweeting.) Besides the double lie, this quotation includes a play on the word "story." One narrator uses (as part of a closing formula) the double lie in which the lesser lie follows the greater: "And the kick he pass at me, now I going tell you the truth, that kick kick me from here to the British Colonial Hotel (a large tourist hotel about a mile away) but I ain't going tell you the damm lie, it kick me from here to your building (several blocks away)" (Tale 42, by Josh Albury). This device was recorded by Fitz-James (p. 42) and is common in stories from Behring Point, but infrequent from other areas. Parsons' Cape Verde material includes "huge exaggerations of measure or distance," as do the tales of the Suriname Bush Negroes and the Bambara of West Africa, where "one character tells a lie, and the next speaker a greater one."* T h e double lie occurs in complete form in a story Parsons recorded in Martinique (1933-1943,1, 243-246). THEATRICAL DEVICES

Besides "Bundayl" in its various functions, the Opening and Closing Formulae, songs, and many linguistic devices, the Bahamian tradition provides the narrator with a stock of theatrical devices with which to recreate a fresh story at every telling. Gestures may be a simple hand movement such as pointing to a member of the audience to suggest that he or she is the character in the story, or it can be wild gesticulation, leaning on a box, beating a drum roll on a tabletop, or going into a dance which may take the narrator around the room as he enacts his story. This "real vaudeville" is particularly well represented by the stories of Alfred Bowe of Behring Point who, in the manner of a monologist, acted out those situations in his tales which were most effective for creating characterizations * Elsie Clews Parsons, "Folk-Lore from the Cape Verde Islands." MAFLS, X V (New York, 1923). I. 243, n. 1; Herskovitses, 1936, pp. 416—417, and n. 1 citing Moussa Trav61i, Provcrbcs ct Contes Bambara (Paris, 1923), T a l c 7, pp. 61-62.

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and desired illusions. He danced, changed his facial expressions, leered, sobbed, rubbed his eyes, expressed surprise, stabbed imaginary enemies, and kept up a barrage of talk. His foremost protege, Josh Albury, is less flamboyant but occasionally dances or addresses one of the audience as a character, especially if that character is to be derided, or in the case of a girl, if the story character is enamored of her. Parsons' informants Pa Black and Jack Armbrister danced their songs, and the latter had trained his grandson to act as a "partner" (Parsons, p. xiii and n. 1). Others whose individual styles are discussed in chapter VI all used dances, facial expressions, and gestures to put over their tales. An example of a widespread traditional theatrical device is the representation of spirits by holding the index-fingers as if they were skewers through the cheeks, and speaking in a high, nasal voice (Parsons, p. 5 and n. 2). Stage properties are also used by a few narrators. Alfred Bowe produced a little penknife from his pocket in the course of a story, laboriously opened it, and then passed it around among the audience as he told how this was the same penknife Anansi used to slay the giant (Crowley, 1954, Tale A, p. 224). Josh Albury describes the shirt he is wearing as having been torn by Jack in retaliation for the narrator's "flourish" or criticism at the end of his tale (Tale 139). One small boy told a story about a cockroach, and as a finale pointed to a real cockroach crawling across the floor, and said, "Watch out, you see them coming in there!" thus producing a living folktale character (Tale 64, by Bernard Mundy). This use of unprepared properties illustrates the vitality of the medium and the quickness of the narrators in taking advantage of every situation to improve the story. It is more difficult to distinguish clearly between the tradition and individual creativity in these theatrical devices, although some occur too regularly to be anything but traditional. At the same time, it is traditional to make up one's own dance or plan a new facial expression or property in a mechanism we may term "filling in the blank." It is comparable to the cadenza in concerti or opera, where the composer allows the performer to play or sing whatever he likes for a short space, but within the framework of the composition. CHARACTERIZATION

The Bahamian storyteller is provided by tradition with a set of formulaic characters having specific names, functions, and personality characteristics (Parsons, p. xii). Each of these characters plays many roles and can be reconceived within rather wide limits to suit a particular story or express the ideas of a particular narrator. The stock characters most frequently encountered are: B'Rabby.—the trickster, the underdog, sometimes the hero. More often conceived as a boy or man rather than as a rabbit, but sometimes having both human and animal characteristics. B'Rabby has many close relatives in African and AfroAmerican tale collections: Brer Rabbit in the American South (cf. Harris, p. 8 et passim, and Hurston, 1935: 145, 307); Konikoni of Surinam, variously the rabbit and the agouti (Dasyprocta aguti) (Herskovitses, 1936: 140); Cunnie Rabbit, who in spite of his name and similar characterization is a chevrotain (Tragulidae) in the tales of the Temne of Sierra Leone (F. M. Cronise and H. W. Ward, Cunnie Rabbit, Mr. Spider and the Other Beef, 1903: 17), and many others.

The Structure of Old-Stories

29

B'Booky.—the stupid, greedy, lascivious foil of B'Rabby, sometimes his brother or close friend, usually bigger in size, and conceived as a rabbit, goat, monkey, or as a human. Bouki means "hyena" in the Wolof language of Senegal and the Gambia (Fortier, p. 94, and Edwards, p. I l l , n. Ill), and as Compère Bouqui he is the foil of Compère Lapin in Haiti (Parsons, 1935-43: II, 474, and Robert A. Hall, Jr., Suzanne Comhaire-Sylvain, H. Ormonde McConnell, and Alfred Metraux, Haitian Creole: Grammar, Texts, Vocabulary, MAAA, L X X I V and MAFLS, X L I I I , A A LV, Part 2 [April-June, 1953], Tale 5, p. 115 et passim). T h e Dahomean trickster, Yo, is also greedy and undisciplined (Herskovits, 1938: II, 324, and Herskovitses, 1958: 75-91), as are many American Indian tricksters. B'Anansi.—or Nansi, Boy Nasty, or Gulumbanasi, a trickster and hero, either boy, man, or monkey. Although Anansi is the spider trickster of Twi folklore, and known also in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Surinam, and Jamaica, B'Spider is the only web-spinning trickster in the Bahamas. T h e transmutation Boy Nasty finds a parallel in Miss Nancy in the Sea Islands and Gulumb might derive from Hebrew golem, a fetal trickster (Elsie Clews Parsons, Folk-Lore of the Sea Islands, South Carolina, 1923: Tales 62 IV, p. 73; Herskovitses, 1936: 138, n. 3; Waterman and Bascom, p. 18: W. H. Barker and C. Sinclair, West African Folk-Tales, 1917: 24 ff). B'Jack.—or Mr. Jack, a clever boy hero, usually poor and dark-skinned, with great magical and intellectual resources, but little respect for age and authority. Except for the racial overtones, he resembles Jack of the Beanstalk, and in some stories is replaced by B'Rabby (cf. Hurston, 1935: 25, 305, and see below, p. 41). Master King.—or Mr. King, a low-comedy figure, pompous, ineffectual, cowardly, and easily misled. He lives in a palace, but involves himself in everyday Bahamian activities. Greenleaf.—The King's daughter, whose hand B'Jack wins. She usually appears as a foolish, lisping, giggling, but desirable young girl. B'Devil.—an inept ogre, giant, trickster, or greedy human villain sometimes having the hoofs and tail of the medieval Christian Devil. He uses obeah, but is always bested by the clever hero. Miss Different.—the Devil's shrewish wife or secretary, sometimes possessing magical power used to help the hero. B'Jenerat.—a "wicky" (wicked) and "witchy" (magically endowed) little boy who delights in tricking B'Devil, and in rescuing others from his clutches. There are a great many animal characters such as B'Cat, B'Dog, B'Lion, B'Bull, B'Monkey, B'Parakeet, and B'Snapper who play roles in accordance with their animal characteristics, and appear in many different stories. B'Booky and B'Rabby sometimes have whiskers, hind legs, and long ears (Tale 175, and Fitz-James, pp. 23-24), but more often they are called men, and call each other "brother" (Tale 42). In the hands of a skillful storyteller they exhibit sibling rivalry, alternate in besting each other, and each in turn possesses the sympathy of the narrator and his audience. Josh says, "both of them were fool at times" (Tale 99). Occasionally the name of B'Booky is given to a greedy human character more often called Mr. Parsons in a tale of kings, princesses and magic adventures, where Jack usually replaces B'Rabby as hero. B'Anansi and B'Jenerat can also

30

/ Could Talk Old-Story

Good

play similar roles, but are usually associated with specific motif-complexes. The King appears most frequently in these magic tales but also figures in many animal tales, sometimes being referred to as farmer or boss. He is guarded by soldiers, and lives in a palace, sometimes specifically Buckingham Palace, and yet he inspects his dead cattle, has difficulty hiring field hands to clear bush, and has only a precarious hold over his wife, family, and retainers. He is an invererate gambler, and occasionally gambles away his whole family. B'Devil has many guises, a giant, a cannibalistic ogre, a sly seducer, or an impoverished and inept thief who cries and begs mercy from a child (Tales 12, 90; cf. Parsons, p. 140, n. 2). The female characters are less fully developed, staying closer to their traditional formulation. Other characters are animal-like ogres such as Bradreh and Marble who eat people, the King of the Sea with his ten thousand heads, the dead bride who "turns hag," the preacher and his deacon, vicious or kindly aunts, old ladies, fairy godmothers, patricidal children and vengeful parents, unfaithful wives and faithful dogs, shy adolescents, selfish old people, orphans, spirits of the dead, and even a disembodied B'Head. Thus the tradition provides the narrator with a wide variety of personality and physical characteristics from which to choose. In most cases the narrator merely chooses a stock character such as B'Jenerat, and employs him in the tale without feeling the need to explain or develop his special characteristics of slyness, magic power, jauntiness, or disdain for the power of the Devil. Since the audience already knows these characteristics, his name and his leit-motif, a whistled phrase from "Boys of '76," is all that is needed to introduce him. Such shorthand methods of characterization are not adequate for such skilled narrators as Josh, Alfred, and Mercedes who describe their characters' appearance and nature, their motivation and reactions, and their secret thoughts and fears. Even so, the theatrical timing of tale-telling does not allow too great a digression from the narrative, so that the characterization must be sketched in a few effective phrases, such as, "So now, B'Booky was a man really indulgent, lazy, you know, how like some people does. And B'Rabby was a man, well, he used to get along well in life" (Tale 120, by Josh). DISTRIBUTION OF FORMS

Just as the Bahamians share their form of English with other New World Negroes and their thematic material with the storytellers of Europe, Africa, and Asia, some formal aspects of old-stories are shared with other West Indians. The formulaic nominies which open the tales are of Scottish and English origin, and have been recorded in the Sea Islands of South Carolina and Georgia (Parsons, p. xi; Woofter, p. 74). The characters of B'Rabby or Compère Lapin and B'Booky or Bouqui occur in Haiti, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Jamaica, and other West Indian islands, as do most other Bahamian characters. We have seen (in the section on Linguistic Forms and Devices above), that something like the Bahamian "double lie" device exists among the West African Bambara, the Portuguese Negroes of the Cape Verde Islands, the Bush Negroes of Surinam, and the Martiniquais. In Haiti (Hall, Comhaire-Sylvain, McConnell, and Metraux, Tale 4,

The Structure

of

Old-Stories

31

p. 115) and Martinique (Parsons, 1935-43, I, 172-173), as in the Bahamas (Parsons, 1933—43, I, 181), stories commonly end with the characters kicking the narrator and causing him to tell the story, or by bringing in one of the audience to vouch for the truth of the tale, the so-called "authentication formula." In Trinidad a sukuya or vampire is punished by being put inside "a big puncheon, tar it inside, put her in a cart, carry her on a high hill. They put pitch oil in it and light it, and roll it down hill" (Herskovitses, 1947: 254-255), exactly the same fate that awaits most Bahamian villains. Even the term "old-story" is shared with the Cape Verde Islanders (Parsons, pp. x-xi, n. 3). These and other specific details are not exclusively Bahamian, but are widespread throughout the Negro New World. It is the special and unique combinations of all these themes, structures, devices, and concepts which set off Bahamian tales from all others, and make them recognizable to anyone familiar with their conventions. In speaking of the possible European provenience of Bahamian tales, Parsons states: "Given the antecedents of the islanders, the choice lies among French, Scotch, English, and Portuguese sources. . . . Resemblances between the Bahama and the Cape Verde Island tales, not only in patterns but in many minor details, I found startling. Whatever may have been the provenience of the tales in Africa, Portguese or other, I have no doubt that by far the greater number of the Bahama tales were learned there,—learned, not in America, but in Africa." [page xii.] The contemporary material just cited corroborates this opinion. The undoubted contacts between the islands, even between the Bahamas and Trinidad at the extremes of the West Indies," can hardly explain the spread of so many intricate structures. It seems more likely that the greater part of present Bahamian traditions and conventions existed among West Africans before they were brought to the New World. This would explain the striking similarity of the conventions of stories in Haitian Creole and Bahamian English, if the stories have been translated from West African languages along with the peculiar morphology of creolized languages that accompanies the structures and themes in both New World tongues. However, it should not be forgotten that structures and themes from other areas have undoubtedly entered the Bahamian tradition from the long contact with Europeans, Americans, and other West Indians, and from the absorption of original forms created by Bahamian narrators. * I.e., the maternal grandfather of Andrew Carr, Trinidadian folklorist, was a Bahamian called Phillip "Behamie," who migrated to Port-of-Spain about 1860. Behamie Lane in the suburb of Belmont is named for the family.

IV OPENING AND CLOSING FORMULAE O P E N I N G FORMULAE T H E F O R M U L A E which are used at the beginning and ending of many Bahamian old-stories are as characteristic of old-story formal structure as are the "Bunday!" mechanisms. Although the incorporation of formulae in folktales occurs in Africa, the particular "nominies" used by the Bahamians seem to be of Scottish and English origin.1 After the opening "Bunday!" and response, the narrator says: "Once upon a time, a very [wery, weary, berry, or merry] good time, monkey chew tobacco, and he spit white lime. [Ber Monkey chew opium, and give a good rhyme]." He may continue: "Cukero (cockroach) [bullfrog, or other animal] jump from bank to bank [or pint to pint, or stone to stone], and his ten quarter [four quarter, one leg, ten points] never touch a quart of water [whiskey, salt water] till sun was set," or: "Cockroach have a high old time," or: "Wasn't my time, was in old people time when they used to take fish scale [or bonefish scale] to make shingle, and fish bone [bonefish bone] to make needle [nail]." Other nominies in frequent use are each capable of a great deal of the same kind of internal variation as indicated above. Once more the narrator's ingenuity is allowed free play within a fixed form. He may begin: "This was a time, not in my time, it was nothing but a time, when parakeet shit and reach [retch] it and old people take it and make seasoning]" (Crowley, 1954, p. 220 and n. 1). The more usual form would be: "This was not my time, in old people time, when children used to pee in the pumpkin wine [vine] and call it good seasoning]." He continues: "In the days when Constitution causing your hand to get square besides" (Crowley, 1954, p. 220 and n. 1), in place of: "In the days when Constitution causing you to take your foot [hand] right out." The nonsensical quality of the European nominies is kept by such reconstructions, particularly in the linguistic pun on vine and wine. The Constitution nominy was meaningless to the audience, but it was later explained as referring to "old time when everybody working hard" so that their hands became broad. This is a com1 Parsons, pp. x - x i i and nn. 1 and 3; Edwards, pp. 63-64, n. 2; Waterman and Bascom, p. 21; Thompson, 1946, pp. 457-458; Johannes Bolte and Georg Polivka, Amerkungen zu den Kinder- und Hausmarchen der Bruder Grimm (Leipzig, 1913-32), IV, 10 ff. Cf. the lyrics of T h e Clapping Song by Lincoln Chase (Congress G-234), sung by Shirley Ellis, produced and arranged by Charles Calello:

Three-six-nine, T h e goose drank wine. T h e monkey chew tobacco On the streetcar line. T h e line broke,

T h e monkey got choke. And they all went to heaven In a little rowboat. Let's clap . . .

32

Opening and Closing

Formulae

33

plete reinterpretation, since the traditional nominy is said to refer to the "constitution" or subject matter of a conversation being such that the narrator found it advisable to run away. From these fragmentary examples it can be seen that wit rather than logical exposition is the raison d'être of the formulae. Many storytellers speak them so fast that they are barely comprehensible, and probably no longer bring a picture to the minds of the audience. Formulae are omitted by many narrators, but rigorously included by others, with wide variation again the rule. T h e descriptive method used in the exegesis of old-story forms in chapter I I I is inappropriate for the study of the formulae because their number and extreme internal variation are too great to be listed within the limits of space. Furthermore, variations in the use of formulae among individual narrators cannot be adequately described, no matter how desirable from the standpoint of aesthetic empathy. At the same time the sample is too small and the material too diverse to allow rigorous mechanical or statistical analysis. As a middle ground, the opening and closing formula tables ( I - X I V ) have been devised to show in a comparative setting the sequence of formulaic parts as used in every recorded story. T h e most frequent phrases and parts of the opening formulae are listed across the top of the tables, plus "Bundayl" and its responses as they are integrated with the formulae. Since space limitations make it impossible to list all the internal variants of each phrase in the formulae, these are either combined in one line, as "Once . . . " and "Once there w a s . . . , " or use one phrase to represent several similar variants, as "Now this was a time" for "Now . . " N o w this was ...',' and " T h i s was...',' or are grouped in a separate line marked "Other." Down the left side of each table are listed by number the stories of each informant in the present collection and all the published collections. In the present collection they are grouped as follows: 1. Stories of the people from Behring Point, Andros Island, whether living there or in Grant's Town, New Providence Island. This group includes the RolleSweeting-Albury families, their "kin," and friends. 2. Stories by Out Islanders, both children and adults, from any island or settlement except Behring Point, Andros Island, or the environs of Nassau, New Providence Island. 3. Stories by boys and young men native to the environs of Nassau, New Providence Island. Almost all of this group are first or second generation descendants of Out Islanders. 4. Stories by contract workers in the United States, or by Bahamian emigrants now living in the United States. This group is almost exclusively Out Island in origin, but most of them have lived in the Nassau environs for a few years. Each informant is designated by a characteristic name, either given name, nickname, or surname, none of which are actual names of the informants. T h e stories are numbered in accordance with the manuscript collection, reflecting the chronology in which they were recorded, to make possible the study of change over a period of time. T h e stories in the two collections by Parsons have been regrouped according to

34

I Could Talk Old-Story Good

informant, to make it possible to analyze elements of individual style. The same has been done for the smaller collections, except Edwards', which have been omitted because he reports the formulae only as "Once it was a time, etc.," or "E bo ban, my story's en,' etc." Parson's informants are indicated by the number she assigned to each, and their stories are numbered as in her publications, with Roman numerals designating the number of the variant. The other collections also are listed as published, except Fitz-James', where it was necessary to assign numbers consecutively to the texts. Within the grid of the tables the numbers 1 to 14 indicate the order in which the narrator uses the parts of the formulae in each of his stories. Thus the number under each phrase indicates whether that phrase was used first, second, or fourteenth in the formula of the story listed on the left. In some cases a number is placed midway between two phrases to indicate that they are used together in sequence. In others, when a phrase is used twice or more in the same sequence, both numbers are listed under the phrase and separated by a dash. See Tables I VII. INTERPRETATION OF OPENING F O R M U L A E T A B L E S

The opening formulae tables show the uses of "Bundayl" as they integrate with the formulae. The Behring Point families use it both to introduce the formula and to separate the formula from the narration, a usage which is not reported from other areas. In the forty-three stories told by Josh Albury, the opening "Bunday!" is used in all but one example (Tale 5), the first recorded by him. It occurs in almost all the stories of the other Behring Point people except those of Wellington Sweeting and Anita Bain, two New Providence-raised adolescents only distantly connected with Behring Point. Anita used no formula at all, which is rare among Behring Point people, but common among the storytellers from other settlements and in the other collections. Parsons' narrators Nos. 9, 16, 17, 18, all Out Islanders from Andros Island, and Fitz-James' Out Island narrators use the next largest number of opening formulae, though fewer than the Behring Point families. T h e pattern shows fewest formulae used by contract workers, followed by New Providence residents in the various collections, then Out Islanders in general, then Andros Islanders, with the Behring Point families using the most formulae per story. Thus the lack of formulae in the stories of Wellington and Anita can be explained by their residence in New Providence. Conversely, "Once upon a time" is commonest among school children or adolescents recently in school, reflecting the influence of literary tales studied in the primers (cf. Parsons, Tale 81, p. 133). "A merry good time" is a variant limited to Behring Point, its five occurrences among Out Islanders or New Providence boys being explained by diffusion from Behring Point children, since all the users are young boys. The sequence of formulaic phrases, "Once upon a time, was a very good time, monkey chew tobacco and he spit white lime," occurs with some regularity, especially in stories in Parsons' 1918 collection, but too many omissions and variations exist for it to be considered a set pattern. "Monkey chew tobacco and he spit white lime," is used only once by Josh, and not at all by Alfred Bowe, though it is common throughout all the other stories in all the collections. This very commonness explains its omission by these two virtuosi, Josh describing it as "flat."

Opening and Closing Formulae

35

However, Mercedes, herself a voluble critic of "flatness," never fails to include it in her stories. "Cukero" (Spanish for "cockroach"?) and "bullfrog" divide the jumping evenly, and informants such as Washington and Mercedes may use each in different stories. There is a wide range of variation in what the "cukero" or the bullfrog do, although it nearly always results in their "touching water." T h e reference to "ten quarter" specified the capacity of his "belly," and "his ten points" refers to his toes. They either "touch water," "never touch water yet," "never touch ten quarts of water," "never touch a quart yet," or "never touch water till sun was set." Parsons (p. 133, and Parsons, 1928, pp. 490, 494, 496, 514) adds "An' one he leg it never touch water," and many others. Although Parsons mentioned a nominy using "not your time" after "not my time," no example of it is to be found in her collections or in the others. T h e reference to "old people time" is fairly common in everyday speech, reflecting the great respect for older people borne out in such stories as Josh's T a l e 70 and Parsons' T a l e 14 I I (p. 18 and n. S). Sometimes the word order of the formula changes, as, "When old people used to take fish scale to shingle house, and make nail from fish bone." There are many variants of two other listed formulae about "Constitution" and "pumpkin wine," showing once more the degree and kind of liberty allowed the storyteller with his traditional material. They are popular with Albert and Harford " J o e " Rolle, Sr., but Josh never uses them. Washington and Mercedes use them occasionally, as does Gerald Poynter, a contract worker from Pure Gold in southern Andros. Parsons' informants Nos. 10 and 53, Rafalita and Zilpha Rolle, both from Mangrove Cay, Andros, also use them. T h e formulae listed toward the left of the tables occur with more frequency than those toward the right, but do not necessarily precede them in the sequence of narration. T h e "other formulae" listed in the tables designate traditional formulae occurring too infrequently to be listed separately. They are similar in flavor to those listed, and represent possible regional or individual variations too small to form a perceptible pattern. It is significant that Alfred Bowe, the most "original" storyteller, has by far the largest number of "other formulae." CLOSING F O R M U L A E T A B L E S

T h e closing formulae are placed in the tables in the same way and with the same numbering systems as the opening formulae tables. Thus Table V I I I shows the closing formulae for the same stories and in the same order as their opening formulae were shown in Table I. "Bundayl" is used before the formulae as well as after, and the tables show the source and kind of response the final "Bundayl" calls forth. T h e formula, "From that day to t h i s . . . i s completed by some explanation of human or animal characteristics or natural phenomena. Examples are "old people's back does be bent so," or "cat does chase dog." " I was passing by, and I say . . . " is the formula for "individualistic variation, deliberate variation" which Parsons (p. x) states as being allowed only in the conclusion, when "the narrator is expected to connect the tale with the occasion of its telling—an opportunity for

36

/ Could Talk Old-Story

Good

personal garnish or wit." This wit usually takes the form of a moral or criticism such as "Mister Jack, how come you so smart," or "You shouldn't do an old woman like that." These morals are almost never serious, but provide an opportunity for the narrator to make a humorous or shocking statement in opposition to the point of the story. An example is, "Mister, 'I say," you shouldn't do that girl like that so" after a man had righteously executed his daughter for murdering her two children and hiding their graves (Tale 25, by Mercedes). The second part of this formula, "And the kick he kick at me .. ." is sometimes "And he make at me, and I run . . . " or "And I dart [or fart], causing you and me to part." More commonly it is completed with "causing me to come here tonight to tell you this big lie," or "this wonderful story." Sometimes it is the wind caused by the characters' actions which blows the narrator to the place where the story is told. This personal ending is called a "flourish" by the storytellers, and many have individual ones distinctively their own. Although this term is not mentioned by Parsons, she states that her narrators have "favorite conclusions" (p. 47, n. 2). Mercedes usually "knock my head on Dr. Walker building," a large unfinished newspaper press and dance hall across from her home and the field headquarters. "Personal garnish and wit" are recognized by the existence of a term to describe them, the "flourish." But the mechanism is the familiar one of a set formula with sections where the narrator has a free choice of what he will say. That the flourish is the only allowable individualistic and deliberate variation in the stories is palpably untrue. The authentication formula begins "If you don't believe my old story is true, ask the Captain of the longboat crew." It may end there, or continue, "Or ask . . . " with the narrator specifying someone in the audience as a mark of honor that his word should be taken as law. This device can be used for innuendo, as when Josh told a story of seduction, and finished with "Ask Mr. Ted, he could tell you better." Harford "Joe" Rolle Sr. completes Tale 3 with "go to the Moseley Book Store [in downtown Nassau] and buy a tract, and you'll read the same thing." The formula which started in England as "Be Bow Bended, this story is ended," has received a myriad of transformations in the Bahamas. "Ebo Ben" or "Ebo John" was thought with some justification to be "probably African" by Edwards (p. 64, n. 2), in reference to the Ibo people of Nigeria. Five of the more frequent variants are listed in the tables. Further variants listed below were taken from Parsons' 1918 collection, and show how much variation these formulae may have: E Be, p. 14. Billy Ben, p. 20. Be be o en, pp. 21,122. Bebeo, p. 33. Billy bo, p. 39. Be o ben, p. 42. E ben, p. 50. E be ben, pp. 51,103.

Biddy baddy ban, p. 66. Be e en, p. 100. Ben Billy ben, p. 115. Bo be ben, p. 127. Be ban, p. 139. Biddy ben, p. 148. Biddy biddy ban, p. 137.

There are many more variations in the other collections, such as "Giddy giddy gout" (Fitz-James, p. 6), "Be Be En" favored by Andrew Albury, "E Be En" in the nonsense-spelling pattern, and "E Bo Ben," the favorite form in Behring Point.

TABLE I .

OPENING FORHULAE:

BEHRING POINT

S

u . 8 _ .. O O • « O b • o , _ t. © 4-> O « B *» « H 4* TJ X 3 O O -H V a) i toi» -ho u a *» a c ^ « o >o o .ü b « -h s « o a e u V« o « tG crö.« e &s • o c ® -W *6 H © 0 « I« 3 Q. 3 _ J3 J3 4J t> -H 3 H «M O 'Q 2 X V Q O Ï C « -H E O O O O ft 6 4 «H G 3 O, ft -H CC a 3 ^ H H O 3 C -H t O • « +> 0 e ^ ooaeun-ocM) woe ^ i] o « o h a s i u s H f l ' . . . . • Ö-^w ^ O O ^ 0b - OH «- H« * +> 03 >> O3 G J3 JZ Ctoo +> t O.H o e B -O -H h h f .h « « 33 GC CC>H• l o i G +> JZ . >>o 0 £ O A b ' r i ' H •• (. 0 h >yEO>»-H 0 «C H-O «4• M 3 T 3 *«o 9« ( Q t«O Ol4 •O i> V ät tl O H • «H« C -H £ £ H 0 O «H J5 C il & E H H CXH 4 O 7 9 v to e 5 - S S ä s. c o 0 C s m ..: « -H .5 6 E * (I £ h i V< £ £ . -C 0*dCO(Qi«00 e-H ^«£H«>,Hf4 «j- V«- u •flH • _• - _ H!t ) «oi d«ö' d «o> H>£ V 4 > > i i n-H c "0 T» e H 3jjjfigäfifijS CSS 5 8 S ^

8 * 3 Ü iS f e.3 o n «-s

§ 8 •_ B

8•»

& 3

1 1

3 U 3 It

2 3

3 U

2 3k 2 3** 2 3 It 5 2 3 It 5

I. 5

TABLE V (continued) a •5 S «'•Hfl « — oh a fi m V o h• • «i oo ôi • 4» g •0 m • I üfl ^ c .tfl 4» -4 * O J3 K • « t4 —• M 5 *> a? o h > f. • «ra. • I. » •> a 3 j iOjbe« u » • • « g j- i »o o i w j o t o •3 a 0.-H g ~—J ! « , 3 Ï.0 0 H• H»O 3 h O* O 3£ S ta oi S w a M O w•O S• ÍI • 4 > < I J I c O C < J ! | « j 3 »

3

22.

23.

2k. 25. 26. 27.

28. 29. 30.

31. 32.

33. 3k. 35.

36.

32III 331 k9I 59 8kl 85 108 109 17 35 5kl I03II 112 18 76 1911 25111 20111 105 106 115 211 k3Il 10k 2111 1131 221 3211 6k 89 69II 22111 26II kkll 65 681 86 23 82 83 25IV 9k 25V 87 90 91 25VI k3I 5kII 77 78

1

2 3k

1

2 3k

8 JS * • S ^ * H I*t9 * > « > g s a ~ # > v • _ -h a « • t 4» e « g3 oo 0 * 4 « * M ui O. S g ikiiji g js O 4 0 üw O. O O. • • « • « í « m s S. n h o a V o 3 h u ~-4 >3» 4i .• o. «> _ g __ -h ^ €¡h H • «Ho« 3o^ g B 4* 3 Ho «o « u o«ac « 1 3 í H fl x o • 3 « 4 g>< p ^ 1 -H 3 H A >tA•f Hl SV " N • Sf E H C4J Tt h Í flH Í 3 O 3C 3 E *S>Oh O » • h "^o O .C O rHiH-PSi 0 O | rH ( • CH t

J ff S *e* w a iäffl * - S .2 «S 9B O O >-Hi a 4 H 4 J V 4 C i CHHf 41 0 >1 a at >» o&a S£ *. ü ii-a Ca^ E B-J? d UdH i 3H 9 «J Vi

iSSSiZSiZU

üls S

1 1 1 1 2

2 3 €> £ © tj G « eXO * 8-HStí o e« >1

« o

i tp o

£ • _ -_H G -rj C ' • >• » « mO-£>h u am j> »TS fi« • «M O « ^ U si • >h>-H • S a3 iO "H r-í o C X o o• d*> o u « « Xi4 c » 3i > i* 0 0 u S Ü 5M - 5 5«*h , M a 3 ä 1% m t è " > a ttv So 152 u h t>ia "m io S• s^- **C fie A « » K S>: ^ _ _ -H e >ì c « -H ^d .d B««*g» secouas Úfl4> i0 h S • h 3 JBrH-a OC h3 h3 e3 a * •0 » 3 n H JZ TJ rH« o. o3* «. * » « Ba *>• **• t. o b o oCE •U 4 d ^ o >>4» o ^ a fOl fol ü ^H o ÄHO• ÄrH oS SB o S " 3 Se iH o"C»*> o « o •H

S

B

**

S i

h

O

in

ö 3 * • >>** •c 0 ** r-4 ¡1 H h a » < • O a _ 4iS

«

O » >» o _ iH -O *° 5 8,0 3 >» ^ 0 « 9 © >l » " 3 « U H j 0. » U •© 3 3 TJ u u x o c « e i e v, D J j Ä ^ rH > >» K •H 4 >» S « -o < < ri C 3 3 ® * E • 3 i O^HOO

2 1 1 1 1 1

2 2

TABLE XII.

CLOSING FORMULAE:

PASSONS (1918)

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12

3

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TABLE XII.

(continued) 3

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PASSONS

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1. 1.

MOTIF SELECTION:

1

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1

9* 55 56

1 1 TABLE XXI.

I III V XII XIV Vf XVIII XIX XXVII

MOTIF SELECTION :

2 EDWARDS

X i x

1-3

1

1

2

TABLEXXII.

MOTIF SELECTION:

3

OTHER COLLECTIONS

Fitz-James I Clear« 1

\

Finiay

5

1

¡ 5 1

,

;

TABLE XXIII.

MOTIF GROUPING:

THEFT OF BUTTER - GODFATHERS - TEST BY SDK

« S'fc»> 3 O

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Josh 160 B. Bean 73 PARSONS (1918)

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11

ÌOIII 101 ÌOII 12

PARSONS (1928) 10. 17 16. kl

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SD'WaRDS XII

2 3

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TAKE Mï PLnCË - All shown above, plus following

Josh Andrew PARSONS 1. 10. *»1.

k2 178

3

U

2

(1918) 391 39II 39III

P.V.S0NS (1928) 1. 1 10. 18

2

2 2 2

2

2 1

EDWARD I

2

CU„»RE 4

1

FINLAY 2

3

2

1 3 3

1 l-3-l»X I X !

1

VI REGIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL STYLISTIC VARIATION of folktales in the Bahamas has been shown not only to permit, but actually to require at least a modicum of individual creativity. In the simplest story the single motif must be chosen from the traditional stock; one or more formulae are almost certain to be added at beginning or end; "Bundayl" may be employed in one of its several functions; songs, verbal mannerisms, idioms, characterizations, all lend themselves to conscious, deliberate variation on the part of the story teller. Unless a few of these opportunities for variation are taken, the result is less than a story. Undoubtedly some variation is caused by forgetting, by slips of the tongue, or by confusion resulting from nervousness. But in actuality, as well as in the mind of the storyteller, most variations are consciously contrived. There are of course different degrees and different kinds of variation depending on the intricacies of the form chosen, the nature of the motif or motif-complex, and the taste and ingenuity of the storyteller. T h e tables have attempted to show how the stories were constructed, and how one variant compares with another. But the potentialities for variation are so great and so intricate that in the last analysis even the tables indicate only the broader patterns of variation. T o consider the particulars of techniques of variation, it is necessary to analyze in detail a representative sample of stories from the present collection. Because of their popularity, range of narrators, typicality, and potentialities for variation, the forty-two stories in which Booky and/or Rabby are the protagonists have been analyzed from the standpoint of thematic organization in the Motif Selection and Motif Grouping tables. Their texts are discussed in this chapter from the standpoint of individual stylistic variation. Twenty-one other stories are also included to illustrate individual styles, written style, or other aspects of style not covered by the Booky-Rabby tales. T h e stories are arranged chronologically as told by each narrator, so that each individual style can be more easily delineated. Although this arrangement results in variants being scattered throughout the chapter, motif comparisons have already been covered in the tables, and since comparative problems outside the Bahamian area are beyond the scope of this study, no serious dislocation results from this unusual arrangement. Generalizations made in the following section are based on the total recorded stories of each narrator, but with the majority of examples taken from the tales given. T H E TRADITIONAL STRUCTURE

45

46

I Could Talk Old-Story Good T H E BEHRING POINT NARRATORS BOOKY-RABBY TALES

T h e informants who were born at Behring Point, Andros Island, or who descend from its inhabitants have contributed the largest number of stories to the present collection. As discussed above, factors of rapport and location may explain in part the quantity and complexity of their tales. Regardless of such causes, however, the variation is unexpected when found among such a small, isolated, and closely interacting group, especially in view of the fact that many of the variations are non-traditional in content, and are thus conscious creations of the storytellers to get the effects they desire. 1. Joshua Albury, Jr., known as "Josh," was born about 1924 in Behring Point, Andros, where he attended the local school for about four years. He is literate enough to enjoy reading the local newspaper, and conscious enough of his literary inadequacies to apologize for them. At the time of recording, he had lived in Grant's Town for about five years, working occasionally as a building laborer. He lives with his wife, two small daughters, his brother, and several other relatives in a one-room rented house. T h e house has neither electricity, running water, nor glass windows, and is thus one of the poorest of the homes in the area. Josh is not entirely healthy, although well built and solidly muscled. He has a respiratory condition which causes him to breathe heavily and to have a rasping, croaking voice. He also has chronic conjunctivitis or some other eye inflammation which causes his eyes to be red and bloodshot. He has a reputation for drinking too much rum, but during the period of field research, he was observed slightly drunk only a few times, and this in a community where heavy drinking is widespread. His physical disabilities, however, give him the appearance of an alcoholic. Whether this is true or not, he is slightly deviant in his low economic status. However, he is a beloved figure in Grant's Town, respected in spite of his comparative youth for his humor, his realism, his knowledge of the outside world, and his verbal skills. At the beginning of the recording sessions, he was introduced as "a man what could talk old-story good." He provided forty-three stories, by far the greatest number, the longest, the most complex, and possibly the finest in the collection. At last report (1958), Josh was working in Florida as a contract laborer. T A L E 4 2 : JOSH ALBURY IN C O W S B E L L Y : T A K E MY PLACE PASSWORD (COW): IN C O W S B E L L Y Bundayl ["Bundayl Eh I" Narrator shouts:] Once upon a time, not my time but in old people time, when they used to take fishbone to make shingle and fishbone to make nail; that was in a time of my foreparents. You want to stop when I say my foreparents, but anyway it was in olden days time, make it much plainer. All right! T h e r e was a contest went on, by the King. OK? He wanted to prove that who is stoling [stealing] into his farm. He had his farm by the name of the King farm. Well, he have cows, he have cattle in facts, the whole thing have a name cattle. He have cattle in facts. Anyway, it was everyday it was the cattle was missing off the farm. They wanted to know who was stoling this cattle, but so happen, they can't know where this cattle was stoling, and who was stoling the cattle they don't know.

Regional and Individual Stylistic Variation

47

Anyway, there was a m a n by the n a m e of Booky, who used to steal the cattle. " W e l l , " say, " n o w I know w h a t h a p p e n . " T h e y accuse Booky o f stealing t h e cattle, b u t J a c k say, " I ' m t h e cattle stealer." W e l l anyway. J a c k used to go into the cattle, the cattle—by t h e n a m e o f t h e cattle is a c o w — t o go i n t o the cow and cut out as much meat as he want out the cow a n d take it h o m e , a n d t h e r e was n o t h i n g to it. B u t then his b r o t h e r by the n a m e o f Booky wanted to know. H e say, " W e l l B r i o h , " h e say, "well how d o you doos this thing. I want to go i n t o Master R i n g ' s cow too, but I don't know how. I suggest I go into t h e cow, Master King will know how I go i n t o t h e cow." J a c k say, " T h a t ' s all right, my B i o h , " h e say, " i s something to t h a t . " Booky say, " I know s o m e t h i n g , " h e said, " a n d I wanted to know something o f t h a t . " " S o O K now, w e l l go u p tomorrow morning and see what contest Master K i n g got. Master King put on a contest." Say " O K , " say, " B r o h , we'll go u p . " Now the K i n g caught J a c k , a n d h e p u t J a c k under contest. Say " J a c k , here's your damnation now when I help you. I going put you in a cave, you'll b e lock ted u p and be scalded to death with hot water because I believe is a wicked b o y . " J a c k p u t in t h e cave. B o o k y was on t h e time right there, and when J a c k saw Booky coming. J a c k c o m m e n c e to cry [crying:] " U h h u h , huh h u h , oh my J e s u s Christ, I don't know that going happen me. [Barely intelligible, m u c h laughter in audience.] U h u h , oh Lord, I ain't ready to eat that much peas and rice. Uh uh, what happen after the King p u t m e here to eat peas and rice until I will e a t myself to death, uh uh uh, and I know o n e thing, if I could see my b r o t h e r Booky, I know h e would take my p a r t . " H e didn't stand, Boy, and t h e t i m e being, d a m n , when J a c k look u p to t h e northeast h e see Booky coming. " U h h u h h u h , " h e say, " B r o t h e r B o o k y ! " Booky say, " W h a t it is, B r a h ? " H e say, " M a n , " h e say, "see where I is?" H e say, " Y e a h , yeah, I see where you is." H e say, " W h a t they p u t you t h e r e for?" " M a n , " h e say, " M a s t e r King p u t m e h e r e , " h e say, " t o try m e out, see if I could eat peas and rice o r n o t . " " J e s u s Christ, you damn ass you, come o u t o f there! God d a m n it, I'll go i n ! I'll go in and eat as much d a m n peas and rice as they could b r i n g ! " D a m n h e didn't stand. Booky say, " W h e r e t h e keys to unlock t h e place?" R a b b y say, " H e r e t h e key, unlock t h e place and come i n . " G o d d a m n , h e give the key to Booky. Booky didn't stand, b u t unlock t h e place and Booky went right in. H e shove R a b b y out. Booky say, " G e t t h e hell o u t ! God d a m n it, I'll take care of the peas and rice and just what they could bring I'll take care, peas and rice. A n d by d a m n , if you crying to eat peas and rice, a m a n like m e praying to eat peas a n d rice!" A l r i g h t ! God damn, now Booky went . . . R a b b y went on after h e come out, n o t knowing t h a t t h e K i n g going send the servant going bring hot water, and to scald h i m up. R a b b y know it, because h e duck it. T h e wise m a n see trouble a n d h e run f r o m it, t h e fool m a n see i t a n d h e run to it. E h E h E h ! [ " E h ! " ] So anyway, Booky say, " I could take care of as m u c h peas a n d rice as could come, o r any o t h e r damn thing. I don't particular! I Booky, I could depend on myself. God d a m n , I ' m a eater. I ain't n o damn b u g eater, I ' m a e a t e r ! " W e l l now, i t was the Queen say to t h e maid, say, " N o w , send t h e first q u a r t of h o t water o v e r . " [Narrator laughs.] And when the maid send the first q u a r t of h o t water over, i t overshowered t h e cave Booky was in. " J e s u s C h r i s t , " he said, " m y b r o t h e r tell m e a b o u t peas and rice, b u t t h e first course," h e say, " i s hot water. [Laughter.] God d a m n it, how I ' m going manage today? W e l l anyway, I guess they just doing this to try me, and t h e next oourse, that'd be the peas a n d rice come u p right there. Oh yeah, t h e peas and rice coming u p right after this. W e l l anyhow, a m a n got to stand plenty, you know, just a damn work u p to the mark. H e got to stand plenty. Now I guess they mean for me, if I duck this hot water, that mean I could duck this peas and rice. B u t I could stand this hot water so I could gain this peas and rice." D i d n ' t stand, start the second scald. T h e Queen says, "Send another q u a r t of h o t water over, a n d three time hotter than it was." W h e n that hot water come over, God damn, Booky was overshowered. " J e s u s Christ," h e say, " m y b r o t h e r tell me about peas and rice, and lookee what happen, h o t water! W e l l w h a t I'm going do?" Make alarm now, he going let the people know what h e b r o t h e r been tell h i m do. Say, " M y b r o t h e r didn't send me h e r e , " say, " h a r m n o h o t water. O h d a m n , " h e say [breathless and indignant], " m y brother send m e here to eat peas a n d rice." H e says, " T h i s ain't peas and rice, this is h o t water." W h e n the maid come, h e say, " O h d a m n , " h e said, " i t was a small o n e here a while ago. God d a m n , " h e say, " a n d I b a c k a bigger one. T h e bigger o n e is catch m o r e hell. I send h i m three thirds m o r e . " " J e s u s G o d , " h e

48

I Could Talk Old-Story Good

say, "what happen? T h r e e thirds more what? Peas and rice or what?" T h e maid say, "You are here for hot water, I'll tell you that." Say, " O K . " Anyhow, they throw that much hot water on Booky, until Booky become discovered. He discovered, he got a way out the cave, and he went home. Mind what I following here. If you got a concrete building you'll get out, by your fist. You'll take your fist and break the concrete building, you know it, hehl You'll try to break this through if somebody try to throw you in here, ohl Well anyhow, Booky got out. W h e n he went a little ways down further, he come to he brah [brother] in a cow pasture, a cow farm, what I are talking about. Booky went in the cow, and Booky said, "Open Ka " Rabby went in the cow, not Booky, R a b b y in fact. Rabby sent in the cow, he said, "Open Kafesya o p e n ! " He went in the cow and he cut out as much meat as he want and he come out. God, Booky dawdling behind the cow. "God damn," he say, " I hear what my broh say. Jeez Christ, the bitch, for me how the hell he open or not. Now I hear he say 'Open Kafesya open'? I going say the same damn thing when I go in there." All right, going then, Booky going in the cow. R a b b y come out. R a b b y come out of the cow. He say, "Open Kafesya open." T h e cow open and R a b b y come out, and Booky going. Booky going, he say, "Open Kafesya open." Booky going into the cow. Now he can't remember when he coming back. He's a man ain't got no remembering. He cut out much meat as he want out the cow, damn! Booky say, " R a b b y . . . " Before Rabby going, he say, " B r o h , when you go in this cow, for King sake, don't cut this place here"; say, " i t the cow heart. If you cut this place the cow going drop down dead. And you say 'open' much as you like, the cow ain't going open. Master King ain't get by i t . " " N o Boy, God damn, you think I'm a ass. I ain't cutting them kind of places, Man. I just cutting special place. God damn, I cutting place so I could come out." When Booky going to the cow, he didn't stand, but he said, "Open Kafesya open." Kafesya open. When he was time, to come out, what he said, "Shut Kafesya shut. Shut Kafesya shut." And the cow just shut tight up. "God damn it, Kafesya, when I say shut, shut! Shut Kafesya shut! God damn it, what wrong with you? My bulla ask you to shut, God damn it, and you shut. When I ask you shut, why you can't shut? Shut Kafesya shut!" T h e cow just shut up tight, and Booky caught. He say, "Hold. I know what I going do, God damn it. I going cut off more in you, cause I ain't got as much as my brother. T h a t ' s why you won't open me. I going cut off more." Damn, Booky start to cut again, and the cow drop down dead. Bunday! [ " E h ! " ] Eh! As the cow drop down dead, the next morning the King sent his servant down to visit the cow. As the King sent his servant down to visit the cow, and when they come to the cow, and they find that the cow dead, they say to the King, " T h e cow is dead. W h a t could we do, the cow is dead." " O K , go and send a doctor down to the cow and see what wrong with these cow, what killing these cow, every morning killing these cow." So he's going down, finding a whole man into the cow, but he was dead himself. T h e y take the man body and they burn it down. T h e y burn it down to dust and ashes, sackcloth, dust, and ashes become the body of the man, and his Spirit was enter into the bone of the cow. As I was passing by, I said, "Mister Gentlemen, why are you so fool to do such foolish trick like that?" And the kick he pass at me, now I going tell you the truth, that kick kick me from here to the British Colonial Hotel. But I going tell you the damn lie, it kick me from here to your building. Bunday! E Bo Ben, that old story is end! W h o don't think that old story ain't true, ask the captain of the longboat crew. T h a t is Captain Paul [Rolle]. He had a boat name " T h e Longboat." [This refers to a hypothetical riddle, "Captain Paul has a long boat. W h a t is its name?" T h e answer is "Longboat."]

In Tale 42, the opening formula has a paraphrase, "the time of my foreparents." The story begins with finicky care in setting the scene, the name of the King's farm, the cows, he have cattle in fact," and the repetitions about "who was stoling the cattle." The fact that Booky is enough of a suspicious character to be accused is just mentioned, as well as the fact that Booky intended to steal if he could learn how. The conversation between Jack and Booky is subtly witty, with Jack constantly calling his brother Brioh, Bioh, and Broh, and with the greedy

Regional and Individual Stylistic Variation

49

Booky walking into the trap. T h e name of Jack is changed to Rabby probably without anybody in the audience noticing, since both play similar roles. Each character's lines are read with maximum expression, facial animation, and a few simple hand gestures. Humorous conversation is perhaps Josh's most characteristic device, combining as it does ridiculous situations like a man begging to go to jail, and a chance for verbal fireworks. He inserts a proverb neatly, " T h e wise man see t r o u b l e . . . " followed by a "Bundayl" of approval. His aside about breaking out of the field headquarters, the only concrete-block house in the neighborhood, is a way of using the house as a stage property, as a kind of momentary jail, so that the audience could feel as trapped as Booky felt, and realize his accomplishment is getting out. Booky's trouble over the password is far more fully developed than usual, so that we know his motivation, his jealousy, his irritation at the cow, and even his desire for revenge against the cow that has given his brother more. Here is a report on personal insecurity and sibling rivalry that is worthy of a case history. The death of the cow is marked by another "Bundayl", this one of emphasis. Booky's death and his spirit's entering into the bones of the cow are couched in Biblical language while relating a common obeah belief. The ending formula includes a double lie with attestation of truth, a reference to Nassau's most luxurious (and at that time segregated) hotel, authentication which honors Paul Rolle, who never was an owner, much less a captain of a boat, and a reference to riddle-form in the boat name. T h e order of motifs is rare, with the jailing and "Take My Place" preceding the theft "In The Cow's Belly." T A L E 9 9 : JOSH ALBURY M O C K S U N R I S E : PASSWORD ( H O U S E ) : H O U S E IN SKY U N D E R B E D : EYES S H I N E : PASSWORD (DOOR): PA SHINING Bundayl ["Bunday!"] Eh! Once upon a time, not a time, old people time when they used take fish scale to make shingle, fish bone to make needle, as I was tell you before. [He clears throat.] Now this was two brother, by name of B'Booky and B'Rabby. Well, B ' R a b b y was a man had a little bit more sense than B'Booky, now, because both of them were fool at times. Well, anyway, now so, B'Rabby always could manage better than B'Booky can. T h i s day among other, B'Booky say to B'Rabby, " M a n , " he say, "Bro-man, how you could manage better than me?" He says, "You always got something for you family to eat." He says, " I never got nothing to eat. Damn, some day I just left to die." Say, "Now Brother,' 'he say, " I tote you both with me sometime," he say, "but you is little bit too fool. I got all the hell to tote you with me sometimes." "Well anyhow, Broh," he says, "tote me with you this time," He says, " I going get a little something." Say, "All right," Say, "Now what I going do," he say, "tomorrow morning," he said, " I know where you could get as much flour as you house could hold," say, " b u t then you just wait till you get a little bit of sense." " O h , damn, Broh-man, that just what I want, flourt Flour you talking about, that what you bulla Booky want." Say, "Yeah, but you got to have a little sense with i t . " "Yeah, Broh-man, damn," he say, "when you get this sense," he say, "you can't beat me at that, Man." He say, " I only fool," he say, "in fool times. When you get the sense, you can't beat me with sense." Rabby say, "All right, we'll know tomorrow." Say, "Now tomorrow morning," he said, " a t the dean of the day," he said, "we'll go. And the Spirit house," he said, " t h e place you call the Spirit house," he said, "flour going to bread." Say, "All right, Broh, tomorrow morning." He say, "Brother," he say, "you want me call you up in the morning?" He say, "You may be sleepy." " D a m n , " he say then, "you could call me up in the morning." "All right, Broh." Damn, now, Booky get his attention on this flour so much, he went to bed. About twelve o'clock that night he wake up. " D a m n , " he say [crying], "this damn night longer than any night I ever seen yet.

50

/ Could Talk Old-Story Good

This'n don't look like it going end. Ain't no day coming in this day." Say, "Oh, I going make day now. Broh say, when sun rise I must go there." And he didn't stand. He going up in the east and he make up a big fire up yonder. "Damn," he said, when he come out, he said it look to him like sun. As big as that which is, is look like sun. "Well anyhow," he say, "sun can't rise before fowl crow." Damn, he didn't stand. He climb up on B'Rabby house top. So he get on the house top, he start, "Kookarookroo! Kookarookroo!" What happen! Damn, he jump out of B'Rabby house top, he going to the door, "Brah, Brah! Brah, Brahl" Say, "What is, Brah?" Say, "Man," he say, "sun high up there." He say, "Fowl been crowing about half an hour ago. Damn, Man, you going get late if you sleep too much." Damn, Rabby didn't stand. Rabby open he window, say, "Man, Broh-man, that ain't no sun, you know, that ain't no sun, Man." He said, " T h a t is fire you catch up there, Man. Man, for King sake, go up there and hold that fire." "Man, Broh-man, I say that the sunrise," say. "Well, you hear the fowl been crowing." "No Man," say, " I hear you on the house top, but I ain't bother to knock you down. [Audience laughs.] Go back home, Man," he say, "and try bring day, hear. Sleep till day clean." Say, "All right, Broh-man," he say, "if you say it's me, then I'll go back home." Now he didn't stand, he going back home, and he sleep. Well anyway, he spend all his time up the first part of the night trying to fool Booky [Rabby] by the sunrise and the fowl crow, that he oversleep hisself. When day clean, he didn't know. [Laughter.] So after sun get up high, Rabby going to him and wake him. Say, "Now," say, "let's go." And Booky had one old dray, used to pull twelve horses them days. You know, double team and all like, pull twelve horse them days. Well he saddle up them twelve horses, he put in he dray, he put he dray on them. "Damn, I know what to eat. When these damn twelve horse and them [laughter by audience and narrator], when these damn twelve horses I got here bog down," he said, "damn," he said, " I got enough stuff now to last me a year. Alright, I be going," he said. "Now listen here, Broh," say, "now listen, we got to boost to go in. This house come down." Say, " I going to sing the house down, and when I sing the house down, you lay down on you back, watch you don't breath." "Yeah, Broh-man [in conspiratorial whispers], I going to do just what you say." Damn, he didn't stand. Jack [Rabby] get to the place, start to sing. Now Jack don't know completely how to sing the house down. Rabby—pardon me saying Jack, Rabby—and he start. Rabby say [singing in high tone], "Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, till he touch the ground," and the house drop on the ground. Damn, that the same sing the Spirits have to sing to get it down, you see. They was out then, and Jack didn't . . . B'Rabby didn't stand. T h e house come down, the Spirit done come out, Man, something like how the tourist is going playing golf and something like that, the Spirit used to do that in them days. Play it and come out, Man. [Laughter.] Damn, they going, they going, Man. Now Rabby s a y . . . now Booky say, he say, "Hear." Say, "All right." "When we go up in this house, it just the same sing we got to sing, to bring the house down." All right, now, they going in. And when Booky getting out, "Brah, Jesus, Man, why this good living! Damn, I's a man ain't got no wife and family no more, cause I ain't going back, I ain't going back and leave this good living, Man." Rabby say, "Man, you got to go back." Well, anyhow, Rabby sing the house up in the air, "Mary go up so high, Mary go up so high, Mary go up so high, till he touch the sky." T h e house going up so high. Aye, John Brown, Rabby didn't stand, he sort he stuffs, he get he lard, he pork, he beef, he flour, he rice, he grits, and everything like that, and when he think he had a load, he sing the house down. He loading he dray. He say, "B'Booky, Man, you ready?" "Man, Broh," he say, "you bring me here or not, don't talk no fool." He say, "You bring me here," he say, "and though you bring me here or not," he say, "if you try to argue with me now, I'll try to kill you, though you's my brother. A man going leave good living like this to go damn to that house where I went, Man, that crazy. Man, I won't leave, I won't go from here today. Man, they got to meet me here!" And Booky didn't stand. Boy, he put on he boiler. B'Rabby going. B'Booky he put on he boiler. He started cooking that. Before this done, he started cooking that. He cooking meal, rice, flour. He putting all them in one pot, Christ, like he make a ton-a-mun of it. Say, "All right." Well anyway, damn, so happen, time for the Spirit and them to come in. And the Spirit and them come. They sing the house down. [Singing nasally:] "Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, till he touch the ground." House touch the ground. When

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the house hit the ground, Booky hear. He could of feel the shake from the house. He know he wasn't in the air then. And Booky didn't stand, but he going underneath the bed, whole. Spirit enter, going underneath the bet I. Well anyway, damn, the Spirit cook. They have one little goil [girl], little goil was sitting in the bed. Damn, they cook, give the little goil he food, little goil he food. Little goil was a goil never used to eat much, and the people know how the child is eat, and the child eating more today then he ever used to eat. Now ever)' time they give this little goil a plate of food, Booky so greedy, all that food he eat. But eat something in the house the whole day, he so greedy, he reaching he hand out, [whispering:] "Gi' your pa some! Gi' your pa some" Damn, that plate finished. T h e little goil say, "Mommie," say, " I want more." So he say, "Well, Vidie Mae broke out eating now. Damn, he eat plenty now." T h e little goil be name Vida Mae. "Damn," he say, "all he wants he wanted to gi'um. That's my child, I want to work with that. What he's wanted, you gi' it to him. Damn, gi'um another plateful." Now Booky say, " G i ' you pa some, gi' you pa some!" Damn, that plate done. He say, "Mama," he say, " I want more." He say, "what you eating so for, child, for the silent dead, eh?" Say, "Mama how you manage?" Say, "You don't know I got two pa, eh?" Say, "Two pa?" Then the old man Spirit was laying down in the bed then. [Laughter.] They never used to be a head them days, ain't had no head. Whole body was laying down in the bed, you know. Old man was laying down in the bed now. He say, "Mama," he say, "you ain't know I got two pa?" He say, "Where they is?" Say, "One underneath the bed, he eyes shine like a dollar; one in the bed, he ain't got no head." " O n e underneath the bed?" "Yeah," say, "one underneath the bed." Well, really the truth, Booky eyes was shine like a dollar, the way he was more frightened when he hear the little goil say, "Got two pa," when he get over-frightened. And they didn't stand but they make a search. Now they pull little Book' from underneath the bed. "Well," Booky said, " I don't mind what you going do with muh. Before you going to do me anything now, give me something to eat, cause I know you going kill muh. [Laughter.] And if you going kill muh, let muh go down with a belly full." [Laughter.] So they didn't stand. T h e old man Spirit get so mad, he say, "He ain't get nothing to eatt We going try and kill him right away." Well, they put on a boil of hot water, and they start ducking Booky. Booky running through and through the house, round and round, trying to get out now. T h e house got to open with a commedy. You got to say, when you open the house, you got to say, "Open Kafesya open." Booky understand that. My, Rabby tell him that. Before he gone, he saying, "When you coming to this house, if you don't go to this door and say, 'Open Kafesya open,' this door'U never open. This door, ain't no key to open this door." Damn, Booky run round. [Breathing heavily:] "Open, door, open, damn right, door why don't open?" Knocking from door to door, "Open, open, you don't see man here? Open!" T h a t time the Spirit beating him, throwing hot water on him. "Damn," he say, "damn, this door won't open." So the little goil get sorry for him, the little goil laying down in the bed. He say, "A big man like you," he say, "can't say 'Open Kafesya open'?" "Oh," he say, open Kafesh't" As he say, "Open Kafesh'," the door fly open. And Booky jump down from there. House then wasn't so far up in the air then, 70,000 mile up. [Peals of laughter.] Ah, Booky jump down from there, and he fall, and he recollect where he was. He say, "Well, I ain't hurt so bad, only one of my legs is breaking." Didn't stand, with a bruise 'cross his head, his forehead, that begins to bleed, the blood comes dribbling down, and he said, "Now is the time to go home." Say, " I f I been listening to my brother Rabby, I been going home a long time." Well, anyhow, Booky' wife was a woman then, she like to knead flour. Man, she done got a big pan wash over, and done got a wrist in toin [turn]. Now he say, "Today make de seven day, my husband must be to be here today." Well, he send one of the first little guy. He said, "Look see if you pa coming here, that's all, gal." Little goil going, say, "No, Mama," he say, " I ain't see papa yet." "Damn," the little boy say, "you can't even see!" "Damn," he say, " I going." And the little boy going. He didn't stand. And he look, he see he pa coming, limping. Now, he bleeding so much, the blood trickling down, I mean he washing away in blood in he head, all across he eye and face all wash away with blood. Now when the little boy see he old man coming, in them days gold was a thing value some, value more than today. He didn't stand, when, he was so glad, he run back. "Mama, Mama, Ma," he say, "come!" He say, "Daddy loaded down with gold from he head to he foot." "Gold! Go to bed!" T h e woman didn't stand. Boy, he rush out. "Oh yeah," he say, "my husband got enough now, to make us rich for the rest of our life. If all that is gold he got there, I could

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tell you, Man, we fix from now on." Well, he didn't stand, Booky come hopping. Now the little boy runs to meet him. "Daddy," say, "where get all this gold from?" Booky say [crying:] damn fool, you say with your talk about gold. Damn, you making fun of you pa like that. Damn, pa head all bleed up like that, and you talk about gold. [Laughter.] Let me catch you there." Damn, he run, the little boy run back to he mama. Say, "Mama," he say, "that ain't not gold Daddy got on he head," he say, "that blood." [Narrator laughs.] Anyhow, when Booky get in the house, thoughten that his wife woulda sorry for him, and have pity on him. He go in the house with blood, from he head down as far as he chest, and as he enter the door, he wife meet him with a cutlass, right across he ass. And that swipe knock Booky head open. And as I was passing by, I say, "Well, Booky, why you such a fool." And I tell you, as fool that he is, the dart he made at me, damn, I thought he had sense. Aye, the dart he make at me then, I dash, and I dash right here and cause me to tell you that wonderful story. Bundayl ["Bunday."] E B o En, that old-story is end. Who think it ain't true, just aks [ask] captain of the longboat crew. I could direct you where to find him.

Tale 99 begins with a formula shortened because it had been used too often before, and then a survey of the past relations between Booky and Rabby. The explanation of "Mock Sunrise" through Booky's psychology is followed by his sleeping through the time of the real appointment, a witty comment on human frailty. A touch of archaism and fantasy comes in the dray that "pull twelve horses." Josh switches Rabby and Jack, but apologizes a few lines later. The comparison of the spirits with tourists who play golf all day was not only a sly comment on the active pace of the investigator, but also the worldly remark by a man who knows how the other half lives. Booky's repudiation of his wife and children is a criticism of the contract workers who have been known to abandon their families for the riches to be had in the United States, an action highly reprehensible among the Bahamians. Booky's greed in eating the little girl's food gives Josh an opportunity to portray the ideal Bahamian father who insists that nothing is too good for his child. This half-funny, half-poignant situation is another of Josh's specialties. After the pious reference to the "silent dead," Josh changes the atmosphere with the little girl's question of how her mother manages with two husbands. In four quickly spoken words, "Mama, how you manage?" Josh comments on an all-too-common aspect of Bahamian life, marital infidelity. Another note of fantasy is the headless spirit, with "head" used to rhyme with "bed." Josh is the only informant who uses this particular rhyme and fantastic concept of the spirit. He again parades his knowledge of the outside world in his use of "commedy," by which he later explained he meant a combination "like what is on a safe." The scene of the wife prepared to knead the missing flour and the children mistaking blood for gold has the same humorous poignancy as the spirit's love for his little girl. The swipe with the cutlass brings back the atmosphere of jollity and as usual, Josh adds an explanation to the closing formula. T A L E 1 0 0 : JOSH ALBURY DIVING F O R BANANAS Bunday! Eh! ["Bundayl"] All right, this was a day with B'Booky and B'Rabby. Well, the two of them felt hungry today. Said, "Let us go in the bush," he say, "and see if we could find us any old place, where we can find some bananas." Bananas used to grow to the wild bush in them days. Well anyway, they went. Rabby saw a banana bunch hanging over a well. Well, well with plenty of water, call it a hole, in fact. Well now, Rabby say to B'Booky, say, "B'Booky, mind Sah, I saw a banana bunch." "Damn," B'Booky say, "well, I'll be glad of that, 'cause as hungry as I is, I want to eat."

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Didn't stand. Rabby get over the well. Booky say, "Look down in the well, see the bananas on the bunch?" Say, "Yeah Man, that a big bunch." You know, when a banana over the hole, and the water in the hole, it always show the banana down in the water. "That a big bunch. Damn," Rabby say, "I'm going down foist." Rabby grab he hand full, and he dive down, and when Rabby blow, he blow with he band full of bananas. He say, "Man, I get mine." B'Booky say, "Hold, how am I going to get to go?" Booky didn't stand. He so full he didn't look up, he don't know a banana bunch up. He didn't stand. Booky dash down, and as Booky dash down, he say, "Brahman," he say, "damn, I ain't bring nothing." Rabby grab another handful again, one more bunch, one more hand leave. Rabby dash down. Now when Rabby blow up again, he say, "Brother, I got another hand full." He say, "Brah-man, give me one." He say, "No Man, go down, look down again." He say, "See, there's one more hand leave. Don't try, you better not miss that. If you miss that I going to bite." Damn, Booky get up, he blow, and he didn't stand. He say, "Brah, I ain't get none." B'Rabby grab off all of the hand, only leave one. "And me go down, Brah. Brah-man," he say, "I got mine. You's too damn fool. Anyway," he say, "you see Brah, see one more on the bunch. I won't take that," he say, "save yourself. I leave that for you." Say, "Now I tell you how you could get it!" Say, "Brah-man," he say, "I know what happen," he say, "I too light." He say, "I know what you going to say, I too light. Tie a big rope round my neck, damn," he say, "and let me go down with that big rope around my neck," he say, "and damn," he say, "I know I won't be too light then. I'll get in." Rabby say, "Yeah, that the best thing for me to do with you." Now B'Rabby didn't stand, but he tie a big anchor around B'Booky neck, and throw B'Booky down in the hole. And B'Booky going down from that day to this day, and that fool ain't rise yet. Bundayt Eh. [Laughter from audience; pleased laugh from narrator.] The old story is end.

Tale 100 is Josh's treatment of the popular motif, "Diving for Bananas." The bananas were growing wild in the bush "in them days," though a valuable commodity today. Rabby tricks Booky to look at the reflection of the bananas in the well or hole, both terms being used for natural coral limestone formations sometimes containing fresh water and sometimes brackish. Booky continues to dive under the water while Rabby eats the bananas on the surface. Booky suggests his own fate, though Rabby adds a "big anchor" to the "big rope" Booky originally specified. Booky's death is presented as deserved, since he was foolish and unobservant. The dialogue is terse and unusually complete, and the single motif is thus given a more powerful effect. T A L E 1 2 0 : J O S H ALBURY

MOCK SUNRISE: PASSWORD (HOUSE): HOUSE IN SKY PASSWORD (DOOR): UNDER BED: EYES SHINE: PA SHINING Bundayl ["Eh!"] Now there was a time, there were two brothers by name of B'Booky and B'Rabby. Two names sound as one, anyhow, B'Booky and B'Rabby. So now, B'Booky was man really indulgent, lazy, you know, how like some people does. An B'Rabby was a man, well, he used to get along well, in life. So B'Booky tried to wonder how his brother, B'Rabby, get along so well, and he doesn't. So, B'Rabby say, "Now, M'Brother," he say, "I'll lead you into the secret so far," he say, "but you so funny," he say, "I more scared than you." He say, "Well anyhow, I going tell you how does I get along." He say, "I know where one house is, that you call damn Spirit house, and everything I want, I get right out there." He say, "But a grumptious man like you, I know the day you go there, you will end up." So B'Booky say, "No, Bra man, I'll be damn too glad you put me on t o . . . " Say, "That so, I'll do damn better than yout" Say, "All right, my Bro," he say, "well, try it." He say, "Now tomorrow morning, about around seven o'clock. 111 take you there with me." B'Booky say, "Yeah, Man." Say, "Now go to bed now, to bid good night." Went to bed. One o'clock that night, B'Booky get up. He remember Rabby tell him, say he going raise up

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first fowl crow. B'Booky get up. He went on B'Rabby house top, and he crow in the form of a fowl. [Crowing:] "Uh uh uhuh, uhuh uhuh." Rabby perceive that he brother woice [voice]. He say, "M'Bra-man," he lay, "come down off m'housetop," he say, "now, and go home," he say, "cause it just about one o'clock" Damn, B'Booky come down, he went home. He went home for five minute. Damn, he went up to the east of he brother house, and he built up a damn lime-kiln fire. He run to the window, he say, "Bra, Bra," he say, "get up." He say, "Man, damn," he say, "look at sun way up in the sky." When B'Rabby get up and throw open the window, he say, "Man, out that damn fire, Man." He say, "Day ain't clean yet." Booky going, he out the fire. And after all, when day clean, his brother B'Rabby got to wake him. He oversleep himself. So Bunday! ["Eh!] They went! Well, now this house go up and come down with combination. Combination, you know what I mean. You got to sing it down and sing it up. So now, the Spirit always sing it down, in the morning when they going out. They go out as tourist. They go out nine o'clock and don't come in till five. Well now, they watch B'Spirit to send the house down. Now, B'Rabbit say, "Now M'Bra," he say, "you hear that?" They right in the bush hiding. Say, "Now you hear how the house coming down there? Now I want you act just like that. Remember," he say, "catch good," he say, "listen to that sing good. Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low," he say, "till you touch the ground." Damn, when the house touch the ground, B'Spirit them jump out. Them big, big dog and Spirit, you know, like these big 'Merican people, jump down. Now they going. Damn, that time Rabby got to hold he brother Booky down in the bush. "Man, Christ sake. Bra, let go of me," he say, "the house going back." Say, "No Man, the house ain't going back." He say, "Take it easyl Bra man, I say, le' go! I say, Man, take it easy, Christ. This the same thing I just tell you about, you Bradreh. [Reference is to the greedy ogre Bradreh of Stories 22 and 140, who eats his nieces at the instigation of his sister.] You come right here now. You can cause me now to catch hell." Well anyhow, Rabby try, damn, hold him down there and smuggle [smother] him until the Spirit went. After Spirit gone, Rabby sing the house down. "Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, till you touch the ground." Damn, the house come down. B'Rabby and B'Booky jump in. Now he say, "I going lead, my dear Bra," he said, "and I going for home." Well, Booky get inside. He say, "Man," he say, "if you going leave this good living," he say, "you will be a fool. What bothers me Booky been punish, and damn," he says, " I wouldn't leave this. Boy, if I heard the worst." Damn, Booky didn't stand. He went to work, Boy. He start catching fire. Every stove in there was turn on, cooking from one to the next. Start eating. B'Rabby loading he damn dray, and he went home to he wife. Well well well, it happen so Booky was there till five o'clock. Five o'clock the Spirit coming. Now door go with combination. You got to say, "Scratch your mother," and then the door open. If you can't remember "Scratch your mother," and Booky so fool, he couldn't remember "Scratch your mother." Spirit sing the house down. They going in, and they sing it up. Shut the door. Now they went to work, they started cooking. They started cooking. Booky was hide under the bed. So damn greedy, he won't could of get away. Little goil, no more than eight years old, started feeding, and she was sitting on the bed. Every time they feed her, gi' her one plate. Now this girl never used to eat no more than one plate of food. And this day she going eat more than twelve. So the people thought it strange. Every time Booky saw the little girl now, he reach his hand out from under the bed. He say, "Gi' you pa some." The gal gi'um, give pa some, until the goil get to twel' plate of food. An old lady check up on him. He say, "Look here." He say "Dear Daughter," he say, "why you eat so much today and you never used to eat like this before?" He say, "Mama," he say, "I got to eat. I got to eat much today," he say, "because I got two pa." He say, "What you mean to say, you got two pa?" That the old man Spirit, he been laying down in the bed with he eyes hung up. He say, "Ma'am," he say, "damn," he say, "I got two pa." He say, "See one in the bed," he say, "he ain't got no head." He say, "His eyes hung over but he ain't got no head." He say, "And this damn one underneath the bed," he say, "he eyes shine as a dollar." [The narrator uses words that rhyme with comic effect in this passage, e.g., "Ma'am-damn," and "bed-head."] After Booky hear the old lady aks the goil the question, he

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eyes become, you know, when he gel coward, the glass come over his eyes. Say, "You got two pa?" H e say, "We going know now." Damn, and when they check underneath the bed, damn, they grab from brother Booky head, knock him down. T h e old man get a piece some ice, say, "Put on the boiler." Say, "We going scald him." [Scalding is a common punishment in tales (cf. p. 223), here turned into a paradox joke, using ice to scald.] T h e old lady say, "Grab the sea rod [a reed]." Damn, then they grab the sea rod, and started beating Booky through the house, beating him through the house. Now he want get out. If he could get out, he will pitch down. But now he can't get the door open. You can't push that door to open it. Now damn it, he remember what he bra tell him. When he get to door, he say, "Door, open." "Damn," he say, "door, for God's sake," he say, "open!" Damn, door wouldn't open. Damn, he rush around again. Them boys looking for him to cut, he rush around again. When he get, he say, "Bru, ain't I tell you open? Open door! Jeez Chris", damn," he say, "this door won't open." T h e little goil get sorry for him. He say, "A big man like you," he say, "don't you know how to say, 'Scratch your mother'?" Damn, "Oh," he say, "yeah, damn, my brother tell me that. "You scratch your mother'." And the door fly open, and he jump out at the same time, seventy thousand mile up in the sky. Well, when he reach to the ground, only he leg was sprain. He shake he hand, he say, "Ain't nothing do these." He shake he foot, he say, "Only one ankle is sprained. Damn," he say, "well that's alright." Only one thing happen to him. He get across his head wounded, you know. So well, he start to go home now. All limpy up, and bleeding 'cross he head. He say, "Damn," he look yellow. So well, his wife home, worrying what he husband doing so long. Figuring now, when he husband come now, he guess they'll be more wealthy, wealthy off in life. They'll be better off, because he husband will bring sufficient money to take care of them, because they hadn't that much longer to live then, because they were pretty old then. So when the little boy look outside, he saw his father, B'Booky coming, the damn blood trickling down from he head. So the little boy run back in the house. He say, "Mama!" He say, "Damn, Papa coming," he say, "and Mama, Papa got gold from his head to his foot." He say," Nothing you could see but yellowness." "Damn," the old woman say. "Damn," he say, "I tell you we going be wealthy from now on." Damn, all the children come up, say, "Yeah, Papa got gold." Well anyhow, the closer the old man reach, then you could to see the drown of blood. "Jeez Chris'," the old lady say, "that couldn't be, that couldn't be gold." Well anyhow, the little boy run. He say, "Oh oh," he say, oh oh Pa, where you get all your gold from?" He say, "Yeah, you damn fool," he say, "who say about gold?" Say, "This damn blood!" Say, "You making fun of old man like this?" Say, "this ain't no gold, this blood." And when B'Booky get in the house, and when he put he foot on the door, the kick that old woman kick that old man, I get so frightened till it cause me to come here to tell you this wonderful story. Bunday! ["Eh! Ehhhhh!"]

Tale 120, a variant of Tale 99, was recorded a year and a half later, in August, 1953. The oversleeping, the combination, and the spirits compared to tourists are still included, even describing the big dog, and the tourists as 'Merican. The reference to Bradreh, the ogre who eats his sister's children by mistake, is rare, since references to other old-stories are not commonly made in narration or conversation. The "combination" for opening the door is different from that in the first variant, and while still having no head, the papa spirit hangs his eyes up on a hook. Booky is saved by the child's advice and jumps seventy thousand miles in both tales. The poignancy of Booky's return home is slightly different, a hope for security in old age. These variants are unusually similar for Josh, or for any recognized storyteller. If they had been told closer together, the variations would have been much more marked, as will be seen in the three variants of B'Head (pp. 108-113). Even so, they prove the stability of Josh's own personal touches in connection with specific situations or motifs.

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/ Could Talk Old-Story Good T A L E 1 6 0 : JOSH ALBURY TRAPPED RETRAPPED: TARBABY

Bundayl ["Ehh."] Yeah, just like I said again, now this was a day B'Rabby and B'Booky went travelling. So they went hunting in the woods. They hunt and they hunt, until the second day. So B'Rabby said, "Now, B'Booky, I'll go my way, and you go your way, because we luck don't set together. I'll go my way and you go your way." So happen so, Booky said, "Yeah." T h a t was nice for him. B'Booky went that way and B'Rabby went that way. Well, so B'Rabby didn't come up to nothing. B'Booky come up to a lion in the hole. Well B'Lion aks B.Booky, "B'Booky Man," he say, "you think you could work any invention to get me out this hole?" B'Booky say, "Well Man," he say, "you's a big man," he say, "and if I hold your hand, and can't get up," he said, " I don't see how I could get you out this hole." B'Lion said, "Yeah Man," he said, " I been here five days now," he said, "and you know I pretty hungry now." He said, " T r y and get me out." Booky going to work, he pick up a little nail, he pick up some wood, and he make something like a ladder, step anyway, a ladder step. He put it down into the hole, and the lion climb out. Now when B'Lion get out the hole, well everybody know how greedy B'Lion supposed to be. When B'Lion get out the hole, B'Lion say, "Now B'Booky," he said, "you do me a favor," he said, "and I'd like to do you one." He said, "Now I'm hungry." Say, "Well Man," he say, "you hongry." He say, " I been traveling now three days,' he say, "and I ain' got nothing to eat myself." He say, " I ain't got a hunk of bread." He say, "Well," he say, " I ain't nothing to do with that." He say, "I hongryl" He say, "You try to get me something to eat!" B'Booky say, "Man, how I could get you something to eat," he say, "and you see how things is now," he said, "all of we in the forest." He said, "Well try to get me something to eat. If you. don't get me something to eat," he say, "Well, I got to handle you." "Damn," Booky say, "Man, damn, that ain't no gratitude." He say, " D a m n , " he say, "man goes to work and take you out the hole, and you here tum that thought with you." He say, "Yeah," he say, "that what I got to do." So before they finish arguing, B'Rabby ended there. When B'Rabby reach there, B'Rabby meet the arguing. So B'Booky say to B'Rabby, say, "Bra-man," he say, "look, this man," he say, " I meet him in the hole," he say. " H e been in the hole five days," he say, "and I take him out," he said, "and he talking about eat me." B'Lion say, "Now B'Rabby, you's a man got sense. Would you 'spect for a small man like B'Booky to take me out of the hole?" Say, "Man, that got to sound like a lie." So Rabby say, "No, I don't believe it. You couldn't take a man like B'Lion out the hole." B'Booky say, "Yeah, Bra-man." B'Rabby say, "Hush you mouth, you didn't take him out." B'Rabby say, "Alright then, to prove that you take B'Lion out the hole, I going show you now that you didn't take B'Lion out the hole." Now what B'Rabby want to do, work a scheme to put B'Lion back in the hole, and that way both of them will get out of the reach of B'Lion. He say, "Now B'Lion," he said, " I going let you eat him any time now," he said, "but just to prove this now, show me where he didn't take him out the hole." Damn, B'Rabby and B'Booky strain and put B'Lion back in the hole. He say, "Now you go in the hole," he say, "and fix him, and see if he could ever take you out this hole." Say, " M a n , " B'Lion say, " M a n , " he say, " I hope you ain't rigging a scheme to leave me in this holel" " M a n , " he say, "for Christ sake, I been want somebody to eat B'Booky long time, 'cause he too fool." Damn, they put B'Lion back in the hole, and they put B'Lion back in the hole. Boy. And when B'Rabby see B'Lion down in the hole, now he say, " T h i s how you been fix?" He say, he say, "Yes," he say, "this how I been fix." He say, "Well, how long you been there fix like that?" "Well Man," he say, " I been fix like this for the past five days." He say, "And make six. Six days of the week," say, "and make six." So then, so that time, B'Booky and B'Rabby leave off. Booky and B'Rabby leave. So, so happens so, they went. Now they went, they went, they went. So they find an old corn field, find an old corn field. Say now, in this old corn field, there was a tarbaby they had fix up there for thiefs. He was fix in the form of a pretty goil, anyhow, had lip rouge and everything, lipstick and everything like that. An now, any man who love woman, he will try to put arm on her, because nobody could make you believe that wasn't natural woman. Well now B'Booky didn't want to love no woman . . . not B'Booky, B'Rabby didn't want to love no woman, B'Rabby going for corn. B'Rabby going and broke he bag of com, and B'Rabby leave. Booky broke he

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corn, but when he come 'cross this woman, "Aye, damn," he say, "that's a pretty gal." He say, "Bra-man," he say, "you going?" He say, "Damn," he say, "you left muh." After he left, he say, "Look at this damn pretty girl here." Damn," B'Rabby say, "Man, I ain't come to look for no woman. I going home to my wife." Damn, B'Booky didn't stand. Boy, he going, he say, "Jesus," he say. "Well, the gal so love me," say, "she here smiling." That's a tarbaby smiling like how they hand him. Anybody put they arm on this tarbaby, the arm they put would stick there. Damn, didn't stand. Boy. Booky say, I going hold your hand anyhow," he say, "cause I know you love muh," he say, "and if you shove off m'hand," he say, "you ain't love muh." Damn, when he hold the gal hand, he hand stick. He say, "Oh damn," he say, "yeah, I see where you love muh. Damn," he say, " I going carry my arm here." He carry he arm around the gal neck. He couldn't get he hand off. He say, "Damn, you really love me," he say, "but you're holding muh hard." He say, " I don't like that." Say, "Don't hold me too hard. Damn," he say, "if you hold me hand like this," he say, "you must want muh kiss you." Damn, Booky didn't stand, damn, he kissed the gal. "Peeeuuuuu!" Damn, as he kiss the gal, he mouth stick. He say, "Let go my mouth." And he couldn't talk so plain then. He say [with closed mouth], "Let go m'mouth," he say. " I f you don't let go m'mouth now, it going cause me to get mad. I going kick you. Now if you don't let go my mouth, I going kick you!" Gal ain't let go of he mouth. Damn, he didn't stand, he raise he right feet. Bammml When he kick the gal, he right foot stuck. "God damn," he say, "what happen to you?" Say, "You can't call all this love." He say, "Let go m'right foot," he say, "or I going kick you with this left one." He say, "Boy," he say, "and any damn thing I kick with this left foot," he say, "got to dead." Damn, he going kick this woman, and she ain't going dead. And he didn't stand. Boy, he take he left foot, and when he kick, damn, the left foot stuck. Now these people going find out who was thiefing in the field from that time until now. Now when the people come in the field, here come they meet B'Booky stick right up to this girl, got her all kiss up, hug up, and foot up. Say, "Yeah, here the t'ief now, eh." Damn, they take B'Booky down. After when they get him, B'Booky say he was passing and the gal hail him, and tell him, said he coulda get a kiss. And he went to kiss the gal, and this way the gal do him up, and he say, "From now on you wouldn't kiss another gal." Didn't stand, Boy, they take B'Booky, and they carry B'Booky home, and they beat B'Booky with sea rod. And the kind of a hard they beat B'Booky, I mean I really g e t . . . I really feel sorry for B'Booky. And I get so sad, it cause me to come here to tell you this wonderful story, just as sad as I speaking it now. Bunday. E Bo En, the old story is end.

Tale 160 shows Josh's skill with wry conversation, as the two friends decide to go their separate ways "because we luck don't set together," and later when B'Booky argues with B'Lion about the latter's intention to eat him. Booky, the Bahamian shocked by impoliteness, says with elaborate understatement, "Man, damn, that ain't no gratitude." Lion is suspicious of Rabby's scheme, but Rabby's traditional enmity with Booky, who is "too fool," is enough to make Lion trust him. This shows the stock nature of the relationship between Booky and Rabby, accepted not only by the audience but also by the other animal characters. Josh gets what he can out of Lion's situation, then goes on to his version of the Tarbaby motif, where in this case the tarbaby even has "lip rouge." As would be expected, Booky is as greedy for love as for food, though Rabby wants to "go home to my wife." Josh philosophizes, "And now any man who love woman, he will try to put arm on her." Booky's willingness to be caught, his self-persuasion that the tarbaby is in love with him and wants to kiss him is a typical Josh situation, laughable but with overtones of human weakness and tragedy. After Booky's lips are stuck, he speaks with his mouth closed, getting madder and madder until he "got her all kiss up, hug up, and foot up," with logical motivation for each progressive entanglement. Josh ends the story with a touch of mock sadness that is completely in keeping with the tale.

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I Could Talk Old-Story Good T A L E 2 2 3 : JOSH ALBURY T H E F T O F B U T T E R : PLAYING G O D F A T H E R S : T E S T BY SUN

Bundehl Now once upon a time there was B'Jack . . . not B'Jack, but B'Rabby and his brother Booky. So anyway, the time was kind of hard. So B'Rabby said, "Now Booky," said, "what we got to do now," he said, "we can't get no flour and rice from away, like we coulda do before [This refers to the "Grow More Food" Campaign in the British West Indies during World War II.], so we got to get back to the soil. T h a t mean grab your cutlass and damn, never cut bush." Booky was a kind of lazy man. He as bigger than he brother, Rabby, but he was lazy. He didn't like to do nothing like cutting bush. Like eat too much. So anyway Rabby coax him, say, "Let's go cut bush, Man." So they went. On the way they going to this coppice where they cut bush, they got to cross on a boat. In crossing over, find a big barrel. Have butter in barrel then. Damn, they take up this big barrel of butter. So now, B'Rabby say, "Now, B'Booky, this butter here, I could imagine this butter," he say, "cause I seen a keg like this already." Say, " W e ain't got nothing to eat with this," he say, "but we ain't got to eat this alone like this." " O h , " B'Booky say, " M a n , I don't mind. Once it's something to eat, I don't mind how we got to eat it. Once we eat the butter, we will eat it." Damn, so they went. Well, they going, going, in the field . . . not in the field, they going in the coppice and they start a form of the field. Start cutting bush, cutting bush. Well, they put the barrel of butter about, I'd say about two hundred and fifty feet from where they were cutting, from where they start cutting. And the more they cut, the more they go from this barrel of butter. Well, so happen so, now B'Rabby want to work he head onto Booky, want all the butter him own, and don't want to gi' Booky none. So B'Rabby is, they cut bush, cut bush. B'Rabby feel peckish, little peckish. Peckish mean hongry. He say, "Now," he say, "now Bra," he say, "damn," he say, "some people over there to the north," he say. " W e ain't see them yet," he say, "but I see them this morning." He say, "When I been aside, I see them," he say, "and they really want me name some children for them, 'cause they hear I'se does name children good." So B'Booky say, "Yeah, Man-bra," he say, "that's alright." He say, "Now if any of these people call me," he say, "don't think of that," he say, "cause I got to go name they children." Now at the time Rabby figuring on eating the butter at once. So now, damn, about ten o'clock, Rabby say, " W h a t you say? Say you want me to name the children? All right," say, " I going to name them right now. Coming right now." "Damn," he say, " B r a , " he say, "uh . . . these people, damn, worrying me to name the children." He say, "You think I must go?" " M a n , " he say, "damn, go name the children, Man!" He say, "Damn, if you don't want name them, let me name them." He say, "No, but Bra," he say, " I think I going name them." Damn, Rabby didn't stand. Boy. He going, he broke open that kit of butter. He broke open the kit of butter. Boy. He just quarter him, eat all the butter, quarter of it. Damn, he didn't stand. Boy, wipe he mouth, he run back to B'Booky. Poor Booky, yet cutting bush. Now he say, he say, "Bra-man," he say, "what you give that one name?" " D a m n , " say, "oh my," say, " I give that one name of Beginnum." "Damn," he say, " B r a , " he say, "that's a good name." He say, "Damn," he say, "you really wise. You really good on giving these names." He say, " T h e y go call me up in the next hour again." "Damn," he say, " O K Bra." Damn, didn't stand, but the next hour again, Rabby say, "What you say?" " O h , " Rabby say, " I getting tired of naming these children now." He say, "Well anyhow, Bra, I going name this one again." "Yeah Bra, Man," say, "you could name them." Rabby going, and he haul off the butter. When he come back, he brother Booky say, " W h a t you get him name. Bra?" He say, " M a n , " he say, " I gave him name of Halfum." Say, " I don't figure that's a good name nohow," he say, "but there for shortness. I gi' him name of Halfum." Say, "Man, that's a good name. Good name, Man." Say, " T h a t ' s a good name." "Damn," he say, "well Boy," he say, "how much more of them you got to name?" He say, "Well, I figure about one more," he say, "cause I leave her having baby now," he say. " B y the time, by the time I done cut about a half a task more, I guess they'll call muh." Now that's the time he get hungry now. Damn, about two hours from there, B'Rabby get a little peckish. He say, "What's that?" "Damn," he say, " B r a , " he say, "they want me to name this child." He say, " T h i s the last one I going name. Damn it, I wouldn't name no more after this." Damn it, after this Rabby going, and he eat all the butter. When he going over, Booky say, "Bra-man," he

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say, "what you gi' that one name?" He say, "Man, I gi' that one name," he say, "I Finishum." Said, "By damn," he say, "Bra, you really could name children." Well now, they cut bush, till time to knock off. Say, "Bra-man," he say, "I getting peckish, Man." He say, "Time to let we go eat." Say, "Yeah, Man," he say, "let's go." Now Rabby know all the butter done eat, but he figuring to rig a plan. So when he get little ways, before he get to the butter—he leave the butter about a task—he fall. He say, "Bra-man," he say, "damn," he say, "I too sleepy to eat now." He say, "I sleepy and I hungry." He say, "Which one you think I must do first?" Booky say, "Man, let's go eat." Say, "No, Man," he say, "lay down." He say, "Let's take a nap." Well Booky didn't want to lay down nohow, but Rabby make him lay down. "Lay down, let's take a nap." Booky's a man, he can't lay down without going to sleep. Damn, far as Booky head been down, he been snoring. Rabby say, "Alright, I going fix you up." Damn, Rabby didn't stand. Rabby going to the butter tin, he rake him out, he rake him out, and he Take he hand full. And he didn't stand. Boy, he went to B'Booky. He grease him up from he head to he foot. Take off he pants, man, and he grease himt John Brown I So Rabby going to sleep, just play-asleep, lay down for about minute. After that Rabby wake up B'Booky. "Bra-man, Bra-man," he say, "get up," he say, "let's go eat, Man." He say, "I hongry till damn, I scarcely could stand up." John Brown, when they go and find out the damn butter tin was empty, not a raking been in there. "Damn," Rabby say, "M'Bra-man Booky," he say, "you eat that butter." "No, Bra-man," he say, "I ain't eat the butter, Man, Man." "Bra, you eat the butter." Say, "No Man," he say, "you eat the butterl" Say, "All right," Rabby say, "all right then, to prove who eat this butter now let's strip naked," he say, "and let's cock up to the sun for about ten minutes." Now the butter going melt now, who got the butter on him going melt. Damn, they didn't stand. They get naked. Boy, and they cock to the sun. When they look, damn, butter melting out through B'Booky big toe. That was all B'Booky butter melting out. Damn, Rabby didn't stand. Rabby jump up, he say, "Bra-man," he say, "damn it," he say, "ain't I tell you you you eat the butter." He say, "Man," he say, "you do muh bad." He say, "Bra-man," he say, "Man," he say, "I eat the butter," he say, "and I ain't know." He say, "You couldn't eat a whole tin of butter like that and you ain't know!" He say, "That's bad," he say, "you mean to do me like that." And Boy, them two big fellows started fighting, but B'Booky was bigger than B'Rabby. Well anyhow, finally, B'Booky did . . . he prowided big cutup with B'Rabby, beat him out of his brains. So B'Rabby eat all the butter, and B'Booky felt hongTy, but to the end B'Booky beat B'Rabby. Bundayl E Bo En, that old-story is end. Who think it ain't true, ask the captain of the longboat crew. ["Bundayl 111"]

Tale 223 shows Josh using a topical allusion, the "Grow More Food" campaign during World War II, as the explanation for Booky's and Rabby's work in clearing a new field. He explains with imagination the tradition which says that the butter was in a keg. He calls it a barrel, saying that was the way butter came then. He even goes on to say that since they didn't open it, they knew it was butter because of the barrel. Even though grease and fat are symbols of wealth in the Bahamas, and one local "calypso" has a thief boasting, "I live greasy, Boy," the idea of eating so much butter without bread strikes him as odd, so he has Booky's greed explain it. Certainly this questioning of the illogical aspects of tradition is Josh's most impressive intellectual characteristic, when one considers how rarely it occurs, whether in the Bahamas or in the United States, where for instance only a few find confusion in egg-laying rabbits celebrating the Resurrection of Christ. Booky actually persuades Rabby to pay godfather, and compliments him on the names chosen, in a version of this motif that is developed to twice its usual length. Rabby also tricks Booky into sleeping, and then persuades him that he really is the thief of the butter, though Booky repays all of Rabby's perfidy by beating him "out of his brains." This is the only version of the test by sun motif in the entire collection which explains fully who is saying which line, and exactly what happens

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I Could Talk Old-Story Good

during and after the test. Most Behring Point versions report the conversation, but fail to make clear the fact that Booky accepts his guilt. Since the audience knows what is meant in any case, they interpret correctly the rapid shifts of conversation between the protagonists. Josh's characterization of Booky and Rabby in this story ignores any animal characteristics, but is psychologically sophisticated enough to make Booky sympathetic as the lazy, greedy, but well-intentioned person who is tricked by his sly, two-faced, treacherous brother. This is just the kind of reversal in which Josh delights, changing the whole sense of the story with a few carefully weighted words which make the trickster hero a villain, and the foolish "ogre" an inept but honest dupe. The non-Booky-Rabby stories by Josh which are included were chosen to study variation over a period of time, or variation between storytellers, or the extent of "originality" in story motifs, rather than Josh's personal style. They will be considered below (pp. 108-117). 2. Andrew Albury is Josh's seventeen-year-old brother, who arrived from Behring Point a few months before the second field trip in August, 1953. He is a gangling youth with something of his brother's croaking voice and ingratiating personality. He is illiterate, and unlike most Out Islanders, is extremely sensitive about it. He admires Josh's worldly knowledge, patterning himself on his brother, and came to Grant's Town to live with him. Andrew's stories were learned from Josh, from Alfred and from the other older Behring Point narrators including old people still living on Andros and not included in the collection. Andrew's stories show these influences, but also a degree of originality which suggests that he may well become a virtuoso storyteller as he grows older.

Tale 156: Andrew Albury TRAPPED RETRAPPED Ayyy. ["Ayyy!"] Bundayl Now this a day, a story about B'Rabby, B'Booky and the snake. Now B'Rabby going travelling this day. Big, very strong man. He buck up to this rock, to this big old snake underneath. When he get to this rock, the snake say, "Hey, B'Rabby," he say, "Man," he say, you the one I been looking (or." Say, "Man," he say, "raise this rock, help me get from underneath this rock." Rabby say, "Man," he say, "this rock so big, I can't help you. I couldn't lift this." He say, "I know I's a big strong man, but this rock is very big." He say, "Try, B'Rabby, Man," he say. "When I come up from underneath this rock, I going pay you." When he raise the rock, that big old snake come out. When the snake get out, the snake say, "OK, if you don't find something for me to eat now, I going eat you." B'Rabby say, "Man," he say, "what kind of man you is? You tell me raise the rock, you go pay muh. Now I raise the rock for you youself, and if I don't find something for you to eat, you're going eat muh?" He say, " T a l k fast and gi' muh something straight, or I going eat you now." He say, "OK, Man, let's walk over there to B'Dog." When he get to B'Dog, B'Dog say He say, "B'Dog, Man," he say, "you think this fair? If you lift a rock for a man to come out," he say, "he tell you if you don't find something for him to eat, he going eat you?" B'Dog say, "As for me, if it hada been me, woulda eat you long time." He say, " O K , I going eat your ass now." He say, "No, Man," he say, "give me about two more chance." He say, "Well, you better walk fast," he say, "cause I been here long time," he say, "and I hongry now." And when he get to B'Frog, he say, "B'Frog," he say, "look, Man," he say, "you think if you meet a man under a rock, and you raise the rock for him, do you think it's right for him to say, if you don't find something for him to eat, he's going eat you?" Frog say, "By damn, if I, I be done with you long time now." He say, "OK, you ain't got no more chance." He say, "No man, let me go to my Bro Booky Go M'Bro Rabby." When he get to Rabby, he say "M'Bro Rabby," he say.

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"you think that's right, Man? I raise a rock for the man to come out, then he tell me if I don't find something for him to eat, he's going eat muh?" Rabby say, "Did that fool think he have to eat you? B u t anyhow, come carry me to the rock." He say, "How damn fool you is, do that foolish thing. If it was me I would eat you long time," he says, "but carry me to the rock. Let me see if I could rock it." Now B'Rabby before, B'Booky in the middle, the snake behind. Every step B'Booky make, the snake bite off a piece of he heel. B'Booky say, "Man, M'Bro-man," he say, "you better stop this snake-man thing from biting off all a man heel. Every time we walk, he bite off a piece." B'Booky say, "Man, M'Bro, lookit here, took piece of heel now." He say, "By the time now we reach to that rock, the snake going to have off all of my heel." OK, when he reach to the rock, he say, "Now B'Snake, you go show me how you get underneath that rock." Now the rock so big and heavy the snake scared to go about there. T h e snake say, "Man, look, Man," he say, "you's a man got sense. I don't got to go under there." And he say, " I been winding like this and winding like that, and I have ray head of the ball." B'Rabby say, "No Man, you got to go under the rock and show me how you been." He say, "No Man, I can't go under that heavy rock." He going on the big clear rock. He say, "Look Man, I been caught like that and caught like this, and my head been on the ball." He said [very high pitched], " M a n , " he say, "just go out there underneath the rock and let me see how you been." He say, " M a n , Man," he say, " I hope you can hold up this rock, Man. Man, I been here ninety-nine years, only one more to make a hundred." He say, " O K . " He going to half it. He caught like this. [Narrator demonstrates.] He say, "Man, I feel like this thing coming down on me." He say, "Look here, I been caught like that and caught like this, and my head is on the ball." B'Rabby let go down the rock on he head. He say, " O K , if you been here ninety-nine years, I feet that you could finish this one to make the hundred." And then B'Snake started longing out he tongue at B'Rabby, and from that day to this day, that s n a k e . . . you see snake so like to long with they tongue when they see people. So Be Be En, that old-story is end. Ayy. Bunday. ["Ayy!"]

Tale 156 is a variant of Josh's Tale 160, "Back in the Same Hole," but with B'Snake caught under a rock rather than B'Lion in a hole. B'Rabby is the trickster, with B'Booky and B'Dog alternating as the second character, and the tale ends explaining why "you see snake so like to long with they tongue when they see people." These changes in motif are considerable when one notes that they occur in variants by two brothers. Andrew uses dialogue as skillfully as Josh to develop his characters and situations, and to provide humor. "Man . . . what kind of man you isl" or "Talk fast and gi' muh something straight, or I going eat you now." There is also the switch in expected attitudes, as when Rabby calls snake a fool for even wanting to eat something as valueless as Booky. The snake's nipping at Booky's heel, even while the argument is going on, is the kind of ludicrous characterization that makes these stories so profoundly witty. Instead of six days, the snake must stay under the rock for one hundred years. T A L E 1 7 5 : ANDREW ALBURY E N C H A N T E D PUMPKIN Ehhhl ["Ehhh."] Now this a time, was a very good time, monkey chew tobacco and he spit white lime. Cuckero jump from bank to bank. He quarter never touch a quart of water. Now this day this was B'Rabby and B'Booky. Well B'Rabby going travelling, and he buck this big old pumpkin field. Now he come, he give B'Booky three. Now B'Booky them having hard times. Before B'Booky reach home to he wife, he been an eat the three pumpkins now. B'Rabby says, "Now B'Bra Booky, I know where one big pumpkin field is, but they is enchanted pumpkin. B u t if I carry you there, you going kill all your children." He say, "No, M'Bra-man," he say, " I ' l l only too good for them to eat, the little ones." T h a t morning he say, "OK, M'Bra-man, oome get up in the morning." Say, " M e and you loading up your dray, and get your children, and let's go." "All rightl"

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T h a t morning after day clean, they loading up, start going to enchanted land. When they reach there, BHabby say, "Now B'Booky, you look at me, see how I do, and you do the same way." He say, "Do, Lord, have one these pumpkin to fall on my child head." One little pumpkin fall off he child head. He take it up, he put on a dish. Now B'Booky get up with three of them. He going to them big old pumpkin. He eyes so big, he wanted them big one, big as this house. He say, "Do, Lord, have one of them pumpkin fall on my child head." When he fall, the little boy mash right up. He say, "Damn, that one ain't amend together good." He say, "He was rotten." He said now this big gal, he say, " I know he strong like my daddy, Booky." He say, "Do, Lord, help the pumpkin to fall on this little gal head." When he fall, he going to powder. He say, "Damn, my wife able to mend him good together. Sir. He been rotten." B'Booky kill every one of he children like that. Now when time to go home, BHabby got he load of children, and his whole dray loaded with pumpkins. He say, "M'Bra-man," say, "lend me two of your children to carry them to m'wife." Say, "Man," he say, "me and your wife still one spot, and you think your wife ain't know your children? How I going lend you my children to carry them to your wife? Then how I going to my wife." Say, "Man," say, "the enchanted c h i l d r e n . . . . " Say, " T h e enchanted pumpkins mash up all of my children." He say, "Well Man," he say, " I know you wife going kill you today." He say, "Didn't tell you if you come in, it going kill all your children?" When B'Booky get home, B'Booky creep in the yard, now. Now B'Rabby have a little gal, is a fast little gal, he like to talk. Now B'Booky tell him before he leave, say, "Now if you talk that, uncle going kill you." When he reach, he go and sit down. "Oh Lord, I tired." T h e woman say, "Oh B'Booky, you passed anything?" He say, "Yeah." He say, " T h e dray full of pumpkins, and the children behind, coming," say, "but you know how they like to play long the road." Now the little gal come over there. T h e little gal say, "Auntie, you know if I tell you something, Brother Booky going kill me." Booky just saying, "Shh shh, don't tell Auntie nothing. Don't tell Auntie nothing." T h a t time the woman say, "Booky can't do you nothing. What it is?" Say, "No, Auntie, you see how he eye, how Brother Booky eye weaving in hole, weaving in hole." Say, "Brother Booky scared." Say, " I ain't going tell you 'cause Brother Booky going kill me." Booky say, "Don't tell Auntie nothing." And he say, "Auntie," he say, "you know Brother Booky kill all your children with his enchanted pumpkin." That time Booky dart underneath the bed. T h e woman say, "Booky, where the children? You say the children coming behind with the enchanted pumpkin." He say, "M'Wife," he say, "the enchanted pumpkin all the children, and if I ain't run it would kill me." That woman going and he grab one piece of crab sticks, and scald Booky head. All about he lick Booky in the ass. Booky just keep running through and through the house, saying, "Oh M'Wife, the children behind me in the dray." Cause to cause Booky ears from that day to this day, that make Booky can't have sense in he ears. Anyway he go, they catch him up in the forest. So Be Be En, that short old no-taste old-story is end.

Andrew's second story, Tale 175, mixes clowning with genre comedy. When, in the unique motif of "Enchanted Pumpkins," the pumpkins "mash up" all Booky's children, he says the children were "rotten," and that his wife will be able to mend them "good together." When Rabby refuses to loan Booky two of his children to placate his wife, Booky tells his wife the children are playing along the road. T h e little girl who can't keep a secret and who points out her uncle's "eye weaving" as a sign of his fright is an entirely realistic characterization. T h e dialogue provides opportunities for voice changes, Booky's hurried "shushing" of the child, her piping remarks, and her aunt's ominous awakening. Booky and Rabby drive in a "dray," a farm wagon extremely rare in roadless Andros, but known in Eleuthera before the advent of cars. This dray occurs in other Behring Point tales, like the roof entrance of Pueblo tales (Benedict, p. xli), an archaism setting the tale in the past as the opening formulae do. Andrew also doubles the polite B' form of address into B'Bra Booky, giving an effect of obsequious falsity but also

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suggesting that the two protagonists are brothers, whether blood- or lodge-, rather than two different species (see above, pp. 2 8 - 2 9 ) . The explanatory ending contains three factual errors: that a rabbit's ears are insensitive, that rabbits' ears catch in the forest, and that B'Booky was, at least in Africa, a rabbit. These errors are widespread in the United States, where children are still sometimes taught to pick up rabbits by their ears. This ignorance is more understandable in the Bahamas where no rabbits live in the wild state, and only a few tame ones are kept. T a l e 178: Andrew Albury T A K E MY PLACE: F R U I T D R O P P I N G : EASTWARD W E S T W A R D Ayyyl ["Ay!"] Bunday. Now this a day, this a day B'Rabby and B'Booky. Now B'Booky and B'Rabby went travelling. Now they going in this man goat cage, and t'ief seven of the goats. Now B'Rabby carry more home than B'Booky, so after flew with them home, the man catch him. Now they carry B'Booky and B'Rabby to court. Before they get, B'Rabby make he little banja [banjo]. When they get inside the court, they try B'Rabby and B'Booky. Now B'Booky, B'Rabby got to get out anyhow. He find he sing, he start he sing. Say, " I tell Brother Booky so, you mustn't t'ief Master King ewe. You mustn't t'ief Master King ewe." He say, " M e man who got on that big old hat there, what he gi' me I eat um." Now B'Booky had on the big old hat. He say what B'Booky gave him, he eat um. He ain't t'ief none. Now when the man done try the case, he say, "Well, now, B'Booky," he say, "you guilty." " N o . " " B ' R a b b y , " he say, " I will leave you t'iefing." He say, " I give you ten years." B'Rabby caught acrying, say, "Lord, look how he going to jail for ten years." Booky too crazy, he say, " M ' B r a , " he say, "you fool," say, "you crying?" Say, "You don't want ten pounds?" Say, "Do." " I bet the Commissioner coulda give me that." T h e Commissioner say, "You want that?" He say, "Yes Sir, do for King sake," say, "give me here." Say, "My brother too fool." He put B'Booky down. He say, "You too fool, what you crying for?" He say, "OK, B'Rabby," he say, "six years hard labor in prison." When he put B'Rabby in prison, B'Rabby say, "My brother tell me about no prison. My brother tell me about the ten pounds." "Now," he say, " O K , " he say, "now you going get scalded with a big boiler of hot water." He say, " O h yeah, that big old pot of pease and rice." Now when he look, he see the man coming with the big boiler of hot water. He say, "God," he say, "look at the pease and rice on me Booky gave." When the man come, the man bring one big dipper. And the man dip that dipper full of hot water. He say, "Damn," he say, "my bra too fool. He coulda been eating these pease and rice." T h e n he dip that hot water, and he throw it in Booky face. "Oh damn," he say, "my brother tell me about no hot water. He tell me about pease and rice." He say, "Mister," he say, "this ain't what you bring me here for." He say, "My brother ain't tell me about no hot water. My brother tell me about pease and rice," and he went at B'Booky with the hot water. " A h h , " B'Booky say, "anywhere I meet Rabby," he say, "grass can never gTow." When he get to this big old dilly [sapodilla, Achras zapota] tree, B'Rabby drop one big dilly near where he going to stop. He say, "Oh, Gawd like me though." He drop one big green in he head. When that big green dilly fall on he head, he say, "Damn," he say, "Gawd getting to hate me now." He drop another green one. "Damn," he say, "Gawd hate me now too. He going bust my head open with a green dilly." When he throw that big ripe fruit, he say, " H e getting to like muh again." Now when he look up in the tree, say, "Now B ' . . . , this you m'bra." He say, "Now I going kill you." T h e n B'Rabby start hollering up in the tree. Say, "Cut him off to the southwestl" B'Booky turn back to the northeast. He say, "Cut him oft to the northeast." He turn back to the southwest. Say, "Cut him off to the southwest." And he run him through and through the world and nobody been behind him, but he just for that, he sit here now. For ever time he holler for one way, he run to the other way. And Be Be En, that old-story is end.

Tale 178 treats a familiar theme in a new way, Booky being persuaded to take Rabby's place in prison during the courtroom trial. It can be seen to be similar to Josh's version where Booky expects peas and rice and gets hot water instead, but the ten pound bribe and the court atmosphere with phrases like "at hard labor"

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are Andrew's own touches. The finale of the story is a masterpiece of clear exposition in short space with a maximum of dialogue, making these familiar themes clearly and amusingly stated for once. T A L E 2 0 2 : ANDREW ALBURY PEASE IN H A T : S I L L I E S : N U M B S K U L L J O K E Eht [ " E h h h h l " ] Ehhh! [ " E h ! " General confusion.] Now this a day, this a story about B'Rabby. No, this a story about B'Booky. It wasn't 'bout Rabbit. Now B'Booky going, B'Booky meet this gal. B'Booky get there, B'Booky get engaged to court to the gal. All right. Now Booky bring there six pears [avocados]. He ain't eat nothing. Every time the woman offer him, he shamed. He wouldn't eat it, cause he been like the gal. Now that day more than all, Booky tell the gal, say, "Excuse me," he says, " I going out there, aside." Got all pease in the pot. Booky go, full up he big old derby full of boil pease, and put it back on the head. Now he going inside the house, sitting down. T h e gal take the handkerchief to wipe Booky face. When he wipe Booky face, all these black sweat running down, all the pease choong out on the floor, and Booky broke off running. Now Booky come back in the house. Now they send one the gals to the well for some water. T h e woman had six daughter. And when he send the first one to the well, he s a y . . . . When the gal going, the gal stand up. He consider, he say, " T h a t ' s enough!" He say, " W h e n Brother Booky marry to my sister, I wonder what he going to marry to her for?" He gal stand up, he consider. T h e other one come. He say, "Sister, when you come from the well, you don't come in yet?" He say, "Sister, if you know what I considering about, you let me consider too." He say, "When Booky marry to he sister, what he going do for her?" He say, " O h , you know that's true for true." He sit down on a rock, started considering. When he look, he send one of them big one again. He say, "You could tell that gal to come on," he say, " i f you went to bring more water, you didn't bring water yet?" He say, "Sister, what you doing for Mama send you to the well?" He say, " I f you know what we considering about you, you consider too." He say, " W h a t that?" He say, "When Booky married to my sister, what he going to do for her?" He say, " O h , you know, that true for true." T h a t one sit down and consider. T h a t been three considering there. He send, send, till he send the last one, he said T h i s time the gal come, he say, "Sister," he say, "all of you been gone for water," he say, " b u t how come you ain't come yet?" He say, "Sister, if you consider what I consider about you, you consider too." He say, " W h e n Booky marry to you, what he going marry you with?" T h e girl say, " O h yeah, that's true for true." He sit down, start considering. Well, when Booky come, Booky say, "How you not come yet?" He say, "Your ma say you bring water for me. You ain't come yet?" He say, " I f you know what we considering about you, you consider too." Booky say, " W h a t he is?" He say, " W h e n you marry to my sister, what you going do for her?" Booky say, "Isn't it a parcel of crazies!" He say, "Now, I'm going, and if I find three more crazies like you, I coming to you and I going marry to you." When he going, he meet one man who got he pants in the tree, and hysting [hoisting] himself off on a line to jump down in he pants, to put it on. He say, " M a n , " he say, "you think you can't get on your pants, a big man like you?" He take pants down, and he say, " J u k e [shove] this leg in first, and juke that leg in. And then pull it up." T h e man say, " O h , yeah," say, "that true for true." So when he going, he meet another man who got he big hat outdoors, trying to get the sun to put in the house to dry he corn. Every time the man t'ing he had the sun, he had he shadow. He haul her all in the house, throw the hat, say, "Damn, I ain't catch him." T h e man been one day on that. He say, "Man, what you doing?" So he say, " M a n , I want my corn dry, and I'm trying catch the sun and I can't catch him." He say, " M a n , " he say, "take your corn. Put him out in the sun and spread him out." He say, " O h yeah, that's true for true." T h e n he going, he meet a other man who got he hat up in a tree, jumping up, for the hat to stick on he head. " M a n , " he say, "take down you hat and rest it on a head." T h e man say, " O h yeah, that true for true." T h a t was three crazies he found, then he going back and he married to the woman daughter. And B e Be En, that short old-story is end. ["Bundayl"]

Tale 202 is a variant of "Peas in Hat" of which there are two other examples in the collection (Tale 148; Tale 111). Andrew goes through it quickly, but uses most

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of the motifs, including the sweat of juice and the peas that "choong" out of the hat. He connects this motif-complex with a unique motif, wherein all the sisters are made to consider what Booky is going to do to their sister when he marries her. He calls them "crazies," and goes in search of three more, who turn out to be the characters in a numbskull joke (sometimes called " T h e Husband Hunts Three Persons as stupid as his wife"), a man climbing a tree to get into his pants, a man trying to catch the sun in his hat, and a man jumping up to catch his head into his hat. Knowledge of unusual motifs, use of explanatory endings, exposition through dialogue, and clear and complete narration are the major characteristics of Andrew's stories. Except for the skill with dialogues, these characteristics differ from Josh's, and show how much variation can exist within one family. 3. Washington Sweeting is the seventeen-year-old nephew of Harford " J o e " Rolle, the patriarch of the Behring Point settlement in Grant's Town. Washington lived in Behring Point until a few months before the first recordings were made, when he came to New Providence to "make money and see the sights." Like his sister Mercedes, and like Andrew Albury, his second cousin who came over a year after him, he was thus an unusually unacculturated resident of Grant's Town. He was naive about the outside world and almost illiterate on his arrival. His keen intelligence and curiosity progressively brought new facts to his stories during the three months the recordings were made, though without influencing his style perceptibly. A year and a half later he was recorded in a contract worker's barracks near Fisher, Illinois, retelling stories he had recorded previously in Grant's Town. Thus it is possible to compare in detail the changes in the two versions, remembering that Bahamian tales change at each retelling. T A L E 6 : WASHINGTON SWEETING MOCK SUNRISE: PASSWORD (RIVER): PICK ME: D R U M T A L K : H O U S E IN SKY: F R U I T

DROPPING

Bundayl [ " E h ! " ] O n c e upon a time, it was a merry good time, cuckero j u m p from bank to bank, and never touch a q u a r t of water. [ " B u n d a y l " ] T h i s was B ' R a b b y and B'Booky. O n e time went, B ' R a b b y know where was a field with plenty pumpkins and potatoes and t'ings, and he tell he friend Booky. Booky said, " D o , B ' R a b b y , carry me there, I like to take a trip there." Anyhow, B ' R a b b y said, " I t but night now, B'Booky. I think you better let's wait till morning. After when morning, we'll saddle up o u r dray and go." Anyhow Booky say, " O K , R a b b y , we'll wait." Going to bed, sleep. Around quarter to eight that night, B ' B o o k y couldn't wait no longer. H e get up and catch him a big fire in the east, you know, and turn a big tin tub over it. W e n t up on top of R a b b y house and started crowing. "Kookarookrool [Laughter.] Kookarookrool" R a b b y get up, said, " W h o that on my house top?" Said, " B o o k y , want get off my house top. Man, why don't you wait till day clean?" Booky say, " M a n , day clean. Man, don't you see sun rise?" R a b b y say, " N o , day ain't clean yet." Anyhow, when day clean, saddled up the dray, and all of them went. H e say, "Now, Booky," h e say, " t h e r e a place where you go across, where you cross the water, and when come to get across, you got to say, 'Low tide low' for to get a pass." Booky say, "Yes R a b b y , I understand you good." And he went and got h i m a sheet of paper to direct h i m to the right place. Anyhow, B'Booky start. " H i g h tide high, how B ' B o o k y get a pass. High tide high, how B ' B o o k y get a pass." T h a t time R a b b y say, " L o w tide low, low tide low, let B ' R a b b y get a pass." T h a t time tide went low on the part where B ' R a b b y was. R a b b y get past and leave Booky. T i d e was high where Booky was. W h e n Booky look and see R a b b y was across, he said, " B ' R a b b y l " B ' R a b b y say, " Y e a h ? " H e say, " H o w you get across there?" H e said, " I thought I told you to said 'Low tide low.' " Anyhow Booky said, " L o w tide low, let B'Booky get a pass." And at last Booky get a pass, going across in this big field.

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After they get in the field, Booky want get crazy then through the field. He see so much pumpkin and potatoes and t'ings, he get crazy, catch up a fire, and if I was going tell you the truth, it was big as this house. If I was going tell you a story, it was big as whole world. [All laugh.] Anyhow Booky catch a fire, start it. B ' R a b b y say, "Now listen here Booky, all these pumpkins what are here say, "Pick me, pick m e , " don't pick them. Pick you some say, "Don't pick me." Say, "Yeah, I understand that." Anyhow Booky start out. Every pumpkin what say [hushed], "Pick me, pick me," he pick that one. "Pick me, pick me," he pick that one. Every one Rabby meet say, "Don't pick me, don't pick me," he pick that one. Anyhow, doggone, B ' R a b b y get as much as he want. B'Booky going stay to put on he boiler to boil and eat before he go. Anyhow, B'Booky eat, h e eat much as he want, lay down. T h a t time B ' R a b b y get he load, he going. He said, "Now hear B'Booky, when I'll leave a favor for you. For when you ready to come across, you know what to say." Say, "Yeah, my brother, that's all right, that's all right." Anyhow, he went, leave B'Booky there. B'Booky eat he belly full. He lay down, afterwards. Now he went to the house. He went to the house, he going in the house, going find food. He find flour, sugar, grits, and everything what was in the house. Anyhow, he going cook, he eat he belly full again. T h a t time he going to the big drum. T h e big drum tell him, say, when he knock the big drum, "Boom, b o o m ! " Big drum say [low and booming], " W h e n you belly full, lay down, lay down. W h e n you belly full, lay down, lay down." Anyhow, he say, " I don't want to hear you," and he kick he and put him on side. Going on to little drum. [Staccato:] " B o o m boom boom! When you hungry, go cook! W h e n you hungry, you cook!" Anyhow, he going to that one, going to cook, he take it. [Laughter.] Afterwards, when he hear the Spirit coming, he feel the house going up in the air. House go up in the air. "Mary go up so high, Mary go up so high, Mary go up so high, till he come down boom bye. Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low." T h a t time Booky get scared. He went underneath the bed. After he get under the bed, Spirit and he wife and he little daughter come in the house, cook. After done cook, give little goil he food, give he husband his own. He start eating. Booky under the bed, child sit down right about against the bed. Shove he hand out, " G i ' me some, gi' me some, gi' me some!" Child give some, all the food done. He going back, say, "Mama, I want more food." He ma give more food again. Go inside same place. Booky shove he hand again. " G i ' me some, gi' me some!" He eat that. Say, " G i ' me some, gi' me some!" He eat that. Anyhow he going back again, say, "Mama, I want more food." He say, " W h a t my goil eat so much tonight for?" He say, "You ain't know I got two pa, one underneath the bed and one on the bed?" He say, " W h a t my goil saying, she ain't know what she saying." Anyhow he start singing, " I got two pa, one underneath the bed and one on top of the bed, and he eyes shine like a dollar. I got two pa, one in the bed and one 'neath the bed, and he eyes shine like a dollar." " T e l l m e , " the woman say, "where he is? W h a t is my gal singing?" " I got two pa, one in the bed and one 'neath the bed, and he eyes shine like a dollar." T h e n the Spirit going, and when he peep under the bed, so Booky eyes was shine like a dollar for truth. Anyhow, he said, " M y wife," he said, "now I tell you the best idea I'll do." He going to work, he put on a big boiler, and light it, and full it with water. W h e n the water get hot, he take it and he dash it on Booky. Booky run out, Booky run out. He fetch underneath a dilly tree. B ' R a b b y was up in the dilly tree. He said W h e n he get under the dilly tree, he look up in the dilly tree like this [he mimics]. He say, " H u n , Hun. God hatee me." He said, " I wish one these ripe dilly could drop beside my head. I don't mind if he kill me." Anyhow, one ripe dilly drops on he head, Bonk! And Rabby drops this on he head. After Rabby drop this side he head, he pick it up, say, " G o d likes me." He eat that one. He look up in the tree again, said, " I wish one of they dilly could drop on my head again." He say, " I don't mind if he kill m e . " T h a t time, a green one drop on he head. Bomp! " H u n Hun, [in idiot voice] God hatee m e . " T h a t time, B ' R a b b y up in the tree. W h e n he look up in the tree, he see B ' R a b b y . When he see Rabby, Rabby say [shouting], " C u t him off in the east end." T h a t time he's arunning. W h e n h e get together, B ' R a b b y say, " C u t him off in the west end." H e go up around, he try it this way again. When he come this way again, R a b b y say, " C u t him off in the east end." At last B'Booky, he come, and he fall inside a hole. After he got inside the hole, he said, " W h e r e I meet Rabby, grass will never grow." Bunday! [ " E h ! " ] E B o Ben, my story is end. W h o don't believe my old-story is true, ask the captain of the longboat crew. [ " E h ! " ]

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Tale 6, one of the most popular Booky and Rabby motif-complexes, was the sixth story recorded. It contains ten motifs as analyzed in T a b l e X V , all well integrated rather than merely told in succession. Each motif is told briefly but completely, with the whole range of songs, onomatopoeia such as "kookarookoo," catch phrases, and special folklore idioms. Already the new knowledge of Nassau is represented by the "sheet of paper" which directs Booky to the right place, an idea he got from a wall m a p he saw at the place of recording. T h e double lie about the fire "not as big as the world, only as big as the house" is another traditional stylistic device. Each character speaks in a special voice, hushed, hoarse, squeaking, or loud and bragging. T h i s is particularly well done in the drum talk, where the big drum says deeply and hollowly, "Boom! Boom! W h e n you belly full, lay down, lay down!" and the little drum says in sharp staccato, "Boom boom boom! W h e n you hungry, go cook!" T h e food Booky finds is typically Bahamian, as is the relationship between the mother, father, and child spirits. T h e noise of the falling dillies is nicely represented by " B o m p ! " and the " H u n H u n " of the dazed Booky is a Bahamian version of the expression " D u h h h ! " used to indicate idiocy among T V cartoon characters. T A L E 2 1 4 : WASHINGTON SWEETING M O C K SUNRISE: PASSWORD (RIVER): D R U M P A S S W O R D ( D O O R ) : U N D E R B E D : EYES S H I N E :

TALK:

EASTWARD-WESTWARD

Bunday! ["Ayyy!"] Once upon a time, was a merry good time, wasn't my time, the old people time, when used to take fish scale for shingle and fish1 bone for needle. Bunday I ["Ayyy. Ay!"] Ayyy. Well this time was B'Booky and B'Rabby, B'Booky and B ' R a b b y . B ' R a b b y tell B'Booky, say, "M'Brother, you know something?" H e say, " I know where a good field of p u m p k i n is." B'Booky say, "Yeah?" He say, " M a n , let's go now." He say, " M a n , no, this night now, we got to wait till tomorrow." T h e day was just on eve of breaking. He went in east and catch a big fire, and turn a tub down over it, you know. A n d he went u p on R a b b y house top, crowing. A n d he say, "Kookarookroo." R a b b y say, " M a n , come off my house." Say, "Day ain't clean yet." Say [high tone], "Yes." Say, " Y o u ain't see all that, that sunrise u p there, that day." Say, " N o M a n . " Say, " A i n ' t you know that's fire?" He say, " G o o d thing I thought it was fire. W a i t till day clean." A n y h o w so happen day come, and well, they saddle u p old dray with the donkey on it, and they went. Say, " N o w B ' B o o k y , " say, "this tide, got to cross a tide, and I got idea." Say, " W h e n you say, 'Low tide low,' the tide come u p high. So when you say ' H i g h tide high,' tide go down low." Say, " O K . " So h e started singing, saying sing, " H i g h tide high, let Booky and B ' R a b b y get a pass." T i d e went down bone dry low, and they went cross and go in this p u m p k i n field. W h e n they get there, the big house there, you know. T h e y have sugar, lard, all kind of thing you could name, b u t they Spirits. A n y h o w , they went in the field. H e said, "Now, B'Booky," said, " T h e s e p u m p k i n what you hear say, 'Pick me, pick me, pick me,' " say, "don't pick them pumpkins." Say, " A l l you hear say, 'Don't pick me, don't pick mel' " say, "pick them." Say, " O K , Broth, O K , Broth." A n y h o w , saw um, Booky going. W h e n he start picking, all the p u m p k i n what say, "Pick me, pick me, pick me," he started picking all them p u m p k i n . Rabby pick all that say, "Don't pick me." Anyhow when they done, B ' R a b b y ready to go, Booky ain't ready to go. He say, "M'Brother, no," he say " M ' B u d d y , " he say, "M'Brother, ready?" Say, "No, Man," say, " I ain't ready yet." Say, " W e l l , I got to go." Say, "I going leave you then." "Yeah, Man, tell m'wife I'll be with her directly." " O K . " Booky been in the field, he been in the field, turning around. A l l the time he get a p u m p k i n what say, "Pick me, pick me." He get one. W e l l anyhow, night come. Seeing everyone was asleep, so he went in this big house. Anyhow h e didn't know how to open this house. Say, " W o n d e r if I say, 'Open K a b a n j a open,' this house will open?" Say, " O p e n K a b a n j a open." Boy, that house open u p wide. H e say, " I know that."

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He go inside. When he get inside, Boy, he start up. Say, "Doggone, look at food here to eat, hey." Boy, he going in the sugar sack, and he start eating. After he start eating sugar. Boy, at once the Spirit and he wife and little girl come. Well when he get in house, say, "House ain't smell like it used to before." His wife said, " O h , " he said, "don't mind that, don't mind that." Anyhow Spirit going, lay out on the bed. His wife start cooking. Anyhow after he done cook, take up he little girl food, take up he husband food, and they start eating. So the girl sit down, right near by the bed, you know, on the floor, and the old Spirit up on the bed, laying off, eating. Booky, see, he still under the bed. He say, " G i ' me some, gi' me some." Little gal say, "Heeeeaaaar." He throw that in he mouth. He say, " G i ' me some, gi' me some." "Heeeeaaaar." Anyhow the goil eat about one spoonful of that, Booky beg all it away from her. Going back he say [whining voice], "Mama, I want more food." Ma take up more food, he gi'um. Sit right back by same place again. Before he put one spoonful in he mouth, Booky say, " G i ' me some, gi' me some." He say, "Heear." " G i ' me some, gi' me some." "Heeear." Going back to he ma, say, "Ma, I want more food." He ma say, " T h i s gal must be eating for Siamese [i.e., Siamese twins], I don't see he eat like this yet." Little gal say, "Listen, I got two pa, one underneath the bed and one on top of the bed. T h e one underneath the bed, he eyes shine like a dollar." So Spirit say, " W h a t you saying, Gal?" Gal start singing. She say, " I got two pa, one 'neath the bed and one on top of the bed, the one 'neath the bed, he eyes shine like a dollar." So well, old Spirit jump, he say, "Well, let me see if this true." Boy, when he gat a look, peep under the bed, and Booky eyes shine like a silver dollar. Boy, when they drag Booky out. Boy, B'Booky started running. Get away from there, you know, he started running. So Boy, fast as he could run, you know, say, "Cut him off to the east edge!" Brother Booky turn back to the west. Say, "Cut him off to the west end." He run back to the east again. "Cut him off to the east edge!" Anyhow, Booky went and he pitch down in a hole. Dig that hole. I don't know where the Spirit got the boiler to boil the water, but he get a bucket of boiling water and he throw down over him. When he throw down over him. Boy, Booky turn down by he head, and when he throw that bucket of water on him, he make a hole down by he head, and he went right straight, right straight down that hole. When he end up, he end up in Hell. Bunday! ["Ayyl"]

The second variant, Tale 214, was recorded a year and a half later after Washington had been working on contract in the United States for nearly a year. "Man" is a common enough form of address in all Bahamian speech, but particularly popular among lower-class adult male Nassauvians, and hence occurs much more frequently in the second variant than in the first. In the spirit house the animals find lard, an American equivalent of the coconut cooking oil used in the Bahamas. Booky has a wife to whom he sends a message in this version, but the style and treatment of motifs are almost exactly the same as in the previous version. The "heeeaar" of the little girl, and her whining voice are additions, as is the trickster's denouement in Hell. Still these two variants could not be much more alike, considering the time elapsed between their telling. The only point of significant change is the omission of the ending formula, since the dropping of formulae has been shown to be a characteristic of stories by the more acculturated storytellers. Even so, the conservatism of the Bahamian folktale is clearly shown in these two variants. T A L E 2 9 : WASHINGTON SWEETING MISHEARING S H O U T : R E F U G E E S ON R O O F Bunday! Once upon a time, it was a merry good time, cuckero jump from bank to bank and never touch a quart of water. Bunday! ["Ay!"] Now this was a time, a man married, he have a few children, have round about four or five children. Anyway, every day he wife playing sick, he go see he mother-in-law. When he go to

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mothcr-in-Iaw, he »ay, "Morning, Mother-in-law." Mother-in-law say, "Morning, Booky." "Morning, Father-in-law." "Morning, Booky." He say, "How's the gal?" "Oh, she ain't feeling so well, she say she want something to eat." "She want something to eat, eh?" He say, "Well, yeah." He say, "Well, go in the pasture and knock down one of the sheep, and carry it." Going to the pasture, he knock down one of the biggest and the fattest sheep, carry it. Anyhow, he get home, cook it, [strongly stressed] him onet He ain't give not his children not a bit as much. He ain't give .none, he eat him one [i.e., alone]. Anyhow, going next day again. "Morning, Father-in-law." "Morning, Booky." "Morning, Mother-in-law." "Morning, Booky." Father-in-law say, "How the gal?" "Know what she want, she want liver." He say, "OK, go in the pasture, knock down one of the sheep again." Going to the pasture, knock down one of the sheep again, carry it home to cook it, him one. Him one eat it, give nobody none. Anyhow, next day again, he going again. This going be he last day. Going again. "Morning, Father-in-law." "Morning, Booky." "Morning, Mother-in-law." "Morning, Booky." Say, "How the gal?" Say, "You know what she want, she want liver." [Narrator laughs.] He say, "Go in the pasture and knock down one again." He go in the pasture, he knock down one of the biggest and fattest one again, he carry it home, cook it. Him one eat it. Anyhow, he go right down, every time the man go, he go straight to the pasture. He look, he carry the biggest and the fattest of them up every time. He say, " I know what I going do." He going home one these time. He getting one of those wolves, and he put a sheepskin over him. Anyhow, Booky come again. "Morning, Father-in-law." "Morning, Booky." "Morning, Mother-in-law." "Morning, Booky." He say, "How the gal?" He say, "Know what she want, she want liver." He say, "Go in the pasture." Go in the pasture with him. Say, "See this big fellow?" Say, "Yeah." Say, "You, wanta you?" Say, "Let's go." Boy, he take him out some, carry him home some. When they get half way on the road, this thing start behaving bad. He say, "Stand, hey, what happen to you?" Doggone, he start playing bad and he broke a little switch. Started cutting him across he leg. Doggone when he let go that thing, thing make run at him. Then, when he see run, he say [as if from a distance], "M'Wife, M'Wifel Close up every crease and corner in the house and take roof. Leave one window open for me." T h e woman say, "What say? Say put on the boiler, boil little yakee [liver]?" He say, "You damn fool, you better hurry up." He say, " I say close up every window and every door, and leave one window open for me." Anyhow, the woman going on the house top, her and the children, close up the wall all around, leave one window open. Him and the children now hanging up in the roof, holding up. Every one of them that way. When he get, he springing up in the window, and up in the ceiling in the same time. All of them, holding up, holding up there. Now the wolf get in house now, on the ground now. One of the children say, he say, "Daddy, I tired." [Narrator and others laugh.] He say, " I ain't your Daddy," say, "see you Daddy down there." T h a t one drop. Bopl When he drop, the wolf eat him. Next one saying, "Daddy, I tired." "I ain't your Daddy," say, "see you Daddy down there." T h a t one drop, he eat that one. Next one say, "Daddy, I tired." " I ain't your Daddy," say, "see you Daddy down there." T h a t one drop, he eat too. [Laughter.] T h a t the last one now say, "Daddy, I tired." " I ain't your Daddy, see you Daddy down there." That one drop, he eat him. Anyhow now, they only two of them up the house now. T h e woman say, "Ah well, M'Husband, me you never been part before, but anyway me and you going part now." " I ain't your husband," say, "see husband down there." T h e woman drop down, the wolf eat him. Now he leave the man self to the roof. He say, "Now, B'Wolf." Wolf say, "Yeah." He say, "You want eat me, eh?" Say, "Yeah." He say, "I'll tell you a good idea for you to do. You go now and get me a barrel of ashesh [ashes], and I'll show you what to do." Wolf going, bring a ban-el of ashesh. When he bring a barrel of ashesh, he say, "Set them right in middle of floor." Set in middle of floor. He said, "Now, throw me one piece of iron up here." He throw one piece of iron. He say, "Now if want eat me, this is best way you could do for you to eat me." Anyhow, he say now—think of something—say, "Now you look right down in that barrel." T h e wolf hang he head right down in barrel like that [narrator demonstrates]. He looking by, the man drop iron every time in the barrel amongst ashes. T h e ashes flash up. As the ashes flash in the wolf face, and the man pitch out at same time. And as he pitch out and spring out the door, he grab he gun and he shoot the wolf at the same time. Bundayl Who don't believe that old-story is true, ask the captain of the longboat crew.

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Washington's third story, Tale 29, shows the same characteristics of logical development and complete exposition of the motifs, the use of conversational dialogues, and the reflection of Bahamian mores. The shock of the storyteller at Booky's advantage-taking of his aged in-laws is represented by the strong stress on "Him one!" The genre scene and greetings are entirely realistic and slightly tragi-comic. The revenge for such anti-social action is not as would be expected in a European story. The daughter and grandchildren of the old people are eaten by the wolf, while the guilty trickster goes free through another trick. Admittedly this is the nature of trickster tales, but not where there has been moralizing about his evil ways at the beginning of the story. This may be considered an inconsistency in the tale, though it seems more likely that the concept of using tales for moralizing is sufficiently alien so that the pointlessness of the retribution is simply overlooked. Certainly in its present form it reflects the world where the innocent suffer and tricksters go free, but there is no reason to read this interpretation into the storyteller's conscious intentions. There are similar examples in other stories (e.g., Tale 25, discussed above). In Washington's tale, for all the fantasy of the wolf in sheep's clothing, the farewell of the wife to her husband is genre and high comedy at the same time, when she says, "Ah well, M'Husband, me you never been part before, but anyway me and you going part now!" and he answers with incredible callousness, "Aye, I ain't your husband; see husband down there," and he points to the wolf waiting to devour her. Washington is perhaps the most completely traditional of the storytellers. His stories are completely realized, and employ a wide variety of stylistic effects. But these effects are only occasionally his personal and individual contributions; more often they are traditionally patterned responses for a fill-inthe-blank stylistic device. Washington has a strong reputation as a storyteller both at home and on contract. His stories are the ones to which all others are compared, except those of a few past masters who play fast and loose with the tradition to gain their effects. T A L E 3 5 : ELMENTAL SWEETING COMPANIONS: PASSWORD (DOOR): PASSWORD (HOUSE) HOUSE IN SKY: U N D E R B E D : PA SHINING Bundayt ["Bunday. Ay."] Once upon a time was a merry good time, cockero j u m p from bank to bank and he ten quarter never touch water. T i m e they used to take fish scale to shingle house, fish bone for nail. Now this was B'Booky, Strangle-Leg, and B'Big-Gut. Now, they know where one house is for plenty sugar and t'ings, [breathlessly:] sugar, lard and grits. Now they going this day in the house. When they get in the house, the house was go up in the air. When they get up, they say, let me see, um um [Joe J r . coaches him.] They say, "Open Babanja open." House open, they go up, say, " B a n j a go up so high, and he come down so low." House come down and they going inside. After they go, "Go up Kabanja, go up. Go up Banja, go up," and the house going up. When the Spirit come, with him he little daughter and t'ings. Spirit say, "Come down Banja, come down." T h e house come down. They go inside, s a y . . . . [he sniffs]. T h e man say, "Hmmm, I smell raw meat." After that the woman say, " M e tool" After that, B'Strangle-Leg pitch in the sugar bag, B'Booky pitch in the rice bag, and B'Big-Gut pitch in the grits bag. After that, when man going take all them bags, feel them in there. T a k e B'Strangle-Leg, fling him downstairs, he leg broke. [Narrator laughs.] Take B'Big-Gut, pitch him down stairs. Now they couldn't find Booky. Fast as they feed the little girl, Booky say, "Gi' me some, gi' me somel Gi' me some I"

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"EEEawayawawl" " G i ' me some, gi' me some, gi' me gi' me, gi' me some, gi' me some." Give the gal some, and the little gal say, "Mama I want more." Say, " W h a t this little gal eating so for?" He say, "And I got two pa, one underneath the bed and one on top of the bed." And the woman ain't paying no heed to that, and after that she going back, give the girl he food. Booky say [in urgent whisper], "Come on, gi' me some, gi' me some!" T h e gal give Booky some. After that, after that now, he going back to he ma. He ma ain't giving him more food. When he come, B'Booky was underneath the bed, and he say, "M"Wife, bring the hot water." T h a t time they had the water on the fire boiling, always, you know. When had the water boiling, dash on Booky. Booky spring underneath the bed, and the door was shut. Booky say [hysterically], "Uhhhhhhl Oh, Great Gollymee! Oh Great Gullymeel"—He can't say, "Oh Great God," you know—"Oh Great Gullymeel" He running, he knocking them down. Little gal say, "Look out, Man, all you got say is. "Open Kabanja." "Open Kabanja," and house open. And Booky run out, and Booky run out. And this girl see he pa, Booky come t'again. Girl say, " O h Mom, look at Daddy head, he head shine like a dollar," the gal say. T h e n he say, "Don't you say to me now, my damn head hurts me enough. I going kill you yet!" And gal run back. T h a t was end of the story.

4.Elmental Sweeting is the fifteen-year-old brother of Washington, but he had been raised for the last five years in the home of his uncle, Harford "Joe" Rolle, in Grant's Town. Thus he has a better education, reads and writes with ease, and has more social poise than his elder brother. Elmental's stories introduce different motifs, particularly that of the "Companions" in Tale 35, and thus provide a significantly different flavor even though otherwise made up of common Booky-Rabby motifs. Each companion's name-characteristic, such as "B'Big Gut," is worked into the story in place of the known characteristics of Booky and Rabby. Otherwise the story must be classed somewhere between the children's style with its reliance on catch phrases such as "Great Gullymee," "Open Kabanja," and "He head shine like a dollar," and its lack of coherent exposition, and on the other hand the style of New Providence with its mention of imports such as lard, and the "gag-line" ending. T A L E 3 3 : ELMENTAL SWEETING DIVING F O R BANANAS Once upon a time, was a merry good time, cuckero jump from bank to bank and ten quarter never touch water sun was set. Now this was a time, was B'Booky and B"Rabby. B'Booky know where one banana tree is, and he carry Rabby to it. After that, when he got there—he couldn't look up, you know, he only have to look down—when he say, say, "Why Broh-man, I ain't see no banana tree no more." Say, " O n e musta cut it." So B'Rabby ain't say nothing. B'Rabby tell Booky, "Dive in the water, and see if you can get food." He see the shadow, but he couldn't look up, and when he dive down, say, "See, he going down, got a shadow." He say, " I going bring it yet!" Anyhow, he say, " T r y once more." He going down, he bump he head, coming back. He say, "Broh, I hurt my head that time." And he going down again. He ain't see Booky, he only see him float. And that was the end of the story, and B'Rabby cut the banana and carry it home and eat it. E Bo Ben, my story is end.

Elmental's second story, Tale 33, is based on only one motif, "Diving for Bananas," which is more frequently used by other narrators as the denouement for a series of other motifs. The length is similar to the New Providence tales but the rest of the story shows its Behring Point ancestry in the use of "Broh," the formulae, and the children's style of rapid narration.

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5. Uriah Sweeting, a ten-year-old brother of Washington, Elmental, and Mercedes, had lived with his uncle in Nassau for five years. He is a nervous, excitable boy with an asthmatic condition which makes his delivery extremely breathy and hard to understand. But he is fond of telling stories, and conquered his shyness with great effort to be able to record. On one occasion Josh apologized for Uriah's story as being "no-taste," but only after the boy had left. T A L E 3 6 : URIAH SWEETING PASSWORD (DOOR): U N D E R B E D : EYES SHINE: F R U I T D R O P P I N G Bunday. Once a time, it's a merry good time ["Talk loud," J o e J r . says.] Uh, B'Booky and B'Rabby going to the Spirit house, going to cook, cook, find all the Spirit food. T h e Spirit come. [Stuttering:] B'B'B'B'Booky going, leave B'Rabby there. [Washington says, "What that?"] Rabby going, he see Spirit come, going to the door saying, "Open Kabanja, open Kabanja, open Kabanja." It don't open. Say, "Open Kabanja, open Kabanja, open Kabanja." T h e Spirit come, "Open Kabanja." Door open. B'Booky run underneath the bed. Come now. T h e wife say, "M'Husband, it look like somebody been cooking here." Then going, Booky going under the bed. T h e Spirit wife cook, he gi' the Spirit, he give he husband he food. Now Booky underneath the bed. Little goil come, sit down against the bed, on the ground. "Little gal, little gal, gee'ee some, gi' me some." Little gal gee'im some. "Gee'ee some more." Little gal gee'im some. Goil gee'im some till all done. T h e gal going back for more. After that done the gal start singing, " I got two pa, one underneath the bed, and he eye shine like a dollar. I got two pa, one 'neath the bed, and he eye shine like a dollar." And woman look under the bed, see Booky there. "Hot water, M'Husband, hot water, hot water! Hot water, hot water, hot water!" Booky run round and round. "Open Kabanja, open Kabanj', open Kabanj', open Kabanja, open Kabanja, open Kabanja." They scald him with hot water. He moving around, then they open the door for him going outside. He going 'neath a dilly tree. He see dilly tree shaking, and he couldn't see B'Rabby up in dilly tree. He had most full and young dilly throw down on he head. " G o d likee me." Dilly strike he head. "God likee me." Green dilly hit he head, Boom! "Great God, God hatee m e ! " Another dilly hit he head. "God hatee me." Ay. Bunday! T h a t the end. ["Bunday."]

Tale 36 is a prime example of children's style at its most simplified. All the expected quotes and catch phrases are present, but many of the connective narratives are missing, so that the story is barely comprehensible unless it is known beforehand. This of course is the situation when the Bahamian child makes his first attempts at narration. During the telling of this tale Josh held the boy between his knees to give him confidence, and joked with him to relax him. Nearly all of Uriah's stories use the commonest Behring Point motifs, and show little New Providence influence as yet. The difficulties in understanding Uriah's tales are almost as great for non-Andros Bahamians who do not know the motifs as for foreigners unfamiliar with the dialect. Mercedes aided in the transcription of these stories, but made no pretense of expecting them to make literary sense when written down. She pointed out that nearly every story recorded in the area has lines that don't make sense, or nonsequiturs in the plot, or use of the wrong characters' names or references. She explained that since nearly everyone knows the tales to one degree or another, he automatically corrects as he hears. Also, since the stories have never been written down before, these small mistakes or confusions are barely noticed. Thus there is no evidence that these mistakes are an appreciable force for change in form or style in the Bahamas, since they are not consciously noted by narrators or audience, and since they do not by their nature influence the motifs themselves.

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T A L E 76: JOE ROLLE, JR. MOCK SUNRISE: PASSWORD (DOOR): HOUSE IN SKY: EYES SHINE Bunday! Cuckero j u m p from bank to bank, and never touch a quart of water. T h e n one time, this was man, one man had one cow. And B'Devil and B'Rabby used to go inside this cow every morning and take out plenty meat to cook. So B'Devil and B'Rabby used to go there every time. T h i s day B'Booky say, "Booky [Rabby], where you getting all these meat from?" But Rabby say, " I getting these meat of one cow." He say, "Want me and you going there tomorrow?" B'Devil say, "Yeah." B'Booky come up on the man house, "Kookarookoo," and big tub on the man house. "Oh B'Booky, get down off my house. Ain't day clean yet." "Yes, man, is day clean. Kookarookoo!" Crowing, "Koo koo, koo koo." " I say get down off my house. Ain't that clear yet." After the day dean, they going, they going. Say, "Open Kabanya, open Kabanya, open." Going inside, eat, cooking the meat off a cow, And Jack, B'Rabby tell the Devil, say, " M ' [unintelligible] you better make it so for after we come [i.e„ leave some for next time]." B'Devil so greedy, going, cutting any meat out of the cow, until the cow drop down dead. B'Devil can't get out. So the Master come to feed the cow. "Oh, what happen to my cow." T h e man cut open he cow, he see B'Devil eyes shine, shine. He tie B'Devil up in the roof, and get a big, long tamerind switch, and beat B'Devil, beat the B'Devil till he become sore, sore, sore. "Oh Lord Lord Lord. Oh Lord Lord Lord. T h e man going beat me." B'Rabby laughing at him. B'Rabby tells he, " I tells you, Sir, you're too greedy. You going cut too much meat till the cow going fall down." "Man, you ain't tell me that." B'Rabby say, " I know I tell you that." And the man say, " T h e next time you go in my cow and kill my cow again, I going put you in prison." And that's the end of my story. Bunday. T A L E 121: JOE ROLLE, JR. PASSWORD ( R I V E R ) : T H E F T OF B U T T E R : F R U I T D R O P P I N G Bundayl ["AyI"] Now, now this was the time, B'Booky and B'Rabby. Now this time B'Booky say, " I going in the field." So B'Booky was so greedy. They have to cross a river to reach cross to the next part to reach the field. So this day they went. A sign was there on the next side, onto the side where they was. So B'Rabby say, "You see this sign here? T h i s sign say, 'Tide, go down so low, tide go down so low, till it touch the ground.'" So the tide went down, and they went cross. And when they pass back, they started say, "Tide, go down so low, tide, go down so low, till it touch the ground now." Now, now excuse me. [Laughter.] You know, you know what B'Rabby say, say, "You see how this going down nice, and you know what to say now." Say, " T i d e , go up so high, tide go up so high, till it touch the sky." It went up. It went up so high till it touch the sky. Now they went in the field. They find, they found a kittle of butter. Now B'Booky say, "Let's start working now, let's start working." B'Rabby was so tired, he went sleep, and B'Booky was playing sleep on B'Rabby. So B'Booky get up and eat all the butter, and leave none for B'Rabby. When B'Rabby get up, he say, B'Bra, B'Bra, where's the butter?" He say, "Man, I don't know where the butter, Man. You got the butter on you." "You too got the butter. You too got a butter." So all went sleep. This time, about six o'clock, they come back home, tide was high. They start singing, " T i d e go down so low, tide go down so low, till it touch the ground." It went down, it went down and they cross back on it, and was going on to say, " T i d e go up so high, tide go up so high till he touch the sky." It went up, it went up so high till it touch the sky. Now they going up, tell they boys they's nothing to eat. Now this day, now this day, they trying to look for something to eat, but they can't find. Rabby say, "I'll find something to eat. I'll find something to eat. I going up in a dilly tree." So B'Booky went too. B'Rabby went up, in the tree, B'Booky stay down on the ground. Rabby found plenty dilly. He pick one green dilly and hit him in the head. Say, "Ooh," say, "M'Bra, come here! Man, Wooo ooo, God like me so." Bomm, hit him in he head. He say, "Ooooo, God like me so." When he come down, B'Booky going up. When B'Booky going up, B'Booky hit him

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/ Could Talk Old-Story Good

in he head, Bopl Bopl Say, "Bra, what you mean, Bra? You mean to hit me for true?" Say, "111 catch you." So they went home, and nothing again to eat. When B'Rabby reach home, he meet his wife cooking. And when B'Booky go home, his wife, he see him coming, nothing to eat. So his wife get a piece of club-stake [dub-steak?] and lick him in he head. He fall down, say, "What you mean by me, M"Wife, what you mean by me, to hit me?" And she says, "You know why I hit you, cause you ain't bring nothing to eat this time." So they went back, and they went back, went back to the field. And when they went back to the field, they ain't meet nothing. So that's the end of my story.

6. Joe Rolle Jr. is the twelve-year-old son of Harford "Joe" Rolle, Sr., and had been raised by his father's wife, Jane, along with his cousins Elmental and Uriah, and his "outside" half-brother, Marlborough. Jane also is raising in the same house her twelve-year-old son by a previous "sweetheart." Joe is extremely enthusiastic and eager to tell stories, and was among the most cooperative in rounding up other boys to talk or riddle, setting up the recording equipment, handling the electrical supply, and obeying our every request with alacrity. While every Bahamian will promise to do anything requested, he will comply only when and if it pleases him. Thus, although many narrators promised to tell original tales, written tales, versions of the Italian cumulative tale, or to retell particular tales, Joe Jr. was one of the very few to respond. Unfortunately, Joe Jr.'s style is only slightly developed beyond the minimal children's style of Uriah. He can almost always manage to keep his audience's attention, but this against no little odds, since he has a bad stammer. This stammer never causes embarrassment to him or to his audience, and it was never mentioned by anyone. He uses repetitive sounds such as "Koo Koo Koo," "Oh Lord Lord Lord" with telling effect in Tale 76, and the motifs are a little more logically developed than in Uriah's tales. In Tale 121 he gets ahead of his narration, excuses himself, and gets a laugh from his audience through it. He uses the B'Bra form which occurred in Andrew's Tale 175, and such strange sounds as "Woooo oooo," "Uuuuuu," and "Bopl Bopl" He tries a pun when Booky's wife licks him with a "club-stake" or "club-steak," a term he may have learned from his stepmother, who lived in the United States for two years and is now employed as a cook in a foreign household in Nassau. His several non-BookyRabby tales illustrate special problems and will be discussed later. T A L E 1 9 0 : PANSY NOTTAGE PASSWORD (HOUSE): PASSWORD (DOOR): HOUSE IN SKY: MOCK SUNRISE COMPANIONS: DRUM T A L K : UNDER BED Bunday. This a time, a merry good time, bullfrog jump from bank to bank till he never touch water. [Josh tells her, "Talk loud."] This a time, a merry good time, bullfrog jump from bank to bank, till he never touch a quart of water. Now this was B'Booky and B'Rabby. B'Booky say to B'Rabby, say, "Man, I going to look for livelihood." B'Rabby say, "Man, I ain't going no place, cause I hungry." He say, " I going go lay down and go sleep." B'Rabby get he dray, and he going, and he carry he dray out in the wilderness. He see a clear place and he see a big tree. And he went underneath this tree. He say, "Hone, now, don't kick it. Don't do nothing, don't sneeze." Horse keep still. When he hear, he hear a rolling coming, came from the west. When he came, he see these load of people. They was B'Spirit standing up there. He look up in the air, he say, "Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, and he come down boom bvet" T h e house come on the ground. They going in. He say, "Shut, Kabanja, shut." He say, "Mary come up so low, Mary come up so

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75

low, Mary come up so low, and he come up boom byel" So when them going up there, they cook and they eat, and they gi' the children the food, and they say, "Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, and he come down boom bye!" He say, "Open Kabanja open." All of them come out the house. He say, "Mary come up so low, Mary come up so low, Mary come up so low, and he come up boom bye!" T h e house going up in the air, and the Spirit them went down the west. So B'Rabby come out of the bush. He say to B'Rabby, he going and he say, "Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, and he come down boom byel" He say, "Open Kabanja open." And the house open, and he take out rice, flour, grits, lard, pork, salt, beef, everything out the house. He full up he dray, and he going home. And after he went home, he see B'Booky little boy coming. He say, "B'Booky," he say, "Son," he say, "come." He say, "Where your Daddy?" He say [in piping voice], "Well Daddy home laying down. He say he hongry. He say he can't come out." He tell him, "Carry this half a sack of flour there. Tell him to knead some bread for him and he children and he wife." So the little boy carry the flour home. He stand up, and he tell he wife, and he knead all the whole sack of flour. And he wife and he knead a whole sack of flour. After he knead a whole sack of flour, he went and he bake the bread. B'Booky eat all the bread, and all he children and he wife hungry, ain't gi' em none. He going, he say, "Well, Man, Booky, where that place is? You show me that place now. I going there right now." He say, " I hongry." Say, " I going there right now." Say, "Show me that place. You ought carry me where that place is." And B'Booky going out in the east. After B'Booky went out in the east, he built up one big old fire, building this fire, fast fire. Build. Going up to Rabby door. Say "Rabby," say, Booky say, "day clean, day clean. Man, come, get up, get up! Come, let's go. Come, let's go." Rabby say to Booky, say, "You may as well go home, Man," he say. "Stop building a fire in the east, and let me take my night rest till morning." Say, " I f you don't stop that," say, " I ain't going give you nothing." Say, " I ain't going carry you that spot where it is." When morning come, Booky, Rabby, B'Strangle-Leg, B'Big-Gut, and B'Big-Eye, he say, "Well Man, B'Booky, you got to carry me too, cause my pa me done dead, got nothing, we hongry, we, everybody hongry." Everybody get in the dray, going. Now they going, going, going, with the horse. Rabby say to Booky, Booky say to Rabby, say, "Rabby," say, "Man, when we going get to this place, eh? Where it, eh?" B'Strangle-Leg say, "Man, I tired now. I going. I ready to turn back right now." B'Strangle-Leg say, "Man, me never was so tired. Me going back, me going right home right now." And they going. After they reach to this big tree, they went to this big tree, and they sit underneath it. B'Booky say, "Man, Rabby, what you underneath this tree for? This where you get the flour?" He say, " I don't see nothing here." He hear that roll from the vest [west]. When he hear that roll from the west, he say, "Well Man, Booky, what's that?" He say, "Shhhh." He say, "Hush hush," he say, "they going hear you," say, "and they going catch us." After that, they come, the Spirit them come. He say, "Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, and he come down boom bye!" He say, "Open Kabanja open." Rabby say to Booky, say, "What's that?" He say, "Shhhh!" He say, "You don't say nothing." He say, "Wait," he say "wait." Then he say, "Mary come up so high, Mary come up so high, Mary come up so high, and he come up boom bye!" Then he say [breathlessly], " T h e house going up in the air, Rabby!" Rabby say to man, "Booky," say, "hush your mouth." He say, "How you going get anything like that?" Say, " T h e y going know we here." Damn, they going up there and they eat. T h e Spirit them come back down in the west, in the west, and the house went back up in the air. Rabby and B'Booky and B'Strangle-Leg and B'Big-Gut, they come outside and Rabby call the house down, he say [spoken, not sung], "Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, Mary come down so low, and he come down boom bye!" T h e house coming. B'Rabby say to B'Booky, say, "Man, I going cook!" "Man, B'Booky," say, "you better get your things and come out these people house," he say, "and let's go." He say, " I f you stay in this house," he say, "you going to get catched." B'Rabby loading up he dray and carry everything what he need and going home. And he say, "Booky," say, "when time for this house to come down," say, "say 'Mary come down so low till he come down, boom bye,' " he say, "and say, 'Open, Kabanja, open.' " Damn, they going up there and they cook, they eat their belly full. Everyljody eat their belly full. They hit, beat the little drum. He say, he say, "Ping ping ping ping, eat your belly full, go long.

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go long. Ping ping ping ping, eat your belly full, go long, go long." He say, he beat the big bass drum. He say, "Boom boom. Eat your belly full, lay down, lay down. Boom!" Booky say, "Heyll" say, "that's what we need." Say, "That's what we need." He say, "Eat your belly full," he say "lay down, lay down." They eat they belly full. Now they hear this rolling from the west and now they want get out of these people house. Booky, R a b b y . . . B'Booky say, "Shut, Kabanja shut. Shut, Kabanja shut. Shut Kabanja shut. Shut Kabanja shut." T h e door just squinching [creaking], the door just squinching. Can't get out. In the house then, the Spirit them come in the house, reach down the ground. They went inside. Booky going underneath the bed. B'Strangle-Leg going in a barrel of biscuits. One going in a barrel of sugar. Say, one going in the barrel of flour. He say . . . Booky underpeath the bed. "They cook," he say, the Spirit say. T h e woman say, "Somebody been in my house." Man, say, the other man say, Spirit man say, "No," say, "They ain't nobody been in here," say. "Don't have those kind of things in your mind." Say, "Ain't nobody been in here." They cook and they eat, and the little girl going underneath the bed to eat he food. Booky meet the little gal. He say, "Gi' me some, yes? Gi' me some." He eat that. He say, "Gi' me some, hear, gi' me some." He say [high, babyish voice], "Well Mama, I want more food." Then he say, "Well I don't know why this child eating so much." He say, "Gi' me some, gi' me some." He eat all the child food. He say, "Mama I want more food." "Well, my my!" he say, " I don't know why this child eating so." He say, "Well Mama, you know, I got two pa, one on top of the bed and one underneath the bed." He say, the woman say, "Whatl" He say, " I got two pa, one on top of the bed and one underneath the bed." So then he say, going underneath the bed. When he look, Booky eye shine like dollar. Booky eyes shine like a silver dollar. Then he say, "M'Husband, put on a pot!" He say, he say, "Do, Mister, spare me!" he say. "Listen to me, I going tell you something, hear." He say, "Ain't me one here. B'Strangle-Leg here, B'BigGut and B'Big-Eye here." He say, "Well, one in the barrel of biscuit, one in the barrel of flour, one in the barrel of sugar." Say, " T a k e em out." Damn, the house up in the air now. They score B'Booky, they beat him with switch, and throw B'Booky down from up there on the ground. He scald him right up. He all scald up. He throw B'Strangle-Leg down, and B'Strangle-Leg leg broke. B'Big-Gut, he gut bust. B'Big-Eye, he eye, pop out he eye. Throw all of them downstairs. They going. When Booky little boy meet him, he say, "Well, Mama," he say. He say, "Look at Daddy," he say, "he's trickling down with gold." He say, "That's lost blood." He say, "Well Boy, if I'll catch you there," he say, "what I'll do with you." I going, and I say, "Oh Booky," I say, "if I was you, I woulda full up my dray, get my tail, and go." And when Booky dart at me, I fart, and sit down here, tell this big great lie. Biddy Biddy Ben, my story is end. I'll never tell a lie like that again. 7. Pansy

Nottage

is a twenty-year-old-girl w h o lives n e a r t h e h o m e o f H a r f o r d

" J o e " R o l l e a n d is " k i n " t o h i m , h a v i n g b e e n b o r n in B e h r i n g P o i n t . S h e has l i v e d in G r a n t ' s T o w n m o s t o f h e r life, a n d w o r k s in a small s h o p . She is a tall, J u n o esque girl w i t h s m o o t h b l a c k skin a n d

flashing

t e e t h a n d eyes. H e r f a c e s e e m s

u n u s u a l l y m o b i l e a m o n g t h e t a c i t u r n B a h a m i a n s , a n d she acts o u t e a c h p a r t w i t h face, voice, a n d s i m p l e gestures, a n d w i t h a n a n c i e n t f e d o r a c o c k e d o v e r h e r eye. She is a g o o d s t o r y t e l l e r a n d k n o w s it, a i m i n g h e r stories p a r t i c u l a r l y t o w a r d t h e o l d e r c h i l d r e n in t h e a u d i e n c e . She was e n c o u n t e r e d o n l y d u r i n g t h e last w e e k o f t h e s e c o n d field trip, o r she w o u l d b e r e p r e s e n t e d by m o r e stories i n t h e c o l l e c tion. She uses a l o n g series o f m o t i f s in Tale

190 b u t they a r e well i n t e g r a t e d a n d f u l l

o f o f t e n - r e p e a t e d songs a n d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c a t c h phrases o f t h e B e h r i n g

Point

a d u l t style. L i k e W a s h i n g t o n , she i n c l u d e s all t h e n a r r a t i o n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m a k e s a c o m p l e t e , logical tale. H e r a d d i t i o n s a r e a l s o o n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n , a n d o c c u r w h e r e e x p e c t e d , as in t h e " a s i d e " o f t e l l i n g t h e h o r s e n o t t o sneeze, i n

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the song ending "and he come down Boom Bye," or in her version of "Drum Talk." Her formulaic ending occurs in Parsons' collection, but only rarely in the contemporary stories. She makes the most of it with her infectious laugh which seems to be the secret of her hold on her audience. She is the finest actress among the Behring Point people, and her stories are fully realized, though perhaps less original in detail than those of Mercedes. Josh says of her, "She could talk old-story good." T A L E 1 6 2 : ANITA BAIN PASSWORD ( R I V E R ) : PASSWORD (HOUSE): HOUSE IN SKY: D R U M T A L K : PASSWORD (DOOR): R E F U G E E S ON R O O F Now this was B'Booky and B'Rabby. B'Booky one day said, "B'Rabby, Man, I have a house." Say, "Let's go up and have a good feast." This house was up in the air, and you had to sing it down. So B'Booky, he can't wait for the morning to come. He went that night and caught a fire from the East. He said [high tone], "B'Booky, B'Booky, Man, sun rising! Come, let's go." So he said, " I f you don't get down off house I'll shoot you down." So he went, and he going back to sleep. T h e other morning those two went up there. They sing the house down. When he reach in, start cooking rice, grits, flour, tobacco, all kind of things he were cooking. So when he done eat B'Booky said, "Man, I have to go now." Say, " I can write out the sing for you, and you could sing the house down." So he write out the sing, said, "Now when you want to come down, say, 'Finley come down so low.' " When B'Booky done get he belly full, he saw two drums there. He knock one, " B o m Bom Bom, when your belly full, go home." Hoist that one up. Going to the other one, " B o m Bom Bom, when your belly full, go lay down." He say, "Ahh, now I like you." So when he going, lay down. Now time for him to come home. He can't read, so he start singing. T h e sing was, "Finley go up so high, Finley Kendalie, Finley go up so high, Finley Kendalie." He can't understand that. He start saying, "Finley go cross somehow, Finley Kendalie. Finley go cross somehow, Finley Kendalie." Now it time for the Spirit them to come. They been out on the farm. When the Spirit them come, they sing the house down. "Finley come down so low, Finley Kendalie. Finley come down so low, Finley Kendalie." Say, "Kononie come seel" That's for the door to open up. So when they reach in, the little girl and her daddy then went in. They cook, and they eat. When they were eaten their fill, the little man, B'Rabby being underneath the bed. T h e little girl were eating out in the front. He say, "Gi' me some I Gi' me some!" So when he took all of that, she got some more. He ask her for the same thing. So after she finish, she said [in baby-doll style], "Paaaapuh! I have two paaaapuh, one in the bed and one underneath the bed. He eyes shine like a dollahl" When the Spirit look up under the bed, he grab him out and threw him through the window. When he reach the ground, out from the sky now, when he reach the ground, he start running He met up with some lions. Well, he kill up some of them, and one being behind him. He start running, going home. When he reach most home, his wife start. He say, "M'Wife and children, take roof, take roof!" So she come out with the big dishpan [very high squealing tone], " W h a t do you say, bring the pan for the little liver?" Say, "You stop woman, bring the pan for the liver!" So when he reach in the house, all the little small children them around two years or other, be up on the house roof hanging down with they legs hanging down. So when the lion being up under they, the little girl, baby girl said, "Daddy, I tired." He say, " I ain't your Daddy. See your Daddy down there." [Narrator laughs.] She drop. T h e lion eat her up. So when she get tired, she say, "My Husband, I tired." He say, " I ain't your husband. See you husband down there." He eat her up. T h e n he was the last. He said, "Now B'Lion, I's a big old man." Say, "Got to open your mouth wide for me." And he have all salts, and pepper and everything mashed right up. And he put in that lion's mouth, and that lion went out coughing. And I been there, and I say, "Ahh, you know me, and I ain't lion [lying] either." [Screams of appreciation.]

8. Anita Bain is Pansy's sixteen-year-old cousin, and like her, a native of Behring Point raised in New Providence. Her style is strikingly similar to her cousin's, and

78

I Could Talk Old-Story

Good

to other Behring Point-New Providence girls such as Martita Wells. Her motifs are familiar, her style concise but complete, and her special effects gained mostly through dialogue, original or unusual songs like "Finley Kendalie," and a broad acting style as when she calls "Paaaapuh!" in the squeaky manner of a baby doll. She accompanied this with a stiff bow from the hips, hands on hips, elbows forward, fingers delicately extended, like a cross between a doll and a French maid. She uses the New Providence ending, a "gag" line, in Tale 162, when she finishes a lion story by adding "I ain't lion (lying) either." She is just as successful in audience rapport as Pansy Nottage. 9. Alfred Bowe is a forty-eight-year-old grave digger and fisherman of Behring Point who was brought to New Providence by Harford "Joe" Rolle so that his tales could be recorded. He is considered the best storyteller in Behring Point, and is the source of most of Josh's stories and stylistic ideas. He is a wild-eyed, rum-sodden little man with a shambling gait and what seems to be incipient leprosy. As gravedigger he is at the bottom of Bahamian society, but his stories are so good that he is accepted as a charge of the community, and he and his family are kept from want largely by his wife's relatives, who are "kin" to the Rolle-Sweeting families. Alfred's style is the extreme of improvization, using motifs merely for the laughgetting situations they provide. He is scatological, lewd, or sometimes subtly suggestive as the occasion and subject demand, but sexual peccadillos are his hallmark. His style is thus strikingly similar to that of the Siberian miller, Ananyev, studied by Asadowskij (p. 36, cited by Thompson, 1946: 452). He sings, hums, dances, acts out scenes with a member of the audience, uses properties from his pocket, ogles girls, makes asides, and in general monopolizes his audience's attention. He is the most spectacular and theatrical of the narrators in this collection, with a creativity so rich that it borders on the decadent in its fragmentation of the story forms. A story by Alfred, No. 88, is included in the discussion of "original" tales later in this chapter. O U T ISLANDS NARRATORS BOOKY-RABBY TALES

This group of storytellers comprises natives of all the Bahama Islands except New Providence Island and the settlement of Behring Point on Andros Island. By far the greatest number of them come from the settlements on the eastern shore of Andros north and south of Behring Point. This bears out the theory previously suggested, that Andros Island has a richer folktale tradition than any other island. More Andros people tell stories; there is wider variation in the handling of thematic material, and more virtuosity in storytelling styles. The Booky-Rabby tales upon which this study is based contain examples of four informants in this group, two from Staniard Creek, Andros, one from Mastic Point, Andros, and one from Crown Haven, Abaco. Interestingly enough, there are no other examples of Booky and Rabby stories in all the present tales recorded from Eleutherians, Exumians, Berry or Cat Islanders, Inaguans, or other Out Islanders.

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This suggests that these animal tales are something of a specialty among Andros people, especially since the incidence of them among contract workers from Out Islands and the lone Abaconian can be explained by diffusion during their sojourns in New Providence, where the stories are also popular. If this is the case, then there are significant differences in the thematic material available in the various islands, and the stories are not "of a Bahaman rather than of a merely local character," as Parsons believed (p. x). Basing her opinion on the collection of Edwards from Green Turtle Cay, Harbour Island, and Bimini twenty years before, she admitted that "it is quite possible that variants may have developed . . . and become characteristic of any one island" (p. x), and expressed the desire that further collections such as this one would be made to test her hypothesis. T A L E 5 2 : RANDOLPH HAD LEY T H E F T O F B U T T E R : T E S T BY SUN: PLAYING H O R S E T h i s was two monkey one day, B'Booky and B'Rabby. Now this was two B'Rabby together. Now they going, two of them going to the farm today, you know. So this day they find this case of butter, so now the two of them going out now. Oh, they going out in the woods. So B'Rabby say, after they find it, "B'Booky, B'Booky!" Say, " W h a t it is, Man?" Say, " I find a case of butter." Say, "Yeah." Say, "Let's carry it home." Say, "Alright Man, let's carry it home." So they carry it home. So this day, they keep to going up this real high hill, they see a house. B'Booky tell B'Rabby, say, "Man, I see a house!" So B'Rabby-man say, "Let's go there." So they going to this house. They meet two nice looking goil. So now B'Rabby get in love with the best looking goil, so B'Booky get mad. "Man, alway where you go, you get the best looking woman." So this day the two of them going back home now. T h e two of them laying down, playing big. So Rabby say B'Booky tell B'Rabby, say, "Let me go hunting today." So the two of them go hunting. B'Booky toin back, B'Booky toin back short and going back home. He eat up all the butter, out of the box. Now when B'Rabby come, aks him. "Man, where the butter?" "Man, the butter right there." He say, "No, Man, ain't no butter here." He say, " T h e box is empty." He say, " M a n , " say, " i t me." Say, " I f you think I eat the butter, let the two of we go outside in the sun." Say, " I f I eat the butter, the butter'U drain out of me, and if you eat the butter, the butter'll drain out of you." So now the two of them going up in the sun. Boy, and cock up in a sun. T h e sun bright and hot. T h i s butter start running from B'Booky. Doggone! T h e butter start running, you know. B'Rabby say, " M a n , B'Booky, you eat the butter!" Say, "No, so help me God, I ain't eat the butter." Say, " T h a t ' s a little bit of butter I eat." [Laughter by narrator.] " E h B'Booky!" B'Rabby say, "No, Man." Say, "B'Booky, you eat the butter." "Man, so help me God, if I eat that butter," say, "that butter'll run from me. That's the butter I eat." B'Rabby say, "No, Man, if that the butter you eat, it'll run from you the same way." So the next day he didn't say nothing about the butter no more. So now B'Rabby going to play a trick on B'Booky, so he going to play sick now. He toin out and go to these two gal house. Rabby going, lay down on the bed. [Snoring:] "Nnnn nnn." "Man, B'Booky, come! Man, let's go up to the gal house." "Man, I got pain in my belly." Say, "Man, I going tote you." He say, "All right," he say, " I going try to make it." So he put B'Rabby on top he head, start going, start going, start going. B'Booky playing a trick on him. Fall down. He say, " M a n , " say, "why don't you try to keep up?" Say, "You know that thing what is put on top of anim' [animals], what that thing name?" "Damn fool, damn fool, why don't say 'saddle, saddle.'" Get a saddle, start started. He say, " M a n , " B'Rabby say, " I can't keep in the saddle like this." Say, " W h a t that thing is, you put to the mouth?" "Damn fool, damn fool, why don't you say, 'bit, bit, bit.' " So he get a bit and he gi' it to him. Say, "Man, I can't keep on the saddle like this." Say, "Ain't nothing for me to keep my feet up on." Say, "Damn fool, why don't say 'stirrup, stirrup.' " Get the stirrup. Say, "What be that thing what is hold in the hand, you know, when you driving the horse?" "Damn fool, why don't say, 'whip, whip, w h i p . ' " Now he get a whip. Get a whip now, they going up.

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They going up this high hiil. Now when they reach, when they going over the hill, now this is the place where he want him j u m p off he back. So B'Rabby done win and tell the gal, say, "B'Booky," say, "Father carrying the horse." So now they going. Boy, when they reach up on the top of the hill, B'Booky looking for B'Rabby to come out, and B'Rabby never stop until they reach the house. Well, when they reach to the house, he tie B'Booky now on the outside. He say, "See now, that's my father carried a horse," say. And there B'Booky broke off with, he broke down every house he meet in sight of it, and that's Bunday, that's the end.

1. Randolph Hadley is an eighteen-year-old ex-jockey who was slightly crippled when thrown from a horse during a race at Hobby Horse Hall, the Nassau race track. This experience seems to have embittered him, so that his conversation consists in boasting about his great races and his alleged success at gambling, and in his sarcastic depreciation of the conversations of others. His personality type is uncommon among the polite, pompous, elegantly spoken Bahamians, so that his barbs are ignored and he is avoided. These characteristics show in his Tale 52 where the animals lie down "playing big," in the long and ill-tempered argument over the theft of butter, and in the disgust shown by Booky at Rabby's pretended ignorance of the words to describe the parts of a saddle. T h e unusual combining of the "Theft of Butter" and "Test by Sun" motifs with that of "Rabby Makes Booky His Horse" is logical enough, though none are developed clearly. The appeal of the story lies in the conversations between the participants, and since the audience knows the story well, there is really no need for clear exposition. Thus Hadley relies on the same technique as the Behring Point children, the stringing together of catch phrases, though he injects his personality into them to a striking degree. Hadley is the son of Hezekiah Hadley, the contract worker who recorded Tale 113, "Jack and the Yellowtail Girl," in Princeton, Florida. This story is dissimilar to his son's, being a theme recorded nowhere else among contemporary Bahamians. Both father and son do use conversation to advance their plots, but this is a fairly wide-spread technique. T A L E 1 4 8 : MAXWELL BROOK PEAS IN H A T Once upon a time was a merry old time. T h e monkey chew tobacco and he spit white lime. Bullfrog jump from bank to bank, till he n e v e r . . . till he never touch water, ten q u a r t e r s . . . . [A very shy boy began this nominy, but when he faltered, the older and bolder Maxwell Brook took over the narration.] Now this was B'Booky and B'Rabby. Booky go in the field, he t'iefs the man corn. Mr. Cornbread tell him, "Don't go in the field." Rabby say, "Booky, don't go in the man field." Now Booky still go in the field. T i m e , Miss [Mister] Combread, that day he set a trap for Booky. Booky going, sneaking to t'ief the corn. Miss Cornbread see him. Miss Cornbread set he dog after him. Dog bring him back by h e . . . by he pants. Now Mr. Combread say, " I tell you don't go in my field." Booky say, " Y e a h . " " D a m n , " he say, "stay here till I come back out town and let me meet everything clean u p . " T i m e , he had some dumpling in the pot. [Laughter.] While Mr. Combread was gone, Booky full up he hat with the dumpling. When Mr. Combread come back, he ales Booky what happen to the dumpling. Booky say, " I don't know what happen to It, I was in the yard sweeping." T i m e he say, "Well why you sweating so much?" He say, " I ' m a healthy man, always sweating." And when he tear off Booky hat, all the dumpling fall down. And then he give Booky a good beating, and that's how Booky get honest.

2. Maxwell Brook is a thirteen-year-old schoolboy who was born and raised in Staniard Creek, Andros, but has moved to Nassau for a year to attend school. His

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first story, Tale 148, about the hiding of stolen dumplings in a hat has a character called Mr. Cornbread, who never occurs elsewhere in this collection, although he is similar to such "Companions" as "B'Big Gut," or "B'Graybeard." The motif was also recorded from Wellin Dixon, a contract worker from Cat Island (Tale 111), and from Andrew Albury of Behring Point (Tale 202). In Brook's version, Booky is the thief rather than the Devil, and there are dumplings rather than peas in the hat. Even so, the theft is discovered by the excess "sweating" of the thief. The idiom and pronunciation "to t'ief" is used in both stories and throughout the West Indies as far south as Trinidad. T A L E 1 5 3 : MAXWELL BROOK

PASSWORD (HOUSE): HOUSE IN SKY: UNDER BED Now B'Booky and B'Rabby went to this house. House was Say, "When you say, 'Come down,' well, it does come down. House come down. Try catch that." Now this time the Spirit, he wife and he little girl went out, and B'Booky going to the house. "Come down, the house, come down." The house come down. Booky going up. He going up in the house. He say, "Go up, house, go up." House going up with Booky. Booky going, eat food out the pot. Now he see...when he hear, "Come down, my house, come down," look, house start coming down. He hide under the bed, hide under the bed. Then Father Spirit say, "Somebody's in the house," and he say, "take him for dinner. Take him for dinner." The little girl chair was right by the bed. Now every time he start begging her, "Gi' me some, gi' me some." Now, give him some. Start, "Gi' me some, gi' me some." Girl give him some again. Time, call out dinner was finish. Time she say, "Mother, give me some more dinner please." Gi' her some more. "Gi' me some, gi' me some." Give him some more. "Gi' me some, gi' me some." Time aks her mother for more dinner again. And she say, "You eating plenty dinner today, child. What wrong with you?" Time she say, "Because I have two pa. Father, one underneath the bed and one top of the bed." Time his father say, "Child, say that again." And say, "I have two father, one on top of the bed and one under the bed." And he going, he get he hot water, he hot it. Time, get he hot water, he hot it, dead red. Red red redl Time, going, raise up the blanket, he juke B'Rabby in he eye. Time B'Rabby start hollering, "Ow ow ow." Run on all about in the house. Time he start say, "Go down, m'house, go down, so I could come up." Now, time the house started going down, start pulling him up with rod. Then he jump down, and as he jump, I say, "Oh, you right, B'Rabby." Then he say, "If you don't get from behind h e r e . . . if you don't get from behind here, I'll let you children 'stead of, what they give me."

Brook's handling of the "Password (House)—In the Sky—Under the Bed" sequence in Tale 153 relies on catch phrases almost completely, and in this it resembles the Behring Point children's style. His age explains the greater development he gives his stories, just as with Behring Point adolescents, especially those living in Nassau as he is. The idioms such as "Gi' me some," "red red red," "Ow ow ow," "I have two pa, one underneath the bed and one top the bed," could have come in toto from Behring Point tales. T A L E 1 1 7 : JONATHAN LAMMING

POTATO SLIPS: THEFT OF BUTTER: PLAYING GODFATHER Now this day was a very good day, monkey chew tobac, stick white lime, cockroach kick a hell of a time. Bunday. Bullfrog jump from bank to bank, and sixteen quart can never touch. Now, B'Rabbit and B'Booky. Now, B'Booky and B'Rabbit went in the field cutting bush this day. The same day they cut, they burn, they plant. Now they went back out to reap. "Now," B'Booky say, "B'Rabbit, I got plenty potato to dig today." He say, "They bumping up so much, u n t i l . . . they bumping up ground till the sun face got them looking gTeen." He say, "Would you

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go with me and help me pick them please?" Say, "Yes, I'll go. Be too glad to go." Say, "But carry a big basket with you, cause I got plenty." So when they get in the field, B'Rabbit say to B'Booky, he said, "Now you see this big thing that grow up here?" Although they was potato, but he was trying to fool him. He say, "You see these things what grow up here," he say, "but they ain't no potatoes." He said, "They is some poison thing in the ground." He said, "Now see these thing running like wine [vine], they is potatoes." Now all the time, that was potato slip, and so he say, "Now you pick these." Now and whilst B'Booky picking the leaves, eating them, he say, "Man, how these thing taste bad?" He say, "No, they ain't taste bad." He say, "No they ain't taste bad, Man," he say. "Olden time folks told me that that was potato." Well, that wasn't true nohow, so he still eating them. Anyhow, after Rabby look at B'Booky and see he wasn't looking at B'Rabbit, bite a potato, and as he bite a potato, he say, "Book", I'm ready." So Booky say, "A11 right, let's go home." After that night B'Booky and B'Rabbit set on the pile of potatoes. B'Rabbit set on potatoes, but B'Booky set on potato skin, mean p o t a t o . . . he set on potato slip. After he set on potato slip, B'Rabbit put a potato inside B'Booky slip. And after start eating, B'Booky say, "Rabbit, I taste a sweet thing in my pot." He say, "You know something, Rabbit," he say, "you fool me, you know." He say, "Booky," Rabby say, "Booky, you didn't know that, eh?" He say, "I was fooling you all the time. I was getting all the potatoes out, was giving you the slip." [A pun on potato slips and "giving one the slip" by trickery.] He say he say so. "I wouldn't do you a trick like that no more." He say, "OK," he say, "all right Rabby." "I got a big bunch ripe banana to cut," he say, "in a deep hole. Would you go with me and help me cut it?" Say, "Yeah, I'll be too glad to go." Say, "I wouldn't do that trick no more," Say, "All right." Say, "OK, but I feeling kind of sick, sick right now." Say, "How about tomorrow?" H e say, "All right." Now Rabbit know where the banana hole is now. He say, "Booky," he say, "I got a good friend," say, "want me to name h i s . . . gi' his child a name." He say, " H e aks me to come to gi' him a name." He say, "What would be the name?" He say, "I don't know, I going down to see what he want me to give." So I see he going, he going to the farm. He ain't going to nobody, he going right straight in the farm, to the banana hole. And see when he get to banana hole, he eat half the banana. And when he went home, Booky say, "Rab, what you name that one?" He say, "I name him Digginum." He mean to say he digging the banana, you know. He say, he digging the banana. [Laughter.] Anyhow, but Booky didn't understand him, you know. Booky didn't understand him. So he say, "I got a other friend cross the town, want me to name his child again." He say, "I could go?" Booky say, "Yeah, you could go." When he get, when he say, when he come back, he say, "What you name him?" Say, "I name him Halfim." He say, "He Halfim?" Say, "What kind of name? Is funny name I ever hear in my life!" He say, "You ain't hear that? T h a t a sweet name, Halfim. I could find some sweet name, eh I" Anyhow, when he get back home, he say, "I got a other one to name him again." When he going out to name the other one, when he come back in, he say, "All Done." He say, "That's the last one I have to name, is All Done." Say. "I ain't going back out no more." So, so he say, "OK," he say, "thank you very much then." So he say, "How about tomorrow?" He say, "All right, tomorrow will be all right." When they going to the banana hole, he say, "Booky...." He said, "Rabby, who cut my banana?" He say, "I don't know." He say, "Well show me those friends who you was going to name them; well, show them to me." T h e n he going to this man house. This man say, "You, you ain't been in my house. You move from my house or I take my broomstick and lick you head off." So he say, "Show me that house where you been to." He going to a other house. T h e man say, "You don't move from my house, I shoot you with my gun." So he say, "Man, Rabbit-man," he says, "tell me where you been, Man. I said, tell me where you been!" [Narrator laughs.] He say, "Booky, if I tell you where I been, you will stay and resigned, eh. Book'?" Book" pick him up, Book' pick him u p short, say, "Yes!" He say, "I been to you banana hole." [Much laughter.] Anyhow, he carry him to banana hole, He say, "Show me where all the skin is." Show him the skin is. Anyhow, he make him say, "Say your prayers now." After he say, after he make Rabby say his prayers, Booky kick Rab right down a deep banana hole, and when Booky get home he meet Rabbit home. [Laughter.] So Billy Ben, my old-story is end, I'll never tell a big black lie like that again.

3. Jonathan Lamming is another thirteen-year-old schoolboy, from Mastic Point in northern Andros. He had been in New Providence only a short time, and

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belongs to the lowest class economically. His stories such as Tale 117 show considerable ingenuity. Both the motif of the potato slips and the nominy where the "cockroach kick a hell of a time" are unique in the collection, and suggest imaginative handling of traditional material. His stories are full of unusual motifs and clever verbal transpositions and puns, such as "I was getting all the potatoes out, was giving you the slip." Instead of butter, Rabby steals bananas, and some of the names of his "godchildren" occur nowhere else. He uses specifically Bahamian settings, particularly the "banana hole" into which Booky kicked Rabbit. The theft of bananas is a good deal more believable in this area of praedial larceny than the theft of butter, an imported product rarely eaten by the local people. He uses Bahamian idioms like "I'll be too glad to go," the shortening of names in salutation to "Book" and "Rab," and a frequent use of "Man." His skill was much appreciated by his audience, who were in a much better position to be critical than in the usual storytelling situation. His stories were recorded in the street in front of Winter's Barber Shop where the passing crowd could and sometimes did make critical remarks about the tales, especially if the narrators were inept children. Like nearly every other first-rate storyteller recorded, he found his way to the recording sessions without previous contact. His stories have no significant variations from the developed Behring Point patterns, showing the consistency of storytelling skills throughout Andros. T A L E 1 3 4 : THEOPHILUS CURRAN T H E F T OF B U T T E R : PLAYING G O D F A T H E R S : T E S T BY SUN Once this was a time, wasn't my time, was monkeys', when monkey spit tobacco and spit white lime. It was Rabby and his brother Booky. They was going in the field to cut some bush. So they was walking down the bay, and they find a keg of butter. So they went in the field. When they get in the field, each brother went and each begin to cut down a tree. So after he get up in the tree, he s a i d . . . . He went up in the tree, he say, "Yeahhhhhhh!" He say, "What you going say?" He say, "Come to christen them little children?" Say, "Yeah." So his brother say, "You used to people doing i t ; " he say, "go ahead." So he went. When he come back, he brother say, " W h a t you name him?" He say, "Name him Starting." All right, he come, he climb back up in the tree again. He start hollering, he say, "What you say?" He say, "Come to christen little child again?" He say, "My, I tired of this people, I sure is a preacher." All right, he went. Come back, he say Brother aks him, say, "What you name him?" " I name him Quarterim." So he going, come back, go up in tree again. He say, " E h h h . " Say, " W h a t did you say?" Say, "Come to christen little children." Say, "My Lord," he say, " I tired." He say, "Brother, I can't do no work today," say, "cause the people got me busy." Going, come back, he say, " W h a t you name?" Say, "Name Finishim." So anyhow they get together, begin to work, and as soon as they get ready that evening, they was coming home. When they get on beach, they diskiver [discover] the butter they left. So now they began to open his butter to share it. So when they open it, finally, this butter was gone. So now they began to argi [argue] with one another. So this one say, "You eat it." T h e next one saying, " I ain't eat it." Say, "Now for we to test out the person eat this butter, now lay we all lay down in sun," say, "and which one we does butter sweat out," he said, "that's the one eat the butter." So they finally, all the two of them, lay down inside the sun. They began to sleep. So Rabby, this wise one, he get right up, and rake off the butter what was round the chine [joint or edge] of the keg, and he wipe it all above his eyes, all around his jaw, and he began to lay in sleep till the sun began to melt it. They he made noises, "Hey hey heyl" he say, "get up there." He say, "You see now who ate the butter here?" So Booky say, "Yeah, Boy," Booky say, " I eat the butter." And if you don't believe that story is true, you ask the captain of the longboat crew. ["Bundayl"]

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T A L E 1 3 5 : T H E O P H I L U S CURRAN PLAYING

POISONED

Well one evening, it was round about four o'clock. Booky and R a b b y . Booky went to R a b b y , he said, " Y o u want to go fishing?" R a b b y say, " I t'ink I'll go fishing." So R a b b y went to work before they left and h e turn his wife to an old lady. So when they came from fishing, now this wife would come on the beach, and aks them to give her some fish, like an old lady that they do not know. So this day they went fishing, and they come from fishing. Finally when they look, this old lady come, say, " G o o d evening, S o n . " Say, " G o o d evening, M a ' a m . " Say "Please give m e one fish." So Booky said, " T h i s old woman," h e said, " I tired this old w o m a n . " H e say, "Every time I go out and come back i n , " say, "you keep on, keep on come h e r e for your fish." So R a b b y say, " N o , M a n , " say, "regardless of t h a t , " h e say, "that's old lady." So then they went, they went and they string up a big bunch of these fish, and they give them to this old lady, and she went and go home with them. Finally they next day they went out fishing again. T h e y caught a jewfish, a wery [very] large jewfish. So when they come in, this old lady came down on the beach, and she said, " G o o d evening." R a b b y say, " G o o d evening." Booky didn't speak. So finally Booky was mad. He tried of this old lady every evening they come in, she always get the best of the fish. So now they cut up this jewfish. R a b b y say, " Y o u know one thing?" Booky say, " I tell you one thing." He say, " N o w for we to prove how if this fish poison," h e say, "let's cut this fish in half and gi' old lady half of the fish." So they went and cut the fish right in half, and give it to the old lady, and she went, dragging it. So now they wanted to find whether this fish poison. R a b b y say, " I tell you when Pa go fishing," h e say, " h e always catch a big fish, h e always taste the yiver [liver]. Aye, he went to taste the liver." R a b b y say, " N o , Booky," say, "you taste i t . " Booky say, " N o , M a n , " h e say, "you taste i t . " R a b b y say, " N o , M a n , " h e say, "you taste i t . " All right, Booky went to work and h e taste the fish liver. Booky fall down dead. R a b b y hail the wife. He say, " H e y M ' W i f e , " he say, " b r i n g that fish back." H e say, " B o o k y dead." [Laughter.] Booky lay down, lay down till t h a t . . . the old lady get there and throw the fish down. W h e n the old lady throw down the fish, Booky j u m p . He say, " Y e a h , " he say, "share f a i r l " He say, " Y o u been doing this to me all the t i m e . " And they begin to fight, and I pass there, and I fire a slap at Booky and R a b b y , and knock me here to tell you that l i t t l e . . . . Y o u don't believe it is true, aks the captain of the big boat crew. T A L E 1 3 7 : T H E O P H I L U S CURRAN M I S H E A R I N G S H O U T : R E F U G E E S ON

ROOF

All this one about R a b b y . R a b b y had a grandfather, he had a load of catties. So every morning R a b b y used to go up, h e say, " M ' W i f e , " he say, " I ' m going up again to grandfather," he say, " a n d I ' m going to get some catties." So he went up. He said, " G o o d morning, G r a n d p a . " Said, "Good morning, my S o n , " said. " G r a n d p a , " he said, "please give me a goat." Grandpa say, " G o in the staple [stable]." So in the staple and h e catch one of the biggest of his grandfather carrying. So he going, he going, and he kill that. Next morning come, he went. " G o o d morning, G r a n d f a t h e r . " Grandfather say, " G o o d morning, S o n . " " G r a n d f a t h e r , please give me a goat." Grandfather tell him, say, " G o in the staple, Son." So his grandfather began to get tired every morning he aggravating him for a goat every morning. So his grandfather went inside the woods that day, hunting, and h e found one of the biggest tigers that h e could of found. And h e put him in the staple and disguise his face. So this morning when R a b b y get in there, he saw this big, big creature inside the staple. " G o o d God, this a big fellow today." So he went and h e began to get him. So the tiger began when he get him, began to stench. H e say, "Say, this is terrible," he say, " I can't hew h i m . " He say, " I don't know what to do now." So he get the tiger outside the staple. W h e n h e get him out in the clear, where he could beget him that thing he had him to go, tiger disguise what he had on his face drop off. And when it drop off, and h e look and see it's the tiger, he say, " Y e G o d , " he say, "this no place to b e l " H e say, " I t time to take off." So here he say, " H e y M ' W i f e , " he say, " t a k e t h a t c h . " So his wife say, " W h a t you say, ' B r i n g the pan for the fat'?" [Laughter.] H e say, " I say, ' T a k e thatch,' " and he take off. And when he get there, h e meet his wife and he three little children up in the roof of the house. So the little child

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tell him, say, "Father," say, " I tired." Say, " I ain't your pa." He say, "See your pa down there." [Laughter.] So that one drop. Tired, he drop. So then they went to work. He wife say, "M'Husband," say, " I tired." He say, " I ain't your husband." He say, "See your husband down there." [Laughter.] All right. Dropping. His wife drop, left his last little child. Say, "Father," say, " I tired." So, say, " I ain't your pa. See your pa down there." So all of them, the tiger eat up all of them till it left him one. So now, he say, " B T i g e r , " say, "you want me, eh?" Tiger say, "Yeah." Say, "Now," he say, "well I so big and fat," he say, " I tell you what to do." He say, "You see that barrel there?" He say, "You go to work." He say, "You get that," he say, "and put that down in the middle of the floor, and full that with ashesh," he say, "and when I drop," say, "that all the fat'll go right in there and you'll get me." So T i g e r went to work and he full this barrel up with ashes. After he get through, Rabby say, "Now," he say, "now you want your head down there." He say, "Now when I drop, you'll get me." So Tiger went to work, and when Rabby did j u m p down, all the ashes from the barrel drop, went up in the tiger face, and it stunted [stunned] him. And the tiger was wallering over the floor, and I was passing, I said, " B T i g e r , why you so fool. Ain't you know that was go blind you?" T h e tiger made at me and I dart, and knock me here to tell you that l i t t l e . . . . T h a n k you.

4. Theophilus Curran is a twenty-six-year-old fisherman from Crown Haven, Abaco Island, who was spending a few weeks in Nassau. His Abaco village is as isolated and undeveloped as any in Andros, and at least twice as far from Nassau. His stories, beginning with Tale 134, are balanced, logical, and complete in detail, and they stick closely to the familiar motifs. He is a good example of the conservative traditional storyteller, but in the proper Bahamian tradition, he has his portion of individuality. In this case it takes the form of wry humor and a "Yankee" wit, as "My, I tired of this people, I sure is a preacher." Theophilus has lost several front teeth, which gives his intonation a whistling quality which together with such pronunciations as "diskiver," "staple" (stable), and "argi" (argue) suggest the American actor Percy Kilbride in his Yankee roles. Theophilus sometimes leaves out the opening nominy as do other non-Andros people as shown in the formulae tables, suggesting again that wealth of formulae is a particular feature of Andros style. Both his second and third tales, Tale 135 and Tale 137, are without opening formulae. Just as his motifs are traditional, his stories reflect the traditional Bahamian values in the respect for religious observance, the willingness of one brother to do the work while the other was godfather, the admiration for old people shown by the generosity of the grandfather toward the grandson, and most of all in the self-confidence and cleverness with which the trickster or hero in each story gains his goal. The measure of his skill is shown in his ability to cause these specific personality characteristics to emerge from the classic motifs. It is apparent that while Andros storytellers may be the most complex and flamboyant, finely wrought stories are told in the other islands. N E W PROVIDENCE NARRATORS BOOKY-RABBY TALES

This group of narrators consists of boys from about eight years of age to young men of eighteen or nineteen, all of them native to New Providence Island and the environs of Nassau. They are nearly all the children of Out Islanders and have undoubtedly learned many of their stories from relatives and friends who are Out Islanders. Generally speaking these boys differ from the Behring Point children and from the other Out Islanders of their age in their greater formal education

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and worldliness. They attend movies at least twice a week, read comic books and newspaper comics, and the older ones are fond of movie magazines and American Negro magazines. The consider themselves much superior to Out Islanders because of their longer education, better clothes, less "broken" English, and generally better economic position. At the same time they associate constantly with the Out Island children and undoubtedly exchange stories with them. Usually the crowd of boys stopping to tell stories after school would be made up of both Out Islanders and Nassauvians. As might be expected, the stories of these boys are similar in motif to those of Behring Point, but they differ slightly in style. Many of the formulae are omitted. Influences from animated cartoon and episodic comic strips are noticeable in several stories, and there are "gag" endings uncommon in Andros. Idioms from American slang such as "galfriend" and "you poor guy," talk of "French" kissing and doping, chewing gum and false teeth, macaroni and automobiles, and butter in tins rather than kegs suggest the intrusion of the larger society. At the same time the chariots, tamarind switches, cane holes, "the bush," knieppe (genip, chenette, Melicoca bijunga) trees, and the idioms preserve the traditional Bahamian setting. Most of the stories are shorter than those of Out Islanders, though younger children everywhere in the area tend to tell shorter stories than adults. Otherwise the motifs show considerable differences from those most popular in Andros, and some suggest non-traditional source material cast in the traditional mold. T h e general excellence and completeness of these tales show that storytelling is not a dying art even amid the acculturation and mass entertainment of Nassau. At the same time the stories are quite far in style and "flavor" from those in the earlier collections, being adaptations of the tradition to a new and changing situation. The New Providence stories, like those from Andros, show the primacy for the narrators of audience reaction. The schoolboy narrators shorten or even break up the sense of their narratives to keep audience interest, and change the tale or embellish it on the spur of the moment as a good idea comes to them, or the audience gives signs of lagging attention. Theater is thus served at the expense of literature, or at least literary continuity. "Bundayl" occurs only once in these eleven texts, but as suggested by the formulae tables, it is more popular in Andros than elsewhere in the area. T A L E 8 : ARCHIE SUMMERS PASSWORD (HOUSE): HOUSE IN SKY: UNDER B E D Bundayl ["Ayl"] Once upon a time, there is B'Booky and B'Rabby. They live in a small little house in the bush. This morning they woke up, and they going to the Spirit house. When they reach in, the Spirit was sleeping, and they go under the stove. T h e Spirit going out. He and his wife gone. They cook the food, left it there. B'Booky and B'Rabby start going to the pot, going to the pot. B'Booky say, " G o up house, come down house, go up house, come down!" B'Rabby start coming, closer and closer to B'Booky. He say, "B'Booky, give me some of that food." I can't r e m e m b e r . . . . [Laughter and comments of audience stop him a moment.] T h e n when the Spirit and his wife start coming, meet B'Booky and B'Rabby going down the road, and the Spirit and his wife say, " I betcha you been in my house, t'iefing food." Say, " N o . " Then they start coming back, right to the house, right with B'Booky. When they reach, "Ah me," say, "you been in my food, take out some hominy, flour." T h e Spirit tell his wife, say, " I think what I going do. Go under tamarind tree. Get one big, big, old tamarind switch." Say, "Lay acrost

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t h e bed, B'Booky." Say, "Lay there." Say, "Wopl W o p Wop! W o p l " Gi' it to him, into him. H e wife say, " O n e of us two hit him, so gi' it." It's a true story. W o p W o p Wopl Wopt [Laughter.] T h a t was the end of my story. Um Bol ["Um Bol"]

1. Archie Summers is the ten-year-old son of a Grand Bahama mother and a Berry Islander father who had a small grocery near field headquarters. With his older brother Clyde, Archie was one of the most constant members of the oldstory sessions, though he contributed only a few short tales. The motifs were not clearly developed, and the point of the story lay in the "gag" endings which were intended to be funny. Tale 8 is a kind of shorthand of the usual "Password" and "In the Sky" motifs, in the manner of most Bahamian children, with minimal formulae and with just the high points or punch lines of the story narrated. The effective ending with the onomatopoeic "Wopl" was appreciated by the audience. However, Archie had trouble holding his audience's attention when his memory failed in the middle of the story. His foreful delivery served to get back their attention when he had recollected himself. His style shows typical characteristics of children's style but with the one innovation in the ending. T A L E 1 0 : PABLO SIMMS

D R A W I N G W I T H T O E : T H E F T OF B U T T E R : T E S T BY SUN Once upon a time, and a very good time, monkey chews tobacco, spits white lime. Now B'Booky and B'Rabby. B'Booky's mother say, "Get ready to go to school." B'Booky get ready to go to school, pick u p his book, going whistling, running down the road whistling for B'Rabby. Whistling for B'Rabby, whistling for B'Rabby. B'Rabby say, "Heyt" he say, "I'll soon be there." B'Booky say, " W h a t you doing?" Say, "T'iefing piece of bread for m e and you." Well, going round, going round, Rabby have some marbles, say, "Booky, let's shoot." B'Booky say, "OK, draw a ring." B'Rabby say, "I'll draw this." So Booky say, "How far does that be for ring?" So Rabby say, "Cut off your big toe and count six mark, then draw this." [Narrator laughs.] Rabby say, "OK, I draw this." Rabby draw this. When h e draw this, h e saw one his goilfriend u p on the hill, so showed this goilfriend to this pal, so Rabby say, "OK." T h e y going u p on the hill. When they go u p on the hill, B'Rabby smell meat, so h e says, "Booky," say, "Booky," say, "I smell fresh meat!" So Booky say, "Wait here." Rabby say, "Right near." Say, "Let's go h u n t i n g it." B'Booky say, "You go catch one cockeroach, cause girls scared of cockeroach, you know. T h i s my galfriend, I know everything." Say, "You catch one cockeroach a n d r u n the gal down the hill, and I'll t'ief t h e meat." So Rabby say [whispering], "All right, all right, I'll fix them good." Rabby go and catch the cockeroach, and catch the cockeroach, going hunting the gal, kiss the gal. Gal saying [smacking sound], "Ah!" Say, "You could kiss good." Say, "Sweetheart, you know, I bring something for you." She say [in a high voice], "What's that?" H e say, "Look." And he bring his little cockeroach like that, and the gal pitch u p and r u n . So B'Rabby wish to say, "OK Booky, go ahead now, get the meat." Rabby r u n n i n g down the hill. You know, the gal go u p the tree. So Booky look up, say, "Oooh oooh!" Say, "I see crabs." [Narrator laughs.] "I see crabs." So Rabby say, "What?" Say, "I see crabs." Rabby say, "Don't come yet, don't come yet!" H e say, "Can't come yet, I can't come yet, the gal's in the tree." So, well, the gal come down the tree, hid the cockeroach, h e kiss the gal again. Gal say [smacking sound], "Ah, you kiss sweet." Show the gal the cockeroach again, t h e gal start r u n n i n g about. Booky is whistling, say, "I got him, I got him." So Rabby say, "Let's go back to the house," say, "I ain't got n o cockeroach." Carry the gal off to the house, and when they carry the gal back to the house, going in the room, start kissing and talking, so Rabby whistle, Booky whistle. Say, "Come on Man, we going, let's go." Rabby say, "OK." Say, "I'll see you tonight." Say, "Going to school." They wasn't going to school, you know, they was going to eat t h e

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meat. So Rabby say, "Booky, how much meat there is?" Booky say, " T h e meat is about two pound and a half." Say, "Jesus!" Say, "You eat pound and a half, I eat pound and a half." So he say, "That's be three pound." Say, " I know is pound and a half each." Say, "How you say it's two pounds and a half?" So Rabby say, "Let's go in this big knieppe tree." Going in knieppe tree. Rabby cut off a piece, say, "You know, I going give you the heaviest piece." So Rabby say, "OK." Booky pull out the bone part, you know, give him the bone. Say, "Hold it," say, "feel it, see how heavy that is. See which one's the heaviest." Say, "This one's the heaviest," and that was the bone, you know. So he say, "OK, well you take this piece." Well, B'Booky took the meat piece and tell him to take the bone part. So Booky say, "Wait when I eat mine first. And when I eat mine, I going look out, then you could eat yours." Say, "Because I give you the biggest piece, you know, because we's friends." Rabby look around, and he didn't look round where the meat is. Look what he's doing with it. Take a big piece of bone, put it in his mouth. Say, "Uhhhh," and put in he mouth, and he left his two front teeth inside the bone. So he look up at the knieppe tree, say, "Are these knieppe full [ripe]?" So Booky say, "Yeah." Say, " I t'ink so." B'Booky ran up in the tree first, you know. Booky say, " I going taste them alway first." Then Booky going, he see a big wasp nest, you know. Booky say, "Oh damn, red banana, red banana!" [Narrator laughs.] Rabby say, "Go ahead, drop one for me, you can eat the bunch." Rabby pick off one of the wasp wing, you know, and say, " I peel this for you." Drop it down. Booky s a y . . . B o o k y smell [sniffing], "This don't smell fresh, this don't smell good." And Booky say, " I might as well taste it." And Booky put the whole wasp nest in he mouth. [Laughter.] Booky pitch up in the tree and when he fall down, he fall down flat, flat out, damn it, and Rabby sit down right there so. Booky say, "What wrong with your mouth? Your mouth swell up." Say, "You eat too much banana." Say, "Umm umm, that wasp, that wasp." Rabby say, " T e l l you so," say, "ain't good to be so fresh." [A triple play on the word "fresh," meaning unripe for the banana, foul-smelling for the wasp nest, and too bold for Booky.] Say, "Christmas is here," say, " I don't know what you going use to eat with." Say, "You mouth is all full up." So Booky say, "Christmas is near." Say, "My mouth could get better, but straight in, you two front teeth won't be ready for Christmas." [Narrator laughs.] So B'Rabby starts singing, "All I need for Christmas is my two front teeth, my two front teeth, muh two front teeth, all I need for Christmas is my two front teeth." Booky say, " T h e n I could wish you Merry Christmas." So when Christmas come, Rabby s a y . . . Booky say, "Let's go to the dance, Rabby." He say [wonderingly], "You mouth come good, but my teeth ain't come back." So Booky say, "Let's go, Man, together, and you yell when you want to talk. You can say, 'Nuh uh, uh h u h . ' " Say, " I do all the talking, and when I ask you a question you can say, "Nuh uh.' When you want it, you could say, 'Uh huh.' " So Booky going, going to the dance. Booky got a gal, you know. Booky pitching and dancing. Rabby say, "Ummm hmmmm uh hm!" Booky say, "What you saying, what you saying?" Then he turn around to his gal and say, "I tired now, I going sit down." So Booky going, aks for a table for four. Sit down at the table. Booky say, "Rabby," say, "what you wanting to eat?" Say, "Nuh uh." Say, "Oh, you ain't wanting to eat?" Say, "Drink?" Say, "Uh huh!" Say, "What kind you want to drink?" Say, "Nuh uh nuh huh!" He say, " I can't hear what you saying." Say, " T a l k ! " He look around, he say, " I want rum." Going drinking rum. After he drinking rum, Rabby get drunk, you know, starting dancing and going dancing and splitting and dancing, splitting. Took the gal, threw the gal. He going kiss the gal, the gal mouth. T h e gal say, "My teeth going on gum." So Rabby say, "Um?" Say, "My teeth going up in gum." Rabby going and say, "This here gum here?" T h e gal say, "Oh," say, "You need two front teeth for Christmas." Then Booky going home, carry gal home. When they get home, old lady say [in piping voice], "Why you coming so early?" T h e daughter say, " I need two front teeth for Christmas." So the old man going look. Say "Come!" Say, " I got two old front teeth here, has from old days here, I can put in your mouth." When he go put it in he mouth, Booky's gum crack, Booky gum crack. Say, "Come, patch it for you." Going take a needle and thread, start stitching it together. Then look, hollering for Rabby, keep a lookout for Rabby. Rabby in the dance, house ain't too far from the dance. Then Rabby going, Rabby say, "What happen?" So he say, "They sewing my gum together." Say, "With what?" Say, "With sewing needle and thread." So he say, "Keep you mouth still." So Booky say, "I'll hold it for you," say, "leave me hold it." So Booky hold it for him. Rabby bit he finger.

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So Rabby start running, start running, going way out to the beach, and when they get to the beach, going and shoot. Pepper tree, red, red, red. Say, "Ummm um um." Say, "Look at the cherry." Say, "There's plenty cherries on it." Going, first thing he do, he smell it. Say [sniffing], "These cherries smell hot and sweet." So Rabby come, say, "They ain't cherry, they pepper." So Booky say, "I don't want any." Say, "You fool." Say, "This is me, let me eat what I want." Say, "Christmas done pass." Say, "You can eat." Say, "I had sore mouth before Christmas, and I going come better." So Rabby going. Rabby say, "OK." Rabby going, grab some pepper, and sit down. You know, they used to go in the sea, and bath there, and they could swim naked. So they had a mat, they spread the mat on the ground, so Booky's going sit down. So Rabby say, "I going for a piece of bread and butter." Rabby going for the bread and butter, coming in with, bring with a big cask of butter and a sack of flour. Knead salt water and flour, and knead, and bake in the sun, you know. So Booky say, "When we going eat the bread and butter?" He say, "Let's go in the sea first." Going in the sea, they eat the bread and butter. So Rabby only eat a little piece of bread and butter. So Booky say, "OK," say, "I going to back here," say, "I come right back." Say, "Where you going?" Say, "I going get water." Say, "What kind of water?" Say, "I going drink salt water." Say, "No, Man, coconut water right here." Going drink. Rabby going for the coconut. Then Rabby come back, and he ain't meet no butter. He's one piece of bread. He say, "Booky, where the butter gone?" Booky say he ain't know. "I been in the sea." Say, "See, I wet." Say, "See the little bread." Say, "I eat one little piece of bread and one little piece of butter." Say, "I leave all the bread and butter here, but I ain't eat my cherry yet." So Rabby say, "OK, I going fix you now." Rabby going get the salt and pepper, mash it up, mash it up, about a bucketful, spread it all over the mat. Booky come out of the sea, naked, you know. Booky going sit down. Booky sit down. Rabby say, singing, "I going know who eat this butter right now." Say, "I know I ain't, cause I was go for jelly coconut. Booky help me eat the jelly coconut. He eat all the butter." Booky say [sharply], "Man, I ain't eat no butter!" So Rabby say, "OK, I going find out in next fifteen minutes." So Booky going, going in the sea. Come back, sit down. Say, "I feel something itching me, scratching, you know, scratching me." So Rabby say, "What itching you?" Say, "Must be salt water sea weed." Well Rabby going. Rabby say, "Come right back." Rabby come back. Booky pitch up in the air. Booky say, "Oyl Firel" say, "Fire behind mel Fire!" Booky say, "Fire behind me, Rabby." Say, "See look behind me." Rabby look, he say, "Ooh ooh, salt and pepper, salt and pepper." So he say, "Ooh," he going in salt water. And start running down, you know, so he going. Rabby say, "Booky, the best thing to ease that, cock over in the sun, let the sun shine right down on it." Say, "The sun cool it down for you." So Booky say, "OK." Booky cock up, Booky cock up. Rabby going look, say, "Booky, who eat the butter?" Booky say, "I ain't know." Say, "Booky, how you butt get shining so?" Booky say, "I ain't know." Say, "Booky, eat the butter." So Rabby take a whip and crack him, and the butter smart good too. So Rabby run, so Booky say, "Lord, where I going find this man!" Say, "The day I find him, there be no more for him." Booky say, "The day I find Rabby, no more for him again." Rabby say, "Bye bye, Booky." Booky say, "I'll be with you!" B Bo Ben, my old-story is end. [Laughter.] 2. T h e story by Pablo Simms, Tale 10, is unusual in several respects, particularly the unique motifs of the toe amputation, the wasp's nest, and the broken teeth. Its length is also much greater than any other story from this group of narrators. Pablo, w h o is eighteen years old, is the great-grandson of Andrew H i m m s of Fresh Creek, Andros, Parsons' Narrator N o . 12, and is also "kin" through his father, a schooner-owner, to the Behring Point families. H e is also a maternal first cousin to Wesley D u p o n t whose stories show similar stylistic devices. Pablo claims to have been named for a Cuban friend of his father. H e has been to secondary school, owns a bicycle, and works as a waiter at an exclusive gambling casino in Nassau. H e is relatively independent of his family financially, and they are better off than the more recently established Andros families. H e is particularly fond of movies, comic books, and Negro magazines.

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His story consists of a series of motifs, some traditional and others borrowed from movies or comics. T h e supposedly animal characters have the characteristics of both enfants terribles and "little morons." T h e stealing of the bread, the cutting off of the toe to draw the marbles ring, the breaking of the teeth on the bone, the mistaking the wasp's nest for red bananas, the stitching in of the teeth, and the mistaking of peppers for cherries all suggest moron stories. "All I Want for Christmas Is My T w o Front T e e t h " is a popular song heard over the Nassau radio. T h e speed with which the characters pass from one situation to the next is similar to that found in comic books and film cartoons such as "Bugs Bunny," especially since the characters are never really hurt by their slapstick accidents. T h e dialogue while making love to the girls, the double entendre about crabs and "don't come yet," the suggestion of "French" kissing, and the antics at the dance also suggest his degree of sophistication and man-of-the world knowledge, totally unlike that of the Andros people. But these also show traces of an Andros tradition, the use of worldly knowledge to dress up a tale, as practiced particularly by Josh. T h e use of puns, allusions, and indirect statements to make a point or a joke, especially one which might be objectionable to some of the audience, is also a common Andros technique. So it is more in his choice of material than in the structure of his story that Pablo differs from his Andros relatives. Even so, some of his most important motifs are from tradition: the theft and division of meat, and the theft of butter and the test by sun. Pablo manages to integrate alien material with the style and mood of these motifs. T h e length and complexity of the story, its internal logic and consistency, and most of all its great success with the audience show him to be a qualified storyteller in the Andros tradition. Like Josh and Alfred, though certainly to a lesser degree, he has used his experiences to make a new kind of old-story, one uniquely his own regardless of the diverse sources of his inspiration. His story suggests more clearly than any other the possible future direction of old-story development as greater acculturation takes place throughout the area. How like the self-sufficient Bahamians to adapt a movie story or a comic book to their own local forms, rather than to adopt the alien forms and then either abandon or mutilate their tradition to accommodate them. T A L E 5 8 : BASIL BEAN

MOCK SUNRISE Once upon a time, there was B'Booky and B'Rabby. T h i s morning, B'Rabby went t'iefing some pumpkin out of B'Devil field. Now he give B'Booky some. B'Booky like pumpkin, pumpkin taste good. H e aks him where he get those nice pumpkin from. Anyhow, he tell him, say, "Early in the morning, when the first fowl crow, follow him." Anyhow, B'Booky was so anxious, he c a n y up, and he start crowing. Now he j u m p up, B'Booky say he ain't see sunrise yet, say ain't no fowl crow. B'Booky went up on a high hill, he make some fire, and he crow again. But they went in the field anyhow. B'Rabby carry two bag. B'Booky so greedy, he carry four. [Laughter at narrator, rather than with him.] Rabby full he bag and started to come home. Booky there in his field, struggling with his bags. When B'Rabby done get out. Devil come there, meet B'Booky there, all he pumpkin. Say, "Whoa, that's where all my pumpkin going now, e h ! " And he beat him. T h a t ' s the end.

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T A L E 7 3 : BASIL BEAN T A R B A B Y : T A K E MY PLACE: MOCK PLEA Once there was B'Booky and B'Rabby. Now, this man, he had a field, a farm, you know. He had plenty chickens on the farm. B'Booky and B'Rabby used to go t'iefing. Now this day, the man keep missing his chickens. Every morning he go there, he keep counting he chickens, he keep missing them. He say, " O K now, I going catch those two Niggers who taking my chickens." Afterward he decide to make a tarbaby. This day, he make a tarbaby and put it on the side of the field. B'Booky done been t'ief the chickens. As he was coming out he see this tarbaby. He say, "Look at that pretty goil." Then he tell her, say he love her. T i m e he went there, he say, " I bet you I hug you." And when he hug her, he foot stick. He say, "Man, if I don't get my hand loose, I bet you I slap you." He slap her. He hand stick. He say, " I bet you I butt you." He butt her, he head stick. He kick her, he foot stick. He kick her again, he foot stick. Now he see B'Rabby coming on, coming along. Say, " M a n , " say, say, " T h i s pretty goil love me so much that she won't even let me go." He still got he big bag of chicken there. B'Rabby say, "OK, I'll let you loose, because I need me a girl friend anyhow." Now B'Rabby let B'Booky go. B'Booky start feeling the girl. He got stick the same as B'Rabby got stick. T h e n B'Booky went in the field. He done hide in a bush. T h e n he look, see the man coming, coming to the field. Then he say, "Oh, this you now, who been t'iefing my chickens and things." T h e n he catch him, say, "What you want me do with you?" "Mister," he say, "you could throw me in the barb wire, but do for God's sake, don't throw me in the briar." Man say, " O K , I'll throw you in the briar." He take him and throw him in the briar. And when he throw him in the briar, Booky say, " T h i s my home." Now, B'Booky going home. I was passing at the same time and aks him, "Man, why you so fool, you poor guy?" So he run at me, he want to put me in the briar. He couldn't catch me. That's all. I'll never tell a lie like that again. T A L E 7 4 : BASIL BEAN T H E F T OF B U T T E R : T E S T BY SUN Once upon a time, was a merry old time, the monkey chew tobacco and he spit white lime. Cockero jump from bank, and never touch he toe to water yet. Now, this was B'Booky and B'Rabby again, two t'iefing Niggers. Man, this man had a shop. Couldn't find anyone to wait in the shop, so he had to hire B'Booky and B'Rabby. Now, this day, the man keep missing his butter, missing his butter. Say, "Wonder where the butter's going to. I ain't see no money coming in for no butter, but there's missing it." B'Booky first swallow, "Son, I don't t'ief. Son, I's a good boy." B'Rabby tell him, " B e like me. Son, I don't t'ief." Man say, " O K , you don't t'ief, ehl I can find out where all this butter going to." T h i s day, now, he miss somes more butter. He say, "OK now, I going put you all two boys in the sun, and who melt eat the butter." They ain't melt that day. T h e sun is a little too cold. T h e next day it wasn't too hot. T h i s day now, the sun hot hot hot hotl Put them in sight of the sun, ain't see nothing but butter run out of them. Man say, "OK, you going pay for all my butter." T w o Niggers were working about three weeks, and they ain't get paid.

3. T h e three stories of Basil Bean, Tales 58, 75, and 74, are similar to those of Archie Summers, with short or non-existing formulae, with a simple summary of one or more short motifs, and with endings designed to cause laughter. Basil is a twelve-year-old schoolboy, a very tall, awkward youth with a hoarse voice and great self-assurance. He arrived several times after school with his two brothers who were also named Bean and were twelve and thirteen years old respectively. Each was the child of a different sweetheart of their mutual father, a barber. They were being raised by a fourth woman, their father's wife. Basil and his brothers told many stories and often led afternoon riddling sessions. Their repertory compared with those of Behring Point boys of their age level, with more

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traditional motifs than those of the older P a b l o Simms, b u t they also used American idioms such as "you poor guy." "Niggers" ( k n o w n b u t rarely used in the Bahamas), and a m e n t i o n of "barb wire." T A L E 6 3 : JOHN KENT

THEFT OF BUTTER Once upon a t i m e . . . [voice fades momentarily from fear and/or nervousness.] B'Booky and B'Rabby went out and meet this can of the butter, and the lady say, "If you'll weed my yard, you 11 get this can of the butter." So B'Booky and them weed the yard, and they went to the woman and say they finish. The woman give them the can of the butter. When they went home, B'Rabby went out to work. He leave B'Booky to cook. After, B'Rabby come home lunchtime, B'Booky have cook something. Booky say, "I left it here, but it gone now." They sleep that night. Next morning get up again, he going to work. Come home again, no food. So he went out, he went out, he come back in a car. So when he come back, he bring the King sister with him. And they went out, and then one day, he put in the room to sit down. And then B'Booky went into the room, and he talk to the two of them there in the room. And he take out and left him in the room, to put out a big table of food for him, peas and rice, macaroni and cheese, all of that before he. Then he going, say, "Boy, oh Boy, that good." [Laughter.] Then so when all of them, they done eat, they going out again. He went to work, went to work, he aks for the butter again. No butter. "I think the rat eat the butter, Man, but I ain't eat the butter." "Now I going fix you up." Went to work this day, the next day he coming home. "Dinner done yet?" "No, Man, go back to work and come back." He going, and he come for good. After he come from work for hen seed, he say, "B'Book', you ready yet?" [In a low, hoarse, "scary" voice:] "The dinner was here, but I left it here, but now it ain't here now." Say, "Look here, Man, did you eat all it up, you eat all it up? Find it. Somebody in the room that eat the butter." And he eat the butter and he friends find him, and now he friends fix him. Now he fix a trap for him, so all this butter, cheese and everything. He went there, he eat the food. The last thing he eat, the last thing he eat, they dope him. And that was the end of my story. ["Bunday."] 4. Five other storytellers in this g r o u p are adolescent boys, and show to a greater or lesser degree the same characteristics as Archie and Basil. John Kent, Tale 63, has R a b b y arrive at work i n a car w i t h the King's sister. T h e stolen butter is in a tin, a n d macaroni and cheese is the dish served. Even the employm e n t of w e e d i n g a garden suggests a m o d e r n Nassau setting i n spite of the traditional motifs. T A L E 6 5 : BARSEL M U N D Y

PASSWORD (COW): IN COW'S BELLY: KILL MAMA Once upon a time, there was B'Booky and B'Rabby. When it was night B'Booky went down to the farmer, to the butcher. He meet some cow. When B'Booky open the gate, he going in. He say, "Open Shebanja, open. Open Shebanja, open," and the cow open up. And B'Booky going inside the cow, and he cut out all the meat inside the cow. And he see one piece that be red thing. Say, "Man, I ain't cut that." Then he cut, he walk out. He say, "Shut Shebanja, shut. Shut Shebanja, shut." The cow shut right up. Then Booky going home some. Then Rabby say, "Booky, where you get all that meat from?" B'Booky say, "Man, right down the road there." When he look to the left, he can see one gate. When he open the gate he can see one cow. "And when you say, 'Open Shebanja open. Open Shebanja open,' and when you get in you say, 'Shut Shebanja shut'." Then B'Rabby say, "OK." B'Rabby take he bucket and when he going in there, B'Rabby say, he cut all the meat. Boy. And when he see the red thing, he say, "Boy, I'm going cut that, and put it in my bucket." Then he cut that red thing and shoove it in he bucket. Then the cow fall down dead. Then B'Rabby say, "Open Shebanja open. Open Shebanja open." B'Rabby say, "What happen to this cow? He ain't open up. How we going get out?" He going round, but he couldn't get out.

Regional and Individual Stylistic Variation

93

Now when morning come, the pastor come to look at he cow, Boy. When he see the cow is laying down dead, he say, " I wonder what happen to my cow? T a k e him to the seaside and cook h i m . " And then they went to the seaside. They cut open the cow, and look to see B'Rabby sitting up in the cow, crying [in a tired voice], "Open Shebanja, open." [Laughter.] Say, " O h , I see now, it's you who kill my cow, eh." T h e n B'Rabby say [pouting], "Not me, I just come for a piece of meat." And the man say, "You just come for a piece of meat, ehl I going roast you." T h e man take B ' R a b b y and pull him up by he foots. [Comments from othen, "Pull him up by he arms."] No, hang him by he head, and let he bottom hang over the fire. And he start roasting B'Booky. Rabby roast him a while, he play like he dead. People cut him, cut him loose, and he drop in the fire. When he drop in the fire he run in the sea, and then Rabby going home. Rabby say, "Booky, you make me catch hell. [Laughter.] You know what you going do, you going give me some of the money what you make." "Yeah Man, Rabby, I going give you some," Booky say [in a high-pitched querulous voice], "old Booky going round selling 'Fresh meat for sale, Boy.' " When he come back now, he say, "Can't t'ief no more meat." B'Booky say, " I know one good idea. Let's kill Mama." [Laughter.] And they kill Mama [Narrator laughs through his words.] T h e y kill Mama. They going out. "Fresh meat to sell, fresh meat sell." T h e people aks Booky what kind of meat he get. "Ma's meat." [Laughter.] T h e people say, "What? Ma's meat?" [Laughter.] T h e people wouldn't buy it. Going, coming back home. T h e n they going home, and when they going home, Booky say, "Well, who can cook our food?" T h e n he say, " M a m a . " T h e n Rabby say, "Mama! How Mama going cook our food when we kill her?" Now all sit right down and start crying. Throw away the ma's meat. They bake it, and start eating ma's meat. Boy, then Booky say [ruefully, but philosophically], "Well, we ain't got no one to cook our food."

5. Barsel Mundy's Tale 65 is a little longer than usual, and made up of more motifs. The usual characterizations of Booky and Rabby are reversed, with Rabby the greedy one who gets caught. Even here Rabby salvages the situation in the "kill Mama" episode. T h e humorous gag ending has a pathetic twist when the two realize they will now have no one to cook for them since they've killed their mother. T A L E 1 5 2 : PERCY ARMSTRONG M A R B L E S : S T E A L I N G CAKE One time this B'Booky and B'Rabby now. So they went out in one big giant land. All in he mouth was some gold, having plenty gold teeth. So looking inside the forest now, see big, big tree. So the King sent out B'Booky to hunt this giant. So when he going, going inside the tree with he bow and arrow. And with his bow and arrow, and so wait and see the giant coming, singing, making big songs through the bush. When he reach now, where the giant is stop to cool off, he shoot the arrow at him. Going in he eye. He say, " O h Bumble-fly, come from round my eye. Bumble-fly, come from around my eye." "So see, Man, but i f s . . . . T h a t ain't hurt him, hey." So he shoot the other one, and, "Oh Gee Peas, I say, come from round my eye." And so he pull out the biggest one that be in the bag. Shoot that right in he chest. " O h , he really got me now." Fall down. So he j u m p down, take out all the gold. He go back home, running. Get his chariot and come and carried all the gold. Take him two days to reach to the castle with the gold. So when Rabby going round there looking for the giant, all the little bit of gold what he leaving drop out, what he couldn'ta pick up, he put it inside of one paper sack. Go running to the King with it. Say, " O h , Master King, I have conquered the giant." Say, "Now will you let me go to your daughter?" See, the King had a reward. T h e one who killed the giant, bring all the gold, will marry he daughter. So when he going, say, "Will you let me marry your daughter?" So he say, " W h y surel You can go up inside the room." So he going inside the room, looking round, looking round inside the place. Damn, when he look, see Booky coming. One of the guards run to him, say, "Here Booky come." So when he reach, he say, "Here's the gold. Master King." Say, " T h e goldl I've already get the gold." Say, "Look, but I have killed the giant." Say, " O h , you have killed the giant?"

I Could Talk Old-Story Good

94

So h e send o n e the servant upstairs, and call B ' R a b b y , say, " C o m e d o down h e r e . " Say, " W h e n a man lie, what you'll do with h i m ? " R a b b y say, " I gi' h i m plenty flour, gi' h i m plenty sugar, gi' h i m plenty grits, a n d gi' h i m plenty lard, send h i m o u t t h e c o u n t r y . " Say, " O K . " So h e g i ' him all of them, b u t he say, " A n d sent him o u t . " So when he going up now, all the King t h e m carried all the gold. So when h e meet his d a u g h t e r now, sitting down, start talking.

That

evening to marry. And when R a b b y come round there, cut off o n e big cake, gi' it to h i m . And h e going b a c k . G o i n g round. C o m e back begging again. C a v e h i m piece m o r e . So when h e going back begging again, they ain't gi' h i m no more. And so he going back, sneaking up on t h e kitchen to go t'iefing now. [ N a r r a t o r laughs.] So the m a i d , then, was cooking in t h e k i t c h e n . T h r o w some water, B o y , a n d calls h i m . " S o O h Gee B e e , h e kill m u h ! " A n d so say, " W h o t h a t ? " " T h i s me, R a b b y , " say, " g i v e m e piece of cake for t h a t . " So gi" h i m piece of cake. So, going. A n d when p e o p l e going outside now, greet J a c k and the b r i d e now, h e going inside the k i t c h e n . Full up

he

old buggy with t h e cake. W h i l e them people were talking, h e j u s t t a k i n g out t h e cake. Afterward B o o k y taking off and go on h o m e to he c h i l d r e n . [Although h e was going to marry t h e King's daughter!] Every time h e look in the back, h e yuck [snatch] o n e cake from in t h e back, and h e eat it. T i m e h e look in t h e back till when h e reach home, h e h a v e one cake there. A n d when h e going, h e wife going for that cake, h e say, " L e t my cake, you left m y c a k e ! " Going, going back for t h a t cake, a n d h e eat it. So he wife say, " G e e Peace, R a b b y , have all these children

h o m e here, and you even a i n ' t . . . c o u l d n ' t a

bring home one of them

cakes

from

J a c k wedding?" Say, " T h a t ' s your old good friendl You c o u l d n ' t a b r i n g h o m e a cake h o m e for your c h i l d r e n l " So I would say, " M a , give m e some of that c a k e . " So h e c o m e r i g h t a f t e r m e , a n d I step on that pin, and if that pin didn't bend, old-story would never end.

T h e story by Percy Armstrong, Tale 152 is a variant of previously published texts, and its motif structure will be considered later along with two other variants (pp. 113-118 below, and Crowley 1954: 220 ff.). Like the other stories in this section, the motifs are treated very simply, without clear or complete exposition. One new motif concerns the theft of cake, a food innovation in the Bahamas. T h e common confusion between Jack and Rabby occurs here as in many other stories, and it could be considered a characteristic of old-stories if the substitutions were not obviously accidental and unplanned. Armstrong uses an archaic traditional device, nonsense spelling for exclamations, such as " O h Gee Peas," "Oh Gee Bee," and "Gee Peace," which occur in some variants of Parsons' " E Bo Ben" nominies (see above, p. 36), but only occasionally in the contemporary collection. He also uses an unfamiliar formula, suggesting that his stories come from a slightly different traditional milieu than most we have been considering. He named no particular source for his stories, but both of his parents are from distant Cat Island, far to the southeast of Andros. TALE 151: WALTER ROWE INCRIMINATING O n c e upon a time, was B ' B o o k y a n d B ' R a b b y . B ' B o o k y and B ' R a b b y used to get u p early in the m o r n i n g , go t'iefing around sheep. B ' B o o k y say, " M a n , I going b e f o r e R a b b y . I going b e f o r e R a b b y . I going get the biggest sets of s h e e p . " B ' B o o k y going this m o r n i n g . T h e man

walk

up in h e sheep and say h e was a sheep. B ' B o o k y going for the m a n , B ' B o o k y say, " T h i s sheep, ain't we

Ohhh,

to get the big sheep." B ' B o o k y

went h o m e . W h e n

B ' B o o k y get to

the

gate, B ' B o o k y call to B ' R a b b y . " B ' B o o k y , come h e r e . . . B ' R a b b y , c o m e h e r e clear, come h e r e collect this bag, it h e a v y ! " B ' R a b b y come out, s t a r t h e l p i n g B ' B o o k y . W h i l e B ' B o o k y was standing by, t h e man come out, whip his tamarind switch a n d b e a t B ' B o o k y . I was passing by, I say, " H e y Mister, you s h o u l d n ' t a d o B ' B o o k y l i k e that. Y o u know that's a creature [animal]."

Regional and Individual Walter

Rowe,

Tale

151,

95

Stylistic Variation t h e eight-year-old son o f L o n g Island parents,

tells

a v e r y s h o r t t a l e i n t h e m a n n e r o f y o u n g c h i l d r e n . L i k e A r m s t r o n g , h e uses different catch phrases from the " c o m a l a m e e tree," "bitta cassada," " M a r y g o so h i g h , " a n d " O p e n

up

K a b a n j a o p e n " p a t t e r n to which we h a v e b e c o m e accus-

t o m e d i n A n d r o s c h i l d r e n ' s tales. T h e e n d i n g o f t h e t a l e is t h e s a m e as A r c h i e Summers',

but with

the added admonition

against being cruel to

"creatures."

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t is n e v e r m a d e b y a n y o f t h e A n d r o s n a r r a t o r s . L i k e

the

p r e c e d i n g t a l e , t h e s t o r y s h o w s t h e k i n d o f m i n o r v a r i a t i o n s in t r a d i t i o n b e t w e e n islands, settlements, a n d families. T A L E 1 8 4 : RUDOLPH LAMMING T H E F T OF B U T T E R : PLAYING G O D F A T H E R S : T E S T BY SUN This old-story, Man. ["That's right, you talk."] Once upon a time, was B'Booky and B'Rabby. Now B'Booky start. "B'Yabby," say, "Yabby, time for we now to go looking for job." So all going with their cutlass, going chopping. When they reach, Booky say, "Yabby, what we going have for lunch?" Said, " M a n , you be gTeedy, we ain't got have nothing for lunch." So anyhow that morning they find a big tin of butter. They stick it in the hollow tree. So when they going chopping, B'Booky want eat the butter. Ain't nobody calling him. "Huhh? Man, I'm coming now." T h e n he going. When he come back, Rabby say, "Booky, what the baby name?" "Topoff." "Topoff? What that's a curious name, Topoff." "Why, Topoff is a good name. Must be never hear that name before." Anyhow they going chopping, and chopping again. "Huh? Man, I'm coming now." So when they going, come back. Say, "What the baby name?" "Halfgone." "Halfgone? What's such a curious name, Halfgone." " B u t Halfgone is a good name. Must be never hear that name before." Going chopping and chopping again. "Huh? Man, I'm coming now." He going and he come back. Yabby say, "Booky, what the baby name this time?" "Allgone." "Allgone? What such a curious name, Allgone." "Well Allgone is a good name. You must be never hear that name before." So it was time for them now to go to eat their lunch. B'Booky going. In the front of Yabby he let out one big greasy pile in the butter tin. Now when Rabby going, the s h i t . . . . " H u m , Booky, I smell shitl" Say, "It's you eat that butter, Booky." "No, Yabby, I ain't eat the butter." So he say, "You ain't eat the butter?" Say, "Stand up on you head in the sun." When he stand up on he head, he see the butter come plopping out he bungee. So he say, " I t you eat the butter." Say, "No, Rabby, I ain't eat it." Be Bo Ben, this story is end. I'll never tell one like it a-gain. T A L E 2 2 4 : RUDOLPH LAMMING PASSWORD (HOUSE) Once upon a time, was a merry time, the donkey chew tobacco and spit white lime. T h e cuckeros j u m p from bank to bank, but he never touch water till he stretch he quarter. This is B'Booky and B'Rabby. T h e y went in the Spirit house twelve o'clock one night. So they start singing, "Ka-Io Fa-lo." So Booky say, " M a n , " say, " I need some doughboy to eat tonight." So they went up in the house, and when the Spirit come, he throw Brother Booky inside the cane hole. So when Brother Booky come, B'Rabby say, "Man, how you get inside?" " I was eating some doughboy and the Spirits throw me down here." So after that they going home. When it was twelve o'clock that day, say, "Man, I going out in the woods looking for lions." So when he meet one lion, lion holler, "Ka-lo Fa-lo, hold my eggs [testicles] up on a stick and hold my dick [penis] till I come back." [Much appreciative laughter.] So after that, say, "Man, I going out today." " W h a t you looking for?" " I going down to one bazaar." Say, "Man, what you going down there for?" " T o steal them people things." T h e man cut off one Brother Booky's fingers. Say, Brother Booky start, " O h my eye hurting met" Say, " I going home this time, and I ain't coming back no more," and I'll never tell a lie like that again. Rudolph

Lamming

(not related to J o n a t h a n L a m m i n g , O u t Island

Narrator

N o . 3 ) is a t w e l v e - y e a r - o l d c h i l d o f a n A n d r o s m a n a n d a L o n g I s l a n d w o m a n .

96

I Could Talk Old-Story

Good

His delivery slurs Rabby in Yabby like the Abaconian Theophilus Curran. In Tale 184, the names of the godchildren are slightly different from the Andros versions, and again the butter is in a tin rather than a keg. In Tale 224, the formula ending "till he stretch he quarter" is unique, as is the "Ka-lo, Fa-lo" song. In both stories he uses obscenities, though only for description or humor. The first occurrence brought a complaint from an older woman about "a dirty little boy," but the second was heartily appreciated. The joke of Booky complaining of his eye when it is his finger that has been cut off is another new element, nicely integrated into the ending formula. Lamming's style outside these several thematic innovations is similar to the others of this section, with little development of motifs, rapid movement from one motif to the next, and reliance on verbal fireworks, puns, double entendre, non sequiturs, and onomatopoeia (see below p. 116). T A L E 6 4 : BERNARD MUNDY B U L L F R O G AND S P I D E R Once upon a time there was a bullfrog and a spider. One was the woman and one was the man. T h e man tell the woman to stay in the house his food. T h e n the man going in he car, going to work, driving. Next morning, he get he food. Son, he food stale. One cockeroach be in between he food. When he look, he see one little spider. He say, " T h a t ' s me?" "No, Man, that ain't me." Next time he going, he meet B'Bullfrog. He say, " T h a t ' s my wife?" "No, Man, that ain't me." T h e n he going back to work. He see the boss man get some peas and rice and cawnk [conch, Strombus gigas]. So he aks the boss, " G i ' me some of that same pease and conch there. T h a t piece, not that, that piece." Say he drop it on the floor. "No, I ain't drop it on the floor yet, Man." Watch out, you see them coming in there! [He indicates the omnipresent insects on the floor of the room, using them as characters in the tale.] That's the end of my story.

Two non-Booky-Rabby stories in this collection have been told by New Providence boys and are best discussed at this point, since both were included because of their stylistic peculiarities. Tale 64, by Bernard Mundy, an eleven-year-old twin brother of Barsel, is a single motif with a "gag" ending. The story exists as a frame for the final joke, which consists of pointing to living insects on the floor as characters in the story, the insects who eat the man's food. This use of living "props" is unusual and extremely effective theater. Otherwise the story shows the use of modern objects such as cars, and the single motif and "gag" ending of New Providence. T A L E 2 0 4 : RICHARD "SHANGO" BONNER BORROWED CLOTHES Once upon a time, let's get itl Monkey chew tobacco and he spit it into white lime. I'll tell you a story about Jack and the D-E-V-I-L. [Some say "Devil," proudly.] Jack had a sister, and it was every man alive wanted to married to Jack's sister. So, B'Rooster come. "Can I married to your sister?" Jack say, "No, you're too like Crow." T h e cat come, "Can I married to your sister?" "Not until you start catching those big-head rats." and B'Devil come, looking dead sharp, you know, with this scissors-tail coat and this bow tie, and everything and just dude, you know, something like I does look sometimes. So he say, " U h . . . uh, could I married to your sister?" Said, "I'm a multimillionaire. I have so many money I don't know what to do with it." So the brother didn't say anything. His father say, " O h yes, come right in, come right in." Grab a chair and he sit down. After sitting down, they brought him some okra puddings, sapodilly out the provision ground, and raw mameys [Mammea americana] with the green sapodilly and smother pears with okra, bread. And during that time. Jack was under the table. They didn't know he was the Devil. Jack was pulling his tail. "Hey J a c k , " he said, "Hey, you better let go

Regional and Individual Stylistic Variation

97

end of my tail, though." Say [roughly], "Don't pull it out. Let my tail go! [Begging,] Jack, why you don't stop pulling. Jack? [Sadly,] Stop it. Jack. [Loudly,] Talk to your brother, Man, talk to your brother! [Wheedling,] Jack, why don't you stop it?" Jack finally went out, and they were on a honeymoon down by the beach. On their way, they was going down, and Jack s a y . . . . T h e Devil say, the Devil say, "Number One." When he say, "Number One," his shoes drop off. When he say "Number Two," his hat drop off. He say, "Uh huh, uh hee, I caught your sister do." Well then, he pants drop off. "Uh huh, uh hee, I got your si " Well now, somethong else drop off, that ain't we business. "Uh huh, uh hee, I got your s i s t e r . . . . " So finally, he was finally he was naked. "Uh huh, uh eeee," now look, let's not talk about that, that ain't we business, that private affairs, that's bedroom affairs. So anyhow, anyhow, they Anally going on the beach. And he was running away with Jack's sister, and Jack disagree for him to marry his sister. So Jack went behind them in the boat. Jack caught him, and Jack had him in prison ever after that, because he was a police. Ahhh, let's git it, Daddy. Ahh, let's do the do! Ahhh, but you know you. Let's git it. Daddy. All right now!

Tale 204, a variant of the "Borrowed Clothes" motif, is by Richard "Shango" Bonner, an eighteen-year-old son of Cat Islanders. He is considerably different from the usual Bahamian adolescent, being a professional dancer and drummer in the four nightclubs of Grant's Town. These nightclubs cater primarily to the local Negroes, and to those tourists who want to see "colorful native life" and are willing to leave their hotels and enter the "native district." Most clubs like the Zanzibar (later destroyed by fire) near field work headquarters are large dance floors open to the sky and surrounded by a stage on one side, and on the other three sides by one or two stories of open boxes with tables. Bonner was taught to drum and dance by a Cuban-Bahamian nightclub owner who has danced in Havana and in Paris. Bonner is a skillful dancer in the "African" style, wearing blue satin bathing trunks and a "Junkanoo" (John Canoe) or carnival hat of colored crepe paper. He also sings mambos and Afro-Cuban songs, hence his name, but since he doesn't speak Spanish, he makes up nonsense words which sound (to him) like Spanish. His professional career was interrupted last year when he and another young drummer were apprehended with £75 which they had stolen, and they both spent six months in prison. Shango has been exposed to the lowest levels of Bahamian life. His parents are long separated, and he lives with an aged female relative in a lane called "Trash Heap Corner." He associates with Nassau's miniscule underground of prostitutes, taxi-driver panderers, tourist shills, and the tourists themselves, a few of whom are out for thrills on their two-week vacations. Understandably, he is tough and cynical, but also honest and cooperative, and in spite of his associations he was acceptable to the conservative Behring Point families. Shango's story style is a curiosity, combining traditional motifs and formulae with a personal style derived from U. S. slang and "jive talk." "Ahh, let's git it Daddyl Ahh, let's do the do!" is evidently adapted from the argot of jazz musicians. His particular source for this kind of phrase is an Americanized master of ceremonies at the Zanzibar, who opened each program reciting, "I live the life I love, and I love the life I live." Shango's spelling out of D-E-V-I-L was proudly translated by several in the audience. The "multimillionaire" with "so many money I don't know what to do with it" are projections of Bonner's personality, as is the "dead sharp" Devil, "just dude something like I does look sometimes."

98

I Could Talk Old-Story Good

His speech is as supercilious as his manner is boasting. He enjoys acting out the Devil's discomfiture when Jack pulls his tail, and underlines the sexual implications of his story by his elaborate euphemism, "that ain't we business, that private affairs, that's bedroom affairs." He reflects his own experiences with officialdom by having Jack not only a little boy, but also a "police" who can send the Devil to prison. This story is another step beyond Pablo Simms' "sophisticated" Nassau style. The tradition is still intact, but the blending of the innovations is less successful. Shango's story seems to be one of several possible dead ends toward which old-story style could develop. Pablo's style with its greater originality, wider and better chosen foreign sources, greater complexity, consistency, and sense of theater would seem to bode better for future viability of old-stories in this area. UNITED STATES IMMIGRANTS AND CONTRACT W O R K E R S

BOOKY-RABBY TALES

By means of contract employment, many Bahamians have travelled throughout the United States. They almost always travel in large groups which have been recruited together and stay together for the two-year period of the contract. They live in "barracks," or flimsily constructed sheds divided into many small rooms. Men and women may travel and work together, but there is usually a large preponderance of men in every group. They have little contact with non-Bahamians, except for a white American foreman who sometimes travels with them. They prepare their own food in the barracks, but occasionally enter nearby farming communities to purchase clothes and supplies. In Fisher, Illinois, it was possible to question a number of local people on their reaction to these foreign Negroes encamped on their outskirts. In every case the Bahamians, who are usually called "Nassau Niggers" by their employers, were described as being quiet and polite, and "better educated than our Niggers." A few had attended a church service when invited by a minister. The Bahamians tend to stay by themselves in order to save more money for their return home, which also helps preserve their local customs, including the telling of old-stories. T h e Bahamians who have settled in the United States live mostly in Florida, particularly in the Miami area called "Liberty City." They work mostly as laborers and servants, though a few have become non-union carpenters, cement finishers, and other construction workers. Mrs. Farquhar, who told Tale 107, is a middle-aged woman who came from Ramsey, Exuma when she was seventeen to work as a servant. She married a man from Crooked Island who is now the prosperous employee of a fruit-and-vegetable packing company and a minor politician. She hasn't "worked out" for twenty years, and lives in the most substantial home in the Negro district of South Miami, near the junction of U. S. Route 1 and Sunset Blvd. Her home is an immaculate bungalow with screened porch, expensive colored photographs of family members, and a wealth of doilies, hangings, souvenirs, and heavy upholstered furniture of the type West Indians call "Bajan taste." Like any Grant's Town yard, this house is inhabited by a number of godchildren, female relatives, and friends newly arrived from the Bahamas. Mrs. Farquhar's story is made up of two motifs not usually combined, and Booky and Rabby accidentally change places several times in the two motifs. There

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are archaic idioms and pronunciations, such as "britches," "marrieding," "goil," and "tote," though the last is shared with American Negroes. American idioms are "Honey," "derby," and "a lot of. . . " The father's being asked for permission to marry his daughter and the embarrassment of not having proper clothes reflect Bahamian practices and attitudes. The story is told quickly with little detail and no greater accuracy than usual. The humor rests on the conversations and on the central double entendre of the girl's discovery that she has married the Devil because she sees that he has a "tail" when he takes off his britches. This is the kind of many-sided joke Bahamians particularly enjoy, poking fun at the girl's naiveti and the animal nature of the male sex, all of whom have "tails." (Cf. the play on the word "fix," Crowley, 1954: 227, n. 12. For other plays on words, see Parsons, pp. 102, 150; Herskovitses, 1936: 216 and n. 1.)

Tale 107: Mrs. Willie Farquhar

PLAYING HORSE: B O R R O W E D CLOTHES Bro Booky and Bro Rabby, they was going to a man house. Both of the boys was after one goil. And Bro Booky and Bro Rabby say, "Ben," say, "you know I could court that girl now, Man." "Man," say, "that's my girl." "No," say, "that's my girl." "No, Man." All right. Bro Booky ride his horse and Bro Rabbit ride he donkey and they on their way. So, when they get near the house, Bro Booky take off he hat and said, "Hey Man, see here. I coming, I coming, I'm coming." So Bro Booky play that he sick. He say, " I bet Bro Booky here." Bro Rabbit say, " B r o Booky, Man, I'm sick." Say, "111 tell you what to do, you got to tote me." "Man," he say, " I got to tote you?" Say, "Yes, you got to tote me today." "All right, get on my back." Say, " I don't want to ride the horse, I want to get on your back." "All right, get on my back." So when Bro Rabby get on Bro Booky back, so when they get near the house Bro Rabbit holler and say, "Here, here, the best man any. See, he got to tote mc. See, he got to tote me. See, I the best man. I win, I win, I win, I the best man." So they went in the house and they sit down. So the goil come out and said, "Ah, Bro Booky," say, "who tote you here?" Say, "Man, yeah, he tote me here." Say, "Well, what you doing?" Say, "Well, I was so.o.o.o sick but I told you I was the best man and I win. I had to get Bro Rabbit to tote me to your house." Afterwards Bro Booky went and told, told his father that he going to marry this goil. However, Bro Booky say, " I . . . uh, he didn't have any clothes." So he went along and went over to Uncle John and borrow Uncle John derby. Went round to the next neighbor to borrow their coat. Went round again and borrowed their pants. So he had a outfit and was all dressed up. And when he was all dressed up, why, he took his goil in the chariot and they was going to get married. So when they g e t . . . after they through marrieding, so in turning back the goil didn't know t h a t . . . uh, t h a t . . . uh, her expect husband borrow these clothes. So on the way back, Bro Booky say, "Honey," say, " I . . . uh, have to stop at this house." So Bro Booky stop and he come out. He left the derby. She say, "Oh my, you left your derby." "Oh, that's all right, I got a lot of derby home." All right, he went on a little bit further, he said, "Wife, I have to stop here." So he left he coat. And turning back she said, "Oh my," said, "you haven't got your coat." Say, "Man, I got lot of coat home." All right, they went on a little bit further. So, he left he pants. Say, "Oh my, you haven't got on no britches!" He say, " I got a lot of britches home." She say that, "But your tail is out." [Laughter.] She say, "Your tail is out there." "Well, I got a lot of tail home." That's all I can remember of that n o w . . . . ["Bunday, Bunday."] He say he got a lot of tail home. So then afterwards the goil get mad with him, you know, and she didn't know that Bro Booky turned out to be the Devil with he tail. You see, after the goil saw Bro Booky had a tail, you see, as long as he had on his britches, why, you couldn't see the tail. So after they take off this britches, then the goil see his tail. T h e n the goil decide that she'll go back home. She would marry. She will quit him and go back, go back home to her father's house.

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I Could Talk Old-Story Good T A L E 1 0 9 : GERALD POYNTER PASSWORD (HOUSE): HOUSE IN SKY: UNDER B E D : EYES SHINE: DIVING F O R BANANAS

Once upon a time, you know, is two men, at least two buddies. One was Booky and the other was Rabby. So they got together one day and made a decision to go out as if they were hunting. So they come to a house. So Booky aksed Rabby, say, "Rabby?" Rabby say, " W h a t you say, Bro?" Say, "You t'ink we could get in that house?" Rabby say, " U h , that house lock up, Man. You can't get in there." Say, "Well, let's try anyhow. W e should be able to find some way in." So Rabby said, " W e might find in, but we may not be able to find out." So they went work and break in one of the windows and went inside. When Booky got inside, he say, " R a b b y ? " Rabby say, " Y e a h ! " Say, "Man, I see something to eat." Rabby say, " W h a t it is?" Say, "First I see here some banana, some coke, and some candy." Not knowing that the house is belonging to some Spirit, you know. So, when the Spirits went out, they had a word they used to use for this house. T h e house used to live midair. When the house going to come down, when they want the house to come down, they get up and say, "Come down, Miss Sunday, come down." House come down. When it get on the ground they get inside. " G o up, Miss Sunday!" House go up immediate. So it happened so Booky and Rabby inside enjoying themselves, having a lot of fun, not knowing what going on. So when the Spirits go there, they got in the house and the house went up. So Rabby happened to see one of the Spirits, but Booky didn't. So Rabby touch Booky, say, "Hear?" Say, "You see what I see?" Booky say, "No, I ain't seed nothing, I ain't hear nothing, and I ain't feeling nothing." Well, he say, " I f you see what I see, you wouldn't be here and you wouldn't be gone." So Booky said, "Well, what where you be?" Say, "Well, I tell you what, I try to get some place where I wouldn't even know where it is my own self." So the only place that Booky could find to go was under the bed. Well, it happen so that Rabby was lucky enough to get out. So the Spirits went to work, cook. Had two kids in the bed. So Booky was happen to be under the bed where the two kids was. Took up meals and serve around. Booky smell the food. It smell pretty good, so he decide to get some himself. So after the kid in the bed started to eating, Booky touch one and hand out he hand. [Laughter.] So the kid put some in his hand, and he duck back under the bed. T h a t taste good. He hand out he hand and touch the kid again. So he kept on till, until they got through. So the kid laid off in the bed, cock his two feet up in the air, and said, " T h a n k God I got two pa, one in the bed and one under the bed, and he eye shining like a dollar copper." So the Spirits heard that. They sound like they heard something funny. So the dad said to the kids, say, "Would you mind saying that again?" He say, " T h a n k God I got two pa, one in the bed and one under the bed, and he eye shining like a dollar copper." T h e daddy said to the mother, "You heard what he said?" T h e mother said, " I t'ink I did." So the daddy got next to the bed, pull up the spread, look under the bed. He saw Booky. And I tell you, Booky eye were so shine, until when the Spirit look into Booky eyes he didn't know him own self where he was. And the only thing he could of did was to hop through the window, his own self, leave Booky in the house. And therefore Booky had the house all to himself. So it happened so Booky got out of the house, and he come across his buddy Rabby, and he give him this story. And on their way, on their journey, they come to a river with some banana trees is hanging over the river. One of the trees had a bunch of bananas and the shadow of the bananas hang in the river. Well, Rabby coulda look up, but Booky couldn't. His head was a little bit too large. So Rabby say, "Booky, see those 'nanas down there in the river?" Booky said, " Y e a h l " Say, "Why don't you go down there and get some of them?" Say, " T h e y ripe." Booky say, " R i g h t ! " Booky off he clothes, overboard in the river. Rabby slip up the tree, got a few bananas off the bunch, come back to the ground. T i m e as Booky is got back to the top of the water, he done ate them. Booky come back. "Man, I don't see no bananas." Say, "Man, them bananas got to be down there." Say, "You see them all around there yourself." Say, "Yeah, I see them." Say, "Well, go back again." Booky slide back in the water. Rabby up the tree, got him a few and come. Booky come back up to the top of the water. Say, " I ain't seed nothing. But I tell you what you could do." Rabby say, "What?" Say, "See if you could find a big rock, tie it around

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my neck, and put it down there and over me and the rock overboard, and maybe I could find these bananas." [Laughter.] So Rabby went and got the rock, took two of them to get it. Roll it to the edge of the river, and he tied the rope around Booky neck. H e made it sure and tie it pretty short that he wouldn't take no time in going to the bottom. So they got it the edge of the river. Rabby said, " A r e you ready?" Booky say, " Y e a h ! " Say, " O K , here we go." Drop Booky and rock overboard. Booky went, and he went so far that when Rabby look, the only thing he coulda see was bubbles coming back to the top. So he went and hang he head overboard. He say, "Well, I lose my pal, and I save my bananas." So there, for that's the end of it, of everything, and the end of my story. Bunday!

Gerald Poynter is a light-skinned twenty-six-year-old contract worker from Pure Gold, the southernmost settlement in Andros. His stories, including Tale 109, were recorded at the barracks of a tomato picking company in Princeton, Florida. Although some of the contract workers were suspicious and even hostile about recording their stories, he was cooperative and proved to be a skillful narrator with a unique style. T h e cooperation of him and his friends made possible a short color movie of a folktale session. His stories are made up of long series of motifs joined together without much consideration of logical continuity. Some of his stories are among the longest recorded, running nearly a half hour, though this example is not particularly long. Poynter has been to school in Nassau, and when recorded had been in the United States for nearly two years. His idiolect is full of Americanisms as well as the formal phrases so beloved by Bahamians. Examples of the former are "buddies," "coke," "candy," "a lot of fun," "kid," "duck back," "would you mind," "spread," "pretty good," "Daddy," and " O K . " Besides such formal phrases as ". . . made a decision," and "go up immediate," he uses proverbial, paradoxical style in such phrases as "We might find in, but we may not be able to find out," or " I ain't seed nothing, I ain't hear nothing, and I ain't feeling nothing.' Well he say, 'If you see what I see, you wouldn't be here and you wouldn't be gone.' " Booky actually asks for his death, for the stone to be tied on his neck. Even so, the trickster Rabby has a moment of sorrow for his lost pal, and ends the story with the proverbial "So there, for that's the end of it, of everything, and the end of my story." Poynter's stories were told in a situation where many of the audience thought he was making a fool of himself in front of scoffing foreigners. This probably tended to simplify and shorten this first tale. As the atmosphere became more friendly under the influence of rum and continued friendly rapport, the stories became longer, more complex, and more detailed, "fancier" in his words. His personal touches, such as replacing the traditional peas, rice, and grits, with "bananas, coke, and candy," his long strings of motifs, his slang and highflown phrases all fit into traditional Andros adult style, complete with "Bunday!" familiar motifs, songs, conversation carrying the narration, and pronunciations such as "t'ink" and "t'ief." His delivery is informal, almost casual, and is spoken in a conversational tone. T A L E 1 1 0 : R E U B E N SELLS EXCRETION

CONTEST

Once upon a time there was two men by the name of Bro Booky and B r o Rabby. They wanted be bet each others that they beat each others eating and shitting. So they begin to get on a contest [last syllable accented]. So Booky begin to cook his pot of food, and he took the pot of

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food and eat it, and took a Doan's Kidney Pills. And then he took some oakum and cork up his ass. ["No Man, not"] So a few hours after that, Bro Rabby said, "Co ahead, now you done eat, now go ahead and shit." So as soon as he raise up, the shit begin to sputter, and full the whole house with shit. So Bro Rabby, he begin to cook his food, and he took one case, a whole case of Doan's Kidney Pills. So Bro Rabby said, "Now you already done eat." Say, "You go ahead and shit." So he cork up he ass with a bottle cork. So Booky said, "Now, go ahead and shit!" [Narrator laughs.] So, when he raise up, all the shit and the cork fly out the door. So the day after that an old lady pass by and she met Bro Booky. She say, "Bro Booky, you know what happen?" Bro Booky say, "What happen?" She said, "A flying cork kill a woman in Jamaica, and they had a shit storm in Cuba."

Tale 110 by Reuben Sells, a twenty-two-year-old contract worker, is an example of a New Providence tale, the adult counterpart of those discussed above (p. 85 ff). The traditional Booky and Rabby are the characters, and the setting with its mention of Cuba and Jamaica is Bahamian, but the "joke" probably has its sources outside the Bahamas. Thus once more we find the storyteller casting alien material into his traditional forms and giving it a Bahamian setting. T h e subject of this tale was not thought suitable for recording, and there were shouts of "No Man, no!" from the audience as the obscenities occurred. The teller himself enjoyed the story, breaking out into self-appreciative chuckles while approaching his punch line. He is a native of Fox Hill, a village to the southeast of Nassau. His story resembles those of New Providence narrators not only in its use of obscenities and nontraditional motifs, but also in its shortness and reliance on a "gag" ending. His delivery was "braggy" and his manner pompous, so that the men who objected to his subject made it a point to appear bored and irritated by his performance. T A L E 111: WELLIN DIXON PEAS IN H A T Once upon a time, monkey chew tobacco and he spit white lime, bullfrog piss from bank to bank, and take it to be good time. There was a time, this was the Devil and a girl. T h e girl name Greenleaf. Well, the Devil come accourten. You know what is courting, Daddio. [Laughter.] He feel big, and the Devil doesn't have four teeth, he has one up and one down. When he come wearing a black suit, one of these cutaway coats, you know. And well, the gal was boiling some peas, some pigeon peas, boil some pigeon peas. So the Devil sit down, and the Devil have one of these big black beaver [hat], you know, and he looking on the gal. And he ask the gal for drink of water. So the gal say, he say, " I ain't have, M'Dear, I ain't have no water here. I could go to the well and get some cool water for you." So the Devil say, "All right, M'Dear," he say. He say, "Go and bring the cool water, I need a good drink," he say. So the gal went to the well down the road. Well you see what I mean? ["Going for the water, Man."] No, he going for the water. T h e goil say while I going, "Put fire under the peas for the peas dry." He say, "Put some water in it till I come back." "All right," he say, "I'll do it. I show [sure] will do it." You see, the Devil was hongry. T h e Devil was hongry. He been three days like a bum walking on the streets. Ain't eat. Try to catch a meal when he could. And he dead dress [i.e., "dressed to kill," very extravagantly dressed]. And when de gal going, the gal was singing so the Devil look round for the gal. So the gal was about a mile away, the well was about five miles. The gal got to walk. So the Devil went there, went in the kitchen and open the pot and see the peas. So he taste the peas and the peas taste so good, the Devil begin to eat, making a regular meal of them. Yeah, pigeon peas. So here the gal singing coming back. Gal singing coming back till de peas taste so good, the Devil take all peas and de hot peas and put in he hat an put on he head. ["What he wearing?"] He wearing he beaver. He put all de peas on, that's what I mean, and he run in the house and sit down. ["With the peas in he hat?"] In he hatl So

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the gal come in bringing a cool drink of water, but he did need the water anyway cause he was choke. You know, the peas was tangled up around his throat. So the gal say, "Why you wouldn't pull off you hat?" He say, "No." He say, "M'Gal, if I pull off m'hat I'll die." Yeah, he start sweating. You see he know the peas what be in he hat was the goil peas, you see. So the gal say, "You look on the peas?" Say, "Oh yes, oh, those peas is all right in the pot, there." Say, " I put water in there for you. I see no water was in there." So now the gal sit down, going in the trunk, and take out this clean white handkerchief, and wipe the Devil face. And when the gal look, all the red peas water, you know, on the white handkerchief. "My dear, look now you stain up my hanky." T h e peas leaking through he hat. [Laughter.] Now I tell you what happen. And then the steam leaking through he hat. You seen water when they put it on rice, steaming up there. She say, "Why you don't pull off you hat?" "No," he say, "if I'll pull off my hat I'll die." ["He had he extra power in he hat."] Extra power in he hat. T h e n the gal going and get a fan. Get ahold of one of these old-day fan, and start fanning the Devil. And he wouldn't take off he coat, so the gal miss and she touch the Devil hat. And the hat fall, and the peas scatter all over the floor. Well, they have a nail in the door just like that nail there [he indicates a nail in the door frame] and the Devil start running. When get up there and start running, the nail hook his coat, and tear off all one side his coat. Tear one side he coat, and the Devil going, and never come back no more. ["So that mean the gal ain't have no peas."] Ain't have no peas, and a piece of coat, and he lose he intended. So Billy Ben, that old-story is end.

Wellin Dixon, a twenty-six-year-old contract worker from Cat Island, told Tale 111, a variant of Tale 148 by Maxwell Brook and Tale 202 by Andrew Albury. T h e Devil replaces Booky as trickster, but he is a poor, "hongry," and inept Devil in spite of his being "dead dress" in his beaver hat and cutaway coat. The motif is much farther developed than in the other variants, with the water from the peas staining the handkerchief, the fan knocking off the hat, and the Devil claiming that he has special (obeah) powers in his hat. The opening formula is slightly different from the usual, and the motif is infrequent, suggesting the difference in occurrence of motifs and formulae from area to area. While this story is more traditional in style than Poynter's, it has a few personal touches, such as the aside, "You know what is courting, Daddio," addressed to a friend in the audience, James Framingham of Great Inagua. This story was told in the same inimical situation as Poynter's first tale, but to offset it Dixon affected a false rapport with the audience by repeating their comments as if he were agreeing with them. This mechanism was not entirely successful, producing a false joviality that was not reflected in the audience. In a later story he made a previous arrangement with his friend Daddio, that Daddio should answer all the audience responses in what he termed an "answer story." This occurs most commonly in "jokes," rather than in the more complex tales where the narration guarantees attention. It was used by Joe Rolle Sr. in Tale 1 (see below), when he had his brother Paul answer his "Bunday!" and finish out each of his songs in place of an audience. Dixon's style uses fewer American idioms than the other contract workers, and his story seems not much different from what it would have been in Cat Island. He is less acculturated than Poynter or the Nassauvian Sells. On the whole the contract workers' stories reflect their home islands much more than their U. S. experiences. These latter appear only in idioms or American products such as "coke." T h e numbers, length, and complexity of the Behring stories are so much greater than those of the other three groups that their unique-

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ness must be recognized. The other Out Islanders' and contract workers' styles are more influenced by island and settlement variations than by life experiences, and the New Providence boys, while exhibiting both the special style characteristics of children and the style of their island, show more completely their degree of acculturation in their stories. The explanation for this is that their acculturation started earlier and was more complete and consistent than that of the other groups. The tremendous variations in formulae, motifs, and individual styles in the texts bear out the conclusions of the tables. Traditional structures and motifs differ throughout the area. Place of origin, age, education, and life experiences influence the form and content of the stories, but individual creativity is the most important and most widespread variation. INDIVIDUAL STYLES IN VARIANTS NON-BOOKY-RABBY TALES

The Booky-Rabby stories were chosen arbitrarily on the basis of the presence of either or both of these characters, or variants of motifs where Booky and/or Rabby have been replaced by other characters. These forty-two stories represent a fair sample of Bahamian tales and the range of individual and group styles. But certain aspects of the stories do not show up as clearly in this group of stories as in others. In an effort to elucidate these special problems, twenty-one more stories have been included. These include stories by Mercedes Sweeting, Harford "Joe" Rolle, Sr., and Richard "Shango" Bonner (analyzed above), which show their individual styles as they relate to the area or group styles just discussed. They also include three variants of one tale, all told by Josh Albury with intervals of a year and a half and ten days between the second and third versions respectively, and showing range of variation in motif usage and stylistic effects in the same story; three further variants of the dragon-slayer tale of which two previous versions by Josh and Alfred Bowe have already been published (Crowley, 1954: 218-234), an "original" tale by Josh with a traditional variant by Alfred; two "original" tales by Joe Rolle, Jr. as well as a written version of each; written tales by Mercedes Sweeting and Edward Reed; three variants of an Italian cumulative tale "planted" in the Bahamas in the manner of Cushing's experience in Zuni; and an old-story about critical values in old-story narration. T A L E 1: HARFORD "JOE" ROLLE

BOY NASTY This a short one, to begin, but you can add on from this. ["From that, yeah."] One upon a time, was a wery good time, monkey chew tobacco and he spit white lime. Cuckero jump from bank to bank and then quarter never touch water till sunset. Bunday! ["Bundayl"] Yeah, Bunday! Ehl [Laughter.] You know, once upon a time, this was a man had three sons. He had three sons and his wife died, and after his wife died he got married to another woman. And this woman he got married to had three daughters. Then therefore he want to love one of these daughters, and no one knows. So, he leave from home, and he went out in the woods. He won't come home for nothing to eat, nothing to drink, cause he want to send someone to bring his food. So this day, this day, he didn't show up. They sent the eldest daughter, and he set up on a rock, and he saw the oldest daughter coming with the food. And he stand up, and when he stand up, she call him. She call him. He shook his head, he wave his hand. He say, "No no no no no

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no no." So she start to sing, she start to sing, because he was full of beard, you know, and all his clothes was doity, so they call him Boy Nasty [A transmutation of B'Anansi. See p. 29]. Boy Nastyl Then they start to sing, "Boy Nasty, come for your dinner. Boy." Then he say, "My Sister, you ain't the one." So she stand up again, she look, she say, "I wonder what happen?" She sings again, "Boy Nasty, come for your dinner, Boy." He say, "My Sister, you . . . " ["... ain't the one." In this "answer story" the narrator's brother completes each song by prearrangement. See above, p. 103.] Then he start, he walk off you know, "Ching a ling, ching a ling, ching a ling chaing." [Much laughter.] And he dance off very good. So she went home and she reported that he won't come to 3upper, so they send the second one. So this second one, she's going. She call him the same thing, "Boy Nasty, come for your dinner. Boy." "My Sister, you a i n ' t . . . " ["... the one"]. "Ching a ling, ching a ling, ching a ling chaing." [Laughter.] And he going again, so they send the second one, the t'oid one, and the t'oid one, the young and beautifulest one. And she start, with her soft voice, you know, "Boy Nasty, come for your dinner, Boy." "Oh my Sister..." ["... you ain't the one"]. That time he say, that time he say, "Ah, ah," he say, "hot damn," he say. "Hot damn," he say, "Tar Boy," he said. [Narrator laughs.] He said, "Come here to me, Sister," he said. Put your sister to brother. He say, "God damn," he say, "bring yourself, son of a pitch, over here." That time, that time he start dancing, you know, and she began to sing. And he dance, and he come right up. He come right up so. After she saw him, you know, coming up, reaching and all like that, she put the food down. And he pass the food round, and he make, he make down towards her. And she run from him. She run from him, and she was the only one could coax him to come home. And by she went home, he follow her home. So, that was the end of it. E Bo Ben, my old story is end. ["Bundayl"] Who don't believe my old-story is true, ask the captain of the longboat crew. Bundayl Ehl ["Ehl"]

Harford "Joe" Rolle Sr., a forty-five-year-old carpenter foreman, is the patriarch of the Behring Point people living in Grant's Town. He and his brother Dewey "Paul" Rolle called at field headquarters immediately after it had been set up, politely introducing themselves and asking our business in the neighborhood. They told about their lives, occupations, and families, and extended an invitation to sample gin and coconut water at Joe's home. Like most Bahamians of his class, Joe has two Christian names, Harford for formal use, and "Joe" for use by his friends. His position in Grant's Town results from a combination of factors. He is the elder son of the family, and supported his aged fisherman-father, Prince Albert "James" Rolle, until his death in 1953. His mother Roberta Bain Rolle still lives with him, as do his sister's two sons, his wife's son by a former union, and his own two sons by two of his "sweethearts." He has no children by his wife. He is construction foreman for a construction company in Nassau, and is a qualified carpenter and concrete mason. He is popular with his employer and with his men, most of whom are Andros friends or relatives. Joe owns a small house he built himself, to which he is constantly adding rooms, and he is "second-high man, I couldn't tell you the title, it a secret" in the local Odd Fellows Lodge, one of the two leading "orders" or secret lodges in Grant's Town. Both he and his wife own bicycles, a sure sign of affluence, and a recent letter states that he has acquired a second-hand Pontiac. Joe was able to rise to social and economic affluence as a result of his two years on contract in Florida, where he and his wife saved enough money to buy their lot, and build a house and shop. In appearance Joe is a stocky, prosperous-looking burgher with a prominent gold-capped tooth into which he has cut a cross designed to display the

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tooth enamel beneath. He wear gold-rimmed spectacles and several rings, and dresses nattily, affecting a long white muffler wrapped around his neck and knotted in front. J o e told the first recorded story, since it was he who suggested that we would be interested in "old time anthem singing and old-story." T h e story suffers from considerable nervousness on his part, but he is loyally abetted by his brother Paul taking the place of a larger audience in the "answer story" pattern. T h e story of how Boy Nasty lured the girl he wanted is a little incoherent, though the humor can be understood easily. When J o e recorded a variant of this tale during the second field trip, he stated that he had learned it from one John Phillison in Behring Point in 1932 (cf. Parsons, p. 15, n. 2). T h e songs are particularly effective, since J o e stops midway and allows Paul to finish each of them, in the manner of chanted prayers in the J u m p e r churches. T h e name "Boy Nasty" is a transformation of "B'Anansi," the West African spider trickster, and is explained "because he was full of beard, you know, and all his clothes was doity." His pronunciation is much clearer than that of the other Behring Point people, though his idioms are the same. His style is more personalized than Washington's though less complete. At the same time he uses theatrical techniques like Alfred and Josh, ignoring the continuity in favor of an effective line, a song, or a humorous situation. His style shows an ingenuity which is consistent throughout his tales. One he ends, "And this finishes the old-story talking tonight, Ladies and Gentlemen." T A L E 16: MERCEDES SWEETING FISH (MORAY EEL) L O V E R Bundayl ["AyI"] Once upon a time, it's a very good time, it wasn't my time, it was old people time. Monkey chew tobacco and he spit white lime. Cockero jump from bank to bank, and he first quarter never touch water from time. Bundayl ["Ay!"] Now this was a man and he wife. Every day this man go hunting, he left his wife home cook. Now this was hag, so had a man and a moray [eel, Gymnothorax moringa], in the sea. Every time this man go, she always cook all the good food, and carry it down to the bay to him. When he come back, only the dry food for him to eat. Now this day he going hunting, tell he wife, say, "Going in the woods, going shooting." When he going, she get dressed, cook, get dressed, going down to the bay. When she get on the bay, sang, "Moray, Moray, Macaroon, he sang, karoon, he sang, he sang." T h e moray pitch out, "Voon marima teya voon." [The narrator stated that Macaroon was the woman's name. T h e "Voon marima teya voon" is unintelligible because it is in "Moray language." See chapter III.] Moray coming up off on the bay. He eat, and he hug her and he kiss her. Now she say, " T i m e , " she say, "she going home." When he come, when he husband come, he get home, he say, "My wife, what you got to eat?" "My Husband," he say, "only the dry bread," he said. He said, " T h e dog carry the bird." Anyhow the man satisfy eat dry food. Next morning he getting up, going hunting again. Now she cook again, she dress a pot-a-full of fish. She going down to Moray, she say, "Moray, Moray, Macroon, he sang, karoon, he sang, he sang." T h e moray pitch up. "Voon marima teya voon." Moray come up on the bay side and eat. He hug her and kiss her and she get up and she going again. After she gets, husband coming in the evening. He ain't had nothing to eat. He just had little dry grits for the man to eat. [Narrator giggles.] Say, "My Husband, the dog carry the bird, only just the dry grits we got to eat." Man say, "Alright," he say, " I eat." T h e next morning he get up and he going hunting. Now one friend tell him, say, " T h i s woman is cook all the good food and

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carry it down the bay for Moray." This day he tell his wife he going hunting, and he going down to the bay, and he lay by for when she come. So he loading he gun, he going on the bay. He say, "Moray, Moray, Macaroon, he sang, karoon, he sang, he sang." "Voon marima teya voon." When he say, "Voon," the rewolwer go say, "Voom," like that, and Moray fall back in the hole dead. Now, Sir, when the woman done cook, now get dressed, coming to the bay, she come, she stand on the rock. "Moray, Moray, Macroon, he sang, karoon, he sang, he sang." "Voon marima teya voon." So she stop. She say, " I don't know what happen to Moray," she say, " I ain't seen him yet." Say, "Moray, Moray, Macaroon, he sang, karoon, he sang, he sang." She start crying, she start crying, and she say, "Moray, Moray, Macroon, he sang, karoon, he sang, he sang." He husband caught up to her, so he hear this woman going ahead all the time, and he shoot the woman. And at the same time, and I pass by and say, "Man, you shouldn't shoot that woman like that." He say, "You don't like i t l " T h e headway I start running, and I start running, the headway I catch catch me up on his housetop, and I knock my head on Dr. Walker building, and cause me to tell this big tale today. Bundayl ["Ay!" Laughter.]

Mercedes Sweeting, the eighteen-year-old niece of Joe Rolle, Sr. and sister of Washington, Elmental, and Uriah, had lived in Grant's Town for two years. During this time she had a son, Harold, by a sweetheart, then married a halfCuban contract worker named Jones, separated from him after their baby was born dead, and has now had another child by a new sweetheart. She lives with her mother and the young children her mother has had by her last three sweethearts. Mercedes' father left her mother to live in Orlando, Florida with his American sweetheart. Mercedes is a pious Anglican, and since she was born with a caul, is gifted in seeing spirits. She considers hair-pressing "fast," and wears her hair in the manner of most Andros women, in short pigtails bound with cord or ribbon. As a storyteller Mercedes shows great individuality. She rarely uses common motifs, and has a strong concept of her own stories. These are nearly always on the themes of love and magic, and often include one or more unusual songs. These songs have haunting melodies and strangely effective words, and she sings them in a soft, sad voice that is ideal for their projection. In the example, Tale 16, the words of the song are called "talking in tongues" (see above, p. 23), the same term used to describe the speech of a person in religious possession. In this case, the language is thought to be that of a moray eel, beloved by a human woman. T h e woman's crime is especially reprehensible (and funny) because, while she is carrying on her amours, she is feeding her husband badly on dry grits. Mercedes' delivery is almost rhythmic, as in the line, "She dress a pot-a-full of fish." She too relies on dialogue for exposition and for humor, and makes the most of catch phrases. T h e ending formula is interesting in its unexpected moral, and in the allusion to "Dr. Walker Building," the large newspaper press and dance-hall across the lane from field headquarters. Mercedes' style is one of the most specialized in the collection. She told only fourteen stories including variants, though she attended nearly every session during both field trips and gave invaluable aid in transcribing and analyzing the motifs and styles of others. She has become the correspondent for the Behring Point people, sending regular letters full of news, magical experiences, and philosophizing, and often a snapshot of the newer children. She is already accepting the matriarchal cast of older Bahamian women, the dominant organizer and final authority in the family.

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Good

THREE VERSIONS OF "B'HEAD"

T h e three examples of Josh's "B'Head," Tales 17, 119, and 194,

show him at his

best as a pliant and resourceful narrator. T h e first example was told during the second evening of recording on the first field trip, and shows Josh's mastery of fantasy and the double entendre, and his expressive use of language. T h e characterization and conversation of the cantankerous "B'Head" and his compendium of nonacceptable behavior are high comedy, especially when seen against the strong sense of politeness and propriety of the Bahamians. T A L E 1 7 : JOSH A L B U R Y B'HEAD

Bundayl ["Ayl"] Ayl Once upon a time, not my time but in old people time, when we used to take fish scale to make shingle and fish bone to make needle, cuckero jump from bank to bank and he ten quarter never touch water. Ah, there was a man by the name of John. There was a woman name Mary. They had a hog, a pig in fact, and it growed up to be a hog. Now this man John, he wanted to kill this hog. He wanted to eat it. Many don't wanted to kill the hog. Well now, John said, "I'll work a scheme, Mary." He didn't tell it to Mary. He said to himself, "I'll work a scheme so she can kill this hog." All right, so he went out that night, went to the back of the yard, make a loud holler. "Mary, hey, Mary," said, "if you don't bring that hog in the field in the morning by the clean of the day," he said, "I'll kill you." Wanted Mary to believe that this is the words of the Spirit, the Spirit saying these things. John, he ran back in the house. "Mary, Jesusl Mary," he said, "you hear what happen?" Said, "What happen, Man, uh, John?" He said, "You hear that voice I hear out there just now then? If you don't bring the hog in the field in the morning by the clean of the day, say, 'I'll kill you.' " "Oh, John, is that truth?" Said, "Yeah, Mary," said, "Man, I so damn scared, Mary," said, "I don't know what to do." Anyhow, he said, "Mary, I going back in the yard to listen to see if I can hear it again." John went back in the yard again. "Mary, oh Mary, if you don't bring that hog in the field in the morning by the clean of the day, damn it, I'll kill you. I l l kill both you and John." John come. [Crying:] "Now Mary, you know what happen. I don't want to get killed. You know what the Spirit say. If you don't bring the hog in the field in the morning by the clean of the day, he kill me and you, and damn it, I don't want to get kill." "Well John, I didn't want to part with this hog, and you know what happen now, I got to take this hog in the field in the morning by the clean of the day." He said, "Yes, Mary," he said, "Mary, damn it, let's don't wait till morning, let's go now. Let's carry the hog in the field tonight," he said, "and that way we won't have no damn dealings with this Spirit, because I believe they will kill me." They didn't stand, up with the hog. They going in the field with the hog. Well, get in the field with the hog, tie the hog to the tree, tie him to the tree. Now John wanted to kill the hog, and don't wanted Mary to know that he killing the hog. Damn, John went. Early that morning John went to the field, and started to sharpen he knife, and he going. "No," he say, "I'm going to kill this hog unbeknown to Mary, and Mary ain't going to know." He went to the field. Damn, when he juke the knife in the hog, damn if a head jump out the hole [in the ground]. Was only a head, no body. A head jump out the hole, say, "Oh damn," he say, "you think you want to eat allee. God damn," he say, "you lying then. Damn," he say, "you can share now. That damn hog, you can share that." "All right," John say, "what you mean by share my hog?" He say, "Yeah, they going share it." He say, "You don't know what I mean by share it? This for me," he said, "and damn it, that for you." Share the hog in a half. Takey he half, now B'Head run back in the hole. All right, damn, John didn't stand, he let he half stay there. "Oh," B'Head say, "what happen?" He run back in he hole. "Oh damn," he say, "you don't want you half, eh?" Then he run in he hole again, he said he going out and he going eat his too. He eat John half. "Damn," he say, "you kill your hog," he say, "and you don't get none yourself." Aye, John Brown, he didn't stand then, John tarry around there a little while. B'Head rush

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back out the hole. "So, damn," he say, "you ain't leave yet? Hot damn," he say, "you ain't got nothing left to share, you got to share youself." John say, "You crazy, Man, what you mean you got to share youself?" "Besides," he said, "I'm going to go home with you." Damn, going home with him. Damn, B'Head jump in front. He say, "You in front," he say, "and I behind." He said, " I behind and you in front." Aye, John Brown, lime they get home, damn, B'Head say, "Now," he say he going to sit at the table. Now John wife Mary done cook. Said, "John," she said, "you want you dinner?" Say, "Yeah," say, "I want my dinner." And B'Head say, "I want mine too." Now only lone head, only a knock [knuckle]. And he didn't stand, Boy, the woman bring John dinner, he husband dinner. Take one damn crab back [crab shell]. Ain't one of you know what they call crab back. But anyway, take one crab back, take up some food in it, carry it for B'Head. "Who," say B'Head, "who you carrying that for, for me?" "Oh no, damn it, you feed your husband in plate, and you can feed me in plate too. Damn, he eat to the table and I can eat to the table." B'Head kick over the crab back and going to the table, damn, and he eat with John. "You eat there, and I eat." Aye, damn, night come. So night come, damn, the woman make up he bed. John jump in the front of the bed, the woman jump in the back. Take couple of coconut leaves, spread on the ground, say for B'Head to sleep on. B'Head said, "What you be meaning to do? You ain't making no bed for me?" He said, "Yeah," he said, "see that bed on the ground there, Mister." "Oh hell nol You husband sleep in a bed, you sleep in a bed, I sleep on the ground! No, damn it. You in the back, I in the middle, and your husband in the front. Damn it," he said, "let's go." B'Head jump in the damn middle of the bed. All right, damn, up sat John that night, crawl in the damn back together at Mary. Damn, when he started a little something that night, B'Head say, "What you doing, you doing something? Oh damn, you do something and I can do something. I can't let you do something, I mean, you can do something and I can do something." Damn, he jump, he chop John down. Damn, he jump on Mary. Going to work. OK. All right, damn, that morning John say, "Mary, we got to get rid of this damn thing you call Head." Say, "How we going to get rid of him?" Say, "I going take him to the field tomorrow, and I going leave him there." "Damn," Mary say, "yeah, that's a good idea." John went to the field in the morning. Say, "Come, Head, and let's go." Head say, "All right, let's go." "You jump in the front, I jump in the back." Damn, John going in front. Head in the back. Damn, when Head get in the field, he just stand, he see one crab, he catch the crab, he roast the crab. He give Head half. OK. He give John half. Damn, now Head say, "Well, John, that ain't nothing to eat." John say, "Well Man, I ain't sharing nothing to eat." "Well," Head say, "you got to share youself, John, cause I hungry." "Man, what the hell you mean by share youself?" Say, "What you mean by share yourself?" Say, "Give me half and you take half." "Man," he say, "damn, I can't understand that." "Oh you can't understand it, I can make you understand it." Now this time, he run to John and he tear John in half. He say, "Now see your half here?" And he said, "That's my half." He eat he half. After he John half stay there so long, "Oh damn," he say, "John," he say, "you mad, eh. You won't eat your half. Oh damn, I think I going to eat all." He grab John half and eat it. And I been passing, and when the word I throw at B'Head, the blow he cut at me, and it knock me right here at this desk, and caused me to tell that wonderful story. Bundayl ["AyI"] Ayl That's a true story though. T h e second version was told seventeen m o n t h s later at the beginning o f the second field trip. I n it the h o g is replaced by a crab, a n d t h e m o t i v a t i o n a n d sequence of motifs a r e different. T h e story relies n o t so m u c h o n the characterization of B ' H e a d as o n the situations for h u m o r , a n d there is a tendency for m o r e frequent r a p i d climaxes. T h e m o t i f order is slightly faulty, as c a n b e seen f r o m his remark, " O h , was a little bit mistake in t h e r e . " A c c o r d i n g t o h i m the mistake was in h a v i n g M a r y shared a n d killed before she c o u l d cook the m e a l a n d be shared in a n o t h e r way in J o h n ' s house. T h u s in his haste t o m a k e his jokes h e missed some o f his best situations, and the episode of sharing the bed loses its

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point. Even so the story is full of comic lines such as "Well man, too much long t a l k . . . would suit me and it wouldn't suit you," or "Damn it, now let me see what you're mad about now." T A L E 119: JOSH ALBURY B'HEAD Bunday! ["Ayl"] Now this was a time, was a man name John, his wife by the name of Mary. Well, what happen today, they both have a pig, a hog in fact. Well, they were a farmer too. They went in the field, as they went in the farm to work this day. So John say, "Mary," he say, "ain't got nothing to make peas with, but I thinking when you go through the woods, see if you coulda find one crab." Mary say, "OK, John." Mary went in the bush. Damn, he gone. When he shove he hand in the crab hole, shove he hand in the crab hole, bring out the crab. What should he see come out behind this crab, a whole head. [NarTator laughs.] This head enough! Damn, this whole head come out. Soon as B'Head reach out, B'Head say, "Well, damn," he say, "you got to share that." Mary say, "Share what?" "Share the crab," he say. "Give me half," he say, "and you take half." Say, "It's damn no business." Anyhow Mary didn't stand, opened the crab and give B'Head half. He take half, she take half. So John come. John say, "What is this?" "Damn," B'Head say, "what is thisl Damn, I be in the hole good," he say, "and you done take me out." He say, "Look," he say, "you look like you don't want the half the crab you got there." He say, "Let me handle that too, then." Damn, he eat that. Anyway, so John decide to boil his lone potato. He start, he boil the potato. After he done boil the potato, B'Head say, "Man," he say, "you got to share that." Give B'Head him own, Mary him own, he take him own. Damn, ain't nothing else to cook now, B'Head see, things getting down more than things. Well anyway, B'Head say, he say, "What happen?" he say. "You ain't decide to cook no more?" Say [in tones of outrage], "Man, ain't nothing else to cook I No, natural Head, ain't nothing else to cook." "Damn," he say, "see your wife there?" He say, "You better share that," say, "cause I hungry." Say, "Man," he say—that Head, you know—"how I going share m'wife? Now you know that's mad." Say, "Man, share the woman. You can't share era, OK, I'll share em." Run to Mary, B'Head share Mary in half. He said to John, "See your half here." He say, "This my half." He eat that half. John sitting down, so sad. Head say, "Oh, damn, you mad, eh!" Say, "Well, I'll eat your half too." He grab the next half of Mary, he eat that. Anyhow, now, B'Head s a y . . . J o h n say, " I going home." B'Head say, "Me too. Where you think I going!" Say, "Damn, you behind," he say, "and I before." Say, "Let's go." Damn, they make for home. Well anyway, after they get home—oh, was a little bit mistake in there—well anyway, was just like this, when they get home, John went to work, he cook. And when he cook, B'Head say, "Look." John say, "Look." B'Head food in a crab-back. B'Head say, "Feeding me in a crab-back! No, Man, damn," he say, "if you eat to the table, I going eat to the table too." Damn, B'Head jump to the table. John have to put B'Head food in a plate. B'Head jump to the table, he eat, John eat. Damn, John went to work, bed-time. He take two crocus bag and spread on the ground. He say, "B'Head," he say, "you lay down there. I'll sleep on the bed." B'Head say, "Sleep in the bed! No, Man," he say, "you sleep in the bed," he say, "I going sleep in the bed too." Now John jump in the front of the bed, B'Head jump in the back. That morning they get up, went in the field. Damn, as they went in the field, B'Head say, "John," he say, "what you cooking this morning?" John say, "Man, I ain't got nothing." Say, "Man, I tell you something." He say, "You ain't got nothing, you either have something or wish you did." Say, "What you mean, Man?" He say, "Well, I dead hungry this morning. I worser this morning than I was yesterday morning." Say, "Man, you talking funny." Say, "Damn," he say, "damn it, you funny. You going be funny too, cause I going start sharing you directly. Better start get something to eat." John say, "Man, Christ, I ain't got nothing to eat, and damn, I don't want to die already." B'Head say, "Well Man, too much long talk," he say, "wouldn't suit me and it wouldn't suit you." He grab John, and he tear John in half. He say, "See your half here," he say. "This my half. Well, that your half, then you no allow it, eat your half." You done share a man in half, he can't eat he own half. After John half been there so long, B'Head say, "Oh, damn, you mad, eh? Oh, damn, you won't eat it! Allright, I going eat all." B'Head grab

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the last half, damn it, and he eat that. He say, "Damn it, now let me see what you're made [a play on the words " m a d e " and "mad"] about now." Bundayl ["AylAyl"].

T h e third version was told about ten days after the second and has affinities with both. Where in the first story J o h n falsified his own voice as a spirit's to induce Mary to kill the hog, in the third variant it is Mary who collaborates with the spirit to be able to eat the hog. In the second example there is no hog at all and no double-dealing, but B'Head demands his share of a crab in whose hole he lives. In the third version B'Head appears from the hole of the crab they have caught. T h e hog is the main goal of the spirit, though he also gets his share of the crab. T h e bed made for B'Head is of coconut leaves in the first variant, but crocus bags (heavy common jute bagging used to pack produce) in the other variants, and explained in detail in the third. In this version he also adds B'Head's comments about the fat woman as he contemplates eating her, and refuses to share the hog with a woman since "this man talking, two man talking." Josh's aside about "Business is business!" is worthy of a soapbox agitator, and B'Head's typification of John's eatability as "that big fat ass there" was as successful with a Bahamian audience as it would be with an American. T h e third version, which was told to a group made up largely of older children, tends to have more explanations of the situations, so that the narrator is sure the audience gets his points. T h e third ending is new, including the "clipso" bush and the flourish locating the scene of the session on J o e Sr.'s "bannister porch." In comparison to some variants of tales published by Parsons, these three versions by Josh are not greatly divergent. T h e motifs are related in nearly the same way, and in nearly the same order, and the characterization and humorous touches are similar. These examples show the consistency of Josh's individual style, with its use of dialogue, verbal expressiveness, and ironic and satirical comment. At the same time they show how much variety he can get into a tale without any structural or stylistic changes. T A L E 1 9 4 : JOSH ALBURY B'HEAD Bundayl ["Ayyy."] Once upon a time, not in my time, in the old people's time, call it olden days time, when they used to take fish scale and make shingle, fish bone and make nail. Well there was a time, there was a woman and he husband. Woman by the name of Mary, and man name John. So now, so happen so, they had a hog. Anyway, so they had a field too. So this day more than all, J o h n went in the field. As John went in the field, him and his wife going in the field. Damn, when they get in the field, they cook, just what they been want to eat. Come back home. Now this was a man by the name of B'Head. He was only a head. So he take a sight at J o h n and Mary in the field that day. And he hear John and Mary talking about this hog they got. So B'Head say he going to rig a plan to eat this hog, if it be possible. So then, J o h n and Mary come out the field. So that day more than all, John and Mary come out the field. They went in the house that night. Well, about around eight, nine o'clock they hear this voice said [sepulchrally], " J o h n , J o h n . " So J o h n , Mary went outside and answer. Say, " J o h n , " he say, "some one call you." When J o h n went outside, John didn't hear no voice no more. Now Mary want to eat this hog. Mary had the same intention that the head got. Mary want to eat this hog, and don't want John know. And B'Head want to take this hog from both John and Mary. All of them had one intention. So Mary said, " J o h n , " he said, " I ain't hear." "Damn," h e say, "all right, listen again then." Mary went outdoor again. She rush outdoor. She say, " J o h n , J o h n l " T i m e she rush back in the house, she say, " J o h n l " He say, "You hear what

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this thing said?" Say, "No, Mary." He say, " I hear what he said," he say. He said, " I f you don't bring the hog in the field tomorrow," he said, "he going come and eat me and you!" Well that was true, but the head didn't tell Mary nothing like that. Anyway, when Mary and John went in the field just as day clean, they carry the hog. As they carry the hog, side of hog, John carry the hog, intention of feeding the hog, but Mary carry the hog, intention of eating the hog, and don't let John know. So now, so John say, "Mary," say "better go look for one crab," he said. "You got couple of little raw piece of potato here, and we could boil crab and potato, if you catch one or two crab." Mary say, "Yeah," he say, "well, that would be a good idea, John." Damn, Mary going. She going to look for crab. So finally she didn't find no crab. So John say, "I'll take a chance." When John going, and when John shove his hand in the crab hole, he bring the crab, and the head come out behind the crab. One natural head, it wasn't no person, but it was a head, it was a man head. So as this head come out, B'Head say, "John," he said, he said, "this crab ain't you one own." He say, "You going half this," he said, "this me and you own." Damn, John is a man, he say, "You could talk funny talk, like that," he say. " I just catch "crab." He say, "I'll share it." Damn, the head grab the crab, he share the crab. So all right, damn, B'Head going. John went to cook. B'Head say, "Well, I want something to eat too." Well, they give head something to eat. So John get mad. He didn't intend to be there so long. "Damn," Mary say, "let's go home." Damn, B'Head say, " G o home?" B'Head say, he say, "What you think I going to. If you go home, I go home too." Damn, B'Head didn't stand, B'Head say, "Anyway, I'll jump in the middle, and put you in front cause you know the road, you wife behind." They going home. When they going home, didn't stand, Boy. John say, "Mary, I hongry." Say, "You better could cook." Mary went and cook. And when Mary done cook, he pick up John food, he put John food on the table. He grab one crab back and take up some food, put in for B'Head. Put it on the floor. He said, "John," he said, "this your food here on the table." He say, "Here, B'Head," he say, "this your own here." B'Head say, "Who you put that there for?" He say, "Damn, I's a man, don't eat in crab back, Man." He say, " I going eating just what you own eating." He say, "You put your own place at the table," he say, "and you dress it fine." He say, "Put mine to the table and do the same thing." Damn, so Mary didn't want to do it. B'Head say, "You hear what I said!" John say [timidly], "Do what he say, Mary." Damn, Mary going, he take up he big plate of food for B'Head, he put to the table. Head and John eating to the table, eating to the table. John Brown! So happen so, they done eat. Now night come. Got to go to bed. So, went to bed. They make u p . . . grab one old crocus bag, crocus sack wasn't so common those days, you could find one or two. Well, she only coulda find one, and she spread it down on the floor for J o h n . . . not John, for B'Head. But there wasn't nothing to put to B'Head head. So B'Head say, B'Head say, "Only crocus bag you spread on the ground for me?" he say, "and even providing for me to sleep, they ain't put nothing to my head!" So as John say, "Man," he say, "well, we're poor people." Say, "We can't do no more than this." So B'Head say, "Poor, oh! All right, you rich enough to have beds. You sleep in the bed, damn, I sleep in the bed." And B'Head didn't stand. B'Head said, "Go to bed." He say, "You in the front," he say, "I in the middle," he say "and your wife in the back." Damn, didn't stand. Boy. They didn't want it like that, but B'Head jump in the middle of the bed. Damn, John wake up midnight that night, say, "Mary, we got rig a plan so to get rid of this damn thing we got here." Say, " I don't know what kind of thing this is you call B'Head," he say, "but anyway we'll rig and plan and we'll get rid of him. Now Mary, tomorrow morning, tomorrow morning, the clean of the day, we'll go in the field, in the field," he say, "to feed the hog." He said, "And we'll take the hog from there, damn," he say, "and before he get up, damn," he say, "he wouldn't know where to find us." Damn, they ain't know B'Head heard them. B'Head ain't say a woid [word]. Damn, before day clean [dawn], Mary and John going. Damn, B'Head didn't stand, B'Head crawl out easy behind them, easy behind them. Damn, they start cooking. When t h e y , . . . soon as them cook, B'Head say, "Look," he say, "don't forget my plate. Gi' me mine." "Damn," he say, "where you come from?" He say, " I come from, though." John Brown, didn't stand, B'Head say, " I hungTy." John say, "Man, there ain't nothing here for you to eat." He say, "You mean there ain't nothing here to eat, and you got a big, fat wife like that there!" "Man," he say, "Christ, I can't kill my wife." He say, "Anyhow," he say, "well, I won't

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want your wife," he say, "but gi' me the hog. Gi' me the hog," he say. "That's a big fat hog," say, "let's eat that." Say, "Man," he say, "that's m'wife hog." "Man," say, "Christ sake, you can't share a hog, eh?" Damn, B'Head didn't stand. He say, "Damn, if you can't share that, I'll share it." He run to the hog and he share the hog in half. He say, " J o h n , " he say, "this your half," he say, "and this my half. Ain't making no share with no woman now. This man talking, two man talking." John Brownl John say, "Well damn, you's a funny man." So John let his half be for about five mintues. B'Head say, "You don't want that, eh? Oh," he say, " I going eat this too." B'Head grab the next half of hog. B'Head eat that. Now B'Head say, for the next ten minutes, B'Head say, "John, I hongry." Say, "Man, what you mean by that, 'I'm hongry'?" "Damn," he say, "you better get something for me to eat," he say, "as I figuring to make away with you and your wife today." "Man," he say, "don't talk nothing like that. You can't eat natural man." "Damn," he say, "well, bring your wife here then. By you's the man, I'll let you go." Damn, he didn't stand, he gTab Mary. He tear Mary in half. He say, "John, this your half," he say. " I going to eat mine." Damn, John let Mary half stay there about ten, twenty minutes. B'Head say, "Oh damn," he say, "you ain't want that half, eh?" He say, "I'll eat that too." Damn, B'Head didn't stand, he grab the next half of Mary. He eat it. Now they getting down to business now. Business is business! Man, this what you call business now, when you aksing a man now, this kind of questions. So B'Head say, "John, Man," he say, " I hungry again." He say, " I just hungry now." Well, John say, "Now you satisfied. You done eat everything." He say, "Ain't nothing leave." B'Head say, "Yeah, Man, something leave." Say, "What you mean? Ain.. ain.. ain't nothing leave," he say. "And you got that big fat ass there? Well, we going got to share." John say, "Man, what you mean by 'We got to share'?" He say, "Share yourself," he say. " G i ' me, gi' me me half," he say, "and you take your half." Now you know that most impossible for man share heself. John say, "Man, I never hear nothing like that in my life, share yourselfl" Say, "Yeah, Man, share em." He say, "All right then. That mightn't be possible for you to do. I'll do it." Damn, B'Head didn't stand, he run to John and he tear John in half. He say, "Now see your half there. See what you could do with that." Say, " I going to eat my half." Well anyhow, John half been there for 'bout ten minute. B'Head say, " O h , " he say, "you ain't want that half, eh?" He say, "It look to me like you kind of mad!" Now you know it impossible for a man to eat heself. After he done eat one half, how he done eat heself? He say, "You look mad. Damn," he say, "if you don't! I give you two minute more to eat that half. You don't eat that half in two minute time, I going eat it muhself." Damn, well, you know that half could of spend about next forty years there for John to eat it, cause he couldn't eat it. Damn, B'Head say, "Anyhow," he say, "look to me like you mad for true." He run to damn John last half, and he eat that. He say, "Uh huh," he say, "now let me see what you going have tomorrow after this." "Damn it," he say, "you coulda get half of yourself, and you wouldn't take it." Man, when I tell you I was in a thicket of bush, in a thicket of bush. T h a t was a high, high, high dipso bush, you know, and the place kind of dark. But I could of spy B'Head, and he couldn't see me. And the rock I caught at B'Head, and the jump B'Head jump at me, Man, I get so frighten, and I jump right here on this bannister porch, Mr. Rolle bannister, and cause me to tell you that wonderful story. Ehh! ["Ayyy. Ayyy."] FIVE VERSIONS OF "MARBLE"

The two variants of the dragon slayer story analyzed in a previous publication (Crowley, 1954) were recorded during the first field trip. During the second trip Alfred Bowe was in Andros and not available for recording, but Josh Albury retold his version, and others were recorded by Rudolph Lamming and Percy Armstrong. Josh's second version, Tale 139, differs from his first in the same ways as the three variants of "B'Head" just discussed. The second "Marble" example is built more on the song which is introduced in the first line as a motif, and throughout the story. The offer of "ten billion pound" is an innovation, as is the awakening of Marble with a song. Jack uses arrows, a knife, and a "steel," instead of the

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previous "bullets" which were thrown. Booky uses rocks which sink through the decaying corpse of Marble instead of the "bullets and arrows" of the previous story. He seems to have borrowed the idea of "purge" or decay from Alfred. There is the usual confusion about ivory, gold, and brass teeth, and an added leather tongue in place of a human one, possibly an intended pun on the leather tongue of a shoe. Although references in one old-story to characters or situations in another are rare, Josh describes how Booky fought the "giant of Lava," presumably one of the protagonists in his "Lava and Conga" story, T a l e 86. However, the only giant in that tale is Conga Harry, and Lava is defended by B'Spider, a small, weak fellow who wins by his wits and special skill in making webs. This inexact use of a reference reflects the theatrical nature of storytelling and the self-correcting mechanism resulting from the audience's previous knowledge of the tale. This use of a folktale place-name implies that all the folktale characters interact outside their special stories. Josh authenticates Booky's giantism by saying that he fought the giant of Lava who "was about thirteen feet broad and twenty-one feet height." In this second version Jack consciously tricks Booky, while in the first variant the trickery was accidentally caused by Jack's "tarry." T h e king is democratic and even earthy as in the first story, and his conversation, although considerably changed, is just as amusing. Josh introduces political satire with "the King don't know the difference of the gold from ivory them days. It wasn't like the King in these days." Booky's shortlived happiness he expresses in the Biblical Bahamian manner, "What a wonderful mystery this could be!" Jack's arrival just before the wedding is justified by a proverb, "Life for life," which Josh finds funny in this situation. T h e ending is characteristic of Josh's very personal style. In his desire to comprehend his tradition, he explains the origins of statutory law, " T h e m days when you do something then the law just pass then." He has "them big fellows" pass sentence on Booky though in the first variant Jack passed the sentence. For authentication Josh uses his torn shirt about which he was embarrassed, to "prove" that he had been talking to Jack and that Jack had torn it in the "pass" which sent Josh to tell this story. T h e second example shows again the consistency and originality of Josh's style. His stories retain their motif structures, but characterization and presentation vary to suit mood, audience, and personal taste of the narrator. T A L E 1 3 9 : JOSH ALBURY DRAGON-SLAYER

("MARBLE")

Bundehl [ " E h h l " ] Well now, once upon a time, there was a marbel [marvel] in the land, here the sing I heard about, a marbel in the land, low down. So now, the King was worry about this marbel in the land, because every day people were missing out the land, eaten by the marbel. So he sent out two men to kill this marbel. Both of them going, he said, and when they shove an arrow in the marbel, and the marbel shove one blow, and the hooman fall down dead. Say, "Master King, get to send more man." Damn, the King send out ten thousand man, he send out ten thousand man, and they hunt the marbel. And when they find the marbel, when the marbel shove a blow, he kill ten thousand man for a blow, low, low down. King in trouble now. "Wonder what they go kill this marbel with' This marbel, this marbel going work up until he get to the t'rone one of these days." King can't be, can't be contented, although he's a King. Say, "Well, there's nobody else to sendl"

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So there was a man by the name of Jack. He went up. He said, "Master King," he said, " I hoid [heard] about a marbel in the land." He say, "Yeah, Boy," he said, "is a marbel in the land." He said, "Would you like for me kill him. Master King?" He say, "Kill him?" He say, "Boy," he say, " I send out ten thousand man," he said, "and one blow, it take ten thousand man. I 'fraid to sent out any more." Say, "Master King," say, "what you offering? What is the reward?" " O h , " he say, "I'll offer you ten billion pound, any man that kill the marbel," he say, "but man like you can't kill him." So Jack say, "Yeah," he say, "I'll kill him for you." He say, "OK, Boy," he say, "go ahead." Right behind, Jack going, here come B'Booky. Booky come. He say, "Master King," he say, he say, " I hear there's a marbel in the land." Master King say, "Yesss!" He say, "Master King, you know how much offering to kill him?" He say, " T e n billion pound." " O h , " he say, "me, Booky, got that. God damn," he say, "marbel done dead." Booky didn't stand, Boy, he make for the forest, and when he make for the forest, well Jack was ahead. Well, Jack started in he sing, " I heard about the marbel in the land, low down, low down. I heard the marbel in the land, low down, low down. I heard the marbel in the land. Lord, he killed ten thousand man by a blow. Heard about the marbel in the land, low down." God damn, that time, the marbel hear he name. T h e marbel didn't stand. Boy. He go up, damn, and he stretch. He take a look around. He get he fist up, and all he just keep amoving them. "Is this another ten thousand I got to put down?" But finally was only one. Aye, John Brown, Son, by the time Jack reach to the marbel, the marbel was sleep. T h e marbel was sleeping, under this big tree. Ah, Boy, Jack had about three arrow. Well, he had opposition gone the bed. He didn't stand. Boy, he going up in the tree. And when he throw the first one, all the old monster by the name of the marbel, damn, the marbel said, "Sandfly is picking well tonight." Big something like that, he call it a sandfly. " T h e sandflies is picking well tonight." Jack get frightened. Say, "Damn, if he call that sandfly, ain't no use I try, just like Master King say, if these other two can't kill him." Damn, Jack didn't stand, but point for he ears. He throw the knife one of he ears. "Christ," he say, "mosquito biting." Jack say, "One more leave. What I going do?" He didn't stand, Boy. Jack didn't stand, but he pitch that last one. When he pitch that last one, he pitch it in he eye. Bommm! This strike the marbel. He begans to plague his bad eyes, for the present. "Jeez Christ," he says, "what happenl" So Jack didn't stand. Boy. He went off. He come down out his tree, and he went off, and he get a sharp steel, and he sharpen it. Went over to marbel and he was sleeping, with him eyes turn up, and he shove that steel down in the marbel eye, and hold the marbel there, hold that to his eye until the marbel struck dead. And as the marbel dead, now all the King wanted from this marbel, to prove that this marbel was killed [pronounced "kil-led"], was gold tongue and a ivory tooths. Say, "Yeah." So the marbel now, have two set of tongue, a golden tongue, ivory teeths, and a brass teeth and a leather tongue. So Jack take out the golden tongue and the ivory teeth. "Damn," he say, he going to Master King with that. A day later B'Booky come. By that time the marbel was most time to be purge. Damn, Booky see marbel. He say, " T h i s the big monster." Booky didn't stand. Boy, rush up in the tree. Damn, he grab one big rock. "Son of a bitch," he say, "you kill ten thousand man." He say, "Kill this." Wopppl Damn, if he hit the marbel, the rock sink. You could see the dent in the marbel forehead, where the marbel most time to purge. Say, "You bitch!" He say, " T h a t one nearly sink through, but this bitch going through you." Well, quite natural, this one he going throw right through, cause so he throw in he belly. He didn't stand, Boy. He grab a big rock like that, as much. And Booky was a strong man, Booky was a giant, cause Booky fight the giant of Lava, who was about thirteen feet broad, was about thirteen feet broad and twenty-one feet height. He fought him! So Booky was a tall man. Booky was a hero-like man. And he pick up that crystal rock, and when he come down over the marbel, Boy, that damn rock just about going through the marbel. Say, "You son of a bitch," he say, "that'll take you." Say, "You kill ten thousand man. Before that you kill two man," he said, "and this, me one Booky, kill youl Ah hah hah," he say, "this mel" He say, " I going to Master King," he say, "and get all the presents in the world." He say, "And I don't want no presents as much as I want that damn pretty gal you got there you call Greenleaf. That's the gal that I want." Master King made him the promise that who kill the marbel will get so much money, and get this gal they call Greenleaf. He said, "That's the gal I want." He say, "Damn," he say, "now I know Greenleaf is my wife." Boy, he didn't stand, he run up to the marbel, he say, "You bitch, you know you dead now. T h a t big rock gone through you." He say,

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"You dead now." He cut out the marbel damn leather tongue, and he take out h e brass teeth. " Y e a h , " he say, " I going to Master King." Now Jack was a wise fellow. Jack knew that Booky was on the way. Jack didn't go straight to Master King. Jack tarry a little while, and B'Booky went on. He said, "Master King," he said, " I have killed the marbel." Master King said, "You have killed the marbel?" He say, "Yes, I have killed the marbel." T h e King say, " O h good fellow! Good fellow!" W e n t down and show Master King the marbel teeth and he tongue. Well, finally the King don't know the different of the gold from ivory them days. It wasn't like the King in these days. T h e y didn't know gold from ivory, whether leather from brass. So the King was glad to see that this was the golden tongue of marbel, and his ivory teeth. So, the King say, "All right then. You will inherit ten billion pounds, and that beautiful girl you call Greenleaf. T h i s had been the second time she had seen the sun. Girl never see the sun, no more than once already, and this make the second time." Damn, Booky look right round, Booky said, "Well! W h o thought me, Booky, would ever come to this!" He say, "I'm a " He gets so damn glad, and he get sorry at that. [I.e., he cries for joy.] H e say, "Tomorrow I going marry to the King's daughter. Oh Lordy," he say, "what a wonderful mystery this could be!" Boy, so Jack's a day later, before the wedding take place. T h e wedding was suppose to take place five o'clock that afternoon, and here come this wise boy by the name of Jack. He rides up fourthirty. Life for life. [Narrator laughs.] And the good boy rides up. He presented Master King the ivory teeth and the golden tongue. Although the King don't know gold from ivory, but he look at the different of these. He going to the previous one. He say, " W e l l , this seem to be the marbel more than the one what my son-in-law Booky bring. So anyhow we'll call a test. Well, there are wise man in the land who know it." And they call it, and they portest [proclaim] Jack horn to be the marbel golden teeth and ivory tongue. So the King aks opinion. He said, " i f a man told a lie, what must we with him?" In those days there wasn't no laws, as remain the laws, like law books stand today. T h e m days when you do something then the law just pass them. He said, " W h a t must we do with him?" Well, them big fellows said, " W h a t we'll do with him, we'll just put him in a tar barrel, light him afire, and just cast him down the highest hill in the town." And that time, as Booky hear that, Booky take off. Said he don't want to married n o more, and he don't want to have the money no more. Master King said he got to paid with his life. " P u t my friend Brother Booky"—they used to call him Brother Booky them days—"my friend Brother Booky in a tar barrel, light him afire, and roll him down a hill. My friend Jack is a wise fellow." He married in peace, he live in peace, he live in this piece of a candlegTease. Well, I get so jealous to see how Jack marry that beautiful girl by the name of Greenleaf, I get so jealous, and when I pass at Jack, to say a word to Jack, the way J a c k pass around at me, he catch me right at the back of my shirt. Gentlemen here all could see [he shows a large tear in the back of the shirt he is wearing] and he tear my shirt back there like how it is now, all torn up. And I get so scared, and I come. T h e part about my robe was a joke, but I tell you this wonderful story. Bunday! ["Ehhh."]

The fourth version by Rudolph Lamming, Tale 189, is much shorter and the motifs vary considerably from the Behring Point versions. The King's enmity toward the ogre is caused by his theft of the King's daughter rather than by his devouring the populace. Only forty men are sent and they hide in a tree like Jack. The song shows similarity in the repetition of "in the lowland, in the lowland," replacing Josh's "low down, low low down." It is possible that the two songs come from the same source while the two stories come from different sources. The villain is B'Devil throughout Lamming's tale except in the song, where he is "Marty Bullah," possibly another form of "Marble." Lamming's tales suggest that he has learned them from a very skillful narrator, who he stated to be his Long Island mother, but he has learned them in a fragmentary and chaotic way. Although by far the greatest amount of variation is

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conscious on the part of the narrator, Lamming seems to exemplify change through mistakes in transmission. There are undeveloped fragments of other motifs, such as the fact that Jack was wearing "iron clothes" or that the King's daughter was "scalded up" with hot water. His story does not come to the usual climax but ends in the rescue, then the murder of the girl, and is completed with two formulaic endings that occur nowhere else. Lamming's style suggests a fully developed non-Andros personal style as the primary source of his stories. This would explain the unusual formulae, the motif innovation in Tale 184, the extensive differences in motifs, songs, and characters, the use of obscenities, and at the same time such skillful touches as "I going to the King for a pension, pension," which accord neither with the expected children's style of a New Providence boy of twelve nor with the adult Andros styles current in New Providence. Thus it would seem that Lamming's stories are further evidence of the considerable variation in both form and style among the islands. T A L E 1 8 9 : RUDOLPH LAMMING DRAGON-SLAYER O n c e u p o n a t i m e was t h e King a n d h e d a u g h t e r . Every t i m e the King go, he's lock u p h e d a u g h t e r in t h e house. So this time w h e n h e going h e leave t h e door half 'jar, so B'Devil come, a n d h e t a k e o u t t h e K i n g d a u g h t e r , a n d going with it. So when t h e K i n g come back, h e ain't see n o d a u g h t e r , h e faintl W h e n h e come to, h e a i n ' t see h e d a u g h t e r , h e f a i n t again. So h e h a d . . . h e sent f o r t h brave m a n . Send forty brave m e n to B'Devil house f o r h e d a u g h t e r . So w h e n they going, they going, right, right d o w n t o Hell. T h e y say, " I h e a r d ' b o u t a Marty Bulla in this l a n d , in the l o w l a n d , in t h e lowland. 1 H e kill ten t h o u s a n d m a n o n e blow, in t h e lowland, in t h e l o w l a n d . " So when B'Devil come o u t , h e a i n ' t see nobody. W h e n h e look u p in t h e tree, h e see t h e forty m a n . W h e n h e going to c u t t h e tree down, w h e n h e going, when h e going to cut t h e tree down, when h e see t h e m a n t h e m u p inside the tree, h e r u n back in h e hole. So they say, " I can't get y o u r d a u g h t e r . Master K i n g . " So o n e little boy by t h e n a m e of Jack, real Jack, so w h e n they going. Jack come. "Master King! I h e a r d you lost y o u r d a u g h t e r . Let m e go a n d find h e r for you." "Jack, you too small." " M a s t e r King, let m e go." Say, " T a k e off my iron clothes. Give m e some soft clothes. Give m e five anise [Pimpinella anisum] seed, a b o t t l e of water, a n d a loaf of b r e a d . " W h e n h e going with t h e five anise seed, a b o t t l e of water, a n d a loaf of bread, w h e n h e going u p in t h e tree. "I h e a r d ' b o u t a Marty Bulla in this l a n d , in t h e lowland, in t h e lowland. H e kill ten t h o u s a n d m a n o n e blow, in the lowland, in t h e l o w l a n d . " W h e n B'Devil come o u t , h e look all r o u n d . H e a i n ' t see nobody. H e going back. " I h e a r d ' b o u t a Marty Bulla in this l a n d , i n the lowland, in t h e lowland. H e kill ten t h o u s a n d m a n o n e blow, in t h e lowland, in t h e lowland." So w h e n h e going, w h e n h e come back o u t , when h e look u p a n d h e see, h e see Jack there. Jack t h r o w o n e anise seed t h r o u g h h e h e a d . It come o u t t h r o u g h h e bungee. D r o p one t h r o u g h h e side, come o u t t h r o u g h this side. D r o p one t h r o u g h h e belly, it come t h r o u g h h e back. D r o p o n e t h r o u g h t h e back h e h a n d . I t come o u t t h r o u g h t h e p a l m of h e h a n d . Now B'Jack come down, say, " N o , M a n , I d o n ' t t h i n k you d e a d yet." So h e take o u t h e dagger o u t h e pocket, so h e cut off B'Devil head. T h r o w h e h e a d a mile in t h e bush f r o m h e body. So when h e go in t h e hole, t h e n h e take o u t t h e K i n g d a u g h t e r . So he say, "Come, your f a t h e r send m e for you." " M y f a t h e r ? I hasn't got a f a t h e r . " "Master King send m e f o r you. Let's go!" "If my h u s b a n d was to come a n d meet you here, h e woulda kill you." So h e take the King d a u g h t e r o u t B'Devil hole a n d going with h e r . W h e n t h e K i n g see h e d a u g h t e r , h e f a i n t off. W h e n h e come to, w h e n h e see her, again, h e f a i n t off. So, so they lock h e r u p in a dark room, a n d they scald her u p with hot water. W h e n the King come to again, when he see h e d a u g h t e r all scald u p , h e faint off again. 1 Cf. " . . . in t h e lowland lonesome low . . . in t h e lowland so l o w . . . " ; Ballad N o . 286, " T h e Sweet T r i n i t y " ( " T h e G o l d e n Vanity"), Francis J a m e s Child, English and Scottish Ballads (Boston a n d New York, 1882-98), V. 135-142. Also see " T h e G o l d e n T r i n i t y , " Folk Music of the United States, Library of Congress R e c o r d i n g (Washington, 1943), A l b u m VII No. 31 A a n d B.

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When he come back to, the watchman see he gates, and know once upon a time was the spider and fly. They was walking side the road. When they look, they see a big lump of anady [Informants did not know meaning of this word. Possibly annatto or ruku (Bixa orellana), a red dye powder used in cooking, masking, and carnival activities in the West Indies.] in the keg. Each one hold one end with a piece of paper, carry it to the King. "I going to the King for a pension, pension. I going to the King for a pension, pension." When they reach through the gate, when they see the watchman, they say, "Watchman, can I see Master King?" Say, "Yes, go right up the step." When they going up the step, when they reach through the door, they see the King servant. "Call Master King for me, please." When the servant call Master King, when the King come to the door, when they started talking, the King say, "Servant, Servant, get my gun." The spider, the spider and the fly, the big lump of 'nady come rolling down the step. Be Bo Ben, this story is end. I'll never tell one like that again. I went round the comer, I meet one Ireland head. If that Ireland wasn't such a curious Ireland, I woulda sit down here this big night and tell a big lie like that. Bunday. ["Ayyy. Ayyyy."]

The fifth version of "Marble," Tale 152, is a Booky-Rabby tale by Percy Armstrong, and has been discussed in its stylistic aspects in the section on New Providence narrators (see above, pp. 93-94). Rabby is the dupe, and Booky the hero, and there are no ivory, leather, or human tongues, but only gold teeth. Rabby realizes the situation in time to get a reward for his mistake, rather than the usual punishment, so still remains a trickster even in banishment. The story is told very simply, but the motif-complex is complete. The cake-stealing sequence added to it perhaps also explains why Rabby was made the dupe, so that he could be the cake thief at the wedding of Booky. T h e seeming confusion of Rabby having a wife and children and still trying to marry the King's daughter presents no difficulty in the Bahamian setting, though his failure to provide cake for his children is reprehensible. These five versions, like the three of the "B'Head," show the range of form and styles possible with a limited number of motifs. They also show the permanence of the motif structure used by Josh, and the aspects of taletelling where originality is allowed. Most clearly they show the wide variations within the entity of tradition, and the equally wide range of ways to embellish it. " O R I G I N A L " STORIES

In an area where so high a premium is set upon originality in storytelling style, the possibility of original motifs must be considered. In the story of Pablo Simms (see above, pp. 87-90), several non-traditional motifs were integrated with traditional motifs into the traditional structure. But these motifs seem to have been borrowed from animated cartoons, movies, popular songs, or comic book sources. No motifs recorded during the first field trip were claimed to be original. On the second field trip the problem was explained to the storytellers and in accordance with Bahamian politeness, several promised to "make up" an original story. It was explained that the word "original" has two conflicting meanings, the sense of "creative" or "underived," and the sense of "first" or "traditional." After this difficulty was understood, no storytellers came forward with "original" tales, in the first sense of the term. Some claimed that they did not know how to make up new stories. When pressed, Josh told Tale 166 as an "original" tale, and it is a good example of his style. But by comparing it with Tale 88 told by Alfred Bowe on the first field trip, it can be seen to be completely traditional in motif structure.

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Alfred made no claim that he created this story, and there is no reason to suppose that he did from internal evidence. Josh's variant is actually closer to Alfred's than is usual between these narrators. Josh changes Zachias' name to his own, Josh or Joshua, and names the enfant terrible Jack, though this name occurs only toward the end of Alfred's variant. Further questioning revealed that Josh had never told this story before and did not consider it "his." So his first telling was "original" in that it was his first version upon which his future versions, if any, would be based. The subtlety of this casuistry was entirely conscious on Josh's part, fulfilling the request in letter if not in spirit. It also served to declare in the most effective manner that the request was considered strange and unnecessary, and could not be complied with. Earlier Josh had described Tale 43, "Broken Bargain," as original, but a variant in Parsons' 1918 collection was shown him. He pointed out that he had added the explanatory endings of why roosters lower their wings in mating and why they eat cockroaches. In Tale 145 Josh combined three traditional motifcomplexes together to mount the "Baboon's sister—Monkey liver" (Parsons, Tale 115, p. 167) song which he had been asked to use in a story. His comment was " I just make up the story to make fun." Traditional motifs are the only ones which come to mind when considering oldstories. Stories from books, from other sources, or from imagination are felt to be alien or inappropriate. Rearrangement of motifs or additions of small details are thought to make a traditional story "original." In the same way, material from stories about spirits is only rarely cast in old-story forms. An example of this is Tale 54, a humorous story by Wellington Sweeting, where Jack quiets the spirits by playing poker with them. The spirits use the "cleft-palate" speech in supernatural stories for fearsome effects, but here it is used for humor. T A L E 166: JOSH ALBURY JACK T R I C K S OLD PEOPLE Bundayl Now once upon a time, time just like this now, one thing they used do little different. Take fish scale and make shingle, and take fish bone and make nail. Cuckero jump from bank to bank, he ten quarter never touch water yet. Ehhh Babel Ahbeeyah Bayyl Well now this was a time, was a man by the name of Joshua, and a woman by the name of Sue. Well, they both were wife and husband. For shortening, we'll say Pa Josh and Ma Sue. So they didn't have no children. Anyhow they came cross a little boy, and his name was Jack. Carry this little boy home to stay with them. Well, Pa Josh and Ma Sue used to divide up in the night, getting up and roasting bread in the fire, and everything like that. So damn, they can't do better than that. So now, this night more than all, they went to roast some corn. They went to roast some com, and they roast the corn. Pa Josh, Pa want the com. And Ma threw through the dark, and the little boy Jack catch it. T h e little boy Jack catch it and he eat that. So when morning come, they thoughten to cook when this boy sleep, and not cook when he wake any more. So happen so, this night Pa Josh and Ma Sue get upstair, they going to eat one little bread. Used to call it tardee [tart] then. "Let's make one little tardee." So they didn't stand, Jack hear them, but Jack just play asleep on them. Well, when they used to bake the little tardees, they never used to catch no light, because the boy may wake. T h e boy's ears right close to fire, ears right close to fire, it was far enough that they couldn't see him. Didn't stand. Boy, they put a big tapiocum, they call him tapiocum for short now, big bread about five, six feet broad anyhow. That was a small one, five, six feet broad, and put that in the fire. You put that in the fire. When that was half done, only the bottom was done, and the top was yet run.

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So, didn't stand, Jack say, "1 tired of you cooking on me every night, every night. I'm going stop this right now." Jack get up. Jack say, "Uh uh." Pa Josh say, "Little Boy," say, "ain't you sleep yet?" Said, "No," he said, " I can't sleep." He say, " I considering." He say, "What you considering about?" He say, "Before my daddy dead," he said, "my daddy was a man had ten acre of ground," he say, "and he had four son. Before he died," he said, "he promised to make us a will, but anyway, he didn't make us no will, so he just diwide [divide] the land." Damn, Jack didn't stand, he take he hand, he mark on the ground. He said, "My daddy, he cut the land like that, and he cut like that on ground. [Narrator makes cross on the ground with a stick.] Each one take a half." John Brown! Ma Sue touch Pa Josh, he say, " T h i s damn little boy," he say, "he up to something." Say "He up to something." He said, "And the four sons was disagreeable. None wasn't agTee with how their daddy share their land," he said, "and we just take we hand, and we wiping it up all together just like that." Damn, he rub up the bread inside the hot ashes, Man, and all become ashes and calico and everything like that. Damn, Pa Josh get mad, he start crying. Susan say, "Come, Josh," she said, "let's go to bed. This damn little ill-mannered boy," he said, " I tell you about going pick up these children, ill-mannered children, and bringing them here." So anyway, so Pa Josh didn't stand. About midnight when he think Jack sleep, he say, "No, Susan," he say, "the little bitch sleep." He say, " N o . . . . " Now they had a corn field. Had plenty corn, Man. Went in the field. He said, "Let's go in the com field," he said, "and get some com," he said, "and while the bitch sleep, we can roast that." Going in the corn field, they get the com. They roast. He pass the second one to Ma Sue, through the dark. He pass the third one. Jack wake. And Jack going right in the room of Ma Sue. Damn, as he pass the next one, Jack catch it. He pass the next one, Jack catch it. And when Pa Josh get to know Jack eating all the com, aye, damn, he stop roasting com. He going in the corner. He take out the sea rod. He say, "Boy," he say, "you see this sea rod here?" He had some idea that Jack woulda go in the cornfield after he get to this. T h e boy say, say, "You see the sea rod where?" " T h i s sea rod, to whale anybody it," he say, "who go in Pa Josh field." Jack say, " T h a t what I that there for. Sir?" Say, "Yeah, that what that for. Anybody go in Pa Josh field," he say, "after hour," he say, "supposed to whale it with this." So Jack say, "All right. Sir. Jack say, "I'll go to bed." And Jack going to bed. Damn, Jack started snoring. Jack started snoring now, Pa Josh figured that Jack sleep. John Brown, Pa Josh get up, he say, "Come, Susie," he say, "let's go in the field," he say, "and get couple of com." Damn, as they going to get the com, Jack crawl up, Man, and Jack grab the sea rod. He said he remembered what Pa Josh tell him. He said, "This to whale anybody who have to go in Pa Josh field." Damn, he didn't stand. Boy. He grab the sea rod and he make for the field. When he make for the field. Boy, Pa Josh and Ma Sue damn near got their lap full of com, broken com. Damn, the first one Jack met was Pa Josh. "You son of a bitch," he say, "come out Pa Josh field, come out Pa Josh field." He say, "Pa Josh say this sea rod, anybody go inside Pa Josh field," he said, " I going kill you I Come outside Pa Josh field." So Pa Josh tried to make Jack sensible ain't no stranger, it's him. "Anybody, anybody go by Pa Josh field, this sea rod to cut your ass." Damn, and he beat Pa Josh. Well, by that time, he beating Pa Josh, damn, Susan get away. Ma Sue get away and run. As Ma Sue run, damn, Jack beat Pa Josh till Pa Josh fall down. Jack run back to the house. He say, he say, "Pa Josh!" So he say, "M'Son," he say, "Jackie," he say "Joshua ain't here." He say, "Where Pa Josh?" He say, " I don't know," he say, "Joshua going somewhere." He say, "Where you been?" He say, "Son, I ain't been nowhere," he say. " I just got from my bed, I hear you call Joshua." "All right," he said, "somebody been in Pa Josh field," he said, "and I got he ass half dead now," he say, "cause I beat him till he fall." Say, "Son," he say, "you make sure that ain't Joshua?" He say, "No, that ain't Josh, cause Josh wouldn't tell me, say this sea rod to beat somebody who go in he field, if he know he were going there." "Damn," he say, "all right then." He say, " I hope you ain't beat Joshua like that." Damn, Ma Sue know it were Joshua. When he look, he see Josh coming out the field, crawling. So Jack say. Jack get him in the mix. Jack say, "What happen to you. Pa?" He say, "What ha . . . Now this one time," he say, "Jack going die now." " I going fight now, somebody do you anything! Tell me what happen to you!" He say, "Son," he say, " I was out there in the field," he say. " I n what field," he say, "in your field?" Say, "Yeah." "Oh," he say, "you the man I gave that severe cut ass to tonight." He say.

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"Well, sorry," say, "can't blame me for that. You tell me this sea rod (or anybody who go in Pa Josh field," he say, "and I figure it was thief in your field," he say, "and that's why I beat him." He say, "So you can't blame me for that." So Pa Josh and Ma Sue, they leam from that night on, not to get up in the night and cook no more, and try to hide away from Jack. And they all cook at day and eat like how people eat today. £ Bo En, that old-story is end. T A L E 8 8 : A L F R E D B O WE

JACK TRICKS OLD PEOPLE Bunday! ["Ayyyl"] This was a time, not in my time, in the time when rooster shit reason, hen take it and make season. In the day when constitution causing your hand to get square up in this. Well, this was a woman, you know, she is living in Constitution Town, her and her husband only. And you know, you know what I mean, one of these two-by-two house. He was living in that, anyhow, cause he wasn't too big. So anyhow, this b o y . . . Hump! A funny little boy anyhow, he only be around about fifteen years old of age. He tell he ma that morning, get up, he say, "Mom," he say, "you know something," he say, "I think I going travel. I want me a wife, I going travel." So, he say, "Old Lady." The old lady say, "All right. Son," he say, "go ahead, travel." So the boy go in the kitchen, get him half a pint of corn husk, one grain of peas, and two quart of salted beef from out there, and say, "That going take care of me now, till I come back." The boy travel for eighteen years, and he come across this house in whatever you call Constitution Town, you call muh two-by-two house. Now only two people live in there, you know, Ma Sue and Pa Zachias, Ma Sue and Pa Zachias, damn, in those days they never used to offer. They never used to offer in them days. Offering in them days wasn't in fashion. So this boy was hungry, so he didn't have nothing to eat, and he reach to the people house very late, somewhere, somewhere around about seven, eight o'clock that evening. So he meet them getting supper. Just begin to pull the pot off the fire, getting, you know, to make dividement of each of the food. So the boy, he say [hesitantly], "Good evening." Ma Sue and Pa Zachias say, "Good evening, Son," he say, "come, come join." He say, "I know you hungry," he say, "but later, by then we done brought out the food." So anyhow, the boy going to work and he sit down. These people broughted out the food, and when they was done, they say, "Now we does Grace before we eat." He say, "Yes'm." He say, "We pray it and carry in " Before they coulda say "the food," the food was done. The boy ain't get none. T h e boy want. He say, "Son," he say, "that the way we food stand," he say. "When we start Grace," He say, "we done eat." The boy say, "Oh," he say, "that the way you going offer me?" [Narrator laughs heartily.] Bundayl Anyhow, he say, "Time to go to bed." And it was time to go to bed, they went to bed. Now these people don't sleep in the night, cause they cooking all night. They never used to eat too much nohow, but anyhow, the boy going, and get he bed made up, and he went to bed. So when the old man Zachias see the boy asleep, he go and wake up he wife. He say, "Sue, Sue, Sue, get up." He say, "Damn," he say, "little bitch asleep, let we make we a little wabby" [corn cake]. Going in the barn, and he get one half a sack, and he, you know, when he done cook that, he never leave the fire cold in the hot ashes. He would take a cold edge, you know, in the hot ashes, so they mix that up, and they try to spread that off in the blanket they put in the hot ashes, you know, and throw the hot ashes over it. Bundayl ["Ayyyl"] So anyhow, when the thing got done, you know. Sue laying down but Zachias tend to he wabby out in the yard, half a sack, anyhow. And as he going, bring this wabby in, and shove it in the room to Sue. Say, "See this, Sue." And he went back, he shut the door. That was the boy there laying down in the front of the bed. The boy take the wabby. While it happen, while Zachias going to shut the door, the boy going eat. He going in he room, with he wabby. When Zachias come in the room, he say, "Sue, Sue." He say [weakly], "What you say, Zachias?" He say, "Give me mine." He say, "Give you what? He say, "A piece of the wabby what I give you just now." [Laughter.] He say, "No," Sue say, "you ain't give me nothing. No, Zachias, you ain't give me nothing." He say, "How come you don't want give me some, when I just pass it to you." He say, "No, I be sleep." He say, "You think that little bitch here like that?" He say, "Must be." He say, "Let me go try something again. The bitch be asleep now though." He say, "I peered in the door, and I hear him sleeping."

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So they going and throw one other little half a sack in the fire, and knead that in pudding. T h e ashes cold; they building a fire on that, but the boy ain't give them time to build fire on it. So anyhow, they so hurried they mix up that other half. You know, it soft, it mix up with the ashes and t'ings so. T h e boy wait till they cover ashes over it and, he get up. He say, "Hump Hump!" He say, "Lord," he say, "I want to piss." Damn, he going near the fire, and he piss right there. [Laughter.] Now damn, Zachias rest now. Now, now damn, he done rest now, but he going get up, and the boy come out, and they ain't no fire on top of he wabby. So he say, he say, "Pa Zachias, Ma Sue!" he say. "What you say?" He ain't want much to say to this boy, cause he vex as hell. He say, "What you say. Son?" He say, "You look kind of funny. I tell you something, I give you a little history, of a story." He say, "You know, my pa had four sons," he say, "and when he was going die, he had four acres of land." He say, "And what you think my pa do? He want share this four acres of land now among he four sons," he say, "and grab his cutlass that day and he carry it before he in the land, just like we sitting down here, you know, and he take that cutlass, and he . . . " That bitch peel up he hand, and he wipe it and slash the wabby in the cold ashes. He say, "Share the land straight away so," he say, "and cut it again crossways." He say, "You know something, when we bound to see how the old man shared the land," he say, "you know something, Bulla, we do to satisfy him you know what we do? We four come together and muss up the whole damn land." Muss up all that damn man bread now. [NarratoT laughs.] Boy, and Zachias get vex now, he going in the house. "Listen, Sue, anyhow, the boy going out." As soon as the boy get in the house, he look in the corner, he go in the room, he see one whip, something like a horsewhip in the corner. He say, "Pa Zachiasl" T h e end of it look like candy stick, you know. He say, " P a Zachias!" He say, "Yes." He say, " W h a t this thing you got in the comer?" He say, " T h a t a whip." He say, "Well, what you got it here for?" He say, "You see that big field of com what Zachias got in the field yonder?" He say, " T h a t to cut people ass out the field when they go to eat. It ain't they field." T h e boy say, " O h . " T h e boy go in he room, he lay down. Damn, when Zachias was sure thing the boy asleep, he say, "Zachias!" He say, "Sue, Sue!" He say, "Little bitch sleep," he say, "let's go inside the field, get a little nubbin to roast." Hump! Say, "All right." Moon shine. Damn, two of them get up, one with he little crocus bag, one with he sail bag, going in the field, feeling, feeling about. T h e boy getting up, and go in the comer, took out that whip, and near to the comer. Bulla, a little just to the lattice, he walk in the field, and he know someone behind one big corn tree. And he walk, walk, and he ease up on Zachias. Now Zachias was a man never used to wear no pants, short tail. [Laughter.] Now this night now he sleeping in he robbin [undershirt]. And that boy ease up on Zachias. He didn't cut too hard, damn, he ease up on Zachias, and when he catch that, he turn around on he robbin tail, Bulla, and grab it in the back. And the first cut, he say, "Who's that in the field, you little bitch, you t'iefing." By damn, Zachias say, "No, Bulla," he say, "this here is my own field." He say, "No, you damn lie," he say, "how you so t'iefening," and he cut that pissant. Boy, and Zachias put on he damn bag, and get the hell out of sight. And from that day off he been fat little boy. And that the way for you to do if you been catch anybody in your field today t'iefing. So Bunday! ["Ayyy! Bundayl"]

That original or at least non-traditional motifs can actually be used in oldstories was finally proved by the ever-cooperative Joe Rolle, Jr. After several urgent requests, he produced Tales 143,144,198, and 199. Since they were original, he had to write them down, providing both stories with a written variant after he had been persuaded to tell the stories extempore rather than merely reading them. Both stories are the single-motif type usually called "jokes." The first is based on a "gag" line about waiting for a person to bounce after jumping or falling. The second is built around a song in wide popular circulation, a college version of which ends, "But he didn't go to Heaven, he went to Yale." As oldstories, neither is distinguished, though they fulfill the requirements and are comparable to other children's stories. Joe's stuttering delivery does not add to the smoothness of the tales, but he was able to hold audience attention with them.

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T A L E 1 4 3 : J O E ROLLE, JR. KING AND BOYS Bundayl ["Ayyyl"] [Stuttering:] N-n-n-now this time there was two boy», you know. These two boys say they could do some jazz. So this day, they . . . T h e King said, " I want two boys to do some jazz, to do some jazz." So the King wanted them to come in there, and pitch [jump] from that six stories. So, so, so the next day, when they went there, the boy climb up, the boy climb. T h e boy climb on the six story, and the boy holler out, say, "Hey, friend, you ready?" "Yeah, Man, was ready long time." He ready, he was ready long time. So the boy pitch. He see his friend laying on the ground. He see his friend laying on the ground. So the next day he went to the judge. T h e judge aks him, say, "Friend," say, "Friend, why you let your friend drop?" Say, " O h , Man, I was waiting on second bounce." You can't let your friend wait on second bounce from that six story falls. Bunday. Ayyy. T A L E 1 9 8 : JOE ROLLE, JR. HEAVEN ON T A I L O F K I T E Bundayl ["Ayyy."] Once upon a time was a merry good time, monkey chew tobacco and spit white lime. Ayyy. Now, now once upon a time there was a man who tried and tried to get to heaven on a tail of a kite. But, he tried and tried to get to heaven on the tail of a kite, a kite. And one day, one day the man say, " I going on the tail of a kite." So the man start singing, " I know a man by the name of Mike. He want to get to heaven on the tail of a kite, but the tail kite pop, and the big Nigger drop. T h i n k he fell in love, but he fell in hell. Oh, MDevil got him. I know one man by the name of Mike. He want to get to heaven on the tail of a kite, but the tail kite pop, and the big Nigger drop. T h i n k he fell in heaven but he fell in hell. Oh the Devil got him. Boy, Boy, Boy, Ohhhhh, Good Lord set me free." Now doggone, the kite tail part. T h e man think he fell in heaven but he fell in hell. As I was passing by, I tell the man, say, " W h y you so crazy, you was trying to get to heaven on the tail of a kite?" T h a t man give me a kick, until he kick me straight on this bench, tell you that good story. Bunday. ["Ayyy Ayyy."] WRITTEN STORIES

Since Parsons encouraged her informants to write their tales, and even employed informants to record in writing tales told by others (Parsons, p. 54, n. 2), the Behring Point narrators were urged to write down their stories. Only Mercedes and Joe Rolle, Jr. complied. Although he had been in school for four years, Joe is barely literate and his spelling and punctuation are rudimentary. Even so, these written tales show the way "bonday" and "aia" are represented, and how the stories are conceived. Both written stories are shorter than their spoken variants, but contain all the points in concise arrangement. This shows the method for remembering the motif structure from one telling to another, with free improvization of the style elements. T A L E 1 9 9 : JOE ROLLE, JR.

(as written by him) HEAVEN ON T A I L O F K I T E bonday Aia Once apon a time there was a man. He try and try to get to heaven on a tail of a kit [kite]. So the man start to sing is [his] song I no [know] a man by the name of maik [Mike], he waten [waiting] to get to heaven on a tail of a kit, but the kit tail [break, part] C up and the big nigke [Nigger] fel he tink he flow in haven but he fel in hall [Hell]. I say to maike [Mike] you ahing [shouldn't] to do the [that], Maike [Mike] gave me a kik [kick] and me down sit hire [here], and tall [tell] you that big story bonday Aia.

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T A L E 144: JOE ROLLE, JR.

(as written by him) K I N G AND BOYS Nor nar thear was to boys ho say they could do jais [jazz], Nar this day the Kings say I want small boys to do som jais for me. Nar thse boys say that is play thing for us, nar this day king said to the boys ho cood jump from the six story. Ho man that is play things for us, play things for us. so the boy went up, said "friend, you ready?" Yes, I ready long time. So the boy jump from the six story, the boy [broke] he neck, the boy went to the guze [judge], the judge said to the boy why you leat [let] your [friend] drop. Man, I was waitin on second bounce, bonday Aia.

Mercedes' story also shows her conception of the thematic structure almost as a synopsis, and the importance of the repetition of the song throughout the tale. She spells "bonday" the same as Joe Jr., and her other spellings are nearly as far from standard as his. She was educated in Behring Point for about four years, and serves as family letter writer in Nassau. This story, for all its conciseness, has her precision of detail, as where the woman washes the liver before serving it. In the two variants of this tale that Mercedes told a year and a half apart, the themes are the same, and the songs equally important and theatrically effective. Thus the stability, and calm, logical organization of her style come across in the writing, even though its folkloric flavor and fantastic quality are lost. T A L E 1 8 2 : MERCEDES SWEETING

(as written by her) MISS A N D R I O Once upon a time was a merry good time monkey chew tobacco and he spit white lime cockroach jump from bank to bank and his frist quarter never touch water till sun set now this was a woman and her husband and they had a dog now this day the woman husband take sick when the man was on dieing he call him wif to him and he say my wife dont distroy [destroy] this dog keep this to take care of you after the woman husband die some souldier use to come to her and this dog use to talk when these souldier come they sing Miss andrio please mam can hold your dog grand sprio the dog oh no oh no since my master die and gone no one never been here the woman kill the dog and baried him and the dog still yet talking the souldier come back again sing mis andrio. Please mam cand hold your dog grand sprio the dog say oh no oh no sence my master die and gone no one never been here the woman burn up the dog the souldier come again and sing mis andrio Please mam can hold your dog grand sprio the dog say oh no oh no sence my master die and gone no one never been here the woman say come in the souldier them come in mis andrio set the table the souldier set down they start looking in each other face the woman said why you all do eat the souldier say we want meat she get peace of liver she wash it and put it side the plate the souldier said we dont want this kind of meat we want people meat them souldier they gribe hold mis andrio and tear her open and they eat her and they eat her baby and I was passing there the same time and I said you all should not do poor woman like that and the souldier they kick me one kick I run so fast and I fall right to tell you that big story be bo ben my story is end who dont belive that story ash the captain of the long boat crew bonday.

The written story by Edward Reed, an Andros contract worker, was collected in Princeton, Florida after he had declined to record his stories. He felt he could produce a better tale in writing, and presented Tale 115, several days later. The written style is remarkably close to spoken style, with many sentences beginning with "so," and with sentences longer than is common in written expression. Although spelling and grammar are not those of standard English, they faithfully

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reflect Bahamian speech. The story is built around a complex riddle, a fairly frequent theme. The goal of "a house a car and a lot" as well as the hand of the King's daughter is in keeping with the experiences and aims of the contract workers, and the style of their tales. The decorative arrangement of the last few words copied from his original handwritten manuscript, is considered the height of elegance. The synoptic nature of these written tales effectively screens out those aspects of storytelling which are the subject of this study. It is possible that Bahamians more familiar with literary style would write old-stories with much of the style intact, but among the groups recorded in this collection there was no one with the necessary skill. TALE 115: EDWARD REED

(as written by him) JACK CLEARS PUZZLE: (RIDDLE: DEAD CARRIED LIVING) Once upon a time there was a dog and his name was Jack. So he wake u p Early that morning and told his mother that he are going to look for a job on his way looking for the job he meet one of the King gard So he ashed the gard. Is your highness in so the gard told him yes. So he went in to talk with the king So the king told him you must go to my Queen and tell her i send you and the queen gave Jack a job she told him to go in the yard and cut the loan [lawn]. So Jack went on cutting the loan and while he was working the king daughter come out there and asked him what may be your name So he said my is name Jack So She said that a Pretty name and he said it is So she said yes and so the king come in and said to Jack if your could find me a Puzzle that i cant clear i would gave you a house a car and a lot and also married to my. Daughter and Jack told him OK master i will try So he went on Journey and on his way he stop by home and told his mother all about it and his mother said well son before the king Kill you I. will kill you my self. So she bake her a cake and give it to Jack and Jack went on trying to find that Puzzle and as he was going along he had his dog and the son was so hot the dog lay down under a tree so he brake piece off the cake and give it to the dog and the dog died so he stay there where his dog was. And when he look he saw some crow and he move from where the dog was and the crows eat the dog and there was seven of them and the seven crows died so he went on and he saw some more and so he said. I wonder if i could count them so he did and he found Eleven and he had a gun and so he shot at them and he miss and he wath [walk] down by the river and saw the dead earring [carrying] the live and the King asked him you Ever hear the dead earring the live and he said so he said yes and the King asked him what is that and he told the kind that he saw a dead cow in the river drifting with some live crow on it and the King told him you win you get the house the king daughter car and lot and that was the End of the Story was told by Edward Reed "PLANTED" STORIES

In the summer of 1886 Frank Cushing told an Italian cumulative tale to three Zuni Indians during a storytelling session at Manchester-by-the-Sea in England. A year later during a recording session at Zuni, Mr. Cushing was surprised to hear the story retold by Waihusiwa, one of the three Zuni who had heard the tale in England (Cushing, pp. 413-422). Of this second story Benedict says: "It is a striking example of the extent to which Zuni stylistic requirements operate to remodel a borrowed tale The story is easily a better story than its original; it has been

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thoroughly adapted to its new cultural setting by the incorporation of all sorts of observations of Zuni life, motivation has been skillfully built up, and well-known Zuni incidents have been appropriately introduced in a thoroughly workmanlike manner." [Pages xxxii-xxxiii.] It will be remembered that the Zuni storyteller completely transformed the tale to suit his own tradition. The Italians become the "Italia-kwe" or Italy-tribe, and Venice "the town of floods abounding." The tale is made to explain why the turkey-cock has no bristles but purple temples and a bruised-looking head, why field mice have short tails and pink sad faces, why they make crying sounds, and why one must pay for medicine. The Zuni variant is a more complex, more subtle story than its Italian source. A similar, though conscious, experiment was made in the Bahamas with the same Italian tale, but no such successful transformation took place there. The story was told at different sessions followed by a request for some of the hearers to retell it as future sessions. Joe Rolle Jr. told the first variant, Tale 185. He added traditional Bahamian opening and closing formulae, even to having "M'Mouse" give the narrator a slap that caused him to tell his "wonderful story." The story order remains exactly as Joe heard it, but the idiom is Bahamianized except for the formal verb form, "can not get." T A L E 1 8 5 : JOE ROLLE, JR. COCK AND MOUSE (CUSHING) Bundayl ["Ayyyl"] Now once upon a time was a wery good time. Cuckero jump from bank to bank and never touch a quart of water since yet, sunset. Now, now this story 'bout B'Mouse and B'Cock. Ayy. ["Ay."] Once upon a time, this B'Cock and B'Mouse, B'Mouse and B'Cock. B'Mouse going down the street and get some nut. So they went, they went and they went underneath the tree, and the mouse climb up. T h e mouse climb up in the tree, and start eating. So, so that time, B'Cock flying, and he flew, and he flew, but cannot get where B'Mouse was. So, so that time the cock said, " I given up try, I given up try, because I cannot get where B'Mouse was." So he flew down, flew down out the tree. M'Cock said, "M'Mouse, you know I want you to do?" T h e mouse say, " W h a t ? " " I want you to throw me one n u t . " So, so then M'Mouse throw B'Cock a nut, and hit him in he head. He boist [burst] he head, and he head cover with blood. So, so then M'Cock went away. He meet one old woman. He aks the woman, "Old Woman, you could please give me piece of rag to cure my head?" And the old woman say, the old woman say, " I f you give me two hair, I will give you, I will give you the rag to cure your head." So the rooster went away and meet B'Dog. B'Cock say, "B'Dog, you please give me two hair?" B'Dog say, " I f you give me a little bread, I will give you the hair." T h e Rooster say, " I will carry the hair to the old woman, the old woman give me rag to cure my head." So the Rooster went away. He meet to the bakers. He cry out, "Bakers, give me bread. I will carry bread to the dog. T h e dog will give me hair. T h e hair, I will carry the hair to the old woman. T h e old woman give me rag to cure my head." So the baker cry, " I f you bring me wood, I will give you the bread." T h e cock went away. He come to the woods. Say, "Woods, give me wood. I will carry wood to the bakers. T h e bakers will give me bread. I will carry the bread to the dog. T h e dog will give me hair. I will carry the hair to the old woman. T h e old woman will give me rag to cure my head." And so the woods cried, " I f you bring us some water, I will give you the wood." So the cock went to the fountain, and said, "M'Fountain, give me some water." Fountain give him some water. T h e fountain give him some water. So M'Fountain . . . so the cock went and when M'Fountain give the cock the water, he carry the water to the forest. T h e forest give him wood. He carry the wood to the bakers. T h e bakers give him bread. He carry the bread to the dog. T h e dog give him hair. He carry hair to

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the old woman. T h e old woman give him rags to cure his head. So, so then, so then the cock, the cock cure his head. And as I was passing by, I saw the Mouse up in the tree. And I tell little Mouse, I say, "M'Mouse, why you do the cock so?" T h e mouse gave me a slap, until I sit right down here, sit right down here and tell you that wonderful story. Bundayt ["Ayyy!"]

Mercedes Sweeting told the second variant, Tale 205, but with much less Bahamianization than Joe. She felt both foolish and embarrassed by the unfamiliar story, and giggled often during its telling. She used a regulation opening formula and a minimal closing formula, and did not adopt the polite "M' " of "B" " form used by one character to another. Instead she repeated the "Friend Mouse" of the original version. With her usual attention to logic and detail, she gave the story completely and in order, but without adding her personality to it in the least. She recognized this and commented, "I got to talk it with more taste than that," implying an intention to tell the story again and make it part of her repertory. Interestingly enough, Josh never complied with the request for his version of this tale for the same reason that he avoided telling "original" tales, his lack of interest in motifs outside his tradition. T A L E 2 0 5 : MERCEDES SWEETING COCK AND M O U S E (CUSHING) Bunday. [Another narrator remarks, " O h , you talking, Ayyy."] Once upon a time, was a merry good time, monkey chew tobacco and he spit white lime. Wasn't my time, was in old people time, when they bonefish scale to make shingle, the bone to make nail. Now this was B'Cock and B'Mouse. [Narrator giggles.] Now this was B'Cock and B'Mouse. T h e y was two good friends, so this day the cock say to the mouse, say, "Let 'em go down to yonder tree to get some nuts." So they going and the mouse going up in the tree and the cock stay on the ground. Well, the cock couldn't get to where the mouse were. He fly, and he flew and he flew. And he couldn't get, he say, he say, "Friend Mouse," he say, "drop me a nut." [Narrator giggles.] I can't 'member it. Say, "Drop me a nut." So the mouse drop him a nut where it hit B'Cock in he head. [Laughter.] So B'Cock going to the old woman to gi' him some rags to cure he head. And the old woman tell him, say, if he bring her two hair. So he going to B'Dog and he tell B'Dog, he say he want hair to give the old woman, and the old woman give him rag to cure his head. T h e dog tell him, say if he'll get him a little bread. So he going, he going to the baker, tell him, say give him some bread. T h e bread he will give the dog. T h e dog will give him some hair, and the hair he'll give the old woman, and the old woman will give him rags to cure his head. So the baker tell him, say if he'll go get him some wood. T h e baker tell him say get him some wood. So he going to the forest, and he tell the forest say give him some wood. Say the wood he'll gi' to the baker, the baker will give him bread. T h e bread he will carry to the dog. T h e dog will give hair. And he will give the old woman hair. T h e old woman will give him h a i r . . . the old woman will give him rags to cure his head. So the forest tell him, say if he give him a little water. So he going to the fountain, and the fountain give him the water. And he carry the water, and he give the forest. T h e forest give him w a t e r . . . the fountain gave him the water and he gave to the forest. T h e forest give him wood. He give the wood to the baker. T h e baker give him a little bread. He gave the bread to the dog, and the dog give him the hair. And he carry the hair to the old woman, and the old woman give him rags to cure his head. And that be the end of the Cock, and the Mouse. Bunday. ["Ayyy!"]

The third variant, Tale 218, was recorded by Washington Sweeting during his contract work in Fisher, Illinois. He started with a formula but needed prompting throughout the body of the tale. This can be explained not only by the confusing nature of a cumulative tale and his lack of experience with stories of this type, but

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also b y t h e fact that h e h a d m u c h less o p p o r t u n i t y to learn t h e t a l e b e f o r e r e t e l l i n g it. H e c h a n g e d t h e "cock" i n t o a rooster, a n d described the o l d w o m a n as "a w i t c h y o l d w o m a n , " a n d h a d t h e rooster "spray" t h e water a r o u n d t h e tree. B u t h e d i d n o t use t h e "B' " f o r m , a n d e n d e d t h e story weakly. T A L E 218: WASHINGTON SWEETING

COCK AND MOUSE (CUSHING) Bundayl ["EhI"] Once upon a time, merry good time, not in my time, in old people time, when they take fish scale to shingle, fish bone for nails. Bundayl ["EhI"] Well, this one time was the dog, dog and mice, eh? ["Rooster and mice."] [The promptings enclosed in quotation marks and brackets were made by the collector.] The rooster and the mice, Tather. W e l l . . . . [Narrator laughs.] ["The rooster and the mouse are both trying to get in the tree."] Yeah, the rooster and the mouse are both trying to get in the tree to get some nuts. So well, they didn't have nothing say, like ladder or something like that to, or truck or something, to walk round in, so well, they take a boat and come to the tree and they try to get up in the tree for nuts. So well, the rooster couldn't get up in the tree, so the mouse get u p in the tree. And he start to picking nut and eat some. T h e rooster said, the rooster, eh? The rooster said, "Will you be kind enough to drop me a couple of nuts down?" So well, the mouse tried to be careful and not to pick him up and to knock him in the head. So well, he pick up a few and bump him into the head, and, well, start to bleeding and stuff like that so. He went to this old woman, say, "Will you please give me some rags or stuff like that to tie my head so? You got help me n o w . . . . " [Narrator laughs.] ["What is it the old woman wants?"] The old woman want s o m e . . . ["Hair."]... some hair, and . . . ["She was a witchy old woman."] Yeah, and who he went to? ["He went to the dog."] So the rooster went to dog for the hair, and the dog want some meat, some bread, the dog want some bread, so where he went? ["The baker."] He went to the bakery, aks for some bread, so the baker say he want some wood, said, "If you bring me some wood, I'll give you some bread." So he went to the tree for some wood. The tree tell him, say, if he'll bring him some water, he'll get some wood. So he went to the fountain and get some water, and spray around the tree, and the tree give him some wood, and he take the wood to the bakery, and the baker give him some bread. And he take the bread, and carry it to the dog. and the dog give him some hair, and he take the hair to the old woman, and the old woman give him some rags to tie up his head. So w e l l . . . what next? ["That's all."] That's all? Well, that's Bundayl ["Ehl"] T h e lack of success i n story " p l a n t i n g " can best b e e x p l a i n e d by B a h a m i a n conservatism t o w a r d a l i e n ideas or objects. I n a culture w h i c h tends t o m e a s u r e everyt h i n g by its a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o e x i s t i n g local usages a n d institutions, a story as a l i e n as this I t a l i a n c u m u l a t i v e tale h a s little appeal t o b r i n g it i n t o the tradition. O n l y o n e o t h e r c u m u l a t i v e story w a s recorded, Tale 207 by Rudolph Lamming, a n d this has its source i n a b o o k h e read i n the library. A variant of L a m m i n g ' s c u m u l a t i v e tale occurs i n Parsons' 1918 c o l l e c t i o n ( T a l e 61, p. 108). T h e B e h r i n g P o i n t p e o p l e are the m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e i n m o t i f selection, w h i l e N e w P r o v i d e n c e is m o r e o p e n to f o r e i g n influences, literary o r other. It is possible that a E u r o p e a n mdrchen or a n A f r i c a n a n i m a l tale m o r e s i m i l a r to B a h a m i a n stories w o u l d e n t e r t h e tradition m o r e successfully. T h e final story, by J o e R o l l e Jr., illustrating the degree t o w h i c h B a h a m i a n s are c o n s c i o u s of t h e stylistic aspects of narration, is discussed b e l o w , pp. 1 3 9 - 1 4 0 .

VII CONCLUSIONS PROVENIENCE

On the basis of the "startling" resemblances between Bahamian and Cape Verde Islands stories, Parsons (p. xii) postulated that "by far the greater number of the Bahama tales were l e a r n e d . . . not in America, but in Africa." T h e material of the present collection was found essentially to corroborate this point of view, but at the same time to point out the almost insuperable difficulties in assigning definite provenience to so large and mixed a body of lore. T h e old-stories employ nominies from Scotland and England which are also used by the Sea Islanders of South Carolina and Georgia. T h e characterizations such as B'Booky and B'Rabby are known throughout the Negro New World, and have close similarities with animal characters in Africa, Europe, and Asia. T h e "double lie," the narrator participation at the end of the story, and the authentication formula were found to exist in other West Indian tales. Only the combination of these elements is uniquely Bahamian. Of the actual themes or stories the Bahamians cast into their own structures, the relatively cursory comparative references given for each type and motif (see below, pp. 145-148) show the tremendous degree to which these stories are shared with other peoples. We have found the Bahamians occasionally adapting foreign stories and songs to the old-story structure, but more often preferring the traditional themes. It is readily admitted that new structural and thematic material has been entering the old-story tradition from the beginning of Bahamian history, and that Europe, Africa, and Asia can be considered a single Old World folklore area. However, the fact that so many of the traditional Bahamian structures, themes, and even stylistic devices are shared with other New World Negroes seems to indicate that they all came to the New World together, as part of the same cultural heritage, even if, as seems unlikely, all African stories ultimately originated in Europe. It is further admitted that the Bahamians have continued to share their various regional developments through continuous contact and interchange ever since their arrival in the New World. They have also added to their traditional store with "original" material of their own creation. But Africa still remains the most likely source of the old-stories, at least as far as the present material allows generalization. Only a common West African source can explain the similarities in themes and structures, for instance, between Haitian, Trinidadian, and Bahamian stories, especially when there is some indication that African linguistic forms help explain the similar morphology of Haitian Creole and Bahamian English (Herskovitses, 1936: 117— 129

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134). T h e stories, the manner of telling them, and the linguistic forms through which they are told seem to have traveled together to the New World. 1 REGIONAL VARIATION

T h e stories told by Andros Islanders in the published collections and in the contemporary collection are by far the most numerous, the longest, the most varied in motif structure and stylistic presentation, and the richest in all those attributes which Bahamians and others value highly in the folktale. T h e other islands have a simpler style, the style recorded by Edwards, with few formulas and only one or two motifs per story. New Providence, with its cross-section of Out Islanders, opportunities for new experiences, and preponderance of Andros-born residents, has a transitional style more elaborate than the Out Islands but less developed than the Andros style. In Andros we find the real flowering of the tradition. It is probably this which made Parsons choose to collect there rather than in other equally interesting and accessible islands. Perhaps unconsciously, her quest for well-told stories caused her to find Andros Island narrators over and over again. Just as in the present collection, it was Andros Islanders who presented themselves most readily at storytelling sessions in New Providence. While expert narrators came from other islands, such as Theophilus Curran from Crown Haven, Little Abaco, by far the greatest number of virtuosi are Andros Islanders or their offspring. T h e facts of regional variation in individual styles and motif structure have been demonstrated by the tables. "Bunday!" is used very little by contract workers, United States immigrants, and narrators from New Providence, and more by Out Islanders, particularly Andros Islanders. Its most frequent use was by the most skilled Behring Point narrators. "Once upon a time" was used most frequently by children, reflecting the influence of literary stories from school primers. " A merry good time" was found to be used only by the people of Behring Point, who also used more and longer formulae than other groups. T h e content of the formulae varied from group to group, with only very skilled narrators going outside the wide range of traditional formulae to create new combinations. T h e closing formula, " E B o Ben," was found to be the subject of a great deal of individual variation, such as the " B e Be E n " favored by Andrew Albury. Formulae were found to be much more popular among Andros people than among the other groups, especially the contract workers, nearly all of whom omit them. But since this same situation existed throughout the last fifty years in the other collections, the frequent use of formulae was deemed a regional style of Andros rather than an example of "sophistication" altering the story structure. Equally sharp distinctions between different regional groups was found in their use of motifs. Behring Point narrators used as many as ten motifs in one story, while other adults, whether contract workers or Nassauvians, used five or six. Children tended to use fewer motifs, whether they were from New Providence or the Out Islands. T h e published collections were found to contain no stories with 1 For a more complete discussion of the relationship between African and New World Negro tales, see Daniel J . Crowley, "Negro Folklore, An Africanist's View," Texas Quarterly (Autumn,

1962), 65-71.

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more than four motifs. This striking difference from the present collection is explained by techniques of recording. When longhand is used, both the narrator and the collector tend to shorten and simplify the story, and indeed, Parsons made no pretense of collecting verbatim texts. When recording equipment is used, as in the present study, the narrator is encouraged to embellish his tale to any degree he chooses. Hence, the present tales are longer than those previously taken by the other method. This difference is undoubtedly one of the reasons why so few studies of the role of the narrator have been made. It also implies that many collections from the past will not be of great value to future students of creativity, since they will not contain enough of the details of performance, audience reaction, or even the exact words the narrator has used. This is not the case, however, for the published Bahamian stories, almost all of which approximate the storytelling idiom and have detailed information on setting, informants, and audience reaction. T h e only exception is the collection of twenty stories by Hurston (1930, p. 294), which are short synopses in more or less standard English, evidently intended to be used in distribution studies. In her 1918 collection, Parsons stated, "As the islanders move about, they carry their 'ol' storee' with them. Hence the tales told on any island are, I believe, of a Bahaman rather than a merely local character" (p. x). In 1928, when she published fifty-nine more Bahamian tales, she added, "The tales are variants of the fuller collection made in Andros Island in 1918, and show how homogeneous is the character of the folklore of the Bahama Islands. Exceptional are the tales from Inagua, the most southern of the islands. Inagua is a port of call, and exports salt and sailors... Inagua has been the point of distribution, I surmise, for certain tales and riddles in Bahama folklore that point to French-Spanish provenience" (1928: 456-457). It is difficult to interpret Parsons' meaning in this context. T h e Inagua stories include some familiar Bahamian motifs, such as Refugees on the Roof, and use the "B Bo Ben" formula (Parsons, 1928, Tale 56, p. 552). Most of the motifs have been recorded elsewhere in the Bahamas, and Parsons herself says that they are "just such a miscellany as might be expected of coastwise Negro sailors" (1928: 456). It seems that motifs and structures are her criteria for denying regional variation, but if this is the case, the Inagua stories are no less Bahamian merely because they are shared with Jamaica, the United States, or other areas. And for that matter, there are very great differences between the several variants of the same tales all collected on Andros, and included in the 1918 collection. T h e 1928 collection shows that the same motifs are used in the southern islands, but it also shows that the motifs have many different settings, and that variants differ greatly. One must assume that Parsons did not seriously attempt to distinguish between regional and individual variation in style, but came to her conclusion on the basis of motifs only. Even this is difficult to accept, since the motifs are only rarely specifically Bahamian. It may be that Parsons had in mind a formulation similar to the oikotype propounded by von Sydow ("Om traditionsspridning," Scandia [Nov., 1932], 320344, cited by Thompson, 1946, p. 440), that is, a specifically Bahamian form of each tale type, " 'at home' in one country and . . . alien elsewhere." Von Sydow

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further suggested that each country's oikotypes were relatively stable because only an unusually gifted raconteur could "successfully launch" a foreign oikotype and have it enter the local tradition. If this is the case, then the various Jamaicans, Trinidadians, Bermudians, and Turks Islanders in Parsons' collections should have been potenial bearers of new forms, but actually their stories cannot be differentiated from other Bahamian tales in either theme or style. In this context, Anderson's (p. 397 ff., cited by Thompson, 1946: 437) concept of special "redactions" or stable local variations of a motif-complex may have some pertinence. Certainly the tables indicate that particular motifs are more popular in one area than another, but at the same time, the variation in the arrangement of motifs is so great that no definite motif sequence (or Bahamian oikotype) can be found, and hence it can have no local variations or "redactions." Anderson has also propounded " T h e Law of Self-Correction," whereby a tale retains its essential structure even though details are constantly shifting. This stability is due to the fact that each member of the audience has heard the tale many times from many narrators in many slightly differing versions and has thus constructed a kind of standard version for his own use. This version is naturally most influenced by the better storytellers in the community, those who transmit the tradition most vitally. When applied to the Bahamas, this "law" has a certain amount of validity. Each narrator has heard a great many different motifs, and each of these in a great many different sequences. He is more likely to be impressed by a gifted narrator's personal style than by his choice or arrangement of motifs, since these are at best merely a means to an end, especially for the skilled storyteller. But the neophyte undoubtedly gives serious consideration to the choice and sequence of his motifs, trying out various arrangements and changing the sequence at will to please an audience, make a point, or bring in a topical allusion. T h e versions of "B'Head" and "Marble" are examples of this kind of variation. A more effective mechanism for "self-correction" does however exist in the Bahamas. Since the members of the audience in large part know the motifs which make up the story, they have something of a preconception of it in their minds, and do not necessarily hear or consciously note a change on the part of the narrator, whether this change is planned or accidental. Just as in the case of the oikotype, it would require an unusually skillful narrator to impress his new version of a motif or motif-sequence on a Bahamian audience to the extent that members of that audience would copy him. This would more likely take place in individual style, as in Josh's borrowing of Alfred's theatrical gestures, than in motif selection, which by its nature allows and even encourages constant free variations. Traditional motifs thus tend to be preserved by the advantage of familiarity in this struggle for survival. In the published collections there are thirty-four motifs now extinct among contemporary Andros Islanders as far as it was possible to check. T h e existence of these motifs from Eleuthera, Abaco, Fortune Island, Andros, and New Providence, all collected between twenty-two and sixty-three years before the present collection, suggests that motifs popular in one place and at one time are different from those popular in other places and at other times. People seem to know motifs best when they hear them most often, especially if from the mouths of the most artistic

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storytellers. The individual skilled narrator may have garnered his repertory throughout his life and in many places far from his home. He makes all these stories available over and over again to the people who hear him. At the same time those motifs which he had from childhood also recur in the stories of other local storytellers. In this way a child hears the local stories more often than those recently imported from elsewhere. This conservative tendency counteracts in part the effectiveness of innovation as a means of art. There is at the same time a certain inevitable amount of drift as stories are not told for a few years because of audience fatigue or because they seem foolish or senseless to an audience evolving toward new interests and activities. The thirty-four motifs not in the repertory of the contemporary narrators came from the same African and European sources as the motifs employed by these narrators. But the ancestral storytellers either never heard the motifs, or they forgot or omitted them in the process of transmission because of poor presentation, cultural changes, and most of all through the conscious choice of the storytellers. Even postulating more widespread contact between storytellers from various islands than can be demonstrated, it is difficult to see how the same formal usages, motif repertory, and stylistic devices could be common property of all storytelling Bahamians at any one time. Variation by island, area, settlement, and family are virtually inevitable by the very nature of folktale transmission. The further factors of individual choice and creativity complete the picture and explain the variations in the Andros style. T h e folk artist does not make every motif he hears his own. He uses only those which interest him and provide him with opportunities to display his stylistic devices, both traditional and individual. T R A D I T I O N A L INDIVIDUAL VARIATION

The need for more information on the role of the narrator has been recognized by folklorists of all shades of opinion on the transmission of tales from generation to generation. Thompson (Advances in Folklore Studies, 1953: 592) as a representative of the historic-geographic group, asks: " W h a t . . . is the relation of the individual to the tradition which he carries on—how compulsive is the tradition of his social group and how much freedom is there for the expression of individuality? What is the relation of the bearer of oral tradition to his group? How specialized is he, and what characteristics has he, artistic or personal, that cause approval or disapproval by his fellows? How is tradition, oral or material, modified by cultural patterns?" Bascom (1955: 248) states that "in approaching the problem of creativity it is important to distinguish between 1.) the variations on a familiar theme introduced by the individual narrator, and 2.) the origin of the theme, or tale type, itself." As a student of personality and culture, Lantis (Nunivak Eskimo, 160-161) adds that "it is important to know the circumstances in which tales are or have been told naturally, not artificially at the request of the ethnographer. One should record more of narrator's and listeners' reactions as the description and narration progress, the change of mood as the narrator turns from one kind of story to another."

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This study has attempted to document the variations that exist in the performances of Bahamian storytellers, and to differentiate between those which are traditional, and those which are creative contributions of individuals. T h e individual narrator has a wide choice of traditional devices from which to choose when he constructs his story. These include the various uses of the exclamation "Bundayl" to announce a story, to punctuate or comment on the action, to call back flagging attention, to gain a moment of respite, and to signify the completion of the story. T h e narrator may also use songs to further the action of a story, describe an action such as rowing or chopping a tree, or characterize the personality of one of the protagonists. He may employ special folklore idioms such as the prefix B' or special pronunciation such as "muh" for "me." He may inject a "double lie," use onomatopoeic sounds of great variety, and act out his words with the use of stage "properties." There are also a large number of stock characters from which to choose, such as B'Jenerat, the enfant terrible with his whistled leit-motif, the tricksters B'Booky and B'Rabby, and the foolish and cowardly Master King. Each stock character can be radically changed to suit aiiew role or a new situation resulting from a different arrangement of motifs. A particular stock character is usually not attached to any particular set of motifs, so that his use depends on the choice of the narrator. New characters can be introduced, like the man named Mike "who want to get to heaven on the tail of a kite." T h e parts of the traditional nominies and other formulae are assembled to suit the particular story and the taste of the narrator. Formulae may be enlarged or omitted, or changed in a variety of ways, either structurally by rearranging the parts, or thematically by making puns, plays on words, or new sequences of ideas from the common stock. Formulae are thus not strictly "formulaic" since they are not intended to be repeated strictly verbatim. T h e motifs of which the story is compounded are also capable of much manipulation within traditional limits. Each tale is made up of one or more motifs. If only one motif is used, the story is usually called a "joke." Other single-motif tales are popular among children. But the great majority of tales are made up of a series of motifs. The order in which they are used may be called the motif sequence, and the process motif grouping. The final result is the motif-complex, which in this paper is a synonym for "tale" or "story" because it describes the arrangement of the thematic material. It has been found that narrators are remarkably free in their combination of motifs, and rarely make the same combination twice. Choice of motifs varies from person to person and area to area. Some narrators, such as Mercedes Sweeting, specialize in motifs dealing with love and magic, and incorporate songs into their tales. Others choose trickster tales, or "jokes" with "gag" endings. Significantly, it proved impossible to find motif sequences or motif-complexes which were used repeatedly by different narrators. Undoubtedly, if more texts were available, some sort of pattern of motif sequence would emerge by the very limitation in the number of motifs available. But even Thompson, commenting on stories from India, says that "the complete tales—often consisting of scores of motifs—are so formless as to be the despair of the man who tries to make a type

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index" (1951: 595). In the published collections and the present material, the B'Booky-B'Rabby stories show virtually no repeated clustering of particular motifs, and no sequence patterning at all. This means that unless one equates every motif with a type, the concept of the type has no validity in this body of tales, since the "independent existence" of a tale type depends upon the stability of the motifs, and the sequence in which they are used. Thus every story must be considered a "unique event" (Bascom, 1955: 248), since it is always a new combination of motifs, their sequence, and the great variety of formulae, linguistic and theatrical devices, and other variable structure. But even if we exclude the structural variations, we find that it is largely fortuitous when two stories have the same motifs in the same order, and not the inevitable result of the logic inherent in the motifs themselves, since any given motif can be used in a number of settings. It follows then that the concept of the variant of a tale type is equally invalid in this area, since there is no point in designating varying arrangement or varying content in an entity that exists only in countless variations. When Parsons uses the term "variant" of a particular tale, she seems to mean any story having one or more motifs in common with that tale (Parsons, 1928: 456), and a similar usage has been employed in this paper. This usage also follows that of the Bahamian narrators, who conceive of a "story" or "a old-story" as being the same as any other story having a motif in common with it. Thus any two tales with the "Tarbaby" motif would be grouped together—"They a story"—regardless of whatever differing motifs surrounding them. There are, however, no central motifs, since any motif may be used alone in a short tale. It will be remembered that Benedict found that "the narrator's skill is shown in his use o f . . . stock incidents in elaborating... stock themes, and an examination of the tales shows clearly that this is no mean role" (p. xxxiii). In discussing North American Indian mythology, Thompson found that "certain incidents are dependent upon particular plot structures and certain others may occur in a variety of tales" (1946: 339). Parsons too recognized the variable nature of "incidents" and the fact that these "incidents" or motifs could be taken from one story and used separately or in other stories (Parsons, 1928, p. 456). She recorded one version of "The Good Child and the Bad" in two parts, and notes that this division "is an illustration of the way the tale . . . may be broken up" (Parsons, 1918, p. 24 and n. 1). In view of this, and of the great structural and motif variations shown in the eight variants of "The Good Child and the Bad" in her 1918 collection, it is difficult to see how she came to state that "the tales allow for individualistic variation, deliberate variation, only in their conclusion" (p. x). INDIVIDUAL CREATIVITY

The Bahamian old-stories have been found to be organized around the principle of multiple internal variability, with a wide range of traditional materials, both structural and thematic, from which the narrator makes u p his tale. The skilled narrator combines and recombines them each time he tells a story, so that each tale is new each time it is told. This choosing, arranging, and performing is a major part of the creative contribution of each narrator, since no one exactly repeats any story. However, the right to choose, rearrange, and perform the tale

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in one's own way is in itself traditional. So we find that to be a traditional Bahamian storyteller, one is required to create. Without at least a little creative effort, no story can come into being. The nature of creativity has been explored to some extent. Barnett (Innovation, the Basis of Cultural Change, 1953: 181) states: "When innovation takes place, there is an intimate linkage or fusion of two or more elements that have not been previously joined in just this fashion, so that the result is a qualitatively distinctive whole. The union is a true synthesis in that the product is a unity which has properties entirely different from the properties of its individual antecedents . . . An innovation is, therefore, a creation only in the sense that it is a new combination, never in the sense that it is something emerged from nothing." Raglan makes a similar point "concerning the widespread superstition that the imagination is capable of making something out of nothing, or, in other words, that there can come out of a man's mind ideas, whether of fact or fiction, which bear no relation to anything that has gone into it" (Raglan, p. 139). However, Raglan is considering literary forms rather than content. "Very few writers have ever devised new forms; literary conventions are universal, especially poetic conventions," and later, "every literary community has certain types of story outside of which none but exceptional geniuses can venture" (Raglan, pp. 141, 143). But even though forms are necessarily more stable than the content which goes into them, one cannot help wondering what these specific conventions and types of story are, and if they too were not originally made up of older forms and types arranged in new ways. For instance, the first chapter of "the world's first novel," The Tale of Genji, by Lady Murasaki Shikibu (978-1025?) (trans. Arthur Waley, New York, 1955: 1, n. 1) is a blend of the Court chronicle with the conventional fairy tale. The pattern of creative activity within the forms of one's own society is valid not only in such folk arts as pottery or storytelling, but equally in the most extreme forms of personal self-expression in modern European painting. "There is, in the absolute sense, no manifestation of art which is 'uninfluenced.' The artist who has studied and who sees daily what is being created around him cannot in all fairness claim that he can make a clean slate of his mind and forget all he has learned or seen" (Germain Seligman, Oh! Fickle Taste, or Objectivity in Art, 1952: 155). The forms he creates are influenced by his experiences of other pictures and sensations, and he paints with oils or other traditional media on canvas or paper or wet plaster of oblong or square shape with brushes or palette knife, handling the medium in one or another approved manner. And in a few years the forms he creates will be seen to be capable of classification into a "school" of painters with the forms of other artists working separately but contemporaneously. Epoch as well as culture provides limits to innovation. Concerning the folktale, Bascom {Folklore and Anthropology, 1953: 286-287) points out that "as an anthropologist, one may raise the question whether there is any significant difference as far as creativity is concerned between the variants on a particular tale as told by individual narrators among the Zuni or Navajo, for example, and the written variations on the current success story, the mystery, or the boy-meets-girl theme."

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If we accept these attitudes as descriptive of the processes of creativity, we find that a few Bahamian narrators actually have been recorded in the process of bringing something new into their tradition. A case in point is the "Riddling Bunday" (see above, p. 21), used exclusively by Alfred Bowe of Behring Point. Whether he invented or inherited this mechanism he did not say, but certainly he uses it with telling effect as one of his stock devices. The expletive "John Brown!" and the idiom "He didn't stand" are non-traditional features of the stories of Josh Albury. Both these Behring Point narrators have other gestures, devices, and arrangements of motifs which allow their particular individual styles to be seen to their best advantage. Alfred develops the relationship between men and women, and uses it for humorous innuendo, even at the expense of the logic of the story. Josh analyzes and makes logical explanations for the nonsense phrases which are a part of the Bahamian traditional stories. He uses dialogue masterfully, twisting it so that characters say ridiculous things in a context that makes them seem logical. Other narrators add individual touches from outside the tradition. Washington Sweeting describes the new objects of the big world of Nassau, such as the sheet of paper (map) used for finding directions. His sister Mercedes has her own "flourish" or formulaic ending, and her own personal style of singing which alters the traditional old-story songs considerably. Tales based on "original" themes, such as those by Joe Rolle, Jr., were found to come from jokes or song texts, but cast into the Bahamian old-story form. Other themes and stylistic effects were derived from comic books, film cartoons, musicians' "jive" talk, popular songs, and the "patter" of a nightclub master-of-ceremonies. Beside these varied contributions, every narrator is required to "fill in the blank" in certain of the formulae with a phrase of his own choice, rather than any material taken from tradition. Thus innovation is a constant feature of this body of tales, and individual creativity the responsibility of each narrator. That this responsibility is consciously recognized can be shown by the statements of the narrators concerning their art. T H E B A H A M I A N V A L U E SYSTEM FOR CRITICISM O F FOLKTALES

The existence of conscious contrivance of special effects and embellishments in an art form suggests that there must be some system of values whereby these contrivances are evaluated. Most artists are profoundly aware of their audience, and that audience has ways of expressing its reactions even when no technical vocabulary exists. T h e Bahamians, with their high regard for verbal expression, were found to be quite capable of analyzing and evaluating each other's stories, and of discussing their value system. Perhaps the most graphic way to present this critical value system is through direct quotations. The following are excerpts from recorded interviews with the storytellers, or notes taken during the critical discussions of style which often took place in the lulls between stories. ON BUNDAY AND FORMULAE

Josh: If you cook a pot and you doesn't season it, you doesn't put salt in it, it doesn't up to the mark. If you talk old-story without people say Bunday, it got no flavor. Mercedes: It must be something like melody or something, to start it [the story] proper.

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Good

ON SONGS

Josh: Special sings go with special stories. I doesn't put a sing if it doesn't require it. You could more hear a person sing than calling, so I put a sing in when you want them to hear If a thought flash crost my mind, and it really mercurious, I could make a sing. I could remember making a sing a few time If I hear a little song I would add it to my sing, just to carry off the story. Ching-a-ling [words of one song] is just a echo, a flourish, something that would enjoy them and laugh at the story. Mercedes: Ching-a-ling, that a piece of bent iron. They ties it with a string and beat it with a big nail. That a music I hear I don't know about you could put in a different sing in a story, but I hear they always have the same. Some of those sings, I hear them home, they dance tunes.... They carry the sing just for the melody of it. Nothing happen if you leave it out, the story go on good. The people mad if they know it and you leave it out. All the old-story I know have sing. The Coochee River, I don't think you could leave the sing out of that. ON STRUCTURE, MOTIFS, CHARACTERIZATION, LENGTH

Josh: You could put Rabby in Jack, and then Rabby would be fool fellow. Jack smarter than all them fellow. He got to be first. Rabby be Booky then . . . You could start to the dilly tree and end up in the Spirit house. All that could be made one story A word that doesn't count too much, you could cut it out You could make old-story about a Yeho, but I never hear one yet. People too fear.... Mercedes: You could change Jack for Rabby. You could call one of them Jack and one of them Booky or Rabby still. He [the Devil] nothing but a marvel, him, you could do that. You could call another name for Greenleaf. I got to study one for her, I know one, Mary Jane. You couldn't call her Maddy Glass, that be her sister.... You could cut a story short. To them that don't know it, it sound good, but to them that know it, it sound not so good. They don't like that. ON LEARNING AND R E M E M B E R I N G

Josh: If I can't recollect a story, the sing flash crost my mind, and then I think till I remember the story. Mercedes: The old people know the old-story better than do the young set. Mother know plenty of them I learn most my stories right in Behring Point, my home. So many people I hear The children catch it from the old people, and talk, I couldn't say where I hear each story how they hear it they could talk it again. I don't know how stories started, I never hear that. ON M A L E AND F E M A L E STORYTELLERS

Josh: If you take the stories by action, man tells the best stories, cause the ladies couldn't do it. If my story supposed to have motion or caper, the woman wouldn't do it in front of stranger; just with he family or children*. Man would do it in front of you. ON ORIGINALITY

Josh: If I don't like the way I hear it [a song], I change it the way I like it. I either take away some or put some on. You know what happening next, so it's about funny what's good. Mercedes: Every time you talk it [a story] you could change it, put different thing in it. Every story different, I couldn't tell you what to put in I never make u p any story, not yet. I could make one up When you talking the stories it the melody you could put on the stories what carry it off Some talk so plain and dry, it ain't got no flourish to it, and some talk with plenty flourish and t'ing, and it carry it off good. Washington: I never make up a story yet. I could though . . . Harford "Joe" Rolle, Sr.: [concerning the Boy Nasty story] I learn this story in 1932 from John Phillison in Behring Point. He could dance it good too, to make you laugh till you sides burst. Mrs. Farquhar: I tells the old-story like I hear them from the old people, but my brother [in Orlando, Fla.] does always change his. You laugh all night to hear him.

Conclusions

139 ON AUDIENCE REACTIONS

Josh: I t like a advertising. I f somebody doesn't laugh, we doesn't feel like the story is good With a audience I have a better pose, it have more spirit I like to talk to please you all, but not to please myself. ON THE ARTIST Josh: Alfred Bowe though ten you were just hearing those stories for to be amusement. He just make those capers and everything like that in order to give you a joke. W e boys talk like that in Andros. T h e dance, Manl T h e boss man didn't have to keep a dance, we keep the dance, even if you couldn't dance A man who talk old-story called by some people a joke-box. Mercedes: Alfred Bowe know plenty story. He dance by heself, but I doesn't. I just sit down or stand up and talk. I like to see dancing though Bowe could dance it good. He dance Boy Nasty and he act it out. Only Bowe one I see does act it out I t just a way Josh know lots of story. If you know plenty you could all the time talk good Some when they talk oldstory do talk it out plain and dry like so [she speaks in a monotone], like some I hear Uriah talk, so straight. Uriah ain't got no taste, I tell him. Better way to talk it, you could put in what you think would sound good in between Ain't all have flourish alike. "Aye J o h n Brown" is a bytalk Josh couldna never do without, he couldn't talk without that T h e m that talk old-story, when I meet them in the street, I call them "liar." But it isn't like other lies, it just fairy tale, just story. Washington: Lots of story I think [makes a good story]. You put on more than you know before. Andrew: [finishing a story] And that's the end of my old no-taste old-story. ON THE FOLKTALE IN ANDROS Josh: Andros people talk the story best, but they got different story to the other islands, everybody got different story depending what he hear and what he made. Mercedes: So many people down there could talk old-story. You hear them talk it once, you could talk it again. I go from over there and Washington was still over there, and them boys talk old-story lots. He learn it them T h e y can dance the Boy Nasty sing too. They dance a meranga for " P a n k a Panka Pemi O, Pay me for my souse water." T h e y doesn't act it out, they does a quadrille T h e y say them in olden days fairy tale, but I don't know if it was true. I hear old, young, all does talk them.

The range of opinions expressed above show the usual Bahamian pattern of variation within limits. Josh claims originality but Mercedes and Washington do not, though they claim the ability to create. Both Josh and Mercedes care more for the audience's reaction than for their own opinion. All others agree that the stories of these narrators are very good, and that those of Andros, and particularly of Behring Point are the best in the area. One old resident of Great Abaco Island stated with great satisfaction that he was pleased to see they had put a "Jack" story (the standard European version of "Jack and the Beanstalk") in the school primer. He felt that this was an attempt to honor the old people and make the teaching more Bahamian. One of the most interesting of these critical statements on old-stories is that in Tale 203 by Joe Rolle, Jr. This story is built around a criticism of poor oldstory style, where the King puts a narrator in prison for being repetitious (cf. Waterman and Bascom, p. 22). The joke is that the King is as repetitious in his statements as the narrator in his tale, as much as to say that repetitions are a natural part of stories and of life, and that they should be accepted in that spirit. This tale shows Joe, Jr.'s interest in single-motif tales of the riddle type, and

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has one particularly deft touch where the prisoner says "Bunday!" as he goes off to prison. The existence of this story, which is not in itself impressive as a work of art, proves that the Bahamians are conscious of the problems of aesthetics and criticism in their foremost art expression. TALE 203: JOE ROLLE, JR. KING DISLIKES R E P E T I T I O N Bundayl ["Ayy. Ayyy."] Now this day once upon a time was a merry good time. Monkey chew tobacco and spit white lime. Bundayt Now this day the King say, "I like to hear old-stories." Now he said, "Should a man rose there," »ay, "he talk old-stories for the King." T h e King didn't love old-story very much. So, so the next day, when the King went, and the King did get u p when the man come to talk the old-story. Time he talk the old-story, the King wake. And the King raise his hand and the King say, "Begin your old-story." T h a t was worst night. "Begin your old-story." So the man start, "I know one man, I know a man who got plenty hay. Start sharing he hay. He got plenty hay. Some hay he got piled u p in the byre. T h e man say, "One start springing out. A people come and take that man's hay. Another one come out, another one come out, another one come out, another one come out, another one come out." T h e King say, "I tired of hearing that 'Another one coming out'." So the King say, "This your last chance. T h i s your last chance. This your last chance." T h e man say, "Master King, Master King, is many people come out and taking them." He say, "Go ahead, then." He say, "You start again." He say, "Another one come, another one come and take out, another one come and take out, another one, another one." He keep on that, he keep on on that, and he keep on like that until the King say, " P u t him in prison," so this fellow says, "Bundayl" ["Ayyy."] T H E FOLKTALE AS THEATER

From Asadowskij's study of Siberian emigré narrators, Thompson says of the servant girl Vinokurova, "she thinks of every important episode dramatically and describes all the psychological reactions . . . for her the folktale is a form of living art, and she puts into it all her knowledge of life and understanding of human nature. Perhaps this is as far as such a traditional form can be modified by the individual taleteller without changing its entire nature and becoming creative literature" (1946, p. 453). The idea that the folktale is not "creative literature" dies hard. This study has been at pains to show the range and kinds of creativity in one body of tales. If they qualify as creative, then so must Vinokurova's contributions. Folklore is more in the nature of theater than of literature. Malinowski (Myth in Primitive Psychology, New York, 1926, pp. 2 2 - 2 4 ) says of the Trobriand Island storyteller that "if he is a good reciter, he will soon provoke laughter, rejoinders, and interruptions, and his tale will develop into a regular performance A good raconteur has to change his voice in the dialogue, chant the ditties with due temperament, gesticulate, and in general play to the gallery. . . . The whole nature of the audience means as much to the natives as the text." Of Eskimo myths Lantis (p. 112) says, "the oral narratives represent... meanings in a 'dramatic' or 'presentational' form rather than in terms of a discursive intellectual statement" (Lands, p. 112). Lowie describes a Crow narrator as using "expressive gestures and modulations of his voice, giving a comic effect" (p. 133), and describes characterizations of various roles (p. 170). Bascom says:

Conclusions

141

In the case of verbal a r t . . . the aesthetic experience of the audience is simultaneous with the creative act In the telling of a tale a narrator may correct himself when he has misspoken and wishes to change a word or a phrase, but major revisions occur only in subsequent retelling?. The narrator, moreover, is in face-to-face contact with his audience, and may modify the development of his tale in accordance with its expression of approval and interest, either as he goes along or when he retells it later. Where the narrator is permitted a degree of freedom and originality, the audience reaction may become an important factor in the creative process in verbal art [1955, pp. 24&-249J.

Waterman and Bascom (p. 22) add that "the Negro storyteller combines the art of actor with that of dramatist," and that "reading folktales is perhaps even less satisfactory than reading a play instead of seeing it. Equivalents of interpretive instructions to the actors are not indicated, and stage directions are usually omitted." Herskovits states that "the dramatic quality of the tale is inevitably diluted when it is written, for the efficacy of the literary devices is heightened by the manner of talking. Yet the wealth of creative imagination that has gone into these tales is apparent in whatever form they may be experienced" (1946, p. IS). This difficulty in perceiving the art of storytelling is infinitely increased when the tale is translated into another language. T h e theatrical nature of Bahamian old-stories was recognized by both Edwards and Parsons. Edwards said that "in each community one boy becomes much the best storyteller.... But the quick, short gesture, the peculiar emphasis on the exciting words and phrases, the mirth now bubbling from eyes which anon roll their whites in horror, in short the Othello part of the tales, I cannot give" (p. 20). Parsons describes Pa Black, who "sometimes took steps as he sung," and "old Jack Armbrister," a so-called "Congo," who had taught his grandson words and dance-steps. "Like a true artist, he explained that he could not do justice to song and dance without, as he said, a 'partner' " (Parsons, p. xiii). The rapport between audience and narrator is so close in some of the stories in the present collection that the narrator is able to ignore the logic of the development of the narrative in favor of exploiting the situations provided by the narrative. If the audience is fond of the style of a particular narrator, they much prefer to see him perform than to hear the story out in all its detail. Virtuosity, such as Alfred's or Josh's, calls forth this kind of audience reaction, comparable to the stopping of an operatic performance so that the coloratura can display her skill in an aria. Since motifs are so well known, they are of minor interest in comparison to humor, jokes, songs, and particularly to a combination of these and other personal devices of a skilled raconteur. A Bahamian folktale may be likened to a kaleidoscope with its finite number of bits of colored glass representing the traditional and original motifs and style elements of the narrators; the kaleidoscopic mirrors representing the tradition that integrates the scattered pieces into a design, and the hand of the person who shakes the kaleidoscope being the half-conscious, half-unconscious creativity of the storyteller. As the kaleidoscope produces a new and unique design at each shaking, so the Bahamian folktale is a new and unique story at each retelling.

APPENDIX

APPENDIX COMPARATIVE MATERIALS

so limited a study as this, of so homogeneous a body of tales, it is considered "common scholarly courtesy" to include references to the appropriate types and motifs as isolated and classified by Thompson (1955 to 1957, 1961). These in turn will presumably lead the interested scholar to all other published variants of each type and motif. T h e two indexes are remarkable products of good sense and great erudition, and provide invaluable bibliographic functions when used on material for which they were intended. Thompson (p. 7) states, "this work might be called 'The Types of the Folk-Tale of Europe, West Asia, and the Lands Settled by These Peoples.' " T h e Bahamas, with only 11 percent of its population deriving from these areas, is obviously peripheral. EVEN IN

Anthropologists have long been concerned with differentiating diffusion from independent invention, and as the result of bitter controversy, have learned to distrust any simplistic solution, particularly when it involves "historical reconstruction" through a single aspect of culture. Folklorists of the so-called "Finnish historical-geographical school," most of them with literary or linguistic training, long ago set out to make comparative studies of particular tales on a worldwide basis. For instance, Espinosa's "Notes on the Origin and History of the Tarbaby Story" (1930: 129-209) brought together hundreds of versions of a tale commonly associated with New World Negroes, and traced it ultimately to Asia via Spain, largely on the basis of the existence of written texts in ancient Indian and Chinese religious manuscripts. Because of the lack of orthographies in ancient times, no African versions of the tale were recorded before the arrival of Europeans, though it does not necessarily follow that none existed. While it may be that this and other tales now told by Africans and New World Negroes derive solely from Europe and Asia, it hardly seems likely in view of the vitality and importance of folklore in traditional African cultures. In any case, quite cosmic conclusions are reached on the basis of inadequate evidence. T h e practitioners of the Finnish method have evidently come to recognize their Indo-European bias, and now limit their studies of folktale diffusion to small regions having some cultural homogeneity and documentary evidence in literary texts. As part of the same movement that produced the Type and Motif Indexes, Melville J . and Frances S. Herskovits brought together much of the comparative data for African and New World Negro tales in Suriname Folklore in 1936. In Part I I I of Folklore of the Antilles, French and English, Parsons included some of the same material, as well as more of the Indo-European and New World collections. According to the editor of Part I I I , Parsons (1943, p. v) had intended to include a chapter on "Provenience and Distribution," but at the time of her 145

146

I Could

Talk Old-Story

Good

death, only the bibliography, summaries of the tales with bibliographical references, and sections on riddles and proverbs had been completed, but these bibliographical references fortunately contain "a vast amount of comparison." Herskovitses included Parsons' 1918 Bahamian collection, and Parsons listed all published Bahamian tales except the synopses by Hurston and Fitz-James' small collection. Both compendia contain references to Bolte and Polivka's Amerkungen zu den Kinder- und Hausmárchen der Brüder Grimm, and Parsons also includes references to the first edition of Aarne and Thompson's The Types of the FolkTale. Klipple's "African Folk Tales with Foreign Analogues" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1938) documents the existence of a large number of "analogues" without resolving the crucial question of whether or not analogues are genetically related. Flowers provided a useful service in "A Classification of the Folktales of the West Indies by Types and Motifs" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1952) by assigning Thompson's type and motif designations to the tale summaries in Part III of Parsons' Antillean collection. Since only cursory references such as "West Indies (Negro) 30 [published variants]" are made to these collections in the Type and Motif Indexes, all have been included in this appendix. However, since the problem of ultimate origin is not at issue in this study, Clarke's "A Motif Index of the Folktales of Culture Area V, West Africa" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1957) has not been cited. Because they reflect the infinite complexity of human creativity, the Type and Motif Indexes are extremely difficult to use, and indeed, their total mastery is virtually limited to Thompson and his students. Every noun and most verbs are potential motifs, so that a rigorous classification of a tale is a time-consuming process, especially since the "cut-off point" of word-for-word classification seems to be arbitrary, the result of a "feel" for the material. Distinctions between types are equally arbitrary, for instance the differentiation of "Borrowed Clothes" from "Chosen Suitor." In view of the fact that the Indexes omit reference to nearly all African and New World Negro collections, that comparative data is not germane to the problem under discussion, and that the validity of the tale type concept itself has been brought into question in the course of this research, the inclusion of this appendix must be considered a gesture of appeasement to the literary folklorists of the European tradition. Two of the most important recent folklore studies by anthropologists, The Content and Style of an Oral Literature, Clackamas Chinook Tales and Myths by Melville Jacobs (1959), and Dahomean Narrative, a Cross-Cultural Analysis (1958) by the Herskovitses, make no such concession, and include no comparative material. But in answer to Dorson's ("Melville J. Herskovits Festschrift: Current Folklore Theories," 1963: 110) accusation that anthropological folklorists "are largely oblivious to folklore in literate societies and even in cultures other than the one they have claimed," and tend "to regard the tales of their culture as a unique reflection of its values, when the same tales reappear throughout the continent," the following index is offered. It does not presume to be complete, but it is hoped that it will serve as a guide to most of the major sources of comparative data on this body of tales.

Appendix

147 INDEX OF T Y P E S AND MOTIFS

B'Head. Bone for

Stump.

Borrowed

Clothes.

Boy Nasty. Broken Teeth—Wasps. Bullfrog and Spider. Chosen Suitor.

Cock and

Mouse.

Companions

Dancing

Witch.

Devil Doesn't Like Repetition. Diving for Bananas. Drawing with Toe. Drum Talk. Eastward- Westward (Mock Pursuit). Enchanted Pumpkins. Excretion Contest. Eyes Shine. Fish Lover.

Fruit

Dropping.

Godfathers.

Heaven on Tail of Kite

House in Sky. In Cow's Belly.

Incriminating.

Jack Clears

Puzile.

Motifs D164I.7.1, E261.1, R261.1. Parsons, 1943 Tale 345. p. 322. Herskovitses, 1936, Tales 11-13, pp. 168-169, n. 1. Motifs J421, J582.1, J1161, K649.12. Flowers, pp. 476. 520-522. Parsons. 1943, Tale 8, pp. 28-29. Herskovitses, 1936. Tale 18. pp. 177-179. Parsons, 1918, Tale 55, pp. 103-104. Parsons, 1928. pp. 514-515. Type 244. Motifs K1918, K1918.1. Flowers, pp. 51-54, 548-549. Parsons, 1943, Tale 57, pp. 86-87. Herskovitses, 1936, Tale 72, p. 277. n. 1. Motif K1227. Edwards, 1895, Tale X X I I , p. 84. Motif S164. No motif designations fit adequately. Type 312. Motifs G551.1, R156. Flowers, p. 84. Parsons, 1943, Tale 138, pp. 124-133. Herskovitses, 1936, T a l e 92, pp. 296-301. Edwards. 1895, Tale X X X I I I , pp. 93-94. Parsons, 1918, Tales 25, 26, pp. 45-54. Type 2032. Motif Z43. Flowers, pp. 364-365. Also see Motif A2215.4. Type 5ISA. Motifs P601 and F6012. Flowers, 177-178. Parsons, 1943, T a l e 292, p. 289. Herskovitses, 1936, Tale 109, pp. 347-349, n. 3. Parsons, 1918, T a l e 20I-III, pp. 32-35. Motifs D2061.15, G247, G270 ff., Q414.4. Flowers, p. 445. Parsons, 1918, Tale 85, p. 137. Type 1825B. Motif K1961.1.2. Flowers, p. 549. Type 34. Motif J1791.ll. Flowers, p. 486. Klipple. p. 51. Edwards, Tale III, pp. 65-66. Parsons, 1918, Tale 58, pp. 106-107. No motifs found. Motif J2136.5.7. Motifs K541, K1725. Flowers, pp. 513-515, 543-544. Parsons, 1943, Tale 13. pp. 32-33; 1918, Tale 391 and II, pp. 83-85; 1928, p. 501. Motif D800. Motif X900. Flowers, pp. 584-585. Parsons, 1943, Tale 66, p. 91. Motifs B15.4, F541. Motifs B612, B612.1. CI. Flowers, pp. 399-401. Parsons, 1943, T a l e 199, p. 189. Edwards, 1895, T a l e X X X I , pp. 91-92. Parsons, 1918, Tale 29, p. 61. Type 1653. Motifs 962.6, K335.1.1. Parsons, 1943, Tale 28, p. 57; 1918, Tale 40, p. 86; 1928, p. 501. Type 15. Motif K372. Flowers, 17-22. Klipple, p. 42. Parsons, 1943, Tale 73. pp. 94-97. Herskovitses, 1936, Tale 40, p. 221, n. 1. Parsons, 1918, Tale 1, pp. 1-2; 1928, pp. 486-487, 500, 509, 510. Motif F l l . A variant of the poem current on the campus of the University of California, Davis, ends, "He didn't go to Heaven, but he went to Yale." Motifs F675.3, K354. Parsons, 1918, Tale 41 and II, pp. 5-7. Type 676. Motifs K713.1, Q272. Flowers, pp. 522-533, 568. Parsons. 1943, T a l e 26, pp. 52-53. Edwards, 1895, T a l e XVI, pp. 77-78. Parsons, 1918, Tales 6, 7, pp. 8-10; 1928, pp. 497,507. Motifs K1066, K2150. Flowers, 534, 555. Parsons, 1943, Tale 27. pp. 56-57. Herskovitses, 1936, Tale 37, pp. 215-217, n. 2. Edwards, 1895, Tale X I X , pp. 80-92. Parsons, 1918, Tale 33. pp. 70-74. Type 927. Motif H542. Parsons, 1943, pp. 345, 383. Klipple, 594. Parsons, 1917, Riddle 15, p. 276.

I Could Talk Old-Story Good

148 Jack Tricks Old People. King Dislikes Repetition. Kill Mama. King and Boys. Leaving Things in Road. Marble.

Mishearing a Shout. Miss Andrio. Mock Plea. Mock Sunrise. Mock

Wake.

Pa Shining. Password.

Peas in Hat. Peppers for Cherries. Pick Me. Playing Dead (poisoned) in Road. Playing Horse.

Potato Slips. Refugees on Roof. Sillies. Stealing Cake. Take My Place.

Tarbaby.

Test by Sun.

Motifs J1113. J1144, S20.2. Flowers, p. 478. Type 2301A and B. Type 1535IV. Motifs K231.1.1. N478. Flowers, pp. 499-501. Parsons, 1943, Tale 44, pp. 71-72. Cleare, p. 228. Motifs K17, K891. Supposedly original creation of Joe Rolle, Jr. Type 1525. Motif K371.1. Flowers, pp. 314-319. Parsons, 1943, Tale 230, pp. 215-217. Type 300. Motifs B l l . l l , L112.4, T68.1, H105.1, K195, K1951, K1932, N681, L161. Flowers, pp. 60-70. Klipple, 54 ff„ 254. Parsons, 1943, Tales 245, 246, 247, pp. 236-247. Parsons, 1918, Tale 3211, pp. 66-67. Type 1698G. Motifs J1820, X111.7, X112. Motifs A2237.1, B134 and B134.1, B214.4, B332, E423.1.1, G312, K1591J2, Q241, T231. Parsons, 1918, Tale 114,1 and II, 163-166. Types 1310 and 1310A. Motifs K581.1 and K582.2. Flowers, pp. 516-517. Klipple, 644, 868. Parsons, 1943, Tale 25, pp. 51-52. Edwards, 1895, Tale XII, pp. 74-75. Parsons, 1918, Tale 1111, p. 15. Types 120* and 120* Motifs K494, K1886.3. Parsons, 1943, Tale 30, p. 58. Parsons, 1918, Tales 21 and II, 311, 51, 7, pp. 205, 7, 9. Motif K607.3. Flowers 517-519. Parsons, 1943, Tale 34, p. 61. Herskovitses, 1936, Tales 15-19, pp. 173-183 and n. 4. Parsons, 1928, pp. 511-512. Motif J1791.3.3. Type 676. Motifs D1552.2, K1028, N512. Flowers 224-232, 564. Parsons, 1943, Tale 54, p. 82. Herskovitses, 1936, Tale 110, pp. 350351. Edwards, 1895, Tale XX, pp. 82-83. Parsons, 1918, Tales 21 and II, 31 and II, 41 and II, 51 and II, 6, 7, pp. 2-10. No specific motifs listed. Motifs H1511.2, K1045, K1045J2. Motifs F851, K.1020. Type 1525H. Motifs K371.1, K1860. Flowers, pp. 314-319. Parsons. 1943, Tale 9, pp. 29-31. Parsons, 1918, Tale 8, pp. 10-11. Types 4, 72. Motifs K1241, K1241.1. Klipple, 18, 120. Flowers 1617, 26-29. Parsons, 1943, Tale 47, pp. 73-76. Herskovitses, 1936, Tales 30-32, pp. 198-199, n. 1. Parsons, 1918, Tale 19, pp. 30-32; 1928, p. 521. Motif J2173. Parsons, 1918, Tale 3311, p. 72. Type 3B. Motifs K611, K1022.3, R335. Flowers, pp. 519, 573-575. Flowers, 1943, Tale 6, pp. 26-27. Edwards, 1895, Tale V, pp. 6768. Parsons, 1918, Tale 69, pp. 117-119; 1928, pp. 494, 523. Type 1384. Motif H1312. Flowers, p. 312. Klipple, 659-660. Parsons, 1918, Tale 78, p. 128. Motif K300. Types 1535V, 1542 VI. 1737. Motif K842. Flowers, pp. 319-324. Klipple, pp. 670-675. Parsons, 1943, Tale 23, pp. 41-47. Herskovitses, 1936, Tales 116-117, pp. 357-363, n. 1. Edwards, 1895, Tale I, pp. 63-64. Finlay, p. 294. Cleare, p. 229. Parsons, 1918, Tale 12, pp. 15-16, and Tale 39, pp. 82-85; 1928, pp. 486, 501. Type 175. Motifs K741, K581.2. Klipple, 213. Flowers, pp. 41-48. Parsons, 1943, Tale 24, pp. 48-51. Herskovitses, 1936, Tales 8-11, pp. 162-163, n. 1. Edwards, 1895, Tale XII, pp. 73-75. Parsons, 1918, Tales 10-12, pp. 12-16; 1928, pp. 500, 515-516. Motifs H210, HI542, K401.1, K2150. Flowers, p. 555.

Appendix Theft of

Butter.

Theft of Meat. Trapped Retrapped.

Under

Bed.

149 Type 15. Motif K401.1. Flowers, 17-22. Klipple, p. 42. Panons, 1943, Tale 73, pp. 94-97. Herskovitses, 1936, Tale 40, p. 221, no. 1 Parsons, 1918, Tale 1, pp. 1-2; 1928, pp. 486-487, 500, 509, 510. Motif N478.1. Type 155. Motifs J1172.3, K1610, W154.2.1. Flowers, pp. 38-40, 539-540. Klipple, p. 178. Parsons. 1943, Tale 14, pp. 33-36. Herskovitses, 1936, Tale 29, pp. 197-199. Parsons, 1918, Tale 65, pp. 110-111. Motifs J1485, K435. Flowers, pp. 509-510.

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INDEX OF TALES Stories referenced in the discussion but not included here will be published in a later volume. M BER OF TALE 1

6 8 10 16 17 29 33 35 36 42 52 58 63 64 65 73 74 76 88 99

NUMBER o r

N U M B E R OF

N U M B E R OF

N U M B E R OF

N U M B E R OF

PACE

TALE

PACE

TALE

PACE

104 65 86 87 106 108 68 71 70 72 46 79 90 92 96 92 91 91 73 121 49

100 107 109 110 111 115 117 119 120 121 134 135 137 139 143 144 148 151 152 153 156

52 99 100 101 102 125 81 110 53 73 83 84 84 114 123 124 80 94 93 81 60

160 162 166 175 178 182 184 185 189 190 194 198 199 202 203 204 205 214 218 223 224

56 77 119 61 63 124 95 126 117 74 111 123 123 64 140 96 127 67 128 58 95