History of Chinese Philosophy Through Its Key Terms 9811525714, 9789811525711

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Yueqing Wang Qinggang Bao Guoxing Guan

History of Chinese Philosophy Through Its Key Terms Translated by Shuchen Xiang

History of Chinese Philosophy Through Its Key Terms

Yueqing Wang Qinggang Bao Guoxing Guan •

•

History of Chinese Philosophy Through Its Key Terms

123

Yueqing Wang Nanjing, China

Qinggang Bao Nanjing, China

Guoxing Guan Nanjing, China Translated by Shuchen Xiang Peking University Beijing, China

ISBN 978-981-15-2571-1 ISBN 978-981-15-2572-8 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2572-8

(eBook)

Jointly published with Nanjing University Press The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: Nanjing University Press. © Nanjing University Press 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publishers, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

The key terms of Chinese philosophy are central to the vast spiritual system of Chinese philosophy. In arranging the key terms of Chinese philosophy, one is, in effect, investigating the foundational concepts of Chinese philosophy. Philosophical concepts are both the distillations of theoretical thought as well as the foundational elements of philosophical thought and the history of philosophy. Understanding the key terms of Chinese philosophy is a useful aid in understanding the cultural, historical and unique natures of Chinese philosophy. It is a useful aid in understanding the unique modes of thought and vocabularies of traditional Chinese culture and so contributes to the dialogue between Chinese culture and global civilizations and helps realise the turn to modernity. In the long stream of its historical development, Chinese philosophy formed many concepts which constitute the nerve-centre of the Chinese philosophical system. The logical progress of Chinese philosophy is concentrated in and manifested by the appearance and development of a series of philosophical terms. In this process, the one-dimensional content of philosophical terms was gradually enriched so that philosophical thought evolved from their simple beginnings to a certain systematicity. On the one hand, philosophers relied on a series of specific philosophical terms to elucidate their thought and to construct their philosophical systems, so that understanding these terms is a prerequisite to understanding their thought and philosophical system. On the other hand, philosophical terms are dynamic and changing. In different periods, at the hands of different philosophers, the same philosophical terms are endowed with different or even antithetical meanings. The development of philosophical terms simultaneously makes clear the development of philosophy. As such, understanding and grasping the historical development of Chinese philosophical terms is a key means of understanding and grasping the development of Chinese philosophy. Carrying out an in-depth analysis of the important concepts and terms of Chinese philosophy is a key way of bringing to light the uniqueness of Chinese philosophy. It is also an essential path for bringing to light the internal developmental logic and objective pattern of Chinese philosophical thought.

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Foreword

Apart from possessing some universal characteristics that are common to all philosophical concepts, Chinese philosophical concepts possess their own unique characteristics. First, each Chinese philosophical concept has undergone a process of engendering, development and evolution. As such, it is necessary to understand the dynamic history of each concept’s engendering, development and evolution. Next, each Chinese philosophical concept has multidimensional meanings. At the hands of different philosophical schools and different philosophers, each term can have different and even antithetical meanings. As such, in order to understand and grasp the development and systematic pattern of its development, it is not only necessary to understand the content, origins and developmental process of key concepts, it is also necessary to bring to light the different definitions that different schools have endowed them with. It is only in this way that one can bring to light the unique natures of Chinese philosophical thought. Finally, Chinese philosophical concepts often have cosmogonic, root-body, epistemology, ethical, self-cultivation, methodological contents. As such, the investigation into Chinese philosophical concepts touch upon many domains, and so their contents must be brought to light from many different perspectives. Previous scholars have paid attention to and investigated Chinese philosophical concepts and provided many pioneering and invaluable inroads. The most important of these publications include, Study in the History of Chinese Philosophy (中国 哲学史研究), Explanation of the Ideas Behind Key Concepts in the History of Chinese Philosophy (中国哲学史主要范畴概念简释), the edited volume of the first national conference on Chinese philosophical concepts, Collection on Chinese Philosophical Concepts (中国哲学范畴集), Ge Rongjin’s (葛荣晋) History of Chinese Philosophical Concepts (中国哲学范畴史), Zhang Dainian’s (张岱年) Key Concepts in Chinese Philosophy (中国古典哲学概念范畴要论). These works have all touched upon dozens of the main concepts in Chinese philosophy and have had a groundbreaking significance for the study of Chinese philosophical concepts. In recent years, key works in the field include Zhang Liwen’s (张立文), The Developmental History of Chinese Philosophical Concepts (中国哲学范畴发 展史) (This includes section on metaphysics (天道) and ethics (人道)), as well as his edited collection, Series on Chinese philosophical Concepts (中国哲学范畴精 粹丛书). The former combines history with philosophy to provide an overview of the majority of key concepts in the history of Chinese philosophy. The latter provides a more detailed and systematic discussion on concepts such as dao, li, qi, heart-mind and human nature in traditional Chinese philosophy. Apart from this, Ge Rongjin’s History of Chinese Philosophical Concepts is also a work of high scholarly value. This work studies in great detail 28 key concepts in Chinese philosophy and provides a substantial elaboration on their historical origins and development. The above-mentioned works provided a more detailed elaboration on Chinese philosophical concepts and so further deepened the study of Chinese philosophical concepts. In referencing and drawing lessons from the fruits of the works of the above-mentioned predecessors, the present work seeks to provide an even more comprehensive editing and study of the key concepts of Chinese philosophy. To

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this end, the present work has chosen 37 keywords from the history of Chinese philosophy as its subject matter. In content, it encompasses discourses on cosmology, root-body, human nature, self-cultivation, methodology, the state of one’s cultivation (境界论), historical outlook and political outlook. The work is both comprehensive in content as well as innovative in its perspective; in all, it embodies the key thematic content of Chinese philosophy and shows their essential characteristics. Methodologically, a genealogical account of these concepts is provided, so that a clear picture emerges of their historical lines of evolution. At the same time, to highlight the unique contents of these philosophies, thematic comparisons are provided. In combining the genealogical and comparative accounts, timely and insightful comparisons with Western philosophy are also employed so as to bring forth the original and multidimensional meanings of these terms. In this way, the richness and cultural specificity of Chinese philosophy is highlighted, Chinese philosophy is presented in its own natural habitat and, as such, the irreplaceable nature of the Chinese way of thought is made evident. In presenting each key term, the present work has attempted to be both scholarly, as well as readable for a broad audience. It hopes to aid the lay reader in understanding Chinese philosophical thought; at the same time, this work acts as a reference tool for professionals. This work was first initiated through Wang Yueqing’s (王月清) research project. Wang Yueqing, Bao Qinggang (暴庆刚) and Guan Guoqing (管国兴) were responsible for determining the specific entries. Bao Qinggang, Zhong Hailian (钟海连), Zhao Dinghua (赵锭华), Geng Jiajin (耿加进), Zhang Yisheng (张义生), Xue Jiangmou (薛江谋), Li Xinxin (李欣欣), Fan Wenli (范文丽) of the Department of Philosophy, Nanjing University have all participated in the writing of this book. Work on the initial draft was undertaken by Wang Yueqing, Bao Qinggang and Guan Guoxing. The authors of this work hope that the publication of this work will help advance the study of Chinese philosophical concepts. Finally, as the authors are cognisant of the limitations in their knowledge, they humbly hope that readers will provide enlightening criticisms in the cases of inaccuracies, insufficiencies or misunderstandings, which the present work will surely contains. Nanjing, China

Yueqing Wang

Contents

1

Way (Dao, 道) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

2

Charismatic Power (de, 德) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

3

The Heavens (tian, 天) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31

4

Mandate (ming, 命) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

5

Heart-Mind (xin, 心) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

59

6

Natural Tendencies (Xing, 性) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

7

Human Disposition (qing, 情) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

8

Sincerity (cheng, 诚) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

9

Trustworthiness (xin, 信) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

10 Humaneness (ren, 仁) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 11 Ritual Propriety (li, 礼) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 12 Filial Piety (xiao, 孝) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 13 Coherence (li, 理) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 14 Vital Energy (qi, 气) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 15 Being and Non-being (youwu, 有无) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 16 Yin and Yang (yinyang, 阴阳) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 17 The Five Phases (wuxing, 五行) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 18 The Great Ultimate (taiji, 太极) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 19 Self-so (ziran, 自然) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 20 Above Physical Form and Below Physical Form xingershang xingerxia, (形而上形而下) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

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Contents

21 One and Two (yiliang, 一两) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 22 Movement and Stillness (dongjing, 动静) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 23 Constancy and Change (changbian, 常变) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 24 Change and Transformation (bianhua, 变化) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 25 Root and Branch (benmo, 本末) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 26 Name and Corresponding Object (mingshi, 名实) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 27 Public and Private (gongsi, 公私) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 28 Righteousness and Profit (yili, 义利) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 29 Principle and Desire (liyu, 理欲) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 30 King and Hegemon (wangba, 王霸) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 31 Moral Knowing (liangzhi, 良知) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 32 Sage (shengren, 圣人) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 33 Exemplary Person (junzi, 君子) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 34 Equilibrium and Commonality (zhongyong, 中庸) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 35 Unfettered and Effortless (xiaoyao, 逍遥) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 36 Language and Meaning (yanyi, 言意) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 37 Harmony and Sameness (hetong, 和同) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Translator’s Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

Key to Titles

Han Arguments Weighed 论衡 Discussions at White Tiger Pavilion 白虎通 Examination for Promoting the Worthy 贤良对策 The Decision: Hooking the Mandate 钩命决 Wei-Jin Disquisition on understanding Zhuangzi 达庄论 General Remarks on the Changes of the Zhou 周易略例 Treatise on Human Character 人物志 Tang Expanded Collection of the Propagation and Clarification [of Buddhism] 广弘明集 Lotus Sutra 法华经 Returning to Human Nature 复性书 Sub-commentary to the Zhuangzi 庄子疏 The Rectified Interpretation of the Book of Changes 周易正义 Vimalakirti Sutra 维摩 Song-Ming An Explanation of the Diagram of the Great Ultimate 太极图说 Annotations of the Book of Changes by the Cheng brothers 周易程氏传 Cautious Words 慎言 Cheng’s Furthered Interpretations of the Book of Changes 程氏易传 Commentary on An Explanation of the Diagram of the Great Ultimate太极图说解 Correcting Youthful Ignorance 正蒙 Hengqu Discussions on the Book of Change 横渠易说 Inquiries on the Great Learning 大学问 Knowledge Painfully Acquired 困知记 xi

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Key to Titles

Refined Discussions 雅述 Surviving Works of the Cheng Brothers 二程遗书 The Correct Meaning of Terms 北溪字义 The Surviving Works of the Chengs of Henan 河南程氏遗书 Zhu Wen Gong’s Literary Collection 朱文公文集 Qing An Evidential Commentary on the Meanings of Terms in the Mencius 孟子字义疏 证 Commentary on Zhang Zai’s Correcting Youthful Ignorance 张子正蒙注 Inner Commentary on the Book of Changes 周易内传 Records of Thinking and Questioning 思问录 Reading Notes on the Comprehensive Elaborations of the Four Books 读四书大全 说 Records of Master Zhang 张子语录 Outer Commentary on the Book of Changes 周易外传 The Well-ordered Cave of the Science of the Classics (经学理窟)

Chapter 1

Way (Dao, 道)

“Dao” is an important concept in traditional Chinese philosophy. The three main branches of traditional Chinese philosophy—Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism—have all provided this term with rich exposition and developed their own unique and systematic discourses on it. Dao is not only an important element in the intellectual infrastructure of traditional Chinese thought, it also embodies its worldview and values. As a principal feature of the vocabulary of traditional Chinese philosophy, it has profoundly affected aspects of traditional cultural and intellectual life, such as religion, literature, art, as well as practical aspects of worldly affairs such as politics, self-cultivation, as well military affairs.

1.1 One Etymologically, “Dao” was understood as an unobstructed way or path without byways. By the end of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046–771 BCE) and the beginning of the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770–221 BCE), however, the term had already departed from its original meaning, displaying more extensive ramifications, as it progressed towards an abstract philosophical concept. We can see this evolution in the Book of Odes. Although the “dao” used in this text seems superficially to reference a roadway, it is actually being used analogically. To take the further example of the Book of Documents, the use of “dao” here has the sense of governmental decree, norms and standards, and has been infused with tones of moral judgment such as “preferring or hating,” “uprightness” as well as “laws.” These uses of dao are all records of an important stage in dao’s evolution towards an abstract meaning. During the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE), the “Sixth Year of Lord Huan” chapter of the Zuo Tradition records the saying that, I have heard that a small state can resist a big state because the small state has dao whereas the big state is debauched. The dao concerned is being loyal to the common people and trusting in the spirits. © Nanjing University Press 2020 Y. Wang et al., History of Chinese Philosophy Through Its Key Terms, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2572-8_1

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The “Fourth Year of Lord Zhuang” records that, the privileges and emoluments of the king is exhausted. If the privileges and emoluments are too abundant then there will be unrest. This is the way [dao] of the world.

The dao used in these examples has the sense of pattern and order, indicating its gradual development towards a more abstract meaning. Similarly, according to the records of “Eighteenth Year of Lord Zhao,” a politician named Zichan from the state of Zheng proposed that “the dao of the heavens is far, the dao of humans is close, as the two are unrelated, how can the dao of humans be known through the dao of the heavens?” Zichan analogized the order underlying the sun, moon and stars as the heavenly dao, and the order which applies to the human world as the human dao, thereby clearly separating the heavenly and human dao. This had a profound influence on philosophers of the Pre-Qin period. For example, as recorded in the “Discourse of Yue, part two” chapter of the Discourses of the States (国语), a statesman Fan Li from the state of Yue proposed that the way (dao) of combat should follow the dao of the heavens. The use of dao as “dao of the heavens” occurs on nine occasions in the Zuo Tradition and on seven occasion in the Discourse of the States. In the latter, furthermore, the “dao of the heavens” is juxtaposed with the “dao of humans” in order to emphasize that, for a propitious outcome, the human dao should be in accord with the heavenly dao. These historical sources indicate that by the Spring and Autumn period, “dao” was already extensively used in a variety of contexts, and its meaning had far exceeded the confines of “roadway,” having already evolved into an abstract philosophical concept.

1.2 Two 1. The Dao of Laozi and Zhuangzi The discourse on dao of the Daoist school as represented by Laozi is an intellectual high point in traditional Chinese philosophy. It had a profound effect on the development of the conceptual and intellectual systems of many Pre-Qin schools, for example Confucianism and Buddhism. The Laozi discourse on dao has the following dimensions. a. The Various Meanings of Dao (1) Dao as the original source of the myriad things. The Daodejing Chap. 25 says: There was something undefined and complete, coming into existence before the heavens and earth. How still it was and formless, standing alone, and undergoing no change, reaching everywhere and in no danger (of being exhausted)! It may be regarded as the Mother of all things. I do not know its name, and I give it the designation of dao. Forced to give it a name I call it great.1 1 Translator

note: Throughout the translation, I have relied on James Legge’s translation of the Daodejing (with modifications), unless otherwise stated.

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In Laozi’s opinion, the original source of all things has three characteristics. First, it is shapeless and formless, second, it is without beginning or end and third, it cannot be known through the senses. How then, does this shapeless, formless, timeless, space-less dao produce the concrete objects of space-time? Laozi says in Chap. 42, dao gives rise to one, one gives rise to two, two gives rise to three, and three gives rise to the myriad things. The myriad things carry yin on its back and hold yang in its arms, the vital energy blends these harmoniously together.

There has long been conflicting interpretations among the scholarly community with regard to this passage. Some think that Laozi is explaining the relationship between dao and the myriad things from the perspective of cosmogony, whilst others think that Laozi is positing that dao is the original source of all things from the perspective of root-body (benti, 本体). The relationship between “one” and “dao” has been particularly contentious throughout history. Regardless of how we interpret it, in Laozi’s philosophy, dao has risen from an average philosophical concept to the most elevated position in the universe, becoming the producer and decision-maker of all things. This is doubtlessly a paramount contribution on Laozi’s part to traditional Chinese philosophy. (2) Dao is the pattern inherent in the development of things and phenomena. As was previously mentioned, the use of “dao” in its evolved sense of pattern and order had already appeared before Laozi, and so it no invention or innovation or Laozi’s part. Laozi’s contribution lay instead in his doctrine that it is through a “return” or a “return to their roots” by which the myriad things in the universe (including social phenomena), operate. Laozi’s idea is that the myriad things in the cosmos all respect one order, and that although things increasingly depart from their original state as they develop, they will all ultimately return to this original state. Laozi uses the term “enduring” (chang, 常) to describe the order and regularity that is characteristic of the eternal, universal and unchanging nature of dao. He, furthermore, reminds the reader that dao is inescapable like “fate” (ming, 命); it is ever present, and the myriad things all exist because of it, and rely it in order to return to their original states. It is only through recognising, respecting and acting in accordance with dao that we truly understand the myriad things (including social phenomena), and thereby accrue benefit to ourselves; this is called “understanding what is enduring is called wisdom” (知常曰明). (3) Dao is the law of human society. The most striking characteristic of the Laozian discourse on dao is that it does not provide a precise definition of dao, but rather, in describing its uses and manifestations, sheds light on what it is from different experiential perspectives and contexts. For example, Laozi often explains dao from the perspective of governance, military affairs, self-cultivation and personal conduct in society, and thereby demonstrates how dao is the order which a well-functioning society should respect. With respect to the dao of governance, Laozi is opposed to the use of sophisticated policies and instead champions letting the common people be without knowledge and desires. With

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regard to military affairs, Laozi is of the opinion that military conflict is inauspicious; one only employs the military when left with no other choice. One must, furthermore, “advance calmly and without enthusiasm and not glorify victory.” With regard to the dao of self-cultivation, Laozi champions purifying the heartmind and having few desires and stopping when one knows one has reached capacity, as it is in this way that one can endure. As for the dao of personal conduct in society, Laozi puts particular emphasis on the term “yielding” (rou, 柔) and uses the analogy of water to describe it. In Chap. 78 he says: there is nothing in the world suppler than water, but there is nothing more powerful than in attacking the unyielding and the strong, as there is nothing that can change it.

The key here is that yieldingness and non-competitiveness is the nature of dao: “Water is good at benefitting the myriad things but does not vie for anything. It resides in places that the common lot disdain, thus, it is closest to dao.” Generally speaking, through mundane examples of how dao manifests itself in society and daily life, Laozi allows us to better understand what precisely dao is. Conversely, Laozi is explaining that the functioning of society necessarily follows dao. Dao is thus intimately bound up with the existence of every being, as well as the harmonious development of the whole of society; and as such Laozi’s discourse on dao is neither abstract nor abstruse. 2. The Intellectual Style of the Laozian Dao Discourse The intellectual style which the Laozian discourse on dao presents is a highly abstract, dialectical mode of thought. It transcends the primitive modes of thought of early humankind and tends in a more sophisticated direction. According to the French anthropologist and philosopher Lévy-Bruhl, the most characteristic feature of primitive thought is that it is mystical and prelogical. Under this worldview, no purely natural phenomena exist, instead everything has a mystical nature. Furthermore, it is prelogical, it shows a complete disregard for the most basic law of logic—the law of contradiction. Concerned only with the mystical relationship between phenomena and events, it can equate or connect two completely unrelated things, and then become swayed by the ambiguous relationship it sees. Thus, in primitive cultures, a person can be a person but can also be a bird, fish amongst other things. The Laozian discourse on dao displays a dialectical mode of thought which, whilst imbuing dao with a materiality and spirituality, does not literally consider dao to be a concrete object or spirit. In Zhu Xi’s terms, dao is the original source of the world that “does not have form but has coherence/order [li, 理].” From the opening chapter, Laozi makes clear that dao cannot be specifically pointed to with human language, thus he says the “dao which can be spoken, is not the real dao.” In Chap. 14, he further repeatedly stresses that dao is the a “shapeless shape and a formless form” but following that, in Chap. 21 says that, “within it objects are present,” “within it forms are present,” “within it forces are present.” In uniting the “formless” with “objects are present,” Laozi’s style of thinking eliminates the supernatural nature of dao, and so is a classic case of dialectical thinking.

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Here, Laozi’s discourse on dao also points out that opposites such as grand-small, being-nonbeing, difficulty-easiness, high-low complement and mutual transformation into each other. For example, Laozi considers “big” as characteristic of dao but also points out that “small” is also characteristic of dao. Laozi also says in Chap. 2 that “being and nonbeing grow out of each other, difficulty and easiness complete one another, high and low determine one another, sound and tone harmonise with one another, front and back follow one another.” From this we can see that the Laozian discourse on dao is full of dialectical thinking, but events and phenomena are still all ultimately united in dao. 3. The New Development of Zhuangzi’s Dao Discourse By employing dialectical reasoning, Laozi rarefied dao into the source of the myriad things, into the order that underlies the development of things and society, and thereby founded a highly sophisticated source for traditional Chinese philosophy. Zhuangzi both inherited and developed Laozi’s discourse. From the perspective of inheritance, Zhuangzi follows Laozi in considering dao as the original source (which is beyond perceptual experience) of the myriad things of the cosmos. In the chapter “The Great and Honoured Teacher” he said that, dao has a realness and reliability to it, but no activity or shape. It can be transmitted but not received, attained but not shown. It is its own root and its own foundation, even if the heavens and the earth were not there, it would exist firmly. It makes the spirits and the Lord-on-High divine, generates the heavens and the earth. It is above the ultimate peak without being high, it is below the six extremities without being deep. It precedes the heavens and earth without being enduring. It is older than pre-history without being old.2

In terms of development, if the Laozian dao contains the material nature of things, then Zhuangzi tends to emphasize its non-material nature, pointing out that whilst objects are limited, dao is limitless. Thus, this kind of transcending dao resists containment in specific objects and phenomena. We see this in the chapter “Knowing Rambling in the North,” which borrows the voice of “No-Beginning” to say that, “Dao cannot be heard, whatever heard is not it. Dao cannot be seen, what can be seen is no it. Dao cannot be spoken, what is spoken is not it.” It further borrows the voice of Confucius to say, “Was that which was produced before the heavens and earth a thing? That which made things was not itself a thing.” It is precisely because dao transcends all specific things and phenomena that Zhuangzi espouses an attitude of equanimity towards the myriad things, life and death. In the chapter “Equalizing Assessments of Things,” for example, he says, with reference to people, who are a part of dao, “the heavens and earth were born with me, the myriad things are one with me.” Similarly, in the chapter “Nourishing the Master of Life,” he says, “When it came to time to arrive, the master did just what the time required. When it was time to depart, he followed the flow.” For Zhuangzi, the myriad things as well as life and death are all equal and this is what distinguishes the Zhuangzian from the Laozian discourse on dao. 2 Translator

note: Throughout the translation, I have relied on James Legge’s translation of the Zhuangzi (with modifications), unless otherwise stated.

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4. The Dao of Wei-Jin Neo-Daoism During the Wei-Jin period (220–420 BCE), philosophers including He Yan, Wang Bi, Pei Wei, Guo Xiang, with the aim synthesizing Confucianism and Daoism, made a series of commentaries on the Daodejing, Zhuangzi, Analects, Book of Changes, and thereby formed a new philosophical movement—Neo-Daoism. There are three main strands to the discourse of dao in Wei-Jin Neo-Daoism of the myriad things 1. Discourse on Valuing Non-Being: Explaining “Dao” with “Non-Being” Those who maintained this view were He Yan and Wang Bi. He Yan said Beings depend on non-being in coming into existence, in becoming what they are. Affairs on account of non-being come to fruition and become what they are. Now, one tries to speak about non-being, but no words could describe it; name it, but it has no name; look at it, but it does not have any form; listen to it, but it does not give any sound. Then, indeed, it is clear that dao is complete. (Discourse on Dao cited in “Heaven’s Gift” Zhang Zhan’s Commentary to the Liezi)

Wang Bi also says, Dao is an appellation for non-being. There is nothing which is not penetrated, and there is nothing for which it is not the basis [of its existence]. At the same time one [has to] say dao is calm in its insubstantiability and it is impossible to make an image of it. (“Shu Er”, Resolving Problems in Interpreting the Analects)

What Wang Bi is saying here is that all things and phenomena rely upon dao for their existence, but dao has no name, no form, no image or body, thus dao is “non-being.” Wang Bi thinks that this formless, nameless “non-being” transcends anything that has a form within the realm of “being.” It can encompass everything, and only it can become the master which unifies the myriad things: “that which is free from form and nameless is the progenitor of the myriad things.”3 (Chap. 14, Commentary on the Daodejing). This is because in names, there will be distinction, in forms, there will be limits. One may enlarge their size to the utmost, but there is sure to be something they do not encompass. One may make them as praiseworthy as possible, but there are sure to be those who cause calamity and distress. If success depends on making such conscious effort, how is that worth engaging in?4 (Chap. 38, Commentary on the Daodejing)

that this school championed non-being as the root and being as the branches and led to their discourse being called Discourse on Valuing Non-Being. 2. Discourse on Esteeming Being: Explaining “Dao” with “Being” The person who maintained this view was Pei Wei. Pei Wei believed that the ultimate origin of the myriad things was not “non-being” but “being” and that dao referred to the totality of the universe. Pei Wei points out that the Discourse on Valuing NonBeing had taken Laozi to mean that non-being is the master. For Pei Wei, however, 3 Lynn (1999: 73). Throughout this translation, I have used Richard John Lynn’s work on Wang Bi’s

commentaries on the Daodejing. (1999: 124), modified.

4 Lynn

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although Laozi used the vocabulary of non-being, his intention was actually in talking about the fullness of being. In proposing the tenet of the “tranquil oneness of nonpurposive action” (无为静一) Laozi’s intention was in allowing people to be at peace with themselves. It would thus be a misinterpretation to understand him as indicating that the ultimate order is mastered by non-being. As the myriad things are “being” and not “non-being,” then where and what is the origin of being? Pei Wei believes that it is borne from itself: As for absolute non-being, non-being cannot give rise to being, thus the beginning of things gave rise to itself. Giving arise to itself must necessarily have being as its body [体]. If there was anything incomplete in being then arising could not take place. Giving rise to things has being as its nature, and empty non-being is the so-called incompleteness in being. (Discourse on Esteeming Being)

Evidently, Pei Wei takes “being” as the original source of the myriad things, this is in direct opposition to Discourse on Valuing Non-Being, thus it has been called Discourse on Esteeming Being. 3. The Discourse of Self-transforming: Explaining “Dao” with “Self-so” and “Selftransforming” The person who maintained this view was Guo Xiang. In contrast to He Yan and Wang Bi who both used non-being to explain dao and Pei Wei who uses being to explain dao, Guo Xiang proposed the discourse of self-so and self-transformation. Guo Xiang believed that both non-being and being cannot give rise to being; the myriad things therefore gave rise to themselves and became so of itself, are the way they are due to their own self-soing, and so is also called self-transforming. In other words, the production of the myriad things does not rely on any external source, it produces itself, becomes a system on its own, is own cause without any external conditions or reasons. Accordingly, one can say that Guo Xiang’s discourse of selfsoing and self-transforming effaces the idea that dao is the original source of the myriad things. Guo Xiang says, for example, As for the creator, is he existent, or is he non-existent? If he is nonexistent, how can he create things? If he is existent, having a definite form himself, then he is not qualified to form all forms. Thus only after you understand that all forms form themselves can you understand what is meant by creation. Hence of all things involved in the realm of existence, even the penumbra, there has never been one that did not transform itself entirely on its own, constantly positioned in the realm where all agency vanishes. Thus creation is without lord or master, and each thing creates itself.5 (Commentary on Equalising Assessments of Things)

Guo Xiang believes that, precisely because non-being and being is not the original source behind the production of the myriad things, the so-called “ultimate dao” is the “ultimate non-being.” Analyzed more closely, “ultimate non-being,” in reality, is “self-so,” “not having something that makes it so.” He says,

5 Ziporyn

(2015: 402).

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What is that which precedes things? I take yin and yang to precede things, yet yin and yang is just what we call things. What precedes yin and yang? I take self-so as prior to it, yet self-so is just things being itself. I take the ultimate dao as prior to it, but ultimate dao is just ultimate non-being. If we take non-being, then what is prior to things? But as there are ceaselessly new things being created, we understand that things are just self-so, that there wasn’t anything making it so. (Commentary on Knowing Journeyed North)

From the relationship of “being” and “non-being” (that is, the relationship between the phenomenal and the world of root-body), Wei-Jin Neo-Daoism provided a new interpretation of “dao.” This new discourse broke new ground in Chinese philosophy, which heretofore was framed in cosmogonic terms. Compared with pre-Qin and Han cosmology, it is far more sophisticated philosophically and would come to have a profound impact on the innovations of Neo-Confucianism.

1.3 Three The philosophical structure of religious Daoism mainly revolves around commentaries on Laozi’s Daodejing and Zhuangzi’s Zhuangzi. For both religious Daoism and Daoist philosophy, therefore, dao is a central concept. The philosophy of religious Daoism finds its origins in the Pre-Qin Daoist school, and during its development absorbed influences from, amongst others, the Buddhist school of philosophy, the Confucian school of philosophy, and the Yinyang school, and displayed theoretical tendencies throughout history. 1. The Deification of the “Dao” in Xiang’er Commentary to the Laozi The “Dao of the Five Pecks of Rice” founded by Zhang Lingchuang is one of the two early schools of religious Daoism, which mainly flourished among the lower strata of society and transmitted the Xiang’er Commentary to the Laozi. The Xiang’er Commentary to the Laozi considered “dao” as an anthropomorphised deity—The Grand Supreme Elderly Lord (太上老君)—believing that “dao” has a human personality, intentions, and although without any perceptual traces, is however the omnipresent, all-encompassing and master of all things; there is nothing greater than it. The Xiang’er Commentaries also proposed the concepts of “the vital energy [qi] of dao” (道气) “the essence of dao” (道精)“the spirit of dao” (道神).When dao is dissolved from its form, this is “the vital energy [qi] of dao.” Since essence originates in vital (qi), this is called “the essence of dao.” As there is a great numinous spirit within dao, and this is the “spirit of dao.” Thus, “the vital energy [qi] of dao,” “the essence of dao” and “the spirit of dao” are but different manifestations of dao. They are the root of the myriad things (including humankind), and they are also the means by which humans become gods. As we can see, for the author of the Xiang’er Commentary to the Laozi, dao is an anthropomorphized god. By the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, following this line of thought, dao evolved into the revered three pure lords: the Celestial Venerable of the Primordial Beginning (元始天尊), the

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Grand Supreme Elderly Lord (太上老君), and the Lord of the Numinous Treasure (灵宝天). 2. The Classic of Great Peace: Using “Principle Vital Energy [qi]” to Explain “Dao,” the Philosophy of the “Principal Vital Energy [qi]” as the vehicle of Dao The Classic of Great Peace is an important text of the “Dao of Great Peace school” of Daoism (founded by Zhang Jiaochuang), which was one of the two main schools of early Daoism. For this school, principal vital energy (yuanqi, 元气) is the original source in the production of the myriad things, and dao is the order and regularity which controls the change and transformation of principal vital energy. Principal vital energy relies upon dao to give birth to the myriad things, and so it is dao that is the ultimate root and origin of all change and transformation. Without dao, principal vital energy would not be able to give birth to the myriad things. Of course, because the Classic of Great Peace was not authored by a single person, its explications of “dao” contains various meanings, for example the dao of order, the dao of different arts and techniques (方术), the dao of the mutual connectedness of the heavens, earth, and man (三合相通), the dao of self-cultivation, the dao of governance. 3. The Dao of the school of Double Mystery What is unique in the religious school of Double Mystery’s (of the Sui-Tang period) interpretation of the Laozi is that it interpreted dao as “formlessly connected with subtle order” (虚通妙理). This is an important characteristic of the school of Double Mystery of the Tang Dynasty. In saying that “utmost dao is formlessly connected” what is meant is that, on the one hand, dao is not confined to any specific name or concept or any specific space-time, and on the other hand, it is connected with all things without obstruction. This dao of “formless connection” is the root of all creation and transformation, the origin of the heavens and earth. As we have said, for this school, Dao is not only formlessly connected but is also a subtle order. In using “order” (li, 理) to explain dao, the scholars of the Double Mystery provided an innovative exposition of the essential meaning of dao. The person who gave fullest exposition to this topic is was Li Rong. On many occasions in his Laozi Commentaries he used the concept “order” (li, 理) to explain the Laozian dao. As Li Rong sees it, dao, as root-body, is the “order [li, 理] of the formless ultimate” (虚极之理) this “order” cannot be delimited or ascertained through concepts such as above and below, being and non-being. It is the most mysterious of the mysterious, the most formless of the formless, without shape or form, without shadow or trace, yet encompasses the myriad forms and gives birth to the myriad species. The school of Double Mystery interpreted dao as the order of the root-body of the universe, and thereby inspired Neo-Confucianism to take “order” (li, 理) as the key concept of its intellectual system.

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1.4 Four In the philosophical system of Confucianism, “dao” operates under a different rubric to, and has different implications from, those of religious and philosophical Daoism. If religious and philosophical Daoism explains and is formulated through cosmological paradigms (including cosmogony and ontology) and uses this vocabulary to explore the relationship between dao and the myriad things (including people), then the dao of Confucian discourse uses dao as an ethical paradigm to explore the relationship between dao and people. Analyzed more closely, we can see that the Confucian discourse on dao has three courses of development. First, that of Confucius, Mencius and the Doctrine of the Mean. Second, that of the Book of Changes and its attendant developments. Third, the creative synthesis of the above two in Neo-Confucianism. A brief summary of each will be provided below. 1. The Discourse on Dao from Confucius to Mencius a. Confucius’s Dao of humaneness Dao is an important element of Confucius’s thinking; as an indication of its importance, the word “dao” occurs around one hundred times throughout the Analects. In Analects 7.6 Confucius described his lifelong ideal as “Setting one’s heart upon the way [dao], relying upon virtue, leaning upon goodness, and wandering in the arts.” Confucius also said, “Having heard in the morning that the way [dao] is put into practice, I could die that evening without regret.” These examples serve to show the importance Confucius attached to the search for dao. Confucius expounded at length on “dao,” but as a philosophic paradigm, the content of Confucius’s dao is humaneness, as such, his dao is the dao of humaneness (rendao, 仁道). The concept of “humaneness” (ren, 仁) occurs extensively in the Analects. Although Confucius did not give “humanness” an explicit definition, he expounds at length upon the content of humaneness in different contexts and from different perspectives. In Analects 12.1, for example we see that, Yan Hui asked about humaneness and the Master replied, “Restraining yourself and returning to the rites constitutes humaneness. If you can subdue yourself for one day and return to the rites, in this way you could lead the entire world back to humaneness. The key to realizing humaneness lies within yourself, how could it come from others?”6

In another example, Analects 12.2, we read that, Zhong Gong asked about humaneness and the Master replied ‘When in public, comport yourself as if you were receiving an important guest, and in your management of the common people, behave as if you were responsible for a great sacrifice. What you do not wish for yourself, do not impose onto others. In this way, you will encounter no resentment in your public or private life.’

Similarly, In Analects 12.22 we read “Fan Chi asked about humaneness and the Master replied, ‘love people.” From all these examples it can be seen that the content 6 Translator

note: Throughout the translation, I have relied on James Legge’s translation of the Analects (with modifications), unless otherwise stated.

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of Confucius’s dao, as defined by humaneness, is disclosed through the reification of interpersonal ethical norms. It can be said, therefore, that humaneness is the inner direction of many different ethical norms. Conversely, it can be said that ethical norms such as righteousness, rites, wisdom, trustworthiness, bravery, loyalty and sympathetic understanding and other concrete manifestations of moral norms are the different materializations of humaneness. As compared with Laozi’s discourse on dao, Confucius rarely talks about cosmology, Confucius’s dao of humaneness is instead founded upon and developed through socio-ethical values. b. Mencius’s Dao of Humaneness Mencius inherited the idea of humanness as dao, we can see this in Mencius 7B16,7 “Humaneness is simply being human. The way [dao] is simply to harmonize with humaneness and put it into words.” As distinguished from Confucius’s seldom pronouncements on human nature and fate, Mencius did expound upon the logical relationship between humane (dao) and human nature, the heavens and fate (ming, 命). In so doing he happened upon the central issue of Neo-Confucianism: the relationship between human nature, the order or coherence of the world, and fate. In 7A1, for example, Mencius said, To fully fathom one’s heart-mind is to understand one’s nature. To understand one’s nature is to understand the heavens. To preserve one’s heart-mind and nourish one’s nature is the means to serve the heavens. To not become conflicted over the length of one’s life but to cultivate oneself whilst awaiting one’s fate is the way to take one’s stand on fate.8

From the Mencian po