Hepu Han Tombs [1st ed. 2022] 9811946590, 9789811946592

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Zhaoming Xiong Xia Fu

Hepu Han Tombs Translated by Michèle H.S. Demandt

Hepu Han Tombs

Zhaoming Xiong · Xia Fu

Hepu Han Tombs

Zhaoming Xiong Department of Ethnology, College of Ethnology and Sociology Guangxi Minzu University Nanning, China

Xia Fu Department of History, College of Ethnology and Sociology Guangxi Minzu University Nanning, China

Translated by Michèle H.S. Demandt PCVO Modern Languages Maasmechelen, Limburg, Belgium

ISBN 978-981-19-4659-2 ISBN 978-981-19-4660-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4660-8 Jointly published with Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House. Translation from the Chinese language edition: 合浦汉墓 by Zhaoming Xiong and Xia Fu, © Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House Co., Ltd. 2018. Published by Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House Co., Ltd. All Rights Reserved. © Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

Hepu County is located in the southern part of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (21°27' N~21°55' and 108°51' ~109°46 E), borders the Tonkin Gulf and is situated in the subtropical zone of Asia. Hepu covers a total area of 2762 square kilometers and has a population of 1.08 million. On its eastern side Hepu County shares a boundary with Lianjiang city in Guangdong province and Bobai county in Guangxi, and to the west, it borders Qinzhou city in Qinnar district. Pubei and Lingshan county in Qinzhou city mark the furthest northern reach of the county. With a coastline stretching 308 kilometers, the western section of the southern boundary of Hepu is facing the sea. The middle and the eastern section borders Beihai city, of which Hepu is a county-level division. Hepu, meaning ‘intersection of rivers and sea’, is a toponym that has been in use for over 2100 years. Hepu firstly entered the history books when Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty in 111 BC set up an administrative system, consisting of commanderies and districts, in the Lingnan region, now comprising the Guangxi, Guangdong, and Hainan provinces. As a result, Hepu became a key administrative region of the Han Empire and was rapidly transformed into one of the most important military, cultural, economic, and political centers of the region. Hepu did not only become the ‘flagship’ of the Han Dynasty’s foreign policy, but also the main port of departure of the early Maritime Silk Road. The remains of a large-scale Han-period cemetery excavated at Hepu testify to this prosperous history. It, therefore, comes as no surprise that governments at all levels in China have paid attention to the protection of this important cemetery. In 1962, for instance, the Hepu Han tombs have been recognized by the local government of Hepu county as a Cultural Relic Protection Unit (wenwu baohu danwei), and in 1981 the People’s Government of Guangxi enlisted the tombs as part of the Cultural Relic Protection Unit of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Finally, in 1996, the State Council decided to put the Hepu Han tombs under state protection as a Key National Heritage Site (Quan guo zhongdian wenwu baohu danwei). The Hepu Han tombs are mostly distributed east of the Ximen River, but also extend toward the west, south, and north sides of this area. In total, this burial complex covers an area of 68 square kilometers and according to the statistics of 2001, there are v

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1056 visible burial mounds dispersed across the cemetery. From previous excavations and surveys, it is known that one out of nine tombs displays a visible mound and that no less than 10 000 tombs are still preserved underground. However, as a result of the continuous extension of the Hepu urban area, a number of rescue excavations have been carried out in the last 30 years, and the number of undisturbed tombs is gradually decreasing over the years. Moreover, today Hepu is recognised as the biggest and one of the best-preserved Han-period cemeteries ever discovered in China. The excavation of the Hepu Han tombs started in the 1950s and continued until 2013. In total, 1200 tombs have been unearthed of which the majority are Han tombs. In addition, a group of Three-Kingdom-period tombs and a small number of tombs dated to the Jin and Southern Dynasties have also been found. In total, more than 20,000 artifacts have been excavated from the Hepu burial complex. Methods of construction and burial materials also differ greatly and the Han-period tombs can be divided into four categories: earthen-mound burials, pit burials, woodencoffin burials, and brick-chamber tombs. Chronologically, these tombs can be further divided into five periods: the early Western Han, the middle Western Han, the late Western Han and Wangmang era, the early Eastern Han, and the late Eastern Han Periods. The burial customs of the beginning years of the Han dynasty were influenced by two important practices: ‘governing all under heaven through filial piety’ (yi xiao zhi tianxia, 以孝治天下) and ‘after one dies, matters should be the same as when one lived’ (shisi ru shisheng, 事死如事生). Concretely this meant that the deceased had to be accompanied by objects related to his/her daily life, such as clothing, food, and household items. In this way, a luxurious lifestyle in the afterlife would be guaranteed for the deceased. Inside the tombs, these gifts would appear as real-life objects or as imitation goods or mingqi (明器). These unique burial customs of the Han Dynasty are clearly reflected in the content of the Hepu Han tombs. The artifacts that have been unearthed at Hepu are numerous and display a great diversity. The largest group of artifacts are ceramic and bronze goods. Personal ornaments made of gold, silver, iron, and precious stones were also found. Additionally, some remains of bone, bamboo, and lacquer wares were discovered. Due to the hard soil, the ceramic, gold, and jade objects, as well as the ornaments have been well preserved. The bronze, iron, and silver objects, on the contrary, are in poor condition due to the acidic soil and the humid environment. In addition, the bamboo, bone, and lacquer objects, despite being almost completely decayed, are still recognizable, and therefore, also of value for archaeological interpretation. These artifacts form a rich source of information about agriculture, handicrafts, and (foreign) trade in Han-period Hepu. They, furthermore, provide important data about the social history and cultural formation of the ethnic groups that lived in and migrated to Hepu. They, furthermore are also essential for the reconstruction of the Hepu society during the Han Dynasty, because they provide clues about the spatiotemporal relationship between the cemetery, the urban sites, and the port of Hepu. Additionally, these diverse goods are of great significance for the study of the Lingnan region, as well as larger social trends in the Han Empire. At the same time, research focusing on the Hepu Han tombs can aid local economic and

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cultural construction in present-day China and can provide technical support for the Unesco World Heritage Site application, as well as China’s Belt and Road Initiative. Of great importance is the discovery of numerous artifacts that can be linked to the Maritime Silk Road. It is known that during the Han Dynasty, besides gold and various fabrics carried from the Chinese mainland, luxury products, such as personal ornaments and spices, were imported. Personal ornaments seem to have been made of 10 different materials, including glass, garnet, amber, crystal, beryl, turquoise, carnelian, agate, etched chalcedony, and gold. In addition, non-trade goods, such as a Persian pot and a cymbal, entered Hepu. Most of these ‘exotic’ goods came from Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia, and the Mediterranean region, and testify to the existence of interregional and long-distance trade networks. These intensifying cultural contacts also resulted in the gradual infusion of foreign elements into local objects. Human figurines representing foreigners are the best-known illustration of this trend. Another example is a bronze lamp decorated with feathered people that resemble mythical winged creatures from the west. The southern transmission of Buddhism over the Maritime Silk Road is also signified by some artifacts, such as the so-called bosheng lianhua objects, which feature sculpted lotus flowers. Written records further hint toward oversea contacts. The Geographical Records (dilizhi) of the Book of the Han (Hanshu), for instance, document how Emperor Wu, after pacifying the Lingnan region and establishing the commandery-district system, sent an imperial delegation overseas. This official mission left from the ports of Hepu and Xuwen, located in the Hepu Commandery, docked at the Rinan fortress, continued to the Malay Peninsula, and then set sail toward India and Sri Lanka, following the Maritime Silk Road. With the official opening of this ocean trade route, Hepu and Xuwen are identified as the oldest departure points of the Maritime Silk Road in China. Moreover, based on the amount and quality of the artifacts that have been unearthed at these two locations, Hepu was clearly the most prosperous. Thus, extensive research carried out on the artifacts discovered in the Hepu Han tombs confirms the emergence of maritime trade and cultural exchange, and verifies the writings in the Book of the Han. Hepu seems to have become the eastern starting point of the Maritime Silk Road, opening up trade and cultural exchange with several Southeast and South Asian kingdoms. At the same time, indirect trade contacts were also established with West Asia and the Mediterranean, which resulted in a vast maritime trade network between China and the west. The precious relics excavated from the Hepu Han tombs have also attracted the attention of China’s national leader, Xi Jinping. On 19 April 2017, President Xi visited Beihai as part of his official tour to Guangxi. With keen interest, he toured the ‘Maritime Silk Road exhibition’ of the Han Dynasty Culture Museum in Hepu and learned how certain artifacts, such as the Persian ceramic pot, the Roman glass bowl, and numerous beautiful ornaments, testify to the history of Hepu as the oldest and first starting point of the Maritime Silk Road. President Xi also gained detailed knowledge about the age, characteristics, and origin of these objects, as well as the trade routes and cultural exchange taking place on the early Maritime Silk Road. President Xi’s high appreciation of the Hepu Han tombs and recognition of Hepu’s

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deep cultural connotation has impacted the academic world and other sectors on a domestic and international level. In the year 2018, which coincides with the 60th anniversary of the establishment of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous region, and which also commemorates the notable cultural achievements of China since the 18th Party Congress, the Publicity Department of the Party Committee of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous region and the Guangxi Publishing and Media Group have assigned 6 publishing companies with the task to execute the large-scale publishing project ‘Our Guangxi’. This volume is part of this project and with pride we present this book: The Hepu Han Tombs. The excavation of the Hepu Han tombs has been underway for over 60 years. It started in the fifties and sixties of the twentieth century under the supervision of archaeologists from Guangdong (from May 1955 until June 1965, Hepu County was part of the Zhanjiang administrative region, administered by Guangdong Province) and was continued by archaeologists from Guangxi. The research presented in this book is the result of the hard labor of several generations of Chinese archaeologists, and with the publication of this book, we want to present a concise review of these achievements, as well as look ahead towards future endeavors. We sincerely hope to introduce more people to the precious cultural heritage of Guangxi and to set a new stage in the research and protection of the Hepu Han tombs.

Outline of the Chapters This book has nine chapters. The first chapter ‘Administrative Division and Historical Geography of Han-period Hepu’ introduces the historical background and geographical environment of the Hepu Han tombs. The second chapter gives a chronological overview of the research and excavations that have been carried out in Hepu starting from the 1960s. Chapter three introduces four types of tomb structures: (1) Mounted tombs; (2) pit burials; (3) wooden-coffin tombs; (4) and brick-chamber tombs. This chapter also elaborates on the practice of burial mounds and multi-burial structures. Chapter four presents an overview of the burial goods unearthed at the Hepu Han tombs, which can be subdivided into nine categories including daily utensils, coins, vehicles, weapons, etc. Chapter five provides an analysis of tomb structures and grave goods, and discusses the chronology and temporal evolution of the Hepu Han tombs. Based on the records of ‘gold (huangjin) and silk (za zeng)’, ‘lustrous pearls (ming zhu) and glass (bi liuli)’ and ‘rare stones and curiosities (qishi yiwu)’, chapter six explains the relationship between a number of artifacts unearthed at Hepu and the Maritime Silk Road. Chapter seven focuses on the analysis of the cultural elements of the Hepu Han Tombs, and argues that the combination of these multicultural elements was the internal driving force that guided the development and prosperity of the Hepu port. Chapter eight briefly introduces the urban sites which are found in the proximity of the Hepu Han tombs, and completes the picture of Hepu as a Han-period settlement that provided a space for both the dead and the living. Finally, chapter nine discusses the practical significance of the research on the Hepu Han tombs.

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The foreword and chapter one, two, five, six, eight, and nine have been written by Xiong Zhaoming. Chapter three, four, and seven have been written by Fu Xia. Xiong Zhaoming is also responsible for the final compilation. Nanning, China

Zhaoming Xiong Xia Fu

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the Department of Culture and the Cultural Relics Bureau of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, who have always attached great importance to the protection, excavation, and research of the Hepu Han tombs, and who have given their full support by providing the required material assistance and manpower. This book would not have been possible without the excavations and basic research conducted by the Museum of Guangxi Autonomous Region, the Guangxi Institute of Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeology, and the Hepu Han Dynasty Cultural Museum. We are very grateful to Ye Jiwang, Lian Shiming, Han Yunling, Lin Juan, Zeng Guangkai, as well as Shen Jing, Li Shijia, and Yan Huanxiang from the Research Center of Guangxi’s Ancient Maritime Silk Road, who helped publishing this book. We would also like to express gratitude to Dang Chunning, Liang Xuda, Zhang Lei, and the Guangxi Relics Information Center, who have provided us with access to the photos that have been published in this book. In addition, we owe a debt of gratitude to the head of publishing, Lu Peizhao, and editor-in-chief, Chen Yunghui, of the Guangxi Science and Technology Press, who have given us a lot of valuable advice and assistance during the revision process of this book. We are also indebted to Luo Yutao, editor-in-charge, who despite differences in opinion carefully read and edited this volume. The successful realization of this book depends heavily on the thorough and meticulous work of these scholars and publishers. Lastly, a special thank you is due to the World Cultural Heritage Nomination Center for the Maritime Silk Road in Hepu County, which provided funding through the ‘Comprehensive Research of the Hepu Han Tombs’ and ‘Study of the Spatiotemporal Relationship between the Hepu Han Tombs and Han Urban Sites’ projects. The research results of these two projects are also included in this book. Finally, it should be noted that despite all of our efforts, this book might still contain some errors and unclarities. This is mostly the result of time limits and our own lack of knowledge about certain research areas. In addition, it should be noted that some materials of the Hepu Han tombs have not been published or publicly made available yet. We look forward to receiving comments from our readers in the future in order to make corrections where necessary.

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Contents

1 Administrative Division and Historical Geography of Han-Period Hepu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Administrative Division of Han-Period Hepu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Historical Geography of Han-Period Hepu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 2 5 7

2 Chronology of the Excavations and Research of the Hepu Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Chronology of the Excavation of the Hepu Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Previous Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 9 16 24

3 Tomb Architecture of the Hepu Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Burial Mounds and Overground Tomb Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Mounted Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Pit Burials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Wooden Coffin Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Brick Chamber Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Multi-burial Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27 27 29 32 33 35 40 51

4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.1 Production and Agricultural Utensils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.2 Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 4.3 Carriages and Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.4 Buildings/Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.5 Clothes and Toiletries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.6 Writing Utensils, Medical Appliances and Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.8 Household Items, Games and Musical Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 4.9 Other Funeral Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

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Contents

5 Periodization of the Hepu Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Early Western Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Middle Western Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Late Western Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Early Eastern Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Late Eastern Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

145 146 147 149 150 151 154

6 The Hepu Han Tombs and the Maritime Silk Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 The Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Gold and Varieties of Silk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Lustrous Pearls, Glass, and Rare Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Non-trade Goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

155 156 157 159 183 188

7 Multicultural Elements in the Hepu Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Cultural Elements of the Luoyue and Nanyue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Cultural Elements of the Wuyue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Cultural Elements of the Han . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Cultural Elements of the Chu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Foreign Cultural Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

191 191 193 195 198 200 209

8 Han-Period Urban Sites Related to the Hepu Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Dalang Urban Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Caoxiecun Urban Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Spatiotemporal Relationship Between the Han Tombs and Han Urban Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

211 212 221

9 Significance of the Research on the Hepu Han Tombs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Providing Service to Local Economy and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Technical Support for the Unesco World Cultural Heritage Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Assisting the One Belt One Road Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

237 237

232 235

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Chapter 1

Administrative Division and Historical Geography of Han-Period Hepu

The Lingnan region was initially brought under ‘Chinese’ control after emperor Qin Shihuang established the Qin Dynasty and subdivided the region into three commanderies. During the succeeding Han Dynasty, Emperor Wu rearranged these administrative units into nine Han commanderies. As a result, the Han bureaucracy firmly controlled the coastal regions of Beibu gulf, including Hepu, for hundreds of years. The Tonkin Gulf, located in the subtropical zone of China, is suitable for shipping all year long, and due to its unique topographic position, being framed by land and sea, it is a rare natural bay enjoying calm waves and plentiful winds. Furthermore, Hepu is the meeting point between rivers and the ocean, and features an extensive and navigable river system. The Nanliu River, the main branch of this system, feeds into the Tonkin Gulf and is ideal for riverine transport. More inland, the Lingqu Canal links the Xiangjiang and Yangtze Rivers, forming an essential link in the long-distance riverine transportation network which connects the southwestern region, Lingnan Region and the Central Plain. During the Han Dynasty the maritime route that started from Hepu became the most convenient way to reach Southeast Asia and South Asia and due to the prosperity of the Hepu port during the Middle Western Han Period, traders from all directions flocked together at this central port. Compared to other outlying areas, Hepu became quickly incorporated in the Han Dynastic system and continued to prosper. Therefore, to a certain degree, the appearance of a large-scale Han-period burial complex in Hepu can be directly linked to Hepu’s advantageous geographical position and its incorporation as a key administrative region of the Han Empire. Therefore, before discussing the Hepu Han tombs, this chapter will first introduce the administrative division and historical geography of Hepu.

© Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House 2022 Z. Xiong and X. Fu, Hepu Han Tombs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4660-8_1

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1 Administrative Division and Historical Geography …

1.1 Administrative Division of Han-Period Hepu Before being incorporated in the territory of the Qin Empire, the Hepu region belonged to the Baiyue people, and except for being mentioned in the Yu Gong (Tribute of Yu), the region had not been under administrative control during the reigns of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties. After Emperor Qin conquered Lingnan, he founded the Nanhai, Guilin and Xiang Commanderies. Hepu was located within the Xiang Commandery, which is believed to have included parts of Central and North Vietnam, and the southern border of present-day Guangxi and Guangdong. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty Hepu was part of the Nanyue Kingdom, which was an independent kingdom situated in the original territory of the three commanderies of the Qin. At its height the Nanyue kingdom controlled an extensive region, which stretched until the north of the Wuling mountain chain and the frontiers of the Changsha Kingdom. In the east it bordered the Minyue Kingdom, in presentday Yongding, Heping, and Zhangpu county in western Fujian, and stretched further southwards until Hongkong, Macao, the islands of Hainan, and Central Vietnam. Its western boundary reached the Yelang Kingdom, framing the present-day region of Baise, Debao, Bama, Donglan, Hechi, Huanjiang in Guangxi. The Nanyue Kingdom inherited the political system of the Qin Dynasty and also implemented the commandery and principality system. According to historical sources, the kingdom enfeoffed the Cangwu King, the Xixu King, and the Gao Chang Count, preserved the Nanhai and Guilin Commanderies, and replaced the Xiang Commandery by two new ones: Jiaozhi1 and Jiuzhen [1]. Commanderies were further divided into counties: the Nanhai Commandery included Panyu, Longchuan, Boluo, Jieyang, Zhenyang and Hankuang; the Guilin Commandery included Bushan and Sihui; the Jiuzhen Commandery included Xianglin, etc. Panyu was selected as the Commandery Seat of the Nanhai Commandery, as well as the capital of the Nanyue Kingdom. The exact location of the Nanyue capital is confirmed by a number of archaeological discoveries, such as the Royal Tomb of the Nanyue King ‘Zhao Mei’, which was excavated in 1983 in Xianggang, Guangzhou, as well as remains of the Nanyue Kingdom Palace, a royal garden and a stone-structured meandering pool, discovered in 1995 in Guangzhou. If it is true that the Xiang Commandery was split into the Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen Commandery, then Hepu should have been under the administration of the Jiaozhi Commandery. However, at the moment there is no evidence of the establishment of Nanyue counties in Hepu. Emperor Wu pacified the Nanyue Kingdom in 111 BC and divided the territories ruled by the Qin into nine new commanderies: Cangwu Commandery (the ruling center in present-day Wuzhou city, Guangxi), Yulin Commandery (the ruling center 1 The ‘zhi’ from Jiaozhi, can be written as ‘趾’ or ‘阯’. Originally the territory of Jiaozhi Commandery included parts of modern Northern Vietnam. During the Western Han Dynasty the ruling seat of Jiaozhi was located in Luy Lau (羸 ) (now northwest of Hanoi, Vietnam), and during the Eastern Han Dynasty it was moved to Long Bien (龙编) (now Huyê.n Tiên Du, Bac Ninh Province, Vietnam). Over time the region became gradually smaller and became limited to the Red River Delta area. By the Sui Dynasty, the region was completely abandoned. In the Daye year of the Sui Dynasty the name of Jiaozhou was again changed to Jiaozhi Commandery.

1.1 Administrative Division of Han-Period Hepu

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in present-day Guigang city, Guangxi), Hepu Commandery, Nanhai Commandery (the ruling center in present-day present-day Guangzhou), Jiaozhi Commandery, Jiuzhen Commandery, Rinan Commandery (Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen, and Rinan Commandery were located in present-day north-central Vietnam, with the ruling seat of the most southern Commandery, Rinan, in Xijuan county, which is now in Dong Ha City, Quang Tri Province), Dan’er Commandery (seat in modern Hainan Province), and Zhuya Commandery (seat in modern Hainan Province). The geographical records in the book of the Han further document that the Hepu Commandery administered “five counties: Xuwen, Gaoliang, Hepu, Linyun, and Zhulu”. According to The Historical Atlas of China, edited by Tan Qixiang, the county seat of Xuwen was in the area of Xuwen county in Guangdong province and the county seat of Hepu was in the area that is now the southern part of Pubei county. Gaoliang and Linyun’s county seat was most likely located in the area between Yangchun city and Xinxing county in Guangdong province. Although there are no written records mentioning the location of Zhulu, Tan Qixiang thinks this county was situated in modern Bobai or Yulin [2]. Based on recent archaeological discoveries, it is believed that the Commandery Seat of Hepu county was located in close proximity to present-day Hepu. Determining the exact locations of the other seats will require more archaeological research. When Wang Mang usurped the throne, he changed the name of Hepu Commandery into Huanhe Commandery and that of Hepu county into Huanting county. The rulers of the Eastern Han Dynasty continued the system of the Western Han and maintained the five-county division in Hepu Commandery, despite settling its capital in Hepu county and changing some of the county names: Gaoliang (高凉) became Gaoliang (高涼); Linyun (临允) became Linyuan (临元), and Zhulu (朱卢) was changed into Zhuya (朱崖). One level above the Commandery unit was the so-called Regional Inspector Division (ci shi bu). Additionally, apart from the seven commanderies located near the national capital, the central government divided the remaining area ruled by the Han Empire into 13 Inspection Areas (jiancha qu) to strengthen regional control. Every area was supervised by an inspector send by the court, who ruled the regional Inspector Division and was in charge of political matters and had to report illegal practices of officials and houses of nobility. In 106 BC the first Jiaozhi Inspector Division, was set up in Guangxin county, Cangwu. This division was in charge of all commanderies in Lingnan. An administrative reform in AD 203 changed Jiaozhi into a prefecture (zhou), and in AD 210, the headquarter of the Jiaozhou Division was moved to Panyu county [3]. When the first regional Inspector Division was established in Lingnan it was a relatively modest inspection area, and only during the late Western Han it reached the point of development where it became a prefecture-level administrative organ under the name of ‘Jiaozhou’. The jurisdiction of Hepu Commandery is vast and extends beyond the two provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi. In the east it reached the area of Xinxing county in Yunfu city, Guangdong, which was the Nanhai Commandery in Han times. Hepu county was more or less equal to present-day Beihai, Qinzhou, Fangchenggang and Yulin in Guangxi and Lianjiang in Guangdong Province. Notwithstanding the extensive terrain of the Hepu Commandery, the population was sparse. According

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to a census carried out in AD2 and recorded in the Geographical Records of the Book of the Han, there were 15,398 households and 78,980 people living in Hepu county. Additionally, The Records of Commanderies and Principalities in The Book of the Later Han report 23,121 household and 86,617 people in AD 140. Based on the discovery of the Han tombs it seems that although the population of the Hepu county was numerous and concentrated, the real number might have been closer to 30,000–50,000 people. Concerning the commandery seats, the Book of the Later Han notes that “Every county name that has been written first (in the given list of counties) is the commandery seat”. Therefore, scholars generally agree that Hepu was the commandery seat of the Hepu Commandery during the Eastern Han Dynasty. The commandery seat during the Western Han, on the other hand, has caused a lot of disagreement. Two opinions dominate this discussion. A first group, putting forth Xuwen, believes that only during the Eastern Han Dynasty the move towards Hepu was made. According to table two in the chapter ‘Historical Development of Commanderies and Counties’ in the Guangdong Annals (Guangdong Tong Zhi) compiled in 1822, Emperor Wu established the Hepu Commandery in 111 BC with as ruling seat Xuwen county. This volume further notes that the seat was moved to the Hepu county during the Eastern Han Dynasty. Moreover The Records of Lianzhou (Lianzhou Fu Zhi) compiled in 1833 records the same information. Another group of scholars, however, argue that Hepu has always been the commandery seat throughout the Western or Eastern Han Dynasty. This view is based on the records in the Annotations on the Waterway Classic (Shui Jing Zhu), Wonders of the World (Yudi Jisheng) and Comprehensive Statuses (Tong Dian), which do not mention any physical move of power [4]. We believe a critical inspection of historical sources is necessary here. The Book of Han obviously lists Xuwen county first, but some scholars have argued that it is unclear whether or not the first county mentioned in these sources was indeed the commandery seat. However, when we look at the historical sources and research related to this issue, there are no examples that disprove this argument. Also, the no-movement-thesis as written in the Annotations on the Waterway Classic should be interpreted carefully. To begin, it should be noted that the Waterway Classic is a comprehensive geographical work focusing on river systems and not a specialist work on administrative divisions. Moreover, the author’s expertise does not include textual research on place names or the evolution of administrative districts [5]. Therefore, it is not difficult to understand that some of the content of this book is slightly simplified and biased. When we consider Xuwen, it seems to have been the seat of the Hepu Commandery at least once. Xuwen was positioned in a strategic spot and during the pacification of Hainan island and the process of establishing the commanderies Dan’er and Zhuya, it had the most advantageous position. Moreover, the designation of Xuwen as the departure point of the Maritime Silk Road in the Geographical Records might also be connected to its position as commandery seat. The fact that Hepu was the name of the commandery, but the earliest commandery seat was in Xuwen, is most likely the result of a temporary decision. When we look

1.2 Historical Geography of Han-Period Hepu

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at the archaeological evidence, there is a remarkable contrast between the numerous large-scale and richly filled wooden coffin tombs, dated to the late Western Han Period, discovered in Hepu, and the rare discoveries made in Xuwen. Therefore, it seems very likely that Xuwen was replaced by Hepu. This move of power might have been related to the extension of maritime trade, the increasing prosperity of the Hepu society, as well as the rising importance of Hepu in the larger geopolitical climate of the Jiaozhou Division.

1.2 Historical Geography of Han-Period Hepu The northern part of Hepu is covered with hills, the southern part consists of terraces and coastal plains, and the Nanliu River streams through the middle section. Around 3000 BP Hepu reached its current shape [6]. In other words, the alluvial river plain extending northwards from Wangzhouling in southwest Lianzhou county to the Baisha estuary in Shagang county, and the terraces made of quaternary red clay dispersed over the plains of the Nanliu River, were no different from today. The most obvious change is the river course of the Nanliu Delta and River in the south. The impact of these changes on the Hepu Han tombs and urban sites are introduced in the next part. (1) The Nanliu River Delta The Nanliu River Delta is formed by the flow of the Nanliu River into the Lianzhou Bay. It is Guangxi’s biggest delta with a total surface of 15,000 hectares. In average this delta is 10–12 km removed from the sea. The land is flat and fertile, with excellent light, heat, and water conditions, facilitating the rearing of silkworms and the growth of crops such as rice, sugarcane, and peanuts. The Nanliu River Delta is Hepu’s most important agricultural and economical base. Analysis of the deposit thickness, stratigraphic sequence, and sedimentary facies, in combination with age calculation has revealed that the Nanliu River Delta was formed 6000 years ago [7]. The sediment deposited by the Nanliu River seems to have accumulated gradually, moving the delta towards the seaside with a speed of 1.6 meters a year, until reaching its present location [8]. Before the Qing Dynasty, the forests along the Nanliu River were dense causing less soil erosion, therefore the evolution of the delta is not very noticeable. Instead, stele inscriptions and records in local annals can be of assistance. For instance, the inscription on the Haijiao pavilion near Lianzhou city, written by Su Dongpo, reads: “(When) every tide arrives, the sound of waves is surging, (you) can hear (it) loudly.” This indicates that the coastline of the river during the Ming and Song Dynasty was not far from Hepu county. This can also be clearly seen on the map in The Lianzhou Records written by Qing Daoguang, where the location of the coastline is drawn west of Wenchangta in present-day Hepu. Therefore, with the exception of rare geographical phenomena such as the transgression and regression of the sea at certain times in history, the original coastline during the Han Dynasty

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seems to have been located along the Baisha River Estuary, and the Xiayang, Yaqiao, and Wangzhouling area. It also converged with the northern boundary of the river delta, which is only thousand meters removed from the Caoxiecun urban site and Hepu Han tombs (Fig. 1.1). (2) River Flow Changes of the Nanliu River The delta plain of the Nanliu River is flat, but due to the riverbed slope, sediment has been accumulating continuously. Natural water flow and human activity have further impacted the formation of channels and resulted in a dendritic drainage pattern. The width of the river bed ranges between ten and thousand meters, and the streams have been meandering into all directions creating side shoals and river islands. The four biggest inlets of the Nanliu River are the Nangan, Nanxi, Nandong (present-day Ximen River) and Nanzhou River. At both sides of these four inlets human construction has impacted the river course and straightened the river channels. Additionally, over the years embankments against floods and tides have been built and resulted in enclosed territory being turned into farmlands. Research has shown that during the Han Dynasty the main branch of the Nanliu River flowed into the Nandong River following the west side of the downtown district, after which it continued westwards forming the current river pattern. The history of the river flow changes of the Nanliu River can be traced back to the late Neolithic. The downstream county seat of Lianzhou town has always been low-lying and until now remains of lagoons and streams formed by river sediment have been well-preserved. During the Han Dynasty, Hepu was established as the commandery seat and the local inhabitants settled along the terraces and shores of the Nandong River. In the Song Dynasty Emperor Zhenzong turned Lianzhou into a trade post, after which it became an important center for distributing salt and grain. During the Yuan Dynasty a superintendency of maritime trade (shibo tiju si) that managed merchant ships and oversaw maritime trade was opened in Lianzhou [9]. Traces of Song-period structures built by the Lianzhou government are still visible in the current county along the Nandong River, which was still an important port. Due to the siltation of the mouth of the Nanliu River, the river channels of the Lianzhou and Ganti ports often got obstructed, resulting in the gradual abandonment of these ports starting in the Ming Dynasty. Instead, the deep-lying Guantouling port in Beihai rose to power. Moreover, south of the riverplain delta sandbank remains of an old estuary have been discovered, which indicates that the Nanliu River continued to drain into the sea through the Lianzhou Bay until 600 years ago during the early Ming Dynasty. Hereafter the Nanliu River, obstructed by siltation, changed its course westwards [8].

References

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Fig. 1.1 The Northern Boundary of the Nanliu River Delta [8]

Today the old Nanliu River has evolved into the Nanzhou River, which now functions as a flood diversion channel during the flood season. After the main branch of the Nanliu River, and especially the area comprising of northern Lianzhou and the Ganjiang River, became silted and abandoned, the river course changed westwards towards the Zongjiangkou and Dangjiang area, forming the Xinan River and Nandong River, which flow into the Lianzhou Bay. Until today the rivers in Hepu carry lots of sediment causing build-ups in the riverbeds, as well as leading to the continuous rising of the water level. As a result of this the river course of the Nanliu River has been continuously moving westwards, and has formed the Ganjiang River channel on Qixing Island which now empties into the ocean.

References 1. Qian, S. (1959). Shi ji—Nanyue Liezhuan. Chapter 113: 2970. Zhonghua Book Company. 2. Qixiang, T. (1988). The Political Geography of Hainan Island from the Han until the Tang Dynasty—Also discussing the achievements of Lady Xian during the Liang and Sui Dynasties and the Orbit of the Feng Clan during the Sui and the Tang Dynasties in Gaoliang. Historical Research, 5, 3–20. 3. Ye, F. (1965). The book of the later Han, Volume 23. Commanderies and principalities (Part 5) (p. 3533). Zhonghua Book Company.

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4. Jian, L. (1996). A textual record of the administrative history of buildings and locations in Guangxi (pp. 99–100). Guangxi People’s Publishing House. 5. Zhenhe, Z. (1987). The administrative geography of the Western Han dynasty (p. 186). People’s Publishing House. 6. Compiling Committee of Hepu County. (1994). Hepu County annals (p. 71). Guangxi People’s Publishing House. 7. Yongjie, M. (1988). The process of estuary dynamics and Geomorphic Development of the Nanliu River. Marine Science Bulletin, (3), 41–46. 8. Heping, S., & Zhizheng, Y. (1987). Sedimentology and sedimentary facies of the Nanliu River Delta in Guangxi. Marine Geology and Quaternary Geology, (3), 1–13. 9. Yurui, G., Zhijian, L. (1988). A history of Beihai port (pp. 22–45). China Communications Press. 10. Guangzhao, L., Jinghe, L., & Guoxiang, F. (1994). Sedimentary Characteristics and environmental evolution in the Nanliu River Delta. Guangxi Sciences, (3), 21–25.

Chapter 2

Chronology of the Excavations and Research of the Hepu Han Tombs

During 60 years of excavation, an impressive array of firsthand material has been collected at Hepu and a fuller understanding of the cultural meaning of the Hepu Han Tombs has been acquired. Based on these yearlong excavations, archaeologists have not only enhanced the system for organizing these excavated materials, but also published a large number of articles and excavation reports. These research efforts have laid a firm foundation for the study of tomb structures, the evolution of burial goods, and the chronology of the Hepu Han Tombs. In addition, studies about the unearthed artifacts, burial customs, as well as the cultural origin and regional characteristics of the Hepu society, have also benefited considerably from these research activities. Finally, the discovery of artifacts linked to the Maritime Silk Road has provided important clues about the nature of the cultural exchange and trade between early China and the west.

2.1 Chronology of the Excavation of the Hepu Han Tombs Over the years looting activities in Hepu have caused serious damage and based on the current excavation situation, pit burials and wooden-coffin-tombs, which are generally speaking more difficult to loot, have been the least disturbed tomb type. More than 90% of the brick-chamber tombs, on the contrary, have been looted with only very few objects remaining intact. In fact, local people have only recently grasped the significance of these tombs. Moreover, while recent historical sources, such as the Lianzhou Fuzhi Records (published in 1637 and 1833) and the Hepu County Annals (published in 1942), have no record of objects found in Han tombs, in the early years of the People’s Republic of China, local people seem to have spread stories in which exposed brick tombs were considered to be ‘the house of one-eyed out-oftown dwarfs’. This all changed when in April 1957, archaeologists from Guangdong Province (From May 1955 until June 1964 Hepu was administered by Guangdong Province) after clearing two brick-chambered tombs, one at Yangjialing and one at © Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House 2022 Z. Xiong and X. Fu, Hepu Han Tombs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4660-8_2

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Zhongwu in east of the county town, realized the larger historical significance of these types of tombs. The structure of both tombs was very similar and divided into two parts: they had a sloping tomb entrance and a tomb chamber. In the Yangjialing tomb a ceramic jar, a ceramic pot, a silver ring, and an iron dagger were found, and in the Zhongwu tomb a ceramic yu vessel, a ceramic building, an iron coffin nail, and wuzhu and banliang coins were unearthed [1]. From then on, the research and excavation of the Hepu Han tombs was officially launched and up until 2013 over 1200 tombs have been excavated. The main units of excavation can be seen on Fig. 2.1. During the 1970s archaeologists of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (hereafter referred to as the Guangxi Region) organized three excavation projects,

Fig. 2.1 Main excavation sites within the distribution area of the Hepu Han Tombs

2.1 Chronology of the Excavation of the Hepu Han Tombs

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among which two were rescue excavations. During these excavations, some of the most famous artifacts were uncovered, including a bronze phoenix-shaped lamp which later became part of a travelling exhibition touring more than 20 countries. In October 1971 a team of archaeologists excavated a large-scale Han tomb, which was located in the territory of a firecracker factory under construction in Wangniuling (望牛岭), the southeast suburb of Hepu County. The discovery of such a large undisturbed tomb, filled with exquisite grave goods, surprised everyone and attracted a steady stream of visitors (Fig. 2.2). What’s more, the Wangniuling tomb was much larger than previously excavated tombs: before the actual excavation it had a diameter of 40 meters and a five-meter-high mound. The tomb was 25.8 meters long and 14 meters wide, and composed of an underground tomb entrance, a passageway, and a tomb chamber. In addition, both sides of the passageway had side chambers. Through the recovery of wooden ash traces, archaeologists believe this was a burial with one vertical wooden coffin. The excavation of plentiful, beautifully-crafted grave goods (245 in total) further amazed local archaeologists. Although bronze goods seemed to dominate the burial assemblage, ceramics, iron and lacquer goods, as well as objects made of jade, glass and gold were found. Moreover, the grave goods were very well-preserved because the tomb had been tightly sealed and deeply buried. While the mound was built through the ramming of several layers of earth, the area between the tomb chamber and the tomb wall had been filled and rammed with 15 layers of charcoal and red earth. Under the floor of the tomb chamber there were remains of successive layers of white sand, charcoal, and a paste of mud. Such extreme sealing measures, in combination with the unusual deepness of the tomb (with the main chamber being 8.8 meters deep), seemed to have guaranteed a stable internal environment, and resulted in the preservation of almost all of the remains, except for the lacquerwares. Based on the discovery of a number of unique objects, such as ceramic containers inscribed with ‘Jiuzhen fu’ (九真府), a pair of bronze phoenix-shaped lamps, as well as gold ingots and ornaments, it has been argued that this tomb belonged to the Commandery Chief or a high official of the Jiuzhen Commandery located in present-day Vietnam during the late Western Han Dynasty. Next to this tomb, called Wangniuling M1 Tomb, another tomb was located, named Wangniuling M2. This tomb also contained numerous grave goods. Although there is no excavation report available for this tomb, archaeologists participating in this dig remember that this tomb was located under the same mound as M1. It is therefore possible that these two tombs covered by the same mound are an example of the socalled ‘yixue hezang’ (异穴合葬) burial or joint-husband/wife burial with different pits. This burial is characterized by the simultaneous internment of a couple at the same location but into separate pits and coffins [2]. In March 1972 another brick-chambered-tomb was excavated in the first warehouse of the second firecracker factory (hereafter called Erpaochang) in Fengmenling (风门岭). The Erpaochang tomb is composed of four parts: a tomb entrance, a front, middle and back-chamber. The tomb chamber is 9.12 meters long. The front chamber has horizontal intersecting arches, while the middle chamber features a dome-shaped roof and two side chambers. The back chamber has a longitudinal vault. Excavated ceramics include a longnecked vase, a zun vessel (樽, a wine vessel), an incense

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Fig. 2.2 Excavation of the Wangniuling M1 Tomb

burner, lotus-shaped objects, a miniature house and a granary, and some bronze objects, such as a comb brush and a seal dated to the Late Eastern Han Dynasty. The lotus-shaped objects, also called ‘bo sheng lianhua’, are thought to be linked to Buddhist ideas, and are of great academic importance because they provide additional support for the hypothesis that Buddhism entered China through maritime routes [3]. In the autumn of 1975, teachers and students of the Archaeology Department of Sun Yat-sen University, in collaboration with archaeological trainees of the Guangxi Region, carried out an excavation of four Late Western Han tombs in Tangpai (堂 排). These tomb complex, contained rectangular vertical tombs, that were all looted except for tomb M2. This tomb was a joint-husband/wife-burial with different pits and contained numerous burial gifts. Inside the husband’s pit there were 143 objects and inside the wife’s pit 87 objects. The burial goods of these four tombs, consisted mainly of weapons and agricultural tools, and indicate a lifestyle dedicated to the consolidation of the frontier area and the production of agricultural crops. Further evidence of this is the unique discovery of well-preserved unhulled rice remains. In addition, remnants of lychee pits and peels confirm Lingnan’s historical fame as a fruit cultivation zone. While other finds, such as figurines of foreigners, and glass, agate and amber ornaments, testify to extensive foreign trade contacts [4]. Due to many construction projects, several excavations were carried out starting from 1984. The main ones are discussed in the following paragraphs. From May until July 1985 the Guangxi Cultural Relics Working Team together with the Guangxi Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute (these two government bodies are the predecessors of the Guangxi Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeology Institute) and the Hepu County Museum jointly excavated 13 tombs in Fengmenling and Wangniuling. In total more than 300 objects were recovered. At Fengmenling three pit burials and five brick-chambered tombs were found and in Wangniuling four pit burials and one brick-chambered tomb was discovered. Four

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of the pit burials belonged to the joint-husband/wife tomb with different-pits-type and contained numerous grave goods, including ceramics, bronze objects, as well as some iron and steatite objects. One of the excavated bronze tripod vessels (called Jiaohu 鐎壶) was of special interest, because of its inscription ‘Xiyu’ (西于) which refers to an administrative unit during the Han Dynasty. More specifically, Xiyu was a district of the Jiaozhi Commandery located northwest of Hanoi in Vietnam [5]. In April 1986 the Hepu County Museum unearthed 10 tombs on the terrain of the second hemp factory (hereafter referred to as Ermafangchang) in Fengmenling. Among these, number 10, was well-preserved. This is a brick-chamber tomb, dated to the Late Eastern Han which features a roof that combined both dome- and vault structures. It consists of a tomb entrance, a front chamber, and two back-chambers. This type of tomb is an example of the so-called parallel-double-back-chamber-tombs and differs considerably from the joint-husband/wife tombs found in Guangzhou: (1) it has no double burial; (2) the eastern back-chamber contains the burial goods, which are mainly composed of large ceramic and bronze vessels; and (3) the coffin is placed in the western back chamber and mainly contains ornaments. Also remarkable is that in this tomb many beautifully-crafted ornaments and jade sets have been found [6]. From March 1987 until May 1988, as part of the secondary highway construction project between Nanning and Beihai, a rescue excavation was jointly carried out by the Guangxi Cultural Relics Working Team and the Hepu County Museum. At Wenchangta (文昌塔), southeast Hepu, 200 tombs were excavated, of which 175 were dated to the Early Western Han and the Eastern Han Period, making it not only the largest terrain of Han tombs that has ever been unearthed in Hepu, but also the most representative Han site with a complete chronological coverage, spanning the Early, Middle and Late Western Han Periods, as well as the Early and Late Eastern Han Periods. Tombs dated to the Early and Middle Western Han, were of particular interest, because they provide new and additional information for the study of the Hepu Han tombs [7]. From 1990 until 1996 the Hepu County Museum continuously executed several rescue excavations at Muzhuling (母猪岭). In total 10 tombs were uncovered and the content of five of them have been published. Three tombs, dated to the Late Western Han Period, had wooden burial chambers and inner coffins (or muguo tomb). Another two tombs were identified as Late Eastern Han tombs: one tomb with four brick walls and a wooden ceiling (or zhuankuang tomb), and one brick chambered tomb with a longitudinal barrel vault roof. Burial goods of these tombs mainly consisted of ceramics, complemented by bronze objects and a small number of iron goods. The muguo tombs and the zhuankuang tomb have been completely preserved and contained ceramics, as well as bronze, iron, and jade objects. Besides this, an impressive amount of glass beads (6,234 beads in total) and a large variety of beads made of crystal, amber, agate, and turquoise have been found [8]. In July 2001 the Guangxi Cultural Relics Work Team and the Hepu County Museum jointly excavated five Eastern Han Tombs at Jiuzhiling (九只岭). Two types of tombs were found here: tombs constructed of wood and bricks (or zhuanmu hegou tombs) and brick-chambered tombs. Among the zhuanmu hegou tombs, Tomb 5 stood out, because, despite containing a wooden burial chamber, bricks were only

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used to seal the mound. Due to its combination of zhuanmu and brick-chamber-tomb elements, Tomb M6A was also of special interest. Many ceramic and bronze goods have been found, as well as gold, glass, amber and agate beads. Overall, this excavation did not only fill some blanks concerning the tomb structures of Han-period Hepu, but also improved the chronological delineation between early and late period of the Eastern Han [9]. In November 2003 the Guangxi Cultural Relics Work Team and the Hepu County Museum cooperated again to excavate six tombs at Luowucun (罗屋村). Unfortunately, these tombs had been seriously damaged by previous looting attempts and very few grave goods had remained. Based on the remaining structures of the tombs and the leftover goods it is estimated that these tombs belonged to the Late Eastern Han and Three Kingdom Period. Additionally, on both sides of the front opening of tomb M3 two neatly arranged postholes can be seen, which are most likely the remains of above ground structures. Tomb M6 is located on the west side of the burial ground and far removed from the other tombs. It is thought to have belonged to a juvenile and features a rectangular ground plan and a flat ceiling made of bricks [10]. The tomb chamber is 1.75 meters long, 0.3 meters long, and 0.2 meters high. Only one grave good, a small ceramic guan vessel, was left inside the tomb. From 2003 until 2005 the Guangxi Cultural Relics Work Team and the Hepu County Museum excavated another eight tombs at Fengmenling, including woodenburial-chamber tombs and brick-chambered tombs (Fig. 2.3). Among the grave goods there are ceramic, steatite, gold, silver and iron objects, as well as beads. The chronology of these tombs spans the Middle and Late Western Han until the Early and Late Eastern Han Periods. Due to their excellent preservation and long chronology these tombs have been studied extensively, resulting in the joint publication of ‘Excavation Report of the Fengmenling Han Tombs in Hepu, 2003–2005’ by Science Press. From 2008 until 2009, the Guangxi Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute (now the Guangxi Cultural Relics Protection and the Archaeology Institute) and other units unearthed 32 tombs at Liaowei (寮尾, Fig. 2.4). Among these there were seven

1. Excavation Unit Fig. 2.3 Excavation of the Fengmenling M23A Tomb

2. Extracting Artifacts

2.1 Chronology of the Excavation of the Hepu Han Tombs

1. Clearing Rammed Earth from the Liaowei M13B Tomb Entrance

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2. Drawing of a Plan of the Liaowei M13B Tomb

Fig. 2.4 Excavation of the Liaowei Tomb

Late Eastern Han Tombs and 25 Three Kingdom Period tombs. The Han tombs can be divided into zhuankuang and brick-chambered tombs, of which the last one can be further subdivided according to roof shape into longitudinal-vault, horizontal-arches, horizontal-arches and dome-shaped-roof tombs. Also of interest is that a number of objects, such as a Persian pot, a bronze cymbal, a lamp in the shape of a foreigner, gold welded beads, roman glass, and etched agate beads indicate close connections with the Maritime Silk Road. Moreover, the Persian pot, bronze cymbal, and roman glass, are unique finds in China, and have attracted a lot of scholarly attention [11] Another rescue excavation was carried out from 2009 until 2013 by the Guangxi Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute in an area comprising of the following 15 locations: Yangjiashan (杨家山), Guantangling (官塘岭), Tuguiling (凸鬼岭) Qichicang and Dianchang, Fengmenling Erpaochang, Lianruchang and Jingshen Bingyuan, Yingbin Dadao, Luowucun, the Hepuduan along the coastal railway, Zhongzhan Liwucun, Senlin Gongyuan (森林公园), Zhongzhan (中站)Nanfang Jixiecang and Pangwudui, and Hepu railway station. In total more than 157 tombs, dating to the Late Western Han until the Jin Period, were found at these locations. Among these, 62 were Han tombs, representing three tomb types: pit burial, woodenburial-chamber tombs and brick-chamber tombs. Most of the tombs, however, were brick-chamber tombs. Important finds were lotus-shaped sculptures, miniature ceramic granaries with a curved roof, a tin and lead alloy stove, and coix seeds [12]. From June until September 2012 the Guangxi Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute unearthed the D2 section of a mound located in the northern section of the ancient city of Dalang, which lies about 11 km northeast of the Hepu Han tombs. This mound, covering three rectangular pit burials, is an example of a mounted tomb with multiple burials (hereafter called Shuangfendun tombs) which was popular in southeast China during the Qin and Han Dynasties, and is the first example ever found in Hepu. Grave goods included ceramic cups and jars (weng and bu), dated to the Qin and early Western Han Period. Earlier in 2003, Section D1 located in the same area was uncovered and also identified as a mounted pit burial. The grave goods of this burial were slightly later and were dated to the Middle Western Han Period.

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These burials indicate the existence of close links between Southern China and the southeast coast before the opening of the Maritime Silk Road. They also provide evidence for the southward movement of the Yue people, who originally inhabited the lands south of Lingnan [13]. Besides the previously described excavation projects, there are several excavation reports that have not been made public yet. Moreover, the collection of reports at the Hepu County Museum shows that from 1974 until 1995 another 88 tombs have been unearthed as the result of rescue excavations. The most important tombs among these are the Late Western Han tomb, Yandui M1 in Beichajiang (excavated in 1978), and the Early Eastern Han Tomb, Huangnigang M1 (excavated in 1990). In the Huangnigang tomb two objects hinting towards the identity of the tomb owner were found: a steatite object inscribed with ‘Xuwen ling yin’ (徐闻令印, meaning: seal of the commander of Xuwen) and a turtle-shaped bronze stamp with the characters ‘Chen Bao’ (陈褒). These finds indicate that the tomb belonged to commander Chen Bao who lived in Xuwen County during the Early Eastern Han Period. This is the only Han-period tomb in Hepu that can be linked with certainty to a specific person. Finally, it should also be noted that the Guangxi Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeology Institute and the Museum of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region have also a large collection of excavation materials which have not been published yet.

2.2 Previous Research Most of the previous research on the Hepu Han tombs has focused on issues related to tomb periodization, excavated artifacts, and burial customs. These have mainly appeared as excavation reports or specialized volumes (Fig. 2.5) and to date no comprehensive research volume has been published. Additionally, it should be noted that some specialized topics require more extensive research, for example a deeper analysis of the Hepu tombs’ cultural elements and multidisciplinary studies of ornaments related to overseas trade. (1) Research on Tomb Periodization Archaeological research is incomplete without periodization schemes. Descriptions of the evolution of tomb structures and grave goods, as well as changes in burial customs are critical for this. For instance, the exact time frame during which cultural transfer took place, and especially the appearance of external cultural exchange, must be accurately determined. In addition, in the field of historical archaeology, periodization studies can supplement and verify recorded events. The chronology established for the Guangzhou Han tombs has served as the main example for creating a timeline for Han-period Lingnan because these tombs have a centralized distribution within the Guangzhou area and have a generally recognized chronology, which is the result of multiple excavations taking place during the 1950s and 60s. Based on the evolution of tomb structures and changes in ceramic shapes, Mai Yinghao was the first one to create a chronology made up out of five periods:

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Fig. 2.5 Selection of excavation reports and volumes on the Hepu Han Tombs

the Early, Middle and Late Western Han Period, and the Early and Late Eastern Han Period [14]. Although there are some scholars who question the exact time frame of the Early Period of the Western Han Dynasty,1 generally speaking, at present this system serves as the main standard for the Qin and Han archaeological sites in Lingnan. Moreover, to avoid confusion, this periodization is also used for the archaeological traditions in the Central Plain and other regions located north of Lingnan. It is therefore not surprising that the chronology of the Hepu Han tombs is also divided into these five periods: (1) Early Western Han; (2) Middle Western Han; (3) Late Western Han until Wang Mang interregnum; (4) Early Eastern Han; (5) Middle—Late Eastern Han [15]. Most of the excavation reports that have been published contain discussions about periodization. For instance, in the excavation report of the Fengmenling tombs, the 1

In the article ‘Chronological Sequence of the Unearthed Ceramics of the Nanyue Kingdom and the Qin, Han, and Warring States Sites of the Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces’ (published in: South China Archaeology 1. Cultural Relics Press, 2004: 100–112) Li Longzhang argues that the Early Western Han Period in reality covered a longer period and that the periodization of the Lingnan tombs should be rectified.

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tomb structure and burial good assemblage of eight Han tombs has been analyzed, resulting in a division between the Middle Western Han, the Late Western Han, the Early Eastern Han and the Late Eastern Han. This report also notes a slower development of the Hepu Han tombs as compared to other Han tombs within the Han territory, and attempts to establish a regionally-focused chronological framework. This has been rather successful for the Late Western Han period since most of the Fengmenling wooden burial-chamber tombs, except for the well-preserved tombs M23 and M26, can be referenced against Hepu tombs of the same period. However, only one tomb, M27, belong to the Middle Western Han Period and thus the same method cannot be applied to this period. Due to typical changes into the burial assemblage of five Eastern Han tombs, and especially M5 and M6, a reliable timeframe has been set up for the Early and Late Eastern Han. The report of the 2008–2009 excavation projects at the Liaowei Tombs has also contributed to the area of periodization studies. Although the architecture and burial goods of a number of tombs, dated to the Three Kingdom Period and found at the edge of the burial ground, show close affinity to Late Eastern Han tombs, a clear developmental sequence reflecting the change from a united Empire to a fragmented society can be observed. Earlier, in his article; A Short Discussion of Tomb Changes during the Late Eastern Han and Three Kingdom Period: Starting with the Lingjiaocun Three Kingdom Tomb of Hepu’, Wei Ge also detected changes in the structures of tombs dated to the late Eastern Han and Three Kingdom period. His conclusions are, therefore, supported by the research results of the Liaowei tombs excavation report. In the recently published volume ‘The Han Tombs of Wenchangta in Hepu’, which discusses 175 tombs, this five-period-chronology, as originally proposed in ‘The Guangzhou Han Tombs, was further used [7]. However, as will be discussed in the next paragraph, the argumentation for using this chronology contains many flaws. Firstly, based on the tomb structure and grave good assemblage, the dating of 64 tombs to the early Western Han is debatable. For instance, 30 of these tombs are pit burials, with two having a sloped tomb passage, and most tombs having crosstie lateral portage ditches for wooden tracks (zhenmu gou 枕木沟). Only four tombs were filled with local, Yue-style objects such as guan, joined-guan and bu ceramics. The other 26 mainly contained ceramic guan vessels, which were paired in two tombs with weng vessels. In these tombs there was also a balanced combination of Yue-style and typical Han goods, such as ding vessels, boxes, hu and fu pots, small bowls, belt hooks, spindle whorls, bronze mirrors, and iron shovels (cha). Thus, from this we can see that, as opposed to being characterized by local, Yue features, there is a definite increase in the amount and variety of typical Han goods found in these narrow pit burials, and therefore their dating should be slightly later than the Early Western Han Period. The burial assemblage of burial M011, made up of ceramic weng, guan, and hu vessels with a steatite dish and a bi-disc, is another example of this imbalance. The combination of ceramic goods with objects made of steatite, which was a material used to replace jade and therefore a Han practice, is often found in Middle—Late Western Han Tombs in Guangzhou. Tomb M113, featuring a sloped tomb passage, is an example of this. This tomb only contained weng and guan vessels, which were all very similar to those found in other Hepu Han tombs. Therefore, we believe that some

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of these pit burials dated to the first period in the original report, belonged instead to the later Middle Western Han Period. Moreover, the mixing of Han and Yue cultural features most likely happened after Hepu became a Han district and might have been the result of intensified contact after becoming part of the unified Han Empire. Secondly, the periodization study in the Wenchangta volume has also not taken into account the incompleteness and the outdated jargon used in older excavation reports. Excavations have been taking place for a long time and often these older reports are incomplete and are lacking site descriptions and important information about excavated tombs and their architectural features. Also, in many cases objects made of glass, such as hexagon-column-shaped beads, bowls and cups, and a glass ring with budlike knobs, are not mentioned. Furthermore, certain terminology is also problematic. For instance, the category of wooden burial-chamber tombs, which is now generally recognized in archaeological circles, is often mixed up with the category of pit burial tombs. Therefore, more excavations are needed to verify the periodization scheme as suggested in the volume of the Wenchangta Tombs. Additionally, some excavation reports provide differential interpretations concerning periodization schemes due to the inadequate knowledge of the excavators. This has caused some discrepancies between the chronology of the Early and Later Eastern Han, and that of the Late Eastern Han and Warring States Period. For instance, in the report of Fengmenling M10 an inaccurate comparison has been made of the ceramic assemblage, and Daquan Wushi and Huoquan coins have been used as evidence for dating this tomb to the Early Eastern Han. Later, scholars have rectified these dates to the Late Eastern Han [16]. Another example is the incoherent dating of nine tombs, excavated at Qixingling in Jinshan, which were dated to the Late Eastern Han. From a number of artifacts, including a bronze loop-handled pot, a type B ceramic stove, however, it is apparent that part of these burials should be dated to the later Three Kingdom Period. This all goes to show that the five-periodperiodization has its flaws. Therefore, the Late Eastern Han, spanning a period of 140 years, should have an upper limit no later than the beginning years of its foundation, while the final date should be around the end of the Eastern Han (220 AD). Some excavation reports also mention a Middle Eastern Han Period [17], which is defined as a transition period between the Early and Late periods, but due to lack of archaeological materials the specifics of this period is hard to describe. Finally, it should be noted that many of these dates are based on the survey of individual burial grounds, and to date there exists no standardized periodization system covering the whole geographical unit of the Hepu Han burials. However, due to growing attention for questions concerning cultural exchange between Han Dynasty China and the West, research about the Hepu Han tombs is increasing. In the last couple of years this is also illustrated by the increasing number of master students, doctoral students, and postdoctoral researchers who have chosen the Hepu Han tombs as their research topic. These studies have contributed significantly to periodization discussions [18]. Fu Xia, for instance, has collected archaeological materials of more than 140 tombs, and through the systematic study of the evolution of tomb shapes and grave goods, she has tried to establish a unified and scientifically-based periodization scheme of the Hepu region.

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(2) Research on Archaeological Artifacts Besides excavation reports, there are many studies about the archaeological artifacts found in the Hepu Han tombs, and especially about bronze goods and artifacts linked to the Maritime Silk Road. Recently artifacts, and in particular glass objects, that highlight the existence of the Maritime Silk Road have been a hot research topic. Starting from the 1980’s, many scholars, including An Jiayao, Shi Meiguang, Huang Qishan, Gan Fuxi, Wang Junxin, Li Qinghui, Wang Weizhao, Xiong Zhaoming and Brigitte Borell, have studied the shapes, chemical features, and origin of glass objects. In 2010, based on previous research, Xiong Zhaoming and Li Qinghui have carried out an archaeological and scientific study of Han-period glass which focused on glass objects excavated in the Hepu Han tombs. In this study they compared the production method, chemical composition, and origin of these objects with other glass artefacts found within contemporaneous sites in China, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and the Mediterranean. Initial results indicated that the majority of glass objects were locally produced, while others seem to have been imported from Southeast Asia, India, and Rome [19]. Other studies have concentrated on objects thought to have been imported from abroad, such as a bronze cymbal, a Persian pot, and gold ornaments. Xiong Zhaoming’s systematic survey of the various artifacts related to the Maritime Silk Road, such as glass, garnet, amber, carnelian, agate, etched chalcedony, crystal, beryl, and gold ornaments, as well as non-trade goods, such as a Persian Pot and a bronze cymbal, has also attracted international attention [20]. Much research has also appeared on bronze objects. The study, Initial research on the Han-period Bronze Objects of Hepu, Guangxi, by Fu Xia presents a systematical overview of Han-period bronzes and discusses similar finds in Hainan, Xuwen, and North Vietnam. It also combines an analysis of the temporal evolution of these objects with a synthesis of its regional features and development. Another important study is, Bronze Wells, Granaries and Stoves excavated in the Hepu Han tombs, by Xiong Zhaoming. This article provides a comparison between complete sets of bronze wells, granaries, and stoves found in Hepu and similar objects discovered in the northern regions of China. The conclusion of this article states that there most likely was no connection between these two traditions. Moreover, these objects seem to have been produced locally in Hepu, imitating local shapes of ceramics, and might have been trending made-to-order products. They were found in larger graves, accompanied with a variety of grave goods, and most likely belonged to members of the upper class. A bronze house discovered in Wuzhou was most likely also imported from Hepu. In addition, Jiang Tingyu’s article, Research of Han-period Bronze Vessels with Incised Patterns, (Acta Archaeologica Sinica 8, 2002) discusses the different types, decoration methods, dates and production centers of Han-period bronze vessels with incised patterns. He believes that this type of bronzes gained popularity during the Middle Western Han and Late Eastern Han, and was mainly produced in southeast Guangxi. The bronzes selected by Jiang Tingyu for his study came from Wuzhou, Guigang, and Hepu (which was the location with the most discoveries). Zhao Huacheng on the other hand, believes that most of the patterns of

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these bronzes were not incised, but were cast.2 Nonetheless, it should be noted that the rapidly vanishing bronze-casting-tradition in the Central Plain region stands in contrast to the upward trend of producing exquisite bronzes decorated with intricate patterns as evidenced in the Hepu burials. It is therefore not surprising that this bronze-craze coincided with Hepu becoming one of the most prosperous ports of the Han Dynasty. Finally, publications about amber seals, jade objects, lamps, ceramics imitating bronzes, ceramic houses, and ceramic wells found in Hepu have also appeared over the years. (3) Burial Customs Research These sort of studies have mainly focused on special types of burials, such as jointhusband/wife tombs, tombs with external burial pits (waicangguo burials 外藏椁), tombs with shelved wooden coffins, tombs containing deliberately broken grave goods, and so-called generous tombs (houzang 厚葬). It has been argued that these burial customs illustrate the wide-reaching impact of the Han cultural sphere on the local society of Hepu and that the local execution of a variety of cultural elements reflects the inherent stability of the Han funerary system. The impressive number of beads also mirrors popular Han practices, such as, ‘generous tombs’ and the ‘die as one lived’ (shisi-ru-shisheng) custom. During the Han Dynasty the custom of jointly interring husband and wife underwent important changes. These types of burials have been found in every unit excavated in the burial ground of Hepu. Jiang Tingyu believes joint burials firstly appeared during the Early Western Han Period, started to gain popularity during the Middle Western Han Period, and eventually became prevalent during the Late Western Han Period. They seem to be closely linked to the surrounding natural environment and the long-standing custom of using wooden coffins. Although joint burials display some local features, they did not become a distinctive regional burial custom and cannot be considered to represent special folk customs. Moreover, due to the realization that bricks were more enduring than wood, vaulted tombs build with small bricks became more popular during the Early Eastern Han Period, and impacted the building method of the joint-husband/wife burials with a shared pit [21]. Lin Qiang discusses the evolution of two types of husband/wife burials: burials with a shared pit (tongfen tongxue) and with separate pits (tongfen yixue). He argues that although both types went through similar developmental stages, the separate-pit type gradually disappeared during the Eastern Han as a result of changing building materials. He further emphasizes the local features of these burials and points to rather obvious differences between the Lingnan and Central Plain tradition [22]. The custom of joint burials with separate pits, for instance, originated from the Central Plain and remained unchanged during the Early and Middle Western Han. Only after the Middle Western Han shared-pit burials became dominant, except for the Imperial 2

Arts of Lingnan: Han Dynasty Bronzes with Incised Patterns and Lacquer, paper presented in October 2016 at the International Symposium on Archaeology and Han Culture of the Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty.

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burials [23]. On the contrary, at Hepu the separate-pit type, which appeared during the Late Western Han, is most common and remained in vogue until after the Eastern Han Period. Several Late Eastern Han brick-chamber burials, such as Fengmenling M24, Liaowei M13, Jiuzhiling M4, and Erpaochang M14, also feature this custom. We believe that the popularity of joint burials is unrelated to environmental factors or the use of wooden coffins, but is the result of Hepu’s distant location and the lagging behind of burial customs. Among the Hepu Han burials a small number of burials feature an external, auxiliary pit, which was introduced from the Central Plain region during the Early Western Han and accompanied with the practice of human sacrifices. These external burial pits contained kitchen vessels and chariots and harnesses and became more pronounced during the Middle and Late Western Han, but disappeared completely during the Early Western Han. Although the custom in Lingnan largely followed the developments taking place in the Central Plain, regional features can be observed [24]. For instance, when we look at the construction of the external pits of the six tombs (dated to the Late Western Han) found in Hepu, four of these pits (Tangpai M2B, Tuguiling M6, Tangpai M4, and Wangniuling M1) are shaped as a rear chamber, while the two others (Fengmenling M26 and a wooden coffin tomb excavated at Paozhuchang in 1985) contain a pit constructed under the tomb passage. Archaeologists further believe that these tombs belonged to commandery chiefs or high-ranking elites, and possibly even Han officials. Of interest is that this custom has not been observed in the Guangzhou Han tombs, which reflects the historical division between the Han tombs found in Guangxi and Guangdong Province [25]. During the Han Dynasty ‘houzang’ or generous burials were customary in Hepu. Lin Qiang divides these burials into two categories. The first category, common during the Western Han Dynasty, includes large- and middle-sized burials belonging to the higher elite classes. The second category, testifying to changes that took place during the Eastern Han, consists of middle-sized brick-chambered tombs with fewer grave goods. The custom of generous burials is believed to be connected to three important factors: spiritual beliefs, Confucian thoughts, and economic developments [26]. In fact, the discovery of numerous middle- and small-sized Han tombs exemplifying these lavish customs indicates that these rich burials were not only reserved for elites, but were also sought after by the lower classes. These ordinary tomb owners seemed to have spared no effort trying to copy the appropriate architectural features, building materials, and grave goods, to indicate their social status and economic strength. Despite being widespread during the Han Dynasty, the custom of generous burials was very controversial, as is illustrated by some passages in the Book of the Later Han. In the Annals of Emperor Guangwu of Han Volume 1, Part 2, for example it is said: “The world considers generous burials as virtuous, and normal burials as despicable. While the rich are extravagant and wasteful, the poor exhaust their property. No laws that can forbid it, no etiquette that can stop it.” Another passage from the Biography of Zhao Zi (Volume 39) mirrors this critical feeling: “To abolish all matters of life and strife for the final death. To replace everything that one has raised for a generous burial.”

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Other unique funerary customs have also been observed, such as the presence of a number of postholes at the front opening of many Han tombs. Based on the nature and function of these holes, Zheng Junlei believes them to be remains of pillars used for sealing the tomb entrance, connecting the tomb passage, building structures (of which some were wooden) on top of the tomb, and related to the closing, partition, and erection of the wooden coffin. The postholes found at the end of the tomb passage near the burial chamber of Wenchangta M6 and M8 are thought to be pillars for linking the tomb entrance, and the ones found in the tomb opening of Wenchanta M5 and Luowucun M3 might be leftovers from temporary structures used during its construction [27]. Another burial custom in Lingnan that should be mentioned is shelved-coffin burials dated to the Warring States, Qin and Han Periods. Muzhuling M4 in Hepu is an example of this and has an upper shelf functioning as the coffin room and a lower shelf for putting grave goods [28]. In addition, some burials contain grave goods which have been deliberately destroyed. For instance, inside Qichichang M9 and M11 several broken objects have been found distributed over several locations. Some space was left between the separate objects indicating they were purposely broken and afterwards arranged within the tombs. The number of objects that were broken varied considerably and in Erpaochang M4 only one small piece of a broken object was found: a small rim of the border of a mirror. In the Central Plain area, the practice of ‘killing objects’ appeared as early as the prehistory and continued to spread towards the Yue regions during the Qin and Han periods. Evidence of this is also found in Shang and Zhou period sites in Lingnan, such as the Matou Yuanlongpo tomb in Wuming and the Henglingshan tomb in Boluo, Guangdong province, and the Han tombs of Datangcheng in Guiping and Fenghuangling in Hezhou. In her study ‘The Hepu Han Tombs and Related Issues’, Fu Xia believes these graves might have belonged to sinicized Yue people. (4) Other Studies The origin of foreign elements and tomb structures, such as corbel vaulted roofs, has also received considerable scholarly attention. Previous research and studies by the author of this book have revealed that this type of roof, popular in Hepu and Lingnan region, was influenced by construction methods from the Parthian and Bactrian Empires in Central Asia. The location and function of the Hepu port during the Han Dynasty has also been studied from different angles by several scholars, including Peng Zhanglin, Deng Jiabei, Wang Yuanlin and Qin Zhuyuan. An important study is ‘Advances in the Archaeological study of the Hepu port of the Han Dynasty’ written by Xiong Zhaoming, which summarizes the archaeological work carried out in Hepu in the last decade and which provides an introduction to the developmental phases of the Hepu port. In addition, during the 2004 conference on ‘The Theory of Beihai and Hepu as Departure Ports of the Maritime Silk Road’ a number of papers were presented by the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous region Cultural Relics Work Team, and other scholars such as Situ Shangji, Huang Zheng, Wu Sanbao, Liao Guoyi, Qiu Licheng, Huang Qishan, Fu Juyou, Cheng Cunjie and Li Fuqiang [29]. Additionally, the international symposium on ‘Archaeology and Han Culture of the Maritime Silk Road of the Han

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Dynasty’ held in October 2016 collected over 100 papers. Therefore, it should be emphasized that the archaeological remains excavated at Hepu are the backbone of most studies mentioned here. Nonetheless, a number of problematic interpretations do exist about the Hepu port site, due to the work of scholars who overly rely on recent local chronicles and who have misread excavations reports, such as that of the Dalang urban sites [30]. Lastly, some scholars have attempted to reconstruct the society of Han-period Hepu and Lingnan based on the materials found in Han tombs. Zheng Junlei, for instance, believes that the process leading to the formation of Han culture in Lingnan [32] was founded on the ethnic fusion of Yue and Han people. Moreover, the dominant position of Han culture was already obvious during the Middle and Late Period of the Western Han. This is also evidenced by the similar developmental track of the Guangzhou and Hepu Han tombs and the Han tombs found in the Central Plain and Lingbei region. From then on, it seems very few Yue elements remained, and local traditions became more and more entangled with Han elements, resulting into regional variants of the dominant Han culture. In the article ‘Looking at the Southward Migration of the Yue People through the Mounded Tombs discovered in Guangxi’ (Archaeology 2016, 8) Xiong Zhaoming and Fu Xia focus on the mounded tombs discovered in Guangxi, as well as Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Huanan, and Northern Vietnam. They stress the historical accuracy of a southward migration route that followed the southeastern coast and had been in use since preQin times. The existence of this route further indicates that close maritime contacts between the Beihai Bay area and the southeast coast already existed before the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Han Dynasty. In another study (Agricultural Archaeology 1981, 2) Jiang Tingyu discusses agricultural developments in Han-period Hepu through a survey of archaeological finds including iron tools, seeds, agricultural byproducts, and ceramic granary models. Covering a similar topic, Xian Jianmin discusses the origin of agriculture, metallurgical industries, and trade in Lingnan [31]. Finally, in ‘The Economy of Qin and Han period Lingnan’ [33], Lu Mingzhong explores the characteristics and developments of the Lingnan economic system.

References 1. Hao, Y. (1958). The discovery of a Western Han Brick Tomb in Hepu, Guangdong. Archaeology News Report, (6), 52. 2. Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Cultural Relics and Archaeology Writing Group. (1972). The Western Han Wooden Coffin Burial in Hepu, Guangxi. Archaeology, (5), 20–30. 3. Cultural Relics Work Team of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Hepu County Museum. (2006). Excavation report of the Hepu Fengmenling Han Tomb, 2003–2005 (pp. 139–148). Science Press. 4. Cultural Relics Work Team of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. (1981). Short report on the excavation at the Tangpai Han Tombs in Hepu County, Guangxi. In C. H. E. Committee (Ed.), Cultural heritage information series 4 (pp. 46–56). Cultural Relics Press.

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5. Qishan, H. (1988). The Han Tombs of Fengmenling and Wangniuling in Hepu County. In Archaeological Society of China (Ed.), Yearbook of archaeology in China 1986 (pp. 190–191). Cultural Relics Press. 6. Hepu County Museum. (1995). Short report on the excavation at Fengmenling Tomb 10 in Hepu County Guangxi. Archaeology, 3, 226–283. 7. Guangxi Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeology Institute. (2017). The Han Tombs of Wenchangta in Hepu, Guangxi. Cultural Relics Press. 8. Hepu County Museum. (2007). Excavation of the Muzhuling Han Tombs in Hepu County Guangxi. Archaeology, 2, 19–38. 9. Cultural Relics Work Team of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Hepu County Museum. (2003). The Jiuzhiling Eastern Han Tomb in Hepu County, Guangxi. Archaeology, (10), 57–77. 10. Cultural Relics Work Team of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Hepu County Museum. (2005). Excavation report of the Luowucun Tomb in Hepu County, Guangxi. In Cultural Relics Work Team of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (Ed.), Collection of Guangxi archaeology (Vol. 2, pp. 313–323). Science Press. 11. Guangxi Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute, Hepu County Museum, The Culture and Tourism College of Guangxi Normal University. (2012). Excavation report of the Liaowei Tombs, dated to the Eastern Han and three Kingdom Period, in Hepu County Guangxi. Archaeology Journal, 4, 489–545. 12. Guangxi Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeology Institute, Cultural Relics Management Bureau of Hepu County. (2016). Excavation report of the Han and Jin Tombs excavated from 2009 to 20013 in Hepu. Relics Press. 13. Zhaoming, X., & Xia, F. (2016). Short excavation report of the Shuangfendun Mounted tomb in Hepu, Guangxi. Archaeology, (4), 33–44. 14. Guangzhou Cultural Relics Management Committee, Guangzhou City Museum. (1981). The Guangzhou Han Tombs. Cultural Relics Press. 15. Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. (2010). Archaeology of China: Qin and Han Dynasty Volume (pp. 482–491). Social Sciences Press. 16. Cultural Relics Work Team of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Hepu County Museum. (2006). Excavation report of the Hepu Fengmenling Tomb, 2003–2005 (pp. 117–118). Science Press. 17. Cultural Relics Work Team of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Hepu County Museum. (1998). The Muzhuling Eastern Han Tomb in Hepu County, Guangxi. Archaeology, (5), 36–44. 18. Yuhua, T. (2013) Research on the Hepu Han tombs. Postdoctoral Report Sun Yat-sen University; Zhangwang, M. (2013). Study on the Tombs of the Han and Six Dynasties in Hepu, Guangxi. Master Thesis Sun Yat-sen University; Xia, F. (2015). Research on the Hepu Han Tombs and Related Issues. Doctoral Thesis Sun Yat-sen University. 19. Zhaoming, X., & Qinghui, L. (2011). Archaeological and scientific study of the Han-period glass objects excavated in Guangxi. Cultural Relics Press. 20. Zhaoming, X. (2014). The Hepu Han Tombs and the Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty. Antiquity, (24), 1229–1243; Zhaoming, X. (2015). Archaeology of the Hepu Han Port and the Maritime Silk Road. Cultural Relics Press. 21. Tingyu, J. (1993). Short discussion on the Han Dynasty joint husband/wife Burial of the shared-pit type. Southern Archaeology, 1, 82–88. 22. Qiang, L. (2002). Discussion of issues related to the joint husband/wife Burial of Han-period Lingnan. Guangxi Ethnic Studies, 1, 103–107. 23. Editorial Department of the Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, Editorial Committee of the Encyclopedia of China Publishing House (Archaeology Department). (1986). Encyclopedia of China: Archaeology (p. 390). Encyclopedia of China Publishing House. 24. Xie, G. (2005). Initial discussion of the Han-period Burials with external coffins in Guangxi. In Editorial Team of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Cultural Relics Work Group (Ed.), Collection of Guangxi archaeology (Vol. 2, pp. 506–517). Science Press.

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25. Zhaoming, X., & Xie, G. (2009). External Pits of the middle-late Western Han period Tombs in Guangxi. In Editorial Team of the Western Han Dynasty Museum in Daobaotai, Beijng (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Civilization of the Han Dynasty (pp. 284–289). Beijing Yanshan Publishing House. 26. Qiang, L. (2000). Study of the Han period Generous Burials customs in Guangxi. Guangxi Ethnic Studies, 2, 106–111. 27. Junlei, Z. (2010). Postholes of the Warring States, Qin and Han period Tombs in Lingnan. Cultural Relics of Sichuan, 4, 53–62. 28. Zheng, J. (2012). The “Shelved Coffin” Burial Custom of the Warring States, Qin and Han period Tombs in Lingnan. Archaeology, (3), 74–84, 109. 29. Wu, C. (Ed.). (2006). Proceedings of the Conference on the Theory of Beihai and Hepu as the Departure Ports of the Maritime Silk Road. Science Press. 30. Lou, L., & Juying, Z. (2007). Examination of the Hepu Port of the Western Han. Guangxi Ethnic Studies, 1, 172–178. 31. Xian, J. (1988a). Lingnan Argriculture in the Qin and Han periods. Agricultural History of China, (3), 10–20; Xian, J. (1988b). Bronze casting and iron metallurgy in Han-period Lingnan. Journal of Jinan University, (3), 49–54; Xian, J. (1988c). Roots of Han-period trade in Lingnan. Lingnan Culture and History, (1), 88–98. 32. Zheng, J. (2008). Archaeological and anthropological Investigation of the Integration of the Baiyue in the Chinese Influence Sphere. Huaxia Archaeology, (3) 33. Lu M. (1990). The Economy of Qin and Han Period Lingnan. The Journal of South-Central Ethnic Studies, (2)

Chapter 3

Tomb Architecture of the Hepu Han Tombs

Tomb architecture refers to overground structures, such as mounds and other above ground features, as well as underground structures e.g., the burial chamber. The 300 tombs that have been excavated at Hepu differ considerably when it comes to construction materials and construction methods. They can be subdivided into four types: mounded tombs, pit burials, wooden-coffin tombs, and brick-chamber tombs. Special burials are the so-called “zhuanmu” tombs, and although this term is commonly used within archaeological circles, its defining standards have often shifted. Since the majority of these vertical tombs contain a coffin chamber, we consider these tombs as examples of both wooden-coffin and brick-chamber tombs. Unfortunately, due to the high humidity and acidic soil in the Lingnan area, most of the wooden coffins have been long decayed and only few wooden fragments and traces of coffins remain. The same applies to human remains found in these tombs. Based on the positioning of certain grave goods it is known that the heads of the deceased often pointed to the tomb entrance.

3.1 Burial Mounds and Overground Tomb Structures Burial mounds are earthen mounds that were raised over a tomb after its construction and were made by piling up different layers of earth. Burial mounds can be further classified based on their height, size, and shape. The burial mounds in Hepu are circular with a circular or oval ground plan, and have been built on top of middle or large-scale burials (Fig. 3.1: 1). For instance, the burial mound of Liaowei M13 is 1.6 meters high and has a diameter of 47 meters. Moreover, the mound consists of three distinctive layers of more or less the same thickness that were simply made

© Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House 2022 Z. Xiong and X. Fu, Hepu Han Tombs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4660-8_3

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1. Exterior of the mound of Liaowei M14

2. Section of the mound of Liaowei M13

Fig. 3.1 Burial mounds of the Hepu Han Tombs

by piling earth. They can be further distinguished by their color: one red layer is sandwiched between a layer of gray yellow earth (Fig. 3.1: 2). Some signs of earth ramming can be seen on mounds of higher-level tombs, such as the mound of a wooden coffin tomb found at Wangniuling in 1971. This mound is composed of an earth-rammed and curved layer that is 0.4–0.5 m thick and which covers the tomb entrance. Besides some remains of decayed wooden poles, found inside circular- or ovalshaped postholes, no overground tomb structures remain. These have been found at Liaowei M13A, Liaowei M13B, Wenchangta M5, and Luowucun M3. Of the 18 postholes discovered at Liaowei M13A, 10 are concentrated around the tomb entrance and eight are asymmetrical. In the tomb chamber and entrance of Liaowei M13B there are 30 evenly spread postholes of different sizes (Fig. 3.2). At both sides of the tomb entrance of Wenchangta M5 a number of half-open holes can be observed: on one side four, and on the other side only two. Finally, on both sides of the tomb opening of Luowucun M3 nine neatly arranged and symmetrical postholes have been found. It is interesting to note that the distance between these two rows of holes is wider than the tomb chamber. The postholes discovered in these four tombs are most likely the remains of simple structures that were built on top of the tomb, or might have been remains of wooden pillars that were erected as part of the entrance opening. In this regard it should be noted that the pillars served as monuments like the trees planted on top of the tomb or columns built in front of the tomb [1].

3.2 Mounted Tombs

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Fig. 3.2 Postholes around the Tomb entrance and chamber of Liaowei M13

3.2 Mounted Tombs Mounted tombs are a distinctive burial tradition, widely used in the Wuyue region, comprising of the southern part of present-day Jiangsu, most of Zhejiang, and the southern part of Anhui, during the Shang and Zhou Periods. This tradition can be traced back to the Neolithic Songze culture and stayed in vogue until the Han Dynasty. Previously it was thought that mounted tombs were simply earthen mounds, constructed on a flat surface, and did not contain burial pits. Recently, however, archaeological discoveries have illustrated that this view is incorrect. Most of these tombs do contain a shallow earthen pit, with some even having a deeper and earthpadded pit. Two mounted tombs have been found in Hepu and are the first examples of the usage of this type of burial tradition in Guangxi. Both tombs belong to the shallow-pit type and are located 12 km away from the county seat in Honghuakan, which is part of Shiwan in the Dalang town. Situated on a terrace of red earth in east-west direction, both tombs have a circular shape and an oval ground plan. The two earthen mounds are 41 meters apart and have been named D1 and D2 (Fig. 3.3). The north-south diameter of D2 is 21 meters, the eastwest diameter is 35 meters, and remains of the middle part is 1.6 meters high. D2, dated to the Qin and Early Western Han period, features a multiple-burial structure

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Fig. 3.3 The mound of D2 before excavation

and in the central and southeastern section three burials have been found (Fig. 3.4). Archaeologists have discovered that another area was chosen first to construct the burial. This construction, however, seems to have been abandoned, and instead a more flat and slightly higher area was selected to serve as a new foundation. This resulted into a higher and flatter platform. The pit of the burial was dug in the middle and southern part of this mound. Due to the upper part of the mound being damaged and the later construction of tombs, it is unclear whether or not the mound was sealed. The three burials (called Shuangfendun burials) inside the D2 mound were narrow, rectangular-shaped, and made of mallow soil. They were between 2.15 and 1.7 meters long, 0.57 and 0.7 meters wide, and 0.06 and 0.16 meters deep. No traces of wooden coffins are left. In Shuangfendun M2 a ceramic bu vessel (Fig. 3.5: 1) was found and Shuangfendun M3) and Shuangfendun M4 ceramic urns and cups were found (Fig. 3.5: 2). During the excavation of mound D1 in 2004, which is dated to the Middle Western Han period, ceramic urns, bowls, net sinkers, and cups, as well as a bronze axe, were unearthed. The discovery of two ceramic urns could also be an indication of the use of specific burial assemblages.

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Fig. 3.4 Panoramic view of the excavation unit of D2 (East–West)

1.D2M2 Fig. 3.5 The shuangfendun D2 burial

2.D2M4

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3.3 Pit Burials Vertical pit burials are common in the Han Dynasty and can be recognized by their vertical pit which is dug directly into the ground. After a wooden coffin was placed inside, accompanied with grave goods and other sacrificial items, the pit was refilled with earth. Around 80 pit burials, containing a rectangular burial chamber, have been found in Hepu. Some have two platforms, and usually a single inner coffin is placed on one side of the burial without being covered by an outer coffin. Pit burials can be subdivided into two types: one type that has no burial passage (non-passage type) and one type that has a sloped passage (sloping-passage type). The non-passage-type has a rectangular-shaped burial chamber and is exemplified by Wenchangta M34. The burial chamber of this burial is 2.3 meters long, 1.1 meters wide, and 0.7 meters deep. Besides five ceramic burial goods, no human or other remains have been found (Fig. 3.6: 1). The sloping-passage-type, appeared during the Middle Western Han and stayed in use until the Late Eastern Han. The passage of these burials is located in the center of the burial. For instance, Erpaochang M8 has a burial passage that is 8.3 meters long and 1.7 meters wide. In addition, in the middle of the passage, close to the burial chamber, half a brick has been placed. The grave chamber is 5.12 meters long, 2.9 meters wide, and 3 meters deep. The internal coffin is located in the central part of the southern side, and has a length of 2 meters and a width of 0.9 meters. On one

1. Non-passage-type Pit Burial (Wenchangta M34) 2. Sloping-passage-type Pit Burial (Erpaochang M8)

Fig. 3.6 Pit burials

3.4 Wooden Coffin Tombs

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side of the coffin and in front of the grave chamber there are three oval holes that most likely were used for drainage (Fig. 3.6: 2).

3.4 Wooden Coffin Tombs Around 95 wooden coffin tombs have been found in Hepu. Their structure is more or less the same as the pit burials, expect for the addition of an external coffin (the socalled guo). Most of these tombs have two crosstie ditches running across the tomb floor and contain two coffins: one internal and one external. Transversal ditches, as well as double coffins nested inside one external coffin have also been found, but are rare. Wooden coffin tombs can also be divided into two types according to the presence or absence of a tomb passage. Tombs without a passage are generally speaking small and have a rectangular ground plan. Qichichang M2, for instance, has a burial chamber that is 3.7 meters long, 2 meters wide and 2.2 meters deep. At the bottom of the tomb there are two crosstie ditches. The wooden coffin was placed on the right side in the back of the chamber and measured 2.2 by 0.82 meters. The grave goods had been arranged on the other side of the room: in the back ceramics, such as pots, urns, storage vessels, small vessels, and miniature wells, granaries, stoves and lamps; and in the front smaller objects made of iron, such as a pin, scraping knife, chisel, and dagger, as well as whetstones and glass beads. The coffin contained a bronze mirror (Fig. 3.7: 1). A second example is the Lianruchang M2 tomb, which has transverse ditches and a coffin placed in the east side of the chamber. Outside the coffin a collection of ceramic storage vessels and pots was arranged near one of the corners of the coffin, while inside the coffin there were bronze coins, a bronze mirror, an iron sword, and a scraping knife. Some of the tombs with a passage have steps, but the majority feature a slope. The large and middle-scale tombs seem to have been sealed with a white mud paste, while the tomb floor was waterproofed with a mixture of mud paste, charcoal, and fine sand. The filling of the tomb chamber showed signs of ramming. These tombs can be further divided into three categories: single-chamber tombs, tombs with a paved path, and multiple-chamber tombs. Category 1: This type is common in Hepu and consists of a tomb passage and a chamber. The tomb passage in Erpaochang M4 is 10.1 meters long and 1.7 meters wide, while the chamber is 5 meters long, 3.1 meters wide and 4.1 meters deep. The back section and the both sides of the chamber floor are covered with layers of soil that form a platform (shengtu ercengtai 生土二层台). Two parallel crosstie ditches are also present. Based on the remains of wooden planks (Fig. 3.7: 2) this tomb might have contained one coffin nested inside one external coffin. The chamber is 3.92 meters long and 1.8 meters wide. The inside coffin was placed in the back-end side of the external coffin and measures 2.22 meters in length and 0.85 meters in width. Arranged next to one side of this coffin there are ceramic pots, urns, storage vessels, granaries and stoves, as well as a bronze wine vessel (he) and steatite ding

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1. Tomb without a Passage (Qichichang M2)

2. Traces of the Coffin in Erpaochang M4

3. The white mud paste that sealed the four sides of the coffin chamber of Fengmenling M26

4. Arrangement of the grave goods found in the outer chamber of Fengmenling M26

Fig. 3.7 Single-chamber wooden-coffin Tomb

vessels. In front of the coffin there is a ceramic kettle, an iron circular bowl with a long handle (yundou), a steatite heater and ear-cup, and several bronzes, including a tripod, basin, wine vessel (zun), pot, cup, and coins. Inside the coffin, ceramic storage vessels, a bronze buckle, a bronze mirror, a bronze bubble nail, an iron scraping knife, an iron loop-handed dagger, iron tweezers, etched carnelian beads and ornaments were found. Additionally, some of the more richly furnished single-chamber tombs have an outer chamber (waicangguo) which is located at the lowest part of the burial passage. An example is Fengmenling M26. The four sides of the coffin chamber, as well as the tomb roof, had been sealed with a white mud paste (Fig. 3.7:3). The tomb passage was 12 meters long and 2.64 meters wide. At the bottom of the slope of the passage an outer chamber was built measuring 3.9 by 1.3 meters. At both sides of

3.5 Brick Chamber Tombs

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this structure there is a narrow passageway with crosstie ditches, which contained two bronze oxen figurines and one ceramic urn (Fig. 3.7: 4). Category 2: These tombs have a short and small corridor in the front part of the burial chamber. For instance, between the tomb entrance and the burial chamber of Wangniuling M1 (Fig. 3.8) there is a small corridor with on both sides a rear room. Both rooms belonged to the outer chamber. The main room was sealed with a mixture of red sand and ashes, presumable the original soil that was dug up to build the tomb. The two rear rooms, facing north and south, had been filled with rammed earth. In total the tomb measures 25.8 meters and has a tomb passage that is 15 meters long and 3 meters wide. The front corridor is 3 meters long, four meters wide, and 8.3 meters deep, while the main room is 7.8 meters long, 5.1 meters wide, and 8.8 meters deep. The coffin is 6.2 meters long, 3.5 meters wide, and 2.3 meters high. The floor of the tomb has two crosstie ditches. The majority of the bronzes and lacquerware was put in the front part of the main room at both sides of the coffin. In both rear rooms there were also crosstie ditches. The southern room, containing storage vessels made of ceramics and bronze, and which might represent a kitchen, was 2.2 meters wide and 4.7 meters deep. Maybe imitating a stable, the northern room contained horse equipment and parts of a carriage. This room is 2.8 meters wide and 5.4 meters deep. Category 3: Multiple-chamber tombs can be divided into a front and back room. An example is Huangnigang M1 which has one brick-constructed front room. Between the front and back room there is a groove and the floor is paved with bricks. Another example is Jiuzhiling M5. The burial mound of this tomb is still visible and is 32 meters wide and 1.2 meters high. The following measurements of the tomb structures are known: the tomb passage is 17.5 meters long and is 1.94 meters wide; the front room is 1.5 meters long, 2.56 meters wide, and 3.84 meters deep; the back room is 5.3 meters long and 2.9 meters wide. The tomb entrance was sealed with bricks (Fig. 3.9).

3.5 Brick Chamber Tombs The largest number of tombs found in Hepu, around 130 in total, belong to the brickchamber type. This type starts to appear during the Early Eastern Han period and is constructed with layers of bricks. The floor of these tombs is mostly covered with bricks in a herringbone pattern, and sometimes with a larger type of square bricks. Based on the construction method of the burial chamber, five tomb categories can be distinguished: zhuangkuang tombs, brick-chamber tombs with a longitudinal vault, brick-chamber tombs with longitudinal and lateral vaults, brick-chamber tombs with a combination of a dome-shaped and vault roof, and brick-chamber tombs with a combination of an intersecting- and dome roof. Category 1: Very few zhuankuang tombs have been found. In these tombs the walls of the tomb chamber or parts of it were made of bricks, while the ceiling is mostly made of wooden materials. Sometimes traces of wood can still be seen. The simplest design of this type of tombs is a square tomb chamber with no tomb passage. For instance, Wenchangta M1 tomb, excavated in 2005, is 3.44 meters long, 1.12 meters

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Fig. 3.8 Wooden coffin Tomb with corridor (Wangniuling M1)

wide, and 0.72 meters deep. The tomb walls are made of one layer of bricks and its floor is paved with bricks in a herringbone pattern (Fig. 3.10). Larger tombs, such as Liaowei M13B, feature a more complicated design with a tomb passage. Liaowei M13B is made up out of a tomb passage and chamber that measure 21.86 meters in total (Fig. 3.11). The tomb passage is 14.76 meters long and 1.8 meters wide, and had been filled with rammed earth. The floor has traces of carriage tracks and two crosstie ditches. Other parts were paved with bricks in a herringbone pattern. Based on traces of rotten wood found on the paved floor, it is believed that wooden materials had been used for the ceiling and sealing of the door (Fig. 3.12). Besides this, some zhuangkuang tombs also have two rear chambers. Gongyedadao M4 for instance has one corridor, one front and back chamber, the front chamber has two small rooms (Fig. 3.13). The front and back chamber have been paved with bricks and covered by a wooden ceiling. The front room is 3.3 meters long, and 4.3 meters wide. The

3.5 Brick Chamber Tombs

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Fig. 3.9 Multiple chamber Tomb (Jiuzhiling M5)

back chamber is 5.66 meters long and 6.6 meters wide. A partition divides the back chamber into two compartments with each a niche. Category 2: The simplest brick-chamber tombs with a longitudinal vault have one brick chamber and no side rooms. Liaowei M8 (Fig. 3.14), for instance, consists of a corridor and a front and back chamber which have a total length of 12.71 meters. The front chamber is 2.48 meters long and 1.92 meters wide. The back chamber is 2.78 meters long and 1.66 meters wide. Inside the back wall of this chamber there is also an arched niche, which is 0.34 meters deep and 0. 68 meters wide. The floor of the tomb is paved with bricks in a herringbone pattern. Another type of burial has a small corridor in front of the burial chamber, such as Erpaochang M2 (Fig. 3.15). A third type features one or more side rooms (maximum 3). Some of these have an arched ceiling, while others have a dome. For instance, Erpaochang M10 has two side rooms of more or less the same size at the front part of the back chamber (Fig. 3.16). Liaowei M14 has three side rooms with a dome-shaped ceiling (Fig. 3.17).

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Fig. 3.10 Zhuankuang Tomb without corridor (Wenchangta M1)

Fig. 3.11 Zhuankuang Tomb with sloped corridor (Liaowei 13B)

Category 3: This category includes brick-chamber tombs with intersecting vault. Erpaochang M5 (Fig. 3.18: 1), for instance, is 12.28 meters long and made up out of a corridor, front chamber, and back chamber with one auxiliary room. The front chamber has a horizontal arch, while the back chamber has a vertical one. Liaowei M17, with a total length of 16.72 meters, has four parts: a corridor, a pathway, a front,

3.5 Brick Chamber Tombs

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Fig. 3.12 Wooden remains of the ceiling and door sealing (Liaowei M13B)

and back chamber (Fig. 3.18: 2). The front chamber has a horizontal arch, while the back chamber has a vertical one. Category 4: These tombs have both dome roofs and longitudinal vaults. The Gongwuyuan Xiaoqu’erqi Tomb M17 (Fig. 3.19: 1) has a corridor, front chamber, and back chamber. The front chamber has a dome-shaped ceiling which is 3 meters wide. The back chamber has a longitudinal vault which is 4.9 meters long and 2.4 meters wide. Some of these tombs have double back chambers, such as Fengmenling M10 (Fig. 3.19: 2). The front room of this tomb has a dome-shaped ceiling, while the east and west back chamber are vaulted. The east room was filled with burial goods, while the back room contained the wooden coffin. Category 5: This category refers to brick-chamber tombs with a combination of intersecting vaults and dome-shaped roof. For instance, Liaowei M13A (Fig. 3.20) has a front chamber with a dome-shaped ceiling, a middle chamber with a horizontal arch, and a back-room with two side rooms with longitudinal vaults. The north backchamber with double arches is larger than the south back-room with a single arch.

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Fig. 3.13 Zhuangkuang Tomb with arched ceiling (Gongyedadao M4)

Some ash traces in the south back-chamber might be the remains of a wooden coffin. The north back-chamber was most likely used for putting grave goods. The front chamber of Fengmenling M1 (Fig. 3.21) has a horizontal arch, the dome-shaped middle room has two side rooms, and the back chamber is vaulted with a niche in the far corner.

3.6 Multi-burial Structure “A wife (should) follow her husband in a joint burial, (because) being buried together is normal for every husband and wife” [2]. Joint burials know a long history in China and can be dated back to the prehistory. At Hepu only few examples of this burial custom have been found. In most of these tombs the husband and wife have been interred in separate pits, and in some cases they have been buried in one pit. The custom of joint burials started to appear in Hepu during the Late Western Han and continued until the Late Eastern Han Period.

3.6 Multi-burial Structure

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Fig. 3.14 Simple Tomb chamber (Liaowei M8)

(1) Same-Pit-Burials Same-pit-burials were rare in Han-period Hepu and in most cases two coffins were put in a common burial room. Based on the location and way of positioning of these coffins, two types of burials can be distinguished. The first type refers to tombs where two coffins were placed in the same chamber. Often these two coffins were put inside the same outer-coffin in the back of the chamber, such as can be seen in Erpaochang M12 (Fig. 3.22: 1). In this tomb one big and one small coffin were found. The left side coffin was quite big, measuring 2.2 by 0.86 meters. Likely being the male burial, there was a bronze sword, a bronze scraping knife, an iron pin, beads, a bronze mirror, and coins inside. The smaller female burial on the left, measuring 2.16 by 0.62 meters, contained bronze coins, an iron dagger with a circular handle, part of a bronze comb, and a bronze mirror. Another example is the zhuankuang burial of Muzhuling M6, excavated in 1996 and dated to the Early Eastern Han Period (Fig. 3.22: 2). This tomb has a tomb corridor and a rectangular tomb chamber with remains of coffins and burial goods. In the middle of the chamber there were two heaps of bricks that might indicate the original position of the two coffins. On the eastern side of the chamber a bronze belt buckle, an iron sword, a bronze scraping knife, and a seal were found. On the west

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Fig. 3.15 Tomb chamber with corridor (Erpaochang M2)

side there were remains of a bracelet and other ornaments made of agate, glass and crystal. On both sides there were also bronze mirrors. The second type refers to tombs containing two coffins put in separate rooms which are mainly dated to the Late Eastern Han period. Yangjiashan Gongyedadao M4 and Tuguiling M8 are examples of this type (Fig. 3.22: 3, 4). In the Yangjiashan tomb there were two interlinked back-rooms. The northern room was constructed later than the southern room and filled with an iron scraping knife, glass beads, a ceramic granary, a ceramic stove, and a ceramic building. The southern room contained bronze coins, a bronze belt buckle, a bronze mirror, a bronze block, a bronze longnecked vase, an iron scraping knife, and an inkstone. Tuguiling M8 was also divided into a southern and northern chamber. The doors of both chambers were linked and sealed. The bigger northern room was built later than the smaller southern room. Inside the northern room there are three heaps of bricks which might have supported the coffin. (2) Different-Pit-Burials The more common different-pit-burials can be divided into two categories:

3.6 Multi-burial Structure Fig. 3.16 Tomb chamber with arched auxiliary room (Erpaochang M10)

Fig. 3.17 Tomb chamber with dome-shaped auxiliary room (Liaowei M14)

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1. Erpaochang M5

2. Liaowei M17 (with corridor)

Fig. 3.18 Brick-chambered Tomb with longitudinal and horizontal arch

1. Gongwuyuan Xiaoqu’erqi M17

2.Fengmenling M10

Fig. 3.19 Brick chambered Tombs with arched and vaulted ceilings

First category: This category represents tombs which have been separated by an earthen wall. Mostly two or three separate tombs are found under the same mound and arranged parallel from each other. Two types of partition wall can appear. The first type is characterized by a linked upper part and a declining lower part, such as the corridor of Fengmenling M23 tomb A and B, which are separated by 2–3.4 meters (Fig. 3.23). The upper part of these burial chambers is linked, making it 8 meters long and 11.5 meters wide. The division line between the tombs is clearly visible and

3.6 Multi-burial Structure

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Fig. 3.20 Brick chamber Tomb with intersecting vaults and dome-shaped roof (Liaowei M13A)

it is known that tomb A was constructed earlier than tomb B. At Wenchangta M18 excavated in 2017 three tombs of which two were linked have been found (Fig. 3.24). Tomb A was built first and has a corridor, while tomb B and C share a separation wall. The second type of burials are separated by a wall that can be several meters wide. Part of this partition can be connected to a short corridor. Tomb A and B of Liaowei M13 are located 3.5 meters parallel from each other (Fig. 3.25). Remains of postholes in the walls of tomb A’s burial chamber indicate it was connected to tomb B. Another example are the two tombs found at Fengmenling M24 (Fig. 3.26). Above the partition wall between the tomb chamber of tomb A and the corridor of tomb B

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Fig. 3.21 Brick chamber Tomb with intersecting vaults and dome-shaped roof (Fengmenling M1)

there is a short passageway. This passageway is 1.45 meters long, 0.6 meters wide, and 0.3 meters deep. Similarly, Jiuzhiling M4, a vaulted brick-chamber tomb, has a short, paved passageway that is 0.26 meters wide and 0.12 meters high (Fig. 3.27). Second category: The second category refers to adjoining tombs, which are clearly demarcated from each other and not separated by an earthen wall. The position of two of these tombs at Tuguiling M202 is indicated by remains of rotten wooden planks (Fig. 3.28). The deceased inside these two tombs are believed to be a man (burial A) and a woman (burial B).

3.6 Multi-burial Structure

1. Same Room with Double Coffin Burial (Erpaochang M12)

3. Burials with Coffins in Different Rooms (Yangjiashan Gongyedadao M4)

Fig. 3.22 Same-pit burials

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2. Same Room with Double Coffin Burial (Muzhuling M6)

4. Burials with Coffins in Different Rooms (Tuguiling M8)

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Fig. 3.23 Different-pit burial (Fengmenling M23. Left: B Tomb. Right: A Tomb)

Fig. 3.24 Different-pit burial (Wenchangta M18. Left: B Tomb. Middle: A Tomb. Right: C Tomb)

3.6 Multi-burial Structure

Fig. 3.25 Different-pit burial (Liaowei M13: Left: B Tomb. Right: A Tomb

Fig. 3.26 Different-pit burial (Fengmenling M24)

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Fig. 3.27 Different-pit burial (Jiuzhiling M4)

Fig. 3.28 Different-pit burial (Tuguiling M202)

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References

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References 1. Junlei, Z. (2010). Postholes of the Warring States, Qin and Han period Tombs in Lingnan. Cultural Relics of Sichuan, 4, 53–62. 2. Shuda, Y. (2000). Study of marriage and Burial customs in the Han dynasty (p. 138). Shanghai Classics Publishing House.

Chapter 4

Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

Historical Records describe two practices in Han Dynasty China that have had a considerable influence on burial customs: ‘governing all under heaven through filial piety’ and ‘after you die, matters should be the same as when you lived’. In addition, it was believed that by depositing objects used during one’s lifetime inside one’s tomb, as well as specially-made miniature ‘spirit goods (mingqi)’, a luxurious life in the afterlife could be guaranteed. These beliefs and customs resulted in the typical custom of ‘generous burials’. Furthermore, the large number of grave goods that have been found in the Hepu Han Tombs testify to this. The majority of these objects were made of ceramics. Another large category encompasses bronze objects. Golden, silver, iron and jade objects, as well as a large number of ornaments made of glass, crystal, agate, amber, garnet, etched chalcedony, and turquoise were also found. Besides this, a number of lacquerwares, and bamboo and bone objects were unearthed. Due to being made of hard and wear-resistant materials, the majority of ornaments, ceramics, and gold and jade objects have survived in prime condition. On the contrary, as a result of the humid climate and acidic soil, bronze, iron and silver objects are not well-preserved. Moreover, almost nothing remains of bamboo, bone and lacquer objects. This chapter will introduce the daily utensils excavated at the Hepu Han Burials. A detailed discussion of the objects related to the Maritime Silk Road will follow in Chap. 6.

4.1 Production and Agricultural Utensils Only few utensils related to agriculture and handicrafts have been found in the Hepu Han tombs. Remains of irrigation facilities, such as wells, and farming tools, such as iron shovels and hoes ( jue), have been found. Artifacts related to handicrafts, such as weaving and woodworking, include ceramic spindle whorls, iron axes and iron chisels. While the production of iron tools and weapons was common during the Han Dynasty, iron was rarely used for burial gifts. This was probably due to its © Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House 2022 Z. Xiong and X. Fu, Hepu Han Tombs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4660-8_4

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Fig. 4.1 Iron Shovel (Qichichang M4)

high value during the Han Dynasty. Remains of crops and textiles, and water and land animals have also been helpful for reconstructing farming, weaving, fishing, and hunting activities. Miniature models of different types of animals have provided useful information about domestication practices. (1) Agricultural Implements Iron shovels: In the Shiji (the Annals of the Great Historian, Chapter Annals of Shi Huangdi) it is recorded that: “cha 臿 is (the same as) qiao 锹.” Although both characters refer to shovels, cha is used more common. In Qichichang M4 a concaveshaped iron shovel (9.6 cm long and 13.8 cm wide) was found (Fig. 4.1). Iron hoes: Hoes have a wooden handle and were used for digging up hard earth. Two types can be distinguished: double-toothed and narrow hoes. Only one doubletoothed sickle has been found at Fengmenling M22. A bronze figurine found in Fengmenling M26 seems to be holding a hoe of the second type (Fig. 4.2). This kneeling figure is holding a hoe in its right hand and seems to be grinding something. Crops: Crops remains found at Hepu reveal the cultivation of various agricultural crops. The main farm crop was rice. This is evidenced by the postures of figurines that have been found: some of these are holding a pestle while pounding rice, others are in the process of winnowing rice. Inside one of the ceramic granaries of Fengmenling M24B remains of unhusked rice were found (Fig. 4.3). At the time of its discovery the nuclei of these rice grains had turned into a yellow-white powder. The husks, however, maintained its long shape, and measured three times its width. Archaeologists believe this type of rice was long grain, non-glutinous rice (Fig. 4.3). Inscriptions on objects also testify to the use of crops, such as non-glutinous rice and beans. For instance, the lid of a cylindrical container found at Jiuzhiling 6A has the inscription: ‘清米万石1 ’. And on lids of canisters found at Fengmenling M10 have inscriptions ‘小豆⎕⎕2 ’, referring to ‘beans’ and ‘⎕米千石’ (⎕ mi qian dan), meaning ‘thousand dan of rice.’ 1

Dan is a standard measurement during the Han Dynasty. One Dan is equivalent to 30 kg during the Han Dynasty. The meaning of this inscription is ‘ten thousands dan of rice.’ 2 The symbol “⎕⎕” indicates an unreadable character.

4.1 Production and Agricultural Utensils

55

Fig. 4.2 Figurine with Grinding Hoe (Fengmenling M26)

In addition, Hepu’s southern climate was humid, wet, and ideal for growing fruits. In a small bronze box found at Tangpai 2A, for instance, remains of waxberries were found. Also, inside a bronze cooking pot remains of lychee were discovered. Lychees from Lingnan were famous in Early China, and it has been recorded that Zhao Tuo, the king of the independent Nanyue Kingdom located in Lingnan, gave lychees as tribute to Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty. The Sanfu Huangtu also records that: “In the sixth year of the Yuan Ding period (111 BC) of Emperor Wu’s reign, the Yue was defeated, and the Lychee Palace was constructed to plant and harvest different herbs and rare plants, …. Longyan, lychee, betel nut, olives, qiansuizi (千岁子), oranges and tangerines, all of them were planted (in amounts of) more than hundred at a time.” From the discovery of the Fuligong site at the south gate of Zhichuan Town, Hancheng County, Shaanxi Province, it is known that longyan and lychee were already transported to the Chang’an capital (in present-day Xi’an) more than 2000 years ago. The following lines of the Tang poet Du Mu, however, indicate that these fruit trees were mainly for decoration purposes, and actual lychees had to be still imported from southern areas: One horseman in red dust; the consort smiles: No one else knows that it’s the lychees that have arrived.

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Fig. 4.3 Decayed rice (Fengmenling M24B)

Wells: Wells were used for irrigation and storing drinking water. Miniature wells made of bronze and ceramics start to appear during the Middle Western Han Period and consist of three parts: a well frame, curb, and platform. They can be further divided into wells with a circular or square shape. Square-shaped wells are rare. One example is a well with sloping sides unearthed in Erpaochang M12. On top of the curb of this well a raster is attached (Fig. 4.4: 1) and its well frame is umbrella-shaped and divided into four parts. At the bottom of the well platform four rectangular bases with holes can be seen. The mouth of the well is 11.4 cm long and 18.4 cm high. In addition, some square wells have a circular base, such as the one excavated in 1978 at Xiangjiaochang M1(Fig. 4.4: 2). The second type of wells, which are circular-shaped, are more common. Some of these wells have a square platform, such as the well of Qichichang M4 (Fig. 4.5: 1). This well has an open curb with a wide flat rim and arched walls decorated with diamond patterns and short, vertical lines. The mouth of the well has a diameter of 15 cm and is 13.3 cm high. Other circular wells lack a platform, such as the one excavated at Qichichang M2 (Fig. 4.5: 2). This miniature well has a straight, flat opening with a round base, as well as an external raised structure surrounding the well. Other circular wells do have a circular platform. The well found at Fengmenling M28, for instance, has an upper part decorated with wave- and diamond-shaped patterns and a wide lower part (Fig. 4.5: 3). The platform of this well has four circular openings and the well frame is circular with upturned roof corners and tiles. Only three bronze wells have been found, all with square openings, round curbs, flat bases, and no platform. In the Wenchangta M69 tomb one bronze well covered with a hipped well frame has been found (Fig. 4.5: 4). The diameter of the mouth of

4.1 Production and Agricultural Utensils

1. Ceramic Well (Erpaochang M12: 36)

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2. Ceramic Well (Xiangjiaochang M1)

Fig. 4.4 Square-shaped miniature wells

this well measured 16.4 cm, while the total height was 29 cm. At Fengmenling M26 another bronze well was found inside a bronze bucket with traces of rattan wrapping. (2) Handicrafts Axes: Several axes with a wooden handle and made of bronze and iron have been found at Hepu. They were mainly used for cutting wood. The upper side of the axe blade was mostly trapezium-shaped, while the lower part was arched. One axe found at Shuangfendun D1 is 4.5 cm long and has a 2.9 cm wide blade (Fig. 4.6: 1). Chisels: Chisels were made of iron and used for making finer cuts into wood. At Fengmenling M24A a chisel was found with a striking surface that was slightly wider than its body (Fig. 4.6: 2). Its cutting blade has a round point and a rectangular cross section, measuring 23.6 cm in length and 1.9 cm in width. Spindle whorls: Spindle whorls were used for weaving cloth and twisting fibers into threads. During this process the weight of the whorl would twist the lower ends of the fibers and would help to maintain the rotation of the spin. Most spindle whorls were spherical-shaped and had a hole in its center. Spindle whorls have only been excavated at three tombs in Hepu. At Liaowei M16 two pieces were found with a diameter between 2.1 and 2.4 cm and a height between 1.8 and 2.4 cm (Fig. 4.6: 3). Remains of woven hemp also appear occasionally in burials. For instance, inside a coffin at Fengmenling M26 hemp remnants of clothes, presumably belonging to the deceased, were recovered. Hemp seems to have been also used to wrap bronzes and other precious objects. The hemp remains in the Hepu Han tombs appears to be of a high quality: every square centimeter has a thread count of 9 and 11.

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1. Ceramic Well (Qichichang M4: 1)

2. Ceramic Well (Qichichang M2: 5)

3. Ceramic Well (Fengmenling M28: 5, 10)

4. Bronze Well (Wenchangta M69: 24)

Fig. 4.5 Circular-shaped miniature wells

(3) Fishing Shellfish: Remains of abalone shells have been found in a ceramic storage vessel at Muzhuling M1 (excavated in 1988 in Huanchengxiang) (Fig. 4.7) and in a four-linked pot at Jiuzhiling 6A. Similar types of shells have also been uncovered in ceramic vessels of Han tombs in Guangzhou and Guigang. Clamshells: One 9,6 cm long clam, broken into two pieces, was found in the Jiuzhling 6B tomb. One piece was placed at both sides of the tomb. Fish: In a bronze ding vessel in Fengmenling M26 two types of fishbones have been found: mullet fish and snapper. Due to Hepu’s advantageous location nearby the seaside, as well as the streaming area of many rivers, including the Nanliu River, different types of freshwater and marine products were easily accessible. Thus, clams, shellfish, and different types of fish were most likely the main foods that were eaten by the inhabitants of Hanperiod Hepu. This is also mirrored in historical sources, such as in Chapter 45 of the Discourses on Salt and Iron, which infers that Yue people rarely ate beef and lamb, but preferred to eat aquatic products. The popularity of fishing is also evidenced by

4.1 Production and Agricultural Utensils

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2. Bronze Chisel (Fengmenling M24A: 27)

1. Bronze Axe (Shuangfendun D1:6)

3. Ceramic Spindle Whorls (Liaowei M16: 1-1, 1-2)

Fig. 4.6 Tools related to handicrafts

the discovery of over 20 net sinkers at the Han urban site of Caoxiecun, which is situated near the Hepu Han burial grounds. (4) Livestock The consumption of livestock has also been illustrated by finds in the Hepu Han tombs. For instance, the excavation of chicken bones in a bronze ding vessel at Fengmenling M26. Also of interest is the discovery of chicken and shellfish, which seem to have been cooked together, in a bronze basin at the Wenchangta Shengzicang M1 Tomb (Fig. 4.8). In addition there are many miniature animal figurines that were gifted as burial goods. Made of bronze or ceramics, the large variety of animals, including horses, oxen, goat, pigs, dogs, chicken and ducks, shows the development of animal husbandry in Han-period Hepu. Horse: At Fengmenling M26 a miniature bronze horse has been found (Fig. 4.9). Made out of seven pieces, including a head, body, tail and four legs, this statue was skillfully cast together. The mouth of the horse seems to have been attached to its head without any rivets. In a lifelike position, its head with pointed ears is slightly tilted in a neighing position. The body of the horse is well-balanced with a wellrounded buttock. While the front legs are straight, its hind legs are slightly bent. Its tail is curved and tied with a band. Marks of the ceramic casting mold can be seen on the inside of its legs. The statue appears to have been wrapped in linen. From its hoofs to its back the horse measures 50.8 cm. From its hoofs to its ears it measures 94.8 cm. Its total length is 98.8 cm.

Fig. 4.7 Remains of shellfish in a ceramic storage vessels (Muzhuling M1)

60 4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

4.1 Production and Agricultural Utensils

61

Fig. 4.8 Remains of chicken and Shells in a bronze Basin (Wenchangta Shengzicang M1)

Fig. 4.9 Bronze Horse (Fengmenling M26)

Oxen: Two oxen were excavated at Fengmenling M36 (Fig. 4.10). They seem to have been made with the lost-wax method. The ears seem to have been cast and attached in a later stage. They stand in an upright position, with straight front legs, bent hind legs, and a drooping tail. Both animals have wide-open eyes, a slightly opened mouth, and inward-bent horns. Their bodies are covered with fine patterns mimicking fur. One of the oxen is smaller and fatter and therefore believed to be female. It measures 41 cm in length and 24 cm in height. The other statue is 40.5 cm long and 27 cm high, and could be a male oxen due to its protruding back, its larger body, and the markings of twisted hair on its head.

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Fig. 4.10 Bronze Oxen (Fengmenling M26, left is male, right is female)

Dogs: Two solid bronze dogs have been found at Fengmenling M26 (Fig. 4.11). The male dog has a longer and bigger body, and is standing in an attacking pose with its front legs straight and its hind legs slightly bent. Its two ears are pointed and its tail is curled and upright, revealing part of its genitals. The statue is 16.5 cm long and 11 cm high. The other dog has a smaller silhouette, a lowered head, and an upward, curled tail. It is 12.5 cm long and 9.3 cm high. A ceramic miniature dog has also been excavated at Wenchangta M156 (Fig. 4.12). This grey-colored dog with pointed ears is squatting with its front legs still stretched out, and its hind legs, hips, and tail touching the ground. It measures 12.4 cm in length and 12.5 cm in height. Ducks: At Liaowei 13B two ducks were found (Fig. 4.13). Their body is thin, with a flat beak, and protruding eyes. One duck lifts its head, the other looks to its front. They have an arched back, closed wings, and warped tails. Their webs are extended to the front and are crouching the floor. The two ducks are 21.3 cm long and 13.4 cm high. Chicken and Goat: These animals have only been found at Beichajiang Yandui M1. They are sculpted in a resting pose (Fig. 4.14 and 4.15). The ceramic sheep is 10.5 cm high and 19 cm long. Pigs: The miniature ceramic houses unearthed at Hepu have many scenes of people raising pigs. For instance, the curved-shaped ceramic house on stilts fount at Wangniuling M1 (Fig. 4.16: 1). This house consists of an upper-floor room and a ground level courtyard. In the backyard there are five pigs in a resting pose. At Fig. 4.11 Bronze dogs (Fengmenling M26, left is male, right is female)

4.1 Production and Agricultural Utensils Fig. 4.12 Ceramic dog (Wenchangta M156: 1)

Fig. 4.13 Ceramic ducks (Liaowei M13B: 10)

Fig. 4.14 Ceramic chicken (Beichajiang Yandui M1)

Fig. 4.15 Ceramic goat (Beichajiang Yandui M1)

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1. Ceramic Pigs in Pigsty (Wangniuling M1)

2. Suckling Pig (Wenchangta M21:5)

Fig. 4.16 Pigs

Wenchangta M21 a miniature pig made of red clay has been found. It is 16 cm long and 10 cm high. This pig is also in a resting pose while suckling four piglets (Fig. 4.16: 2).

4.2 Coins The following types of bronze coins have been excavated from the Hepu Han tombs: Banliang, Wuzhu, Daquan Wushi, Huoquan, and Dabu Huangqian. Wuzhu coins can be further subdivided into coins that have filed edges and coins that have unfiled edges. After Emperor Qin Shihuang unified China, Banliang coins became the standard currency in the Qin Dynasty up until the Early Western Han Period. In Hepu these types of coins, 10 in total, have only been found at Wenchangta M168 (Fig. 4.17: 1). Based on their shape and inscriptions these Banliang coins are dated to the Han Dynasty.

4.2 Coins

65

1. Banliang (Wenchangta M168: 11)

2.Wuzhu (Erpaochang M6: 26)

3. Wuzhu (Erpaochang M8: 32-1)

4.Daquan Wushi (Jiuzhiling M5: 59)

6. Dabu Huangqian (Jixiechang M9: 8)

Fig. 4.17 Coins

5.Huoquan (Fengmenling M10: 67)

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In 118 BC Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty started to cast the so-called Wuzhu coins. ‘Wu’ means ‘five’, and ‘Zhu’ means ‘grain’, and wuzhu literally means five zhu’s. Zhu was a weight unit during the Qin and Han Dynasties and refers to the weight of the coins (One Jin, which equals ½ kilos, is 16 Liang; 1 Liang equals 24 Zhu; and 1 Zhu equals 0.65 g). Many Wuzhu coins have been found at Hepu. The characters on the Wuzhu coins are not exact copies of the original characters. For instance, during the Western Han Period two strokes were added to the character ‘Wu’ making it look like an hour glass (See Fig. 4.17: 2). Additionally, the right radical of the character ‘銖’(Zhu), which is ‘朱’, was made smaller and more abstract, ending up looking like a winged arrow. The four dots in the left radical ‘金’ were also made shorter. The Wuzhu coins found at Erpaochang M6 have a diameter between 2.4 and 2.5 cm, and are 1 cm wide (Fig. 4.17: 2). More changes appear during the Eastern Han when the ‘Wu’ character becomes wider, the left radical of Zhu becomes more angular, and the four dots of the right radical become longer. Examples of these types of coins come from Erpaochang M8 (Fig. 4.17: 3). These coins have diameter of 2.62 cm and are 0.91 cm wide. At the end of the Western Han Period Wang Mang comes to power and in AD 7 he casts a new type of coin, the Daquan Wushi, literally meaning ‘big coin (with a value of) fifty’. Both sides of these coins have a rim, in the center there are the characters ‘大泉’ (daquan, big coin) written in seal script, right and left of this there are the characters ‘五十’ (wushi, fifty). At Jiuzhiling M5 these types of coins have been found. They have a diameter of 2.6 cm (Fig. 4.17: 4). In AD 14 Wang Mang carries out his fourth monetary reform and casts the Huoquan or ‘currency’ coin. These coins with a rim have the characters ‘货泉’ (huoquan) inscribed left and right of the central opening. They have been found at Erpaochang M5 and have a diameter of 2.2 cm (Fig. 4.17: 5). Finally, only one Dabu Huangqian coin, also casted by Wang Mang, has been excavated at the Jixiechang M8 Tomb (Fig. 4.17: 6). At the front of this rimmed coin there are the characters ‘大布黄千’ (Dabu Huangqian) in seal script and a small round opening can be seen in the upper part of the coin. ‘Da’ means big, and ‘bu’ means spade, therefore these coins are often called ‘spade coins’. The found coin is 0.39 cm thick and 6.19 cm long. The upper square part of the coin is 1.7 cm long and 1.89 cm wide. The fork-shaped lower part is 2.5 cm wide at its widest section.

4.3 Carriages and Weapons Already in the Shang Dynasty craftsmen in China possessed the technical knowledge to build carriages. Over the centuries this tradition kept on developing and eventually it reached maturity during the Western Han Dynasty (Fig. 4.18). The carriagerelated artifacts excavated at the Hepu Han tombs do not contain remains of complete carriages or horses and oxen. Only few weapons have been found in Hepu, including dagger-axes, spears, swords, crossbow mechanisms, and loop-handled daggers.

4.3 Carriages and Weapons

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Fig. 4.18 Parts of horse gear and elements of a Han Dynasty Chariot found at Hepu [1]

Parts of Carriages: At Wangniuling M1 and Wenchangta M015 a small number of bronze parts, belonging to a carriage have been found. At Wangniuling these include three parasol rib ends (gaigong), two decorative horse ornaments (danglu), four axle caps and six bridles. In the Han Dynasty a parasol was installed on top of most chariots to protect against the rain and sun. On the pole of this parasol several ribs were mortised and fitted with ornamental ends. The upper section of these ends was circular and had four small serrated edges, while the lower part was hollow and jointed. A Gaigong is a special type of ornament worn by horses and attached on both sides of the horse’s head. The one found was 12 cm long. Axle caps were installed on the axle with a wheel hub. In this way, they extend out of the end of the axle and protect the axle head. Originally made of iron, the exterior of the axle caps is round and covered by a bronze layer. The axle itself is made of wood and fitted with a hatlike bronze ornament that is 3 cm long and 0.9 cm in diameter. A bridle is a utensil usually put inside the horse’s mouth and used to guide the horse while riding.

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1,2. Axle Cap

3,4,5. End of the Horizontal Drawbar

6. Bridle

Fig. 4.19 Parts of carriages (Wenchangta M015)

The bridle connects on both sides with a ring. The unearthed bridles are gilded and 18 cm long. At Wenchangta M015 the following parts were found: two axle caps, three ends of the horizontal drawbar of a chariot, and one bridle (Fig. 4.19). Halberds Ji: Halberds are long weapons made of bronze or iron that are usually attached to a wooden shaft. The special shape of the halberd consists of a spear tip with a straight or curved blade which is installed on one side of the spear. One bronze halberd with a straight side blade was found at Erpaochang M6 (Fig. 4.20: 1). This halberd with a diamond-shaped cross section had three small holes on its blade and one on its handle. These holes were probably used to improve the stability of the halberd and might have made it easier for the user to yield the weapon. The found halberd was 20.4 cm long, 1.6 cm wide, and 0.4 cm thick. In Liaowei M14 similar types of halberds made of iron have been found. A halberd with a curved side-blade and one hole, measuring 18 cm in length and 2.2 cm in width, has also been excavated at Liaowei M16 (Fig. 4.20: 2). Spears: Spears also belong to the category of long weapons. All the spears found at Hepu consists of a bronze blade with a sharp point that ends in a central ridge which then forms a cylindrical socket (qiong 銎). The blade has a diamond-shaped

4.3 Carriages and Weapons

1) Halberd (Erpaochang M6: 13)

69

2) Halberd (Weiliao M16: 43)

Fig. 4.20 Halberds

section. Usually, a wooden handle is installed inside the socket. The wooden handle of halberds and spears is often fitted with a golden encasing (dun 镦) (Fig. 4.21: 1). One spear with a wide and short blade has been found at the Middle Western Han site of Fengmenling M21 (Fig. 4.21: 2). The central ridge of this spear is protruding and round, and inside the socket there is a small hole to stabilize the wooden handle with a nail. Its total length is 15.9 cm. From the discovery of a spear at Liaowei M16 we know that the general shape of spears did not change much during the Late Eastern Han Period (Fig. 4.21: 3). Swords: Swords are weapons suitable for close-range fights. At Hepu both bronze and iron swords have been found. One type of swords, made of bronze and iron, has a long, slender blade and a rhombus cross section. A guard (ge) connects the blade to the handle. Originally swords were worn in a scabbard and on some swords remains of this can be seen. The sword excavated at Liaowei M14 has a bronze guard, of which both sides are inlayed with a piece of gold. It is 92 cm long, and 3.6 cm wide (Fig. 4.22). Another type of sword, mainly made of bronze, features a shorter blade. This type has been found at Wenchangta M33 (Fig. 4.23). It has a slightly curved guard with a hollow end and an arched blade with a sharp point. Both sides of the sword are decorated with the rolling-clouds motif. The handle is engraved with intertwining leave and rolling-clouds designs. On the upper part of the handle there is a combination of rolling-clouds motifs and round petal patterns. In total the sword is 25 cm long.

70

1) Metal Sleeve from Halberd (Liaowei M16: 38-3)

4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

2) Spear (Fengmenling Fengmenling M21)

3) Spear (Liaowei M16: 38-1)

Fig. 4.21 Bronze spears

Ring Pommel Swords: These swords were also used for close combat. The end of this type of sword is ring-shaped and the actual cutting blade is on one side of the sword. On the handle traces of rope wrapping, possibly belonging to the original scabbard, have been found. Scabbards were usually made by tying together two pieces of wood with strings and then adding a layer of black lacquer. Many ring pommel swords have been found at Hepu. One example, measuring 39.8 cm in length and 1.1 cm in width, was excavated at Erpaochang M4 (Fig. 4.24). Crossbow Mechanisms: Crossbows were used for long-range shooting and firstly appeared during the Early Warring States Period. All the crossbow mechanisms found at Hepu had a trigger mechanism with a bronze casing (guo): at each side there is a circular hole through which a cylindrical axle is attached to link the trigger (xuandao), tumbler, and sear. The crossbow mechanism excavated at Liaowei M15 has a bronze casing (7.4 cm long and 2.25 cm wide) (Fig. 4.25). Arrowheads: Arrowheads were also part of the long-range weapon arsenal. At Wenchangta M91 three angular arrowheads with hollow conical-shaped points, measuring 4.5 cm in length, have been found (Fig. 4.26).

4.4 Buildings/Architecture The discovery of several miniature architectural models, that were specially produced for burials, and belonged to the category of spirit goods, reflects the architectural and technological knowledge of the inhabitants of Han-period Hepu. These so-called

4.4 Buildings/Architecture

71

Fig. 4.22 Iron sword (Liaowei M14: 13)

‘mingqi’, or spirit goods, were made-to-order and included a large variety of miniature objects that had no utilitarian function, but were solely used for burials. The most commonly found architectural models are houses, granaries, toilets, pigsties, and wells. Most of these were made of ceramics. The roof styles of these objects are very diverse and include overhanging gable, hip-gable combination, hipped, pavilion, and curved roofs. Overhanging gable roofs are found most commonly. Many of the miniature models have a stilted base, which lifted the whole building of the ground. This was suitable for the wet and humid climate in the south. Granaries: Granaries were used to store staples. They first appear in Hepu during the Middle Western Han Period and mostly have a rectangular ground plan. Only one granary with a curved roof has been found, the other models have gabled roofs. The door is at the front of the model. During the Early Western Han Period most granaries have no front porch, but during the Late Western Han Period semi-closed or closed porches appear. Granaries can be divided into three categories: Category 1: This category is rare and includes granaries with a flat base. One example comes from the Fengmenling M27 (Fig. 4.27: 1). This model is not supported by any columns and has a frontal and central door. At each side of the porch there

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Fig. 4.23 Bronze sword (Wenchangta M33: 1)

Fig. 4.24 Ring pommel sword (Erpaochang M24: 29) Fig. 4.25 Crossbow mechanism (Liaowei M15: 5)

4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

4.4 Buildings/Architecture

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Fig. 4.26 Arrowhead (Wenchangta M91: 5)

are four small holes and at the end of both walls there are two small holes. These holes were probably used to attach bamboo or wooden stilts. The dimensions of the granary are as followed: 30.8 cm wide, 19.2 cm deep, and 22.8 cm high. Category 2: These granaries have four, six, or eight column-shaped legs. A granary with a curved roof, found at Dianchang M1, is an example of this type and also the earliest model with a curved roof found in China (Fig. 4.27: 2). The roof of this granary is arched with two sides sloping down. The model has a rectangular ground plan, a front porch, and is supported on four columns. Both sides of the front porch have oblate protrusions with horizontal holes, which might have been used to attach a bolt to seal the door. The dimensions of the granary are as followed: 19.8 cm wide, 18 cm deep, 18.4 cm high. The granary found at Fengmenling 24B has an overhanging gable roof (Fig. 4.27: 3). A primary ridge on top of the roof connects the two straight overhanging slopes. In addition, running over both sides of these slopes, there are two vertical ridges. The granary has a half-open front porch and at both sides of the front door there are horizontal openings. The dimensions of the granary are as followed: 26.4 cm wide, 21.6 cm deep, 29 cm high. A small number of bronze granaries of this type have also been found in large or medium-scale tombs that belonged to the higher social classes, such as at Wenchangta M69 (Fig. 4.27: 4) and Wangniuling M1 (Fig. 4.27: 5). Category 3: These granaries with a porch have mostly round openings at the base to attach wooden columns. The granary excavated at Liaowei M16 (Fig. 4.27: 6) has an overhanging gable roof decorated with roof tiles. The porch is very small and rectangular, and has a door and two windows. The walls of the granary are decorated with rhomboid patterns (under the windows) and patterns imitating a wooden structure. Six holes at the bottom of the model indicate that columns were added to support the porch. Round Granaries: Round granaries were used to store grain and are often found in the Central Plain area. One example has been found at both Guantouchang M19 and Xiangjiaochang M1. The granary of Guantouchang M19 has a round, pyramidalshaped roof, which is decorated with a bowstring pattern, and is wider than the actual granary (Fig. 4.28). The shape of the granary is round and tapering. It has a front door with at each side an oblate protrusion for sealing the door. The base of the granary

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1. Ceramic Granary (Fengmenling M27:37)

2. Ceramic Granary (Dianchang M1: 1)

3. Ceramic Granary (Fengmenling M24B: 2)

4. Bronze Granary (Wenchangta M69)

5. Bronze Granary (Wangniuling M1)

6. Ceramic Granary (Liaowei M16: 4-1)

Fig. 4.27 Granaries

is square and supported on four columns. A small platform extends from the front side. The granary has a diameter of 16 cm and is 19.5 cm high. Houses: Most of the houses found indicate living conditions in which humans and animals lived together. The houses are well-designed and make excellent use of the living space. Based on the ground plan three types of houses can be distinguished: rectangular, irregular and stilted houses. Category 1: These houses are rectangular and have two floors: the upper floor is for the inhabitants, and the lower floor is for livestock. One ceramic house model excavated from Fengmenling M28 has a gable roof with neatly arranged roof tiles

4.4 Buildings/Architecture

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Fig. 4.28 Round granary (Guantouchang M19)

(Fig. 4.29). At the front façade of the house on the upper floor a single open door can be seen. Another small door has been installed at the back of the house. Directly next to the front door a window with lattices has been carved. On the right side a number of openings indicate other windows. At the front of the lower level a key-hole shaped opening and more windows can be seen. At the back side there is another access for livestock. The dimensions of this house are as followed: 30 cm wide, 26 cm deep, 30 cm high. Category 2: L-shaped houses consist of two separate rectangular sections with gable roofs, which are connected to each other. The first section is mostly a horizontal hall, while the second section includes a house with a porch. The back sides of the model are decorated with patterns resembling brick walls and forms the backyard for the livestock. The house model found at Liaowei 13B (Fig. 4.30: 1) has two floors and a single open door with a door still at the front right corner. At both sides of the door there are open lattice windows and engraved bow-string patterns. In the back wall a small rectangular opening can be seen with a lattice and square small window Fig. 4.29 Rectangle houses (Fengmenling M28: 15)

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Fig. 4.30 L-shaped houses

1. Liaowei M13B: 8

2. Liaowei M8: 10

on either side. At the bottom of the second section a peanut-shaped hole is believed to have been a toilet. In the back wall of the backyard there is small opening through which lying pigs can be seen. The roofs of both sections have a high primary ridge that comes together in an angle and which is covered with pan tiles. The dimensions of the house are as followed: 30 cm wide, 23.2 cm deep, 29.6 cm high. Another irregular model has been found at Liaowei M8 (Fig. 4.30: 2). Both roofs are again intersecting, with one horizontal ridge. This model is 24 cm wide, 23 cm deep, and 23 cm high. Category 3: In December 1989 a rectangular model of house with an attic was excavated at Hongqiling M2 (Fig. 4.31). This model can be divided into a front and back courtyard and is framed on both sides by a high wall. In front of the house there is a small platform and a double door with an animal-head applique. The frame of the door has a door peg. At both sides of the door there are ⋀-shaped window

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77

openings and engraved tomb figurines holding a dagger axe. The wall above the door entrance extends upwards and is covered by a gable roof. The backyard consists of a separate two-store building with a gable roof. On the left side there is a toilet with a small frontal window. The upper level is rectangular shaped and has a single door with lattice windows. At the back there is another square sloping window and several lattice windows. The lower floor connects the front yard and the door. At the back of the building there is another double door. Under the toilet there is livestock area with an opening. The dimensions of the house are as followed: 34 cm wide, 28 cm deep, 37 cm high. Pigsties: Usually pigsties form a unit with the toilet and livestock area: the upper floor has a toilet, while the lower floor is used for keeping animals. Pigsties are mostly stilted structures with a rectangular front gate. The upper floor is rectangular with a tiled roof consisting of a central ridge with four side ridges. Inside the toilet there is a rectangular pit. The foundation of the lower floor is longitudinal and rectangular, with an access for the animals. The back part of the backyard has a raised wall and has a tiled ledge for shelter. An example is the pigsty found at Erpaochang M5, which is 22.2 cm wide, 20.6 cm deep, and 27.7 cm high (Fig. 4.32). Fig. 4.31 Attic houses (Hongqiling M2)

Fig. 4.32 Pigsties (Erpaochang M5:27)

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Fig. 4.33 Ceramic toilets (Fengmenling M22: 15)

Toilets: Only few toilets, all made of ceramics, have been found. They consist of one room with a gable roof. Inside the toilet there is a rectangular-shaped pit with at both sides protruding steps for squatting. At Fengmenling M22 a ceramic toilet with a single open door was excavated (Fig. 4.33). Its dimensions were 26.8 cm wide, 14 cm deep, and 16.4 high. Tomb Bricks: During the Early Eastern Han Period bricks were widely used in tomb structures. Tomb rooms were built with small cuboid bricks with a rectangular surface, and sometimes with wedge-shaped bricks. Some tombs were also paved with square brick tiles. The colors of these bricks were mostly light-red, and sometimes grey-white. Often simple decorative patters, such as check-, diamond-, spiral-, zigzag-, persimmon-, leaf-, and V-shaped designs, were stamped onto the bricks (Fig. 4.34). Small bricks were between 23 and 29 cm long, 10.5–13.8 cm wide, and 2.8 and 4.2 cm thick. Square bricks were used to pave the floor. Their color was light-red or grey-white. At times they were embellished with simple patterns or with a rosefinch or the head of mythical creatures. They are 34.3 cm wide, 35.8 high, 4.8–5.0 cm thick. Brick chambers could be built by placing single bricks or double bricks. The walls of the chambers were mostly constructed in stretcher bond (pingzhuan cuofeng) or a bond with alternate courses of two stretchers and one bull header (ershun yiding), and rarely in a bond with alternate courses of three stretchers and one bull header (sanshun yiding). The ceilings of the chambers were mostly built in forms of vaults or domes. Finally, the floor of the tombs was constructed using several bricklaying patterns, including stretcher, herringbone and parallel (Fig. 4.35).

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Fig. 4.34 Patterns on Tomb bricks

4.5 Clothes and Toiletries (1) Clothes and Accessories Due to the humid climate and acidic soil of Southern China, no human bones and clothes have been preserved. Therefore, only by looking at the clothing and ornaments of human figurines we can make assumptions about personal identity. During the Han Dynasty there existed a distinctive clothing system and people commonly wore clothes with square sleeves, including long robes (chanyu), short shirts (ru), robes (shenyi), and skirts (qun). Other fashion elements were overlapping collars, right lapels, and concealed coat laces. Two types of male clothing were common: curved hem wrap robes (quju) and straight hem wrap robes (zhiju). Quju was quite popular during the Warring States Period, as well as during the Early Western Han Period and could also be worn by women. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Zhiju garment became in vogue. Additionally, men from lower classes (mostly laborers) wore short shirts Dajin and long trousers. Accessories included belt buckles, hairpins, ear ornaments, rings, bracelets, circular pendants and rings. Human Figurines: These types of figurines were made of ceramics and bronze. At Muzhuling M1 two ceramic figurines were found. One was a kneeling man with stern and solemn features, who was wearing a long-sleeved robe and was clasping his hands (Fig. 4.36: 1). In between his hands there was a small hole. His hairstyle indicates he was a member of the civilian personnel. The figurine is 25.5 cm high and 14.7 cm wide. Another male figurine believed to be a foreign musician was unearthed at Tangpai M1 (Fig. 4.36: 2). This man is wearing a long coat with a

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1) ershun yiding

2) Stretcher Bond

3) Vaults

4) Domes

5) lateral Pattern Brick Floor

6) Herringbone Pattern Brick Floor

7) Stretcher Pattern Brick Floor

Fig. 4.35 Masonry structures in tomb chambers

narrow parallel collar (duijin 对襟) and has a small hat on his head. At Wangniuling M112 ceramic figurines have been found: five are men, seven are women. The men are all wearing hats and a short garment with a pants. The women are wearing a knee-length skirt and have their hair tied in a high knot. All the figurines are standing with their hands crossed across their chest. They measure between 38 and 42 cm in height. The previously described bronze figurine, who was winnowing rice, has her hair tied together in the chuifa-hairstyle (椎发) which was typical for the labor class. Belt Hooks: Belt hooks were used for tying leather belts. The head of the frontal hook could be hooked in one of the holes of the belt. At Hepu three belt hooks made of bronze, jade, and gold have been found. They come in a variety of shapes,

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Fig. 4.36 Human figurines

1. Figurine from Muzhuling M1

2.Figurine of Foreigner from Tangpai M1

including turtleback-, pipa-, long-hooked-, and S-shapes. At Qichichang M19 one hook with a sculpted dragon head was found. This hook is 5.8 cm long and 1.5 cm wide (Fig. 4.37: 1). Another important discovery was a belt hook consisting of a hook in the shape of a goose-beak and a ring with a coiling dragon at Huangnigang M1 (Fig. 4.37: 2). The hook was 4 cm long, had an outside diameter of 4 cm, and an inside diameter of 2.5 cm. In the same tomb a 6.6 cm-long golden buckle was found (Fig. 4.37: 3). Hairpin: One hairpin has been excavated at Jiuzhiling M5 at the north corner of the coffin. One side of this 12 cm-long, yellowish-white hairpin was slightly cylindrical, the other side was flat. Earplugs: Most earplugs found at Hepu were cylindrical-shaped with a narrow waist and made of gold, glass, amber, or agate. To wear the plug the narrow part had to

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Fig. 4.37 Belt hooks

1. Jade Belt Hook (Qichichang M19)

2. Belt Hook Consisting of Hook and Ring (Huangnigang M1)

3. Gold Belt Hook (Huangnigang M1)

be inserted in the ear perforation. The plugs have a small central hole and could also be worn as a pendant. The following four earplugs were found: two golden earplugs (1.9 cm) at Jiuzhiling M5; one glass, light-blue and transparent earplug during the excavation of Jisheling M18 in 1993 (Fig. 4.38: 1); an etched carnelian, tangerinecolored plug at Yandui M4 (Fig. 4.38: 2); and one amber earplug at Qichichang 30B (Fig. 4.38. 3). Bracelets: Silver and gold bracelets were found at Hepu. Some of the silver bracelets were oxidized. Three bracelets were excavated: one silver bracelet with a diameter of 8 cm at Jiuzhiling M5 (Fig. 4.39: 1); and two very thin golden bracelets, with 5.9 and 6.1 cm in diameter, found at the Di’er Mafangchang Tomb excavated in 1986 (Fig. 4.39: 2). Rings: Discoveries include the following rings made of silver, gold, and agate: one silver ring with a diameter of 2.1 cm at Liaowei 13B (Fig. 4.40: 1); one golden ring with a protruding round knob at Jiuzhiling M6A (Fig. 4.40: 2); one oval-shaped

4.5 Clothes and Toiletries

1. Glass Earplug (Jisheling M18)

83

2.Agate Earplug (Beichajiang Yandui M4)

3. Amber Earplug (Qichichang M30B) Fig. 4.38 Earplugs

1.Silver Bracelet (Jiuzhiling M5: 72)

2.Golden Bracelet (Di’er Mafangchang Tomb)

Fig. 4.39 Bracelets

1. Silver Ring (Liaowei M13B: 6)

2.Golden Ring (Jiuzhiling M6A: 74)

3.Golden Ring (Jiuzhiling M6B: 11)

4.Agate Ring (Wangniuling M2)

Fig. 4.40 Rings

golden ring with a diameter of 1.3 cm at Jiuzhiling 6B (Fig. 4.40: 3), and one agate tangerine-colored ring at Wangniuling M2 (Fig. 4.40: 4). Silver Stringed Beads: At Erpaochang 14A one stringed necklace made of dropshaped silver beads was found. Each bead was 1.6 cm long and had a diameter of 0.4 cm (Fig. 4.41).

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Fig. 4.41 Silver stringed necklace (Erpaochang 14A)

Fig. 4.42 Glass sword scabbard slide (Huangnigang M1)

Sword scabbard slide: Sword scabbard slides were attached to scabbards and were made of jade, agate, and glass. At Huangnigang M1 one glass, rectangular guard decorated with a rolling cloud pattern was found (Fig. 4.42). Both sides of the front section of the scabbard slide curve inwards and at the back a rectangular shaped opening is visible. It is 10.3 cm long and 2.8 cm wide. A rectangular, jade guard with a three-dimensional flying dragon was unearthed at Liaowei 13B. It was 5.9 cm long and 2.6 cm high. Glass Ring: At Ciliaochang M7 two blue, semi-transparent, glass rings were discovered (Fig. 4.43). At the center of the ring there is a gradually decreasing rim visible. The diameter varies between 7.5 and 7.6 cm and the outside edge is 0.1 cm thick. Jade Ornament: At Huangnigang M1 one jade ornament with a coiling-dragon pattern was found, measuring 6.5 cm in length and 4.8 cm in width (Fig. 4.44). Bi-discs: Bi’s were round discs made of jade and glass. A rare bi-disc with a grain pattern and a protruding decorated section (kuo 廓) was unearthed at Huangnigang Fig. 4.43 Glass ring (Tuguiling Ciliaochang M7)

4.5 Clothes and Toiletries

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Fig. 4.44 Jade ornament (Huangnigang M1)

M1 (Fig. 4.45: 1). The kuo is carved in the shape of two slightly symmetrical dragons framed by a bowstring pattern. Between the dragons, in the center of the kuo, six characters can be seen: ‘宜子孙日益昌 yi zisun riyi chang’, meaning “May (your) offspring be more and more prosperous with each passing day”. The disc has a diameter of 18.3 cm, an inner diameter of 3.5 cm, and is 27 cm high. Another greengray bi-disc (with a diameter of 23.5 cm) without a kuo was found at Qichichang M17 (Fig. 4.45: 2). A series of bowstring patterns divide this disc in an inner and outer ring. The inner ring is decorated with small rolling-clouds patterns, while the outer ring has bigger rolling-clouds alternating with taotie (zoomorphic face) motifs. One glass bi was unearthed from Wangniuling M2 (Fig. 4.45: 3). This green disc has a grain pattern on one side, and is smooth on the other side. Its inner and outer edges are rimmed. The disc has a diameter of 12.9 cm, is 1 cm thick, and a 0.2 cm thick border. Jade Stringed Beads: One necklace consisting of tube-, round-, flat-, and bootshaped jade beads was discovered in Fengmenling 23B. Usually these types of beads were strung together with beads from other materials such as amber, agate, and glass. Bone Beads: At Tangpai 2A one tubular and two prismatic bone beads were excavated. Ceramic Bead: This special ball-shaped and pierced bead was found at Wenchangta M168 (Fig. 4.46). It has a diameter of 4 cm and is hollow inside. During the Middle Warring State Period so-called ‘dragonfly-eye beads’ (qingtingyanshi zhu 蜻蜓眼式珠) made of glass became popular in the Chu region (comprising of Hubei and Hunan) and were imitated by local craftsmen. Therefore, this ceramic bead might have been the result of changes made during the copying process of foreign dragonfly-eye beads. The bead found in Hepu was most likely imported from the Chu region.

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2.Jade Bi (Tuguiling Qichichang M17)

1.Jade Bi (Huangnigang M1)

3.Glass Bi (Wangniuling M2)

Fig. 4.45 Bi-discs

Fig. 4.46 Ceramic beads (Wenchangta M168: 16)

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87

(2) Toiletries Toiletries include combs, stone ink slabs, tweezers, and bronze mirrors. Comb brushes: This type of comb brushes were used to remove dirt from comb. The front part was used for combing and the back part had a small blade used for pick the gaps of the comb. Shaped like a pipe, the brush’s end is empty and all the original teeth are decayed. The handle is column- shaped with a dragon-shaped head; extending out the mouth of the dragon there is small blade shaped like a spear. Two brushes were found: a bronze brush from Liaowei M14 with a 1 cm-diameter comb head and a 4.5 cm-long handle (Fig. 4.47: 1); and a complete brush comb at Fengmenling M1 (Fig. 4.47: 2). Stone Ink Slabs: In ancient China eyebrows were drawn with ink that was grinded on a special stone slab. Only one side of this slab was smooth and used for grinding. The slab found at Erpaochang M9 has a round upper part and square lower part (Fig. 4.48: 1). The base is 3.2 cm long and 1.5 cm high. At Erpaochang M28 another slab was unearthed (Fig. 4.48: 2). This grey-colored, rectangular slab was 14.3 cm long, 3.7 cm wide, and 1.1 cm thick. Iron Tweezers: Tweezers were used to pluck and model eyebrows. They were made by folding a flat iron bar in two halves of the same length. One example comes from Erpaochang M4. It is 5 cm long, 0.2 cm thick, and has a 1.09 cm-wide middle part. Bronze Mirrors: Bronze mirrors were usually placed near the head of the deceased inside the coffins. They are round with two sides: one side is finely polished to reflect

1) Bronze Comb brush (Liaowei M14: 24)

2) Bronze Comb brush (Fengmenling M1: 0164)

Fig. 4.47 Comb brushes

1) Grinding Disc (Erpaochang M9:1)

Fig. 4.48 Stone ink slab

2) Slab Board (Erpaochang M28: 5)

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the image of its user; the back has a central half-round knob and is usually covered with various decorations. Eight types of mirrors can be distinguished. Four-bosses-and-four-dragon Type (siru sichi 四乳四螭): Four raised bosses and four coiling dragons divide the outer ring surrounding the inner ring of the central knob into four parts. At Erpaochang M12 one mirror with patterns, including the typical four-bosses and four-dragons, as well as having joining arcs and small birds on its outer ring, was found (Fig. 4.49: 1). Its diameter is 11 cm and it is 0.5 cm thick. Four-bosses-and-bird-pattern Type (siru niaowen四乳鸟纹): This type has a birdpattern, consisting of two facing birds, and four raised bosses on its outer ring. An example is the mirror excavated at Lianruchang 2 (Fig. 4.49: 2). Between the inner and the outer ring there is a band with short diagonal stripes. Nested between each bird pattern there are the following characters: ‘长乐未央’ (changle wei yang), meaning ‘endless happiness’. The mirror has a diameter of 10.09 cm and a thickness of 0.5 cm. Sunlight Type (riguang 日光): This type of mirrors is known for containing characters referring to sunlight. For instance, the mirror excavated at Tuguiling M202A in 1984 (diameter 8.1) was inscribed with: ‘见日之光, 长毋相忘’ (jian ri zhi guang, chang wu xiang wang), meaning ‘the sunlight (appears), (let us) never forget each other’. Another mirror of this type comes from Jiuzhiling 6B (Fig. 4.49:3). In the outer ring the following characters can be seen: ‘见日之光, 天下大明’ (jian ri zhi guang, tianxia daming), meaning ‘the sunlight (appears), (and) the world is bright’. It has a diameter of 6.3 cm. Zhaoming Type (zhaoming 昭明): This type of mirror is named after the two characters: ‘昭明’, meaning ‘illumination’, which are inscribed on the mirror’s outer circle. A mirror of this type, with a diameter of 12 cm, was unearthed at Jiuzhiling 6A and has two outer rings with the first one consisting of a row of 12 linked arcs (Fig. 4.49:4). Both rings are separated by a thin band of short diagonal stripes. The second band contains the following characters: ‘内而清而以而昭而明而光而夫而 日而月而不而泄’ (nei er qing er yi er zhao er ming er guang er fu er ri er yue er bu er xie). TLV Type (sishen guiju 四神规矩). This type of mirror is also called TLV because some of its symbols resemble the letters T, L, and V. At Liaowei M14 one mirror with a central square section and an outer circle was found (Fig. 4.49: 5). On the square section and outer circle there are eight raised bosses. The patterns on the outer circle include TLV-, four-immortals, bird-and-beast, and other short diagonal patterns. The outer border of the mirror has sawtooth and moving-cloud patterns. The mirror has a diameter of 13.9 cm. Another mirror was unearthed at Liaowei M17, which was inscribed on its outer circle with ‘尚方作竟真大好, 上有仙人不知老, 渴饮玉泉百 年’ (shang fang zuo jing zhen da hao, shang you xianren bu zhi lao, keyin Yuquan bai nian). Persimmon-pattern Type (shidiwen 柿蒂纹): This type of mirror has a persimmonpattern around its central knob and was found in Yandui M1 (Fig. 4.49: 6). An opening inside the mirror could be used to carry it around. On its backside two rows of protruding string patterns can be seen, and at its surface some traces of gold foil are left. It has a diameter of 23.5 cm.

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89

1) Four-bosses-and-four-dragon Type Mirror (Erpaochang M12: 11)

2) Four-bosses-and-bird-pattern Type Mirror (Lianruchang M2: 3)

3) Sunlight Type Mirror (Jiuzhiling M6B: 19)

4) Zhaoming Type Mirror (Jiuzhiling M6A: 62)

5) TLV Type Mirror (Liaowei M14: 11)

6) Persimmon-pattern Type Mirror (Beichajiang Yandui M1)

7) Joined-arc Type Mirror (Tuguiling M202A:1)

8) Cloud-lighting-joined-arc Type Mirror (Fengmenling M10:51)

Fig. 4.49 Bronze mirrors

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Joined-arc Type (Lianhuwen 连弧纹): One of these mirrors was discovered at Tangpai 2A. It has a diameter of 15.3 cm and was inscribed with ‘涷 (炼) 冶铜华 清而明, 以之为镜宜文章, 延年益寿辟 (避) 不羊 (祥), 与天毋极长未央’ (dong ye tong hua qing er ming, yi zhi wei jing yi wen zhang, yan nian yi shou bi bu yang, yu tian wu ji chang wei yang). Another mirror comes from Tuguiling 202A and was excavated in 1984 (Fig. 4.49: 7). This mirror has a diameter of 15 cm, a thickness of 1.1 cm, and is inscribed with the following characters: ‘絜天清天白之事天君志 天行之……日忘……’ (jie tian qing tian bai zhi shi tian qun zhi tian xing zhi …. ri wang ….). Cloud-lightning-joined-arc Type (yunlei lianhuwen 云雷连弧纹): One example of this type was unearthed at Fengmenling M10 (Fig. 4.49: 8). This mirror had a persimmon-shaped knob, and an outer ring with a row of protruding broad-band and joined-arc patterns. Another ring was decorated with a row of short diagonal stripes with a cloud-lightning pattern in between. It has a diameter of 18.7 cm. (3) Lavatories During the pre-Qin period, elites paid great attention to washing their hands. Pan basins were filled with water and pear-shaped yi vessels were used for pouring water. During the Han Dynasty the hand-washing custom underwent simplification, and pouring vessels and water basins became used in a variation of contexts. Square Pouring Vessel (yi 匜): The dictionary Shuowen Jiezi records that: “Yi, resembles a soup spoon, with an opening inside the handle, (through which) water or alcohol can be poured”. At Wangniuling M1 two square yi vessels of the same size have been found (Fig. 4.50). These vessels have a square-shaped body that gradually becomes narrower, four small feet, and a beast head with a loop handle on each side. Their spout is shaped like a dragon head with an open mouth. The upper side of these vessels is 24 cm long, while the lower side is 11 cm long. The vessels are 16.5 cm wide. Pan Water Basin (pan 盘): Water trays were mostly made of bronze, and sometimes from ceramics and glass. They have a wide mouth, rounded sides and an everted rim. The tray excavated from Fengmenling M26 has sloping sides and an everted mouth rim (Fig. 4.51: 1). Its opening has a diameter of 15.2 cm and its base a diameter of 7.2 cm. The tray is 9.3 cm high. A glass tray was unearthed at Muzhuling M1 in 1988 (Fig. 4.51: 2). This translucent and azure-colored tray has a wide opening with Fig. 4.50 Square pouring vessel (Wangniuling M1: 67)

4.6 Writing Utensils, Medical Appliances and Medicine

1) Bronze Pan Vessel (Fengmenling M26: 28)

91

2) Glass Pan Vessel (Muzhuling M1)

Fig. 4.51 Pan water Basin

sharp edges and sloping walls, and a round base. The edge of its mouth is decorated with a stringbow pattern. It has a diameter of 12.7 cm and a height of 2.5 cm. Pen Water Basin (盆 pen): Basins had multiple uses and were made of ceramics and bronze. Usually, bronze basins have a beast head applique on both sides. Ceramic basins can be divided into deep- and shallow waist types. At Erpaochang M20 a basin with a wide mouth (changkou 敞口), round rim, and a deep waist, decorated with bow string patterns, was found (Fig. 4.52: 1). It has a mouth diameter of 31 cm, a base diameter of 18.5 cm, and is 13.2 cm high. One shallow waist basin was excavated at Fengmenling M24B (Fig. 4.52: 2). This basin has a flat base, a wide flared mouth (guangkou 广口), and round rim. Its mouth diameter is 28.6 cm, its base diameter is 14.8 cm, and it is 8.4 cm high. Usually, bronze basins have an open mouth, an everted mouth rim, and a flat base. During the early period of the Han Dynasty the waist of bronze basins was rather deep with a straight upper part. An example is the basin found at Fengmenling M27 (Fig. 4.52: 3). This basin has a wide flaring mouth, a flat rim, a set of beast-headloops, and a small flat base. It has a diameter of 2.2 cm and is 4.6 cm high. During the Eastern Han Dynasty the vessel’s waist becomes shallower and more sloped. This is evidenced by the bronze basin discovered at Erpaochang M5 (Fig. 4.52: 4). This basin has a mouth diameter of 30.2 cm, a base diameter of 19 cm, and is 5.15 cm high.

4.6 Writing Utensils, Medical Appliances and Medicine (1) Writing Utensils Writing brushes were already known in the Han Dynasty and in many Hepu tombs characters written with ink or cinnabar can be seen on ceramic and bronze objects. Although no brushes were placed inside the tombs, a small number of objects related to writing have been found. Knifes (xiao 削): Although paper gradually gained popularity during the Eastern Han Dynasty, bamboo slips were still the preferred writing material. Xiao knifes, writing brushes, and inkstones have been found together with bamboo slips at Fenghuangshan 169 in Jiangling County, Hubei, which indicates they were used

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1) Ceramic Pen (Erpaochang M20: 13)

2) Ceramic Pen (Fengmenling M24B: 1)

3) Bronze Pen (Fengmenling M27: 19)

4) Bronze pen (Erpaochang M5: 20)

Fig. 4.52 Pen water Basins

in writing contexts. Most likely they were used for scraping out writing mistakes on bamboo slips. Bronze and iron xiao knives have been unearthed at Hepu. Iron knives were long and thin, and had a sloping point. The top of the knife had a cutting blade and the end had a loop handle. At Jiuzhiling 6A one 26.6 cm-long iron knife was uncovered with a width of 1.8 cm (measured from the middle of the knife) (Fig. 4.53). At Jiuzhiling 5 a similar knife made of bone was found (between 1.1 and 1.4 cm wide).

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93

Fig. 4.53 Xiao Knife (Jiuzhiling M6A: 82)

Clay Bucket (nitong 泥筩): Only one clay bucket was unearthed at Fengmenling 23A (Fig. 4.54). During the Han Dynasty some letters were tied with ropes and sealed with clay (e.g. mud seal) for confidentiality. Clay for this purpose was usually stored in a special type of bronze bucket. These buckets had a flat lid with a half-circular central knob. The shape of the bucket was sloping with a larger upper part with on one side a half-circular pierced knob. The found bucket is 12.8 cm high, with a lid diameter of 4.7 cm, and a base diameter of 3.8 cm. Seals: There was a rigid system in place for the use of official seals: jade seals with a tiger knob for the emperor, golden seals with a tiger knob for the empress, golden seals with a tortoise knob for the crown princes, golden seals with a camel knob for feudal kings, golden seals with a tortoise knob for feudal princes, golden seals with Fig. 4.54 Bronze bucket (Fengmenling M23A: 27)

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a tortoise knob for prime ministers and generals, silver seals with a tortoise knob for the highest ranking officials (of the zhong’erqianshi and erqianshi rank), and bronze seals with tortoise knobs for the middle ranking officials (of the qianshi, liubaishi, and sibaishi rank). The lower ranking officials (starting from the erbaishi rank and up) used simple square seals knowns as ‘tong official seals’ (tong guan yin 通官印). At Hepu bronze, silver, amber, and steatite seals have been unearthed. Most of these seals are square, while a minority has a half-circular or rectangular shape. Most of the bronze seals are private seals with the name of the owner. In 1992 a bronze seal with a round knob (biniu 鼻钮) was excavated at Qichichang M40B (Fig. 4.55). The characters ‘公孙德印’ (gong Sun De yin), meaning ‘seal of duke Sun De’, were inscribed on it. This seal was 1.7 cm high, 1.5 cm long, and weights 3.4 g. At Huangnigang M1 another bronze seal with a tortoise knob and the characters ‘陈 褒’, referring to owner’s name ‘Chen Bao’ was found (Fig. 4.56). This seal is 1.5 cm high, 1.5 cm long, and weights 3.4 g. Only two half-circular silver seals have been found. One of these was uncovered in 1995 at Di’ermafangchang M30 (Fig. 4.57). Measuring 1.4 cm in length, this seal has the characters ‘赵 (初) 君印’ (Zhao jun yin) on it, meaning ‘seal of the governor Zhao’. Amber seals can be divided according to shape into square, rectangular, and half-circular types. Because they are pierced and often found together with other ornaments they might have functioned as both seals and personal ornament. One half-circular amber seal with the inscriptions ‘陈夫印’ (Chen fu Yin) was discovered at Qichichang M25 in 1992 (Fig. 4.58). Sometimes imitation seals were placed inside tombs, because seals of officials could normally not be used as grave goods. For Fig. 4.55 Bronze seal with round Knob (Qichichang M40 B)

Fig. 4.56 Bronze seal with tortoise Knob (Huangnigang M1)

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95

Fig. 4.57 Silver seal (Di’ermafangchang M30)

Fig. 4.58 Amber seal (Qichichang M25)

instance a steatite seal inscribed with ‘徐闻令印’ (xuwen ling yin), meaning ‘seal of the commander of Xuwen’ was found at Huangnigang M1 (Fig. 4.59). This seal had the following measurements: 2.3 cm long, 2.2 cm wide, and 1.2 cm high. The earlier described bronze seal with tortoise knob was found in the same tomb, and therefore we can infer that the name of the district commander of Xuwen was Chen Bao. Water pot: Writing tools were inserted or dipped inside waterpots. In addition, water pots were also used to add ink or water to stone slabs; therefore, they can be divided into pots with or without spout. Water pots without a spout are called ‘shui cheng’ (水丞). One water pot has been unearthed at Guantouchang M17 and is shaped as a sheep (Fig. 4.60). The object is hollow and can be filled with water. The sheep’s head is turned backwards and its mouth was shaped as a small spout that has now been broken off. The pot is 6 cm wide, 9 cm long, and 5.8 cm high. The central opening measures 1.6 cm. It is dated to the late Western Han Period or the Late Three Kingdom Period. Fig. 4.59 Steatite seal (Huangnigang M1)

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Fig. 4.60 Water pot (Guantouchang M17)

(2) Medical Appliances and Medicine Medical science was in a developmental stage during the Han Dynasty and several classic Chinese works about medicine, such as The Yellow Emperor’s Internal Class (Huangdi nei jing), the Spiritual Pivot Classic (Lingshu jing), Shennong’s Herbal Classic (Shennong bencao jing), and the Treatise on Exogenous Febrile Deseases (Shang han lun), had been written. A number of medical appliances have been discovered in medium- and large-scale tombs, such as silver needles presumably used for acupuncture in the Luobowan M1 tomb in Guigang. In the Hepu Han tombs, however, only a few objects related to medicine have been found, including mortars and pestles, and some organic remains. Mortar and Pestle: A mortar and pestle was used to crush medicines. At Hepu only three sets made of bronze have been found. The pestle had a straight upper waist, and an arched lower waist. Its base could be rectangular or flaring. The mortar and pestle found at Fengmenling M26 (Fig. 4.61: 1) had a cylindrical pestle with a round end and measured 19.5 cm in length and had a diameter of 1.4 cm. The mortar had a diameter of 8.5 cm and is 11 cm high. At Huangnigang M1 another set was excavated (Fig. 4.61: 2). The mortar had a long neck and a beast-head-shaped loop attached to the widest part of its waist. The pestle had a diameter of 11.4 cm and was 13 cm high. Abalone Shell: Abalone shell was a type of medicine. Other names, such as shijueming (石决明) and mother-of-pearl, have been recorded in the fifth-centurywork: the Additional Records of Famous Physicians (mingyi bielu). To prepare abalone shell as a medicine it had to be heated until it became crisp, cooled, and then crushed into a powder. This poweder could help to reduce internal heat and was also effective for eye and liver problems. Inside a four-eared guan vessel, excavated at Jiuzhiling M6, 1.7 g of abalone shell has been preserved. Every shell measured between 2.4 and 3.5 cm. Chinese Holly or Ilex Rotunda: Inside a bronze box found at Tangpai M1 leaves and seeds of Chinese holly were preserved. Chinese holly was an antioxidant and relieved swelling and pain. Up until today it is the main ingredient in many thirstquenching drinks.

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97

Fig. 4.61 Mortar and pestle

1) Fengmenling M26: 124

2) Huangnigang M1

Coicis Semen: A pile of coicis semen was found inside Erpaochang M5 (Fig. 4.62). Only the husks of this herb remain. Coicis semen was an expensive medicine and helped against edema, rheumatism, and stomach problems. It further strengthening the bones and muscles, and cleared away lung-heat.

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

Fig. 4.62 Coicis semen (Erpaochang M5: 23)

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels (1) Food and Drinking Vessels Numerous food and drinking vessels have been found in the Hepu Han tombs. The majority is made of ceramics and bronze. Food and drinking vessels crafted from jade and glass represent a smaller category. Ding Vessels (鼎): Although originally a cooking vessel, ding vessels became part of a ritual set of vessels during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and were an important symbol of political power and rank. Ding vessels were used by the elite class according to a strict system, which is described in The Rites of Zhou (Zhouli): “The king (could use) nine ding vessels, a duke (could use) seven ding vessels, the noble class (could use) five ding vessels, and the shi class (could use) between three and one ding vessel.” Nonetheless, during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period this system deteriorated: the use of ding vessels was no

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99

longer strictly under control or solely linked to ritual practices. Instead, they started to function as vessels for food. The ding vessels found in Hepu are made of bronze or ceramics. Most vessels have a lid and a round, bowl-shaped body surmounted by two handles (or ears) and a round or square base supported on three legs. Based on their size and shape ding vessels can be subdivided into three categories: Category 1: These ding vessels have a mouth with a curved rim and short, straight, hoof-shaped legs. The bronze ding vessel excavated at Erpaochang M12 has a semicircular lid surrounded by three round loops and a curved body with two bent rectangular handles (Fig. 4.63: 1). Its diameter is 16.6 cm and its height is 21.7 cm. Category 2: These ding vessels have a mouth with a curved rim, and tilted legs that bend outwards. For instance, the bronze ding vessel found at Fengmenling M27 (Fig. 4.63: 2) has a cover with a central circular knob and a round flat base supported on three rough legs. On both sides of the vessel there are rectangular, narrow handles. Its diameter is 10.8 cm and its height is 13.9 cm. During the Eastern Han Dynasty some changes appear in the overall shape of ding vessels: its legs became gradually shorter, and its general shape became more oblate (Fig. 4.63: 3). Category 3: These ding vessels have a dish-shaped mouth, and hoof-shaped or tilted legs. In 1978 one bronze ding vessel was unearthed at Guantouchang M23 (Fig. 4.63: 4). Its diameter is 16 cm and its height is 17.3 cm. One type of ding vessels that are similar to the bronze ding vessel found at Fengmenling M27 mentioned above is the so-called Yue-type ding vessel. This type was

1. Erpaochang M12:31

2. Fengmenling M27: 17

3.Erpaochang M8: 47

4. Guantouchang M23

Fig. 4.63 Ding vessels

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

popular in the Yue region and had a mouth with a curved rim, straight handles, and sharp outward bending legs. Boxes (he 盒): Boxes, also called ‘sheng’ (盛), were used for serving rice and formed a set with ding vessels that were used for serving meat. Based on their shape they can be divided into two categories: Category 1: These boxes are circular-shaped. Bronze boxes are usually of a bigger size. They have a well-fitting, circular cover, a round body and a smaller circular base. Often the body is surmounted with a pair of loops and the cover, body, and base are engraved with patterns. For instance, the bronze box excavated at Yandui M1 has a central round knob with a persimmon pattern and engraved flower patterns on its body (Fig. 4.64: 1). It has a diameter of 19 cm and a height of 17 cm. Certain ceramic boxes seem to have imitated bronze boxes and were of a larger size and engraved with intricate patterns. The ceramic box found at Liaowei M13B is an example of this (Fig. 4.64: 2). On the edge of the box cover, which is engraved with triangular patterns, there are three sitting sheep. The body of the box is decorated with feather patterns. The box has a diameter of 26.4 cm and is 26.6 cm high. Smaller boxes are usually undecorated, thinner, and were probably made-to-order burial goods. Another box, originally covered by red lacquer, uncovered at Liaowei 13B fits this definition (Fig. 4.64: 3). It had a diameter of 11.6 cm and a height of 11.3 cm.

1) Beichajiang Yandui M1

2) Liaowei M13B: 22

3) Liaowei M13B: 15

4) Erpaochang M12: 32

Fig. 4.64 Boxes

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels

101

Category 2: These types of boxes have a protruding round cover and are only made of ceramics. For instance, at Erpaochang M12 a ceramic box with a deep, arched body, and a cover decorated with fine-toothed comb patterns, was found (Fig. 4.64: 4). It had a diameter of 24 cm, a leg diameter of 14 cm, and a height of 20.4 cm. Hu Pots (壶): Hu pots were mainly used for serving alcohol and were an important part of the Han Dynasty’s wine tradition. This wine had a low alcohol content and was made through fermentation. In addition, the majority of ceramic pots found in the Xiaogou tombs in Luoyang, Henan province, were used for storing grains. The pots excavated from the Mancheng Tomb in Heibei province, on the other hand, contained animal bones. From this it can be inferred that these types of pots were also used for serving food. Hu pots have a bulbous body which narrows around its shoulders, a long neck, and two lateral handles side. It has a circular base, or ring foot, that slightly bends outward and that sometimes is divided by a band into two parts. Often the upper part has symmetrical openings. The pots without a cover might have originally had a wooden cover. Many middle- and large-scale tombs of the Western Han Dynasty contained bronze hu pots, such as the Middle Western Han tomb Fengmenling M27. In this tomb one pot with a straight mouth, a short neck, and a slightly arched cover with a central knob, was found (Fig. 4.65: 1). The body of this pot was decorated with three wide bands and a loop handle at each side. It has a diameter of 10.5 cm and a height of 29.6 cm. During the later period of the Western Han Dynasty the neck of the hu pots became longer and more articulated, while the base became higher. For instance, at Fengmenling M26 one pot with a diameter of 16 cm and a base diameter of 21.6 cm was found (Fig. 4.65: 2). Ceramic hu pots can be divided according to the shape of their mouth opening: a dish-shaped mouth or a double rim mouth (zimu kou 子母口). For instance, the ceramic pot found at Erpaochang M4 (dated to the Middle Western Han Period) has a dish-shaped mouth, a round, bowl-shaped body, and a sloping base (Fig. 4.65: 3). Its mouth and neck are decorated with a row of bowstring patterns, the shoulder and body part with decorative bands. Some drops can be seen on the pot’s body and indicate it was glazed. It has a diameter of 14.8 and is 41.4 cm high. A pot with a double rim opening was found at Erpaochang M12 (Fig. 4.65: 4). Loop-handled Hu Pots (tiliang hu 提梁壶): These pots have the same shape and function as hu pots, but differ in the shape of their handles. Loop-handled hu pots are characterized by two ring-shaped lateral handles that are suspended with a chain to a smaller pair of handles near the mouth of the pot. Attached to these handles there is one big semi-circular handle which is sculpted in the shape of two dragon heads. One type, which is often found in Hepu, has a short neck and a round waist, with a high ring foot. During the late Western Han Dynasty, the body of loop-handled hu pots became more bowl-shaped. For instance, at Erpaochang M20 one pot with an everted mouth and decorative bands on its shoulder and body was found (Fig. 4.66: 1). This pot has two loops, and a chain made of connecting rings. It has a diameter of 11 cm and a height of 25.9 cm. During the Late Eastern Han Period the body of the pots became more oblate. This is illustrated by a pot with a high octagonal-shaped ring foot excavated at Fengmenling M10 (Fig. 4.66: 2). It has a diameter of 12 cm and is

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Fig. 4.65 Hu pots

1) Fengmenling M27

2) Fengmenling M26

3) Erpaochang M4

4) Erpaochang M12

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels

1) Erpaochang M20: 4

2) Fengmenling M10: 13

103

3) Fengmenling M26: 126

Fig. 4.66 Loop-handled Hu pots

30.5 cm high. Inside this pot there was another small unopened hu pot that contained a liquid (most likely alcohol). Another type of loop-handled hu pot, originating from the Central Plain region, has a pear-shaped body, a long neck, and a short round ring foot. Only one pot of this type was unearthed at Fengmenling M26 (Fig. 4.66: 3). The neck and body of this pot are decorated with three bands and small circles. It has a diameter of 7.5 cm and a height of 28.5 cm. Bottle-gourd-shaped Hu Pots (pao hu 匏壶): These hu pots were shaped like a gourd and were all made of ceramics. They have a small mouth, long neck, round ring foot, and two lateral handles. Based on its general shape and mouth (that could be closed with a wooden cork), archaeologist believe this pot was used for serving water or alcohol. At Wenchangta M149 one bottle-gourd-shaped hu pot was excavated in 1987 (Fig. 4.67). It has a diameter of 2 cm and a height of 22.4 cm. Small Tripod Hu Pots (sanzu xiao hu 三足小壶): This was a vessel for serving alcohol. It has a short straight neck, a double rim mouth, a bulbous body, a circular base, and three hoof-shaped feet. At each side of its body there are symmetrical handles that are suspended and attached to a central loop on top of the pot’s cover. At Fengmenling M26 one small pot with a circular and flat cover, engraved with three deer, and with a central knob has been found (Fig. 4.68). Its body and neck are decorated with triangular, checkboard, and feather-shaped patterns. It has a diameter of 4.4 cm, a length of 9 cm and a height of 8.2 cm. Oblate Hu Pots (bian hu 扁壶): This was a vessel for serving alcohol. It has a small mouth, a curved neck, a bulbous body, and a sloping base. At Fengmenling M26 one oblate hu vessel was excavated (Fig. 4.69). It has a cover with a central knob and a neck with two lateral handles that are pierced and connected through a chain with a dragon-headed loop. Its body is engraved with flower patterns. It has a diameter of 4.4 cm, a length of 7.1 cm, and a height of 11.6 cm. He Vessel (盉): This was a vessel for serving alcohol. At Fengmenling M27 one he vessel was found (Fig. 4.70). This vessel has a special cover which is connected to the vessel’s mouth with a pivot and, thus, can be opened and closed. It has a

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

Fig. 4.67 Bottle-gourd-shaped Hu pot (Wenchangta M149: 22)

Fig. 4.68 Small tripos Hu pot (Fengmenling M26: 105)

bulbous body, round base, and three sloping high legs. It has a spout shaped like a chicken head and from its side a rectangular extension is protruding. This he vessel is decorated with several bands. It has a mouth diameter of 7 cm, a body diameter of 13.4 cm and a height of 12.8 cm. Fang Vessel (钫): Fang vessels often form a set with other ritual utensils, including ding vessels, boxes, and hu pots, and, therefore, are often found together. They mainly

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels

105

Fig. 4.69 Oblate Hu (Fengmenling M26: 117)

Fig. 4.70 He vessel (Fengmenling M27: 43)

functioned as containers, but were also used to make alcohol. This is illustrated by the discovery of a ceramic fang vessel inscribed with ‘alcohol, fills the wine vessel’ (jiu, shang jun) [2] at Jiulishan no. 2 in Xuzhou, Jiangsu province. Only few fang vessels have been unearthed at the Hepu Han Tombs and during the Late Western Han Period they disappear completely from the burial record. Fang vessels have an everted mouth with no rim, a bulbous body, a square base, and a square cross section. Two vessels have been excavated at Fengmenling M27: they have a cover with sloping sides and a protruding knob, which fits perfectly over the square mouth (Fig. 4.71:1). Measuring 32.6 cm in height, two symmetrical handles are further attached to the vessel’s body. During the later periods of the Han Dynasty the ring foot became higher and the body became rounder. An example comes from Fengmenling M23 where a ceramic fang

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Fig. 4.71 Fang vessels

1) Fengmenling M27: 47)

2) Fengmenling M23A: 40

with two transversal loops and a pierced knobbed cover has been found (Fig. 4.71: 2). It has a diameter of 11.6 cm and is 40 cm high. Loop-handled Fang Vessel (tiliang fang 提梁钫): Four bronze loop-handled fang vessels have been excavated at Hepu. They all have the same dimensions: a body diameter of 19.5 cm and a height of 38 cm. These types of vessels have the same shape as regular fang vessels, except for an extra loop handle extending over the cover. Both sides of the cover have rings in the shape of animal heads, which are attached to the loop handle resembling two dragon heads. Weng Jar (瓮): Numerous weng jars have been found in the Hepu Han tombs. They were often placed together with ceramic guan vessels and were used for storing grain or other types of food. In The Jijiupian, a treatise of the Han Dynasty, it is recorded that: “Weng jars were filled with alcohol, broth, rice, and millet.” Their multifunctionality is further evidenced by the discovery of ceramic jars, containing chicken bones, millet, and plum seeds, in the Guangzhou Han Tombs. At the Hepu Han tombs over 140 weng jars, decorated with seal-stamps and other types of patterns, have been found. Based on their shape and size they can be subdivided into two categories. Category 1: These jars have a wide mouth (敛口) and a round, bulbous body. For instance, at Shuangfendun D2M3 one weng jar with a diameter of 20.8 and a height of 34 cm was excavated (Fig. 4.72: 1). Category 2: This category comprises the majority of weng jars. These jars have an everted mouth with a bulbous body and a shorter neck. Production marks inside the jars indicate a combination of coiling and slow-wheel production methods. During the Western Han Dynasty weng jars were quite big, as can be seen from the weng discovered at Fengmenling M26 (Fig. 4.72:2). This jar has narrow shoulders, and a long round body, with a flat base. Its shoulders and body are impressed with geometrical patterns and it has a mouth diameter of 28.8 cm and a height of 51.6 cm. Another jar comes from Qichichang M6A (Fig. 4.72: 3). This weng has a bulbous body that is decorated with geometric- and seal-stamp patterns, as well as stringbow

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels

107

1) Shuangfendun D2M3: 6

2) Fengmenling M26: 3

3) Qichichang M6A: 25

4) Erpaochang M5: 7

Fig. 4.72 Weng jars

patterns. It has a diameter of 23.5 cm and a height of 35.8 cm. Moreover, during the Eastern Han Dynasty, weng jars became smaller and less round. The jar unearthed at Erpaochang M5 illustrates this change (Fig. 4.72: 4). This weng is smaller, has a bigger mouth, and is impressed with seal-stamped and geometric patterns. It has a diameter of 23.7 cm and is 27.4 cm high. Four-eared Weng Jar (sixi weng 四系瓮): The use of four-eared weng jars is the same as the regular weng jars. Only five jars have been found at Hepu. They have a small open mouth, broad shoulders, and a flat base. As is hinted by its name, there are four semi-circular ears at four sides of the jar’s body. At the Late Eastern Han site of Wenchangta M8 one four-eared weng jar has been discovered (Fig. 4.73: 1). It has a round, bulbous body, and is decorated with geometrical and round seal-stamp patterns. It has a diameter of 14.8 cm and a height of 34.4 cm. Another weng jar was found at the Late Eastern Han site of Jiuzhiling M2 (Fig. 4.73: 2). This jar has sloping shoulders and a bulbous body. It has a diameter of 16.5 cm and a height of 40.2 cm. Guan Vessel (罐): Guan vessels are the most common grave good found in the Hepu burials and were used for storing food. Guan vessels discovered in Guangzhou contained remains of plum seeds, turtles, barnacles, wedge axe clams,

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1) Wenchangta M8:31

2) Jiuzhiling M2: 9

Fig. 4.73 Four-eared Weng Jars

fish bones, olives, and sour dates. Moreover, in The Zitong Dictionary, written by Yang Chengqing in the Northern Wei Dynasty, it is mentioned that guan vessels were used as water containers. The discovery of dozens of guan vessels in Han-period wells confirms this. Guan vessels were mostly decorated with geometric patterns, and sometimes with wave-, fine-toothed-comb- and bowstring patterns. At Hepu 900 guan vessels have been found which can be divided into six categories. Category 1: These vessels are quite large and have an everted mouth, a long neck, sloping shoulders, and a flat base. One example comes from Erpaochang M6 (Fig. 4.74: 1). This guan has a round, bulbous body which has traces of a blue, yellow glaze on its middle part. It has a diameter of 16.6 cm and a height of 24.3 cm. Category 2: These vessels have a round and long body, an everted mouth, a short neck, sloping shoulders, and a flat base. At Erpaochang M12 one guan of this type has been excavated (Fig. 4.74: 2). It was decorated with stamped seal patterns, had a diameter of 15.9 cm, and a height of 19.8 cm. Category 3: These vessels are small and short, with an everted mouth, sloping shoulders and a flat base. They are often impressed with geometric- and seal-stamped patterns. For instance, the shoulder part of the guan unearthed at Liaowei M16 was decorated with geometric- and seal-stamped patterns. It had a diameter of 14.4 cm and a height of 14.2 cm (Fig. 4.74: 3). Category 4: These guan vessels are mostly made of polymer clay with sand and are fired at a low temperature. They represent specially made burial goods and had no practical use. They have a flaring mouth that extends outward, a short neck, and a flat base. On their shoulders there is a pair of decorative small knobs. One example comes from the Middle Western Han site of Fengmenling M27. This guan is decorated with a geometrical pattern and bowstring pattern. It has a diameter of 15.8 cm and a height 16.8 cm (Fig. 4.74: 4).

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels

109

1) Erpaochang M6: 52

2) Erpaochang M12: 13

3) Liaowei M16: 13

4) Fengmenling M27: 28

5) Liaowei M16:27

6) Erpaochang M6: 50

Fig. 4.74 Guan vessels

Category 5: A small mouth and a big base are the features of this category. They are common during the Eastern Han Dynasty. For instance, a guan with a diameter of 8 cm and a height of 20 cm was found at Liaowei M16 (Fig. 4.74: 5). Category 6: This category represents a uniquely shaped guan of which only one example has been found at Erpaochang M6 (Fig. 4.74: 6). It has an everted mouth with rounded edges, sloping shoulders, a low neck, a ball-shaped body, and a round base. It is made of red, dark clay mixed with sand. On its neck there are three rows of bowstring patterns, and on its shoulder one row of bowstring patterns under which there are triangular patterns. On the upper part of the body four groups of decorations

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

can be seen, consisting of lotus flowers, chrysanthemums and other types of flower patterns. It has a diameter of 12 cm and is 24.3 cm high. Double-eared Guan Vessel (shuangxi guan 双系罐): This type of guan vessel has two small ears and is often found with a cover. It is used in the same way as regular guan vessels, but due to its shape (and ears) it can be sealed and transported easier. Double-eared guan vessels fall into two categories: Category 1 has an outward extending ring foot. For instance, at Fengmenling M26 one round, bulbous guan vessel has been found (Fig. 4.75: 1). The cover features a concave knob. It has a diameter of 3.4 cm, and is 8.3 cm high. During the Late Eastern Han Period double-eared guan vessels of this category became more oblate and smaller. This is illustrated by a vessel excavated at Liaowei M16 (Fig. 4.75: 2), which has a pierced ring foot, a diameter of 7.2 cm, and a height of 11.4 cm. Category 2 has a flat base. For instance, the guan vessel unearthed at Fengmenling M24A, which has a diameter of 9 cm and a height of 15.9 cm (Fig. 4.75: 3). Four-eared Guan Vessel (sixi guan 四系罐): This type of guan has four horizontal small ears and was, therefore, easier to stack upright. These vessels have been found in all Hepu Han tombs and have a bulging cover with a concave knob. At Qichichang M2, for instance, a guan vessel with a wide mouth, sloping shoulders, a slightly concave base, and a round, bulbous body has been found (Fig. 4.76: 1). It is decorated with geometric patterns, has a diameter of 8.2 cm, and a height of 16.3 cm. During the Eastern Han Dynasty these types of vessels became more oblate in shape. An example is the guan vessel from Liaowei M16 which has a diameter of 9.2 cm and a height of 18.2 cm (Fig. 4.76: 2). Joined Guan Vessel (lian guan 联罐): Joined guan vessels consist of a number of small guan vessels with a lid that are linked together. Based on the amounts of vessels that are being joined they can be divided into double-joined, triple-joined, four-joined, five-joined, and six-joined guan vessels. The five-joined type appears most commonly. They are especially widespread during the Western Han Dynasty and are a typical Yue-style object. Inside the joined guan vessels discovered in the Guangzhou Han tombs there are remains of plant leaves and plum seeds. It is therefore believed they were mainly used for serving fruits.

1) Fengmenling M26: 79

Fig. 4.75 Double-eared guan vessels

2) Liaowei M16: 35

3) Fengmenling M24A: 1

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels

1) Qichichang M2: 2

111

2) Liaowei M16: 33

Fig. 4.76 Four-eared guan vessels

Double-joined Guan Vessel (erlian guan 二联罐): These consist of two small guan vessels of the same size. One oblate double-joined vessel with a flat base has been found at Muzhuling M4 (Fig. 4.77: 1). Both vessels have a diameter of 4 cm and a height of 3.8 cm. Triple-joined Guan Vessel (sanlian guan 三联罐): Only one example has been unearthed at Wenchangta M07 (Fig. 4.77: 2). In this case three small guan vessels were joined. Each vessel measured 6.4 cm in height, had a mouth with an everted rim, an oblate body, flat base and cover. Four-joined Guan Vessel (silian guan 四联罐): These can be subdivided into two categories: guan with ring foot or with a flat base. The first category consists of four linked guan vessels of the same size. For instance, the vessel found at Wenchangta M90 (Fig. 4.77: 3) is made up out of four small guan vessels, supported on six short curl-shaped legs. Each separate guan is 8.2 cm high, has a lid, one small ear, and is decorated with bow string patterns. Another category consists of three larger guan vessels with one smaller guan in the middle (Fig. 4.77: 4). This type has been unearthed at Wenchangta M115 (Fig. 4.77: 4). The vessel is 8.2 cm high and has a round lid with a small knob. Five-joined Guan Vessel (wulian guan 五联罐): This popular type consists of four guan vessels of the same size with one smaller guan vessel in between. They can also appear with a ring foot or with a flat base. One five-joined guan vessel with a ring foot was found at Wenchangta M126 (Fig. 4.77: 5). It has short feet and a cover (with knob) decorated with bowstring and fine-toothed comb patterns. It is 9.4 cm high and 19.6 cm wide. Six-joined Guan Vessel (liulian guan 六联罐): This type is illustrated by the find of a guan vessel, which combines five same-size guan vessels and one smaller central one, at Wenchangta M152 (Fig. 4.77: 6). The larger guan vessels are oblate, with a straight mouth, flat base, and measure 6.4 cm in height. Four-eared Extending-rim Guan Vessel (si’er zhanchun guan 四耳展唇罐): Similar to regular guan vessels, this type is also used for storing food. It has a wide mouth with an extending rim, sloping shoulders, a round body, four symmetrical ears, and a cover. During the Western Han Dynasty, the body of these guan vessels

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

1) Double-joined Guan Vessel (Muzhuling M4: 6)

2) Triple-joined Guan Vessel (Wenchangta M07: 29)

3) Four-joined Guan Vessel (Wenchangta M90: 11)

4) Four-joined Guan Vessel (Wenchangta M115: 5)

5) Five-joined Guan Vessel (Wenchangta M126: 32)

Six-joined Guan Vessel (Wenchangta M152: 7)

Fig. 4.77 Joined guan vessels

became longer and rounder. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, they became smaller and more round in shape, as is illustrated by the vessel uncovered at Liaowei M13A (Fig. 4.78). This vessel has a diameter of 16.2 cm and a height of 20.5 cm. Double-eared Straight-body Guan Vessel (shuanger zhishen guan 双耳直身罐): This guan vessel is characterized by a short neck, oblique shoulders, a flat base, and

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels

113

Fig. 4.78 Four-eared extending-rim guan vessel (Liaowei M13A: 3)

a round, cylindrical body. It has two small ears and is decorated with multiple bow string patterns. One vessel with a raised cover was excavated in the Eastern Han Tomb of Erpaochang M8 (Fig. 4.79). Several bands were carved on the body and the ears and lower part were decorated with bow string patterns. It has a diameter of 10 cm and a height of 19.6 cm. Kui Basin (魁): In the Shuowen Jiezi Dictionary it is recorded that this type of bowl-shaped basin was used for serving soup. At Wangniuling M1 two bronze kui basins have been found (Fig. 4.80: 1). They have a round body decorated with triangular-, chevron-, diamond-, and feather patterns, and a dragon-shaped handle. They are 4.4 cm high and have a 24-centimeter diameter. Ceramic kui basins have Fig. 4.79 Double-eared straigth-body guan vessel (Erpaochang M8: 7)

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

1) Wangniuling M1: 76

2) Liaowei M13B: 44

Fig. 4.80 Kui Basins

the same shape as bronze ones. This can be seen from the basin excavated at Liaowei M13B (Fig. 4.80: 2). This kui basin has a diameter of 18 cm and a height of 8.8 cm. Zhi Cup (卮): This was a commonly used cup during the Han Dynasty. In Hepu both bronze and ceramic zhi cups have been found. Based on their shape they can be subdivided into two categories: Category 1 has a flatter shape with a small flat base. At Erpaochang M12 one zhi cup with a circular handle has been unearthed (Fig. 4.81: 1). It has been decorated with two rows of protruding bowstring patterns, and has a diameter of 7.8 cm and a height of 3.3 cm. Category 2 goblets are common during the Eastern Han Dynasty and feature a cylindrical shape and short feet. At Jiuzhiling M2 one ceramic zhi cup with a straight mouth and an everted rim was found (Fig. 4.81: 2). It had a cover with a pierced knob and a ring. On the upper part of the body a handle with a hole and square extension was attached. It has a diameter of 9 cm and a height of 10. 5 cm. Gui Vessel (簋): Bronze Gui vessels originate from the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and were used to serve food. At Hepu one bronze vessel was found at the Middle Western Han site of Fengmenling M27 (Fig. 4.82: 1). It has a circular, bowl-like body supported with a ring foot and two lateral handles. These handles consist of ribbed knobs pierced by rings. It has a diameter of 16.8 cm and a height of 7.8 cm. Although ceramic gui vessels are unknown in the Central Plain region, they start to appear in Lingnan during the Late Western Han Period and belong to the special category of Yue-style objects. Their main characteristic is a cover, with an upward extending rim, which has distinctive and regularly-spaced carved-out openings. These openings were probably designed to release heat and prevent the spoiling of food due to the hot and humid climate in Lingnan. During the Eastern Han Dynasty some changes appear in the overall shape of gui vessels: their mouth opening became bigger, with a higher rim, a more curved body, and a sloping ring foot. The gui that was unearthed at Liaowei M13B (Fig. 4.82: 2) illustrates this: it has a round and protruding cover decorated with bowstring-, double-line-, and downward-pointing-triangular patterns. The cover is further pierced by two round holes which might have been used for fastening knobs. Carved bow string patterns and downward-pointing triangles can be seen on its body. It has a diameter of 25.6 cm and a height of 19.4 cm.

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115

Fig. 4.81 Zhi Vessels

1) Erpaochang M12: 22

2) Jiuzhiling M2: 7

Zun Vessel (樽): Zun vessels have a cylindrical shape and were used for serving and warming alcoholic beverages. At Hepu several zun wine vessels made of bronze and ceramics have been discovered. A small amount of lacquer vessels was also present inside the tombs. In addition, several bronze zun vessels were found on top of a serving basin (chengpan, 承盘). Based on their shape they can be divided into two categories: The first category has a conic-shaped cover and was only made of bronze. At Beichajiang Yandui M1 one such zun with a serving tray was found (Fig. 4.83: 1). Its cover is shaped as a mountain with on top a phoenix bird and is elaborately decorated with different types of patterns, including animal patterns. Both sides of the vessel have handles engraved with animal-, double-line rhombus-, and plantain leaf patterns. Three human-shaped feet support the vessel. It has a diameter of 23.5 cm and a height of 34 cm. The second category has a sloping cover with a round flat top. During the Western Han Dynasty these types of zun become slimmer and taller. At Erpaochang 30A, for instance, a zun vessel with a central knob and ring was excavated (Fig. 4.83: 2). The lid, upper and lower part of the vessel are decorated with rows of broad bands. It has three small hoof-shaped feet, a diameter of 14.2 cm, and a height of 15.9 cm. Another

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

Fig. 4.82 Gui vessel

1) Fengmenling M27: 25

2) Liaowei M13B: 58

change happens during the Eastern Han Dynasty when the zun vessel became smaller. An example of this trend is the zun vessel unearthed at Erpaochang M5 (Fig. 4.83: 3). This vessel has a flat and round cover with a persimmon-shaped knob surrounded by three sitting sheep. The body is decorated with one rimmed band on which two loop-handles were attached. More bands decorate the cover and the body. The vessel is supported on four symmetrical feet shaped as standing beasts. It has a diameter of 23.5 cm and a height of 22.3 cm. Ceramic zun vessels have also been discovered, such as the zun found at Erpaochang M8 (Fig. 4.83: 4). This zun has a central knob which is decorated with persimmon patterns and surrounded by three sheep. It has a diameter of 14.3 cm and a height of 19.3 cm. Finally, four lacquer zun vessels have been unearthed from Wangniuling M1. Although they are mostly decayed, some parts, such as a gilded peacock decoration, the beast-shaped knob of the cover, and bear-shaped feet, can still be recognized. The craftsmanship of the Han artists is further illustrated by beautiful details such as inlaid pearls representing the navel of the bears. Tripod Tray (sanzu pan 三足盘): Also called ‘chengxuan’ (承旋), and mostly made of bronze, these basins were used to carry earcups. They have a wide opening with an outward extending rim, a short body, and a flat base. The bottom of the tray has a round protruding circle on which the three legs are installed. On the inside it is decorated with three pairs of ribbed lines: one pair coincides with the feet, another

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117

Fig. 4.83 Zun vessels

1) Bronze Zun Wine Vessel (Beichajiang Yandui M1)

2) Zun Wine Vessel (Erpaochang M30A: 2)

3) Zun Wine Vessel (Erpaochang M5: 11)

4) Zun Wine Vessel (Erpaochang M8: 30)

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

pair lines the center of the tray. The tray itself is intricately decorated with multiple patterns. These types of trays are often found in tombs dated to the Late Western Han and Early Eastern Han Period. At Wenchangta M69, for instance, one beautifully decorated tripod tray has been discovered (Fig. 4.84: 1). The central part of the tray consists of a four-leaved pattern interspersed with four types of beasts. The second band is divided into two parts by two pairs of tree branches, in between which more animals can be seen. Three bands filled with triangular-, bowstring-, and diamond patterns make up the outer side of the tray. Another tray carrying a zun vessel was found at Erpaochang M30A (Fig. 4.84: 2). In the central part of this tray a persimmon, two dragons, and two phoenixes can be seen. The outer bands are decorated with diamond-, triangle-, and bow string patterns. It has a diameter of 28 cm and a height of 7.1 cm (Fig. 4.84: 3). Jiaohu Vessel (鐎壶): From The Yun Ji (韵集) dictionary, written in the Jin Dynasty, we know that this type of tripod vessel with a handle was used to warm alcoholic beverages. Archaeological discoveries, such as a bronze jiaohu vessel found on top of an iron stove in the Sanyangdun no. 1 Tomb in Yancheng, Jiangsu province,

1) Wenchangta M69: 45

2) Erpaochang M30A

3) Erpaochang M30A: 3

Fig. 4.84 Tripod trays

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119

also confirm this use. This vessel has a constricted neck, smooth shoulders, a straight handle, and three feet. They fall into two categories. The first category has no cover, such as the jiaohu found at Fengmenling M26 (Fig. 4.85: 1). The central part is decorated with a rimmed band and the body has a hexagonal cross section. It has a diameter of 7.5 cm and a height of 15 cm. The second category has a round, flat cover with a central-looped knob. Between the lid and mouth there is protruding mechanism for opening and closing the lid. At Liaowei M16 a jiaohu with a hexagonal cross section and three outward stretching legs has been excavated (Fig. 4.85: 2). It has a diameter of 9.4 cm and a height of 21.6 cm. All ceramic Jiaohu vessels have a cover. One ceramic example comes from Erpaochang M8 (Fig. 4.85: 3). The neck, shoulder, and body of this vessel are decorated with stringbow patterns. It has a straight handle and an asymmetrical heptagon shape. The cover has a half-circular knob. It has a diameter of 10.2 cm and a height of 21.8 cm. Earcup (er bei, 耳杯): Earcups, also called ‘yushang’ (羽殇), were used for drinking alcoholic beverages and were often served on top of a tray. They have the following features: a wide mouth, sharp lips, and a ring foot. At Hepu ceramic, bronze,

1) Bronze Jiaohu Vessel (Fengmenling M26: 101)

2) Bronze Jiaohu Vessel (Liaowei M16: 21)

3) Ceramic Jiaohu Vessel (Erpaochang M8: 24)

Fig. 4.85 Jiaohu vessels

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1) Ceramic Earcup (Liaowei M13B)

2) Inlaid Bronze Ears (Beichajiang Yandui M1)

Fig. 4.86 Earcups

and lacquer earcups have been discovered, all having more or less the same shape. At Liaowei M13B, for instance, 36 ceramic earcups with raised ears and covered with red lacquer have been found (Fig. 4.86: 1). At Qichichang M6A another 13 bronze ear cups, which were severely damaged, have been excavated. Not much remains of lacquer cups, except for their inlaid bronze ears. Ten of these sets have been found at Yandui M1 (Fig. 4.86: 2). Cups: Cups were made of ceramics, bronze, and glass. Ceramic cups have been discovered at the Shuangfendun mounted tombs. At Shuangfendun D2M4 one cup with a wide mouth, deep arched body, and which was decorated with a comb-tooth pattern, was found (Fig. 4.87: 1). It has a diameter of 8 cm and a height of 6 cm. At D2M3 another cup with a wide mouth, sloping body, and flat base was excavated (Fig. 4.87: 2). It has a diameter of 6.8 cm and a height of 5.4 cm. Based on their shape two types of bronze cups can be distinguished. The first type has a high foot, such as the one found at Wenchangta M55 (Fig. 4.87: 3). This cup has an open mouth, and a downward curving body, with a round base, and a circular foot. The lower part was used to hold the cup. The middle part of the cup is decorated with a series of ribs and connecting arches, the lower part is decorated with lotus-petal-shaped patterns. The cup is 12.6 cm high. The other type has a flat or round base. For instance, at Jiuzhiling M5 one cup with a big mouth and a bulbous body was found (Fig. 4.87:4). The middle part and edge of this cup are decorated with stringbow patterns. It has a diameter of 7 cm and a height of 5 cm. Four glass cups were unearthed. One of these comes from Honglingtou M34 and has a wide mouth, round lips, deep body, and a flat base (Fig. 4.87: 5). It is translucent and has a deep blue color. Three rows of simple rims can be seen on its body. It has a diameter of 9.3 cm and a height of 6.6 cm. Containers (titong 提筒): Containers belong to a group of distinctive objects in Lingnan. The inscriptions on a number of containers indicate their use as a vessel suitable for storing alcoholic beverages and rice. For instance, one container found in the early Eastern Han tomb M4013 in Guangzhou was inscribed with: ‘藏酒十石, 令兴寿至三万岁’ (cang jiu shi dan, ling xing shou zhi san wan sui). The meaning of the first part of the inscription is: ‘stored (inside is) ten shi of alcohol’. Two containers discovered at Fengmenling M10 had the following inscriptions on their covers:

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121

1) Ceramic Cup (Shuangfendun D2M4: 1)

2) Ceramic Cup (Shuangfendun D2M3: 5)

3) Bronze Cup (Wenchangta M55: 7)

4) Bronze Cup (Jiuzhiling M5: 51)

5) Glass Cup (Honglingtou M34)

Fig. 4.87 Cups

‘小豆⎕⎕’ (Xiaodou — —), referring to ‘beans’ and ‘⎕米千石’ (— mi qian dan), meaning ‘thousand shi of rice’. Finally, the cover of another container excavated at Jiuzhiling 6A, inscribed with ‘清米万石’ (qing mi wan dan), also refers to rice. All the containers found at Hepu were made of ceramic materials and were shaped as a round cylinder. They all have a cover with a concave-shaped knob and are decorated with stringbow patterns and fine comb-tooth patterns. During the Western Han Dynasty, they were rather big and had a slender, high body with a flat base. Two transversal semicircular ears could be used to hang the vessel with ropes and a small number of containers had a short, round, and pierced foot. The container excavated

122

1) Qichichang M9: 24

4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

2) Liaowei M16: 30

3) Lianruchang M9: 3

Fig. 4.88 Containers

at Qichichang M9 had a diameter of 23.7 cm and a height of 44.4 cm (Fig. 4.88: 1). Another container found at Wangniuling M1 was inscribed with ‘九真府’ (Jiuzhen fu) (Jiuzhen refers here to the region which is now in present-day Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, and Ha Tinh). During the Eastern Han Dynasty, containers became shorter and more restricted in shape. For instance, the container found at Liaowei M16 had a diameter of 18 cm and a height of 28.4 cm (Fig. 4.88: 2). Another container unearthed at Lianruchang M9 has a round, concave cover with a central-looped knob and is decorated with feather patterns (Fig. 4.88: 3). The body is decorated with stringbowand double-line rhombus patterns. It has a diameter of 14.3 cm and a height of 19.1 cm. Bu pot (瓿): Bu pots were all made of ceramics and filled with water or alcoholic beverages. They have only been found in tombs dated to the Western Han Dynasty. One type has very thin walls, is broad shouldered, and rather small of size. An example of this is the pot found at Shuangfendun D2M2 (Fig. 4.89: 1). This pot has an oblate body, a flat, slightly concave base, and is decorated with patterns resembling the texture of fine cloth. A special feature are two sets of vertically-attached and joined ears (shuangguan’er, 双贯耳) on the pot’s shoulder. It has a diameter of 7.6 cm and a height of 8.1 cm. Another type has thicker walls, sloping shoulders, and a more oblate upper body. It is mostly decorated with a combination of bowstring-, water wave-, and fine-toothed comb patterns. At Wenchangta M170 one pot with a straight mouth, flat base, and two semi-circular ears has been discovered (Fig. 4.89: 2). Its shoulder and body are decorated with bow string-, water wave-, and fine-toothed comb patterns. It had a diameter of 10.6 cm and a height of 14.6 cm. Tripod Guan Vessel (sanzu guan 三足罐): These types of guan vessels are all made of ceramics and were unearthed from Western Han tombs. They are quite small featuring an open mouth, a pair of semi-circular ears, and three short feet. These vessels are densely decorated with bowstring patterns or a combination of

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels

1) Shuangfendun D2M2: 1

123

2) Wenchangta M170: 1

Fig. 4.89 Bu pots

bowstring-, water-wave-, and twisting-line patterns. Some have a cover with a semicircular knob, which is decorated with stringbow- and fine-toothed comb patterns. At Wenchangta M195 one tripod guan vessel was excavated (Fig. 4.90: 1). This vessel is decorated with stringbow patterns, has a diameter of 6.7 cm and a height of 10 cm. Another tripod guan vessel with cover comes from Wenchangta M190 (Fig. 4.90: 2). Very distinctive is the bird-shaped knob of this vessel. It has a diameter of 8 cm and a height of 13 cm. Tripod Box: Found in Western Han tombs, tripod boxes are rather small and have a flat body, a well-fitting cover, a shallow body, and a tripod flat base. For example, the tripod box found at Wenchangta M126 has a round cover with a round knob that is decorated with stringbow- and fine-toothed comb patterns (Fig. 4.91). Its body is decorated with bowstring- and water wave patterns. It has a diameter of 15.2 cm and a height of 10.4 cm. Box with Compartments: Only one box with compartments has been found at the Fengmenling M26 tomb in Hepu (Fig. 4.92). It has a mouth with seams and a sloping body with a flat base supported on three feet. The box is divided into five segments with one central round one and four surrounding ones. There are two symmetrical, pierced, and semi-circular handles at the edge of the box’s mouth. The body of the

1) Wenchangta M195: 5 Fig. 4.90 Tripod guan vessels

2) Wenchangta M190: 8

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

Fig. 4.91 Tripod box (Wenchangta M126: 31)

Fig. 4.92 Bronze box with compartments (Fengmenling M26: 21)

box is decorated with diamond- and featherlike patterns which are interspersed with sets of double-line bowstring patterns. Inside the box are grey-black remains of fruit pits. It has a diameter of 12.2 cm and a height of 8.5 cm. Bowls: Bowls made of ceramics, bronze, silver, jade, and glass have been discovered. They have an open mouth, deep body, a small ring foot or a flat base. The ceramic grey-white bowl excavated at Liaowei M13A has a ring foot, a mouth diameter of 10.8 cm, a base diameter of 5.8 cm, and a height of 5.8 cm (Fig. 4.93: 1). Only one jade bowl has been unearthed at Fengmenling M26 (Fig. 4.93: 2). This yellow-grey bowl with white grey spots is round and smooth. It has a straight mouth and a very shallow, small ring foot with a ribbed external rim. It has a mouth diameter of 10 cm, a base diameter of 5.8 cm, and a height of 5.2 cm. A bronze bowl with a flat base comes from Erpaochang M5 (Fig. 4.93: 3). Its upper part is decorated with bowstring patterns. The inside of this bowl has a design with concentric circles. It has a mouth diameter of 14.5, a base diameter of 4.6 cm, and a height of 6.3 cm. Bo Bowls (钵): Bo bowls were used to serve food. They have an open mouth, broad shoulders, a bulbous upper body, and a sloping lower body with a flat base. In 1978 one bowl was excavated at the Guantouchang M23 tomb (Fig. 4.94: 1). This bowl has a mouth diameter of 23 cm, a base diameter of 14.5 cm, and a height of 8.6 cm. Another bo bowl was found in 1978 at the Jixiechang M1 tomb (Fig. 4.94: 2). This bowl has a mouth diameter of 23.5 cm, a base diameter of 17 cm, and a height of 8.5 cm. Ladles: Ladles were put inside zun vessels and were used for serving alcohol beverages. At Hepu both ceramic and bronze ladles have been found. Two ceramic

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels

1) Ceramic Bowl (Liaowei M13A: 9)

125

2) Jade Bowl (Fengmenling M26: 60)

3) Bronze Bowl (Erpaochang M5: 13)

Fig. 4.93 Bowls

1) Guantouchang M23

2) Jixiechang M1

Fig. 4.94 Ceramic Bo Bowls

1) Wenchangta M43: 8

2) Fengmenling M26: 130

Fig. 4.95 Ladles

ladles, measuring 15 cm in length, and consisting of an oval-shaped head and a handle decorated with a dragonhead, were found at Muzhuling M4. During the Early Western Han Period many ladles had a round handle and broad spoon, such as the ladle discovered at Wenchangta M43 (Fig. 4.95: 1). The inside of this ladle is decorated with persimmon patterns. It is 7 cm long and at its widest part 9.4 cm wide. During the Middle and Late Western Han Period ladles became longer and more oval. For example, the ladle excavated at Fengmenling M26, measured 14.1 cm in length (Fig. 4.95: 2). The ladle has a semi-circular cross section and a ring-shaped handle. Tables: Tables were used to divide and serve food and alcoholic beverages.3 Richer families used bronze or lacquer tables. An example is the bronze table discovered 3

These tables are similar to present-day trays, some of which are shaped like a small, circular table with three feet or a square, big table with four feet.

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

Fig. 4.96 Ceramic table (Guantouchang M2)

at Fengmenling M26. Although partly broken, three transversal legs decorated with thunder patterns can still be seen. Ceramic tables appeared more commonly in burials and were specially made burial goods. At Guantouchang M2 one ceramic table was found (Fig. 4.96). This table has a length of 60.6 cm, a width of 41.8 cm, and a height of 17.5 cm. (2) Cooking Vessels The cooking vessels found at Hepu include kettles, cauldrons, steamers, and ovens. Kettles (fu 釜): Kettles are made of bronze and have a tray-shaped mouth, sloping shoulders, a deep body, and two ring-handles. During the Middle Western Han Period, they became more bulbous. A kettle with a round base excavated at Fengmenling M27 illustrates this trend (Fig. 4.97: 1). The largest diameter of this kettle (measured from one handle to the next) is 12.4 cm. It has a mouth diameter of 11.4 cm and a height of 11 cm. During the Late Western Han Period kettles became more oblate. This is exemplified by the kettle found at Fengmenling M26 (Fig. 4.97: 2). The handles of this kettle resemble a twisted wire. It has a mouth diameter of 21 cm and a height of 17.6 cm.

1) Fengmenling M27: 22 Fig. 4.97 Kettles

2) Fengmenling M26: 96

4.7 Food, Drinking and Cooking Vessels

1) Fengmenling M26: 95

127

2) Fengmenling M23B: 65

Fig. 4.98 Cauldrons

Cauldrons (guo 锅): Also made of bronze, cauldrons have a tray-shaped mouth, a straight or slightly arched body, and a flat or round base. At Fengmenling M26 one cauldron with a flat base and two ring-shaped handles attached to its rim has been found (Fig. 4.98: 1). It has a mouth diameter of 22 cm and a height of 13.8 cm. Another cauldron with a deep body and a round base was excavated at Fengmenling 23B (Fig. 4.98: 2). This cauldron’s handles are shaped as a twisted wire. It has a mouth diameter of 30.4 cm and a height of 19.6 cm. Zeng Steamers (甑): Used to steam food, zeng steamers have a wide mouth, a straight upper body, and a lower body supported on a straight ring foot. The base of these steamers consists of four groups of hollowed out horizontal sections. At Fengmenling M26 one zeng steamer was found. Its upper body has ring handles and was decorated with two rows of wide bands. It has a mouth diameter of 22.4 cm, a base diameter of 22.4 cm, and a height of 14.4 cm. Yan Steamer (甗): This type of steamer, also called a ‘kettle and zeng steamer’, combines an upper section, shaped as a kettle, and a lower section, shaped as a zeng steamer. An example comes from Fengmenling M27 (Fig. 4.99). The steamer part has a wide mouth, deep body, round ring foot, and two symmetrical loop handles. Its bottom part has hollowed out patterns resembling geometric shapes. It has a mouth diameter of 16.8 cm. The kettle has been placed on top of the steamer and has a flat base and two ring handles. It has a diameter of 12.7 cm and a height of 17.6 cm. Stoves: Stoves were important cooking utensils during the Han Dynasty and during the Middle Western Han Period they became popular grave goods. Most ovens that have been discovered at Hepu were ceramic miniature models. Some artifacts were made of bronze or a lead and tin alloy. The shape of the stoves is rectangular or trapezoid and its upper section contains one or more stovetop burners, which can be used to put cauldrons and steamers. The front side of the stove has an oven door and the back side has a stove pipe. Ceramic stoves start to appear in Hepu during the Middle Western Han Period. At Fengmenling M27 one simple miniature stove was found (Fig. 4.100: 1). Rectangularshaped, it has a base that slightly sticks out. On the left side there is a tapered stove door and in the back side there is a cylindrical stove pipe. Three stovetops can be seen. It is 40.8 cm long and 14.4 cm high. During the Late Western Han Period the

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

Fig. 4.99 Yan Steamer (Fengmenling M27: 24)

stoves became higher and the stove pipe became shaped a dragon head. From the stove discovered at Liaowei 13B these features can be seen (Fig. 4.100: 2). This stove has a trapezoid shape and has three stovetops. On each stovetop a miniature kettle has been placed. On the middle stovetop the combination of a kettle and steamer can be seen. The area around the stovetops is engraved with lozenge patterns. It is 33.4 cm long, 14 cm wide, and 19. 6 cm high. In total five bronze stoves have been excavated. At Wenchangta M69 one bronze stove with two stove tops was found (Fig. 4.100: 3). On the stove tops there are two kettles and one steamer. The bronze stove is 39.9 cm long, 24.8 cm wide, and 14.8 cm high. Another bronze stove was uncovered at Wangniuling M1 (Fig. 4.100: 4). This stove has a stove pipe shaped as a dragon head and three stove tops with two kettles and one steamer. The stove top is 23 cm wide and the lower section is 27 cm wide. It is 72 cm long and 18 cm high. Finally, an stove made of a lead and tin alloy was discovered at Qichichang 6A. This rectangular oven had two stove tops with two kettles and a steamer. It is 40 cm long and 24 cm wide.

4.8 Household Items, Games and Musical Instruments This category consists of a number of household items, such as lamps, incense burners, irons, scissors and candle holders, game-related objects, and musical instruments, such as bells and cymbals.

4.8 Household Items, Games and Musical Instruments

1) Fengmenling M27

3) Wenchangta M69: 23

129

2) Liaowei M13B: 81

4) Wangniuling M1

Fig. 4.100 Stoves

(1) Household Items Lamps: Many types of lamps, including stem-shaped, figure-shaped, portable, animal-shaped lamps, as well and candelabras have been found at Hepu. These were mostly made of ceramics and bronze materials, and sometimes of iron. Stem-shaped Lamps: Stem-shaped lamps resemble a bowl or tray on a stem and consist of three parts: the lamp tray, handle, and base. Inside the lamp tray there is a pin to support the lamp wick. At Erpaochang M8 one ceramic lamp was found (Fig. 4.101: 1). It has a mouth diameter of 9.8 cm, a base diameter of 14 cm, and a height of 16 cm. In addition, a bronze lamp with a blackened lamp tray was discovered at Erpaochang M20 (Fig. 4.101: 2). This lamp has a bamboo-shaped handle and a trumpet-shaped round base. The diameter of the lamp tray is 13 cm, the base diameter is 16.4 cm and the height is 32.7 cm. Lamps with a figure-shaped base: These lamps can be divided into human-shaped and animal-shaped lamps. At Liaowei M13B, for instance, one lamp shaped as a man was found (Fig. 4.102: 1). The hair of this man is tied in a bun on top of his head and wrapped with a scarf. He has a high, deep nose, a pointed chin, and a beard with heavy side whiskers. While looking at the lamp tray, he is seated with bended knees, and uses his right hand as support. With his other hand he holds the lamp tray. The lamp tray has a wide opening and a straight body. The lower part merges with the hand of the male figurine. The pin inside the lamp tray is missing. The diameter of the tray is 10.6 cm and it has a height of 20 cm. One unique animal-shaped lamp was excavated in 1999 at Tuguiling M3 (Fig. 4.102: 2). The base of this lamp is

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

1) Erpaochang M8: 36

2) Erpaochang M20: 2

Fig. 4.101 Stem-shaped lamps

shaped like a bear who sits on his hind legs. The bear’s mouth is half open and his head is covered with something that resembles an arched tile. His body is covered with a pattern mimicking fur. The stem of the lamp extends from the bear’s back and supports the lamp tray. The upper part of the tray is straight and decorated with lines and impressed prints, the lower part is arched. It has a diameter of 10.2 cm and a height of 26.2 cm. Portable Lamps: People would carry portable lamps while walking. They were mainly made of bronze and sometimes of iron. The tray of these lamps is shallow and round, with a central nail and one handle attached on one side. Three feet supports its base. At Fengmenling M23B one portable lamp was unearthed (Fig. 4.103: 1). Its three feet bend inwards and the handle is slightly bend. It has a diameter of 18.4 cm and a height of 22.4 cm. The feet are 12 cm high. Another portable lamp comes from Erpaochang M30A (Fig. 4.103: 2). This lamp has a dragon-shaped handle and three hoof-shaped feet. The lamp tray has a diameter of 12.7 cm and a height of 13.3 cm.

1) Lamp with Human-shaped Base (Liaowei M13B)

Fig. 4.102 Lamps with figure-shaped base

2) Lamp with Bear-shaped Base (Tuguiling M3: 18)

4.8 Household Items, Games and Musical Instruments

1) Fengmenling M23B: 11-2

131

2) Erpaochang M30A: 1

Fig. 4.103 Portable lamps

Phoenix-shaped Lamp: Two remarkable lamps, shaped as a phoenix, were excavated at Wangniuling M1 (Fig. 4.104). The lamps are 33 cm high and 42 cm long. They are beautiful sculpted to represent a realistic phoenix. The neck of the phoenix is turned backwards and its mouth is shaped like a trumpet-shaped lamp shade. At the lower part of the phoenix’s neck there is an interlinked casing, which could be used to move and dismount the shade or to regulate the brightness of the lamp. The tail of the phoenix points downwards and keeps the lamp in balance. The lamp is engraved with thin feather-like patterns and the back side has an opening that could be used for hanging it. Moreover, the soot of the burning lamp would pass through the lampshade inside the neck and body, and could afterwards be cleaned with water. This would help to purify the air. Candelabras: Candelabras are branched lamps that could hold four or five lamps. One candelabra with four lamps was found at Fengmenling M26 (Fig. 4.105: 1). At

Fig. 4.104 Phoenix lamp (Wangniuling M1: 35)

132

1) Four-lamp Candelabra (Fengmenling M26: 38)

4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

2) Five-lamp Candelabra (Fengmenling M27: 9)

Fig. 4.105 Candelabras

the lower part of the tray and the base traces of soot can be seen. The upper part of this candelabra has a column-shaped stem with three trays attached to the middle and one tray on the top. Each lamp tray has a leaf-shaped handle and short feet. The lower part of the stem is merged with the base of the candelabra. It is 30.8 cm high. Another candelabra with five side lamps was excavated at Fengmenling M27 (Fig. 4.105: 2). The cylindrical stem supports four middle lamps and one central lamp on top. The lamp trays are circular: the upper section is hollow and has different shapes, while the lower section is sealed. Different objects could be installed on the trays and probably the candelabra could be used as a protection screen for wind and sunlight. It is 46.8 cm high. Warming vessel: This vessel could be filled with hot water and was used as a heating device. In the Hepu Han tombs five of these vessels have been found. They have a circular body with a short spout and have no sealing lid. One warming vessel has been excavated at Jingshenbingyuan M3 (Fig. 4.106). This vessel has a round body with a central protruding knob and two half circular ears. It has a circular, pierced ring foot, a diameter of 15.2 cm, and a height of 13.3 cm. Scissors: Scissors were shaped as a twisted rope and have been discovered at Tuguiling 201B in 1984, at Muzhuling M5 in 1996, and Muzhuling M6 in 1996. Iron: At Fengmenling M26 one iron was found (Fig. 4.107). This iron has a wideopen mouth, a wide rim, deep body, flat base and trapezoid cross section. At the mouth a slightly bend handle is attached. It is 8.4 cm high, has a mouth diameter of 20 cm, and a handle that is 13 cm long. Weights: Weighted objects, forming a set of four, were place at the four corners of a mat. This was to keep them from curling up. They were often made of bronze or stone, and were shaped as animals. One set was unearthed at Wangniuling M1 (Fig. 4.108). These consist of round weights with a flat base and a hollow upper

4.8 Household Items, Games and Musical Instruments

133

Fig. 4.106 Warming vessel (Jingshenbingyuan M3: 5)

Fig. 4.107 Iron (Fengmenling M26: 102)

section. They represent a mountain peak surrounded by three beasts. The beasts lift their heads and have their mouth opened. Their bodies are engraved with fur-like patterns. They are 5.3 cm high and have a base diameter of 7.2 cm. Incense Burners: Incense burners were made of bronze or ceramics. The simplest type of incense burners has a furnace stack and a base. For instance, the incense burner unearthed at Qichichang M6A (Fig. 4.109: 1). This burner has a cone-shaped cover with protruding cloud patterns and a ribbed ring at the lower section. The mouth Fig. 4.108 Weight (Wangniuling M1:11)

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diameter measures 10 cm and the base diameter 8 cm. It has a height of 18.6 cm. A second type of incense burner placed on a small tray is more commonly seen during the Han Dynasty. At the Late Western Han site of Beichajiang Yandui M1, for instance, one bronze incense burner of this type has been excavated (Fig. 4.109: 2). The tray has a central small opening in which the base of the incense burner could be installed. The cone-shaped cover with raised mountain peaks is decorated with plant and cloud patterns, while the body of the burner is decorated with web-, feather-, and downward-pointing-triangle patterns. A latch is installed between the cover and the burner. Candle Holder: One candle holder was discovered at Guantouchang M10 (Fig. 4.110). This object can be divided into two sections. The longer upper section, which is column-shaped and slightly tapering, has two grooves on the left and right side. On the front side there are two round rings for inserting candles. The short, cylindrical lower section serves as a handle and has two round holes at both sides. Probably these were used to insert the candle holder. The candle holder is 5.5 cm wide and 27.7 cm high. Before the Late Eastern Han Period, melted candle wax was used as an ointment and it was not until the Late Eastern Han Period that candle holders first appeared in tombs of the Lingnan region.

1) Qichichang M6A: 44 Fig. 4.109 Insense burners

Fig. 4.110 Candle holder (Guantouchang M10)

2) Biechajiang Yandui M1

4.8 Household Items, Games and Musical Instruments

135

Nested Boxes: Nested boxes were used to put different types of objects. In 1984 one was discovered at Pingtian M1 (Fig. 4.111). It has a cylindrical shape, flat base, and consists of an upper and lower section. The top of the upper section has three protruding bands: the top band is decorated with a persimmon pattern, while the two outer bands are decorated with diamond-shaped patterns. With the help of a symmetrical slot at the bottom of the lower section the box can be taken apart. The box is 6.5 cm high and has a base diameter of 8.3 cm. (2) Game-related Objects and Musical Instruments Long-necked Pots: These pots were made of bronze and ceramics. While drinking alcoholic beverages, games, such as pitch-pot (touhu), were played in the Han Dynasty. Bamboo arrows found inside a long-necked pot excavated from a Western Han tomb in Yongzhou, Hunan province, are evidence of this. Bronze pots have been found in many Late Western Han and Early Eastern Han tombs. They are usually engraved with beautiful patterns consisting of triangles, diamonds, downwardpointing triangles, and feathers. The long-necked pots discovered in Eastern Han tombs have a more oblate shape. Pots found in Hepu have a small mouth, long neck, oblate body, and a ring foot. For instance, the pot discovered at Jiuzhiling M6A (Fig. 4.112: 1). This pot has a diameter of 5.2 cm and a height of 5.2 cm. Inside the bottle there were nine 19.5 cm-long bamboo arrows (in the original excavation report these are described as bamboo counting rods). The decoration of ceramic pots is simpler, as can be seen from the pot found at Liaowei M13B (Fig. 4.112: 2): the neck of this bottle has four rows of bowstring patterns and the shoulder has one row of bowstring patterns with triangle and feature designs in between. It has a diameter of 5.4 cm and a height of 25.4 cm. Flat-Bells: Only one bronze flat-bell has been found at Wenchangta M154 (Fig. 4.113). The bell is hollow inside and is slightly curved with an arched mouth. It has a rectangular handle and straight shoulders. It is 10.8 cm high. Fig. 4.111 Nested box (Pingtian M1)

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1) Jiuzhiling M6A: 58 Fig. 4.112 Long-necked pots

Fig. 4.113 Bronze Flat-Bell (Wenchangta M154)

2) Liaowei M13B: 73

4.9 Other Funeral Objects

137

4.9 Other Funeral Objects Besides the previously described architectural models and animal figurines, several other specially designed burials goods have been found at Hepu. (1) Ceramic Mingqi Bi-disc: One bi-disc, broken into two halves, was placed inside the coffin of the Fengmenling M27 tomb. It was placed near the head of the diseased. The yellowwhite disc is thick and uneven. It was fired on a low heat or possibly made without being heated. It has a diameter of 12 cm and is 0.3 cm thick. The aperture has a diameter of 3 cm. Coins: More than 400 ceramic coins have been unearthed at Tangpai 2B. They were found inside a ceramic weng vessel and were impressed with the characters ‘五铢’ (wu zhu). The other side was undecorated and rough. Ink slab: One broken ink slab was found at Tangpai M2B. The shape is no longer recognizable. Shovels: Over 10 shovels have been found at Tangpai M2B. These shovels imitate iron shovels but do not have a cylindrical socket. Axes: Six axes have been unearthed at Tangpai M2B. On the upper part of the axes there are three ribs. They have no cylindrical socket. (2) Bronze Miniature Models Miniature Pond: At Fengmenling M26 a miniature pound has been excavated (Fig. 4.114). This pond is made out of a square plate, with a wide opening and sloping sides. The back of the plate has two circular outfalls, one of which is blocked with a joint. Inside the pond four birds, six goose, one fish, and two frogs can be seen. Most animals are inserted inside the plate with tenons. The four sides of the plate are engraved with patterns of animals, including dragons, beasts, turtles, and fish, as well as people and water plants. The pond is 54.8 cm long, 52.4 cm wide, and 7.6 cm high. Birds: Two miniature bronze birds have been discovered at Fengmenling M26. The birds have a thin bronze outer layer and a ceramic core. They resemble pigeons and have a sharp mouth, a comb, and a raised tail. They are engraved with feather-like patterns. Due to the difference in proportions and features, it is believed that these birds might represent a male and female bird. One bird has a squarer tail and has its right claw bent to catch something. The other bird has a longer and more arched tail (Fig. 4.115). They are 18.3 cm long and 13.2 cm high. (3) Jade and Stone Objects These mainly consist of jade and steatite burial goods. Funeral Jades: Funeral jades included eye covers, ear plugs, nose plugs, anal plugs, and jade pieces that were put into the mouth (han, 琀) or hands (yuwo, 玉握) of the deceased. During the Han Dynasty, people believed that jade could prevent the body from decaying and would preserve it for eternity. At Fengmeling M10 one complete

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

Fig. 4.114 Bronze miniature pond (Fengmenling M26: 7-2, 7-3)

4.9 Other Funeral Objects

139

Fig. 4.115 Bronze bird (Fengmenling M26: 85)

set of funeral jades has been discovered. A short description of the eye covers, ear-, nose- and anal plugs, and the han and yuwo jades follows. The eye covers are flat and olive-shaped with a small hole on each side (Fig. 4.116: 1). The ear, nose, and anal plugs are hexagonal-shaped with one large and one small end (Fig. 4.116: 2). The yuwo are shaped as resting pigs (Fig. 4.116: 3). The han that was originally placed inside the mouth is very thin and shaped like a cicada (Fig. 4.116: 4). This piece is 5.2 cm long and 3.2 cm wide. Stone Shovel: One stone shovel was unearthed at Wenchangta M7 (Fig. 4.117). This shovel is polished, has an arched blade, and a short handle. It is 11.2 cm high, 8 cm wide, and 1.2 cm thick. Steatite Objects: Steatite was used for producing ‘spirit goods’ that were imitations of different types of bronze, ceramic, and jade objects. Especially during the Late Western Han Period, steatite was a popular material for crafting burials goods. In later periods it gradually disappeared. At Fengmenling M23 numerous steatite objects have been found and up until now this is the largest collection of steatite burial goods found within the Han tombs of Guangxi. In total 112 steatite objects have been excavated, representing half of the burial goods found in the Fengmenling M23B en M23A tomb (Fig. 4.118). Different types of objects can be recognized, including ding vessels, pots, containers, fang vessels, guan vessels, zun vessels, wells, granaries, ovens, houses, cauldrons, axes, steamers, basin, lamps, cups, heaters, a pestle and mortar, a table, etc. (Fig. 4.119). In other tombs steatite bi-discs, stamps, and figurines have been discovered. Steatite was not mined in Hepu, but ores can be found in northern Guangxi and Hunan. This indicates that large amounts of steatite reached Hepu through an overland transportation system. (4) Other Objects Bronze Cake-pie-shaped Ingots: At Fengmenling M23B 10 ingots have been excavated (Fig. 4.120). They are probably imitations of gold ingots. The ingots have a grey-white color and have a circular shape with one small protrusion. On the back

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

1) Eye Covers

2) Plugs

3) Pig-shaped Yuwo

4) Han

Fig. 4.116 Funeral jades (Fengmenling M10) Fig. 4.117 Stone Shovel (Wenchangta M7: 4)

4.9 Other Funeral Objects

141

Fig. 4.118 In situ steatite objects (Fengmenling M23B)

side a square or irregular shaped casting mark can be seen. One bronze ingot has a diameter of 4.3 cm and a height of 1.4 cm. Coffin Parts: Coffin parts mainly consist of animal head appliques and coffin nails. Animal Head Appliques: These are made of bronze and were originally attached to doors. Inside the tombs they were installed on the gate of the coffin chamber. They consist of an animal face and a loop handle. The animal face has eyes surrounded by fish scale patterns and a ring-shaped nose in which the loop handle is attached. At the backside of the appliques there are flat nails. One pair of appliques has been excavated in 1988 at the Honglingtou M2 tomb (Fig. 4.121: 1). They are 25.5 cm high and 12.5 cm wide. Usually tombs of higher-ranking individuals contained larger appliques, such as the one discovered in Fengmenling M26. This applique measured 40 cm in height and 22 cm in width (Fig. 4.121: 2). Coffin Nails: Coffin nails were all made of iron and could be rectangular or irregular shaped. They have a circular cross section and one pointed end. At Fengmenling

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4 Burial Goods of the Hepu Han Tombs

1) Ding Vessel (Fengmenling M23A: 103)

4) Fang Vessel (Fengmenling M23A: 78)

2) Pot (Fengmenling M23B; 81)

5) Well (Fengmenling M23A: 100)

7) Oven (Fengmenling M23B: 47)

3) Container (Fengmenling M23A: 47)

6) Granary (Fengmenling M23B)

8) Lamp (Fengmenling M23B: 43)

9) Cup (Fengmenling M23A: 82)

Fig. 4.119 Steatite objects

M23B a clasp nail, resembling present-day nails, has been excavated (Fig. 4.122: 1). The two sharp points were used to keep wooden structures together. The upper part of this nail is 6 cm wide and the lower part 6.6 cm. It is 3 cm high. Additionally, an irregular shaped nail, measuring 2.5 cm in length, was found at Fengmenling M26 (Fig. 4.122: 2). Bubble Nails: Bubble nails were inserted inside coffins for decorative purposes. They have a rounded top and some have a narrow edge. For instance, at Fengmenling M26 one bubble nail with narrow edges was unearthed (Fig. 4.123: 1). This nail is 1.9 cm high and has a diameter of 1.6 cm. Some bubble nails have two parts: a lower part shaped as a four-segment leaf and an upper part consisting of a round bubble nail.

4.9 Other Funeral Objects

143

Fig. 4.120 Bronze CakePie-shaped Ingots (Fengmeling M23B)

1) Honglingtou M2

2) Fengmenling M26

Fig. 4.121 Animal head appliques

One example comes from Fengmenling M26 (Fig. 4.123: 2). This nail was originally gilded and is 6.2 cm wide.

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1) Fengmeling M23B: 18

2) Fengmenling M26: 55-1

Fig. 4.122 Coffin nails

1) Fengmenling M26: 50

2) Fengmenling M26: 66

Fig. 4.123 Bubble nails

References 1. Ji, S. (1991). Illustrations of the material culture of the Han Dynasty (p. 135). Cultural Relics Press. 2. Xiang, L., Qiang, M., & Jianjun, G. (2004). The Jiulishan 2 Han Tombs in Xuzhou Jiangsu. Archaeology, 9, 45–50.

Chapter 5

Periodization of the Hepu Han Tombs

Changes taking place within the archaeological record, and in particular with regards to tomb structure and typical artefacts, laid the foundation of periodization schemes, and with the exception of unique tomb architecture, such as mounted tombs etc., the evolution of the Hepu Han tombs followed a general pattern. For instance, the vertical pit burials and wooden coffin burials, commonly seen during the Western Han Dynasty, developed into brick-chamber tombs during the Eastern Han Dynasty. Nonetheless, although brick-chamber tombs became the standard form of tomb architecture, older burial practices did not completely vanish, and tombs with vertical pits or wooden coffins continued to be part of the burial customs during the Eastern Han Dynasty. The use of ceramics, on the other hand, can be more clearly demarcated and changes within the ceramic craft can be distinctly distinguished. Moreover, alterations within customary ceramic assemblages, such as combinations of weng and guan vessels; ding vessels, boxes, pots, and fang vessels; and miniature wells, granaries and ovens, also assist with delineating chronological changes. In many cases grave goods, belonging to different periods, are found within the same tomb. In this case the principle of the ‘atest artifact’ is followed: artifacts with the latest date are thought to represent the actual date of the tomb. When it comes to the periodization of Han tombs in the Lingnan region, the Guangzhou Han tombs have been used as the main frame of reference. These tombs have a very centralized distribution within the Guangzhou area and have a generally recognized chronology, e.g., the previously described five-period-chronology. The establishment of this chronology is the result of the excavation of more than 400 tombs during the 1950s and 60s. It is therefore not surprising that archaeologists follow this standard chronology for dating the Hepu Han tombs. Furthermore, the five-period-chronology does not only reflect main changes within burial structures and grave good assemblages during the Han Dynasty, but also accurately delineates the different developmental stages within this time period. In addition, although artefacts related to overseas trade and exchange only appear sporadically in the Middle Western Han Period, by the Late Western Han Period these types of objects, consisting mainly of ornaments, go through an intense diversification process and become increasingly © Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House 2022 Z. Xiong and X. Fu, Hepu Han Tombs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4660-8_5

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present within the burial record of the Hepu Han Tombs. Nonetheless, during the Late Western Han Period they again gradually disappear. To a certain degree the fluctuating popularity of these ornaments reflects the rise, prosperity, and decline of the Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty. This chapter will discuss the specific characteristics of the tombs of the Early Western Han, Middle Western Han, Late Western Han, Early Eastern Han and Late Eastern Han Period.

5.1 Early Western Han Tombs Early Western Han tombs refer to the tombs of the Nanyue Period. Until recently materials about this time period were lacking for Hepu, but as a result of the discovery of the Shuangfendun M2 mounted tomb, and the publication of the excavation report of the Wenchangta tombs (1978–1988), we now have a much better understanding of the tomb structures of this period. In the year 2002 the Cultural Relics Working Team of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and the Research Group of the Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty made an important discovery. While they were carrying out a number of surveys near the Dalang urban site, 800 meters north from Honghuakan village, they discovered two big mounds. Archaeologists immediately recognized these mounds as the remains of burials, hence they were called ‘Shuangfendun’, meaning ‘double burial mound’. Shuangfendun M1 was firstly excavated in 2004, but due to improper excavation methods, only a small number of objects were recovered and no tomb remains were found. In June 2012, Shuangfendun M2 was excavated by the Guangxi Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, and finally a mounted burial was identified. The mound of M2 has a semi-circular shape and an olive-shaped cross section. Its north-south diameter is 21.4 meters, and its east–west diameter is 24.7 meters. Its middle section is 1.6 meters high. It seems that during the early stages of its construction, a nearby mound was abandoned, and instead, the mound builders selected this flatter and slightly higher area to build an earth foundation. Next, they seemed to have dug a number of burial pits in the central and south section of this higher foundation. Mound 2 is the result of this building project and can be identified as a ‘one mound with multiple burials’-structure. Three shallow, rectangular and rather small pit burials with a simple structure were excavated here. In total 14 grave goods were found, including weng vessels, cups, and one bu vessel. The structure of these three tombs is very similar. While tomb 3 and 4 contained typical burial goods assemblages, consisting of weng vessels and cups, tomb 2 contained one ceramic bu vessel, which was very similar in color, decoration, material, and production method, to the ceramic cup (AI style) found in tomb 3. The prototypes of these bu vessels and cups can be traced back to the Warring States Period tombs of the Zhejiang region. For instance, the ceramic bu vessel, found in tomb 2, has the same shape, decoration, and is made of the same material as the joined-ear-guan found in the Anji Longba D12 M2 tomb in Zhejiang [1]. The ceramic

5.2 Middle Western Han Tombs

147

cups found in tomb 3 and 4, on the other hand, are similar in shape and decoration to the geometric-impressed ceramics found in the Jiaxing region in Zhejiang [2]. Therefore, taking into consideration the chronology of the Lingnan region, the date of the Shuangfendun tombs should be the same as the tombs characterized by mipatterned ceramics in Guangxi and Guangdong Province. It should further be noted that all the tombs that contain these types of ceramics within the Lingnan region have been dated to the Qin or Early Western Han Period, except for the Late Warring States Period site of Xigualing in Zengcheng [3]. It is believed that the original builders of the Shuangfendun tombs were Yue people from the Wuyue region. These people might have introduced new burial customs to Hepu while migrating to the south. Additionally, they might have carried with them a number of small objects, such as the high-fired, thin, glazed cups and bu vessels found in tomb 2. Several other objects, such as the low-fired weng vessels, might have been local imitations of objects originally used in the Wuyue region. In total 64 burials of the Wenchangta tomb complex belong to the early Western Han Period (although the problematic dates of 34 tombs, as is previously mentioned in Chap. 1, should not be forgotten). These tombs are rather small and include few burial goods. In total 24 tombs contained burial goods. 11 of these only contained Yue-style grave goods, such as guan, joined guan, double-eared guan, bu, bottlegourd shaped pots, and small tripod pots. The other 13 tombs contained mostly Yue-style grave goods, but also a small number of Han-style objects, including small bowls, cauldrons, ding vessels, boxes, pots, and belt hooks. In addition, a small number of bronze and iron weapons was found. When comparing these tombs with the Guangzhou Han tombs, the Wenchangta Han tombs seem to belong to the final stage of the Early Western Han Period.

5.2 Middle Western Han Tombs The Middle Western Han period spans a period of roughly 80 years, starting in 111 BC, e.g., the sixth ruling year of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and ending in AD 32. The tombs of these period can be divided into an early and later stage. Although during the early stage of this period mounted tombs still appeared, vertical pit burials became the more dominant burial custom. We first discuss the mounted tombs of this period. Shuangfendun M1, for instance, is dated slightly later than Shuangfendun M2 and belongs to the Middle Western Han Period. In this tomb two weng vessels, a ceramic bo vessel, one cup, one bowl, one net sinker, and one bronze axe were found. The two weng vessels are of high quality, made of geometricimpressed hard ceramics, fired on a high temperature, and typical grave goods of the later stage of the Nanyue period. When the burial assemblages of Shuangfendun M1 and M2 are compared, some obvious differences can be observed. Besides Yuestyle cups from Zhejiang and local Yue-style weng vessels, there are several Hanstyle objects, including a bronze axe, originating from the Central Plain region. This indicates the increasing influence of Han culture in Hepu. Furthermore, these objects

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highlight patterns of cultural exchange and artistic fusion that were taking place in the Hepu region. In the Wenchangta tomb complex, a special category of 30 rectangular and wide pit burials without passageway can be distinguished. These tombs were filled with numerous grave goods, including both Yue-style and Han-style objects. Despite being incomplete and rare, ritual sets made of ceramics and imitating ding vessels, boxes, and pots also start to appear. Mainly made of soft ceramics, the ding vessels have slanted feet and the pots are rough and short-necked. In addition, Hanstyle bowls, axes, buckle belts, spindle whorls, bronze mirrors, and iron chisels were found. The contrast between these tombs and the narrow-pit burials, mainly filled with Yue-style objects, is significant. Moreover, the co-existence of these two types of burial customs might reflect the beginning of the implementation of the so-called district-commandery system in Hepu, and marks a regional division between areas inhabited by local Yue-people and areas settled by Yue-people that immigrated from the north. The tomb architecture of the later stage still features rectangular narrow pits and wide pit burials, although the latter starts to dominate. This is illustrated by the Wenchangta tomb complex where 31 out of 36 tombs (dated to the second period) are wide pit burials. Furthermore, while a special structure of wooden coffin burials, consisting of two platforms formed by soil (shengtu erceng tai), disappeared, tombs with a passageway became more popular. Many ceramics, as well as bronzes, iron goods, and steatite goods were gifted as burial goods. In addition, a small number of wuzhu coins, and ornaments made of glass, crystal, etched carnelian and agate, also made their entrance. In the early stage of the Middle Western Han Period burial assemblages, mainly made up out of weng and guan vessels, included large amounts of round, bulbous weng vessels, as well as ding vessels, boxes, and pots. Fang vessels were a new addition, although the combination of fang vessels, ding vessels, and boxes was still rare. The shape of ding vessels also changed slightly: they had hoofshaped feet and a round raised cover. At the same time hu vessels with a bulbous body and a short neck, made of hard ceramics, gained popularity. Incomplete sets, consisting of miniature wells, granaries, and ovens, also appear during this period. Ovens had a rectangular cross section, no porch, sloping walls, and a short, cylindrical stovepipe. The Fengmenling M27 tomb, containing a wooden coffin and consisting of one tomb chamber and a deep sloping passageway, is an important example of this period. The ceramics found inside this tomb consisted of red, soft ceramics and were decorated with plain or geometric patterns. Besides the typical weng and guan vessels, a ceramic granary and oven, as well as ritual bronzes such as ding and fang vessels, as well as pots were discovered in this tomb. Apart from the few Yue-style objects, such as guan and weng vessels, the tomb structure and burial goods of the later stage tombs were all Han-style. This distinct separation between the early and late stage of the Middle Western Han Period, mirrors the administrative system that was set up in Hepu, and mirrors the increasing influence of the Han culture.

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5.3 Late Western Han Tombs The Late Western Han Period lasted from the end of the Middle Western Han Period until AD 25, spanning a period of 50 years. Many middle and large-scale tombs furnished with complete burial assemblages have been dated to this period. The majority of these tombs are wooden-coffin-tombs. Some of these tombs are small and have no tomb passage, such as Qichichang M2 and M3, Liaruchang M2, Dianchang M1, and Tuguiling M5 and M9. The majority, however, are one-chamber wooden coffin tombs. Particular care was devoted to the construction of these tombs: besides being filled with stamped earth, the area between the coffin room and tomb walls was rammed with wood ashes and gravel, and the four walls were sealed with a white clay paste. Additionally, the floor of these tombs was covered with a mixture of sand, ashes and clay, all to counter the effects of the humid climate in Lingnan. Some of the outer chambers of the middle and large-scale tombs were marked with the symbol ‘chu jiu’, meaning ‘kitchen and stable’ (厨厩), and were shaped as an auxiliary room or tomb passage. The so-called joint-husband/wifetombs appeared for the first time during this period; mostly in the form of a differentpit-same-burial. The male tombs seem to have been larger than the female tombs and contained more burial goods. The ceramic assemblages were dominated by geometric-impressed hardware, and only a small amount of red, soft pottery was found. Hard ceramics were mostly of a white-grey or grey color and fired at a high temperature. They were glazed with a blue-yellow glaze, and were richly decorated with the following patterns: geometric, geometric seal-stamp, water-wave, feather, connecting-triangles, persimmon, and fine-toothed comb patterns. The combination of weng and guan vessels stayed in vogue with the addition of seal-stamped patterns. In the previous period weng vessels had a straight and short neck, but during the Late Western Han Period all vessels were made of hardware and transformed into large and more bulbous vessels with a maximum diameter. Many types of guan vessels can be seen. The short-necked vessels of the previous period changed into larger, more oblate vessels with a longer and folded neck. Additionally, the combination of wells, granaries, and ovens, representing miniature spirit goods made of ceramics, became a general trend. The appearance of granaries also changed slightly: the front porch had a closed door and four holes were added to the bottom. Ovens became higher with sloping walls, and the cylindrical stove pipe changed into a dragon-head-shaped one. Bronze objects, in particular hu pots and ding vessels, were imitated in ceramic materials. The addition of boxes and fang vessels in tombs became rare, and only one fang vessel has been uncovered in Fengmenling M23A. The neck of hu pots became more constricted, while their body became more bulbous. The following vessels were added to the burial good assemblage: zun vessels, lamps, kui basins, zhi goblets, jiaohu vessels, earcups, incense burners, long-necked hu pot, as well as ceramic figurines of livestock, animals and humans. Numerous bronze objects have been excavated, sometimes making up a large percentage of the total amount of burial goods. For instance, half of the grave goods discovered at Wangniuling M1 and Fengmenling M26 were made of bronze. Besides

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bronze objects commonly seen during the Middle Western Han Period, there are bronze boxes, small tripod hu pots, long-necked hu pots, loop-handled hu pots, oblate hu pots, loop-handled fang vessels, boxes with compartments, tripod basins, kui basins, zhi goblets, lamps, mat weights, earcups etc. Most bronzes were decorated with intricate and beautifully engraved patterns. Horse carriage equipment, miniature animals, and complete architectural models also appeared for the first time. Bronze mirrors, including four-bosses-and-four-dragon-, zhaoming- and joined-arc-mirrors, as well as coinage, such as wuzhu with filed and unfiled edges, were further additions to the category of grave goods. Only few jade objects, including belt buckles, sword scabbard slides, bi-discs, cups, ornaments and funerary jades, have been discovered. Most of these were found inside medium or large-scale tombs. Steatite objects became quite popular and many different types have been excavated, including ding vessels, hu pots, fang vessels, bi discs, heaters, square guan vessels, zun vessels, containers, basins, cups, earcups, kettles, cauldrons, pestles, mortars, lamps, tables, wells, granaries, ovens, houses, and toilets. The largest amount of steatite vessels has been discovered at Fengmenling M23. In this tomb half of the burial goods were made steatite. Tombs of a slightly later period, however, only contained one type of heater. Ornaments made of glass, garnet, amber, agate, crystal, etched carnelian, etched chalcedony, turquoise, silver, and gold were also popular during the period and occurred in over half of the tombs. Glass ornaments make up the largest category.

5.4 Early Eastern Han Tombs Lasting from AD 25 until AD 75, the Early Eastern Han Period covers a total period of fifty years. While wooden-coffins-tombs were still being built, advances in technological knowledge had an impact on tomb architecture. The combination of traditional elements, such as wooden coffins with brick-chamber construction methods, resulted in new tomb types. Vaulted-brick-chamber-tombs were another architectural innovation. This combination type can be illustrated by Jiuzhiling M5, in which bricks have only been used to seal the tomb. Another example is the zhuankuang-structure that can be seen in the front room of the Huangnigang M1 tomb: the floor of the room is paved with bricks, while the roof is covered by a wooden structure. Brickchamber-tombs are still simple and small during this period and mostly consist of one tomb chamber. The tomb walls are mostly made through single brick or double brick masonry; the roofs consist of single-brick vaults. Ceramic traditions of the previous period continue and grey-white hardware is still the prevalent ceramic type. In terms of ceramic materials and color there exists little diversity, but a tendency towards smaller and more simple objects can be observed. For example, many ceramics are decorated with bow-string patterns, and only few are decorated with more complex geometric and seal-stamped patterns. The amount of guan vessels also decreases during this period and their overall shape becomes more

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oblate. Weng vessels get a folded rim and a straight body. The following changes occur within the ritual set of ceramics: fang vessels disappear, and Central Plain-style ding vessels decrease in amount, while Yue-style ding vessels with three sloping legs increasingly appear. The excavation of many hu pots indicates their popularity, although small changes can be observed: they became smaller in size, have a shorter neck, a sloping ring foot, and a more bulbous body. The category of miniature spirit goods still includes wells, granaries, and ovens, with the new addition of pigsties. A round platform and a restricted well curb are characteristics of the wells of this period. Granaries have porches, column-shaped feet, and roofs engraved with patterns mimicking rows of roof tiles and hanging riches. For the first time double-chambergranaries are found. Ovens again increase in height, have distinctively sloping walls, and the dragon-head oven pipe becomes simpler. While the amount and variety of bronze vessels decreases, their overall shape becomes smaller and their decorations simplify. Engraved patterns in particular came to a standstill. The tradition of steatite grave goods gradually disappears and mainly consists of miniature heaters. Bronze coins, on the other hand, were still an important part of the burial good assemblage and included wuzhu coins with and without filed edges, and the new type of daquan-wushi-coins. In addition, zhaoming-, sunlightand four-bosses-four-dragon bronze mirrors can still be seen, although some changes appear in the characters’ font. Although already appearing in the material record of earlier periods, the TLV type mirror became widespread during the Wang Mang interregnum. Different types of ornaments remain popular as well.

5.5 Late Eastern Han Tombs Spanning more than 140 years, the Late Eastern Han Period starts at 75 AD and ends at the final date of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Athough zhuankuang- and pit-burial-tombs (such as Erpaochang M8 and M19) occasionally appeared, brick-chamber-tombs dominated. These tombs were larger and displayed specific new designs: there were tombs that combined a domeshaped and vault roof, brick-chamber tombs with intersecting vault roofs, and tombs combining intersecting and dome-shaped roofs. The layout of these tombs became more and more complex and tombs consisted of several rooms instead of one single tomb room. Different types of floors and roofs can be distinguished and the following internal structures appeared: a corridor (between the passage and tomb), side- and auxiliary rooms, and niches. The walls and roofs of these tombs were mainly constructed through double-brick-masonry, while the floor was paved with small cuboid and larger square bricks. The custom of joint burials consisting of different pits in one single burial also continued and occasionally same-pit-same-burial-tombs appeared.

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Grey-white ceramics, and especially grey hardware, was still common during this period. Although vessels became smaller and of a lesser quality, the same ceramic assemblages can be seen. Both larger weng vessels, such as the big, long-necked weng and four-eared weng, and smaller weng vessels were produced. Large guan vessels, however, disappeared and were replaced by smaller vessels with simple bow-string patterns. The amount of ding vessels also declined, and large boxes were substituted for smaller boxes fired at a low temperature. Hu pots remain small with a short neck and a constricted abdomen. Sometimes pots were no longer part of the burial good assemblage, as is the case in the Fengmenling tombs. Miniature pigsties and houses, however, are popular during this time, and are found together with wells, granaries, and ovens. Curbs of the well models decrease in size and become more sloping in shape. All granaries became furnished with four column-shaped feet and often had their porch sealed or closed with a guard bar. Ovens had a high front section and a low back section. Often, they were equipped with cauldrons or small dogs and human figures. Oven pipes simplified even more and became column-shaped. New ceramic forms include high-fired glazed wares, houses with three compartments, granaries with double-eaved roofs, and gui vessels. Very few bronzes of this period have been uncovered and a similar trend of simplification can be observed. Bronzes have thin walls and are made with simple production methods. Decorations are modest and engraved patterns are rare. Commonly seen vessels, include pots, loop-handled pots, jiaohu pots, zun vessels, basins, lamps, incense burners, mirrors, bowls, trays, and scrapers. Very few weapons and parts of carriages have been unearthed. Mirrors, on the other hand, remain popular and zhaoming-, sunlight-, and TLV- mirrors are still in use. Additionally, a new type, the cloud-lightning-joined mirror, emerged. Bronze coins included wuzhu, daquan wushi, and the newly discovered huquan and dabu-huangqian coins. The gradual decline of the ‘elaborate burials’ custom is further illustrated by a decrease in ornaments and objects made of silver and gold. Nonetheless, some interesting discoveries include non-trade goods, such as a Persian pot and a bronze cymbal, as well as the dome-shaped roof architecture in tombs. Finally, intraregional and oversea exchange also impacted regional design processes and resulted in a number of new objects. The evolution of typical objects taking place from the Middle Western Han to the Late Eastern Han Period can be seen in Table 5.1.

Ceramic Stove

Ceramic Weng Vessel

Ceramic Hu Pot

Ceramic Ding

Object

Middle Western Han

Table 5.1 The Evolution of Typical Objects Late Western Han

Early Eastern Han

Late Eastern Han

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References 1. Qin, W. (2003). Short excavation report of the Anji Lonba Mounted Burial Tomb D12 in Zhejiang. Southern Cultural Relics, 3, 28–31. 2. Yaohua, L. (1989). The Geometric-impressed Ceramics Sites and Mounted Burials in Jianxing. Southeast Culture, 6, 113–120. 3. Longzhang, L. (2006). The Dating of the Mi-patterned Ceramics Sites of the Guangdong and Guangxi Region and the Guangzhou Han Tombs. Archaeology, 4, 69–80.

Chapter 6

The Hepu Han Tombs and the Maritime Silk Road

After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty pacified the Lingnan region, he officially opened a long-distance, oversea trade route that connected the Han Empire with Southeast Asia and South Asia, namely ‘The Maritime Silk Road’. In the Hepu Han tombs abundant artefacts that can be linked to the Maritime Silk Road have been unearthed. Of significance, is that these discoveries are in line with historical records that describe the exchange of gold for much-desired luxury items, such as incense, glass vessels, and ornaments. An important category among these artifacts are beads made of glass, garnet, amber, crystal, turquoise, etched carnelian, agate, etched chalcedony, and gold. These objects might have reached the Han Empire through trade with Southeast Asia and South Asia or as a result of indirect trade with Central Asia, West Asia and the Mediterranean area. Additionally, a number of non-trade goods reached Hepu, such as a Persian pot and a bronze cymbal. Furthermore, the fact that overseas trade stimulated cultural exchange is illustrated by several artifacts that feature a combination of local and foreign elements. For example, human figurines with foreign features, and bronze lamps decorated with feathered people that resemble mythical winged creatures of the west. Other objects, such as the ‘bosheng lianghua’, as well as makara-shaped and triratna-shaped ornaments testify to the southern ‘overseas’ transmission of Buddhism. Moreover, the dome-shaped roof architecture that is commonly seen in brick-chamber-tombs of the Middle-late Eastern Han Period, might have also been inspired by overseas contacts with the Parthian and Bactrian Empires in Central Asia. Therefore, research on these intriguing objects cannot only demystify the first opening of overseas trade and cultural exchange during the Han Dynasty, but can also give support to the historicity of records in the Book of Han.

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6.1 The Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty The Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty, also called ‘The Nanyang Sea Route’, was officially opened after Emperor Wu pacified the Nanyue Kingdom and installed the district-commandery system. The following account about the Maritime Silk Road can be found in the Book of Han (Hanshu), the official chronicle of the Han Dynasty: “Leaving from the fortress of Rinan or the ports of Xuwen, or Hepu, they travel by ship for five months, then they arrive at the Duyuan kingdom; again they travel by ship for four months, after which they arrive at the Yilumo kingdom; they continue travelling by ship for more than 20 days, and arrive at the Chenli kingdom; then they go further on foot for more than 10 days, and finally reach the Fugandulu kingdom. Leaving from the Fugandulu kingdom they travel by ship for more than two months and arrive at the Huangzhi kingdom, where the folk customs are slightly similar to those of Zhuya (in present Hainan, China). The Huangzhi kingdom is vast, its population is large, and there are many rare treasures. Since the reign of the Emperor Wu, this kingdom has started to pay tribute to the Han government regularly. The official imperial delegation consists of officials responsible for translating, who belong to the Huangmen department, as well as enlisted merchants. They gather together and leave on a sea voyage to obtain bright beads, bi liuli, and precious curiosities, in return for gold and a variety of silk. On their way, all local inhabitants they encounter, work the land using a primitive ploughing method called ‘ou’. They use barbarian trade ships to reach their destination. Sometimes barbarians rob or kill them to gain trade profit. They also suffer hardships caused by the wind and waves, and many find dead by drowning. The survivors obtain large pearls with a circumference of less than 2 cun (1 cun = 2.3 cm). In the first year of Emperor Ping’s reign, Wang Mang acted as an assisting minister, and wanted to show off his power and prestige by offering many goods to the Huangzhi kingdom, and asked the envoy to send live rhinoceros as tribute in return. Leaving from Huangzhi and travelling for 8 months, the envoy reaches Pizong and continued by ship for another 8 months, after which they finally arrived at Rinan, which is near the Xianglin border. South of Huangzhi, there is the Yichengbu kingdom, and from this place the translators and other members of the Han court delegation finally returned back.” This paragraph is the most complete and most reliable account concerning the Maritime Silk Road and describes events taking place during the Middle and Late Western Han Period. It elaborates on the state of overseas trade and the exchanges that were taking place between Southeast Asia, South Asia, and the Han Empire. Additionally, it gives detailed information about the route of the mission and its trade commodities. A number of characteristics of the Maritime Silk Road can be induced from this text. Firstly, the described route seems to have been rather stable: the ships left from the Tonkin Gulf, followed the coast along the South China Sea, crossed the Malay peninsula, and reached India and Sri Lanka. Secondly, it was not a delegation solely made up of officials, but it also included civilians. In other words, besides members of the Huangmen department, that belonged to the Shaofu

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Institution and was led by the so-called translation officials (Yizhang 译长), the ships’ crew also included merchants, who had enlisted out of free will. Thirdly, the route seems to have been used for trade activities in both directions, and not only for export. Leaving the harbor, the ships were loaded with ‘gold and silk’ which were exchanged for ‘lustrous pearls, glass, and rare stones and strange products’. Fourth, this mission seems to have combined both diplomatic and tributary activities. For instance, as is mentioned in the text, the Huangzhi kingdom paid tribute to Emperor Wu. Fifth, the Han missions on the Maritime Silk Road seem to have been rather peaceful. The crew did not engage in events of war and plunder, and mostly had friendly interactions with the inhabitants of the countries they visited. Moreover, food, escorts, and even barbarian ships were acquired during the mission. Just like Zhang Qian’s actions in the Western region symbolize the official start of the Overland Silk Road, Emperor Wu was responsible for opening a long-distance, overseas route, which is now called the Maritime Silk Road. Both routes seem to have been supervised by an official delegation, were characterized by silk trade and a stable trade network, and would have a deep impact on future trade relations between China and the west. The fact that two ports of the Hepu Commandery, Hepu and Xuwen, were mentioned in the Book of Han, solidifies without a doubt their status as the oldest starting points of the Maritime Silk Road. Moreover, the prosperity of the Hepu port is also testified by numerous artifacts unearthed at the Hepu Han tombs, and although silk and pearls did not survive due to climatic conditions in Lingnan, other evidence reached Hepu through indirect trading activities. For instance, gold that migh have been traded by official Han delegations, different types of ornaments that were imported from Southeast and South Asia, and distinctively foreign objects, such as Roman glass, glass bowls, a Persian Pot, and a bronze cymbal, all testify to the important position of Hepu in the oversea trade network of the Han Dynasty. In sum, with the discovery of the Hepu Han Tombs, and the assistance of archaeological, scientific, and technological research, the significance of the Hanshu record, written more than 2000 years ago, has become clearer than ever.

6.2 Gold and Varieties of Silk (1) Gold In ancient China gold was the standard currency accepted for foreign trade and in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty circular and hoof-shaped golden ingots started to appear. Being easy to stack, carry and store, round ingots usually functioned as currency, but were also used to pay tribute. Hoof-shaped ingots, however, were solely used for tribute offerings. Over the years, 300 hoof-shaped ingots have been uncovered at excavations in Shaanxi, Hunan, Hebei, Jiangsu, Anhui, Henan, Shanxi, Hebei, and Guangxi. Recently, the largest amount of gold ingots ever discovered in China was found at the Haihun Marquis Tomb in Nanchang, Jiangxi province. Of the 285 golden ingots found, 48 were horse-hoof-shaped, 25 were unicorn-hoof-shaped,

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Fig. 6.1 Gold ingots (Wangniuling M1)

and 20 were gold plates. At Hepu gold ingots have only been found at the Wangniuling M1 tomb, which probably belonged to the prefecture chief or a high official of the Jiuzhen Commandery. In total two ingots with a concave-shaped depression and a slightly raised back side were uncovered (Fig. 6.1). The first ingot weights 249 g, has a diameter of 6.3 cm, and is inscribed with the character ‘大’ (da), under which two more characters in a finer script can be seen: ‘太史’ (taishi). The other ingot weights 247 g, and has a diameter of 6.5 cm. Again one character ‘阮’ (ruan) is inscribed above a finer character ‘位’ (wei). Considering ingots were easy to carry and could be used as a large kind of trade currency, it is very likely that the gold mentioned in the paragraph of the Book of Han refers to these types of ingots. The Han Empire had a large gold reserve and during the Wang Mang Interregnum, or the so-called Xin Dynasty, the empire’s gold inventory was 700 000 jin (1 jin equals 250 g during the Han Dynasty). This was the highest number of gold reserve ever reached by the central government of a feudal society, and equals that of the Roman Empire [1]. Moreover, according to some calculations, the empire owned more than one million jin during the ruling periods of the Emperor Wu and Wang Mang [2]. The prevalent use of gold is also recorded in the historical chronicles, and both the Annals of the Great Historian and the Book of Han make mention of how Emperors ‘granted gold’ and ’presented gold (as a gift)’, sometimes accumulating to as much as dozens or thousands of jin. Therefore, the Han Empire seemed to have possessed sufficient amounts of gold that could be used for overseas trade. (2) Varieties of Silk As a result of advancements in sericulture and silk reeling technology, silk of a fine quality was already being produced during the Han Dynasty. Weaving workshops managed by the government used complex weaving tools and technological knowledge, and invested largely in the production of high-quality silks. Other names for silk products during the Han Dynasty were ‘bo’ (帛) or ‘zeng’ (缯), and the following varieties were known: white silk (su 素), douppioni silk (jian 缣), silk gauze (sha 纱),crinkle silk gauze (hu 縠), silk mesh (luo 罗), patterned silk (qi 绮), and brocade silk (jin 锦). What’s more, before the sixth century AD, China had a patent on silkworm raising and silk reeling technology, and Chinese silk products with their unique style were renowned all over the world. With the opening of the Maritime Silk Road

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abundant silk products were being exported and silk technology was spread towards the Western territories. Archaeological discoveries of silk dated to the Western Han Dynasty have been made at the Mawangdui Tomb in Changsha, Hunan province, and the Fenghuangshan 168 in Jiangling, Hubei province. Silk products of the Eastern Han, on the other hand, have been mainly found at sites located near the Overland Silk Road in Gansu and Xinjiang. In Lingnan, remains of silk have been unearthed at the Royal Nanyue tomb in Guangzhou and the Luobowan M1 tomb in Guangxi. Although mostly decayed, no less than 100 bolts of silk were stacked in the west side room of the Royal Nanyue tomb. Additionally, silk ribbons, fabrics, and silk used for wrapping objects were also preserved. The silk in the Nanyue tomb included thin, gauze and brocade silk, as well as silk with handwoven bands. At Luobowan M1 plain gauze and fine silk was uncovered. Moreover, from the wooden ‘cong qi zhi’ (a list of the burial goods) we know that a large number of silk and cloth bolts, cloths, and wrappings were also part of the original burial goods. Until now no silk remains have been found at Hepu and Guixian (now Guigang). At Fengmenling M26 a small number of woven fabrics have been excavated. Although these rougher types of cloth do not belong to the category of silks, they do provide clues about the high level of weaving technology. For instance, every square centimeter of the fabrics of this cloth had a thread count of 9 and 11. Due to the humid and wet climate in the countries bordering the Maritime Silk Road, traces of organic materials are very rare in archaeological excavations. Apart from China, one piece of Chinese silk has been discovered at the Delivala Stupa site, in Rambukkana, located at the southwest part of Sri Lanka. Found in 2001 and used to wrap a bronze stupa, the original color of this silk fragment was difficult to determine. Through C14 dating, however, its date has been set on the second century AD [3]. This silk fragment confirms the position of Sri Lanka as a port of the Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty and as a transit point between Southeast Asia and Rome.

6.3 Lustrous Pearls, Glass, and Rare Stones (1) Lustrous Pearls One trade commodity that reached China via oversea trade was ‘lustrous pearls’ (mingzhu). Unfortunately, due to the acidic soil, no pearl remains have been uncovered at the Hepu Han tombs. Nonetheless, at Fengmenling M10 one dodecahedronshaped golden bead, probably inserted with now decayed pearls, has been found (Fig. 6.2). Each of the twelve sides of this bead was concave and originally inlaid with smaller ornaments, some of which might have been pearls. Since old times Hepu had the reputation of being ‘the hometown of the southern pearls’ and it was said that: “Hepu (lies) within the sea and has six pearl ponds.” Another paragraph gives the following account: “the pearls of Hepu are called

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Fig. 6.2 Gold bead (Fengmenling M10)

southern pearls, the pearls of the Indian Ocean are called western pearls, the pearls of the Eastern Sea are called eastern pearls. Eastern pearls have a pea-green color, (and) their luster is not (as bright as) the western pearls, western pearls are again (not as bright as) southern pearls [4].” In addition, there is the famous saying ‘the returning of pearls to Hepu’, meaning ‘the returning of precious things’. Moreover, in the Meng Chang Biography of the Book of the Later Han it is recorded that: “… (when Meng Chang was) promoted as governor of Hepu. The county did not produce rice, but from the sea (they) got pearls, (Hepu) borders to Jiaozhi, and often traders pass through it, and trade grain (for these pearls). In earlier times, it was often ruled by corrupt officials; these sly people gathered and took (what they wanted), and did not know discipline at all, (they) gradually moved all pearls to the Jiaozhi Commandery. As a result, no more travelers arrived and people had no money, poor people starved next to the roads. Once (Meng Chang) became official, (he) carried out reforms, changed the previous corrupt politics, and looked after the sick people. In less than a year, the pearls returned (to Hepu). All people returned to their occupations, traders returned, and commodities circulated (as before), (Meng Chang) was praised as a god.” Pearl fishing seems to have firstly appeared after Hepu became part of the commandery-district system, and developed further during the Late Western Han Period. During the reign of Emperor Cheng, Wang Zhang, formerly a metropolitan governor (jing zhaoyin) was executed and his wife and children were exiled to Hepu. Here they worked in the pearl industry and accumulated considerable wealth [5]. This story is further evidence of the prosperity of the pearl fishing industry in Hepu. During the Middle Eastern Han Period pearl fishing became even more successful, and as is described in the biography of Meng Chang, pearls were used to buy rice from the neighboring Jiaozhi Commandery.

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Pearl fishing commenced much earlier in South and West Asia, and areas such as the south coast of India, the Manaar Bay of Sri Lanka, and the Bahrain area of the Persian Gulf, have been involved in pearl trade for thousands of years. Pearl fishing in Hepu, on the other hand, was driven by the rise of the Maritime Silk Road. Although pearl fishing started during the Middle Western Han Period, the amounts of locally harvested pearls could not satisfy the needs of the Han Dynasty’s elite, and oversea pearls had to be imported. Pearls from the west were larger and more lustrous. For instance, the Geographical Annals of the Book of Han describes the pearls of the west as “big pearls that have a diameter of less than 2 cun”, which is equivalent to approximately 1.5 cm. Pearls that have been found inside the Royal Nanyue tomb measure 1.1 cm at largest. There is therefore a high possibility that these pearls were imported from overseas. Pearls excavated from Shendingling M1 and Shimaping M6, on the contrary, might have been purchased from nearby Hepu. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, pearls of Hepu mainly served domestic markets, and larger, rarer varieties had to be imported from the Jiaozhi area [6]. Evidence of pearls in Hepu comes from archaeological sites dated to the Ming Dynasty. For instance, the construction of an imperial court and a pearl pond guarded by officials at the beginning of the Hongwu period is evidenced by a number of urban sites and steles, such as the Ninghai temple stele, the Huangfu qusi stele and the Li Ye Dezheng stele, discovered in Bailong (now located in Bailong village, Yingpan town, Tieshangang district, Beihai city). Additionally, in 2015 archaeologists found Han-period remains with ceramics with geometric- and mi-patterns at the north side of the Bailong urban site. This is evidence of the long history of the Bailong region, spanning from the Han to the Ming Dynasty, and indicates the important role of Hepu in pearl fishing. (2) Glass Glass is also called ‘bi liuli’ (璧流离), ‘liuli’ (瑠璃) or ‘liuli’ (琉璃) in Chinese historical sources. Glass firstly appeared in Mesopotamia and Egypt around 2000 BC and was introduced in India during the Painted Grey Ware Culture Period (1100–800 BC). The earliest glass in China dates to the Eastern Zhou Period, while evidence of imported glass predates the Han Dynasty. During the Han Dynasty it became an important oversea commodity and many sites along the Maritime Silk Road contain remains of glass workshops. 1. The Discovery and Composition of Han-period Glass in Hepu According to rough statistics, around 100 tombs (of the total number of undisturbed tombs) in Hepu contain glass objects that can be dated to the Middle Western Han until the Late Eastern Han Period. Two main categories can be distinguished: ornaments and vessels. Glass ornaments, and especially beads, are most commonly found. There are tombs that contain between several hundred until several thousands of glass beads, as well as prismatic ornaments, ear plugs, rings, bi-disc and sword scabbard slides. Very few glass vessels have been excavated, including cups, bowls and trays. Besides this, occasionally funerary nose plugs and small, round discs used for inlay are found.

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Glass is an artificial and amorphous solid. Through the scientific analysis of variations within the chemical components and characteristic trace elements, as well as the technological examination of the production methods of glass, different production areas and historical periods can be recognized. The selection and analysis of 80 glass samples from the Hepu Han tombs has revealed the following seven silicate-based glass systems: potash glass, lead-barium glass, lead glass, sodium-potassium-lead glass, sodium-lead glass, soda-lime glass, and sodium-calcium lead glass. Among these potash glass accounts for 70% of the total glass. Lead-barium and lead glass were created in China. Lead-barium glass already appeared during the Early and Middle Warring States Period and during the Late Warring States until the Han Dynasty it became widely distributed within Hunan, Hubei, Anhui, Henan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, and Shandong. Objects that belong to this system and have been excavated in Hepu include bi-discs, sword scabbard slides, and heart-shaped pieces. Barium glass emerged during the Late Western Han Period and was popular from the Eastern Han Dynasty until the Tang and Song Dynasties. A pea-green necklace found at Fengmenling M26 belonged to this type. Potash glass can be traced back to India, Southeast Asia, and China’s south and southwestern regions. Its main flux is potassium oxide (K2 O). In China potash glass can be dated back to the Middle-late Warring States Period until the Eastern Han Dynasty. It has mostly been found in Guangxi, Guangdong, Guizhou, Yunnan, and Sichuan. Occasionally it is discovered in Xinjiang, Yunnan, Jiangsu, Hunan, Gansu, and Qinghai. Additionally, in Guangxi and Guangdong, numerous glass objects of diverse shapes have been excavated. Based on the amounts of calcium oxide (CaO) and aluminum (Al2 O3 ), this type can be further divided into three subgroups: lowaluminum, low-calcium, and medium-calcium aluminum. Glass analysis has shown that the majority of potash glass objects were produced within the Jiaozhou division and included low-calcium subgroups such as high-rubidium-low-strontium glass, and medium-calcium-aluminum subgroups such as low-rubidium glass. Soda-calcium and soda-calcium-lead glass were foreign glass systems that originated form the Mediterranean area. 2. The origin of imported glass in Hepu is very diverse. Besides regionally produced glass of Jiaozhou, and imported glass from the Chu and Central Plain area, some objects originate from overseas areas, such as Southeast Asia, India, and Rome. The following glass objects have been found: beads, cups, bowls, a ring-shaped ornament with budlike knobs, and special types of beads 3. Glass imported from India Certain similarities can be seen between the production method and external appearance of glass found in Hepu and India. The most obvious link are potash glass objects. For instance, the glass cups found at Hepu and the glass fragments discovered at the Arikamedu site in India show certain resemblances. The specific technique of bead drawing and molding that is typical of the Indo-Pacific beads, can also be seen from different types of beads, such as the hexagonal-, quadrilateral-, bipyramid-, and hexagonal-bipyramid-shaped beads. Chemical component analysis has revealed that these beads most likely were imported from India. The color and translucency of

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the pale blue cup excavated at Wenchangta M70 (Fig. 6.3: 1) differs considerably from other blue cups found in Hepu and belongs to the category of Indian potash glass, and more specifically to the medium-calcium-aluminum subgroup. Other objects, such as hexagonal-column-shaped beads (Fig. 6.3: 2) and copper-read beads (Fig. 6.3: 2), have also been identified as belonging to this group and were probably imported from India. One other prismatic-column-shaped ornament, found at Wenchangta, is the largest glass object found in the Hepu Han tombs, measuring 6.4 cm in length and 2.5 cm in width (Fig. 6.4: 4). Other beads, such as purple round beads and collared beads, have been colored with manganese ions. Most of the beads found at Hepu are oblate and have a purple or black color. Of the tens of thousands of colored beads excavated from the Han tombs, a certain amount might have reached Hepu from India. In particular the purple and black glass beads, colored with manganese ions and dated to the Late Western Han and Early Eastern Han Period, could have been Indian imports. Apart from this, another category of high-transparent, flat-kettle-shaped (bianhu 扁壶形), green beads discovered at Jixiechang M1, Jiuzhiling M5, and Jiuzhiling M6A should be mentioned. This type of bead firstly emerged at the Mediterranean coast and spread eastwards overseas. It is, therefore, possible that the different types of flat-kettle-shaped beads that started to surface during the Warring States Period in China were the result of encounters with these western beads [7]. Until now, glass, flat-kettle-shaped beads have

1) Light Cyan Cup (Wenchangta M70)

3) Copper-red Beads (Fengmenling M26)

Fig. 6.3 Glass objects presumably from India

2) Hexagonal -column-shaped Beads (Fengmenling M26)

4) Hexagonal -column-shaped Ornament (Wenchangta M77: 36)

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1) Lake-blue Glass Cup (Huangnigang M1)

2) Glass Ring with Budlike Knobs (Wenchangta M1)

Fig. 6.4 Glass objects presumably from Southeast Asia

only been found at Hepu. Chemical analysis has shown that the beads unearthed at Jixiechang M1 were made of potash glass. Moreover, based on further analysis we believe that these types of glass beads were locally produced with glass material that was imported from India. (2) Glass imported from Southeast Asia Southeast Asia borders China and since prehistoric times close-knit interactions have existed between these two regions. The import of glass beads from Southeast Asia commenced during the second century BC and mainly consisted of potash glass. For instance, chemical analysis has revealed that the lake-blue, glass cup (Fig. 6.4: 1) found at Huangnigang M1 and a glass ring with budlike knobs (Fig. 6.5: 2) found at Wenchangta M1 came from Southeast Asia. Moreover, the chemical composition of the glass cup unearthed at Huangnigang M1 differs considerably from similar types of objects found at Hepu, and its calcium-oxide and aluminum content are at the edge of medium-calcium-aluminum potassium glass. The glass ring with budlike knobs is not only made of medium-calcium-aluminum potassium glass, but its shape also resembles stone ornaments discovered in Taiwan and other regions of South China. Moreover, similar types of ornaments have been found at the Uyaw cave site in Palawan the Philippines, which was dated to 500 until 300 BC, as well as at the Sa Huynh culture in Vietnam. It can, therefore, be concluded that glass rings with budlike knobs were imported from South Vietnam. The three subgroups of potassium glass; low-aluminum, low-calcium, and medium-calcium-aluminum, have all been discovered in Southeast Asia. Lowaluminum potash glass was mainly produced at the Ban Don Ta Phet site in Thailand and could have reached Guangxi through Southeast Asia. However, very few samples of this type of glass have been analyzed and until now this type has not been found in Guangxi. The wide distribution of medium-calcium-aluminum potash glass in India, Southeast Asia, and Guangxi indicates the possibility of multiple production centers. This makes determining the origin of objects made of this specific glass quite

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1) Jiuzhiling M5

165

2) Liaowei M17

Fig. 6.5 Soda-lime glass beads

complicated. Because no prototypes have been found within India or Southeast Asia, certain objects were clearly locally produced within the Jiaozhou division, such as the flat-kettle-shape bead found in Jiziechang M1 and the faceted olive-shaped beads found at Tuguiling Siliaochang M202 and Beichajiang Yandui M10. In addition, due to the close relationship between Southeast Asian and Indian glass traditions, it is very difficult to determine the exact origin of certain objects. Glass objects made of alkaline glass, are an example of this. Red beads found at Qichichang M7 (dated to the Late Western Han Period), the blue beads found at Erpaochang M18 (dated to the Late Eastern Han Period), and green beads found at Erpaochang M8, all belong to the mixed-alkaline-glass-system. Chemical analysis has revealed that mixed-alkali glass, made out of Na2 O and K2 O, is quite different from the above mentioned seven silicate-based glass systems found in Hepu. In India and Southeast Asia this glass type is much more common. Therefore, although the exact origin of mixed alkali glass is unclear, it most likely came from these two regions. (3) Glass imported from the Mediterranean Soda-lime glass, also called Roman glass, originated from the Mediterranean and is translucent and blue of color. When this glass is held under light the color changes into a purple luster, making its appearance completely different from other types of dark-blue potassium glass. In terms of its chemical composition, soda-lime glass has a cobalt color due to low contents of manganese and antimony, and sodium was used as a flux. The most famous site of sodium exploitation has been identified as Wadi-el-Natrum in Egypt. Among the artifacts discovered at Hepu, a number of beads and bowls were made of soda-lime glass. For instance, the green, lake-blue and deep-blue beads excavated at Fengmenling Erpaochang M12, Jiuzhiling M5, and Liaowei M17. The beads found at Erpaochang M12 have the earliest date and have been dated to the Late Western Han Period. Seven green oblate beads with a diameter of 0.3 cm, have also been unearthed at the Early Eastern Han site of Jiuzhiling M5

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(Fig. 6.5: 1). Finally, 20 beads, among which 11 are oval-shaped and 9 are oblateshaped, were found at the Late Eastern Han site of Liaowei M17 (Fig. 6.5: 2). The oval-shaped beads have a diameter between 0.55 and 0.7 cm, and a length between 0.6 and 0.8 cm. The oblate-shaped beads have a diameter between 0.5 and 0.7 cm, and a length between 0.3 and 0.5 cm. One glass bowl (Fig. 6.6: 1), originating from the Mediterranean region, was also excavated at the Wenchangta Han tombs, although its exact position could no longer be determined. This bowl has a yellow color with half of its surface covered by brown leaf-shaped markings. It has a wide mouth, a double horizontal trail, and a flat base. It has a diameter of 8 cm, a height of 4.9 cm, and a base diameter of 3.9 cm. The color, size, and shape of this bowl are very similar to an Eastern Mediterranean bowl, dated to the second century BC and first century AD, and now stored in the Miho Museum in Japan (Fig. 6.6: 2) [8]. Three similar bowls have also been uncovered in the Middle-Western-Hantomb M2061 in Guangzhou, and one of these bowls has been identified as soda-lime glass. Glass pieces excavated at Ganquanshan M2 in Yangzhou have also been classified as soda-lime glass. These pieces have been described as transparent and yellow with purple-black and milkywhite spots, which resemble the special color composition of the Wenchangta bowl. Additionally, one glass bowl excavated in Cyprus (in 1963) and now exhibited in the University of Pennsylvania Museum should be mentioned (Fig. 6.6: 3). This bowl is dated to the Classical Greek Roman Period (fifth century BC until the middle fourth century BC) and has double horizontal trails at the inside of its rim and base. It has a diameter of 12.5 cm and a height of 6.4 cm. The marble effect of the purple-white mixed colors is similar to the Hepu glass bowls. Western scholars believe this color mimicked the appearance of agate. In sum, by comparing the Hepu glass bowls with similar discoveries abroad, and in particular the early glass bowl found in Cyprus, their Mediterranean origin seems plausible. Due to its beauty and rarity, glass has always been a much-yearned prestige good that was popular within elite circles all over the world. In Western Asia, for instance, glass appeared quite early and was considered as valuable as gold. Moreover, in the Old Testament (Job 28: 17) the following reference to glass can be found: “Gold and glass cannot equal (wisdom)”. In China glass was also a very highly prized material. For example, together with four horse-hoof-shaped gold ingots, one unicorn-hoofshaped ingot that was inlaid with green glass has been found in the tomb of Liu Xiu, King Huai of Zhongshan in Dingzhou, Hebei Province (dated to about 55 BC). This auspicious object was probably given by the Emperor to King Huai, and gold objects inlaid with glass seem to have been selected because of their rarity and high value. Before the Ming Dynasty the value of glass even exceeded that of gold, and, thus, the many precious glass objects found in the Hepu Han tombs are important evidence of the rich elite-lifestyle, as well as the prosperity of the overseas trade during the Han Dynasty. (3) Rare stones Similar to glass, ornaments made of semi-precious stones, such as garnet, amber, quartz, beryl, carnelian, etched chalcedony, and turquoise, as well as gold, were

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1) Glass Bowl excavated at the Wenchangta Han Tombs

2) Bowls of the Collection of the Miho Museum in Japan

3) Bowl of the Collection of the University of Pennsylvania Museum

Fig. 6.6 Glass bowls

important commodities traded between South and Southeast Asia during the first centuries BC and AD. These ornaments are a rich source of information, and can improve our understanding about socio-economic processes, as well as intra- and interregional trade activities. Up until today Hepu is the site with the largest and most diverse collection of ornaments ever discovered within China. Among these different types of ornaments, internal connections can be revealed through the observance of similar or almost similar production methods. Of significance is that there existed no local ores or resources for these ‘rare stones’ during the Han Dynasty, and they could only have been imported from abroad. The most convenient transportation channel was undoubtedly the coastal route along the Tonkin Gulf. 1. Garnet Garnet, which was also called ‘zi yawu’ (紫牙乌), is a type of silicate mineral with an isometric crystal system. Common shapes include rhomboid dodecahedron, and tetrahedral trisoctahedron, while common colors are red, purple, red-brown, purplered, dark purple-red, pink, and deep-red. Garnet is often divided into two subgroups: aluminum and calcium garnet.

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After preliminary sorting, 12 tombs in Hepu contained garnet beads. Most beads are round, oblate, biconical, collared or shaped as faceted olives and lions. All beads have a purple-red color. Round beads have been found at Erpaochang 14 M14A (Fig. 6.7: 1), Fengmenling M10, Di’er Mafangchang M23, and Jiuzhiling M6A. Collar beads have been unearthed at Danfeichang M1 (Fig. 6.7: 2) and lion-shaped beads were found at Tuguiling Qichichang M6 (Fig. 6.7: 3). At Di’er Fangchang M4 a variety of beads, including faceted olive-, round, oblate and collar-shaped beads were discovered (Fig. 6.7: 4). Garnet beads are usually rather small and have a dimeter between 0.4 and 0.6 cm. The largest beads are 1 cm. Collar and faceted olive-shaped beads have a length between 0.6 and 1.0 cm. Lion-shaped beads are 1.1 cm long and 0.9 cm high. All the previously described shapes have been discovered at the Arikamedu site. This site also has remains of an ore site. In China garnet beads have been found in Guangzhou, mostly in tombs dated to the Late Western Han and Late Eastern Han Period. Nonetheless, few beads, and all of a round or oblate shape, have been excavated.

1) Erpaochang M14A

2) Danfeichang M1

3) Tuguiling Qichichang M6

4) Di’er Mafangchang M4

Fig. 6.7 Garnet beads

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Garnet occurs abundantly in Sri Lanka, India, Madagascar, North America, and China, but before and during the Han Dynasty the largest production centers were located in India and Sri Lanka. In India garnet of gemstone quality was mined in south-central Hyderabad. The chemical composition and structure of garnet ornaments found at Tuguiling Chilunchang M6 and five other tombs has been analyzed through the use of energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescent emission spectroscopy, and X-ray powder diffraction. These results show that these beads are mainly composed of aluminum-oxide (Al2 O3 ), silicon-dioxide (SiO2 ) and ferrousoxide (FeO), and contains smaller amounts of manganese-oxide (MnO), and calciumoxide (CaO). Therefore, its chemical composition seems to be very similar to almandine garnet. However, through the study of drill holes of different almandine garnet beads found in southeast Cambodia, Alison Kyra Carter has argued that besides South Asian production centers, a distinctive Southeast Asia tradition of garnet making existed [9]. Thus, we can also not exclude that some of the garnet beads found at Hepu came from Southeast Asia. In addition, lion-shaped beads excavated at Hepu, resemble beads shaped as a crouching lion found at the Taxila site in Pakistan. At the Taxila site, dated to the first century BC and the first century AD, seven monkeyshaped ornaments made of quartz, etched carnelian, lapis lazuli, and garnet, have been found. Five of these are crouching. Lions were not a typical decorative motive of China, but were more commonly found along the southern coast of the Mediterranean, the Iranian Plateau, Western Indian, and Afghanistan. Zhao Deyun believes that these lion-shaped ornaments originated from the Mediterranean and developed into two types, crouching and leaping, after the motive was transmitted to India. Therefore, the leaping-lion ornament common in Southeast Asia and the crouching lion-shaped beads found in China might have a common Indian origin [10]. 2. Carnelian, Agate and Etched Carnelian Carnelian and agate both belong to the category of chalcedony minerals. Etched chalcedony is a general term that includes etched agate and carnelian. According to the basic shape and the color of the etched patterns in particular, we can distinguish four types: those with a red surface and white lines, a black surface and white lines, a white surface and black lines, and a red surface and black lines. Ornaments made of carnelian, agate, and etched carnelian are the second biggest category of beads found at Hepu and include olive-shaped, round, flat round, biconical, collar-shaped, calabash-shaped, gourd-shaped, and animal-shaped beads (Fig. 6.8). For the production of animal-shaped beads and to accomplish the lifelike form and details of animals, such as lions, pigeons, tigers, and geese, a circular engravure technique was used. At the Tangpai M2 tomb (excavated in 1972), for instance, 11 animal-shaped beads, of which five were geese and six were tigers, have been found. Agate artifacts include beads, rings, flat round weights, and sword buckles. The texture of these beads is natural and smooth, emitting an oily, glossy shine. Occasionally, black-brown and red-white mixtures can be seen (Fig. 6.9). Etched chalcedony is rarely found in Hepu and mainly refers to beads that have white lines etched on their original surface. The most representative type are flat

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and collared beads (Fig. 6.10). Unfortunately, due to often being found together, the original combination of carnelian, agate, and etched chalcedony beads cannot be reconstructed (Fig. 6.11). Etched chalcedony has been discovered in Xinjiang and Yunnan. Hence, Xia Nai and Zhang Zengqi believe that this material was imported from South or West Asia [11]. We believe that there is a high possibility that the etched chalcedony, carnelian, and agate found in Hepu, originated from coastal South Asia or Southeast Asia. Moroever, research on production techniques of agate and carnelian provide us with important clues about the social conditions in these different regions. Scholars consider carnelian and agate as key evidence of exchange activities between South and Southeast Asia during the Iron Age (500 BC until 500 AD). Moreover, carnelian and agate beads seem to have been imported from South Asia and were widely exchanged within Southeast Asia [12]. This can be seen from the numerous beads found at the Lai Nghi site in Vietnam and the Khao Sam Kaeo Site in the Thai-Malay peninsula.

1) Beichajiang Yandui M10

2) Beichajiang Yandui M4

3) Tuguiling Qichichang M30B

4) Tangpai Han Tomb

5) Tuguiling Siliaochang M1

6) Tuguiling Siliaochang M1

7) Fengmenling M26

8) Tuguiling Qichichang M16A

Fig. 6.8 Carnelian ornaments

9) Tangpai M2

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1) Di’er Mafangchang M9

3) Tuguiling Siliaochang M17

6) Honglingtou M3

171

2) Tuguiling Siliaochang M1

4) Wangniuling M1

5) Tuguiling Siliaochang M22

7) Tangpai Han Tombs

Fig. 6.9 Agate ornaments

In addition, at least nine carnelian earplugs excavated at the Arikamedu site resemble typical carnelian beads found in Hepu. Two of these were unfinished products, which indicates they might have been produced locally in Arikamedu. One possibility is that these beads were made-to-order products. In other words, although they might have been produced locally in India, they were designed for Chinese customers. Bérénice Bellina has studied different high-quality precious stones, including chalcedony, amethyst, agate, and garnet, found at Khao Sam Kaeo. She divides these ornaments into four categories. Among these, category three includes a number of animal-shaped beads, such as lions, tigers, turtles, frogs, and fish, that not comply with typical Indian features. Moreover, these beads seem to have appeared and spread rapidly during the period of the late first century BC and the early first century AD. Bellina, therefore, suggests that these ornaments might have been produced by South Asian craftsmen or local craftsmen that were trained in South Asia [13]. These types of animal-shaped beads are common in Hepu. What’s

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1) Yuye Ziliaozhan Han Tomb

3) Wenchangta M153

2) Di’er Mafangchang M4

4) Wenchangta Zishengcang M1

Fig. 6.10 Etched Carnelian beads

more, the carnelian lion-shaped ornament found at the Lai Nghi site and the one found at Fengmenling M26 are almost exactly the same. Thus, it is also possible that Indian craftsmen, supported by a local upper-class, traveled to Southeast Asia and brought raw materials with them to produce ornaments that reflected Southeast Asian needs. Through oversea trade these ornaments might have reached Hepu. However, at the same time we can also not exclude that raw material was imported and locally worked into objects that feature a typical ‘Chinese’ style, such as rings and belt buckles (Fig. 6.12). 3. Crystal The main chemical composition of crystal is silica (SiO2 ). A pure crystal is colorless and transparent, but when it contains trace elements and iron, different types of colors can be formed, such as brown, purple, and yellow.1 Crystal beads of these colors have all been discovered at Hepu and several shape variations can be distinguished, such as round-, tube-, hexagon-, collar-, and polyhedron-shaped beads (Fig. 6.13: 1–5). White crystal beads have the highest purity and transparency. At the Wangniuling M1 tomb one cicada-shaped crystal ornament has been found. The mouth, nose, wings, and legs of the cicada are skillfully carved out (Fig. 6.13: 6). This ornament is 7.3 cm long and 3.3 cm wide, and is currently the largest crystal piece uncovered in Guangxi province. A hexagonal, column-shaped crystal was also unearthed here (Fig. 6.13: 7). This sparkling bead is 3.9 cm long and is smoothly polished. Additionally, at Huangnigang M1 a strung necklace of 163 dark and light purple beads of different sizes has been excavated (Fig. 6.13: 8). These beads are translucent or transparent,

1

Zhang Beili, ed. Systematic Gemology. Geology Press, 2006. All the descriptions concerning beads in this book come from this source.

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1) Di’er Mafangchang M27

2) Tuguiling Siliaochang M1

3) Tuguiling Qichichang M22

4) Huangnigang M1

5) Wenchangta Zishengcang M1

6) Jixiechang M1

Fig. 6.11 Mixed ornaments

and are polyhedral-shaped. The largest bead with has a diameter of 2.5 cm, the smallest one has a diameter of 1.2 cm. The average diameter is 2 cm. Crystals are mainly found in pegmatite dikes or geodes, and deposits exist almost everywhere in the world. During the early centuries BC and AD, the Deccan plateau of southern India was the main production and processing center of amethyst. For instance, the Arikamedu site, which is located in the eastern part of this plateau, has

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1) Beads excavated from the Lai Nghi Site (Courtesy of Andreas Reinecke)

2) Beads excavated from the Lai Nghi Site (Courtesy of Andreas Reinecke)

3) Beads excavated from the Khao Sam Kaeo site (Bellina 2007) Fig. 6.12 Carnelian beads excavated from different Southeast Asian Countries

yielded large quantities of crystal, amethyst, agate, onyx, garnet, and other semiprecious stone beads. Raw materials for white crystals, on the other hand, were widespread within Southeast Asia. At Khao Sam Kaeo, for example, evidence of the local production of white crystals has been found. The white crystal beads uncovered at Hepu and in Thailand are pure and have a high transparency. In this way they differ considerably from crystal beads of a lesser quality and lower transparency discovered in northern Guangxi and other areas in South China. Since Guangxi does not have any local crystal deposits, we find it very likely that white, crystal beads and amethyst

6.3 Lustrous Pearls, Glass, and Rare Stones

1) Honglingtou M3

4) Tuguiling Qichichang M30A

5) Tuguiling Qichichang M6

2) Beichajiang Yandui M1

175

3) Wangniuling M1

6) Wangniuling M1 7) Wangniuling M1

8) Huangnigang M1

Fig. 6.13 Crystal beads

ornaments were imported from India. It is also possible, however, that some white, crystal beads came from Southeast Asia. 4. Beryl Beryl, also known as emerald, is a mineral with a hexagonal crystal structure. Its main chemical composition is characterized by elements of silicate, beryllium, and aluminum. Beryl has a hardness of 7.5–8.0, and a specific gravity of 2.63–2.80. Pure beryl occurs in colorless hexagonal prisms, and can be transparent. Most beryl, however, is green, with sometimes light-blue, yellow, white, and rose colors. These beads usually have a glassy luster. Other varieties include, colorless translucent turquoise beryl, golden beryl, pale-blue aquamarine beryl, dark-green emerald, and pink cesium beryl. The first three varieties have been found at Hepu. At Fengmenling M10 a necklace consisting of 24 pure beryl beads has been unearthed (Fig. 6.14: 1). Three beads are aquamarine-colored, while the others are transparent. Another necklace of 23 beads with three different colors was found at Huangnigang M1 (Fig. 6.14: 2). Originally these beads were thought to be made of crystal, but recent analysis, using a portable micro-Raman spectrometer and a portable energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence analyzer, has shown that, apart from nine crystal beads and one carnelian bead, the other beads are all made of beryl, including aquamarine, chrysoberyl, and emerald. Similar combinations of crystal and beryl beads have also been found at Beichajiang Yandui M1 (Fig. 6.14: 3) and Tuguiling Qichichang M17 (Fig. 6.14: 4). Additionally, a number of beads excavated at Wangniuling were also initially thought to be crystal, but were later identified as beryl. These types of stringed ornaments, mixing crystal and beryl beads, are also mentioned in other excavation reports and museum collections.

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1) Fengmenling M10

2) Huangnigang M1

3) Beichajiang Yandui M1

4) Tuguiling Qichichang M17

Fig. 6.14 Stringed beryl, Calcedony and crystal beads

Today beryl occurs at many locations, but it was traditionally produced in India near the Mahanadi River and in southern Orissa. In ancient India, at the time of Buddha, beryl was a popular luxury item, and objects of beryl have been discovered in Mauryan-period pagodas at Bhattiprolu and Piprahwa. In the Roman Empire, beryl was also a much-yearned gem, and in the first century AD Pliny wrote in his Natural History that the best beryl came from India. Sri Lanka, having rich beryl sources, is also a traditional production center of beryl. Therefore, we believe that the beryl beads found in the Hepu tombs came from India and Sri Lanka. 5. Amber Most of the amber ornaments found in Guangxi and Guangdong, have been discovered at Hepu and, according to incomplete statistics, 40 Han-period tombs have yielded amber ornaments. For instance, flat-round-, dome-, olive-, flatten ball-, gourd, and carved melon-shaped beads have been unearthed at Beichajiang M4 and M5, and the Tuguiling Siliaochang M1 (Fig. 6.15: 1–3). Animal-shaped ornaments have also been found: lion-shaped beads at Fengmenling M27 and M23B, and the Beichajiang Yandui M1 tomb (Fig. 6.15: 4); and pigeon-shaped beads at the Tuguiling Qichichang M22 (Fig. 6.15: 5). Besides this, round, turtle-shaped, ear-plug-shaped, and other irregular-shaped beads have also been uncovered, such as nine beads at the Tuguiling Qichichang M30B (Fig. 6.15: 6), and 17 beads at the Beichajiang Yandui M1 (Fig. 6.15: 7). Amber is a fossilized tree resin and is often called ‘hupo’ (虎魄) in Chinese historical chronicles. According to Xu Xiaodong it is very likely that during the Han

6.3 Lustrous Pearls, Glass, and Rare Stones

1) Beichajiang Yandui M4

3) Tuguiling Siliaochang M1

177

2) Beichajiang Yandui M5

4) Beichajiang Yandui M1 5) Tuguiling Qichichang M22

6) Tuguiling Qichichang M30B

7) Beichajiang Yandui M1 Fig. 6.15 Amber beads

and Jin Dynasties there was no large-scale exploitation of amber inside China [14]. Since India did not have amber deposits, most of the raw amber in China came from the Baltic Sea or Myanmar and was imported from these regions over the Southwest Silk Road [15]. Nevertheless, near the routes of the southwestern Silk Road very few amber objects have been unearthed, and it is very unlikely that the amber beads found at Hepu and Guangzhou came from overland trade routes. Amber beads unearthed at Hepu were mostly translucent and dark-red. They usually turn black from oxidations after being excavated. The beads have a dense texture with a few filamentous broken cracks. This type of amber is very similar to the amber ores of Myanmar, and very different from the one produced near the Baltic Sea. Amber from the Baltic Sea is usually yellow and transparent with bubble-like inclusions. Thus, we believe that the amber found in the Hepu Han tombs originated from the Shan State in Myanmar,

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and belonged to the category of ‘rare stones and strange products’ that were traded over the Maritime Silk Road. Besides this, several amber seals have been found in the Hepu Han Tombs. For instance, at Tangpai M1 a square seal with a snake-shaped knob inscribed with ‘laoyi zhikui’ (劳邑执刲); at Jiuzhiling M5 a semicircular seal inscribed with ‘huang × × yin’ (黄▢▢印), and at Tuguiling Qichichang M25 a semicircular seal with the inscription ’chen fu yin’ (陈夫印). The fact that these seals have Chinese characters on them indicates that amber was firstly imported as raw material, after which it was locally worked. 6. Gold Among the gold ornaments excavated from the Hepu Han tombs are belt buckles, rings, beads (Fig. 6.16: 1–6), and small inlayed pieces decorated with welded gold globules (Fig. 6.16: 7). The category of beads further includes polyhedral, clubshaped, gourd-shaped, and two-coned-shaped beads. There are also olive-shaped beads decorated with soldered small beads, and oblate beads made of twisted gold wire. Only one traditional Chinese ornament, a gold belt buckle, has been unearthed at Chen Bao’s tomb at Huangnigang. The other gold ornaments are considered to be oversea goods, or objects produced under the influence of foreign elements. More than 30 polyhedral beads have been discovered at the Hepu Han tombs: two at Fengmenling M10; two at Jiuzhiling M5; five at Jiuzhiling M6A; eight at Beichajiang Yandui M1; and fourteen at Beichajiang Yandui M4. Their general structure is very similar: they are spheroidal, hollow, and have a diameter within the range of 0.5 and 1.7 cm. A special production method was used for the creation of these beads. Gold wire was first used to create twelve small, round rings, which were then soldered together into a polyhedral cluster. The next step of the production process was to attach small globules at every junction of the small rings to further stabilize the structure. Similar beads have been found at the Ganquan site in Jiangsu, the Wulipai site in Changsha, the Han tombs in Guangzhou and the Shendingling Han tombs in Guigang, Guangxi. Outside China they have been found at sites along the routes of the Maritime Silk Road, such as the Pattanam site at the east coast of India; the Taxila site in Pakistan, the Oc Eo site in Vietnam; and Khao Sam Kaeo in Thailand. Two gold foil pieces decorated with welded gold beads have been found at Liaowei M14 and Huancheng Zhuanchang M1. The piece from the Liaowei M14 tomb, which is 2.1 cm long and 0.4 cm wide, was originally part of the inlay of the wooden handle of a sword. The production process of this type of ornament was very complex and used superior techniques: first the gold had to be hammered into a thin foil no thicker than 0.1 cm, then a small hook was used to draw an outline on the foil. Next small globules were made through the high-temperature-fusing of small pieces of gold wire, which were then soldered on the gold foil. More than 200 small beads of different sizes can be seen on each piece: the biggest ones having a diameter of 0.74 mm, the medium ones having a diameter of 0.25 mm, and the smallest ones having a diameter of 0.1 mm. The finished piece is remarkable and is hard to distinguish from present-day microscopic carvings. In addition, for the production of other special

6.3 Lustrous Pearls, Glass, and Rare Stones

1) Huangnigang M1

179

2) Pingtiancun Gongsuo M9

4) Jiuzhiling M6A

3) Di’er Mafangchang M27

5) Beichajiang Yandui M4

6) Beichajiang Yandui M1

7) Liaowei M14

Fig. 6.16 Gold Ornaments

types of golden beads, such as welded olive-shaped beads and cord-shaped flatround beads, filigree and welding techniques were used. Bai Yunxiang’s study of the golden bubble-shaped ornaments uncovered in the Nanyue Royal Tomb, has revealed that cast molding and forging were popular production methods during the pre-Qin periods, and that cast molding and engraving was used to accomplish ornamental motifs [16]. It should be noted that gold ornaments made with filigree and welding techniques appeared rather suddenly and might have been overseas goods. Polyhedral beads, in particular, have not been found in the Han capital or its surrounding areas, as well as along the Overland Silk Road. They only appear in China’s southern and

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eastern coastal areas. Therefore, they were most likely imported from oversea areas. The technique of polyhedral-bead-welding can be traced to the west and probably originated from Mycenae, a major center of ancient Greece. It might have spread from east to west, starting from the Mediterranean, over the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, until reaching the South China Sea. Nonetheless when we compare the overall appearance of the polyhedral beads found in Hepu several dissimilarities with those of Ancient Greece can be observed. Beads discovered in India and Southeast Asia, on the contrary, bear a closer resemblance. Although the other types of golden beads mentioned above have not been unearthed in Southeast Asia, South Asia, and the Mediterranean region, production methods used for creating these types of beads can be traced back to these regions. Cen Rui believes that polyhedral beads were introduced in China no earlier than the beginning years of the Eastern Han Dynasty [17]. While the polyhedral beads excavated from Huangnigang M1 are dated to the Early Eastern Han Period, all other beads were found in Late Eastern Han tombs. One exception is the bead found at Beichajiang Yandui M1, which is earlier than the Late Western Han Period. This tomb has a wooden coffin and was excavated in February 1978. It contained 104 grave goods, including glass, agate, carnelian, amber, and turquoise ornaments. Other gold ornaments are rarely found. For instance, bi-conical beads and flat round beads were found among a group of jade ornaments in the Nanyue Royal Tomb; one bi-conical bead was unearthed at the Late Western Han site Gejiuhei Shejing no. 18; and four club-shaped beads and one biconical bead were found in the Late Western Han tomb Yaozhiling no. 2 in Yongzhou, Hunan province (bordering Guangxi). While biconical beads have been excavated at the Prohear site in Cambodia, olive-shaped beads have been found at sites in Thailand. However, these types of beads, as well as gourd-shaped oblate beads, were often made of other materials and are overseas objects that are sparsely seen in north China. Nonetheless, these beads have a simple shape and we cannot exclude that they were locally produced. Finally, more than ten rings, belonging to the bulged-ring-surface-type, have been unearthed at the Hepu Han tombs. Since these rings differ considerably from rings found north of Guangxi, their origin is hard to determine. They do show similarities with inlayed rings from Western regions, and might be local imitations of these types of rings. Finally, it should be mentioned that the bubble-shaped golden ornaments and silver box engraved with petal patterns found in the Nanyue Royal tomb in Guangzhou (dated to the Early Western Han Period) appeared before the flourishing of the sea routes. This indicates that these artifacts, as well as other gold ornaments, might have been transported overland. 7. Turquoise Turquoise was one of the traditional gemstones cherished in ancient China. Already widely used for the production of ornaments during the Neolithic period, during the Han Dynasty, turquoise was used to craft life-like, animal-shaped objects. One beautiful example is the ‘mother pigeon who is feeding its child’-ornament found at the Tushan Han tomb No. 1 in Xuzhou, Jiangsu province in 1970. In the Hepu

6.3 Lustrous Pearls, Glass, and Rare Stones

1) Beichajiang Yandui M1

181

2) Wenchangta Zishengcang M1

3) Tuguiling Qichichang M17 Fig. 6.17 Turquoise Ornaments

tombs, life-like animal turquoise figurines, such as sheep and pigeons have also been discovered. For instance, sheep-shaped beads at Biechajiang Yandui M1 (Fig. 6.17: 1), and pigeon-shaped beads at Wenchangta Zishengcang M1 (Fig. 6.17: 2), Tuguiling Qichichang M17 (Fig. 6.17: 3) and Fengmenling M26. These beads are about 1.3 cm long and 1 cm high. They are made of pure turquoise and are polished. Turquoise mines are located in China, Iran, Egypt, America and Russia. In China turquoise ores are mainly situated in Hubei, Henan, and Shaanxi province. The turquoise mines in Yungang district and Zhushan County, Shiyan city, in Hubei province, followed by the Baihe and Ankang mines in Shaanxi Province, and the Xinjiang and Anhui mines are the most famous turquoise mines. Moreover, as has been noted by Su Bai, normal turquoise was usually mined in the Yunxian County of Hubei province, but the beautiful, high-quality, azure-green turquoise comes from the Samarkand area in Uzbekistan; the northeast regions of Afghanistan; and especially from the northern region of Iran, which is famous for its turquoise mining [18]. Thus, considering the glass objects and other distinctive objects that have been excavated at the Beichajiang Yandui M1, the Tuguiling Qichichang M17, and the Wenchangta Zichengcang M1 tombs, it seems likely that these animal-shaped turquoise beads were imported from the Persian Empire. 8. Copper Beads with Gold Foil At the Jiuzhiling M5 tomb, one copper bead, with a diameter of 0.6 cm, wrapped in gold foil has been found. An important innovation within the glass-making-craft during the Hellenistic period (third century BC until the first century AD) was the wrapping of colorless and transparent drawn glass beads in pieces of gold foil.

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Initially this technique was only applied on individual glass beads, but in later periods sections of beads were also wrapped. These types of wrapped gold beads have been discovered at a glass workshop, dated to the third century BC, on Rhodes Island in Greece. Moreover, they were very popular in the Mediterranean region of the Roman Empire. Chemical testing of the bead found at Jiuzhiling has revealed the presence of antimony and arsenic, which indicates a close relationship with West Asia and the Middle East. 9. Incense According to our incomplete statistics 54 incense burners have been found at the Hepu Han tombs: 33 of these are made of ceramics and 21 are made of bronze. Usually, one tomb contains one piece; however, there are exceptions, such as Wangniuling M1 and Fengmenling M26 where two bronze incense burners have been unearthed. Also, at the looted Liaowei tomb M14B, two ceramic and one bronze incense burners have been discovered. Bronze incense burners appeared rather early and are mostly ubiquitous in tombs of the Late Western Han Dynasty, such as Beichajiang Yandui M1. Inside the incense burners, remains of incense have been found, such as charcoal sticks inside a ceramic burner from the Fengmenling M24B (Fig. 6.18), and some remains of incense and ashes at Tangpai M2B. In the Central Plain region of China, incense burners appeared much later than in the southern areas, which indicates that the custom of using incense spread gradually from south to north China. High quality incense was most likely imported to China via the South China Sea [19] and research has shown that during the Han Dynasty Borneo camphor incense was produced in Sumatra, Malaysia, Borneo, and Persia, and probably reached China from here. The Shiji further states that “Panyu is one of the important centers for pearls, rhinoceros’ horn, tortoise shell, fruit, and cloth”. The Shiji’s standard commentaries by Pei Yin, the so-called ‘collected explanations’ (jijie 集解), states that “Fruit means longan and lychee, (and) cloth means hemp cloth”. Longan and lychees were difficult to transport, and hemp was a common good. It seems, thus, that there was no need for importing fruits and cloths. Borneo incense, on the other hand, was both highly valued, and was part of superstitious

Fig. 6.18 Remains of incense and ceramic incense burner (Fengmenling M24B)

6.4 Non-trade Goods

183

beliefs during the Han Dynasties [20]. When we consider the overseas trade and transportation conditions of that time, it is assumable that the incense found in Hepu came from Southeast Asia. In addition, the widespread appearance and popularity of incense burners indicates that the use of incense was a normal practice in Hepu during the Han dynasty.

6.4 Non-trade Goods Non-trade goods refer to objects that were not part of the normal set of trade commodities. They were mostly daily utensils carried by traders or objects that were abandoned or gifted in local areas, such as Han-period ceramics or seals found at the Malay-Thai peninsula. The main non-trade goods that have been found at Hepu are a Persian ceramic pot and a bronze cymbal. These have not been discovered in other areas in China and therefore they are considered as non-trade goods that were brought along with other trade goods. These two artifacts have been unearthed from Liaowei M13B, which is a joint-husband/wife-burial (of the different-pit-same-burial-type). The mound of this tomb is 1.6 meters high and has a diameter of 47 cm. The A and B pit are arranged parallel from each other within a distance of 3.5 meters. Tomb M13 B can be categorized as a Zhuangkuang tomb, and has four brick-paved walls covered by a wooden roof. The actual tomb is divided into two parts, the tomb passage and tomb chamber, and measured 21.86 meters in total. The tomb passage is 14.76 meters long and 1.8 meters wide. The tomb chamber is 7.1 meters long and 4.35 meters wide. The tomb had been seriously damaged by tomb robbers who were able to reach the bottom of the tomb. Fortunately, however, most of the grave goods remained undisturbed in a corner at the back of the tomb. Around the tomb chamber and entrance of the tomb passage a total of 30 symmetric postholes can be seen. These are most likely remains of temporary structures used while constructing the tomb. The tomb entrance had been filled with several layers of stamped earth. The bricks inside the tomb had been fired at a high temperature and displayed careful masonry techniques, such thick and neatly paved floor tiles arranged in a herringbone pattern. The appearance of such a complex and lavish tomb during the Eastern Han Dynasty (a period in which the ‘elaborate funeral’ custom was waning) is quite rare. Therefore, the owners of this tomb were most likely officials or wealthy merchants. (1) The Persian Pot The ceramic pot has a handle, and before being covered by a green low-temp glaze, it had a yellow and white body. It has a smooth surface, was fired at a low temperature, and is covered with a cracked green glaze. The pot also bears visible traces of fingerprints made by the craftsman. The pot has an open mouth with a rounded lip and a v-shaped everted rim. It has a long neck and oval waist, with a short round ring foot. From the neck until the waist, it has a bend handle, which is decorated with two raised ridges. The shoulder part is decorated with two rows of broad lines. It has a mouth diameter of 8.2 cm, a base diameter of 10.8 cm, and waist diameter of 19.2 cm.

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The whole pot is 34.4 cm high (Fig. 6.19: 1). This is a typical glazed ceramic pot of the Parthian Empire: the mouth of this pot has a flaring rim and a spout, a long neck and bulbous body, one single handle at its shoulder, and a ring foot. Similar types of ceramic pots are displayed in the collections of the British Museum and Louvre. Archaeologists believe that these pots were made in present-day south Iraq or south Iran. Moreover, the ceramic pot found at Hepu is very similar in shape, production techniques, and glaze to the pottery of the Parthian empire. This type of pottery, also called ‘Persian pottery’, is mainly excavated at the Seleucia site near the Tigris in Iraq (Fig. 6.19: 2). Recent tests have also shown that the chemical composition of the green glaze of the Liaowei pot is not the same as the glaze used in ancient China, but came from a completely different tradition. In particular, the lower firing temperature and higher water absorption rate of this glass are distinctive. The pot’s glaze did also not contain lead trace elements, and used sodium-oxide as a flux, while the Han Dynasty was renowned for lead-oxide-flux glaze. The ceramic pot found at the Seleucia site was excavated from layer 1 and 2, dated to the period 43 until 200 AD, and coinciding with the latter stage of the chronology of Liaowei M13B. These types of pots have been discovered along the sea route between Hepu and West Asia. For instance, in the earliest layers of the Pattanam site (3rd century BC– 5th century AD), in Kerala at the southwest Indian coast, several pottery sherds have been found. This port is thought to have been Muziris, one of legendary ports of the Spice Route to Rome. The large amount ceramic Persian pots dated to the second century AD that have been unearthed at the Tissamaharama site in Sri Lanka also testify to trade activities between the Mesopotamian valleys and the Indian Ocean. Some of these pots resemble the low-temp and green-glazed pot found at Hepu.

1) Pot excavated at Liaowei 13B Fig. 6.19 Persian pots

2) Pot excavated at the Seleucia Site in Iraq

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Finally, ceramic remains have been excavated at the Phu Khao Thong site, located at the west bank of the Kra Ishtmus in the Thai-Malay peninsula. These discoveries assist us with the reconstruction of the general transmission route of the Persian pot, as well as the extensive Sino-western trade network, which connected the Tonkin Gulf, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and West Asia. The Persian pot unearthed from Liaowei M13B is the earliest of its kind found in China. It is, therefore, of significance for the study of the exact time frame during which this pot was imported, as well as the reconstruction of the general pattern of cultural exchange between Han-period China and West Asia. Previous discoveries of Persian ceramics can be dated to the much later Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties, such as the Islamic, peacock-blue, glazed double-eared pot that was unearthed in 1965 at the Motor Repair Shop site in Chengnan, Yangzhou city. In Guilin and Yulin ceramic sherds dated to the Tang Dynasty have also been found. These ceramics are thin at the shoulder and thicken at the belly. They have light beige walls, a fine and compact texture, a high-water absorption degree, and are glazed on the in- and outside. The outer glaze is peacock-blue, while the individual pieces appear green and are all cracked. The glaze on the inside of the vessel is lake-blue. When we consider the shape and production methods of these pots, the Persian pot of Liaowei undoubtedly originated from the same ceramic tradition. (2) The Bronze Cymbal Although both sides had been slightly bent due to the pressure of the earth, the bronze cymbal was excavated complete and with clearly visible decorative patterns (Fig. 6.20). It has a diameter of 18.6 cm and a thickness of 0.2 cm. While the front side is undecorated, the back side is covered by dense and intricate patterns. The back side has a central, half-circular knob which is decorated with a central small circle surrounded by a larger double-lined persimmon pattern and a smaller persimmon pattern. Both of the persimmon patterns do not touch. Four symmetrical holes can be seen in the knob: two of these are almost circular, and two are almost square. Most of the remaining surface of the back side is decorated with a large, doublelined persimmon pattern. Around the knob there is a series of diamond patterns, and within each section of the persimmon, symmetrical patterns made up of twirling, floating clouds, a double-line rhombus, and a winged S-shaped floating-cloud motif can be seen. At the edge of the cymbal four more sections can be distinguished. One section is decorated with a single dragon. The next section contains two facing dragons and a toad. The toad seems to be holding the beards of both dragons. On the other two sections a man controlling a dragon can be seen. The man seems to have the body of a bird, and has feathers on his head and shoulders. The rest of his body is thin and naked, and only one of his feet is visible. The dragon opens its mouth, and has whiskers, horns, ears, wings, and scales on its back. It seems to be running. Although cymbals were often used as pairs, during the excavation of Liaowei M13B, only one cymbal was found. Moreover, due to the specific excavation conditions the presence of a second object can with certainty be excluded. This disc-shaped cymbal with a flat surface is distinctive because it has no resonance chamber and an unusual perforation. Usually, cymbals would have one small, central hole that could

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Fig. 6.20 Bronze cymbal (Liaowei M13B)

be tied with a silk ribbon, this object, however, has four holes. Besides this, it is decorated with a dense and complex pattern, while later cymbals had minimal and simple decorations. Zhou Jingbao has noted the existence of single cymbals that were struck with a stick to produce sounds [21]. Although there are no additional references or material examples to support this statement, it does provide us with a point to ponder. Moreover, the following features: its typical knob, perforations that can be used for tying, a surface that can be struck, and patterns, including feathered figures, are all in line with the ritual function of cymbal instruments. Therefore, we believe that this object is indeed a musical instrument belonging to the category of single-piece cymbals. The Japanese scholar, Hayashi Kenzoro, has noted that cymbals firstly originated in Western Asia, after which they made an early appearance in Egypt and Syria [22]. Eventually they became widespread in Persia and Rome. According to Chinese historical chronicles the cymbal was introduced to China as late as the Northern Dynasties, and entered China, in particular the Wuwei region in Gansu, from India via overland routes. Since the cymbal found at Liaowei does not resemble any artifacts found in Central and West Asia, we can only use its decoration to determine its origin. The patterns on the bronze cymbal are common in Lingnan during the Late Western Han and Eastern Han Period. Decorative elements, such as persimmons, feathered figures, winged dragons, and toads, are also often seen on bronzes, stone reliefs, and painted bricks of the Han Dynasty. However, the individual segments of the decoration, as well as the ways these are combined on the cymbal, are very distinctive and hint towards foreign cultural elements. Persimmon patterns are often

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seen on engraved bronze tripod trays, boxes, flasks, zun vessels and mirrors. Mostly they are rather small and centrally located on the object or the knob of an object. The persimmon pattern on the cymbal differs slightly from this general trend: the pattern is bigger, double-lined, and is combined with rolling-cloud- and winged designs. Although persimmons are often thought to be a traditional Chinese pattern, in reality, this pattern was derived from lotus and pomegranate patterns used on bronze vessels in Iran around 1000 BC. After this design entered China, it gained popularity in the western area. Additionally, the double-line rhombus pattern that can be seen on the outside circle of the cymbal was also inspired by the favorite symbol of the Persian Imperial family [23]. When considering the style of the winged dragons, of all the dragon patterns that can be dated to the Han Dynasty, only one resembles this to some degree. This is the dragon design found in the Eastern Han tomb Yingchengzi no. 2 in Jinxian, Liaoning province. The prototype of this pattern can also be found in the ancient Chaldean Culture: the dragon has four feet, a scaled body, and two wings. The two-winged figures on the back of the dragon show similarities with those on the bronze drum discovered at Shizhaishan no. 1: the figures are small with a human head and a beast body with back wings. Winged figures, also called ‘feixiang’ (飞仙), are a common design in Han Dynasty art. The cultural connotations hidden within the image of the feathered figures are quite complex and divers, but definitely hint towards mythical creatures often seen in decoration patterns of West Asia. The toad motive, on the other hand, is a standard element in Chinese mythology and is often used within the painting art of the Han Dynasty. It refers to the palace of the Queen mother of the west (xiwangmu). Moreover, the Kunlun Mountains, where the Queen mother originally lived, were located near the border of Central Asia, and included the Karakoram Mountains and the Ali Plateau in present-day southwest Xinjiang. To further explore the origin of the bronze cymbal we have selected a bronze incense burner, excavated from the same tomb, for comparative composition analysis. This has revealed that the silicon (Si) and calcium (Ca) content might have been the result of the soil of the burial. The arsenic (As), however, with an average value of 1.23 wt. %, probably originated from a copper ore or from a symbiotic component of lead and tin. The incense burner, on the contrary, did not reveal any arsenic content during the test, which means it did not contain any arsenic or that the arsenic content was lower than can be detected. Although we cannot determine the exact origin of the arsenic ore, the fact that arsenic was present in this object is of great interest. Arsenic copper firstly appeared in Western Asia at the beginning of the fourth millennium BC, and became the dominant copper mix used in many regions in Mesopotamia and Central Asia during the third millennium BC. Also of significance is that in the first half of the second millennium BC, a center of arsenic and copper production had been formed in the Urals mountains of the central Eurasian Steppe. This stimulated an eastward spread of arsenic copper. In China the use of arsenic copper was centered in northwest Gansu and Xinjiang. Sporadic evidence of its use is also found in Inner Mongolia, Beijing, Henan and Qinghai. At Hepu evidence of arsenic has been found after the analysis of a gold-wrapped copper bead found in Jiuzhiling M5. This bead has an arsenic content of 3.96 wt.% and is thought to be a Central Asian bead that was imported via India. Thus, the use of arsenic copper was concentrated in

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northwest China along the overland Silk Road, and its appearance in Hepu, a port of the Maritime Silk Road, may be related to the westward spread of arsenic copper. It is clear that studying the chemical composition of bronze objects provides us with important and additional insights about the source of the bronze cymbal. To conclude, both the intricate multi-layered decoration patterns and the distinctive chemical components of the bronze cymbal found at Hepu highlight the foreign cultural character of this object. The placement of the Persian pot, the cymbal, and agates beads in one section within the tomb, was also not random. Du You’s Encyclopedic History of Institutions (tongdian) gives another hint towards the origin of cymbals, and stated that cymbals were widely used “from the Xirong until the Southern Barbarians.” Therefore, we believe that the bronze cymbal and Persian pot had the same origin and were imported from West Asia over the Maritime Silk Road. If this is correct, these are the oldest objects of its kind found in China, and their significance for the study of the history of ancient musical instruments and cultural exchanges between China and the West cannot be underestimated.

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16. Yunxiang, B. (2005). Archaeological study of iron Objects of the pre-Qin and Han Dynasties. Science Press. 17. Cen, R. (1990). Discussion on the use and origin of multi-faceted gold beads in Tombs of the Eastern Han, Wei and Jin Dynasties. Archaeology and Cultural Relics, (3). 18. Su, B. (2012). Archaeological discoveries and Sino-Western cultural exchange (p. 14). Cultural Relics Press. 19. Sun, J. (1991). Illustrations of the material culture of the Han Dynasty (p. 135). Cultural Relics Press. 20. Huaizhun, H. (1941). Investigation of Borneo Incense. Journal of the South Seas Society, 2(1), 3–19. Ed. South Seas Society. 21. Jingbao, Z. (2012). Bronze cymbals of the silk road. Musical Instruments, 3, 72–75. 22. Hayashi, K. (1962). An examination of East Asian Musical instruments (p. 27). People’s Music Publishing House. 23. Shen, F. (1998). Cultural exchange between China, West Asia and Africa (pp. 67–77). Shanghai People’s Press.

Chapter 7

Multicultural Elements in the Hepu Han Tombs

When Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty pacified Lingnan and introduced the commandery-district system, a large number of Han people immigrated from the Central Plain region to Hepu. A strong influx of Han elements rapidly spread inside the Hepu region. As a result, local people became gradually “hanicized” (hanhua) and Han culture became the dominant cultural system. However, at the same time, Hepu retained close contacts with other neighboring regions. Moreover, distinctive cultural elements in some of the tombs hint towards the influence of the following three cultural systems: the Nanyue culture with its center in the Pearl River Delta; the Wuyue culture of the Zhejiang region; and the Chu culture of the Hunan and Hubei region. Additionally, Hepu became a major port and witnessed the opening of China to foreign countries during the Han Dynasty. The different cultural elements that entered China overseas collided at times with local cultural systems, but more often they intermixed, hereby shaping a pluralistic society in Han Dynasty Hepu.

7.1 Cultural Elements of the Luoyue and Nanyue Historical chronicles state that: “the distance between Jiaozhi and Huiji is between 7000 and 8000 li, the Baiyue coexist (here), and each have (their own) family name” and “present-day Cangwu, Yulin, Hepu, Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen, Nanhai, and Rinan, (are) all part of the Yue region.” From this we know that Hepu was part of the seven commanderies in Lingnan, and was a settlement area of Yue people during the Han Dynasty. Moreover, in the ‘Later Book of the Han’, Yue people are often referred to as “barbarians” (manyi) and “Wuhu barbarians” (wuhu man). For instance, “In the third year of yuanchu, the barbarians of Cangwu, Yulin and Hepu revolted …”, “In the spring of the first month of the guangheyuan year, (there was) a revolt of the Wuhu barbarians in Hepu and Jiaozhi”. The Baiyue ethnic groups can be divided into Wuyue, Nanyue, Xi’ou and Luoyue. Based on textual research, Hepu belonged to the territory of the Luoyue ethnic group, © Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House 2022 Z. Xiong and X. Fu, Hepu Han Tombs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4660-8_7

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before the Qin and Han Dynasties came to power. However, to date no archaeological remains of this period have been found at Hepu. Early Western Han tombs or Nanyue Period tombs, have been discovered during the excavation of the Wenchangta tombs in 1987–1988. In total there were 34 A-type narrow pit burial tombs of this period. These are rather small with a simple layout and few burial goods, mainly composed of ceramics, such as weng vessels, guan vessels, double-eared guan vessels, joined guan vessels, bu pots, gourd-shaped pots, tripod guan vessels, tripod boxes and containers. A small number of artifacts displaying Han cultural elements, as well as regional characteristics, such as ding vessels, boxes, hu pots, and fang vessels were found. Similar types of tombs have also been discovered in the Guangzhou region, and are believed to belong to local people. After the district-commandery system was implemented in Hepu during the Middle Western Han Period, a large number of Han people from the Central Plain immigrated to Hepu and brought with them advanced cultural elements. Although, the local Yue people gradually became hanicised under the influence of the Han cultural system, some Luo cultural elements were still visible in regional tomb structure and burial customs. For instance, during the excavation of six Late Western Han tombs at the Wenchangta burial complex in 2005, it was observed that the ceramic assemblages were mainly composed of weng, guan and hu pots. Moreover, in the back of the tomb chamber of tomb no. 2 there were three irregular piles of stones. This method of stacking stones has also been observed in the Pre-Qin Yuanlongpo tomb in Matou, Wuming County, and seems to have been an important feature of the burial customs of the Luoyue people. Besides this, there are Hepu Han tombs that contain deliberately broken grave goods, such as the Late Western Han Tugiling Qichichang M9 and 1M1, and Erpaochang M4. Similarly, the grave goods in Qichichang M9 and M11 were broken and spread over several locations far apart from each other. They most likely were placed there after being deliberately broken. Inside Erpaochang M4 only one small piece belonging to a bronze mirror was recovered. The practice of deliberately breaking grave goods already appeared in prehistoric burials, and became widespread in the regions inhabited by Yue people during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and the Qin and Han Dynasties. This practice was also present in the Yuanlongpo tomb, in which deliberately broken grave goods were buried inside the earth filling or under the tomb. In other Han tombs in Guangxi, it has been observed at the Datangcheng tomb in Guiping and the Fenghuangling tomb in Hezhou. Apart from the impact of the Native Luoyue ethnic groups, elements from the Nanyue culture are also obvious in the Hepu Han tombs. The word ‘Nanyue’ appears during the Han Dynasty and refers to the Yue people who settled the Pearl River Delta. Hepu was close to this region and shared certain practices, such as the geometricstamped and inscribed ceramics, and especially the geometric and seal-stamped pattern. The typical combination of weng and guan vessels is also frequently seen in both Hepu and Guangzhou Tombs dated to the Western Han Period. Also, distinctive Yue-style artefacts, such as five-joined guan vessels, containers, gourd-shaped pots, bu pots, tripod boxes, tripod guan vessels and gui vessels (Fig. 7.1), are very similar to artefacts unearthed at the Guangzhou Han Tombs. Moreover, the large number of Nanyue-style objects placed in the Early Period tombs of the Wenchangta tomb

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complex, also testifies to the strong influence of the Nanyue cultural elements on early Western Han Hepu. After the Middle Western Han Period, however, the presence of Nanyue cultural elements decreased, and especially tripod boxes, tripod guan vessels, and bu pots became less common. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, combinations of weng and guan vessel, as well as double-eared guan vessels became rare, and linked guan vessels disappear completely. Gourd-shaped pots are still sparsely seen during the Early Period and containers became part of the spirit goods category. Finally, some special burial customs, such as tombs with shelved wooden coffins popular in Lingnan during the Warring States, Qin, and Han Periods, also provide us with clues about the tomb owner’s ethnic identity. These tombs have been commonly found in the Guangdong region. One tomb of this type has been discovered at Hepu: The Muzhuling tomb. This is further evidence of the close relationship between Han-period Hepu and the Nanyue.

7.2 Cultural Elements of the Wuyue Although there exist big differences between the tomb structures of the Hepu Han Tombs and Han Tombs of the Zhejiang region, the two mounted tombs unearthed in Hepu indicate a close relationship between the two regions during the Qin and Early Han Period. For instance, the construction method and the grave goods of Shuangfendun no. 2 are very similar to mounted tombs of the same/earlier period discovered in Zhejiang. Mounted tombs represent a unique burial custom that was popular in the Wuyue region during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties and that was widespread within present-day southern Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and southern Anhui. Originally mounted burials were thought to be burials with an elevated earthen mound and no burial pit, but recent research has revealed that all mounted tombs contained a burial pit. This burial custom originated from the Songze Culture and stayed in use until the Han Dynasty. Although most of the mounted tombs have a pit made of shallow, mellow earth, a number of pits are deep and contain layers of stamped earth. These types of burials are called ‘vertical pit burials’ and appeared later than the shallow-earth-type. Three tombs of Shuangfendun M2 belong to this earlier type. The prototypes of the ceramic bu pots and cups (Fig. 7.2) excavated from Shuangfendun no. 2 can be traced back to the Zhejiang mounted tombs. These tombs probably belonged to Yue people and their descendants who left Zhejiang and fled southwards to Guangxi due to war or other factors. The route they took probably went through south Zhejiang, along the Fujian coast, after which they entered Guangdong or Guangxi. This southward migration route has been verified by numerous archaeological discoveries and studies. For instance, along the Fujian coast mounted tombs have been discovered, and in Guangdong and Guangxi (in particular Guiping) burial pits suspected to be mounted tombs have also been found. In addition, Liu Po has divided bronze weapons dated to the Eastern Zhou Period and found within Guangxi and Guangdong, into two groups: rectangular-socket axes and battle-axes, and oval-socket axes and battle-axes. He further argues that some of the

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1) Five-joined Guan Vessel (Wenchangta M195)

2) Container (Tuguiling Qichichang M9)

3) Gourd-shaped pot (Tangpai M2A)

4) Bu Pot (Wenchangta M78)

5) Tripod Box (Wenchangta M63)

6) Tripod Guan Vessel (Wenchangta M63)

7) Gui Vessel (Liaowei M13B)

Fig. 7.1 Nanyue-style Ceramics Unearthed in the Hepu Han Tombs

rectangular- socket weapons originated from the Wuyue culture in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River and indicate the southward movement of the Yue people. Zheng Xiaolu, on the other hand, has studied so-called ‘weight objects’ (zhen 镇) found in the Wuyue and Baiyue areas, and argues that after the Yue State was defeated by the Chu State, these weights were carried to western Guangdong by the Wuyue people. He further stresses that the migratory movement of the Yue people towards Lingnan took place after the Late Spring and Autumn Period, and especially during the Middle Warring States Period. Two migratory pathways can be distinguished: an overland route that ran through Zhejiang and Jiangxi, crossed the mountains of South Jiangxi and the Wuling mountains in central Guangdong, and then entered

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other regions; and a second, more commonly-used route that reached Guangdong and Guangxi through southern Zhejiang and the coasts of Fujian. Comparing the mounted tombs from both areas, it seems obvious that during the Early Migration Period the unique tomb structure of the mounted tomb was continued. This is also illustrated by the distinctive Yue elements of the Zhejiang region that dominate the burial goods and the burial structure of Shuangfendun M2. Moreover, despite accelerating processes of cultural fusion and hanification, it seems that the practice of mounted tombs remained popular. However, during the Middle Western Han Period, big changes were underway and a fusion of different cultural elements was taking place. The burial good assemblage of Shuanfendun M1, for instance, testifies to this trend. As a result, the mounted burials, representing the Yue culture of Zhejiang, are deeply impacted by Han culture and local Yue culture, and Han-style objects appear next to Yue objects. Although the mound-structure and some artifacts, such as the ceramic cups of Shuangfendun M1, continue to resemble Shuangfendun M2, new additions are ceramic, open mouth, geometric-stamped weng vessels produced in the Lingnan region, and ceramic bowls and bronze axes often seen in the Central Plain area. This clearly indicates that during this period Han culture had already infiltrated Hepu.

7.3 Cultural Elements of the Han In the Central Plain area, the distribution of Han tombs was mainly concentrated in Luoyang. Numerous tombs with different layouts have been discovered distributed along the areas of western Shandong, Sanmenxia, the Shijiazhuang and Taiyuan region, and Nanyang. Some of the tomb structures and grave goods found in the Hepu Han tombs can be traced back to Central Plain prototypes, which indicates that these tombs originated and developed under the influence of the Central Plain region. These Han elements reached Hepu directly or indirectly through the Chu area. The wooden coffin tombs with a horizontal pit and sloped passage, popular during the Middle Western Han Period in Hepu, were already widely used during the Shang and Zhou Periods in the Central Plain. For instance, at Xiaotun, Hougang, Dasikongcun, and Liujiazhuang in the Yinxu area, wooden coffin tombs with one, two or four sloped passages have been discovered. In particular during the Western Zhou Dynasty these types of burial structures were common among the large-scale tombs in the Central Plain. During the Late Warring States Period, the Central Plain area starts to replace wooden construction materials for hollow bricks, and during the Western Han Dynasty hollow-brick tombs became popular. However, although the Chu area received considerable influence from the Central Plain Area during the late Warring States Period, they continued to build pit burials with sloped passages. Moreover, this burial custom was not limited to large-scale burials, but was also used for medium and small-scale burials. Wooden coffin burials, therefore, remained in vogue in the Chu area during the Western Han Dynasty, and entered Lingnan from this area. During the Early Eastern Han Period small-scale, vaulted brick-chamber

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Fig. 7.2 Wuyue-style Ceramics of Zhejiang Unearthed at Shuangfendun M2

1) Cerami Bu Pot (D2M2: 1)

2) Ceramic Cup (D2M3: 1)

3) Ceramic Cup (D2M4: 1)

4) Ceramic Cup (D2M3: 5)

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tombs started to appear in Hepu. Moreover, during the Middle Western Han Period, this type of burials, also called ‘small-bricks, curved roof tombs’, could be seen in the Central Plain area. An example is tomb M3244, which was found in the west suburbs of Luoyang and which was characterized by a burial chamber with paved small bricks, a single-brick vaulted roof, and two side rooms made of earth. Besides this, vaulted, brick tombs commonly found at Hepu, and corbel-vaulted and horizontal vaulted tombs also appeared during the Late Eastern Han Period. These two types emerged earlier in the Central Plain area: single corbel-vaulted tombs appeared during the Early Eastern Han Period, and double corbel-vaulted tombs and brick chamber tombs with horizontal fore-chambers appeared during the Middle Eastern Han Period. Therefore, many of the layouts of the brick-chamber tombs in Hepu originate from the Central Plain area. Nonetheless, some small differences can be observed, for instance the tomb passage of brick-chamber tombs in the Central Plain were mostly vertical shafts, and some tombs had steps in front of their passage. At Hepu, however, most brick-chamber tombs displayed a sloping tomb passage. This feature was prevalent during earlier periods in the Central Plain and Chu areas. Burial customs, such as external burial pits and joint burials, also might have originated from the Central Plain area. External pits developed from niches and sacrificial pits for horses and carriages which were built outside the main tomb during the late Shang period. Examples are Wuguancun no. 1 in Anyang and Houjiazhuang no. 101. During the Late Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period external burial pits appeared. A small number of Late Western Han and Early Eastern Han tombs at Hepu have an external burial pit which is similar in shape to the Central Plain ones. These are usually situated at the bottom of the tomb passage or at one side of the auxiliary rooms and do not contain remains of human sacrifices. Instead, these pits represent stables or kitchens. Already during the Zhou Dynasty joint burials with different pits (and combined pits) appeared. An example is the Xingcun tomb complex, dated to the Western Zhou until Early Eastern Zhou Period, of which M17, M5, M1, and M6 tombs were vertical, wooden coffin and joint burials with combined pits. These tombs stand side by side within a distance of six meters. During the Warring States Period the number of joint burials with different pits increases and during the Western Han Dynasty they became mainstream. During the Middle Western Han Period this burial structure evolved into the category of same-pit joint burials. In Hepu the practice of joint burials is widespread, but, in contrast to the Central Plain, different-pit-burials are more common and same-pit-burials are rare. In addition, there are also remains of family burials, which were popular in the Central Plain during the Late Middle Eastern Han Period, found at Hepu. For instance, among the three tombs found at Muzhuling in 1996, M4 and M5 are positioned parallel to each other. Muzhuling M4, dated to the Late Western Han Period, contained the ‘Huang Ying’ (黄营) seal, while M6 contained another seal inscribed with ‘黄良 私’ (Huang Liang si yin, meaning ‘Personal Seal of Huang Liang’). Archaeologists, therefore, believe that this tomb complex belonged to a family who shared the last name ‘Huang’. Finally, certain ceramic goods, bronze goods, and burial assemblages of the Hepu Han tombs are similar to those of the Central Plain area. During the Middle Western

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Han, miniature spirit good assemblages, composed out of wells, granaries and ovens, started to appear in Hepu. These types of objects have also been unearthed from Central Plain tombs of the same or earlier periods, and in particular the rectangular ovens of both areas seem to be almost identical. However, there is an obvious difference between the house-shaped granaries of Hepu and the round, cylindrical granaries typical of the Central Plain. This is probably due to diverging local conditions. Typical assemblage of ding vessels, dun (敦) boxes, and hu pots made of ceramics, frequently seen in the Central Plain, are also found in Hepu, although often incomplete. In addition, new objects, such as bronze incense burners, axes, cauldrons, steamers, he (盉) and zun vessels, lamps, mirrors, spears and battle axes, can also be traced back to typical Central Plain objects. What’s more, during the Late Western Han Period, burial assemblages in Hepu become complete sets, mirroring burial assemblages of the Central Plain area. In particular, combinations of ceramic ding vessels, boxes, hu pots, and fang vessels are often found. This trend continues during the Eastern Han Dynasty, although the assemblages are not complete. Bronze mirrors, coins, and iron goods also resemble objects from the Central Plain. Thus, apart from a small number of locally produced Yue-style goods, it can be said that bronze and ceramic goods, such as long-necked hu pots, jiaohu pots, basins, trays, steamers, axes, kui basins, yi vessels, bowls, bo bowls, zun vessels, incense burners, lamps, spindle whorls, and round granaries, are very similar to those unearthed in the Central Plain area.

7.4 Cultural Elements of the Chu Besides the Han culture which was diffused from the Central Plain, Hepu was also impacted by the Chu culture. The Chu culture originated from a regional pre-Qin cultural system that was created by the people of the Chu State. After the Qin State destroyed the Chu State in 223 BC, the Chu cultural system did not completely disappear, but stayed alive and continued to exist for over a thousand years. The southern border of the Chu State reached the Nanling Mountains, followed the Xiangjiang River, and entered the Lishui Basin. The Chu culture would have a profound impact on the Lingnan region, and was indirectly responsible for introducing many Han cultural elements. Ingenious sealing methods were used in medium and large-scale wooden coffin tombs in the Hepu region during the Western Han Dynasty: many tombs were filled with a white clay paste, and the floor of some tombs was covered with a mixture of ash and sand to counter the effects of humidity. For instance, the pit of Wangniuling M1 was filled with alternating layers of the original sand and wooden ashes, the floor of the coffin room, on the other hand was paved with fine sand, ashes and yellow clay. More examples are Tangpai no 1, which was half filled with a stone and carbon deposit, Tangpai M3 whose coffin was paved with a green mud paste, and Fengmenling M26 whose coffin room was sealed with a white paste. These sealing methods were already popular in large-scale Chu tombs during the Early Western Han Period.

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During the Early Western Han Period, complete ceramic assemblages composed of ding vessels, boxes, hu pots and fang vessels, were placed in tombs in the Chu region. Although these ceramic assemblages also appeared in Hepu, they were usually incomplete; fang vessels and boxes were rare, and most tombs still contained ding vessels, boxes, hu pots and fang vessels made of bronze. The origin of these ceramic assemblages can be traced back to the Guangzhong area, which was part of the Chu State during the Late Spring and Autumn Period. Moreover, the use of ceramic spirit good assemblages became widespread during the Late Warring States Period. In Guangzhong they usually consisted of ding vessels, boxes, hu pots, and fang vessels, while in the Central Plain ding vessels and hu pots were combined with a special type of box, called dun. The ceramic assemblages of the Hepu Han Tombs are similar in style and feature the same combinations as those of the Late Warring states Period in the Chu area. They seem to have been largely influenced by the Chu. During the Late Eastern Han Period, some ceramic ding vessels and boxes can still be seen, but the largest number of ceramic objects were hu pots. This is also in line with developments in the Chu region. In the Central Plain area, however, these types of ceramic arrangements disappeared completely during the Eastern Han Dynasty. During the Late Western Han Period, burial goods made of steatite were popular in large and medium-scale Hepu tombs. Examples are Fengmenling M23, Tuguiling Qichichang M4, 11, and 19, and Tangpai M1 and M2A. The earliest steatite grave goods have been discovered inside tombs dated to the Middle Warring States Period in Changsha, Hunan province. During the Early Western Han Period this custom flourished and spread to neighboring regions. Moreover, the number and variety of steatite objects in other regions cannot be compared with the steatite tradition of the Hunan region. The steatite grave goods that appeared during the Late Western Han Period in Hepu might have appeared under the influence of the Hunan region. During this time, besides a small number of lacquered earcups, boxes, round cases (lian 奁), and basins, ceramic and steatite trays, earcups and other spirit goods also appeared. In the Chu area, however, many lacquered earcups, trays, and boxes have been excavated from large-scale tombs as early as the Early Western Han Period. This indicates that lacquerware objects and some ceramic objects in Hepu were also impacted by contacts with the Chu culture. In the Late Western Han Period ceramic spirit money has also been unearthed at Hepu, such as 400 ceramic wuzhu coins excavated from Tangpai M2B. Spirit money emerged in Changsha as early as the Early Western Han Period and became popular during the Middle and Late Western Han Periods. The previously mentioned ceramic beads and steatite bi-discs that have been unearthed at the Hepu Han tombs, also originated from the Chu area. In addition, several other artefacts can be traced back to the early period of the Chu culture and can be identified as Chu-style objects. Among these there is one type of ceramic guan vessel with a small mouth, constricted neck, bulbous body and a large, flat base. This type of vessel was found in the Early Western Han tomb, Yunmeng, in Hubei (Fig. 7.3: 4, 5) (In the original excavation report it has been described as a weng vessel). At Hepu one vessel was found at Tuguiling Qichichang M6 in 1999 (Fig. 7.3: 1) and Liaowei no. 16, and six vessels at Jiuzhiling M5 (Fig. 7.3: 2). Another type

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1) Tuguiling Qichichang M6: 1

2) Jiuzhiling M5: 32

3) Erpaochang M6: 50

4) Yunmeng M1: Headbox 22

5) Yunmeng M1: Headbox 48

6) Jingzhou M24: 1

Fig. 7.3 Comparison of Ceramic Guan Vessels Unearthed at Hepu and Hubei Han Tombs

with a round, bulbous base was discovered at Erpaochang M6 (Fig. 7.3: 3). This guan vessel is dated to the Early Eastern Han Period, and is similar to vessels (model A type I) found in Gaotaixi (Jingzhou, Hubei) dated to the Early Western Han (Fig. 7.3: 6). Additionally, Nanchu in the center of Changsha, was the key area for glass production in the Chu State. The shape, size, and decoration pattern of the bi-disc discovered in Hepu resembles the bi-discs found in Early Western Han tombs in Changsha. Sword scabbard slides are also often found inside Chu tombs in the Changsha area. Moreover, chemical analysis has revealed they are made of lead-barium glass, which was imported from the Chu region. Besides the previously described areas of influence, some cultural elements might have been introduced to Hepu from southwestern regions. For instance, some bronze axes and bronze cooking vessels (fuzeng 釜甑). These bronzes are also sometimes called big-mouth, double-eared, Ba-style axes, and Ba-style cooking vessels, and indicate the existence of close contacts between the southwestern areas (the Ba areas) and Hepu.

7.5 Foreign Cultural Elements With the opening of the Maritime Silk Road, Han-period Hepu became an important seaport for foreign trade, and with the intensification of foreign trade, more and more objects originating from Southeast Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, and Rome

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started to appear in tombs. At the same time, foreign technology and culture entered Hepu. Tomb structures and unearthed artefacts, have been impacted by these cultural elements. Important examples are corbel-vaulted roof tombs, Buddhist artifacts, and figurines representing foreigners. (1) Origin of the Corbel-vaulted-roof-tombs The earliest corbel-vaulted-roof-tombs in Lingnan have been discovered in Guangzhou and can be dated to the Middle Eastern Han Period. In Hepu they start to appear during the Late Eastern Han Period. These tombs have the following characteristics: they have a round upper section and square lower section, are constructed by laying stone bricks in a wedge-shape, and the shape of the external roof can be conical or half-circular. In the book ‘The Guangzhou Han Tombs’, Mai Yinghao was the first scholar to note the distinctiveness and construction method of these roofs: a corbel arch is constructed by laying stones at four sides in a circular course so that they meet at the apex and form a dome. He further argues that from an architectural point of view, corbel vaulted roofs are different from roofs made by layering bricks at four sides (simian heding 四面合顶) as is commonly seen in Han tombs in Luoyang and other regions. Moreover, except for Guangzhou, Foshan, Hepu (Fig. 7.4) and Guigang, this building style has never been seen in neighboring Hunan, Jiangxi, Fujian and other provinces. However, in Hongkong, Vietnam, and some other foreign regions, these corbel vaulted roofs have also been discovered. Therefore, it is important to study the origin of the corbel vaulted roof. Vaulted roof tombs in the Central Plain have the shape of four-sided domes and a square or rectangular ground plan. The roof and the walls of these tombs were built with interlocking small bricks, which would gradually come together, and which had wedge-shaped bricks at the four corners. Eventually four diagonal seams formed that would come together at the apex and were then sealed with two bricks. This type of four-sided vaulted roof was firstly seen in the Late Western Han tomb Shaogou no. 632 in Luoyang. In this tomb the passage had a vaulted roof. During the Eastern Han Dynasty the number of vaulted roof tombs in Luoyang increased considerably and two types can be distinguished: single-vaulted or double-vaulted roof tombs. In areas with many Han tombs, such as Gansu and Xi’an, the vaulted roof structure is similar to tombs found in Luoyang. Based on our current knowledge, only one tomb, namely the Middle Eastern Han tomb of Cigou in Xiangcheng city, Henan, displays a vaulted roof structure similar to the ones seen in Lingnan. A number of scholars have done research about the origin and development of corbel-vaulted-roof-tombs. Chang Qing has pointed out that from the third until the first century BC there were three important traditions for constructing buildings with masonry arches: the Roman tradition, the Parthian-Bactrian tradition in the Middle East, and the Western Han tradition in the Central Plain region. He further notes that the corbel vault construction method as used in Lingnan seems to be completely the same as the Middle Eastern tradition. Xu Yongli has stressed the relationship between the corbel vault roofs and the Maritime Silk Road, and believes that this technique was introduced from abroad. Huang Xiaofen, on the other hand, argues that there is a relationship between the development and evolution of the four-sided vaulted roofs

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Fig. 7.4 Corbel-vaulted-roof-tombs (Sifangling M36)

7.5 Foreign Cultural Elements

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and the corbel-vaulted roofs. Moreover, according to him the four-sided vault type appeared appeared earlier and developed into a dome-shaped roof with a smooth surface. This was the result of advances in brick chamber construction techniques through which the edges of the four sides gradually disappeared. Nonetheless, when we consider the developmental track of the corbel-vaulted-roof-tombs in Lingnan, there appears to be no obvious link with the four-sided vaulted roof tombs. We lean towards Chang Qing’s point of view and believe that the corbel-vaultedroof-tombs developed under the influence of Central Asian culture which was introduced to Hepu via the Maritime Silk Road. Based on our current knowledge from excavation reports in the Central Plain area, the Cigou tomb in Xiangcheng city, Henan, is the only tomb with a corbel-vaulted roof. This tomb was built in the same period as the corbel-vaulted-roof-tombs of Lingnan and has two types of vaulted domes: the side chamber has a four-sided vaulted roof, while the middle and back chamber have a corbel vault. This reflects the integration of two cultural tradition, and based on the origin of the corbel vault technology we cannot rule out the possibility that this construction method was introduced from Lingnan to the Central Plain. (2) “Bosheng Lianhua” Sculptures and the Overseas Introduction of Buddhism In 1972 a ceramic miniature lamp found at the Fengmenling M1 Tomb was described as a ‘ceramic pillar stand’. This object is 65.6 cm high and can be divided into four parts: a pedestal, a handle, a disc and a flame part. It has a square pedestal with an inverted, trapezoidal cross section, and has a narrow lower part and a wider upper part. The lamp handle is shaped as a rectangular column and has a square mortise on the upper part. The lamp disc is large and wide with a raised border, and also has a mortise in its middle part. The flame looks like the flower bud of a lotus flower with a pointy upper part that widens in the middle. The flame is attached to the bottom part of the lamp disc with a square tenon, which is further inserted into the mortise opening of the handle (Fig. 7.5: 1). In the Hepu County Museum three similar objects, called “lotus stands”, are stored. Another “lotus-shaped” object, has been unearthed in 1996 at Qixingdui no. 8 in Jinshan. Over the years more of these objects have been excavated at Hepu, such as in 2007 at the Zhongliang Jituan no. 8 tomb, in 2008 at the Huanzhunanlu M1 tomb, in 2009 at the Gongwuyuan Xiaoquyiqi M8A (Fig. 7.5: 2) and M20 tomb, in 2010 at the Erpaochang M13 tomb, in 2012 at the Luowucun M11 tomb and the Senlin Gongyuan M1 tomb, and in 2012 at the Jixiechang M3 tomb. In total 13 objects have been found. With the accumulation of excavation reports our knowledge about these types of objects has increased. Firstly, the time of appearance and the distribution area of these objects has been clearly defined. Only one objects has been found in a Late Eastern Han tomb, the other 12 have all been unearthed from tombs dated to the Three Kingdom Period. During the following Jin and Southern Dynasties these objects disappear. Thus they first appeared at the end of the Eastern Han and flourished during the Three Kingdom period, and their distribution area is limited to Hepu. Secondly, the evolution of the shape of these objects is quite clear. Although, the overall shape of the pieces dated to the Three Kingdom Period is similar to those dated to the Late Eastern Han, there are some obvious differences: their overall shape

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Fig. 7.5 Bosheng Lianhua Sculptures

1) Fengmenling M1

2) Gongwuyuan Xiaoqu Yiqi M8A

simplifies and the pedestal disappears. The top symbolizing the lotus flower appears in more diverse forms. However, while the lotus flower of the Late Western Han consisted of a simple bud, the objects of the Three Kingdom Period have detailed and life-like lotus flowers with carved pedals which are shaped as a bud. Because no such artefact has been found in other areas, and the tombs in Hepu have all been looted, the exact position of this object inside the tomb is unknown. When bosheng lianhua sculptures first were discovered, excavation reports and museums called them ‘lotus stands’ or ‘lotus-shaped object’, and identified them as a structural element of the tomb room. However, in unlooted tombs, and especially in vaulted tombs, there seems to have been no place to install these kinds of structures. The description of these objects as a miniature lotus, such as in the excavation report of Fengmenling M1, is also wrong. Moreover, the fact that a lotus-shaped object was placed next to a ceramic lamp in Erpaochang M13 is also of significance, and this type of discovery is unique in Hepu. Inspired by the Buddhist story where a lotus flower springs up from a begging bowl and the ‘bosheng-lianhua-mirror’, these lotus-shaped objects found in Hepu are called ‘bosheng lianhua’ sculptures for the following two reasons. Firstly, ‘bosheng lianhua’, literally meaning ‘lotus flower born from a begging bowl’, refers to the two main features that can be seen on the ‘bosheng lianhua’ bronze mirrors: a lotus flower and a begging bowl. The function of the pedestal is to place the object and worship it. Secondly, the appearance of these objects coincided with the first introduction of Buddhism in Guangxi. Buddhism entered Guangxi no later than the Late Eastern Han Period, and not earlier than the Late Western Han Period. The life and work of Mouzi, an important Buddhist scholar, who was originally from Guangxin (presentday Wuzhou) in the Cangwu district, testifies to this. Mouzi fled to Jiaozhi during the unrests of the Late Eastern Han, and spend considerable time in North Vietnam before going back to his hometown in Guangxin. During that time Buddhism was flourishing in the Jiaozhou region, and after returning Mouzi devoted himself to the study of Buddhism and wrote the classic Buddhist work: ‘Treatise on the Resolution of Doubts’. Hepu borders Jiaozhi, and was also the starting point of the main

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route from Guangxin to Jiaozhi; therefore, it is beyond doubt that Hepu was directly influenced by the Buddhist practices of that time. Thirdly, other artifacts related to Buddhism have been unearthed at the Hepu Han tombs. Some scholars have argued that symbolic animal figurines, such as the lion, elephant, and pigeon, are also proof of the increasing importance and popularity of the Buddhist arts in the Southeastern coastal regions of China during the Warring States and Eastern Han Periods [1]. The discovery of several animal-shaped ornaments made of carnelian, agate, turquoise and beryl, makes the appearance of other objects related to Buddhism, such as the bosheng lianhua sculptures, reasonable. Among the decoration motifs of the bosheng-lianhua-bronze-mirrors there is a scene where two human figures are kneeling and bowing in front of a bowl. From this it seems clear that the bosheng-lianhua-sculptures are also related to worshipping practices. Most of the sculptures have been found in large-scale, brick-chambered tombs, some of which have multiple rooms and a corbel vaulted roof, indicating they belonged to a person with a high status. This reveals that, starting from the Late Eastern Han, Buddhism was taking root in Hepu, and especially in the higher echelons of society. Additionally, strong evidence of the transmission of Buddhist concepts to Hepu comes from the discovery of makara- and triratna-shaped ornaments at Fengmenling M10 (Fig. 7.6). Makara is a mythical creature in India and represents a river spirit in the shape of a powerful sea beast. Triratna patterns can often be seen on ancient Indian sculptures and in Indian painting art. It is also a very common architectural element on the pagoda-gate of temples. The earliest triratna-pattern is dated to the end of the third century BC, and this pattern remained popular in India until the 12th century. It is believed to have been transmitted to China over the western road of the overland Silk Road. However, the appearance of the triratna-pattern on the overland Silk Road is quite late. Moreover, it appeared earlier on the coffin cover of Li He’s tomb in Shuangsheng Village, Sanyuan County, Shaanxi Provence, and later it became popular on gold and silver vessels of the Tang Dynasty. Thus, triratnashaped ornaments, representing the Buddha, Dharma, and Monk, as well as other ritual objects, such as the bronze cymbal, are probably related to Buddhist beliefs and concepts. The introduction of Buddhism was closely related to the Maritime Silk Road and Feng Chengjun has said the following: “From the Han Dynasty to the Jin Dynasty Buddhism prevailed, and was transmitted through two routes: the western regions and the Nanhai road. At that time, most of the foreign Buddhist monks in Guangzhou or Jianye came to China by the sea” [2]. Other scholars have named the Maritime Silk Road ‘The road that spread Buddhism [3].’ Thus, the above-mentioned objects, including the bosheng-lianhua-sculptures unearthed from the Hepu Han tombs, are important evidence of the southward and overseas spread of Buddhism. (3) Figurines Representing Foreigners Two figurines representing foreigners have been unearthed at Tangpai M1 and Liaowei M13B (Fig. 7.7). People who have facial features, such as a high nose, deeply set eyes, and a bushy beard with whiskers, are often called ‘Hu people’

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1,2,6,9. Amethyst Beads

3,5. Glass Beads

4. Chalcedony Bead

7. Amethyst triratna-shaped Ornament 8. Garnet Makara-shaped Ornament Fig. 7.6 Beads unearthed at Fengmenling M10

(胡人) or barbarians. Hu people, is also a general term for foreigners who originally came from kingdoms in the northern, western, and southern regions. Fig. 7.7 Figurines representing Foreigners

1) Tangpai M1

2) Liaowei M13B

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The figurine found at Tangpai M1 is wearing a small, round hat, a ‘duijin’ jacket (kind of Chinese-style jacket with buttons down the front) with a small collar and a long gown. He has raised eyebrows, small eyes, a high nose, deep-set eyes, a round face, and whiskers. This figure seems to be dancing and holds an instrument that resembles a harp. During the Han Dynasty two types of harps could be distinguished: bow-shaped and angular-shaped harps. At the highpoint of the Silk Road, harps were only used in the following two regions: bow-shaped harps were mainly used in India, angular-shaped harps were used in the West [4]. We therefore believe that the instrument held by this figurine is an Indian bow harp. At the Liaowei M13B tomb, another lamp shaped as a human figure has been found. The figure is seated and also looks like a foreigner. He has deep-set eyes, a high nose, a pointy chin, a full beard, and has his hair tied in a knot on top of his head. The figurines and lamps excavated at the Guangzhou tombs of the Middle and Late Eastern Han period are similar in shape to the ones found in Hepu. Some scholars believe they represent the native population of Indonesia: the so-called ‘original ethnic Malays’. It seems, however, more likely they came from West Asia or the East coast of Africa. (4) Lamps and Figurines Representing Feathered Men A lamp shaped as a feathered men has been excavated from Jiuzhiling M6A (Fig. 7.8) and is dated to the Late Eastern Han Period. The lamp is 35.4 cm high, and can be divided into three parts: the lamp disc, the lamp column, and the lamp base. The lamp dish has the shape of a portable lamp and is round with straight walls. It has a flat base, and a leave-shaped handle. The middle section of the lamp column is a feathered man, with thick eyebrows, big eyes, a high nose, big ears, and a beard with whiskers. His hands are resting on two circles carved on his hips. This might be instruments. On his back a pair of slightly protruding wings can be seen. The lamp base is round and shaped like a dragon head. A small circular column held in the dragon’s mouth is inserted into the casing of the lamp tray and makes the lamp rotate. Other animals are cast at the bottom of the base, such as dragons, tigers, and bears. Feathered Men are a common theme in the art-historical tradition of the Han Dynasty. Images of feathered men during the Han Dynasty differ from those of the pre-Qin period and have very large ears extending above their heads. They can be further divided into four categories: the first category has a human head and body, feathered legs, and wings covering the neck and back of the figure; the second category has a human head and a bird body with claws; the third category has a bird head and a human body with a winged back; the fourth category has a human head and a beast body with wings. The first category is most common, while the other three are rare. During the Han Dynasty, feathered men often appeared as part of a combination of images: either they are soaring into the cloudy air together with several gods of heaven, such as the Emperor of Heaven, the Thunder God (Lei Gong), the Master of Rain (Yu Shi), the Marquis of Wind (Feng Po), and the Mother of Lightning (Dian Mu); or they appear in the celestial court (xianting) and accompany the Queen Mother of the West and the King of the East (Dong Wanggong) together

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Fig. 7.8 Feathered Men Lamp Unearthed from Jiuzhiling M6a

1) Front Side

2) Back Side

with mystical animals, such as the ‘jade rabbit that pounds the medicine’ (daoyao yutu), the toad, the nine-tailed fox, the three-legged bird; or they play and dance with auspicious animals, such as the dragon, tiger, deer, rose finch, phoenix, and bear. In these scenes they probably demonstrate the Qi method, through which physical strength can be increased and immortality can be reached [5]. The characteristics of the feathered men on the bronze lamps unearthed in Hepu are in line with some of the four categories: while the previously described feathered men depicted on the bronze cymbal belong to the fourth category, the figures on the bronze lamp resemble those of category 1. Despite this, there are some differences: the wings are tightly folded on the back of the men instead of being spread out, the ears of the man are not higher than his head, and he is holding a musical instrument in both hands. Diverging opinions exist about whether or not these feathered men have a foreign origin. Xu Zhongshu has said: “The earliest examples of feathered men, beasts and snakes appear on sculptures, engravings and in legends of the West around three to four thousand BC, in particular in Egypt, Minoa, Babylon, Greece, India, and other regions.” Moreover, during the fifth century BC the image of feathered men was transferred to the Amu Darya Basin in Central Asia, and entered China from there. He further argues that “images of celestial beings with wings, do not accord with the standard style of the Chinese nation”, “all feathered men have high noses, and high noses are typical of the people living in the west of Iran, therefore these images are obviously foreign” [6]. Sun Zuoyun on the other hand, argues in his article ‘Talking about Feathered Men: An Investigation of Totemism Ideas in Images and Legends of Feathered Men and Winged Beings’ that feathered men are indeed part of a set of traditional images commonly seen in China. Although the images of the pre-Qin and Han Dynasties differ slightly; the former has a primitive shape, while the

References

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latter is more complex, it seems that both types are based on the same religious and artistic tradition. Moreover, ideas seem to have been borrowed from the ‘The Classic of Mountains and Seas’ (Shanhaijing) and the bird totem worship of the Dongyi ethnic group. He Xilin has a similar opinion and believes that the pre-Qin statue of a feathered men controlling a phoenix, unearthed from the Chu tomb Tianxingguan M2 in Jingzhou, Hubei province, is the example that resembles the Han Dynasty feathered men the closest. He stresses that this statue provides important new clues about the origin of feathered men during the Han Dynasty, and that the Chu culture might have been the original source of these figures. Moreover, the feathered men images of the Chu state are similar to those of the Han Dynasty and might have been born out of beliefs related to immortality and eternal life that were taking root during the Middle-late Warring States Period in the Chu area. We support the foreign-origin thesis of Xu Zhongshu. The images of feathered men discovered in Hepu differ significantly from those seen in other regions of HanDynasty China, and display a close correlation with winged figures found in Western regions. Moreover, a similar feathered men lamp has been found in the Late Eastern Han tomb of Hetoushan in neighboring Wuzhou.1 This is of interest because Hepu was part of the Jiaozhou division which had its administrative center in Wuzhou during this time.2 Thus, the discovery of this type of feathered men seems to be limited to a small area in Southern China that had close maritime contacts.

References 1. Li, G. (1992). On the oversea introduction of Buddhism in China. Southeast Culture, (5), 133– 147. 2. Feng, C. (1984). A History of transportation on the Nanyang Seas in China (p. 21). Shanghai Publishing House. 3. Qinghui, L. (2010). Nanhai transportation and Buddhist exchange during the Tang Dynasty. Social Sciences in Guangdong, 1, 118–126. 4. Lawergren, B. (Author), Fang, J., & Lin, D. (Trans.). (2004). Study of musical instruments of the ancient silk road. Symphony, the Journal of the Xi’an Conservatory of Music, (3), 49–54. 5. He, X. (2010). The feathered Men in Han Dynasty art and their symbolic meaning. Cultural Relics, (7), 46–55 and 97. 6. Xu, Z. (1998). A study of ancient hunting Totems. In Selected Historical Papers of Xu Zhongshu, 232,284,292. Zhong Hua Book Company. 1

Wuzhou City Museum. Han-period Cultural Relics Unearthed in Recent Years from Wuzhou City, Guangxi. Cultural Relics, 1977 (2): 70–71. This article mentions one feathered man lamp unearthed in Dakuang M4, but another bronze lamp found in the Hetoushan tomb M2 in Wuzhou is also described in: An Eastern Han Tomb in Hetoushan, Wuzhou City, Guangxi. Cultural Relics Information Series 4. Cultural Relics Press, 1981. 2 Fan Ye. The Book of the Later Han. Volume 23: Commanderies and States Part 5, Zhonghua Publishing Company, 1965: 3533. Quoting Wang Fan’s ‘Spring and Autumn Annals of the Two Provinces Jiao and Guang’, he said “Jiaozhou ruled over Yilou County, (and) during the fifth year of the Yuanfeng period the administrative center was moved to Guangxin County, in the 15th year of the Jianan period it was moved again to Panyu County.”.

Chapter 8

Han-Period Urban Sites Related to the Hepu Han Tombs

A burial complex and a residential section are the two basic components of a settlement and should be located next to each other. The spatial relationship between these settlements, e.g. the Hepu urban sites, and the Hepu tomb complex is the main concern of this chapter. Additionally, the living conditions of the residents of this area will also be discussed. Although the construction of city walls and moats can be traced back to the Qin and Early Western Han Period, many urban constructions appeared in Lingnan only after the Nanyue Kingdom was defeated by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty in 111 BC and the Commandery-district system was implemented. What’s more, these regional walled cities (chengyi 城邑) that emerged during the Qin and Han Dynasties became the highpoint of settlement development in ancient China, and functioned as the political, economic, cultural and military command center of the Lingnan region. The remains of these centers provide us with a rich source of information, and have long been the focus of archaeological research. For instance, from 2002 to 2012 archaeologists have conducted several surveys and excavations at the Dalang and Caoxiecun sites. Both sites have now been identified as Han-period urban sites and are located at the east bank of the Zhou River (also called Ximen river), a branch of the Nanliu River. The recognition of these two sites and their position within Hepu has stimulated research that focuses on the specifics of the Hepu Port during the Han Dynasty. Before being excavated, the Dalang and Caoxiecun sites had already been listed as high-level cultural relics protection units, and with the realization of their significance during the subsequent excavation projects, they have been listed on the ‘seventh batch national key-cultural relics protection list’ by China’s State Council in 2013.

© Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House 2022 Z. Xiong and X. Fu, Hepu Han Tombs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4660-8_8

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8.1 Dalang Urban Site The Dalang urban site is located in the natural village of Guchengtou, Dalang administrative village, in Shiwan town. It lies about 11 kilometers northeast of Hepu and 21 kilometers from the sea port (Fig. 8.1). The southern branch of the Zhou River, which empties in the Tonkin Gulf, borders the western section of the site. The Dalang urban site was first discovered in the 1960s and was tentatively dated as ‘pre-Ming Dynasty’ due to the presence of several Ming Dynasty tombs on top of the original city wall. In 1981 the site was listed as a County-level Cultural Relics Protection Site. Translation of geographical names. Up–Down, Right Left. 南流江 Nanliu River, 周江Zhou River, 北部湾Tonkin Gulf, 双坟墩土墩墓 Shuangfendun Mounted Tombs, 大浪汉城址 Dalang Urban Site, 合浦 Hepu, 草鞋村汉城址 Caoxiecun Urban Site, 汉墓群 Han Burial Complex. From September 2002 to April 2003 and from November 2011 to January 2012 the Guangxi Cultural Relics Work Team, the Guangxi Research Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, and the Hepu County Museum jointly set up a research project focusing on the Hepu port of the Han Dynasty. Based on this cooperation, initial mapping, surveys, and two excavations took place of section I and II of the

Fig. 8.1 Spatial relationship between the Burial complex and the Urban sites

8.1 Dalang Urban Site

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Fig. 8.2 Map of the excavation unit of the Dalang Han Urban site

Dalang site. More specifically the north wall, central area, and west gate were excavated (Fig. 8.2). A total area of 690 m2 , which included remains of a residential area and pier, as well as a number of artifacts, were uncovered. Through these excavations archaeologists have gathered a basic understanding of the date and nature of the Dalang urban site [1, 2]. Translation of Chinese terms on Fig. 8.2. Up–Down, Right Left. North Gate 北门, Old River Channel 古河道, Moat 护城河, City Wall 城墙, Section II (II区), Section I (I区), Pier 码头, West Gate 西门, City Wall 城墙, Section III (III区), Section IV (IV区), South Gate 南门, Old River Channel 古河道, Moat 护城河. (1) Walls, Gates and Moats Before being excavated the outline of the site was clearly visible: it faces north and has a square ground plan. Each side of the site measures about 218 meters. While

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the westside of the site is only framed by the ancient river channel, the other three sides are encircled by a moat that lines up with the river. Unfortunately, the southern half of the west wall and the whole south wall have been destroyed by modern constructions. The eastern wall, northern wall, and the northern half of the west wall have been well-preserved. These walls have a remaining height which is between 1 and 3 meters, and a width between 5 and 20 meters (Fig. 8.3). Over the years, nearby villagers have taken earth from the northern section of the urban site to make bricks, and as a result no more stratification can be observed in this section. The southern section has been repurposed as a settlement area by the local people and has also been seriously damaged; only the central deposits have been preserved with a thickness of 0.2 meters. During the excavations three gates have been uncovered: a west, south, and north gate. The middle part of these walls measure between 5 and 6 meters. In addition, the remains at the northeast, southeast and northwest corner of the walls are quite big and might have been watchtowers. To understand the construction method of the walls and moats a vertical section of the north wall has been studied (Fig. 8.4: 1). The base of the wall was first constructed with black clay that was padded until accomplishing a dense and thick foundation. This base was 14.65 meters wide and 0.3 meters thick. The wall was built after the inner and outer sides of the base were extended and measured a total of 1.5 meters. The remains of the north wall are 1.4 meters (at its highest point) and have a trapezoidal section, indicating it was built using a rammed earth method. This wall seems to have been constructed with pure loess and at some places small pebbles can be seen. Traces of ramming (hangwo 夯窝), having a diameter of 0.1 meters, are occasionally

Fig. 8.3 State of preservation of the north wall and moat

8.1 Dalang Urban Site

1) Stratification of the North Wall

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2) North Moat

Fig. 8.4 Section of the north wall and moat

found, but do not contain any remains. Finally, the moat is sloping and 3.4 meters at its deepest point (Fig. 8.4: 2). It has an opening of 9.75 meters, and a bottom width of 0.5 meters. At both sides traces of foot prints can be seen. The loess used to build the wall was originally the soil that had been dug up to form the moat. Based on estimations of the deepness of the moat, the original height of the wall was about three meters. The Dalang urban site had three gates, which was common in Han-period cities [3]. The moat was connected to the natural river, indicating that the location of the site was chosen with care. Moreover, the moat played a key role for the transportation of goods, production activities, and the provision of water etc. (2) Depositions and Architectural Remains inside the Urban Site The Dalang urban site has only one thin cultural layer, containing few remains, which indicates it was inhabited and used for a short and single period. Beneath this cultural layer a stratum of soil signifies that before ‘city people’ arrived, there was next to no human occupation. A total of 48 postholes have been found in the central part of the site (Fig. 8.5). These postholes have a circular shape and sometimes an oval shape. They have straight, slanted or gradually retracting walls, and a flat base. Some postholes contain remains of clay and cobblestones, probably used for stability. The hole openings have a diameter between 0.16 and 0.51 meters and are between 0.01 and 0.6 meters deep. Some of the postholes are placed in pairs of two but have varying depths, which indicates they might have been added in later periods for stability. Only part of the site has been excavated and therefore the complete scale and shape of some architectural constructions is unclear. However, stilt-style architecture seems to have been used to adept to the lower terrain (around 10 meters above sea level). Some remains were found rather centrally and could have been part of an important building, such as a government office. It should be noted that during the survey and excavation of the residential area, the whole wall, and the moat no remains of tiles and bricks have been discovered. In other words, Hepu, being located in a border area, did most likely not use these types of building materials during this period.

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Fig. 8.5 Architectural remains and postholes

(3) Remains of the West Gate Pier Outside the west gate remains of a pier were discovered. These remains are located at the northern site of the west gate, and form one unit with the east side and the wall. This implies that the pier and wall were built at the same time. The pier is made of earth and the upper part extends 2.5 meters above the surface. The bottom of the pier is muddy and after being leveled it was 0.15 meters thick. On top of this base there is a one-meter-thick layer of grey-yellow clay. No traces of ramming can be seen and it was probably built through padding. The east–west side of the pier is on average 3.5 meters wide but extends towards the old river way and is 6.35 meters at its widest point. In ancient times this part was called ‘chuan bu’ (船步) or wharf. At the southwest edge of the pier there are two post holes with a diameter of 0.15 meters and bits of wood inside. They are placed at a distance of 0.85 meters from each other. At the southern side of the pier there is a platform that connects to the west gate. This platform is slightly curved and is 8.5 meters long and 1.75 meters wide at its widest point. It consists of six steps leading down to the river. Directly facing the west gate there are four more steps. Most likely these remains were part of transportation routes that led from the center towards the river (Fig. 8.6).

8.1 Dalang Urban Site

Fig. 8.6 Remains of Pier

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1) Ceramic Yi Bowl

2) Ceramic Yi Bowl

3) Whetstone

4) Whetstone

Fig. 8.7 Unearthed artefacts

Translation of names. Up–Down, Right Left. 北 north, 古河道 Old River Channel, 柱洞 Post Holes, 现代井 Modern Well, 西城门 West Gate, 城墙 City Wall, 城墙 City Wall, 生土 Soil, 码头 Pier, 淤泥 Mud. (4) Unearthed Artefacts Artefacts have been mainly found in the central area of section I. They mostly consist of ceramic sherds and a small number of whetstones (Fig. 8.7). From the sherds only ceramic yi vessels could be restored. A small number of ceramic sherds have been uncovered from the cultural layer. They have been identified as belonging to guan vessels, yi vessels, and kettles. Most of these ceramics belong to the category of geometric-stamped hardware of a grey or red-brown color. Grey hardware is most common. Decorative patterns include: square-diagonal, checked, and basket patterns (Fig. 8.8). Square-diagonal patterns dominate and are composed of vertically and/or horizontally-lined squares and can be further divided into single-square, double-square and four-square types. The squares are filled with crossed diagonal lines and some of these lines come together in a protruding small solid square. The checked patterns can be divided into rough and fine types. Rougher patterns can be seen on red sandy pottery, while finer patterns appear on ceramic hardware. Basket patterns consist of relatively dense, thin lines that cross vertically and horizontally. Sometimes they are combined with checked patterns. In addition, some impressed hardware sherds were collected from the surface and display the following patterns: grid, water-wave and bowstring, and double-linerhombus pattern. These sherds probably belonged to the same period as the other finds. A small number of sandy potteries have also been found. This pottery breaks easily, was grey-black or light red, and undecorated or simply decorated with checked patterns.

8.1 Dalang Urban Site

1,3,6,7) Square Diagonal Patterns

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2) Basket Pattern

4,5) Checked Patterns

Fig. 8.8 Decoration Motifs of Ceramic Sherds

(5) Date and Nature of the Urban Site Since the end of the Ming Dynasty 51 families, with a total of 245 people, have been moving into the city area. They have continued the name ‘Guchengtou’ to refer to this place. Over the years these residents have seriously damaged the site and as a result only a small section of the central part of the site could be excavated. Therefore, apart from the central architectural structure and pier remains, our knowledge about the layout of the central part of this urban site is quite limited. Despite this, through the study of the construction methods of the settlement and the excavated artefacts, and considering the historical background of the establishment of the Hepu Commandery, we can still make some initial estimations concerning the date and nature of the Dalang site. 1. Date Very few complete artifacts have been unearthed from the Dalang urban site. These are mainly elaborately decorated ceramics that have been fired at a high temperature and that differ considerably from the ceramics excavated in Late Western Han tombs in Hepu. Fortunately, our understanding about the chronology of stamped ceramics

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is gradually improving. In the 1980s archaeologists have analyzed the distribution area of geometric-stamped ceramics in Guangxi and concluded that there are a total of 57 finding locations spread over 21 cities and counties. An initial periodization framework has also been suggested, with the square-diagonal patterns dated to the lower limit of the Early Western Han Period [4]. These types of patterns also appeared on ceramics found in Early Western Han period tombs in Guangzhou, which are very similar in color and material to the sherds discovered at Dalang. With the accumulation of archaeological information, the Early Western Han date of these ceramics has been further confirmed and even extended to the Middle Western Han Period [5]. The popularity of these traditional Yue cultural elements coincided with the establishment of the district-commandery system and the introduction of Central Plain cultural elements. In addition, there was a strong preference for local stamped hardware that differed considerably, both in shape and decoration, from imported ceramics from the Central Plain [6]. Moreover, the shards of short-spouted ceramic yi vessels that have been found at Dalang, are almost identical to vessels found in the Yuangangshan Tomb in the Luogang district of Guangzhou, which most likely belonged to a Yue person. Although this tomb has been dated to the Late Warring States Period, it might have been slightly later and belonged to the period between the Qin and Han Dynasties [7]. Therefore, the earliest date for the artifacts found at Dalang is the period between the Qin and Han Dynasties, and the latest date can be set as the Middle Western Han Period. 2. Nature of the Urban Site The Dalang site was most likely the administrative center of the Hepu Commandery that was established during the Middle Western Han Period. Han districts were not only the regional centers of control of the Han administration, but also represented urban complexes [8]. Through a survey of the distributary channels of the Nanliu River we believe that only one urban center existed within Hepu during this time, namely Dalang. Moreover, the date of the Dalang site coincides exactly with the first establishment of the Hepu Commandery. It is recorded that the Hepu Commandery was divided into five districts (Xuwen, Gaoliang, Hepu, Linyun, and Zhulu) and that in 2 AD there were 15 398 households and 78 980 individuals living in Hepu district [9]. Therefore, it seems that during the Middle Western Han Period Hepu was densely populated. Such a large population would have certainly aided the construction of an urban center. In addition, several other urban sites representing Han-period district headquarters have been discovered in Guangxi: The Qiliwei urban site at Han Shi’an, the Lema urban site at Zhongliu, the Chenzishan urban site at Lingling, the Taoyang urban site at Taoyang, the Guanyang urban site at Guanyang, the Gaozhai urban site at Fengyang, and the Jiuxiandu urban site at Linhe. The territory of these sites encompasses tens of thousands square meters and they are similar in scale to the Dalang urban site. This signifies a consistency within the scale of urban centers located in outlying areas of the Han Empire. Moreover, at the Qiliwei urban site, dated to the Middle Western Han Period, remains of pan- and eaves tiles have been found [10]. Despite appearing against the same historical background of gradual hanification, the Dalang site, in contrast, represents a slower development pace.

8.2 Caoxiecun Urban Site

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The Shuangfendun burial site is situated 700 m north of the Dalang urban site. Shuangfendun M2 has a slightly earlier date, while Shuangfendun M1 has roughly the same date as Dalang. It is therefore possible that this burial complex has a temporal connection with the Dalang urban site [11]. Mounted tombs were a unique burial custom, and the appearance of this type of ‘foreign’ burial might indicate that Dalang was constructed by foreign residents who migrated towards Hepu in an earlier period. These people might have originated from the Wuyue area, that had already received an intense Han cultural influx, and moved towards Lingnan during the Qin-Han intermission and the Nanyue period.

8.2 Caoxiecun Urban Site The Caoxiecun urban site is located in west Caoxiecun, Lianzhou town, in Hepu and is situated 10 km from the current estuary (Fig. 8.1). Its western part borders the Ximen River, a branch of the Nanliu River. The Caoxiecun urban site was first discovered in the 1980s during a survey and identified as a kiln site. In 1993 it was listed as a County-level Cultural Relics Protection Site. As part of the ‘Hepu Port Research Project’ the Guangxi Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute conducted excavations from November 2007 to January 2012 in cooperation with Xiamen University and Guangxi Normal University. Two largescale excavations of the northwest section of the kiln site and several smaller excavations of smaller localities were carried out. From May until June 2010 another rescue excavation took place in the northern section of the site and discovered a city wall and moat. As a result, the site was identified as an urban site. The kiln site became known as section A, while the urban remains were determined as section B. Both areas are divided by a human-made river that was built in the 1960s. The northern part of section A is a fishpond, and the west and east side of the site are framed by the Ximen River and the south part of the human-made river. These areas are covered by fishponds and vegetable plots. Section B comprises of a densely populated residential area. In total 3890 square meters have been excavated at both sections. In January 2011 another trench, named TG1, was dug in the southwest part of section B to expose part of the moat and city wall (Fig. 8.9). The excavation report that has been published divides the Caoxiecun site into four periods: the Middle Western Han, Late Western Han, Early Eastern Han, and the Late Eastern Han until the Three Kingdom Periods [12]. In addition, four tombs dated to the Southern Dynasties Period were unearthed in section A and B, and 26 horseshoe-shaped kilns dated to the Tang until Ming Dynasty have been found in section A. These remains are not described in the excavation report.

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Fig. 8.9 Map of the Excavation Unit of the Caoxiecun Han Urban Site

Translation of Chinese terms on Fig. 8.9. Up–Down, Right Left. Pond 水塘, Residential Area 民居, Fishpond 鱼塘 Area A (A区), Area B (B区), Ximen River 西门江, Man-made River 人工河, Moat 护城河. (1) Main Remains The main remains can be divided into workshop- and architectural remains. The workshop area was firstly constructed during the Late Western Han Period and further extended during the Early Eastern Han Period. During the Late Eastern Han Period it was changed into a residential area. The workshop area was used for over 100 years and can be divided into a ditch, ponds for washing mud, ponds for refining mud, pits for storing mud, pits for making mud, drying platforms, a housing area, and a water well. Apart from the kilns that were used to fire ceramics, all the other steps of the pottery making process can be reconstructed from these remains. The ditch was used to channel water from the river into the workshop area. The main remains of the ditch are located in unit G26 in the north south section of the

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area. The ditch is 90 meters long, 8.4 meters wide and 2.9 meters deep. At one side of the ditch remains of stilt-style constructions have been found. This were probably the houses of the potters. The ponds for washing and refining mud appeared during the Early Eastern Han Period and were connected through open and hidden ditches (Fig. 8.10). One group of ponds numbered AC1 until AC7 have a curved shape and can be divided into rectangular- and round types. The west side of these ponds are connected to the old river channel and are 67 meters long and 3.75 meters deep. At the bottom, deposits composed of grey-white sand have been found which were probably the result of elutriation and sedimentation. The pits for making mud are located at the edge of the pond. In total 15 pits dated to the second period have been found. They are round, oval-shaped or rectangular, and contain a white mud paste (Fig. 8.11). The working pits are also distributed at the edge of the ponds. In total 29 working pits dated to the second period have been excavated. There are rectangular- or oliveshaped with straight or curved walls and a flat base. Many contain a mud paste and some have one or four round postholes (Fig. 8.12). These pits were probably used to form ceramic vessels, as well as to store materials. The postholes were probably inserted with columns on which a pottery wheel or work platform was attached. Two drying platforms dated to the third period have been found (Fig. 8.13). Their base was raw soil and they had a long and narrow shape. The upper part of these platforms was flat, while the sides were lower, aiding the drainage of water. The postholes at both sides of the platforms might have been remains of simple shacks that covered ceramics or structures for drying and storing ceramics. One of the platforms was 25.3 meters long and 4.9 meters wide.

Fig. 8.10 Group of workshop pools (West–East)

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Fig. 8.11 White Mud Paste in AK21 (East–West)

Six wells have been discovered in the workshop area, including earth wells, ceramic wells, circular wells built by piling bricks, brick wells, and bricks built by piling tiles. One of the brick wells (AJ2) had a diameter of 3.06 meters and a depth of 3.9 meters (Fig. 8.14). The bottom part of the well walls is constructed by placing three layers of vertical bricks, while the upper part is tiled with staggering joint bricks. At the base of the wells there is a filtration system composed of charcoal, bamboo, and stones. Large-scale architectural remains, which probably belonged to a gallery stretching from the northeast towards the southwest, are located in section B. The remaining structure is 63 meters long and 2 meters wide. It is paved with white-grey colored square tiles. Parallel to it, on the northwest side of the brick floor, there is a row of pedestals (sangdun 磉墩) which functioned as the base of several pillars. In total the remains of six pedestals, 3.5–4 meters apart from each other, were found. They have a square- and rectangular plan and were filled with a dense layer of red and yellow sand. They are between 1 and 2 meters long and 1 and 1.75 meters wide. Symmetrically placed between these large pedestals there are seven smaller round pedestals, filled with broken tile pieces. They have a diameter between 0.34 and 0.68 meters (Fig. 8.15). At the southern edge of the gallery there is a square pavilion, measuring 4.3–4.4 meters. The concave opening at the northeast side of the pavilion was probably the entrance. At each corner of the pavilion there is a circular column hole. At the northwest and southeast side there is a shallow ditch for drainage (Fig. 8.16).

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Fig. 8.12 Working Pit (South–North)

(2) Main Artefacts The artifacts that have been excavated at the Caoxiecun site include ceramic, bronze, iron and stone objects. Most of the ceramic objects are building materials such as pan tiles, semi-circular tiles, eaves tiles, and bricks (Fig. 8.17). Well curbs and grates have also been found. Living utensils include guan vessels, double-eared guan vessels, four-eared guan vessels, tables, bowls, basins, kettles, lamps, and bases. Most of the ceramics were made of grey-white hardware. A small group were made of red and dark-red, sandy ceramics, and dark-grey, sandy ceramics (Fig. 8.18). Few production tools were uncovered, including ceramic stamping tools, wooden stamping tools, ceramic pads (dianping 垫饼), ceramic net sinkers, and spindle whorls (Fig. 8.19). Metal objects include bronze rammers and arrow heads, and an iron spear and nails. Stone tools that were found include stone stamping tools, whetstones, cake-shaped

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Fig. 8.13 Full view of drying platform 1

Fig. 8.14 Brick well AJ2

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Fig. 8.15 Remains of gallery

stone pieces, stone mortars and pestles, stone axes, steatite heaters, steatite kettles and steatite bowls. In addition, an elephant bone (Fig. 8.20), crystal beads, and bronze coins have been discovered. (3) Nature of the Urban Site Throughout history archaeological sites have been disturbed by human activities. This is especially the case for sites located near rivers. The upper part of section B

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Fig. 8.16 Remains of pavilion

has also experienced much damage over the years and has been pressed down by continuous building activities. As a result, this section was very difficult to excavate and the general layout of the original settlement is unknown. We can therefore only make some initial estimations about this site based on the excavated remains. The moat and wall contour of the eastern, southern and northern side of the Caoxiecun urban site was still clearly visible until the 1980s. This type of design in which the river-facing side is connected with the other sides through a moat and city wall is very similar to that of the Dalang urban site. Moreover, both sites feature manmade river channels which are connected with natural river channels, and combine three important settlement functions: water supply, defense and transportation. Due to excavation limitations, it remains difficult to make any solid conclusions concerning the date of construction of the Caoxiecun urban site. We do know that the wall opening under layer 4b represents the lowest time limit of construction. The upper time limit, corresponding with period two and three, and characterized by the appearance of abundant construction materials, equals the period before the Late Western Han Period. The technique of building a wall by first constructing a foundation on the flat ground is also seen at the Qiliwei urban site in Xing’an County [13], and became widespread in Guangxi during later periods. Caoxiecun and Dalang are dated to the same period and are the only Han-period urban sites found in Hepu. The total surface of Caoxiecun, however, exceeds 100000 m2 and is double that of Dalang. It, therefore, must have had a different function.

8.2 Caoxiecun Urban Site

Fig. 8.17 Pan tiles, semi-circular tiles, and Eaves tiles

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Fig. 8.18 Ceramic living utensils

The large-scale architectural remains found in the northern part of section B might have been from a Late Eastern Han government office. During the four-hundred-year ruling period of the Han Dynasty gradual changes appeared within the position of big and smaller cities. A general trend was that smaller cities were positioned from south to north inside the territory of bigger cities. After the Eastern Han Dynasty

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Fig. 8.19 Production tools

Fig. 8.20 Elephant bone

this development in which smaller cities were generally situated in the northern part of bigger cities, continued and became widespread [14]. Government offices were usually located in the northern part of a city and the relationship between small and larger offices resembled that of smaller and larger cities. During the Eastern Han Dynasty Hepu was divided into five districts with Hepu serving as both the County and Commandery seat. More than thousand meters from the urban center Han tombs spread towards the eastern, southern, and northern sites of the city area. After a comprehensive analysis we believe that Caoxiecun was the Commandery headquarter of the Hepu Commandery during the Eastern Han Dynasty. What’s more we also do not exclude the possibility that this area was already a Commandery center during the Late Western Han Period. Excavation has revealed that this area was already occupied during the Middle Western Han Period. The workshop area dated to the Late Western Han and Early Eastern Han Period (correlating to period 2 and 3), contained infrastructure for refining, making and shaping clay, as well as drying ceramics, and covered the whole process of the ceramic craft. The production tools discovered on site are also important evidence of craft production. The large amounts of building materials, on the other hand, represents the construction demand in this early urban center. Moreover,

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the layout of Caoxiecun, in which the workshop area is positioned in one corner of the city, is a typical feature of high-level Han cities. During the fourth period, e.g. the Late Eastern Han Period, the workshop area became abandoned, and section A became a residential area. In section B large-scale architectural remains with paved floors were found. During the fifth period of the site, only Southern Dynasty tombs appear and the settlement area seems to have been completely deserted. Although the horse-shoe-shaped kilns encircle the period 1 workshop area, there seems to be no link between the two. Moreover, these 26 kilns have been dated to the Tang and Ming Dynasty through C14 dating. Remains of the original Han-period kilns are no longer visible and were probably destroyed by the river. Nonetheless, the discovery of such a large and complete workshop area dated to the Han Dynasty is very rare and offers invaluable information about the southward spread of Central Plain tile technology, as well as the management of official workshops in Han Dynasty China. Thus, the discovery of these large-scale architectural remains and the subsequent research on the periodization and nature of the Caoxiecun site has laid the groundwork for future research.

8.3 Spatiotemporal Relationship Between the Han Tombs and Han Urban Sites (1) The Spatiotemporal Relationship between the Shuangfendun Mounted Tombs and the Dalang Urban Site Based on the previous studies on the nature and date of the Dalang urban site, archaeologists have initiated a comprehensive survey of the neighboring area to find burial areas related to the urban center. In the northern part of the area comprising the Honghuakan natural village a large number of geometric ceramics have been found. In addition, along the northside two mounds were discovered which were later identified as Shuangfendun M1 and M2. From M2 mi-patterned ceramic weng vessels and geometric-stamped ceramic weng vessels were recovered. Hardware decorated with geometric patterns found around the two mounds was very similar to ceramics found within the urban center. These mounted tombs are located only 700 meters away from the urban site and both areas are located on a red earth terrace along the river. Moreover, geometric-stamped pottery of the same date has been found distributed between the two areas. The burial complex and the urban site obviously fulfilled complementary functions, and therefore we believe they were part of the same settlement area. Although many have been destroyed and only few remain, mounted tombs might have been the preferred burial custom within this settlement. As mentioned before, the inhabitants of Dalang might have been descendants of the Wuyue people who were sinicized in an earlier wave and who moved southward to Lingnan during the Qin and Han Dynasties. When the Commandery was founded, these people were possibly the first residents and the main force behind the construction of the Dalang urban center.

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(2) The Spatiotemporal Relationship between the Caoxiecun Urban Site and the surrounding Han Tombs The Hepu Han tombs and the Caoxiecun urban site also form one large settlement complex. What’s more, each separate burial phase corresponds with a specific cultural layer of the urban site (Fig. 8.21). The Early Middle Western Han Period, for instance, corresponds with the first period cultural layer in the urban site. Remains of this first period can be found under layer 7 and are distributed over the northern and southern part of section A. Due to reasons related to site protection, most of these remains have not been excavated and only a small area has been surveyed. The remains that have been unearthed are one ditch, one posthole, and a small number of geometricstamped ceramics. Decoration motifs include patterns frequently seen in Lingnan during the Early-middle Western Han Period such as check-designs, square-diagonal, fine-toothed comb, and water-wave patterns. The color, texture, and decoration of these ceramics is very similar to those found in the Wenchangta period 1 tombs. The small amount of artifacts and the lack of urban features during this period indicate a sporadic inhabitation by local people. Tombs of the Middle Western Han Period have mainly been discovered in the Wenchangta area and sporadically at Fengmenling. The location of these tomb areas is not far from Caoxiecun: the distance between Caoxiecun and Wenchangta is 1000 kilometers and between Fengmenling M27 and Caoxiecun is 2000 meters. The Hepu Han tombs are distributed over an area composed of rising platforms and lowlying hills. They are located between 12 and 45 meters above sea level. Wenchangta, similarly, was situated on a rising plateau, while Fengmenling is positioned on the higher part of a low hill. This shows a trend in the way locations for burial grounds and urban sites were selected. Many tombs of the Late Western Han Period with abundant grave goods have been discovered. These are mainly concentrated within the Wenchanta, Fengmenling and Tangpai areas. The first two burial areas were already in use during earlier periods and were further expanded during the Late Western Han. The Tangpai burial complex, on the other hand, was a new addition. During the excavation of 1987–1988, 16 tombs were excavated in Wenchangta. In 2005, five more wooden coffin tombs were unearthed. The Fengmenling burial complex includes Fengmenling, Wangniuling, Tuguiling and Beichajiang Yandui. The Tangpai burial complex is mainly composed of the Jinjiling protected area. This period corresponds to the second cultural layer of Caoxiecun which is located in section A under layer 6. Important remains, such as a fire pit, pits for making clay, a ditch, pools, houses and water wells, indicate that this area used to be a ceramic workshop. Additionally, the discovery of pan tiles, semi-circular tiles and eaves tiles, as well as other building materials points to the beginning of fortification efforts. The expansion of the settlement area during the Late Western Han Period is signified by the location of the Tangpai burial complex, which lies 5000 kilometers from the urban center. Early Eastern Han tombs were mainly found at Wenchangta, but also at Muzhuling, Huangnigang, Jiuzhiling Erpaochang, Yangjiashan Gongfuwu period 1, Jinshan Guantangling, Lianruchang, and Tuguiling. These tombs correspond to

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Fig. 8.21 Spatiotemporal relationship between Caoxiecun Urban Site and Hepu Han Tombs

the third cultural layer of Caoxiecun. In layer 5 of the third period, located in section A, pools, working pits, ditches, fire pits, water wells, and postholes and column bases have been found. These remains clearly indicate that the population within the city was increasing. The workshop facilities were also more complete and high-level ceramic craftmanship could be accomplished. During this period there appears to be some overlap in territory with the previous area, but the tendency towards extension continues. Late Eastern Han tombs have been discovered in all the previously mentioned areas and some new areas, such as Senlin Gongyuan, Panziling, and Liaowei. The date of these tombs corresponds to the fourth period remains of Caoxiecun (layer 4b), which are distributed over both section A and B. Larger remains are mainly found in section B. Finds of postholes, fire pits, drainage ditches and water wells suggest a further increase of population or the completion of urban infrastructure. During this time, the pottery workshops are abandoned and turned into residential buildings.

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In other areas in Hepu very few Han-period tombs have been found and mostly Three Kingdom tombs have been discovered. A small number of Jin Dynasty and Southern Dynasty tombs have also been excavated, such as Liaowei, Lingjiaocun, and Luowucun. Although Three Kingdom Period tombs display some similarities to Late Eastern Han tombs in terms of structure and burial goods, they are very distinctive and to some extend these tombs reflect the profound changes that were taking place during this period, in particular the move from unification to separation. Some of the unearthed remains and their link to the nearby cemetery also testify to the continued use of the Caoxiecun urban center during the Three Kingdom Period. During this period, the Zhuguan Commandery was located in Hepu and had its headquarter in Caoxiecun. Evidence of this can be seen on top of the Han remains. Besides this, there seems to have existed a close relationship between the port and the urban site. While the census of 2 AD recorded 15,398 households and 78,980 people in Hepu, in 140 AD this number had increased to 23,121 households and 86,617 people [15]. Considering the overall scale of the Han-period cemetery, Hepu’s population seems to have been relatively concentrated. Moreover, the number of people that could live in the Hepu settlement was limited. Archaeological evidence and studies of the features of the Hepu settlement indicate that most of the residents lived inside or near the city. What’s more, ports do not exist in a vacuum and are inseparable from the city center and its residents. In other words, ports and cities are interdependent and spatially connected as a unit. Therefore, the identification of a settlement site can assist us with locating a port site and is of great significance for the study of the Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty.

References 1. Research Institute of Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeology, Hepu County Museum. (2016). Excavation of the Dalang Ancient Urban Site in Hepu County, Guangxi. Archaeology, (8), 41–49. 2. Cultural Relics Work Team of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. (2006). Port of Departure of the maritime silk road of the Western Han Dynasty: Archaeological practice and initial knowledge about the Hepu Port. In C. Wu (Ed.), Proceedings of the Conference on the Theory of Beihai and Hepu as the Departure Ports of the Maritime Silk Road (pp. 39–50). Science Press. 3. Yintian, W., & Pei, H. (2010). A brief discussion of the City Walls of the Han Dynasty. Central Plain Cultural Relics, 2, 50–53. 4. Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Cultural Relics Work Team. (1981). Distribution of the geometric stamped ceramics of Guangxi. In Editorial Board of Cultural Relics (Ed.), Collection of papers on cultural relics 3. Cultural Relics Press. 5. Longzhang, L. (2004). Study of the Warring States, Qin and Han period Tombs of the Youjiang valley Guangxi. Archaeology Bulletin, 3, 271–294. 6. Editorial Department of the Encyclopedia of China Publishing House, Editorial Committee of the Encyclopedia of China Publishing House (Archaeology Department). (1986).Encyclopedia of China: Archaeology (p. 378). Encyclopedia of China Publishing House. 7. Guangzhou Research Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Guangdong Province Research Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Shenzhen Institute of Cultural Relics

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14. 15.

8 Han-Period Urban Sites Related to the Hepu Han Tombs and Archaeology. (2008). South China archaeology (Vol. 2, pp. 254–262). Cultural Relics Press. Mitsui, N., (author), Jiang, Z., & Li, D., (trans.). (2001). Essays on Ancient Chinese history (p. 119). Beijing University Press. Ban Gu. 1962. Book of Han, Wang Chang Biography (volume 76), 1630.Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. Zhen, L., Changlin, P., & Pengcheng, P. (1998). Survey and excavation of the Qin and Qiliwei Wangcheng urban sites in Xing’an County Guangxi. Archaeology, 11, 34–47. Xiong, Z., Fu, X. (2016). Short excavation report of the Shuangfendun Mounted tomb in Hepu, Guangxi. Archaeology, (4), 33–44. Xiong, Z., Fu, X., & Cheng, Q. (2016). Short excavation report of the Han-period Caoxiecun Site in Hepu, Guangxi. Archaeology, 2(8), 50–74. Guangxi Cultural Relics Work Team, Hepu County Museum. (2006). Excavation report of the Lingjiaocun Three Kingdom Tomb in Hepu, Guangxi. In Collection of Guangxi archaeology papers (Vol. 2, pp. 324–359). Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Cultural Relics Work Team Editorial Board. Science Press. Liu, Q. (2000). Archaeological discovery and study of the Han-period Urban Sites. In Archaeological research on ancient capitals and imperial tombs (pp. 190–206). Science Press. Ye, F. (1965). The book of the later Han, volume 23: Commanderies and states (p. 3531). Zhonghua Publishing Company.

Chapter 9

Significance of the Research on the Hepu Han Tombs

Due to the large size of the burial complex and the presence of complete burial sets and many distinctive burial goods, the Hepu Han tombs have received worldwide attention. Despite being dominated by Han cultural elements, the unearthed artefacts testify to a diversified amalgam of Luoyue, Nanyue, Wuyue, Chu and Bashu elements, and signify the glorious history of the Tonkin Gulf and the Hepu Port as an important departure point of the Maritime Silk Road. In recent years, numerous domestic and international scholars have visited Hepu to conduct research and to attend academic seminars about the Hepu Han tombs. Today Hepu has become a major destination for research concerning Han culture and cultural exchanges between China and the West during the Han Dynasty. Since the discovery of the Hepu Han tombs, the local government has also acknowledged its vast cultural connotation, strengthened its protection, and optimized its utilization, as well as promoted the local social and economic development of the Hepu cultural region. Currently, Beihai city, under which jurisdiction Hepu belongs, is cooperating with various international ports to promote the declaration of the Maritime Silk Road as a Unesco World Cultural Heritage Site. Being the earliest recorded port of departure, research on the Hepu Han tombs can not only aid the future protection of newly discovered cultural relics, but also provide further academic support for the Unesco World Cultural Heritage Site Application. At the same time, archaeological research can also strengthen theoretical research and international discourses about the One Belt and One Road Initiative. Therefore, it is of great significance to continue our efforts to study the Hepu Han Tombs.

9.1 Providing Service to Local Economy and Culture The Hepu Han tombs have long been efficiently protected by the Chinese government. For instance, in 1962 the Hepu Han tombs were recognized by the local government of Hepu County as a ‘Cultural Relic Protection unit’, in 1981 the Central People’s © Guangxi Science & Technology Publishing House 2022 Z. Xiong and X. Fu, Hepu Han Tombs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4660-8_9

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Government of China enlisted the tombs as part of the ‘Cultural Relic Protection Unit of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region’, and in 1996 the State Council decided to put the Hepu Han tombs under state protection as a ‘Fourth Batch Key National Heritage Site’. Furthermore, in October 2016 the ‘Hepu Han Tombs Overall Protection Project’ (2015–2035) was approved by the State Cultural Relics Bureau and in August 2017 this plan was implemented and approved by the People’s Government of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. Based on this plan (Fig. 9.1) the distribution area of the tombs was divided into ‘Key Protected Areas’, ‘Normal Protected Areas’, and ‘Development Control Areas’. Three Key Protected Areas can be distinguished: Sifangling, Fengmenling (western region) and Jinjiling. The remaining areas containing a high concentration of tombs were divided into 10 Normal Protected Areas. This overall plan provided a scientific base for the protection and usage of the Hepu Han Tombs. The partly constructed Sifangling National Archaeological Park consists of the Sifangling Tomb area of the Hepu Han tombs and its surrounding environment. In this park, which is of national importance for the protection and display of key archaeological sites, a public space for scientific research, education, and recreation is being built. The selected sites include Sifangling, Wenchangta, Jinshan, and Fengmenling (western area). The total area of this park stretches eastward to the Huanzhunan Road, southward to the Qinbeitie Road, westward to the nitrogen fertilizer factory (Danfeichang) in Hepu and the second fire cracker factory (Erpaochang) in Lianzhou, and northward to the north side of the Guihua Road and the fireworks factory (Paozhuchang), covering a total area of 500 ha. Currently, 63 ha of open exhibition area has been built. Similarly, the Jinjiling Ecological Park has also started to take shape and includes the Jinjiling and Chongkou areas. The territory of this park stretches eastward until the Waidonghuan Road, southward until the southwestern bank of the Longmen River Reservoir, westward until Chongkou and the westward boundary of the Jinjiling Protection Area, and northward to the G325 national highway, covering a total area of 157 hectares. Through the construction of these two parks the archaeological site area is being repurposed and combined with urban construction planning. Moreover, the specific features of the burial complex, consisting of an extensive area with concentrated plots of tombs, as well as its effective protection and usage by different societal layers, makes the Hepu Han tombs part of a unique cultural landscape. This cultural landscape can improve the living conditions, investment climate, and the social and economic development of Hepu and its residents. In 2010 the State Council elected Beihai city as a ‘National and Historical Cultural City’ and Hepu became governed under the jurisdiction of Beihai County. In addition to the preservation of a large number of Han tombs, Beihai city became responsible for the protection of the Dalang Han urban site, the Caoxiecun Han urban site, as well as a large number of other cultural remains and monuments, such as the Dashi Pavilion, the Haijiao Pavilion, the Hui’ai Bridge, the Dongpo Pavilion, Wenchanta, Wushenggong, the Dongshan temple, the Wen Temple, and the Wuniguzhi Pool. These cultural

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Fig. 9.1 Hepu Han Tombs overall protection plan

relics and historic sites will be effectively integrated with other resources of the Beihai urban area, and can be used to create a tourism brand centered on the themes of Han Culture and the Maritime Silk Road. This can not only reflect the profound historical and cultural story of the Hepu area but can also promote the harmonious development of local culture and the overall economic and social framework of present-day Beihai.

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9.2 Technical Support for the Unesco World Cultural Heritage Application In 2012 the State Cultural Relics Bureau announced the project ‘The Maritime Silk Road—China’s Historical Sites as part of China’s preliminary list of World Cultural Heritage sites.’ This list contains a section about ‘Beihai’s Historical Sites’ and includes the Hepu Han Tombs, the Caoxiecun, and Dalang Key National Heritage Sites. Of these three sites, the Hepu Han tombs still represent the largest, bestpreserved, and most-complete remains. The Hepu Han Tombs are a component of the so-called ‘Cultural Routes Heritage’ of ‘The Maritime Silk Road’. At the ‘Cultural Route World Heritage Experts’ Meeting in Madrid in 1994, the concept of cultural routes was firstly proposed and explained as a concrete dynamic cultural landscape. The concept is based on ideas of dynamic migration and exchange and emphasizes the continuity in time and space of cultural heritage. In October 2005 at the 15th session of the “International Council on Monuments and Sites” held in Xi’an, a resolution based on the ‘Cultural Route Charter’ draft was adopted. Hereafter, the concept of ‘Cultural Route Heritage’ was further clarified in ‘The Revised Guidelines for the Implementation of the Convention for the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritag’. Moreover, it was argued that the temporal and spatial interaction of these routes can be illustrated by the composition of these routes because they constitute of a number of concrete elements whose cultural significance derives from cultural exchange and multidimensional dialogue. For instance, the large number of artifacts unearthed at the Hepu Han tombs refer to different historical periods and indicate interactions between different coastal countries and ethnic groups of Asia, Africa, and Europe. What’s more their representation of the full range of human activities, including political exchanges, trade contacts, cultural diffusion, technological exchange, and migration, complies with the application requirements for linear cultural heritage. The assessment of the general and outstanding value of Unesco World Cultural Heritage Sites is based on authenticity and integrity, and is one of the basic conditions for listing a heritage site on the Unesco World Heritage Sites List. Based on the numerous excavations and the extensive foundational research that has been carried out by archaeologists in the last 60 years, the completeness and authenticity of the Hepu Han Tombs has been confirmed . The internal relationship between the different sites in Hepu has also been revealed: the burial complex consists of the Hepu Han tombs and the Shuangfendun mounted tombs, while the residential area is made up of the Dalang and Caoxiecun urban sites. These interdependent and inseparable areas are essential evidence for the restoration of the Hepu Port and the study of the Maritime Silk Road. Moreover, Hepu has also preserved a large number of documents and graphic materials that record the development and history of the ‘Maritime Silk Road’ and the ‘Beihai Historical Sites’ over a period of 2000 years. Additionally, these materials also regenerate the profound impact of cultural heritage on a spiritual level. Unfortunately, as a result of the continuous improvement of shipbuilding and navigation technology, and the formation of offshore and oversea routes, the Hepu

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Port lost its former dominant position and faded into history. Nonetheless, cultural exchange and close relationships between China and other foreign nations continue to flourish until today. The Unesco World Heritage Site Application is a professional, complicated, and long-term international affair that is mainly nationally organized. At the moment, the main research task considering the Hepu Han Tombs is firstly to strengthen and deepen multidisciplinary and comprehensive research, secondly to concisely highlight the general values of this important site, and thirdly to fully expound transregional and cross-border communication. By doing this we can provide strong academic support for the application of the ‘Maritime Silk Road—Beihai Historical Sites’ as a Unesco World Cultural Heritage Site.

9.3 Assisting the One Belt One Road Initiative In September and October 2013 President Xi Jinping went on official state visits in several Central Asian and Southeast Asian countries. The two major initiatives ‘The Silk Road Economic Belt’ and ‘The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road; which he presented during these visits, gathered a lot of attention from the international community. When Premier Li Keqiang attended the China—ASEAN expo in 2013, he stressed the need to further develop a Maritime Silk Road oriented towards the ASEAN countries and proposed to build a number of strategic hubs in coastal areas to propel hinterland development. On March 29 in 2015 the National Development and Reform Commission, together with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Commerce published ‘The Vision and Actions for Jointly Building The Silk Road Economic Belt and The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road’ and initiated the construction of the ‘One Belt One Road Initiative.’ This initiative is dedicated to establishing and strengthening partnerships between the continents and adjacent seas in Asia, Europe, and Africa, and to promote economic prosperity and regional cooperation between these individual countries. It further hopes to enhance transregional exchanges and create opportunities for mutual learning between different cultures, as well as promote world peace and development. In the spirit of this, it is necessary to emphasize the active role, due to its advantageous position, of Guangxi in the development of the Tonkin Economic Zone and the Economic region composed of the Pearl and Xi Rivers. Moreover, starting from the Guangxi region international channels can be constructed to connect the ASEAN countries with China, and a new strategic stronghold can be opened up to develop southwest and central-south areas. In this way ‘The 21st century Maritime Silk Road’ and ‘The Silk Road Economic Belt’ can serve as an important cohesive portal. In April 19 in 2017 President Xi Jinping visited Beihai and the Han Culture Museum in Hepu as part of his official tour in Guangxi. Soon after, in May 14 in 2017 at the Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, he delivered a keynote speech entitled “Working Together to Promote the Construction of the One Belt and One Road Initiative”. President Xi described the Beihai port and other historic ports

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as “living fossils” that are witnesses of the long history of the Maritime Silk Road. This speech marks the first time that a Chinese leader confirmed Guangxi’s historical role in the construction of the early Maritime Silk Road on a top-level international meeting. The One Belt One Road Initiative depends largely on cultural support and is founded on the principles of cultural exchange. A focus on cultural exchange can not only effectively increase effective communication and interaction between China and other countries along the historical maritime routes, but can also secure a more widespread value recognition and support system. At the same time, via the One Belt One Road Initiative China wants to construct a stronger spiritual connection with neighbouring nations that has cultural exchange as a focal point. In addition, it is important that these close ties with countries along the Maritime Silk Road are strengthened in an equal and sincere manner. In this way, the One Belt and One Road Initiative can attract the participation and support of more countries and China can work together with other countries to build a united community with a shared future. At present, from a practical point of view, China has only entered an early stage of the construction of the One Belt One Road Initiative. This is due to the large spatial coverage of the initiative. Moreover, between the different involved countries a common cultural base is lacking, an uneven development in economics is present, and several differences between politics, culture, beliefs and languages exist. In addition, a common cultural recognition has not formed yet between China and the countries along the historical Maritime Silk Road, which has adversely affected the construction of the One Belt One Road Initiative. This indicates that China, within the process of constructing and promoting the One Belt One Road Initiative, needs to grasp a firm understanding of the overall geopolitical situation and needs to pay attention to the specific characteristics and differences within these countries. It is necessary to find a realistic starting point for cultural exchange that is based on tolerance and that is recognized by all countries. Moreover, the artefacts unearthed at the Hepu Han tombs and the history of the exchange of these objects over the Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty form a very good entry point. It goes without saying that the Maritime Silk Road of the Han Dynasty is also a ‘Road of Peace’. In the geographical records of the Book of the Han, for instance, it is mentioned how food and entourage was provided to the crew of the Han ships by the countries they visited. Moreover, foreign trade ships were also used to reach oversea destinations (This might actually refer to countries bordering the maritime routes that would sell ships to neighbouring countries). These records of friendly encounters illustrate how the Han envoys were not engaged in violent activities of war or plunder, but, instead, had amiable contacts with the inhabitants of the countries they visited in Southeast and East Asia. At present, the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road as advocated by the Chinese government, undoubtedly strives towards the inheritance and promotion of the ancient Maritime Silk Road. Between the modern and ancient roads there exists an inevitable internal logical connection, and the archaeological evidence presented in this book has illustrated the traditional contacts and friendship between China, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central Asia and other regions. This type of soft power helps strengthen theoretical research and the discourse system of the

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One Belt One Road Initiative. Finally, this type of cooperation also embodies major practical significance and can assist in building bridges based on friendly exchanges between the people of the different countries along the Maritime Silk Road.