Hawaiian Hula `Olapa: Stylized Embodiment, Percussion, and Chanted Oral Poetry 9783839436691

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Monika Lilleike Hawaiian Hula ‘Olapa

Theatre Studies | Volume 91

Monika Lilleike (MFA, PhD, Kumu Hula) works as a performance artist, stage director and lecturer in the field of Asian and Pacific Performance and European Experimental Performance Art and Theory. Lilleike is the head of the traditionally run hula school Halau Hula Makahikina in Berlin. Her research interest ties into: conditions of oral tradition, practices and aesthetics concerning cultural performance practices from the Pacific and Asia, procedures of cross-cultural translation, the senses and embodiment, stylization and embodied knowledge, the development of practice as research understood as methodological tool of cultural studies and performance analysis.

Monika Lilleike

Hawaiian Hula ‘Olapa Stylized Embodiment, Percussion, and Chanted Oral Poetry

D188

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de © 2016 transcript Verlag, Bielefeld

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Cover layout: Kordula Röckenhaus, Bielefeld Cover illustration: Hawaiian pattern/art design by Monika Lilleike, Berlin, © 2007 Proof reading: Karola Van Tonder-Lilleike, Ute-Marina Seek, Monika Lilleike, Brigitte & Werner Langefeld Typesetting: Monika Lilleike, Peggy Anders Printed in Germany Print-ISBN 978-3-8376-3669-7 PDF-ISBN 978-3-8394-3669-1

Table of Contents

Preface | 11 Acknowledgements | 13 Introduction | 15

1. Studies on Traditional Hawaiian Hula | 19 1.1 A Brief History of Hula and Principle Features of Hula‘Ōlapa Performance Practice | 19 1.2 Academic Research on Traditional Hawaiian Hula | 25 1.3 A Case Study on Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice | 26 1.4 Chapter Outline | 30

P ART I. METHODS Methods I: Practice as Research | 37 2. Practice as Research: A Principal Method of Embodied Knowledge Inquiry in Performance Studies | 37 2.1 The Master-Disciple Relation as Research Method | 39 2.2 Embodiment, Practice, and Perception: Key Concepts of Cultural and Performance Studies Applied to Practice as Research | 43 2.2.1 The Concept of Embodiment | 43 2.3 Practice as Research and the Embodied Mind Condition | 50 2.4 Self-Reflexivity of the Performer: A Tool of Inquiry about Embodied Knowledge | 52 2.5 Embodied Knowledge and the Senses | 56 2.6 Practice as Research and Studies of the Particular | 58

Methods II: Interart Aesthetics and Performance Analysis | 63

3. Concepts and Methodological Considerations | 63 3.1 Convergence | 67 3.1.1 Intersensoriality | 69 3.1.2 Interplay, Interdependence, and the Study of Media Combinations | 70 3.2 Elements of Convergence in Performance | 73 3.2.1 The Body Can Do it All: The Medial, Material, and Sensory Aspects of Embodiment | 74 3.2.2 Theatre as the Stage of Intermediality | 78 3.2.3 The Six Elements of Performance Analysis | 80 3.3 Degrees of Convergence and Issues of Transgression | 84 3.4 Methodological Synthesis | 88 Methods III: Scoring Performance Practice | 93

4. Kaupō ‘Āina: Scoring Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice | 93 4.1 Introduction | 93 4.2 Sequence, Frames, Cues | 94 4.3 The Concept of Guided Doings | 96 4.3.1 Practice as Research: Writing about Embodied Knowledge | 99 4.3.2 Performance Protocol: Kaupō ‘Āina in Performance | 102 4.3.3 Parameters of Transcription and Scoring | 106 4.4 Scoring Kaupō ‘Āina | 108 4.4.1 Five Parameters of Scoring Performance Practice | 109 4.5 Devising Performance Score 2 | 114 4.6 Final Reflections on Scoring and Outline of Analysis | 114

P ART II. ANALYSIS Analysis I: Staging Oral Poetry by Means of Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice | 119

5. Performance Practice Organization | 119 5.1 Section I: The Interrelation of the Frame Story and the Mele Hula | 121 5.1.1 A Brief Survey on the History of Oral Poetry in Hawai‘i | 121 5.1.2 Poems and Frame Stories: The Interdependence of Source Material and the Mele Hula | 124

5.1.3 Ka‘ao No Halemano – Source Material of Kaupō ‘Āina | 126 5.2 Section II: Means of Performance Practice | 130 5.2.1 Kāhea, Paukū, Holo, and Pā | 130 5.2.2 Pā: Performative Means of Framing | 134 5.2.3 Performance Structural and Referential Functions of Performative Means of Framing | 136 5.3 Section III: Percussion. The Performative, Referential, and Aesthetic Implications Considering Structural Variations of Acoustic Material | 137 5.3.1 The Kaupō Pattern | 137 5.3.2 Percussion: A Means to Re-Embody History of Hula Performance Practice in a New Fashion | 143 5.4 Section IV: Combining “New” and “Old” Features of Performance Practice | 148 5.4.1 Historical Implications of Performance Practice and its Analysis | 148 5.4.2 Weaving together Traditions of Performance Practice | 151 Analysis II: A Performance Aesthetic Study on Stylized Gestural Articulation | 155

6. On Gestures and Stylization | 155 6.1 Body Posture and Gestures in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice | 155 6.1.1 Specification of Gestures and Outline of the conceptual Cornerstones of Analysis | 156 6.1.2 Stylization and Body Articulation | 157 6.1.3 Aisthesis, Stylization, Gestural Materialization, and Sensory Experience | 158 6.2 On Gestures and Stylization Section I: The Basic Body Posture | 161 6.2.1 ‘Ai Ha‘a – A Principal Gestural Schema which Shapes the Body as a Whole | 161 6.2.2 Readiness: Ho‘omakaukau! | 164 6.2.3 Body Posture and Presence | 165 6.2.4 By Means of Stylization I | 166 6.2.5 ‘Ai Ha‘a and the First Principle of Stylization | 170

6.3 On Gestures and Stylization Section II: Stylized-Abstract Gestures | 172 6.3.1 Developments in Gesture Studies | 172 6.3.2 Agency, Materiality, and Referentiality: The Performance Analytical Conceptualization of Gestural Articulation | 174 6.3.3 By Means of Stylization II – Materiality and Stylization of Abstract Gestures | 182 6.3.4 The Gestalt-Concept Applied to an Analysis of Stylized-Abstract Gestures | 188 6.3.5 Stylized-Abstract Gestures Concerning the Upper Body | 195 6.3.6 Stylization and Embodiment | 200 6.3.7 Stylized-Abstract Gestures: Performance Aesthetic Keys to Sensory Experience – Do Stylized-Abstract Gestures Make Sense? | 204 6.4 On Gestures and Stylization Section III: Stylized-Alluding Gestures | 209 6.4.1 Conceptualizing Stylized-Alluding Gestures of the Upper Body Segment | 209 6.4.2 By Means of Stylization III | 211 6.4.3 The Makani-Gesture: The Multi-Sensory Experience of Wind as Encounter | 219 6.4.4 Dimensions of Gestural Gestalt-Analysis and the Power of Gestural Metaphoricity | 229 6.4.5 The Performance Aesthetic Effect of Inference between Word and Gesture | 232 6.4.6 The Third Principle of Stylization | 236 6.4.7 Conclusion | 237 Analysis III: By Means of Contrast in Performance | 239

7. Structure of Difference: Staging the Division between Performance Disciplines – The Dancer-Actor and the Percussionist-Singer | 239 7.1 Framed Confrontation between Sound, Words, and Body in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance | 241 7.2 Performance Structural Features and Performance Elements: A Diagrammatic Visualization | 242

7.2.1 Structure of Difference: The Ho‘opa‘a and the ‘Ōlapa, the two Major Performance Disciplines in Hula ‘Ōlapa | 244 7.2.2 Interrelations of Performance Elements | 244 7.2.3 The Performance Domain of the Ho‘opa‘a | 245 7.2.4 The Performance Domain of the ‘Ōlapa | 246 7.3 Sensory Correspondences among Performance Elements | 247 7.3.1 The Cross-Modal Actualization of Temporality | 249 7.3.2 The Cross-Modal Actualization of Spatiality | 250 7.3.3 Sensory Correspondences between Body, Word, and Image | 251 7.4 Performance Segmentation and the Sensory Effect of Varied Combinations of Performance Material | 254 7.4.1 Sensory Sequencing | 254 7.4.2 Sensory Sequencing Applied to Kaupō ‘Āina | 257 7.4.3 By Means of Contrast: Sensory Ratios of Performance Material | 265 Analysis IV: Keying Performance Activity – The Call-AndResponse Practice in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance | 269

8. Explicit Cues in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice: Kāhea | 269 8.1 Introduction | 269 8.2 Categorizing Kāhea | 276 8.2.1 Kāhea Wehe: The Opening Dedication | 276 8.2.2 The Prototypical Kāhea: The Vocal Indication of the Next Following Stanza | 281 8.2.3 E-ue: A Call Indicating the Final Performance Sequence of Kaupō ‘Āina | 284 8.2.4 Kāhea Pau: The Ending Dedication | 285 8.3 Cues and the Transformative Power of Keying Performance Activity | 286 8.4 Multi-Sensory Experience and the Evocative Capacity of Poetry | 290 Conclusion | 293

9. Hula ‘Ōlapa – A Performance Aesthetic of the Senses. Results of Analysis and Final Reflections | 293 Appendices | 299

Appendix A: Case Study Photos 1-8 | 301 Appendix A: A-2, Basic Body Posture, ‘Ai Ha‘a | 304

Appendix B: PS 1, Performance Score 1: Kaupō ‘Āina | 305 Appendix C: PS 2, Performance Score 2: Kaupō ‘Āina | 307 Appendix D: Outline: Division of Performance Disciplines – Cross-modal Correspondences between Performance Elements | 313 Appendix D: D-2, Revision: Division of Performance Disciplines – Crossmodal Correspondences between Performance Elements | 314 Appendix E: Gestalt-Model 1 and 2 | 315 Appendix F: Categories of Kāhea in Relation to PS 1 | 317 Glossary | 319 Bibliography | 323 Abstract – German | 335

Preface “As a dancer you’re painting a picture. You put into motion our oral history.” CECILIA KAWAIOKAWA‘AWA‘A AKIM (2003), P. 52.

The present study is dedicated to hula ‘ōlapa. This highly esteemed performance practice from Hawaii is rooted in a long standing tradition and culture of Polynesian origin. Hula performance was transmitted from teacher to student strictly via oral and performative means. In contrast to European culture pre-contact Hawaiian culture did not cultivate writing. No written accounts were in use. In order to ensure historical continuity in cultures based on orality, it needs specific cultural techniques and requirements. In Hawaiian culture of Polynesian origin (kanaka maoli) historical transmission of cultural and particularly historical knowledge takes place by elaborate means of stylization, effective by shaping decisively both the practice of body gesture and the vocal rendition of oral genealogies, stories and epics. The cultural practice of stylization has been developed by groups of cultural specialists who strictly passed down their knowledge from generation to generation. On Hawaii an elaborate oral culture emerged through many centuries based on a living and still ongoing tradition. To adhere to principles of stylization ensures continuity of cultural knowledge. The continuous implementation of stylized means of embodiment is the key in the process of practicing and transmitting the Hawaiian tradition of hula and chant. Creative variation is part of that process. The current publication seeks to uncover core aspects of Hawaiian performance tradition based on practices of stylized embodiment, a means and a powerful tool to engender and to transmit embodied knowledge. The approach of research is based on a micro-analytical study of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. This study draws on a wide range of disciplines taking in to account German, European, and international Performance Studies, Gestalt-Theory, the discourse

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on Interart Aesthetics, and the Anthropology of the Senses fostered by David Howes. Practice as research places in this case study a main source of academic writing and theory building about hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The perspective of practice as research as outlined in this study is based on the reflection of embodied knowledge, which I as the researcher gained through a long term training process of hula ’olapa on Hawaii and in Europe. The long term immersion into traditional principles of performance transmission is the key that enables to reflect and to write about embodied knowledge thereby discussing the inherited sense of the world and related aesthetics expressed and experienced through performance. A process of transformation of the self is inevitably part of this procedure of research. The approach of practice as research as proposed in this study is closely linked to studies of dance and theatre traditions from Asian countries. In the later case, the perpetuation of stylized embodiment is likewise intrinsically part of traditional performing art forms and related techniques of transmission. Cultural continuity and development in the history of Europe is tied to the impact of principles based on literacy, “the Mittel der Schrift” in German terms. The possibility to fix and to transmit tradition by means of writing ensures in these cultures historical continuity. This is the fundamental difference to oral transmission of culture. Hawaiian culture of Polynesian origin is one form of oral culture, which guarantees vivid continuity of tradition by elaborate stylized performances through means of embodied knowledge and its ongoing perpetuation from one generation to the next I strongly recommend that theater studies at university level in Germany and else were takes steps toward research that queries oral traditions and related cultures. Approaches that focus on Asian and Pacific traditions of performance practices have become part of academic programs in the US and recently in the UK. Fundamental to this research perspective on orality and stylized performance practices is to implement courses on performance practices from various oral traditions as part of the regular curriculum of theatre studies.

Acknowledgements

This thesis is dedicated to: John Keolamaka‘ainanakalahuiokalaniokamehamehaekolu Lake (19372008), to his teachings I owe my knowledge and insights into the art and practice of hula and oli and how these practices are grounded in Hawaiian thought, history and culture. Due to Lake's trust my cross-cultural research on hula was made possible. I would like to express my gratitude to those who have been of support and assistance in the development and the publication of this dissertation: Members of Hālau Mele, O‘ahu, and members of the Lake family, for their incessant support and the friendships that have been growing over the years; Brigitte and Werner Langefeld, who have been my mentors and support in my intercultural endeavor to research and practice Asian and Pacific Performing Arts; Karola van Tonder-Lilleike, for lectorship cross-reading the English manuscript and her support as a close family member; Ute-Marina Seek, for extensive lectorship and advice on topics concerning Hawaiian language, culture and the hula; Brigitte Witzenhause and Felicia Rappe, my dissertation working group; Peggy Anders, a focused and determined team worker, who assisted me in the process of publishing the dissertation. This included editorial work, layout and refurnishing the graphic material, diagrams and photos; My friendships enduring times of challenge and nā haumāna hula, my hula students of Nā Hanona o ka Hālau Hula Makahikina, who are diligently studying the hula in Berlin. I dedicate special acknowledgement to the doctoral program of the International Research Training Group InterArt Studies Berlin, situated at the Free University of Berlin. This doctoral program, which I was a member of, offered an important academic setting for my work. Attending the discussions on a regular

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base and being involved in setting up two International InterArt Studies Group conferences did broaden my perspective on current debates on Intermediality, Media, and Image Studies, and various topics relevant to the field of cultural studies. With great thanks I want to acknowledge the financial support by the International Research Training Group Interart Studies, Berlin. The support encompassed a writing grant covering 13.5 months and a travel grant that enabled me to conduct six weeks of research on the Hawaiian Islands in July till August 2010. Monika Lilleike Berlin, August 2016

Introduction

Hula ‘ōlapa, a traditional Hawaiian performing art practice, epitomizes a performance aesthetic of the senses based on a delicate combination of chanted oral poetry, percussion, and stylized means of embodiment. The stated perspective on hula ‘ōlapa refers to a quote of kumu hula Maiki Aiu Lake saying that hula is: “The art of Hawaiian dance expressing all that we see, hear, smell, taste, touch and feel.”1 The statement has been a leading guideline of the late hula master kumu hula John Keola Lake, whom I studied with as a regular hula student at his traditionally run hula school on O‘ahu, Hawai‘i (19972001). During class kumu hula John Lake recurrently cited the quote of his teacher kumu hula Maiki Aiu Lake thereby orally transmitting to his students the stated aesthetic understanding of hula. The above stated performance aesthetic claim of hula represents a central principle of hula ‘ōlapa performance. Taking the lead artistic claim of the hula masters into account I question whether hula performance brings into focus the oscillating effect of multi-layered sense experience which may ideally trigger an experience of aesthetic delight, called “le‘a”2 in Hawaiian terminology.

1

This quote of kumu hula Maiki Aiu Lake is found in print in the book written by Rita Ariyoshi (1998): Hula is Life, Honolulu/Hong Kong: Maiki Aiu Building Corporation, p. 75. This publication is dedicated to Maiki Aiu Lake’s artistic work and her biliography as a hula master. Maiki Aiu Lake is considered to be a pioneer in the revival of traditional hālau and hula practice and the development of the Hawaiian renaissance and cultural movement, that emerged on Hawai‘i during the 60s of the 20th century.

2

According to the Hawaiian Dictionary “le‘a” denotes: 1. nvs. Joy, pleasure, happiness, merriment; sexual gratification, orgasm; pleasing, gay, delightful, happy, merry;

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Hula ‘ōlapa is more than a dance to music and chant. Hula ‘ōlapa configures an art form of its own. I propose as part of my performance analytical work that the performative, referential as well as aesthetic quality of hula arises as an emergent in-between situation engendered through an ephemeral constellation of organized non-congruent aspects of multiple artistic means – the fleeting, multidimensional confluence of body gesture, the sound of percussion, and chanted poetry. My research endeavor reflects upon several inter-relating levels of performance organization analyzing performative, referential as well as aesthetic dimensions. Respectively, my aim is to develop a performance analytical approach that queries the initial claim that traditional hula epitomizes a performance aesthetic of the senses. The recent debate on interart aesthetics and concepts such as intermediality offer theoretical and methodological perspectives to conceptualize interdependencies of heterogeneous performance material and its aesthetic effect relevant to my own performance analytical research on Hawaiian hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Core questions are concerned with heterogeneity of combined materialities in performance and the notion of “structures of difference” on one hand, and issues of degrees of convergence and processes of transgression between divergent performance materialities on the other hand. The question is how various performance materialities are framed and organized in sequence and synchrony? What are the interlinking features of such heterogeneous performance practice? How to describe the convergent effects of aesthetic experiences which are triggered by framed means of performance materiality and their combinations in the process of performance? Performative means of framing, stylization, and multi-sensory experience designate crucial concepts of my methodological framework that guide my systematic interest to describe interdependencies of heterogeneous performance material – percussive sound, words, and body motion – and the sensory impact that delighted, pleased. Cf. manawale‘a. ho‘o.le‘a. To cause pleasure, joy; to praise, please, delight, extol; praising, eulogistic. Ha‘i‘ōlelo ho‘ole‘a, eulogistic speech. ‘Ehā kaukani ho‘i i ho‘ole‘a iā Iēhowa me nā mea kani a‘u i hana ai i mea ho‘ole‘a (1 Oihn. 23.5), four thousand then praised Jehovah with the playing instruments I made as praising things. (PEP leka). 2. vs. Clearly, perfectly, thoroughly, successfully, Cf. kāle‘a, kūle‘a. Ha’i le‘a, to describe fully and clearly; one skilled in clear, full explanation. Holo le‘a, to progress smoothly, successfully. ‘Ike le‘a, to see clearly. Maopopo le‘a, obvious, clearly evident. Mo‘a le‘a, thoroughly cooked. 3. (Cap.) n. The zenith star Arcturus. Also Hōkū-le‘a. See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (eds.) (1986): Hawaiian Dictionary, 6th ed., Honolulu: UP of Hawai‘i.

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the confluence of these element combinations have on aesthetic experience. The methodological framework reflects upon performance practices applied by hula ‘ōlapa performers. Stylization designates a crucial performance analytical concept to describe a means of performance practice which closely relates, as I argue, to the formation of stylized means of body articulation based on extra-daily technique. Performative means of framing on the other hand specify principles of performance organization that shape and structure the combination of several performance elements in sequence and synchrony. Performative means of framing are based on performance principles transmitted as embodied knowledge. They frame, as I argue, a hula composition as a whole. Both, stylization of body articulation and performative means of framing engender what I call multisensory experience as part of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. I discuss these stated topics by means of a micro-analytical case study which focuses on one hula repertoire piece called Kaupō ‘Āina. The aim of my analytical endeavor is to describe hula ‘ōlapa performance practice as closely as possible. In developing my own performance analytical approach I draw methodologically upon concepts outlined by Erika Fischer-Lichte in her seminal paper on Interart Aesthetics (2004), supplementing these with positions from various disciplines, such as performance and media studies, concepts drawn from a recent discourse on intermediality in Germany, frame analytical and interactiontheoretical considerations developed by Erving Goffman, notions outlined by proponents of an anthropology of the senses, aspects drawn from Gestalt-theory and visual studies, as well as Asian theater studies. I refer to academic research on hula conducted by anthropologists such as Adrian Kaeppler, Elizabeth Tartar, and Amy Stillman. I include the work of Ruth Finnegan on oral poetry. A main point of reference is my own case study on hula ‘ōlapa that I conducted from 1997 till 2001 on Hawai‘i. I gained the performance knowledge on hula ‘ōlapa that I am writing about primarily by means of practice as research. Embodiment is the prime mode of this method of inquiry outlined as part of my work.

S TUDIES ON T RADITIONAL H AWAIIAN H ULA

1. S TUDIES

ON

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T RADITIONAL H AWAIIAN H ULA

1.1 A Brief History of Hula and Principle Features of Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice Hula is the generic term to denote a genre of performance practice and an indigenous Hawaiian art form that originally developed on the Hawaiian Islands located in the Northern hemisphere of the Pacific Ocean. To the present day, traditional hula embodies and transmits by means of performance practice the oral history of Hawai‘i. Hula therefore is central to the perpetuation of Hawaiian culture. At the courts of the Hawaiian chiefs, hula was practiced as a highly distinguished and esteemed form of formal entertainment.3 It was part of the education at the courts of the chiefs to excel in the art of hula and oral literature. Depending on the occasion, hula practices were imparted during ceremonies such as the makahiki,4 and at the service of the temples.5 The chiefs were the main sponsors of hula and essentially contributed to a vibrant practice of hula on Hawai‘i.6 Despite a flourishing hula tradition at the courts, hula was practiced among commoners and their families as well.7 Hula pahu and hula ‘āla‘apapa denote two distinguished streams of traditional hula.8 They represent treasures of the living 3

See Kaeppler, Adrienne L. (1996): Hula Pahu. Hawaiian Drum Dances, (1993), vol. 1, 1st repr. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 2 vols., p. 12-13 and p. 230.

4

The Hawaiian Dictionary’s entry on the term “makahiki” reads as follows: “[...] 2. Ancient festival beginning about the middle of October and lasting about four months, with sports and religious festivities and taboo in war[...].” See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 225.

5

See Kaeppler, Adrienne L. (1996), p. 6-9 and p. 11.

6

As an example of chiefly sponsorship of hula I refer to the coronation of King David Kalākaua and his wife Queen Kapi‘olani which was held on February 12, 1883. A series of hula known as the “Queen Kapi‘olani’s lei chants” were composed and performed as part of the coronation’s festivity in honor of Queen Kapi‘olani. See Stillman, Amy K. (1996): “Queen Kapi‘olani’s Lei Chants”, published in: The Hawaiian History Journal, vol. 30, p. 119-152.

7

The Beamer family, well known on Hawai‘i, holds a tradition of hula, to name one family tradition of hula among others. See Beamer, Nona (1987): Na Mele Hula. A Collection of Hawaiian Hula Chants, vol. 1, Laie, Hawai‘i: The Institute of Hawaiian Studies/Brigham Young University, ix-x.

8

Research on hula pahu has been done by Kaeppler (1993), Tartar (1993) and Takamine (1994). Takamine compares hula pahu and hula ‘āla‘apapa whereas

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performance tradition of hula on Hawai‘i. Caretakers of this living tradition have been hula masters, known as kumu hula, who passed down their embodied knowledge to selected students via rigorous training. The practice of traditional hula considerably changed due to colonial impact and the general historical and socio-political development of Hawaiian society. Hula was publicly banned for many decades of the 19th century. Responsible for this situation was the strong influence of the Christian mission on the islands.9 Nevertheless, traditional hula practitioners were able to sustain and to adjust their customary practice of hula to the conditions that the impact of Western culture placed on them. Hula practitioners integrated Western cultural traits into new ways of rendering hula performance practice. Amy Stillman, a specialist in hula studies, concedes that since the 1860s two broad streams of performance practices of hula, termed hula ‘ōlapa and hula ku‘i, emerged side by side. Stillman summarizes that the distinction between hula ku‘i and hula ‘ōlapa is determined by the style of presentation. “In the hula ku‘i (which makes up much of what is called "modern hula" or hula ‘auana in the present), Western melodies are sung to the harmonic accompaniment of Western instruments such as guitar, ‘ukulele, and piano. In the other performance stream, which came to be called hula ‘ōlapa apparently in the early twentieth century, melodies are chanted rather than sung, and the rhythmic accompaniment consists entirely of indigenous percussive instruments, chief among them the double-gourd ipu, played by a chanter (separate from dancers) for standing dances, and an array of implements, including slit bamboo pu‘ili rattle, feather-decorated ‘uli‘uli rattle, water-worn ‘ili‘ili pebbles, and tapered 10

kala‘au sticks, manipulated by dancers (mostly) in seated dances.”

The use of indigenous percussion instruments and the chanted vocal rendition of the mele hula, the piece of poetry which is intrinsically part of any hula repertoire piece, designate crucial aspects which define hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Hula ku‘i on the other hand is based on Western stringed instruments and the use of harmony and singing style to convey the mele hula. Stillman adds that both streams of performance practice have nonetheless one aspect in common. Stillman (1998) primarily focuses on the study of hula ‘āla‘apapa and hula developments since the 1860s. 9

See Barrère, Dorothy B./Pukui, Mary Kawena/Kelly, Marion (1980): Hula. Historical Perspectives. Pacific Anthropological Records. 30, Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, p. 30.

10 See Stillman, Amy K. (1996): “Queen Kapi‘olani’s Lei Chants”, in: The Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 30, p. 140-141.

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The piece of poetry, the mele hula, is organized into stanzas of couplets or quatrains separated by brief instrumental pattern.11 During the 1890s, the ruling Hawaiian king Kalākaua instigated a first revival of public hula performance12 thereby officially disapproving the fact that hula was banned due to the influence of Christian morality and values on the islands. Hula flourished once again, both traditional and new hula performance practices. However, hula lost the Hawaiian governmental and chiefly sponsorship by reason of the US annexation of the Hawaiian Islands in 1898. For many decades Hawai‘i was handled as a non self-governing territory to the USA. Hula performance was in parts absorbed into the tourist and film industry.13 Traditional hula was practiced more or less unnoticed in small circles of Hawaiian families and some hula masters did transmitted the embodied tradition of hula under strict surveillance to the following generation of hula practitioners.14 Hawai‘i achieved US-American statehood in 1959. Fostered by a time of civil unrest during the ’60s and ’70s and due to tremendous efforts by hula practitioners and supporters, hula practice and public performances experienced a second revival, known as the second Hawaiian renaissance.15 One important aim of these efforts has been to change the highly stigmatized position of hula performance. Practitioners created new venues for hula performance geared towards a reassessment of standards of hula practice and its evaluation according to their own perspective. This included the resurgence of hula schools termed “hālau hula.”16 Hālau hula repre-

11 Ibid., p. 141. 12 See Barrère, Dorothy B./Pukui, Mary Kawena/Kelly, Marion (1980), p. 50. 13 Houston Wong published a critical survey on this subject. See Wong, Houston (1999): Displacing Natives. The Rhetorical Production of Hawai‘i, p. 64. 14 See Kaeppler, Adrienne (1996): Hula Pahu. Hawaiian Drum Dances, vol. 1, (1993) 1st repr. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 2 vols. Kaeppler’s study distinguishes among at least four traditions of hula and representative kumu hula active during the early 20th century. The kumu hula and their hula lineages of students discussed in her study represent important personalities that secured the perpetuation of traditional hula performance practice during the early 20th century until the development of the Hawaiian Renaissance in the ’60s and ’70s of the 20th century. 15 See Kaepller, Adrienne (1996), p. 227-230. 16 The term “hālau” denotes, according to the Hawaiian Dictionary “long house, as for canoes or hula instruction; meeting house,” see Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 52.

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sent on Hawai‘i institutions run according to traditional protocol of hula instruction and transmission techniques.17 George Naope, a famous and influential kumu hula from the Big Island of Hawai‘i, expresses the necessity of self-empowerment of Hawaiians and Hawaiian cultural practitioners as follows: “The hula is Hawai‘i. The hula is the history of our country. The hula is a story itself if it is done right. And the hula to me is the foundation of life. It teaches us how to live, how to be, is the ability to create one’s inner feelings and no one else’s.”18 During the early 1960s kumu hula George Naope himself was involved to create a new venue to present hula to the public, the Merry Monarch Festival, an annually held and large scale hula competition situated on the Big Island. In connection with this new emerging venue of hula competition a new set of terms came into use to categorize hula performance traditions. “Hula kahiko”19 specifies according to the competition’s categorization traditional hula, whereas “hula ‘auana” designates so called modern hula. The term hula kahiko eclipses at least three streams of traditional hula performance practice: hula pahu, hula ‘āla‘apapa, and hula ‘ōlapa. The second main category set up by the committee of the Merry Monarch hula competition is designated to hula ‘auana which addresses those performance practices so far known as hula ku‘i.20 Hula ‘auana implies European stringed music instruments and music aesthetics such as harmony, which define the musical set up. Cos17 See Rita Arioshy’s dedication to kumu hula Maiki Aiu Lake who established as part of her own hula school the traditional hālau hula system as the regular framework to learn, to practice, and to teach hula. See the forward of the book Hula is Life, (1998), p.11-12. 18 George Naope’s statement (2003) is part of a collection entitled, Hula. Hawaiian Proverbs and Inspirational Quotes Celebrating Hula in Hawai‘i, published by Mutual Publishing, p.13. 19 Hula kahiko combines two words. Hula denotes the genre in general while the affix “kahiko” specifies hula kahiko in terms of a distinct hula performance practice of old. The term kahiko denotes “old, ancient, antique, primitive, long ago, beforehand” to follow the Hawaiian Dictionary (1986), p. 112. A discussion on the development of hula terminology within the context of hula competitions see Kaeppler, Adrienne L. (1996), p. 4., and the essay by Stillman, Amy K. (1996): “Hawaiian Hula Competitions. Event, Repertoire, Performance, Tradition” in: Journal of American Folklore, 109, no. 434, p. 357 ff. 20 According to the Hawaiian Dictionary the affix “‘auana” of the compound word hula ‘auana means, “to wander, drift, ramble, go from place to place; to stray morally or mentally. Cf. hula ‘auana,” see Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 30.

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tumes incorporate European dressing style. Body posture and gesticulation differ distinctly in style from traditional hula. In recent years the terms, hula kahiko and hula ‘auana, gained popularity among hula practitioners to differentiate between traditional and so called modern hula practice. In my work I refer to the term hula ‘ōlapa to specify traditional hula performance practice which utilizes the percussive instrument called ipu heke and related traditional techniques of chanting and of hula performance. Doing so, I follow Stillman’s delineation of traditional hula performance practice, which dates back to the 19th century as delineated earlier21. I thereby distinguish hula ‘ōlapa from hula repertoire and related performance practices that tie into the tradition of hula pahu and hula ‘āla‘apapa. The term hula ‘ōlapa has been the designating category of traditional hula which has been in use at The World Invitational Hula Festival – E Ho‘i Mai I Ka Piko Hula, the venue where I performed Kaupō ‘Āina, the hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece and leading analytical subject of my study. The generic term “hula” denotes a performing art genre as a whole and refers to one single composed hula piece at the same time. In case of hula ‘ōlapa the act of composing one hula piece involves generating a performance score by interweaving words, percussion, and body motion according to a set of performance rules transmitted through a traditionally marked protocol of performance practice. Kumu hula John Keola Lake emphasized in his teachings that hula compositions are by definition based on a mele hula, a piece of oral poetry designated to function as an integral part of a hula composition. A sole choreography of movements thereafter is not considered to be hula. Compositional work is done prior to actual performance. Oral and performative modes of transmission of performance provide to hula masters, who are immersed in hula tradition, the knowledge to compose hula ‘ōlapa pieces. To consider oral and performative principles and rules of performance practice is therefore crucial to my research and my understanding about the creative process and the artistic rendition of hula ‘ōlapa compositions as part of an ongoing living tradition of performance practice. Hula ‘ōlapa understood as a living tradition of performance practice combines both procedures of rigorous training as well as staging public performances. The skill of composition according to the protocol of oral traditions im21 The Hawaiian Dictionary lists as part of the entry on the term ‘ōlapa: […] any dance accompanied by chanting, and drumming on a gourd drum.” See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 283. This designation of the dictionary supports Stillman’s distinguished research perspective on the leading performance traits of hula ‘ōlapa.

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plies an expertise of performance knowledge including social conventions about appropriate style, forms of setting, and classifications of the art socially recognized by cultural practitioners throughout the islands of Hawaii.22 Each hula ‘ōlapa composition includes a section of oral literature, called “mele hula.” A mele hula represents a piece of oral poetry based on “heightened language,” following a range of stylistic and formal attributes.23 The term mele hula as used in this work denotes in English both the singular and the plural mode.24 The subject of the poetry of the mele hula may relate to a wide range of topics such as episodes drawn from traditional Hawaiian epics and mythology. The poetry of mele hula reflects upon the deeds of mythological and historical personalities, historical events as well as culturally significant Hawaiian land marks and locations. As I noted earlier, traditional hula on Hawai‘i signifies and represents a prime medium to convey and to transmit oral history via performance. Hula as a purveyor of Hawaiian oral history functions as a means of collective mind mapping which enables cultural practitioners to convey culturally significant aspects of geology, botany, meteorological and oceanological conditions as well as social values, cultural practices and circumstance. Two sets of performance specialists, the ‘ōlapa, i.e. the dancer-actors, and the ho‘opa‘a, i.e. the percussionist-singers, enact and vocalize the mele hula, the verbal domain of hula ‘ōlapa, in pluri-medial terms. This division is fundamental to performance organization of hula ‘ōlapa.25 In some special cases the ‘ōlapa takes on the function of the ho‘opa‘a, and vice versa. During hula ‘ōlapa performances the ‘ōlapa, or dancer-actors, focus primarily on body articulation being trained in a highly stylized form of dance-acting while the ho‘opa‘a chants the mele hula based on a microtonal form of vocalization. While chanting, the ho‘opa‘a play percussion instruments, the double gourd called ipu heke or the drums, called pahu, in case repertoire of hula pahu is the subject of the performance.

22 See Finnegan, Ruth (1992): Oral Poetry. Its Nature, Significance and Social Context, Bloomington, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, p. 27. 23 Ibid., p. 25. My understanding of mele hula categorized as oral poetry is based on Finnegan’s research on oral traditions perpetuated as part of Pacific island cultures. 24 In Hawaiian language the definite article “ka” would indicates singular, while “nā” specifies the plural mode. 25 The defining aspect in hula ‘ōlapa performances is the use of the percussion instrument called ipu heke, a double gourd instrument. See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986): Hawaiian Dictionary, p. 283.

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It requires at least one ‘ōlapa and one ho‘opa‘a in order to form a hula ‘ōlapa ensemble. However, the number of ho‘opa‘a and ‘ōlapa, performing jointly as part of one performance event, is theoretically speaking unlimited. ‘Ōlapa performers are organized in formations of rows being staggered behind each other. Each row encompasses several performers positioned next to each other. The number of rows depends on how many performers are involved. Both, the ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a performers, who perform publicly together as hula ensembles, are for the most part well trained within the philosophy of one hālau hula.26 For the purpose of this study, I focus on the general situation of at least one ‘ōlapa and one ho‘opa‘a, which applies to a certain category of hula performance practice termed by Kaeppler as “standing hula,” hula kū, versus another category distinguished as “seated hula,” known as hula noho.27 1.2 Academic Research on Traditional Hawaiian Hula Academic research, which focuses on traditional hula, follows various perspectives, depending on the scholars’ interest of study. I refer here to four major academic works on traditional hula. One of the oldest publications on traditional hula is the book Unwritten Literature of Hawai‘i – The Sacred Songs of the Hula (1909) written by Nathanial Emerson who covers crucial aspects of traditional hālau hula protocol in his work. The book contains an extensive collection of “mele hula.”28 Emerson categorizing mele hula in reference to content and certain performance attributes. Emerson recognizes thereby that mele hula, a type of oral literature, is fundamental to an understanding of traditional hula performance practice. The anthropologist Adrienne Kaeppler, on the other hand, follows in her work, entitled Hula Pahu. Hawaiian Drum Dance, vol. 1, a combined historical and dance ethnologically oriented study perspective on hula performance practice. Kaeppler traces the development of traditional hula practice starting from its origins during a time of Hawaiian society as it existed prior to Western contact and its practices until the second half of the 20th century. She conceptualizes traditional hula from a dance ethnographer’s point of view pri26 The term hālau hula encompasses both a school of hula performance training, lead usually by one distinguished hula master, and one ensemble of well trained hula performers. The hālau ensembles present the hula lineages and styles of their hula masters throughout a diverse range of public hula events on Hawaii. 27 See Kaeppler, Adrienne L. (1996), p. 926. 28 I discuss the topic of mele oli and mele hula, see Part II, Analysis I: 5.1.2 Poems and Frame Stories: The Interdependence of Source Material and the Mele Hula.

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marily as a “structured movement system.”29 A third perspective has been outlined by the music-ethnologist Amy Stillman in her book entitled Sacred Hula. The historical Hula ‘āla‘apapa (1998). Stillman focuses in this analysis primarily on the musical structure of classical hula compositions. The fourth main source of reference represents the historical survey titled Hula. Historical Perspectives (1980) written by Dorothy Barrère, Mary Pukui and Marion Kelly. Taking contextual questions into account, the authors query how political, religious, and social developments influenced hula practice and its public acknowledgement in the course of the past two hundred years. The contribution of my thesis is to conceptualize and analyze respectively the interdependence of the so far separately studied performance elements of traditional hula performance practice, which I categorize as stylized means of embodiment, percussion, and chanted oral poetry. The performance analytical and aesthetic perspective of my work recognizes that in hula ‘ōlapa performance the three elements, means of stylized embodiment, specific percussive pattern, and a refined oral form of poetry closely correlate.30 The leading analytical question is to determine how these three specified performance elements of hula ‘ōlapa converge in performance taking performative, referential and aesthetic aspects into account. I further query how concepts such as stylization, performative means framing, and sensory experience apply to my research interest to describe the process of performance materialization of hula ‘ōlapa and its aesthetic appeal. The performance analytical perspective stresses an interest in research on principles of oral culture and its crucial means of transmission based on embodied knowledge. 1.3 A Case Study on Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice My analytical perspective on hula ‘ōlapa performance is based on the critical reflection of existing academic research concerned with traditional hula performance and the evaluation of my own empirical field-research material. Trained in hula ‘ōlapa practice according to traditional training methods, I was able to focus on immediate experience and an understanding how practitioners train, perform, and reflect upon their art.31 I learned the principles of oral transmission 29 See Kaeppler, Adrienne L. (1996), p. 3. 30 I primarily focus on procedures of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. However, I also consider historical information as part of my analysis of performance practice. 31 I was able to grasp principles of oral transmission tied to a strict tradition of performance training based on the master-disciple relationship.

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that are tied to a strict tradition of performance training based on the masterdisciple relationship. This research pursuit I consider to be an important key to conduct research on embodied performance knowledge. In my case I studied under the tutelage of the renowned master of hula and teacher, kumu hula John Keola Lake.32 I honor the fact that I received the permission from kumu hula John Keola Lake, to write about the knowledge, which I gained studying hula ‘ōlapa performance at his hālau hula.33 In my research I concentrate on one hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece, called Kaupō ‘Āina, pursuing a micro-analytical approach. I gained my knowledge about Kaupō ‘Āina as a hula student and practitioner following traditional training protocol at Lake’s hula school. The training process implied oral/aural and kinesthetic transmission based on a gradual process of embodiment of a range of hula repertoire pieces including Kaupō ‘Āina. I was trained to perform Kaupō ‘Āina in preparation for a hula presentation at The World Invitational Hula Festival – E Ho‘i Mai I Ka Piko Hula in November 9-11, 2000. I performed the piece as a soloist under the division of hula ‘ōlapa. Part of my role as a hula performer and foreign student to Hawai‘i was to represent at the festival not only Namibia, the country of my birth, but also kumu hula John Lake’s hula school, Hālau Mele and Nā Hanona o ka Hālau Hula Pā Ola Kapu. For many years Waikīkī Shell has been the main venue of the annually held World Invitational Hula Festival. Waikīkī Shell is a stage structure located in Honolulu designed for the purpose of outdoor concerts and performances. Photo 1, see Appendix A, shows the stage situation of Waikīkī Shell from an audience’s perspective. Waikīkī Shell is part of the Neal S. Blaisdell Center, known as the Community Center on the island of O‘ahu. The Department of Enterprise Services of the City and Country of Honolulu operates the Blaisdell Center including Waikīkī Shell. The latter covers an open air fixed seating area holding 1,958 people. Additional 6000 people can be placed on the lawn towards the 32 Kumu hula Lake, who passed away in April 2008, was the head of the traditional hula school called Hālau Mele which incorporates both students and a well trained ensemble of experienced chanters and hula performers called Nā Hanona o ka Hālau Hula Pā Ola Kapu. Prior to his passing away Lake designated successors who continue his hula and hālau legacy of kumu hula Lake. Hālau Mele is situated in Honolulu, the capital of the US-State of Hawai‘i located on the Hawaiian island of O‘ahu. 33 Any information about the hula ‘ōlapa composition called Kaupō ‘Āina, the leading example of my analysis, is copyright to kumu hula John Keola Lake and representatives of his hālau lineage. The information about Kaupō ‘Āina therefore is restricted and not to be used unauthorized.

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back of the fixed seating area. The stage area is made of a flat pine floor and is 86’ (wide) x 56’ (deep). The stage ceiling is a series of nine concentric rings which are decreasing in diameter towards the back of the stage.34 The web-site of the Blaisdell Centre perfectly summarizes what the location is all about: “The Waikīkī Shell is located at spacious Kapi‘olani Park with Diamond Head for a backdrop and Waikīkī Beach at the opposite end. This tropical outdoor amphitheatre, built in 1952, has always been Hawai‘i’s place to see the stars, under the stars. Within the Shell grounds and nearer to the ocean is a smaller amphitheatre, home of the daytime hula show, and the Diamond Head Greens, a tree-lined lawn area which can be rented for theme parties, receptions, banquets and weddings.”

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For those readers who are unfamiliar with contemporary Hawaiian public facilities the quote shows that Waikīkī Shell is one common and well known location on O‘ahu used both for professionally run cultural events and large scale private gatherings. Paulie Keākealani Jennings is the founder and director of The World Invitational Hula Festival – E Ho‘i Mai I Ka Piko Hula, run as a non-profit organization. The title of the festival summarizes the program of the event precisely sending out an invitation to hula practitioners around the world “to return to the source of Hula.” As follows, I summarize main points of the festival’s mission expressed by Jenning’s short essay entitled “‘O mākau keia – Who are we” published in print as part of the festival’s program and on-line. She writes: “As hula is performed, we offer a venue to those from afar to return to the source of hula ... HAWAI‘I ... to learn and to share their appreciation and love for our culture through hula.”36 As such the event creates a meeting point and context to present and foster a practice of hula on an international scale stressing a Hawaiian foundation yet international orientation of hula performance practice. My case study on Kaupō ‘Āina represents a “study of the particular,” a notion to be delineated as part of my approach of practice as research.37 The study’s perspective reflects the particular situation of mine learning and present34 Technical information about the concert venue Waikīkī Shell is printed online. See www.blaisdellcenter.com/techrental/Waikīkīshell.cfm. 35 Cited from the official Blaisdell Center Website: http://www.blaisdellcenter.com/ venues/index.html. 36 See Jennings, Paulie K. (2000): “‘O Mākou Keia. Who We Are”, in: E Ho‘i Mai I ka Piko Hula. The 2000 World Invitational Hula Festival, p. 8. 37 See Part I, Methods I: Practice as Research.

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ing hula ‘ōlapa at the festival stressing the personal and particular historical circumstance of my close encounter with hula ‘olapa performance. The fact is that I immersed myself into a traditionally run hula school as an artist-researcher, learning via the master-disciple method. Hawaiian protocol of hula practice demands a long term study of hula, following one school and style of hula teaching. By apprenticing myself to Lake’s school, I am accountable for what I have learned, accepting traditional hālau rules. I became accepted as a regular member of Lake’s school.38 I investigate into a micro-analytical and therefore qualitative oriented case study of Kaupō ‘Āina out of two reasons. For one, the hula piece Kaupō ‘Āina epitomizes the peak of my own study of hula practice at Lake’s hula school which included the public performance presentation of the Kaupō ‘Āina at The World Invitational Hula Festival – E Ho‘i Mai I Ka Piko Hula. I was able to represent Lake’s hula school and style in public. My solo performance as such represents a moment of time defined by the master-disciple relationship demarcating and celebrating my accomplishment to a certain degree. Thus, the study of hula practice never ends. Among hula practitioners it is considered to be lifelong endeavor. Following traditional training protocol it is expected from hula students to research on their own in order to deepen their own understanding of hula practice. I spent a lot of time in preparation for the performance of Kaupō ‘Āina prior to the festival, researching and pondering about this piece. Due to this intensity of study I chose to write about this particular piece. My analytical work is based on my reflections of Kaupō ‘Āina, the art of traditional hula in general and its performance aesthetics. During my training and the preparatory time to perform Kaupō ‘Āina publicly at the festival I took notes and developed a performance protocol, a written account of the piece. Based on this preliminary written account I developed the performance score PS 1, see Appendix B. As backup, I refer to a video that was taken to document the particular hula solo presentation of mine at the festival. However, the main source and reference in my analysis is the performance score PS 1. PS 1 focuses on perfor38 In 2007 I initiated the hula school called Nā Hanona o ka Hālau Hula Makahikina in Berlin. I am training hula students according to Lake’s hula style and genealogy following traditional hālau protocol. To receive the name which inaugurates a new hula school is of highest honor according to Hawaiian hālau values and rules of conduct. It means to inherit the schools performance knowledge and to be adopted into the traditional hula lineage of the hula master. The receiver as in my case holds the responsibility to act as a caretaker of the performance tradition. The artistic work includes public hula performances, see Appendix A, photos 6-8.

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mance structure. The outline of the score features primarily the interrelationship of the verbal element – the kāhea and the mele hula – the element of percussion, and main structural segments of performance. For the purpose of my analysis, I devise a second performance protocol PS 2 which includes photographs of body posture, movement pattern of the feet, and gestures. PS 2 supplements PS 1. The photographs of PS 2, which visually represent the kinesthetic aspects of Kaupō ‘Āina, were taken at a studio four months later. I re-enacted the learned motion score. The photographs are organized into sets of one to four images, capturing gestures and motion sequences respectively. The aim is to show prominent features of the pathway of the stylized gestures that I performed during the presentation of Kaupō ‘Āina. The second reason I chose to write about Lake’s version of Kaupō ‘Āina is considering the fact that it represents a master piece of hula ‘ōlapa composition. The mastery of Lake’s artistic work reflects a strategy of how to render a hula ‘ōlapa composition based on exquisite poetry by taking into account the larger framework of oral literature, the legend of Halemano. The legend and source of the mele hula of Kaupō ‘Āina originally has been part of oral traditions on Hawai‘i. The legend was collected and transcribed into written format during the 19th century. My analytical interest is to document how kumu hula John Keola Lake adapted the written account of oral literature into the tradition of hula practice. Of interest is how he by doing so rendered a new hula ‘ōlapa composition based on traditional principles of performance practice. 1.4 Chapter Outline My work is divided into two main parts. Part I is dedicated to methods. I discuss the method of research applied to my work, key tools of performance analysis and my own approach of scoring hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Part II covers my analytical work and case study of Kaupō ‘Āina. In Part I, Chapter 2, Methods I, I introduce practice as research, the lead method of inquiry based on embodied knowledge and the empirical foundation of my work on hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. I refer to the master-disciple method developed by Dr. James Brandon in the field of Asian theater studies. This principle method of performance research I tie into a broader perspective considering concepts from Asian theatre studies, anthropology, phenomenology, and culture and performance studies. In Chapter 3, Methods II, I outline concepts drawn from Interart and Media studies. One prime interest of this discipline is to research combinations and mutual interdependencies among divergent performance elements and its effect, in

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my work analytically termed as convergence. I further discuss the notion of intersensoriality, conceptualized by the anthropologist David Howes, and the performance theoretical model of the six performance elements devised by the theatre scholars Chiel Kattenbelt and Freda Chapple. The diagrammatical outline of the Kattenbelt/Chapple model covers multiple relations among the specified six elements in performance. I extend the Kattenbelt/Chapple model of performance elements by drawing on the performance theoretical work of Erika Fischer-Lichte stressing the perspective of performance materiality as part of performance analysis. I also refer to Erving Goffman’s interaction theoretical and frame analytical approach, one principle reference in my work to examine combinations of various elements in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice and their effect taking performative, sensory, referential, and aesthetic aspects into account. The conceptual discussion of this chapter demarcates the basic methodological framework and performance analytical tools that I apply to the microanalytically oriented case study of Kaupō ‘Āina, the leading hula ‘ōlapa performance repertoire piece and subject of my analytical work. In Chapter 4, Methods III, I develop my own method of scoring which features the basic structure of Kaupō ‘Āina, the piece in question. I delineate two scores which reflect the sequential order of the piece and main aspects of performance practice. Part II of my work covers a series of four analytical chapters concerned with prime aspects of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. I reflect in detail upon Kaupō ‘Āina, the hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece in question. As part of my analytical endeavor I specify conceptually the relation of performance organization, stylization, and sensory experience discussing the initial aesthetic claim that traditional hula epitomizes a performance aesthetic of the senses. Chapter 5, Analysis I, is divided into four sections. Section I focuses on the mele hula, the verbal element of Kaupō ‘Āina. The research perspective of this section is twofold. I query the relation of the verbal element towards the larger framework of oral literature on one hand, and I question how the verbal element relates to principles of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice on the other hand; Section II more specifically identifies performance segments that structure the analyzed hula composition and which as such frame the verbal element of Kaupō ‘Āina. I categorize the so called pā segments and discuss how these segments function as performative means of framing. Section III is dedicated to the element of percussion. I discuss performative strategies of historical adaption of older performance practices. Thereby, I verify my proposition that kumu hula John Lake’s rendition of the Kaupō percussion pattern embodies a variation rem-

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iniscent of the Kaulilua pattern which adheres to the oldest existing repertoire of hula performance practice, called hula pahu. Section IV summarizes my performance analytical findings and their historical implications. Chapter 6, Analysis II, is dedicated to the performance aesthetics of stylized body articulation applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. I differentiate between three categories of stylized body articulation, the basic body posture, stylized-abstract gestures, and stylized-alluding gestures. The chapter is divided into three parts. On Gestures and Stylization Section I concentrates on ‘ai ha‘a, the basic body posture. As part of this initial discussion I introduce the notion of body posture as a gesture of readiness and presence. These aspects tie into my conceptualization of the first principle of stylization evident in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. On Gestures and Stylization Section II discusses the category of stylized-abstract gestures. I focus on hela, one stylized-abstract gesture of the lower and the upper body segment. As part of the micro-analytical specification of hela I develop my performance aesthetically oriented approach of analysis on stylized gestural articulation. I delineate Gestalt-model 1 which focuses on the performative materialization and appearance of stylized-abstract gestures and I specify the second principle of stylization at work. Consecutively, I tie the performance aesthetic approach of stylized gestures into a larger performance theoretical perspective on stylization and embodiment. My discussion on this topic covers three concepts: a) Eugenio Barba’s concept of “extra daily technique,” a notion drawn from Asian theater studies; b) the notion of stylization of social behavior, a sociological and feminist position, which Judith Butler delineated in her seminal work on the social constitution of gender; c) Fischer-Lichte’s performance theoretical concept of “displaced re-enactments.” Based on my analysis and general conceptualization of stylization and embodiment I develop my performance aesthetic oriented understanding of sensory experience of stylized gestural articulation. On Gestures and Stylization Section III analyzes the so called makani gesture, one stylized-alluding gesture of the upper body segment. This section contains the outline of Gestalt-model 2, which focuses on the configuration of stylized-alluding gestures and the third principle of stylization. Chapter 7, Analysis III, is divided into two sections. The first section focuses on the division between disciplines, the ‘ōlapa and the ho‘opa‘a. The division yet coordinated interaction between the percussionist-singer, the ho‘opa‘a, and the dancer-actor, the ‘ōlapa, defines a fundamental means of performative framing and structure of difference. I propose that the basic set up instills a fundamental source of tension at work in performance which frames and defines how performance materialities are engendered during performance. The second section is dedicated to sensory sequencing at work in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice.

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Based on the concept of sensory sequencing I develop a combined approach of performance structural and qualitative analysis considering performance materialities, their combinations and respective sensory effect. I query how the contrastive segmentation of performance material engenders various qualities of multi-sensory effects specific to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Chapter 8 covers Analysis IV. The chapter is dedicated to the significance of calls, termed kāhea. My focus of this analytical part is to delineate the performance structural, qualitative, referential, and aesthetic function of the four types of kāhea. Chapter 9 and the Conclusion of this study summarizes the results of my research.

Part I. Methods

Methods I: Practice as Research

2. P RACTICE AS R ESEARCH : A P RINCIPAL M ETHOD OF E MBODIED K NOWLEDGE I NQUIRY IN P ERFORMANCE S TUDIES The method of inquiry in my work is called Practice as Research. This method is based on a cross-cultural approach taking embodied knowledge based on long term engagement into performance practice and academic work as the prime vantage point of research. The basic principles about how to conduct practice as research I first experienced as part of my MFA Asian Theater Studies enrollment at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, O‘ahu/USA. The UH theater department specializes in Asian and Pacific theater studies. Its Master of Fine Arts in Asian Theater Studies Program includes that students participate in regular theater projects. Theater professionals who are trained in one of the classical theater genres from Japan, China, or South East Asia are invited to teach and train students for an amount of four to six months in order to set up a full-fledged performance production. The approach of the theater program fosters a direct encounter and learning situation between students and theater professionals from Asia. The theater program initiates artistic experience which is based on the so called masterdisciple method, an approach which is fundamental to Asian theater traditions. It has become the method of study at the UH Theater Studies Program. This special focus in theatre studies has been developed over the years by faculty members and theatre scholars such as Dr. James Brandon and Julie Iezzi, both specialists of Japanese theatre, Elizabeth Wichmann-Walczak, specialist of Chinese theatre, and Kirsten Pauka, specialist of South-East Asian theatre. Students are considered artist-researchers in the field of Asian-Pacific performance studies. They are encouraged to engage into academic research and writing based on their personal hands-on artistic experience.

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In addition to my Asian performance studies at the UH theatre department I trained hula ‘ōlapa at the hula school Hālau Mele,1 a traditionally run hula school. Hālau Mele was run by kumu hula (hula master) John Keola Lake while I was taking classes with him as a regular hula student. The master-disciple relationship, which is the rule in traditionally run hula schools on Hawai‘i, has been the foundation of teaching and learning at Lake’s hula school. I adapted the master-disciple method – which I was introduced to at the UH theater department – to my own performance research and case study about hula ‘ōlapa. I studied and practiced Hawaiian hula ‘ōlapa on Hawai‘i engaging myself into this particular Hawaiian cultural practice by means of direct physical and cultural encounter. Gradual embodiment is the key to such research via performance practice. Practice becomes the source of knowledge encompassing particular performance practices including oral and performative procedures of transmission, terminology, intrinsic qualities of performance, performance protocol, and values. Procedures of close-up observation and an understanding of personally experienced embodied knowledge tie fundamentally into my analytical reflections of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. In my case, the position of the academic researcher and the position of the performance artist are one. There is no difference. In the course of this chapter I delineate my own approach of practice as research based on an extended theoretical discourse of the master-disciple method reflecting among other concepts how the notion of “extra-daily technique” and the impact of the senses relate to on understanding of embodiment as a tool of research. Practice as research demarcates one main methodological cornerstone of my work crucial to my research and analysis. The method of inquiry in question is based on seven concepts drawn from Asian theater studies, phenomenology, anthropology, and culture and performance studies:

1

The hula school Hālau Mele is situated in Honolulu, Hawai‘i. I was trained in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice at Hālau Mele on Hawai‘i from August 1997 until September 2001. Since then, I have continued my study interest in traditional hula ‘ōlapa as an ongoing research project. I perceive this project as a continuous and open-ended practice of cross-cultural encounter. Authorized by kumu hula John Keola Lake I earned the title to conduct the Berlin situated Hula School Nā Hanonā o ka Hālau Hula Makahikina initiated in 2007. According to traditional hālau hula teaching protocol, I continue to transmit the practice of hula ‘ōlapa according to Lake’s hula genealogy and style in Berlin, Germany.

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The master-disciple method Extra-daily technique Embodiment The embodied mind condition Self-reflexivity of the artist-researcher The performance of the senses Performance studies of the particular

The premise of practice as research is that performance practice is a means to generate embodied knowledge as the source of analytical work. I query the relationship of the master-disciple method in conjunction with aspects of embodiment and related concepts such as the embodied mind condition, in-body techniques, and the performative quality of presence. I query the ability of selfreflexivity of performers as a tool to develop theory. In subsequent sections of this chapter I discuss questions about the involvement of the senses, a necessary and crucial means of inquiry based on embodied knowledge. Last not least, I discuss the issue of intercultural encounter, which involves, as I argue, the transformation of the researcher’s self as part of an ongoing process of intercultural becoming while being involved in embodied knowledge inquiry. The research situation of intercultural encounter grows into an ongoing life experience for the researcher inhabiting an in-between situation of performance practice and respective academic work shaped by her/his own global entanglement into cultural, economic, educational and political specifics and differences. Practice as research opts for case studies understood in my work as studies of the particular. 2.1 The Master-Disciple Relation as Research Method The seminal essay “A New World: Asian Theatre in the West Today” (1989) written by Dr. James Brandon outlines the main points about the master-disciple method and research perspective which Brandon developed primarily reflecting upon his experiences within the field of Asian performing arts.2 Brandon states a first premise saying that a study of classical performing arts from Asia, and the Pacific, as I would argue, has to acknowledge the fact that “the body of the actor is the source and medium for performance.”3 In reference to Brandon’s study of 2

See also Brandon, James (1974): Theatre in Southeast Asia, (1967), 2nd printing, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard UP, p. 155-161.

3

Brandon, James (1989): “A New World. Asian Theatre in the West Today”, in: TDR Vol. 33.2., p. 38.

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Japanese Kabuki he concedes that Kabuki acting style is legitimately based on using the “physical possibilities of the human body.” The aesthetics of performance is centered on projecting human character and feeling through the “total physical form,” as he argues. More so, “The actor – not the playwright’s text and not the outside director, is the source and origin of performance.”4 This perspective on Asian performing arts focuses on the art of the performer and the physical possibilities of the human body as the core means of artistic expression. Brandon explicates that classical theatre forms from Asia are based on highly stylized and codified performance practices, including dance and song as part of acting.5 Human enactment and behavior portrayed on stage is characteristically marked and patterned by means of reduction and substitution in order to generate so called “extra-daily” techniques, a term specified by Eugenio Barba6 and referred to by Brandon in his essay. Extra-daily behavior highlights certain aspects of everyday activity by means of trained in-body techniques. Extra-daily behavior is thereafter highly codified in form and execution. Most often these highly codified forms of mimetic dance-acting are combined with forms of pure dance, as Brandon argues. In reference to practices of classical Indian dance theatre Brandon differentiates between nryta and nrtta. Nryta involves characteristically marked movements of mimetic dance-acting that “express actions, feelings, and humans relations drawn from life.”7 The second category of stage enactment called nrtta does not convey any meaning but is considered to be “pure form.”8 In my work I take stylization as the lead conceptual vantage point to specify highly codified performance behavior. I differentiate between stylized-abstract 4

Ibid., p. 39.

5

Ibid., p. 39.

6

Eugenio Barba and ISTA, the International School of Theatre Anthropology, have contributed invaluably to the field of Asian performance study in Europe. Barba’s term of “extra-daily” behavior specifies techniques developed by performers to portray and reflect upon life on stage by means of codified performance practice. Barba developed the concept of extra-daily technique based on the Indian differentiation between “lokadharmi” and “natyadharmi.” I quote from Barba’s writing concerning a discussion of these two terms. “‘We have two words,’ the Indian dancer Sanjukta Panigrahi said to me, ‘to describe man’s behavior: lokadharmi stands for behavior (dharmi) in daily life (loka); natyadharmi stands for behavior in dance (natya).’” See Barba, Eugenio/Savarese, Nicola (1991): A Dictionary of Theatre Anthropology. The Secret Art of the Performer, Routledge, p. 9.

7

See Brandon, James (1989), p. 39.

8

Ibid., p. 39.

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and stylized-alluding body articulation which corresponds to Brandon’s categorization of pure dance on one hand and highly codified mimetic dance-acting on the other hand.9 Stylized performing arts, as I specify highly codified disciplines of performance practice in my work, are culturally embedded practices which involve standards of evaluation and conduct of behavior on the side of the performers and on behalf of the audiences. Finally, a study of stylized performing art forms needs to acknowledge the fact that performance transmission from one generation to the next is based on certain protocol and procedures demonstrating how performance practice and aesthetics are passed on. Brandon writes “codes are learned by performers through rigorous, disciplined trainings.”10 In most cases traditional stylized performance practices from Asia and the Pacific which Brandon considers to be “performer centered” are transmitted via a personally intimate master-disciple relationship. This relationship fosters transmission of embodied knowledge via a continuous long-term teaching process of a highly encoded performance practice.11 The prime vehicle of transmission is the embodied artistic expertise of the master artist which serves as a model for the student and researcher to learn from. Oral/aural, performative and kinesthetic means of transmission within a face-to-face relationship are at stake. Performance as transmission process, the context of transmission and the immersion into a cultural context is as much of interest as it is important to look at singular performance events. This condition of performance practice that engenders and transmits embodied knowledge as process is acknowledged by Brandon’s essay as the prime frame and reference as well as source of study. At the end of the 80s Brandon was still confronted with a strong euro-centric view in theater studies which did not support performance research based on embodiment and the immersion into performance practices from Asia and the Pacific and their cultural contexts. Instead, Brandon’s writing promotes a new perspective in theatre studies: “I believe that the feature of our new world that will have the most profound effects on the future is the training which young Western actors, musicians, singers, puppeteers, and maskers are now receiving while living in China, Japan, India, Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, and elsewhere in Asia. They are enrolled in Asian theatre schools; they are the pupils 9

See Part II, Analysis II: A Performance Aesthetic Study on Stylized Gestural Articulation: On Gestures and Stylization Section I, II, III.

10 See Brandon, James (1989), p. 40. 11 Ibid., p. 39.

42 | HAWAIIAN H ULA ‘ŌLAPA of Asian master artists, they are learning to perform specific genres of Asian theatre. In such master-pupil relationships the centuries-old idea of Western political and cultural dominance of Asia is scattered, displaced, rendered obsolete. I cannot express too strongly how significant it is that Western performers apprentice themselves to Asian masters. They learn the intrinsic values of the performing system by assimilation, directly and without the intermediacy of a Western interpreter. [...] They enter that cultural world, not 12

solely as scholars or observers as in the past, but as “doers” (the literal meaning of shite 13

in nō).”

The performative immersion of the researcher into the foreign performing art practice is at the core of this research method outlined by Brandon. The masterdisciple training implies often a long term relationship based on a strong personal bond between the students and the master artist. The training process may last from two to 20 years or more. The goal of the master-disciple approach is that “the student-researcher sheds a lot of Western conceptual baggage” due to the fact that he/she “must accept the rules of an art established by others and run by others.”14 The approach implies a standard of equality between cultures. Brandon stresses that “to a greater or lesser degree, their success in learning depends on their ability to become accepted “as if they where Indian” (Japanese etc.).”15 Performative immersion asks for an open mind and body of the artist-researcher who is willing to learn and to find out about perspectives and insights concerning the studied performing art more or less unknown to the researcher before. To accept the rules of the others means to surrender to the unfamiliar. It means the researcher will experience a transformation of self. The result of apprenticeship is that foreign students become accepted into the art community they study, similar to the process of adoption. The researcher becomes part of the master artist’s “family.” Racial or cultural distinction diminishes more or less through procedures of acceptance into the art community and its cultural context. The process of assimilation is a necessary part of the research process. Brandon concedes that “today these students have lengthy experience with Asian performance and they are theatre artists themselves. This combination provides them with exceptional capabilities.”16 Research based on artistic encounter and immersion with the performance system of interest triggers new 12 Shite is the Japanese term used to specify the principle actor in nō-theatre. 13 See Brandon, James (1989), p. 36. 14 Ibid., p. 36. 15 Ibid., p. 36. 16 Ibid., p. 36.

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ways of doing, perceiving, and thinking about the respective performance art from and its social and aesthetic implications. According to Brandon’s proposition, the master-disciple method and type of research experience is the foundation upon which further theories, projects, training other performers, and performances evolve.17 “Doing” performing arts does mean to be engaged in a cultural practice. As an ongoing project the approach of “doing” performing arts turns into the object of study itself. Reflection is part of the training process which leads into theoretical and analytical work as a next step. The master-disciple method allows for questions to emerge. What am I doing while engaging in practice? Close observation while practicing is at stake. How do I immerse myself to become part of the training and performance process? What kind of effect do practices of performance training and staging have upon the perception of the researcher, his or her way of moving the body and the use of the voice? How does it change the researcher’s way of interaction with other students and members of the artistic community he or she is participating in? How do I know and feel what I am doing while being immersed in performance practice? What is the scope of experience? 2.2 Embodiment, Practice, and Perception: Key Concepts of Cultural and Performance Studies Applied to Practice as Research Brandon focuses on the art of the performer, the “total physical form,” as he calls his interest in theatre studies. Brandon’s perspective paves the way to employ embodiment both as a prime notion for analysis, and as a tool of research in the field of the performing arts. Respectively, the explication of the concept of embodiment is central to my work. Embodiment is a fundamental and conceptual tool to fine-tune my understanding of practice as research which I have been applying as a method to generate and to discuss embodied knowledge. 2.2.1 The Concept of Embodiment To begin with, I refer to the work of Thomas Csordas who fostered a study of culture and self promoting the paradigm of embodiment in the field of anthropology and cultural studies. Csordas writes in his article “Embodiment as a paradigm of anthropology,” published in 1990, that “this approach of embodiment begins from the methodological postulate that the body is not an object to be studied in relation to culture, but that the body has to be considered to be the 17 Ibid., p. 46.

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subject through which culture emerges, in other words, the body is the “existential ground of culture.”18 Csordas prime thesis proposes an understanding of the human condition according to which lived experience of embodiment engenders culture. Csordas ideas among others are grounded in the philosophical work of Maurice Merleau-Ponty who outlined the phenomenological perspective on the experience of perception as the starting point of knowing. The premise is that humans experience themselves first of all as being situated in an embodied condition of being-in-the-world.19 Csordas summarizes that phenomenology is productive as a descriptive science of existential beginnings.20 Body and culture are not fixed entities neatly defined by clear cut boundaries. Body and culture are understood rather as an emergent relation based on lived experience and human involvement opting for a “constant reconstitution of the self.”21 Csordas defines embodiment as a concept that “offers to cultural analysis the open-ended human process of taking up and inhabiting the cultural world, in which our existence transcends but remains grounded in de facto situations.”22 His perspective stresses the notion of the process and the particularity of “situatedness” of human experience and social participation. Bodily involvement implies partial grasps of a social situation, imperfect communication, aspects of change and divergence23 besides recurrent conditions of physiological or culturally predetermined procedures, meanings, socially given pressures and constraints.24 This perspective as such implies relativity of knowing due to sensations, experience and world view which is situated in embodied activity of individuals. This condition calls for studies of the particular, a notion to be discussed later as part of the approach termed as performance studies of the particular. Csorda’s concept of embodiment is as I argue fundamental to the approach of practice as research. I further distinguish between six subcategories of embodiment. The six subcategories relate closely to each other. Yet, each sub18 Csordas, Thomas (1990): “The 1988 Stirling Award Essay. Embodiment as a Paradigm for Anthropology”, in ETHOS, Vol. 18, No. 1, p. 5. 19 See “Die Theorie des Leibes als Grundlegung einer Theorie der Wahrnehmung”, in: Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1966): Phänomenologie der Wahrnehmung, Walter de Gruyter & Co reprint 1974, p. 239-243. 20 Csordas, Thomas (1990), p. 9. 21 Csordas, Thomas (1990), p. 6. 22 Csordas, Thomas J. (ed.) (1994), Embodiment and Experience. The existential Ground of Culture and Self. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, p. 10. 23 Csordas stresses that embodiment is based on indeterminacy. 24 Ibid., p. 6.

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category stresses a certain focus of performing art practice as a means of embodied experience and tool of research: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Perception Practice Reflexivity of practice The embodied mind condition Performativity Aesthetic experience

This conceptual configuration of embodiment places, as I propose, the methodological foundation of practice as research, which offers a fundamental research tool to the field of cultural and performance studies. The general outline of practice as research and approach of embodied knowledge inquiry supports the master-disciple method discussed earlier. It is through embodiment that the artistresearcher engages her/himself with the study of a cultural practice such as the performing arts. Embodiment is crucial to practice on one hand and ties back into ways of perceiving at the same time. Embodiment understood as lived experience implies the involvement of the senses as part of the research process. Embodiment also partakes into case studies of the particular when taking the intercultural situatedness of knowledge inquiry of my work into account. Perception and Practice How does Csordas define first of all the notion of perception, and second of all the aspect of practice? He writes: “By perception I mean the cultural uses and conditioning of the five senses plus proprioception (the sense of being inside a body and oriented in space at the same time), as well as what Kant (1978 [1800]) called the inner self of intuition and sensibility. Practice includes everything that falls under Mauss’ (1950) classic notion of technique of the body – swimming, dancing, washing, ritual breathing in meditation, posture, the variations in batting stance among baseball players – in which the body is at once a tool, agent and object.”25 Practices are based on physical involvement of humans in activities that are socially/culturally agreed upon.26 The body as “experiencing agent”27 pinpoints at intentionality 25 Ibid., p. 5. 26 See Erving Goffman’s concept of “guided doings,” discussed in Part I, Methods III: Scoring Performance Practice. 27 See Csordas, Thomas (1994), p. 3.

46 | HAWAIIAN H ULA ‘ŌLAPA and at inter-subjectivity of interacting subjects. To be engaged in performance practice means to immerse oneself through embodiment. In my work I additionally opt for the concept of multi-sensory experience which I consider to be an intricate part of practice and a fundamental aspect of embodiment, an issue which I develop in the course of this chapter28 and as part of my performance analytical work.29

Reflexivity of Practice One listed issue of practice as research is how practice involves reflexivity on the side of the practitioner. It means performers are able to reflect consciously about what they are doing. Csordas’s definition on practice does include the aspect of reflexivity of embodiment due to the fact that he considers that activities are both tools and objects at the same time. Via engagement into performance practices, the performer gains knowledge about the practice. Knowledge arises as part of practice. Practices become objects to be pondered about and to be discussed about within the art community itself. I specify this aspect as selfreflexivity of embodiment.30 Ideas and knowledge about cultural practices gained by means of fieldwork that are based on practice as research, may enter into discursive and analytical practices utilized in academia which in turn feed back into the arts. Power constellations of course determine how practices are collectively acknowledge and talked about, a topic discussed in critical anthropology,31 post-colonial studies,32 and in social and political studies.33 I discuss issues concerning the methodological conjunction of inquiry on embodiment in a setting of intercultural encounter later as part of practice as research and studies of the particular.34

28 See Part I, Methods I: 2.5 Embodied Knowledge and the Senses. 29 See Part II, Analysis II, III, and IV. 30 See Part I, Methods I, 2.4 Self-Reflexivity of the Performer – A Tool of Inquiry about Embodied Knowledge. 31 See Fox, Richard (ed.) (1991): Recapturing Anthropology. Working in the Present, Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press. 32 See Linda Tuhiwai Smith (1999): Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous People, London, New York: Zed Books Ltd/University of Otago Presse; Homi K. Bhabha (1994): The Location of Culture, Routledge. 33 See Foucault, Michel (1978): Dispositive der Macht: Über Sexualität, Wissen, und Wahrheit. Berlin: Merve Verlag, and Rancière, Jacques (2008): Die Aufteilung des Sinnlichen. Die Politik der Kunst und ihre Paradoxien, 2nd ed., Berlin: b_books. 34 See Part I, Methods I: 2.6 Practice and Research and Studies of the Particular.

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The Embodied Mind Condition Csordas‘s plea is that “the paradigm of embodiment has as a principal characteristic the collapse of dualities between mind and body, subject and object.” The conceptual struggle Csordas is fighting with at the beginning of the 90s relates to positions in performance studies, feminist theory, and post colonial oriented discourse to overcome the centuries old hegemony and predominance of the (male/Western) mind overpowering the (female/Non-Western) body and the senses in academia.35 Cultural studies concerning aspects of body, senses, and cognition are reorganized in rather equal terms by pushing the notion of embodiment towards the center of attention. The relation of body and mind, subjectivity and objectivity are readdressed in new ways. Csordas raises the question of how embodiment as a paradigm possibly mediates those fundamental dualities. Csordas refers to Maus’s argument that the body is at once an “object of technique, a technical means, and the subjective origin of technique.”36 To conceptualize the body based on a mutual co-relation, being object and subject at the same time, opts for a rather simultaneous and shifting condition between these two bodily attributes of human experience and capability. This perspective corresponds to the work of Helmuth Plessner, a representative of philosophical anthropology in Germany and developments in performance studies. Helmuth Plessner’s notion of man’s “eccentric position”37 discussed in the book Conditio Humana: Gesammelte Schriften VIII (1983/2003) refers to the ability of humans to reflect upon their own selves and therefore to generate self-awareness. The fact that humans are able to internally distance themselves from their own self partakes in the conditio humana, postulated by Plessner, saying that humans have bodies (Körperhaben), which they may manipulate and ‘instrumentalize’. At the same time they are their bodies (leibhaftes Körpersein). Both aspects are considered to merge into one unified self (ungeteiltes Selbst), a condition which relates closely to the term “embodied mind,” a notion to be discussed later. When applied to the work of stage artists the so called “eccentric position of man” (Plessner) means that performers create 35 See Csordas, Thomas (1994), p. 3. In the discussion of this topic Csordas refers to feminist studies. 36 Ibid., p. 11. 37 Plesser outlines the notion of the “eccentric position of man” as part of his discussion on questions about how to conceptualize the human foundations of being, the “conditio humana,” edited and published by Günter Dux/Marquard, Odo/Stöker, Elisabeth (1983/2003): Conditio Humana. Gesammelte Schriften VIII, 1st. reprint, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, p. 190-205.

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their art in the material of their own existence. To explain this matter of fact more closely: performers appear as phenomenal bodies as such. At the same time they are able to intentionally manipulate their phenomenal bodies portraying a character or any kind of story material, thereby signifying aspects that refer to a fictive or symbolic world not identical with their phenomenal appearance. Performers are both subject and object of their enactment.38 Performativity The notion concerning a shifting condition between having a body and being a body is important in Fischer-Lichte’s theoretical work in performance studies. Fischer-Lichte discusses in her anthology The Transformative Power of Performance – A New Aesthetics (2008)39 the concepts of performance, embodiment, aesthetic experience and embodied mind as mutual inter-depended notions. Fischer-Lichte analytically discusses performance art and developments of theatre since the 1960’s in conjunction with several strands of thought in philosophy, and cultural studies, including the work of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Helmuth Plessner, and Thomas Csordas. Fischer-Lichte’s approach states that the bodily being-in-the-world condition of humans is fundamental not only to human life but to any production of culture, including procedures of the mind and cognition.40 She conceptualizes performance as an emergent phenomenon based on procedures of embodiment which encompasses both the interaction between performers and between performers and audiences. Performances emerge according to the condition of a bodily co-presence of both, performers and audiences participating in a performance event. Embodiment is perceived as the prime agency of humans interacting in performances and any type of social events. The notion of ‘performativity’ captures the emergent quality of embodiment as process. Performance is about the present tense, its fleeting and reciprocal condition of performance production and its perception. 38 See Part I, Methods I: 2.3 Practice as Research and The Embodied Mind Condition, and 2.4 Self-Reflexivity of the Performer. A Tool of Inquiry about Embodied Knowledge. 39 The original book entitled “Ästhetik des Performativen” was published in 2004. 40 Erika Fischer-Lichte as theatre and performance scholar initiated a long term study at the Free University of Berlin termed “Cultures of the Performative.” She edited many publications on topics relevant to her research focus such as: Fischer-Lichte, Erika/Fleig, Anne (eds.) (2000): Körper-Inszenierungen. Präsenz und kultureller Wandel, Tübingen: Attempto; Fischer-Lichte, Erika/Horn, Christian/Warstat, Matthias (eds.) (2001): Verkörperung, Tübingen/Basel: Francke, etc.

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Aesthetic Experience Fischer-Lichte introduces the notion of aesthetic experience to performance studies specifying aspects of transformation and shifting conditions of perception in performance. Aesthetic experience defines a quality of perception that is marked by the tension that occurs due to a perceptual shift between the phenomenological appearance of the performer, his/her particular bodily being-in-the-world directly present on stage, and aspects concerned with representation and signification. Fischer-Lichte considers aspects such as energy, intensity, thrust, direction and tempo among performative qualities of embodiment. Applied in performance production these aspects intensify what she calls “the performativity of bodies in motion.” Perceiving such qualities of performativity during performances in turn multiplies the meaning based on experiences of various sensations triggered by performance. In these cases, as Fischer-Lichte states, the actions of performers “might evoke the most diverse associations, memories, and fantasies in the spectators.”41 These meanings are not given in advance but evolve unexpectedly as part of the performance depending on how an individual experiences the performance based on his/her own individual background and engagement. The actual meaning emerges while an audience perceives practices of embodiment on stage. Engaging in performance is first of all about sensing the performance. The question is how performances trigger perceptional shifts between phenomenal appearances of the body in motion, sound, time, space and imagery, that possibly evoke meaning in the process of performance, and how aspects of those emergent performance materials tie into the significance of a character or a story. Fischer-Lichte writes “aesthetic perception here takes the form of oscillation. It switches focus between the actor’s phenomenal and semiotic body; thus transferring the perceiving subject into a state of betwixt and between.”42 Aesthetic experience is considered to be a transformational experience at least during the time of performance.43 The theoretical trust of aesthetic experience supports the assumption that the emergence of meaning and the effect of the senses are part of one reciprocal process between performers and audience alike. By outlining my approach of practice as research so far I refer to a combined research perspective based on the master-disciple method (Brandon), the idea of extra-daily technique of highly stylized performance practices (Barba) 41 See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008): The Transformative Power of Performance. A New Aesthetics, Saskya Iris Jain (transl.), Routledge, p. 85. 42 Ibid., p. 88-89. See also p. 180-200. 43 Ibid., p. 191-200.

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and embodiment (Csordas). The basic conceptual framework of embodiment supports Brandon’s argument saying that physical immersion into performing art forms from Asia and respectively the Pacific enables artist-researchers to assimilate performance techniques, sensual and aesthetic sensibilities, values and rules. This process is necessary in order to grasp the “total physical form” of the art unfamiliar to the researcher to begin with. 2.3 Practice as Research and the Embodied Mind Condition The master-disciple method is based on embodiment as the prime means to acquire and to transmit performance knowledge via total involvement and participation. Performers are trained in so called extra-daily techniques as a measure to achieve excellence in highly stylized forms of enactment on stage. The close conceptual relationship of technique, performance practice, its aesthetics, as well as the body and mind relationship has been specified precisely by the Indian theatre specialist Zarrilli as “in-body disciplines.” Zarrilli defines that the techniques of in-body disciplines are based on “daily repetition of physical exercises and/or performance techniques” that “encode techniques in the body. Through daily practice all physical and mental obstacles in the way of correct practice are gradually eliminated. The goal […] is reaching a state of “accomplishment” (Skt., siddhi) in which the doer and done are one.”44 In-body disciplines require a lifelong process of training and are fundamental to expressivity and competence in performance. To “become a character,” as Zarrilli states, is based on the mastery of in-body techniques. “In essence, mastery of in-body form, when combined with the ability to fix and focus both gaze and mind, frees the martial or performing artist from consciousness about,“ preparing him for a state of “concentratedness.” The yogi is freed to meditate, the martial artist is freed to fight; the performer is freed to perform.”45 The method of practice as research applied to the field of highly stylized performing arts of Asia and the Pacific ties into the study of in-body techniques based on embodiment. This requires a method of observation that allows embodiment to be the transmitter and to find out how these techniques are embodied. Zarrilli’s statement points at the fact that in-body techniques are ways to train the embodied mind condition of performers. In-body techniques enable the performer to fine-tune body and mind procedures in performance. Zarrilli describes this 44 See Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1997): By Means of Performance, 4th ed., Cambridge UP, p. 131. 45 Ibid., p. 134.

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enactment as a quality of concentration, which ties into the level of accomplishment that a performer achieves in performance through practice. The ability of performers described by Zarrilli relates to the concept of the embodied mind condition discussed both by Csordas and Fischer-Lichte. The notion of the embodied mind condition stresses that body and mind are not separate entities, a notion of importance to practice as research. Fischer-Lichte agrees with Csordas‘s proposition that a focus on embodiment collapses conceptual dualities between body and mind, subject and object. Fischer-Lichte writes “man is embodied mind. The mind cannot exist without the body; it articulates itself through physicality.”46 The proposition is that any activity of the mind is an embodied activity,47 matching Zarrilli’s description of the performer being free to perform. Zarrilli’s description of performers being in a state of concentration further relates to Fischer-Lichte’s notion of “presence” which epitomizes the embodied mind condition of humans and which performers are able to generate on stage. Presence marks a performative quality based on the phenomenal appearance of the performer’s body. Fischer-Lichte writes “through specific processes of embodiment, the actor can bring forth his phenomenal body in a way that enables him to command both space and the audience’s attention.”48 Performers being able to command the quality of presence on stage seem to emanate energy due to these moments of intense sensation of embodied mind. “Through these processes the body is transformed and recreated – the body happens,” as Fischer-Lichte defines the phenomenon of presence in performance.49 She points out that “embodiment describes a creative process” instead of representing a previously established idea or meaning. Fischer-Lichte argues “the mind does not exist in opposition to the body. Rather, the mind finds its existential ground in the body, which brings it forth and can thus appear as embodied mind.”50 The performer trained to embody a focused state of body-mind condition as part of his or her performance draws the audience’s attention, a situation described as if one is being struck by lightning or as if a stream of magic occurred.51 The moment of concentration and accomplishment of performers enables a state of fulfillment where body, skill and the actor unify as one subject. The sense of presence ties into the fact that performance engenders thereby an energetic experience and exchange 46 See Fischer-Lichte (2008), p. 90. 47 Ibid., p. 90. 48 Ibid., p. 96. 49 Ibid., p. 92. 50 Ibid., p. 173. 51 Ibid., p. 96.

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between performers and audience.52 The embodied mind condition when utilized as part of performance technique combines several concepts: 1. The aspect of knowing as doing while performing. In this case the embodied mind condition implies the ability of the performer to practice self-reflexivity, a matter of distance and a precise means of observation based on selfawareness. 2. The experience of presence and the knowledge how to enhance the state of presence on stage. 3. The sensation of intense energy and its circulation among performers and the audience. 2.4 Self-Reflexivity of the Performer: A Tool of Inquiry about Embodied Knowledge If embodiment including the embodied mind condition is considered to be a central tool of practice as research to acquire knowledge about the performing arts through performative immersion, how is it possible then to write academically about one’s own performance practice experience? Hardliners in academia argue that it needs the objective distance of an observer in order to be able to describe social and artistic phenomena. Total immersion of the researcher into performance practice means subjective involvement of the researcher into the matter of study. The claimed union of the embodied mind of performers is thereafter rather unproductive. To demarcate one’s own performance as an object of analysis accordingly is not possible due to the fact that the immersed performer-researcher cannot observe her/his own performance from the outside. The distance between researcher and the object of study necessary for analysis is missing. Subsequently, the researcher experiencing performance practice her/himself cannot be the object of study. This chain of arguments would turn Brandon’s research method outlined above obsolete. The matter of fact is that a type of research based on objectivity and distance between the researcher and the object of research places 52 Phenomena of presence in performance seem to stimulate the circulation of energy as Fischer-Lichte argues. She describes the connection between embodiment, energy and presence saying that “through the performer’s presence, the spectator experiences the performer and himself as embodied mind in a constant process of becoming – he perceives the circulating energy as a transformative and vital energy.” See FischerLichte, Erika (2008), p. 99. Fischer-Lichte categorizes the discussed condition as the radical concept of presence.

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a limitation in cultural and performance studies. If embodiment is the existential ground of culture and self, then practice as research using embodiment as a tool of research focuses on these very procedures of generating culture and the arts. Questions about how embodiment ties into practice, the formation of the senses, and ways of aesthetic experience emerge to be at the core of such research interest that focuses on performing art practices and how they are bodily, sensually, aesthetically and culturally embedded. Classical participant observation and methods of interviewing informants are tools in social studies to acquire knowledge. These methods focus on the observing eye of the researcher participating in social practices. However, observing from a distance and using interview strategies based on discourse of language are often times biased by the researcher’s point of view, to follow Brandon’s argument. Besides utilizing forms of data acquisition developed in social science, Brandon stresses the importance that performer-researchers have to apprentice themselves to master artists. This enables them to shed a lot of Western conceptual baggage, which allows to undo preconceptions and to gain new perspectives. My point is that besides observation, embodiment implies other senses in research such as physical immersion, hearing, feeling, moving, tasting, and interacting as tools to acquire knowledge. To consider various senses as a means of knowing brings about entirely new insights and perspectives about the studied performance practice. A study based on embodiment furthermore is a thrust to engage in research about the embodied mind condition in performance, and how performers generate knowledge about what they are doing, how they present their knowledge on stage, and how this knowledge is transmitted as part of performance practice. I agree with Tomie Hahn, the dance ethnologist and practitioner of classical Japanese nihon buyo, who summarizes her perspective on the development of theory based on practice as follows: “As is generally known, philosophically, theory and practice are not separate in Japan – the mind and body are not considered to be separate entities but are instead regarded as interdependent (see the work of Yuasa 1987, 1993; Nagatomo 1993b). Theory thus arises from practice. We embody the essence of theory when presence and thematic articulations of physical movements arise through practice. This approach contrasts with other methodologies in which theoretical concerns initiate the work and practice is the vehicle for “proving” certain theories. As dance scholars have long argued, the body does not intellec-

54 | HAWAIIAN H ULA ‘ŌLAPA tualize theory before it learns – rather, theory arises from engagement in body practice (Foster 1997; Bull 1997).”53

I support Hahn’s new venture and proposition in performance research according to which theory arises from engagement in body practice. In reference to Hahn’s position and Zarrilli’s work on in-body techniques I argue that the embodied mind condition as a means of embodiment is applicable in an approach of practice as research. Through the study of in-body techniques insights about respective aesthetics, qualities of performativity concerning embodiment, and standards of evaluation evolve. I have been trained as a performer in techniques of classical Asian performing arts and Hawaiian hula ‘ōlapa and learned that the performer is not only able to train how to achieve a state of union of body-mind in performance. More so, I argue that performers are trained to use consciousness in multiple ways, being able to move, sing, and to correspond to other performers and the audience, as well as to observe themselves at the same time as they are involved in the creative process of performing. This means to be capable of being consciously “in” and “outside” of the process of performing at the same time. “In” means to be immersed in the very process of performance while “out” means to observe what one is doing from within while performing, an ability called self-reflexivity of the performer. Self-reflexivity is the key to my own practice as research approach. Immersing myself into practice, I learned through a multi-sensorial process about how and what I am doing. Based on multi-sensorial performance experience the performer knows in many ways. As the “doer,” to recall Brandon’s principles about the master-disciple method, I employ my body and my senses while training or staging performance practice. Transmission via embodiment means that I learn via feeling, listening, and observing how and what I am doing in performance practice. The multi-sensorial way of immersing myself through embodiment in procedures of performance training and stage performance connects to the training of consciousness being “in” and “out” at the same time. This condition of consciousness was described at the beginning of the 15th century by the Japanese Nō-Theatre Master and theoretician Zeami54 in one of his treatise called Kakyō, translated and edited by J. Thomas Rimer and Yamazaki Masakazu in On the Art of the Nō Drama: The Major Treatises of Zeami: 53 See Hahn, Tomie (2007), p. 2. 54 Zeami was his artist name. His original name was Yūsaki Saburō Motokyio. See Benl, Oscar (1986): Die geheime Überlieferung des Nō. Aufgezeichnet von Meister Seami, p. 11.

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“[...] it is said that “the eyes look ahead and the spirit looks behind.” This expression means that the actor looks in front of him with his physical eyes, but his inner concentration must be directed to the appearance of his movement from behind. [...] The appearance of the actor, seen from the spectator in the seating area, produces a different image than the actor can have of himself. What the spectator sees is the outer image of the actor. What an actor himself sees, on the other hand, forms his own internal image of himself. He must make still another effort in order to grasp his own internalized outer image, [...]. Only then it actually can be said that an actor has truly grasped the nature of his appearance.”55

The actor is able to study his own appearance from the own internal perspective “looking from behind.” This means that performers are able to develop an idea about what Zeami calls one’s own “internalized outer image.” Zeami’s observation is a matter of embodied consciousness. This internalized outer image grows out of multi-sensorial performance experience. The proprioceptive sense experience of motion through space merges with the sense of sight, listening and the internal procedure of imagination through looking at oneself as if one is looking from the outside. It is a matter of internal projection. Performers are able to develop such a double bound consciousness being in and out at the same time which means that they move from within and that they perceive themselves by means of an internalized outer image at the same time. The performer applies this process of self-reflexivity to his/her own performance work. Zeami’s description was geared to achieve highest efficiency and aesthetic perfection of performance. He concedes: “To repeat again, an actor must come to have an ability to see himself as the spectators do, grasp the logic of the fact that the eyes cannot see themselves, and find the skill to grasp the whole – left and right, ahead and behind. If an actor can achieve this, his peerless appearance will be as elegant as that of a flower or a jewel and will serve as a living proof of his understanding.”56

The level of self-reflexivity that performers achieve through the means of embodiment becomes obvious to an audience as Zeami writes. The discerned ability of the performer is considered to be the “living proof of understanding.” Zeami specifies the condition of embodied knowledge. His statement places an excellent example describing the embodied mind condition. Consciousness is tied to 55 Rimer, Thomas J./Yamazaki Masakazu, Yamazaki (1984): On the Art of the Nō Drama. The Major Treatises of Zeami, p. 81. 56 Ibid., p. 81.

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self-reflexivity that emerges through a multiple perceptual process while the body is performing. More so, Zeami practiced himself self-reflexivity based on his observations of nō performance being first a disciple to his father Kan‘ami, and later an accomplished performer himself. Zeami pondered about his art experience, writing and producing thereby a theory on the art of nō performance. He wrote about aesthetics and principles of performance practice.57 Last not least, Zeami’s treatises represent one of the oldest examples of practice as research based on the master-disciple method in theatre history. Reflections about embodied knowledge lead into theoretical thinking and writing about the performance practice of interest as in the case of Zeami. Ways of reflexivity may differ according to cultural circumstances. According to my theory the above discussed cases of self-reflexivity about embodiment and related performance practices are a suitable means of research and a method of inquiry applicable to an academic analysis that focuses on performance practice. 2.5 Embodied Knowledge and the Senses The ethnomusicologist and dancer Tomie Hahn focuses in her study Sensational Knowledge: Embodying Culture through Japanese Dance (2007) on nihon buyo, traditional Japanese dance. Tomie Hahn’s study supports my discussion of embodiment as a research tool in conjunction with the master-disciple method. Hahn’s work highlights the importance that perception and the impact that the senses have in transmission procedures. Hahn considers the transmission process of dance, respectively nihon buyo, to be “a multi-sensory experience.” She argues that humans “are situated by sensual orientation.”58 Accordingly, Hahn considers the senses to be the vehicles of dance transmission. She writes that “transmission systems are valuable to observe as processes of embodiment, effectuated via the senses that encode and convey cultural meaning to reveal a particular (sub) culture’s sensual orientation in the world.”59 The main argument is that the senses are part of embodiment determining how humans perceive them-

57 The German Japanologist Oscar Benl lists seven treatises entitled: Kadensho, Kakyō, Shikadōsho, Nikyoku-santai-ezu, Yūgaku-shūdō-kempū-sho, Kyūi-shidai, Musekiisshi. The treatises are listed as part of the index of the book published by Benl, Oscar (1986): Die geheime Überlieferung des Nō. Aufgezeichnet von Meister Seami. 58 See Hahn, Tomie (2007), p. 3. 59 Ibid., p. 3.

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selves and the world around them. Through embodiment humans generate and partake in a communally shared “world of sense.”60 Hahn’s perspective is based on a research area known as anthropology of the senses and David Howes’s work, one of the leading scholars in this field. A main argument is that the senses are part of cultural construction. This model of thought implies that certain hierarchies of the senses emerge as part of various and differing cultural histories.61 Most important in cross-cultural research on the senses is the understanding that the human sensorium does not exist in an innate and biologically fixed natural state, as David Howes argues. In the book Empire of the Senses (2005), which comprises a collection of recent and excellent studies concerning theories on the senses, Howes opts for a perspective that “culture tunes our neurons” and thereby reflects and expands upon McLuhan’s sense and media theory. Howes pinpoints that the relationship of embodiment, the senses, language, and culture are based on communal practice saying: “Sensory experience is permeated with social values. Tastes and sounds and touches are imbued with meaning and carefully hierachized and regulated so as to express and enforce the social and cosmic order. This system of sensory value is never entirely articulated through language, but it is practiced and experienced (and sometimes challenged), by humans as cultural bearers. The sensory order, in fact, is not just something one sees and hears about; it is something one lives.”62

Sensory experience thereafter is conceptualized as culturally “situated practice.”63 Respectively, Tomie Hahn’s proposition is that “art is sensually transmitted within its cultural context” and that a study of art reveals how “the senses shape a shared understanding” of a world view, the world-body relationship, and how these “foster the construction of sensible worlds of shared cultural meaning.”64 The generation of meaning is deeply part of embodiment, the source of “sensational knowledge,” transmitted by means of doing and practicing art in close face-to-face relationships among performers, including the constellation of student and master teachers. Hahn’s approach ties into Brandon’s point of view 60 Ibid., p. 4. 61 Ibid., p. 3. 62 See Howes, David (2005), p. 3. 63 See Lisa Law’s research on the process of sensory enculturation among Filipino domestic workers living in Hong Kong, in: Howes, David (2005), p. 225. 64 See Hahn, Tomie (2007), p. 4.

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about the master-disciple research method, thus describing transmission procedures of performing arts more precisely: “Transmission via the senses instills profound cultural beliefs in the body, and contexts of dance transmission are rich settings for observing culture in action, especially the shaping and orienting of the body/self for artistic expression.”65 Conceptually she clearly specifies that embodiment and lived experience – in music, dance and fieldwork – are the means to generate embodied knowledge. Based on her Japanese philosophical background Hahn writes that according to her understanding the body and the mind are one, which means that theory and practice are not separable, as discussed earlier. To reflect upon the sensory situatedness of embodiment is part of generating theory as she concedes. Research work based on practice is not about “proving” theories but that “theory arises from engagement in body practices.”66 Self-reflexivity on the side of the researcher who participates in procedures of embodiment and sensory experience is part of the process. Accordingly each project has to develop its own unique approach, or methodology of reflexivity.67 2.6 Practice as Research and Studies of the Particular In my own study of hula ‘ōlapa I applied Brandon’s master-disciple method studying hula ‘ōlapa performance practice as a regular student of hula ‘ōlapa at a traditionally run hula school, Hālau Mele, on Hawai‘i. I developed embodied knowledge according to the institutional profile of a traditionally run hula school. Finally becoming a practicing member of kumu hula John Keola Lake’s hula school (hālau hula), I am able not only to represent but to embody what I have learned according to the rules of Hawaiian hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. In a sense I realized what Brandon opted for when saying that artistresearchers should learn and adapt to the rules of others achieving acceptance by the foreign artists community they study in such a way “as if they were Indian or Japanese.” I agree with Brandon’s perspective saying that the process of apprenticeship enables acceptance to the artist community studied. One is accepted as if one were Japanese, Hawaiian or Indian – which means to change identity to some degree. This implies on the side of the artist-researcher an ongoing process of self-transformation and the experience of a transitional condition of an inbetween cultural identity. 65 Ibid., p. 4. 66 Ibid., p. 2. 67 Ibid., p. 10.

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Sensual, cultural, political, and economical boundaries of identity are necessarily blurred through practice as research based on embodiment. I became part of the community related to a traditional hula school based on Hawai‘i. This community of hula practitioners and their families is of mixed cultural heritage: Hawaiian, Filipino, Japanese, Chinese, and European backgrounds. If it is the case that embodiment implies a constant reconstitution of self, then I argue that by engaging myself in a traditionally run hula school means to embrace new ways of perceiving, thereby integrating new ways of social and artistic conduct. I have changed. My point is that knowledge is socially embedded in particular relationships of people and their networks of practice. As such I became part of that network of hula practitioners. My understanding is entangled in this network of practice. I am a hula practitioner, teacher of hula, and researcher of hula. Therefore, I am in a constant process of “becoming” as I am involved in practice as research on hula ‘ōlapa, a cultural practice of non-European origin. This emergence of self is based on an ongoing relationship between the Hawaiian hula community I studied with on Hawai‘i and my resent life and research work here and now in Europe. I consider this inter-cultural process of becoming a transitional condition. There is no way back to a base of origin of the researcher being a cultural practitioner and taking embodiment as research method seriously. There is only transition – a process of constant shifting and inter-mediation in-between cultural spheres of knowledge and life practice. This condition implies times of tremendous tension due to the fact that the researcher is caught between contexts of various cultural systems, its implied rules, culturally conditioned social circumstances and social conduct. Hahn writes: “Fieldwork can be a dance of disorientation. During field work ethnographers immerse themselves in another culture’s world as an attempt to comprehend how members of the culture studied construct and make sense of what’s “out there.” Fieldwork experience often directly reveals contrasting constructs of reality that challenge our core sensibilities, changing the way we orient ourselves in the world.”68

Core sensibilities and more so predefined concepts and definitions about art and life encoded through language and institutional settings such as academic studies are challenged. Hahn discusses the problem of self-construction as researcher. In her case she is of mixed parentage being part Japanese and part GermanAmerican. She writes about her difficulty handling multiple voices and identities during her life in American society learning and researching on Japanese dance 68 See Hahn, Tomie (2007), p. 5.

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practice in the United States of America. Hahn’s solution is to propose a study of the particular based on Lila Abu-Lughod’s article, “writing against culture.”69 Lughod questions the fundamental premise of anthropology, the distinction between the self and the other referring to feminist studies and the experience of “halfies.” Hahn defines halfies as “people whose national or cultural identities are mixed by virtue of migration, overseas education, or parentage.”70 AbuLughod discusses the problem and awkwardness that researchers encounter who handle a split-identity, speaking in their study “about” and at the same time “for” a community. She describes clearly the position of the researcher experiencing and reflecting in his/her work this in between condition of split-identity. Likewise, Abu-Lughod votes against a perspective in anthropology based on a clear self/other distinction. Instead she stresses to develop a perspective of academic writing called studies of the particular. The outlook of studies of the particular blurs clear cut boundaries of cultural identity and self-construction.71 In reference to feminist studies she argues that “the process of creating a self through opposition to another always entails the violence of repressing or ignoring other forms of difference.”72 To position oneself though is still crucial. However, it is not anymore a position based on the “value, possibility and definition of objectivity,” a premise of scientific understanding as she writes.73 Instead, she opts for studies that stress that the actual knowledge is situated in social or art practices, a main argument for studies of the particular. This perspective I apply to perfor69 See Abu-Lughod, Lila (1991): “Writing against Culture”, in: Fox, Richard (ed.): Recapturing Anthropology: Working in the Present, Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press, p. 137-162. 70 Ibid., p. 137. 71 Abu-Lughod analyzes critically premises of cultural anthropology, writing that “Anthropology’s avowed goal may be “the study of man” [sic.] but it is a discipline built on the historically constructed divide between the West and the non-West. It has been and constitutes to be primarily the study of the non-Western other by the Western self, even if it is in a new guise is seeks explicitly to give voice to the other or to present a dialogue between self and other, either textually or through an explication of the fieldwork encounter. And the relationship between the West and the non-West, at least since the birth of anthropology, has been constituted by Western domination.” See Abu-Lughod, Lila (1991), p. 139. The perspective of studies of the particular in academic writing enables to take a step beyond these hard lines of cultural construction as Abu-Lughod suggests. 72 Ibid., p. 140. 73 Ibid., p. 141.

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mance studies. Knowledge as I wrote earlier is embedded in networks of practice and grown relationships between people. In my case I am entangled within a global network of traditional hula ‘ōlapa practitioners while residing in Europe practicing hula ‘ōlapa and writing about hula ‘ōlapa practice academically at the same time. Several cultural practices that I am involved in, the “Hawaiian,” “Asian,” and “European” experience do mix74 as I continue to immerse myself doing several cultural practices. Embodiment enables me to position myself within a situation of being in a state of transition, as well as being “multiple” at the same time. I remember the dean of the international student service center at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa telling me that the experience of culture shock is even worse when returning back to the country of origin. Part of readjusting to Europe and German circumstances did imply in my case tremendous stress at times due to the fact that my research experience on both Asian and Pacific performing arts on Hawai‘i has been considered to be at odds with current artistic and academic interests and therefore out of place. I heard warnings from professors and artist friends that my study would position me at the utmost margin of academia and the art world in Germany. They are possibly right. My point is that a study about marginal and neglected aspects triggers new perspectives to arise. The goal of my performance analytical study project on hula ‘ōlapa acknowledges and presents a topic which has been so far more or less invisible within the field of theater and performance studies. More so, I opt for embodiment as research method, a perspective supporting emergent in-transit identities of the academic researcher as artist cross-cutting cultural and social boundaries at the same time. This enables the development of respective theories in cross-cultural oriented cultural studies and art practices. The method of practice as research as conceptualized in this chapter determines my analytical and theoretical considerations about hula ‘ōlapa. I conduct practice and theoretical reflection both linked to each other as part of an ongoing dialog between practice and analysis. The subject of my analytical work is one hula repertoire piece, Kaupō ‘Āina that I learned during my initial field research on Hawai‘i (1997-2001). Thus, my understanding of the art of hula evolves con74 My own biography is influenced by the experience of migration as a teenager. I was born in Windhoek, Namibia, being part of a family of German origin. Members of my family settled in South West Africa during the 1920’s and 1930’s. I grew up in South West Africa in a time period of civil war during the 70’s and experienced what it means to migrate from South West Africa to Germany in 1978. The country Namibia alias South West Africa gained independence from South Africa in 1991.

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stantly as I keep on going to practice hula ‘ōlapa and as I am writing about the subject of hula ‘ōlapa, in search for methodological tools, which describe hula ‘ōlapa performance practice as best as possible. In my performance analytical work I incorporate methodological and theoretical notions drawn from an array of academic fields such as interart studies, cultural and performance studies, sociology and anthropology to support my own systematic performance analytical approach of describing and analyzing performance practice of hula ‘ōlapa as close as possible.

Methods II: Interart Aesthetics and Performance Analysis

3. C ONCEPTS

AND

M ETHODOLOGICAL C ONSIDERATIONS

Hula ‘ōlapa is more than a dance to music and chant. The leading perspective of this research is to discuss the performative, referential and aesthetic endeavor of hula performance practice as an interart aesthetic phenomenon. I state that the performative and referential dimension as well as the aesthetic quality of hula arises as an emergent in-between situation engendered through an ephemeral constellation of organized non congruent aspects of multiple artistic means – the fleeting, multidimensional conversion of body gesture, sounds, and words in action. Hula ‘ōlapa, an art form of its own, is a performing art practice conveying intensified moments of perceptual experience concerning a character and a story line by means of stylized gesture and poetic language. The artistic aim is to stimulate delight and flashes of sensory enlightenment, “le‘a”1 at its best. Based on my experience immersing myself into the practice of hula, I realized that in order to understand hula as a genuine performing art practice means to study its aesthetics likewise. Accordingly I develop a performance analytical method that takes into account the impact of mutual interdependencies between sound, gestures, body posture and words in the process of performance. My focus on performance aesthetics of hula ‘ōlapa performance, a genuine performing art genre, surpasses systematically oriented studies of hula, which has been conducted by anthropologist, historians, musicologist and scholars of cultural studies. Most studies on hula focused so far on oral poetry, aspect of movement, and 1

See the entry in the Hawaiian Dictionary on “le‘a. 1. nvs, joy, pleasure, happiness, merriment; sexual gratification, orgasm; pleasing, gay, delightful, happy, merry; delighted, pleasing,” see Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 198.

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music separately, see the introductory chapter of my work which covers influential research done in the field of hula studies. New to the field is that I focus in my work on a performance analytical approach that conceptualizes interdependencies of heterogeneous performance material combined to engender Hawaiian hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. More so, I place my performance analytical work in the field of interart studies implementing an interdisciplinary oriented discourse as part of my analytical work. The interplay and interdependence of various elements such as sound, body, and voice in performance lead towards questions about how performance structural, semantic as well as qualitative aspects relate. Strategies of combination and layering, and forms of transgression between heterogeneous performance elements are of interest. Questions concerning heterogeneity and the notion of “structures of difference,” juxtaposition of elements as part of framing contrastive performance material, and concerns of multi-sensorial experience tie necessarily into issues of partial convergence between heterogeneous performance material. Methodologically I draw upon concepts outlined by Fischer-Lichte in her seminal paper on Interart Aesthetics and her approach on an Aesthetic of the Performative, supplementing these with positions from various disciplines, such as studies on intermediality, David Howes’s discussion on an anthropology of the senses, frame analytical and interaction-theoretical considerations developed by Erving Goffman and notions drawn from gesture studies, narratology, perception and visual studies, and research on hula conducted by anthropologists such as Adrian Kaeppler and Amy Stillman. The main point of reference is my own study of traditional hula ‘ōlapa, being a hula practitioner myself and having conducted field research based on practice as research, an approach which has been outlined earlier in this work. Fischer-Lichte discusses phenomena such as transgressions between the arts, art and life, and comparative studies as part of an evolving research field called interart studies. She outlines the scope of this research area in her seminal paper on Interart Aesthetics (2004)2 differentiating among two research perspectives. The first model of interart studies research determined by Fischer-Lichte stresses a comparative study between distinct art forms. This study perspective is con2

Fischer-Lichte’s seminal article entitled “Interart-Ästhetiken,” was published in: Brosch, Renate (Ed.) (2004): Ikono/Ikono/Philo/Logie: Wechselspiele von Bildern und Texten, Potsdamer Beiträge zur Kultur- und Sozialgeschichte Bd. 2, Berlin: trafo Verlag, p. 25-41. I refer to an unpublished English translation that was handed out prior to the Interart Joint Symposium in November 2009 organized by the International InterArt Studies Program located at the Free University of Berlin.

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cerned with specific achievements and effects of particular art genres being compared to one another. One main reference is Gotthold Ephraim Lessing’s work entitled Laokoon: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry (1766).3 Lessing compares painting with poetry differentiating their aesthetic capabilities by discussing differences among medial, material, semiotic, and aesthetic concerns of these two art practices. This comparative approach explores, as FischerLichte writes, “the possibilities and limitations of transferring the potential of one art form to another and, thus, transcending the boundaries between the arts.”4 One main point of Lessing’s discernment is that poetry’s aesthetic domain is to convey primarily actions. The sequential order of words lends itself to portray actions and thereby highlights their temporal development in time. Painting on the other hand portrays the position of bodies in space. The visual appearance of elements of a painting stresses a simultaneous presentation of bodies in relation to space.5 The visual representation of bodies in action focuses on the portrayal of one single moment of action only. The progression of action is as such frozen generating a tableau. Lessing’s essay and comparative interest considers important analytical notions such as spatiality, temporality, visuality, tonality, corporeality as part of representation via the arts of poetry and painting. Lessing’s discussion asks how the material and the medial condition of these two art practices relate to and shape the listed notions. Artistic practices become means of representation in different ways. The second model outlined by Fischer-Lichte’s survey specifies a research area concerned with “the interaction and interplay between various arts” within the conceptual frame of one artistic setting. Opera represents one main art form relevant to this perspective within interart studies. Among others she refers to the work of Richard Wagner and the concept of the total artwork based on Wagner’s ideas to remodel 19th century opera. Fischer-Lichte discusses in addition to Wagner’s artistic position the work of John Cage who combined in his conceptual work as a composer several artistic practices applying strategies such as

3

The original title of Lessing’s work in German language is Laokoon oder über die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie, published as reprint by the publisher company Philipp Reclam Jun. Stuttgart in 2001.

4

See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2004b/2009), p. 1.

5

See Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim (1766/2001): Laokoon oder über die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie, Stuttgart: Reclam, p. 113, 114.

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chance operation, and time brackets focusing on the aesthetics of indeterminacy.6 The prime methodological interest of the second research model in interart studies is accordingly to question, when focusing on combinations of various art forms within one artistic setting, “what possibilities for aesthetic experience arise from the fact that several art forms come together; how these possibilities change depending on what art forms converge to create such hybrid formations and how they converge.”7 I use cursive typewriting to highlight those central propositions of Fischer-Lichte’s statement that are of interest in my discussion. FischerLichte’s statement offers, methodologically speaking, an array of crucial analytical issues that I expand upon and which I discuss in this chapter on interart aesthetic research method. Fischer-Lichte’s perspective implies that various combinations of art forms are possible. The result of these combinations may lead towards totally different ways of aesthetic experience8 as she concedes. She proposes that the quality of aesthetic experience changes depending on which performance elements of art forms are combined, asking furthermore how they are combined.9 I discuss as follows a series of three interrelating topics based on Fischer-Lichte’s outline of a study of interart aesthetics: 1. Convergence 2. Elements of Convergence in Performance 3. Degrees of Convergence and Means of Transgression

6

The lead example in Fischer-Lichte’s discussion is the performance piece “Untitled Event” conceptualized and organized by John Cage in 1952 at the Black Mountain College. See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2004 b/2009), p. 13-15.

7

Ibid., p. 13.

8

Fischer-Lichte’s principle assumption is “that aesthetic experience is not an invention of the eighteenth century, made in the course of the proclamation of the autonomy of art, but an anthropological fact that is articulated and realized differently according to cultural and historical conditions”. See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2004 b/2009), p. 6.

9

Fischer-Lichte concentrates in her theoretical work generally speaking on performance related phenomena that transgress genre defined borders between theatre, music and fine arts. However, relevant to Fischer-Lichte’s approach of interart studies are various genres and artistic activities that relate generally speaking to the broad area of performing arts such as occasions that involve several art forms, theatre events, festivals, ceremonies, rituals, etc. She includes cultural practices “which, while not considered art,” as she writes, “do indeed fulfill an aesthetic function.” See FischerLichte, Erika (2004 b/2009), p. 16.

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The aim is to devise my own methodological framework of concepts relevant to my performance analytical study of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. 3.1 Convergence I consider the concept of convergence itself to demarcate methodologically and theoretically a core notion of interart aesthetic analysis. The noun “convergence” derives, according to The Oxford Modern English Dictionary, from the verb “to converge.” The dictionary defines the meaning of the term “to converge” as follows: “1) come together as if to meet or to join, 2) (of lines) tend to meet at a point, 3) approach from different directions [from Latin word convergere].”10 Etymologically the prefix “con” relates to the Latin word “com” which means “with” or “and.”11 “Con” suggests a unifying element among combined and confronted elements. The English verb “to verge” relates to border, margin, or space within a border or scope.12 “To verge” again is based on the Latin verb “vergere” which means “to bend, incline or to move towards the horizon, move in a certain direction.”13 When taking this range of meanings into account, the notion of convergence offers a concept according to which separate entities move towards each other in order to meet. Convergence is based on the idea of approximation which implies movement of elements towards each other. Approximation again ties into aspects of spatial and temporal aspects and possible conditions of transgression in order to meet. Directionality is part of the concept as well due to the fact that elements approach each other from various ends. How do they meet? How far do elements unify at one spot? The term convergence has been of relevance in media studies serving for example as the title and headline of the journal called “Convergence: The Research onto New Media Technologies.” The editorial essay of volume 8, no. 4, which focuses on the question “What are intermedia?” covers comments of Jürgen Heinrichs and Yvonne Spielmann, the latter a specialist on issues of intermediality. A prime interest of the editorial essay is to examine how “the concept of intermedia has provided an arena in which to discuss and to define varying

10 See The Oxford Modern English Dictionary (1996), p. 214. 11 See The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology (1967), p. 200. 12 Ibid., p. 975. 13 Ibid., p. 214.

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modes of convergence between different media.”14 A central premise is that “only that which is distinct can merge.”15 The authors resume to specify that the emergence of “intermedia” are based on “a fusion rather than on an accumulation of media” and that “the convergence of elements of different media” implies the transformation into a new art form that is more than the sum of its parts.16 The essay recalls among others Dick Higgins, a member of the fluxus movement of the 1960’s and his concept of the intermedium which Higgins understood as “conceptual fusion.”17 The vantage point of the essay’s argumentation however implies a genealogical perspective of what happens when preexisting media or art practices are fused into a new form of art or medium. Cinema is placed as prime example of an intermedial art form and medium which developed by merging discrete features of literature, music, dance, theatre and painting into a new form. Besides this particular vantage point of convergence in media studies, I apply the concept of convergence as a heuristic tool to discuss how hula ‘ōlapa performance practice in fact organizes various artistic means to shape multisensory aspects of aesthetic experience. More so, of interest is the idea of divergence on the other hand which specifies the antonym of convergence. Conceptually the notion of divergence reflects the paradox situation of a performance practice that is based on convergent yet heterogeneous elements of performance material – percussive sound, poetry and gesture. A basic and contrastive condition is set up between the unifying moment of several ends being combined on one hand and aspects of difference among involved elements on the other hand. Tension arises due to divergent aspects that the combined means of artistic articulation carry along. Last not least, in specifying the notion of convergence I consider aspects of divergence and that of tension likewise. This means to reflect analytically upon aspect of non-congruency and contrast among analyzed performance segments. This is of importance when analyzing combinations of heterogeneous elements considering performance structural conditions along side with aspects of perception that relate as part of aesthetic experience to those convergent processes during hula ‘ōlapa performance analyzed. My understanding of convergence thereof tends towards a relational and dynamic notion that is established between divergent poles or ele14 See the editorial essay of Yvonne Spielmann and Jürgen Heinrichs (2002): Convergence: The Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, Special issue: What is intermedia?, Vol. 8, No. 4, UP of Luton, p. 6. 15 Ibid, p. 6. 16 Ibid., p. 6. 17 Ibid., p. 6.

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ments that intersect and merge more or less closely. To specify degrees of convergence is of interest, a topic to be discussed later in this chapter. In my work I apply the notion of convergence modifying and fine-tuning the initial premise introduced here while conducting a series of micro-analytically oriented discussions as I focus respectively on certain segments of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice and their performative, referential and aesthetic implications. 3.1.1 Intersensoriality Applied to performance analysis I relate the term convergence to issues that are concerned with performance organization of heterogeneous performance elements on one hand, and a specific quality of aesthetic experience on the other hand. How to describe the unstable and shifting condition conceptually based on aspects of unity and aspects of differentiation and contrast among involved performance elements? Perception and sensory experience are of prime interest in a discussion of convergence among heterogeneously orchestrated performance material. The question is how the senses interact within such performance conditions that orchestrate various performance elements such as sound, words, body motion etc.? I refer to the notion of intersensoriality introduced by David Howes in his book, titled The Empire of the Senses (2005). The compilation covers articles from various academic disciplines on issues relevant to an academic field specified as the anthropology of the senses. Howes defines intersensoriality as the “multi-directional interaction of the senses.”18 Howes compares the multidirectionally conceived condition of sense experience to the art of weaving and suggests that sensations must not be conceptualized only as something happening simultaneously. Howes writes, “Just as in making a weaving the strands are woven together in sequence, so in perception does one sensation often follow another to form different patterns of experience. One may see an apple before picking it up and eating it. One may smell a rose before seeing it.”19 Howes’s 18 See Howes, David (2005): Empire of the Senses: The Sensual Cultural Reader, Oxford, New York: Berg, p. 9. Howes considers the senses not to be solely passive. Instead, he argues that the senses are creative forces. More so, the senses are not considered to be biologically fixed, instead, the human sensorium is conditioned due to culturally “situated practices” to follow Lisa Law’s argument. See Law, Lisa (2005): “Home Cooking – Filipino Women and Geographies of the Senses in Hong Kong”, in: Howes, David (ed.): Empire of the Senses, p. 225. Howes’s approach of intersensoriality opts for a cross-cultural perspective in cultural studies. See Howes, David (2005), p. 3-7. 19 Ibid., p. 9.

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statement supports an approach of interart aesthetic oriented performance analysis as such that he introduces the analytical idea to closely look at processes of “sensory sequencing.” In discussing this concept he refers to Kondo’s research on Japanese tea ceremony. Subtle changes in performative procedures instill sensory shifts that increase intensity of sense experience which in turn induce and relate to specifically valued aesthetic or social qualities such as stillness or simplicity which are crucial to Japanese tea ceremony. The proposition is that the sequential order of performative materiality shapes sensorial experience and vice versa. Of prime interest to interart studies is that intersensoriality “need not mean a synesthetic mingling of sensation. The strands of perception may be connected in many different ways. Sometimes the senses may seem to all be working together in harmony. Other times, sensations will be conflicted or confused. Either state may be employed as a social or aesthetic ideology.”20 Howes’s perspective supports my conceptual take on convergence by focusing the analytical interest on issues of conflicting, non-congruent, and contrastive besides harmonious aspects about how the senses interact and how this again ties into questions of aesthetic experience and aesthetic ideologies, as Howes calls it. In my study I consider and expand upon the notion of intersensoriality while discussing aspects of convergence between sound, words, and stylized gestures in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. 3.1.2 Interplay, Interdependence, and the Study of Media Combinations “Interdependence” and “interplay” on the other hand are terms that focus rather on aspects of performance production and structural and functional aspects of performance organization. I apply them in my analysis by subsuming them under the leading concept of convergence. As follows I discuss the methodological potential of these two terms for analytical reasons. The prefix “inter” of both terms points towards an exchange between at least two divergent sides and supports the dynamic perspective of convergence as outlined earlier. “Play” connotes an exchange between participating parties which unfolds according to certain rules and aspects of contingency determining how the play evolves in order to reach a predefined goal. A play’s goal might be to determine a winner, or a play is done for its own sake. In my work I use the term interplay to stress modes of interaction between participants, performers and/or audience alike who are involved within a certain performance setting. My point of reference is Erving Goffman and his frame-analytical and interaction-theoretical considerations based on 20 Ibid., p. 9.

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Gregory Bateson’s conceptual discussion of “frame” and “play.”21 Taking Bateson as vantage point, Goffman stresses the transformational power of animal and human activity, which determines what is called play. He writes that the specificity of play relies for one on rules to be followed and secondly on the premise to sustain the mode of play in order to transform serious or real action, in Goffman’s terms, into something playful.22 I use the extended notion of interplay based on Goffman’s general definition of play adding the notion of “inter,” thereby stressing the mutual co-relation and exchange which happens between artistically interacting performers. The concept of interplay, applied to my interart aesthetically oriented research on hula ‘ōlapa performance practice, helps as an analytical tool to focus on coordinated ways of interaction among performers. In the case of hula ‘ōlapa interaction among performers or groups of performers is considered to be a constitutive part of performance practice. The term “interdependence” on the other hand rather stresses structural and form-analytical issues of convergence and principles of performance organization that tie into strategies of combination and composition of divergent performance material. Questions on interdependence take into consideration mutual relationships among elements that show a certain stability and continuity of convergence, whether these are of material, and medial, referential or aesthetic concern. I consider cases that certain forms of interplay between performers shape structurally and aesthetically perceivable interdependencies between heterogeneous formations of performance material such as gestural movement, percussion and chanted poetry. This again ties into how performative and narrative aspects of performance activity relate towards each other. The analytical perspective focusing on structural and form-analytical questions of interdependence as an integral part of convergence relates to issues discussed by Irina Rajewsky in her theoretical work on Intermediality.23 Of interest in my work is Rajewsks’s definition and discussion of the concept of “media combination” among art practices. She specifies that media combinations are fundamentally based on a copresence of divergent forms of medial expression partaking in the appearance of the media product. The condition of combination is either partial or pervasive 21 Goffman refers to Gregory Bateson’s ideas on play discussed in Bateson’s writing on “A Theory of Play and Phantasy,” originally published in: Bateson, Gregory (1972): Steps to an Ecology of Mind. Collected Essays in Anthropology, Psychiatry, Evolution and Epistemology. San Franzisco: Chandler. 22 See Goffman, Erving (1974): Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organisation of Experience, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, p. 41 ff. 23 See Rajewsky, Irina O. (2002): Intermedialität, Tübingen; Basel: Francke.

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throughout the entire work. Media combinations like opera or sound art have by definition a multi- or plurimedial character.24 She considers that certain genres are distinguishable due to a certain fundamental structure of plurimedially combined media/art forms (plurimediale Grundstruktur).25 In studies concerning media combinations the focus is not necessarily to look at brand new combinations of divergent art forms which have no precedence. Instead, a specific fundamental pluri-medial structure evolves over time and becomes a genre specific convention, as Rajewsky suggests. She lists opera, film, and sound art as examples of art genres that are structurally based on combinations of media/art forms. This field of analytical inquiry focuses on fundamental principles of performance organization of so called media combinations.26 The study of such constellations determines as I argue an interart study subject of interest to my own research. Hula ‘ōlapa, a distinct performing art form and living tradition, evolved over time. A certain set of performance strategies determine as I propose a fundamental framework and performative structure how elements are combined in sequence and synchrony. This set of performance strategies is characteristic to hula ‘ōlapa performance and determines its aesthetics by enlarge. Irina Rajewsky’s perspective supports an analysis focusing on performance structural conditions of pluri-medial constellations among involved performance elements and artistic means. Respectively, my aim is to describe performative features that determine interdependencies between percussion, gestures and language, the three prime performance elements combined in hula ‘ōlapa performance. One proposition of mine is that certain practices of hula ‘ōlapa performance, such as the division between the two artistic disciplines – that means the interplay between the ho‘opa‘a and the ‘ōlapa27 – adheres to this particular fundamental structure of 24 Ibid., p. 56. 25 Ibid., p. 15. 26 In her essay on “Das Potential der Grenze: Überlegungen zu aktuellen Fragen der Intermedialitätsforschung” Rajewsky advances her discussion about various options among media combinations by stressing the fact that distinct art genres historically evolve based on certain media combinations. The evident particularity of the plurimedial and fundamental structure of media combinations becomes the aesthetic signature of those art genres such as opera, sound art, film, etc. See Rajewsky, Irina O. (2008): “Das Potential der Grenze: Überlegungen zu aktuellen Fragen der Intermedialitätsforschung”, in: van Hoff, Dagmar/Spies, Bernhand (eds.): Textprofile intermedial, p. 29-31. 27 See my analytical discussion about this topic in this work: Part II, Analysis III: By Means of Contrast in Performance, 7. Structure of Difference: Staging the Division

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hula ‘ōlapa which determines in multiple ways the pluri-medial yet convergent character of hula ‘ōlapa performance. To summarize, the term interplay points towards flexibility and organized ways of exchange within a given structure of interaction between performers whereas the notion of interdependence stresses both structurally fixed and flexible aspects of mutual combinations among performance elements. Having these terminological nuances in mind I will use both terms to discuss convergence. 3.2 Elements of Convergence in Performance One prime concern of my research is that convergence is engendered due to the combination of heterogeneous elements of art forms or performance material. Depending on the academic field, whether media or performance studies, terms such as performance material, elements, art forms or the notion of media are in use to specify what is combined. Uwe Wirth, for example, defines that the notion of intermediality28 is based on mutual interrelations between divergent media. He points out that a study of intermedial configurations relies on two interrelating perspectives a) the separate occurrence of media being combined and b) the very fact of convergence among involved media.29 These two prime conceptual points of Wirth’s Aesthetics of Intermediality, that is to specify distinct media being combined on one hand and to query ways of convergence among combined elements on the other hand, relate closely to Fischer-Lichte’s outline of Interart Aesthetics asking which art practices are combined and how they are combined thereby shaping aspects of materiality, mediality, referentiality, and that of aesthetic experience. Media versus the arts – the conceptual vantage point upon which each analytical approach is based upon thus marks the major difference between the two stated aesthetics. Most often both terms, media and arts, are used synonymously. The terminological border seems to be fluid. Issues concerning conceptual and medial differences as well as questions relevant to matters of transgression of borders among media respectively art practices and forms of intermedial transformation in the context of media/art combinations are a between Performance Disciplines – The Dancer-Actor versus the PercussionistSinger. 28 The term intermedialty is the lead concept of intermediality studies. A definition of the notion follows as part of the discussion of this section. 29 Wirth, Uwe (2007): “Intermedialität”, in: Thomas Antz (ed.): Handbuch der Literaturwissenschaft, Vol. 1: Gegenstände und Grundbegriffe, Stuttgart-Weimar, 254-264, p 257.

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shared central concern both in intermediality studies and interart studies, the latter stressing the process of convergence between arts genres, artistic practices, art and life.30 3.2.1 The Body Can Do it All: The Medial, Material, and Sensory Aspects of Embodiment The concept of the medium and that of mediality are part of the basic presumption in an understanding of intermedial confluence within environments based on interfaces between humans and machines. Due to the fact that my research subject is about the analytical understanding of issues about performers enacting poetry in motion, I stress the notion of artistic practice as process upon which the performative generation of performance material relies. This includes the notion of embodiment which I refer to as a leading conceptual vantage point in an interart aesthetically oriented performance analysis of hula ‘ōlapa. My point is that the body can do it all31 which implies that percussive sound, vocal, and gestural articulations adhere to the particular material and the medial conditions being engendered by means of the body in the very process of performance. My understanding of the medium32 is based on Marshall McLuhan’s anthropologically oriented perspective outlined in his writing on Understanding Media. The extensions of man (1964). McLuhan writes: 30 See the book on interart studies edited by Erika Fischer-Lichte, Kristiane Hasselmann, Markus Rautzenbach (2010): Ausweitung der Kunstzone: Interart Studies. Neue Perspektiven der Kunstwissenschaft. 31 I refer to a quote of Paul Varléy cited by Arnold Berleant in his book Rre-thinking Aesthetics: Rogue Essays on Aesthetics and the Arts. “A body, by its simple force, and in its act, is powerful enough to alter the nature of things more profoundly than ever the mind in its speculations and dreams were able to do,” see Berleant, Arnold (2005): Rre-thinking Aesthetics: Rogue Essays on Aesthetics and the Arts Hamshire; Burlington: Ashgate, p. 83. The quote was originally published as part of Paul Varléy’s translated writing on ‘Dance and the Soul’. Eupalinos, in: Dialogues (New York: Pantheon, 1956), Vol. 4 of Collected Works of Paul Valéry, Bollingen Series XLV, p. 60. 32 According to the online Mirriam-Webster’s dictionary the term medium relates etymologically speaking to the Latin noun “medium,” and its adjective form “medius,” which means “something in a middle position, a middle condition or degree, a means of effecting or conveying something.” As a noun the term medium may refer generally speaking to a public space where affairs of state are disputed or negotiated, a place where someone performs something publicly, see the entry on “Medien/medial” in:

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“In a culture like ours, long accustomed to splitting and dividing all things as a means of control, it is sometimes a bit of a shock to be reminded that, in operational and practical fact, the medium is the message. One is that the personal and social consequences of any medium – that is, of any extension of ourselves – result from the new scale that is introduced into our affairs by each extension of ourselves or by any new technology.”33

This quote, including McLuhan’s famous proposition that the “medium is the message,” summarizes several strands of thought upon which I base my understanding of the medium and its conceptual relation to materialization, performativity, embodiment, and multi-sensoriality. Barck, Karlheinz (ed.) (2002): Ästhetische Grundbegriffe, Vol. 4, p. 1. The online Mirriam-Webster’s dictionary lists that the plural form “media” is used to designate “(1): a channel or system of communication, information, or entertainment – compare mass medium (2): a publication or broadcast that carries advertising (3): a mode of artistic expression or communication (4): something (as a magnetic disk) on which information may be stored,” see www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/medium. This common use of the term media as a means of mass communication or a technological device to mediate or store information stressing the intermediary condition based on certain technological specifics has been questioned by scholars of performance theory, interart and media studies. The term “mediality” instead is preferred for theoretical debate and analysis stressing rather a perspective on how mediality relates to performative, material and semiotic procedures of cognition, communication, art and knowledge formation and its perception. See Sybille Krämer’s essay on “Was haben “Performativität” und “Medialität” miteinander zu tun? Plädoyer für eine in der “Aisthetisierung” gründenden Konzeption des Performativen”, in: Krämer, Sybille (ed.) (2004): Performativität und Medialität, München: Fink, p. 13-32. She opts for an aisthetic and performative understanding of mediality, a perspective that takes “Aspekte der aisthetischen Performativität des Mediengebrauchs” into account, to cite her writing. She writes that the effect of media, mediality in other words, is principally emergent, process oriented and tied to the materiality of embodiment of any kind. The somatic aspect is as much of importance as the symbolic aspects when discussing means of communication. The impact and experience of media, and last not least the formation and experience of art as much as epistemic areas of social enactments are of interest. Mediality is conceptually tied to perception and the idea of material forms of embodiment which implies change due to performative processes. See Krämer, Sybille (2004), p. 25. 33 See Gordon, Terrence (1964): Marshall McLuhan. Understanding Media. The Extension of Man, Ginko Press, p. 19.

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McLuhan conceptualizes the term medium to be effective as an extension of ourselves. This perspective of the medium ties into the idea of embodied practices using tools such as gestures, and speech or means of technology.34 Each medium and related artistic or cultural practice introduces a new scale which in turn shapes the condition of social human life as McLuhan concedes. He further argues that “the content” of any medium is another medium. The content of writing is speech, just as the written word is the content of print, and print is the content of the telegraph.”35 His argument involves the idea of remediation and media change which necessarily includes a process of transformation of thought process due to the very fact of divergent forms and performative processes of materialization. He asks “what is the content of speech?”36 He concludes that it is “actual process of thought which is in itself non-verbal.”37 Non-verbal thought is shaped through verbal means of speech. This very process of transformation is part of the message. He argues that art or any type of technological practice “represents direct manifestations of creative thought process.”38 He considers that abstract painting is a means to represent the process of creative thought as such. Another manifestation relates to computer design as he writes. Of interest is that within his framework of theoretical thinking McLuhan stresses the emergent and therefore performative process of creative thought transmitted and transformed through artistic ways of materialization called media. McLuhan considers the actual process of thought to be non-verbal in the first place.39 Thought process emerges and is transformed through means of speech, body articulation, or through the use of technology, the latter representing the main interest of his study. Each medium again implies its own message due to particular procedures and processes of materialization which are intrinsically performative in nature. Most important however is that McLuhan considers media as extensions of man.40 His concept of the medium conducive to articulations of creative thought process and social process a like is last but not least body centered. As such I relate McLuhan’s understanding of the medium to the performance analytical concept of various forms of performance materiality such as gestures, words, and percussive sound that emerge as part of performative pro34 See the work of Mauss (1950) and Csordas (1993). 35 See Gordon, Terrence (1964), p. 19. 36 Ibid., p. 19. 37 Ibid., p. 19. 38 Ibid., p. 20. 39 Ibid., p. 19, 20. 40 Ibid., p. 19.

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cedures.41 Based on this idea I argue that gestures and speech for example materialize in performance as two divergent “extensions of man.” The performative materiality of gestures differs from speech. A gesture is primarily kinesthetically organized. A gesture represents more or less complex movement of one or more body limbs through space and time based on effort and direction. Proprioception is based on the sense concerning the spatial orientation of the body. The sense of vision enables humans to see the visual appearance of gestures and to relate to proprioceptive aspects of the performers movements on stage. The aspects of proprioception, temporality, spatiality, and vision are prime sensorial aspects of how gestures of dancers or actors are perceived by an audience.42 Words on the other hand are primarily of acoustic nature. Spoken words occur first of all as sound evolving in time, the prime means of how human beings shape words. Hearing and a sense of resonance determine ways of how the message of words is perceived. Accordingly, I query in my work how “extensions of man,” ways of embodied means of articulation so to say, are being combined in performance and how these combinations converge shaping thereby aesthetic experience. This outlook determines the methodological approach applied to my performance analytical study of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice backed up by considerations of both media and performance theory. McLuhan stresses the material way of how creative activity occurs, saying “the message, it seems, was the “content,” as people used to ask what a painting was about. Yet, they never thought to ask what a melody was about, nor what a house or a dress was about.”43 In relation to my own study the emergence of meaning is thereafter tied to self-referential aspects of how gestures, words and percussive sound materialize while being combined in hula ‘ōlapa performance and thereby shaping a multi-sensorial configuration. McLuhan’s theory, when applied to interart studies and performance analysis, does mean to extend the notion of the medium beyond singular considered media, thinking extensions of man rather in qualitative terms of tonality, spatiality, corporeality, visuality, etc. 41 See my discussion of Fischer-Lichte’s performance theory and the concept of performativity, see Part I: Methods I: 2.3. Practice as Research and The Embodied Mind Condition. 42 Part II, Analysis II: A Performance Aesthetic Study on Stylized Gestural Articulation Part II and III of this work covers a detailed Gestalt-analytical description and definition concerning aspects of performative materialization as well as qualitative and referential implications of gestural appearance of two gesture categories, stylizedabstract and stylized-alluding gestures. 43 See Gordon, Terrence (1964), p. 25.

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McLuhan considers that media have a feedback effect on social life. He says that the use of media shapes the creative thought process and the social condition of human life. He writes that the content or use of media are “as diverse as they are ineffectual” in shaping both the “scale and form of human association and action.”44 The use of media as extensions of man shape the creative thought process and the social condition of human life likewise. These considerations tie into Csordas’s theoretical thinking about embodiment as the existential ground of culture and self, as discussed earlier. Cultural practices are based on embodiment. They imply the use of media which, when understood in terms of extensions of man, are ways how cultures emerge and transform over time as part of an ongoing performative processes of social interaction, procedures necessarily tied to embodiment. Last not least, cultural practices, including the use of technology, shape the way of how we interact, and communicate with each other, how we perceive and how we make sense of the world.45 3.2.2 Theatre as the Stage of Intermediality In my work I relate McLuhan’s notion of “extensions of man” discussed above to the concept of performance elements relevant to an interart aesthetically oriented performance analysis. To support this vantage point I refer to the academic work of Kattenbelt and Chapple who developed a general analytical outline concerned with the multi-faceted constellations of theatre and pluri-medial performance productions.46 Their perspective is based on a conceptual premise defining “theatre-as-the-stage-of-intermediality.” Chapple and Kattenbelt argue, that “the arrival of post-structuralist debate opens up for intermedial analysis the gaps and fissures between the texts, the signs, and the performance, and provides as a location for intermedial discourse through the body and mind of the performer and receiver.”47 The Chapple/Kattenbelt notion fosters the development of an 44 Ibid., p. 20. 45 See the discussion of Part I: Method I: 2.6. Practice as Research and Studies of the Particular focusing on David Howes’s perspective which is concerned with the area termed as “anthropology of the senses,” as well as Tomie Hahn’s considerations about humans as being situated by sensual orientation. 46 See “Key Issues in Intermediality in Theatre and Performance” written by Freda Chapple and Chiel Kattenbelt in: Chapple, Freda/Kattenbelt, Chiel (eds.) (2006): Intermediality in Theatre and Performance, Amsterdam/New York: Rodopi, p.11-25, and Chiel Kattenbelt’s paper on “Theatre as the Art of the Performer and the Stage of Intermediality,” published in the same book, p. 29-38. 47 Ibid., p. 22.

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analytical perspective in interart aesthetically oriented performance analysis, focusing on the mutual interdependence of sound, words, gestures, and movements in performance and their respective aesthetic appeal to an audience. The sphere of perceptive transgressions engendered between modes of articulations and likewise set into action between the body and mind of the performer and the audience is described and defined by Kattenbelt and Chapple as intermediality. The term intermediality is the lead concept of a broad interdisciplinary field of academic studies.48 The concept is used to describe issues of hybrid coupling or aspects of intermedial reference between the arts, the body, and technology in general. The discourse on intermediality ties into media studies but has been applied to various other fields such as literature studies, see Rajewsky’s work. In defining intermediality I refer to the work of the media and theatre scholars Kattenbelt and Chapple. They specify the term, saying that “intermediality is an effect [stressed by the author] performed in-between mediality, supplying multiple perspectives and foregrounding the making of meaning by the receiver of the performance.”49 Intermedial procedures thereafter are understood as an anthropological given and foundation of any kind of production-and-perceptioninterrelation. “Between the bodies and minds of the audience, and the bodies and minds of the performers is a medial exchange that is bigger than any technologically produced media may achieve.”50 The medial exchange is positioned inbetween the mediality of the performers and the mediality of involved art forms. Ultimately, Kattenbelt and Chapple state that “intermediality is not reliant on technology but on the inter-action between performance and reception.”51 48 As follows I list some selected scholars and their publications dedicated to the field of intermediality studies. Spielmann, Yvonne (1994): Intermedialität. Das System Peter Greenaway, München: Fink; Helbig, Jörg (ed.) (1998): Intermedialität. Theorie und Praxis eines Interdisziplinären Forschungsgebietes. Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag; Rajewsky, Irina O. (2002): Intermedialität, Tübingen; Basel: Francke, and one of several papers by Rajewsky, Irina O. (2008): “Das Potential der Grenze: Überlegungen zu aktuellen Fragen der Intermedialitätsforschung”, in: Textprofile inter-medial, van Hoff, Dagmar/Spies, Bernhand (eds.), p. 29-31. Paech, Joachim/Schröter, Jens (eds.) (2008): Intermedialität Analog/Digital. Theorien – Methoden – Analysen, München: Wilhelm Fink. See also Meyer, Urs/Roberto Simanowski, Roberto/Zeiler, Christopher (eds.) (2006): Transmedialität. Zur Ästhetik paraliterarischer Verfahren, Göttingen: Wallstein Verl., p. 9. 49 See Chapple, Freda/Kattenbelt, Chiel (2006), p. 20. 50 Ibid., p. 22. 51 Ibid., p. 21.

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The Kattenbelt/Chapple perspective supports the development of my own academic vantage point and framework of analysis focusing on performance strategies that plot out combinations of contrastive and converging aspects of plurimedial, in other words heterogeneous performance material set into action asking how these combinations intensify multi-sensory experience in the very process of live-performance. My point is that the Kattenbelt/Chapple perspective is applicable to performance practices utilizing heterogeneous forms of artistic articulation including both performative means of the body52 and technology. Their research perspective allows questioning how the transient material of performance production – sound, words, images, and the domains of body position in time and space – interrelate and transgress medial and material boundaries as part of performance. Of interest is to look at the quality of staged fissures, profusions and gaps between heterogeneous artistic means of articulation, and the tension that arises due to such non-coherent conditions of performance, specifying its aesthetic appeal. 3.2.3 The Six Elements of Performance Analysis Kattenbelt and Chapple distinguish among six basic domains of performance: sound, word, image, body, time, and space. They devise a diagrammatic model which correlates these six domains of performance.53 The analytical capacity of the model is to highlight co-relations of performance domains in the first place. How does the model work? The model captures two triangular constellations according to which the authors specify possible relations among the six basic domains of performance. The first triangular constellation captures the co-relation between word/sound/image. A second triangular facing top down configures the analytical positions of space/body/time. The second triangle is placed on top the first triangle. The particular visual design of the model enhances and stimulates conceptual thinking about combinations between space/body/time to the domains of word/sound/image. The configuration of the six positions when viewed all together allows looking at an array of possible relations among emergent performance material in multiple ways. 52 From a media study’s point of view body centred arts are often called “old” or analogue types of media. See the compilation of Paech, Joachim/Schröter, Jens (eds.) (2008): Intermedialität Analog/Digital. Theorien – Methoden – Analysen, München: Wilhelm Fink. 53 Kattenbelt and Chapple present their model via a diagram showing constellations of an intermedial interplay of six performance domains relevant to theatre and performance. See Chapple, Freda/Kattenbelt, Chiel (2006), p. 24.

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I critically note however, that the precise performance theoretical specification of the six performance elements, as I call the six categories of performance materiality discussed above, is conceptually weak when following the writing of Kattenbelt and Chapple. The two scholars determine the domains of sound/ image/word as sign systems. The concepts of body/space/time are not theoretically specified at all. The book on The Transformative Power of Performance – A New Aesthetic (2008) by Fischer-Lichte, offers a perspective on performativity which I find useful in order to back up the Kattenbelt/Chapple model. The concept of performativity means that the material of performance is generated as part of the process of performance. Fischer-Lichte writes: “Performance describes a genuine act of creation: the very process of performing involves all participants and thus generates the performance in its specific materiality.”54 She concedes that the materiality of performance does not exist before, beyond, or after the performance but emerges in and through it. Fischer-Lichte specifies corporeality, spatiality, tonality, and temporality as prime categories of performance materiality. These aspects of performance occur momentarily and vanish again.55 They are perceivable by performance participants at the very moment of their materialization on stage. Their fleeting and transitory character marks the event character of performances as such. I adapt Fischer-Lichte’s performance theoretical approach to specify my understanding of the Kattenbelt/Chapple model. Performance theoretically speaking I state that the six domains of words, sound, image, body, space, and time emerge accordingly as divergent performative materials which unfold as part of the generative process of performances. These six domains might turn into signs due to their particular referential application on stage. Fischer-Lichte’s concept of tonality56 covers both elements, “sound” and “voices,” whereas Kattenbelt/Chapple treat “sound” and “words” as separate el54 See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 36. 55 Ibid. p. 130. 56 Fischer-Lichte concedes that “theatre is constituted not just through sight (theatron) but always also through sound (auditorium).” It is visual and an aural space as she argues, see Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 120. Speaking or singing voices, music, and other sounds resound through sound according to her definition of tonality. She further summarizes her perspective on the domain of sound in performance as follows: “The transience of performance is epitomized in its tonality. What is more fleeting than sound? Emerging from silence of the space, sound fills the space only to die and vanish the next moment. Fleeting though it might be, sound still has immediate – and often lasting – effects on those who hear it. First of all, sounds

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ements. I distinguish among two categories of tonality for the purpose of my study that is tonality and vocality. Tonality relates to the performance element of “sound” and acoustics in general. In my study I refer to tonality, that is the element of sound, discussing performance matters concerned with the acoustic domain of percussion. I furthermore categorize the performance element of “words” as part of “vocality,” a second tonal category of its own.57 More so, among vocality, which covers the performance element of “words,” I distinguish between two forms of vocalization: 1) vocalization which is based on sequences of syllables that are onomatopoetically58 structured and which have no referential function59, and 2) a form of recitation that vocalizes oral poetry, the verbal element of the mele hula. In the first case of vocalization listed, the materiality of sound of poetry determines what Lawrence E. Marks specified “sound symbolism,” that is “where speech sounds in and out of themselves convey meaning.”60 The latter case, that is the vocalization of oral poetry, relates to the common

impart a sense of space. After all, our sense of balance resides in our ears. Sounds also penetrate the body and often trigger physiological and affective reactions. The listeners shudder, get goose bumps, their pulse accelerates, they breathe faster and heavier, become melancholic, or euphoric. They are seized by a desire for je-ne-saisquoi as memories surge up in them, and so forth. Tonality carries a strong affective potential.” See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 120. 57 Fischer-Lichte’s study scrutinizes the all encompassing capacity of the voice saying that “the materiality of the voice reveals the performance materiality in its entirety. The materiality of the voice captures tonality as it resounds in space; it emphasizes corporeality because it leaves the body through respiration; it marks spatiality because its sound flows out into the space and enters the ears of the spectators and articulating subjects alike.” See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p.129. 58 The noun onomatopoeia refers according to the Collin British Dictionary to “1. The formation of words whose sound is imitative of the sound of the noise or action designated, such as hiss, buzz, and bang. 2. The use of such words for poetic or rhetorical effect.” See www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/onomatopoeia# onomatopoeia1.l. 59 See Part II, Analysis IV: 8.2.3 Eu-e: A Call Indicating the Final Performance Sequence of Kaupō ‘Āina. 60 See Marks, Lawrence E. (1978): The Unity of the Senses. Interrelations of Modalities, p. x of the preface and his writings on sound symbolism, p.75-83, and more specifically Marks’ contribution to sound symbolism in poetry in the same book, p. 193-209.

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ground of linguistics, the referential ability of language to generate meaning that is the ability of words to refer to something else than themselves. Kattenbelt and Chapple determined the element of the “body” which I respectively categorize among the notion of “corporeality” and the related concept of embodiment discussed earlier.61 In work the performance element “space” is covered by the concept of “spatiality”62, and “time” by “temporality.”63 The Kattenbelt/Chapple model of performance elements includes “image” which offers a category to be further explored as part of my analysis. The question is how whether the notion of the image relates solely to the concept of visuality. At least visuality is an important sensory aspect which needs to be considered among performance materialities. One section of my work is dedicated to gestures applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. I discuss the aspect of the image in relation to spatiality, temporality, corporeality, and visuality. The question is how the notion of gestures as forms of visual representation64 ties into the interrelationship between the performative appearance of stylized-alluding gestures and metaphor in hula ‘ōlapa performance.65 Based on the above discussed performance theoretical adaption of the Kattenbelt/Chapple model of performance elements I distinguish between six 61 See Part I, Methods I: Practice as Research. 62 The concept of spatiality defined by Fischer-Lichte distinguishes between the architectural-geometric space of theatre buildings and the performative space. She writes, that “the space in which a performance occurs can be regarded as a performative space. It opens special possibilities for the relationship between actors and spectators and for movement and perception. Whatever the ways in which these possibilities are used, applied, realized, treated, or, alternatively, subverted, they affect the performative space. Every movement of people, objects of lights, and noises can transform this unstable and fluctuating space.” See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 107. 63 Fischer-Lichte writes that temporality constitutes a fundamental condition of possibility for corporeality, spatiality, and tonality to emerge as performance materiality in space. She specifies that “since performances take place in time with varying durations, they require specific structural procedures to regulate the duration and sequence of different materials and their relations to each other.” See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 130. 64 See Müller, Cornelia (1998): Redebegleitende Gesten. Kulturgeschichte – Theorie – Sprachvergleich, Berlin: Verl. A. Spitz, p. 110. 65 See Part II: Analysis II: 6.4 On Gestures and Stylization Part III: Stylized-Alluding Gestures.

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categories of performance elements which I relate accordingly to six domains of performance materiality in my study. The slash is used to indicate the conceptual correlation between performance element and performance materiality: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

body / corporeality space / spatiality time / temporality image / visuality sound / tonality words / vocality

Applied to my study I query how these various performance elements are combined in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice and how combinations in performance shape the process of perception. I question how materialities of performance elements converge in performance shaping thereby sensory experience. As such my aim is to describe the effect how identified interdependencies among elements induce intensified qualities of sense experience. I consider performance theoretically speaking the interrelation of three levels, the performative, the referential and the aesthetic level of performance. And last not least, I query in my study of gestures whether the notion of the image has to be considered to be multi-sensorial in gestural terms instead of taking it for granted that images are necessarily tied to visuality only. 3.3 Degrees of Convergence and Issues of Transgression The issue on how involved elements of performance material shape convergence ties into questions whether ways of combination are perceivable in terms of degrees of convergence. Fischer-Lichte distinguishes among four possible degrees of convergence discerning “whether involved arts simply appear side by side without any apparent coherence or whether they perceivable refer to each other, whether they mutually complement and reinforce each other, or even fuse into one.”66 All four cases suggest a particular artistic setting and a conceptual direction that determines how elements relate towards each other and how the relation is perceived aesthetically. Rajewsky remarks that the co-presence of divergent 66 See Fischer-Lichte, Erika “Interart Ästhetics”, unpublished article, p. 13. The original article in German entitled “Interart-Ästhetiken” was published in: Brosch, Renate (2004): Ikono/Ikono/Philo/Logie: Wechselspiele von Bildern und Texten, Potsdamer Beiträge zur Kultur- und Sozialgeschichte, Vol. 2, Berlin: trafo Verlag.

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media in media combinations such as opera or sound art is based on a partial or pervasive convergence between divergent medial forms of expression. This stated condition ties into a central analytical concern how far elements can be merged or transposed and how it is done. Fischer-Lichte points out that transgression of boundaries between divergent elements only can be identified in case boundaries have been established earlier.67 In my work I approach this question about how boundaries among elements are established applying frame-analytical considerations developed by Erving Goffman.68 According to Goffman, I propose to conceptualize boundaries among performance elements in terms of frame (Rahmen) and framing (Rahmung). Herbert Willems gives in his book Rahmung und Habitus a concise specification of Goffman’s understanding of frame and framing. Frames are understood as meaningful units of social interaction. Willems writes that the notion of the frame ties into practices that are socially agreed upon. Frames which guide social action sustain the variability of individual situations of interaction. Framings on the other hand point at the contingent and subjective variation of single situations of interaction. The notion of framing stresses the subjective involvement of social participants while engaging in social practices which implies that they develop their own ways to understand the experienced situations.69 The concepts of frame and framing relate to Goffman’s idea on qualitative research focusing on face-to-face interaction drawing on a micro-analytical approach. He writes: “My concern over the years [...] has been to promote acceptance of this face-to-face domain as an analytically viable one – a domain which might be titled, for want of any happy name, the interaction order – a domain, whose preferred method of study is microanalysis.”70 The method of mi67 Ibid., p. 7. 68 See Goffman, Erving (1974). 69 Willems writes: “Das Begriffspaar Rahmen (frame) und Rahmung (framing) steht für Goffman’s Annahme und Verständnis der Differenz von sozialem Sinn und sinnaktualisierender Praxis. Während Rahmen als Erzeugungsstrukturen definiert sind, die sich durch relative Stabilität, Autonomie und Immunität gegenüber der faktischen (Inter)Aktion auszeichnen, erscheint die Rahmung, die Umsetzung von Sinn und der Sinn für Sinn, als kontingent subjektiv anforderungsreich und (weil) offen und anfällig. [...] Rahmen verweisen aus Goffman’s Sicht auf situative und d.h. empirisch-konkrete Praxisverhältnisse, die eine Wirklichkeitsebene eigener Art aufweisen.” See Willems, Herbert (1997): Rahmen und Habitus, p. 46. 70 See Goffman, Erving (1983): The Interaction Order. American Sociological Review, 48 (1), p. 2.

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croanalysis focuses on observable units of actual behavior between social participants of everyday life.71 Goffman concedes that frames, when utilized and performed as parts of social events or artistic settings function as devices to structure activities. They may induce frame changes, a condition termed as “keying” in Goffman’s work.72 By means of a micro-functional sequence analysis he seeks to show which effect singular elements have within a stream of activity. Of interest is how these particular elements, which induce for example frame changes, have an effect on other elements that occur prior, synchronously, or right after each other within a sequence.73 Goffman precedes interart and intermediality studies74 in his frame analytical work. He discusses for example the transposition and substitution of visible means by audible features in radio drama. “A protagonist in a radio drama,” as he writes, “will be in a realm in which things are presumably seen, and in which things that are heard, felt, and smelled can be located by sight; yet obviously the audience can only hear. […] Sound substitutes become conventionalized for what would be ordinarily be conveyed visually. For example, the impression of distance from the center of stage is attained by a combination of volume control and angle and distance of the speaker.”75 Goffman’s analytical writing is sensitive to intermedial and intersensorial relationships between performance elements going as far as substitutions and the possibility to augment the sense of time and space through sound control as much as he considers sensory induction that is, that in case of radio drama the sensory imagination of smell and aspects of vision are induced through sound. He furthermore distinguishes among several functions that music can have in radio drama. “But music can also be used as part of the radio drama frame to serve as a “bridge,” a signal that the scene is changing, music being to radio drama in part what curtain drops are to staged drama. Such music does not fit into a scene but fits between scenes, connecting one whole episode with another – part of the punctuation symbolism for managing material in

71 See Winkin, Yves/Leeds-Hurwitz, Wendy (2013): Erving Goffman. A Critical Introduction to Media and Communication Theory, New York: Peter Lang, p. 7. 72 See Goffman, Erving (1974), p. 40-82. 73 See Willems, Herbert (1997): Rahmen und Habitus, p. 68, 308. 74 Werner Wolf refers to Goffman’s concept of the frame to the field of intermediality studies as part of the book entitled Framing Borders – In Literature and Other Media, edited by Werner Wolf and Bernhart, Walter (2006), Amsterdam: Rodopi. 75 See Goffman, Erving (1974), p. 146.

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this frame – […]. Furthermore, still another kind of music will be recognized: the kind that serves to foretell, then mark, the dramatic action, a sort of aural vision of subtitles.”76

Goffman’s micro-analytical oriented interaction and frame analytical approach supports Fischer-Lichte’s methodological considerations asking how boundaries are set up in order to produce effects of sensory variation and transgression. Goffman’s frame-analytical concept is of interest in my work as such that I specify principles of division and contrastive combination understood here as “performative means of framing.” By performative means of framing I refer to artistic practices according to which heterogeneous performance material is layered, divided and organized in multiple way, thereby combining performance materiality in sequence and synchronicity. To apply artistic strategies of performative means of framing is a way to create borders, or structures of difference in other words, among confluent performance elements by means of division, contrast and means of variation thereby directing the flow attention. In fact, the aesthetic effect of performative means of framing is to engender “structures of difference”77 as part of performance practice which in turn shapes the format of a pluri-medially organized performing art setting as much as they shape the shifting multi-sensory condition of aesthetic experience. Uwe Wirth reflects, in reference to Yvonne Spielmann’s work and other relevant authors in media and intermediality studies, the analytical understanding of the notion of “structures of difference.” He writes that one main interest of intermediality studies is to focus upon the conceptual coupling of divergent forms of media. Coupled media – such as sound-image combinations for example – configure as part of structures of difference. This means that the media do not necessarily and totally dissolve in the process of fusion. The means of embodiment such as the sensory, the material as well as performative conditions of each medium (Verköperungsbedingungen) feed into the situation of divergent media being conceptually combined, as he writes. The emergent “quality of difference” is based on conditions of framing, structures of difference in other words, among divergent materialities in performance which feed as an observable aspect into the experience of coupled media or performance elements, so to say.78 Irina Rajewsky points in her work at “intermedial gaps” which are observable due to the fundamental structure of pluri-medially organized art constella76 Ibid., p. 147. 77 See Spielmann, Yvonne (1998): Intermedialität, Das System Peter Greenaway, p. 36; and Wirth, Uwe: “Hypertextuelle Aufpfropfung” in: Meyer, Urs, et al (2006), p. 28. 78 See Wirth, Uwe in: Meyer, Urs (2006), p. 27-31.

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tions, defined as media combinations in her work.79 Last not least, Rajewsky’s and Wirth’s recent discussion on structures of difference in media studies shows the close conceptual relationship towards Goffman’s ideas of frame-analysis. 3.4 Methodological Synthesis The methodological framework of my study is based on the conceptual synthesis of Method I: Practice as Research and Methods II: Interart Aesthetics and Performance Analysis and the idea that hula performance practice embodies a Performance Aesthetic of the Senses. This methodological perspective reflects my analytical interest which is concerned with the performance aesthetic implications that the interdependent confluence of percussion, chanted oral poetry and stylized dance-acting has on perception and on aesthetic experience of hula ‘ōlapa performance; also taking into account the aesthetic claim of hula being a Hawaiian performing arts practice expressing all that we hear, see, smell, taste, feel and touch into account. The six designated areas of academic research that I refer to as the main methodological cornerstones of my study are: 1. The approach of practice as research centered upon the master-disciple method and embodied knowledge. 2. The interart aesthetic interest analyzing combinations of divergent performance material, so called media combinations in Irina Rajewsky’s terms. 3. The effect of media combinations, in my work analytically termed as convergence. 4. The anthropological idea of the sensory orientation of human beings and the notion of intersensoriality fostered by David Howes, the leading proponent in the field of the anthropology of the senses. The application of this perspective to performance analysis allows me to focus on the sensory implications of performance materiality engendered during performance. Intersensoriality as conceptual vantage point allows to fine-tune perceptional processes described by the idea of convergence. 5. The performance theoretical conceptualization of the model of the six corelated performance elements by Kattenbelt/Chapple. This model stimulates the analytical conceptualization of multiple relationships between performance materialities. 6. Goffman’s micro-analytically oriented frame analysis and its implications specifying categories of performance segments called in my work types of 79 See Rajewsky, Irina O. (2002), p. 70, 87.

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“performative means of framing.” Part of my analytical work is to demarcate various types of performative means of framing, structures of difference in other words, which determine hula ‘ōlapa performance practice and to describe the effect that these performative structures of difference have during hula ‘ōlapa performance. Frame-analytical concepts such as segments, frames, cues, guided doings and a specific type of modulation of framing, called keying, is of interest in my work. The joint discussion of convergence and notions drawn from intersensoriality supplements my frame-analytical perspective on conducting my performance analysis. The vantage point of this joint discussion is to analytically focus upon the sensory effect that procedures of performative framing initiate during performance. It means to take certain variations of performance structural combinations of performance elements into account and to discuss the impact that the senses have in the process of experiencing the emergent “quality of difference,” a matter of tension based on various strategies of contrastive combinations of performance elements. Based on these methodological considerations I define convergence. Convergence signifies the situation or procedure of mutual confrontation of combined performance elements – a performative process that intensifies sensory experience and conditions of sudden inference which may trigger sensory enlightenment aesthetically aimed for by hula ‘ōlapa performers. The effect of convergence – an issue of perception as I argue – is conceptually based on the mutual and dynamic relationship between framed structures of difference, borders or frames in other words, among divergent performance elements being combined in distinctly various ways. To analyze performative means of framing in relation to the perceptual effect of convergence ties into my analysis of performance segments, questions of performance organization of various performance elements in sequence and in synchrony shaping the performative framework of a hula repertoire piece – understood here as means of composition. Of central interest is the shifting multi-sensory effect that the segmented and contrastive compositional set up of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice has on aesthetic experience. I refer to the Kattenbelt/Chapple model of performance elements as I take the various combinations of elements in hula ‘ōlapa performance into account. I describe the materiality of elements involved as much as their respective sensory effect and their referential and aesthetic implications. Based on the methodological framework as outlined above I delineate analytical concepts which I apply to and develop as part of the micro-analytical case study of Kaupō ‘Āina, the prime performance repertoire piece of interest in my study. I refine these analytical notions in the course of my analytical research

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partly drawing on theoretical work such as Asian theater studies, Gestalt theory and visual studies, Gender Studies, studies on gesture, metaphor, and others. In the course of my work, I distinguish between six analytical tools applied to scoring and analyzing hula ‘ōlapa performance practice: 1. Performative means of framing, in other words structures of difference: This concept combines frame-analytical considerations and the interart studies related perspective on media combinations considering analytically for one variations among performative constellation of combined elements and how the convergent and multi-sensory effect of analyzed performative means of framing shapes aesthetic experience in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. 2. Performance elements: In my work I differentiate between six performance elements following the Kattenbelt/Chapple model analyzing combinations of performance elements. Besides this, I focus on two single performance elements, the element of percussion and the element of gesture – in other words stylized means of embodiment. The specification of these two performance elements allows to understand better how these two elements shape performance segments which are based on combinations of percussive sound, gestures and verbal elements taking their performative, referential and aesthetic impact into account. The focus on combinations of elements on the other hand is a topic relevant to my specification of performative means of framing. 3. Stylization: The notion of stylization demarcates a crucial performance analytical concept in my work. I apply stylization to categorize and to analyze stylized means of embodiment. This perspective is crucial to an understanding of embodiment and body articulation in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The notion of stylization is conceptually based on my study of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice and my own performance aesthetic conceptualization of stylized gestures. This performance aesthetic oriented approach first of all joins gestalt-theoretical and performance analytical considerations in order to specify main features of gestural materialization and its appearance. I tie this conceptualization of gesture into a yet broader perspective of stylization. Part of my venture to outline the concept of stylization is a combined discussion of Eugenio Barba’s notion of “extra-daily technique,” Judith Butler’s early concept of stylization understood as a process of embodiment which partakes in the formation of gender, and performance theoretical considerations by performance scholar Erika Fischer-Lichte. 4. Multi-sensory experience: The concept is a core notion in my analytical work to describe the aesthetic effect aimed for by hula ‘ōlapa performance prac-

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tice. The concept of multi-sensory experience is predominately based on a joint discussion of convergence, stylization, frame-analytical considerations and intersensoriality. The latter concept has being introduced to the field of humanities by proponents of the anthropology of the senses. In my work I develop the term multi-sensory experience as part of my Gestalt-theoretical conceptualization of stylized-abstract and stylized-alluding gestures. More so, the term multi-sensory experience is crucial to my analytical discussion on the effect that performative means of framing engender as part of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. 5. Sensory Sequencing: The concept has been introduced as part of the discussion of the anthropology of the senses. The notion of sensory sequencing conceptualizes the development of sensory experience in sequence. In my work I use sensory sequencing to fine-tuning the performance analytical interest of mine to describe the sensory effect that variations of performative means of framing engender during performance. The concept captures how performative procedures shape the flow of sensory experience. I describe how the multi-sensory effect of certain combinations of performative elements engender varying degrees of contrast and shifting conditions of tension, which again directs the attention of participants as part of aesthetic experience. 6. Keying: The notion of keying among others is part of my frame-analytically informed research on hula ‘ōlapa performance. Keying is a means to indicate and to trigger frame change in performance, a concept of interest in describing and analyzing the call-and-response practice of kāhea and its performance aesthetic implications. The following chapter entitled Methods III: Scoring Performance Practice is dedicated to feature Kaupō ‘Āina, the hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece and main object of my analysis. Although the approach of scoring performance practice includes procedures of analytical reflection, I do consider that the topic of scoring is a methodological issue. I therefore include the chapter on scoring performance practice in Part I of my study, which focuses on methods. Part II, Analysis I-IV, covers my performance analytical endeavor focusing on hula ‘ōlapa performance practice by applying the performance scores of Kaupō ‘Āina as a main reference. By means of a micro-analytical case study of Kaupō ‘Āina I advance the methodological framework as outlined above, describing features of embodied knowledge. I introduce hula ‘ōlapa performance practice to the field of interart and performance studies as one prominent example of an embodied performance aesthetic of the senses.

Methods III: Scoring Performance Practice

4. K AUPŌ ‘ĀINA : S CORING H ULA ‘Ō LAPA P ERFORMANCE P RACTICE 4.1 Introduction A close look at the compositional framework of hula repertoire shows a practice that is based on oral tradition and transmission. Composition most likely is a term which is reserved for written musical scores. Works of music are composed. For the purpose of my research on hula I apply the term composition to specify hula repertoire pieces and respective performance practices which guide how hula pieces are created, trained, and performed. I define thereafter hula repertoire pieces as “hula compositions.” These are based on several strands of performance material that are combined to generate a specific performative framework and structure which shapes a hula composition as a whole. Hula compositions are as such primarily perpetuated through oral and performative means only. Written scripts of hula compositions that reflect in detail all parts of performance material are neither part of the creation process nor of transmission. Compositional matters are intrinsically part of ongoing hula practice. “Doing” the hula means to become immersed in procedures of composition and performance organization. To perform does actually mean to experience principles of composition as part of embodied knowledge. The artistic activity follows a certain performative framework that structures and guides performers “doing” a repertoire piece. The goal of my performance analytical approach intended here reflects upon the givens of hula performance practice which stages poetry in motion, carried forth through the domains of sound, voice, the mele hula, and body articulation of gesture. To develop a method of scoring performance practice thereby outlining the compositional set up of Kaupō ‘Āina, the lead example of my work, is at

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stake. Scoring the repertoire piece of interest demarcates a fundamental step in my research in order to conduct consecutively a micro-analytical oriented case study of Kaupō ‘Āina.1 Methodologically I draw upon Goffman’s notion of frame analysis2 in order to specify my analytical approach of scoring performance practice and respective analysis.3 As follows, I refer to “sequence,” “frames,” and “cues” a series of categories that Goffman introduced as part of frame analysis. I expand upon these notions of frame analysis and apply them as analytical tools to determine parameters of scoring hula performance practice. The task of scoring involves to define parameters that specify main features of performance practice according to which the phenomenologically heterogeneous set up of hula performance is structured and staged. Devising the performance scores according to this premise means to demarcate categories of performative means of framing. I furthermore discuss the term “guided doings” as a key notion to tie the method termed practice as research, which I introduced and discussed earlier, into the process of scoring. The approach of scoring performance practice as outlined in this chapter is new to hula and related performance studies. It sets the conceptual grounds as a guide line and lead reference for my own research and to future performance analytically oriented studies on hula and related practices. 4.2 Sequence, Frames, Cues The leading interest of frame analysis, as the title of Goffman’s work proclaims, is to examine “the organization of experience.”4 The scope and quality of experience of individuals is embedded in and shaped through social interaction according to Goffman’s sociological point of view. He introduces an array of terms – sequence, frames, cues, and guided doings – that guide his discussion on how individuals experience and engage themselves in social events. “Sequences” or “strips of action” are the raw material of Goffman’s analysis. He defines: “The term “strip” will be used to refer to any arbitrary slice or cut from the stream of 1 2

See Part II, Analysis I-IV. See the introduction of Goffman’s work as part of my outline of a general framework of interart oriented performance analysis, see Part I, Methods II: Interart Aesthetics and Performance Analysis, 3.3 Degrees of Convergence and Issues of Transgression.

3

My analytical work is based on a combined method of practice as research and interart oriented performance analysis, see Part I, Methods II: Interart Aesthetics and Performance Analysis, 3.4 Methodological Synthesis.

4

See Goffman, Erving (1974).

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ongoing activity, including here sequences or happenings, real or fictive, as seen from the perspective of those subjectively involved in sustaining an interest in them.”5 Goffman’s concept concerning the sequential organization of social activities, strips of action in other words, applies to questions that relate to the sequential arrangement of the clear cut, segmented and modular character of performance organization of hula practice, a topic to be developed in the course of this chapter. Referring to Bateson’s use of the term “frame,”6 Erving Goffman assumes that “definitions of situations are built upon in accordance with principles of organization which govern events – at least social ones – and our subjective involvement in them.”7 Recalling Goffman’s frame-analytical discussion, frames specify principles of organization which shape events and define situations of social interaction. Frames are understood as meaningful units of social interaction. These are agreed upon by involved subjects. This implies correct engagement into and interpretation of an event in question.The concept of the frame offers therfore a useful heuristic tool to specify how activities are socially agreed upon and how these relates to a study of cultural practices and conventions, principles of performance organization in other words, that regulate and organize both the production and reception of social events. Goffman’s perspective on defined social situations includes cultural practices such as art and theatre, any types of games and other types of social interaction. Goffman explicates that people who engage in a specific social situation or event implicitly employ “primary frameworks” of interpretation. These “primary frameworks vary in degree of organization” depending on how tight or lose the activity in question is defined by postulates or rules or rather by a “lore of understanding, approach, or perspective.”8 He specifies, that “primary frameworks allow its users to locate, perceive, identify, and label a seemingly infinite number of concrete occurrences defined in its terms.”9 Primary frameworks function as segments of reference that offer orientation in the process of social interaction; they guide interpretation, and shape ways of perception of social activity. Based 5 6

Ibid., p. 10. See Bateson, Gregory (1981): “Eine Theorie des Spiels und der Phantasie”, in: Ökologie des Geistes: antropolog., psycholog., biolog. und epistemolog. Perspektiven, (trans. into German from: Steps to an Ecology of Mind. Collected Essays in Anthropology, Psychiatry, Evolution and Epistemology, 1972), Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, p. 241-261.

7

See Goffman, Erving (1974), p. 10-11.

8

Ibid., p. 21.

9

Ibid., p. 21.

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on the body-mind condition discussed earlier, I assume that an understanding of primary frameworks emerges as part of embodied knowledge due to the fact that performers train as part of specific social networks. Primary frameworks that are embeded in and tied to embodied knowledge therefore partake in the cultural formation of perception as well. I refer here to Lisa Law’s specification, that sensory experience is based on culturally situated practices, a notion introduced earlier to my work.10 Goffman distinguishes furthermore between primary frameworks and their modulations. The latter are called framings and more specifically keyings. Framings refer to activities that are based on primary frameworks but involve aspects of modification and transposition. Keying, one mode of framing, will be discussed later in my work.11 4.3 The Concept of Guided Doings Principles of organization and rules which I relate to Goffman’s discussion of primary frameworks and their modifications through procedures of framing and keying are based on an understanding of activities of human beings and their physical engagement of their bodies participating in shaping a “habitable universe.” Rules of frameworks are fundamentally involved and shaped by physical enactments which Goffman defines as “guided doings.”12 He writes, that “these doings subject the doer to “standards,” to social appraisal of his action based on its honesty, efficiency, economy, safety, elegance, tactfulness, good taste, and so forth.”13 Goffman’s frame and interaction theoretical understanding of guided doings states that social actions imply a referential side, primary frameworks or standards, to speak in Goffman’s terms. These standards or primary frameworks are concerned with the interpretation of social situations. However, guided doings follow principles of organization which are known through embodiment likewise. This implies the involvement of kinesthetic, sensory, and emotional aspects besides referential and cognitive concerns of interpretation, as I would ar-

10 See David Howes’s position on an anthropology of the senses and its application by researchers such as Tomie Hahn and Lisa Law discussed in Part I, Methods I: Practice as Research 2.5 Embodied Knowledge and the Senses. 11 See Part II, Analysis IV: Keying Performance Activity – The Call-And-Response Practice in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance. 12 See Goffman, Erving (1974), p. 22. 13 Ibid., p. 22.

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gue. Guided doings emerge through performative acts whether they are of social nature or staged artistic activity. Goffman’s notions of framing, guided doings and related concepts applied to my analytical perspective of performance practice, imply at least four closely inter-twined aspects of “knowing how to frame.”14 Knowing how to frame ties into what I termed as embodied knowledge in my earlier discussion on practice as research. Knowing how to frame arises as part of a confluence of cognitive, emotional, perceptive, and physically experienced practices and interpretations of bodily re-enactments and their refinement through long term training. The fusion of cognitive, emotional, perceptive, and embodied aspects of performance knowledge furthermore relates closely to the notion of the body-mind condition and the ability of performers to reflect upon their art. Goffman’s perspective on guided doings supports what I have discussed as part of practice as research. The concept of guided doings exemplifies stylized practices of embodied knowledge which guide hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The definition of “guided doings” implies both knowing through bodily experience by engaging in doing performance practice, and procedures of self-reflectivity of one’s own performative acts. To research and to reflect about hula is part of traditional hula training. Based upon procedures of close observation and self-reflexivity an understanding arises about the structure and the effect of one’s own performance activity and that of other hula performers.15 Practicing hula ‘ōlapa means to be involved in guided doings which are informed by embodied knowledge at the personal performer’s level of experience on one hand, and which are perpetuated

14 I refer to the German concept called “Rahmungswissen,” a conceptual interpretation of Goffman’s frame-analytical considerations, see Willems, Herbert (1997): Rahmen und Habitus, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, p. 50. Among Sociologists Goffman’s frame-analysis is primarily referred to as interaction-theory. However, Willems points out that Goffman’s frame-analysis offers a theoretical framework of reflection as part of social interaction relevant to a sociological study of knowledge. Citing Luckman and Soeffner Willems writes: “Die Rahmentheorie entwirft eine die Sinn-Einheiten und das entsprechende Wissen in einem kulturtheoretisch fundamentalen Sinn als strukturierte und strukturierende Reflexivität.” See Willems, Herbert (1997), p. 50. 15 See the discussion on embodied-mind and self-reflexivity. As a leading example I refer to how the nō-master Zeami described the process of multi-sensorial experience as part of self-reflexive performance knowledge, Part I, Methods I: Practice as Research, 2.4 Self-Reflexivity of the Performer – A Tool of Inquiry about Embodied Knowledge.

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as an ongoing living performing art tradition from one generation to the next at the same time. Doing the hula implies to learn about the complexity of the hula as a performance practice. Practice involves the circulation of embodied knowledge among a social group that adheres to shared principles of practice. Knowledge on how to frame performance activity is based on participating in respective activities. Repetition is a way to broaden ones understanding of embodied knowledge and recurrent and fundamental performative means of framing, strategies which I also refer to as principles of performance organization. More so, to engage in embodiment is to develop a feeling about enacting motion and sound through space and time. This implies multiple sensations about relevant soundscapes, distances between performers and audience, atmosphere, and the force of engagement, as much as the flow of interaction. Due to the fact that I feel, I know what I am doing, as I am observing and sensing all what is happening at the same time, during rehearsal or performance. Of course, perception is never encompassing. The process of self-reflexivity is selective and in sensory terms socially situated.16 The approach of scoring performance practice outlined here follows fours steps taking the notion of guided doings and related frame-analytical concepts into account in order to demarcate performative features of embodied knowledge that frame and as such organize performance activity of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. 1. The phenomenological emergence of performance activity in terms of guided doings is the starting point of reference in my analysis. I outline the training process of Kaupō ‘Āina, the hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece and focus of my micro-analytical case study. 2. The detailed performance protocol and description of the actual procedure of performing the hula piece called Kaupō ‘Āina publicly on stage at The World Invitational Hula Festival follows. I performed the solo-presentation of Kaupō ‘Āina on November, 10th, 2000. The World Invitational Hula Festival was held at Waikīkī Shell at Kapi‘olani Park located in Honolulu, the capital of the US-State of Hawai‘i, see photo 1, Appendix A. 3. I briefly discuss issues and strategies of scoring as applied by prominent researchers in hula studies. 4. Consecutively, I present my solution about scoring performance practice reflecting main points of my empirical research work. I delineate two perfor16 See Part I, Method I: Practice as Research, 2.5 Embodied Knowledge and the Senses, 2.6 Practice as Research and Studies of the Particular.

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mance scores, PS 1 and PS 2, see Appendix B and Appendix C. The scores, PS 1 and PS 2, represent a mode of transcription concerned with performance structural aspects which have determined the performance situation at the festival. Both scores emerged out of self-referential observation and contemplation about what I was doing while performing. The process of scoring described here is based on the approach of practice as research, outlined earlier in this work. 4.3.1 Practice as Research: Writing about Embodied Knowledge Kumu hula John Keola Lake instructed me to embody the hula repertoire piece called Kaupō ‘Āina in preparation for the hula presentation at The World Invitational Hula Festival held in November 2000. The actual training of Kaupō ‘Āina started in August 2000 as part of the regular hula school classes held twice a week. The training implied to learn to embody fluently the performance score and to memorize the mele hula, a segment of oral poetry. Regular training sessions implied life-percussion in conjunction with the recital of the mele hula. A group of ho‘opa‘a, advanced members of the hula school, who did assist kumu hula Lake while he was teaching, took on the task of the musical accompaniment. The situation of life-musical accompaniment fundamentally shaped my experience to practice hula ‘ōlapa according to traditional hālau hula protocol. Everyone involved learned the interaction between hula ‘ōlapa performers and the ho‘opa‘a implicitly. I got to know Kaupō ‘Āina following and observing the advanced students. At that time, I was considered advanced enough to capture the sequence and interrelation of text, gesture, and music of the hula composition at once while performing without the help of dividing the composition into smaller fragments or any other additional basic explanation. Learning the hula the traditional way means to grasp both single segments, and the whole schema of the composition at once. To stop and ask questions is not part of class protocol. It would mean to disturb the ongoing flow of the training process. The only way to learn new repertoire is to observe the moves of the other hālau members who know already, and to adjust the own movements accordingly. It means to articulate and to generate what has been observed at the moment of doing. Repetition is the key to grasp more and more of the details which ties into an ongoing process of refinement. One is able to refine the movement sequences as soon as the basic overall scheme of the performance score is clear. To sharpen the articulation of movements and to adjust bits and pieces of the movement and performance score enables the ‘ōlapa to engage more exquisitely and consciously into the interaction between hula ‘ōlapa performers and the ho‘opa‘a, the singerpercussionists.

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At class kumu hula John Keola Lake did hand out a printed copy of his version of the mele hula, titled Kaupō ‘Āina. However, hula practice is first of all based on oral and performative transmission which implies techniques and procedures of ongoing repetitive training to reach embodied knowledge. The body as a whole, the intellect as well as kinesthetic and subconscious memory of movements, percussive sounds and words are at the core of hula practiced as “life-art.” Both, physical presence and the artistic interaction between human personalities are at the center of doing everything together as a group of ensemble members. My point is that I learned about the sound and content of the mele hula, Kaupō ‘Āina, through performative and oral means first. While moving in class I heard acoustically the words of the mele hula in question, listening to the particular intonation of the mele hula by kumu hula John Lake while he, as the lead ho‘opa‘a, was chanting Kaupō ‘Āina and drumming the percussive score on the ipu heke. The sound of the words, and the percussion permeated into the sphere of my body motion, transgressing physical boundaries while the two forces – body motion and sound – met within the in-between realm of the rehearsal space, the fellow hula performers, the percussionist-singers and myself moving. My body memory of Kaupō ‘Āina is based on a fusion of the sensory memory of kumu hula John Keola Lake’s voice chanting Kaupō ‘Āina, the sound of drumming and the sensory memory of moving my body according to the performance score. The experience of one’s own movement is enhanced through the group of performers. During practice everyone was focused to achieve a continuous and joint flow of motion and sound pattern. Everyone involved was obliged to develop a sense of utmost concentration. The scope of sensory memory includes a sense of the atmosphere of the rehearsal space as well. More so, the rehearsal space of hula training resembles the situations of performance on the stage at the same time. There is no difference as such. Training in class means “doing” stage performance at different levels of performance ability. In order to achieve excellence in stage performance as a soloist of hula ‘ōlapa, I had to develop two levels of performance skill. The first level ties into the skill of execution based on in-body-technique. This implies to memorize and execute the movement score of hula repertoire fluently. Subtlety of body motion based on micro-timing is an important key to create a lively expression at the very moment of performance. Gradually I was able to grasp and memorize the words of the mele hula as well as listening to the voice of the teacher while doing the motion score. Developing a multi-sensorial consciousness, I was able to follow motion and voice at the same time. Voice, percussion and motion work in performance like corelated yet three independent registers of expression. The

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confluences of the sensory qualities of the three elements in performance convey the essence of the piece. The process of learning to perform hula ‘ōlapa means to enhance the technique and skill of shaping the interplay between the ho‘opa‘a and the ‘ōlapa, the two main performance disciplines. The interaction between the two groups, the percussionist-singer and the dancer-actor is an essential part of life performance of hula ‘ōlapa. The kāhea are performative means to coordinate the activity of the dancer-actor and the chanter-percussionist. The calls trigger the next following section of the hula piece. To memorize the words of the kāhea, calls in other words, and to know when to place them is an integral part of this interactive performative mode. Being able to execute the calls means to learn the rules when and how to apply the kāhea. This is in fact a question of timing as well as vocal training. The performance aesthetic function of the kāhea is analyzed and discussed later in my work.17 The next level of performance ability is the skill of expression. It means to work on interpretation, in particular studying first of all the mele hula in relationship to the movement score. In addition, one has to know the content of the mele hula, researching the emotional intent and quality of each poetic line of the piece of oral poetry and each gesture in order to develop the overall interpretation of the setting of the piece, the motives of characters, storyline, the overall sentiment and atmosphere of the hula piece. Repetition by means of an ongoing training deepens the psycho-physical craft of the ‘ōlapa performer to embody the situation and aesthetic intention of the hula composition. Lake stressed that “one has to feel” what the intent and meaning of the gestures and the chanted words are, otherwise the performance of the hula piece appears to be empty. Feeling tied into a sincerely reflected understanding of what the hula is about is at the core of embodied expression in hula ‘ōlapa performance. This means that the faculty of emotion and the ability to trigger sense experience by means of performance are fundamental in staging the mele hula through an intricate interplay of body motion, words and percussive sound, all of which ties into the advanced artistic craft of hula ‘ōlapa performers. In addition to Lake’s in-class teachings he instructed me to look up and read the Legend of Halemano, also known as “Ka‘ao no Halemano.” The legend is available in print as part of Edward Fornander’s collection entitled The Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folklore. To look up and read the legend implied that I, as an advanced student, had to go and research and ponder about the hula composition by myself 17 See Part II, Analysis IV: Keying Performance Activity – The Call-And-Response Practice in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance.

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and to work out the interpretation of the given movement score of the hula piece Kaupō ‘Āina reflecting on the main narrative, the Legend of Halemano. 4.3.2 Performance Protocol: Kaupō ‘Āina in Performance Traditionally hula performances are presented outdoors. The performance space, called pā hula, resembles a rectangular piece of ground which has to be even and cleared from any disturbing matter. Any space can become a hula stage depending on the number of performers involved, and the givens of the environment. The stage-format demarcates in most cases a protruding area. The audience is placed around the stage area on three sides. Usually no scenic set design is involved. The backdrop includes naturally given situations. Plant and flower arrangements may add to the performance area. The aspect of performance space is arranged in a restrained, yet supporting and transparent way which allows to focus on the artistic activity of the hula ensemble, the interaction between the ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a. To give an example, I refer here to two versions of hula mounds placed in a natural environment. One is found at Kilauea National Park, located on Big Island, Hawai‘i, see photo 2, Appendix A. The other hula mound is at Moanalua Gardens18 in Honolulu on the island of O‘ahu, see photo 3, Appendix A. The World Invitational Hula Festival on the other hand took place at Waikīkī Shell an open air stage construction, see photo 1, Appendix A. The jury was seated to the left side taking the view point of the audience into account. Plants and a set of two kahekili, traditional royal insignia made out of feathers, were positioned at the rare back of the stage.19 The solo performance program of mine in the division of hula ‘ōlapa, representing traditional hula performance practice at the The World Invitational Hula Festival, consisted of a sequence of four performance segments: 1. An opening oli.20 2. A hula ka‘i. The term specifies a hula repertoire piece performed to enter the prime stage area. 18 The annual outdoor Prince Lot Hula Festival has been running for over thirty years at the Moanalua Gardens. 19 A history about hula performance and the use of hula mounds and Western stage architecture is still an open field of research. 20 The term oli specifies a genre of oral literature of its own. According to the on-line Hawaiian Dictionary the term oli denotes: “Chant that was not danced to, especially with prolonged phrases chanted in one breath, often with a trill (‘i‘i) at the end of each phrase; to chant thus,” see www.wehewehe.org.

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3. The main hula Kaupō ‘Āina. 4. A hula ho‘i. To perform a hula ho‘i signifies a performance convention in order to exit the stage at the end of a hula performance.21 The ensemble members that were part of the solo presentation in the division of hula ‘ōlapa representing Nā Hanona Hālau Hula Pā Ola Kapu consisted of myself in the position as ‘ōlapa and three ho‘opa‘a, kumu hula John Lake, the lead ho‘opa‘a and two supporting ho‘opa‘a, Kehau Kruse and Laimana Bulosan. The hula ensemble entered the stage coming from back stage left. The ho‘opa‘a seated themselves at the rear side of the stage to the right when considering the viewpoint of the audience. My starting position as ‘ōlapa was at the back corner to the right (taking the viewpoint of the audience) facing the stage diagonally. I recited the opening oli, the first performance segment of my solo performance. This was the signal to begin the solo performance. While chanting I entered center stage in order to face the audience. I continued my performance doing a hula ka‘i, a hula repertoire piece to enter the center of the stage area facing the audience. As follows, I describe the performative procedure of the third segment of my performance, the main hula piece entitled Kaupō ‘Āina. The ‘ōlapa vocalizes the opening dedication, known as “kāhea wehe.” This call indicates the title of the respective hula composition which the hula ensemble is about to present. The kāhea wehe in this case sounds and reads as such: “‘Ae, Kaupō, ‘āina pali huki a i luna.” The call is a strong appealing signal, focusing the attention of the ensemble. The audience is informed about the hula composition they are going to experience. While chanting the kāhea wehe, the ‘ōlapa takes on the starting position, Appendix C, PS 2, segment 1, opening dedication. The starting position is based on bend knees, an upright torso. For a moment the ‘ōlapa stays in this position. There is no motion while keeping utmost concentration. The eyes are fixed facing forward. The arms are positioned at shoulder level. The elbows point laterally towards each side. The elbows are bent. The lower arms and finger tips of both hands point towards each other at chest height. The palms of both hands are facing down. Right at the end of this opening dedication performed by the ‘ōlapa, the ho‘opa‘a start to strike their percussion instruments, the so called ipu heke. The sound of drumming, a fast and dynamic rhythm exe-

21 Aesthetic strategies and performance protocol that determine hula performances as a whole differ according to context, artistic, social, as well as political circumstances. There has been no comprehensive study on this subject so far.

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cuted on the double gourd instruments unfolds. The dynamic drive of the percussive introduction sets the leading acoustic mood of the piece.22 Towards the end of the introductory sequence, just right in time, the ‘ōlapa calls out the first kāhea: “Kaupō ‘āina.” At the next down beat the ho‘opa‘a begin to chant the first stanza, paukū in Hawaiian terms, of the mele hula. They continue to play the rhythmic pattern, which has been introduced as part of the introductory segment. At the same time the ‘ōlapa starts to move and to perform a series of leg and arm gestures, see PS 2, segment 3, 1st paukū, lines 4-7. The eyes follow the leading hand of executed arm gestures. The articulation of arms and hands is coordinated as such that the path of the gesture motion shapes clear cut, imaginary lines and geometrically seeming figures into the kinesphere23 of the ‘ōlapa. The range of the gestures covers the lateral side, the front and diagonal directions towards front and side as well as up high. The motion of the legs seems to correspond dynamically with the movements of the upper body. The acoustic wave of percussion and micro-tonal chanting of the ho‘opa‘a challenges and at the same time energetically uplifts the performance of the ‘ōlapa, who materializes the visual and kinesthetic part of the performance through body motion and a sequence of stylized gestures. The group of ho‘opa‘a stop chanting at the end of the first stanza. They continue to play the so called “Kaupō pattern” performing the intermediate sequence called “holo.” The intermediate sequence is placed between stanzas of the mele hula. As part of the holo segment the ‘ōlapa performs a set of two “huli kāholo,” a dynamic body motion turning the entire body 90 degrees to the right side which is followed by a swift 180 degree turn to the left, repeating the same motion towards the left back (viewed from the perspective of the performer). The series of photos, see Appendix C, PS 2, segment 4, line 8, shows the dynamic turn of the ‘ōlapa during the holo sequence. During the second half of the holo the ‘ōlapa repeats the call “Kaupō ‘āina.” Immediately, the voices of the ho‘opa‘a start again chanting the verses of the first paukū of the mele hula. The ‘ōlapa repeats the gestures of the first paukū. The drive of the chanting voices and the percussive sound of the ipu heke are of 22 Within the frame of my research I specify the lead percussive pattern, which determined the drumming of the ho‘opa‘a during the hula performance, as the “Kaupō pattern.” See Part II, Analysis I: Staging Oral Poetry by Means of Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice. 23 The term kinesphere specifies an “assumed volume of space (Forsythe: cube, Laban: icosahedron) which the body describes with its own extended extremities, and relates to its points, lines and planes of reference (kinesphere).” See notes on choreography by Peter Stamer, answers 29-35, www.corpusweb.net/answers-2935.html.

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high intensity pushing forward. At the end of the repeated version of the first paukū, a “holo” is performed covering body motion and percussion only. The air resonates due to the strong acoustic commitment of the ho‘opa‘a. The ho‘opa‘a, though they are being seated to the side of the stage, are present as part of the performance primarily by means of their acoustic articulation. In the meanwhile the main visual focus stays on the kinesthetic action of the ‘ōlapa. The activity between the ho‘opa‘a and the ‘ōlapa is constantly shifting and changing during the performance. Some segments involve movements accompanied by percussion without chanted poetic lines. Calls dissect the flow of performance directing the transition and beginning of the next following stanza involving all performance elements: body gesticulation, chanted poetic verses, and percussion. The call “ku’u wahine” indicates the second stanza of the hula composition. The ‘ōlapa performs entirely different gestures while the ho‘opa‘a continue to chant the second stanza. A third holo intersection follows. The performance goes on unfolding a series of three stanzas each being repeated once. The stanzas are intersected by holo segments based on the huli kāholo and its distinct dynamic turning body motion described above. The acoustic signal of the respective kāhea indicates the transition and beginning of the next stanza. Finally, the leading ho‘opa‘a calls out “e-ue.”24 The ‘ōlapa and the ho‘opa‘a immediately start to perform a section of its own. No chanting is involved at this point, percussion and body motion only. The percussive accompaniment stresses acoustically the sequence of body articulations which involve far reaching directions taking the perspective of the performer into account: 1. The ‘ōlapa turns facing 135 degrees towards the right side back and down. The right hand points down below, and the left hand points diagonally up high.25 2. A 135 degrees turn is performed facing front again, both hands point up high towards the front.26 3. Next follows a turn of 135 degrees to the left side. The performer faces to the left side back and down. The left hand points diagonally down and the right hand points up.27

24 This final e-ue sequence is depicted by Appendix C, PS 2, segment 9, line 23, G 12-G 16. 25 See Appendix C, segement 9, line 23, G 12. 26 See Appendix C, segement 9, line 23, G 13. 27 See Appendix C, segement 9, line 23, G 14.

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4. Finally, the ‘ōlapa turns to the front and points both hands up high again. The weight shifts onto the right foot placed one step forward.28 5. The weight shifts back onto the left leg while the tip of the right foot stays in place pointing forward. The arms and hands move into the final position. Both arms point at chest level towards the front, the fingertips of the left and right index finger almost touching each other, palms facing down.29 The ‘ōlapa calls the finalizing dedication of the hula piece “He inoa no Kamalawalu” followed by a short and concise percussive pattern which signals the end of Kaupō ‘Āina. Without taking a break, the leading ho‘opa‘a calls out the next kāhea wehe. They indicate thereby the next hula piece. The ‘ōlapa answers. The ensemble starts to perform the hula ho‘i. The latter part conventionally represents a final hula piece used to leave the stage area. At the end of the hula ho‘i the audience applauds while the ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a get off stage. According to festival protocol the hula troupe is replaced by another ensemble, entering the stage to perform. The festival goes on. 4.3.3 Parameters of Transcription and Scoring The choice of parameters to render transcriptions and notation of performance material defines the direction of analysis, an issue relevant not only to my own research but to previous studies on hula in general. I address one compilation of two volumes on the topic of hula pahu, the oldest repertoire of hula performance tradition on Hawai‘i, as reference point in my discussion on issues of scoring. Volume 1 entitled Ha‘a and Hula Pahu – Sacred Movements covers the research of anthropologist Adrienne Kaeppler. This research work focuses on hula as movement system and its historical implications. The adjunct music-ethnological work of Elizabeth Tatar covers an analysis of drums and drumming related to the performance genre of hula pahu.30 Kaeppler utilizes in her research on hula pahu “Labannotation,” a system to transcribe human movement into written format. The Hungarian dancer, choreographer and dance theoretician Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) developed the notation system, originally called Kinetography Laban.31 Parameters of transcription are structurally precise and are able to capture 28 See Appendix C, segement 9, line 23, G 15. 29 See Appendix C, segement 9, line 23, G 16. 30 The edition in question was compiled by Kaeppler, Adrienne L. (1996). 31 Rudolf von Laban devised an analytically oriented notation system. Laban’s notation system was geared towards specifying universal laws of kinetics. His aim was to be

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accurately locomotion of the body through space, shifts of weight, sequence and direction of motion concerning the entire body.32 Kaeppler’s main intention to utilize Laban’s notation system was to create a standard by archiving traditional performance knowledge making an effort to transcribe important pieces of hula pahu repertoire. She writes: “I hope, that this study, by putting on record what is known by the recipients of this historic knowledge and by recording the choreographies of the dances as preserved, will establish a baseline for tradition of hula pahu. [...] The notation records the choreography in detail, and therefore makes it possible to reconstruct it.”33 Labannotation scores serve in this case as an archival measure. Kaeppler utilizes Labannotation in her analysis as an additional tool to describe and classify variations of movement heritage among distinguished hula masters who represent certain genealogical lines of hula pahu performance knowledge.

able to transcribe any type of movement. Ann Hutchinson took up the task to further advance the Laban notation in the USA. In 1940 the Dance Notation Bureau was founded in New York. Laban himself lived and worked in Germany and in England. He was the founder of his own school of dance in Munich, the head of the State Opera in Berlin, and the lead choreographer of the Berlin Olympic Games in 1936. In 1937 he escaped from Nazi-Germany to England. During his life-time he developed several theories, one on forms of movement in space (choreutics), the second on qualities of movement (eukinetics), and later he wrote about the aspect of effort in movement which advanced into Effort-Shape analysis. See Hutchinson, Ann (1991): Labannotation. The System of Analyzing and Recording Movement, Routledge; and Koegler, Horst/Klaus Kieser (2006): Kleines Wörterbuch des Tanzes, Reclam. See also “Kinetographie Laban/Labanotation” written by Jeschke, Claudia (1983): Tanzschriften Ihre Geschichte und Methode. Die illustrierte Darstellung eines Phänomens von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart, Bad Reichenhall: Comes Verlag, p. 399-406. 32 Ann Hutchinson summarizes the work of Laban as follows. ““Schrifttanz” (written dance), the system by Rudolf von Laban, first published in 1928, offers two innovations: the vertical staff to represent the body, which allows continuity as well as the correct representation of the right and left side of the body, and elongated movement symbols which, by their length, indicate the exact duration of any action. His analysis of movement, which is based on spatial, anatomical, and dynamic principles, is flexible and can be applied to all forms of movement.” See Hutchinson, Ann (1991), p. 4. 33 See Kaeppler, Adrienne L. (1996), p. 3. Judy van Zile, a dance-ethnographer and specialist on Labannotation rendered the transcription of the Labannotation scores for the purpose of Kaeppler’s study.

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Elizabeth Tatar focuses on the aspect of percussion relevant in a study of hula pahu, complementing Kaeppler’s research on movement. Tatar transcribed extensive musical data of the Audio-Recording Collection of the Bishop Museum musically, devising rhythmic scores based on western music notation. Tartar’s work is highly conscious about limitations that conventional musical analysis and practices of notation place on Hawaiian music and understanding of time. She writes: “The problem of time and rhythm in traditional Hawaiian music should, then, be approached from the stance that the role of chanted language is pre-eminent in Hawaiian musical and dance traditions. It follows that the understanding of the traditional knowledge of the pahu would be in traditional literature, this is, mele (chanted poetry), mo‘olelo (stories and histories), and ka‘ao (legends). I attempted, therefore, to compile as many of these sources as possible for information relating to drums and drumming.”34

Accordingly, Tatar generated voice prints of chanted record-material as part of her research perspective using spectrographic analysis and computer sound processing. She further applied photography as an aid to document hand and arm positions illustrating drumming technique.35 4.4 Scoring Kaupō ‘Āina A prime topic of my research has been to transcribe Kaupō ‘Āina, one repertoire piece of hula performance practice in order to make performance experience accessible to systematic performance analysis. The approach of scoring represents embodied knowledge transmitted primarily via training procedures based on oral and performative instruction, an approach which adheres to practice as research. Taking the performer-researcher perspective into account is crucial in specifying suitable parameters of scoring focusing on performance practice. This is a necessary methodological step which turns self-reflexivity that is implied in embodied knowledge into writing. More so, the choices made to render the two performance scores, PS 1 and PS 2, see Appendix B and C, are fundamental to my general performance analytical interest, the premise to specify and analyze features of performance practice and actual performative strategies that co-relate to the involved performance elements. In reference to Goffman’s frame-analytical terms such as sequence, 34 See Tartar, Elizabeth (1993), p. 2. 35 Ibid., p. 3.

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frames and cues, as introduced earlier in this chapter, I designate parameters of scoring that delineate and categorize accordingly “performative means of framing,” principles of performance organization, which tie into the convergent interdependencies of sound, words, and stylized gestures. The two performance scores of Kaupō ‘Āina reflect my knowledge of performance practice as a means of composition relevant to other hula repertoire pieces that I learned. As follows I delineate first those features which define the set up of the Performance Score PS 1. 4.4.1 Five Parameters of Scoring Performance Practice Performance Score 1, Appendix B, presents a general outline featuring several principle performative aspects: the interchanging activity of the ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a; the use of the kāhea, the call-and-response system; the interchanging structure of the mele hula respectively the segment of oral poetry fundamental to the hula piece Kaupō ‘Āina and percussion, as well as prominent compositional aspects which have an important impact on the general structure of hula ‘ōlapa performance. I differentiate between five parameters of performance, labeled from A to E. The parameters are placed in a line at the top of the PS 1 starting from left to right: A/Segments, B/Lines, C/Division between Disciplines, D/Cues, E/Elements of Performance Materiality. These five parameters define the basic set up of the two performance scores as such. I assigned a column to each of the parameters. The logic and respective reading order of the performance score follows two directions – from left to right and consecutively from the top down, representing the sequence of performance activity of Kaupō ‘Āina acted out during regular training sessions and respectively on stage. The material transcribed as such covers recurrent aspects of the heterogeneous performance material and compositional set up of Kaupō ‘Āina in a diagrammatic order. The modular structure of the score’s design reflects upon the recurrent segmented character of hula performance practice. More so, the schematic outline concentrates on features concerned with the coordinated structure of simultaneous interrelations and the successive, hence sequentially segmented order of performance activity. Performance Score PS 1 represents primarily the percussive and verbal performance strands of articulation as part of the transcript. PS 1 implicitly covers aspects concerning the kinetic performance domain of the ‘ōlapa, the dancer-actor. I devise PS 2 which includes photography to represent visually the kinetic performance domain of the ‘ōlapa.

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Parameter A and B: Segments and Lines Parameter A/Segments, the first category, is placed at the top of PS 1 to the far left. A/Segments refers accordingly to the main compositional segments of Kaupō ‘Āina and represents a first meta-structural element of analysis. Parameter A/Segments specifies larger units of performance activity indicated by numbers, 1 to 11, reading from top down. Accordingly, I differentiate between eleven main performance segments that determine the sequence of performance activity of Kaupō ‘Āina. The specification of the parameter A/Segments rests upon a combined understanding of the other four parameters listed as B/Lines, C/Division between Disciplines, D/Cues, E/Elements of Performance Materiality. The eleven designated segments determine the three major parts of the hula repertoire piece: the introduction (segment 1 and 2), the main part (segments 3 to 7), and the final section (segments 8 to 11). The score PS 1 includes segment a. Segment a represents performance activity as it is regularly done during hula training. However, segment a has been omitted as part of the public stage presentation of Kaupō ‘Āina at The World Invitational Hula Festival. I do not refer to segment a in the analysis of this work, due to the fact that I focus on those parts of the score that represent the situation of public performance of Kaupō ‘Āina during the festival. The next category and column of the score PS 1 is termed B/Lines. This column specifies each line of the performance score reading from top down. Each line has a number. The score PS 1 of Kaupō ‘Āina comprises all together 25 lines. The parameter B/Lines is of use in my analytical description when referring to details of performance activity. Each segment is thereafter based on certain combinations of performance activity specified by lines. Segment 6 of PS 1, for example, covers two lines (line 14 and 15). Line 14 specifies the performance segment called “holo,” performed both, by the ho‘opa‘a as well as the ‘ōlapa. PS 1 line 14 represents the acoustic performance materiality of the ho‘opa‘a’s activity only, the set of percussion of so called Kaupō pattern. Line 14 of PS 1 shows the written version of the onomatopoetic formula of the Kaupō pattern, “U te U te U te te / U te U te U te te.”36 The onomatopoetic formula is used by the ho‘opa‘a as an aid to memorize the percussive pattern in question. Line 15 indicates the kāhea, a call performed by the ‘ōlapa at the end of the holo segment. The kāhea signals a switch of performance activity.

36 A detailed discussion of the Kaupō pattern is covered by Part II, Analysis I: Staging Oral Poetry by Means of Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice, and 5.3 Section III: Percussion. The Performative, Referential and Aesthetic Implications.

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Parameter C: The Division between Disciplines C/Division between Disciplines, the third parameter of scoring Kaupō ‘Āina, is dedicated to capture a prominent feature of hula ‘ōlapa performance activity. This column of the score captures the sequence of interaction that happens between the two performance parties, the dancer-actor, called ‘ōlapa, and the ho‘opa‘a, the percussionist-singer, while performing jointly Kaupō ‘Āina. The shifting interaction between the ‘ōlapa and the ho‘opa‘a determines the mutual relationship concerning the sequential and the simultaneous organization and allocation of the heterogeneous strands of artistic articulation, sound, words, and body motion in performance. I describe the quality of this interaction as an orchestrated confrontation of embodied forces, sound and sight, a topic to be discussed later in this work.37 Parameter D: Cues Category D/Cues relates to compositional terminology used by hula professionals as a means of orientation during the training process. The terms listed as part of the column, specified as D/Cues, were used by kumu hula John Keola Lake during the process of hula training to identify major segments of performance. Cues relate to intrinsic performance knowledge and rules concerning composition and performance organization of traditional hula. The kumu hula calls during training session the respective cues to indicate which segment of performance the ‘ōlapa ought to perform. The terminology specifies performance structural segments of hula practice and therefore offers an important clue to understand practices of performance and its composition, and to further discern the interart aesthetic performance organization of traditional hula performance. I distinguish among two main categories of cues. 1. Explicit cues specify acoustically perceivable performance segments. Cues are performed as clearly audible units during training and public performance. Among the category of explicit cues I differentiate between a) the prototype kāhea and b) the e-ue call. 2. Implicit cues demarcate the second main category of performance cues. I differentiate between four implicit performance cues: pā, holo, paukū, and percussive signals.

37 See Part II, Analysis III: By Means of Contrast in Performance, 7 Structure of Difference: Staging the Division between Performance Disciplines – The DancerActor and the Percussionist-Singer.

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a) Explicit Cues: Kāhea and the E-ue Call The first subcategory of explicit cues specified as “kāhea” translates prototypically speaking as call. Kāhea are vocalized loudly during performance. Kāhea punctuate the flow of the performance of a hula repertoire piece. Each kāhea is based on a text segment which again is closely tied to the verbal element of oral poetry, the mele hula. As explicit performance segments, kāhea shape the performative, referential and aesthetic fabric and the performance progression of a hula repertoire piece during training sessions and on stage. Kāhea are part of the aural performance materiality being engendered during hula ‘ōlapa performance.38 The finalizing kāhea, specified as “e-ue” call, demarcates a second type of explicit cues. The “e-ue” call is performed explicitly as well. It is called out loudly by the ‘ōlapa. This feature of the performance practice of the e-ue call is similar to the proto-type of kāhea, the first listed sub-category of explicit cues. However, the e-ue call has its own performative value and function. The sequence of vowels that shape the verbal and acoustic fabric of the “e-ue” call do not refer at all to the mele hula, the verbal segment of Kaupō ‘Āina. Due to this difference stated, I consider the finalizing call “e-ue” to function as a distinct subcategory of explicit cues, a category of its own, to be discussed later in detail.39 b) Implicit Cues The first two categories of implicit cues determine those cues called pā and holo, which relate to performance segments that are based on distinctly differentiated combinations between stylized-abstract body movements, percussion and words. This particular group of implicit cues is called out by the hula master at times during training session to indicate the specific segments of performance activity. These two mentioned cues are called out to designate the specific performance segments during training process only, never during official stage performance. This category of cues I thereafter specify as implicit aspects of embodied performance knowledge.40 A third type of implicit cues discussed here is termed paukū and is linked to the compositional structure of the mele hula. The mele hula, a piece of oral poetry, is divided into stanzas, called paukū in Hawaiian terms. The paukū coincide 38 See Part II, Analysis IV: Keying Performance Activity – The Call-And-Response Practice in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance. 39 See Part II, Analysis I, III, and IV. 40 See Part II, Analysis I, III, and IV.

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with those performance segments of a hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece in which primarily the vocalized mele hula, a series of stylized-alluding gestures of the upper body and stylized-abstract lower body motifs, and percussion correlate. Kaupō ‘Āina is based on three paukū that means three stanzas of the mele hula. The kāhea, which are being called out during performance, explicitly signal which paukū is going to be performed during performance.41 The percussive signals, performed by the lead ho‘opa‘a at the beginning and the end of a hula ‘ōlapa performance piece, demarcate the fourth sub-category of implicit cues. These particular percussive signals, transcribed by segment a as well as line 25 of PS 1, indicate and frame acoustically a hula repertoire piece. The lead ho‘opa‘a executes these percussive signals. Trained performers have an understanding about the general framework of hula performance. They know exactly when and how to perform explicit cues as much as they know about those performance segments indicated by implicit clues. The performers’ competence is based on embodied knowledge, which encompasses various types of cues gained through long term rigorous training. Both explicit as well as implicit cues guide hula performances. Embodied knowledge as such is present and perceivable during training and public performance. Parameter E: Elements of Performance Materiality Based on my own experience studying hula ‘ōlapa I agree with Elizabeth Tatar, who stresses that oral literature has to play a leading role in an understanding of hula performance in order to fully appreciate what traditional hula performances is actually about. The mele hula, the piece of oral poetry, involved in Kaupō ‘Āina is the verbal foundation of the piece. Performance Score PS 1 reflects this matter of fact. The column designated to feature the parameter E/Elements of Performance Materiality of PS 1 concentrates primarily on the acoustic and verbal performance material generated during performance. The segment of oral poetry, three stanzas all together, covers large parts of the score’s column specified as “E/Elements of Performance Materiality.” I include aspects of percussion integrating the mnemonic formulas of percussive pattern as one distinct element of performance materiality. The mnemonic formulas represent the oral way of transmitting the score of percussion performed as part of Kaupō ‘Āina. PS 1 features the Kaupō pattern as part of the introductory pā and the holo segments (PS 1, lines 2, 8, 14, 20, 21). This particular percussive pattern is performed throughout those segments specified as paukū as 41 See Part II, Analysis I, III, and IV.

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well. However, PS 1 does not explicitly feature the percussive pattern during the paukū segments. However, those sections which specify the paukū and which are explicitly dedicated to the words of the oral poetry show underscores. These markings indicate a recurrent pulsation which co-relates particular syllables of the words and the main percussive beats of the Kaupō pattern. The syllables of the words that show underscore therefore match with the main beats of the lead percussion pattern. Percussion acoustically structures the performative flow of interactivity between the ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a. Percussion functions as the time keeper and it supplements the verbal material of oral poetry aurally and rhythmically. More so, sound demarcates the beginning and the end of a hula composition. A distinct percussive signal functions thereof like an acoustic frame, see PS 1, segment a and line 25. 4.5 Devising Performance Score 2 Performance Score 2, Appendix C, presents the next following step in scoring Kaupō ‘Āina. PS 2 is based on the same five categories as PS 1. I change the order though, fusing the parameters A/Segments, B/Lines, and D/Cues into one column called A/Segments/Lines/Cues. This first column is followed by B/Division between Disciplines, and C/Elements of Performance Materiality. PS 2 has to be understood as the extension of PS 1. I apply photography to depict the performance element body and its articulations. The scores visualize body movements of some selected performance segments of Kaupō ‘Āina that I refer to in my analytical work. A complete presentation of the movement score of the piece is not intended. Body posture and stylized gesture of interest are featured by a series of one to four photos showing visually prominent points of the spatial motion path of the gesture in question. Body posture is captured by one photo, visualizing the configuration of the body’s alignment while posing. Photography helps to stress the premise of visual abstraction and formal reduction of stylized gestures in hula ‘ōlapa performance.42 4.6 Final Reflections on Scoring and Outline of Analysis The scores PS 1 and PS 2 demarcate and designate the sequence of prominent performance segments and their particular materiality that shape the hula composition as a whole. Each unit represents diagrammatically specific combina42 See Part II, Analysis II: A Performance Aesthetic Study on Stylized Gestural Articulation Sections I, II, and III.

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tions between performed verbal segments, aspect of chanted oral poetry, called mele hula, the domain of percussion and aspects of stylized body articulation. The parameters of scoring and the particular segmentation of performance practice based on certain combinations of performance material are of central interest to my analysis. My analysis focuses on principles of performance organization considering performative, referential, sensory and qualitative aspects and their convergent performance aesthetic effects. I discuss among principles of performance organization two concepts, performative means of framing and stylization. Stylization designates an artistic strategy and analytical tool to specify gestural materialization and sensory experience of body articulation relevant to an understanding of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. As part of my analysis I focus on three types of performative means of framing: 1. Performance segments that structure and shape a hula composition as a whole. 2. The division between performance disciplines. 3. Keying The joint discussion of performative means of framing, stylization and sensory experience demarcates the methodological framework and analytical approach of my work that seeks to show how hula ‘ōlapa performance practice embodies a performance aesthetic of the senses. The micro-analytical case study of Kaupō ‘Āina exemplifies the research interest of mine. Part II of my work is dedicated to four analytical sections, Analysis I-IV. The focus of each analysis is geared towards a specific part of hula ‘ōlapa performance. Each analysis advances and adds as such to an understanding of the experience of Kaupō ‘Āina as a whole. Analysis I focuses on the segment of oral poetry, called mele hula in Hawaiian terms, the application of performative means of framing that shape the main performative framework of the composition of Kaupō ‘Āina and the element of percussion. I query the topic how far the composition of Kaupō ‘Āina interweaves “old” and “new” features of performance practice as part of a living performance tradition on Hawai‘i. Analysis II concentrates on body articulation applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Based on a combined approach of gestalt-theoretical and performance analytical considerations I conceptualizes body articulation in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice as the art of stylized gesture. Analysis III queries both, the division between disciplines, the ‘ōlapa and the ho‘opa‘a, and the concept of sensory sequencing in order to fine-tune my re-

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search on hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Sensory sequencing as such stresses a qualitative analysis of performance materialities, their combinations and respective sensory effect. I query how the contrastive segmentation of performance material engenders various qualities of multi-sensory effects specific to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Analysis IV is designated to the power of keying performance practice by means of calls, so called kāhea. I discuss the significance of the kāhea in interactive, performance structural, referential and aesthetic terms. The analytical discussion of each analytical chapter ties into the performative, referential and aesthetic implications of certain combinations of performance elements or of single performance elements. I query the confluence of sensory and referential aspects that the analyzed performance practices have on aesthetic experience testing the premise that hula ‘ōlapa embodies a performance aesthetic of the senses.

Part II. Analysis

Analysis I: Staging Oral Poetry by Means of Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice

5. P ERFORMANCE P RACTICE O RGANIZATION Hula ‘ōlapa stages oral poetry by means of a living tradition of performance practices on Hawai‘i. What in fact is oral poetry and how does it relate to performance practices which are considered to be part of a living tradition? The subject matter of oral poetry is not only relevant to my study of Kaupō ‘Āina, it has been discussed by Ruth Finnegan as part of her study on Oral Poetry.1 Finnegan, a leading scholar on oral traditions, focuses primarily on oral literature as a form of cultural practice in the Pacific. She writes: “Oral poetry does indeed, like written literature, posses a verbal text. But in response it is different: a piece of oral literature, to reach its full actualization, must be performed. The text alone cannot constitute the oral poem. This performance aspect of oral poetry is sometimes forgotten, even though it lies at its heart of the whole concept of oral literature. It is easy to concentrate on an analysis of the verbal elements – on style and content, imagery, or perhaps transmission. All this has its importance for oral literature, of course. But one also needs to remember the circumstances of the performance of the piece – this is not a secondary or peripheral matter, but integral to the identity of the poem as actually realized.”2 1

Finnegan, Ruth (1992): Oral Poetry. Its Nature, Significance and Social Context. Bloomington; Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. Influential proponents in the field of oral literature and the discourse on orality and literacy are Zumpthor, Paul (1990), McLuhan, Marshall (1964), Lord, Alber B. (1960/2000), and Baumann, Richard (1986).

2

See Finnegan, Ruth (1992), p. 28.

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I agree with Ruth Finnegan’s plea to apply a combined research on oral poetry and performance analysis to a study of hula ‘ōlapa. Hula ‘ōlapa emerged last not least as a performance practice which originates in the Pacific and Polynesian culture. Taking Finnegan’s perspective into account my aim is to delineate the relationship of oral poetry and hula ‘ōlapa performance practice understood as a living oral tradition. My analysis considers kumu hula Lake’s artistic adaption of the segment of oral poetry, called mele hula. Consecutively, I focus on the application of those performative means that frame the mele hula of Kaupō ‘Āina and the element of percussion. I tie the performance-analytical outlook of this chapter into a historical perspective asking whether Lake’s composition of Kaupō ‘Āina places an example of how hula ‘ōlapa performance has been perpetuated and practiced as an ongoing living tradition on Hawai‘i. The first analytically oriented chapter of my research is divided into four sections. Section I focuses on the mele hula, the verbal element of Kaupō ‘Āina: 1. Start with the specification of oral literature and the categorization of oral poetry on Hawai‘i. My interest is to delineate the relationship between the poetic text, the mele hula of Kaupō ‘Āina, and the larger framework of the legend of Halemano, a piece of oral literature transcribed and collected by Alexander Fornander on Hawai‘i during the 19th century. 2. What is the hula piece Kaupō ‘Āina about? A short synopsis of the legend of Halemano introduces the reader to the main theme of Kaupō ‘Āina. 3. Based on a text analytical presentation I compare the two versions of poetic material, Fornander’s version – the original source material of Kaupō ‘Āina – and kumu hula Lake’s interpretation of the mele hula version. Section II identifies more specifically basic performance segments, kāhea, paukū and pā that structure the analyzed hula composition and determine those segments that frame the verbal element of Kaupō ‘Āina. Following my performance and frame-analytical interest I categorize the so called pā segments and discuss how these segments function as performative means of framing. 1. I identify a variety of means that shape the main performative framework of the analyzed composition as a whole. 2. I specify how the pā segments function as performative frames of reference which trigger a sense of hula performance history. I analyze how Lake shaped the framework of pā in order to render the composition of Kaupō

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‘Āina in reference to different traditions of hula performance practices known among hula ‘ōlapa practitioners. Section III is dedicated to the element of percussion. I discuss a shared performative strategy among hula masters to adapt older performance practices of percussion verifying my proposition that Lake’s rendition of the Kaupō percussion pattern embodies a percussive variation reminiscent of the Kaulilua pattern which adheres to the oldest existing repertoire of hula performance practice, called hula pahu. Section IV summarizes my performance analytical findings and the analyzed historical implications of those performance elements. I discuss how the hula repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina exemplifies a creative strategy of kumu hula Lake, active among well known hula masters on Hawai‘i, to re-embody the history of hula by weaving old and new performance elements into Kaupō ‘Āina, a new composition of traditional hula performance practice. Lake perpetuated thereby hula ‘ōlapa performance practice as a living tradition defined and experienced by its own performative, referential and aesthetic terms. Performance analytically speaking, I review how performance segments of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice function not only as performance structural elements but as frames of reference. This means to take referential qualities of performative material into consideration. The inquiry of this chapter adds a historical perspective to my performance analytical approach and research on hula ‘ōlapa. 5.1 Section I: The Interrelation of the Frame Story and the Mele Hula 5.1.1 A Brief Survey on the History of Oral Poetry in Hawai‘i Prior to Western contact and the introduction of literacy to Hawaiian society, elaborate forms of oral literature represented one important key and cultural practice to generate and transmit cultural knowledge on Hawai‘i. Specialists responsible for the production of oral poetry on Hawai‘i are called “haku mele.” Kumu hula John Lake defines the expertise of the haku mele as follows: “Like the cantors of Hebraic traditions, or Gregorian monastics of the European Dark Age, or troubadours and balladeers of Elizabethan Europe, the Hawaiian chanter, haku mele, who interpreted the mele and oli of traditional and historical Hawai‘i, is the single most important cultural figure and purveyor of Hawaiian lyric,

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prose, poetry, and prayer.”3 Lake further distinguishes in his unpublished lectures two main categories of Hawaiian oral literature. “The types of chant were as complex as society itself. All chants classified in two ways: as mele oli or mele hula.”4 Lake differentiates between these two categories of oral literature according to their performative rendition. “Mele oli”5 represent a distinct genre, a type of recitative, primarily focusing on the verbal execution of oral literature only, whereas “mele hula” are performed in correlation with kinesthetic forms of embodiment and musical accompaniment.6 Samuel Elbert’s and Elizabeth Tartar’s writings on Hawaiian poetry support Lake’s perspective. Elbert defines that “mele is the general name for poetry.” He writes that poetry in Hawaiian is based on “sequences of words concerning certain themes, artfully contrived, memorized verbatim, and chanted or sung.” Elbert differentiates likewise among the two types of mele, the mele hula and mele oli7 which are composed to be performed according to distinguished musical patterning and vocal qualities.8 The genre of oral poetry, called mele hula, is of prime interest to my research. Public hula performances feature compilations of hula compositions, hula repertoire pieces perpetuated within one hālau hula (school of learning). Each hula composition is based upon a mele hula, a segment of oral poetry. Kumu hula Lake stressed during his in-class teachings that hula ‘ōlapa compositions necessarily refer to oral poetry, the mele hula. A sole motion composition without 3

Unpublished paper by kumu hula John Keola Lake. The paper covers an introduction on the art of chanting. Lake did hand out the paper as part of his in class teaching, see Lake, John Keola (1999): Unpublished paper, p.1. See also Elizabeth Tartar’s article (1979) on “chant”, in: Kanahele, George S.: Hawaiian Music and Musicians. An Illustrated History, Honolulu: UP of Hawai‘i, p. 54.

4

See Lake, John Keola (1999), p. 3.

5

The term mele oli denotes a large body of oral literature which was and again is in use to perform certain protocol relevant to culturally and politically relevant meetings on Hawai‘i, ceremonial conduct, and for health matters. See Lake, John Keola (1999), p. 3.

6

See Lake, John Keola (1999), p.3. Roberts distinguishes likewise between oli and mele hula in her study, see Roberts, Hellen H. (1926/1971): Ancient Hawaiian Music, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 29, New York: Kraus Reprint CO., p. 70 ff., 163.

7

See Elbert, Samuel H. (1979): “Hawaiian Poetry”, in: Kanahele, George S. (1979), p. 298, 300, and Elizabeth Tartar’s writing on the topic of “chant” published in Kanahele’s compilation, see p. 53-68.

8

Elizabeth Tartar gives a concise specification of vocal rendition in her article on “chant”, in: Kanahele, George S. (1979), p. 54-64.

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correspondence to a mele hula is not considered to be part of the performance genre of hula ‘ōlapa. Taking this into account I state that the artistic expertise of a master of hula, called in Hawaiian terms “kumu hula,” means to be an expert in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice which encompasses to be versed in how to compose new hula performance pieces based on mele hula. The creation of hula compositions can be done in two ways. One way is to refer to and to interpret mele hula as already known by the community of hula practitioners. The other way is to compose new mele hula and to generate a suitable motion and musical score9 according to the new poetic material. More so, the expertise of a kumu hula covers a range of artistic knowledge relevant to the work of a stage director, choreographer, music composer, trainer of hula students, and producer of hula performances. Most acknowledged and rare are those experts called loea hula who have mastered both, the art of the haku mele, or poet, and the art to create hula ‘ōlapa performance pieces.10 Kumu hula or loea hula represent prominent purveyors of hula as one vibrant stage art and living Hawaiian performance tradition on Hawai‘i. Lake stresses as part of his unpublished lecture that mele oli as well as hula compositions including mele hula were “composed, choreographed, taught, and performed in the heiau (temple)” prior to Western contact. Throughout the process of colonization and Western contact, he concedes that the hālau (school of learning) became the prominent institution of chant and hula production.11 So far, I discussed two categories of Hawaiian oral poetry called mele oli and mele hula, the latter representing an important field of expertise fundamental to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The composition of mele oli and mele hula is based on features such as repetition, terseness, linked assonance and the use of highly figurative and metaphorical language.12 The concise and rather elliptic

9

The term “score” relates in my study to guided doings, segments of performance practice in other words, that are passed on during training session. Practice is the means of communication based on performative and oral transmission among hula school members and cultural practitioners.

10 See Lake, John Keola (1999), p.2. See also Elizabeth Tartar’s writing on the topic of “chant” published in: Kanahele, Greorge S. (1979), p. 53-68. 11 See Lake, John Keola (1999), unpublished paper, p. 2. 12 See Takamine, Victoria M. Hanaka‘ulani O Kamāmalu (1994): Hula ‘āla‘apapa. An Analysis of Selected Dances and a Comparison with Hula Pahu, Unpublished MfA thesis, p. 21-24, and Samuel Elbert’s writing on “Hawaiian Poetry”, in: Kanahele, Georege S. (1979), p. 298-305.

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structure of Hawaiian poetry has been pointed out by Helen H. Roberts. In her study on Ancient Hawaiian Music she writes: “The cleverness of the composer was aided materially by the structure of the language, for with its paucity of sounds the same phonetic combinations perforce carry many meanings not necessarily allied in sense. The custom of omitting in poetry all but the most essential words, left much to be supplied by imagination, and the inferences thus drawn depended considerably on the predisposition of the auditor.”13

Hawaiian oral literature covers besides oli and mele hula narratives called mo‘olelo14 or epic sagas, called ka‘ao.15 Most of them are fictive; thus, they involve many culturally relevant references, such as known personalities of historical significance, gods and figures of Hawaiian mythology, place names and land marks that exist on Hawai‘i. The “Ka‘ao no Halemano” represents one such piece of Hawaiian oral literature. Most often nā16 mo‘olelo and nā ka‘ao are rendered in prose. However, the Ka‘ao no Halemano includes a series of mele oli and mele hula. These are segments of their own featuring oral poetry interspersed within the body of prose. One segment of oral poetry found in the Ka‘ao no Halemano functions as reference and textual foundation for Kaupō ‘Āina, the hula composition of interest in my research. 5.1.2 Poems and Frame Stories: The Interdependence of Source Material and the Mele Hula Hula compositions are based on a poem, called mele hula, the textual element being chanted during hula performance. The narrative aspects of the mele hula features crucial moments of plot action and human experience while referring to a larger frame story. In case of Kaupō ‘Āina the hula composition is based on a

13 See Roberts, Helen H. (1971), p. 58. 14 The Hawaiian Dictionary defines “mo‘olelo” as: “story, tale, myth, history, tradition, literature, legend, journal, log, yarn, fable, essay, chronicle, record, article, minutes, as of a meeting. (From mo‘o ‘ōlelo, succession of talk; all stories were oral, not written).” See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 254. 15 The term “ka‘ao” is referred to as: “legend, tale, novel, romance, usually fanciful; fiction; tell a fanciful tale. Ho‘oka‘ao: to tell tales, storytelling.” See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 108. 16 The article “nā” is used in Hawaiian language to indicate the plural condition.

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mele hula, a lyric segment, which is an integral part of the Hawaiian epic Ka‘ao no Halemano, the legend of Halemano. Starting during the 1860s until 1880 Alexander Fornander, a Swedish lawyer, commissioned literate Hawaiians to visit cultural practitioners in order to record orally transmitted poetry and narratives. A main part of the work was to transfer the stories into handwritten transcripts. Fornander did not consider contextual conditions and practices of oral transmission and performative rendition at the time of recording. A transcript of the Ka‘ao no Halemano, the legend of Halemano, became part of Fornander’s collection. After Fornander’s death Charles R. Bishop purchased the manuscripts. The Hawaiian transcripts were translated into English. A first edition entitled, The Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folklore, was published by the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in 1917, 1918, and 1919. The text source of the legend of Halemano, which I am working with, is drawn from the 1959 edition and reprint of Fornander’s Collection published by the anthropologist Samuel H. Elbert.17 The print version of the legend divides the Ka‘ao no Halemano into five chapters, called mokuna in Hawaiian terms.18 The frame story is rendered in prose. There is no information whether Fornander and his co-workers took liberty to divide the transcribed material into chapters, a useful means and convention to organize a body of text within the medium of a book. The division into mokuna might reflect on the other hand how cultural practitioners handled oral literature themselves. I would like to make a point here stating that segmentation is a means to organize oral and performative material among traditional Hawaiian performing arts such as oli and hula. There is no research as far as I know about the traditional oral use of mokuna as part of sagas to verify this point of view though. A peculiar feature of Fornander’s transcript is that the fourth chapter contains a series of lyric segments, specified both as oli or mele by the narrator of the story.19 Over all, the chapter contains sixteen lyric segments. The first oli featured within the narrative of the legend represents a prayer, followed by a mele inoa, which translates as name chant. The mele inoa’s content characterizes Halemano, the protagonist of the legend.20 As the story goes on, the mele, that I

17 See Elbert, Samuel H. (ed.) (1959): Selections from Fornander’s Hawaiian Antiquities and Folklore, Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, p. 1. 18 Ibid., p. 250-290. 19 Ibid., p. 273-287. 20 Ibid., p. 273.

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am referring to in my research, occurs as the first one of a series of altogether fourteen lyric segments recounting a lover’s relationship.21 The combination of prose and lyrical segments within the framework of the Ka‘ao no Halemano was transmitted to the collectors working for Fornander during the 19th century. Unfortunately the transcribers did not take any notes about modes of storytelling or any additional performance circumstances. I suggest that the lyrical segments which are interspersed within the fourth chapter of the Ka‘ao no Halemano adhere to the textual format of mele hula to be rendered as part of hula performance. At least, kumu hula John Lake took advantage of the material to create the hula composition Kaupō ‘Āina, based on the mele found in the legend applying his knowledge of hula performance practice. As reference point I compare Fornander’s version of the mele which is of interest to my study and the performance score of Lake’s version of Kaupō ‘Āina to develop my interpretation of Lake’s adaption of the source material, who by doing so followed practices of oral tradition perpetuated as part of a living tradition of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice, as I would argue. From a performance analytical perspective it is of importance to note that mele hula is performed on stage as part of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice, but not the respective frame story. The frame story functions on a meta-narrative level like a referential backdrop known by an informed audience. There is no signal in performance that ties directly into the legend as a frame of reference. The frame story indirectly resonates as one possible layer of reference while the mele hula is performed as part of hula performance. 5.1.3 Ka‘ao No Halemano – Source Material of Kaupō ‘Āina Following Fornander’s version, the Ka‘ao no Halemano tells the life and love story of Halemano and Kamalalawalu. Halemano meets Kamalalawalu first in his dreams. He finally discovers that Kamalalawalu is a highborn chiefess living on the land of Kapoho, located on the most southern island of Hawai‘i. With the help of Halemano’s sister Laenihi, who exhibits in parts her supernatural powers, he manages to win Kamalalawalu. United as lovers they start out to live on the island of O‘ahu, on Halemano’s homeland. Due to her beauty the chief of O‘ahu invites Kamalalawalu to become his consort instead of Halemano. She refuses. The two lovers decide to leave O‘ahu due to the king’s serious plans of revenge. Thus, the love relationship between Halemano and Kamalalawalu is overshadowed by flight, migrating from one island to the next and poverty, a result of forced migration. Their journey first leads them to the island of Maui where they 21 Ibid., p. 275.

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experience moments of harmony and passion. Later moving to the island of Hawai‘i they suffer poverty living as cast-away on foreign terrain. Finally Halemano looses Kamalalawalu who decides to return to live at the court of a chief who has been courting her. Halemano tries to win her back. He decides to learn the art of hula and chanting. He graduates and becomes a famous haku mele, a poet, and hula master. The story tells that one day, while Halemano is involved with chanting, he notices the peak of Haleakala, the mountaintop of Maui, the neighboring island of Hawai‘i. He remembers the time when he lived there at the slopes of Haleakala together with Kamalalawalu. The sight of the cloud formation covering the mountaintop inspires him to instantly compose a chant about their life and love journey. As follows I cite from Fornander’s version of the legend this particular segment of Halemano’s poetic creation. To facilitate analysis, I add a number to specify each verse. Fig. 1: Halemano’s chanted Poem, Fornander’s Version (1)

Kaupo, aina pali huki i luna

(2) (3)

Huki ae la e like me Kahikinui; He nui no wau nau e ke aloha,

(4) (5)

Kuu hoa mai ka malu o ka laau. Ola kaua i ka ai lauoho loloa o ka nahele.

(6) (7)

(9)

Auwe! Kuu wahine e! Kuu wahine mai ka makani he Kaumuku, Ke haki nuanua mai la i ka moana, Ke uhi ae la i na ale o Papawai,

(10)

Na ka wa‘a kaua i halihali mai,

(11) (12)

Auwe kuu wahine e! Kuu wahine o ka hale makamaka ole, Hookahi makamaka o ko aloha,

(8)

(13)

Kaupō, the land where one is pulled up, Pulled up like unto Kahikinui. I was once though a good deal of, O my love! My companion of the shady trees. For we two once lived on the food from the long speared grass of the wilderness. Alas, O my love! My love from the [land of the] Kaumuku wind, As it comes gliding over the ocean, As it covers the waves of Papawai, For it was the canoe that brought us here. Alas, O my love! My love of the home where we were friendless, Our only friend being our love for one another.

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(14) (15)

Lou, a nanahu i loko o ka iwi hilo e! E ke aloha, ho mai he leo.

It is hooked and it bites to the very inside of the bones! O my love, speak to me.

Elbert, Samuel H. (1959), p. 275.

At the end of the chant Halemano calls out for Kamalalawalu hoping to win back her love. The story of the legend continues. Kamalalawalu herself appears by chance while Halemano is chanting and thereby reminiscing about his lost love. Kamalalawalu watches and listens to Halemano’s exquisite performance. She is impressed and is longing to meet him again. Complications baffle their encounter. The chiefess Kikeka‘ala of Kohala was courting Halemano at that time challenging Halemano to participate in a kilu game.22 As the winner Halemano would belong to Kikeka‘ala. If he would lose the game Kikeka‘ala would let him go to meet up again with Kamalalawalu. Halemano wins the game thereby loosing Kamalalawalu. Towards the end of the legend the two meet again on the island of O‘ahu. However, as lovers they feel alienated. They separate, and move on according to their own inclinations. The mele, composed by Halemano and the lead protagonist of the story, is featured as part of the literary corpus of the legend. The mele, a piece of poetry, resembles a concise lyric synopsis, reflecting three stages of Halemano’s and Kamalalawalu’s joint life experience and journey traveling from one island to the next. The mele hula describes episodes featured like condensed moments of life experience. This includes on one hand actual features of nature and particular land marks found on the islands. On the other hand, by applying highly metaphoric speech the poetry reflects upon selected activities and feelings that the two lovers did experience as part of their relationship. As follows, I introduce Lake’s artistic rendition of Fornander’s version of the mele. Lake adapted the printed version of the mele by creating a hula composition known as Kaupō ‘Āina within the context of Lake’s hula hālau and his teachings. Lake’s version of the mele differs in some aspects from the original source material printed in Fornander’s collection. As part of the hula ‘ōlapa

22 The Hawaiian Dictionary defines kilu as follows. I cite only the part that is of relevance to the kilu game. “Kilu. 1. ntv. A small gourd or coconut shell, usually cut lengthwise, as used for storing small, choices of objects, or to feed favorite children from. Used also as a quoit in the kilu game: the player chanted as he tossed the kilu towards an object placed before the opposite sex. If he hit the goal he claimed a kiss; to play the game.” See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 152.

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training, Lake distributed a copied hand-out of the mele edited personally by Lake in type writing. Lake’s version of the mele hula reads as follows. Each stanza is numbered, starting from one to three. I separately indicate each verse by a number placed in brackets. Fig. 2: Kaupō ‘Āina, Mele Hula, Lake’s Version 1. (1)

Kaupō, ‘āina pali huki a i luna,

(2) (3)

Huki a‘e la e like me Kahikinui. He nui no wau nau e ke aloha!

(4)

Ku‘u hoa mai ka malu o ka la‘au.

2. (5)

(7)

Ku‘u wahine mai ka makani he Kaumuku, Hakihaki nu‘anu‘a mai ka Moana, Ke uhi a‘ela i nā ale o Papawai,

(8)

Na ka wa’a kāua i halihali mai.

(6)

3. (9) (10) (11) (12)

Ku‘u wahine o ka hale makamaka’ole, Ho‘okahi makamaka o ko aloha, Lou, a nānahu i loko o ka Iwihilo! E ke aloha, ho mai he leo e!

Kaupō, the land where one is pulled up, Pulled up like unto Kahikinui. I was once thought a good deal of, O my love! My companion of the shady tree.

My love from the land of Kaumuku wind, As it comes gliding over the ocean, As it covers the waves of Papawai, For it was the canoe that brought us here. My love of the home where we were friendless, Our only friend being our love for one another, It is hooked and bites to the very inside of the bones! O my love, speak to me!

Kumu hula John Keola Lake, unpublished in-class-hand-out, August 2000.

Takamine writes in her comparative study on hula ‘āla‘apapa and hula pahu compositions that a mele hula is either “through-composed” or subdivided by

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sections, called “paukū.”23 The number of lines that each paukū holds within one mele hula does not necessarily conform to one another. When comparing the two versions of Kaupō ‘Āina, the Fornander version versus the Lake version, it becomes evident that Fornander’s version implies an ongoing flow of verbal enunciation of the mele hula. Subdivisions are indicated by means of formulaic verbal means, such as “Auwe! Kuu wahine e! – Alas, o my love!” see line 6 and line 11. This recurrent formula divides the flow of poetic thought of the mele hula into three sets. The first set of verses comprises five lines whereas the next following two sets of verses cover four verses each. This shows that Fornander’s version includes irregularities in terms of the number of verse lines per paukū. This aspect of the Fornander version of Kaupō ‘Āina applies to Takamine’s research stating that irregularity is part of mele hula, which represent oldest strands of hula performance tradition.24 5.2 Section II: Means of Performance Practice 5.2.1 Kāhea, Paukū, Holo, and Pā A close look at the performance score PS 1 shows how Lake inserted performance segments specified as: kāhea wehe (line 1/segment 1), the kāhea 1, 2 and 3 (lines 3, 9, 15), the e-ue kāhea (line 22) and the kāhea pau (line 24/segment 10).25 Performance segments specified as kāhea are based on verbal material that only in parts relate to the underlying mele hula. Kāhea are calls and distinct performance features of hula performance practice. They are vocalized loudly during hula performance directing the flow of activity. The kāhea used in Lake’s version do not relate in any way to the omitted formulaic verbal means “Auwe! Kuu wahine e!” present in the Fornander version. It is possible that the formula functioned as a kāhea, called out during oral presentations of the Ka‘ao no 23 The Hawaiian Dictionary translates the term paukū relevant to a study of the mele hula as follows: “pau.kū, nvs. section, link, piece; stanza, verse, as in the Bible; canto; article, as of law; paragraph; to section off, cut in sections, slice in sections; to make a lei with sections of different colors, as feathers, or roses and begonias; land section smaller than a mo‘o (Thrum’s Annual, 1925, p. 68); a unit of measurement; a squad (military; see mokuna); jointed, linked. E paukū ana nō ka hala me ka lehua (PH 27), pandanus and lehua sections being made into a lei.” See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 320. 24 See for further discussion on this topic in Part II, Analyse I: 5.4 Section IV: Combining “New” and “Old” Features of Performance Practice. 25 See Appendix B, PS 1 Performance Score 1.

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Halemano during Fornander’s time. The transcription of the mele hula does not include any performative attributes. My assumption is that Lake omitted the formula substituting it by inserting a new style of kāhea. The use of this style of kāhea is a characteristic feature of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice taught at Lake’s hula school. The implemented kāhea have in Lake’s version a particular function in reference to performative, compositional, referential and aesthetic terms.26 The score shows that Lake framed the paukū sections of the mele hula by means of performance segments identified in PS 1 as “pā” (line 2), “holo” (lines 8,14, 20, 21), and the final section (lines 20-25), which includes the “e-ue” call (line 22).27 These performance segments listed are linked to the kāhea system. In previous research, Takamine discussed these important features of hula performance as part of her study on traditional hula. She distinguishes between several categories of pā in hula composition. Takamine identifies the first category of pā and translates it as “rhythmic interlude”28 specified in my work as pā rhythmic interlude. Pā of this first category are based primarily on distinct drumming pattern that vary according to performance tradition. The pattern of the pā rhythmic interlude captures dynamically the general mood of the mele hula and that of the respective hula composition as a whole. The implementation of a pā rhythmic interlude applies to Lake’s rendition of Kaupō ‘Āina. He placed the pā rhythmic interlude between the kāhea wehe and the first paukū of the mele hula, see PS 1, line 2. Fornander’s version does not reflect any type of percussive activity. To insert the pā rhythmic interlude is foremost a performative and compositional segment that illustrates how hula performance practice frames the verbal means, the mele hula. Takamine distinguishes a second pā category calling it “dividing motifs” which separate the mele hula into several paukū.29 In Lake’s tradition these dividing motifs are called “holo.” In my work I specify holo as dividing pā segments. Within the compositional set up of Kaupō ‘Āina the holo segments separate the mele hula of Kaupō ‘Āina into three paukū. The holo segments consist of percussion, one set of two huli kāholo, a particular stylized-abstract motion sequence applied as part of the dividing pā segments of Kaupō ‘Āina. The holo segments include the kāhea which indicate the following paukū. The score of PS 26 See Part II, Analysis IV: Keying Performance Activity – The Call-And-Response Practice in Hula ‘ōlapa Performance. 27 See Appendix B, PS 1, Performance Score 1. 28 See Takamine, Victoria (1994), p. 48. 29 Ibid., p. 38, 48, 54, 55-58, 67, 84-86.

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1 shows that a holo segment is placed between paukū 1 and 2 (line 8), and between paukū 2 and 3 (line 14).30 Lake did add two more holo between the third paukū (lines 20, 21) and the final e-ue call and pā segment. In reference to the comparison of both mele versions, as discussed earlier, I pointed out that Lake did omit the verbal formula, “Auwe! Kuu wahine e!”, of Fornander’s version. In addition, the analysis of the performance score shows that Lake substituted the verbal formula, “Auwe! Kuu wahine e!” of Fornander’s version inserting performance segments instead. The strong and emotionally charged exclamation: “Auwe! Kuu wahine e!” translated as, “Alas, o my love!” which stresses the longing of the main character calling out in search for his lost lover. Of performance analytical interest here is to note that Lake’s substitution is based on two distinguished types of performance segments. The first is specified as pā rhythmic interlude (segment 2, lines 2 and 3), which combines percussion, the basic body posture and the 1st kāhea placed towards the end of the pā rhythmic interlude. The second performance segment called holo combines percussion, a sequence of stylized-abstract body motion, and the kāhea which refer to the paukū of the mele hula. The first kāhea, “Kaupō ‘āina,” refers to the first two words of the first line of the first paukū. Respectively, the second and third kāhea cover, “Ku‘u wahine,” the two first words of the second and third paukū. The kāhea function like strong precise signals, indicating the following paukū segment. They are placed towards the end of the pā rhythmic interlude and the holo segments. The emotional charge by means of words, as this is the case in Fornander’s version, is in case of Kaupō ‘Āina reflected by means of percussive sound and a highly charged and quick body motion of huli kāholo, entirely different performance materialities than words. Lake’s artistic adaption of the source material is therefore based on inserting performative means instead of featuring a dividing segment that is based on predominately words according to Fornander’s version. Lake’s artistic use of the performance segments called pā rhythmic interlude and holo features the two non-referential elements of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice, percussion and body motion. And, it implies the use of a short style of kāhea placed at the end of the pā rhythmic interlude and holo. The kāhea signal the next paukū. The kāhea used in Lake’s version highlight as such the kāhea system which functions as call-and-response, triggering the interaction between the ‘ōlapa, the dancer-actor, and the percussionist-singer, the ho‘opa‘a. The call-and-response function of the kāhea is more so a prominent part of the performative fabric and aesthetic appeal of the piece in action. Based on these considerations, I would argue that the compositional insertion of the pā 30 See Appendix B, PS 1, Performance Score 1.

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rhythmic interlude and the holo in Lake’s version stresses aesthetically the performative and interactive aspect of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Accordingly, the discussed segments are applied to frame the verbal element according to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice in order to stage oral poetry. Takamine specifies a third category of pā calling them “ending motifs.” These performance segments terminate hula compositions. She defines this third category of pā, writing “that all dances have an ending movement motif followed by a dedicatory kāhea.”31 I refer to this third category of pā as ending pā segments. Ending pā segments are based on a specific call, percussion and a sequence of stylized-abstract body movements, and a final kāhea pau placed at the end of the sequence. In performance the ending pā segments themselves are cued by a call, or kāhea. Takamine distinguishes among two versions of ending pā segments. She categorizes them according to their respective call. The call of the first ending pā version is termed “e-ue.” The kāhea of the second ending pā version is based on the call “eala.” The movement structure and drumming pattern of these two pā versions differ accordingly. I argue that these two versions of ending pā function as frames of reference within the context of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice due to their specific arrangement of performative material. Takamine’s analysis shows that those hula compositions which end according to the e-ue ending pā version adhere to the so called hula pahu performance tradition.32 Hula pahu compositions are considered to represent the oldest strand of hula performance still known and practiced in traditionally run hula schools.33 Following Takamine’s research, the “eala” ending pā version identifies hula compositions to adhere to the so called younger ‘āla‘apapa performance strand

31 See Takamine, Victoria (1994), p. 85. 32 See Takamine, Victoria (1994), p. 85. As another important reference I consider Keappler’s and Tatar’s research on hula pahu published in two volumes Hula Pahu: Hawaiian Drum Dances, (1993). Both state that the hula pahu repertoire eclipses performance knowledge from practices conducted at Hawaiian temples prior to European contact. Amy Stillman adds to Kaeppler’s study by investigating into younger developments of hula performance traditions known as the hula ‘āla‘apapa and the hula ‘ōlapa, which emerged during the course of the 19th century. See Stillman, Amy K. (1998), p.1. 33 See Takamine, Victoria (1994), p. 68-69, and Kaeppler’s seminal study on Hula Pahu. Hawaiian Drum Dances, (1996).

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which likewise has been continuously transmitted as part of the living hula performance tradition of certain hula schools.34 In reference to Lake’s rendition of Kaupō ‘Āina it is interesting to note that Lake chose certain features of performance practice thereby referring artistically to certain traditions of hula performance practice and historical circumstances. Lake applied an abbreviated version of the traditionally known e-ue ending pā segment to finalize the piece. By choosing the e-ue ending pā he placed the composition in proximity to the oldest known hula compositions thereby featuring and reminiscing artistically about the historical depth of hula performance practice. By applying the e-ue ending segment Lake evokes a sense of historicity of the piece. These considerations are of relevance in my discussion on how performance segments carry referential aspects which shape the aesthetic appeal and the particular historical flavor or taste of the piece in question. 5.2.2 Pā: Performative Means of Framing The analysis so far shows that the mele hula, which became the verbal foundation in Lake’s composition of Kaupō ‘Āina, is at the same time an integral part of the legend of Halemano, a larger body of oral literature. The legend, an epic story, has been transcribed in the late 19th century. In contemporary hula ‘ōlapa performance practice the frame story is not performed. The focus is placed on lyrical segments. The rendition of the poetry is adaptable to hula performance practice. Lake chose one of those segments out of the larger body of the legend of Halemano suitable to create his hula composition, called Kaupō ‘Āina. Part of rendering a hula composition according to performance practice is to frame those performance segments, called paukū, that feature predominantly the mele hula. To frame in this sense means to apply performance segments that adhere to one of the various categories of kāhea, to be discussed more in detail in Part II Analysis IV, and those three categories of performance segments called pā. I introduced the three categories of pā differentiating between them based on their function within the basic framework of a hula repertoire piece: 1) the pā rhythmic interlude, 2) the dividing pā segments, called “holo” in Lake’s tradi34 Amy Stillman identifies hula ‘āla‘apapa performance practice in her study entitled Sacred Hula. The Historical Hula ‘Āla‘apapa as follows: “What is the hula ‘āla‘apapa? It is a genre of Hawaiian dance dating from at least the 1820s that continues to be performed in the 1990s.” See Stillman, Amy K. (1998), p. 1. According to the Hawaiian Dictionary, the hula ‘āla‘apapa is a type of ancient dramatic hula; as a verb, the term ‘āla‘apapa is defined as “to tell publicly, as of the past,” see Pukui, Mary Kawena/ Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 17.

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tion, and 3) the finalizing e-ue performance sequence, specified as e-ue ending pā segment in my work. Lake inserted these performance segments by combining the mele hula and segments of performance practice in a certain way. Segmentation characterizes the compositional set up of the hula piece. Each segment holds a specific function within the compositional framework of the piece, guiding the flow of performance practice and the attention of the observing audience. The sequential combination of paukū segments based on the mele hula, and the three categories of pā segments lead towards a diversification of how performance elements are combined in synchrony and in succession. The specified pā segments differ in terms of how they feature specific combinations of elements, such as percussion and body motion, including segments of verbal material, the kāhea. They determine how elements of performative material are involved and unfold in the process of performance. This matter of fact leads to my proposition that the three categories of pā segments, evident in the performative set up of Kaupō ‘Āina, represent three variations of performative means of framing. Based on combinations of percussion and abstract motion including short verbal bits, the kāhea, pā segments shape and frame the performative and material set up; the aural and kinesthetic condition of a hula piece. These specific segments shape the sensorial appearance of elements in combination, guiding the flow of attention by generating variations of sensory situations in performance. The first pā introduces percussion as one mayor acoustic element of hula ‘ōlapa performance. The pā rhythmic interlude sets the tone. The sense of listening is activated. The sonic sphere of the hula piece prepares the audience to experience the first paukū of the mele hula. The sound and dynamic of the pā rhythmic interlude prepares acoustically what the mele hula is about. It engenders the mood and feeling that the piece is about, a dramatic life story and love relationship. Respectively, the holo segments add to the performative structure and quality of the piece. Their structural function is to divide the involved mele hula into distinct performance segments of their own. The aesthetic impact of this dividing function is to highlight the content of each single paukū segment. Holo are self-referential as such, they feature percussion and a stylized-abstract motion sequences, termed huli kāholo, in case of Kaupō ‘Āina. At the end of each holo the kāhea of the next following pauku occurs. Finally, the e-ue ending pā sequence leads the piece to an end by means of a specific combination that is based on percussion, a distinguished sequence of stylized-abstract body motion,35 and a finalizing line of words, the kāhea pau.

35 See Appendix C, PS 2, segment 9, line 23.

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5.2.3 Performance Structural and Referential Functions of Performative Means of Framing So far, I discussed the issue of convergence in my analysis of hula ‘ōlapa, focusing on questions of major principles of performance organization, the compositional application of pā and kāhea, performative means of framing in other words. I concede that Lake drew on conventions of performance practice, so called “guided doings” in Goffman’s terms, in order to render and frame the mele hula, the verbal material, to turn oral poetry into the aural and kinesthetic set up of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. I introduced the significance of pā, performance segments that feature primarily performative aspects of hula performance practice. I consider pā to be self-referential in performance analytical terms. The specific aesthetic quality of these performative means of framing is of prime relevance in experiencing the piece in performance. Self-referentiality36 as part of the aesthetic appeal of the identified performative means of framing in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice is based on at least three facets: 1) the sensory appearance of the particular combination of performance materiality of these segments, 2) their structural function applied as framing devices within the hula composition as a whole, and 3) the matter of fact that they function as frames of reference. Referentiality of performative means of framing arises due to their specific performative materiality as well as the use of kāhea which indicates specific adherence to historically identified genres of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The discussed segments are discrete units of hula performance practice. Yet, these segments are imbued with historical references, as I argue. Meaning emerges based on specific sound and motion patterns and their particular sensory feeling. Lake chose the e-ue ending pā segment to finalize the piece which suggests a historical quality and performative closeness of Kaupō ‘Āina to the practice of hula pahu, the oldest part of performance practice within the scope of hula tradition. The e-ue ending pā segment as such indicates an “old” layer which stresses an aspect of continuity of performance practice, one important aspect of 36 Fischer-Lichte discusses the conceptual co-relation of performativity, materiality, and self-referentiality of theatrical elements as follows: “To perceive theatrical elements in their specific materiality is to perceive them as self-referential and in their phenomenal being. [...] The things signify what they are or as what they appear. To perceive something as something means to perceive it as meaningful. Materiality, signifier, and signified coincide in the case of self-referentiality. Materiality does not act as a signifier to which this or that signified can be attributed. Rather, materiality itself has to be seen as the signified already given in the materiality perceived by the subject.” See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 141.

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relevance within the compositional set up Kaupō ‘Āina. The audience is addressed in order to feel, to listen to, and to see how the piece shapes historical significance. As follows, I aim to extend my point of view that performative means of framing are markers that are meaningful in such a way that they trigger processes of inference based on something which I tentatively call sensory referentiality. This type of meaning is not a matter of transmitting aspects of a story or narrative as this is the case with the paukū segments of the mele hula. Meaning engendered by what I call sensory signification is tied to segments of performance practice that are formal and self-referential in nature. They determine the main performative framework of a hula composition. They shape the beginning; they divide and finalize the piece. The framing and referential function of these three categories of pā segments is based on their particular materiality as performative markers of historical significance. These segments of the main performative framework of a hula composition indicate and iterate as part of performance practice and aesthetic experience certain historical developments and circumstances of relevance within the context of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. What were Lake’s intentions when applying this aspect of historical referentiality of performance practice to his composition of Kaupō ‘Āina? Keeping this question in mind I continue the analytical venture of this chapter asking whether and how other segments of the composition such as the element of percussion relate to performance history of hula as well. 5.3 Section III: Percussion. The Performative, Referential, and Aesthetic Implications Considering Structural Variations of Acoustic Material 5.3.1 The Kaupō Pattern Lake substituted the formulaic verbal phrase of the Fornander version inserting performance segments in order to divide the mele hula. I identified three categories of performative means of framing that Lake applied, the pā rhythmic interlude, the dividing pā segments called holo, and the e-ue ending pā segment, including the respective kāhea. More so, Lake divided the mele hula of Kaupō ‘Āina into three sections, each paukū containing exactly four verses. A close look at the performance score PS 1 shows that each verse is based on a fourmeasured percussive pattern, called Kaupō pattern within the frame of this study. What does the artistic decision of regularity and the implementation of the Kaupō pattern imply?

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During training sessions, kumu hula John Keola Lake pointed out that the ‘ōlapa performer has to “feel the pulse” in the flow of the poetic text. The measure of time, according to Lake’s understanding, is a continuous pulse that corresponds to the accentuation of words of the poetic text. Depending on the content of the poetic text, the performer is able to speed up or to slow down this underlying pulsation, nevertheless a continuum of pulses is fundamental. Lake explained that the length of the lines of a poetic text depend on the thoughts expressed in a mele hula. The number of beats, structuring a poetic text, depends on the length of the lines in respect to the development of thoughts expressed. A mele hula therefore does not necessarily fit a regular musical format. The research done by Takamine and Stillman confirms the irregularity of the oldest known mele hula among the historically distinguished hula type called hula pahu and hula ‘āla‘apapa.37 The primacy of the verbal material and the flow of thought in older mele hula, to follow Stillman, allowed irregular formats of mele hula. This stands in contrast to developments that happened during the second half of the 19th century. Western musical standards influenced the composition of mele hula leading towards standardized formats. The original paukū of a mele hula appears in form of stanzas, “that is, the text is grouped into smaller units of identical numbers of lines.”38 Stillman adds, “the most common stanza length for mele in hula ‘ōlapa is two lines, or one couplet of text; however, stanza length of four lines are not uncommon. In terms of time structure, a vast majority of mele whose texts are organized into couplets include four downbeats per line, thus, eight down beats per couplet of text.”39 Likewise, cycles of four beats are predominant in the temporal structure of Kaupō ‘Āina. In the process of arranging the piece, Lake divided the poetic text into three paukū, with each paukū covering four lines of verbal material. Each line of the three paukū is based on a cycle of four beats which adds up to sixteen beats per paukū. The score PS 1 shows how the flow of the poetic text is marked by these recurrent cycles of four beats. I used under37 See Takamine, Victoria (1994), p. 25. Takamine summarizes, that “hula pahu and hula ‘āla‘apapa texts are through composed. The texts are all in Hawaiian language and make references to things in nature. The chants are honorific and praise the gods or the ali‘i [Hawaiian aristocratic class of chiefs]. Some of the chants record historical events. The texts may or may not be divided into paukū. If divided into paukū, each paukū of the text may or may not have the same number of lines.” See Takamine, Victoria (1994), p. 80 and Stillman, Amy K. (1998), p. 12-13. 38 See Stillman, Amy K. (1998), p. 13. 39 Ibid., p. 13.

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scores to highlight those syllables of the mele hula that match the basic pulse. Due to the fact that the composition has a regular temporal structure I concede that it corresponds to the format of historically younger versions of hula performance practice, to follow Stillman’s considerations. According to this finding I state that Kaupō ‘Āina integrates Western standards of musical regularity. This aspect I consider to function as a performance marker, identifying a “new” element evident within the compositional fabric of Kaupō ‘Āina. Stillman writes: “A rhythmic setting includes as many down beats (basic pulse) as necessary to accommodate the poetic text.”40 A main pulse or beat is understood here as a single acoustic event that is generated by using a percussive instrument. Beats fulfill primarily the function of down beats in hula ‘ōlapa performance. The time intervals between beats are further subdivided by sequences of down and up-beats. In hula ‘ōlapa performance practice, modes of structured time are based on particular rhythmic sequences of beats and up-beats generated by the ho‘opa‘a, the percussionist-singer. The ipu heke, a double gourd instrument, is used to realize these patterns. Appendix A, photo 6 depicts an ipu heke placed on a “pale,” a pad, in English terms. The double gourd structure of an ipu means that a small gourd, head or “heke” in Hawaiian terms, sits on top of a large gourd. The small gourd’s function is to enlarge resonance. The large gourd on the other hand is the main part of the instrument that is used to produce percussive sounds. Stillman writes: “Accompaniment patterns performed by instrumentalists on the ipu alternate thumping of the ipu on a pad on the floor or ground and slapping the side of the ipu using the right hand.”41 The photo 6, Appendix A, shows how the ho‘opa‘a holds on to the instrument. A thump of the large gourd of the ipu to the ground generates a deep sound. Slapping the side of the main gourd using the flat palm of the hand produces a sound that resonates high. Single percussive strokes and combinations of the deep thump and the high slapping sound determine the percussive pattern applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance. Both Takamine and Stillman distinguish, as part of their research on traditional hula, four basic rhythmic patterns called pā, kū, kūkū, kāhela.42 Stillman writes: “The patterns are named: a single thump followed by a rest is called kū; a single thump performed on downbeats (i.e. basic pulses) alternating with a double slap is called pā; a single thump performed on downbeats (basic pulses) alternating with a double slap is called kāhela; a triple thumping, also begun on the

40 Ibid, p. 12. 41 Ibid., p. 7. 42 See Takamine, Victoria (1994), p. 48, 98, and Stillman, Amy K. (1998), p. 7.

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downbeat of a phrase, is called kūkū.”43 Generally speaking, compositions of hula pieces involve various combinations of these four basic rhythmic patterns. Fig. 3 shows structural elements of the percussive pattern called the Kaupō pattern of interest within the context of my analysis. The top part of the transcription of fig. 3, specified as [Western notation], is based on Western parameters of rhythmic notation. The lower part of fig. 3, defined as [Hawaiian terminology of percussive patterns] covers the Hawaiian terms signifying the basic rhythmic pattern, pā and kāhela, which are combined in sequence to produce the 1st and 2nd segment of the Kaupō pattern. The Kaupō pattern covers both the first and the second segment. Fig. 3: The Kaupō Pattern

The rhythmical score of the Kaupō pattern transcribed according to Western notation, see fig. 3, is first of all based on two lines. The musical notes marked on the lower line correspond with the deep sound events produced by thumping the ipu heke down to the ground. The musical notes of the upper line respond to the high sounds generated by slapping the ipu heke at the side of the large gourd. One set of one low and one high sound is called pā, according to the Hawaiian terminology of basic rhythmic patterns. The score shows that the first segment of sounds starts with an alternating pattern of two sets of one low and one high sound. This means that two pā are performed in succession. The following sound combination of the first segment is based on one low and two high sounds. This pattern is called kāhela in Hawaiian terms. Consecutively speaking, two pā and 43 See Stillman, Amy K. (1998), p. 7.

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one kāhela make up the first segment. This first combination of two pā and one kāhela is repeated once, specified as second segment according to fig. 3. For identification purpose within the framework of this research I call this pattern “Kaupō pattern.” The entire pattern is based on four basic pulses or beats indicated by a stress sign placed underneath the respective low percussive sounds to follow principles of Western notation. Well trained ho‘opa‘a know the structural terminology of basic rhythmic patterns, kū, pā, kāhela and kūkū. However, the use of mnemonic formulas is more common among hula practitioners. Accordingly, the ho‘opa‘a who are trained within the hālau context memorize mnemonic formulas to indicate certain percussion patterns. These mnemonic formulas respond to the actual sound images produced while playing the ipu heke. The mnemonic formula representing the Kaupō pattern sounds and reads as follows: “U te U te U te te/ U te U te U te te.” The group of ho‘opa‘a practicing at Lake’s hālau learned this formula while playing the respective rhythmic pattern. Fig. 4 presents both the Western transcription of the pattern and its respective mnemonic formula. The “U” corresponds to the deep sound produced thumping the ipu towards the ground transcribed as the low note placed on the second low line of the Western score. The “te” relates to the high slapping sound. I transcribe this part of the mnemonic formula as those notes which are placed on the upper line of the rhythmic score. Fig. 4: Mnemonic Formula of the Kaupō Pattern

Performance practitioners frequently make use of mnemonic formulas. These formulas are a core means among the ho‘opa‘a who memorize them and who use them to communicate rhythmic scores of hula ‘ōlapa performance repertoire among each other. The mnemonic formula function as an aid to memorize specific rhythmic pattern due to the fact that the syllables of the formula refer to the sequence of sounds produced on the ipu heke. These formulas of percussive pattern contain the temporal sense of rhythmic value. As a performer one knows

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how to relate the mnemonic formula to the four basic beats while playing the ipu heke. It’s a matter of embodied knowledge and oral transmission. The mnemonic formulas are passed down orally from one performer generation to the next. However, this musical aspect concerning time value is lost when transcribing the formulas into their written versions. Writing down the syllables of the formulas only does not imply a specification of rhythmic values. Therefore, in order to capture both, the sequence of syllables spoken and the implicit rhythmic dynamic of a formula, one needs to include a musical score, which visualizes time values, see fig. 4. When I devised performance score PS 1 I decided to refer to the element of percussion by featuring the mnemonic formula instead of using the Western style transcription of percussive notation. The mnemonic formula of the so called Kaupō pattern represents a means of verbal transmission of the percussive score used as reference to specify the percussive pattern applied during the performance of Kaupō ‘Āina. That way I integrate an important aspect of performance practice into the outline of the performance score PS 1. In the process of performance, the percussive pattern is performed right after the opening dedication, the kāhea wehe. Line 2 of PS 1 indicates the moment when the Kaupō pattern is introduced as part of the pā rhythmic interlude discussed earlier in this chapter. The interlude represents a particular compositional segment which focuses the attention on the element of percussion. The Kaupō pattern in question is the main percussive pattern determining the temporal structure and dynamic of the analyzed hula composition as a whole. The pattern starts in line 2 and continues until the end of line 21, according to the performance score PS 1. A structural analysis of rhythm applied to the repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina has to acknowledge that the mele hula corresponds to the Kaupō pattern as well. In devising PS 1 I underscored those syllables of the mele hula that match the recurrent basic pulse and which accentuates the verbal material of the paukū. Fig. 5 is an example to illustrate in detail how the verbal material – in this case the first line of the first paukū – matches with the four main beats of the Kaupō pattern. The line of verbal material of interest here is specified as [PS 1, segment 3, line 4, 1st paukū]. The first line of the paukū reads as “Ka-u-po ‘ai-na pa-li hu-ki a i lu-na.” According to fig. 5, the printed words of line 4 are placed below the rhythmic score of the Kaupō pattern. I placed hyphens among those syllables that make up one word, in order to match both elements, the four basic beats and the words.

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Fig. 5: Cross-modal Match between Percussion and Poetry

As I mentioned earlier, a sequence of recurrent basic pulses runs through the verbal material of the mele hula and respectively through each of the three paukū. In case of the first verse of the first paukū the first syllable Ka-u of the word Kaupō is accentuated by a basic pulse. To indicate this accentuation of the syllable I underscored Ka-u respectively. The accentuation of Ka-u coincides with the first beat of the Kaupō pattern, the first low percussive sound produced on the ipu heke. I want to stress, that percussion develops out of the pulse of the chanted poetic material. During actual vocalization the chanted syllable Kau is elongated covering the next following high percussive sound of the pattern. I underscored the first syllable of ‘aina, of huki and of the word i luna to indicate the sequence of the recurrent basic pulse. This basic pulse coincides with the basic beats of the Kaupō pattern. According to convention of Western notation the main beats of the rhythmic pattern are identified by the stress signs. I introduced fig. 5 as one example that shows the cross-modal match between the verbal material and the percussive pattern. A detailed musical analysis of the parameters that determine the vocal rendition of the mele hula exceeds the limits of this dissertation. 5.3.2 Percussion: A Means to Re-Embody History of Hula Performance Practice in a New Fashion The analysis of the Kaupō pattern made clear that it is based on a combination of two pā and one kāhela being repeated once to from the Kaupō pattern. The repeated combination of two pā and one kāhela using an ipu heke is rather unique among the hula repertoire pieces which I learned from kumu hula John Lake. The pattern is highly dynamic due to the fast alternating sound combination of deep and high sounds. The dynamic of this exact combination underpins the double beat character. Based on the results of the analysis of the element of percussion I state that Lake’s version of the Kaupō pattern is a means to emulate

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history of hula performance practice in a new fashion. I suggest that the percussive pattern characteristic of Kaupō ‘Āina is a variation reminiscent of the so called “Kaulilua pattern” applied during performances of hula pahu, a performance tradition which hula practitioners and scholars consider to be a link to pre-European performance practices of hula. Hula pahu is of ceremonial and of sacred nature.44 Elizabeth Tatar focuses in her music-ethnologically oriented study on hula pahu on one of the most significant hula pahu repertoire pieces known as Kaulilua. Tatar concedes that the mele hula and the performance practice which includes the Kaulilua percussion pattern date back to the beginning of the 19th century. She refers to a well know haku mele and cultural practitioner Kuluwaimaka who attributes the mele hula of Kaulilua to the chiefess Kaumealani from island of Kauai.45 The chiefess Kaumealani lived during the time of Kamehameha I (1758-1819). Of interest to my own comparative analysis is for one that Tatar identifies in her study one prototype of the Kaulilua pattern,46 see fig. 6 on the following page. Four high percussive sounds are followed by three low sounds and a rest. Her research furthermore shows that hula masters, that were interviewed starting from the thirties up to the fifties of the 20th century, performed variations of the prototypical pattern in order to accompany the at least among hula practitioners well known repertoire piece Kaulilua. She specifies nine variations of the Kaulilua percussion pattern. These variations of the pattern characterize certain traditional lineages among notable hula schools on Hawai‘i.47 For the purpose of my research I refer to the prototypical Kaulilua pattern (fig. 6). Additionally I quote from Tatar’s study referring to a second version of the Kaulilua pattern that was performed by the ho‘opa‘a Henry Pa during a recording session in 1955.48 The recorded material became part of the Bishop Museum collection. While Henry Pa was chanting Kaulilua, the respective mele 44 See Keappler’s and Tatar’s research entitled Hula Pahu. Hawaiian Drum Dances, vol. 1, (1996) and vol. 2, (1993). Both state that the hula pahu repertoire eclipses performance knowledge from practices conducted at Hawaiian temples prior to European contact. Amy Stillman adds to Kaeppler’s study by investigating into younger developments of hula performance traditions such as the hula ‘āla‘apapa and the hula ‘ōlapa, which emerged during the course of the 19th century. See Stillman, Amy K (1998). 45 See Tatar, Elizabeth (1993), p. 107. 46 Ibid., p. 113. 47 Ibid., p. 113-114. 48 Ibid., p. 114.

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hula of the hula pahu repertoire piece in question, he performed the Kaulilua percussion pattern of interest here, see fig. 7. To perform the Kaulilua percussion pattern Henry Pa used two drums: On the small pūniu drum he performed the high sounds notated on the top line of the rhythmic score. The low sounds notated on the bottom line of the score were performed on a pahu, a large low sounding drum. For the purpose of my comparative study to define innovative variation within the framework of traditional hula performance practice I consecutively list the scores of the prototypical Kaulilua pattern (fig. 6); Henry Pa’s variation of the Kaulilua pattern (fig. 7); and Lake’s Kaupō pattern (fig. 8). Fig. 6: The Kaulilua Pattern and two Variations

Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, see Tartar, Elizabeth (1993), p. 113-114

As part of my comparative study I distinguish between five parameters to specify variations among the Kaulilua pattern including the Kaupō pattern. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Rhythmic time value Difference of pitch based on the two options of low and high sounds Sequence of high and low sounds Number of high and low sounds within one rhythmic pattern Instruments applied

When comparing the prototype of the Kaulilua pattern (fig. 6), and Henry Pa’s variation, (fig. 7), two aspects become obvious: The first part of the prototypical

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Kaulilua pattern is based on a sequence of four high sounds. The second part of the pattern is based on three low sounds and a rest. In Henry Pa’s version, he changes the first part of his version as such, that he starts with one low sound followed by three high sounds. In this case change is based on variation that is concerned with the succession of low versus high sounds. Henry Pa changed the second part of the Kaulilua pattern as such that his version implies a variation of one low sound, one high sound and a low sound plus the obligatory rest. The second part of the prototypical Kaulilua version is based on three low sounds in succession instead. In this case creative change implies a variation of how high and low sounds alternate. Yet, Henry Pa did not change the time value of the first and second segment at all. Following Tatar’s research, Henry Pa performed the Kaulilua pattern using a pahu drum in combination with a smaller drum called pūniu. The deep sounds were produced striking the pahu drum, while the high sounds were generated striking the pūniu drum. This adheres to the use of instruments of hula pahu repertoire. The comparison between the prototypical Kaulilua pattern and Henry Pa’s version made clear that in Henry Pa’s case the process of creative variation of traditional percussion patterns is based on how the sequence of low and high sounds alternate. Time value, the total number of high and low sounds, and the use of instruments are not altered. Whether Henry Pa instantiated the change or whether he was taught this variation is an open question. When looking at Lake’s Kaupō pattern (fig. 8) we find a similar situation of creative variation. When comparing the percussive structure of the Kaupō pattern to both, the prototypical and Henry Pa’s versions, it is evident that the rhythmic structure of the Kaulilua pattern as a whole remains intact. Lake changed the successive order of high and low sounds once more. The first part of the Kaupō pattern is based on the succession of one low, one high, one low and one high sound. This type of alteration differs from the prototypical and Henry Pa’s version. The dynamic of the Kaupō pattern increases due to this high frequency of low and high sounds alternating in sequence, an acoustic effect characteristic of the Kaupō pattern discussed earlier. More so, Lake changed the second part of the pattern as such that the last sound is high instead of low as this is the case in Henry Pa’s version. The Kaupō pattern ends high sounding. This condition stresses rather the uplifting, forward pushing character and quality of the Kaupō pattern. A second major change is that Lake uses an ipu heke instead of the pūniu and pahu drum set used to produce the typical sound of the Kaulilua percussion pattern. Nevertheless, Lake adapts the typical alternation of low and high sounds to the condition of the ipu heke, recreating the sequence of high and low sounds respectively. The ipu heke generates a different sound quality in

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comparison to the pūniu and pahu drum set. The Kaulilua pattern as part of the pahu tradition is played in a stately and solemn manner, whereas Lake’s version of the Kaupō pattern is performed using an ipu heke in a rather fast manner thereby stressing a strong dynamic forward drive. To summarize, Lake adapts the rhythmic structure of the Kaulilua pattern, thus changing two parameters, the sequence of low and high sounds and the use of a different type of instrument. Continuity is given to the fact that the basic rhythmic structure of the Kaulilua pattern as a whole stays intact. Lake remains like Henry Pa within a traditionally marked range of creativity among hula masters. However, he adapted his variation to be performed on an ipu heke, a percussion instrument not representative of the pahu tradition. The use of the ipu heke relates to the hula ‘āla‘apapa and hula ‘ōlapa tradition. Still, the acoustic appearance and quality of the Kaulilua pattern is omnipresent when listening to Lake’s rendition of the hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina. I therefore argue that Lake did respond to an older and historically important stream of hula performance tradition. His strategy was to render the percussive characteristic of Kaupō ‘Āina by means of responding to the Kaulilua pattern keeping its basic structure intact. When listing to the Kaupō pattern it seems as if the sound of Kaulilua lingers on. This experience of sonic memory induces a sense of the past. The artistic rendition of the Kaupō pattern can be considered genuine by referring to features of performance practice that characterize certain traditions of performance practice in its own way. The Kaupō pattern is reminiscent of the hula pahu tradition, an element of “old,” imbued with sacred significance, on one hand. The alteration of the pattern and the use of the ipu heke in Kaupō ‘Āina, indicate “new” elements in performance practice, on the other hand. Lake incorporates both, “old” as well as “new” aspects considering the significance of percussion as part of his composition of Kaupō ‘Āina. Doing so he triggers a process of reflection upon the past seen from a contemporary point of view, all embodied by means of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice.

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5.4 Section IV: Combining “New” and “Old” Features of Performance Practice 5.4.1 Historical Implications of Performance Practice and its Analysis The piece of poetry, specified as the mele hula of the composition of Kaupō ‘Āina, refers to a larger segment of oral literature, the legend of Halemano. Lake drew on oral poetry which had undergone a transformation into written format. In the position of kumu hula, Lake knew how to introduce and render a given mele hula according to hula performance practice. The oral transmission of the Hawaiian legend Ka‘ao no Halemano might have been disrupted. Nevertheless, the practice of how to use poetic material to compose hula pieces continues on the Hawaiian Islands due to an ongoing transmission of respective performance knowledge from teacher generations to student generations till today. Hula performance traditions continued despite political and social oppression of Hawaiian culture during the 19th and 20th century. Lake himself is linked to such a genealogy of hula practitioners on Hawai‘i. Lake himself graduated as kumu hula49 from the hula master Maiki Aiu Lake.50 The latter hula master became famous on the islands supporting the tradition of hula practice and training within the so called hālau hula. Kumu hula Maiki Aiu Lake and her kumu hula graduates have had a strong impact on the development of the so called Hawaiian renaissance and cultural revival of Hawaiian traditions which started during the 60s.51 Since, hālau hula are respected for being traditionally run institutions geared towards training professional hula ‘ōlapa performers in order to produce hula perfor49 Lake graduated as kumu hula on Septermber 4th, 1983. The group of hula students that passed graduation was called “Papa ‘Ūniki Laua‘e.” See Ariyoshi, Rita (1998), p. 76. 50 The book Hula is Life (1998) by Rita Ariyoshi covers Maiki Aiu Lake’s life as a kumu hula. Hula master Lōkalia Montgomery graduated Maiki Aiu Lake as kumu hula in 1946. See Ariyoshi, Rita (1998), p. 80-81. 51 Robert Cazimero, Leinala Kalama Heine, Victoria Hanakaulaniokamamalu Holt Takamine, Mapuana de Silva are some of many kumu hula that Maiki Aiu Lake graduated. See Ariyoshi, Rita (1998), p. 66-67. This group of kumu hula is still active today and became influential in the development of traditional hula, Hawaiian cultural practices, and Hawaiian popular music. They became leaders of the Hawaiian cultural renaissance. See also Adrienne Kaeppler’s study on hula pahu and her research on the genealogies or branches of hula tradition. Last not least, kumu hula involved themselves in activities of political sovereignty.

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mances perpetuating hula as a cultural practice and distinct art form of Hawaiian origin. John Lake’s artistic contribution running his own hālau hula was to perpetuate what he had learned and to generate new hula repertoire pieces according to the aesthetic set up of hula ‘ōlapa performance principles. These developments include a growing interest among kumu hula to draw upon oral poetry that had been transcribed into written format a century ago. Stillman writes in her research on traditional hula practices that, “contemporary hula masters are, in fact, applying choreographic creativity in reviving mele that have experienced breaks in continuous performance and transmission.”52 I agree with Stillman that Lake’s compositional rendition of Kaupō ‘Āina shows in the first place how Lake adapted Fornander’s version of a mele hula. This specific piece of oral literature was transposed from oral into written format during the second half of the 19th century. Finally, the piece was retrieved back to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice at the end of the 20th century. Lake’s version is reminiscent of the past by referring creatively to several historically important performance traditions and features of hula. Lake talked about this particular historical circumstance, pointing out the challenge of combining old and new influences in traditionally oriented hula practice. Kaupō ‘Āina shows how Lake took up this challenge, active as a hula master and composer of hula repertoire pieces during the two final decades of the 20th century. The analysis of Kaupō ‘Āina illustrates one example that ties into historical developments concerned with creative procedures of hula performance practice, recollecting and reconfiguring performance knowledge that represent performance history of hula. The composition of Kaupō ‘Āina is based on a specific rendition of performance material. A particular combination of performance elements determines how the selected performative material converges in hula ‘ōlapa performance. The analysis so far supports that historical considerations are relevant to my performance analytical approach combining perspectives drawn from practice as research, interart studies and frame-analytical considerations. Earlier I stated that by framing I refer to artistic practices according to which performance material is divided, organized and allocated in a certain way, thereby combining performance materiality in sequence and synchronicity. Practices of framing may engender “structures of difference” (Paech, Rajewsky, and Wirth) as part of performance practice which in turn shape the format of a plurimedially organized performing art setting. Framing is a way to create borders among confluent performance elements by means of division, contrast and

52 See Stillman, Amy K. (1998), p. 51.

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means of variation.53 This methodological statement relates to one important result of the analysis of this chapter. Performance elements, words, movement, and percussion are organized by means of distinct performance segments. The mele hula and verbal foundation of a hula piece is divided and framed by so called pā segments and the implementation of kāhea. The combination of pā segments and paukū, the segments of the mele hula, in sequence evoke an alteration and differentiation among involved performance material. I argue that composing a hula piece is based on structures of performative difference. The pā sequences frame the paukū segments. The three types of pā segments feature aspects of combined performance material that direct the attention as such that they aesthetically prepare for and highlight the paukū segments in performance. Last not least, the discussed performance elements in combination finalize the piece eloquently. The kāhea and pā segments are crucial to render oral poetry through the aural and kinesthetic means of performance. Secondly, the concept of framing offers a perspective to consider that performative elements, which are considered to be self-referential in performance theoretical terms, infer meaning. Lake’s compositional rendition of Kaupō ‘Āina is reminiscent of the past by referring to several historically important performance traditions and features of hula. Earlier on, I discussed Goffman’s perspective that people who engage in specific social events implicitly employ “primary frameworks of interpretation.”54 Social activities, specified as guided doings, are defined by a “lore of understanding, approach, or perspective,” as Goffman concedes.55 Based on Goffman’s terms I developed an understanding of performance practice as embodied knowledge, guided doings in his terms, which implies to know how to apply frames of performance activity. To know how to apply guided doings includes frames of interpretation and therefore referential aspects. To consider the interrelationship of frames of reference and performative means of framing is crucial in an understanding of Kaupō ‘Āina. At the beginning of the analysis of this chapter, I explained how the mele hula ties into a broader framework of oral literature. The legend of Halemano functions on a meta-referential level framing the hula repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina. This meta-referential interrelation of the mele hula and the legend of Halemano contextualizes the hula repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina and relates it back to a larger body of oral literature. The legend 53 See Part I, Methods II: Interart Aesthetics and Performance Analysis, 3.3 Degrees of Convergence and Issues of Transgression. 54 See Part I, Methods III: Scoring Performance Practice, 4.3 The Concept of Guided Doings. 55 See Goffman, Erving (1974), p. 21.

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resonates like a referential backdrop which comes into play in performance as one subtle layer of reference, coloring and enriching the experience of the piece. Besides this particular referential interrelation of the mele hula and the frame story, I was able to show that segments of performance practice trigger meaning as well. A multi-layered sense of historical referentiality is tied to certain performance segments, elements and their combination. Lake rendered Kaupō ‘Āina by implementing the dividing pā segment called holo. Paukū and holo segments alternate in performance. The three paukū segments hold strictly four lines. Each paukū is based on a recurrent rhythmic score of 16 beats. This condition of standardized format of stanzas and regularity of beat cycles suggests a “new” performance practice influenced by Western standards. On the other hand Lake chose to end the piece applying the e-ue ending segment, which on the contrary refers to the oldest tradition of hula practice, the hula pahu. I was able to illustrate how the acoustic appearance of the Kaupō pattern, reminiscent of the Kaulilua pattern, links the piece Kaupō ‘Āina to the pahu hula tradition as well. Both the e-ue segment and the Kaupō percussion pattern trigger in the case of Kaupō ‘Āina associations of the Hawaiian “wā kahiko,” a suggested time span that predates Western influences on the Hawaiian Islands. Thus, I specified the use of the ipu heke as a “new” element. New in this case means that the use of the ipu heke relates to the younger tradition of the hula ‘āla‘apapa and the hula ‘ōlapa performance practice which emerged during the 19th and early 20th century, a time of change due to Western impact. 5.4.2 Weaving together Traditions of Performance Practice Both, “old” and “new” performance segments discussed here, feature primarily performative aspects of hula performance practice. In performance analytical terms these segments are considered to be self-referential. Self-referentiality, as I argued, is based on the fact that the materiality of these segments and structural aspects of hula composition and their specific aesthetic quality are of prime relevance in experiencing the piece in performance. The pā segments are discrete units of hula performance practice, thus, they are imbued with historical references. In composing Kaupō ‘Āina Lake created a subtle contradiction among performance segments and elements juxtaposing “old” and “new.” The combination generates tension. Tension arises due to juxtapositions of frames of reference which are linked to certain performance segments and their specific rendition of performance materiality. Aspects of performance practice relating to different historical developments in hula ‘ōlapa practice generates tension. Tension achieved via juxtaposition ties into structural conditions of performance material and the strategy of combining contrastive seeming material.

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Based on my analysis I concede that the hula composition of Kaupō ‘Āina engenders varying degrees of tension, a crucial aspect of aesthetic experience in hula ‘ōlapa performance, as I would argue. The analytical findings and considerations support what I have stated earlier: Convergence in performance relies thereafter on mutual and dynamic relationships between framed structures of difference among performance elements.56 Contrast and diversification are part of convergence at the performative level which implies in the case of Kaupō ‘Āina the interplay of several layers of sensory referentiality. This condition of performance in action creates shifting situations of tension and sensory intensities. All of this, the shifting condition between multiple referential and performative information, colors and shapes the process of aesthetic experience in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Lake made this aspect of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice productive shaping his composition of Kaupō ‘Āina according to the motif of struggle and contradiction between “old” and “new” in hula ‘ōlapa performance. The term “haku mele” means poet. The term combines the verb “haku,” which means according to the Hawaiian Dictionary “to compose, to invent, to put into order, to arrange; to braid, as a lei, or to plait, as feathers.”57 The noun “mele” signifies song or poetry. A poet is accordingly the one who, metaphorically speaking, braids words into songs or poetry. Words are carefully chosen and arranged based on their sounds and references. To weave words into poetry is a delicate process. The aesthetic effect of poetry is based on how the sounds and layers of references of words and thoughts are combined. As follows I compare composing poetry to the process of creating hula repertoire pieces. Doing so, I take the concept of braiding or weaving, epitomized in the work of the “haku mele,” as an important cultural reference point to understand other practices of Hawaiian arts. I argue that Lake did weave several performative aspects, which refer to several hula performance traditions, into the compositional fabric 56 See Part I, Methods II: Interart Aesthetics and Performance Analysis, 3.1 Convergence. 57 The Hawaiian Dictionary defines “haku,” among other meanings, as: “2. vt. To compose, invent, out in order, arrange; braid, as a lei, or plait as faethers. Cf. Haku mele,” see Pukui (1986), p. 50. The dictionary specifies “Haku mele. Nvi. Poet, composer; to compose song or chant; those that speak in proverbs (Nah. 21.27). Cf. Haku o ke mele, owner of the chant, those one for whom a chant was composed rather than the composer,” see Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert Samuel H. (1986), p. 50. The term “mele” denotes song, anthem, or chant of any kind; poem, poetry; to sing, chant to follow the definition of the Hawaiian Dictionary, by Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert Samuel H. (1986), p. 245.

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of Kaupō ‘Āina. Each performative aspect again triggers certain feelings and performance knowledge of historical significance coloring the aesthetic experience of the hula piece in question. Lake combined aspects that tie as such into embodied experience of performance knowledge. Meaning is experienced as a feeling of how history should sound, move and look like due to the fact that certain performance practices function as keys demarcating particular historical time frames and cultural conditions that shaped certain hula performance practices. This entangled condition of performative and referential history of performance practice triggers a sense of struggle and contradiction in the case of the discussed hula ‘ōlapa composition. Kaupō ‘Āina combines both old and new, generating thus a new, a contemporary piece within the context of traditional hula performance practice. As such, performativity in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice is closely tied to referential frames of performance knowledge understood here as embodied histories of performance practice. Practice is thereafter historically situated. Practice means to re-embody multiple layers of performance history. The artistic challenge which Lake shaped by creating Kaupō ‘Āina is a sense of tension that arises by combining aspects of practices that are respectively considered “old” versus “new.” This motif becomes part of the aesthetic experience of Lake’s hula composition, an artistic reflection about traditional hula performance practice at the end of the 20th century. I consider Lake’s composition of Kaupō ‘Āina to be an artistic statement: Hula thereafter is a key to embody the past through the eyes of a contemporary kumu hula, who perpetuates the cultural practice of hula as an ongoing living tradition on Hawai‘i.

Analysis II: A Performance Aesthetic Study on Stylized Gestural Articulation

6. O N G ESTURES

AND

S TYLIZATION

6.1 Body Posture and Gestures in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice Body motion is one of the most prominent forms of articulation in hula ‘ōlapa performance and therefore a means of artistic expression. In order to talk about body motion in hula ‘ōlapa I distinguish between three broad areas: 1) basic body posture, 2) stylized-abstract gestures, and 3) stylized-alluding gestures. Among stylized-abstract and stylized-alluding gestures I differentiate between upper body gestures which means distinguished movement sequences of the arms and hands, including the head and the torso, and lower body gestures which relate to coordinated movements of the feet, legs and the hip. Lower body gestures adhere for the most part to the category of stylized-abstract gestures whereas upper body gestures have to be divided into stylized-abstract or stylizedalluding gestures depending on their referential function in performance. Stylized-abstract gestures are self-referential while stylized-alluding gestures work as visual forms of representation. The final goal of practicing the art of stylized gesturing as part of hula ‘ōlapa performance is to present the art1 on stage to an audience.

1

The term “art” in reference to traditional hula practice means accomplishment in the process of fully unfolding what one has learned from ones teacher. To present hula performances means that a kumu hula and his or her hula ensemble present the artistic, philosophical and spiritual state of the art of his or her hālau hula (school of

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6.1.1 Specification of Gestures and Outline of the conceptual Cornerstones of Analysis According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), gesture, as a noun, denotes (1) “the manner of carrying the body;” (2) “grace of manner;” (3) “manner of placing the body; position, posture, attitude;” (4) “the employment of bodily movement;” (5) “a movement of the body or any part of it expressive of thought or feeling.”2 First of all, I want to stress that the OED specifies gesture as “the employment of bodily movement.” This specification outlines a general definition of gesture saying that gestures are based on the articulation of the body. A second point of interest to my own analytical perspective is that the OED subsumes both types of gestures, body posture and movements of any part of the body, under the general category of gesture. That means, that all single parts of the body are able to gesture and more so, the OED does include among gestures body posture. Body posture relates to the “manner of placing the body” which has to be understood as the articulation of the body as a whole. Respectively, I specify body posture as a “whole body gesture” which implies that all limbs are aligned in a coordinate way including the torso and the head. I consider that body posture functions as a gesture type of its own besides gestures that relate to movements of single parts of the body. The OED defines gestures as a means of communication, explaining that “a movement of the body or any part of it is expressive of thought and feeling.” According to this statement, gestures are intentional. They convey thought and emotion. Gestures are an important part of human interaction and communication. In expressing thought and feeling gestures shape a human sense of being in the world as much as they are involved in knowledge production. This topic has been of prime interest in the field of modern gestures studies. Adam Kendon, David McNeill and Cornelia Müller among others have been influential scholars in this academic area. The focus of their research ties into issues of gestural articulation in everyday conversation. In my work I refer to the work of these proponents in gesture studies extending thereby their discussion towards an analysis of stylized gestures of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice.

learning) to an audience. The range of appreciation is based on in-depth understanding of hula performance practice and its historical and cultural implications. 2

Oxford English Dictionary Online (10 March 2012). www.oed.com/view/Entry/ 77985#eid3123810.

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6.1.2 Stylization and Body Articulation Those aspects of gesture listed by the OED which refer “to carry the body,” “attitude” and “grace of manner” relate as I would argue to the category of style. Style captures an aesthetic component that relates to how gestures are executed on one hand. On the other hand, it defines how the gestural demeanor is perceived by an onlooker. Grace of manner as a matter of style asks how gestures are executed. Principles of form and appearance are of interest as much as questions concerning the phenomenological effect of gesturing thereby stressing qualitative and aesthetic aspects of gestural articulation. In reference to these basic considerations on style and gestures I introduce and apply in my work the concept of stylization as a means of artistic agency3 and analytical concept. I consider stylization as an operative mode at work shaping the appearance of stylized gestures as a means of communication used by performers to produce stage performances. Stylization as I argue determines the processes of embodiment and related gestural articulation4 and its perception. Respectively, I define stylization as an artistic and thereby aesthetic means to generate a “tension of dis-

3

Agency is a term relevant to both social and media studies. The Routledge PostColonial Studies Guide to Key Concepts defines the term agency as “the ability to act or to perform an action,” see Ashcroft, Bill (2002), p. 8. Lea Markey discusses the close conceptual relationship of gesture and agency as part of her essay on “gesture” published by the online dictionary of the Chicago School of Media. Markey stresses that the communicative function of gestures is part of human agency meaning that humans enact gestures deliberately in order to achieve an intended goal. See Lia Markey’s essay on “gesture” published online by the Chicago School of Media Theory, http://lucian.uchicago.edu/blogs/mediatheory/keywords/gesture/. In my work I relate to the above stated perspective of social and media studies that the use of gestures functions as an essential part of human agency. I adapt this perspective towards the needs of performance analysis by specifying that stylized gestures are used by performers as a means of artistic agency to create stage performances.

4

Christoph Wulf writes in his essay on gesture: “Gesten werden aus kulturell geformten und stilisiert mimetischem Ausdrucksmaterial erzeugt.” See Wulf, Christoph (1997): Vom Menschen. Handbuch historische Anthropologie, Weinheim: Beltz, p. 518. Wulf states that gestures emerge out of “stilisiert mimetischem Ausdrucksmaterial” which I translate as stylized mimetic material of expression. The term stylized hints at the fact that gesturing is based on a mimetic process of learning and exchange that happens among humans as part of social interaction. Gestures are as he writes intentional as much as they are historically and culturally shaped.

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tance” between everyday and so called extra-daily behavior5 applied in highly stylized performing art genres such as hula ‘ōlapa. Stylization shapes as a means of artistic agency several levels of gestural articulation and its perception: the performative that means material configuration, the sensory quality of appearance including aspects of corporeal presence as well as referential aspects of gestural articulation. To describe these aspects are of prime interest to my study. 6.1.3 Aisthesis, Stylization, Gestural Materialization, and Sensory Experience I adapt the notion of aesthetics understood as aisthesis6 as one leading perspective to support my performance analytical discussion on stylized gestures. The notion of aesthetics as aisthesis refers to the study of perception of aesthetic phenomena in the field of the arts and in life.7 The specified academic venture fo5

The idea that stylized forms of embodiment establish a tension of difference between everyday and extra-daily behavior is a concept discussed by Eugenio Barba. See Barba, Eugenio/Savarese, Nicola (1991), p. 8-22. I develop Barba’s concept in relation to the term stylization later on in this chapter.

6

According to the dictionary Langenscheidt, Taschenwörterbuch Altgriechisch on Ancient Greek, “aesthesis” signifies the perception of senses or feelings on one hand. At the same time aesthesis denotes meaning and the realization of a concept. In the course of history of the Western hemisphere, various scholars such as Plato or Aristotle, developed concepts and different approaches of how to understand the human senses and their application. See the entry on “aisthesis”, in: Langenscheidt Redaktion (eds.) (1993): Langenscheidt Taschenwörterbuch Altgriechisch, Vol. 1, p. 22.

7

Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714-1762) is the founder of the concept of aesthetics, understood as an independent subcategory of philosophy. Baumgarten conceptualizes that the notion of aesthetics is based on the idea of aisthesis, the perception of the human senses and a means of sensory enlightenment and hence links the field of aesthetics to the studies of Arts. See Böhme, Gernot (2001): Aisthetik. Vorlesung über Ästhetik als allgemeine Wahrnehmungslehre, München: Fink, p. 11-15. The notion of aesthetics as aisthesis, understood in its original meaning by Baumgarten, reemerged again during the 70’s of the 20th century. In respect to Merleau Ponty’s phenomenological philosophy of perception, the physical condition and involvement of the human body (leibliche Grundverfasstheit) is now understood as the pre-requisite of perception and last not least of knowledge. Aspects such as the actual feeling of bodily presence, the subject’s active engagement within the act of perception are basic assumptions in conceptualizing perception and ones understanding of the world. The complexity of aesthetic experience in conjunction with the act of experiencing phe-

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cuses on the relationship of particularly shaped material conditions of art production and how these guide processes of perception and aesthetic experience.8 A combined discussion of analytical concepts such as performativity, materiality, a performance aesthetic approach concerned with the impact of the senses, stylization, and aspects of Gestalt theory tie into how I apply the notion of aesthetics as aisthesis to my research interest and my analytical exemplification of the three distinguished categories of stylized gestures evident in hula ‘ōlapa practice. I divide my performance aesthetic study on stylized gestural articulation in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice into three analytical parts focusing consecutively on each of the three distinguished categories of stylized means of embodiment in hula ‘ōlapa performance. On Gestures and Stylization Section I concentrates on the basic body posture; On Gestures and Stylization Section II discusses the area of stylized-abstract gesture; On Gestures and Stylization Section III covers stylized-alluding gestures. I develop minute descriptions concerning the performative materiality of the three specified gesture types. Respectively, I specify three principles of stylization involved in the formation of the three specnomena of presence tied to living beings, objects and such fleeting phenomena like atmosphere have become of central interest in the area of philosophy and cultural studies. See the entry on “Ästhetik”, in: Fischer-Lichte, Erika/Kolesch, Doris/Warstat, Matthias (eds.) (2005): Metzler Lexikon. Theatertheorie, Metzler Verlag: Stuttgart/ Weimar, p. 6-13. 8

The perspective outlined here has been leading in Erika Fischer-Lichte’s theoretical work on the aesthetics of performance (2004/2008). Influential within the academic discourse on aesthetics as aisthesis are the work of Gernot Böhme and Bernhard Waldenfels. See Böhme, Gernot (2001): Aisthetik. Vorlesung über Ästhetik als allgemeine Wahrnehmungslehre, München: Fink; and Waldenfels, Bernhard (2010): Sinne und Künste im Wechselspiel: Modi äesthetischer Erfahrung, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. See also Beiküfner, Uta (2003): Blick, Figuration, Gestalt: Elemente einer aisthesis materialis im Werk von Walter Benjamin, Siegfried Kracauer, und Rudolf Arnheim, Bielefeld: Aisthesis Verlag. Beiküfner develops her research in the field of aesthetics as a study on aisthesis, by extending Baumgarten’s pre-idealistic notion of aisthesis as a means of sensory enlightenment to the area of historically and culturally circumscribed case studies on perception of the particular. Beiküfner refers to a recent debate on Aesthetics (Böhme, Seel, Waldenfels among others) in Germany. She outlines a study about concepts of perception thereby focusing on the interrelationship of particular material conditions of art production, historical circumstances and leading conceptual issues that guide processes of perception and reflections on aesthetic experience.

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ified gesture categories. The application of these principles of stylization determines, as I argue, the range of gestural articulation of each gesture category in terms of its material, qualitative and referential condition and aesthetic capacity. More so, I raise the question how embodiment in hula ‘ōlapa performance – body posture, stylized-abstract and stylized-alluding gestures – partakes in a “performance of the senses.” Within the conceptual framework of my performance aesthetic study on stylized gestural articulation as outlined here I discuss the idea that embodiment as part of stylized gestural articulation functions as an aesthetic key to multisensory experience. Multi-sensory experience relates as I argue to the qualitative level of how the appearance of gestures are perceived. The multi-sensory capacity of gestures shapes in conjunction with stylization both self-referential and referential aspects of stylized gestural articulation and its perception. This analytical outlook to conceptualize gestures as aesthetic keys to multi-sensory experience is a conceptual tool and response to my initial proposition saying that performing the senses specifies the aesthetic aim of hula ‘ōlapa. Last not least, the question is, whether the performance of the senses shapes aesthetic experience as a form of sensory enlightenment.

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6.2 On Gesture and Stylization Section I: The Basic Body Posture 6.2.1 ‘Ai Ha‘a – A Principal Gestural Schema which Shapes the Body as a Whole The notion of the body posture is fundamental to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice, see Appendix A-2, fig. 1 and fig. 2. It relates to the principal way of how to carry the body. The posture determines that all parts of the body are configured in a certain way. This pre-configuration of all limbs in relation to each other is observed by performers of hula ‘ōlapa throughout training sessions and performance. In other words “to posture” means to set the stage in hula ‘ōlapa. Besides the placement of the ‘ōlapa and the ho‘opa‘a on a stage area, called pā hula, there is no stage curtain which is moved aside or technical devices such as lights indicating the beginning or end of a performance. The performer posturing on stage demarcates that the performer is in the mode of performing. He or she is ready to act. It signals, “lights on.” The performance of hula ‘ōlapa is about to start. The posture of interest here is based on a physical organization of all body limbs. It outlines the basic bodily configuration in a particular way and thereby shapes the taxonomy of spatial relations among all limbs. As reference point in my discussion about the basic body posture in hula ‘ōlapa I refer to two photos, see Appendix A-2, fig. 1 and fig. 2. fig. 1 shows the basic body position in question from the side, whereas fig. 2 visualizes a front perspective. The body position discussed here is termed ‘ai ha‘a according to kumu hula John Lake’s training protocol. Accordingly, I refer to the term ‘ai ha‘a when talking about the basic body position in my research on hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The performer lowers his or her center of weight bending the knees. Both feet are positioned parallel to each other, about one foot length apart. This allows an alignment of feet, knees and hip. Feet are both placed firmly and flat footed on the ground. For one, the lowered center of weight enables a solid standing position. At the same time this position enables swift and fast movements of the lower body segment to the front, the side or the back. While the lower body segment takes on the ‘ai ha‘a position, the spine and the torso are erect. The head is placed in line with the spine, eyes are focused straight ahead. fig. 1 and 2 show how the arms are bent at the elbows, in such a way that the elbows point laterally to the left and right side. The hands are placed in front of the chest, palms facing down. The fingertips point towards each other. Variations occur depending on certain hula repertoire pieces which, for example, require that the ‘ōlapa performers start with fists placed at their hips, see Appendix A-2, fig. 3. The posture

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as described in detail above, see Appendix A-2, fig. 2, has been the principle body posture to start training sessions in Lake’s hālau. As such, I consider this posture as the main reference point of my discussion about the appliance of a basic posture in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Based on my description I argue that the basic body posture functions as a fundamental or prime gestural schema. Gestures of the upper and lower body segment always relate to ‘ai ha‘a, which pre-configures the body condition of the ‘ōlapa performers. An important resource, the Hawaiian Dictionary by Mary Kawena Pukui and Samuel H. Elbert defines the term “‘ai ha‘a” as follows, “hula step danced with bended knees; the chanting for this dance is usually bombastic and emphatic [...]; to dance thus. Lit. low style.”1 The dictionary’s definition specifies that ‘ai ha‘a denotes a specific style of performance. Of interest to my research is that the definition points at a “low style” of embodiment which relates to the discussed body position that is based on bent knees. The term ‘ai ha‘a combines two words, “‘ai” and “ha‘a.” To consider the meaning of these two root terms supports the composite term of ‘ai ha‘a as follows. The term ha‘a means according to the Hawaiian Dictionary “to lower” and “humble.”2 It further specifies that ha‘a denotes “a dance with bent knees; dancing” exemplifying that ha‘a is “called hula after the mid 1800s.”3 According to this quote the term ha‘a once specified what is called traditional hula performance today. The quote states a historical link between ha‘a and the tradition of hula performance practice. The link between ha‘a and hula understood here as an ongoing stream of performance tradition ties into the matter of fact that posturing based on a low stance of embodiment demarcates a core practice and aesthetic characteristic of hula performance practice. As such one could hypothetically argue that the style of hula performance based on the basic body posture called ‘ai ha‘a, which I learned from kumu hula John Lake, relates to performance practices dating back to the mid 18oo and earlier. More so, the dictionary relates “‘ai” primarily to “vegetable food” and “harvest” and at the same time to the basic human need “to eat.”4 The verbal subcategory of ‘ai “to eat” includes specifications such as “to destroy or consume by fire, to erode, to taste, bite, take a hook, grasp, hold on to, edible.”5 The two listed meanings concerning ‘ai that is to “grasp” and “hold on to” in particularly imply a metaphorical understanding of consuming knowledge via an on-going 1

See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 10.

2

Ibid., p. 44.

3

Ibid., p. 44.

4

Ibid., p. 9.

5

Ibid., p. 9.

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and in-depth practice. This perspective of a long term and in-depth study of hula meets with the understanding of learning and sustaining hula practice according to Lake’s teachings. The process to grasp hula means to consume knowledge comparable to eating food in order to sustain oneself as a living being. Thereof, taking both Lake’s teaching and the dictionary’s specification of ‘ai ha‘a into account, I argue that the performance of ‘ai ha‘a indicates a certain style and philosophy of hula practice that is based on lowered body position. To properly perform ‘ai ha‘a means to take an effort not only in physical terms. The posture embodies a key practice of traditional hula and an understanding about the effort of learning and to hold on to what one has leaned. To lower oneself as a performer implies humbleness which infers that the stance has a psychological effect as well. The absence of self, the individual ego of the performer, enhances the effect of stage presence. This particular psychological aspect of humbleness mentioned by the Hawaiian dictionary supports my proposition saying that the basic body posture of ‘ai ha‘a in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice enables performers to generate a psycho-physiologically based focus of attention on embodiment. This focus ties into manifesting readiness and a state of full awareness of presence. The definition of ‘ai points towards a relationship between the practice of ‘ai ha‘a and Hawaiian martial arts known as lua. The dictionary lists among the specifications of ‘ai: “3. n. dancing style or type. Cf. ‘ai ‘ami, ‘ai ha‘a, 4. Thrust of hold in lua fighting[...].”6 This specification listed by the Hawaiian Dictionary points towards a particular connection between two cultural forms of practices, traditional Hawaiian hula and lua, Hawaiian martial arts. Kumu hula John Keola Lake discussed the connection between traditional Hawaiian hula and martial as part of his course Cultural History of Traditional Hawai‘i held at the Bishop Museum in summer 2000. Lake spoke of the fact that both, traditional hula and lua, are taught in schools called hālau. Both cultural forms are based on key practices such as to “kāhea,” the use of calls and chants as a means of oral forms of protocol to indicate certain sections of training and performance.7 The stated connec6 7

Ibid., p. 9. Personal notes taken during the enrichment course “Cultural History of Traditional Hawai‘i,” May 20th till August 8th, 2000, taught by kumu hula John Keola Lake, a distinguished expert in Hawaiian language, oratory, protocol and traditions. The course was part of the Hawaiian Hall Volunteer Training Course organized by the Bishop Museum, a well known museum located in Honolulu on the Hawaiian island of O‘ahu. The Bishop Museum is to follow its own Statement of Philosophy an institution that “pertains to the natural and cultural history of Hawai‘i and the Pacific.”

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tion between traditional Hawaiian hula and martial arts is of interest in the course of this chapter as I advance my perspective on ‘ai ha‘a, a crucial performance practice of hula ‘ōlapa applied to achieve readiness and presence. These aspects of performance, readiness and presence, function as I argue as essential qualities of stylized embodiment in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. 6.2.2 Readiness: Ho‘omakaukau! A principle call, or kāhea, crucial to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice and taught by Lake is the call: “Ho‘omakaukau!” At the beginning of each training session, the student-performers start to warm up, to stretch, and to strengthen the body. Finally the hula master calls out “ho‘omakaukau!” to demarcate the transition into the next section geared towards training of hula basics, which implies a routine of basics steps and hula repertoire. Ho‘omakaukau means to “be ready!” It functions as a vocal exclamation. As soon as this initial call occurs all participants of the training immediately take up the ‘ai ha‘a basic posture, see fig. 2. In hula ‘ōlapa the performers stand next to each other in a sequence of lines. These lines of performers are staggered starting from the front towards the back of the training area. Everyone faces the front. Everyone answers in unison: “‘Ae!” which means, “Yes!”8 This basic routine, taking on the basic posture as a response to the call ho'omakaukau, is of utmost significance to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The result is that each ensemble member takes on the same body posture of ‘ai ha‘a. Everyone involved is focused. The call organizes the ensemble to take on the same basic stance in order to move in synchrony while performing a series of basic steps or hula repertoire pieces. This routine of readiness practiced during training sessions is the foundation for group performances on stage. Thus, the explicit call, requesting readiness, and the respective verbal response are omitted on stage. Everyone knows how to embody the basic body posture according to the discussed performance protocol. The ho'omakaukau routine becomes implicit performance knowledge.

8

See the Hawaiian Dictionary Online, “‘ae, 1. vt. interj. Yes; to say yes, consent, conform, grant, agree, approve, let, confirm, admit, permit, allow, accept, yield; approval, admission, permission. Cf. a‘e nei. ‘Ae waha, oral agreement. ‘Ae wale, to agree easily; pliable. Ua ‘ae mai ‘oia i ko‘u hele, he consented to my going. (PCP (‘)a(a)e.),” www.wehewehe.org.

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6.2.3 Body Posture and Presence The body posture of ‘ai ha‘a as discussed earlier, see Appendix A-2, fig. 2 and fig. 3, organizes at least four faculties of the body: the physical, the mental, the energetic and the emotional aspect of embodiment. These faculties of the performer’s body come into alignment which enables a state of total awareness. The performer is focused on the here and now, the “hic and nunc.” The performer is ready to perform. The position means to embody a state of profound presence. The performer surrenders himself/herself to perform. Nothing could distract the performer from the goal to perform. The performer is freed to perform, to recall Zarrilli’s note on in-body techniques in India.9 These aspects, readiness and the embodiment of presence, refer as I stated earlier to a core element of embodiment that is relevant to both traditional Hawaiian hula and lua, the tradition of Hawaiian martial arts.10 The technique to take on the basic stance – bending the knees while lowering the center of weight, erect torso, the gaze being focused, fists at hips, which altogether calls for total attentiveness – manifests a condition, which is utilized both in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice and Hawaiian martial arts known as lua.11 This function to request full attention in conjunction with the basic stance is that performers and martial arts practitioners alike are ready to perform according to their specific goals, stage art in case of hula ‘ōlapa and combat in case of lua. As mentioned earlier, the posture enables at once a solid stance, and flexibility to move towards various directions. This is an ability of utmost necessity to a martial arts practi9

See Part I, Methods I: Practice as Research, 2.3 Practice as Research and The Embodied Mind Condition.

10 The basic stance in lua is called “mokomoko,” the ready position to follow the book on Lua: A History of the Art of the Hawaiian Warrior. The ready position in lua is based on bent knees, erect torso, arms are stretched straight down to both sides of the body, the hands are cupped downward. “Potential action, muscles tensed to the threshold of aggression,” this statement qualifies what the mokomoko position is all about. See Paglinawan, Kekumuikawaiokeola Richard (et al.) (2006): Lua. A History of the Art of the Hawaiian Warrior, Honolulu, Hawai‘i: Bishop Museum Press, p. 40. 11 In class kumu hula Lake did point out the close co-relation between these two Hawaiian cultural practices. I myself participated in an introductory lua class held during the Annual Ho‘oku‘ikahi Establishment Day Hawaiian Cultural Festival at Pu‘ukoholā Heiau in 2001. During that session I learned about the basic stance in lua which is likewise based on a low body position bending the knees. Additionally, I was able to observe lua sham battles at the same festival as participant in 1999, 2000 and lately during my Interart Studies sponsored field research on Hawai‘i in 2010.

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tioner. Survival in case of a fight is tied to the ability to react instantaneously towards a blow executed by an antagonist. My proposition is that the technique that the basic body posture holds in martial arts has been absorbed into the context of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. In case of hula ‘ōlapa the aim of this particular in-body technique is not combat. It functions as part of stage art, enacting poetry via body motion, percussion and chant. However, the body posture is the key to a sense of alertness and utmost embodied attentiveness which demarcates the foundation of hula ‘ōlapa practice. The result is presence, an important analytical category in performance studies. More so, the embodiment of presence designates one prominent aesthetic quality at work in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. In fact, the technique to induce presence by means of the basic body posture means that this basic corporeal configuration of presence is activated. It functions at the core of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice demarcating a fundamental performative condition. It’s a key to stage hula ‘ōlapa. The body posture indicates that hula ‘ōlapa performance is going on, demarcating a difference between hula ‘ōlapa performance and everyday behavior. 6.2.4 By Means of Stylization I In his cross-cultural study on theater anthropology Eugenio Barba discusses the co-relation between energetic, physical and mental processes induced by means of predefined body postures used by traditional stage art practices among various cultures from Asia. One important argument in his comprehensive study The Secret Art of the Performer (1991) is that traditional stage art practices and martial arts relate closely in terms of their use of certain in-body techniques. “Widely known and practiced throughout Asia, martial arts use concrete physiological processes to destroy the automatism of daily life and to create another quality of energy in the body. Martial arts are based on acculturation technique, that is, a form of behavior which does not respect the spontaneity of everyday life. It is this very aspect of martial arts, that is, their use of acculturation technique, which has inspired codified theatre forms. The legs slightly bent, the arms contracted: the basic position of all Asiatic martial arts shows a decided body ready to leap and to act. [...] Studies have been made of the relationship between martial arts and personality and it has been found that the learning of a martial art by means of the repetition of physical actions leads the student to another awareness of themselves and to another use of their bodies. One objective of martial arts is to learn to be present at the very moment of an action. This type of presence is extremely important for performers who wish to be able to recreate, every night, that quality of energy which makes them alive in the spectator’s eyes. It is perhaps this common objective, in

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spite of different results, which explains the influence which martial arts have had on most Oriental theatre forms.”12

Barba specifies all those features that determine what hula ‘ōlapa performers do. The basic posture “legs slightly bend, arms contracted” induces a “decided body” to follow Barba’s conceptualization. This body condition is a key to achieve readiness to act instantaneously. The posture generates a body condition that differs from everyday life, enhancing a state of presence. Focus based on full alignment of all faculties of embodiment is the goal, substituting spontaneity of everyday life. All of this supports my understanding of the basic body posture, and its actual use on stage. The stated effect of the basic body posture points at the significance of this particular in-body technique shaping the performative and aesthetic appearance of the performer’s bodies involved in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Barba further discusses the relationship of body position, balance, and energy relevant to an understanding of a performative level being particularly engendered and featured as such in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. He concedes, that “the basic body position of the various Oriental theatre forms are likewise examples of a conscious and controlled distortion of balance. The performers of the various oriental traditions deform the position of the legs and knees, and the way of placing the feet on the ground, or they reduce the distance between one foot or the other thereby making balance precarious.”13 The use of a specifically trained basic body posture pre-defines embodiment on stage, a condition which Barba defines as “extra-daily technique.”14 The body posture may differ to a certain degree among compared theatre forms, yet their function is to engender an alteration of balance. The alteration of balance shapes induced micro-muscular tensions and oppositions within the body as well as the energetic condition of the performer. The alteration of the body’s balance focuses mental processes. The relationship between mental processes and micro-muscular tensions functions like a core condition which, “hidden in the depths of the body’s daily techniques, can be molded and amplified in order to increases the power of the performer’s presence, thus becoming the basis of extra-daily technique,” as Barba argues .15 Barba’s concept of extra-daily technique applies to how the basic body posture functions in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. To perform ‘ai ha‘a means to 12 See Barba, Eugenio/Savarese, Nicola (1991), p. 197. 13 Ibid., p. 11. 14 Ibid., p. 9 ff. 15 Ibid., p. 11.

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trigger an increase of tension in the body. The tension arises due to bending the knees, thereby lowering the center of weight. Bending the knees means to engender an increase of muscular effort. The muscles of the thighs have to work much harder. At the same time the altered relationship of bend knees and erect torso induces a new condition of balance. The arms are bent, elbows point to the sides supporting physical effort concerning the upper body segment. This position clearly diverts from a regular everyday stance as well. Throughout hula ‘ōlapa performances the performers keeps up the basic body condition predefined by this stance. This physical effort puts the performer into a state of unease. Barba writes: “Unease, then, becomes a means of control, a kind of internal radar, which permits performers to observe themselves while in action. Not with their eyes, but by means of a series of physical perceptions which confirm that extra-daily, non-habitual tensions are at work in the body.”16 Last not least, this focused excess of energy and effort ties into the appearance of presence, an immaterial yet perceivable quality. Barba discusses the relationship of energy and presence as follows: “On the visible level, it seems that they are expressing themselves, working on their body and voice. In fact, they are working on something invisible: energy. The concept of energy (energeia = ‘strength’, ‘efficacy’, from en-ergon, ‘at work’) is a concept both obvious and difficult. We associate it with external impetus, with an excess of muscular and nervous activity. But it also refers to something intimate, something which pulses in immobility and silence, a retained power which flows in time without dispersing in space. [...] it is actually a personal temperature-intensity which the performer can determine, awaken, mould.”17

Based on Barba’s considerations I propose that in case of hula ‘ōlapa performance both the aspect of energy and that of presence generate and enhance a quality that relates to liveliness, life-force or bios according to Barba which fuels stage experience. The basic body posture instills this feeling of a performer being fully present, and thereby being fully alive due to focus and the performer’s trained psycho-physical condition. This aspect of presence is perceivable as a quality of intensity although the performer is posing without any extra motion. The term “extra-daily technique” introduced by Eugenio Barba conceptualizes a condition based on the tension of embodied difference which demarcates extra-daily technique in classical Asian theatre forms. Barba’s research concen16 Ibid., p. 13. 17 Ibid., p. 81.

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trates on rules that organize the physical activity of extra-daily performance behavior by collecting and comparing practices of various Asian theatre practices. In reference to Barba’s findings, the difference between extra-daily and daily behavior is based on an established “tension of distance,” which further implies a “dialectical relationship”18 between both activities. Barba’s idea concerning a “tension of distance” between extra-daily behavior on stage and daily behavior is of interest in my own thinking about stylization evident in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice, stylization understood as an artistic means and applied principle that shapes performance production and respectively aesthetic experience of such performances. In her academic writing on Chinese opera, WichmannWalczak equates “stylization” with Barba’s concept of “extra-daily behavior,” saying that “stylization refers to the divergence between the behavior of daily life and their presentation on the stage.”19 Taking Barba’s and Wichmann-Walczak’s consideration into account I argue that the stated divergence between daily behavior and stylized, extra-daily behavior characteristic to classical performing arts from Asia shapes hula ‘ōlapa performance practice as well. The implementation of the basic body posture ‘ai ha‘a deviates from daily behavior due to the fact that performers apply opposing physiological forces. The stance establishes accordingly a “tension of distance” (Barba) and a perceivable condition of “divergence” of behavior, a principle feature which determines Wichmann-Walczak’s notion of stylization. I concede from this discussion on extra-daily technique and stylization that the use of ‘ai ha‘a indicates a prime means of performance organization which I conceptualize as the first principle of stylization at work in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. To apply the first principle of stylization for performance purpose means to train an extra-daily configuration of the body. To perform ‘ai ha‘a means to activate and amplify a physiologically implemented condition of precarious balance which deviates from everyday behavior. This new balance pushes for a dynamic 18 Ibid., p. 10. 19 See Wichmann-Walczak, Elizabeth (1991): Listening to Theatre: The Aural Dimension of Beijing Opera, UH of Hawai‘i Press, p. 4. Barba specifies in his study theatre forms that are based on extra-daily techniques as highly codified. Codification signals a “frozen” situation. Instead, I refer to Wichmann-Walczak’s position of stylization, who refers to Barba’s concept of extra-daily technique. The term stylization is based on a perspective that stresses a study concerning the effect of stylization in relation to a study of artistic agency that means the ability to engender stylized forms of stage expression. My point here is that performers trained in stylized theatre practices continuously develop their art as an ongoing artistic and aesthetic venture.

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of opposing forces at work, a condition of physiological tension and focus of attention. The posture’s enactment, its corporeal deviation is aesthetically perceived as to instill a “tension of distance” between hula ‘ōlapa performance and everyday behavior. The ‘ai ha‘a posture sets the stage, the corporeal framework for any subsequent enactment. Barba adds to the discussion of stylization: “The performer’s extra-daily technique, that is, presence, derives from an alteration of balance and basic posture, from the play of opposing tension which dilate the body’s dynamics. The body is re-built for the scenic fiction. This ‘art body’ – and therefore, ‘unnatural body’ – is neither male nor female. At the pre-expressive level, sex is of little importance. Typical male energy and typical female energy do not exist. There exists only one energy specific to a given individual.”20

Hula ‘ōlapa training is primarily based on this very concept that there is no gender difference concerning energy or presence. Following Lake’s teaching tradition of hula the basic training and hula repertoire in general is practiced and performed both by men and women alike. The training demands from studentperformers, whether men or women, to master the technique of embodiment including ‘ai ha‘a, the basic posture, and the entire range of hula repertoire that one hula school of training holds. The content of mele hula, the oral poetry involved in the fabric of hula ‘ōlapa compositions, respectively hula repertoire pieces, covers male and female characters that are of historic or fictive origin. Hula performers, whether they are men or women, portray these characters applying the artistic means of hula. However, male performers articulate some selected gestures differently than female performers in case the hula piece portrays a fictive or historic character of female gender. This is a rather subtle way to exhibit gender difference among female and male performers performing together as part of one ensemble, a topic of future research. 6.2.5 ‘Ai Ha‘a and the First Principle of Stylization Based on my discussion, so far, I summarize that hula ‘ōlapa builds upon ‘ai ha‘a, the basic body posture. The configuration of this body posture relates conceptually to the first principle of stylization embodied in hula ‘ōlapa performance, as I argue. The first principle of stylization engenders by means of ‘ai ha‘a an explicitly trained and performed extra-daily technique. This technique applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance generates an embodied tension of distance perceivable as the performer postures according to ‘ai ha‘a. This principle extra20 See Barba, Eugenio/Savarese, Nicola (1991), p. 81.

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daily technique determines the performance behavior of hula ‘ōlapa as a distinct performance genre and its embodied appearance on stage. “It is not a stylistic choice, it is a way to engender the actor’s life. It then only secondarily becomes a particular stylistic characteristic,” as Barba writes.21 The result is a posture enhancing the bodily condition of readiness and presence. The posture engenders a basic physiological and visual body schema thereby setting the stage for any subsequent gestural articulation. The particular bodily appearance discussed earlier functions as a significant performative and aesthetic key demarcating the realm of performance removed from everyday behavior. The body is re-built for the experience of performance and scenic fiction, according to Barba’s writing. Later in my analysis I focus on how this particular level of corporeal presence is aesthetically effective within the complementary and contrastive composition of performance elements in hula ‘ōlapa.22

21 Ibid., p. 11. 22 See Part II, Analysis III: 7.4.2 Sensory Sequencing applied to Kaupō ‘Āina.

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6.3 On Gestures and Stylization Section II: Stylized-Abstract Gestures Consecutively, I apply the initial framework about stylization outlined so far to a micro-analytically oriented description of hela, one stylized-abstract gesture evident in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. I consider Gestalt-theoretical concerns as part of my performance aesthetic approach of analysis. Based on my analytical findings I outline the Gestalt-model 1 which specifies fundamental aspects of stylized-abstract gestural materialization and its appearance. I delineate a second principle of stylization which partakes as I argue in the performative formation of stylized-abstract gestures. The conceptualization of stylized performance materiality leads towards an aisthetic understanding of sensory experience of gestural articulation in my work. In the course of On Stylization and Gestures Section II I refer to Barba’s initial observation who states that the perceivable “tension of distance” between daily behavior and extra daily technique is based on a dialectical relationship. I relate this basic performance aesthetic assumption of stylized embodiment into a yet broader perspective of stylization. I develop this perspective by means of a joint discuss of three concepts: 1) Barba’s concept of extra-daily technique applied among highly stylized performing arts, 2) Butler’s sociological notion that social behavior such as gender is based on stylization1 and 3) Fischer-Lichte’s performance theoretical concept of “displaced re-enactments.” I start Section II on stylized-abstract gestures discussing notions drawn from the field of contemporary gesture studies on everyday gesticulation. I refer to gesture studies as an additional conceptual framework for subsequent analysis on gestural materialization and sensory experience. 6.3.1 Developments in Gesture Studies Adam Kendon, a prominent scholar in gesture studies, recently questioned the premise that confines gestures to function as “nonverbal communication,” a prominent notion that Kendon himself fostered in his early work on gestures entitled Nonverbal Communication, Interaction, and Gesture (1981). Kendon states that the paradigm of language, which focuses on verbal means only, has been a dominant perspective during the 20th century. His critique is that “the concept of ‘nonverbal communication’ was surely one of the consequences of this ideology of language. This unfortunate concept, which divides communication into words 1

Butler’s feminist discernments on gender is based on a principle differentiation between sex and gender, the latter being conditioned by socially sanctioned interaction.

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and everything else, decrees that anything that is “not verbal” must have some other kind of function, and this, almost by definition, could not be the same as the functions of words.”2 According to this perspective gestures, facial expression and body movements are considered to function as paralinguistic devices, in other words non-verbal aspects. This implies a conceptual hierarchy where upon so called non-verbal communication including gestures are considered to be subordinate to language, the prime means of verbal communication. Instead, Kendon claims in his recent work, supported by other proponents of gestures studies3 and research by David McNeill and Cornelia Müller, that gestures and words partake equally as “vehicles for the expression of thoughts and so participate in the tasks of language.”4 Kendon stresses the multi-modal condition of communication. He introduces the term “Gesture Speech Ensemble” arguing that communication is based on a complex orchestration of both verbal acts and kinetic or gestural acts. He concedes that the process of bringing language into being – “languaging” – is based on a multi-modal totality of actions.5 A similar idea has been fostered by David McNeill in his book entitled Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal About Thought published in 1992. David McNeill discusses the special function of gestures in everyday communication saying that “gestures exhibit images that cannot be expressed in speech.”6 Gestures are, as he writes, “a person’s memories and thoughts rendered visible. Gestures are like thoughts themselves. They belong, not to the outside world, but to the inside one 2

See Kendon, Adam (2007): “Origins of Modern Gesture Studies”, in: Duncan, Susan D./Cassell, Justine/T. Levy, Elena (eds.): Gesture and the Dynamic Dimension of Language, p. 25. McNeill credits the discovery that there is a “unity of speech and gesture” to Adam Kendon. See McNeill, David (1992): Hand and Mind. What Gestures Reveal about Thought, London: Chicago UP, p. 1.

3

Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, David Efron and Adam Kendon have conducted fundamental research in so called modern gesture studies. Based on Efron’s pioneering work, who examined systematically the cultural variations of gesturing styles among US immigrants, East European Jews and South Italians, Kendon continued likewise to focus on spontaneous gestures relevant in situations of everyday conversation. These pioneers in gesture studies have been an important reference to a younger generation of scholars such as Cornelia Müller and David McNeill.

4

See Kendon, Adam (2007), p. 25.

5

The citations of concepts are drawn from Kendon, Adam (2010): “Kinetische Komponenten multimodaler Äusserung”, in: Wulf, Christoph/Ficher-Lichte, Erika (eds.): Gesten: Inszenierung, Aufführung, Praxis, München: Fink, p. 37.

6

See McNeill, David (1992), p. 12.

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of memory, thought and mental images.”7 This perspective highlights that gestures express thoughts drawing on visual and image-like aspects. Gestures function based on their specific kinetic-visual quality as one integral part of face-toface communication besides verbal means. The premise is that thought implies image-like aspects enacted via communication. 6.3.2 Agency, Materiality, and Referentiality: The Performance Analytical Conceptualization of Gestural Articulation McNeill concedes that “to make a gesture, then, is to iconically materialize a meaning in action and spatial form.”8 This statement by McNeill covers several performance theoretical concepts central to my own analytical understanding of gestures. The statement captures as I argue in brevity the conceptual conjunction of performativity and several notions of interest to my discussion: 1) the idea of agency, 2) gestural materiality, 3) gestural referentiality conceptualized in my work as a visual form of representation. 1. Agency: “To make gestures” as McNeill writes, implies that gestures are principally performative, intentionally done and as such action based. McNeill highlights the actual procedure of “making” or “doing” gestures. The generation and perception of gestures are both process oriented. This implies conceptually an operative mode of gestural articulation as a means of every day performance, agency in other words. Humans generate gestures intentionally while being involved in enacting communication. I conceptualize agency of gestural articulation in my work under the premise of stylization. 2. Gestural Materiality: The adjunct sentence that gestures “[...] iconically materialize meaning in action and spatial form” outlines a phenomenology of gestural materialization of interest to my own study. First of all, McNeill’s statement considers temporality to be one fundamental aspect conceptualizing the materiality of gestures. He points out that gestures materialize “in action.” Actions develop in time and depend on a certain time frame. Gestures are momentary events. Their fleeting condition demarcates gestures as temporal entities in other words. More so, gestures are generated due to the fact that the body in action moves through space generating spatial forms. Likewise, McNeill considers spatiality to be an intrinsic part when conceptualizing the materiality of gestures. To state that gestures are based on a “spatial 7

Ibid., p. 12.

8

See McNeill, David (2005): Gesture and Thought, Chicago, London: Chicago UP, p. 56.

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form” which “iconically materializes meaning” implies that gestures have a fleeting visual and image-like appearance. Visuality is thereafter an important factor when analyzing the appearance of gestures as well. The visual gestural form vanishes. The visuality of gestures is intrinsically tied to temporality and spatiality. 3. Gestural Referentiality: Gestures iconically convey meaning in action and spatial form to follow McNeill’s quote. Due to their image-like appearance gestures are a means to communicate “meaning.” According to this conceptualization the co-relation of visuality and referentiality is at stake. Gestures function as visual, image-like signs, referring to something other than themselves in semiotic terms.9 Thus, the general perspective of McNeill’s statement stresses a performance theoretical perspective according to which the semiotic function of gestures is considered to be an intrinsic part of the material emergence and the performative function of gestures. This conceptual understanding of gestures I find exceptional. McNeill uses the term “iconic” to specify the fact that gestures portray meaning and referential aspects by means of visual, image-like characteristics. Gestures function as “visual forms of representation” so to speak, a concept discussed more in detail as

9

One important scholar and founder of linguistics and of semiotics is Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure’s concept of the linguistic sign is based on the finding that a word is the product of “the union or coupling of thought with phonic material.” See Councell, Colin/Wolff, Laurie (2001), p. 6. Saussure concedes that a sign designates the whole, which unites the abstract concept or thought with the sensory sound-image. The linguistic sign thereafter is an entity which is “formed by the association of two.” See Councell, Colin/Wolff, Laurie (2001), p. 6. Saussure terms the sensory or materialized form of a sign as “signifier.” The mental concept or semantic part of a sign is denoted with the term “signified.” Saussure discusses, as part of his outline of linguistic research, issues that are concerned with the material aspects of language. See Councell, Colin/Wolff, Laurie (2001), p. 140-143. He conceptualizes the phones not according to their “positive quality” as sounding aspects of language even though phones comprise the smallest distinct sound units in language. They are of interest only due to their functional difference among each other which implies a radical abstraction from the physical condition and phenomenological appearance of the sound material involved. Saussure clearly states that the material formation of signs is insignificant to the linguistic approach. See Councell, Colin/Wolff, Laurie (2001), p. 143. This central premise in linguistic and semiotic studies has been questioned by phenomenologically oriented research.

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part of On Stylization and Gestures Section III. I further distinguish between self-referential and referential aspects in my analysis of stylized gestures. These three cornerstones of McNeill’s conceptualization of gesture, that is agency, gestural materiality and gestural referentiality, I take into account to outline those performance analytical specification of gesture that are fundamental to my own analytical approach and discussion of stylized-abstract and stylized-alluding gestures. I state that the performative emergence of gestural materiality all together is thereafter based on the confluence of at least four performative materialities: 1) corporeality, 2) visuality, 3) spatiality, and 4) temporality. I include corporeality as the first of the listed categories of performative materiality due to the fact that gestures are based on movements of the limbs as a means of embodiment. The material appearance of gestures is basically tied to the sensory sphere of visuality, the second performative materiality listed. The fleeting character of gestures implies that the visual appearance has a temporal and a spatial format, categorized by the third and fourth aspect of gestural performance materiality. Gestures are principally seen not heard. However, clapping gestures or the use of percussive instruments may supplement gestural expression involving the sphere of acoustics. The latter category of gestures used to produce sound I consider to function as a special category of its own. The idea that gestures are done intentionally implies that performers who are aware of the material givens of gestures may intentionally shape gestures in a characteristically marked and decisive way. In my work I conceptualize the concept of agency of gestural articulation, when applied to artistic settings of performance practices, as stylization.10 Understood as an operative mode, stylization 10 I review results drawn from my research and unpublished Masters Thesis (2005) entitled An Analysis of the Performance Practice of Hawaiian Hula ‘Ōlapa, focusing on the Interdependence of Structured Time, a Form of Stylized Dance-Acting, and Poetic Text. I dedicated Chapter IV of my Masters Thesis to “A Theory of Stylization relevant to Kinetic Performance Production also known as Dance-Acting.” Respectively, the focus of Chapter IV has been to develop an analytical framework applied to gestural articulation evident in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Part of the conceptual work of that same chapter has been to extend the semiotic notion of gesture, understood as a form of kinetic sign, towards an understanding of gestures based on an performance analytical perspective. The prime interest of mine was to describe the material condition that means the spatio-temporal appearance of gestures, reflecting on the impact of stylization. I further discussed the material condition of gestures and respective sensory qualities considering semiotic notions of self-referentiality and referen-

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shapes the actual process of gestural materialization as one facet of aesthetic experience during acts of performance. I consider several academic perspectives in my discussion on stylization of performance practice. One notion applied in this study is the idea of “extra-daily technique” as a way to generate bodily articulations that imply a “tension of distance” between everyday and extra-daily behavior for stage art purpose. This notion has been discussed among proponents of Asian performance study such as Eugenio Barba and Elizabeth WichmannWalczak. In the course of this chapter I outline three principles of stylization11 which I consider to be operative in generating the three categories of stylized forms of embodiment in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The three principles of stylization apply consecutively to the three distinguished categories of gestures in my work. The basic body posture relates to the first principle of stylization discussed earlier in this chapter. Stylized-abstract gestures are based on the second principle of stylization and stylized-alluding gestures last not least rely on the combination of both the second and third principle of stylization.12 Respectively, leading questions of my analytical approach on stylized gestures are: How does stylization tie into the actual material and sensorial properties of gestures as they unfold in the very process of performance? How does the stylized materiality of gestures shape multi-sensory experience and signification? I consider in my analysis that both aspects – sensory experience and tiality as part of gestural materialization. Respectively, I developed a conceptual framework introducing the concept of Gestalt to describe the appearance of gestures and I addressed the notion of stylization asking how the latter concept shapes gestural articulation in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. In my current work I refer to both the notion of stylization and the notion of Gestalt to conceptualize performanceaesthetically gestural appearance extending my early results towards A Performance Aesthetic Study on Stylized Gestural Articulation, my current understanding of the subject. The aim is to develop a comprehensive perspective on stylized means of embodiment. 11 In my early study I distinguish between two principles of stylization specifying stylization of stylized-abstract and stylized-alluding gestures. See Lilleike, Monika (2005): An Analysis of the Performance Practice of Hawaiian Hula ‘Ōlapa, focusing on the Interdependence of Structured Time, a Form of Stylized Dance-Acting, and Poetic Text, unpublished MA Thesis. For the purpose of this study I introduce one more principle of stylization. The first principle of stylization delineates stylization by means of the basic body posture ‘ai ha‘a. 12 See Part I, Analysis II: A Performance Aesthetic Study on Stylized Gestural Articulation Section II and III.

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referentiality – are of relevance in an understanding of aesthetic experience concerning hula ‘ōlapa performance. For the purpose of my own research interest I draw on categories of performance analysis13 and considerations about the material and phenomenal aspects of gestures summarized by McNeill’s statement that “to make a gesture, then, is to iconically materialize a meaning in action and spatial form.” Considering that gestures have a fleeting visual appearance, a gestural form that vanishes, my interest is to discuss how material and performative aspects such as corporeality, temporality, visuality, and spatiality co-inside within the process of gestural articulation. I analyze how stylization as an operative mode of artistic agency takes part in shaping the convergent aspects of gestural materiality and aspects of self-/referentiality of gestural articulation. My point is that stylization is at work as one important facet that determines the gestural fabric and respectively aesthetic experience of stylized gestures. My analysis is geared towards outlining a model of stylized-abstract gestures first. Of interest is to focus on the co-relation of the material and sensory properties of stylizedabstract gestures considering the so called Gestalt-concept in order to discuss the momentary convergence of material and sensory properties of gestural articulation. I furthermore discuss the second principle of stylization in relation to the performative generation and perception of stylized-abstract gestures as I develop the Gestalt-model 1. The aim of the Gestalt-model 1 is to specify conceptually the conjunction between stylization and performative, qualitative and so called self-referential aspects of stylized-abstract gestures. In Section III of this chapter On Gestures and Stylization, which is concerned with the analysis of stylizedalluding gestures, I adapt the Gestalt-model 1 to the analysis of stylized-alluding gestures. Section III delineates respectively the development of Gestalt-model 2, which I generally speaking refer to the process of Gestalt-perception of stylizedalluding gestures. This latter part of the discussion on stylized-alluding gestures stresses even more so the multi-sensory capacity and effect of gestures applied in 13 I refer to Fischer-Lichte’s performance theoretical work The Transformative Power of Performance: A New Aesthetics (2008). Fischer-Lichte outlines four categories that partake in the performative generation of materiality: corporeality, tonality, spatiality, and temporality. She writes: “The performance’s materiality is not simply given; it rather appears and disappears in the course of the performance. Materiality represents an emergent phenomenon: it emerges, is stabilized for varying periods of time, and vanishes again. Individual subjects contribute to its generation without being able to determine or control it. On the contrary, they must be willing to submit to it to a certain degree.” See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 130. The original book written in German and entitled Ästhetik des Performativen was published in 2004.

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hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The analysis of stylized-alluding gestures rests on both the second and third principle of stylization. The Multi-Modal Nexus between Words and Gestures In his book Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal About Thought, McNeill develops a point of view saying that communication combines the means of words and gesture. The temporal, sequential, segmented, and hierarchical organization of verbal expression co-relate, as McNeill writes, with the image like, nonsegmented, instantaneous, and rather non-hierarchical, visual qualities of gestures.14 Language is based on these two distinct modalities of words and gestures working co-expressively, and complementary together as two simultaneously present processes. Both, gestures and words, are intrinsically involved in communication shaping thought process as such. McNeill’s theory stresses that communication is based on an imagery-language dialectic. This idea throws a new light on what he calls the “thought-language-hand link.”15 Moments of insight and thought development is viewed as a multi-modal or so to say multisensory process. Thinking happens as part of a process emerging in-between sound, corporeality, and sight. The sounds of words and the visually perceived motions of gestures happen simultaneously and shape mutually thought process as an embodied act of communication. The performative process of embodiment, its corporeal aspects, the kinesthetically conceived imagery of gestures as well as verbal sound and the referential capacity of words coincide in the very act of communication. The emergence of meaning while communicating is thereafter embedded in multi-sensory experience. Why am I introducing this theory of gesture studies to a study of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice? For one, hula ‘ōlapa principally joins chanted poetry, the mele hula, verbal means in analytical terms, and intricate sequences of body motion. Movements of the body are based on well shaped and clear cut gestures executed by the hands, arms, legs and feet of the performer. The above discussed notion defining that the condition of everyday communication is based on a mutual relationship of gestures and verbal means, the focus of Kendon’s and McNeill’s research on gestures studies, finds in hula ‘ōlapa an elaborate theatrical form and cultural practice. Hula ‘ōlapa explicitly exhibits this particular relation of words and gestures as a means for stage presentation. The difference is that Kendon and McNeill focus in their study on spontaneous articulation of gestures and verbal means in situations of everyday communication. A study of hula 14 See McNeill, David (1992), p. 245-249. 15 See McNeill, David (2005), p. 20.

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‘ōlapa means to focus on a mutual interaction of words and gestures applied for stage art purpose. The question is how elaborately shaped and well trained articulations of the body in motion, meaning gestures of the upper and the lower body segment, relate to chanted poetry. This co-relation of words and gestures is more so rhythmically structured and accompanied by the sound of percussion in hula ‘ōlapa performance. Finally, thought production to recall McNeill’s consideration ties into the joint flow of gesticulation and articulation of verbal means. Thought process is thereby based on both the visual and image like impact of gestures and the linguistic qualities of words. The image like quality of metaphoric speech has to be considered here as well. Thought process as part of communication is shaped due to the mutual process of these two modes – gestures and words – that coexpressively interrelate. McNeill’s theory in gesture studies and his aim to develop an understanding of thought process based on the mutual relationship of the different yet complementary features of gestures and words does support my own reflections on the aesthetic implications of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. McNeill’s theory opens new perspectives for research on hula ‘ōlapa performance practice focusing on the mutual inter-relation of the two modes, gesture and words and its implications upon the emergence of insight and sensory enlightenment understood to be part of aesthetic experience. Section III of this chapter is dedicated to the analysis of one stylized-alluding gesture, the so called makani gesture. I discuss in this particular case how gesture and words co-relate within one hula composition. This indeed points at a research topic that focuses on hula ‘ōlapa as a theatrical form of epic and lyric storytelling being featured by the plurimedial composition of hula repertoire and its performance practice. Questions concerning procedures of inter- and transmedial narrativity are at stake.16 Thus, a comprehensive study focusing on these research concerns exceeds the limits of this work. My aim of this dissertation and the three analytical parts of this chapter On Gestures and Stylization in particular is to conduct fundamental research focusing on the delineation of the differentiated application of stylized forms of embodiment in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. Based on my initial discussion and analysis of the basic body posture, I continue to delineate stylized-abstract as well as stylized-alluding gestures reflecting analytically on the conjunction of gestural materiality, referentiality and sensory experience as well as stylization. 16 See Ryan, Marie-Laure (2004): Narrative across Media. The Language of Storytelling, Lincoln/London: UP of Nebraska. This book covers an article on “Gesture and the Poetics of Prose” co-authored by David McNeill and Justine Cassell.

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Gesture Unit, Gesture Phrase, Gesture Phase What criteria need to be determined in order to specify a single gesture of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice for analytical purpose? McNeill writes that “most gestures occur as one gesture at a time. Gestures tend to occur as singletons and between gestures the gestures return to a rest position.”17 I adapt McNeill’s interrelating notions of “gesture unit,” “gesture phrase” and “gesture phases” as analytical tools discussed in his study entitled Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal About Thought (1992). The gesture unit may incorporate several gesture phrases into one integral gestural sequence. A gesture phrase signifies, in McNeill’s terms, one single motion pattern of limbs involved in generating a gesture.18 Each gestural phrase covers a certain time period. Starting from a rest position, the motion pattern of a gesture phrase unfolds until the active limb reaches again a rest position, the end of the phrase. The structure of a gesture phrase is based again on a series of gesture phases (without an r!): preparation – various holds – stroke – retraction as McNeill differentiates among gesture phases.19 McNeill concedes that the phase called “stroke” is the main focus of any gesture: “In the stroke the effort is concentrated on the form of the movement itself – its trajectory, shape, posture.”20 The stroke specifies the main part of the category of “imagistic gestures” to follow McNeill’s study.21 The motion shape of the stroke of a gesture features one aspect of action in space and time or a situation referred to by the gesture that is significant to the speaker. The phase of the stroke holds the selected aspect of reference that is highlighted and that is in

17 See McNeill, David (1992), p. 85. 18 McNeill focuses in his study on gestures of the upper body only. His analysis is based primarily on “coding” the form of upper body gestures. “Handedness,” for example is one analytical category according to which he distinguishes between one-handed or two-handed gesture. Part of his analytical code is to ask whether hands are working together symmetrical or whether they are doing different things. See McNeill, David (1992), p. 379. 19 Ibid., p. 83. 20 Ibid., p. 376. 21 McNeill distinguishes between two categories of gestures: the imagistic and nonimagistic type. The imagistic type covers iconic and metaphoric gestures. The movements of the imagistic gestures are often tri-phasic (preparation–stroke–retraction) as McNeill concedes from his research. Non-imagistic gestures cover deictic gestures and beats. Non-imagistic gestures are considered to be bi-phasic. See McNeill, David (1992), p. 78.

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a sense magnified. I apply McNeill’s terminology to both types of gestures meaning stylized-abstract and stylized-alluding gestures. Generally speaking, the gestures used in hula ‘ōlapa are decisively shaped movements of the limbs of the body. For the most part the movements of the limbs are orchestrated in a mutually synchronized and balanced way. The motion patterns of the upper body gestures for instance depend on both arms and hands moving in a simultaneous and synchronized fashion. Gestures of the lower body segment cover coordinated movements of the legs, the feet and the hip. Both gestures of the upper and lower body are characteristically marked in terms of timing and spatial appearance. Gestures are framed and acoustically supported by percussive beats which depend on modes of structured time, in other words rhythmic patterns. Gestures of the lower and upper body segment relate closely to percussion. More so, gestures in hula ‘ōlapa have a clear beginning and ending in terms of direction and position in space and in terms of temporal duration. The gesture comes to an end, the retraction phase, in order to transgress into the initial phase of the next gesture. Therefore, I consider that gestures used in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice are tri-phasic for the most part: preparation, stroke, retraction. In some cases the stroke is emphasized by means of a hold. In other cases the retraction phase coincides with the preparation phase and the gestures have to be considered bi-phasic. These specifics depend on the gesture discussed. This general analytical understanding of gesture units and its phrases and phases however does not cover the properties of a gesture’s aesthetic appearance. Of interest is to specify the shaped materiality of a gesture and its qualitative, sensory, and referential aspects as it occurs in time and space. 6.3.3 By Means of Stylization II – Materiality and Stylization of Abstract Gestures Among the category of stylized-abstract gestures I subsume gestures executed both by the lower and the upper body segment. I discuss consecutively two examples of abstract-stylized gestures, one of the lower body segment called “hela” and one of the upper body segment. The upper body gesture discussed in this chapter complements usually the lower body gesture called hela. Both gestures are performed simultaneously. They merge and generate one integrated gesture ensemble. In this case the lower body and upper body gesture form a stylized-abstract whole body gesture. Both versions hela applied as lower body gesture only and hela performed as a whole body gesture, are part of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice.

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Corporeal and Spatial Aspect of Gestural Articulation Concerning the Lower Body Segment Part of my analysis is to extract principle properties, in other words material constituents, which determine the performance aesthetic understanding of stylized-abstract gestures. The physicality of the extremities of the lower body segment, the feet, the legs, the hip and the respective joints working together as one ensemble demarcate the corporeal condition of lower body gestures. Gestures of the lower body segment, called lower body gestures in this study, have to be differentiated into weight bearing gestures and non-weight bearing gestures. Weight bearing or locomotive gestures are step-movements. These include steps on one spot or steps that effect a change of position in space. A weight bearing gesture implies that a foot is placed on the ground which enables a shift of weight onto the planted foot. This shift of weight relieves the other leg and foot from the weight bearing function. The foot is free to execute non-weight bearing gestures. This physical condition of the legs working in tandem determines how corporeality, the physical aspect of embodiment, of the lower body gestures materializes and actually appears in performance.22 Hela23 represents one example of a lower body gesture found in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice to be outlined as follows. Fig. 9 shows the succession of lower-body movements in order to complete one set of hela.

22 The perception of gestures and body movement in general is tied to the sense of proprioception. Proprioception again is closely linked to a sense of balance and effort. The body is experiencing the constant impact of gravity and the influx of circumstances of environment such as temperature, floor conditions, etc. All of this shapes proprioceptive sense of moving through space and time. Gestures of the lower body segment relate closely to gravity and the sense of proprioception due to the fact that gestures of the feet handle shifts of the body’s weight through space. In hula ‘ōlapa performance feet gestures are part of proxemics, the body’s ability to move through space. The online Oxford English Dictionary (OED) defines that proprioception enables “the perception of the position and movements of the body.” This physiological orientated perspective on body perception is based on the activity of so called proprioceptors. A proprioceptor functions as a “sensory receptor which responds to stimuli arising within the body, esp. from muscle or nerve tissue; spec. one located within a muscle, tendon, or joint capsule that responds to position or movement of a part of the body.” See www.oed.com. 23 Lake lists “hela” as one of the six basic foot movements of hula ‘ōlapa. As part of this work I will focus on the analysis of one basic foot movement only.

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Fig. 9: Motion Pattern of Hela

The gesture unit hela, a specific stylized-abstract gesture of the lower body segment discussed here, covers two sets of identical gesture phrases, executed first to the right and then to the left side. The gesture phrase performed to the right side is exactly mirrored towards the left side. For analytical purpose I distinguish between 1) the right-gesture-phrase, and 2) the left-gesture-phrase. Both phrases performed in sequence shape the gesture unit called hela. 1) The right-gesture-phrase is further divided into a) preparation phase, b) stroke and c) retraction phase: a) Preparation phase: The gesture unit specified as hela starts with the left foot stepping in place. The body weight shifts to the left side onto the left foot which has been planted firmly onto the ground. The knee of the left leg bends as part of the weight bearing gesture. The weight of the body is lowered because of the bent knee position, called ‘ai ha‘a. The bent knee position of ‘ai ha‘a stabilizes the position of the body on one hand. At the same time, the position allows a wider range of motion within the entire lower body unit. According to McNeill’s terminology, I refer to this first steppingmotion as the preparation phase. b) Stroke: Due to the fact that the left leg takes on the weight-bearing function, the right leg is freed to execute a non-weight bearing gesture. The nonweight bearing gesture depends on the right foot being placed flat footed at a 45 degree angle, pointing right-diagonal-forward. This placement of the right leg and non-weight bearing gesture of hela is performed in such a way that the leg is fully stretched. The visual impression of this placement is that the leg position forms a straight line which starts from the right hip and declines diagonally down towards the right foot. The bend knee position in combination with the shift of weight enables the performer to emphasize the lateral sway of the hip. In hula ‘ōlapa performance, swaying of the hip induced by

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the shift of weight, is an integral visual marker of lower body gestures in general. Swaying of the hip constitutes one important aesthetic aspect of stylization of body motion involved in hula ‘ōlapa. The sway of the hip towards the left side in relation to the straight diagonal gesture of the right nonweight bearing leg covers the main gestural phase, called the stroke. c) Retraction phase: The right leg retracts towards down below the body and is planted firmly towards the ground, placed straight below the right hip. The retraction-phase of this step-motion does function as the preparatory phase to initializes the gesture-phrase towards the left. Analytically speaking, the retraction and preparation phase coincide in order to change from the right towards the left gesture phrase. As follows, I will refer to this particular motion-part as the preparation-phase of the left gesture phrase of hela. 2) The left-gesture-phrase of hela is likewise a tri-phasic motion pattern of the lower body segment: a) Preparation phase: The left-gesture-phrase starts with the right foot being planted firmly below the left hip. This step motion initiates the shift of weight and lateral sway of the hip towards the right side. b) Stroke: This preparation phase is followed by the motion section of the nonweight bearing left leg. The left leg is placed at a 45 degree angle realizing the stroke-phase. The left foot points towards the left side diagonal front. The placement of the left leg is stretched. This placement of the leg forms visually a straight line. The alignment of the leg declines from the hip to the left diagonal down towards the left foot. c) Retraction phase: The left leg retracts backward and is planted firmly on the ground being placed in-line straight down below the left hip. A complete sequence of hela, understood here as one gesture unit includes two gesture phrases, one executed towards the left and one towards the right side. The preparation, stroke and retraction-phases are repeated once to the opposite site. The phase of both gesture phrases are executed exactly the same way. The two stroke-phases demarcate and highlight visually the extension of the stretched leg declining 45 degree angle towards the ground. This basic visual outline occurs first towards the right side. It appears again exactly mirrored towards the left side. The two declining diagonals occur when taken all together in a balanced way.

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Temporal Aspects of Stylized Gestural Articulation In hula ‘ōlapa movement pattern of the lower body segment are divided into weight and non-weight bearing gestures as delineated earlier. These two categories of physical articulations of the lower body segment constitute a system of lower body gestures which correlate with rhythm, the temporal aspect of a gesture’s materiality. The temporal format of the gesture is structured and shaped due to the specific motion sequence of the respective gesture. The temporal structure is an integral part of how a gesture appears physically and visually. However, the aspect of temporality, which is concerned with gestures in hula ‘ōlapa performance, is in most cases soundless. The temporal conditioning of a gesture again relates to certain percussive pattern. Percussion acoustically emphasizes principle physical and therefore visual and temporal aspects of lower body gestures. Generally speaking, stepping or weight bearing gestures coincide with the down beats produced by thumping the ipu heke down towards the “pale,” a small piece of cloth placed on the ground. Thumbing the ipu heke towards the ground produces a low sound. Whereas non-weight bearing gestures for the most part coinciding with up-beats. The high sound of the ho‘opa‘a’s right hand slapping the side of the ipu heke demarcates acoustically the up-beats. That means that slapping the ipu heke generates rhythmically speaking the high sound of up-beats. Specific rhythmic patterns applied to hula ‘ōlapa performance combine low and high sounds. These rhythmically organized sound sequences of low and high sounds correlate with the stepping motions and those physically and visually prominent actions that determine the appearance of lower body gestures. Hela covers a beat cycle of two beats. The beats acoustically demarcate the temporal configuration of hela as an abstract-stylized gesture of the lower body segment. In case of hela the non-weight bearing gesture of the right and respectively left leg co-relate with the down beats counted as “one” and “two.” In this case the low sound of the down beat emphasizes the stroke-phases of the two non-weight bearing gestures and visually the most prominent aspect of the discussed lower body gesture. The two low sounding down beats highlight acoustically these two stroke-phases. The weight-bearing gestures of the two gesture phrases (the retraction- and preparation phases) on the other hand coincide with the up-beat and high slapping sound produced on the ipu heke. The regular percussive pattern which accompanies hela is based on a sequence of one low, one high, one low and two high sounds. Sound occurs as an integral part of the gesture’s material configuration. The motion pattern of hela is characteristically marked by this cadence, shaping the flow of the gesture’s movement.

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Within the compositional framework of the hula repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina, hela is performed as part of the paukū segments. Hela occurs during the third and forth verse of the 1st paukū24 and during the first and second verse of the third paukū. The percussion pattern called Kaupō pattern25 determines acoustically the main part of Kaupō ‘Āina. In this case the basic rhythmic pattern of hela, as discussed above, is altered. The Kaupō pattern is performed instead to serve the general acoustic and dynamic drive of the piece. The alteration of the acoustic profile responds to the dramatic feeling of the story line and the episode of the legend of Halemano told as part of the hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina. Gestural Convergence of Body, Time, Space and Vision Hela offers, due to its specific corporeal, spatio-temporal, and visual character one particular means of performance. Lower body gestures such as hela is carefully chosen in hula compositions according to their specific corporeal, spatiotemporal, and visual character and respective qualitative appearance in order to function either as part of the pā sequences26 or as part of the motion sequence of the paukū, supporting the meaning of the underlying mele hula. In order to understand the compositional choice of hela in hula ‘ōlapa performance production, the specific constituents of hela as a stylized-abstract gesture of the lower body segment need to be defined. The first step is to delineate analytically the correlation of the particular time structure and spatial configuration of the lower body gesture including the co-relation of corporeal, spatial, temporal, and visual aspects. Likewise, the resulting qualitative aspects of the gesture have to be considered. In consequence, the analytical outline of stylized gestures of this study takes the qualitative aspect of stylized embodiment into account as well. Hela means literally “to spread.”27 The name signifies the quality of the specific corporeal-visual-spatio-temporal appearance of hela. The motion of the leg seems to spread into space. The visual quality, the straight, unbroken and declining diagonal of the non-weight bearing gesture closely relates to its temporal quality. The specific calm dynamic of the gesture is acoustically marked by the down and up beats falling into place with the combined sequence of weightbearing and non-weight baring gestures. The co-relation of visual and temporal 24 See Appendix C, PS 2, segment 3, line 6 and 7. 25 See Part I, Analysis I: 5.3 Section III: Percussion. The Performative, Referential and Aesthetic Implications Considering Structural Variation of Acoustic Material. 26 See Part I, Analysis I: 5.2 Section II: Means of Performance Practice. 27 See Pukui, May Kawena/Elbert Samuel H. (1986), p. 64.

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aspects is crucial to the performative configuration of hela. This constellation influences the entire spatio-temporal dynamic and visual quality of the gesture’s appearance. 6.3.4 The Gestalt-Concept Applied to an Analysis of Stylized-Abstract Gestures The performative materialization of hela, a stylized-abstract gesture, is closely tied to the particular corporeal interaction of limbs, a temporal structure, and the specific spatial configuration. The discussed material components constitute the corporeal, spatial, temporal, and visual configuration of hela, its performative syntax28 or configuration of convergence as I call the structural interdependence of components – the interrelating performative materialities of kinetic articulation. Temporality, spatiality, corporeality, and visuality co-inside based on a particular shaped performative syntax in order to generate the lower body gesture hela. Based on the spatial, corporeal, temporal, and visual syntax of hela, the configured elements converge during the very moment of performance. A fleeting visual and dynamic impression arises. The perception of this particular dynamic of the gestural appearance and its visual quality is based on the ephemeral result of this particular convergence of gestural performance materiality. The convergent dimension, specified as the quality of a gesture in performance, constitutes the qualitative dimension of stylized-abstract gestures. The qualitative dimension ties as I argue into the concept of Gestalt and into the concept of multi-sensory experience. The appearance of a gesture is multi-sensorial due to the fact that it is not only visual but also dynamic, corporeal, and spatial at the same 28 The term “performative syntax of stylized gestures” defines in my work the characteristically marked conjunction of several material components that constitute a stylized gesture at the performative level. Syntax relates in this case to the relationship which determines the structural interdependence of corporeal, spatial, temporal and visual materialites. The correlation of these materialites is responsible for the distinct appearance of a stylized gesture in performance. The concept of the performative syntax of gestures has to be differentiated from the general semiotic term called syntax. Syntax in semiotic terms denotes the rules that determine how smallest distinct units of the linguistic system are grouped into larger meaning generating units. Charles W. Morris, one proponent of semiotics, defines the semiotik interest into matters of syntax as the study of formal relations among signs and their combinations. See Nöth, Winfried (2000): Handbuch der Semiotik, Stuttgart: Metzler, p. 90. I adapt this basic concept of formal relations among elements to suit the methodological interest of the performance and Gestalt-analytical approach of my study.

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time. I apply the term “Gestalt” in the attempt to conceptualize the structural interdependence of correlating elements and its convergent qualitative appearance. The term Gestalt is of German origin. It denotes according to the philosophical dictionary, entitled Metzler-Philosophie-Lexikon, the external form of visually perceived objects. This notion is further applied to specify the structural constituents of other sensual, psychic, and cognitive phenomena. Thereafter not only visual objects, but also melodies, character types, experiences, and social institutions are considered to configure “Gestalten,”29 the plural form of Gestalt.30 The 29 See Prechtl, Peter/Burkard, Franz-Peter (eds.) (1999): Metzler-Philosophie-Lexikon. Begriffe und Definitionen, 2nd ed., Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler, p. 210. 30 The analytical model concerning the Gestalt of stylized-abstract gestural articulation which I develop in the course of this chapter, corresponds in parts with a discussion engendered by the philosopher Christian von Ehrenfels who wrote a seminal paper on the Gestalt idea introducing the concept of Gestalt qualities. The article, originally entitled “Über Gestaltqualitäten,” was first published 1890 in the journal called “Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie.” His article is concerned with the process of complex perception. He defines the concept of “Gestalt quality” based on a precise discernment of the conditions placed by a melody, an acoustic phenomenon as the prime example of his theory. See Christian von Ehrenfels (1890/2002): “Über Gestaltqualitäten”, in: Wiesing, Lambert (ed.) (2002): Philosophie der Wahrnehmung: Modelle und Reflexionen, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, p. 189-194. The article by von Ehrenfels is of importance within the development of philosophically and psychologically oriented Gestalt Theory. The publication Foundations of Gestalt Theory (1988) by Barry Smith offers a comprehensive and critical discussion of the developments that have taken place within the field of Gestalt Theory. See Smith, Barry (1988), p. 93. Rudolf Arnheim summarizes in his study on Art and Visual Perception the position of von Ehrenfels and respective experimental research on Gestaltperception reflecting on vision as an active process. He writes: “In the essay that gave the gestalt theory its name, von Ehrenfels pointed out that if each of twelve observers listed to one of the twelve tones of a melody the sum of their experience would not correspond to what would be perceived if someone listened to the whole melody. Much of the later experiments was designated to show that the appearance of any element depends on its place and function in the pattern as a whole. A thoughtful person cannot read those studies without admiring the active striving for unity and order manifest in the simple act of looking at a simple pattern of lines. Far from being a mechanical recording of sensory elements, vision turned out to be a truly creative grasp of reality – imaginative, inventive, shrewd, and beautiful. It became apparent that the qualities that give dignity to the activities of the thinker and the artist distinguish all per-

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term Gestalt has been adapted to most modern languages. It relates to the words “form” and “pattern” in English language according to Buchwald31 and to “shape” according to Rudolf Arnheim’s influential work in visual studies.32 In my discussion of stylized gestural articulations I follow a performance aesthetic perspective applying the Gestalt concept to an analysis that is Gestalt oriented taking stylized forms of gestural appearance into account. My proposition is that the Gestalt of a stylized gesture is a convergent phenomenon based on at least four performance elements and their materialities - that is corporeality, visuality, temporality, spatiality. These fuse into one multi-sensory impression or a particular gestural Gestalt in analytical terms. The Gestalt of a gesture appears at the very moment of performance only.33 As such, the Gestalt is the formances of the mind. [...] The same principles operate in the various mental capacities because the mind always functions as a whole. All perceiving is also thinking, all reasoning is also intuition, all observation is also invention.” See Arnheim, Rudolf (1965): Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye, Berkeley/Los Angeles: UP California p. viii. Uta Beiküfner discusses in her study on three art historically relevant notions of perception that the Gestalt concept had since its conception by von Ehrenfels a close relationship to aesthetics. Beiküfner argues that von Ehrenfels has been one of the first scholars who’s concept of Gestalt qualities and method of analytical observation had aesthetic implications all of which led towards concepts such as vision as active process (gestaltetes Sehen). See Beiküfner, Uta (2003), p. 218ff. 31 See Dagmar Buchwald’s entry on “Gestalt” (2001) in: Barck, Karlheinz: Ästhetische Grundbegriffe, vol. 2, p. 820. The latin equivalents, “colocatio” and “situs,” point towards position and context dependent configuration to follow Dagmar Buchwald’s survey on the historical development of the concept Gestalt. She lists “forma” and “figura” among latin words that relate closely to the term Gestalt. See Barck, Karlheinz (2001), p. 820-862. 32 Rudolf Arnheim, a prominent scholar in the field of visual studies, discussed the phenomenon Gestalt applied to works of Fine Art. His influential book Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye (1965) has been published both in German and English language. The term “shape” corresponds to the term “Gestalt” within the German edition of Arnheim’s work which has been published in English first. See Arnheim, Rudolf (1965), p. 27 ff. and the German edition (1978): Kunst und Sehen. Eine Psychologie des Schöpferischen Auges, Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, p. 45 ff. 33 Dagmar Buchwald writes in her survey on “Gestalt” that Gestalt is not something fixed like an object. However, Gestalt perception is tied to temporal and spatial condi-

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perceivable aspect of a stylized gesture in performance. I assume that the recognition of a gesture’s corporeal, visual, spatio-temporal elements and its convergent Gestalt qualities rely all together on perception and procedures of (re)cognition on behalf of the observer.34 A trained observer switches as I argue between three analytically distinguished levels of gestural articulation and its phenomenological appearance: A) the single elements involved, B) the syntactical dimension of Gestalt-perception defined as mode of stylization, C) the convergent multi-sensory quality of a gesture’s Gestalt. All three levels when taken together determine the appearance of the gesture as a whole. Based on these considerations, I present hypothetically a model covering the three levels of performative and sensory properties which determine the process of gestural Gestalt-perception relevant to a study of stylized-abstract gestures. The following graphic (fig. 10) represents a diagrammatic outline of the Gestaltmodel 1.

tions. The perception of Gestalt occurs spontaneous and sudden revealing both a whole and its parts at the same time. Buchwald considers that Gestalt perception is immediate and non-intellectual. She relates the body-based process of Gestalt perception to the theory of sensory enlightenment as introduced by Alexander Gottlieb Baumgart in his work on aesthetics. See my discussion of the notion “aesthetics as aesthesis,” see 6.1.4 Aisthesis, Stylization, Gestural Materialization and Sensory Experience of this study on hula ‘ōlapa. To quote Buchwald’s original writing in German: “Da aus der Ansicht unmittelbar und nicht-intellektuell Ein-Sicht erfolgt, legitimiert Gestaltdenken “Anschauung” als “leibhaften” Modus der Erkenntnis und gliedert sich der “Theorie der sinnlichen Erkenntnis, wie sie die Ästhetik im ursprünglichen Sinne Alexander Gottlieb Baumgartens liefert, ein.” See Buchwald, Dagmar (2001), in: Barck, Karlheinz: Ästhetische Grundbegriffe, vol. 2, p. 821. 34 Based on the premise calling “vision a creative activity of the human mind,” Arnheim states that “shape is determined by more than what strikes the eye at the time of observation. The experience of the present moment is never isolated. It is the most recent among an infinite number of sensory experiences that have occurred throughout a person’s life. Thus the new image gets into contact with the memory traces of shapes that have been perceived in the past. These traces of shape interfere with each other on the basis of their similarity.” See Arnheim, Rudolf (1965), p. 32.

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Fig. 10: On Stylized-Abstract Gestures, Gestalt-Model 1

Dimension A: Dimension B:

Dimension C:

material constituents of gestural articulation: spatial, temporal, corporeal and visual constituents of stylized-abstract gestures. the syntactical dimension or operative/artistic mode of stylization shapes the characteristically marked co-relation of involve elements. Dimension B correlates with 2nd principle of stylization Gestalt quality: convergent qualitative dimension, visual and dynamic appearance of stylized-abstract gesture as a whole, 1st level of multi-sensory experience.

The diagrammatic outline is based on a correlation of three dimensions that I consider to be fundamental in shaping the Gestalt of a stylized-abstract gesture: Dimension A represents the material level of interrelating visual, corporeal, spatial and temporal elements of a stylized-abstract gesture. These gestural elements materialize at the moment of its performance. The distinct configuration of gestural constituents is shaped by a distinct performative syntax, specified as dimension B. The performative syntax of a lower body gesture in hula ‘ōlapa is defined by the spatial configuration of weight and non-weight bearing gestures of the kinetic system which correlates with a system of structured time and the decisively shaped spatial and visual features. Dimension C, on the other hand, does result out of the structural interdependence of interacting corporeal, spatial, temporal, and visual registers. Dimension C categorizes the emergent phenomenon specified here as the convergent quality of a gesture. This aspect is understood

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here as the multi-sensory or Gestalt-qualitative dimension relevant to a stylizedabstract gesture. Dimension C35 is dependent on the performed realization of both, dimension A and dimension B.36 As I wrote earlier the term Gestalt applied to stylized-abstract gestures, conceptualizes the momentary unity of material constituents interacting and the resulting sensory appearance of a gesture. Resulting thereof, I propose to acknowledge dimension B to function as an analytical category of relevance. Dimension B refers to the impact of stylization understood in two ways: 1) in Gestalt-theoretical terms as the performative syntax of convergent gestural materialities and 2) as the operative mode of artistic agency to engender stylized means of embodiment. Dimension B mediates between dimension A, the material dimension and dimension C, the qualitative dimension. I therefore integrate dimension B into the analytical outline concerning the multi-sensory Gestalt of a stylized-abstract gesture. My point is that the particular corporeal, spatiotemporal and visual Gestalt of a stylized-abstract gesture is based on a procedure of performance organization which I specify as stylization. Stylization, a principle of performance organization, functions both as an artistic and aesthetic aspect involved in the process of generating and perceiving gestures applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The stylized gestures that I am talking about in my study are performed in order to be perceived and to be appreciated by an audience. One may note that the temporal element involved in the generation and perception of predominantly visual perceived gestures opens the analyzed phenomenon principally towards acoustics. Sound complements the visual dynamic of gestures in hula ‘ōlapa. I discuss the multi-modal capacity of gestures in Part II, Analysis III.37 On the other hand, the Gestalt analytical discussion as developed in this chapter offers the framework for consecutive work on gestures that include sound production and therefore the element of acoustics. Stylized gestures that involve sound production as part of their aesthetic fabric are common in hula ‘ōlapa practice. This 35 Arnheim conceptualizes Gestalt-perception applied to vision as an active process. The sum of elements partaking within the configuration of Gestalt-perception does not correspond with the experience of the whole. Arnheim points out that the appearance of any element depends on its place and function in the pattern as a whole. See Arnheim, Rudolf (1965), viii. This position opts for a more dimensional oriented analysis of Gestalt-perception including the notion of stylization. 36 See also Appendix E which covers Gestalt-model 1 and 2. 37 See Part II, Analysis III: By Means of Contrast in Performance, 7.3 Sensory Correspondences among Performance Elements.

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is the case when ‘ōlapa performers integrate percussive instrument into their performance knows as ‘ulī‘ulī, pū‘ili or ‘ili‘ili among other instruments. The Second Principle of Stylization I conceptualize the second principle of stylization as a procedure of performance production that is based on a decisive artistic choice concerning the material and sensory arrangement of kinetic articulation concerning both, gestures of the upper and lower body segment. The aspect of choice is based on artistic agency within the framework of my analytical work. Artistic agency involves selection and emphasis of certain gestural features. Master performers know about these stylistic aspects as part of their practice of the traditional repertoire of gestures on one hand and while generating new gestures within the framework of their performance practice on the other hand. Artistic agency is present at the very moment of gestural articulation. I consider that the decisively shaped performative configurations of stylized gestures are characteristically marked. The characteristically marked appearance of gestures engenders at the performative level an aesthetically perceived tension of distance towards everyday behavior. The second principle of stylization directs the process of gestural elements converging to form a stylized gesture. The act of stylization, understood as an operative mode of artistic agency, coincides with what I called earlier the syntax of performative materialities. The selected formation of elements converges to generate the Gestalt of a stylized-abstract gesture. I discussed the qualitative appearance of hela as an exemplification of Gestalt-model 1 that focuses on the material and qualitative dimensions of stylizedabstract gestures. The second principle of stylization is a crucial facet that determines the structural interdependence of gestural materiality. Stylization respectively takes part in decisively shaping the appearance and qualitative dimension of the gesture discussed. The formation and articulation of stylized-abstract gestures in performance rests on the second principle of stylization only. The result is a decisive form of kinetic means. In the case of stylized-abstract gestures the emphasis is placed on self-referentiality which means that abstract gestures point towards their specific sensory or material configuration only. Stylized-abstract gestures show no reference to aspects of reality outside of themselves at all. They are fully abstract, pure form in other words. This topic is discussed later more in detail.

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6.3.5 Stylized-Abstract Gestures Concerning the Upper Body The examination of hela represents one example of stylization of lower body gestures in hula ‘ōlapa. The interest of this section is to focus on stylization of upper body gestures, which primarily concerns those gestures executed by the arms and hands. Both arms and hands are involved in the constitution of a stylized-abstract upper body gesture. More so, the torso and spine are necessarily included when gestures of the upper body are articulated. Kumu hula Lake criticized during training sessions gestures executed as “if they were cut of the torso.” Thereafter, a gesture of the upper-body integrates the neuro-muscular system of the torso, activating the full kinetic capacity of the performer’s upper body. The head is integrated into the upper-body gestures in such a way that the eyes follow the leading hand, a principle performance technique to focus and enlarge the direction and expression of a stylized gesture. I therefore conclude that the arms, the hands, the upper torso, the position of the head and the eyes work together as an orchestrated assembly constituting an upper-body gesture. The motion pattern of involved body limbs form distinctly shaped gesture units, respectively understood as upper body gestures. The operation of the upper-body unit establishes, besides the lower body gesture examined earlier, a sphere of kinetic performance available to the performer. The difference between the upper and the lower body gestures is, that gestures by means of the arms and hands do not have to fulfill any weight bearing functions. This is the reason why the range of movements among upper body gestures is much more flexible. However, upper body gestures have to be differentiated into stylized-abstract and stylized-alluding gestures. As follows, I focus on the discussion of stylized-abstract upper body gestures applying the analytical considerations of the Gestalt-model 1 which I developed earlier in order to analyze stylized-abstract lower body gestures. Relating to the spatial format of stylized-abstract upper body gestures the anthropologist Adrienne Kaeppler notes, that in some cases “movements of the arms and hands seem to be essentially an enhancement of the pahu wawae [basic foot movement pattern] by a simulation of the lower-body motif at a higher level.”38 The photo series of fig. 11 depicts a common stylized-abstract upper body gesture that correlates with the movements of the lower body gesture called hela.

38 See Kaeppler, Adrienne (1996), p. 7.

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Fig. 11: Hela: A stylized-abstract Whole Body Gesture

The stylized-abstract upper body discussed here I divide into two gestures phrases, 1) the right-hand gesture phrase and 2) the left-hand gesture phrase. Each of the phrases is based on the preparation phase and the stroke. This upper body gesture I consider thereafter bi-phasic. There is no retraction phase as such involved. The left-hand gesture phrase exactly mirrors the stroke phase of the right-hand gesture towards the left side of the performer’s body. 1) The preparation phase of the right-hand gesture phrase leads immediately into the stroke, the final destination of the discussed stylized-abstract upper body gesture. While the non-weight bearing gesture of the right foot is placed at a 45 degree angle in order to point towards the right-diagonalforward, the right arm moves towards the right side. It is stretched out respectively pointing straight and laterally to the right side (stroke) according to Lake’s hula training. The palm of the right hand points towards the ground. The finger tips are stretched horizontally elongating the stretch of the arm. The left arm is bent at the elbow in such a way that the lower arm is placed horizontally in front of the body. The finger tips of the left hand points to the right. The palm is held flat and faces towards the ground. The

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finger tips of the left hand do not pass beyond the body’s center line. The head is turned towards the right side. The performer’s gaze focuses into the distance, following the direction towards which the fingertips of the leading right hand are pointing at. 2) The left-hand gesture phrase. In order to perform a complete set of hela, the performer executes the delineated upper body gesture first to the right side and then to the left side consecutively. The left-hand gesture phrase exactly mirrors the stroke phase of the right-hand gesture phrase towards the left side of the performer’s body. The indicated upper body gesture complements the sequence of the lower body gesture of hela at a higher level. The gesture highlights the horizontal plain and motion area and range of the arms laterally to both sides at chest level. This stylized-abstract upper body gesture is carried out once to the right and once to the left. This motion sequence conforms to a beat cycle of two in order to complement and complete a full set of hela. The described upper and lower body gestures are executed simultaneously following the concept of the “orchestrated body” which is based on an equally shared effort of all limbs in performance. This principle of the orchestrated body is in case of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice structurally predefined by the ‘ai ha‘a body posture discussed earlier. The ‘ai ha‘a posture in hula ‘ōlapa defines a first level of extra-daily performance. The basic body schema of ‘ai ha‘a determines the starting position for any other gesticulation in hula ‘ōlapa. ‘Ai ha‘a integrates all limbs. The pose preconfigures and orchestrates how upper and lower body gestures relate to each other in performance. The notion of the orchestrated body is fundamental to highly stylized performing arts that are based on the concept of dance-acting, a term of relevance in Asian theatre studies. The following examination clarifies the concept known as “dancer-actor.” In Asian theatre studies the term dancer-actor is commonly accepted to define the activity of classically trained Asian performers. The term shows the problematic situation of researchers being confronted with performance practices which do not adhere to the distinction between acting and dancing common to European based theatre practices and its terminology. The result is that two separate terms are merged into one compound term, denoting that Asian performers are doing both, dancing and acting.39 Barba summarizes the di-

39 See the works of Asian theatre scholars such as James Brandon, Elizabeth WichmannWalczak, Phillip Zarrilli, and Karen Brazell.

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lemma of Western paradigms not being able to suit the Asian condition of the dance-actor as follows: “The tendency to make a distinction between dance and theatre, characteristic of our culture [based on European traditions], reveals a profound wound, a void with no tradition, which continuously risks drawing the actor towards denial of the body and the dancer towards virtuosity. To an Oriental performer, this distinction seems absurd, as it would have seemed absurd to European performers in other historical periods, to a jester or a comedian in the sixteenth century, for example. We can ask a Noh or Kabuki actor how he would translate the word “energy” into the language of his work, but he would shake his head with amazement if we asked him to explain the difference between dance and theatre.”40

In my study I apply the term dancer-actor as defined above to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice which accordingly involves a genre specific stylized form of dance-acting. I conclude that stylized-abstract gestures of the upper body in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice are distinguished by their Gestalt which involves a defined corporeal, spatio-temporal and visual syntax and a resulting Gestalt quality. Generally speaking, the temporal format of abstract upper body gestures conforms to cycles of one, two, or four beats. The abstract-stylized gesture of the upper body discussed here supplements hela, which has been determined earlier as one distinct stylized-abstract gesture of the lower body segment. In this case, when the gestures of the upper and lower body segment are combined, they form according to my definition a decisively shaped stylized-abstract whole body gesture. Stylized-abstract gestures of the lower and upper body segment are applied in compositions of hula ‘ōlapa performance pieces in two ways: 1) as stylizedabstract whole body gestures, and 2) as stylized-abstract lower body gestures used in combination with abstract-alluding upper body gestures. In reference to the second case listed the lower body gesture of hela for example may occur as part of the paukū sequences, the referential or narrative sequences of a hula composition. In this case the lower body gesture of hela is combined with stylized-alluding gestures. The combination of stylized-abstract body gestures of the lower body segment and stylized-alluding gestures of the upper body segment enhance and resonate with the meaning intended by the poetic text, the mele hula. A comprehensive analytical discussion of this topic exceeds the limits of this thesis. It is consecutively of relevance to future research. 40 See Barba, Eugenio/Savarese, Nicola (1991), p. 12.

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According to the first case listed whole body gestures such as hela are chosen by hula masters to shape the abstract, non-referential sequences, the so called pā segments of hula ‘ōlapa compositions.41 I introduce and discuss the whole body gesture known as huli kāholo in the course of my work.42 Huli kāholo adheres to the category of stylized-abstract whole body gestures. The stylized-abstract character of hula kāholo depends on the dynamic and space-dissecting quality. This qualitative appearance of hula kāholo points at the gesture’s own decisively shaped materiality in performance. The presentation of huli kāholo is part of the hula composition Kaupō ‘Āina. The micro-analytically oriented sequence analysis of Kaupō ‘Āina43 shows that sets of two huli kāholo are chosen to shape the dividing pā segments specified as holo. I designate holo as one of the three types of performative means of framing which shape a hula composition as a whole. Holo dissects and frames the paukū segments of Kaupō ‘Āina, the main hula composition of interest in my study.44 The anthropologist Adrienne Kaeppler writes about the function of stylized-abstract whole body gestures in traditional hula performance practice saying that “they often function as fillers between the alluding movements, or cover the rest of a line of poetry after the end of an alluding movement.”45 In my study I place an emphasis on the performative and aesthetic quality and effect of stylized-abstract whole body gestures that form pā-segments within the setting of hula ‘ōlapa compositions. The function of stylized-abstract whole body gestures is, as I argue, to complement, to frame, and to bridge the paukū sections of a composition that directly relate to the interpreta41 I distinguish in this study among three categories of pā segments: introductory, dissecting and ending pā segments. All three categories of pā segments are part of the main performative framework of Kaupō ‘Āina. Pā segments function as important structural elements that shape and frame the overall compositional arrangement of the analyzed hula repertoire piece. See Part II, Analysis I: 5.2 Section II: Means of Performance Practice. 42 See Part I, Methods II: Scoring Performance Practice; Part II, Analysis I: 5.2.2 Pā: Performative Means of Framing; Part II, Analysis III: 7.4 Performance Segmentation and the Sensory Effect of Varied Combinations of Performance Material. 43 See Part I, Methods III: Scoring Performance Practice; Part II, Analysis I: 5.2.2 Pā: Performative Means of Framing. 44 See Part II, Analysis I: 5.2 Section II: Means of Performance Practice. 45 See Kaeppler, Adrienne L. (1998): “People of Oceania and Their Music. Structures and Movement”, in: Kaeppler, Adrienne L./Love J. W. (eds.): Garland Encyclopedia. Australia and the Pacific Islands, 10 Vol., New York/London: Garland Publishing Inc., p. 926-927.

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tion of the verbal element, the mele hula. The sensory and qualitative effect of pā segments directs the attention of the audience. They are of significant importance shaping a performative environment that frames the mele hula, the segment of oral poetry conveyed in hula ‘ōlapa performance. Later in my work I discuss the performance aesthetic effects of stylized-abstract whole body gestures implemented as part of pā segments. I query how pā-segments direct and induce shifts of attention within the compositional setting of a hula ‘ōlapa performance piece. The question is how pā-segments instill by means of contrast varying degrees of tension and intensities based on shifting sensory ratios of combined performance materiality.46 6.3.6 Stylization and Embodiment The act of stylization functions, as I argue, as an intrinsic part of embodiment. According to the notion of stylization introduced earlier in this chapter, gestures occur characteristically marked, in other words decisively shaped, which guides the enactments of such gestures on the side of the performer and its perception on the side of the audience. To perform and to perceive the characteristically marked motion pattern of hela means that the stylistic appearance of this gesture attracts the eye and it pre-figures the general perception of this body movement. It could be argued that stylization places a gestural statement; an artistic choice that shapes sensory qualities and the respective aesthetic experience of gestures. By means of stylization, understood here as an operative mode of artistic agency, movements are shaped as such to occur to differ from regular everyday behavior. Stylization, a procedure of artistic agency, generates means of embodiment that instill a sense of tension of distance between everyday behavior and stage action. This basic tension of distance is applied by performance artists in order to enhance aesthetic experience. I consider stylization as an artistic procedure generating a distinct tension of distance as part of performance; it shapes the process of gestural materialization and it respectively directs the process of perception. Judith Butler’s discussion on gender identity has been an important point of departure in performance theory to conceptualize the co-relationship of performativity and embodiment.47 Butler argues in her early work that gender identity is “instituted through stylized repetition of acts.”48 Butler considers that the

46 See Part II, Analysis III: By Means of Contrast in Performance. 47 See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 27-29. 48 See Butler, Judith (1990): “Performing Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory”, in: Case, S-E. (ed.): Performing Feminism,

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process of constituting identity is a performative accomplishment. Based on stylized repetition of acts the embodiment of gender identity emerges over time. Butler concedes that “one is not only a body, but in some very key sense, one does one’s body.”49 It is a matter of “continual and incessant materializing of possibilities” which are necessarily constraint by available historical conventions, as Butler writes.50 Of interest in my study is that Butler uses the term “stylization.” Gender identity is based on acts of embodiment that are stylized, meaning that these acts are shaped in a certain way. The formation of gender identity is conceptualized as a measure of stylized embodiment incorporated via ongoing acts of repetition, procedures of re-enactment in other words. Gender identity seems to be naturalized at some point. According to Butler’s considerations I concede that stylization is evident as an implicit aspect of embodiment. To be part of society means for members of society to learn to embody certain historically and culturally predetermined ways of being in the world that goes as far as how to “do” gender. However, stylization as part of embodiment implies agency as well. The process of becoming gender is conceptualized by Butler as an “active process.”51 There are two sides to the process that interrelate closely. On one hand, stylized means of embodiment provide orientation for members of a society. They are able to take on actions that are commonly agreed upon. Stylized forms of embodiment such as gender identity are conceptualized as a way to re-enact certain cultural and historical possibilities. It makes social actors belief that they act naturally and socially in a pleasing and accepted way. It is a measure of social cohesion. This view implies that certain pre-conceived ways of embodiment are socially forced upon its members through procedures of acculturation.52 On the other

Feminist Critical Theory and Theatre, Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press, p. 270. 49 Ibid., p. 272. 50 Ibid., p. 272. 51 Ibid., p. 272. 52 The social anthropologist Christoph Wulf adds to the discussion by summarizing the notion concerning the double sided condition of embodiment focusing on gestures. He writes: “In Gesten erfährt der Mensch sich und die Welt gleichzeitig. In der Regel erfolgt in ihnen eine für Gesten charakteristische Einschränkung der Perspektive. In Gesten gestaltet der Mensch die Welt und wird gleichzeitig durch sie gestaltet. So gesehen, sind Gesten rückbezüglich, d.h. reflexiv. See Wulf, Christoph (2010): “Die mimetischen und performativen Charakter von Gesten: Perspektiven für eine kultur-

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hand, to understand embodiment as an “active process” implies the fact that humans may decide to break the rule of social conduct in order to act in deviant ways instead. Butler writes that “the possibility of gender transformation are to be found in the arbitrary relation between such acts, in the possibility of a different sort of repeating, in the breaking of subversive repetition of that style.”53 Butler’s understanding of stylized embodiment includes the option of transformation of social behavior, by means of breaking the rules through “a sort of different repeating.” Performative deviation of social behavior is likewise part of Butler’s conceptualization of stylized re-enactments of socially sanctioned behavior. In her performance theoretical work Fischer-Lichte refers to Butler’s work pointing out that performance artists discovered performativity and embodiment as a powerful artistic strategy to enact deviations of socially predefined ways of embodiment as part of their performance art works. Fischer-Lichte categorizes deliberately developed deviations of embodiment as “displaced reenactments.”54 The performance theoretical notion of displaced re-enactments defines performative deviation of social behavior as an artistic means applied to the framework of the arts. Fischer-Lichte argues in her survey on the development of the arts since the 1960’s that performance artists in particular make use of this option to reflect upon society via means of displaced re-enactments of embodiment. For the purpose of my own discussion I highlight that stylization has been considered by Butler to function as an implicit aspect of embodiment in everyday life. Stylization is fundamental to processes of embodiment at the level of everyday behavior. But how does Butler’s notion of stylization relates to what Barba did reflect upon in his writings discussing the particular relationship between everyday behavior and extra-daily technique of so called codified or in my terms highly stylized performing art genres? To recall Barba’s position he wrote that the difference between extra-daily and daily behavior is based on an established “tension of distance,” which further implies a “dialectical relationship” between both activities.55 What determines the “dialectical relationship” between everyday and stage behavior? I argue that the dialectical relationship stated by Barba is based upon the fact that highly stylized performing art forms utilize and thereby reflect upon the basic means of stylization evident in the formation of und sozialwissenschaftliche Gestenforschung”, in: Gesten. Inszenierung, Aufführung, Praxis, Wulf, Christoph/Fischer-Lichte, Erika (eds.), p. 294. 53 Ibid., p. 271. 54 See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 28. 55 See Barba, Eugenio/Savarese, Nicola (1991), p. 10.

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everyday behavior. Artists transform stylized aspects of everyday behaviour into an artistic strategy. I summarize the dialectic condition of stylization as follows: 1) Stylization is based on re-enforcement of certain culturally and historically determined ways of stylized embodiment through continuous repetition, like this is the case in formations of gender identity (Butler). 2) Stylized embodiment may occur as deviation, the subversion of social behavior in everyday life (Butler). 3) Stylization ties into performative deviation of behavior used as an artistic strategy. Deviation is utilized by performance artists to create “displaced reenactments,” a means to apply subversive acts of social behavior as part of performance art events (Fischer-Lichte). In this case displaced re-enactments are tools of artists to critically reflect on embodiment, an influential strategy to challenge both art and life. In case of stylized performance practices the basic principles of stylization – that is deviation and repetition – are applied as an artistic means to emphasize and embellish certain aspects of embodiment implementing them into the structural condition of bodily and gestural enactments for stage art purpose (Barba). Deviation is as I argue an intrinsic part in the formation of extra-daily behavior, a core feature of highly stylized performing art genres. Deviation in case of extra daily technique is based on characteristically marked behavior that enhances the effect of stylization to create a “tension of distance” (Barba) between everyday and extra daily behavior for aesthetic purpose. Performers re-enforce deviated extra-daily behavior via long term and rigorous training of in-body techniques. Highly stylized performing art forms such as hula ‘ōlapa make, as I argue, use of the facets of stylization that I listed above. Recurrent stylized re-enactment and deviation of behavior for performance aesthetic purpose determine the strategy to get most out of stylized means of embodiment. The recurrent stylized reenactment of in-body techniques fosters and magnifies certain abilities of corporeality for stage art or martial arts purpose. I discussed earlier how the ‘ai ha‘a body posture of hula ‘ōlapa enhances the aspect of presence, a pre-condition of human bodies being a-live, and a quality enhanced for performance purpose. Last not least, repeated training of stylized in-body techniques enables performers to move with ease, grace and a sense of naturalness. Ease, grace and naturalness are aspects that after all part of stylized forms of embodiment. Stylization enables performers to engender gestural articulation in such a way that material constituents of gestures, the corporeal, temporal and spatial aspects are shaped decisively in order to enhance and highlight particular sensory qualities. The force of deviation generates thereby an embodied tension of distance, a means of aesthetic amplification implemented to trigger aesthetic delight. In doing so stylized-abstract gesture function as aesthetic keys to sensory experience emphasiz-

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ing the performative level of gestural articulation as such that the attention is focused on certain material and sensory aspects. Stage artists that are active as part of living traditions of performance practices, such as hula ‘ōlapa, make use of stylization in terms of both, ongoing repetition and deviation of embodied reenactments. These principle facets of stylization and embodiment are combined to engender stylized means of performance practice. The joint discussion of Butler’s, Barba’s and Fischer-Lichte’s positions on stylization and embodiment demarcates stylization as an important performance theoretical concept and cornerstone of my research on stylized performance practice. The performance theoretical foundation of the concept of stylization is crucial in my work to research principles of stylized means of performance organization. This framework supports my earlier stated consideration that stylization functions as an operative mode and artistic strategy of performance organization. In devising the parameters of Gestalt analysis applied to stylized-abstract gestures I specified that dimension B covers the operative mode of stylization evident within the performative formation of stylized-abstract gestures. Stylization shapes the process of how a gesture is produced and perceived during performance. Gesturing in hula is based on a process of decisive selection and magnification of motion possibilities. The specific sensory appearance, its aesthetic quality is of interest. The gesture hela is one of the basic repertoire gestures of the lower body segment. To perform hela means to reiterate the stylistic choice of shaping this particular gesture. This formation process, which differs from everyday behavior, shapes how the gesture is perceived during performance. Aesthetic experience of hula ‘ōlapa performance is based on performance participants and an audience that appreciate the presentation of stylized movements, which are acknowledged due to their particular appearance and aesthetic effect. 6.3.7 Stylized-Abstract Gestures: Performance Aesthetic Keys to Sensory Experience – Do Stylized-Abstract Gestures Make Sense? Do stylized-abstract gestures communicate something particular? Do they make sense? Does a stylized-abstract gesture adhere to criteria which determine a sign? Brekle states, that 1) a sign must be perceivable by means of the senses.56 2) The sensual characteristics of signs must maintain a degree of invariability due to the high degree of reproduction of signs in the processes of communica56 I refer to Brekle’s concise summary conceptualizing a signs, see Fischer-Lichte, Erika (1992): The Semiotics of Theater, Gains, J and D.L. Jones (trans.), Bloomington: UH Indiana P, p. 257-258, footnote 10.

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tion.57 Taking these two aspects of semiotic analysis into account abstractstylized gestures represent a category of signs that are in terms of their sensory or materialized form a compound sign of corporeal, visual, temporal and spatial aspects. The sensory and materialized configuration is characteristic to a stylized-abstract kinetic sign such as hela. Hela is a kinetic sign clearly perceivable due to its distinct sensory configuration to follow Brekle’s definition of signs. Hela is used frequently in hula ‘ōlapa compositions. It therefore maintains a high degree of invariability. Accordingly to these aspects listed that designate signcharacteristics stylized-abstract gestures do constitute kinetic signs. A second position, to follow Brekle’s definition of the sign, determines that a sign must point to or represent something, and fulfill a certain function. It points beyond itself and refers to a meaning.58 Accordingly to these conceptual considerations stylized- abstract gestures place indeed a peculiar position among signs. A stylized-abstract gesture exists due to its corporeal and spatio-temporal configuration as well as convergent dynamic-visual quality as discussed earlier. The “material status” of a stylized-abstract kinetic sign, to follow the terminology introduced by Fischer-Lichte’s performance theoretical work, is emphasized. The decisive form of a stylized-abstract gesture communicates by means of its sensory formation and its quality only. A stylized-abstract gesture does not refer beyond itself towards a meaning outside of its own material configuration. Instead, the gesture means exactly what it articulates. Fischer-Lichte considers this type of condition as “self-referential.” She summarizes that within the mode of “selfreferentiality,” the aspect of materiality and the semiotic concepts of the signifier and the signified coincide.59 Accordingly, the concept of self-referentiality ap57 Ibid., p. 157. 58 Ibid., p. 157. 59 The conceptual correlation of self-referentiality, materiality and the semiotic notions of the signified and the signifier is explicitly discussed in chapter V of FischerLichte’s theatre theoretical publication on The Transfromative Power of Performance: A New Aesthetics (2008). She writes: “Materiality, signifier and signified coincide in the case of self-referentiality,” see Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 141. The conceptual interrelationship between the aspects of materiality, self-referentiality, and phenomenological aspects closely tie into Fischer-Lichte’s definition of the “performative.” Performative acts thereafter are understood to be “self-referential.” And more so, they are, to follow Fischer-Lichte’s writing, “constitutive of reality.” She defines the “performative” in close reference of Austin’s position, who introduced his concept of performative speech acts in 1955, presenting at Harvard University a lecture called “How to do things with words.” Detecting a performative trend within the arts since

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plies to stylized-abstract gestures. However, what are stylized-abstract gestures self-referential about? A stylized-abstract gesture points towards its stylized material condition and the convergent qualitative configuration specified as the Gestalt of a gesture. Thereafter, the material status coincides with the sign status. Stylized-abstract gestures make sense due to their particular performative and sensory appearance. I chose the term “abstract” instead of the term “self-referential” in order to qualify and categorize the particular material status and appearance of stylizedabstract gestures, thereby specifying the particular condition of the type of gesture discussed here. My choice to use the term “abstract” means to foster a conceptual shift from the linguistic concept of reference and meaning towards abstraction, a concept drawn from visual studies. According to the OED the adjective abstract denotes generally speaking an idea, or quality, a state which does not have a physical existence. Abstract refers to something conceptual rather than a concrete object. Besides this general understanding the term abstract has become a qualifier to specify certain art works within the field of Fine Arts. The OED defines that the term “abstract” designates art production “which is not founded on an attempt to represent external reality, but rather seeks to achieve an effect on the viewer purely by the use of shape, color, and texture; or relating to art of this kind. Also (of an artist, esp. a painter): producing art with these characteristics.”60 In my work I draw on the latter definition applying the term abstract to categorize kinetic articulation that function self-referentially. Transposed to the analysis of hela, specified as a stylized-abstract gesture, I argue that there is no evidence of reference to represent external reality other than presenting the gesture’s decisively marked corporeal, visual, spatial and temporal appearance, its stylized materiality only. The gesture appears to be abstract.

the 60’s, Fischer-Lichte writes: “[…] First and foremost, the actions of the actors and spectators signified only what they accomplished. They were self-refential and constitutive of reality, they, [...], can be called “performative” in J. L. Austins’s sense,” see Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 21. She consolidates her definition of the “performative,” of “performativity” and of “performance” by discussing a range of relevant positions such as the early position held by Judith Butler, and a discussion on the constitution of performance by Max Herrmann, see Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008) p. 24-37. Within the frame of this work, I apply the notion of self-referentiality, which constitutes one conceptual aspect of the “performative” according to Fischer-Lichte’s definition. 60 See OED online entry on the term “abstract,” www.oed.com.

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The conceptualization of Gestalt-perception concerning the material and sensory features of a gesture’s appearance implies a perspective that acknowledges that the performance and the perception of stylized gestures ties into multiple interrelating levels: the material and performative constituents, the convergent quality and the aspect of stylization, the operative mode, perceivable as part of the aesthetic make up the design of a gesture. I further argue that this multiple configuration of the Gestalt-model 1 ties into the idea that stylized-abstract gesture function as aesthetic keys to multi-sensory experience at the performative level. My point is that stylized gestures open up situations of high intensity. This means, that hela, as a gestural key to sensory experience, conveys a condition of performative materiality which shapes a decisive sensory experience. As such I consider that the gesture functions as a key to sensory experience not only in a metaphorical sense. In everyday life keys are used to open doors to achieve excess to new situations and spaces. Respectively, I argue that by doing a stylizedabstract gesture one opens up a particular sensory situation at the very moment of performance for aesthetic reasons. Butler states that “one does one’s body.” From a gender studies perspective doing one’s body is the key to gender identity. Stylized re-enactments engender specific socially and culturally shaped and shared identities. This applies to aesthetic experience as well as I argue. Performing stylized gestures means to engender a particular situation of enhanced life. In this very process that a stylized gesture is unfolding in performance several senses are working together: a sense of timing, a sense concerning the visual shape, a sense of proprioception, and last not least the convergent quality of a gesture. All of this shapes the multi-sensory Gestalt of a gesture which relates to a certain feeling. Hela induces a feeling of a calm motion spreading into space. Due to this qualitative condition hela functions as a key to multi-sensory experience, an experience induced by means of embodiment at the performative level. Due to their specific quality stylized-abstract gestures make sense. Gestures do not point at or represent life. Instead, they perform a sensory situation which shapes and triggers hic and nunc both the performative and the perceptive realm of performance. Stylized-abstract gestures open up a sensory situation experienced as a particular version of embodied life. The multi-sensorial perspective on gestures includes that stylized-abstract gestures, such as hela, point besides their material and sensory condition towards stylization as a particular creative and artistic mode of agency. As I argued earlier stylization is based on a distinct artistic choice concerning sensory and material arrangement of kinetic articulation and its display in performance. Stylization as creative procedure of gestural articulation is tied into a context of performative and aesthetic conventions embodied through performance practice.

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The degree of stylization shapes and enhances how performative materialities converge and how implied sensory qualities occur. Lower body gestures differ from each other due to their specific performative configuration and their convergent multi-sensory quality. Lower body gestures carry specific names. As whole body gesture they appear in conjunction with stylized-abstract upper body gestures which for the most part simulate the lower body gesture at a higher level, decisively demarcating thereby the area of gestural materialization of the upper body. Taken all together, stylized-abstract gestures constitute a system specific to hula ‘ōlapa upon which composers of hula ‘ōlapa draw when creating hula ‘ōlapa performances. Hula masters choose while composing hula ‘ōlapa performance pieces stylized-abstract lower and upper body gestures due to their specific Gestalt quality. The specific corporealdynamic-visual Gestalt of stylized-abstract gestures function like specifically shaped keys to multi-sensory experience inducing certain qualities and related sensory feelings and intensities shaping the flow of aesthetic experience.

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6.4 On Gestures and Stylization Section III: Stylized-Alluding Gestures The following analytical discussion On Gestures and Stylization Section III is dedicated to stylized-alluding gestures. I apply the performance aesthetic approach, which I developed as part of my previous discussion On Gestures and Stylization Section II by analyzing stylized-abstract gestures, to a minute description of one stylized-alluding gesture. I discuss the concept of gestural means of visual representation in order to understand the aesthetic impact and appeal of stylized-alluding gestures. Respectively, I conceptualize the third principle of stylization. The performative constitution of stylized-alluding gestures relies, as I argue, on both the second and third principle of stylization. Stylized-abstract gestures primarily function as part of the compositional frame work of hula pieces featuring qualitative aspects of performance elements that are abstract or selfreferential in other words, whereas stylized-alluding gestures co-relate with the chanted poetry of the mele hula conveying elements of a story line, as this is the case during so called paukū sequences of a hula composition. 6.4.1 Conceptualizing Stylized-Alluding Gestures of the Upper Body Segment Kaeppler considers in her study entitled Hula Pahu: Hawaiian Drum Dance that hula was practiced as a highly appreciated and developed cultural practice and formal entertainment at the courts of the high chiefs. Based on her research, Kaeppler recollects that hula movements enhanced the mele hula, the poetic text, by “visual, transient means.”1 The pleasure watching hula was to see how skillful a hula master rendered a mele hula “visible in a culturally satisfying way, enhancing or obscuring the meaning.”2 Her perspective ties into what I discussed earlier referring to McNeill’s findings that gestures and speech work coexpressively in communication and thought process. Kaeppler’s writing responds to this matter of fact saying “that body movements in hula brought to the verbal form a more profound understanding through the addition of a visual dimension.”3 What McNeill proposed in his study on everyday communication applies to hula as a stage art genre. Hula aesthetically enhances the equally yet medially distinct co-relation and co-expressivity of gesture and verbal means. Taking both McNeill’s and Kaeppler’s writing into account I concede that the crea1

See Kaeppler, Adrienne (1996), p. 13.

2

Ibid., p. 13.

3

Ibid., p. 13.

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tion and performance of hula compositions incorporates body movements in such a way that these unfold their own unique level of meaningfulness which interrelates and resonates with the verbal material on its own terms. Kaeppler suggests in her historically oriented study on hula as formal court entertainment that hula movements did “allude” to the mele hula. She differentiates between two ways how body movements referred to the text. Kaeppler writes: “In some cases, the movements did allude to the surface meaning of the text, suggesting or depicting certain words (usually nouns, such as those for flowers, birds, or natural phenomena) through culturally conventionalized movement motifs. In other cases the movement motifs referred to veiled or hidden meanings in the text, making reference to genealogical lines, chiefs, and their deeds, thereby enhancing the text.”4

I adapt Kaeppler’s delineation cited above to my own study of contemporary practices of traditional hula saying that hula movements are used as a referential layer based on gestural terms thereby co-responding aesthetically and semantically to the poetic text in various ways. In my analysis I relate to Kaeppler’s perspective of gestural allusion to my understanding of gestures that show representational features in contemporary hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. In her statement cited above Kaeppler suggests that alluding movement motifs were culturally conventionalized. I call these movement motifs in my study “stylizedalluding gestures.” Kaeppler scrutinizes in her study at length that in traditional Hawaiian society formalized movement dimensions were employed for the realization of 1) emotion – kanikau: mourning ceremonies, lament, 2) ritual – formalized movements and sacred texts were performed as a sacrament for religious purpose, 3) formal entertainment – movements and poetry were combined in conjunction with sound-producing instruments.5 Formalization shaped, following Kaeppler’s proposition, all three cultural practices listed above including the hula. The third category listed demarcates the cultural practice of hula as a formalized performance practice and cultural form of formal entertainment. Kaeppler’s basic performance structural definition of hula stated above says that movements and poetry were combined with percussion instruments. Kaeppler’s performance structural definition of hula in fact supports my own perspective that hula ‘ōlapa as a traditional yet contemporary performing art form is structurally based on an in4

Ibid., p. 13.

5

Ibid., p. 8-9.

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terdependence of stylized gestural enactment, percussion and chanted oral poetry. Kaeppler’s notion of formalization ties into the analytical discussion of stylization in my work. Stylization takes part in how gestures are shaped according to certain culturally and historically preconceived ways. An in-depth analysis about means of stylization shows as I argue a set of stylistic choices that guide the creation of entire hula compositions and that of single gestures. I distinguish in my work between three principles of stylization that guide hula ‘ōlapa as a highly stylized form of performance practice. 1) the first principle of stylization determines the configuration of the basic body posture, 2) the second principle of stylization specifies stylized-abstract gestures according to their decisively shaped multi-sensory Gestalt, 3) the third principle of stylization guides the formation of gestures that show representational features, a topic that I discuss in the course of this section. 6.4.2 By Means of Stylization III The question is how stylized-alluding gestures refer to aspects of the meaning of the mele hula, suggesting or depicting certain words usually nouns referring to natural phenomena as Kaeppler writes. My analysis of alluding-stylized gestures is based on the analytical outline that I developed as part of On Gestures and Stylization Section II6 conceptualizing the multi-sensory Gestalt of stylizedabstract gestures. I further extend this basic Gestalt concept that covers the convergent aspects of stylized-abstract gestures discussing additionally features that tie into questions of gestural representation. How do stylized-alluding gestures in fact represent aspects of the world through means of gestural articulation? As a point of departure I relate in addition to McNeill’s position to Cornelia Müller’s research in the field of gesture studies.7 Gestural Means of Visual Representation: The Relation of Gestural Referentiality and Metaphoricity Of interest in my own study is how Müller conceptualizes gestural representation. She introduces a framework based on a functional classification of representational gestures.8 Function in her classification system refers to how gestures 6

See Part II, Analysis II: 6.3 On Gestures and Stylization Section II: Stylized-Abstract

7

In her early work she developed a comparative study on gesticulation in everyday

Gestures. conversation among Spanish and German speakers. See Müller, Cornelia (1998): Redebegleitende Gesten. Kulturgeschichte – Theorie – Sprachvergleich. 8

Ibid., p. 110.

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are involved in communicating aspects of the world. She distinguishes among three categories of representational gestures: referential, performative, and discursive gestures.9 For the purpose of this study I primarily refer to Müller’s category of referential gestures. She specifies that referential gestures are able to denote both concrete and abstract aspects10 that are referred to in a metaphorical way. The category of referential gestures which denote concrete aspects refer to objects, characteristics, behavior and actions, events, and information about location and time in relative terms as she writes.11 She further explicates that referential gestures which refer to concrete aspects may function as the concrete basis for gestural metaphors. Gestural metaphors are able to visualize abstract concepts. She introduces an example to explain the metaphorical function of gestures discussing the structural relationship between concrete and metaphorical referentiality of gestures. Müller refers to a gesture which visualizes a door frame to exemplify her position. She writes that this gesture can be used to convey two meanings: 1) the gesture visualizes a concrete door frame or 2) the gesture is metaphorically used as the visual reference to outline a theoretical framework. She explicates that the context of the conversation decides whether the discussed gesture is enacted to convey a concrete aspect of reality or whether the gesture denotes metaphorically an abstract meaning. In the first case listed the gesture refers to the visual outline of a door frame. In this case the gesture outlines visually specifics of a concrete experience. In the second case the visual specifics of the doorframe function as the source domain to convey an abstract concept. A theoretical framework has no concrete materiality and no immediate sensory aspects to refer to. It has no features that are perceivable like this is the case with a concrete object. Instead, the gesture is used as the concrete basis to visualize the idea of what a theoretical framework is capa9

See Müller’s discussion on referential, performative and discursive gestures in: Müller, Cornelia (1998), p. 111-112. Performative gestures convey speech acts, such as to ponder, to rejects, to present, to wipe away, and to refuse to follow Müller’s specification. The latter type of gestures is considered to function as performative enactments of speech acts. Discursive gestures on the other hand are applied in conversation to structure and subdivide verbal articulations. Müller’s category of discursive gestures relates to gestures that are termed “beats” among scholars of gestures studies. She lists among discursive gestures those that emphasize, divide or combine subject matters.

10 The term “abstract” in this case denotes in Müller’s work theoretical concepts that do not relate to any concrete objects. 11 Ibid., p. 110.

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ble to do. A theoretical framework frames knowledge as much as a door frame frames the doorway from one room to the next. A door frame divides space. As such, the concrete visual outline of the door frame of the gesture enhances the discussion about the notion of what a theoretical framework is about. The gesture functions in this case in a metaphorical way. Lately Müller proposed that metaphoricity is activated in the very process of communication and that the creation of metaphors in communicative acts is modality independent.12 Metaphors develop in the course of a conversation in a dynamic and cross-modal way between speech and gesticulation. Müller writes: “The dynamic character of metaphors is another core facet of the nature of metaphors that a close study of gestures in talk and discourse reveals. Again, this perspective directs us to the sequential linear structuring and the interrelatedness of metaphors in speech and gesture as they unfold over time. [...] this interrelatedness only becomes visible when both modalities are carefully considered as they evolve in the course of discourse.”13

Later on in my micro-analysis of the stylized-alluding gesture known as makani, I draw on these considerations concerning the topic on metaphoricity and gestures, stated by Müller. Gestural Referentiality and Forms of Visual Abstraction Müller critically notes in her book Redebegleitende Gesten: Kulturgeschichte – Theorie – Sprachvergleich (1998) that the condition of gestures when understood as a visual form of communication does not match with the idea of simple iconic analogy proposed by semiotics. The semiotic notion about gestural signs implies that the semiotic structure of gestures is based on an iconic analogy which specifies visually the referential relation between the signifier that means 12 See Müller, Cornelia (2008): “What gestures reveal about the nature of metaphor”, in: Müller, Cornelia/Cienki, Alan (eds.): Metaphor and Gesture, p. 222. 13 Ibid., p. 233-234. Müller’s reflections on metaphoricity and gesture are based on a development called conceptual metaphor studies. She primarily recalls the joint work of linguist George Lakoff and the philosopher Mark Johnson who published 1980 the book Metaphors We Live By. Lakoff and Johnson define “the nature of metaphors as primarily conceptual rather than linguistic” as Müller summons their work. Metaphors are accordingly viewed as products of a cognitive process. This leads towards an understanding of metaphoricity that is dynamic in nature. Metaphoricity is activated in the process of communication “in speech, gesture, or speech and gesture co-jointly” as Müller writes. See Müller, Cornelia (2008), p. 219, 222, 233.

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the gesture, and the signified, the referent,14 as she writes. She questions the idea that iconic analogy is based on a unmediated reduplication of reality. Instead she proposes that it is necessary to recognize that the generation of gestures is closer to forms of “artistic representation” (künstlerische Darstellung) such as drawing, modeling and sculpture.15 Hands are used as a means to engender motivated gestural images, “Gestenbilder”16 that imply processes of reflection using the medial and material means of gesticulation. The process of reflection upon aspects of reality through gesticulation necessarily again implies aspects of selection and abstraction. Accordingly she proposes an analysis that takes both the visual and artistic characteristics of gestural articulation into account. One reference in her work is Rudolf Arnheim, a scholar of visual studies, who introduces the idea of “drawing as motion.”17 He points out that drawing, painting and modeling is based on human motor behavior. Arnheim relates these forms of artistic motor behavior to forms of gesticulation in general, differentiating between physiognomic and descriptive behavior. Arnheim’s definition of “descriptive movements” which is of interest here is that “deliberate gestures are meant to represent perceptual qualities.”18 Arnheim introduces the idea that the visual appearance of descriptive movements may represent not only visual but “perceptual qualities” in general. Arnheim writes: “We may use our hands and arms, often supported by the entire body, to show how large or small, fast or slow, round or angular, far or close something is or was or could be. Such gestures may refer to concrete objects or events – such as mice or mountains or the encounter between two people – but also figuratively to the bigness of a task, the remoteness of a possibility, or a clash of opinions. It seems permissible to assume that the activity of deliberate artistic representation has its motor source in descriptive movement. The hand that traces the shape of an animal in the air during a conversation is not far from fixating the trace in the sand or on a wall.”19

Arnheim captures what gestures are able to do. Gestures communicate via movement activities of gestures as part of the whole body. This capacity of gestures he equates with drawings and acts of sculpting or modeling of objects, 14 Ibid., p. 110. 15 Ibid., p. 114-115. 16 Ibid., p. 110. 17 See Arnheim, Rudolf (1995), p. 135. 18 Ibid., p. 135. 19 Ibid., p. 136.

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events, and qualities using the air. Gestures may convey their content in concrete or figurative terms as Arnheim concedes. In correspondence to Arnheim’s perspective, Müller presumes that gesticulation is based on a generally shared cultural background knowing how to create arte-facts. Both Müller’s and Arnheim’s perspective discussed here relate to a comment of one advanced hālau-member at Kumu Lake’s hula classes during my research and study of hula ‘ōlapa practice on the island of O‘ahu (1997-2001). The hula practitioner in question explained to us beginners that gestures in hula are used like creating paintings. This perspective to compare gesticulation in hula and painting resonates among hula practitioners. The following quote by Cecilia Kawaiokawa‘awa‘a Akim compares hula and painting as well: “As a dancer you're painting a picture. You put into motion our oral history.”20 The comparison between painting, an aesthetic strategy of Fine Arts, and the use of gesture in hula practice I find striking. These comments of Hawaiian cultural practitioners did spark my research to analyze hula based on an interdisciplinary framework of thought. In fact, Müller does foreground in her own work on gestures an interdisciplinary perspective drawing on visual studies. One proponent, Rudolf Arnheim, I discussed briefly. Respectively I draw on Arnheim’s and Müller’s perspective saying that the performative materiality of gestures is based on an artistic process which generates visual forms of representation. This premise sets the analytical backdrop for my own analysis of stylized-alluding gestures. Müller takes Arnheim’s perspective considering an artistic understanding of gesture a step further. Her point is that the generation of gestures is based on processes of “creative abstraction” within the context of face-to-face communication. Müller stresses that the medial condition of gestures – the momentary and fleeting condition of gestures – requires processes of abstraction. These again are based on reduction and selection of essentials.21 In communication speakers instantly need to extract and deliberately select among a multitude of possible aspects about what they want to convey applying gestural means. Gestures for the most part feature one principle element or quality of a topic. This leads Müller to state that the process of abstraction which ties into the generation of gestureimages works with “formal reduction.” The generation of representational gestures is thereafter based on creative abstraction which again relies on formal reduction and processes of deliberate selection. Gestures are creatively shaped visual transformations of what we think we are perceiving. 20 Akim’s quote is found in print in the book publishes by Renata Provenzano (2001), Hula. Hawaiian proverbs and Inspirational Quotes Celebrating Hula in Hawai‘i, p. 52. 21 See Müller, Cornelia (1998), p. 126.

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Stylization, Abstraction and Performance Practices of “Extra Daily Technique” Müller’s position is that the transformation of reality into a form of visual gestural representation involves an intentional and creative process of abstraction drawing on the means of selection and formal reduction.22 This concept ties into my understanding of how stylized-alluding gestures are engendered. Earlier in this chapter I introduced the work of Eugenio Barba who calls stylized kinetic performance activity “extra-daily behavior.”23 I discussed Elizabeth Wichmann-Walczak’s position who equates “stylization” with Barba’s concept of “extra-daily behavior.” She writes that “stylization refers to the divergence between the behavior of daily life and their presentation on the stage.”24 In reference to Barba’s and Wichmann-Walczak’s findings I discussed stylization as a means to engender a tension of difference between extra-daily and daily behavior applying procedures of stylized re-enactments for artistic purpose. In my work I distinguished so far between two principles of stylization that shape extra-daily behavior in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The first principle of stylization ties into the formation of the basic body posture called ‘ai ha‘a, a posture of readiness and presence. The second principle of stylization shapes the decisively and characteristically marked appearance of stylized-abstract gestures. These two principles of stylization determine the performative generation of the two distinguished types of corporeal articulation and stylized means of embodiment applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. As follows I relate the concept of extra-daily behavior (Barba), the notion of stylization (Wichmann-Walczak) and the theoretical idea that gestures in certain cases may function as visual forms of representation (Müller) in order to conceptualize stylized-alluding gestures, the third type of stylized means of embodiment. I discuss Müller’s concept of creative abstraction in relation to extra-daily technique and stylization. 22 Ibid., p. 124-129. 23 Barba developed the concept of extra-daily technique based on the Indian differentiation between “lokadharmi” and “natyadharmi.” I quote from Barba’s writing concerning a discussion of these two terms. “‘We have two words,’ the Indian dancer Sanjukta Panigrahi said to me, ‘to describe man’s behavior: lokadharmi stands for behavior (dharmi) in daily life (loka); natyadharmi stands for behavior in dance (natya),’” see Barba, Eugenio/Savarese, Nicola (1991), p. 9. 24 Elizabeth Wichmann-Walczak equates “stylization” with Barba’s concept of “extradaily behavior.” She writes that “stylization refers to the divergence between the behavior of daily life and their presentation on the stage.” See Wichmann-Walczak, Elizabeth (1991), p. 4.

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Barba explicates, that “the body’s extra-daily techniques consist of physical procedures” which are based on “an operation of reduction and substitution which reveals what is essential in the actions and which moves the body away from daily techniques, creating a tension, a difference in potential, through which energy passes.”25 Barba’s statement delineates a specific performance procedure that relies on “an operation of reduction and substitution.” He writes that the formation of extra-daily techniques depend on physical procedures that involve processes of reduction. Selection, which reduction as part of stylization implies, reveals essentials of actions as Barba stresses. Selection is part of formal reduction which when applied to body techniques generates a strong focus upon basic features of the body in motion enhancing the effect of presence and form at the performative level. This creates a tension of difference between everyday and extra-daily behavior according to Barba. As follows I argue that Barba’s statement relates closely to Müller’s concept of creative abstraction in the formation of image-like gestures that refer visually to aspects of the world in everyday communication. Müller’s idea of creative abstraction is based on selection and formal reduction likewise. Müller’s perspective however stresses the spontaneous, creative, yet selective and artistic-like aspects of gesticulation used as part of everyday conversation. When applied to the deliberate artistic formation of extra-daily technique, which relates to the type of visual form of representation discussed here, gestural articulation must be shaped according to a process of stylization. In this case I consider that the process of stylization is based on an aesthetically enhanced procedure of creative abstraction called artistic abstraction in my work. Artistic abstraction involves reduction, selection and substitution in order to “reveal essentials” of gestural representation to follow Barba. The everyday capacity of gestures, that is the ability to refer to something else than themselves by means of visual representation, is magnified and embellished upon in highly stylized performing art practices. In this latter case procedures of stylization are used as aesthetic strategy to develop the specific type of extradaily behavior defined as stylized-alluding gestures in my work. Stylizedalluding gestures are not applied in everyday conversation they are utilized for stage art purpose and aesthetic delight. How does gestural stylization and visual referentiality coincide? I conceptualize a third principle of stylization to define stylized-alluding gestures as a performance aesthetic means of gestural representation. My perspective is that stylized-alluding gestures are based on stylized procedures of creative abstraction generating “visual forms of representation” (Müller) considering the fact that 25 See Barba, Eugenio/Savarese, Nicola (1991), p. 20.

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gestures may portray not only visual but “perceptual qualities” (Arnheim) as well. I propose that artistic abstraction is fundamental in what I call the third principle of stylization. Based on Barba’s position I differentiate between daily and extra-daily behavior, which has been specified as stylization by WichmannWalczak. I assume that stylized-alluding performance activity selects about what is “essential” concerning gestural representation. This aspect of what Barba considered to be essential is crucial to an understanding of how stylization shapes gestural representation in performance and how stylization is effective both at the performative as well as at the representational level. Yet, what in fact does “essential” mean when describing stylized-alluding gestures and their function to configure stylized visual forms of representation? Visual Forms of Representation and the Concept of Multi-Sensory Experience Wichmann-Walczak’s explanation is that those aspects selected to be essential in stylization opposes realistic representation. Wichmann-Walczak discusses in her study on performance principles of jingju26 the aesthetic aim of Chinese painting as one example to explain aesthetic procedure of abstraction that she considers to be fundamental to the aesthetic strategy of stylization. She writes: “Landscape paintings are rarely identifiable as portraying a precise proportion of a specific place. Rather, a painting of a particular mountain will resemble that mountain in broad terms, and will convey the essence of that mountain and the spirit of the total concept “mountain.””27 This is how Wichmann-Walczak describes the technique of stylization. The process of stylization implies that Chinese painters focus on a few selected perceptual essentials of a landscape while creating their paintings. Brush strokes on paper for example capture qualitative aspects that refer to how the landscape appears as a whole. By doing so the artists aim is to convey rather an “essence” or the “spirit” of a landscape to follow WichmannWalczak’s explications. In Wichmann-Walczak’s terms stylization is a means to convey the “essence” or “total concept” of an experienced phenomenon, a qualitative condition that seems to be on one hand referring to the material world, the features of a landscape for example. Yet, the effect of stylization is that the painting infers a sense of landscape that appears to be rather immaterial at the same time. In reference to these arguments, stylization is not about reproducing the visual surface 26 See Wichmann-Walczak, Elizabeth (1991), p. 4. 27 Ibid., p. 2.

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of perceived phenomena only. Instead stylization generates visual forms of representation that are based on procedures of artistic abstraction as specified earlier, including selection and formal reduction. The aesthetic aim of stylization opens art production and related processes of aesthetic experience towards immaterial seeming aspects. The procedure of stylization rather conveys the quality of all-encompassing moments of multi-sensory experience. Moments of multi-sensory experience may ignite flashes of sensory enlightenment which ties into Wichmann-Walczak’s concept of the “total concept” or “spirit” that Chinese painting seeks to convey for example. Multi-sensory experience thereafter I understand as perceptual experience that is enhanced by means of abstraction, in other words stylized forms of artistic endeavor such as stylized-alluding gestures applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance. Respectively I question what aspects of experience do stylized-alluding gestures convey? How does the appearance of stylized-alluding gestures trigger these heightened moments of multi-sensory experience? How does the performative level of stylizedalluding gestures infer referential levels of multi-sensory experience? 6.4.3 The Makani-Gesture: The Multi-Sensory Experience of Wind as Encounter The Performative Level of Stylized-Alluding Gestures Based on the above stated principles of stylization and earlier stated classifications of gestures, I examine one example of a stylized-alluding upper-body gesture used in hula ‘ōlapa. I propose that the performance aesthetic effect of the makani-gesture is to merge the multi-sensory experience of wind and the perceptual concept of encounter between human beings. In order to specify how the gesture is able to convey what I propose I determine first of all the performative syntax of the corporeal, visual and spatio-temporal Gestalt of the gesture, following the approach developed to analyze stylized-abstract gestures. Fig. 12 represents a series of photos of the gesture of interest. The photos depict three points out of a continuous motion sequence. Fig. 12: Makani – Stylization of Wind in Hawaiian Hula ‘Ōlapa.

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The temporal format of the gesture of interest is one beat at the minimum and two beats at the most. A two beat cycle allows a wider and deliberate execution of the spatial path, whereas a one beat cycle means that the spatial configuration has to be executed quicker. The left arm is placed pointing at a 45 degree angle to the left-forward. This position of the left hand and arm forms one straight line. The finger tips point forward, while the palm of the left hand faces towards the ground. The motion of the left hand coincides with the first beat. Once the left arm is placed, its position is not changed throughout the determined time interval of the gesture. As soon as the left arm is placed, the right arm starts to circle around the head. The movement of the right arm begins at the front of the head, moving over to the left side and around the head and down at the right side of the head in order to end at a position in front of the right chest. While moving down at the right side of the head the fingertips of the right hand point towards the right ear. Keeping an appropriate distance to the head, the right hand executes a large spiraling motion around the head. The head of the performer is turned facing diagonally left. The gaze follows the direction of the left arm being stretched out at a 45 degree angle. The eyes are fixing a point in the distance. The focus of the gaze is positioned slightly above the level of the left hand’s fingertips. The right hand is placed in front of the right chest. The fingertips of the right hand point laterally to the left side. The centre line28 of the body serves as an orientation. The fingertips do not move beyond the centre line into the left body half. The right hand positioned in front of the chest finalizes the right hand’s movement. The ending position of the right hand’s motion finalizes the gesture as a whole. The motion aspects described above merge in performance and configure the corporeal, visual and spatio-temporal Gestalt of the gesture. The gesture’s appearance is based on the execution of a juxtaposed yet coordinated interrelationship of the movements of both arms and hands including the positioning of the head and the gaze. A well rounded effortless seeming performance of stylized gestural articulation is based on repetitive procedures of long term training which enables fine-tuning the neuro-muscular co-ordination of all involved movement aspects. This indicates a first level of performance competence. The performative level of competence concerning the production of the multi-sensory 28 Ann Hutchinson specifies in her book on “Labannotation,” that the “centre line” of the body runs vertically from head to the feet dividing the body exactly into the left and the right body half See Hutchinson, Ann (1991), p. 21. According to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice the centre line of the body represents an imagined device which enables spatial and kinetic orientation to the performer.

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Gestalt of a stylized-alluding gesture of the upper body is equal to the constitution of stylized-abstract gestures discussed earlier. The performative level of the gesture’s appearance is delineated by means of the Gestalt-model 2, see Appendix E, fig. 2. Dimension A refers diagrammatically to the performative components, the corporeal, visual and spatio-temporal aspects that partake in the configuration of the gesture’s materialization during the very process of performance. Dimension C1 specifies the qualitative dimension, the stylized appearance of a gesture and the first level of multi-sensorial experience that the gesture’s appearance generates at the performative level. C1 as a qualitative category reflects upon a first performance aesthetic level of performance experience of the art of stylized-alluding gestures. Gestural Representation: Visual Process and Referential Levels of Sensory Experience The question is what does the gesture of interest refer to? The described gesture does not necessarily communicate a specific meaning immediately identifiable by a non-informed audience. However, a person, who is informed about hula ‘ōlapa, knows, that the gesture described signifies “makani.” Translated into English language, the Hawaiian term “makani” means “wind.” In this particular case the gesture has a definite lexical meaning which refers to the word “makani.”29 The gesture of interest is well known among hula practitioners. I consider this gesture to be part of the generally shared and conventionalized repertoire of stylized-alluding gestures in hula ‘ōlapa performance. More so, the gesture makani30 relates to one important poetic motif and metaphor centered on the natural phenomenon “wind” frequently referred to by Hawaiian poets of mele hula. Kumu hula John Keola Lake explained to me in preparation for my hula presentation at The World Invitational Hula Festival (2000) that in Hawaiian culture and specifically in hula ‘ōlapa compositions “wind” expresses human affection such as love relationship or the effect of human temper. Lake’s comment points towards the fact that the gesture makani as a gestural means and visual form of representation in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice is based on a layered structure of referentiality. This double bind aspect of the gesture is of interest in my analysis: the fact that the gesture seems to represent wind on one hand and that it refers metaphorically to human relationship and affection on the other hand. How does the performative appearance of the gesture support the referen29 See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986), p. 227. 30 I use cursive to demarcate that the word makani denotes the name of the gesture in question.

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tial relationship between wind as the concrete base and its metaphorical use conveying aspects of human relationship? In my analytical query I focus on how to define the relationship between the performative structure of the gesture’s appearance and its referentiality. How far does the motion sequence of the gesture makani resemble visually features of wind? How far does a gesture, as a means of visual representation, convey wind in terms of an experience? This ties conceptually into the problem whether the discussed gesture as a form of visual representation is able to convey multisensory conditions of experience? A next step is to ask how the visual appearance of the gesture does refer to the experience of human relationship in a metaphorical sense. What gestural evidence supports this consideration? The natural phenomenon of wind has no definite visible surface or form like an object, which could be translated into kinetic activity by one-to-one iconic analogy. Therefore, other characteristics of wind need to be considered in order to achieve gestural resemblance. In order to understand how the gesture constitutes a kinetic representation of wind, one has to consider the condition of encounter between a human being and the natural phenomenon of wind first. Winds in Hawai‘i have an island specific character. Each valley and landmark have their own particular winds named individually by Hawaiians.31 One general characteristic of wind is that it comes in “chunks” of wind in order to pass by and to be gone at the next moment. Standing on a mountain ridge in Hawai‘i and looking at the mountain slopes covered with forest, one is able to observe these “wind-chunks” coming alongside the hill, moving the tops of the trees. At the next moment, the wind whirls around one’s head and then the wind will be gone at once. First of all, the dynamic and visual appearance of the gesture makani is based on the direction and straight line engendered by the position of the left-arm-andhand-phrase pointing at an angle of 45 degrees diagonally forward to the left. This diagonal placement of the left arm generates a dynamic situation, a distinctly directed path way, although the position of the left arms stays fixed. One characteristic feature is that winds travels. The straightness of the stretched and pointed gesture of the left arm depicts visually direction and path way of wind 31 Samuel H. Elbert and Noelani Mahoe, mention in their book Na Mele o Hawai‘i Nei, that one traditional Hawaiian chant edited by Fornander lists the names of one hundred winds. Among these winds alone twelve distinct winds are listed to be typical to the valley of Hālawa on the island of Molokai as they point out. See Elbert, Samuel H./Mahoe, Noelani (1970): Na Mele O Hawai‘i. 101 Hawaiian Songs, Honolulu: UP of Hawai‘i, p. 11.

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approaching a human being as wind comes closer from far away. The placement of the left arm establishes a defined relationship between the performer/human being and the approaching other pointed at in the distance. Secondly, the circling and spiraling motion of the right hand visualizes by means of reduction and gestural substitution the situation and experience of wind whirling around the head of an individual experiencing the discussed situation. The gesture ends according to what wind usually does. Wind moves along and disappears. The circular motion comes to rest in front of the chest. Sensory Induction of Touch and Sound through Vision I propose that the gesture as a visual yet process based form of representation reflects an experience that is tied into a sequence of spatial and other sensory qualities. Facets of experiences are as such induced. By induction I mean that visual aspects infer sensory memories of experiences that the visual form points at or indicates. In case of the gesture makani, the gesture not only features a situation about how a human being experiences wind. The gesture shapes by visual and kinetic means a situation of encounter by inducing what it means to experience wind. How does induction of sensory experience via gestural means work? The gesture makani recreates the progression of what it means to experience the encounter of wind based on a certain sequence of multi-sensory experiences as I argue. A few essential features are selected to shape visually the gestural representation of wind as discussed above. The changing relation from a distant condition towards closeness which characterizes the situation of wind approaching an involved subject ties into an entangled sphere of vision, sound and touch. As pointed out earlier wind is not an object which has a clear cut visible surface. Wind is observable as something in motion coming closer. The motion of wind is only visible due to impact that wind has upon objects such as trees that start to move or dust that is being up-lifted. The visual aspect of impact in fact relates to touch. The gesture reflects upon this condition. The straight left arm position indicates the path way that wind takes coming closer brushing the surface of the earth. Finally, the right hand circles around the head indicating what happens in case wind actually arrives and whirls around ones head. One feels the impact of the wind touching the skin. That means the appearance of the gesture induces memories about what it feels like in case wind touches the skin. The gesture not only indicates the sensory relation of vision and touch, which characterizes the process of experiencing wind. The gesture infers on the other hand sound due to the fact that wind is recognized according to sound. This is a basic experience and sensory memory everybody can relates to. One hears the sound of wind

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blowing. Usually one hears acoustically the coming of wind first and then one feels the wind touching the skin. The position of the stretched left arm in fact refers visually to the acoustic impression of sound as wind is approaching. More so, the gesture features the acoustic aspects of wind due to the fact that the right hand circles around the head. This motion relates to the area close to the ears. The motion covers both the wind touching the skin of the head as much as it indicates listening to the wind whirling around ones head. Taking these various aspects discussed into account I argue that the gesture makani reflects upon the multi-sensory and sequential condition experiencing the natural phenomenon of wind. The sensory experience of vision induces in case of the gesture both a sense of sound, a sense of touch, and a sense of progression. In case of the makani gesture the specific metaphorical understanding of the gesture is culturally predetermined. My analysis shows that the motion combination of the left and right arm-hand-phrase shapes and conveys very precisely an experience, the structural and sensory aspects that shape the situation of wind encountering a human being. I propose that the gestural representation of wind functions as a metaphor for close encounter between humans. The topic of encounter I consider to be in fact the main subject of the gesture in question. The subject of encounter is what the gesture conveys at its core and as its essential or central content drawing on phenomenal aspects of wind. The visual and dynamic structure of the gesture resembles what it means to experience wind. Yet, this first referential layer of the gesture cues a second referential layer which offers a perceptual concept of what it means to experience encounter. The gesture makani functions as the concrete base to convey metaphorically close encounter to follow Müller’s understanding concerning the metaphorical use of gestures discussed earlier. How does the experience of wind and its resemblance through gestural means relate to close encounter? The Spatial Dynamic of Encounter: Distance and Closeness Juxtaposed The visual and temporal qualities of the two gesture phrases of both arms and hands are distinctly different. Each phrase, the straight and fixed position of the left arm and hand, versus the circular motion of the right hand defines a specific impression. The stretched, pointed and fixed position of the left arm visualizes a condition of distance, direction and path way, whereas the circular motion of the right hand focuses the attention upon the corporeal and sensory condition of the head. The latter motion stresses rather a situation of closeness. The gesture combines respectively two impressions: the feeling of distance and that of closeness. These two impressions as I argue qualify as two crucial yet opposing features of

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spatiality which determine the micro-structural and dynamic configuration of the gesture makani. The two impressions of spatiality, distance and closeness, define a qualitative contrast. The gesture’s visual form of representation reflects that encounter is based on a structurally interrelated process of these two contrastive aspects of spatiality. The progression from one spatial condition into the next demarcates that the sequential flow of experience is based on a change between distance and closeness being juxtaposed. Distance changes into closeness. This implies a dynamic that is engendered due to the impression of changing spatial conditions. The process like character of experiencing wind is in fact based on a structure of difference, a juxtaposition of these two distinct spatial impressions, distance and closeness. The juxtaposition of the two specified spatial conditions engenders tension. A moment of suspense happens. To consider that the gesture features these spatial qualities as a means to resemble wind and as a perceptual concept for encounter at the same time is crucial to an understanding in terms of what the gesture is conveying at its core. This basic structural condition and dynamic of the gesture, the juxtaposition of distance and closeness, characterizes essential aspects concerned with the experience of encounter as such. This latter aspect surpasses the fact that the gesture represents the phenomenological occurrence of wind only. The Dynamic of Encounter – A Perceptual Concept of Experience Taking the above described motion structure of the gesture into account I identify three aspects that represent structurally essential characteristics of wind encountering a human being. I consider that these three essential and interrelating characteristics configure a “perceptual concept.” The notion of the “perceptual concept” has been discussed by Rudolf Arnheim in his book on Art and Visual Perception (1965). The idea about the “perceptual concept” ties into Arnheim’s considerations about the concept of “shape” or “Gestalt” in other words. He summons that “vision is a creative activity of the human mind.” He argues that “perceiving achieves, at the sensory level, what in the realm of reasoning is known as understanding.”32 The process of vision means that while looking at phenomena one generates and applies patterns of organized form, such as size, directions, geometric shapes, colors. These patterns of perception are the result of experience and its interpretation. For the most part the term “concept” relates to the notion of intellectual operation and to processes such as abstraction, judgment, logic and conclusion as he writes.33 Thus, Arnheim proposes that these 32 See Arnheim, Rudolf (1965): Art and Visual Perception, p. 29-31. 33 Ibid., p. 31.

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processes which are for the most part reserved for intellectual reasoning are at work at the level of sense perception. For the purpose of my work, I adapt Arnheim’s idea of the perceptual concept applying it to my discussion of the multi-sensory capacity of stylized-alluding gestures. Respectively, I argue that the makani gesture features convincingly a perceptual concept about the experience of close encounter as such: 1. Close encounter is based on a relationship of at least two proponents. The gesture features this basic relationship referring to wind approaching a human being. 2. The relationship among the two proponents is tied into a specific profile and process of interaction. The gesture reflects on how wind approaches upon a human being as such that the gesture focuses upon the specific spatial dynamic and multi-sensory condition of encounter as experience. 3. The process of interaction links the two proponents into one shared situation. The situation of encounter has a fleeting event like character. This demarcates the defined temporal character of encounter. 4. The process of interaction is based on an active-receptive co-relation between the two involved proponents. In case of the gesture makani one party is active, that is the wind coming closer and whirling around ones head. Wind is the main agent in this specific case. The other side, the human being, is receptive and thereby experiencing the active side, the wind whirling around ones head. The motion structure of the gesture resembles a very precise observation of these interrelating aspects of encounter. Yet, the gesture not only features a situation about how a human being experiences wind. The gesture shapes by visual and kinetic means a situation of encounter thereby inducing what it means not only to experience wind but also human encounter between lovers. The fact is that both the experience of wind and that of encounter have no definite material outline, form or weight as this is the case with objects. Experiences and relationships happen. Experiences and relationships are based on a fleeting non-material condition. It is due to the interplay of the senses which shape momentarily an experience. The described relationship and directed interaction between both parties shapes a perceptual concept of the phenomenon wind and at the next deeper level the phenomenon of close encounter as such. This deeper level of referentiality is indicated due to the spatial and sensory facets of close encounter which ties into the fact that the gesture resonates with the topic of human relationship and respective emotions. Relationship is intrinsically process based. The experience of relationship happens

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between at least two human beings. In traditional hula performance close encounter between humans is not enacted directly. The sensory aspects of close encounter are conveyed instead. Wind functions as the metaphoric base to induce what it means to experience the other, a lover for example. To summarize, to an audience the gesture’s multi-sensory Gestalt, the visual path and overall dynamic of the gesture, is perceived primarily visually and corporeally. However, the gesture conveys a sequence of several sensory experiences. All of this ties into how the phenomenon of wind is perceived. The gesture discussed conveys sensory experience as something that is primarily processoriented. The motion configuration of the gesture suggests a certain sequential order of sensory features. Vision induces touch and sound. The spatial conditions of distance and closeness are combined in a juxtaposed yet interrelated progression. The gesture initiates as such a sensory experience by shaping the specificity of the experienced situation in a highly stylized and aesthetically profound way. The gesture makani features thereby a multi-faceted sensory situation which functions as the key to multi-sensory experience highlighting aesthetically the experience of wind. More so, the subject of encounter is what the gesture conveys at its core and as its essential or central content drawing on phenomenal aspects of wind. The visual and dynamic structure of the gesture resembles what it means to experience wind. Yet, this first referential layer of the gesture cues a second referential layer which offers a perceptual concept of what it means to experience encounter between human beings. The gesture makani functions as the concrete base to convey metaphorically close encounter to follow Müller’s understanding concerning the metaphorical use of gestures discussed earlier. I point out that the gesture’s appearance engenders the impression of the interplay of several layers of multi-sensory experience communicated within only a very short period of time that is the interval of one or two beats only that shape the gesture temporally during performance. Between Performativity and Referentiality: Layers of Multi-Sensory Experience Based on my analysis I distinguish between three layers of multi-sensory experience conveyed by the gesture makani: 1. The multi-sensory level of gestural performance. This first layer responds to multi-sensory experience at the performative level. At this level the multisensory experience relates to the immediate visual, temporal, spatial and kinesthetic impression of the gesture’s appearance that is a sense of time and interval, the physical condition and visual appearance of body articulation in-

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cluding a sense of spatial and energetic aspects of actual performance activity. 2. The first level of multi-sensory referentiality, the so called surface meaning. This first level of multi-sensory referentiality ties into the semantic capacity of the gesture. In case of the gesture makani the surface meaning is part of conventionalized cultural knowledge among the hula practitioners and connoisseurs. However, the semantic capacity of gestures ties into their particular means of visual representation able to convey perceptual qualities to follow Arnheim. The performative and multi-sensory outline and appearance of the gesture induces a series of sensory qualities, such as sound, touch and spatial progression which relate to perceptual aspects that refer to the experience of wind. The gesture functions as a visual representation of the experience of wind. By induction I mean that the multi-sensory Gestalt of the gesture infers sensory memories of experience. The gestural form points at or indicates aspects that inspire sensory memories to occur while perceiving the multi-sensory appearance of a stylized-alluding gesture. My critique is that Müller’s term of image-like gestures that function as visual forms of representation is limiting as such that Müller’s terminology stresses the visual component. I would argue at this point of my Gestalt-analytical discussion that the appearance of stylized-alluding gestures is multi-sensory in the first place. The visual aspect ties closely into spatial, temporal and corporeal aspects. It is impossible to reduce the appearance of a gesture to its visual dimension only. Therefore, I propose that stylized-alluding gestures function as “gestural forms of representation.” The adjective “gestural” indicates analytically speaking that gestural articulation involves multiple materialities and respective sensory implications. 3. The second level of multi-sensory referentiality. Based on my analysis I propose that the gesture makani conveys a perceptional concept featuring the subject of close encounter between humans. The gesture reflects upon both the spatial and sensory aspects of relationship and its interaction based qualities. This second level of semantic capacity concerning the discussed gesture I categorize as the second level of multi-sensory referentiality. The visual representation of the gesture wind points towards a deeper level of understanding, the dynamic structure of human relationship as encounter. The gesture not only represents but engenders via sensory induction a feeling concerning the experience of close encounter in a highly abstract way. This core level of the gesture’s referential structure shapes a sensory and dynamic framework which highlights for one that encounter between lovers for example implies a spatial progression that is based on a juxtaposed condition be-

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tween distance and closeness. The featured experience ties secondly into a sequence of sensory features, such as touch, sound, and vision that are closely interrelated and which specify the experience of close encounter likewise. Hula performers work with the capacity to recollect sensory memories to enhance their performance. Kumu Lake made a point while preparing me to perform at The World Invitational Hula Festival (2000) saying that “you have to feel the gesture.” To feel what the gesture you are performing about is the key in order to evoke what the gesture intends to convey; otherwise it stays technical and empty. 6.4.4 Dimensions of Gestural Gestalt-Analysis and the Power of Gestural Metaphoricity As follows I devise the analytical outline of Gestalt-model 2, see Appendix E, fig. 2,34 which conceptualizes the multi-sensory Gestalt of stylized-alluding gestures. I adapt and extend the Gestalt-analytical framework that I developed earlier to conceptualize the multi-sensory Gestalt of stylized-abstract gestures. The decisive configuration of the gesture makani relates to all three dimensions discussed earlier as part of Gestalt-model 1 to determine stylized-abstract gestures: Dimension A, B, and C.35 Dimension A refers to the specific material components of corporeal, visual, spatial and temporal aspects that are involved in generating a gesture. Dimension C depends on dimension A as such that the material configuration of the gesture’s components shapes the qualitative dimension, the convergent multi-sensory Gestalt of the gesture. Dimension B categorizes the operative mode of stylization which coincides with and in fact shapes the structural interdependence of involved components. In case of stylized-alluding gestures I subdivide Dimension C, the qualitative level of gestural articulation and its perception, into three subcategories, C1, C2, C3, see Appendix E, fig. 2.36 Dimension C1 refers to the performative level of Gestalt perception which reflects upon the basic material configuration and appearance of a gesture only. C1 signifies diagrammatically the first level of multisensory experience tied to the perception of the performative process of gesticulation. C2 categorizes a first level of multi-sensory referentiality. I argue that this first level of referentiality functions as the surface meaning. The gesture relates to the lexical meaning of the word “wind.” However, the linguistic sign “wind” 34 See Appendix E: Fig. 2: On Stylized-Alluding Gestures, Gestalt-Model 2. 35 See Appendix E, Fig. 1: On Stylized-Abstract Gestures, Gestalt-Model 1. 36 See Appendix E, Fig. 2: On Stylized-Alluding Gestures, Gestalt-Model 2.

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is not capable to communicate what the sensory qualities induced by means of the particular stylized Gestalt of the gesture conveys. In accordance to the notions of formal reduction and substitution the gesture captures essential features concerning the experience of wind. The gesture configures a gestural form of representation which features the spatial juxtaposition of distance and closeness and multi-sensory aspects of vision, touch, sound and motion selected to portray the natural phenomenon of wind. This condition of the gesture conveys via sensory induction what it means to experience wind. This first level of multisensory referentiality of the gesture relates to its surface meaning of how the approach of wind is conceptualized by means of stylized gesticulation. However, my analytical discussion made clear that the movement structure of the gesture makani configures aspects of wind in a most minimalist and significant manner which in fact points at the situation of close encounter. I categorize this “essential” level to function analytically speaking as the second level of referentiality designated as dimension C3 within the framework of the Gestaltmodel 2 of stylized-alluding gestures. This second level of referentiality ties into the core of what the gesture in fact conveys. The multi-sensory structure of the gesture infers that a situation of encounter between humans is based on a spatial progression between distance and closeness, which again shapes a series of interrelating sensory experiences. The gesture makani captures a process of sensory interaction based on sight, hearing, and touch – orchestrated and indicated by gestural means. Last not least, the aesthetic effect of the gesture, its perception, is based on an interplay between the performative level, C1, and an ongoing circulation between C2, the first level of referentiality, and C3, the second level of referentiality. The circular and oscillating effect engenders a constant perceptive tug and pull between wind/C2 and encounter/C3. The metaphoric function concerning the relation between these two meanings suggests that wind is considered to be like encounter. This relates to the earlier introduced conceptualization concerning the metaphorical use of gestures (Müller) according to which the dynamic structure of wind encountering a human being functions as the concrete base for the qualitative side of human relationship. In this case wind functions as the concrete base for the rather abstract concept of relationship. However, I would even go a step further stating a perspective on metaphor that is based on the idea of wind as encounter. In this case the metaphorical understanding of wind as encounter means that the qualities of wind are not used as a comparative matter but rather epitomize or, in other words, becomes the experience of encounter and vice versa – wind as encounter – encounter as wind. This latter perspective on metaphoricity implies a dynamic situation according to which the two referential levels in fact co-inside, they mutually cross-fade into each other

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in order to become a double-layered and more so multi-faceted perceptual concept. The two ends, wind as encounter, are part of a perceptual process within which there is no hierarchy but an equal and ongoing interplay between the two metaphorical ends being linked.37 This describes a condition which specifies the layered multi-sensory experience and aesthetic effect of the gesture makani. As noted earlier, in traditional hula performance close encounter between humans is not enacted directly. The sensory aspects of close encounter are conveyed instead. Wind functions as the metaphoric cue to induce what it means to experience the other, a lover for example. The aesthetics of hula refers to wind as a poetic and gestural motif to infer sensory facets that relate to degrees of affection, passion or aggression depending on the mele hula and the story line. The level of metaphorical referentiality is rather “hidden” and subtle, yet it is a fundamental aspect of a gestures referential fabric and its aesthetic appeal. The shifting condition between the layers of meaning, the constant exchange induced by wind as encounter for example, triggers “le‘a” aesthetic delight. More so, the concept concerned with hidden meaning of stylized-alluding gestures in hula ‘ōlapa practice ties into the Hawaiian aesthetics known as “kaona.”38 What does the aesthetics of kaona mean in reference to the discussed gesture?

37 This result of my analysis relates to recent developments in cognitive metaphor studies. The understanding of cognitive metaphor is based on a perspective whereupon the metaphorical relation of A and B is viewed in terms of A as B instead of A like B. The interaction between the two systems is more important rather than specifying a relation between two systems that is based on metaphoric analogy in the first place. Instead, metaphorical relations are considered to be a creative process generated in the very act of joining the two ends. See Stefan Willer’s article on “metaphor”, in: Barck, Karlheinz (ed.) (2005): Ästhetische Grundbegriffe: historisches Wörterbuch in sieben Bänden, vol. 7, p. 145-146. 38 The online Hawaiian Dictionary defines “kaona” as follows: “1. n. Hidden meaning, as in Hawaiian poetry; concealed reference, as to a person, thing, or place; words with double meanings that might bring good or bad fortune. Kaona ho‘o‘ino‘ino, pejorative innuendo. No wai ke kaona o kēlā mele? Who is being referred to in veiled language in that song?” See www.wehewehe.org.

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6.4.5 The Performance Aesthetic Effect of Inference between Word and Gesture The first verse of the second stanza of the hula composition Kaupō ‘Āina introduces the makani motif at the linguistic level. In case of Kaupō ‘Āina the wind motif indicates that the stanza focuses thematically on the relationship of two lovers, the poet Halemano and the chiefess Kamalalawalu.39 The verse reads according to kumu hula Lake’s version of Kaupō ‘Āina as follows: 1. “Ku‘u wahine mai ka makani he Kaumuku” – My love from the land of Kaumuku wind. The verse covers three main sentence segments: /ku‘u wahine/, /mai ka makani/ and /he Kaumuku/. I use the slash to indicate the beginning and end of a sentence segment of interest in my analysis. The two words /ku‘u wahine/ introduce the audience to whom the content of the verse is dedicated. /Ku‘u wahine/ translates as “my beloved woman” and refers in this case to the chiefess Kamalalawalu. This first segment indicates that a man is addressing a women and that the relationship is a love relationship. Knowing that Halemano is chanting the line the audience infers that the poetic thoughts are expressed from the view point of Halemano himself, the main character. The word “ku‘u” stresses an emotionally heartfelt and loving involvement of Halemano towards Kamalalawalu. The first phrase of the first verse /ku‘u wahine/, which introduce the subject of affection, is immediately followed by /mai ka makani/, the next segment of the sentence. There is no verb. The word “mai” immediately follows /ku‘u wahine/. “Mai” signifies the direction of some kind of action towards the speaker.40 A well known Hawaiian expression is “hele mai” which means “come here to me.” 39 See Part II, Analysis I: Staging Oral Poetry by Means of Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice of this research contains a summary of the poetry of the mele hula. The lyrics of the mele hula are part of the legend of Halemano, Ka‘ao no Halemano, in Hawaiian terms. The legend functions as the epic backdrop and meta-referential framework of the composition of the hula repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina. 40 The entry of the online Hawaiian Dictionary on “mai” says: “1. Directional part., towards the speaker, this way. (Gram. 2.7, 7.2; mai + directional la is written maila and often pronounced meila but not sung that way.) Come, come here, welcome; say, give (used idiomatically without preverb particles). Hele mai, come (cf. hele aku, go). He mai (Kel. 19)! Come! Welcome! Hā‘awi mai, give me. Mai ho‘i kauwahi wai, do give me a little water. Mai e ‘ai, come and eat. (PPN mai.).” See www.wehewehe.org.

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The expression “hele mai” means to ask or invite someone to come close towards the speaker. /Mai ka makani/ means literally “towards me the wind.” The two segments, /ku‘u wahine/ and /mai ka makani/, are linked together. The effect is that the content of both sentence segments, that is my beloved woman and the coming of the wind, are fused and merged into one image. Although the verb is omitted one infers automatically a verb of action. The wind is used in a metaphorical sense to indicate that Kamalalawalu is approaching Halemano. The verse suggests that Kamalalawalu is the active party approaching him, who awaits her coming. The wind motif here qualifies the experience of encounter between the two lovers taking the sensory qualities of wind into account. The wind, makani, is further specified as /he Kaumuku/. The Hawaiian dictionary translates “kaumuku” as “wind squall.”41 Kaumuku determines what type of wind is suggested by the verse. The term “he” is used as an indefinite article to indicate a wind squall in general terms. Typical about wind squalls is that they occur suddenly and that they are forceful.42 Lake’s translation suggests “my love from the land of the Kaumuku wind.” The verse joins – metaphorically speaking – Kamalalawalu, the subject of affection, and a type of wind that is of squall like character. In this particular case Kaumuku does indicate the name of a specific wind. The Kaumuku wind is culturally known as “Kaumuku of Papawai.” Two wind indexes published by the University of Hawai‘i list the Kaumuku wind of Papawai as one particular wind specific to the island of Maui.43 The quality of the Kaumuku wind of Papawai on Maui is in fact strong and squall like. These aspects signify a cultural information of importance that relates to and reflects upon the specifics of a certain landscape and wind condition on the island of Maui. The information about the Kaumuku wind forms the semantic backdrop and thereby feeds into the understanding of the poetic line enriching this segment semantically. Following these considerations I argue that the indicated qualities of the wind called Kaumuku

41 See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert Samuel H. (1986), p. 138. 42 I owe a detailed discussion about the translation, the grammar and the discernment of the poetic subtlety of the analyzed verse to Ute-Marina Seek, a hula practitioner living in Berlin. A main interest of Seek’s study of traditional hula has been to specialize in Hawaiian language as well. 43 The kaumuku wind is linked to the area of Wailuku and the bay of Ma‘alaea bay on the island of Maui. See “Winds and Rain of Hawai‘i”, an online-resource published 2005 by the University of Hawai‘i, www.webquest.Hawai‘i.edu/kahihi/webquests/ topical/energy/SC6.6.2wind/extras/Hawai‘iWind&Rain.pdf.

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function as the metaphoric setting to indicate and further qualify the passionate approach of Kamalalawalu towards Halemano. The performance score, PS 2, of Kaupō ‘Āina shows that the stylizedalluding gesture makani is performed in conjunction with the poetic words “mai ka makani,” see Appendix C, PS 2, segment 5, line 10, the 1st verse of the 2nd paukū. In fact, the score shows that the wind motif is operative at the linguistic and the gestural level. The gesture responds to the linguistic motif of wind conveying gesturally the multi-sensory fabric and spatial dynamic concerning the experience of wind. In my analytical discussion of the Gestalt-model 2, applied to the makani gesture, I specified C1, the prime performative appearance of the gesture, see Appendix E, fig. 2. More so, I designated that the performative appearance conveys the first referential layer as C2. In case of the makani gesture this first referential level ties into the surface meaning, the experience of wind. At the same time the gesture’s appearance induces the sensory experience of encounter, the gesture’s second referential layer of multi-sensory experience, specified analytically as C3. At this second level of referentiality the gesture points at the experience of encounter between human beings at a deeper level of sensory understanding. Both referential levels, C2 and C3, interrelate closely as I discussed this matter earlier to form the perceptual concept of “wind as encounter.” The sound and meaning of the verbal element and poetic motif makani of the mele hula resonates with the gestural and sensory conceptualization of wind as encounter which functions as a key to multi-sensory experience in its own right. In performance the verbal element is highly enriched by the gestural element to form a whole and encompassing experience. This resonates with WichmannWalczak’s perspective on the “essence” or the “total concept” of experience. In addition, the name of the wind identified as Kaumuku further specifies the passionate quality of the designated encounter between Kamalalawalu and Halemano as being sudden and strong as this is the case with wind squalls. The story goes that it is on the island of Maui that Halemano and Kamalalawalu experience once more a time of harmony and a revival of their passionate love relationship after they were forced to leave the island of O‘ahu due to the revenge of the envious king. The first verse of the second paukū suggests the experience of passionate encounter between the two lovers. The process of perceiving these shifting levels of performativity and metaphorical referentiality, while experiencing the Gestalt of stylized-alluding gestures, is the key to emotional facets. Seen from a Hawaiian perspective, stylizedalluding gestures are imbued with emotional substance, reverberating within a performance. A performer unable to express the emotional substance of the stylized-alluding gestures appears “empty” and unsatisfactory. The knowledge of

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the metaphorical meaning of gestures is essential in order to understand what a hula ‘ōlapa composition intends to communicate. The shifting and oscillating character of the surface meaning, such as “wind,” and the subtle rather hidden level of reference concerning the sensory effect and dynamic structure of approach and intimate encounter between human beings is what leads towards the aesthetic appeal of this gesture. The Hawaiian cultural specialist and highly respected kumu hula Pualani Kanaka‘ole Kanahele summarizes the aesthetic function that the wind motif has within the framework of traditional hula performance and poetry. She writes: “The poetic mind of the Hawaiian views the wind as a dramatic character with many faces. For instance, when the wind blows on your back in certain situations, it is an element of support and encouragement. When a strong wind is accompanied by rain, it can be interpreted as destructive and piercing, such as the Kipu‘upu‘u wind and rain. The Ka‘ilialoha wind has a reputation of snatching away love, never to return. The Malanai wind is so comfortable it entices and encourages lovemaking.”44

In Kaupō ‘Āina likewise the poet chose the Kaumuku wind to express the passionate encounter between Kamalalawalu and Halemano. Hula compositions draw on the co-expressive capacity of linguistic and gestural means to engender the dynamic interplay of metaphoricity which induces a shifting and layered condition of multi-sensory experience on a performative as well as referential level. Analytically speaking the configuration of stylized-alluding gestures is based on an interplay between the performative level, C1, and the two referential levels, C2/surface meaning, and C3/hidden or metaphorical meaning. This interplay functions as a key to multi-sensory experience triggering a constantly shifting process between material and sensory facets and multiple layers of performativity and referentiality. The sensory facets of the two referential levels and the visual and dynamic structure of the gesture constantly cross-feed into each other. The surface meaning of wind as one example sets the sensory framework to shape the quality of human encounter which in fact becomes the actual focus concerning the poetic and aesthetic interest and appeal of a hula composition. This shifting and multi-layered condition supports Kaeppler’s specification of representational gestures to function as alluding gestures. The term “alluding” relates in my work to what I described as the metaphoric function of stylized44 See Kanaka‘ole Kanahele, Pualani (2011): Ka Honua Ola ‘Eli‘eli Kau Mai – The Living Earth. Descend, Deepen the Revelation, p. 112-113.

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alluding gestures. In reference to forms of visual representation the term alluding designates an open and shifting process of referentiality. The effect is that stylized-alluding gestures induce perceptual concepts that are based upon at least two interrelated referential levels of sensory experience. The gesture makani exemplifies these findings. The analysis shows which condition enhances a multilayered interplay of metaphorical – that means alluding – aspects between gestures and words in hula ‘ōlapa performance. The metaphorical and alluding capacity of gestures after all ties into kaona, an aesthetic concept prevalent in an understanding of Hawaiian poetry and the art of hula. The term “kaona” translates as “veiled, layered or hidden meaning.”45 Kaeppler summarizes in her study on Hula Pahu: Hawaiian Drum Dances that “the incorporation of kaona, as an aesthetic enhancement of meaning, can be considered the most important distinguished feature of hula.”46 She writes: “Phrased in metaphor and allusion, hula communicates its significance in the most powerful of Polynesian forms – the expression of meaning by inference.”47 Indeed, this statement supports research that focuses explicitly on the interplay of verbal and visual modes of expression in hula. This topic places, to follow Kaeppler’s suggestion, a principle subject in Hawaiian cultural analysis. 6.4.6 The Third Principle of Stylization Stylized-alluding gestures are a significant artistic means of embodiment applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice besides stylized-abstract gestures and body posture. So far I argue that the second principle of stylization, when applied as a performance aesthetic strategy in performance production, shapes the structural interdependence of involved components of performance materiality. In this case, stylization shapes and enhances the aesthetic appearance of body articulation at the performative level. In case of stylized-alluding gestures however dimension B coincides with the third principle of stylization. The third principle of stylization produces gestural forms of representation based on procedures of creative abstraction, formal reduction and substitution. I conclude from my analytical discussion that the stylized-alluding gesture makani serves as a generalized substitute for the experience of wind as encounter. The form of gestural movement and the particular interdependent configuration of limbs and the head portray the experience of wind as encounter in a decisive yet highly concentrated version. A few essential features are selected to shape the gestural representation 45 See Kaeppler, Adrienne (1996), p. 12. 46 Ibid., p. 23. 47 Ibid., p. 22.

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of wind as encounter. The third principle of stylization does not only determine the performative level of gestural appearance in this case. Instead, the process of formal reduction shapes the referential capacity of stylized-alluding gestures as well. According to my performance aesthetic approach of analysis dimension B is designated to function as one analytical parameter within the Gestalt-model 2 of stylized-alluding gestures. It specifies the above stated operative mode of stylization. In case of the Gestalt-model 2 dimension B represents the third principle of stylization which ties into both the performative as well as the referential formation of stylized-alluding gestures. 6.4.7 Conclusion As part of my performance aesthetic study on stylized gestural articulation I outline three categories of gestures: 1) the basic body posture, 2) the category of stylized-abstract gestures, and 3) the category of stylized-alluding gestures. In the course of discussing these three categories of gestures I discuss the appearance of stylized gestures taking the performance analytical concept of convergent performance materialities and ideas of Gestalt perception into account. I thereby developed the analytical framework configuring two models, Gestaltmodel 1 and 2. The two models are designated to determine analytically the components that configure gestural Gestalt-perception applied as a tool to analyze the appearance of both stylized-abstract and stylized-alluding gestures in hula ‘ōlapa performance. As part of Gestalt-model 1, which relates to stylizedabstract gestures, I differentiate between three dimensions: A, B, C. Dimension A relates to the corporeal, visual, spatial and temporal components of a gesture’s appearance. Dimension C refers to the qualitative dimension, the gesture’s Gestalt, which emerges out of the co-relationship of Dimension A and B converging in performance. Dimension B respectively determines the mode of stylization. Stylization as a performance aesthetic strategy and quality of its own is operative in the formation of stylized gestures. Each gesture category involves one specific principle of stylization involved in shaping the particular appearance of the respective category of gesture. The first principle of stylization ties into the formation of the basic body posture. The second principle determines the decisive shape and appearance of stylizedabstract gestures in performance. The third principle of stylization takes part in the formation of stylized-alluding gestures perceived as visual forms of representation. Dimension B, when considering the analytical framework of the Gestaltmodel 2 of stylized-alluding gestures, reflects that the formation of stylizedalluding gestures rests upon the third principle of stylization. The third principle of stylization involves artistic procedures such as creative abstraction, formal re-

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duction and substitution which lead towards a capacity of performance practice that communicates and highlights the interplay of sensory experience, a matter of fact which ties into metaphorical means of gestural communication. Based on my analysis of stylized-alluding gestures and in the course of developing Gestalt-model 2 I conclude that the qualitative dimension C of stylizedalluding gestures is split into 1) C1: the performative level of multi-sensory experience, 2) C2: the first level of multi-sensory referentiality and 3) C3: the second level of multi-sensory referentiality. The third principle of stylization at work ties into the formation and shifting interdependence of the performative and the referential levels of stylized-alluding gestures. This implies the metaphoric interplay between the surface meaning and the hidden or veiled meaning of gestural articulation. The gesture makani induces the multi-sensory experience of wind as encounter which cross-fades into encounter as wind and back. Performing the senses – the initial aesthetic claim that hula expresses all that we see, hear, taste, smell, feel and touch – comes to full fruition when perceiving the makani-gesture, one example of stylized-alluding gestures examined here. The makani-gesture conveys at least four sensory aspects which are vision, sound, touch and a sense of encounter. The aesthetic appeal of the gesture is based upon a process of shifting sensory and referential levels of experience, which last not least triggers aesthetic delight on behalf of the audience. Appreciation of the performance of the senses by means of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice is a matter of connoisseurship knowing how to engage into the subtle interplay of aisthesis and semiosis involved in the performance aesthetic process of multi-sensory experience.

Analysis III: By Means of Contrast in Performance

7. S TRUCTURE OF D IFFERENCE : S TAGING THE D IVISION BETWEEN P ERFORMANCE D ISCIPLINES – T HE D ANCER -ACTOR AND THE P ERCUSSIONIST -S INGER As part of this chapter I discuss the intricate interrelationship and interaction between the ‘ōlapa and the ho‘opa‘a. These two groups of performance specialists determine the division between performance disciplines in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The concept termed here as the “division between performance disciplines” refers to the performance condition of split, yet coordinated specialized performance activity. The concept has been introduced to performance studies via research on classical Indian theatre. The researcher and author team, Zarrilli, Swann and Richmond published a book, entitled Indian Theatre. Traditions of Performance (1990). As part of the introductory chapter the researcher team describes the notion that I refer to as the “division between performance disciplines” as follows: “The individual performer in an ensemble may be a specialist in music, or dance-acting, but each specialist also must have an intimate knowledge of the other arts necessary for the successful performance. Actor-dancers will be required to possess as part of their embodied performance knowledge of the rhythmic patterns of the music to which they must perform. Instrumentalists or vocalists will just assuredly be immersed in the pattern of movement, stage conventions, and methods of character creation used by the actor-

240 | HAWAIIAN H ULA ‘ŌLAPA dancers. Indian performance is performance created by a total ensemble of artists working together.”1

The stated division between performance disciplines implies that in traditional Indian performance a team of artistic specialists closely interacts as part of the performance process. The team of specialists is split into two main groups, the group of the instrumentalists-vocalists on one hand, and the actor-dancers on the other hand.2 Each party is well versed in the performance activity of the other party. The actor-dancers have an intrinsic understanding of musical patterns which are an intricate part of their own embodied knowledge. The artistic endeavor of the instrumentalists-vocalists covers both music production as well as memorizing and reciting a large amount of oral literature. This includes an intrinsic knowledge about how to interact closely with their counterparts, the actor-dancers. The main point of the cited statement on Indian theater is that the interaction between these two groups of specialists enables “performances that are created by a total ensemble of artists working together.” The statement reflects upon an interart aesthetic subject matter of prime interest in my work. The concept of the division between performance disciplines based on specialization on behalf of the aural performance domain on one side, and the kinesthetic-visual performance aspects on the other side implies the complementary fusion or convergence of distinctly separate performance activities during performance. The convergence happens at the very moment of performance. The interaction of the two groups is part of the artistic and aesthetic endeavor of performance. The aesthetic quality of convergence is as such intrinsic part of the performance set up. The quality of the aesthetic experience of convergence emerges as part of coordinated confrontation of performed difference. The consecutive question is how to describe the division between disciplines which defines the fundamental set up of performance. How does the division among performance specialists determine the co-relation and interdependence of performance elements? What is the aesthetic effect of the particular distribution of elements in performance? 1

See Richmond, Farley P./Swann, Darius L./Zarrilli, Phillip B. (eds.) (1990): Indian Theatre. Traditions of Performance, Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, p. 5.

2

This is the case, for example, in Kathakali, a genre of classical Indian dance-theatre and research field of the theater scholar and practitioner Phillip Zarrilli. See Zarrilli, Phillip B. (1984): The Kathakali Complex. Actor, Performance and Structure, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications; (2000) Kathakali Dance-Drama. Where gods and demons come to play, New York: Routledge.

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7.1 Framed Confrontation between Sound, Words, and Body in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance My argument is that a performance condition based on the coordinated division and confrontation of performed difference is a prime structural feature of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. As such I apply the above stated perspective to my study of hula ‘ōlapa. The description of the performance procedure of Kaupō ‘Āina shows that the hula ‘ōlapa performance is based on a constantly shifting focus of interaction between the two groups of performance specialists. The ‘ōlapa take on the part of the dancer-actor while the ho‘opa‘a act as the percussionist-vocalists. Accordingly, I propose that the division between the two performance disciplines – the ‘ōlapa and the ho‘opa‘a – figures as one fundamental performance aesthetic principle concerning traditional hula performance. Understood as a basic aspect of performance organization, the above stated division between performance disciplines represents a prime means of performative framing which structures and deeply shapes the interdependent and multi-sensorial fabric of hula ‘ōlapa performance. Consecutively, in the process of transcribing the performance of Kaupō ‘Āina, the prime hula composition of my research interest, I chose to start with the shifting interrelationship between the ‘ōlapa, dancer-actor and the ho‘opa‘a, the percussionist-singer. The two groups represent distinct artistic disciplines while interacting on stage. The division between the two disciplines thereby engenders a prominent structure of difference set into action during hula performance which shapes the process of hula performance as a whole. Both parties equally partake in the generation of hula performance with each party stressing a particular field of articulation – the acoustic-verbal domain is played out by the ho‘opa‘a versus the kinesthetic-visual domain being enacted by the ‘ōlapa. The Performance Score 1 of Kaupō ‘Āina, see Appendix B, reflects this particular condition and progression of interaction that happens between both parties. Parameter C, which designates “the division between disciplines;” shows, when reading the score from top down, the orchestrated confrontation between the two parties in succession. As a first principle of organization the division fosters structurally a contrastive situation which engenders tension, an orchestrated instability which ties into the performative generation of space, time, sound and kineaesthetic enactment. This orchestrated instability and contrast is perceivable as a distinct quality concerning the performative progression of hula ‘ōlapa as such. Secondly, the shifting interrelationship between the two parties shapes what is done and how it is actually done on stage. This division between ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a in action involves variations about the sequential order and layer-

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ing of heterogeneous artistic activity related to sound, words, body motion, and gestures. Effective at the performative level, the organized competitive artistic encounter between ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a enables a multiplicity of sensual stimuli – the visual-kinesthetic domain of the ‘ōlapa versus the acoustic-verbal activity of the ho‘opa‘a. The “intermedial gap” or interstice between the performative, non-coherent activities is aesthetically made productive by raising tension at the performative level. The antagonistic condition of the coordinated performative confrontation runs through an entire hula performance and energizes everyone participating in the performance event, performers and audience alike. The perception of the audience is confronted with a constantly shifting performative condition between the acoustic, visual, and kinesthetic domains. Of interest is this challenge between forces of performance activity and principles of contrastive organization concerning non-coherent aspects of performance material. 7.2 Performance Structural Features and Performance Elements: A Diagrammatic Visualization The inter-dependent division between the ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a has performative, referential and aesthetic implications. It points towards a performance practice that stresses an independent at the same time dependent interplay of performative elements – words, sound, and body motion. Due to the process of these two specialist groups interacting during stage performance the differences of material and sensory qualities of elements in performance are shaped in a certain way as they unfold in the very process of these two specialist groups interacting on stage. The performance-structural split implies a particular configuration of performative elements, of sensory qualities and referential aspects as well as their mutual aesthetic effect. The split between the two main performer groups in traditional hula ensures a fundamental structural difference within the performance framework which again determines how the complex interrelationship of sound, words, image, body, time, and space unfold in the very process of hula performance. One analytical reference point in my discussion is the extended Kattenbelt/Chapple model3 of performance elements which captures conceptually six domains of performance elements and their respective materialities: 3

See Part I, Methods II: Interart Aesthetics and Performance Analysis, 3.2. Elements of Convergence in Performance. I discussed the work of Kattenbelt/Chapple who introduces the concept of six interdependent performance elements to the field of performance studies. I modify the Kattenbelt/Chapple model of performance elements

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body – corporeality space – spatiality time – temporality image – visuality sound – tonality words – vocality4

The main point and strong hold of the Kattenbelt/Chapple model is that the general analytical outline of the six performance domains enables to view multifaceted constellations of performance elements as configured by certain performance practices such as hula ‘ōlapa besides theatre and pluri-medial performance productions5 in general. The perspective of Kattenbelt/Chapple points towards an analysis of performance strategies that plot out combinations of contrastive yet converging aspects of heterogeneous performance material set into action intensifying performance experience in the very process of liveperformance. Their research perspective allows to ask how the transient material of performance production – sound, words, images, time, space, and body articulation are framed and how distinct elements interrelate and transgress boundaries as part of performance. Of interest is to look at the quality of staged fissures, profusions and gaps between heterogeneous artistic means of articulation, and the tension that arises due to such non-coherent condition of performance specifying its aesthetic appeal. My point is to stress the sensory aspects as part of the

adapting the performance aesthetic concept of performance materiality to conceptualize each of the six performance elements according to its materiality. The conceptual extension of the Kattenbelt/Chapple model allows to foster both a performative as well as a perceptual discussion of multifaceted performance activities. 4

The extended model of six performance elements by Kattenbelt/Chapple does not include the modalities of odor and touch. Fischer-Lichte’s conceptualizes touch as physical contact. She writes that „the bodily co-presence of actors and spectators as the basis for a community between them also implies the possibility of physical touch“, see Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 60. Therefore, to query how far performances include touch and odor as part of aesthetic experience is an option of consecutive performance analysis.

5

See “Key Issues in Intermediality in Theatre and Performance” published in: Chapple, Freda/Kattenbelt, Chiel (2006), p. 11-25, and Chiel Kattenbelt’s writing on “Theatre as the Art of the Performer and the Stage of Intermediality,” found in the same book, p. 29-38.

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analytical discussion of performance materiality taking multiple relations between performance elements into account. I adapt the six categories of performance elements and their respective materiality discussed above to a general outline of hula performance by devising a diagram. This diagram reflects the distribution and co-relation of performance elements enacted during hula ‘ōlapa performance, see Appendix D. 7.2.1 Structure of Difference: The Ho‘opa‘a and the ‘Ōlapa, the two Major Performance Disciplines in Hula ‘Ōlapa As a first point of reference I place a photo to the left of the diagram depicting and representing the ‘ōlapa, the discipline of the dancer-actor in hula ‘ōlapa performance. To the right side of the diagram’s top I positioned a photo depicting the ho‘opa‘a, the performance discipline of the percussionist-singer. The placement of the two photos conceptually visualize the basic division of performance disciplines between the ‘ōlapa and the ho‘opa‘a. The interaction of the two groups of specialists in performance determines a principle performance feature of hula ‘ōlapa performance. The diagram is organized according to this particular performance constellation. A centre line demarcates the division between performance disciplines running from top down dividing the diagrammatic circle. The main diagrammatic circle covers the interrelationship between the six performance domains: body, sound, time, word, space, and image applied to hula ‘ōlapa performance. The main diagrammatic circle is divided accordingly into a left and a right hemisphere reflecting the stated split between ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a. The left side of the diagram is dedicated to the performance activity of the ‘ōlapa, whereas the right side relates to the performance domains performed by of the ho‘opa‘a. 7.2.2 Interrelations of Performance Elements I situate the performance category of the “body” at the top of the diagrammatic circle. This prominent position of the body reflects the fact that both, the ho‘opa‘a and the ‘ōlapa, are body centered art disciplines. Both parties position their bodies on stage visible to an audience. The body is the origin of the specialized activity of both groups. Yet, there is a clear difference in how the two groups use their bodies. The ‘ōlapa predominantly present their bodies at centre stage while moving through space and time The ho‘opa‘a place their bodies at the back or to the side of stage facing the ‘ōlapa. As such they are present and visible partners on stage, yet they are visually somewhat withdrawn. The ho‘opa‘a mainly use their bodies capacity to produce percussive sounds using their hands while manipulating instruments. And they take the lead role to recite

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large passages of oral poetry applying their voices. At certain times during performance the ‘ōlapa apply their voices vocalizing segments of verbal material specified as kāhea. I co-relate the three performance elements body, space, and time as a prime triangular relationship of performance material placed in the diagrammatic circle as such that body holds the top position. Space is placed to the left and time to the right side of the diagram’s centre line. Furthermore, I place the elements word, image, and sound in such a way that they configure a second triangular relationship. Image is placed on the left side while sound is positioned to the right side of the diagram. Word is positioned at the bottom of the diagrammatic constellation. The two triangular configurations are placed on top of each other as such that body at the top is positioned at the opposite side of the element word which is placed at the bottom of the circle. The conceptual strength of the diagram allows to visualize the complexity of relationships among performance materialities. In analysis each element may relate to at least one other element. The condition of hula ‘ōlapa performance however suggests that multiple relationships among elements need to be analytically considered. 7.2.3 The Performance Domain of the Ho‘opa‘a In performance the elements body, sound, time, and word are closely linked to the pre-dominantly acoustic activity of the ho‘opa‘a. The diagram reflects this condition. Accordingly, I place these elements to the right hemisphere of the diagram, representing the ho‘opa‘a’s domain of performance activity. The element sound covers both percussive sound and the vocalization of words. These two sources of sound determine the acoustic domain of hula ‘ōlapa performance. The ho‘opa‘a raises the voice by means of techniques of micro-tonal chanting in order to recite through-composed oral poetry.6 Simultaneously he or she rhythmically manipulates resonating instruments, the ipu heke. The ho‘opa‘a is responsible to keep time by producing recurrent percussive patterns. Percussion is utilized as the prime artistic means to shape the performance materiality of time acoustically at the performative level. Percussive patters co-ordinate intervals of sound and silence generating a sense of recurrent beats and up-beats. Temporality is in this case perceived as a time line of rhythmically structured sound events. Percussion articulates acoustically a particular time structure and timing in terms of speed and dynamic. The so called Kaupō pattern shapes by enlarge the gen6

See Wong, James Ka‘upena, Jr. (1982): The Chanting of Traditional Hawaiian Mele Hula: An Analysis with Emphasis on Glides and Duration and Stress of Vowels. M.A., U of Hawai‘i.

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eral temporal outline of the hula repertoire piece in question.7 Yet, some segments of the analyzed hula repertoire piece, such as the beginning and the end of the analyzed piece, have no particular rhythmic setting. In these particular cases time is shaped by the flow of words and the basic body position executed by the ‘ōlapa,8 a concern covered later on applying the approach of sensory sequence analysis. 7.2.4 The Performance Domain of the ‘Ōlapa I relate the performance elements of body, image and space to specify the predominant physical enactment of the ‘ōlapa by placing these elements on the left side of the diagram. Nevertheless, the activity of the ‘ōlapa is closely tied to temporality which I designated to the right side of the diagram specifying the activity of the ho‘opa‘a. The temporal structure of the kinesthetic articulation of stylized gestures performed by the ‘ōlapa cross-cuts into the right side of the diagram, the activity of the ho‘opa‘a. That means that both the ho‘opa‘a and the ‘ōlapa share the aspect of temporality in different ways. The ‘ōlapa uses primarily the capacity of the body to move through space and time, and to gesticulate with arms, hands, and feet in a rhythmically coordinated and intricate manner. Arm and hand gestures I refer to as upper-bodygestures. Movements of the feet I consider as lower-body-gestures. I further distinguish between three categories of gestures: the basic body posture, stylizedabstract gestures, and stylized-alluding gestures.9 The category of stylizedabstract gestures covers both upper-body gestures and lower-body gestures. They may in fact generate stylized-abstract whole body gestures. The category of stylized-alluding gestures for the most part relates to upper-body gestures. The three listed categories of gestures engender strong multi-sensory impressions. Each gesture in hula ‘ōlapa has a distinct visual and dynamic contour or path way through space. Gestures for themselves represent phenomena of convergence between several materialities that is corporeality, spatiality, temporality, and visuality, a condition which I covered as part of my analysis applying the Gestalt concept. The movements of the ‘ōlapa generate ephemeral gestural images. The perception of the shape or Gestalt of stylized-abstract gestures is based on the quality of multi-sensory experience as such. To appreciate a stylized7

See Part II, Analysis I: 5.3. Section III: Percussion. The Performative, Referential and Aesthetic Implications Considering Structural Variations of Acoustic Material.

8

See Part II, Analysis III: 7.4.2 Sensory Sequencing applied to Kaupō ‘Āina.

9

See Part II, Analysis II: A Performance Aesthetic Study on Stylized Gestural Articulation, Section I-III.

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abstract gesture means to perceive the stylized shape of the spatio-temporal and visual-corporeal materiality and the resulting multi-sensory quality that arises due to the specific constellation and shape of gestural materiality. The emergent quality is as such non-referential and therefore abstract presenting form, dynamic and the relating sensory quality. On one hand, the analyzed lower-body-gesture called hela produces a quality that is calm and spread out through space while declining towards the flour. Huli kāholo, on the other hand, is based on a combination of a stylized-abstract lower and upper body gesture, see Appendix C, PS 2, segment 4, line 8. The body turns first 90 degree to the right followed by a rapid 180 degree turn to the left side. The quality of huli kāholo is perceived as being quick and cutting through space while moving from left to right at a horizontal level. Both hela and huli kāholo adhere to the category of stylized-abstract gestures. Yet, their appearance is distincly different. In both cases the performative and sensory qualities determine the overall aesthetic appeal of the gestures. The performative and visual appearances of so called stylized-alluding gestures are both performative and referential characteristics. I discuss as part of my work one prominent stylized-alluding gesture in hula ‘ōlapa, the so called makani-gesture.10 This gesture suggests the sensory characteristics of the natural phenomenon “wind.” Performative, referential and the aesthetic appeal of this stylized-alluding gesture interrelate closely. The analysis of the makani-gesture shows that the basic Gestalt of this type of gesture lends itself to configure a stylized gestural form of representation. The interrelationship between the performative quality of the stylized gestural appearance and at least two referential layers induces multi-sensory experience at all levels of perception based on a dynamic condition of metaphoricity. Moving through the space of the stage the ‘ōlapa generates fleeting gestural images in action, which are of abstract or alluding character as his or her prime performative means. 7.3 Sensory Correspondences among Performance Elements This preliminary discussion about the distribution of performance elements shows that in hula ‘ōlapa performance body motion, percussion and vocal recitation as well as the performers placement on stage tie into several what I call sensory correspondences11 among performance elements and their cross-modal ac10 See Part II, Analysis II: On Gestures and Stylization Section III. 11 The title of Lawrence E. Marks’s book: Unity of the Senses. Interrelations among the Modalities, highlights the program of his writing and research to the point. Marks wri-

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tualizations during performance. My argument is that the materiality of each perting covers a comprehensive discussion of the history of five different strands of thought of what he calls the doctrine of “the unity of the senses” or in other words, as he puts it, theories of sensory correspondence. He writes “the theory of sensory correspondence – or, more generally, the observation and doctrines of sensory similarities and interrelations – has been around for a very long time” stating the classic position of Aristotle, positions of Locke and Hume as much as he includes scientific research that has been done so far in the field of psychology, studies on perception, phenomenology and the field of neurophysiology. Marks’s study about sensory correspondences focuses on the observation that “different senses often assist one another in the perception of objects and events,” see Marks, Lawrence E. (1978): Unity of the Senses. Interrelations among the Modalities, New York/London: Academic Press, preface ix. Marks points out that both dissimilarities as well as similarities among the senses have to be considers. He draws by enlarge on the approach and terminology of “cross-modal matching.” Cross-modal matching among the senses has been established in the field of experimental psychology to describe how perception of form and size, among other percepts, implies the interrelationship of vision and touch for example. Marks places the reasonable question whether “objects look the way they feel.” The point of Marks’s study is to bridge scientific findings and studies on sensory correspondences to research on language and the arts. He resumes that “because all human experience is, by its very nature, colored with the stuff that sensation are made of, the sensory experience went their way through language – permeating that most human manifestation and expression of thought,” see Marks, Lawrence E. (1978), p. 3. He discusses one case of intersensorial correspondence relevant to his study on sensory correspondences in language and poetry, that is the notion of synaesthesia. In case of synaesthesia the most studied one is that of visual hearing, where sounds take on the attributes of sight. Marks suggests to extend the study of sensory correspondences to forms such as opera and ballet. Those are, as he argues, “intrinsically synaesthetic modes of expression. Even the words used to describe the visual and auditory converge, as one speaks of a relationship between the line of movement and the corresponding musical line. To perceive ballet, it is necessary to integrate sight and sound so to that in John Keats’s words, “eyes / and ears act with that union of sense / which marries sweet sound with the grace of form” [Hyperion: A Vision]. Divorce sound from sight or sight from sound, and only music or dance remains,” see Marks, Lawrence E. (1978), p. 8. Marks perspective by enlarge supports my own thinking and research on hula ‘ōlapa analytically focusing upon the condition of sensory experiences as they emerge in a close relationship to convergent interdependencies between percussion, chanted oral poetry and stylized dance-acting.

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formance element, as it unfolds in performance, ties to several sensory aspects. The condition of sensory correspondence enables the coordination between divergent performance material cross-cutting the performance structural divide between the two performance disciplines. From a conceptual point of view the notion of sensory correspondence necessary complements a study concerned with convergent interrelations of performance materialities. 7.3.1 The Cross-Modal Actualization of Temporality The visual and dynamic condition of gestures ties as discussed earlier into corporeal, spatial, and temporal aspects. Time is reflected through the temporal structure of body motion. Most often, the beginning and the end of gestures corresponds to a basic time frame based on two main beats. Body motion and gestures however are for the most part soundless. As such the ‘ōlapa performer realizes time using the domains of the corporeal, the visual, and the spatial elements only. The ‘ōlapa shapes the dynamic contour of gestures in motion while moving his or her body limbs through space. Dynamic aspects of gestures tie into the visual appearance whether gestures are pushed, pointed, or executed in a defined but continuous motion path. Time is visually perceivable as part of the soundless but dynamic appearance of gestures. The gestural appearance co-respond to a particular time frame acoustically produced and emphasized by means of percussion on the other hand. This particular case of body and sound correspondence ties into a basic recurrent pulsation and foundation of rhythm.12 In her performance theoretical work Fischer-Lichte has pointed out that “rhythm pertains a special significance for the organization and structuring of time in performance. Rhythm puts corporeality, spatiality, and tonality into a relationship with one another and regulates their appearance and disappearance on stage. Rhythm contributes to the overall temporal structure.”13 In respect to this perspective, the 12 See Fraisse, Paul (1981): “Multisensory Aspects of Rhythm”, in: Walk, Richard W./Pick, Herbert L.: Intersensory Perception and Sensory Integration, Plenum Press, p. 217-245. I refer to a definition of rhythm by C. A. Ruckmick cited in Paul Fraisse’s work, saying that “rhythm may be defined as the perception of a temporal form or pattern in which individual members repeated periodically are consistently varied in any one or more of their qualitative and quantitative attributes.” See Fraisse, Paul (1981), p. 220. 13 See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 133-134. A comprehensive discussion on the multi-sensory aspect of rhythm relevant to performance studies is found in: Brüstle, Christa/Ghattas, Nadia/Risi, Clemens/Schouten, Sabine (2005): Aus dem Takt. Rhythmus in Kunst, Kultur und Natur, Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. See also Bernhard

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cross-modal relationship between the enactment of gestures by the ‘ōlapa and the structured time frame of percussive patterns performed by the ho‘opa‘a shapes the notion of rhythm both visually and acoustically. On top of that, the ho‘opa‘a engender temporality via two acoustic means, the rhythms of percussion and the recital of oral poetry. This means that all together three modes of temporality – the visual, the verbal, and the percussive actualization of time interrelate. The cross-modal correspondences between body – the enactment of stylized gestures – and sound – the percussive production of the Kaupō pattern14 and the recitation of the mele hula – tie into the flow of a shared basic recurrent pulsation, one particular way of organizing temporality while performing the hula repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina. In other words, the kinesthetic visualization of time through the means of stylized gestures interrelates with the acoustic determination of time by means of percussion and the recital of oral poetry. Yet, other forms of actualizations of temporality have to be considered as well, those that have no specific temporal structure. This condition determines the temporal quality of the performance segments called the kāhea wehe and the kāhea pau. 7.3.2 The Cross-Modal Actualization of Spatiality The cross-modal actualization of spatiality in hula ‘ōlapa performance relates to three interrelating modes of spatiality: 1. The spatial divide set up between performance specialists on stage. 2. Space is made visual due to the motion contour of gestures. 3. The sphere of sonic space is based on the acoustic soundscape of percussion and chant. The first mode of spatiality relates to the spatial divide of the two groups of performance specialists which demarcates the fundamental division between performance disciplines. Both performer groups are placed on stage, which suggests that both groups have an equal weight in generating a hula ‘ōlapa performance. The spatial constellation of the two groups on stage pre-conditions in spatial Waldenfels’s writing on rhythm and the principle of the regular and non-regular aspect of movement in: Waldenfels, Bernhard (1999): Sinnesschwellen. Studien zur Phänomenologie des Fremden, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, p. 63-85. 14 I discuss the Kaupō pattern in detail. See Part II, Analysis I: 5.3 Section III: Percussion. The Performative, Referential and Aesthetic Implications Considering Structural Variations of Acoustic Material.

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terms a coordinated but competitive team work. The second mode of spatiality refers to the characteristically marked contour of gestures produced by the ‘ōlapa. Of interest are aspects of directions: left, right, up, down, diagonal, lateral, front, low or up high, and qualities of path way such as straight or curved pattern. The spatial condition of gestures ties closely into temporal aspects discussed above. The third mode of spatiality refers to the acoustic space produced by means of percussion and chant. “Sounds impart a sense of space” following performance aesthetic terms.15 The joint soundscape of percussion and the resonating voices of the ho‘opa‘a chanting the mele hula surrounds the performers and the audience likewise. The capacity of sound is to travel through space generating in case of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice a pervasive sonic atmosphere. Following the Kattenbelt/Chapple model the ho‘opa‘a principally elaborate upon the performance elements of percussive sound and word, respectively chanted poetic language. This combination of chanting and percussion acoustically supports the activity of the ‘ōlapa. Percussion and oral poetry enlarge the physical activity of the ‘ōlapa thereby enhancing the kinesthetic performance via the capacity of sound. The acoustic domain shapes both the general flow of the performance on stage and the general atmosphere of the event. 7.3.3 Sensory Correspondences between Body, Word, and Image As stated before the element sound relates both to percussive sound and to the domain of words. These two sources of sound determine the acoustic domain of hula ‘ōlapa performance. Respectively I placed sound on the right side of the diagram, the performance sphere dedicated to the ho‘opa‘a. The element word represents the two aspect of vocalization in hula ‘ōlapa performance: the onomatopoetical segments such as the e-ue call and the second category of vocalization, the mele hula, a segment of oral poetry being chanted during hula performance. The element of word is placed on the circle at the opposite side of the body thereby stressing diagrammatically a prominent difference among these two ways of embodiment and domains of performance material, that is the visual appearance of the body in motion, the artistic activity of the ‘ōlapa, versus the acoustic realization of verbal articulation and percussion on stage articulated by means of the ho‘opa‘a. Nevertheless, the two conceptually opposed elements of body and word relate in multiple ways to both parties, the ho‘opa‘a and the ‘ōlapa. The call-and-response practice based on calling the kāhea correlates the performance activities of the two performance disciplines on stage. Most of the 15 See Fischer-Lichte’s discussion of tonality in: Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 120.

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kāhea are called out by the ‘ōlapa directing the sequential order of performance activity of both performance disciplines. The group of the ho‘opa‘a on the other hand carry the weight of vocalizing the mele hula, the main narrative part of verbal material applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance. The performance domain of word, or chanted oral poetry, is pre-dominantly produced by the ho‘opa‘a as this has been specified above. However, both the ho‘opa‘a and the ‘ōlapa in turn make use of verbal signals, or calls, using the acoustic and resonant ability of the human voice. These calls, generally called “kāhea,” regulate the succession of the performance. They function as cues for the ho‘opa‘a and the ‘ōlapa. The performers know which verse of the hula composition will follow next due to the fact that a kāhea has been called. The performative, aesthetic and referential function of these verbal cues is of significant importance in hula performance.16 The spatial and temporal shape of body motion and gestures relate not only to the percussive patterns as discussed above. The capacity of gestures relates to the performance element image – the gestural shape or Gestalt in other words – which is engendered through the dynamic and kineaesthetic-visual capacity of stylized-abstract gestures. The appearance of stylized gestures I categorize as abstract, self-referential in performative terms. Visual, temporal, corporeal, and spatial aspects configure the image like yet multi-sensory character of stylized-abstract gestures. Image in the case of gestures is conceptually specified not only by visual and spatial aspects. A gesture is temporal and creates a moving image after all. The gestural Gestalt of stylizedabstract gestures functions, as I argue, as a key to multi-sensory experience.17 The visual, spatial, and temporal aspects of the stylized-alluding gesture makani, on the other hand, evokes sensory correspondences by referring to sound and touch and to a perceptual concept of human relationship.18 I furthermore analyze how stylized-alluding gestures relate to the performance element of word, the chanted oral poetry of the mele hula. The approach of analysis applied in my work considers multiple combinations of performance materiality describing convergent qualities of sensory correspondences both at the performative as well as referential level of performance. I concede from my study on stylized gestures that the concept of image is not limited to visuality. I 16 See Part II, Analysis IV: Keying Performance Activity – The Call-And-Response Practice in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance. 17 See Part II, Analysis II: 6.3 On Gestures and Stylization Section II: Stylized-Abstract Gestures. 18 See Part II, Analysis II: 6.4 On Gestures and Stylization Section III: Stylized-Alluding Gestures.

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agree with W.J.T. Mitchell’s position who distinguishes clearly between picture and image. Image is not tied to the medial and material circumstances of a picture. Mitchell summons that images are not “exclusively visual the way real pictures are; they involve all the senses.”19 The consequence of my analytical results, when brought into relation to Mitchell’s position, is that I modify the Kattenbelt/Chapple model of the six performance elements and its diagrammatic application to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice, see Appendix D-2. I conceptualize visuality as one domain of performance materiality among the group of six performance elements. Visuality replaces the position of image. Instead, I place the aspect of image into the center of the diagram. The category of image I therefore do not relate to visuality per se. I rather coneptualize image as a quality relevant to the process of perception of gestures, words, and sound. Therefore I consider that the perceptive quality of the image as sensory concept covers at least three phenomena, the gestural image, the verbal image,20 and the sound image. They may occur separately or in a layered fashion or they may cross-fade into each other in the process of performance. Methodologically speaking I see a relationship between the Gestalt-concept and the notion of the image. Both are not limited to certain medial and material circumstances. The modified concept of the image understood as a multi-sensory phenomenon oscillates between acoustic, gestural, and verbal means.21 My analysis covers one example of gesture-word correlation, the makanigesture in relation to the first verse of the second stanza of Kaupō ‘Āina. In chapter eight, I discuss the evocative power of the kāhea wehe and the kāhea pau, two verbal segments of hula ‘ōlapa peformance practice. In these cases the combination of body gestures and those images produced by poetic language triggers a multi-faceted process of sense experiences evoking pervasive impressions of sound, vision, smell, feeling, and touch of high intensity which relate to selected aspects of the story told.

19 See Mitchell, W.J.T (1987): Iconology. Image, Text, Ideology, Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press, p. 13. 20 See Mitchell’s discussion about verbal imagery in: Mitchell, W.J.T (1987): Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology, p. 13, a classic and leading position among current developments in image science. See also Mitchell, W.J.T. (2008): “Image Science”, in: Hüppauf, Bernd/Weingard, Peter: Science Images and popular Images of the Science, p. 55-68. 21 See also W.J.T. Mitchell (2008): “Four Fundamental Concepts of Image Science“, in: Elkins, James (ed.), Visual Literacy, London, New York: Routledge, p. 16.

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7.4 Performance Segmentation and the Sensory Effect of Varied Combinations of Performance Material The division between the two disciplines, the ‘ōlapa and the ho‘opa‘a, determines the distribution and interrelation between performance elements. I stated earlier that the division engenders a prominent structure of difference set into action during hula performance. The division among the two groups of performance specialists shapes the process of hula performance as a whole. Both parties equally partake in the generation of hula performance with each party stressing a particular field of articulation – the acoustic-verbal domain is played out by the ho‘opa‘a while the kinesthetic-visual domain is being enacted by the ‘ōlapa. I am interested in describing how the interaction between the two disciplines determines the organization of performance material. This means to look for variations of combinations between involved performance elements, words, percussion, and corporeal or kinesthetic articulation. These performative elements in combination unfold distinct sensory impressions that tie into the perception and aesthetic experience of performance. The question is how these sensory qualities of variously combined performance materialities interact in sequence and in synchrony? How does the sensory interplay of impressions shape the flow of aesthetic experience in Kaupō ‘Āina? I apply a modified concept of “sensory sequencing” to the analysis of hula ‘ōlapa performance focusing on the mutual interrelationship of the senses and performance materiality. 7.4.1 Sensory Sequencing David Howes differentiates in his work on “Scent, Sound and Synaesthesia,”22 between the model of intersensoriality and the model of synaesthesia. The latter means literary speaking, “joining the senses,” as he writes.23 Originally synaesthesia has been termed to define a medical indication and “rare condition in which the stimulation of one sensory modality is accompanied by a perception in one or more other modalities.”24 Howes refers to cases of hearing colors, seeing sounds, and feeling tastes discussed in studies of synaesthesia.25 Poets such as 22 See Howes, David (2007): “Scent, Sound and Synaesthesia”, in: Tilley, Christopher at al. (eds.), Handbook of Material Culture, Sage Publications, p. 162-172. 23 Ibid., p. 162. 24 Ibid., p. 162. 25 Marks defines: “Synaesthesia is a term that refers to the transposition of sensory images or sensory attributes from one modality to another, as where the mellow tones of a lover’s voice flow in a kaleidoscope of color, or where the sundry flavors of din-

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Baudelaire, for example, focused on the phenomenon of synaesthesia as an important subject of his oeuvre.26 The concept of syneasthesia assumes that at least two sensory modalities occur simultaneously based on associative or transpositional combination of them.27 Intersensoriality on the other hand is specified as the “multi-directional interaction of the senses,” as Howes explicates. An important aspect which intersensoriality conceptualizes is that perception is based on “sensory sequencing.”28 This term has been coined by Dorinne Kondo who researched Japanese tea ceremony.29 Howes summarizes her findings: “In the ceremony meaning are conveyed through sensory shifts, from garden to tea room, from sound to silence, from odor of incense to the taste of tea. Kondo describes the aesthetic order of the tea ceremony as an “unfolding, a sequence of movement with tensions, climaxes and directionality.”30 The practice of tea cerner come alive in melody. Probably the most common form – certainly the most thoroughly studied – is visual hearing, where sounds take on the accoutrement of sight.” See Marks, Lawrence E. (1978), p. 8. Marks refers among others to Heinz Werner’s paper: Werner, Heinz (1966): “Intermodale Qualitäten (Synästhesien)”, in: W. Metzger (ed.): Handbuch der Psychologie, Göttingen: Verlag für Psychologie. Werner proposes that the experience of synaesthesia is based on a basic level of perception that is tied into the possibility to experience a psychophysiological unity of the senses. This condition allows a “synästhetisches Einheitserlebnis” – a total experience of sensory unity in which the senses fuse to partake within one sensory field not being differentiated from each other. He writes: “In diesem Totalerlebnis, in dem affektiv-motorische Einstellungen und leibliche Haltungen prinzipiell bedeutsam sind, sind die Sinne noch nicht in einzelne Felder gespalten.” See Werner, Heinz (1966), p. 299. As part of his study Werner specifies intensity, brightness, volume, size, roughness, and density as intersenorial qualities. These qualities are shared among different modalities, see Werner, Heinz (1966), p. 299. 26 In his research on perception entitled The Unity of the Senses, Marks discusses the topic of “synaesthetic metaphor” in poetry of the nineteenth century. Charles Baudelaire among others is one poet of interest in Marks’s study. See Marks, Lawrence E. (1978), p. 224 ff. 27 Howes, Dawid (2007): “Scent, Sound and Synaesthesia”, in: Tilley, Christopher at al., p. 162. 28 See Howes, David (2005), p. 9. 29 See Dorinne Kondo (2005): “The Tea Ceremony: A Symbolic Analysis”, in: Howes, David (ed.), Empire of the Senses: A Sensual Cultural Reader, Berg Publishers, p. 192-211. 30 See Howes, David (2005), p. 9.

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emony engenders sensory experience as a means to induce aesthetic experience. The performance is centered on how one sensory impression follows the next. A certain sequence of activities is done by participants of tea ceremonies in order to experience the special sensory qualities of these activities. Most important are the sensory shifts from one activity to the next. Kondo explicates, that this process of sensory experience is part of an “aesthetic order” which is part of a performative process distinctly shaped by moving from one to the next sensual situation. In correspondence to Kondo’s research Howes writes that “in perception does one sensation often follow another to form different patterns of experience. One may see an apple before picking it up and eating it. One may smell a rose before seeing it.”31 Art is a means to intensify this matter of sensory aspects of every day experience. The Japanese tea ceremony for example represents a sophisticated aesthetic procedure which highlights the sequential flow of sensory experience. Taking Howes and Kondo’s considerations into account I propose that the act of perception is based on a multi-layered and sequential process of several interacting modalities. This determines as I argue the condition of multi-sensory experience. As follows, I draw on the sensory experience of a rose as a general example to circumscribe how I conceptualize “sensory sequencing” applied later as a tool for performance analysis: As I am walking through a public garden I first catch a strong sweet scent. When looking for the source of the scent I discover a flowering rose plant. As I am taking a close look I am impressed by the bright orange color, the size of one of the flowering roses, and the beautiful arrangement of the rose’s petals. The visual appearance attracts all attention for some moments. My attention shifts from size and color to the natural design of the rose, the arrangement of the petals. Then the focus of perception moves back to the strong sweet scent which merges with the visual impression. I cautiously touch the rose petals with my fingers, feeling the somewhat cool and smooth surface structure of the petals. The sensation of touch, vision, and smell fade into each other as my attention moves from one sensory aspect to the next. As I move back from vision and touch to scent, the impression of vision and touch withdraw for a moment. While scent becomes the dominant sensory impression, vision and touch still are present. I observe the perceptive dynamic how my attention moves from one aspect to the next, a recurrent withdrawal and recovery, back and forth, a condition that is constantly shifting. Sensory impressions overlap and fade into each other in the very act of perception. This changing and shifting condition implies a perceptional movement, a dynamic of perception 31 Ibid., p. 9.

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understood here as process. This perceptive dynamic constitutes the condition of multi-sensory experience – the senses being in motion. The sequence of simultaneously layered and shifting sensory impressions shape a particular multisensory experience, as this is the case while experiencing a rose.32 The succession of multiple sensory impressions shifts from one sensory stimulus to the next. Impressions may occur at once, yet, the perceiver’s attention follows from one aspect to the next in order to grasp the situation as a whole. 7.4.2 Sensory Sequencing Applied to Kaupō ‘Āina Based on the introductory discussion of sensory sequencing I propose that the act of perception of hula ‘ōlapa performance is basically shaped by a sequence of shifts between varied multi-layered configurations of performance material and their sensory ratios. This performance aesthetic strategy of sensory sequencing thereafter detemines the configuration of performance practice as well as its aesthetic experience. The assumption is that the composition of hula performance is based on sensory sequencing of performance material, a fine aligned arrangement of words, movement and percussion. This arrangement, which shapes the flow of sensory experience, determines the “aesthetic order” of hula ‘ōlapa performance. Part of sensory sequencing is to induce shifts in perception as part of aesthetic experience. Varying degrees of contrast between sensory stimuli creates tension which shapes the dynamic flow of sensory sequence engendered through performance. This flow of sensory sequencing is meaningful to performers and audience alike. Accordingly I describe the sensory ratio and sequence of involved performative elements. Percussion and chanted oral literature relate to the performance materialities of sound, word, time and sonic space. Stylized gestures cover visuality, corporeality, temporality and spatiality. I add the aspect of presence into my considerations on sensory sequencing of performance materiality. Previously, I defined presence as a matter tied to corporeality.33 One perceives presence of performers as a quality of tension and energy ex-

32 The sensory discovery of the rose can go on when taking the whole plant into consideration. As my hand and my gaze move down I discover the structure of the stem. A first thorn appears. Looking at the thorn I know that a thorn will hurt the skin of my fingers when touching it incautiously. I recognize the first rib of leaves, their dark green color and shape while my attention moves back up to the flower. 33 Eugenio Barba’s concept of extra-daily technique when applied by performers brings “forth their body as energetic” as Fischer-Lichte concedes. See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 98.

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erted by performers. Based on my observation, I argue that presence relates to other materialities as well. I apply the methodological instrument of sensory sequencing to the main performative framework of Kaupō ‘Āina, the kāhea wehe, the pā rhythmic interlude, the holo, the e-ue ending pā segment and the kāhea pau. The performative and sensorial organization of these segments is the leading topic here. As reference I use Performance Score 1 (PS 1) , which features the segmentary character of the hula composition.34 I refer to Performance Score 2 (PS 2) as well, due to the fact that the latter score includes photos about body posture and main visual features of gestural articulation.35 1st Segment Analysis No. 1: Kāhea Wehe (PS 1 and PS 2, segment 1, line 1) The first segment of PS 1 and PS 2 refers to the first prominent performance activity indicating the beginning of the performance of the hula repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina. In this case the ‘ōlapa positions her/himself center stage in the starting position, see PS 2, segment 1, line1. Feet are positioned parallel, knees are bent, the torso is held erect and both arms are bent at the elbows. Each elbow is pointing laterally to the side. Hands and fingers point towards the body’s center line, palms facing down. The face of the ‘ōlapa is turned to the front facing the audience. This body position causes a high energetic and focused condition of the performer. The performer’s body is held in a state of stillness and readiness. Each aspect of the body is clearly positioned in space shaping the clear cut and well defined visual appearance of the ‘ōlapa as a whole. There is no rhythmic pattern of temporality. Due to the fact that the body is arrested in a position of motionlessness, time occurs to be present as a means of duration. The audience perceives and feels the focused attentiveness and high energetic readiness defined as corporeal presence, a modality of its own. All of this determines the first impression of the ‘ōlapa as performer positioned on stage. On top of this temporal, visual and kinesthetic impression of the ‘ōlapa, he/she performs the kāhea wehe, the opening dedication of the piece. The words of the call are: “Kaupō, ‘āina pali huki a i luna,” translated as “Kaupō, the land, cliff pulled up high.” Immediately the attention shifts from visual to verbal articulation and its acoustic perception. In the meanwhile, the percussionist-singer, the ho‘opa‘a, is waiting in attentiveness, no percussion at this point yet. During this first segment the enactment of performance materiality is focused on the ‘ōlapa only. 34 See PS 1, Appendix B. 35 See PS 2, Appendix C.

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The sensory ratio of the first segment is based on several aspects being combined in a highly contrastive way: a motionless yet high energetic impression of the ‘ōlapa’s body, a radical mode of corporeal presence, and a single vocalized line of verbal material. The body posture is significant, yet it does not refer to anything particular. It does not relate to or signifies a narrative aspect of the story. The posture of the ‘ōlapa is as such purely self-reflexive, indicating that the performer as a human being is positioned in a state of utmost readiness. The contrast between these two different materialities being combined, the poetic line and the energetic and focused body position, engenders tension at the performative level. The materiality of the words appears to be highly present. The presence of the words supported by the corporeal presence of the performer’s body highlights the sensory impact of the acoustic and verbal materiality of the kāhea wehe. Based on this particular performative constellation of super-presence, the semantic aspects of the words seem to occur at once like a stroke or flash – the imagined impressions and associations of “Kaupō, the land, cliff pulled up high.” The imagination of the audience takes flight right at the beginning of the performance. The words paint the principal setting of the scenery of a dramatic landscape. The scene of the story is set. Kaupō indicates a land section which includes a cliff. A cliff implies a land-ocean constellation. The cliff is pulled up high. The words suggest a sudden, rough, and kinesthetically felt dynamic. Land mass is being vertically pulled up towards the sky. Yet, the audience is looking towards the ‘ōlapa who is positioned still on stage – no motion and no sound otherwise. The actual sensory impression of the performance situation and the imagined scenery triggered by the words are juxtaposed. This is indeed a strong moment. The configuration highlights the sensory impact that a highly contrastive circumstance of materiality and referentiality engenders. The prominence and effectiveness of the acoustic and verbal aspect of the kāhea wehe’s performance materiality rests upon this particular combination: the presence of words and the presence of body. I argue that the performance segment of the kāhea wehe features the highest degree concerning contrastive combinations of verbal and corporeal performance materiality that is possible in performance analytical terms. The element of percussion is completely absent during the kāhea wehe.

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2nd Segment Analysis No. 2: Pā Rhythmic Interlude (PS 1, lines 2-3; PS 2, segment 2) The second segment of performance called pā rhythmic interlude literally means a segment of space or time.36 The pā rhythmic interlude is based on the percussive activity of the ho‘opa‘a. A distinct sensory switch happens between the kāhea wehe and the pā rhythmic interlude. Percussion takes on the lead, changing the sensory impact and impression of poetic words and corporeal presence which marked the sensory ratio of the first segment discussed above. The attention shifts to percussive sound and the prominence of acoustics. The pā rhythmic interlude features the first set of the rhythmic pattern called in this study the “Kaupō pattern.”37 In the meanwhile, the ‘ōlapa holds the starting position of the body as described above. The kinesthetic domain stays arrested. For a period of three beats one perceives the pattern of percussive sound only. During the fourth interval of the percussive interlude the ‘ōlapa calls the first kāhea. The kāhea functions as a short and concise verbal signal: “Kaupō ‘āina.” The ‘ōlapa repeats the first two words of the kāhea wehe, calling and thereby re-enforcing the image of “Kaupō, the land.” The call is of verbal and acoustic nature and finalizes the segment of the pā rhythmic interlude thereby indicating and triggering a performative shift towards the paukū. The paukū are the segments of performance that relate to the stanzas of the piece of oral poetry, the mele hula. The verbal material of the kāhea which is called out loud at the end of the pā rhythmic interlude, relates both to the first two words of the kāhea wehe, the opening dedication, and the first two words of the first stanza of the mele hula that follows next. The sensory ratio of the pā rhythmic interlude, the second segment of the hula piece Kaupō ‘Āina, implies a perceptive shift. The perceptive shift moves from a strong contrastive combination based on visual-kinesthetic and verbalacoustic sensory experience of the kāhea wehe, the first segment discussed, towards percussive sound, which dominates the pā rhythmic interlude. The pā 36 According to the Hawaiian Dictionary online the term pā means: “1. nvi. Fence, wall, corral, pen, sty, enclosure, courtyard, patio, arena, (house) lot, yard, extremity; to build a fence, enclosure. Cf. pānini, Pā-lama (place name), fence built of lama wood. Mai kēlā pā o ka honua, a mai kēlā pā o ka lani mai (Mar. 13.27), from that end of the earth and from that end of the heavens. (PPN paa.) […] 5. nvi.. A sound; to sound; beat, rhythm, as of a dance; stroke, as of an instrument; thump of a gourd down on a pad, with one quick slap of the fingers as the gourd is raised; signal to begin a dance or drumming,” see www.wehewehe.org. 37 See Part II, Analysis I, 5.3 Section III: Percussion. The Performative, Referential and Aesthetic Implications Considering Structural Variations of Acoustic Material.

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rhythmic interlude introduces a fast and dynamic sense of temporality that characterizes the Kaupō percussion pattern. The sensory impression of the body is present during the second segment but stays somewhat withdrawn. There is no verbal material involved at first. The percussive dynamic of the Kaupō pattern picks up and further enhances acoustically the sensory impression of the dramatic cliff-ocean constellation of Kaupō shaped during the first segment. The fundamental drive of the percussion pattern carries on the established energetic level of the vocalized poetic impression of upheaval established by the verbal element of the first segment. The performance of the pā rhythmic segment introduces percussive sound as the predominant means of performative materiality and its respective sensorial quality. Last not least, the introduced Kaupō percussive pattern and its strong percussive drive determines the musical score throughout the following sequence of paukū and holo segments. The Kaupō pattern is fast and has a pushing forward quality. The feeling of the percussive drive of the Kaupō pattern ties into the unsettling feeling of strong emotions which relate to the story of Halemano. The strong emotional surge of the percussive pattern runs through the entire piece like a strong undercurrent. 3rd Segment Analysis No. 3: Paukū (PS 1, segment 3, 1st paukū, lines 4-7; PS 2, segment 3, 1st paukū, lines 4-7) The performance organization and sensory appeal of the third segment, identified as 1st paukū in PS 1, is geared towards a performative and sensory development of all three domains in performance, the verbal, percussive and kinesthetic domain. The paukū segments feature in particular the sensory co-relation of verbal and stylized-alluding gestural articulation. PS 1 identifies three paukū segments: segment three, segment five and seven. The verbal material of the mele hula is featured as part of these three paukū segments. Each of these paukū segments is repeated once. An analysis of the sensory ratio of paukū segments exceeds the limits of this chapter. 4th Segment Analysis No. 4: Holo (PS 1, segment 4, lines 8-9; PS 2, segment 4, lines 8-9) The fourth segment of interest to my analysis on sensory sequencing is called holo. This segment immediately follows the three paukū segments dissecting and distinctly separating the paukū segments from each other. A holo is based on one set of two Kaupō percussion patterns, performed by the ho‘opa‘a. In case of the hula repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina the ‘ōlapa performs as part of the holo segment two movement patterns called huli kāholo. Huli kāholo represents a highly

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dynamic stylized-abstract whole body gesture. First it implies a 90 degree turn to the right side, followed by a swift 180 degree turn facing to the left side (taking the perspective of the performer into account). The centre of weight of the body is lowered after the turn and while stepping to the side. The body is lifted up while turning to the opposite side in order to be lowered again as soon as one steps to the side. During the first turn to face the right side the left arm strikes at chest level to the front, fingers point front. At the end of the turn arm and hand are being pulled back. Hands take on the neutral position at chest level.38 The rhythmic structure of the steps matches the main beats of the Kaupō percussion pattern. The turning motion of the entire body including the sharp and striking arm movement enhances kinesthetically the fast and dynamic percussive sound of the Kaupō pattern. A kāhea, called out by the ‘ōlapa, cuts into the fourth interval of the percussive pattern to indicate the next following paukū segment. One compositional function of the holo is to separate the paukū segments three, five, and seven which feature parts of the mele hula of Kaupō ‘Āina. The sensory ratio of the holo segments is primarily based on a combination of the acoustic domain of percussion and the kinesthetic-visual aspects of performance, the latter being of stylized-abstract nature. The sensory impression of this combination directs the attention towards the high acoustic and kinesthetic dynamic of this segment. Both body motion and percussion are performed simultaneously and converge into one sensory impression. Body, sound, time, and space merge at the performative level to stress a sense of temporal spatiality based on a fusion of sound and body in motion. The performative and sensory quality of the holo shapes and thereby reflects the strong emotional drive fundamental to Kaupō ‘Āina. The performative and sensory set up of the holo segment is similar to the pā rhythmic interlude. Yet, the holo segment adds the motion pattern, huli kāholo, on top of the high speed of the Kaupō pattern. The two combined performance elements complement and enhance each other. Finally, the ‘ōlapa calls the kāhea of the next following paukū segment. The kāhea is placed again at the end of the segment. The sensory quality of the kāhea, verbal and acoustic in nature, is layered on top of the performative and sensory set up of the holo. The kāhea used as a performance element stands out and seems to work almost as an independent performance aspect. Yet, the kāhea is an intrinsic element of the sensory ratio of the holo. The kāhea is part of the performative and compositional logic of the holo which functions as a distinct intersection between paukū segments.

38 See Appendix C, PS 2, segment 4, line 8, photos 1-4.

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The main part of the hula composition consists of an interchanging series of paukū segments and holo. Each paukū segment is followed by a holo.39 Each paukū segment is repeated once. A variation of sequence occurs after the 3rd paukū has been repeated once. In this latter case the holo segment is done twice right after each other. This segment is specified as segment 8, see PS 1, line 2022. These two last holo demarcate the ending of the main part of the composition. They function as a transition towards the final part of Kaupō ‘Āina, the e-ue ending pā segment. 5th Segment Analysis No. 5: E-ue Call and the E-ue Ending Pā Segment (PS 1, lines 22-25) The e-ue ending pā segment is termed after its kāhea or call “e-ue” and it specifies a particular performance segment significant to the composition of hula pieces. This segment is indicated by means of an explicit cue,40 called out by the ‘ōlapa as part of the last holo performed. Due to its explicit call the e-ue segment relates to the call-and-response system characteristic to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice.41 The difference is that the e-ue call does not refer by any means to the mele hula as it is the case with all other kāhea. The call e-ue is onomatopoetic. It specifies a performance segment of its own right. The e-ue call and its respective performance segment indicate the performance sequence which finalizes the hula piece. The motion pattern of the e-ue segment executed by the ‘ōlapa is principally speaking stylized-abstract and non-referential. The body movements demarcate the ultimate spatial range of kinesthetic articulation. The movements sequence specifies three far reaching points of spatial and corporeal conjunction. The ‘ōlapa first turns the body to the right side. The right leg is stretched out pointing diagonally to the back. The upper body is tilted down while the right arm and hand point down towards the right pointed foot. The left arm and hand points up elongating the diagonal stretch of the right arm towards the left direction pointing up high, see Appendix C, PS 2, segment 9, line 23, G12. The body moves back up facing to the front. Both hands, which touch each other, point front and up high, while the right leg points forward to the front. The body turns to the left side, mirroring the first motion constellation, as discussed above, to the other side. This means that the left foot is placed pointing diagonally back to 39 See PS 1, segment 4, lines 8-9, and segment 6, lines 14-15. 40 See Part I, Methods III: Scoring Performance Practice, a) Explicit Cues: Kāhea and the E-ue Call. 41 See Part II, Analysis IV: Keying Performance Activity – The Call-And-Response Practice in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance.

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the left side. The left arm and hand point towards the left foot while the right arm elongates the stretch pointing diagonally up high. The body turns back to the front, both hands point front up high again. Finally both hands move down pointing at chest level to the front, palms facing down. The right foot points to the front, see Appendix C, PS 2, segment 9, line 23, G16. The spatial corners of each of these body motions are accentuated by a deep sound or thump of the ipu heke towards the ground followed by a rest. This percussive pattern is called kū.42 The mnemonic formula of the percussion pattern which corresponds with the movement pattern of the e-ue segment sounds “U – U – U – U – U – tete.” The pattern of percussion and that of body motion are synchronized. They mark a series of six beats in succession. The high sounding tete pattern finalizes the motion sequence of the e-ue segment acoustically. The ‘ōlapa calls out loud the kāhea pau, the final dedication of the piece, followed by a last percussive pattern “tete U” performed by the ho‘opa‘a. The piece has come to an end. The sensory ratio of the e-ue ending pā segment is based primarily on synchronized stylized-abstract body motion and percussive sounds. The e-ue segment stresses an entirely different sensory arrangement of the kinesthetic-visual and percussive performance materiality. It differs from any motion and acoustic experience that occurred during the segments presented prior to the e-ue segment. The percussive sounds correspond with the movements demarcating the ultimate corners of kinesthetic articulation: diagonally far down to the right, front up high, and diagonally far down to the left, again front up high and finally pointing front at chest level. The specific sensory appearance of the e-ue sequence ends the fast dynamic flow of the Kaupō percussion pattern, which determines the pā rhythmic interlude and the main section of Kaupō ‘Āina. There is no reference to verbal material throughout the e-ue segment until the final kāhea pau is called out. The e-ue segment features stylized-abstract, strictly geometric and kinesthetically far reaching movements and a series of singular thumbs of percussive sounds that correspond to the corner points of the movements performed by the ‘ōlapa. This pattern generates a performative arrangement that builds up towards the final call, the climactic moment within a hula composition.43 I propose that the sensorial ratio of the e-ue segment is unique within the flow of the sensory sequence of the performance segments discussed which shape the main performative framework of Kaupō ‘Āina. The e-ue pā ending 42 See Stillman, Amy (1998), p. 7. 43 See Part II, Analysis IV: Keying Performance Activity – The Call-And-Response Practice in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance, and 8.2.4 Kāhea Pau: The Ending Dedication.

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segment draws like the pā rhythmic interlude and the holo the attention towards the main performative framework of Kaupō ‘Āina. However, the e-ue ending pā segment differs completely from the quick and dynamic motion pattern of the holo. The appearance of the holo is based on a swift 180 degree and horizontal turn of the body from right to the left. The kinesthetic-visual and acoustic pattern of the e-ue segment on the other hand materializes time and space in a rather pointed way demarcating defined directions of a certain magnitude. The tilted body position and hand gesture point to the utmost corner down below, to move up high pointing towards the sky, to move back down, and up high again in order to end pointing to the front at chest level. This triangular action of the ‘ōlapa indicates the ultimate directions concerning the range of kinesthetic action applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance. It seems as if the ‘ōlapa is kinesthetically wrapping and folding up space and time in order to come to an end, finally placing the verbal articulation of the kāhea pau. Within the sensorial sequence of the hula composition this distinct performative and sensorial setting, the kinesthetically and sonically shaped span of time and space during the e-ue segment, leads up towards the aesthetic experience of the performative and semantic weight of the kāhea pau, the culmination of the hula piece. This extraordinarily shaped e-ue ending pā segment, which is based on a combination of stylized-abstract body motion and percussive material only, intensifies the trusting effect of the poetic words “He inoa no Kamalalawalu” – “In the name of Kamalalawalu.” Placed at the very end of the e-ue ending pā segment the verbal material of the kāhea pau seems to shine bright, up lifted in a certain way, as the words appear at this much focused and prominent moment of performance. 7.4.3 By Means of Contrast: Sensory Ratios of Performance Material Kāhea wehe, pā rhythmic interlude, holo, e-ue, and kāhea pau reflect the way how hula performers specify segments of performance as a measure of orientation while interacting during rehearsal and on stage. These terms represent implicit knowledge of performance practice. The segments indicate prominent parts of performance activity that follow in a certain progression to form a hula piece. Each segment points at compositionally distinct ways how and what to perform and how to interact. The segments regulate how the involved performance elements interrelate. My analysis shows that each segment implies a certain sensory ratio among involved performative elements. These ratios imply specific combinations of changing prominence among words, body motion and percussion. This perspective opens up a new perspective to think about convergence among heterogeneous elements of performance. In hula ‘ōlapa performance practice

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various options of convergence are applied to enhance and intensify the sensory and aesthetic appeal of performance material. I propose that the performance aesthetic effect of convergence is conditioned due to variations of combinations of heterogeneous performance material and their sensory ratios. I distinguish at least three sensory ratios which condition various degrees of convergence and their respective aesthetic effect. 1. Performative material is combined in a well defined yet contrastive way. The combination of elements is based on juxtaposition which creates tension. The juxtaposition has to be balanced as such that elements carry the same weight. The impression based on juxtaposition highlights as in the case of the kāhea wehe certain performative as well as semantic aspects of involved material: words versus corporeal presence. Contrast based on juxtaposition of elements is one means to condition convergence. 2. Predominance of selected elements versus elements which are present, yet withdrawn. As one example I refere to the pā rythmic interlude. Percussion and the kāhea are predominantly featured during this segment. The body is present as part of the combination; yet, it is withdrawn. 3. Elements are combined in: a) A complementary and enhancing way. The appeal of each element fuses equally into one impression. The sensory quality of each element enhances and enriches the joint impression. The holo demarcates such an example. Both, the formation of movement and percussion are a good match. The combination engenders one distinctly shaped appearance of involved performance materialities. b) A complementary and enhancing way; however, one element is used to highlight the other involved element. The e-ue segment is an example if this latter case. The sound of percussion is used to highlight and to focus the attention upon the utmost corners of body articulation. In this case sound is used in the same way like the element of stage light is used to highlight a specific situation on stage. The various combinations of performative material enable changing accents of sensory experience in the flow of performance which supports the development of the piece as a whole. Each segment creates certain sensory impressions which when aligned in sequence generate a particular aesthetic order. Sound, words, body movements merge and cross fade from one sensory ratio into the next shaping sense experience at the performative level. The ratio of the holo enhances the feeling of a high energetic drive and force during the piece. The e-ue segment fi-

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nalizes the piece in an impressive way stressing a triangular movement pattern of prominence which leads towards the kāhea pau at the end. Intensity is achieved by means of variation and contrastive organization among various sensory ratios. The words of the various kāhea function like flash lights or jumping boards into imagined landscapes and characters involved in a story. The calling of names and the poetic imagery of words evoke in a foretelling way moments of insight into certain prominent situations of story material. My point is that variations of sensory ratios among combined heterogeneous performance material enhance the intensity of performance as a means to generate sense experience. Performance practices such as hula ‘ōlapa are based on an artistic sensibility towards the sensory appearance of words, gestures, and percussive sounds being combined in various ways to embellish what a story is about. This applies to those performance segments being described and analyzed in this chapter and which function as introduction, intersection and finalization of the piece. They are essential parts of the sensory and aesthetic order of the piece framing the paukū segments. The sensory ratios of the segments discussed prepare the audience triggering their senses. Warming and opening them up, the audience is able to fully experience and appreciate the paukū segments. These appear within the flow of sensory sequence like projections into imagined landscapes and situations of encounter among humans and forces of nature.

Analysis IV: Keying Performance Activity – The Call-And-Response Practice in Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance

8. E XPLICIT C UES IN H ULA ‘Ō LAPA P ERFORMANCE P RACTICE : K ĀHEA 8.1 Introduction The leading presumption of this chapter is that the kāhea practice functions as a means of keying, thereby inducing transformation concerning the progression of hula ‘ōlapa performance and its respective procedures of reception. The term “kāhea” indicates the call-and-response practice and a performance feature significant to hula ‘ōlapa performance. According to the Hawaiian Dictionary the Hawaiian term “kāhea” signifies the verbs “to call, cry out, invoke, greet, name.”1 As a noun it denotes “a call, alarm.”2 The dictionary continues to write that the use of kāhea refers to the “recital of the first lines of a stanza by the dancer as a cue to the chanter.”3 The connotations according to the dictionary reflect what is known among hula practitioners. I learned the terminology and how to use kāhea during my own hula performance training. The kāhea practice is an integral part applied during training process as much as it is of importance during the progression of hula ‘ōlapa performance on stage. Seen from an performance analytical perspective, the kāhea practice relates to the performance domains of words or language and sound. Following my own observations, both,

1

See Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert Samuel H. (1986), p. 111.

2

Ibid., p. 111.

3

Ibid., p. 111.

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the ‘ōlapa and leading ho‘opa‘a, use their voices to perform kāhea. They know according to particular performance rules when to call and how to alternate these rules in correspondence to unexpected situations while performing. During hula performance, kāhea sound like significant calls. The vocal impact of each kāhea is explicitly strong and acoustically well perceivable during performance. A characteristic of the kāhea is that they occur as recurrent however somehow independent performance units that punctuate the flow of a hula piece in action through their particular tonality and way of vocalization. One prime research interest of the performance analytical approach of my work is to find out how the mutual relationships between materiality, sensorial and qualitative aspects and referentiality among heterogeneously organized performance activity shape aesthetic experience, asking how these interrelations tie into the issue of transformation as one important aspect of aesthetic experience. Respectively the analytical interest is as follows to look at the compositional and transformational capacity of the kāhea practice. Methodologically I approach this field of interest applying and combining two analytical venture points. One notion of interest is Erving Goffman’s concept of the key and respectively his idea of keying social interaction inducing thereby transformation of activity which again organizes experience. The other notion discussed is based on Fischer-Lichte’s concept of “perceptive multi-stability”4 introduced into theater and performance studies through her work, entitled The Transformative Power of Performance: A New Aesthetics (2008). Fischer-Lichte determines perceptive multi-stability as an analytical concept to describe procedures of perception which tie into the aesthetic experience of performances recognizing both, processes of aisthesis5 specified as the “order of presence,” as well as processes of semiosis. Semiosis denotes the production of meaning and signification,6 which Fischer-Lichte specifies as the “order of representation.” 4

See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 157.

5

Aisthesis is the ancient Greek term for perception based on the senses. Besides this the term denotes meaning (Sinn), and processes of realization (Erkenntnis), see Langenscheidt, Taschenwörterbuch Altgriechisch, Teil I, (1993), p. 22. Part II, Analysis II: On Gestures and Stylization Section I of my work covers the basic outline of the notion aesthetics as aisthesis. Following this perspective I consider that the impact of sensory perception takes on a key role in shaping the relationship of performative materiality, qualitative and referential aspects as part of aesthetic experience.

6

Semiosis describes the process of communication based on signs. The Collins English Dictionary Online defines semiosis as a noun as follows, “an action or process involving the establishment of a relationship between a sign and its object and meaning.”

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As follows I analyze the kāhea practice, taking Goffman’s considerations of “keying” into account. Keying and cues are terms introduced by Erving Goffman to further fine tune his approach of frame-analysis.7 Both terms are of central interest in my study of hula ‘ōlapa performance organization. Goffman refers to Gregory Bateson’s discussion about the fact that animals distinguish between serious behavior, which is based on aggression leading to a fight, and behavior that looks like a fight but which is just a form of mocking or play. Transferring Bateson’s discussion to human behavior, Goffman concedes that real fighting serves in terms of a “foundation of form” or “pattern” of action. This primary pattern again is used as a model for playful activity. However, the serious behavior is not fully realized but altered to some respect. Goffman argues that it is an issue of transformation, in terms of transposition, that enables an aggressive behavior to become a playful one. He introduces the concept of the “key” respectively “keying,” the latter stressing a process oriented perspective in order to explicate aspects that involve transformation by means of behavior. He writes: “I Two scholars Ferdinand de Saussures and Charles Sanders Peirce and their sign theoretical work established the foundation of semiotics. Saussures’s sign-theoretical understanding is based on a dyadic and therefore static concept that differentiates between the signified and the signifier. The referential function of a sign in terms of the signifier points towards a something else, the signified object. The relationship of the two sign aspects is codified. These two aspects determine what a sign is about and how communication based on signs works. Peirce on the other hand developed a triadic and dynamic sign-theoretical concept. The meaning of a sign “grows” in an ongoing process of interpretation, as Uwe Wirth summarizes the Peirceian sign concept. Wirth stresses that according to Peirce the symbolic, indexical and iconic relation between the sign and the object of reference is understood as “mediated representation.” Wirth cites Peirce saying that the meaning of signs emerges as part of a translation process from one sign into another sign system. Systems of signs are based on a mixture of symbolic, indexical and iconic sign types that function like elements within an open and fluctuating network of signs. This implies as Wirth mentions that verbal, acoustic and visual sign systems in fact involved all three types of sign functions, the symbolic, the indexical and the iconic function, considering that one or the other function might take a dominant position. Verbal articulations are dominantly symbolic, yet language integrates iconic besides indexical measures, to follow Wirth’s writing. See Wirth, Wirth (2006): “Hypertextuelle Aufpfropfung”, in: Meyer, Urs/Simanowski, Roberto/Zeller, Christoph (eds.): Transmedialität. Zur Ästhetik paraliterarischer Verfahren, p. 30. 7

See Goffman, Erving (1974).

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refer here to a set of conventions by which a given activity, one already meaningful in terms of some primary framework, is transformed into something patterned on the activity but seen by the participants to be quite something else. The process of transcription can be called keying.”8 Goffman seeks to show which effect singular elements have within a stream of activity. The question is how these particular elements, which induce for example frame changes, have an effect on other elements that occur prior, synchronously, or right after each other within a sequence.9 He further devises a definition of keying.10 A first consideration about keying stated by Goffman and of interest to my study is that a systematic transformation is based on a primary framework of activity upon which the transformed action is modeled upon. Goffman writes, that “the systematic transformation that a particular keying introduces may alter only slightly the activity thus transformed, but it utterly changes what it is a participant would say was going on.”11 The transformational procedure triggered by keying applies to activities already meaningful in accordance with a scheme of interpretation, and without which the keying would be meaningless. Open acknowledgment among participants is fundamental to procedures of alteration that will radically reconstitute what it is for them “what is going on,” as Goffman stresses.12 Most important for my analysis on kāhea is his conclusion that cues are signs or signals that mark the beginning and ending of an activity’s transformation. Taking Goffman’s basic specifications of keying into account I question in my analysis how kāhea understood as cues relate to the activity of a basic framework? What is the basic framework? Is it a particular part of the basic framework that is being singled out in order to function as a cue? Are cues explicitly enacted or but implicitly known as part of the transformational structure of activities? One main analytical interest of my research is to discuss the issues on keying as they have been summarized above, considering that the kāhea practice functions as a means of keying, thereby inducing transformation concerning performance activities and its reception. For one, I delineate the performative impact and the compositional implications of the kāhea practice organizing the orchestrated confrontation between ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a. Secondly, in reference to 8

Ibid., p. 43-44.

9

See Herbert Willems’s discussion of Goffman’s work in: Willem, Herbert (1997), p. 68, 308.

10 See Goffman, Erving (1974), p. 45. 11 Ibid., p. 45. 12 Ibid., p. 45.

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Goffman’s ideas the question is upon which primary framework the kāhea practice actually is modeled upon? One proposition is that the kāhea practice is based on a practice of citing parts of the mele hula, the sequence of oral poetry involved in Kaupō ‘Āina. If so, how does the kāhea practice relate to and at the same time alter the mele hula, the verbal substratum and main performative framework13 of hula performance? Are there other frameworks than the mele hula that the kāhea practice relates to? What kinds of transformation do kāhea initiate in terms of performance activity and its perception? In other words, how does the kāhea practice take an influence on the generation and alteration of performance material? How do kāhea shape what participants perceive and know about “what is going on?” Last not least, I am interested to discuss how the kāhea practice does partake in the production of narrative enactment and a process of what I call at this point of analysis the confluence of performative materiality, the process aesthesis as well as semiosis. Aesthetic experience of hula ‘ōlapa performance involves layers of multi-sensory experience which again trigger associations and feelings that are invoked by specifically arranged means of performance activity. In fact, as I am discussing the kāhea practice as one prominent performance feature of Kaupō ‘Āina, I aim to extol about what I mean by confluence of aisthesis and semiosis. In this endeavor I expand upon Fischer-Lichte’s concept of “perceptual multi-stability.”14 The phenomenon of perceptual multi-stability is according to Fischer-Lichte’s writing based on the perceptional procedure of switching in-between two facets of perceiving.15 Fischer-Lichte distinguishes among two orders of perception involved in this perceptional act of switching. One is based on perceiving “the actor’s body in his bodily-being-in-the-world,” defined as the “order of presence.” The second one, defined as the “order of representation,” is based on perceiving the performer signifying a character or related story telling aspects as this is the case with hula ‘ōlapa performance. She writes that the order of presence generates meaning based on perceiving the phenomenal being of the performer on stage. The mere presence of the performer,

13 See Part II, Analysis I: Staging Oral Poetry by Means of Hula ‘Ōlapa Performance Practice and Analysis III: By Means of Contrast in Performance, 7.4 Performance Segmentation and the Sensory Effect of Varied Combinations of Performance Material. 14 See Fischer-Lichte, Erika, (2008), p. 157. 15 Ibid., p. 148.

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his/her appearance as such, may trigger chains of associations16 as FischerLichte suggests, whereas the order of representation “produces meaning which, in its entirety, constitutes the character.”17 The order of representation relates generally speaking to what is known as semiosis.18 Fischer-Lichte’s endeavor in theater studies has been to develop an understanding that semiosis, the production of meaning and signification, is an integral part of materialization and perception. A principal question of her research has been how the process of semiosis and aisthesis shape qualities of aesthetic experience. Taking these considerations into account, my own interest of research is to query how the heterogeneous set up hula ‘ōlapa performance and related performance strategies tie into aesthetic experience foregrounding the impact of the senses. What happens to the senses, sight, hearing, smell, touch, and feeling? How far does the actual emergence of performance in progress on stage involve the senses? And, by what means does this focus on the sensory aspects of performance materialization relate to the human capacity to envision sense experience? How does the kāhea practice trigger chains of associations to occur in the imagination of participants? How do these chains of associations relate to a diverse range of sense 16 Fischer-Lichte defines associations as follows: “Associations however, occur without being called for or sought out. They simply arise in the consciousness of the perceiving subject. As memories, associations refer to past experiences, lessons or knowledge. They interweave unique subjective experiences with inter-subjectively valid cultural codes. Moreover, the same associations might appear as sudden intuitions, new ideas or thoughts and thus surprise the perceiving subject[…].” See FischerLichte, Erika (2008), p. 143. It is characteristic to associations that they are generated unintentionally. Their sudden emergence may trigger strong sensations and emotions that articulate themselves physically “through shivers, sobs, or, most often, motoric restlessness,” as Fischer-Lichte concedes. 17 Ibid., p. 148. 18 The term semiosis ties into a research area known as semiotics focusing on the capacity of signs to communicate meaning. A sign whether it is a word, a gesture, or an object denotes something else than themselves. Depending on their use on stage signs are combined to signify, e.g. a character, a plot, or a storyline. See “Semiotik”, in: Fischer-Lichte, Erika et al. (eds) (2005): Metzler Lexikon Theatertheorie, p. 298-301. Fischer-Lichte specifies the referential capacity of signs on stage as the representational order. Signs are distinguishable due to their particular materiality. Signs that do not signify anything are called self-reflexive and relate to what Fischer-Lichte defines as the order of presence.

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experience including somatic feelings and physical reactions? I suggest that knowing what is going on, in Goffman’s terms, ties into what I call the performative organization of multi-sensory experience. Fischer-Lichte points out that performances and post-dramatic stage practices since the 60s use strategies that seem to provoke perceptual multi-stability as part of the artistic and aesthetic endeavor. In reference to hula ‘ōlapa performance practice I propose that aspects of oral poetry, including character and story line, are enacted in a segmented, fragmentary and contrasting way using both presentational and referential aspects. Each shift produces a break, a discontinuity as Fischer-Lichte writes. The concept of perceptual multi-stability ties into a discussion concerning aesthetic experience which implies shifting dynamics of transformation. While the previous order of perception is disrupted, a new order is established and vice versa.19 In terms of a cross-cultural comparison the condition of hula ‘ōlapa performance relates in this very matter of fact to postdramatic stage practices of Europeans and American stage artists and directors stressing breaks and discontinuities in character and plot development by focusing the attention on the emergent materiality of performance elements. Consequently, I argue that in hula ‘ōlapa performance perceptual shifts are set into action first of all by means of the divided performance activity between ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a. The division between these two performer groups engenders a basic structure of difference between visual and acoustic faculties interactive on stage all of which instills a basic quality of tension.20 I perceive the activities of both parties as performative agents shaping the order of presence. The interaction between ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a ties further into orchestrated discontinuities and fragmentation shaping next levels of framed performance organization and its experience. In this regard I propose that the kāhea practice of hula ‘ōlapa performance functions as a prominent principle of hula ‘ōlapa performance or19 Fischer-Lichte conceptualizes perceptive multi-stability which specifies a shift of perception that happens between the order of presence and the order of representation. Perceptive multi-stability is conceived to be a transitional moment which “is accompanied by a profound sense of destabilization. The perceiving subject remains suspended between two orders of perception, caught in a state of “betwixt and between.” The perceiving subjects find themselves on the threshold which constitutes the transition from one order to another; they experience a liminal state,” as she writes. See Fischer-Lichte, Erika (2008), p. 148. 20 See Part II, Analysis III: 7. Structure of Difference: Staging the Division between Performance Disciplines – The Dancer-Actor and the Percussionist-Singer.

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ganization cueing for one explicitly the interaction between the ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a, specified earlier as the first and fundamental principle of performance organization of hula ‘ōlapa practice. Furthermore, the kāhea practice plays an important part to engender a performance geared towards multi-sensory and transformative experience relevant to a combined study on interart aesthetics and performance analysis. 8.2 Categorizing Kāhea I differentiate among four types of kāhea: 1) kāhea wehe – the opening dedication, 2) kāhea – the vocal exclamations concerning the next following stanza within a series of stanzas, the paukū of the mele hula, that partake in the performative flow of a hula repertoire piece, 3) “e-ue” – this call indicates the final performance sequence of Kaupō ‘Āina, and 4) kāhea pau – the ending dedication. The distinction among these four types of kāhea21 follows their differentiated use in hula performance practice. Again, I refer to the hula repertoire piece known as Kaupō ‘Āina, used here as the leading example in specifying the kāhea-practice. In reference to Goffman’s concept of the key and Fischer-Lichte’s notion of perceptive multi-stability, I suggest to differentiate among various functions concerning the organizational and transformational capacity of the kāhea practice during hula ‘ōlapa performance. I distinguish among at least three key functions: the interactive key function, the paratextual key function, the multisensory key function. These functions will be delineated as I go along discussing the four distinguished types among the kāhea practice. Last not least the question is how the application of keys, respectively the kāhea practice, induces transformation relevant to performance practice and related procedures of perception? 8.2.1 Kāhea Wehe: The Opening Dedication The first kāhea to occur in performing a hula piece is the so called kāhea wehe, the opening dedication of Kaupō ‘Āina. The performance score 1, see Appendix B, which follows the performance situation, that took place at The World Invitational Hula Festival 2000, shows that the ‘ōlapa performed the kāhea wehe calling out loud “Kaupō, ‘āina pali huki a i luna.” This translates as “Kaupō, the land pulled up high,” see PS 1, line 1. The kāhea wehe’s artistic form of articula21 See Appendix F, which indicates the four kāhea types performed as part of Kaupō ‘Āina.

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tion is based on verbal material being vocalized like a strong acoustic signal. The verbal signal operates comparable to what a key does: It opens up a specific condition towards a new situation. The ‘ōlapa takes on the lead, performing the kāhea wehe addressing both audience and the ho‘opa‘a. The first key function applicable to the kāhea wehe refers to the interactive level of hula ‘ōlapa performance organization. The call is directed towards the ho‘opa‘a telling him/her the ‘ōlapa’s intention which hula composition will be performed, thereby regulating and focusing the activity of both performance parties. The coordination of both parties specified as the interactive key function is explicitly observable to all parties involved, performers and audience alike. The perception of the interactive key function becomes one aspect of aesthetic experience concerning hula ‘ōlapa performance. More so, the next key function of the kāhea wehe is to act like an opening device of a hula piece comparable to the title of a book, known in literature studies as paratext.22 It is of significance that the kāhea practice relates to a paratextually oriented organization of verbal material structuring the progression of hula performance. However, the medial circumstances of literary works differ greatly from poetry orally transmitted via performance practice. The paratextual key function within the setting of hula ‘ōlapa performance means that when listening to the kāhea wehe, each participant being involved gets a first general idea of what the hula piece is about. This paratextual and indexical aspect of the kāhea wehe coincides with the third function, specified as the multi-sensory key function. The latter concept is concerned with a condition that I describe as a crossover or layered condition of semiosis and aisthesis. In other words, the process of meaning production, respectively semiosis, encompasses the perceptual influence of several senses at the same time. Sound, vision, and somatic feeling do collide into one cluster of multi-layered sense experience. To apply the idea of the multi-sensory key function as one analytical concept in performance analysis ties theoretically into a discussion that the experience of hula ‘ōlapa performance involves the confluence of multi-sensory experience and aspects of referentiality as part of aesthetic experience, demarcating a performance aesthetic of the senses. On stage the ‘ōlapa starts the hula repertoire piece calling the kāhea wehe. The verbal phrase of the kāhea wehe is a first hint towards the content of the hu22 Gérard Genette categorizes titles, subtitles, preface, afterword, footnotes, notes, the book cover including all those signals that furnish a text with a certain environment and commentary as paratexts. These signals partake in what he calls the pragmatic dimension of a book, more specifically defined by Philippe Lejeunes as genre contract. See Genette, Gérard (1993): Die Erzählung, 3rd ed., p. 11-12.

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la piece. Performers and audience alike hear about the location of action listening to: “‘Ae, Kaupō, ‘āina pali huki a i luna.”23 The emphatic language of the poetry immediately evokes a dramatic scenery. Geographically Kaupō is known to be a landmark south-east of the island of Maui facing Hawai‘i, the most southern island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Kaupō of south Maui is a narrow headland facing the ocean on one side followed by a steep cliff on the land side. In the case of Kaupō ‘Āina, the poetic line evokes the image of a particular cliff triggering sense experience. The multi-sensory key function of relevance here is at work due to the fact that the capacity of words is used to trigger feelings and the imagination of participants. The effect of the kāhea wehe is to engender in performance a vocal projection of a landscape shaped by multi-sensory impressions. The words of the kāhea wehe trigger ideas and memories about the location whether known or unknown to the perceiver. This implies sense experiences and associations relating to the situation of a cliff and the ocean. The image about this particular condition of landscape evoked by the poetic line is setting the scene, an aspect realized by means of a set design in stage practices of the West such as theatre and opera. Thus, in case of the kāhea wehe an imagined landscape is created. More so, the words “pulled up high” suggest the moment of massive rock being suddenly uplifted. This impression relates to the volcanic origin of the Hawaiian Islands and that particular cliff of Kaupō. The cliff is part of the extinct volcano called Haleakalā. The huge massive mountain sight of Haleakalā determines geographically the entire south area of the island of Maui. The cliffs of Kaupō again are part of Haleakalā.24 They flank the south-west corner of Maui. Listening to the words of the poetry “pulled up high” not only reflects upon a given geographical condition. The poetry engenders an emphatic moment of tremendous immediacy which tends to trigger a somatic feeling as if one’s own body is being pulled up likewise. The poetic line implies a dynamic situation to be heard, to be felt and to be envisioned at once suggesting an imagined scheme of a scenic situation: a steep cliff, suggesting the surge of the ocean,

23 See Appendix B, PS 1, line 1. 24 As part of my field-trip to Hawai‘i in July-August 2010, a research trip granted by the International InterArt Research Study Group, Free University of Berlin, I made a trip to Maui to gain a better understanding of the geographical conditions of Kaupō. My aim was to research how far the poetry of the hula piece Kaupō ‘Āina refers to and reflects upon the geographical conditions of the area. I was indeed surprised to see how close the poetry in fact did reflect upon the actual geographical conditions. Traditional Hula as such functions as a cultural mind map.

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winds blowing, the smell and taste of salt. The story shall begin. Hearing, seeing and feeling overlap and converge in a multi-sensory way based on a condition of shifting inferences engendered between what is actually heard and seen on stage, and what is envisioned by participants using the capacities of imagination which ties into sensory experience including somatic perception. The artistic play with this multi-sensory condition of performance engenders excitement. The surge of excitement is called le‘a in Hawaiian terms and it ties, as I would argue, into a Hawaiian understanding of aesthetic experience. The situation of the cliff is not real. However, I suggest that feelings and sense experience triggered by means of performance have the impact of sensory immediacy. One feels seized by the emotional surge that the words suggests, being pulled up high, no escape. Body and Word: The Juxtaposed Confluence of Presence and Representation Of interest is, to look closer at the combination of the performer’s physical appearance on stage and the vocal phrase being enunciated. In case of the kāhea wehe I see at work a particular combination of both concerning the order of presence and the order of representation. Fully visible to the audience at centre stage, the ‘ōlapa stands motionless in the starting position characteristic to hula ‘ōlapa performance vocalizing the kāhea wehe. No kinesthetic motion, just a voice is heard. Listening to the words only, the perception shifts from seeing the performer’s phenomenal being on stage towards an imagined landscape and the dynamic implications of a land being pulled up high, as the voice of the ‘ōlapa enunciates the words of the kāhea wehe. The order of representation is limited to one line of poetic words. The body posture of the performer does not suggest anything which refers to the images of the poetry. Knees are bent; the torso is upright. The head and the performer’s gaze are turned towards the front. Positioned at chest level the arms are bent at the elbows pointing laterally to the left and right side. The fingertips of both hands point towards each other at chest height. The posture indicates as such that the performer is in the mode of starting to perform a hula piece. The basic body posture engenders a strong moment of corporeal presence. In this case the physical enactment of the ‘ōlapa offers a strong corporeal and visual schema shaping space and time as part of embodiment. The spatial appearance of the body is engendered due to the fact that all parts of the body respond to a determined way of posturing.25 Time is not structured by measures of rhythm. Instead, while posturing a sense of endless duration occurs. 25 See Part II, Analysis II: 6.2 On Gesture and Stylization Section I: The Basic Body Posture.

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The spatial, corporeal and temporal aspects shape the visual Gestalt of the posture as a whole. The visual gestalt of the posture I consider here as a stylized frame of performance organization based on embodiment. In hula ‘ōlapa performance this visual frame of the basic body posture is combined with the frame of sound of the kāhea wehe. The chanted poetic language is being called out loud while the same performer postures without moving. The aesthetic experience of an “intermedial gap” between elements is striking.26. The visual frame of the physical body posture and the frame of sound and language are combined, however, the medial and material givens of the body and the voice are confronted without being subjected to one domain or one single idea of signification, i.e. a character. Both realms, the performance domains of sight and sound, work independently. In other words, they are combined in a juxtaposed way involving aspects of material and medial non-congruency between sight and sound. The body is seen as body in posture while the voice is perceived projecting a poetic line. The highly stylized body posture and visual frame of the physical appearance of the performer posing in stillness works like a powerful origin and plain of projection. The body posture functions aesthetically like a strong foundation similar to a pedestal as I would argue. The materiality of this pedestal is made out of body presence. The juxtaposition of presence both that of the body and that of words is obvious. The weight of the words is tremendous. Yet, the referential capacity of the words being juxtaposed to this 26 Rajewsky describes a situation among intermedial references between media systems by referring to the term “intermedial gap.” In this case the medial difference between media systems cannot be leveled or bridged in any way. Rajewsky writes that the recipient in most cases consciously perceives the medial difference between involved media systems, while i.e. experiencing those art practices which are involving intermedial references. Intermedial references are based on one contact taking and one contact giving media system. The latter is not present at the moment of art reception, only the contact taking system. Filmic writing places, according to Rajewsky, an example of intermedial reference. I adapt the concept of the intermedial gap to so called media combinations. In that case the perception of the intermedial gap is based on at least two distinct media systems which are present as part of the media product, constituting a media combination to follow Rajewsky’s terminology. Hula ‘ōlapa qualifies as a media combination or pluri-medially organized performance practice due to the fact that several distinct artistic forms of articulation, percussion, gesture and poetic language inter-relate as part of the so called media product, meaning the performance. See Rajewsky, Irina O. (2004), p. 70 and my discussion on the topic of intermediality in this work on Methods II: Interart Aesthetics and Performance Analysis.

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body condition allows the imagination of the perceiver to open up and to fly while listening to the emphatically vocalized poetic phrase. The words are in this case a multi-sensory key to an imagined landscape. The multi-sensory key function of the kāhea wehe active here is pointing towards a complex condition of a performance practice involving shifting condition of multi-sensoriality as an integral part of meaning production and aesthetic experience. The capacities concerning the multiple faculties of the senses are combined in a contrastive and multi-layered manner. The sight of the beautifully costumed and adorned performer standing still on stage – the body positioned according to the basic body posture and a characteristic of hula ‘ōlapa performance – is contrasted with the strong and effective verbal statement being vocalized as such. The words trigger memories, sense experiences and associations relating to Kaupō, the situation of a cliff of volcanic origin and the ocean. The imagined realm instilled by the associative capacity of the poetic words is layered on top of the actual visual appearance of the performer’s presence and his particular posture. All this happens at once while calling the kāhea wehe. Due to the fact that the poetic line of the kāhea cites the entire first line of the mele hula’s first stanza, it thereby foreshadows the situation that is about to be set into motion within a couple of beats. The pā rhythmic interlude based on percussion only bridges the performance segment of the kāhea wehe and the next following paukū segment. The acoustic sphere created through the words of the kāhea wehe cross-fade into the sound of percussion. During the time measure of the performance segment called pā interlude, the Kaupō pattern, a fast and dynamic percussive pattern, acoustically picks up and carries forth the envisioned dramatic cliff situation. 8.2.2 The Prototypical Kāhea: The Vocal Indication of the Next Following Stanza A second group of kāhea is performed as part of the main compositional body of the hula piece. This type is called “kāhea” as such, representing the prototype of the respective performance practice evident in the hula piece Kaupō ‘Āina. The kāhea, which literally means a call or calling, are predominantly vocalized by the ‘ōlapa. The kāhea are called to indicate the next stanza, which are consecutively termed as first, second and third “paukū” of the mele hula. Paukū is the Hawaiian term to indicate the division of poetry, the mele hula, into several sections. Performance segments that relate to the paukū of the mele hula are enacted via an intricate interrelationship between the ‘ōlapa’s kinesthetic and gestural art of articulation and the ho‘opa‘a’s verbal elocution of the mele hula’s poetic language and his/her activity as percussionist. The performance activity that occurs

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during the paukū segments is a topic of a second book. It is of interest now that the ‘ōlapa in the process of performing a hula piece calls aloud the initial words of the first verse of the next following paukū. The interactive key function comes into play here due to the fact that the call of the ‘ōlapa directs and coordinates the performance activity as part of the performance process. The call indicates the next following stanza in such a way that performers involved in the performance know the consecutive order of what to perform. The audience is able to follow and enjoy this interactive signal. The ‘ōlapa signals towards the ho‘opa‘a, by means of calling the kāhea, which stanza of the mele hula should be performed next. This involves a creative moment in performance. In response to the performance situation the leading ‘ōlapa may decide to divert from the regular order of stanzas. The series of kāhea to be performed, in the case of Kaupō ‘Āina, are placed between the last two beats of the interlude called “pa” and the following performance inter-sections which are called “holo.”27 The style of verbal elocution of the kāhea, which is based on a straight forward vocal call relates to the kāhea wehe discussed earlier. In terms of style of vocal elocution both the kāhea wehe and the proto-typical kāhea differ clearly from how the poetic lines of the mele hula are vocalized. The segments of the mele hula are chanted by the ho‘opa‘a using a basic scheme of melodic development, a variety of microtonal shifts and their variations.28 Acoustically the kāhea, called out by the ‘ōlapa, stand out as if they seem to float on top of the general acoustic sphere produced by the ho‘opa‘a by means of chant and percussion. The kāhea appears to be a distinct performance unit of its own right. The hula repertoire piece Kaupō ‘Āina is based on a progression of alternating sequences of paukū and the performance segments, called pā rhythmic interlude and holo. These segments frame each paukū section, creating a selfreferential environment, thus demarcating and underpinning the sub-division of the mele hula. Each paukū of the mele hula is repeated again. PS 1, segment 2, line 3 represents the verbal segment which relates to the first kāhea in performance, see Appendix B. The verbal segment of the kāhea indicates the content

27 These segments have been analytically discussed in Part II, Analysis I: 5.2.2 Pā: Performative Means of Framing and Part II, Analysis III: 7.4 Performance Segmentation and the Sensory Effect of Varied Combinations of Performance Material. 28 See Wong, James Ka‘upena, Jr. (1982): The Chanting of Traditional Hawaiian Mele Hula: An Analysis with Emphasis on Glides and Duration and Stress of Vowels. M.A., U of Hawai‘i.

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of the first stanza. This first kāhea, “Kaupō ‘āina,” is called out loud and perceivable to all performers and audience alike. It is placed during the second half of the interlude called pā rhythmic interlude. “Kaupō ‘āina” translates as “Kaupō, the land.” In this case, the kāhea repeats the first two words of the first verse of the first stanza only. This performance strategy using the kāhea to indicate the next stanza relates to what I categorize as the paratextual key function of so called “in-between titles.” They structure a series of performance segments and related poetic situations enacted as the hula piece unfolds on stage. Kāhea demarcate a change scene of a story performed on stage. In the process of performance one is going to hear the first kāhea of “Kaupō ‘āina” twice, indicating the first paukū and consecutively it’s repeated version. The second and third kāhea are enunciated just before performing the respective paukū segment, each being repeated once as well. Line 9 of the PS 1 transcribes the second kāhea. The phrase is “ku‘u wahine” – “my lady love.” Line 15 of the performance protocol indicates the third kāhea. The words of the second and third kāhea coincide. The reason behind this congruency is that both kāhea cite the beginning phrase of the respective paukū. Both paukū start with the same phrase, addressing a beloved person. In this case the phrase indicates the young Hawaiian princess Kamalalawalu, the lost love of Halemano and protagonist of the legend Ka‘ao no Halemano. However, each paukū covers a different situation of their encounter. Both the interactive and the paratextual key function of the kāhea come into play due to the fact that the call functions at once like an abbreviated title and cue keying both the interaction of the performers and the changes relevant to the progression of the story line at the same time. More so, the kāhea takes on a multi-sensory key function. The words of the kāhea work like a sonic and verbal echo at the acoustic level. They function as a brief preview concerning the content of the next stanza. First of all “Kaupō, the land” is called upon. The landscape and location of encounter is stressed. Later on, the emphatic call and repetition of “ku‘u wahine” – “my lady love” on the other hand supports an assumption that relates to an emotional condition of yearning and longing of someone who wishes to come close to a loved one. The aesthetics of the kāhea practice evident in Kaupō ‘Āina ties into the interactive, and paratextual key function as much as the kāhea is used in terms of its multi-sensory function as a dramatic means to expressed the particular emotion of yearning by explicitly calling out for the loved person. This extended dramatic use of the kāhea in Kaupō ‘Āina is exceptional. The kāhea performed during the progression of the hula piece enable to open up, to shift towards and to focus the perception upon new situations of experience. And in case of Kaupō ‘Āina the kāhea express and focus upon a

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particular emotional condition and quality, enacted and further elaborated upon during the following paukū segments. The first proto-typical kāhea coincides with the abbreviated title of the hula composition called Kaupō ‘Āina. My analysis shows that the proto-typical kāhea, which indicate the first paukū, are much shorter than the kāhea wehe, which covers the entire line of the first paukū. The interactive and paratextual function of the kāhea wehe discussed earlier and the proto-typical kāhea differ as such that the kāhea wehe is the introductory key to an entire hula composition. The proto-typical kāhea on the other hand demarcate the beginning of a single stanza and thereby intersect and guide the progression of the hula piece in performance. The proto-typical kāhea function as a decisive key to announce particular segments of the story to be enacted. Like a concise abbreviation and “projection,” literally speaking, each proto-typical kāhea indicates what is going to follow next. The first proto-typical kāhea usually coincides with the abbreviated title of hula repertoire piece. 8.2.3 E-ue: A Call Indicating the Final Performance Sequence of Kaupō ‘Āina As follows I examine the particular call named “e-ue.” The ‘ōlapa vocalizes e-ue to indicate that the final sequence of the hula piece is going to be performed. I refer to this respective final performance segment as the e-ue ending pā sequence.29 This call which introduces the final sequence represents a specific kāhea type. The verbal material of the call does not relate to the mele hula, as it has been the case with the earlier discussed types of kāhea. As I have explained earlier, that both previously analyzed kāhea types reflect the phrasing of the paukū structure of the mele hula, which represents the verbal strand of articulation fundamental to a hula composition. The e-ue call on the other hand is based on a particular constellation of abstract vowels that have no meaning. Their nature is purely onomatopoetic. What does the e-ue call indicate? What impact does the call have on the progression of the performance of the hula piece? Does the function of the e-ue call and the other kāhea types match? The placement or timing of the e-ue call is performed in the same manner as it is the case with the prototypical kāhea type that is at the end of the dividing pā segment termed holo. In case of Kaupō ‘Āina the ‘ōlapa places the e-ue call to-

29 See Part II, Analysis I: 5.2.2 Pā: Performative Means of Framing and Part II, Analysis III: 7.4 Performance Segmentation and the Sensory Effect of Varied Combinations of Performance Material.

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wards the end of the last of two holo sequences that follow after the third paukū has been performed twice, PS 1 line 21 and 22. The interactive key function of the e-ue call is responsible to co-ordinate the divided performance activity of ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a. The call cues a distinct change of performance activity which involves both ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a. Informed by the call both parties know what to do next. Among hula performers and audiences used to hula performances it is common sense that the e-ue sequence is reflecting certain compositional circumstances that finalize the piece, leading the attention towards the enunciation of the kāhea pau, the final resolution of the hula piece. The e-ue call points at an important finalizing segment of a hula piece, highlighting the main performative framework of the composition. In this special case I consider that the paratextual function of the e-ue call refers towards the level of performance materiality as such. This relates to a compositional strategy characteristic of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice which is to treat segments of performance materiality and narrative elements independently. The sensory quality of performance materiality is used to shape the performative and sensory framework of a hula composition. Sensory sequencing based on contrastive ways of combination among performative and referential segments guides the flow of attention as this engenders increase and variation of tension likewise. 8.2.4 Kāhea Pau: The Ending Dedication The ‘ōlapa calls the “kāhea pau” to announce the end of the hula piece. The kāhea pau is vocalized using the same technique of elocution comparable to the kāhea-types discussed earlier. The kāhea pau starts with the phrase “He inoa no” followed by a name which corresponds generally speaking to a person. In case of Kaupō ‘Āina the words of the kāhea pau are: “He inoa no Kamalalawalu.” This phrase means: “In honor of Kamalalawalu,” transcribed in line 24 of PS 1. The name called out as part of this final kāhea refers to Kamalalawalu, the lady-love of Halemano. Halemano is the protagonist who is reminiscing about the time he spent with Kamalalawalu. The narrative development of the mele hula of Kaupō ‘Āina depicts Halemano’s progression of thought.30 What is the implication of the kāhea pau vocalized in hula performance practice? Kāhea pau function as a verbal cue of importance in terms of performance organization and composition of a hula piece. The kāhea pau indicates in paratextual terms the closure of the piece. At the same time it summarizes the leading theme of the mele hula pointing at the main character of interest. Who in

30 See Part II, Analysis I: 5.1.3 Ka‘ao no Halemano – Source Material of Kaupō ‘Āina.

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fact is the woman whom Halemano is reminiscing about throughout the mele hula? The kāhea pau functions as a final resolution. The resonant words of the kāhea pau linger for a couple of minutes in the air focusing the imagination on one final idea and image. It is an issue of suspense to call Kamalalawalu’s name at the end. The entire attention of everyone is focused to hear the name of this leading character of the piece. It is Kamalalawalu, indeed! The name called upon becomes a crucial key to identify the character of interest. And, it is a means to suggest personality in a highly concentrated fashion. To call the person’s name means to celebrate the character at the final and climactic moment of a hula composition. To hear the name “Kamalalawalu” adds a final color or tone to the hula presentation of Kaupō ‘Āina. Comparable to a key which brings a situation to a closure the kāhea pau enables to focus the dramatic development and the reservoir of memory on one particular personality and condensed situations of encounter poetically elaborated upon. Hula compositions may refer to historical personalities. Or, as this is the case with Kaupō ‘Āina, the kāhea pau refers to a larger epic framework. The main characters of interest are fictional. Kamalalawalu is the main counterpart to Halemano. She plays a lead role in the Hawaiian legend Ka‘ao no Halemano. 8.3 Cues and the Transformative Power of Keying Performance Activity The discussion of the four kāhea-types shows that the power of the different kāhea to cue changes of performance activity and to shape the flow of imagination and multi-sensory experience places a prime issue of analysis. Following notions of Goffman’s frame-analytical theory, I categorize kāhea as cues, which are understood as “signs or signals that presumably are available to mark the beginning and ending of an activity’s transformation.”31 This capacity of kāhea to function as cues ties into what Goffman termed keying, that is the capacity to trigger frame change among performance segments. The four categories of kāhea discussed above are explicitly performed as part of a hula piece directing the flow of performance activity and its perception. For one, the kāhea system reflects the division between the ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a by means of emphasizing this primary structure of difference.32 The kāhea called out as part of the consecutive sequence of paukū are as such abbreviated verbal

31 See Goffman, Erving (1974), p. 45. 32 See Part II, Analysis III: By Means of Contrast in Performance.

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keys, to follow Goffman’s terminology, cueing the interactivity of both parties. This capacity of kāhea I specified as the interactive key function. The interactive key function of the kāhea ties into matters of coordination, necessary in any kind of staged performance activity. From a cross-cultural comparative perspective the kāhea take on what a conductor in opera does, to coordinate several interacting parties on stage and to direct the flow of performance. Matters of coordination relate to minute decisions what is going to happen next on stage. The kāhea take on this function of coordination which concerns both the interrelationship of several involved parties and the order of what and how it is going to happen. In case of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice the use of the kāhea demarcates a distinct call-and-response practice that is based on oral performance transmission. The call-and-response practice represents among oral performance traditions such as hula ‘ōlapa a crucial performance strategy to organize both the sequential order of performance activity and the interaction of several performer groups. The kāhea organize joint activity thereby working as a means of orientation as much as they induce change among known options of performance activity. They are as such an explicit and integral part of hula ‘ōlapa performance aesthetics. Kāhea are devices of frame change according to Goffman’s notion of keying. The capacity of the kāhea to indicate and change the sequential order of paukū involved in a hula piece ties into the paratextual function of the prototypical kāhea. Like sub-titles the kāhea demarcate the division of the story material, focusing on particular situations and emotional circumstances that are enacted as part of the paukū segments. This matter of fact refers to the paratextual key function which determines the placement and sequence of the paukū, the predominantly narrative segments of a hula piece in performance. On the other hand, the compositional set up of a hula piece – its beginning and end – is largely determined by the kāhea wehe and the kāhea pau. These two verbal performance segments function as a verbal frame which engenders a generic “border” of a hula piece as part of performance. As such I consider these two types of kāhea as an important framing device, working together as a verbal means and thereby shaping the compositional set up of the hula piece Kaupō ‘Āina. They determine the way how the piece begins and how it comes to a closure. Taking the interdependence of these two kāhea into account, they complement each other as keys directing performance activity and the flow of attention. The kāhea wehe opens up towards a particular narrative situation while the kāhea pau works like a final resolution of the piece. As such material and medial specifics concerning the application of these two kāhea in tandem encompass paratextual considerations. In the very process of performance, the kāhea wehe and kāhea pau perceived in

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tandem give contour to the hula piece as a whole when considering the fleeting and emergent materiality, a fundamental condition of performance in general, specified by Fischer-Lichte in her approach on a new aesthetics of performance. In reference to Goffman’s understanding that keying is based on altered patterns linked to a primary framework, the analysis of the four kāhea types shows that the kāhea wehe and the prototypical kāhea are based on the verbal material and the segmented structure of the mele hula. The mele hula functions as the primary framework and source of reference of the mentioned two types of kāhea. This indicates a practice of citation. Like in case of citation the selected verbal material is not being altered. Yet, of interest is that the kāhea not only cite a segment of mele hula, they turn into cues crucial to the performative progression of hula. Fact is that a particular segment of the mele hula is singled out in order to be performed prior to the next following main segment of the mele hula. The effect of this selective repetition of verbal material highlights, in the case of the kāhea practice, segments of the mele hula on a separate level. The result of this separation yet linked aspect of the kāhea leads towards its distinct performative appearance and its change inducting effect. The kāhea as a distinct verbal cue is perceivable as a structuring element indicating frame change both at the performance structural and narrative level. The performance of the decisive vocal quality and musicality of the kāhea adds to the aesthetic impact of this striking performative means. At the same time the kāhea act like a brief key note. All of this, ties into the function of kāhea to work as frame change inducing signals. They have their own aesthetic value within the performative fabric of a hula piece as much as they communicate key information about the storyline at the same time. The switch induced by kāhea happens between the pā rhythmic interlude, the holo segments and the paukū segments. The kāhea pau represents a much more complex case. The verbal material of the kāhea pau does not directly cite parts of the mele hula. Instead, the kāhea pau draws on a particular verbal phrase of its own right announcing the name and personality that the mele hula of the hula piece is focusing on. As a final dedication it works on a meta-level summarizing what has been poetically elaborated upon as part of the hula piece. It thereby functions as an inter-textual key referring to the specific content of the mele hula and the context of collectively shared knowledge of epic sagas or particular historical circumstances. In case of Kaupō ‘Āina the kāhea pau operates as a referential key pointing towards the legend of Halemano, known as Ka‘ao no Halemano. In the case of the kāhea pau, the legend functions as the meta-textual framework of reference in linguistic terms. This meta-textual framework is not present in material form during performance. It works like a referential backdrop of meta-textual significance.

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The e-ue kāhea on the other hand initiates the final self-referential sequence of a hula piece foretelling the kāhea pau at the compositional level. The e-ue kāhea relates neither to the mele hula as the primary framework, nor does it refer to the meta-textual level of the legend Ka‘ao no Halemano. The e-ue call uses verbal material to indicate the self-referential, abstract stratum of hula ‘ōlapa performance activity. This strand of performance activity relates to the performance materiality of sound, movement and percussion. The onomatopoetically phrase uses and points at the materiality of language as such. Accordingly, the eue call reflects upon and highlights by using self-referential verbal means the main performative framework of the composition, which features by enlarge the performative, self-referential and stylized-abstract strand of hula performance. It thereby paraphrases the performative aspects of hula ‘ōlapa composition. Goffman pointed out that keying by applying cues implies a transformation of activity by means of alteration. So far I discussed transformational aspects concerning the relationship between keying and primary frameworks. The practice of kāhea makes use of a range of referential strategies. The relationship towards a primary framework and forms of alteration vary. The kāhea wehe and the use of the prototypical kāhea, the latter punctuating the flow of a hula piece, imply a strategy of citation. These cues have a direct material link to the mele hula referred to as the primary framework. The alteration occurs due to the fact that one line, as in the case of the kāhea wehe, or two words, in case of the prototypical kāhea, is singled out. They function as cues being performed separately and prior to the section they trigger. The kāhea pau and the e-ue call work differently as cues. The kāhea pau, as discussed in detail earlier, is applied at the end of a hula piece in order to summarize and to point at the lead character of the story as much as it engenders a references on the meta level, connecting to collectively shared pools of knowledge tied to the legend of Ka’ao no Halemano. The e-ue call on the other hand is based on a paraphrasing strategy using the verbal material of a phrase of vowels without meaning. It indicates and highlights the self-referential segment and strand of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. All four kāhea induce change. In the case of the kāhea wehe the cue indicates the beginning; in case of the kāhea pau it signals the closure of a hula piece.

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8.4 Multi-Sensory Experience and the Evocative Capacity of Poetry I conclude discussing those aspects that relate to what I have called the multisensory key function of the kāhea. My aim is to further fine tune the concept of transformation, one central topic of interart studies, applying it to my analysis of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The use of kāhea enables instant alteration between performance segments that relate to the paukū of the mele hula – the predominantly referential aspect of hula performance – and those performance segments called pā rhythmic interlude, holo and e-ue ending pā segments that are primarily of abstract and self-referential nature. This transformational power of the kāhea in hula performance ties into performing a contrastive and alternating setting between referential/narrative parts and abstract and self-referential sections. Each kāhea transforms thereby the performance activity and its perception in different ways. When working at the paratextual and indexical level, the kāhea wehe points towards the content of the entire hula piece, Kaupō ‘Āina. It works like an eye opener towards a world seen and experienced as an imagined landscape: Kaupō, ‘āina pali huki a i luna – Kaupō, the land is pulled up high. The keying procedure and transformation from everyday like behavior and perception towards a theatrically produced elevated state of engrossment is keyed by means of words being enunciated as part of the particular hula ‘ōlapa performance set up, the divided interaction between ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a. Hula works almost like a film, thus the projection of the landscape is conjured up in the realm of the imagination of participants while perceiving the actual performance activities on stage. To be involved in hula means to be engrossed into a dreamlike condition while being fully awake. As the hula performance goes on, the kāhea calls punctuate the flow of activity, keying new imaginative settings and situations. Using the material of poetic language and sound, three kāhea types, i.e. the kāhea wehe, the prototype of kāhea, and the kāhea pau, build upon the evocative power of language being able to trigger and to direct the imagination in a certain way. On top of that, the strong resonating verbal sound of these kāhea is combined in a contrastive way with abstract, self-referential performance segments of the hula piece. The e-ue call initiates the final self-referential sequence of a hula piece, foretelling the kāhea pau. The e-ue call leads towards the final resolution of the piece, i.e. the name of the main character. The shifting constellation among those performance segments that relate to the order of presence, i.e. the main performative framework of Kaupō ‘Āina, and the paukū segments which relate to the order of representation engenders a quali-

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ty of contrast which again triggers a condition of perceptual multi-stability. This condition is further supported by the multi-sensory capacity of the various kāhea types which trigger and direct the interaction between the ‘ōlapa and ho‘opa‘a as well as the flow of the perceivers imagination at the same time. In case of the eue call, I state that aisthesis and semiosis collapse into one single process. The kāhea type e-ue epitomizes this condition due to the fact that the call involves onomatopoeic material only thereby paraphrasing the performative-abstract substratum of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. All of this shapes the quality of aesthetic experience engendered by hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The application of the kāhea in the very process of performance creates moments of change and transformation. Like independent verbal units kāhea are layered on top of the performance activity of body motion and percussion. As such the kāhea intersect and direct the flow of performance activity. The performance of the kāhea implies for a moment a disruption due to the independent appearance and use of the kāhea. The change inducing quality of the kāhea works like an organized fracture. The quality of this fracture appears like a pointed transition. Its impact is of a strong immediacy. This creates for a moment conditions of instability and tension. Keying used as a strategy in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice thereby involves shifting realities crucial to procedures of transformation. Part of this transformational power of kāhea is the capacity to induce frame change and to operate as a means of focus which implies to induce rapid shifts of attention towards new narrative situations; keying – a moment of intensified multi-sensory experience induced by a call.

Conclusion

9. H ULA ‘Ō LAPA – A P ERFORMANCE AESTHETIC S ENSES . R ESULTS OF ANALYSIS AND F INAL R EFLECTIONS

OF THE

An extensive part of my dissertation is dedicated to the task, to develop methodological tools for the scientific analysis of the traditional Hawaiian hula, the hula ‘ōlapa. My performance analytical study on hula ‘ōlapa performance practice is based on practice as research taking embodied knowledge as the key method of inquiry to study stylized performance practices. The approach of practice as research, as defined in my work, is based on the theoretical discourse of the master-disciple method and extra-daily technique discussed in relation to the concept of embodiment, the impact of the senses as part of embodiment and the intercultural oriented approach of “studies of the particular.” I devise my own approach of notation based on parameters which reflect embodied knowledge of hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. The performance score PS 1, which I outline as part of my research, features main structural elements of a hula ‘ōlapa composition as a whole. Performative means of framing, stylization and multi-sensory experience demarcate crucial performance analytical concepts applied to my microanalytically oriented case study of Kaupō ‘Āina, one hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece and the lead subject of my work. The outlined methodological framework of my performance analytical approach synthesizes several methods and concepts drawn from a wide range of academic disciplines: practice as research, perspectives drawn from interart and media studies, the notion of intersensoriality, the diagrammatic model of the six co-related performance elements, the concept of performance materiality, frame- and interaction theoretical notions among others. Performative means of framing and stylization relate to principles of per-

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formance organization evident in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. I develop the notion of multi-sensory experience as part of my analysis of performative means of framing and of stylized embodiment. The analytical endeavor of mine takes performative, sensory and qualitative as well as referential aspects and their convergent performance aesthetic effects into account. Multi-sensory experience reflects methodologically upon the artistic claim that hula ‘ōlapa performance practice epitomizes a performance aesthetic of the senses. Among performative means of framing I differentiate between three types of performance organization evident in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice: 1. Pā segments designate performance segments that structure and shape the main performative framework of the analyzed hula ‘ōlapa composition as a whole. The pā segments frame the mele hula, the piece of poetry involved in Kaupō ‘Āina. I distinguish between three categories of pā segments: a) the pā rhythmic interlude connects the opening dedication and the first stanza of the mele hula; b) the dividing pā segments dissect the mele hula into a series of stanzas; c) the ending pā segment finalizes a hula repertoire piece. Each category of the pā segments is based on a distinct combination of stylizedabstract body articulation, percussion and a verbal element. In connection with the analysis of the pā segments and their particular combinations of body motion, word, and percussive sound, I discuss creative strategies of adaption of performance material and their historical implications. Creativity is based on subtle variations of performance elements and their combinations which aesthetically reflect upon performance structural and sensory facets of older streams of hula performance traditions as part of new compositions. Accordingly I argue that hula ‘ōlapa performance represents a living performance tradition on Hawai‘i. I furthermore introduce the concept of sensory sequencing into the analytical discernment of the pā segments. Sensory sequencing takes the sensory quality of combined performance materialities into account. Each pā segment is based on a specific combination of performance material. Each combination engenders a specific sensory ratio based on varying degrees of contrast between performance materialities. Sensory sequencing of involved pā segments produces shifting intensities of multi-sensory experience both at the performative as well as referential level of performance experience, a means to direct attention.

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2. The second type of performative means of framing relates to the division between performance disciplines, the dancer-actor and the percussionist-singer. This fundamental performative structure of difference and antagonistic measure engenders a heightened condition of tension and circulation of energy at the performative level. 3. The third type of performative means of framing in my work ties into the frame-analytical concept of keying applied by the practice of calls, termed kāhea. I differentiate between four types of calls that accentuate and direct the flow of performance activity. I differentiate between three categories of keying. a) The interactive key function of the kāhea triggers the call-andresponse system between the division of disciplines of the dancer-actor and the percussionist-singers. b) The paratextual key function of kāhea determines a measure of transposition and frame change between the main performative framework, the narrative segments of a hula ‘ōlapa composition and the meta-referential framework of epic sagas. c) The multi-sensory key function of the kāhea shapes the confluence of sensory and referential aspects of aesthetic experience. Besides performative means of framing I conceptualize stylization both as an artistic strategy and an analytical tool to query means of embodiment applied in hula ‘ōlapa performance practice. In my work stylization defines a principle of performance organization that is based on repetition of characteristically marked deviation of body articulation for aesthetic purpose. I differentiate between body posture, stylized-abstract and stylized-alluding gestures. Gestalt-perception demarcates a leading perspective in my performance analytical approach on stylized means of embodiment. Concerning the appearance of stylized-abstract gestures I differentiate methodologically between three levels of gestalt-perception: a) the dimension of performance materiality; b) the performance-syntactical mode of stylization; c) the qualitative dimension of multi-sensory Gestaltperception. Gestalt-perception of stylized-alluding gestures on the other hand integrates the three basic dimensions of Gestalt-perception of stylized-abstract gestures as delineated above and additionally includes two levels of referentiality. The analysis of the makani-gesture exemplifies that the particular stylized form of the discussed gesture triggers a multifaceted metaphoric interplay between the performative level and the two referential levels. The multi-sensory experience of the natural phenomenon of wind is combined with a highly abstract perceptive concept of human encounter. Unique about the performance aesthetic effect of stylized-alluding gestures is that it is based on a dynamic concept of metaphori-

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city, known as kaona in Hawaiian terms. The effect of kaona comes into play due to the aesthetic confluence of performative, multi-sensory and referential aspects. Last not least, hula ‘ōlapa performance practice intensifies the effect of kaona by combining stylized-alluding gestures and chanted oral poetry. I discuss one example analyzing the specified performance aesthetic relationship of stylized-alluding gestures and poetry taking into account the first verse of the 2nd stanza of Kaupō ‘Āina. A consecutive study based on the results of my work would imply a comprehensive performance analytical study which focuses on the multi-faceted metaphoric interplay engendered between stylized-alluding gestures and the oral poetry of entire hula ‘ōlapa repertoire pieces, such as Kaupo ‘Āina. Of interest is, in which multi-sensory ways relate gestures and the poetry to the area of Maui known as Kaupō transmitting core information as a measure of oral history? More so, research into the confluence of performative and referential levels of performance, the multifaceted metaphoric interplay as addressed above, leads into a discussion of sudden insight, one aspect of multi-sensory experience. Of interest is how hula practice triggers sudden insight as a means of knowing which happens as part of sensory enlightenment, a level of aesthetic experience which hula ‘ōlapa performers describe as aesthetic delight, spiritual engrossment, bliss or an intense feeling of joy. The case study of Kaupō ‘Āina of mine represents an exemplification of a systematic performance analytical research approach on hula ‘ōlapa practice and its aesthetic. I thereby set the methodological framework for future performance analytical studies on hula performance traditions and repertoire. The methodological framework of my analysis offers a new perspective to research how stylized and framed means of performance practices partake in the formation of theatre, dance and oral traditions from the Pacific, Asia and other parts of the world. Likewise, the independent and equal combination of performative segments of abstract, self-referential and formal nature on one hand and narrative segments on the other hand draws the attention to elements of framing as a performance analytical topic of relevance. I observe that the aesthetic effect of framing is of increasing interest in current European developments among the arts and in the field of Performance and InterArt Studies. Therefore, my research contributes significantly to this development. An analysis of the traditional hula ‘ōlapa, as outlined in this book, is possible only if the researcher conducts practice as research based on a long term learning process of the tradition. The strict surveillance of performance structural features, concerning the performative, musical and narrative elements, ensures the

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transmission of oral culture from one generation to the next and guarantees its historical continuity. In order to conduct research which seeks to perceive the complexity of hula ‘ōlapa and similar forms of oral tradition from other regions of the world it is necessary to implement such study opportunities as part of Theater Studies programs at university level. An example is the Theater Studies Program at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa which focuses traditions from China, Japan and South East Asia. The curriculum includes practice based on extensive training periods and public performances. Similar scientific efforts should be realized at the universities of Germany and else were.

Appendices

A PPENDICES

Appendix A: Case Study Photos 1-8. Photo 1: Waikīkī Schell, Honolulu, O‘ahu

Photo: Monika Lilleike, The World Invitational Hula Festival, 11/ 2000, O‘ahu

Photo 2: pā hula, hula mound at Kilauea National Park

Photo 3: pā hula, hula mound at Moanalua Gardens

Photo: Monika Lilleike, Hawai‘i

Photo: Monika Lilleike, Honolulu,

Big Island, 08/ 2011

O‘ahu, 07/ 2011

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Photo 4: Monika Lilleike, Hula ‘Ōlapa Soloist

Photo 5: Ipu Heke, Double Gourd Percussion Instrument

Photo 4: M. McKea, The World Invitational Hula Festival, O‘ahu Photo 5: Akiko Specht, Hula im Park 2016, Berlin/Germany

Photo 6: Kumu Hula and Ho‘opa‘a Monika Lilleike

Photo 6: Akiko Specht, Hula im Park 2016, Berlin/Germany

A PPENDICES

Appendix A: Photo 7 and 8: The ‘Ōlapa and Ho‘opa‘a Interaction

Photo 7 and 8: Akiko Specht, Hālau Hula Makahikina, Hula im Park 2016, Berlin/ Germany

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Appendix A: A-2, Basic Body Posture, ‘Ai Ha‘a

A PPENDICES

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Appendix B: PS 1, Performance Score 1: Kaupō ‘Āina, 3:18 min A

B

C

D

E

Segments

Lines

Division between Disciplines

Cues, Keys, Signals

Elements of Performance Materiality: Percussion, Sound, Words

ho‘opa‘a

perc. sig.

te te U

ho‘opa‘a

kāhea wehe

Kaupō, ‘āina pali huki a i luna

‘ōlapa

kāhea

a

1

1

‘Ae, Kaupō, ‘āina pali huki a i luna wehe / pane

2

2

ho‘opa‘a

3

‘ōlapa

3

4

pā *

ho‘opa‘a/

6

‘ōlapa

duction

Kaupō ‘āina

1st kāhea 1st paukū

5

Intro-

U te U te U te te / U te U te U te te

Kaupō, ‘āina pali huki a i luna, Huki a‘e la e like me Kahikinui. He nui no wau nau e ke aloha! Ku‘u hoa mai ka malu o ka la‘au.

7 4

8

ho‘opa‘a

holo

9

‘ōlapa

2nd kāhea

5

10

2nd paukū

U te U te U te te / U te U te U te te Ku’u wahine Ku‘u wahine mai ka makani he Kaumuku,

11 12

ho‘opa‘a/

Hakihaki nu‘anu‘a mai ka moana,

‘ōlapa

Ke uhi a‘ela i nā ale o Papawai.

7

14

ho‘opa‘a

holo

15

‘ōlapa

3nd kāhea

16

3rd paukū

U te U te U te te / U te U te U te te Ku’u wahine Ku‘u wahine o ka hale makamaka’ole.

17

ho‘opa‘a/

Ho‘okahi makamaka o ko aloha.

18

‘ōlapa

Lou, a nānahu i loko o ka iwihilo, E ke aloha, ho mai he leo e!

19 8

20

Part

Na ka wa’a kāua i halihali mai.

13 6

Main

ho‘opa‘a/

holo

U te U te U te te / U te U te U te te

holo

U te U te U te te / U te U te U te te e-ue

‘ōlapa

21

ho‘opa‘a/ ‘ōlapa

22

‘ōlapa

e-ue

9

23

ho‘opa‘a/

pā **

10

24

‘ōlapa

kāhea pau

He inoa no Kamalalawalu

11

25

ho‘opa‘a

perc. sig.

te te U

Final Section

U

U

U

U

‘ōlapa

U te te

306 | HAWAIIAN H ULA ‘ŌLAPA

Appendix B: PS 1, Performance Score 1: Kaupō ‘Āina, (3:18 min) Additional notes: Performance Score 1 covers main performance features of Kaupō ‘Āina, the hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece taught by kumu hula John Keola Lake. The hula ‘ōlapa repertoire piece in question was performed by Monika Lilleike at The World Invitational Hula Festival, Waikīkī Shell, O‘ahu/Hawai‘i, November 10th, 2000. The score covers main structural aspects of the performance activity of Kaupō ‘Āina done for public stage presentation at The World Invitational Hula Festival 2000. Specifications: The score is subdivided into eleven segments, listed in the column specified as A Segments. The performance score includes segment a. This particular segment refers to the opening percussive signal and opening dedication, called kāhea wehe, called out by the ho‘opa‘a during training sessions. The ‘ōlapa responds to this initial call done by the ho‘opa‘a. The ‘ōlapa’s activity is called to “pane.” Pane means “to answer” in Hawaiian terms. The ‘ōlapa’s response includes: “‘ae,” which means “yes” followed by the line of the kāhea wehe. Segment a has been omitted at the festival. Instead the ‘ōlapa performed the pane of the kāhea wehe right away in order to start the performance of Kaupō ‘Āina. Pā*: Segment 2, line 2, indicates a cue termed as pā. This implicit cue relates analytically speaking to the pā rhythmic interlude. See chapter 5 of my work. Pā**: Segment 9, line 23 indicates a second cue termed as pā. This pā segment I categorize as the e-ue ending pā segment. See chapter 5 of my work. In performance each paukū is repeated once which includes the performance of a regular holo sequence in between the paukū. The respective kāhea indicates that the previous paukū is performed once again. The repetition of paukū and holo is not specified as part of the score’s outline. Grey color indicates the main performative framework of Kaupō ‘Āina.

A PPENDICES

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Appendix C: PS 2, Performance Score 2: Kaupō ‘Āina A/

B/

C/

Segment,

Division

Performance Elements:

Lines,

Percussion – Words – Gestures

Cues

Segment

U te te

a ** percussive signal

Kaupō, ‘āina pali huki a i luna ho‘opa‘a

kāhea wehe Segment 1

‘Ae, Kaupō,‘āina pali huki a i luna

line 1

kāhea wehe (pane)

Kaupō, land pulled up high ‘ōlapa

opening dedication

Segment 2 line 2 Pārhythmic

ho‘opa‘a

interlude

U te U te U te te

U te U te U te te

***

Percussion: Kaupō pattern Segment 2 line 3

‘ōlapa

Kaupō ‘āina

1st kāhea

Notes * The score reads from top down and left to right. ** Segment a: The opening percussive signal and the kāhea wehe called by the ho‘opa‘a are performed during training session only. *** The Kaupō pattern, introduced as part of the pā-rhythmic interlude, runs through the paukū and holo segments

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Appendix C: PS 2, Performance Score 2: Kaupō ‘Āina, 1st paukū, 1st verse A/

B/

C/

Segment,

Division

Performance Elements:

Lines,

Percussion – Words – Gestures

Cues

G1

Segment 3 line 4

1st paukū 1st verse

‘ōlapa

F: ‘uwehe. R-L

ho‘opa‘a

Kaupō,

‘āina pali

Kaupō

the land

Percussion: Kaupō pattern

G2

‘ōlapa

F: ‘uwehe. R huki a i ho‘opa‘a

F: ‘uwehe. R-L luna

where one is

pulled up,

Percussion: Kaupō pattern

Notes Documentation of Gestures: extra small photos and graphic indications are added to show details concerning the direction and the pathway of a gesture phrase. Gestures: Capital G and a number indicate each of the gesture phrases that follow in succession. Capital F indicates gestures of the feet. The term of the basic motion pattern of the lower body segment is added. R or L indicates right and left foot motion. Example: G 1, gesture 1. A series of four photos depict the pathway of G 1. G1 of paukū 1 covers two beats and is combined with two ‘uwehe, a basic motion pattern of the feet.

A PPENDICES

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Appendix C: PS 2, Performance Score 2: Kaupō ‘Āina, 1st paukū, 2nd verse A/

B/

C/

Segment,

Division

Performance Elements:

Lines,

Percussion – Words – Gestures

Cues

Segment 3

G3

G4

F: 2 x ku’i R

F: 2 x ku’i L

Huki a’e

la e like

Pulled up

like

line 5

1st paukū

‘ōlapa

2nd verse

ho‘opa‘a

Percussion: Kaupō pattern

G5

‘ōlapa

ho‘opa‘a

F: ‘uwehe. R

F: ‘uwehe.L

me

Kahikinui.

unto

Kahikinui.

Percussion: Kaupō pattern

Notes: Gestures: Paukū 1, verse 1 involves two gesture phrases, G1 and G2. Verse 2 covers three gesture phrases, G3, G4 and G5. Timing: Underscored syllables of the mele hula (poetry) indicate the correlation between the main beat/pulse and the chanted verbal material. Each verse of the paukū is based on the completion of one Kaupō pattern. Each Kaupō pattern covers four beats. The beats correlate in the first place with the gestures of the lower body segment.

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Appendix C: PS 2, Performance Score 2: Kaupō ‘Āina, 1st paukū, 3rd and 4th verse A/

B/

C/

Segment,

Division

Performance Elements:

Lines,

Percussion – Words – Gestures

Cues

G6

Segment 3 line 6

1st paukū 3nd verse

‘ōlapa

F: hela R

ho‘opa‘a

F: hela L

He nui no wau nau

e ke aloha!

I was once thought

a good deal, O my love!

Percussion: Kaupō pattern

G7

Segment 3

G8

line 7

1st paukū

‘ōlapa

4th verse

F: hela R

ho‘opa‘a

F: hela L

Ku’u hoa mai ka malu

o ka la’au.

My companion

of the shady tree.

Percussion: Kaupō pattern

Notes: PS 2, Performance Score 2 exemplifies selected performance segments of Kaupō ‘Āina.

1st verse

2nd paukū

line 10

Segment 5

ho‘opa‘a

‘ōlapa

Division

Segment,

Lines, Cues

B/

A/

F: lele R

Ku’u wahine my love

G9 G9

Percussion – Words – Gestures

Performance Elements:

C/

mai ka makani towards me comes the wind

F: lele R

Percussion: Kaupō pattern

F: lele L

G10: makani gesture

he Kaumuku of Kaumuku

F: lele L

G11

A PPENDICES

| 311

Appendix C: PS 2, Performance Score 2: Kaupō ‘Āina, 2nd paukū, 1st verse

perc. signal

line 25

segment 11

kāhea pau

line 24

Segment 10

segment

ending pā

e-ue

line 23

Segment 9

ho‘opa‘a

‘ōlapa

ho‘opa‘a

‘ōlapa

Division

Segment,

Lines, Cues

B/

A/

U

G13 G9

te te U

He inoa no Kamalalawalu

U

G12

Percussion – Words – Gestures

Performance Elements:

C/

U

G14

U

G15

U te te

G16

312 | HAWAIIAN H ULA ‘ŌLAPA

Appendix C: PS 2, Performance Score 2: Kaupō ‘Āina, e-ue ending pā segment

A PPENDICES

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Appendix D: Outline: Division between Performance Disciplines – Cross-modal Correspondences between Performance Elements

Photo: M. McKea, The World Invitational Hula Festival (2000), Monika Lilleike (left side), Kumu Hula John Keola Lake (right side)

314 | HAWAIIAN H ULA ‘ŌLAPA

Appendix D: D-2, Revision: Division between Performance Disciplines – Crossmodal Correspondences between Performance Elements

Photo: M. McKea, The World Invitational Hula Festival (2000), Monika Lilleike (left side), Kumu Hula John Keola Lake (right side)

A PPENDICES

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Appendix E: Gestalt-Model 1 and 2 Fig 1: On Stylized-Abstract Gestures, Gestalt-Model 1

Dimension A: Dimension B: Dimension C:

Material components of gestural articulation: special, temporal, corporeal aspects involved in generating a gesture-phrase. Syntactical dimension – operative mode: 2nd principle of stylization evident in shaping stylized-abstract gestures. Convergent qualitative dimension, the dynamic and visual appearance of a stylized-abstract gesture as a whole.

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Appendix E: Gestalt-Model 1 and 2 Fig. 2: On Stylized-Alluding Gestures, Gestalt-Model 2

Dimension A:

Material components of gestural articulation: special, temporal, corporeal aspects involved in generating a gesture-phrase. Dimension B: Syntactical dimension – operative mode: 2nd principle of stylization evident in shaping stylized-abstract gestures. Dimension C1: performative level and the convergent qualitative dimension of gestural articulation, the dynamic and visual appearance/Gestalt of a stylized-alluding gesture as a whole. 1st multi-sensory level of experience. Dimension C2: 1st referential level: surface meaning. This dimension of stylized-alluding gestures ties into the 2nd multi-sensory level of experience referred to by means of gestural forms of representation. Dimension C3: 2nd referential level: inferred or inferred or “hidden” meaning. This dimension of stylized-alluding gestures is based on the dynamic structure of experience which shapes the 3rd level of multi-sensory experience.

A PPENDICES

Appendix F: Categories of Kāhea in Relation to PS 1

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G LOSSARY

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G LOSSARY Hawaiian Terminology

Translation used in my work

Hawaiian Dictionary (HD)

ho‘opa‘a

percussionist-singer

pa‘a. 1. nvs. […] ho‘opa‘a. To make fast, firm, hard, tight, solid; to bind, attach[…]; to learn, to memorize, master, study, complete, fix; […] drummer and hula chanter (the memorizer);[…].” See HD, p. 296.

hula

Hawaiian performing art tradition

1. nvt. The hula, a hula dancer; to dance the hula[…]. 2. nvt. Song or chant used for hula; to sing or chant for hula. See HD, p. 88.

kāhea

call; principle structural feature of hula composition and performance practice

nvt. To call, cry out, invoke, greet, name; recital of the first lines of a stanza by the dancer as a cue to the chanter; to recite the kāhea; […]. See HD, p. 111.

kahiko

ancient

1. nvs. Old, ancient, antique, primitive, long ago, beforehand;[…]. Wā kahiko, old times. See HD, p. 112.

kaona

aesthetic principle of concealed reference

n. 1. Hidden meaning, as in Hawaiian poetry; concealed reference, as to a person, thing, or place;[…]. See HD, p. 130.

kumu

foundation, master teacher

n. 1. Bottom, base, foundation, basis, title (as to land), main stalk of a tree, trunk, […]. 2. Teacher, tutor, manual, primer, model, pattern[...]. See HD, p. 182.

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kumu hula

master teacher of hu- Kumu hula, hula teacher[…]. See la HD, p. 182. Kumu hula, hula master or teacher. See the entry on hula, HD, p. 88.

le‘a

aesthetic delight, thrill

1. nvs. Joy, pleasure, happiness, merriment; sexual gratification, orgasm; pleasing, gay, delightful, happy, merry, delighted, pleased. See HD, p. 198.

lua

martial arts

6. n. A type of dangerous hand-tohand fighting in which the fighters broke bones, dislocated bones at the joints, and inflicted severe pain by pressing on nerve centers. There was much leaping, and (rarely) quick turns of spears. Many of the techniques were secret. See HD, p. 213.

mele

oral poetry, song

1. nvt. Song, anthem, or chant of any kind; poem, poetry; to sing, chant (preceded by both ke and ka)[...]. See HD, p. 245.

mele hula

chanted oral poetry, principle structural feature of hula composition and performance practice

See the entry on hula: 2. nvt. Song or chant used for hula; to sing or chant for hula. See HD, p. 88.

‘ōlapa

experience of enlightenment

1. vi. To flash, as lightning;[…]. See HD, p. 283.

‘ōlapa

dancer-actor of hula

3. n. Dancer, as contrasted with the chanter or (memorizer);[…]. See HD, p. 283.

G LOSSARY

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‘ōlapa

hula ‘ōlapa, traditional genre of Hawaiian performing arts

[…] any dance accompanied by chanting, and drumming on a gourd drum. See HD, p. 283.

oli

recited oral literature, covers many subgenres of oli: genealogies of the gods and chiefly lines (kū‘auhau), prayers (pule), etc.

nvt. Chant that was not danced to, especially with prolonged phrases chanted in one breath, often with a trill (‘i‘i) at the end of each phrase; to chant thus. Ke oli, the chant, Mea oli, chanter[…]. See HD, p. 285.

pā

a distinct segment in terms of place, time value, of percussive sound, a performance segment, interlude

1. nvi. Fence, wall, corral, pen, sty, enclosure, yard, patio[…]; 5. nvi. A sound; to sound; beat, rhythm, as of a dance; stroke, as of an instrument; thump of a gourd down to a pad, with one quick slap of fingers as the gourd is raised; signal to begin a dance or drumming. See HD, p. 296.

Pukui, Mary Kawena/Elbert, Samuel H. (1986): Hawaiian Dictionary, 6th ed. Honolulu: UP of Hawai‘i.

B IBLIOGRAPHY

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ABSTRACT – G ERMAN Meine Arbeit ist gekennzeichnet durch die Entwicklung eines performanceanalytischen Verfahrens, das auf der Grundlage von Praxis als Forschung und einer Kombination von performance-analytischen, d.h. aufführungswissenschaftlichen sowie interart-ästhetischen Fragestellungen beruht. Ich führe Forschung zur Aufführungspraxis des hawaiianischen Hula ‘Ōlapa in die Thematik der Theaterwissenschaft ein. Meine analytische Arbeit basiert auf Praxis als Forschung und einem von mir entwickelten Notationsverfahren, um den Gegenstand meiner Arbeit zu bestimmen. Als Teil der Notation der Aufführungspraxis des Hula ‘Ōlapa entwerfe ich einen graphischen Grundriss wichtiger Performance-Segmente und entscheidender Aufführungsaspekte, die den Ablauf und die performative Materialität von Kaupō ‘Āina, einem Hula ‘Ōlapa Repertoirestück und Gegenstand meiner Arbeit bestimmen. Die Methode der Notation gibt die aus verschiedenen Segmenten bestehende vielschichtige und heterogene Zusammenstellung mehrerer Performance-Elemente wieder – rhythmischer Klang, Wort, stilisierte Körperbewegung – die auf vielfältige Weise in dem Prozess der Aufführung von Kaupō ‘Āina zusammenwirken. Ich führe eine Reihe von Analysen von spezifischen Performance-Segmenten und bestimmten Verbindungen von PerformanceElementen durch. Von Interesse ist, die gegenseitige Wechselwirkung von Performance-Elementen zu unterscheiden, die die vielschichtige und aus unterschiedlichen Segmenten bestehende Konstellation der Aufführungspraxis des Hula bestimmen, in dem man performative, referentielle und ästhetische Aspekte in Betracht zieht. Das ausdrückliche ästhetische Ziel von Hula Meisterin Maiki Aiu Lake, dass Hula alles ausdrückt, was wir sehen, hören, riechen, schmecken, berühren und fühlen, dient als programmatische Leitlinie für meine Analyse der Aufführungspraxis des Hula ‘Ōlapa. Performative Formen der Rahmung, Stilisierung und vielschichtige sinnliche Erfahrung bestimmen zentrale analytische Verfahren, die ich als Teil meiner performance-analytischen Arbeit entwickele. Auf der Grundlage des Konzepts von performativen Formen von Rahmung untersuche ich Aufführungssegmente, die die performative Grundstruktur der Komposition von Kaupō ‘Āina gestalten. Performative Formen der Rahmung lenken die Aufmerksamkeit, indem sie kontrastierende Effekte der sinnlichen Abfolge von performativem Material zur Wirkung kommen lassen, die wechselnde Intensitäten im Rahmen von Variationen sinnlicher Erfahrung hervorrufen. Meine Analyse macht deutlich, wie subtile Variationen von bestimmten Aufführungssegmenten von Kaupō ‘Āina eine Qualität von Historizität erzeugen,

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indem historische Kontinuität und Wandel von Hula ‘Ōlapa Aufführungspraxis vermittelt wird. Desweiteren untersuche ich die Funktion von “keying” als einer performativen Form der Rahmung. Keying stellt ein Instrument dar, um Rahmenwechsel zu signalisieren zwischen Segmenten der performativen Grundstruktur, den narrativen Teilen der Komposition von Kaupō ‘Āina und der metareferentiellen Ebene der Legende von Halemano. Stilisierung bezeichnet eine Performance-Strategie und ein analytisches Werkzeug, um Materialisierung von Gesten und sinnliche Erfahrung von Körperartikulation zu bestimmen. Ich unterscheide zwischen drei Kategorien von Formen von Verkörperung, die entscheidend für die Aufführungspraxis des Hula ‘Ōlapa sind: die grundlegende Körperposition, stilisiert-abstrakte Gesten und stilisierte Gesten, die einen inhaltlich-sinnlichen Bezug herstellen. Ich entwickle durch die exemplarische Untersuchung von Hela, einer Gestenabfolge des unteren Körpersegments, ein Verständnis der vielschichtigen sinnlichen Erfahrung von stilisiert-abstrakten Gesten bezogen auf ihre formale und abstrakte Erscheinungsweise. Stilisierte Gesten dagegen, die darauf abzielen ein inhaltlichsinnliches Assoziationsfeld herzustellen, bewirken ein vielfältiges metaphorisches Zusammenspiel zwischen der performativen Ebene und wenigstens zwei inhaltlichen Ebenen. Meine Analyse der Makani-Geste, einer Geste des oberen Körpersegments, stellt ein Beispiel einer stilisierten Geste mit inhaltlichsinnlichem Bezug dar, die zwei Ebenen der Referentialität kombiniert: die vielschichtige sinnliche Erfahrung des Naturphänomens Wind und ein hochabstrahiertes Wahrnehmungskonzept menschlicher Begegnung. Dieses dynamische Konzept von Metaphorizität wird mit dem hawaiianischen Begriff Kaona bezeichnet. Die Kombination zwischen stilisierten Gesten mit inhaltlich-sinnlichem Bezug und gesungener mündlicher Dichtung intensiviert die vielfältige sinnliche Erfahrung der Aufführungspraxis des Hula ‘Ōlapa. Ich diskutiere die MakaniGeste als ein Beispiel von Wort-Gestik Korrelation und deren aufführungsästhetischer Wirkung, die die Verbindung von stilisierten Gesten mit inhaltlichsinnlichem Bezug und Dichtung bei der Aufführung des Hula ‘Ōlapa hervorbringen. Multisensorische Erfahrung reflektiert auf methodisch-begrifflicher Ebene die Aufführungspraxis des Hula ‘Ōlapa, die eine Performance-Ästhetik der Sinne verkörpert. Meine Fallstudie zu Kaupō ‘Āina stellt ein Beispiel eines systematischen, performance-analytischen Forschungsverfahrens zur Praxis des Hula ‘Ōlapa und dessen Ästhetik dar. Ich schaffe damit die methodische Grundlage für künftige Studien zum Hula Repertoire und zu Traditionen der Aufführungspraxis des Hula. Das methodische Rahmenwerk meiner Analyse, das sich auf performative

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Formen von Rahmung, Stilisierung und vielfältige sinnliche Erfahrung konzentriert, ist anwendbar auf die Erforschung oraler Traditionen. Die Frage stellt sich, in wieweit mündliche Traditionen auf die genannten Mittel der Aufführung zurückgreifen. Diese Forschungsperspektive ist richtungsweisend für Theater, Tanz und mündliche Formen der Kultur- und Wissensvermittlung im pazifischen Raum, in Asien und anderen Regionen der Welt. Darüber hinaus leistet die Arbeit einen entscheidenden Beitrag zur gegenwärtigen Forschung im Bereich der Theaterwissenschaft.