Hawaiian Heritage Plants: Revised Edition 9780824843922

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HAWAIIAN

HERITAGE

PLANTS

Revised Edition

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1

Revised Edition

A Latitude 20 book

University of Hawaii Press HONOLULU

© 1998

U n i v e r s i t y of H a w a i ' i P r e s s Ail rights r e s e r v e d Printed in C a n a d a

98 99

0 0 01

02

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5 4

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U n i v e r s i t y of H a w a i ' i P r e s s b o o k s are printed o n acid-free p a p e r a n d m e e t the g u i d e l i n e s for p e r m a n e n c e a n d durability of t h e C o u n c i l on Library R e s o u r c e s . Designed a n d typeset by Northeastern Graphic Services, Inc. Library of C o n g r e s s C a t a l o g i n g - i n - P u b l i c a t i o n D a t a Kepler, A n g e l a Kay, 1 9 4 3 H a w a i i a n heritage p l a n t s / A n g e l a K a y K e p l e r . — R e v . e d . p.

cm.

"A Latitude 2 0 b o o k . " I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s a n d index. I S B N 0 - 8 2 4 8 - 1 9 9 4 - 2 (alk. p a p e r ) 1. H a w a i i a n s — E t h n o b o t a n y . Useful—Hawaii.

2. Ethnobotany—Hawaii.

3. Plants,

4 . N a t i v e p l a n t s for c u l t i v a t i o n — H a w a i i . 5 . H u m a n

ecology—Hawaii.

6 . C o n s e r v a t i o n of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s — H a w a i i . I. Title. DU624.65.K46

581.6'3'09969—dc21

1998 97-46933

CIP

TITLEPAGE: Koli'i

(Trematolobelia

macrostachys),

a stunning, c a n d e l a b r a - s h a p e d lobelia.

CONTENTS

Preface — vii Approaching Hawai'i: The Carpeting of an Archipelago — 1 Heritage Plant Accounts: 'Awa, A Polynesian Tranquilizer • 7 Bamboo ('ohe) • 16 Banana (mai'a) • 25 Ferns: 'Ama'u (Sadleria) • 35 Hapu'u (tree ferns) • 41 Maidenhair ('iwa'iwa) • 47 Uluhe (false staghorn) • 52 Ginger, Wild ('awapuhi) • 60 Hala (pandanus) • 66 Hau, A Pacific-Wide Coastal Tree • 73 Hibiscus: Red (koki'o 'ula) • 80 White (koki'o ke'oke'o) • 86 'Ilima, A Notable Lei Flower • 92 Koa, A Majestic Native Hardwood • 98 Kukui (candlenut tree) • 107 Lobelias (haha, 'dha wai), Hawaiian Botanical Treasures • 117 Maile, A Fragrant Forest Vine • 125 Mamane, A Native Flowering Tree • 130 Morning Glory, Beach (pdhuehue) • 135 Naupaka, Beach • 139 Noni (Indian mulberry) • 145

v

'Ohelo, An Edible Alpine Berry • 151 'Ohi'a

lehua, A S a c r e d Forest Tree • 156

Olona, A Native Fiber Shrub • 165 Pua Kala (prickly poppy) • 170 Pukiawe,

A Colorful Alpine Bush • 175

Sandalwood ('iliahi)

• 182

Silversword ('ahinahina) Taro (kalo)

• 193

• 203

Ti (kl) • 2 1 1 Wauke Wiliwili

(paper mulberry) • 2 1 9 (Hawaiian coral tree) • 2 2 5

Further Reading — 231 Index — 2 3 3

PREFACE

A

lthough the historical content of Hawaiian

Heritage

Plants

is timeless, profound biological and social c h a n g e s have

occurred in Hawai'i since the original newspaper c o l u m n s ( 1 9 7 0 s ) a n d the book's first edition ( 1 9 8 4 ) . This revised version h a s been completely updated for several reasons. First, over the past fifteen years I have been fortunate to spend considerably more time a s a field biologist in Hawai'i a n d other Pacific islands. T h e updating of the text, along with some new photographs, h a s e n h a n c e d the breadth of this book. S e c o n d , it is a pleasure to incorporate results of the dedicated conservation efforts of T h e Nature Conservancy of Hawai'i, national government agencies, the state of Hawai'i, a n d n u m e r o u s smaller private organizations and individuals. During the 1 9 8 0 s , environmental degradation due to soaring feral pig and goat populations and introduced noxious weeds necessitated drastic land m a n a g e m e n t measures, still in effect. T h e s e included m o n u m e n t a l tasks such as fencing the entire Haleakalä National Park (including rugged KTpahulu Valley), b a c k e d up by serious feral m a m m a l control by helicopters a n d ground crews. Already, natural habitats are responding favorably to this release from incessant grazing and soil "rototilling." Hawaiians speak of their love for the 'äina

("land,"

"earth"). For those readers unfamiliar with this word, it carries a deeply spiritual connotation, akin to the Russian "Motherland." 'Äina e m b r a c e s rich emotions, c o n n e c t i o n s to the past, solid traditions, racial pride, a n d heartfelt love. For m a n y Hawaiians, 'äina constitutes part of their very soul a n d is the

reason some Islanders (especially those of strong Polynesian extraction) wither away when transplanted elsewhere. Hawai'i's 'aina has withstood environmental assaults for centuries, but these inroads have peaked in the last ten years. We speak not only of coastal development and profound changes due to ever-increasing human populations, but heartrending alterations to the uplands as well. Some areas will take decades to regain their pristine glory; some are irreparably degraded. Hawaiian "heritage plants" are those plants found only in Hawai'i (endemic) or introduced by the Polynesians that have been utilized culturally by both indigenous Hawaiians and later foreigners. Many heritage plants are more difficult to see in the wild than ever before,

Black-flowered cyanea (Cyanea macrostegia), a palmlike Hawaiian lobelia, remaining only in a few rain forest locations on Maui.

especially some of those carefully nurtured by early Hawaiians (for example, 'awa, wauke) and those of worldwide fame because of their Hawaiian uniqueness (for example, lobelias ['dha wai], pua kala, olona). It is hoped that the more generous format of this edition enhances appreciation for these extraordinary life forms. The few species eliminated from this edition will appear, along with others, in a sequel, More Hawaiian Heritage Plants. Please note that the sections are organized alphabetically according to the plants' best-known names in Hawai'i. For example, everyone calls bamboo by its English name and not the Hawaiian 'ohe, but if you call kukui a candlenut tree, local people will probably raise their eyebrows. Thus some of Hawai'i's local plant names have become so anglicized that they may be italicized or not. For consistency, I have italicized them all. In these environmentally conscious days, we are all aware that "to save the earth we must first love it." To readers — residents or visitors —

Drippy, m o s s y forest, Alaka'i S w a m p , 3 , 6 0 0 feet (2,000 m), Kaua'i.

w h o truly care for Hawai'i's culture a n d unique a s s e m b l a g e of natural environments, I urge you to c o n t i n u e supporting conservation activities. Join T h e Nature Conservancy, pull n o x i o u s w e e d s from remote areas with the Sierra Club, join efforts to protect precious watersheds, coral reefs, wetlands, a n d b e a c h e s . T h e present a n d future health of Hawai'i's m o u n -

Native streamside vegetation, Haipua'ena Gulch, Maui.

tain forests, alpine deserts, a n d lowlands d e p e n d s on individuals. Our depth of understanding of Hawai'i's past culture diminishes greatly w h e n we c a n n o t enter a natural e n v i r o n m e n t a n d exclaim, " S e e this

wiliwili

tree — it m a d e super-light surfboards" or " L o o k at this pretty white poppy — it w a s like opium to the a n c i e n t H a w a i i a n s . " Attend Hawaiian cultural activities. M o s t are on O ' a h u (the Lyon Arboretum, Bishop M u s e u m , the University of Hawai'i, H o ' o m a l u h i a ) , but periodically there are d e m o n strations on the outer islands ( c o m m u n i t y colleges, the University of Hawai'i at Hilo on the island of Hawai'i, K ò k e ' e M u s e u m on Kaua'i).

'Oha wai (Clermontia montis-loa), with 2 - i n c h (5-cm), velvety, m a g e n t a b l o s s o m s , is a s p e c i a l t y of t h e Big I s l a n d ' s m o s t s o u t h e r l y rain forests.

I n t e r e s t in t h e cultural u s e s of p l a n t s ( e t h n o b o t a n y ) e m b r a c e s not o n l y s c i e n c e , b u t art a n d spirituality a s well. Before H a w a i ' i ' s W e s t e r n ization, its c u l t u r e , religion, n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t s , m e d i c i n e s , a n d lifestyles w e r e all i n t e r t w i n e d — individual f a c e t s of a living, Pacific jewel. T h a t jewel w a s o n e setting in a n a r r a y of related, yet e q u a l l y u n i q u e , jewels t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e d M i c r o n e s i a , M e l a n e s i a , a n d o t h e r P o l y n e s i a n a r c h i p e l a g o s , filled with g l o r i o u s b e a u t y , d a z z l i n g color, a n d r e m a r k a b l e e v o l u t i o n . It is m y fervent h o p e t h a t this b o o k will r e n e w t h e s p a r k l e of t h o s e p r e c i o u s g e m s , in their totality a l r e a d y f a d i n g from m e m o r y . I t h a n k t h e n u m e r o u s p e o p l e w h o c o n t r i b u t e d in v a r i o u s w a y s to t h e m a k i n g of this b o o k . First, I gratefully a c k n o w l e d g e t h e early discipline of m y p a r e n t s , a n d t e a c h e r s in Australia a n d N e w Z e a l a n d a n d at t h e E a s t - W e s t C e n t e r at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of H a w a i ' i , w h e r e I h a d a schola r s h i p from 1963 to 1966. All t h e field biologists a n d o t h e r skilled p e o p l e w h o s h a r e d tents, p o u r i n g rain, biting w i n d s , a n d s c o r c h i n g s u n ; w h o d r o v e m e over terrible r o a d s , flew m e in h e l i c o p t e r s , fixed vehicles, c h e c k e d m y w h e r e a b o u t s with radios, or o t h e r w i s e h i k e d with m e , I t h a n k sincerely for their c o m p a n y in special p l a c e s at a special time in H a w a i ' i ' s history. P a r t i c u l a r t h a n k s go to Bob G u s t a f s o n , Tom H a u p t m a n , Derral H e r b s t , Bob H o b d y , M a r y E v a n s o n , C a m e r o n Kepler, Steve M o u n t a i n s p r i n g , a n d Ron N a g a t a . T h e U.S. Fish a n d Wildlife Service g r a n t e d m e n u m e r o u s o p p o r t u nities for visiting r e m o t e c o r n e r s of the I s l a n d s . Librarians at H a m i l t o n

Library (University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu), Maui Community College, and the Hawai'i State Library system were helpful in locating unusual or rare books. Thanks also to the photographers who kindly allowed me to use their color transparencies (identified in captions): John Carothers, Cameron Kepler, KTlauea National Wildlife Refuge, Eric Nishibayashi, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wailea Development Company, and Ron Nagata/Haleakala National Park. All other photographs and the line drawings are my own. I also gratefully acknowledge the private landowners who granted land access permits, and Ron Youngblood and Nora Cooper (Maui News), who ran weekly columns of the original versions of these species accounts. Wesley Wong (State Division of Forestry) generously allowed me access to his copy machine. For this revised version, thirteen years later, colleagues from The Nature Conservancy, Haleakala National Park, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service/National Biological Service/U.S. Geological Survey, Maui Land and Pineapple Company, and State Division of Forestry have kindly helped keep me abreast of conservation issues in the Islands during an extended absence. To all, my heartfelt thanks.

Approaching Hawaii: The Carpeting of an Archipelago

A

s we sit comfortably in a jet flying 33,000 feet (10,000 m) above the

vast Pacific Ocean, it is difficult to imagine how any living thing can survive outside the window in such a cold and inhospitable environment. While building a sandcastle, a child picks up a freshly fallen orange fruitlet from a hala tree and momentarily plays with it. In late summer, flocks of shorebirds appear. You see them feeding or flying in groups along the shore, wading in ponds, probing mudflats, and congregating high in mountain pastures. Air currents high in the sky, ocean currents swirling around our coasts, and migratory birds arriving from all points of the compass all share one thing in common: They were the principal means by which seeds arrived in Hawai'i eons ago. The Hawaiian Archipelago comprises the most isolated islands (of any appreciable size) in the world. They lie more than 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from the Americas, Alaska, and Japan; approximately 5,500 miles (8,800 km) from the Philippines; and more than 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from the nearest major island group to the south, the Marquesas. For millions of years, lava spewed up from ocean depths, creating islands that were subsequently shaped by wind and water into magnificently contoured forms. Simultaneously, plant seeds descended upon these oceanic oases from every direction. They arrived purely by chance, alone, and always under extremely rigorous conditions. A handful of miniscule fern spores leaves the safety of their protective parent plant and are thrust into the air by a tropical storm in Malaysia. Winds swirl furiously, whisking them in all directions. Some fall and germinate in the coziness of their preferred surroundings, others perish in the salty sea. Several spores, however, are drawn sky-high to enter a fast jet stream of freezing air at 35,000 feet (10,670 m) altitude. This rushes them eastward toward the central Pacific Ocean. En route, some are whirled higher into the upper atmosphere and disappear, but as the winds approach Hawai'i, one seed enters a slow, branch airstream. By sheer chance it drops down into O'ahu's developing wilderness rain forest and, despite the fact that it has been frozen, miraculously thaws and begins to grow. It was a very lucky spore. Billions of other spores and seeds of all kinds succumbed to the trip's numerous hazards. In fact, only about 2 percent of Hawai'i's plants arrived by air currents; most originated in Asia.

Then there is the ocean route. Hala, with its tufts of twisted leaves, multiple "prop" roots, and pineapplelike fruits, is a familiar coastal plant throughout the Pacific. If you pick up one of its bright orange fruitlets you can see that the freshly fallen ones are very fleshy. As time passes, this pulp dries out, leaving a tufted end like a coarse, stubby paintbrush and

A rain-drenched fern (Dryopteris wallichiana), Ko'olau Forest Reserve, Maui

A hardy, lava-loving fern, ac (Polypodium pellucidum), peeks out from a sheltered lava crack.

a dry lightweight portion at the opposite end. When you submerge the whole fruitlet, tiny bubbles of air become trapped in its fringes, allowing the tiny seeds to become encased in a bouyant "life jacket." To colonize Hawai'i's shores, dried hala fruitlets bobbed up and down like corks in calm and stormy seas, at the mercy of the Pacific's complex currents. Eventually they were thrust onto sandy beaches or thrown over jagged lava rocks. Approximately one-quarter of Hawai'i's native plants descended from ancestors that survived these incredible journeys. Most possessed ingenious flotation devices.

•

7

Emergent, stream-eroded, and forest-clothed islands: a welcome sight for stray birds. Napali coast, Kaua'i.

Hala (Pandanus tectorius) fruits on a woven hala mat.

Because ohe/o's (Vaccinium reticulatum) ancestors were attractive to birds, they are now available to us too.

And last, what role did birds play in seed transportation? Imagine a shorebird such a s a Ruddy Turnstone feasting on a stock of 'ohelo-like berries located on s o m e far-off South Pacific island. W h i l e returning to Alaska to breed, an unusual storm blows the bird eastward to Hawai'i, m a n y miles off its usual migratory route. Miniscule undigested seeds in the bird's innards spurt out in a dropping as it alights. If these morsels of life land in the right type of soil in a suitable area a n d if the climate, elevation, a n d other environmental variables are appropriate, they might grow. Actually, a seed transported by birds stands a better c h a n c e of survival than one subjected to the whims of winds and waves. This is reflected in the proportion of our native plants that arrived in this manner: almost one-half. T h e s e ideas m a y seem far-fetched, but they are true. Seeds did arrive — they were Hawai'i's first colonists — although admittedly the processes s p a n n e d millions of years. Countless numbers perished en route a n d m a n y that endured the journey, clinging tenaciously to incipient sparks of life, shriveled or rotted b e c a u s e they landed in the wrong place at their final destination. The precious few that survived evolved into one of the most fascinating and unique a s s e m b l a g e s of plants anywhere. It h a s been estimated that approximately one successful immigrant every 5 0 , 0 0 0 years could a c c o u n t for the known Hawaiian flora. T h e extreme isolation of the island chain resulted in the fact that a remarkable percentage ( 8 9 percent) of our 1 , 1 0 0 + native ferns and flowering plants are found nowhere else in the world. Approximately 1 , 6 0 0 years ago, Polynesians first set foot on Hawai'i's shores. They, like birds, brought plants with them. After that, a never-ending stream of plants added to the Islands' basic flora, beginning slowly, accelerating in spurts, and continuing today. Through centuries of familiarization with Hawai'i's natural history, the early pioneers developed a uniquely Polynesian subsistence culture,

Hala germinates and thrives in salty coastal lava.

M a n y wind- or avian-borne seeds drop into wilderness areas like Pelekunu, a deeply gouged valley along Moloka'i's rugged north shore. (Photo by Cameron Kepler)

blending the utilization of their own introduced plants and animals with those already here. A wealth of knowledge accumulated as each generation verbally transmitted information relating to food, medicine, transportation, fishing, weapons, crafts, clothing, games, and religious ritual. In addition, taboos (kapu), folklore, and poetry intertwined with everyday practicalities. Since those remote times, Hawai'i's shore and mountains have become considerably reshaped by Polynesians, Westerners (haole), and Asians, with their attendant animals, fire, diseases, and ever-increasing multiplicity of introduced plants. Meanwhile, natural forces continue: vulcanism, climate, and the timeless, encircling ocean. In this book I have attempted to weave cultural and biological, historic and geographic, aesthetic and spiritual aspects of Hawaiian ecology into nontechnical accounts of selected plants. I hope that these vignettes, spanning pre-Polynesian Hawai'i to the present, will contribute to an ever-deepening endearment for, and a desire to help preserve, some of the most unique ecosystems in the world.

'Awa A Polynesian Tranquilizer

I!societies, both ancient and modern, we find

f we reflect upon the history and habits of

that people have always used intoxicants, stimulants, or sleeping potions, and they have always worshiped divine powers greater than themselves. Often the two were inextricably linked, molding the character and cultural essence of the people concerned. What worlds apart are the Scots with their potent whiskey, the American Indians with their soothing tobacco, the Mexicans with their consciousness-expanding mescal, and the Polynesians with their muscle-melting, soporific 'awa. Native to Melanesia, 'awa (pronounced "ahva") was introduced very early to Pacific islands by seafaring voyagers. It quickly became incorporated into all cultures except those of New Zealand and Easter Island, providing their staple relaxant/intoxicant and preparing a route to the nether world of spirits. Because of its growth requirements, it was only successful on high islands (those with adequate rainfall, mountains, deep soils, and tall trees to provide shade). In Hawai'i today a bewildering array of stimulants, alcoholic beverages, drugs, and meditation techniques are available if we choose to enter states of inebriation or superconsciousness. Until haoles arrived with liquor and methods to distill 'okolehao from ti roots though, 'awa was the main substance available. Elsewhere in the Pacific, where it is generally known as kava, it is still used to varying degrees by the populace. In Fiji, it is the national beverage, drunk daily like tea or coffee as well as like champagne on special occasions. Consumed primarily for its tranquilizing, sleep-inducing pleasure, 'awa was enjoyed by all classes of people, especially royalty. In early Hawaiian history, 'awa was taboo to commoners, but by the mid-nineteenth century there was plenty for all. It was planted around taro patches, beside mountain streams, and in forest clearings. It was also collected abundantly from lush lowland forests where it had escaped from cultivation. As with various other traditional plants, both Polynesian introduced and native, it was harvested to the point of extreme rarity. One biological oddity about 'awa is the fact that only male plants are

known — amazingly, the female flowers and fruits have never been found. Hence it cannot reproduce itself without human assistance. Hard-working farmers and fishermen, after a full day of rowing, bending, or hauling up fish, welcomed 'awa as a pleasant relief from the

Steep-sided, shady valleys, long unoccupied, may harbor a rare 'awa shrub.

strains of physical exertion. Its soothing, relaxing effects enabled them to face another day of the same labor. For kâhuna (priests), 'awa played a prominent role in medicines and spiritual activities — invoking spirits at a séance, "praying a person to death," child weaning, or appeasing ancestral guardians. Thus royalty drank for pleasure, the working classes for relaxation after physical labor, and the kahuna for spiritual reasons. At least fifteen varieties had specific uses. The most esteemed was "sacred black 'awa," reserved for special occasions. The most common was "green 'awa."

8

'Awa was so special that families reserved designated cups to hold its bitter brew. Although they were plainly carved coconut shells (com-

mon containers with multitudinous uses on other Pacific islands), these cups constituted one of the few items made in ancient Hawai'i from coconut shells. Elsewhere in the Pacific, elaborate wooden bowls and coconut cups were (and still are) similarly reserved for 'awa, as, for example, the enormous Fijian kava (yangona) bowls that measure several feet in diameter. Traditionally 'awa root was chewed and spat into a communal bowl. Preferably the chewer did not salivate copiously, although enzymes in human saliva were considered beneficial (they convert 'awa's starches into palatable sugars). Water or coconut water was then added to the murky, fibrous mixture, after which it was strained through sedge stems. W h e n the cups were filled, a prayer of gratitude was offered to the gods, thanking them for their blessings and requesting a good life in this world a n d beyond. Hawaiian ritual was simple compared with the elaborate formalities required in more equatorial islands, although naturally this varied with occasion and host. The general drinker was not a light and merry tippler: As with Russian vodka drinkers his primary aim was intoxication, and the quicker it happened the better. He did not sip his 'awa as if it were a delicate wine with a subtle bouquet. He held his breath, gulped the whole lot down, then grabbed a stick of sugarcane, fish, or sweet potato to offset its bitter taste. Because 'awa lacks alcohol, its "alcoholic effect" cannot strictly be compared with that produced by vodka or other distilled spirits. Polynesians needed a fair amount of it before their bodies crumpled. A full night's profound sleep ensued, after which one supposedly awoke completely refreshed. There were heavy drinkers who took pride in the large doses of soporific drinks that their body could tolerate. Years of boasting (and consequent addiction) unfortunately manifested in both mental and physical disorders, especially when 'awa was mixed with alcohol. The consumption of 'awa reflects the oft-quoted Biblical philosophy, "Take a little wine for thy stomach's sake." In small quantities relaxants are not harmful, but excessive intake can lead to serious consequences for individuals, families, and society. A mild, nonalcoholic drug, 'awa appears to be nonharmful, as evidenced by, for example, contemporary Fijians. However, historical records indicate that extreme usage in early Hawai'i produced many indolent people and tarnished the effectiveness of otherwise capable leaders. Long-term overuse resulted in scaly (reptilian) skin and bloodshot eyes. Furthermore, it paved the way for overconsumption of whaler's grog, 'okolehao ("beer" brewed from ti root), and more potent forms of alcohol.

A Hawaiian woman bore a stillborn child. Instead of burying it, the couple decided to present it as an offering to their family deity, the celebrated shark god Kamohoali'i. The body of the child was placed upon a red tapa (bark cloth) mat, with auspicious offerings ('awa, taro, sugarcane),

a n d t h r o w n into the o c e a n . The p a r e n t s trusted that its soul w o u l d transmigrate into the shark's b o d y a n d forever protect their family from future s h a r k attacks. A c e r e m o n y at the local temple followed, c o m p l e t e with additional 'awa, black pigs, taro, a n d c o c o n u t s . At s u n s e t a n d s u n d o w n , the kahuna a d d r e s s e d m o r e prayers to the religious carving representing Kamohoali'i a n d covered himself with w a t e r a n d salt. As this mixture dried, his skin b e c a m e scaly, resembling the skin of b o t h the s h a r k a n d a n

A y o u n g green 'awa plant d o t s a dark forest floor.

10

'awa drinker. The priest t h e n w r a p p e d himself in red t a p a , uttered piercing shrieks, a n d l e a p e d a r o u n d proclaiming to the p a r e n t s that it h a d just b e e n revealed to him the exact time w h e n the child's soul e n t e r e d the shark. S u c h w a s a c e r e m o n y o b s e r v e d by the French explorer Freycinet in the late eighteenth century. It w a s o n e of the m a n y i n s t a n c e s w h e r e 'awa root w a s believed to exert powerful influences u p o n the a n c i e n t H a w a i ian gods. 'Awa w a s a special offering, not only b e c a u s e the people felt it w a s sacred, but b e c a u s e they were sure the g o d s t h e m s e l v e s w o u l d e n j o y it, a s they did. In s o m e respects their g o d s were c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s "super p e o p l e " living in a f a r a w a y " h e a v e n " a n d h e e d i n g the people's repent a n c e by granting blessings, increasing h a r v e s t s from land a n d sea,

H a r v e s t e d 'awa stalks, u n f o r t u n a t e l y not replanted.

providing innumerable babies, a n d so forth. They also w a r d e d off misfortunes such as diseases, epidemics, a n d s u d d e n disasters. The closest symbol of 'awa's divine protection in our present culture is holy water. Botanically, 'awa is an attractive shrub, growing to a b o u t 15 feet (5 m) tall. It is related to the shrub that produces the black pepper that we sprinkle daily on food and, indeed, a slight peppery taste is evident on one's tongue as the beverage is drunk. 'Awa grows best in d a m p , s h a d e d valleys at fairly low elevations, usually at forest edges a n d near streamlets. In past times, shrubs were planted a r o u n d village taro patches. A few localities on each island were f a m o u s for their 'awa groves, for example, Puna, on the island of Hawai'i: Most potent this 'awa of Puna! It wafts the seduction to sleep, That I lock my senses in sleep! an ancient chant Although 'awa is usually a low-growing, woody shrub, in P u n a not only was it plentiful a n d of high quality but, according to the historian Abraham Fornander, also grew epiphytically on tree stumps.

'Awa's large, heart-shaped leaves have gracefully curving veins resembling those of yams, and its heavy, jointed stems are reminiscent of bamboo. The portion preferred for making the famous beverage is the "root" (technically an underground stem), which forms a knotted mass several inches thick and up to 2 or 3 feet (a meter) long. The larger the root, the better quality the drink, because roots evidently concentrate strength and flavor with passing years. Throughout the Pacific, 'awa was manufactured from either fresh or dried roots, although in these modern days where convenience products are universal, instant powdered 'awa is acceptable even in the most remote Fijian villages. Fijians, who export this powder, still use it regularly; any small occasion provides a prime excuse to haul out the kava bowl and celebrate with a miniparty. My personal opinion of 'awa is typical of that of most Westerners: It tastes "muddy," producing a mild numbness in the mouth and tongue. It is generally drunk in a very diluted form; in stronger doses its taste becomes acrid, pungent, and more "muddy," and its numbing effect is more marked. Eventually I am told, one's muscles competely melt as you enter a euphoric state where you are fully conscious but cannot speak. An old saying in Hawaiian refers to 'awa's bitter-sour taste: '"Awa ke au" (how bitter the gall) refers to a person with a sour disposition. However, 'awa's quality varied so much from one place to another that a connoisseur knew its place of origin by the taste. One particularly satisfying variety was named 'awa lau hlnano because its perfume resembled that of the male flowers of pandanus (hinano). This fragrant-leaved variety was grown in Mamalahoa (place names on Hawai'i, Kaua'i, and O'ahu). 'Awa acts first on the central nervous system and muscles, then later (only if drunk to excess) on the brain. Friendliness dissolves into slumbering tranquility. Medicinally 'awa has been employed in many Pacific cultures because of its numbing properties. Inhabitants of New Guinea used it as a pain killer while tattooing, and Hawaiian kahuna prescribed it for general debility and to alleviate ailments of the head, muscles, bladder, reproductive organs, and skin. Throughout Polynesia, it is employed for headaches, asthma, bronchitis, and miscellaneous body pains. In the 1850s it contributed to gonorrhea treatment and, surprisingly was even exported to Europe for this purpose. Medical research indicates that 'awa acts anesthetically on the urinary tract tissues. Today it is used commercially in the West as a bladder sedative, and also in Polynesia (for example, the Cook Islands), where it is mixed with noni (Morinda citrifolia) and milo (Thespesia populnea) for treatment of urinary disorders. A Moloka'i leper recounted to me that once, after weeks of severe nerve pains, fiery flashes over his entire body, and numerous sleepless •

Typical habitat for shade-, warmth-, a n d moisture-loving 'awa, upper Waikolu Valley, Moloka'i.

A native forest relative of 'awa

(Peperomia spo-

tlights, he tried a little 'awa a s a last resort. Its a n e s t h e t i c effect provided him a full night's sleep a n d daily release from the agony that only lepers understand. As a result of medical d e m a n d for 'awa overseas, it b e c a m e o n e of Hawai'i's earliest export items. A slow grower, it w a s cultivated on the Big Island (Hawai'i) a n d M a u i . Rights were granted to local people to collect roots for personal use, a n d e x p e n s i v e permits were required if the 'awa w a s sold. Laws required that harvesters were to plant two dozen cuttings for every mature b u s h dug. T h e industry folded after fourteen years, having exported an e s t i m a t e d 1 5 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s ( 6 , 8 2 0 kg). P h a r m a c e u t i c a l laboratories in G e r m a n y were the m a j o r importers, where b i o c h e m i s t s used it for medicine a n d analytical research. T h e d e m a n d for fresh 'awa dwindled a s s o m e of its active ingredients b e c a m e artificially synthesized. It is interesting that the n a m e s of three of its active ingredients (kawain, dihydrokawain, a n d methysticin) are b a s e d on the P o l y n e s i a n variant of 'awa n a m e , Piper

(kawa)

a n d its scientific

methysticum.

However, 'awa is not completely relegated to the d u s t h e a p of history. In Hawai'i, people from a large cross section of society, from local senior citizens to haole

14

P h . D . s e n j o y a little 'awa on the side. M a n y

old-timers recall past pleasurable m o m e n t s too. Even space technology found a use for its powdered green extract — as a relaxant for astronauts. 'Awa, an attractive shrub a n d a definite part of Hawai'i's history, is today a very rare plant even in Hawai'i's most remote valleys. The best places to find it are in private or public gardens growing native a n d Polynesian-introduced plants: Lyon Arboretum a n d Ho'omaluhia (O'ahu); Ke'anae Arboretum a n d H a n a Gardenland (Maui). 'Awa's modern equivalent, paka lolo (marijuana), illegally planted in similar semicultivated fashion in rain forest clearings, h a s usurped its place. Scientific name: Piper methysticum Other names: Pu 'awa, kava, kawa, 'ava, yangona Family: Piperaceae (pepper family); 2,000 species; related to black pepper, native peperomias

Bamboo ('ohe)

B

amboo. Mere mention of the name evokes associations with Asian cultures and people: contemplative buddhas sitting in peaceful bamboo thickets, rare pandas munching on tender bamboo shoots, elaborate bamboo dwellings, or the staggeringly complex scaffolding surrounding Hong Kong's highrises. Over 1,000 uses have been tabulated for this remarkable "grass," cousin to corn and sugarcane. In its usefulness it rivals, perhaps even exceeds, the coconut palm, creeping into every facet of living in both traditional and contemporary Asian countries. From intricate Japanese tea whisks to foot-wide irrigation flumes, its products embrace an astonishing range of practical and esthetic uses: food, housing, transport, medicine, games, weapons, art, and ornamentation. Bamboo was a latecomer to Hawai'i. Even though approximately 1,000 species occur naturally on every continent except Europe, with several native to the Pacific, it probably never reached Hawai'i without human aid. The same bamboo species occurs in Fiji, Samoa, Tahiti, and the Marquesas, and authorities believe that its sprouts were carefully carried to Hawai'i by Polynesian voyagers. As is usual for Polynesian-introduced plants, the precise date of introduction is unknown. According to legend, early Polynesian colonists in Hawai'i were fully aware that bamboo was not native to their adopted archipelago. The great gods Kane and Kanaloa reportedly planted today's "historical groves," and the goddess Hina also transported bamboo from faraway Tahiti, planting it beside her home. In all probability, bamboo did come from Tahiti, because "Hawaiian bamboo" ('ohe Hawai'i), which grows wild on lower mountain slopes and in sheltered valleys, is an Asian species also found on other Pacific islands. Hawai'i's particular bamboo flourishes best in warm, moist forests, perpetuating itself by underground runners that sprout near, or distant from, the parent plant. Bamboo rarely reproduces itself by seeds as do most other flowering plants. Although bamboos are giant grasses, their flowering schedules differ from those of all other members of the grass family. Each species flowers

A typical bamboo forest (with hala on left), feathery and green.

after a fixed number of years: as few as one or as many as 120 years. In many species, huge, sugarcanelike flowerheads develop, laden with seeds, and then the entire grove dies. It takes years before the few underground runners that survived, along with sprouted seeds, fill out the original grove again. According to Japanese authorities, in some species all plants, wherever they grow, flower simultaneously. What a bizarre phenomenon — does this indicate sophisticated genetic programming? What are the advantages of groves in, say, Hawai'i and Thailand flowering at the same time? Certain bamboo stands in the Hawaiian Islands are renowned for their antiquity. Of interest to Maui residents is the legend that Hina's original grove was located on Maui's windward coast (Waikamoi), where today extensive areas of bamboo can still be seen by motorists on the Hana Highway (Botanists tell us that this is not the species introduced by later Polynesians.) Other famous groves are at Hilo and along the Puna coast (Big Island), and near Kaunakakai (Moloka'i). Ancient Hawaiians used bamboo, but never foresaw its potential as fully as the Asians, who had lived with it for centuries. Its degree of use depended on the amount available and its proximity to villages. Bamboo provided miscellaneous items such as water containers, fishing poles,

Smooth, shiny, jade and yellow green culms tower skyward.

irrigation troughs, knives, design stamps for decorating tapa (bark cloth), and musical instruments. Medicinally its uses were insignificant compared with the elaborate Chinese pharmacopoeia: slivers of sharp bamboo performed circumcision rites, and bamboo ashes were used in concoctions for curing skin sores. The bamboo musical instruments are of particular interest. Two of the three types are still used today. The pu'ili or bamboo rattles (unique to Hawai'i) consist of a section of bamboo from which one crosspiece is removed and the hollow section beyond it split into numerous fine divisions. W h e n shaken or struck, these spaghettilike strands rattle against one another as air passes through their filaments, producing, as Emerson described, "a breezy rustling sound." Depending on the nature of the hula performed, bamboo rattles were either shaken lightly, clashed forcefully, or tossed deftly between partners. Such dancing was light and trivial rather than profoundly religious.

18

Nose flutes ('ohe or hano), once lost traditionally from Hawai'i, are again in use, as elsewhere in the Pacific. The two or three holes of this narrow "flute" are stopped by the fingers of one hand, while being supported by fingers of the other hand and blown with regulated breath through one's nostril. The musical range of these rather primitive instru-

Bamboo rattle (top), nose flute (bottom) m e n t s is l i m i t e d , a n d t h e t o n e is t h i n a n d w h e e z y , b u t w h e n p l a y e d well, t h e y e m a n a t e a c a p t i v a t i n g , e t h e r e a l q u a l i t y . P a n p i p e s , like t h o s e of t h e A n d e s , w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of T o n g a , w h e r e n i n e or t e n b a m b o o l e n g t h s w e r e l a s h e d t o g e t h e r in a s p e c i f i c o r d e r . In Asia, b a m b o o h a s a l w a y s b e e n r e g a r d e d w i t h i m m e n s e r e s p e c t . A l m o s t e v e r y t e m p l e h o u s e s b a m b o o b r u s h w o r k i n s i d e a n d living b a m b o o o u t s i d e . In J a p a n e s p e c i a l l y , it is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i g h s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s . T h e h a u n t i n g n o t e s of t h e c l a r i n e t - s h a p e d shakuhachi are calcul a t e d t o t r a n s p o r t y o u to h i g h s p i r i t u a l r e a l m s , a n d b a m b o o is a t r a d i t i o n a l N e w Year s y m b o l of h a p p i n e s s . In a n c i e n t H a w a i ' i , b a m b o o w a s u s e f u l b u t n o t s p e c i a l . A p a r t f r o m t h e belief t h a t it w a s p l a n t e d b y g o d s a n d g o d d e s s e s , t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h a t it w a s a t t r i b u t e d a n y p a r t i c u l a r r e s p e c t . O v e r t h e last c e n t u r y t h o u g h ,

A bamboo roadcut. peering into a realm dominated by darkness, denseness, and on windy days, natural flutelike music.

Rays of sun highlight fresh b a m b o o leaves in H a w a i i ' s forest understory.

Gracing gardens, shopping malls, and resorts is the elegant yellow variegated

bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris var. aureovariegata).

Asians have overlain a richness to b a m b o o ' s Hawaiian heritage by superimposing cultural uses and beliefs gleaned from long exposure in their homelands.

S m o o t h , jade green columns rustle and clatter in the half-light b e n e a t h a pale green, feathery canopy. O c c a s i o n a l bursts of wind c a u s e the air to vibrate within the open b a m b o o columns, causing pure flutelike notes to resound through the thicket. W h a t primeval sounds — Nature's own s p o n t a n e o u s music. It is July in a b a m b o o forest on O ' a h u . If you peer closely you will see an elderly Chinese American man, bent over, moving slowly between the hundreds of closely s p a c e d stems. For m a n y years he h a s c o m e to this area in the early summer to collect edible b a m b o o shoots. He snaps the stout shoots off at their b a s e s , peeling away most of the fibrous sheathing with a stout knife. It does not take long to fill six onion bags, after which he returns to his battered World W a r II jeep, brushes aside the ever-present mosquitoes, p a c k s the bulging sacks, and returns to Honolulu. At h o m e , his wife awaits him. Under a bowered star fruit tree they further pare the shoots and split them lengthwise. Both are delighted at

the bounty and anticipate many scrumptious meals using this traditional Asian delicacy. A big fire is blazing and soon pots of shoots and salted water are bubbling merrily. Next day, after the shoots have soaked in several batches of fresh water to rid them of bitterness, they are ready for canning in glass jars. The experience of gathering this bounty from their island and of being in touch with one of Asia's most revered plants engenders an inner warmth to the Chinese American couple. Besides, store-bought shoots imported from Japan are very expensive. They recall the "old days" when local factories canned and sold bamboo shoots very cheaply. As far back as 1000 B.C. the Chinese people, proficient in multitudinous fields of knowledge, recognized bamboo as a type of grass. Its jointed, hollow stems (culms) and characteristic stem sheaths, leaves, and flowers place it within the enormous grass family, together with sugarcane, Job's tears, oats, corn, and garden pests such as crabgrass and kikuyu. Unlike trees, which increase in girth over many years, new bamboo sprouts emerge at full diameter. Also unlike trees, which have solid trunks, bamboo culms are divided into a series of open tubes separated by woody crosspieces. Such unusual anatomy inspired the old Hawaiian riddle: "A calabash [container] and a cover, a calabash and a cover until the heavens are reached." The answer: bamboo. The Hawaiians, too, ascertained bamboo's botanical affinities. They named it 'ohe, a general term that included all types of bamboo plus several bamboolike plants and grasses. Bamboos are remarkable plants in many respects. As well as their outstanding utility, their growth rates are unsurpassed in the entire plant kingdom. Once, in Kyoto, Japan, a bamboo sprout increased 4 feet (1.2 m) in 24 hours. That translates to 2 inches (5 cm) every hour, a pace akin to that of speeded-up movies depicting flower growth motions. A giant bamboo of Indo-Malaysia, whose stems attain 10 inches (25 cm) in diameter, has similarly been observed to attain its 100-foot (33-m) height in a mere 2 months. Ornamental bamboos are commonly used today in resort landscaping. But the gardener should beware — some species shoot up and spread fast. Once their sturdy runners are established, they have no regard for sending up shoots in the "proper places"; they may pop up in a neighbor's lawn or in the middle of an asphalt driveway. (Concrete, 2 or 3 feet [up to 1 m] thick, is the answer to the dilemma. Also make sure to plant "clump" rather than "running" bamboo.) Hawai'i's wild bamboos are popular for fishing poles. A savvy fisherman knows the length, diameter, shape, and wall thickness that is best for different types of fish. "Hawaiian bamboo" is the most readily available, but there are better varieties if you know where to find them. For •

Swaying b a m b o o , Alexandra palms, a n d a rainbow reflect waning rays of evening light on the island of Hawai'i.

example, on Kaua'i a stocky, thick-walled b a m b o o is unsurpassed for aku (skipjack tuna) fishing. Surely one of the most pleasing aspects of b a m b o o is the smooth shininess of its culms, providing strength, durability, and flexibility. Run your fingers up and down a section of b a m b o o . Large-diameter pieces are best. Feel its woodiness, smoothed with a natural silicone coating derived from silica deposits within the stem. If b a m b o o is correctly steamed and dried, its firmness and luster persists for decades or even centuries. For example, well over 1 , 0 0 0 years ago a suspension bridge was constructed in central China using thick, twisted b a m b o o cables that function to this day. However, if b a m b o o is not treated, it mildews and rots quickly, especially in humid environments. B a m b o o ' s silica e n a b l e s fresh culms to hold a sharp cutting edge, a fact appreciated by ancient Hawaiians. B e c a u s e they lacked iron (and even large clam shells), obliquely cut b a m b o o provided the best raw material for knives a n d daggers. Stone adzes, small shell cutters, and b a m b o o slivers e n a b l e d the people of old to slice through everything from umbilical cords to c o o k e d pig's thighs. After 1 9 0 0 , especially during the war years, when all imported supplies were restricted, Islanders of m a n y backgrounds utilized b a m b o o for such diverse items as woven hats, kitchen utensils, houses, and c a n o e outriggers. Foresters planted it to prevent soil erosion and maintain watersheds, a n d b u s i n e s s m e n contemplated making paper from it, as is still done in Asia. B a m b o o is easy to see in Hawai'i. Almost any lowland road in the wet (windward) regions of the Big Island, O'ahu, Maui, and Kaua'i eventually passes through groves. Its upper elevational limit is about 9 0 0 feet ( 3 0 0 m). Hikers often find small groves tucked away in moist valleys, and almost all botanical gardens and arboretums grow several species. Ornamental b a m b o o s are frequently used for commercial landscaping. Today Hawai'i's b a m b o o is a small but valuable forest resource, w h o s e uses reflect the Islands' multinational heritage. Although extensive groves are destructive to the surrounding vegetation, in small doses b a m b o o prevents erosion on hill slopes, highlights gardens, enlivens edible delicacies such as ¡umpia (spring rolls), c a t c h e s fish, inspires painters a n d other creative artists, and lends a special charm to those who spend time within its elegant confines. Scientific name: Schizostachyum (Syn. Bambusa

glaucifolium

glaucifolia)

Other names: Common or native bamboo, 'ohe Family: Poaceae (Gramineae) (grass family); 7,950 species; related to corn, sugarcane, lawn grasses

(mai'a)

O

l '1

ne day early in the nineteenth century, two young chiefesses, Kapi'olani and Keoha, were feeling dejected and defiant. They could not understand why women were forbidden to eat so many foods that looked and smelled delicious: bananas, coconuts, pork, turtle, and many types of fish. Even living in high-ranking, royal families, their diet was rather monotonous, consisting primarily of poi (pounded, fermented taro), sweet potatoes, yams, limu (seaweed), selected fish, and lu'au

(taro tops). On special occasions they savored dog and chicken, and when in season, they picked mountain apples and 'akala (raspberries). But it wasn't fair. The village had plenty of bananas, and even common men ate them, yet if a woman was caught eating one she was immediately sentenced to death. (Actually, women were allowed to eat the iholena and popo 'ulu varieties but were rarely offered them.) Why? No one seemed to know, but an old kahuna (priest) told them that Wakea, the revered ancestor of all Hawaiians, had declared them forbidden. The banana tree was to be respected as an embodiment of the great god Kanaloa, who had supposedly brought the first plants to Hawai'i from "Kahiki" (Tahiti), his ancestral homeland. Religious observances were strictly observed, and if bananas were to be offered as sacred foods at the temple altars, then women (inferior beings) must go without. Perhaps, the girls surmised, a long time ago there were not enough bananas to feed everyone and the gods too, so women had had to suffer ever since. With a mischievous twinkle in her eye, Kapi'olani momentarily separated the folds of her skirt, revealing one of the golden-skinned, contraband fruits. She beckoned to her bosom buddy to follow her to the ocean, where they hid behind some rocks, stripped off the peel, and shared the smooth, creamy, sweet flesh. Very few "crimes" escaped undetected, and this one did not either. A sharp-eyed kahuna spotted them and reported their transgression to

higher authorities. Because of their royal rank they were absolved from the offense, but someone had to be blamed — so their tutor was drowned. (Incidentally, Kapi'olani later became a high chiefess and devout Christian, once defying the goddess Pele by eating 'dhelo berries, an act that contributed to the legal abolishment of all Hawaiian gods. Right from childhood she must have questioned the validity of certain religious customs.) In observing the conventions of people from diverse cultures (including our own), outsiders have no trouble finding illogical rules and odd behavior. The rigid taboo ( k a p u ) system of old Hawai'i was no exception. It complicated the lives of aboriginals and foreigners immensely until its abolition in 1819. Seemingly illogical restrictions, such as women not being allowed to eat food cooked in the same utensils as that for men or even from the same underground oven, are difficult to comprehend. Women could not even partake of food with their own husbands or infant boys after weaning. Infractions of these laws plunged families into mourning and misery. Bananas, noted in Indian manuscripts as far back as the Buddha's time ( 6 0 0 B.C.), have been cultivated and enjoyed by inhabitants of every warm country in the world. The Hawaiians of old were, I believe, the only people possessing stringent regulations about their consumption; cer-

Wild b a n a n a s on sea-girt cliffs.

tainly no other P o l y n e s i a n culture did so. Even the M e n e h u n e s (the t i n y cheerful, industrious, mythical people reputed to h a v e lived very early in Hawai'i's prehistory) s u p p o s e d l y lived in h o u s e s built of b a n a n a leaves

Layers of t u b u l a r y e l l o w flowers d e v e l o p into " h a n d s " of l u s c i o u s fruits.

a n d subsisted primarily on b a n a n a s a n d freshwater shrimp, so there w a s no t a b o o then. T h e s e all-purpose fruits were staple items in the diets of all Pacific peoples; indeed, the S o u t h Pacific island b a n a n a plantation still r e m a i n s a lifestyle for t h o u s a n d s of islanders (even though it h a s b e e n largely replaced by tropical American plantations). E a c h part of the b a n a n a plant is serviceable: leaves, trunk, sap, terminal bud, a n d flowers. T h e large, bladelike leaves are e m p l o y e d for every c o n c e i v a b l e purpose: rain hats, design stencils, tablecloths, bowl covers, temporary mats, dyes, plates, cigarette papers, a n d so forth. In the M i c r o n e s i a n - P h i l i p p i n e region, people even wove delicate fabrics from fine silken fibers stripped from the leaves of a large Asian species. In rural a r e a s of S o u t h Pacific islands, if you c h a t m o m e n t a r i l y with a villager, he m a y grab a n e a r b y knife a n d lop off a couple of b a n a n a

leaves for you to sit on. Before long you are sipping fizzy coconut water and munching on starchy baked green bananas. Standard daily fare customarily includes plainly cooked bananas. However, on festive occasions the culinary ingenuity of Hawai'i's southerly neighbors shines. In Fiji, for instance, green bananas and taro are grated, mixed with coconut cream, and baked. Tahitian "poi" blended with ripe bananas, papayas, taro, pineapple, and coconut cream is a sumptuous dessert. It is interesting to compare the extent to which certain plants are used throughout the Pacific, an area of scientific study called ethnobotany. Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians share common ancestors and traditions, yet during centuries of isolation, each island group evolved its own unique lifestyles, customs, beliefs, and plant uses. All depended a great deal on available resources. For example, on small atolls banana plants were utilized in hundreds of ways that never appeared in Hawai'i, where banana's importance was overshadowed by a greater variety of other useful plants. Banana fiber is fine for string, netting, and baskets if you have nothing better. However, the Hawaiians discovered how to make string and rope from a native plant superior to banana for that purpose, olona (Touchardia latifolia) (treated later in this book), whose stems yield the strongest fiber in the world. This is not to say that the people of old did not use bananas, but their importance to survival was only minimal. Imagine a wedding day, say, at Hanalei, Kaua'i. People would be carrying rocks and banana trunks toward a large earthen pit, already partly filled with slashed banana stumps, an important source of steam. Others would be preparing the food for this underground oven (imu): a pig wrapped in banana leaves, fish enveloped in ti-leaf casings, packets of taro and sweet potatoes. After these were put in, men would place banana leaves, old woven mats, and dirt over the mound to further hold in heat and generate more steam for the several hours of cooking that lay ahead. A man might haul away a couple of banana trunks to use as canoe rollers, and an older lady might prepare a gourd full of banana sap for incorporation into a tonic. Hawaiians in past times also occasionally presented bananas as prime offerings, along with pigs, 'awa, and coconuts, to their favored gods. It is impossible to generalize about Hawaiian banana growing. In moist, irrigated areas, they thrived in small clumps near villages and on dikes adjacent to flooded taro terraces. In addition, during excursions into the mountains, men planted keiki (saplings) along streams and in flat pockets of soil where rainfall was high. Multiplying naturally, these remote plots served as emergency rations. Many of their descendants still persist as "wild" patches today. Evidence exists that banana plots were tended carefully on the Big Island. Archibald Menzies, a Scottish botanist and surgeon for Captain • A perfect, u n t o r n b a n a n a leaf, s h o w i n g its b r o a d , elliptical s h a p e a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c parallel v e i n s .

Pf

*

B a n a n a flowers (left) m a t u r e into fruit (right). N o t e h o w the flower shrivels a s the fruit enlarges

George Vancouver from 1792 to 1794, wrote glowingly of the Kealakekua plantations: ". . . we entered the wood by a well-trodden path, on both sides of which were luxuriant groves of plantains a n d b a n a n a s reared u p with great industry in the neatest order of cultivation." U n d o u b t e d l y the reason b a n a n a s flourished best on the Big Island is b e c a u s e they are essentially tropical plants, a n d of all Hawai'i's islands, this one lies closest to the equator. Internationally speaking, the b a n a n a was, a n d still remains, one of the world's most useful plants. Dyes, alcohol, fruits, medicines, clothing, bags, nets, cattle fodder, a n d wrapping are only a few of its multitudinous uses in the Tropics. Its uses in Hawai'i were limited, in part b e c a u s e of the m a n y superstitions surrounding b a n a n a s in the ancient culture. It is difficult to imagine b a n a n a s playing an important role in a society in which w o m e n were not allowed to eat them a n d it was considered b a d luck to even e n c o u n t e r a person carrying a b u n c h ! The Great Banana! The Great Banana! It will y i e l d t e n h a n d s ! The b u n c h c a n n o t be carried, It will t a k e t w o m e n to c a r r y it W i t h difficulty.

In ancient Hawai'i, this exclamation, e x p o u n d e d forcefully while lifting a b a n a n a keiki high into the air, was believed to incite magical powers. A b a n a n a plant was regarded as a person, a symbol of humanity. Because of this, it was imperative to observe a plethora of rituals a n d beliefs (correct time of day, p h a s e of the moon, a n d so forth) a n d to m a k e supplications to the ultimate protecter of b a n a n a plants, Kanaloa, so that the b a n a n a plants maximized their a n n u a l production. However, despite the care given to m a n y plantings, either in protected valleys or beside taro terraces, there were times when, as now, no a m o u n t of careful attention could prevent b a n a n a p a t c h e s from being

30

ripped apart by winds. In Abraham Fornander's Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk-lore are stanzas indicating that gales and furious storms have descended upon Hawai'i from time immemorial: The fierce wind as the rumbling of thunder in the mountain . . . Moving to cause damage, the mischievous wind Tearing up b a n a n a s and leaves of trees . . . Nothing remains through the destructive march of the wind . . . The b a n a n a leaves come floating down . . . The sign of that fierce, relentless wind, Devastating the forest.

Bananas are hardy, but they still need care to bear well: a large hole, good drainage, mulching (all Pacific islanders used ferns and lopped-off b a n a n a leaves and stumps), and nitrogenous fertilizer (chicken manure

A lone, wild iholena banana in remote North Waiehu Valley, Maui, descendant of an ancient Hawaiian grove.

and ashes are excellent) are necessary, especially when fruiting. And plenty of water. Banana plants may look sturdy but they are actually about 8 0 percent water. It is surprising to most people that, although attaining 3 0 - 4 0 feet ( 1 0 - 1 3 m) in height, b a n a n a s are not technically trees at all. They never develop woody tissues. Their thick, succulent trunks consist

entirely of fleshy, overlapping leaf bases, so that in cross section all one sees are concentric rings, like an enormous onion. Staggering amounts of water are required for a banana plant to attain full maturity: an average of 16 feet (5 m) of water per year. No wonder that Hawaiians, indeed all warm-climate gardeners, need access to nearby streams. And it is no wonder, too, that the first "trees" to topple when furious storms whip through are the bananas, generally top-heavy ones laden with fruit. Water is weaker than wood. This point is expressed aptly in the Hawaiian language: Nui pu mai'a 'dhaka o loko (It is large like a banana stem but soft inside) — that is, large, but weak. And He pu mai'a, loa'a i ke kiklao (He is like a banana stalk, but falls when hit by a gust of wind). This remark derides someone for appearing strong but when a test arises, he is spineless. Bananas have a fascinating life history. Planted as a keiki 2 or 3 feet (up to 1 m) high, its narrow juvenile leaves are quickly replaced with the familiar larger, rounded blades. Each new, tightly rolled leaf grows upward from a short, ground-level stem, aided by a waxy, white lubricant. As the "tree" matures, bearing an attractive spreading crown of broad leaves, its narrow stem lengthens, forcing its way up through the sheathing leaf bases. This central column, the true trunk, usually bends over (some species have erect flowerheads), and its tip opens to reveal a terminal, purple "bud," an ingenious protection for the dozens of little yellow flowers that later develop into fruits. (An easy way to differentiate between heliconias and bananas, which have almost identical leaves, is to note the presence or absence of a trunk. Bananas have one, heliconias generally do not.) The flowers lie in flat layers, each protected by a purple, leaflike covering (bract) that rolls back like a rose petal to expose the flowers. Banana flowers do not need fertilization, so as soon as the bracts unfurl the flower bases swell into baby bananas. At first the tiny fruits fit snugly together in tight bundles. As they grow, they push apart, forming "hands" of the familiar round bananas. When they are ready the gardener not only lops off the bunch, but slashes down the entire plant because it only bears fruit once. By this time, keiki have grown around its base (a good farmer culls them to two), and a new life cycle begins. Today hundreds of banana varieties exist in a myriad of shapes, sizes, textures, colors, and flavors. They may be short, long, bitter, or sweet. Flesh color ranges from dirty white through various shades of yellow and orange to a beautiful pinkish salmon. Most are delicious raw; others (plantains) require cooking. If you have an opportunity to sample a "wild Hawaiian" banana, it will most likely be the variety iholena, bearing bronzy leaf undersides and apricot-colored flesh (they are best cooked). Another wild variety, formerly taboo to women, is the tall lele, planted near altars and offered to the gods for love magic. Lele is a delightfully descriptive word, meaning "to fly, leap, bounce, jump, sail through the air." We find it in the word for waterfall, wailele ("leaping water"), but here, as a banana variety, the name alludes to the fact that the "spirit of the banana" was believed to "fly" up to the gods.

An ornamental, the self-peeling banana (Musa vclulina) with pink flowers and fruits, 'Akaka Falls, island of Hawai'i.

To many people in the Western world, bananas are only eaten raw and ripe. However, most banana varieties can be cooked when semiripe by steaming, boiling, or, best of all, sauteing in butter, garlic, salt, and red hot peppers. Different cooking styles impart totally different flavors to raw, ripe ones. On many Pacific and Caribbean islands, plain boiled or steamed green bananas are daily staples. If these are too plain and starchy, creative cooks can magically turn them into flavorful dishes by the addition of vegetables, fish or meat, coconut cream, butter, and spices. Scientific name: Musa x paradisiaca (Syn. M. sapientum) Other names: Mai'a; iholena and lele (common "wild" types); plantain, platano. Common cultivars: 'Bluefields' ('Gros Michel'), 'Chinese' ('Dwarf Cavendish'), 'Brazilian' ('Apple'), 'Williams Hybrid,' 'Hamakua' Family: Musaceae (banana family); 42 species, primarily native to the Asian, Southwest Pacific, and Australian Tropics; related to heliconias, birds-of-paradise, traveler's tree

34

Ferns:

'Ama'u (Sadleria)

H

awaiian women, carrying handwoven bags, walk from all directions toward a rendezvous in Waimea, O'ahu. Members of their 'ohana (extended family) have been amassing strips of old worn tapa (kapa or bark cloth) to weld together. The production of new tapa is a lengthy, time-consuming process, and the native 'ama'u fern has traditionally been utilized to prolong the usefulness of used tapa. Manufactured by beating the soaked fibers of the bark of paper mulberry (wauke) (or that of other plants such as young breadfruit and mámaki), tapa becomes thin and holey very quickly in Waimea's hot, humid climate. It cannot be washed or wrung out and literally falls apart as fibers separate under the stresses of daily activity. The day before, people had hiked into the Ko'olau Range's deep mountain valleys to collect armfuls of 'ama'u fronds. Now several women squeeze out small chunks of green pulpy sap from their stems. This is a glue, solid, mucilaginous. They place this adhesive onto the tapa scraps and then beat it in along the edges, joining them in quiltlike fashion. The beater, appropriately, is a rolled fern frond, which adds more sap during the flailing process. So recycling is not new. Actually, effective utilization of raw materials and resources is a distinctive feature of indigenous peoples worldwide, especially islanders. Attention to the fundamentals of survival — fresh water, adequate food, shelter, and clothing — was, and still is, crucial on isolated islands, although times are changing fast. Ancient Hawaiians, particularly those living in areas where it took substantial effort to replace basic necessities, lived in part by the principle of "waste not, want not." Tapa recycling, fishing taboos, and religious restraints were age-old customs. These practices varied greatly within communities and from year to year. Sometimes conservation ethics were admirable; at other times (from today's perspective) these same people were unnecessarily unkind to their land. Mulching with 'ama'u fronds was one of the many areas where the ancient Hawaiians were particularly astute agriculturally. Specialists in

35

A fresh y o u n g 'ama'u

frond u n f o l d s ,

s p a r k l i n g with s u n s c r e e n i n g p i g m e n t a t i o n . W a i k a m o i Preserve, Maui.

taro production, they gained high yields from both wet a n d dry habitats. Before planting dryland taro they covered the fallow ground with fern fronds a n d other organic matter (ti, wild ginger, a n d others). W h e n rain clouds a p p r o a c h e d they parted the mulch a n d planted the tiny taro plants (keiki),

restoring the mulch after the rains to c o n s e r v e water, retain

topsoil, a n d hinder weeds. " O v e r h e a d the rain, clear away the mulch b e n e a t h " w a s a tidbit of wisdom from Hawaiian farmers living in a r e a s of infrequent rainfall. If you imagine ferns a s lacy plants embowering forested gullies a n d adding d e l i c a c y to dripping waterfalls, you are correct, but only partly. S o m e ferns are extremely hardy, exemplified by those that inhabit desolate

regions where

even

Hawai'i's e n d e m i c (unique) 'ama'umau

grass a n d s h r u b s

cannot

grow.

(the plural form of the word)

are a m o n g the world's most rugged ferns. T h e six s p e c i e s range from sea level to over 8 , 0 0 0 feet ( 2 , 4 4 0 m) elevation, from c o a s t a l cliffs through deep, s h a d y rain forests to windswept s u b a l p i n e < A p r o f u s i o n o f 'amci'uma'u

ferns n e s t l e d in a g u l c h

a m i d b e a u t i f u l n a t i v e forest, Alaka'i S w a m p , K a u a ' i ,

grasslands

In places, 'äma'uma'u form a narrow belt connecting alpine grasslands a n d shrublands. North slope, Haleakalä, Maui.

and austere, unvegetated lava flows. They are easily identified by the small trunk and rather stiff fronds, 3 to 4 feet (about 1 m) long and less lacy than those of the larger hapu'u tree ferns, and young bronzy red fiddleheads. On the Big Island, their habit of colonizing fresh lava flows is remarkable. At times, 'ama'uma'u, dwarfed and leathery, may constitute the only visible plant life over vast stretches of 'a'a lava (rough and clinkery). The most curious form, however, occurs in high-elevation bogs, where diminutive, yet mature, spore-producing ferns may never grow higher than a few inches (10 cm). They look like tiny color photos lifted out of a book and enlivened. Unfortunately, despite their hardiness and tolerance to a wide range of environmental conditions, 'ama'uma'u die readily when transplanted from the wild into home gardens. This may be why the ancient Havvaiians never cultivated it. This widespread fern, occurring on all major Hawaiian islands, had other uses besides tapa recycling: temporary housing, famine food, dyes, and weaving. For the modern hiker, dead fronds laid beneath a pup tent provide a delightfully spongy mattress, both a comfort and a necessity for protection against jagged lava or squishy mud. Birth, life, and death coexist in these uniquely Hawaiian ferns. Every 'ama'u bears dead fronds that droop downward, partly covering its short trunk. Above these is a spiraled circlet of living, arching green fronds, and at the apex one or two pink bronze fiddleheads unfold from its terminal growing point. Each fresh burst of life exhibits such vibrancy and radiance that one's eyes cannot help but linger on the beauty. Fern fronds like this have been emerging in rosy symmetry, living briefly, and dying slowly, for millions of years. Each in its prime is a classic example

Unfolding under a shady rain forest canopy, 'ama'u fronds emerge much greener because the reddish, protective sunscreen pigmentation is unnecessary.

of p e r f e c t i o n , y e t h o w rapidly it is r e p l a c e d b y a n o t h e r of e q u a l e x q u i s i t e n e s s . Is this a p e r s o n a l l e s s o n for us? Scientific n a m e : Sadleria

cyatheoides

Other names: 'Ama'u, 'äma'uma'u sadleria

(plural), common

Family: Blechnaceae, a worldwide fern family; 2 6 0 species

40

Ferns:

Hapu'u (tree ferns)

F

iltered light streams through the forest canopy highlighting the understory verdure. As if by magic, all gloominess is dispelled and you stand in a fairyland. Embowering you in apple green lucency are delicately lacy tree ferns, riveting your attention on their exquisite color and symmetry. From the center of each stately tree fern arise several erect, furry stems, crowned by woolly, unfurling spirals that bear a striking resemblance to the scrollheads of orchestral string instruments. What archaic tunes can be heard from Nature's giant fiddles? Listen: Dripping water plops in sweet, glockenspiel-like ringing tones from arching fern fronds to a ground-level pool. Ripe spores from older fronds pop from their spore cases with tiny explosions. Scurrying insect feet patter across sparkling greenery. Avian choruses tinkle and twitter in the background, and tree trunks groan as the wind periodically tests their flexibility. All are perfect accompanists to the whispers murmured from hundreds of ferny fiddleheads ranging in size from smaller than the tiniest Suzuki violin to larger than the extinct "great double basses." A symphony is there — we need only our own silence and attunement to its music. What would a rain forest be like without tree ferns? Much less charming, as we know from comparison with those Hawaiian forests that have lost them. Flourishing over several thousand feet of elevation, Hawai'i's four species of endemic tree ferns require a steady and abundant supply of water. Given shade from larger trees, they form, especially on the Big Island, an almost continuous secondary layer of forest greenery. In turn, they protect the more fragile ferns, vines, and ground-hugging plants. Gullies and narrow chasms, maximizing high humidity, are especially favored. Hapu'u, the Hawaiian name for tree ferns (still in widespread use today), are unlike woody trees. They act more like fern rosettes living atop their own dead stems. A single "trunk," which may attain 25 feet (8 m) in height and 20 inches (50 cm) in diameter, is composed simply of a central column of starch ensheathed in the bases of old fronds. As most

gardeners in Hawai'i know, one must water hapu'u at the top, where new fronds arise, rather than at ground level. (A note to gardeners: frequent watering and occasional doses of liquid fertilizer at the frond bases will keep your tree fern healthy and green.) Throughout the world's temperate and tropical regions, indigenous peoples have utilized tree ferns, both dead and alive. The Hawaiians

A fiddlehead fit for a symphony.

A hapu'u

slope in undisturbed rain forest, Oloku'i Plateau, 3 , 4 0 0 feet ( 1 , 0 3 0 m), Moloka'i.

were no exception, occasionally paving forest paths with them, or (in times of scarcity) eating them. The interlacing trunk fibers are today prized by commercial flower growers, who use them as a sterile substratum onto which the aerial roots of orchids and anthuriums attach. Over many years, as much as 70 pounds (32 kg) of pure starch (a fair source of carbohydrate) may be laid down in one tree fern's central core. In bygone days, whole trunks were freed of their outer fibers, cooked, and then split to provide food for either people or pigs. It is not really necessary to steam the starch for pigs, however: One of the telltale

42

signs of a large feral pig population in island forests is the presence of gouged-out hapu'u trunks, sad reminders of a formerly pristine condition. Around 1920 a starch industry began on the Big Island, producing hapu'u starch used for cooking (thickeners) and laundry. Threatening large tracts of beautiful forest, this industry was mercifully halted after a short time, but housing development adjacent to Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park continues to gnaw away at these beautiful areas. Undoubtedly the most useful of hapu'u's gifts to the ancient Hawaiians was a rather unusual, soft, flocculent product called pulu. This silky fluff, gathered in handfuls from unfolding fiddleheads, is composed of thousands of golden brown scales that protect young buds and stem bases. In ancient times, little was harvested; its primary use was for embalming the dead, an interesting process. After the corpse was eviscerated, it was stuffed with pulu, sewed up with olona (native twine) cord, wrapped in black tapa for several months, and finally buried. Research has found that pulu contains an acid that absorbs body liquids, drying up deceased bodies so that the skin feels like parchment (hence lengthening "life")- After Westerners arrived in the Islands, pulu's export potential was glimpsed, and village chiefs were eager to supervise its collection

Cibotium

Plenty of pulu protects the stems of chamissoi. Alaka'i Swamp, Kaua'i.

by the sackful. Orders were given to collect every meager handful, every dab of fluff. Tall hápu'u, even those with scant pulu, were slashed down and left to rot. Between 1867 and 1884 an astonishing volume of sundried pulu was exported — more than 4 million pounds (2 million kilograms). It padded everything stuffable: pillows, mattresses, quilts, cadavers, and toys. It generated income for a small nation recently exposed to materialism and suffering acutely from debts accumulated during the Sandalwood Era. Although at first glance an acceptable substitute for down (light, airy, soft), pulu unfortunately was found to provide only temporary comfort. Forester C. S. ludd commented in 1927 on pulu pillows: "when new, these were admirable, but after the thread-like cells had broken down the mattresses became lumpy and an old pulu pillow was just as comfortable as a bag of very fine sand." Today, wild hápu'u are transplanted extensively for commercial and private landscaping (especially on the Big Island). Their natural populations are further diminished by feral pigs on the major islands. Fortu