Handloom Sustainability and Culture: Artisanship and Value Addition (Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry) 9811652716, 9789811652714

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Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry

Miguel Ángel Gardetti Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu Editors

Handloom Sustainability and Culture Artisanship and Value Addition

Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry Series Editor Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, Head of Sustainability, SgT and API, Kowloon, Hong Kong

This series aims to address all issues related to sustainability through the lifecycles of textiles from manufacturing to consumer behavior through sustainable disposal. Potential topics include but are not limited to: Environmental Footprints of Textile manufacturing; Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Textile production; Environmental impact models of Textiles and Clothing Supply Chain; Clothing Supply Chain Sustainability; Carbon, energy and water footprints of textile products and in the clothing manufacturing chain; Functional life and reusability of textile products; Biodegradable textile products and the assessment of biodegradability; Waste management in textile industry; Pollution abatement in textile sector; Recycled textile materials and the evaluation of recycling; Consumer behavior in Sustainable Textiles; Eco-design in Clothing & Apparels; Sustainable polymers & fibers in Textiles; Sustainable waste water treatments in Textile manufacturing; Sustainable Textile Chemicals in Textile manufacturing. Innovative fibres, processes, methods and technologies for Sustainable textiles; Development of sustainable, eco-friendly textile products and processes; Environmental standards for textile industry; Modelling of environmental impacts of textile products; Green Chemistry, clean technology and their applications to textiles and clothing sector; Eco-production of Apparels, Energy and Water Efficient textiles. Sustainable Smart textiles & polymers, Sustainable Nano fibers and Textiles; Sustainable Innovations in Textile Chemistry & Manufacturing; Circular Economy, Advances in Sustainable Textiles Manufacturing; Sustainable Luxury & Craftsmanship; Zero Waste Textiles.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16490

Miguel Ángel Gardetti · Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu Editors

Handloom Sustainability and Culture Artisanship and Value Addition

Editors Miguel Ángel Gardetti Center for Studies on Sustainable Luxury Buenos Aires, Argentina

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu SgT Group and API Kowloon, Hong Kong

ISSN 2662-7108 ISSN 2662-7116 (electronic) Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry ISBN 978-981-16-5271-4 ISBN 978-981-16-5272-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5272-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

This title “Sustainability, Culture and Handloom” consists of three volumes— Entrepreneurship, Culture and Luxury; Artisanship and Value Addition; and Product Development, Design and Environmental Aspects arises from an idea originated on August 7, 2020, on the occasion of the National Handloom Day in India. It is held annually to commemorate the Swadeshi Movement launched in 1905. It is a tribute that publishers do in order to celebrate this day. Garments, in modern life and consumerist societies, appear to be homogenized products, with little or no differences at all. Artisanship and craftsmanship bring a whole new universe of small differences and dissimilarities that enrich and nourish all the universe of garments. These pieces, that hold the essence of heritage and uniqueness through techniques, materials and handmade, might be defined as “cultural luxury.” Beyond the essence and scarcity in handicraft products, these pieces are associated with an emotional value precisely due to the cultural process of maintaining cultural heritage based on traditions that are passed from generation to generation [1]. Craftsmanship luxury pieces carry the evidence of knowledge and ancient techniques that pass through generations, assuring cultural diversity and heritage, and those are intangibles of artisanship. Publishers and authors of this title share both interests; they are moved by the motivation to preserve and pass on the savoir-fair of those wise hands that ensure ancient techniques, passing this knowledge through generations and making luxury craftsmanship possible. Social and cultural aspects in craftsmanship reflect and keep alive the essence and hold the values, the traditions and the cultural social exchange. The cultural sustainability of handicrafts is to keep this knowledge applied, and present, for example to demonstrate through the daily use of handicrafts in our daily lives and be present of the essence of those pieces. In summary, envisioning and expanding the traditions and culture expressed in the artisan pieces assure, maintain and sustain cultural heritage and diversity [2]. This volume “Artisanship and Value Addition” consists of seven chapters that give a comprehensive outlook about this subject and begins with the work titled “Handloom: Resistance to Time and Challenges” by Vera Felippi. In this chapter, v

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the author analyzes the craftsman as a contemporary professional, who has access to the Internet, a profile on social networks to advertise his work, who is interested in environmental and social issues and who gets their income from handloom pieces. It highlights their challenges and potentials. The following chapter, “Honoring Artisanship Over Skilled Labor: The Solution to Sustaining Indian Handloom” written by Judy Frater and Dr. Jana Hawley, explores, through two case studies, the challenges that weavers face to sustain their artisanal crafts. Today, many are leaving handloom because their artwork requires great efforts, and it does not provide the recognition and monetary value to survive. This chapter analyzes opportunities and potentials, and the possibility to empower artisan communities through their pieces and being recognized as essential partners in the garments ecosystem. Then, Emine Bakan and Ozan Avinc develop the chapter titled “Sustainable Carpet and Rug Hand Weaving in U¸sak Province of Turkey”. Their research provides information on carpet and rug hand-weaving which are still underway and alive in Turkey and especially in the U¸sak province of Turkey, through interviews with handloom artisans to introduce U¸sak carpet and rug hand-weaving and U¸sak handwoven carpets and rugs to the economy and culture through their eyes. Subsequently, the purpose of Dr. S. Grace Annapoorani’s in “Sustainable Development in the Handloom Industry” is to introduce sustainable development and to present challenges and potentials in the handloom industry emphasizing in economic development and the impact this may have on rural poverty and women empowerment. Moving on to the next chapter, “Value Addition in Handloom Textile Products for Sustainability”, the authors—M. Gopalakrishnan and D. Saravanan—present an overview of the various novel home textile materials manufactured in handlooms and explain processing of recycled textile materials and different variants of handlooms. The following chapter entitled, “My Loom and Me: The Role of the Handloom in a Weaver’s Identity Creation” by Sharon Nunoo, Rachel Parker-Strak, Marta Blazquez and Claudia E. Henninger focuses on the role of Ghanaian artisans and how Ghanaian Kente textiles express their identities. It makes special emphasis on traditional trading and the impacts of globalization and modernization, in traditional trade, bringing to light social and economic sustainability, more specifically the well-being of the weavers within Bonwire, Ghana. Finally, R. Rathinamoorthy and R. Prathiba Devi develop the chapter titled “Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu—A Case Study”. The objective of this chapter is to measure the various problems faced by the handloom weavers in the Coimbatore region of Tamil Nadu. It focuses on the challenges and the potential issues which affect the sustainability of the handloom sector in Tamil Nadu. Buenos Aires, Argentina Kowloon, Hong Kong

Miguel Ángel Gardetti Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu

Preface

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References 1. 2.

Guldager S (2015) Irreplaceable luxury garments. In: Gardetti MA, Muthu SS (eds) Handbook of sustainable luxury textiles and fashion, vol 2. Springer, Singapore, pp 73–97 Na Y, Lamblin M (2012) Sustainable Luxury: Sustainable Crafts in a Redefined Concept of Luxury from Contextual Approach to Case Study Making Futures Journal Vol 3 ISSN 2042– 1664

Contents

Handloom: Resistance to Time and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vera Felippi

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Honoring Artisanship Over Skilled Labor: The Solution to Sustaining Indian Handloom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Judy Frater and Jana M. Hawley

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Sustainable Carpet and Rug Hand Weaving in U¸sak Province of Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emine Bakan and Ozan Avinc

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Sustainable Development in the Handloom Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Grace Annapoorani

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Value Addition in Handloom Textile Products for Sustainability . . . . . . . 119 M. Gopalakrishnan, R. Vijayasekar, A. Ashok Kumar, and D. Saravanan My Loom and Me: The Role of the Handloom in a Weaver’s Identity Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Sharon Nunoo, Rachel Parker-Strak, Marta Blazquez, and Claudia E. Henninger Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu—A Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 R. Rathinamoorthy and R. Prathiba Devi

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Abstract The purpose of this article is to reflect on the challenges that surround the handloom universe: products, craftsmen, and the market. To demonstrate the richness and diversity of possibilities, we opted for the case study of two handmade fabrics. To contribute to the reflection, we present features that concern the fabric, the craftswomen who produced them, and their target markets. Although contemporary needs are receptive to artisanal products associated with tradition and culture, sustainable, and timeless, such attributes alone do not guarantee their success. Numerous challenges such as competition with industrialized products, management, production, partnerships with other areas, and the search for knowledge must be seen and considered successful activities to contribute to the strengthening, protection, and continuity of the fabrics made in the handloom. Keywords Handloom · Textile crafts · Textile craftsman · Textile products · Manual weaving · Craft tradition · Experiences · Challenges

1 Introduction In times when the receptivity to handcrafted products that carry added cultural value, aspects of sustainability, exclusivity, originality, and timelessness are recurring themes, the handloom and the craftsman have their space and are admired. The loom and the practice, dating back to antiquity and standing out as a backdrop for the love between Penelope and Ulysses, arrive today surrounded by curiosities and enchantment. The textile craftsman can build fabrics using handlooms and obtain rustic or delicate fabrics at different levels of complexity, combine different raw materials, produce unique pieces or on a small and medium scale. A universe of infinite possibilities opens up for this tool, which does not have a very complicated operation but presents challenges to obtain results that escape the obvious. Even with a wide V. Felippi (B) Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Á. Gardetti and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Handloom Sustainability and Culture, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5272-1_1

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range of possibilities, the combination “craftsman + handloom” faces challenges, which this study aims to reflect on, as well as discuss possibilities to overcome them, seeking to build knowledge for the success and continuity of this practice. Countries like Mexico [6], South Africa [12], Portugal [5], Brazil [3, 16], India [20], among others, are concerned with craft activities and study ways to protect and encourage different practices. Moreover, it is justified to approach the subject because there is a favorable and growing scenario for artisanal products, with concerns related to sustainability, valuing cultures, authorial and timeless products. However, even with this favorable scenario, there is no guarantee of success for handcrafted products. There is, among other issues, the need to balance production with contemporary needs. Due to the theme’s breadth, in this study, we will focus on textiles made in a handloom and, to guide the reflection, a case study was carried out with two types of fabrics produced in the same region, southern Brazil. They are entirely different fabrics. One is characterized by a strong bond with the region’s tradition and culture, and the other by focusing on contemporary design. Both reflect the profiles of the craftswomen who produced them. Consequently, the market and the target audience are also different. The relevance of presenting them in this discussion is connected to the issue to be understood: Given the countless possibilities of products, different craftsmen, and market profiles, are the challenges faced the same? It is also worth reflecting on actions that can be taken to face such challenges that revolve around the competition with industrialized fabrics, management, connection with traditions and culture, partnerships with other areas of knowledge, production, and the search for support in institutions promoting craftwork. The theoretical framework is based on Richard Sennet, Octavio Paz, Néstor Canclini, among others, to build an argument that contributes to the knowledge of the scenario and encourages the continuity of knowledge and practices. This article’s empirical foundation is based on the author’s experiences, who has been working in the creation and production of fabrics in the handloom for over two decades. The experience and performance in the textile industry contribute to understanding issues related to products and marketing. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, craft has generally been associated with artifacts creation, while research is associated with knowledge production [9]. In this study, the author combines her experience as a craftswoman and researcher with several authors aiming to contribute to the practice of handmade textile production and the construction of knowledge.

2 The Handloom and Handcrafted Textile Practice Over Time The importance and coexistence of textiles with humanity date back to the prehistoric era. Grömer [8] points out that textiles have shaped people’s lives in the past and that weaving was ubiquitous. In The Art of Prehistoric Textile, [8] addresses the textile

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production in Central Europe in the Neolithic period and the Iron Age, reporting how the production was made, the places where the products were woven, who produced them, and the evolution of home and specialized production. The author points out that the first evidence of weaving was in the Neolithic period with the use of the warp-weighted loom. In previous periods, weaving, mainly using fibers (such as linen), did not exist because of the nomadic lifestyle. We assume that the textile crafts, at least in the Neolithic period and Bronze Age, occurred in the domestic scope. At the end of the Iron Age, the development and production methods started to be organized in workshops. As a result, there was an increase in production and the need for commercialization [8]. Anderson-Strand [1] and Grömer [8] do not delve into the gender issue in the involvement with this activity, while [15] comments that since primitive times, weaving was an activity reserved for women and that gave them respectability in public life. The author adds that “as the archaic society became classic, the weavers’ public virtue continued to be celebrated” [15, p. 33], noting that other domestic trades such as cooking did not have this prestige. Over time, we have witnessed the struggle of manual fabrics for survival. There was the period of its appearance, rise, and even repression of the weavings in some situations. We can exemplify the repression with what happened in Brazil in 1785 when D. Maria I, queen of Portugal, signed a treaty demanding the extinction of handlooms in Brazil [16]. Handweaving also faced the advent of industrial society, but handicraft skills resisted. Sennet [15, p. 19] designates “manual skill” as a human impulse with a desire to do a job well for its own sake. The author points out that the craftsman focuses on the intimate relationship between the hand and the head, but that “Western civilization is characterized by a deep-seated difficulty in establishing connections between the head and the hand, in establishing and stimulating the impulse of craft expertise” [15, p. 20]. Regarding the craft, its evolution and skill, Paz considers: Handicraft does not want to last for millennia nor is possessed by the urge to die soon. It flows day by day, it flows with us, it wears itself little by little, it does not seek death or deny it: but accept it. Existing between the time without a time of the museum and the accelerated time of the technique, the handicraft is the palpitation of human time. It is a useful object, but it is also beautiful; an object that lasts but ends and is resigned to its own end; an object that is not unique, like the work of art, and that can be replaced by another object similar but not identical. The handicraft teaches us to die and thus teaches us to live. [13, p. 139]

In the contemporary world, attention to textile craft practices is also given and measured by important institutions, including the United Nations. In the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) report entitled Creative Economy Outlook: trends in international trade in creative industries (2018), it is possible to verify the economic importance of crafts in international trade. It reached US$35 billion in 2015 and continues to grow. World exports increased from US$19.9 billion in 2002 to US$35 billion in 2015, with an average annual growth rate of 4.42% during the period 2003–2015. According to the report, “art crafts continue to be among the most important creative industry sector for export earnings for

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developing countries. The products with the highest penetration in world markets include carpets, celebration items, yarns products, and wickerwork” [19, p. 26]. Even without specifying the textile crafts amount, the sector looks prosperous and promising for textile craftsmen. Another fact that deserves our attention: Craft production (in general, including textiles) has only a 7% share in world exports, while products related to design, for example, have a 62% share [19, p. 22]. This issue is taken up later (item 4) when we discuss the challenges faced by the textiles produced in the handloom. We will use the concept of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for “artisanal products” as follows: Products that are produced by artisans, either completely by hand or with the help of handtools or even mechanical means, as long as the direct manual contributions of the artisan remains the most substantial component of the finished product. The special nature of artisanal products derives from their distinctive features, which can be utilitarian, aesthetic, artistic, creative, culturally attached, decorative, functional, traditional, religiously and socially symbolic and significant [17, p. 6].

By “handmade craft,” we approach the idea defended by Sennet [15], which consists of the activity carried out with the hands and with the mind aiming to create products whose purposes are focused on its functionality in itself. The people involved—the craftsmen—dedicate themselves to art for the sake of art, which, despite having a practical character, is not just a means to reach another end. In this sense, there is an engagement that goes far beyond artisanal expertise. As a result, according to the author, the technique at its highest levels is no longer a mechanical activity, and people are able to fully feel and think deeply about what they are doing when they do it well. Aiming to combine the concepts presented with the textiles produced by handloom, next, we will address the case study, which will guide the reflections on the challenges surrounding the artisanal textiles universe.

3 Case Study: Considerations About Product, Craftswomen, and Market Based on the countless possibilities for creating fabrics in the handloom, whether for the fashion, accessories, or decoration market, it is necessary to think beyond the product and consider the craftsmen’s profile and the markets in which they work. Product, craftsman, and market are inseparable, and the case study contributes to the understanding and exemplification of the handloom’s diversity of possibilities. We present two fabrics (Figs. 1 and 2) produced in the handloom to contribute and illustrate these issues. Different craftswomen produced the fabrics. Each of them has her own studio in the southern region of Brazil, more specifically in the city of Porto Alegre, State of Rio Grande do Sul.

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Fig. 1 Fabric made in handloom by craftswoman Leila Taborda. Photo author’s record

The fabrics are completely different. We can observe this in the textile structure and the visual aspect, and these differences are reflections of the craftswomen’s profiles. As a consequence, they are products aimed at different markets. Examining the two figures, we listed each of the fabrics’ characteristics regarding the products, the craftswomen’s profile, and the market: 1.

The products

The fabric represented in Fig. 1 was produced in a handloom, using 100% handspun wool. The colors were obtained from the Corriedale sheep’s naturally colored yarn. The fabric was produced to make a poncho, a southern Brazilian gaucho’s typical costume item, which has many similarities with the typical garment used in other South American countries. The fabric in Fig. 2 was also produced using a handloom. It was made of viscose yarn purchased from local stores. This fabric was produced to make accessories (shawls/scarves) and aimed at the luxury fashion market. The fabrics presented are difficult to reproduce in industrial looms (but not impossible) because the fabric in Fig. 1 was produced from handspun yarn, which gives it little resistance if placed in an industrial loom’s warp. In the fabric represented in Fig. 2, the decorative elements hinder industrial reproduction. Table 1 shows some characteristics related to each of the fabrics. In Table 1, only a few characteristics were mentioned to illustrate the products’ diversity.

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Fig. 2 Fabric made in handloom by craftswoman Vera Felippi. Photo author’s record

The fabric in Fig. 1 has a strong bond with tradition. It has the ability to express a people’s culture. In this specific case, the component that makes it a strong product also limits the possibilities of significant changes in the products, as there is a risk of mischaracterizing it. Besides, because it is part of typical clothing, its manufacture is guided by the requirements of Gaucho Traditionalist Movement [7], called CTG’s. Some centers have strict rules that guide the fabric type (from structure to color), how the fabric and the costume itself are produced. The craftsman who wants to manufacture a product aimed at this niche market must follow the guidelines. The poncho, whether or not following these norms, is used both in rural and urban environments. The fabric in Fig. 2 has no ties to tradition and culture. It was created and produced to make shawls/scarves for use in the urban environment, aimed at the luxury market. In this case, it is not necessary to follow any guidelines to create or change the product (by refining or simplifying it). Any change can result in a new product without risk to the previous one. As it is a product that looks very different from what the consumer

Handloom: Resistance to Time and Challenges

Fig. 3 Detail from fabric in Fig. 1. Photo Author’s record

Fig. 4 Detail from fabric in Fig. 2. Photo Author’s record

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Table 1 Comparison of characteristics from the fabrics represented in Figs. 1 and 2 Fabric characteristics from Fig. 1

Fabric characteristics from Fig. 2

A strong bond with traditional elements

It is more connected to market trends (fashion) than tradition

Applied to a Rio Grande do Sul’s regional clothing representative item

No bond with the region where it was produced

It is possible to recognize the use of the The use of the handloom in the fabric’s handloom by familiarity with the final product production is not apparent (especially for those who do not know the technique) Use of traditional raw material and produced by the craftswoman

Raw materials acquired in local commerce

Production can be massive and perennial

Production can be massive, but usually with limited quantity

Timeless

Concern about timelessness

Little flexibility for changes. Significant changes can mischaracterize them

Drastic changes can be made in the design resulting in new fabric

Product for personal use

Product for personal use

The aesthetic concern is associated with tradition

Aesthetic concern focused on the market

Rural and urban use

Predominantly urban use

Main use: protection against cold

Main use: adornment

public is used to seeing in fabrics made in the handloom, the production process needs to be informed to increase the product’s added value. Timelessness is a common feature for both products. Neither of the products is “disposable,” as they were created and produced to be durable. The poncho has been produced for hundreds of years, and the fabric represented in Fig. 2 had its first version produced 20 years ago and is still in the craftswoman’s portfolio. The list of characteristics is not limited to what is exposed here. The ones considered are intended to present elements for reflection. We now move on to some considerations about the craftswomen who produced the fabrics. 2.

Craftswomen

The craftswoman who produced the piece corresponding to Fig. 1, whom we will call Craftswoman 1, has 50 years of experience and focus on the production of pieces associated with the regional tradition, both clothing and decorative items. The artisan who produced the piece corresponding to Fig. 2, whom we will call Craftswoman 2, has 22 years of experience and her production focuses on the fashion and decoration market. The idea of a craftsman as a person who only performs manual and repetitive work does not fit today (and perhaps at no other time) because the connection between mind and hands is present in their work. The mastery of technique and its practice is the craftsman’s characteristic, and, according to Sennet, “the technique has a bad

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Table 2 Comparison of the profile characteristics of the craftswomen producing the fabrics in Figs. 1 and 2 Craftswoman 1

Craftswoman 2

Empirical learning passed from generation to generation

Specialized course learning

Mastery of technique

Mastery of technique

Individual performance

Individual performance

Manages all process steps: raw materials’ purchase/preparation, creation, production, marketing, and sales

Manages all stages of the process: raw materials’ purchase/preparation, creation, production, marketing, and sales

Develops sustainable products

Develops sustainable products

Knowledge of raw materials focused on her productive environment

Knowledge of various raw materials

Rarely uses unconventional raw material

Often uses unconventional raw material

Online presence on the Internet: little activity but has social network accounts

Online presence on the Internet: intense activity through blog, social networks, website, and marketplaces

Ministers courses

Ministers courses

reputation; it may seem devoid of soul. But this is not how it is seen by people who acquire a high degree of training in their hands. For them, the technique will always be closely linked to expression” [15, p. 169] This is reflected in the fabrics presented here and in the strong bond that craftsmen have with their instruments, the practice, and the results. Table 2 shows some characteristics in each of the craftswomen’s profile. As we can see from the table, the craftswomen’s profiles are very different, starting with learning. While Craftswoman 1’s learning was empirical, Craftswoman 2 sought to learn through a specialized course. The mastery of technique and the management of all work stages are common to both. Although the two craftswomen work individually in their workshops, there is nothing to prevent them from associating with other craftsmen or collectives. They chose to work this way so they can determine their own work rhythm. Regarding sustainability concerns, the two artisans focus on the creation and production of pieces that minimize environmental impacts. Craftswoman 1, for example, does the wiring of most of the wires used in her products. In addition, she prioritizes the use of naturally colored yarn of wool fibers, but when necessary, she performs the dyeing of the yarns. Craftswoman 2 acquires most of the raw material (yarns) in the local retail stores and very often acquires surplus yarns from also local textile industries. This way, she promotes waste utilization and contributes to giving a new destination to the yarns, re-signifying them in the fabrics produced in the handloom. With regard to raw materials, due to the difference in product typology, Craftswoman 2 is less linked to the production of pieces that refer to local tradition and culture, therefore she has more freedom for experimentation. In addition, a

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large part of her target audience expects to be surprised by new results and textures. In this regard, she uses ribbons, lace, leather, rhinestones in the fabric weft. On the other hand, due to her strong link with the regional culture, if Craftswoman 1 chooses to make significant modifications, she risks mischaracterizing the product and losing the “connection” with her target audience, which we will address in item “c”. Both are present on the internet, but Craftswoman 2 is more active in that environment. Nowadays, being “visible” and “present” online can help craftsmen increase sales and gain work recognition. Being connected and producing content for social media requires much work and is not an easy activity for the craftsman who is not familiar with the medium. Craftsmen often need to make choices, and if they choose to be present on online media, they must produce their content or hire someone to do it. And, finally, it is important to mention that both teach the technique to a diverse audience, which includes students from fashion and design courses, professionals from diverse areas, such as decorators, or people curious to learn a new craft and “make fabrics.” The possibility of organizing classes and courses contributes in two ways: as a way of disseminating knowledge and having an extra income. Moving on to the market considerations, we listed some characteristics of the markets where the products discussed here are inserted. 3.

Market

Although markets are attentive to aspects such as originality and quality, the demand for low-priced, machine-made, and superior quality products is a trend that affects handicrafts [12]. However, we must consider the market scenario that encourages production according to the slow movements (slow food, slow life, slow fashion) that are consolidated worldwide and are guided by sustainability and quality of life as a positive point for textiles made in the handloom. The market also recognizes aspects associated with authorial production and cultures’ appreciation. Still, none of this is enough for success if the products are not in line with these markets’ needs. Besides, it is necessary to know how to access and differentiate them from industrialized products. Octavio Paz says that “a few years ago, the general opinion was that handicrafts were doomed to disappear, replaced by industry. Today the exact opposite occurs: for better or for worse, handmade objects are already part of the world market” [13, p. 138]. Referring to the fabrics in Figs. 1 and 2, Table 3 shows some characteristics of the markets where the fabrics and products presented here are inserted. As the products mentioned here are different, this is undoubtedly reflected in their commercialization. Each of the fabrics has an adequate and receptive market profile. If the fabric in Fig. 1 is commercialized in a market that expects to consume the fabric in Fig. 2, and vice versa, there is a high chance of failure. The table shows that both products can be sold in stores, but it is necessary to emphasize that they are different stores’ styles. The poncho (Fig. 1), due to its characteristics, can be sold in specific regional products’ stores and tourist attractions’ stores. The fabric represented in Fig. 2 is aimed at stores that sell fashion products for the luxury market.

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Table 3 Comparison of the characteristics related to the market for products according to Figs. 1 and 2 Market for products related to Fig. 1

Market for products related to Fig. 2

Commercialization at fairs, specialized stores, and at the craftswoman’s studio

Commercialization at fairs, physical partner stores, the craftswoman’s online store and studio

Loyal customers who help spread the word to others

Loyal customers

Strong appeal for commercialization in regional The tourist appeal does not impact tourist spaces commercialization Little chance of “copying” due to the bond with More chances of “copies” because it has less local culture and tradition connection with aspects of a location’s tradition and culture Market that does not require changes in product Market more sensitive to product design design Market attentive for quality and durability

Market attentive to quality and originality

Competition with other artisans who produce the same type of fabric/product

Competition with industrialized products

Concerning customers, in general, the consumer audience who purchases such products admires the product, especially when buying directly from the craftsman. When buying directly from the craftsman, either online or in person, the consumer has the opportunity to know the product’s “path” until it reaches their hands. When commercialization occurs via an intermediary (mainly retailers), the way the product is exposed to the public will affect the customer’s decision. In this sense, the craftsman must pay close attention to their business partnerships so that their product is appropriately valued. Robertson [14] comments that the use of handmade objects can offer us an “experience of wealth”, [14]. With this in mind, when a consumer buys an artisanal textile product from a specific region, this is also a way of teaching the consumer about a specific location, especially in typical products with a specific type of production. The handlooms fabrics’ production in Brazil’s southern region (mainly in the state of Rio Grande do Sul) and in the southeast region (in the state of Minas Gerais) are well known and appreciated. Considering the products’ characteristics, the craftswomen’s and markets’ profile, the discussion now turns to the challenges and the reflection on whether they are the same in the presented scenario and the possible actions to face them.

4 Considerations on Challenges and Possible Actions From the above, we reflect on whether the challenges to be faced are the same for all types of products, markets, and craftsmen involved in manual weaving’s profiles.

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The discussion is complex, as the handicraft is an art and a business, and the need to respect the professionals (craftsmen) and how they design and produce each product is imposed. The craftswomen presented in this study are masters of their art: they design, produce, and sell. They have the ability to weave, know the raw materials and the countless possibilities of the tool, the handloom. We must consider that craftsmen have very different profiles in the contemporary world, and the markets behave differently in the way they receive the products. The pressure to innovate is increasing, and any change can promote knowledge development [5]. In this sense, the challenges do not necessarily have a negative connotation and can be an impetus for growth, leaving the comfort zone and overcoming barriers and obstacles. Despite the differences presented in the case study, the challenges to be faced are similar and, to a greater or lesser extent, are related to: (a) competition with industrialized products; (b) business management; (c) bond with the craft tradition and partnerships with other areas; (d) production; and (e) access and support from institutions promoting handicrafts. Some considerations about each of the challenges: 1.

Competition with industrialized products

The handloom does not require complex machine setups as occurs in the industry, which prevents small-scale production and the production of certain types of fabrics, such as those presented here. However, we cannot ignore that some power-looms might be capable of giving an artisanal appearance to the fabrics, which are acquired without question by the consumer, who is often unaware of the processes (both industrial and manual). That is probably the biggest challenge for fabrics made in the handloom. Educate the consumer, make the attributes of the fabrics visible, tirelessly explain the processes in all possible ways: through the Internet on the personal and/or brand profiles, websites, product labels, encourage visits to the production site, etc. When the craftsman (or group of craftsmen) sells their product directly at a fair or in their production space, communication is more straightforward. However, when the product is sold in stores, it is ideal that they are specialized stores where sellers explain the fabric/product attributes. One of the points in favor of textile crafts is that consumers are increasingly attentive and sensitive to the origin of the products they acquire, the raw materials used, the durability, and the life cycle of the products. In addition, as [12] points out, unique articles are also a trend among consumers, which results in an important demand for handmade pieces. Realizing this opportunity, retail stores partner with artisans and/or cooperatives in order to offer a greater diversity of products and show engagement with current market needs for products that carry cultural elements and sustainability aspects. This movement was detected by Makhitha [12] in South Africa and, here in Brazil, these initiatives are also already present in clothing and decoration stores. In these stores (mainly in large retail stores), handmade products are side by side with industrialized ones, which are often competitors. In this environment, the craftsman does not have the opportunity to list aspects of their work and it is up to

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the point of sale to inform the attributes of the products and to the consumer to make the choice. Makhitha [12] adds that the shopkeeper and the craftsman will only achieve success if the products are competitive, and one of the indicated ways is to adopt strategies in areas such as marketing aimed at understanding market needs. But just like a business, it is not possible to look only at marketing, since it is one of the components of the whole gear. In this sense, the following item discusses some aspects that relate to business management. 2.

Business management

The activities involved in the management are more than a few and the time involved in these activities is significant. Depending on the craftwork’s organizational structure to which the craftsman is bound, management-related activities may have a higher or lower degree of involvement. For example, in Brazil, the National Micro and Small Business Support Service [10] points out that the structural organization ranges from the individual artisan, through a structure where production can occur in the family nucleus (here there is already the involvement of a larger number of people) and advances to larger operations such as craft companies, associations, and cooperatives. To be structured as a cooperative, the requirements are greater, such as being a group of more than 20 people and having as goals: the search for greater efficiency in production; gain in quality and competitiveness; optimization and cost reduction in the acquisition of raw material, processing, transportation, distribution and sale of products [10]. Here it is already noticeable that the craftsman who works alone has a much higher workload than those who work in a group. Even so, there are no impediments to performing the management of your business. Maldonado [11] states that we live in a time of constant change and that innovation, quality, shortening of deadlines, market, and integration must be taken into account, even for artisanal products. And the author adds that to obtain and maintain a sustainable competitive advantage, artisanal production needs to be integrated into global development, taking into account this activity’s social, cultural, and manual characteristics. If craftsmen treat their work as a business, it is necessary to consider that the activities go beyond creation and production. The “extra” activities consist of raw materials purchase, financial resources management, purchase and sale records, product promotion, and marketing. No matter how small the business, such activities must be considered (and, as far as possible, performed) as there is a need to measure whether the business is profitable or not. If not, the craftsman might treat their activity more as a hobby than a business. Not every craftsman has a repertoire and knowledge about management. Their challenge is to find ways to learn it, aiming at their development and improvement (we will complement this issue in item “e”). 3.

Bond with the craft tradition and partnership with other areas

Another challenge is balancing the preservation of heritage, tradition, and identity in the handloom products and the need to develop original products with a design that is attractive to the consumer. Reconciling these needs is not an easy process, and for

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the response to be effective, it is essential to understand the target audience and the market [5]. According to Canclini [4], today, there is a more complex understanding of the relationship between tradition and modernity. In this sense, complexity makes it possible to strengthen ties with different areas, mainly with design. The connection between textile crafts and design is nothing new and is defended in events, academic research at different levels, and put into practice by professionals and institutions. In working together, it is possible to maintain traditional techniques inspired by cultural roots and introduce innovations to the market without losing sight of quality and sustainability [5]. Also, improvements in the visual identity for the producer’s or producer group’s brand and product development and quality analysis methods can be implemented for better management. For products with strong bonds with a region’s tradition and culture, the geographical identification granted by institutions that validate products can contribute as an added value. According to Vinayan [20], one of the earliest ways of differentiating goods for trade purpose has been to identify goods based on their geographical origin. The goal is to pass on information about the product and its characteristics, linked to natural and human resources involved in the process. The Geographical Indication (GI) is a way of protecting traditional knowledge, not to mention the ability to contribute to the organization of associations, to emphasize the quality of handmade textiles, integration with the different levels of the production chain, trust between the parties, and access to markets [20]. Geographic Indication actions are related to the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 1.1 There are eight registered geographical indications in Brazil, but none is specifically related to textile products made in handloom, despite extensive production from north to south of the country. The products with a geographical indication are associated with lace production (Renaissance lace, Irish lace, and File embroidery), clay pots, golden grass, tin pieces, precious opals, and colored cotton [3]. According to Niedderer and Townsend [9], handicraft seems to oscillate in a continuum between art and design, depending on the analysis’s parameters. In their study, they bring up authors who justify the claim and point out that when compared to art, crafts are often perceived as inferior in status, whether due to their economic value or to lack of intellectual activity claims. The authors add that the term “craft” seems to be one of the most debated terms in the world of art and design in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, which is almost always defined by what it is not, and not by what it is. The tension exists because, as we presented in this study, the fabrics made in the handloom assume very different characteristics, which is also impacted by the profile of those who produced it. While Craftswoman 1 has along her path (and remains) focused on products with roots in culture and tradition, Craftswoman 2 contemplates issues such as originality and creativity. The challenge here is to find (or keep) their niche markets.

1

International treaty that integrates the set of agreements signed in 1994, which ended the Uruguay Round and created the World Trade Organization [21].

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Resuming the proximity to design issue, in the Creative Economy Outlook [19], it was possible to verify the success of its performance in exports. The numbers speak for themselves, and the partnership “design + crafts” can be an opportunity for mutual learning. We must take into account that design has a certain advantage and is better placed when it comes to commercialization. The production of knowledge (practical and theoretical) in this area is infinitely superior since it is connected to the academy, where training occurs at different levels. The “design + crafts” alliance can be encouraged in different ways. We cannot ignore that, while some craftsmen see it as a possibility of growth and learning, others may see the interference as a change in their work’s personality. So, for each case, there are situations to be evaluated between the two parties—designer and craftsman—so that there can be action. The two craftswomen in this study are close to design but in different ways. Craftswoman 1 occasionally works in partnership with designers. Designers often come up with ideas, and they work together. Craftswoman 2, on the other hand, for being attentive to market trends, having training in arts and knowledge of theories and practices of design, has never made partnerships but instead presents solutions for designers and shopkeepers based on their needs. 4.

Production

The individual work that characterizes the two craftswomen’s performance in the case study is a disadvantage, as they do not support large scale production. When there is a need for high-volume production, the challenge must be faced from two perspectives: rejecting the business or resorting to partnerships with other craftsmen (the latter option has already been experienced with great success by Craftswoman 2). We also believe that the market is very attentive to sustainability requirements guided by the idea of “sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [18]. Octavio [13] states that modern society begins to doubt the principles of its foundation two centuries ago and seeks to change course. The author adds that he hopes it is not too late. Perhaps it is not, because Paz still comments that the return to handicrafts in the USA and Europe is one of the symptoms of the significant change of sensitivity in contemporaneity. The products presented in the case study are in line with sustainable aspects that concern a production that does not pollute and promote the local economy (purchase of local raw materials or in local commerce). Craftswoman 1 mostly uses naturally colored wool and natural fibers such as cotton. Craftswoman 2, in addition to the use of infinite raw materials, has a history and experience in reusing industrial surpluses (yarns) in her creations. Both are concerned with not generating impacts on nature. 5.

Access and support in institutions that promote handicrafts

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Craftsmen can turn to institutions that support handicrafts in order to acquire knowledge through courses in the management field or insertion in the market with incentives to participate in fairs or public spaces and events associated with these institutions. Support is also provided in the craftsmen’s registration and assistance in issuing documents for products’ commercialization. Besides, some institutions help bring craftsmen closer to professionals in different areas such as design, marketing, and finance. The challenge here is for the artisan to know about such incentives. Support is provided in different spheres, both for individuals and groups or collectives. The most usual way to spread information is through interaction with other craftsmen or even searching for information on digital media. In Brazil, there are two main sources of support for the craftsman and crafts, one linked to the federal government that is associated with the Ministry of Economy, and another is a private social service entity called Brazilian Micro and Small Business Support Service (Sebrae). In the public sphere, the government maintains the Brazilian Handicraft Program that aims to coordinate and develop activities in order to value the craftsmen, raising their cultural, professional, social, and economic level, in addition to developing and promoting handicrafts. Its strategic axes include the recognition of the profession, the articulation aimed at participation in events and fairs, promoting qualification for management and technical qualification [2] In the private sphere, as is the case of Sebrae, the performance in some points resembles that of the government, but the institution goes further in the sense of being more attentive to issues such as innovation and technology and encouraging partnerships between diverse areas, such as crafts and design, for example. These partnerships are conducive because they can improve the quality of the product, modernize its functionality, help to incorporate cultural value in the products, among numerous others [10]. The craftswomen mentioned in this study have already had support both from the public sphere initiatives, linked to the government, and from courses and workshops promoted by Sebrae in areas such as marketing, product development, and finance. For both, there was a great contribution in the areas mentioned.

5 Final Considerations This study reflected on the challenges that involve fabric production in a handloom regarding products, the craftsmen’s profile, and the markets to which the products are destined. To assist in the reflection, we used the case study strategy to exemplify and enrich the discussion, highlighting the diversity and possibilities involved in this practice. Despite the differences presented in the case study, we can consider that this universe’s challenges are similar. However, each type of product and craftsman’s profile has its strengths and weaknesses.

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While some fabrics made in the handloom have a strong connection with tradition and culture, the other, because it is not committed to tradition, explores the aesthetic results with greater freedom. There are no “good or bad”, “better or worse” here, there are differences between the work purposes that must be respected. About acting individually, as it happens with craftswomen 1 and 2, the strong point is that they can dictate their work pace. However, the unfavorable point is that the countless activities that concern business management are in charge of a single person. Buying raw materials, creating, producing, promoting, marketing are activities that unfold in many others. Having partners or sharing tasks would be the best strategy to optimize time and possibly achieve better results. The partnership between handicrafts and design is the most studied and propagated. Besides, due to its multidisciplinary characteristics, design can contribute to activities that range from visual identity creation to product development and management tools. For each case (craftsman with individual activities or collectives), the design/designer interference can be presented at different levels. However, mutual trust and respect are essential, as the growth potential for both seems limitless. When the market is receptive to artisanal products, the craftsmen, the products, and their attributes must be visible. The craftsman needs to show himself. The processes need to be shown and, currently, the Internet is the best and most efficient way to do that. Even if the best commercial results are achieved in person (fairs, stores, atelier), online visibility must be part of the craftsman’s strategy. Suppose the craftsman does not have a long history and loyal customers who contribute to spreading the brand/product and is unwilling to publicize their products in digital media and is also unwilling to join production groups and support institutions. In that case, there will be no chances of success for their product in an increasingly competitive market. Competition must not be overlooked, and visibility must be addressed in some way. Quality, durability, originality, creativity are attributes that may or may not be “visible” in fabrics and products. Like the fabric in Fig. 2, some, because of its delicacy, may give the impression of not being very durable, but it has a strong visual appeal. While the fabric in Fig. 1 can be durable but give the impression of having little creativity involved in its creation. The perception of product attributes and customer perception is complex and is not further investigated in this study as they require specific tools and bibliographies to approach and measure. Sennet points out that the craftsman’s knowledge is mainly tacit—people know how to do something but cannot describe it in words [15, p. 111]. Some exceptions must be considered, as the author of this study created and produced the fabric in Fig. 2. The experience with practice and research contributed to exploring and highlighting the existing differences in creating and producing fabrics in a handloom. According to [4, p. 21], in certain situations, “each one registers what they can, builds a different and, therefore, partial view”, but the record and the possibility of discussion have been presented. When the artisan also stands as a researcher, it is easier to describe situations, establish comparisons, contrast with similar and complementary studies, and reinforce that the theme does not present simple analysis and much less closed conclusions. In this sense, a possibility of future study is to verify if in other regions of the

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country (or even in another country) it is possible to find similar situations of distinct craftsmen profiles and products linked to producing on the handloom. This need is due to the fact that here we presented the reality of two artisans from the extreme south of Brazil who, even being in a capital with great urban development, is a region with strong links with the tradition of manual weaving.

References 1. Anderson-Strand E (2009) Tools and textiles: production and organization in Birka and Hedeby. In: Proceedings of the sixteenth viking congress, Reykjavík and Reykholt, 16–23, August, 2009 2. Brazil (2018) Ministry of industry, foreign trade and services/special secretariat for micro and small business, Diário Oficial da União, Brasília, 2018. https://www.in.gov.br/web/dou/-/por taria-n-1-007-sei-de-11-de-junho-de-2018-34932930. Accessed 15 Jan 2021 3. Brazilian Micro and Small Business Support Service-SEBRAE (2016) Brazilian geographical indications: artisanal handicraft. Sebrae, Brasilia 4. Canclini NG (2008) Culturas Híbridas: estratégias para entrar e sair da modernidade. Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 5. Ferreira A, Neves M et al (2011) Os consumidores e o artesanato têxtil: estudo exploratório das atitudes e percepções. XXI Jornadas Hispano-Lusas de Gestión Científica – Responsabilidad Social e Innovación en las Fases Recesivas del Ciclo. Cordoba, España, 2–4 February 2011. https://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/handle/1822/15721. Accessed 10 Nov 2020 6. Freitag V (2015) Being craftsman and artist: the values of craft creative process. Sociedade e Cultura 18(1):165–175. https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=703/70344885015. Accessed 12 Nov 2020 7. Gaucho Traditionalist Movement (2018) Instruction note n. 04. http://www.mtg.org.br/wpcontent/uploads/2020/06/Nota-de-Instru%C3%A7%C3%A3o-04-Indument%C3%A1ria.pdf. Accessed 16 Nov 2020 8. Grömer K (2016) The art of prehistoric textile making: the development of craft traditions and clothing in Central Europe. Natural History Museum Vienna, Austria 9. Niedderer K, Tounsend K (2010) Designing craft research: joining emotion and knowledge. Des J. https://doi.org/10.2752/175630614X14056185480221 10. Mascêne D, Tedeschi M (2010) Termo de referência: atuação do Sistema SEBRAE no artesanato. Sebrae, Brasília. http://intranet.df.sebrae.com.br/download/uam/Pesquisa/Artesanato/ Termo%20de%20Referencia%20Artesanato%202010.pdf. Accessed 25 Mar 2021 11. Maldonado RC (2002) Gestion del Diseño e Planeacion Estrategica em el Contexto Artesanal. Rev CIDAP 52:125–144. http://documentacion.cidap.gob.ec:8080/handle/cidap/1470. Accessed 31 Mar 2021 12. Makhitha KM (2017) Challenges affecting small craft producer business growth and survival in South Africa. J Bus Retail Manag Res. https://doi.org/10.24052/JBRMR/267 13. Paz O (1988) El uso y la contemplación. Rev Camacol 11:133–139 14. Robertson SM (1961) Craft and contemporary culture. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). George G. Harrap & Co, London. https://unesdoc.une sco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000050028?posInSet=1&queryId=fdbb494d-27dc-4889-963a-47065a 9441cd. Accessed 20 Nov 2020 15. Sennet R (2009) The craftsman. Editora Record, Rio de janeiro 16. Silveira MC (2013) No vai e vem do tear manual, Carmo do Rio Claro por designers e artesãos. Dissertation, Universidade Anhembi Morumbi 17. UNESCO and International Trade Centre-ITC (1997) Final report of the international symposium on crafts and the international market: trade and customs codification. https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000111488_spa. Accessed 12 Nov 2020

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18. United Nations (1987) Report of the world commission on environment and development: our common future. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-commonfuture.pdf. Accessed 17 Nov 2020 19. United Nations (2018) Creative economy outlook: trends in international trade in creative industries. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). https://unctad. org/system/files/official-document/ditcted2018d3_en.pdf. Accessed 17 Nov 2020 20. Vinayan S (2012) Intellectual property rights and the handloom sector: challenges in implementations of geographical Indications act. J Intellect Prop Rights 17:55–63. http://nopr.niscair. res.in/bitstream/123456789/13411/1/JIPR%2017%281%29%2055-63.pdf. Accessed 11 Nov 2010 21. World Trade Organization. Trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights. https://www. wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/trips_e.htm. Accessed 10 Nov 2020

Honoring Artisanship Over Skilled Labor: The Solution to Sustaining Indian Handloom Judy Frater and Jana M. Hawley

Abstract To sustain the long tradition of Indian handloom, weavers must be given agency to implement their creative skills and be recognized for their design innovation. Many of today’s weavers have learned that their handloom products can obtain premium prices as compared to the price for generic handloom meterage. Further, the well-traveled global consumer seeks handloom for its artistry and cultural heritage. It has become evident that innovative weavers contribute to increased remuneration and, thus, livelihood for families and communities. In this paper, two case studies are presented that provide solutions for sustaining Indian handloom. Keywords Innovation · Creativity · Handloom sustainability · Cultural heritage · Weaver agency · Kutch · Kerala · Market niche

1 Traditional Handloom in India Today Indian textile craft faces an existential crisis. The decline of artisans earning their livelihoods through craft production has been catalyzed by changing global marketplaces, government control, and most recently a severe economic recession due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Tyabji [1] noted that each year an estimated 15% of artisans leave traditional crafts as their primary source of livelihood. In the wake of the COVID crisis, many organizations have initiated campaigns. With all good intentions, their approach conveys that artisans need help. This brings up fundamental questions: who are artisans? And who are craft consumers? Even with the decline in number of looms and weavers, handloom has withstood the test of time as an important part of India’s socio-economy and has come to be associated with excellence in India’s artistry. As India has diversified into other J. Frater (B) 515 Kathryn Avenue, #3, Santa Fe, NM 87501, USA J. M. Hawley Union Circle, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203-5017, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Á. Gardetti and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Handloom Sustainability and Culture, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5272-1_2

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industries, handloom remains a dominant source of livelihood with more than 38 million active handlooms, employing 12.5 million people with 95.6% located within rural households [2, 3]. Assistance to sustain handloom has come from the Indian government Ministry of Textiles, under which the Development Commissioner (Handlooms) has initiated many schemes to uplift handloom and weavers by honing skills to meet international standards. The primary purpose, in concert with India’s 2014 Make in India campaign, is to offer weavers as a manufacturing force. To value handloom products for their labor intensity suggests an imperial perspective on handcraft. Sadly, in India, today, there are many options for earning at the level of waged labor that offer equal or better renumeration compared to the wages offered for labor weaving. Viewing handloom as manufacturing devalues hand weaving from art to skilled labor. It disregards the knowledge, concept, and esthetics of traditions inherent in handloom products. Further, it misconstrues the motivation of consumers of handloom. Other publications [4, 5] have shown that consumers of handloom do not care about mass-produced items, rather they seek the unique. They choose craft because of its meaning, human connection, beauty, tradition, and stories told. Consumers also buy handloom as part of their own cultural experiences from global travels. They seek authenticity as well as ethical and sustainable consumption. Studies by the Crafts Council of England [6, 7] showed that craft buyers consider craft a new way of signaling connoisseurship with a focus on the maker. In short, handloom as manufacturing will not meet the needs of these consumers.

1.1 Handloom as Craft and Art Handloom carries experience that has been passed down through generations. The knowledge and technical skills are mutually constituted through interaction between humans and technical artifacts. Our usage of the term “artisanship” and “craftsmanship” refers to creative interpretation as well as skilled work during the process. According to [8], craftsmanship is the “skill of making things well…an enduring human impulse, the desire to do a job well for its own sake” (pp. 8–9). In India, artisans use the term to mean adding something of themselves to an existing tradition [9]. Contemporary Indian handloom emerges from a myriad of distinct local traditions with each locale offering unique designs, colors, and techniques. Traditional weavers developed regional styles in direct response to their hereditary clientele. Elder artisans would pass their knowledge to the next generation. As a result, cultural heritage and regional uniqueness continue to this day. Many distinct regional techniques and designs have been awarded geographic identification tags (GI Tags) which indicate specific geographical origin, distinct qualities or a reputation that is representative of that origin [10].

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Handloomed textiles differ in many ways from manufactured products. Traditional handloom offers weavers opportunities to experiment with design innovations. The innovations that are implemented can be done quickly and frequently as compared to power loom where change is impractical. Handloom is highly valued because of the inherent personal involvement of the artisan. There is often cultural meaning attached which strengthens the bond between maker, the product, and the final consumer. But even as handloom has maintained its worth throughout India, industrial manufacturing of textiles continues to erode the handmade sector. The impact of the power loom since the 1960s has resulted in the gradual displacement of handloom weavers. With each power loom, six handlooms are displaced [11]. Moreover, today, generic handloom yardage plays a significant part of the handloom industry. Perceived as an inferior form of manufacturing, handloom weaving is not distinguished from power loom production, and artisans are expected to compete with machines. To ensure genuine sustainability of handloom weaving traditions, the focus must be on enhancing the cultural heritage value of unique traditions and on engaging artisans. Weavers must ardently want to weave. Here, we present two cases of handloom regions that demonstrate that when traditional weavers are offered appropriate options, they enthusiastically continue their traditional livelihoods—and handloom thrives. This paper is based on several years of participant observations, interviews, and case methods in both locales. The first study focuses on handloom weavers from Kutch, Gujarat. Design and business education have enabled artisans here to become independent, increase income and recognition, and redefine their aspirations. Weaver graduates of the course have become successful entrepreneurs, attaining value through individuality rather than scale. Diversity has expanded the market, and the community has benefited. Graduates’ examples have drawn children of the community back to handloom as an excellent choice rather than a last resort. Weaver designers discuss how they define success and their changing goals. The second case focuses on handloom weavers of Kerala whose unique product was threatened when government intervention required handloom weavers to produce thousands of meters of handloom to meet school uniform needs. Although traditional textiles of Kerala are renowned for their craftsmanship, design, colors and simplicity, and skilled artisans whose families have been in the profession for centuries are now mandated to weave school uniform plain yardage before they are allowed to work on traditional crafts. Thus, weavers’ work has been reduced from artisan craft to skilled labor, and unique local traditions are being lost. Entrepreneurs in Kerala are designing new products with global appeal inspired by the high-quality yet simple traditional textiles. These new products have enabled weavers to revive their tradition. An argument is built by demonstrating solutions for enhancing handloom artisanship. In the case of the Kutch artisans, access to design knowledge and organized business studies have developed weavers’ ability to regain agency, innovate in traditions, and reach better markets. For the weavers of Kerala, it became apparent that finding new product designs and, thus, new global markets would give local weavers the necessary courage to break away from the government mandate of weaving school uniform yardage. These cases clearly show how acknowledging weavers as essential

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partners in the ecosystem can ensure sustainability of the handloom sector. Opportunities for weavers to design, co-create, and develop as both artisans and entrepreneurs are essential to sustain both culture and craft.

2 Case Studies 2.1 Case One: Value Through Education for Weavers of Kutch 2.1.1

The Traditional Ecosystem

Traditional weavers of Kutch, a desert region of Gujarat state bordering Pakistan, created in a complex and closely connected ecosystem. They knew their clients intimately, usually through hereditary relationships, passed down from generations. Weavers associated with Rabari pastoralists were given wool yarn hand spun from the Rabaris’ own sheep and those who wove for agriculturists used cotton yarn spun from the harvests of local fields. The textiles that they wove were essential to expressing the identities of their users. The fibers, colors, and patterns of fabrics used for dress and home were specific markers of cultural heritage. A number of the woollen textiles that Rabaris used were black and white, and the complex designs are created using yarns of the natural colors of sheep wool. For those that required dyed patterns, the weavers contracted with Khatris, traditional dyers. Weavers and Khatris had interdependent relationships; weavers also produced fabrics for Khatris to print and dye for their hereditary clients. Each community bartered their fabrics directly to their end users for milk, animals, and grains. Weavers knew not only when births, marriages, or deaths in their clients’ communities required textiles to mark those occasions, but also the tastes of individuals and the allowable variations in styles as that slowly changed over time. Weavers wove for specific clients, with the desire to please them. The strong element of personal recognition was mutual. The clients recognized and appreciated the subtle personal signatures of artisans with whom they associated. Weavers did not work to earn, but to exchange.1 Maldharis gave us local sheep wool. We spun and wove and gave them cloth. It was like, this is my weaver; we also felt, we are making for Mejar so we will make it good. It was ours too. ~Ramji Hirabhai Maheshwari, Weaver, Sumrasar, Evaluation interview 2019.

1

Interviews and quotes presented here can also be found in a forthcoming manuscript by J. Frater entitled Threads of Identity: Kutch 2020. In “Ties that Bind: Women’s Textile Labor in Contemporary South Asia,” a forthcoming special edition of South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies.

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In the days of the elders we’d work with feeling. We’d think how people would look wearing our work. And we knew that as the cloth slowly wore away they would remember us. ~Vishramji Valji Siju, Weaver, Bhujodi, personal communication 2006.

In the 1950s, as India began nation building focused on rapid industrialization and traditional clients began to prefer newly available mass-produced goods over hand craft, artisans were forced to look to more distant, unknown markets. With industrialization, the concept of design as an entity was also introduced. Designers were actively encouraged to intervene in commercializing craft, both as an inspiration to developing an Indian style and to help artisans adapt. Industrial driven design used an industrial model, which assumed that the goals are to manufacture faster, cheaper, and in a more standardized way. At this point, hand craft that had been culturally valued and exchanged had to be revalued as a commodity in a market economy. Moreover, whereas the focus of textile craft had been on creating the best, longestlasting product for a known and respected user, the industrial focus was efficiency, and time emerged as an entity. Struggling to survive, most weavers welcomed the guidance of designers. Key inputs to Kutch came from the Central Government Handicrafts and Handlooms Export Corporation (HHEC), Gujarat State Handloom and Handicraft Department and especially designer Prabhaben Shah from Mumbai. In 1965, Prabhaben worked for extended periods in Kutch, innovating on traditional blankets and veils to create a line of shawls, carpets, and other urban-appropriate products that retained the Kutch esthetic. To participate in commercial markets, weavers had to scale up production and develop business skills. Those who could meet these demands started workshops like mini factories. Slowly they gained access to new materials. Weavers were trained, and the fly shuttle was introduced to increase speed of production. Around 1980, they began to get handspun soft merino wool. Later, the merino was machine spun. In the early 1980s, acrylic yarn was introduced. The synthetic yarn was easy to use and production further increased. As customers found acrylic soft and inexpensive, demand in turn grew. This marked a major shift in the concept and practice of weaving. Weavers who had the means to scale production began to hire those who did not and to focus on interfacing with customers. When acrylic came, we lost our contact with clients. My grandfather began to work for Master Weavers (big producers), not because of acrylic but because he had worked with the local market. He had no experience with the outside world. From 1986-1997 truckloads of shawls went to Delhi. Weavers were buying so much acrylic yarn from Ludhiana that people started power looms to increase production of ‘Bhujodi shawls.’ That devastated our handloom business. Then in 2001 there was an earthquake that destroyed our homes and looms. Master Weavers went to sell in Delhi. They began to introduce new materials and designs that could not be copied by power loom so they brought business back. ~Puroshottam Premji Siju, Weaver, Bhujodi, Evaluation interview, 2019.

When craft was commodified, weavers began making for an unknown clientele and earning in cash rather than kind. They lost the personal recognition of traditional systems. A more significant change came with large-scale production. Industrialbased design “intervention” began a process of separating concept and execution,

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resulting in the perception of artisan as worker. “Intervention” further implied a value hierarchy: that designers have valuable knowledge, while artisans have less valuable skills. The identity and value of an artisan changed. No longer autonomous creatorentrepreneurs, weavers became either businessmen or workers. The incentive of shared understanding and value for excellent renditions of traditional products was superseded by calculations of materials and time. Even when small scale artisans tried to become independent, they often could not. We used to be able to discern the work of different villages, to see the individual’s hands. The feeling in making was different then. it wasn’t about wages but pride in our work, our name. Now we work for wages. Once it was about wages the whole thing was finished. ~Vishramji Valji Siju, Weaver, Bhujodi, interview 2008. In my father’s time, it was labor work. We were in need, we needed to run the home. So we would take RS 70 for a RS 100 product. ~Ramji Hirabhai Maheshwari, Weaver, Sumrasar, Evaluation interview 2019. My father did job work for others. He said that he wouldn’t allow us to be weavers; there was not enough income in this. And because he wouldn’t allow me to weave, after I left studies I worked for an NGO for twelve years. ~Puroshottam Premji Siju, Weaver, Bhujodi, seminar, 2016. I did job work for the Master Weaver. At first we had one loom, and then got another. RS 10,000-15,000 was what we earned in a year. We didn’t save anything. We couldn’t afford Divali. Those who were educated could take jobs. I hadn’t gone out and there weren’t choices. ~ Dahyalal Atmaram Kudecha, Weaver, Bhujodi, Evaluation interview, 2019. My family tried to make our own work, but we didn’t know what to make and it didn’t sell. We invested and couldn’t make it. Clients wanted to buy a shawl that cost RS 150 for RS 110. We didn’t know how to go to exhibitions to sell directly. ~Puroshottam Premji Siju, Weaver, Bhujodi, Evaluation interview, 2019.

2.1.2

Design and Business-Management Education for Weavers

Concerned that commercialization was changing the fundamental identity of craft, and devaluing it for the artisans who made it, in 2005, Judy Frater began a program of design education for artisans. Having a close association with artisans spanning over 30 years, she believed that given that the personal factor was intrinsic to the value of craft, the reason for attrition of artisans was that from their perspective, contemporary craft production does not generate enough recognition, nor enough income for the effort that it requires. The intention of the education program is to enable artisans to regain agency as creative artists and to operate successful businesses in contemporary markets. Assessing contemporary craft production, Frater felt that skill would no longer be enough to easily establish recognition, but that focus on the traditional aspect of craft and creativity in innovation could activate recognition and revive value [12]. The year-long course teaches traditional artisans to recognize and value their cultural heritage and to innovate within its parameters as they define them. In 2014, Frater added a year-long graduate course in Business and Management for Artisans (BMA). From 2005 to 2013, the program operated as Kala Raksha Vidhyalaya, and from 2014 to the present, it operates as Somaiya Kala Vidya. As of 2019, 181 artisans

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Fig. 1 Master Artisan session at Somaiya Kala Vidya, 2019. Every year, Master Artisans teach artisan students about their cultural heritage Photo credit: Judy Frater

had graduated from the design program, and 16 had graduated from the BMA. Of these, 47 are weavers, 46 men, and one woman. Because of COVID, courses were temporarily suspended; therefore, there have been no graduates since 2019. Respecting social norms of Kutch, men’s and women’s classes of the program are held separately. There are no age restrictions for admission, so men’s classes comprise weavers and dyers ranging in age from 17 to 45. The impact of four decades of commercial production in Kutch was that artisans born in the mid-1980s or later were conscious of the importance of craft skills but had little cognizance of their traditions. Because tradition as a source of identity and inspiration is a foundation of the program, the year-long design course begins with a session conducted by Master Artisan Advisors in which students examine traditional textiles and the masters discuss traditional practices, relationships, and value along with traditional esthetics. Throughout the year, professional visiting design faculty work in tandem with local faculty, artisan design graduates chosen for their knowledge of both tradition and design. For the fifteen years that the program has operated, each cohort of students learned to reconnect to their traditions and grew to value salient aspects of tradition and use them as standards in evaluating new work. Students also grew to value creative innovation. Within the protected time and space of the course, regardless of age, they enthusiastically experimented to achieve new and extraordinary designs. After graduating, they began to achieve recognition and commercial success in the market.

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Fig. 2 Somaiya Kala Vidya graduates participate in India’s Lakme Fashion Week, 2017. Seven weaver, printer, bandhani and embroidery artists were the first artisans to be recognized as designers Photo credit: Lakme Fashion Week

2.1.3

Impact-Increased Income and Changing Values

Virtually all weaver design graduates continue to practice weaving, many of them operating independent businesses, others contracting to bigger producers. Nearly all report significant increases in income through weaving. Ninety-five percent of graduates say that their income has increased from 10 to 300%. Among the community, weavers note that anyone who has taken the course has built a bigger house and workshop. About 45% of weaver designers have purchased cars since graduation. Graduates have found markets for their new products and designs in established companies such as Fabindia and urban boutiques such as Artisans Mumbai. They have sold saris, stoles, dupattas, and shawls to designers including James Ferreira, Ritu Kumar, and Anita Dongre. Increasingly they have online presences through social media accounts and online boutiques such as Jaypore.com, Gaatha, and Etsy. They have participated in Lakme Fashion Week, the International Folk Art Market, and the Victoria and Albert Museum Fabric of India Exhibition. Often they receive awards including The World Crafts Council Seal of Excellence, Crafts Council of

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Fig. 3 Pachan Premji Siju models the sari he wove for his final SKV collection, 2015. Innovation has been critical to success. Introducing saris as products opened high end domestic markets Photo credit: Ketan Pomal, Studio L.M. Bhuj

India Kamala awards, the Government of India President’s award for Craftsmanship, and the International Folk Art Market’s Living Tradition Award. Perhaps more important, in a real sense of development, weaver graduates’ definition of success has changed. In a 2018 discussion of goals, weavers articulated that they now measure success in terms of the ability to negotiate contemporary markets successfully and independently, as well as terms of recognition within the community and in target markets. They also value being able to use their creativity and having a voice. Strikingly not one weaver spoke of success in terms of money [12]. Dahyalal Atmaram Kudecha explained: My early goal was money. My goal was to educate my children. Now, it is to be my own person.

In 2019, during an evaluation of fifteen years of the course, weavers elaborated on how education and earning attractive incomes had enabled them to define values. Before, the market was local and we didn’t earn that much. Now it is my design, my collection; I name my price. ~Ramji Hirabhai Maheshwari, Weaver, Sumrasar, Evaluation interview 2019. I felt that more than money I should enjoy it. I enjoyed weaving. When I started, I earned RS 700 while I was earning RS 1500 in the company. I didn’t go to the company for money, I went where I found satisfaction. After taking the Business-Management course I changed completely. Now, I don’t want 100 pieces; I want 10. And I want 10 customers, not 100. And those 10 customers will come to me because they have heard my name or seen my work. ~Puroshottam Premji Siju, Weaver, Bhujodi, Evaluation interview, 2019.

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J. Frater and J. M. Hawley SKV education brought a lot of change in my life, not just money but respect. Now I am known and invited by other NGOs. Even in our society I gained respect. I am my own boss. And along with business I have a good life with my family. ~Dahyalal Atmaram Kudecha, Weaver, Bhujodi, Evaluation interview, 2019.

2.1.4

The Innovation Factor

The industrial model of commercialized craft that assumes that craft must scale up to succeed has resulted in the perception of the artisan as worker. A key objective of the educational programs is to encourage individuality as an alternative path to success. As weavers have innovated within their traditions, the market has expanded to accommodate diversity, and many artisan designers have enjoyed success. An added benefit is reduction of the sense of scarcity of buyers and competition among weavers. We have brands, specialties. Before, in an exhibition all of the weavers would have the same designs so there was competition. Now if there are eight of us in an exhibition, each has his own specialty. ~Prakash Naran Siju, Weaver, Bhujodi, Evaluation interview, 2019. Our work is strong now, so we get markets. We stopped job work; we don’t weave yardage production. All of us who studied design show our work to each other, ask feedback. We don’t hide our work from each other. It takes time to make a new design. Today we each do different designs, and it benefits us. This is the effect of education. ~Puroshottam Premji Siju, Weaver, Bhujodi, Evaluation interview, 2019.

Fig. 4 Dilip Dahyalal Kudecha walks the fashion show ramp at his convocation, 2017.Next generation weavers joining the tradition as an excellent choice ensures sustainability of handloom weaving in Kutch Photo credit: Ketan Pomal, Studio L.M. Bhuj

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My income has increased tenfold from when I worked for a Master Weaver, while my former employer has not suffered at all. Dahyalal Atmaram Kudecha, Weaver, Bhujodi, interview, 2018. The market has increased; that is good. Ten years ago, there were only ten shops in Bhujodi and they seemed like homes. Only known people would come. Now we have a market. The bigger the market gets, the better. ~Rajesh Vishramji Siju, Weaver, Bhujodi, Evaluation interview, 2019.

2.1.5

Nurturing Tradition

Sustainability rests on the next generation of weavers. If they see a good future in weaving and of their own volition work as weavers, traditions will prosper and continue. Building appreciation for tradition is a foundation of the courses. Graduate weaver designers have grown to genuinely care for their heritage as intrinsic to their own identity and recognition and understand tradition as a common good. Until you know your own value, no one else will value it, they say. This has been a key factor in strengthening and sustaining weaving traditions and has encouraged the next generation to weave. The biggest challenge is to prepare the next generation of artisans, and to keep their interest alive. We can meet weaving production challenges but to prepare the next generation of weavers is the real challenge. ~Ramji Hirabhai Maheshwari, Weaver, Sumrasar, Evaluation interview 2019. In the future we want to develop further. We want to add more artisans to develop our work. Because whatever work there is should not die; we should try to take it forward so more people know about it. Those who come to the institute get new direction, so others send people here, the next generation. Seeing the graduates, weavers have come back from working in industries. That is a plus point. ~Prakash Naran Siju, Weaver, Bhujodi, Evaluation interview, 2019. Before, I was afraid. I couldn’t do what I wanted; I had to do job work. Now I am confident that I can get results. I have become a role model and that gives others confidence. ~Dahyalal Atmaram Kudecha, Weaver, Bhujodi, Evaluation interview, 2019. I asked my son to study further after he graduated from college, and he said, “What will I do after graduation? I will probably do a job where only my office staff or my boss will know me, and however much I work I will get a limited salary. It is better if I work in the craft sector because here the whole world will know me. And I will get maximum return from my inputs.” ~Dahyalal Atmaram Kudecha, Weaver, Bhujodi, seminar, 2016. Now many girls in our village think about going to SKV. They want to go. They say they want to do something new. I feel good about it. ~Krishna Velji Vankar, Woman Weaver, Sarli, Evaluation interview, 2019.

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Fig. 5 Krishna Velji Vankar with her final SKV collection, 2018. As weaving became an attractive livelihood in Kutch, women of weaving communities also began to weave Photo credit: Ketan Pomal, Studio L.M. Bhuj

2.2 Case Two: Kara Weaves, Challenging the Ordinary 2.2.1

Kerala, an Oasis of Natural Beauty and Unique Socio-political Culture

Kerala is a state located in the south of India. Since 1957, communism is routinely voted into power in Kerala. Unlike other communist regimes recognized by autocratic force and repression, communism in Kerala is widely associated with huge investments in education that has resulted in a 95% literacy rate, the highest in India [13, 14]. Kerala is a tourist destination known for its miles of Arabian Sea shoreline, palm-lined beaches, and a network of backwater canals. But it is also recognized for distinct handloom traditions that go back hundreds of years. During World War II, the shortage of raw materials resulted in the development of handloom co-operatives and workshops [15]. While global interest in handloom textiles remains steady, Kerala’s traditional handloom sector struggled to survive because the low wages did not entice weavers to stay. In 2017, the communist government of Kerala implemented a scheme intended to boost both the handloom industry and education. The state had planned to provide two pairs of uniforms to school students free of cost, providing work for 250,000 weavers a year. Down the supply chain, dyers and tailors also gained employment. Kerala is the only state in India that provides students of government

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schools with free 100% handloom uniforms. The scheme produced around 3.3 million meters of fabric and brought about 4,000 weavers to the workshops [16]. But as one informant who owns a small apparel design and manufacturing company claimed: I understand why the Kerala and India governments want to supply uniforms for our schoolchildren, but powerloom fabric could serve the purpose for uniforms. We need to allow handloom weavers the opportunity to be creative. The uniqueness of handloom should earn its own space in the marketplace.

Other proposed outcomes were that the scheme would boost the rural economy and create pride in the soul of India’s independence, khadi production. Under this government scheme, the weavers were to earn Rs 450 per day. While the government argues that the scheme was successful, conversations with weavers reveal that the mundane work of weaving meters and meters of the same fabric creates boredom and lacks creative input that weaver’s desire. Weavers left and workshops once again fell into demise. Thus, it is argued here that the strategy failed. Part of the reason for failure was that weavers were earning non-skill wages; while at the same time, the creative nature inherent in handloom was being squelched [17]. Figure 6 depicts weavers in Kerala producing yards of school uniform fabric.

2.2.2

Kara Weaves: A Sustainable Social Enterprise

Kara Weaves, located near Kochi in Kerala, is a sustainable social enterprise. It was founded in 2007 by co-founders Indu Menon and her daughter, Chitra Gopalakrishnan. Indu is a social anthropologist with a varied background including medical research, textile production, and business management. Before returning to Kerala, Indu worked and taught all over the world, particularly Ahmedabad and Kuwait. Chitra holds two graduate MFA degrees in graphic design and has worked as a designer in several global businesses. She currently works as design faculty at the San Diego State University and is part of the Prison Arts Collective. For Kara Weaves, Chitra works on brand development, design, promotional materials, publicity, and online store management. She also is the co-founder of Neyth Fabrics, a company that supports handloom industry in Kerala through innovative design products. Others of the all-female team include Asha “Revathy” Menon, the noted Indian film actor, director, and social activist; Sulochana Menon, veteran expert in traditional and handwoven textiles of Kerala; Saraswathi Venkateswaran, strategic growth consultant and advisor; and Smita Jacob, consultant advisor and founder of the sister-enterprise Kreã Collectives, a global platform linking women artisan collectives in India and Guatemala to international markets. While the all-female team initially happened organically, the company now intentionally brings women into the company to serve in business administration, as weavers in the workshops and as tailors of final products [18]. Mundu is recognized as the most iconic fabric from Kerala. Mundu is typically white or cream colored with golden thread borders. It is primarily used for sarees and dhotis. Mundu is worn for both special and daily occasion throughout Kerala; but in

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Fig. 6 Weavers in Kerala produce yardage for government school uniforms

more recent years, manufactured polyester cotton apparel and shalwar kameez are preferred [19]. Kara Weaves, however, focuses on another unique, but humble, textile from Kerala called thorthu, a ubiquitous textile found in all Kerala homes. A loosely woven plain handloomed structure using cotton yarn, thorthu is typically kept as unstitched cloth straight from the loom and is considered a multi-use textile that can

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be used as a shawl, dhoti, table cloth, swaddling, wiper, and head cover. Its primary purpose is a bath towel. Ironically, the towels are not particularly good at drying the body, but they dry quickly in the sun giving them a much-needed redeeming quality. This contrasts to the famed Turkish towel that dries the body well but takes a long time to air dry. Thorthu is typically white with two narrow colored bands about 1 cm wide across the top and bottom of the towel. Historically, thorthu was cheap and easily available, yet thorthu was jealously guarded as private property with different family members assigned a different colored towel. Once the textile starts to wear out, the life is extended to a cleaning cloth, shelf liner, or a towel to dry spices in the sun [20]. When Indu moved to Kerala to be with her ailing father, she was dismayed at the disrepair and closures of thorthu weaving workshops throughout the region. Dilapidated handloom workshops were found throughout the district with dusty looms, sagging warp yarns, and stale yardage throughout. Indu was concerned that if nothing was done, the handloom art would be lost. So many of the weaving workshops had been shut down. When the government came in to revive the workshops with the school uniform project, the dusty old looms were revived, and weavers came back for the work. But it didn’t take long for the weavers to get bored with creating yards and yards of plain weave fabric. They were used to weaving beautiful thorthu or mundu for sarees and dhotis. After we talked to the weavers, we decided that we would reinvigorate their creativity as we launched Kara Weaves.—Indu Menon

She consulted with Chitra, and they both recognized that there was a potential for the humble thorthu textile. Chitra’s graphic design expertise helped the young company to reimagine the thorthu into products that would have a global marketplace. As a rectangular piece straight from the loom, Chitra saw that uses of the thorthu could be reimagined to beach wear, table cloths, hair wraps, coasters, and childrenswear. These market extensions would allow for the thorthu to gain an international platform and, thus, revive the local weaver’s workshops. Indu began networking with the co-operatives to re-establish viability and revive the unique thorthu fabric production. Today, more than five weaver’s co-operatives have dusted off the old looms and you can hear the familiar clickity-clack of the looms providing evidence that the workshops are back in production. Bringing the weavers back to the loom in a creative way was a key goal. Some new stitched products have also been developed, enabling the company to grow employment for the tailoring workshops in Kerala. The entrepreneurial spirit of the owners has resulted in a company that bridges traditional handloom to contemporary lifestyle for home and clothing. The products are simple, but tastefully conceived with product extensions that go far beyond the humble towel. The Venn diagram found in Fig. 7 illustrates how Kara Weaves sits at the intersection of handloom co-operatives, design and branding, and fair-trade practices [18]. In February 2013, the company became a certified World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO) member, India Chapter. WFTO is a system that guarantees that members are truly fair trade. The mission-led organization focuses on the interests of producers. The direct influence of WFTO has impacted more than 965,000 lives. Their stringent guidelines focus on business models that assure fair treatment of people and the

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Fig. 7 Kara Weaves sits at the intersection of three important concepts. With permission from Kara Weaves

planet [21]. Being a member of WFTO has allowed Kara Weaves the opportunity to get products into socially responsible international companies who put people and sustainability first. As Chitra said, We wanted Kara Weaves to embrace everything about social responsibility…fair wages, women empowerment, rural employment and stakeholder involvement. We felt it was important to join the WFTO.

As their reputation continued to grow, other NGOs and interested researchers began to work with Kara Weaves on other important aspects of the business, including pricing, supply chain management, and global business strategies. Today, while the company is still considered a small social enterprise, it keeps five or more weaver’s workshops busy, and the weaver community is once again flourishing. Business at Kara Weaves recently has been buoyed by the popularity of the “Turkish Towel” in lieu of the fluffy terry cloth bath towels found in most United States homes. As interest in sustainability continues to rise for consumers, they seek

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product alternatives with less carbon footprint. The flat woven structure means the towels dry more quickly reducing the need of the dryer. They are space saving for small bathrooms and are a perfect choice for the new minimalist lifestyle that is growing in popularity. [22]. Yilmaz et al. [23] predicted a rise in the usage of the global Turkish towel market because of the increased interest in sustainability. While it is true that Kara Weaves towels are not Turkish towels, they are quite similar and fit well into this new market niche. Chitra noted: We saw the national trend for the Turkish towel and we knew that our partners would see that the Kara Weaves towel is similar. We promoted the product and had great success from it.

As a women-forward organization, Kara Weaves has gained international recognition for the social contribution they are making for women in Kerala. Their company has drawn the interest of bloggers and global companies from around the world. Initially, Kara Weaves was a business-to-consumer company, but since has also become a business-to-business company providing products for such companies as Anthropologie, Bloomingdales, ABC Carpet, and Williams and Sonoma. With growing global markets, Kara Weaves will continue to provide livelihoods for many women weavers and tailors through Kerala. Most of our employees are women. We want to support their opportunity to grow as weavers, creative designers, business women, and tailors.—Indu Menon

3 Summary Throughout India, hand loomed textiles remain a powerful indicator of Indian pride and nationalism, linked to the first Swadeshi Movement of 1905 [24]. Mahatma Gandhi further shaped the Swadeshi Movement, from 1918 to 1947, by using handloomed khadi to gain India’s independence. As mentioned in our introduction, handloom still employs 12.5 million people with 95.6% located within rural households [2, 3]. Ironically, despite its continuing support from the government, or perhaps because of government intervention, handloom has declining economic value and has been commodified to the extent that it has lost its identity as symbolic of independence. The future of handloom is constantly being debated by NGOs, policy makers, and politicians. Weavers, whose heritage is handloom, are largely excluded from the discussion. The two cases presented here demonstrate how efforts focused on handloom as cultural heritage and particularly on the weavers who are the fundamental aspect of handloom can dramatically shape the identity and value of handloom and the sustainability of hand weaving. Both cases provided here show evidence that engaging handloom weavers as partners rather than workers can empower them to utilize their creative potential. Handloom enterprises must begin with success as weavers define it as the objective. Recognizing and respecting weavers as creative individuals and

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offering remuneration not equated with manual labor but with creativity are crucial to ensuring that the next generation of weavers choose to weave. Our case studies emphasize that guiding weavers to innovate appropriate to higher-end contemporary markets can exponentially increase value for weavers as well as consumers. And viewing handloom as art and heritage can enhance its value in those contemporary markets. Providing opportunities that consider these factors will ultimately ensure sustainability of regional cultures, artisan livelihoods, and handloom traditions.

References 1. Tyabji L (2019) Proceedings of the 5th international textiles and costume congress, Maharaja Sayajirao University, Baroda, 3–5 2. Ministry of Textiles (2019–2020) Fourth national handloom census. Available from https:// www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/the-place-where-communists-can-still-dream/ 2017/10/26/55747cbe-9c98-11e7-b2a7-bc70b6f98089_story.html. Accessed 7 Jan 2021 3. Soundarapanian M (2002) Growth and prospects of handloom sector in India. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development. Mumbai, India 4. Frater J, Hawley JM (2018) A hand-crafted slow revolution: Co-designing a new genre in the luxury world. Fashion Style Popular Cult 5(3):299–311. https://doi.org/10.1386/fspc.5.3. 299_1 5. Hawley J, Frater J (2017) Craft’s path to the luxury market: sustaining cultures and communities along the way. In: Gardetti M (ed) Sustainable management of luxury. Springer. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-981-10-2917-2_18 6. McIntyre MH (2010) Consuming craft: the contemporary craft in a changing economy. Crafts Council England 7. McIntyre MH (2020) The market for craft. Commissioned by the Crafts Council of England and Partners 8. Sennett R (2008) The craftsman. Yale University, New Haven 9. Frater J (2020) On craftsmanship. Available at https://baatcheet.org/2020/05/29/craftsperson ship/. Accessed 13 Jan 2021 10. World Intellectual Property Organization (2021) Available from https://www.wipo.int/geo_ind ications/en/. Accessed 13 Jan 2021 11. Government of India (2016) Report on market research for promotion of India handloom brand. Ministry of Textiles, National Handloom Development Corporation. Available at http://handlo oms.nic.in/writereaddata/3736.pdf. Accessed 7 Jan 2021 12. Frater J (2019) Education for Artisans: beginning a sustainable future for craft traditions. In: Mignosa A, Priyatej (eds) A cultural economic analysis of craft. Palgrave, London 13. Jaffe G, Doshi V (2017) One of the few places where a communist can still dream. Available The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/the-place-wherecommunists-can-still-dream/2017/10/26/55747cbe-9c98-11e7-b2a7-bc70b6f98089_story. html. Accessed 12 Jan 2021 14. teleSUR (2017) The revolution that always was: how communist-led Kerala is Leading India. Retrieved 8 Jan 2021 from https://www.telesurenglish.net/news/The-Revolution-That-AlwaysWas-How-Communist-Led-Kerala-Is-Leading-India-20170612-0012.html 15. Norris L (2011). Creating fame and fortune from the ruins of handloom in Kerala, Southern India. In: Little LE, McAnany A (eds) Textile economies: power and value from the local to the transitional. Alta Mir, Lantham, pp 285–305 16. Kallungal D (2018) School uniforms prove a money spinner for handloom weavers in Kerala. Available from The Indian Express. https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2018/

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apr/20/school-uniforms-prove-a-money-spinner-for-handloom-weavers-in-kerala-1803893. html. Accessed 11 Jan 2021 Vargas A, Salim MH (2015) Handloom industry in Kerala: a study of the problems and challenges. Int J Manage Soc Sci Res Rev 1(13):347–353 North Bennet St. School: NBSS (2020) In the making: Chitra Gopalakrishnan of Kara weaves. Available at https://www.nbss.edu/blog/detail/~post/in-the-making-chitra-gopalakri shnan-kara-weaves. Accessed 7 Jan 2021 Just History, Nothing Else (2021) Available from https://upsc4history.wordpress.com/mundugold-and-cream-affair-of-kerala/. Accessed 7 Jan 2021 Sajeev A (2020) Thorthu, Kerla Thorthu. The registry of sarees. Available at https://theregist ryofsarees.com/blogs/news/thorthu-kerala-thorthu. Accessed 9 Jan 2021 World Fair Trade Organization (2021) Available at https://wfto.com/. Accessed 7 Jan 2021 Conan V (2020) Sustainable alternatives: a guide to incorporating Turkish towels into your daily rituals. Available from https://www.arclore.com/blogs/about-our-towels/sustainable-alternati ves-a-guide-to-incorporating-turkish-towels-into-your-daily-rituals. Accessed 8 Jan 2021 Yilmaz ND, Cassill NL, Powell NB (2007) Turkish towels place in the global market. J Textile Apparel Technol Manage 5(4). Fall 2007 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nazire_Yilmaz/ publication/237537068_Turkish_Towel’s_Place_in_the_Global_Market/links/00b7d5280904 eec365000000/Turkish-Towels-Place-in-the-Global-Market.pdf. Accessed 12 Jan 2021 Bhole LM (2000) Swadeshi: meaning and contemporary relevance. In: Bohle (ed) Essays on Gandhian socio-economics. Shipra Publications, Delhi

Sustainable Carpet and Rug Hand Weaving in U¸sak Province of Turkey Emine Bakan and Ozan Avinc

Abstract Human life depends entirely on natural resources. As we know, these sources, as well as everything else, have an end. In this case, we need to ensure its sustainability by providing a balance between nature and human in all our possibilities. When it comes to sustainability, it comes to mind that knowing the value of existing possibilities and transferring them to future generations without harming the environment should be the main objective. In order to sustain something, it is necessary to protect and value it. If we are talking about the sustainability of a phenomenon/situation, we also need to ensure that it continues in a certain life cycle. This means years of continuity as well as using the right paths and resources to achieve goals and objectives. In this process, the whole life cycle should be considered as a whole, and the essence should be protected. This situation is necessary as a treasure for the continuation of cultures. In fact, considering that we inherit many things in nature from our ancestors as well as borrow from our children, we can succeed in transferring many of our spiritual values to future generations. The concept of sustainability in the global sense was announced in 1987 with the report named “our common future” published by the World Environment and Development Commission. Decisions were made to make the development sustainable without endangering the needs of future generations at times when it was alarmed that humanity was beginning to consume many things in nature and end its generation. In this direction, in Turkey, as in other countries, priority has been given to local and regional sustainable projects realized in line with the decision of the United Nations and the Sustainable Development Goals. The most important fact that forms the basis of cultures is the crafts in those regions. Unfortunately, over the years, existing crafts have disappeared due to the increase in mechanization, the effect of technology and the fact that fast consumption phenomenon has entered our lives. Some of the most important art forms in the culture of Turkey are as follows; pots and pans, milling, stone E. Bakan Higher Vocational School of Ulubey, Fashion Design Programme, U¸sak University, Ulubey, U¸sak, Turkey O. Avinc (B) Textile Engineering Department, Pamukkale University, Denizli 20160, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Á. Gardetti and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Handloom Sustainability and Culture, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5272-1_3

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chipping, bone chipping, carpentry, weapon manufacturing, metalworking, jewelry and accessories craftsmanship, shoemaking, spinning, weaving, animal husbandry, felt making, carpet making, leather making, and tailoring. Unfortunately, many of these crafts began to disappear over time or fell into a decline in the amount of production. Carpet hand weaving and rug hand weaving have an important place in these crafts for Turkey case. Hand weaving carpets and rugs hand weaving is still being kept alive especially in Turkey’s province of Usak. Over the years, textiles that provide protection and shelter for people from heat and cold have been influenced by many factors such as people’s joys, sorrows, cultures, and places they live, and this is reflected in their motifs. “Rug hand weaving” is a type of hand weaving that started and developed long before carpet hand weaving. Rugs were mostly used in tents in nomadic civilizations because of its light weight and easy folding and transportation, and over time it became an indispensable item of our settled houses. The city of U¸sak has reflected the culture of civilizations living on its land from the past to the present on its loop-by-loop hand-woven carpets and rugs. The fact that the wool of the sheep raised in this region is white, shiny, flexible, and durable, and the plants that give natural dye are abundant in the environment make this region the land where the foundations of the art of weaving were laid. It is very important that the fibers (such as wool), the coloration method (such as natural dyeing), and the fabric surface forming process (hand-woven) that enable the creation of U¸sak carpets and rugs are sustainable. For this reason, U¸sak hand-woven carpets and rugs produced in this way make significant contributions to the sustainability of the environment and the world. Carpets woven with 89,600 loops per square meter in U¸sak are still considered as very valuable carpets in auctions in Europe and America today. U¸sak is one of the most important centers of hand weaving carpets and rugs in Turkey. U¸sak Governorship and U¸sak Municipality have carried out many projects on the production of sustainable carpets and rugs produced by hand weaving. Thanks to many different projects such as these, carpet and rug hand weaving has an important place in U¸sak. Each year, many different hand-woven carpets and rugs are produced in U¸sak and sold domestically and abroad. Hand-woven carpets and rugs produced in U¸sak are exhibited all over the world and have been decorating palaces, European castles, mosques, churches, and museums (Paris Louvre Museum, Florence Bardini Museum, New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, Philadelphia Museum, Victoria and Albert Museum in London, National Gallery of Art, Budapest National Museum, Istanbul Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum, Berlin Museum of Islamic Art, Metropolitan National Museum of Kuwait, Istanbul Foundations Carpet Museum, Konya Mevlana Museum, etc.) for centuries. In this chapter, the detailed information regarding carpet and rug hand weaving which are still underway and alive in Turkey and especially in the U¸sak province of Turkey was given. In here, the history of hand weaving, carpet and rug hand weaving, traditional rug and carpet hand weavings in U¸sak and in Turkey and the patterns of carpets and rugs varieties in U¸sak province and the different regions of Turkey were examined and reviewed. Keywords U¸sak · Carpet · Rug · Kilim · Hand weaving · Handwoven · Weaving · Handloom · Locality · Sustainability · Sustainable · Culture · Turkey

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1 Introduction The concept of sustainability was first announced globally in 1987 with the report published by the World Environment and Development Organization. In this report, with the theme of our common future, it is pointed out that humanity is about to extinct many things. When it comes to sustainability, we think of ensuring and improving the continuity of our existing facilities. In this sense, ensuring the sustainability of the generation, culture, possibilities, arts, and production will benefit in every sense. If sustainability efforts increase and become widespread, the danger of extinction of many substances will decrease day by day leading to more sustainable world [1–8]. As is known, nothing in nature is eternal. It is necessary to live by knowing the value of many assets and resources we use for this purpose. The most important of these is to ensure the sustainability of our existing facilities and to pass them on from generation to generation. While providing all these, it is also important to be able to protect the environment and nature without harming [9–15]. To ensure and protect the sustainability of our spirituality, we must first appreciate the wealth we have, love these values, respect our previous generations, and learn from their lives. In this way, we can ensure the continuity of our original culture without corrupting it. Thus, we can pass on our essence to the next generations [16–19]. It is very important to pass on our cultural heritage to the next generations. For this, these values should be included in our life cycle and perceived as a kind of habit. Seeing this in this way, the next generation, our children, will know the importance of this spirituality and value and will try to maintain this essence and our culture. In fact, if we consider that we inherit many things in nature from our ancestors as well as borrow from our children and educate the generations in that way, we will be able to pass on many of our spiritual values to future generations [7, 8, 20, 21]. The textile industry has already started to do its part in this regard. In this regard, the use of natural fibers, biodegradable fibers and recycled fibers in the textile products produced and the promotion of this use, and the replacement of non-environmentally friendly production methods with new environmentally friendly sustainable production alternatives are some of the contributions of the textile industry to the world sustainability [22–49]. When we look at the cultures of the countries, differences lie at the basis of each. When we look at Turkish culture, we come across the Ahi culture. What is “Ahi culture or Ahi community”? Ahi community (Ahi organization) can be seen as a commercial organization at first sight; however, the main purpose of the Ahi organization/culture is to raise people who are beneficial to society [50]. It aims to educate these people who will benefit the society within the principles of lifelong learning from cradle to grave [50]. Ahi community is a disciplinary school that forces to create an ideal society, to teach and embrace social solidarity, cooperation, rights, law and justice, human values, and good morals. In addition to all these, the mission of highlighting the role of women in society is one of the important missions it undertakes. Ahi culture has preserved the economic and social order and balance in Anatolia for centuries. Ahi community (Ahi-order, “Ahilik” in Turkish language) formed the basis of Turkish thought system. Thus, the sustainability of

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many cultures in the Turks was achieved [6, 51]. The Ahi community, which was formed in the 1200s, is a true cultural philosophy; for centuries, it has been a source of inspiration for tradesmen, merchants, craftsmen, and people engaged in a wide range of business businesses. Ahi-order includes an understanding of happy work and life in cooperation and is a patient cultural approach that aims to have honest, simple, calm, and original human values. In the ethics of Ahi culture, the individual is a person who is a model for the society and looks positively on social life [51, 52]. Ahi tradition, which is important for the sustainability of cultures and their ability to be passed down from generation to generation, has also formed the basis of Turkish culture [6–11, 16–18, 53, 54]. In this sense, the purpose of Ahi culture; to achieve social justice and to create a moral social order by establishing good relations between the rich and the poor, the producer and the consumer, labor, and capital, the public and the state. Considering work, worship, and honesty as a whole, morals of Ahi community adopts that an unethical businessman will never be successful, and even if he does, this success will not last long. Professional ethics were kept above all in the Ahi-order, and the self-control system worked perfectly. Although this culture, which embraces the importance of living in every field (work, family, generation) according to these values, has undergone some changes over time, it is of great importance for the survival and sustainability of many arts and heritage [55–60]. Our women have the greatest duty to ensure the concept of sustainability and pass it on to generations. Thanks to the Ahi-order structure underlying Turkish culture, women have an important place in social and economic life. For the organization and development of women, Fatma Bacı, wife of Ahi Evran, established the Anatolian Women’s Union, the world’s first women’s organization, and included women’s power in economic life. As a matter of fact, markets have been created where women sell their products, and these have been given a special place in the covered bazaars [53, 61]. In these covered bazaars and industrial sites, women performed their handicrafts and professions in places reserved for their use. Among the professions practiced by women, mostly tent making, felt making, embroidery, knitting, rug and carpet weaving, silk, and cotton yarn production. Working women received the training needs of the age in both professional and technical issues, as well as social and moral issues, in the organizations of the “Anatolian Women’s Union” and thus played a primary role in the sustainability of our traditional arts [62–64]. The transfer of spiritual values and arts from generation to generation and their continuation without losing their essence also provides us with important information about the past periods. Some of the most important crafts from past to present, especially with the help of Ahi culture; are pots and pans making, milling, stone chipping, bone chipping, carpentry, weapon manufacturing, metalworking, jewelry and accessories craftsmanship, shoemaking, spinning, weaving, animal husbandry, felt making, carpet making, leather making, and tailoring [65, 66]. Most of these crafts and arts tell us the feelings and experiences of that period with their engravings, designs, and motifs about the periods in which they were produced. Although some of these crafts are still in vogue, some are facing extinction. As just mentioned, many of these crafts began to disappear over time or fell into a decline in the amount of production. Carpet hand weaving and rug hand weaving

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have an important place in these crafts for Turkey case. Hand weaving carpets and rugs hand weaving are still being kept alive especially in Turkey’s province of Usak. Although the mechanization increases with the increase of technological developments and the importance and need given to the labor force decrease, nothing is as valuable as our hand-made heritage. Because many hand-made heritages reflect the culture, emotions, and experiences of that region [67]. For this reason, our handwoven fabrics still continue to be produced. It is seen that in many parts of Turkey still try to continue this tradition with our women. Especially in the field of hand weaving, where only hand labor is needed, no environmental damage is caused, and chemical textile material is not encountered. This requires careful maintenance of this art in its cleanest and most sustainable form [68]. Although the weavings, rugs and carpets obtained by machines are produced faster, the energy and space costs required by mechanization are higher [69, 70]. Of course, even though the production time of carpets and rugs from the machine is shorter, no machine production will be as good as the quality and naturalness of our hand-made carpets and rugs. In addition, hand-made rugs and carpet art provide job employment to many people [71, 72]. For this reason, it is important that the carpet and rug hand weaving areas where women are at the forefront are sustainable. Turkey’s many provinces (including U¸sak) have tried to ensure the sustainability of this sector. Some carpets woven in U¸sak are still considered as very valuable carpets in auctions in Europe and America today. U¸sak is one of the most important centers of hand weaving carpets and rugs in Turkey. U¸sak Governorship and U¸sak Municipality have carried out many projects on the production of sustainable carpets and rugs produced by hand weaving. Thanks to many different projects such as these, carpet and rug hand weaving has an important place in U¸sak. Each year, many different hand-woven carpets and rugs are produced in U¸sak and sold domestically and abroad. Hand-woven carpets and rugs manufactured in U¸sak have been exhibited all over the world and have been decorating palaces, European castles, mosques, churches, and museums (Paris Louvre Museum, Florence Bardini Museum, New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, Philadelphia Museum, Victoria and Albert Museum in London, National Gallery of Art, Budapest National Museum, Istanbul Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum, Berlin Museum of Islamic Art, Metropolitan National Museum of Kuwait, Istanbul Foundations Carpet Museum, Konya Mevlana Museum, etc.) for centuries. The fact that hand-woven carpets and rugs are still produced in U¸sak and some other regions of Turkey has many benefits for sustainability. Hand-woven rugs and carpets may be preferred as a good choice for diminishing ecological impact during the textile production. A return to conventional production technique will not only provide a sustainable process with utilizing less energy sources but also ensures that cultural heritage is passed on to future generations creating new employment opportunities leading to better economy for those areas. In more detail, carpet and rug hand weaving can be accepted as an important sustainable textile process as it is not related with usage of electricity power besides it necessitates human power. Hence, they do not harm the environment, in that way, when compared with other industrial processes. What is more, carpet and rug hand weaving contribute to the sustainability of human workforce. Rug and carpet hand

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weaving master (craftsmen) teaching these special hand weaving techniques to the next generation may be an example for the sustainability of knowledge and niche techniques. Therefore, the social sustainability and the environmental sustainability can be stated both in hand-made production (such as hand-woven carpet and rug manufacturing) which allows traditions, crafts, and customs to be passed down from generation to generation [73–79]. In this chapter, information is given about hand weaving and especially carpetrug hand weaving, in which a lot of effort has been made in order not to be one of the handicrafts that are about to disappear. Patterns of carpets and rugs varieties in U¸sak province and different regions of Turkey, the yarn types used in hand weaving, hand-weaving patterns, yarn coloration types, traditional motifs used in the hand weaving, the hand-woven product dimensions and hand-woven carpet-rug colors and shades were examined and explored. Therefore, first to be mentioned was the history of hand weaving in Turkey, then you were given information about carpet and rug hand weaving and varieties. In summary, in this chapter, the detailed information about carpet and rug hand weaving which are still underway and alive in Turkey and especially in the U¸sak province of Turkey was given. In other words, the history of hand weaving, carpet and rug hand weaving, traditional rug, and carpet hand weavings in U¸sak and in Turkey and the patterns of carpets and rugs varieties in U¸sak province and the different regions of Turkey were explored and reported.

2 History of Hand Weaving Turkey is a country with a wide range of handicrafts. Among these arts, weaving is one of the oldest jobs people have worked on. The basis of weaving on today’s modern looms is based on hand weaving. Considering the history of hand weaving, the existence of archeological findings showing that it was used in 6500 BC reveals that weaving, which is a method of forming a textile surface with two yarn systems, was known at least 8000 years ago [80–82]. The reason why textile residues from those times can be reached today is because they remained cold and frozen. For this reason, deterioration of textile materials has been delayed. Old woven fabrics belonging to the Neolithic age and carbonized were also found in excavations in our country. Carbonized fabric pieces have been recovered in burial sites found in excavations in Çatalhöyük in Turkey. As a result of the examinations, it was determined that these cloths were of wool type. Looking at the historical evidence, there are evidences of hand weaving in different periods, including more wool in Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran, more cotton in India, silk in China, and linen and wool in Central Asia. With the domestication of sheep, the use of wool has become more common over time [83–86]. It is learned from the tablets of 2000 BC that there was a large-scale fabric trade from Anatolia to other regions and from outside to Anatolia. In addition, there is important information about how the weaving was made from these tablets, the names, and qualities of the fabrics. From this information, in 2000 BC, it is understood

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that weaving has become an industry in Anatolia and close to it. It is known that the first raw materials used in hand weaving were linen, wool, silk, and cotton-like materials [66, 87]. Among the burials in the excavations in Egypt BC linen fabric, thought to date back to 5000 BC, was found. This fabric has 11–14 warp threads per cm, and 24–28 weft threads. In the fabrics, ornaments consisting of red, blue, green, brown, and black motifs are generally used. Dyed fabrics are very few. The Egyptians, like the later Israelites, were impressed with hygiene and preferred white fabric [83, 88]. It is claimed that the Sumerians made fabric by weaving sheep’s wool in their homes or in general production places, and even the carpet was produced in this period. However, no carpets or textiles were found in the graves. It is understood from the tablets found in the “British Museum” that fabric was made from wool in the city of Ur around Babylon, around 4200 BC. It is known that nomads used products such as hand-woven rugs in saddles or saddlebags that they put on the animals they used [84, 89, 90]. It is seen that the art of tent is advanced in the Khazars, who preserved the ancient Turkish life until the eleventh century, as in the Göktürks. The tents with cars, which were conquered by the Arabs during a war from the Khazars, were covered with carpets, gold, and silk. Also, gold-woven silk covers were found in the burial chambers of the Khazar Khans [83, 91]. The fibers must be connected to each other and in the form of yarn that will not be easily broken in order to make the weaving process successfully. Therefore, the fibers must be subjected to the spinning process before weaving. Since the fibers obtained in the past were not long, they were not suitable for weaving. For this reason, the first cultures spin long-fiber plants with their fingers before learning to turn short fibers into yarn. Making yarn by splicing vegetable or animal fibers together in time has been an important invention in terms of providing the opportunity to weave in the desired length [92–94]. The many different cultures throughout history (nomadic, semi-nomadic or resident of the Turkmen, the nomadic tribes and the tribes and other groups) are blended in Turkey. Turks have been able to maintain this rich traditional life and traditional hand-woven craft without losing. For instance, nomadic groups cannot settle in a specific, permanent place and at certain times migrate elsewhere. There may be other nomadic groups or other living communities in the places they have been and go to and in their surroundings. For example, they frequently encounter with other groups in the highlands. Therefore, they apply their unique symbols and forms to the many different products they use (tent, clothe, mat, carpet, rug, etc.) to promote their unique identity and traditions and protect themselves [91, 95]. And with these practices, they want to be seen and recognized by other people and other groups. At the same time, they want to express who they are and who they come from through these symbols. The technique known to be the oldest weaving technique, dating back to 4000 BC, is called tablet weaving technique. Tablet weaving technique (known as çarpana weaving technique in Turkish language) has been found in almost all communities, spreading over very large areas [96]. The oldest tablet weaving example is the example known as “Ramses Belt.” Tablet weavings (çarpana weavings) can be used in

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tents (for fastening), baskets, sacks, handles in saddles, harnesses of animals (decoration), women’s clothing (head decoration, children’s carts, cradles, etc.), men’s clothing (gunpowder, cartridge bag, sword hanger, etc.), and today it is used in home accessories and clothing accessories [63, 97, 98]. In the next section, information about carpet and rug hand weaving, which is the most important field of hand weaving, and its history were presented.

3 Carpet and Rug Hand Weaving Carpet and rug weaving is one of the most important branches of the art of weaving. The first humans used animal skins to protect their bodies from external factors. They learned to weave first with animal hides and leather, and then with plant stems and fibers [99–101]. Determining the origin and history of carpets and rugs is primarily related to the beginning of weaving. It is known that wool, which is the basic material of weaving, is related to the domestication of animals. On top of that, the origins and history of hand weaving, and therefore hand-woven rugs and carpets, should be sought in the region where sheep is raised and wool is produced, namely in Central Asia [66, 102, 103]. There is no exact information about where and by which nation the hand-woven carpet weaving was first woven. The general opinion on this subject is that carpet weaving was developed by nomadic tribes. The region between 30 and 45° north latitude that surrounds Asia with mountainous and high plateaus is accepted as the homeland of the carpet. Nomadic communities living in the region weaved carpets to meet their basic needs such as mats and covers, using the wool of the sheep they raised in order to be protected from harsh climatic conditions. Turkey is also included in the carpet belt. Based on these data, it is possible to say that hand-woven carpet weaving is a handicraft created by the nomadic life [82, 104–106]. Carpet weaving was born and developed in Anatolia, the Caucasus and Iran and spread to the world from here both technically and as a woven product. The oldest known carpet (hand-knotted oriental rug) example today is the Pazyryk (“Pazırık” in Turkish language) carpet. This carpet was found in a kurgan (grave) in the Altai Mountains between 1947 and 1948 by the Russian archeologist Rudenko. The Pazyryk carpet, dated to the 5th or fourth century BC, has survived until today without deterioration due to the glaciation of the water that filled it. The carpet, which is 183 cm × 200 cm and woven with a Turkish knot, has 3600 knots in a decimeter square. On the Pazyryk carpet, which resembles Turkmen carpets in terms of style, size and shape, cavalry and deer figures, griffons and flowers are woven in white, yellow, and blue colors on a red background. In addition, green, orange, and brown colors were used in this carpet. Carpets can be found in Iran, the Caucasus and Anatolia, where the Turks migrated [66, 101, 107]. These carpets reach the top in terms of quality and aesthetics during the Anatolian Seljuk period. After the Pazyryk carpet found in Eastern Turkmenistan, the best example of the first real knotted carpets is in Konya, the capital of Anatolian Seljuks. With the entry of the Ottoman Empire into Egypt, Iran and the Mamluk carpet

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Fig. 1 Tools used in flat hand weaving; from left to right: carpet scissors, carpet knife, and kirkit (traditional type of hand-weaving carpet comb that acts as a reed but is used manually)

art were interacted with. After this interaction, carpet art experienced its second golden age. Ottoman carpets of this period are known as palace rugs [108–115]. Turks are the ones who find and develop “Kirkit” fabrics. In hand weaving, “Kirkit” (traditional type of hand-weaving carpet comb that acts as a reed but is used manually and also known as carpet comb, shown in Fig. 1) is the tool utilized to tighten the weft yarn and loops and the hand weavings that are carried out by utilizing this “kirkit” tool can be named as “Kirkit” textile materials (or also can be called as “weaving with kirkit”). Kirkit is the name given to the hand-held tool of the reed (or batten) mechanism used in weaving machines (Fig. 1). Among woven fabrics with kirkit (traditional type of hand-weaving carpet comb that acts as a reed but is used manually and also known as carpet comb, shown in Fig. 1), all the weavings called traditionally kilim (rug), cicim (may also be called jijim, jajim, etc. in some sources), zili (may also be called sili, etc. in some sources), sumak (may also be called soumak, soumac, sumakh, sumac, etc. in some sources), each woven with a different technique, are called flat hand weavings [92, 95, 109, 116–123]. Kilim (the Turkish word for rug) as a traditional word can be translated as “rug” in English language. However, in this book chapter, it is considered more appropriate to use other traditional plain hand-woven names (cicim, zili, sumak) in their original Turkish form, as these words may sometimes lead to meaning slips or misunderstandings when translated into English language. Therefore, in the following sections, when the words “cicim, zili, sumak” were used, it should be understood that these are the traditional plain hand-woven techniques utilized and produced in Turkey. Among woven fabrics with the help of kirkit (traditional type of hand-weaving carpet comb that acts as a reed but is used manually or also may be called as primitive reed and also known as carpet comb, shown in Fig. 1); all of the weavings called rug, cicim,

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zili, sumak, each woven with a different technique, are called flat hand weavings [92, 95, 109, 120–123]. Carpet, on the other hand, is in the category of pile weavings. Its raw material can be wool fiber and hair. Kirkit textiles spread around the world with the immigration of Turks from Central Asia. It is assumed that people first made rugs by passing the woolen yarns from one to the other in order to meet the covering and matting requirements in the furnishing of the houses, and then they found the carpet by knotting the short wool yarns between these yarns. Traditional Turkish Handicrafts have created a rich mosaic by combining the cultural heritage of various civilizations from the thousands of years history of Anatolia with their own values. Weaving is a handicraft that has been done in Anatolia for a long time, has been a source of livelihood in most regions and continues to be [66, 124]. Rugs (“kilim” in Turkish language), cicim, zili, sumak and carpet weavings are to this day, it scattered touched almost every part of Turkey and touch. Due to the slot to a variety of different cultures throughout this document and the date of Turkey’s natural conditions are very diverse in terms of techniques and patterns. However, they show regional characteristics and change very little, especially in terms of patterns, since they are traditionally made [121, 125]. Rug (“kilim” in Turkish language) weaving: It is a type of weaving consisting of transverse weft threads passing through the warp yarns in double rows with front and back throughout the weaving and the warps are completely covered by the wefts. In certain areas where the patterns are found, a colored weft goes from one under and above the warps to the row of the pattern in another color and returns from there. Thus, the wefts of different colors form a pattern by moving between the warps, between their own pattern areas. Patterns can be woven section by section according to the wishes of the weaver. It is necessary to proceed with the other color areas right next to it in the pattern areas that expand gradually upwards. The weft threads are left a little loose while they are thrown, then they are compressed with kirkit (traditional type of hand-weaving carpet comb that acts as a reed but is used manually and also known as carpet comb, shown in Fig. 1). Thus, the weft threads wrap the warps and hide them. If the wefts are inserted too tightly, the wefts are hidden between the warps and a “warp faced” weaving is formed [122, 126, 127]. Certain patterns are woven for a long time by some groups without much external influences and personal additions, changes. Especially in these types, where not every pattern can be woven due to the difficulty of weaving the zili, the patterns remain almost the same for hundreds of years. This is why these patterns are called frozen patterns. The octagonal rose patterns still woven in Turkestan are seen in fourteenthand fifteenth-century Turkmen, Timurid, and Algerian miniatures. Zigzag-patterned floor mats, in other words rugs and carpets seen in Timurid miniatures, are today seen on cushions, sacks and small mats made of Turkmen zili weavings [95, 128]. North of China; in AD 1280–1468, we see that carpet weaving spread with the Mongols. Previously used carpets were made of broadcloth. Tapestries called K’ossü were made on simple looms with fine silk weft and warp silks and required great skill. Although there are stitched carpets in China, the examples we have shown that the patterns are created by weaving and rug technique, especially on tapestries [129].

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Looms used in weaving; they are classified as wooden shuttles, iron shuttles, horizontal-type shuttles, vertical-type shuttles, winding-type shuttles and stretching type shuttles [130, 131]. Tools used in carpet and rug weaving are as follows; loom, warp tool, kirkit, beam, vise clamping tool, carpet scissors, knife, meter, carpet key, weft, warp, and loop threads [131–135]. Especially the most important hand tool used in carpet-rug weaving is kirkit. For this reason, the name of the fabrics obtained in this way is locally called kirkit weaving. Information about these types of weaving is given in the next section.

3.1 Kirkit Hand Weavings As aforementioned, in hand weaving, kirkit (traditional type of hand-weaving carpet comb that acts as a reed but is used manually and also known as carpet comb, shown in Fig. 1) is the tool utilized to tighten the weft yarn and loops and the hand weavings were woven by utilizing this tool (kirkit) are called kirkit weavings. Kirkit is the name given to the hand-held tool of the reed (or batten) mechanism used in weaving (Fig. 1). Tools that are often used in hand weaving are shown in Fig. 1. Tool at the right side is kirkit, in the middle one is carpet knife, and at the left side is carpet scissor. Among woven fabrics with kirkit (traditional type of reed or batten also known as carpet comb, shown in Fig. 1); all of the weavings called rug (“kilim” in Turkish language), cicim, zili, sumak, and carpet, each woven with different techniques, are called flat hand weavings [120, 136, 137]. Rugs (“kilim” in Turkish language) are divided into different groups according to their touch features. Cicim weavings are diverse in weaving in terms of touch features. Sumak weaving is woven and produced in four types. Generally, sumak is used as auxiliary decoration in other fabrics. Plain kirkit weavings are generally known as rugs although they are created with different weaving techniques. This is also false information. All of them have different characteristic features in terms of touch and usage features. Rugs woven in Anatolia are known by names such as Turkish, Yoruk, Turkmen and Af¸sar, according to their pattern features. Only in these rugs, a motif can be used in all of them by taking different names. There are also many different motifs with the same name, which are not similar to each other [123, 137–139]. Classification of Kirkit (Flat Hand-woven) Weaves Plain hand weavings, kirkit weavings [the hand weavings were woven by utilizing kirkit tool (Fig. 1) are called kirkit weavings] are divided into five classes: rug (“kilim” in Turkish language) weaving, cicim (may also be called jijim, jajim etc. in some sources) weaving, zili (may also be called sili, etc. in some sources) weaving, sumak (may also be called soumak, soumac, sumakh, sumac, etc. in some sources) weaving and carpet weaving [66, 136, 140]. These weavings constitute the basic technical structure of all carpets and rugs woven in different regions [141, 142].

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Rug (Kilim) Hand Weaving Rug (“kilim” in Turkish language) is a type of weaving consisting of transverse weft yarns passing between the warp yarns in double rows with front and back throughout the weaving, and the warps are completely covered by the wefts [120, 122, 125, 143, 144]. In certain areas where the patterns are found, a colored weft goes from one under and above the warps to the row of the pattern in another color and returns from there. Thus, the wefts of different colors form a pattern by moving between the warps, between their own pattern areas [94, 137, 141, 145–148]. Cicim Hand Weaving It is a type of weaving created by squeezing colored pattern threads between warp and weft threads. On the surface of the fabric, raised patterns like made with a needle are formed later. The weft and warp threads that make up the ground are generally of the same color and thickness, and the threads that make up the pattern are of different color and thickness. Cicim (may also be called jijim, jajim, etc. in some sources) weaving is made with weft faced or plain weave technique, it differs in two hops or three hops depending on the way the pattern is thrown [112, 120, 121, 137, 141, 144, 146, 149]. Zili Hand Weaving It is a flat weaving technique that is made by ignoring the warp pairs from three top and bottom, filling the inside and outside of the motifs with different colors. Each pattern thread is passed transversely in its own pattern area, jumping from three top to bottom. After this row is completed, it is compressed by inserting one or more wefts in between, depending on the thickness of the weft thread. In order to create a pattern, the process made from three top and one bottom is continued by shifting the warp yarn in each row. Zili (may also be called sili, etc. in some sources) weaving is divided into five according to the weaving feature: plain zili, cross zili, sparse zili, checkered zili, contoured zili [95, 120, 137, 141, 144, 146, 149]. Sumak Hand Weaving Sumak (may also be called soumak, soumac, sumakh, sumac etc. in some sources) weaving; it is formed by the continuous winding of pattern yarns in warp pairs within the pattern area of the same color. After the pattern yarns are wrapped in warps in their own area, they continue to be wrapped in other pattern areas, sometimes turning from the back to the side or up. The characteristic of this weaving is that the pattern yarns cause fluffiness on the woven surface. Sumak weaving is used in the pattern area of the same color, which is formed by the continuous winding of pattern yarns in warp pairs, dowry bags, prayer rugs, saddlebags, etc. It is a lint-free weaving type used for weaving various household items [92, 120, 136, 146, 150]. Carpet Hand Weaving Carpet weaving is a weaving with a raised surface (pile), which is formed by knotting different patterns on the warp yarns with a separate pattern yarn, passing weft yarn between them and squeezing the pattern yarn at a certain height [151]. A carpet is

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formed by knotting colored yarns on warps and arranging them side by side and on top of each other. After the knot sequence is completed, two rows of weft are thrown. Throwed weft thread and loops are compressed with kirkit (traditional type of hand-weaving carpet comb that acts as a reed but is used manually and also known as carpet comb, shown in Fig. 1). The loops of the carpet woven several rows are cut at the desired height with carpet scissors. The carpet found, developed, and spread by the Turks is a gift of the Turks to the world civilization. This type of weaving, which is used as a blanket and decorative item, has also become the national and traditional art of the eastern countries [109, 120]. For years, rugs dominated Turkish culture in order to be more portable and easier to carry than carpets. Information about handwoven rugs in every region in Turkey (local hand-woven rugs) were given in the upcoming section.

3.2 Traditional Rug Hand Weavings Rug (“kilim” in Turkish language), as being a branch of weaving that developed before carpet weaving, its lightness and features such as being easy to fold and carry made it an indispensable item of the civilization with tents in the course of time. Made with prayer rugs or different local compositions and decorated with stylized unique figures, these products have love and skill in each loop and each is a work of art. Today, hand weaving is on the verge of disappearing with the development of technology. In order to keep hand weaving alive, it is very important to catch the production style suitable for the desired purpose and to choose quality tools. Being able to use the selected tools and equipment properly, knowing the techniques and properties used in weaving are among the factors that increase the quality [98, 150, 152, 153]. The yarns in the old rugs, which have been woven by the people for their own needs for a long time, were twisted by the weaver at home and prepared by being dyed with madder at home. These rugs have shown special features to the region with their color, motif, and composition. Today, the rugs that are woven by the people for their own needs have completely lost their characteristic of the region in terms of yarn, quality, color, motif, and pattern arrangement and have become degenerated. These changes and degenerations in rugs have continued from time to time. Rugs before approximately 1934 were classified as “First Period,” those woven between 1935 and 1960 as “Middle Period,” and those woven after 1981 as “Late Period” [138, 154]. According to the investigations made, warp and weft in the First Period Rugs were completely wool. The threads were prepared at home by the weaver and dyed with natural dyes such as madders (Rubia Tinctorum L.). The predominant colors used in these rugs are blue, red, and green, but of course other colors and color tones were also used besides these colors. Although the colors such as green and red in the rugs are of opposite colors, they are in harmony with each other because they are used in pastel colors and their color tones are chosen appropriately. In the Middle Period Kilims, the warp and motif thread were wool. In this period, motifs begun to change. Although madder was used, synthetic dye was also

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used. In this period, wool threads were also prepared by the weaver. But generally synthetic dye was preferred. Pastel red and green tones were used in slightly more vibrant colors; the color harmony started to deteriorate by losing its former character [105, 155–157]. In the Latest Period Kilims, blue–purple color tones have found more application in rugs. Red color was used both in more vibrant colors and sometimes in much darker tones. If it is green, it has turned into dark grass green and naphtha green. In the rugs, either eye-catching colors are used to create a tiring situation, or the rug has become depressing with very dark colors. Color diversity increased during this period. In addition to very dark colors, gypsy pink and occasionally bright orlon yarns were used in rugs. Cotton yarns were also used as warp yarns, and some changes were observed in rug motifs [138, 158]. When hand-woven rugs produced in Turkey are examined, some of the most important types of rugs produced in Turkey Bayat rugs, E¸sme rugs, Kelkit rugs, and Sarız rugs. Therefore, these rug types will be discussed in the next section. Bayat Hand-Woven Rugs Bayat, a branch of the Oghuzs from Turkish tribes, settled in many parts of Anatolia and one of these settlements was the Bayat district of Afyon. Oghuzs have dealt with important cultural works in history, one of these cultural works has been the rug. From a historical perspective, rug making in Bayat dates back to ancient times. However, this rug tradition in Bayat could not be transferred from the traditional framework to the market economy and was produced in some houses to meet the dowry needs of young girls. In 1987, rug-making courses were opened in Bayat district and rug making began to revive in the context of mass production [153, 159]. The motifs on the Bayat rugs vary according to the characteristics of the age, as well as the culture, traditions and customs of the region, the expectations and hopes of the weaver. Motives symbolizing maternity and fertility, abundance, luck, fortune, happiness, joy, longevity, heroism, and strength, removing bad glances, women, men and fertility, marriage desire of young girls, immortality of the lineage are used [128]. The names of the motifs (in here, these motif types are given in the Turkish language as they were originally used) used in Bayat rugs are as follows; av¸sar güzeli saç ba˘glı, bindallı, hayat a˘gacı (tree of life), ba¸saklı, ota˘g, parmaklı, asarcık, kör çiçek, bıtıraklı, ejder (dragon), örümcekli (with spider motif), çamçalı, and seleser [160]. In Bayat rugs, the techniques of kirkit (traditional type of hand-weaving carpet comb that acts as a reed but is used manually and also known as carpet comb, shown in Fig. 1 and used for plain hand-woven products) are used. In other words, one or more of the rug weaving technique, zili weaving technique, cicim weaving technique, or sumak weaving techniques are used in Bayat rugs [161]. 100% wool yarns are often used in Bayat rugs. Natural dyes are utilized in order to dye the yarns in these rugs, which are completely hand-made. The most important features that distinguish Bayat rugs from other rugs; it is made of pure wool and dyed with natural dyes that are completely obtained from natural plants, using dense and small motifs in the

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patterns to produce eye-catching rugs that will create a richness of motifs, appropriate placement of patterns according to size, and quality of weaving [161]. E¸sme Hand-Woven Rugs Anatolian rugs have come to the present day with their local pattern and color features by renewing themselves. Having a certain reputation in the field of carpets and rugs, our weavings expressed emotion, thought, longing and belief; the saddle of his horse, the sack he used to transport his grain and belongings, became his saddlebag in which he carried his food. In particular, rug is the cradle of Anatolian people at birth and the cover of their coffin at death [162]. While hand weaving continues in the province of U¸sak, where hand weaving is widespread and famous, hand-woven rugs have been produced in a sustainable manner for years in the E¸sme district of U¸sak. Rugs woven in the town of Esme in U¸sak province are woven by women on vertical looms called “istar” (can be made from wood or iron and is a handloom for weaving different textile products such as sacks, saddlebags, and rugs) in homes. Loom is also called rug tree. Men do not weave rugs. Girls, at a young age (7–8), sit at the loom next to their mother and start weaving rugs together. Rugs woven for commercial purposes are also woven by women on vertical looms called istar. The yarns of the old rugs, which have been woven by the people for their own needs for a long time, were twisted at home by the weaver and were prepared by being dyed with natural dyes at home. These rugs have shown special features to the region with their color, motif, and composition. Recently, E¸sme kilim production continues with the supply of warp and weft yarns by a few companies. Here, weavers who still have looms in their homes weave these rugs in E¸sme town of U¸sak [160, 163, 164]. In E¸sme kilims, 100% wool yarns are used in warp and weft. Warps are generally used in their natural color. Weft threads are used by being dyed with natural dyes. The most commonly used color is red. Other colors are used when applying various motifs on the rug [138]. It would be appropriate to examine E¸sme rugs in two main branches, which are woven by the people for their own needs and those made by the merchants for commercial purposes. Esme rugs are generally woven by merchants for commercial purposes, as well as the people of E¸sme weave rugs for their own houses. Different types of weavings (in here, these weaving types are given in the Turkish language as they were originally used) such as zili, sumak, sarma motifli cicim (a type of cicim weaving), hopan, and tülü are used in the rugs of the E¸sme town of U¸sak [138]. E¸sme kilims (E¸sme rugs) are divided into various groups (in here, these E¸sme kilim groups are given in the Turkish language as they were originally used) as “altınba¸s kilimleri,” “toplu kilimler,” “yan toplu kilimler,” “takmak kilimleri,” “alba¸s kilimleri,” ve “namazla˘g kilimleri” [165, 166]. Each of the E¸sme rugs groups show characteristics unique to its own group. Kelkit Hand-Woven Rugs Kelkit is a district of Gümü¸shane province in Turkey. The Kelkit rug is a type of rug woven with the zili weaving technique from the kirkit weaving class. The origin of the zili rug is based on the Central Asian Turks. The arrival of zili rug to Kelkit was when the Seljuk Turks invaded Erzurum, Erzincan and Kelkit in 1058. Items such as

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rugs, prayer rugs, saddlebags and socks are woven from the weaving of the Kelkit zili [167, 168]. In the Kelkit rug, threads made of pure wool are used in warp and weft. Warps are generally used in their natural color. Weft threads are used by being dyed with natural dyes. The most commonly used color is red. Other colors are also used when applying various motifs on the rug. There are various motifs in Kelkit rugs. These are generally geometrical motifs. It shows similarities with other local rug motifs. Among these motifs, the most widely used motifs (in here, these motifs are given in the Turkish language as they were originally used) today are kurba˘gacık, çarpı göz, çarpı “S”, geçmeli tarak, ger. Sariz Hand-Woven Rugs Sarız is a district of Kayseri in Turkey. Under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and living in Adana, Av¸sars used Sarız as a plateau for many years and settled in the district in 1840. In Sarız district and their villages, Av¸sar Yörüks from the O˘guz tribe, people who migrated in various provinces of the Eastern Anatolia region, and Dada¸s and Çerkez people from the O˘guz tribe, also called 93 muhajirs, lived [169, 170]. We can divide Sarız weaving into three classes. The first of these is the traditional Sarız Weavings. The second is the weavings made by people who came from different provinces and settled in Sarız for many years by bringing their weaving knowledge to Sarız. In the last group, they are woven for commercial purposes due to the increasing demand for flat weaves in recent years. Since the main source of income for the people living in this region is animal husbandry, sheep and goat wool were frequently used in weaving. In recent years, the number of people engaged in yarn production in the region has decreased due to the fact that the material is brought ready for commercially woven fabrics and the steps applied until the wool turns into yarn is laborious. In recent years, the use of materials such as cotton and orlon has become widespread [110, 171]. It may be observed that the traditional weaving of Sarız region today suffers losses and deterioration in some features of the original color motif, quality, size, material type, and similar features due to economic concerns. Young generations, who weave in the direction of the market, are rapidly moving away from or degenerate from values such as colors, motifs and patterns that are used fondly in traditional Sarız weavings. Sarız rugs have become famous for their weaving in parallel with the increasing demand for traditional weaving in recent years and local textiles are collected in return for money or in exchange with machine-made carpets [98]. In the center of Sarız and the villages of Sarız, there are quite rich weavings from plain weaving, especially rug and cicim weaving techniques. The local name of cicim weaving technique is “zülü”. Each motif forming the pattern has been stylized and loaded with symbolic meanings. People generally name the motif according to what they liken [138]. The motifs or symbols used are generally ram horn, cocklebur, eagle, abundance, eye, bird, comb, earring, scorpion, etc. The emotions and thoughts that are meant to be expressed are always expressed with motifs in the form of signs stylized inspired by the actual form of the object. People carry some symbols on them for good luck to be protected from evil. These symbols are reflected on the rugs in a stylized way. Every motif has a meaning. The Yörük woman who weaves the rugs talks about her feelings, thoughts, joys, sorrows,

Sustainable Carpet and Rug Hand Weaving in U¸sak … Table 1 Pile heights used in carpets woven in Turkey [172, 173]

Type of carpet

57 Pile height (mm)

100 × 100 silk carpet

2–2.5

100 × 100 silk–wool carpet

2–2.5

60 × 60 Hereke carpet

3.5–4.5

60 × 60 Sivas carpet

3.5–4.5

50 × 50 Sivas carpet

4–5.5

42 × 55 Bünyan carpet

4–6

40 × 55 Yahyalı carpet

4.5–5

40 × 50 Ladik carpet

5–7

36 × 42 Bünyan carpet

3.5–4.5

30 × 50 Kula carpet

7–10

38 × 38 thin Isparta carpet

8–10

26 × 33 Isparta carpet

12–14

wishes, desires, worries, fears, even if she is not literate, writing these motifs side by side [110, 171]. Looking at the colors used in Sarız rugs, the number of colors in the weavings woven 15 or 20 years ago is low and the distribution of colors on the weaving is systematic. All kinds of colors are used in weaving woven in recent years. The reason for this is that many different colors and shades are now available (different colors and shades could easily be obtained with the usage of synthetic powder dyes during yarn dyeing). Local people can use these dyes in their yarn dyeing process. Moreover, orlon yarns and factory-made dyed yarns in all colors can also be easily purchased by the local people. Therefore, the number of colors and shades used in these rugs has increased in weaving in recent years. But the distribution of colors is not as successful as in old weavings. Sarız hand-woven rugs can be used for many different purposes. Some of these different usage areas (depending on the difference of usage areas), such as floor rug, wall rug, sofa covers, bedspreads, sacks, rugs for carrying loads, saddlebags, pillows, tablecloth, salt bag, etc. After providing information about the kinds of rugs in different regions of Turkey, in the next section, traditional carpet weaving in Turkey was mentioned.

3.3 Traditional Carpet Hand Weavings Hand weaving of carpets has also become popular over the years after the production of rugs in hand weaving. Nearly in each region of Turkey that there are types of carpets known for its local name. In here, there are carpets in which the techniques and hand tools developed by the people of those regions, different patterns and various colors are used. Pile heights adjusted according to the type of carpets are as shown in Table 1.

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Hand-woven carpets in various regions in Turkey have their own characteristics such as quality, pattern, material, knot technique, pile height. The Turkish Standards Institute has developed specific standards for each local carpet, taking into account the local characteristics [133, 174–178]. A small size hand-woven carpet loom is shown in Fig. 2. Here, information is given about some constituents of hand-woven carpet [179]. The fringe is the ends left over from the warp threads being cut at both ends of the carpet. Edge finish is made with the ground color and two-layer ground loop yarn to make the carpet sides strong. Border is the patterned and straight part that frames the edge of the carpet. The pile is the shape of the knot ends, called loops, cut in certain lengths [179]. Warp is the skeleton of the carpet. In hand-woven carpets, the weft is generally the wool or cotton yarns that make up the ground weaving of the carpet with the warp passed between the rows of loops and parallel to the width of the carpet [179]. Four knot techniques are generally used in hand-woven carpets in Turkey. These are Turkish knot (also known as Gördes knot and ghirodes knot), Persian knot (also known as Sine knot and sennah knot), Hekim knot (Isparta knot), and knot on single warp. Quality in hand-woven carpets is generally measured by the number of knots tied per unit area of 10 × 10 cm2 or dm2 [179]. The following sections provide information on popular local carpet types. Bünyan Hand-Woven Carpet Bünyan is a district of the province of Kayseri in Turkey. It is known that Turks have settled in this region since 1071. Since history, the people of the region, who have earned their living from livestock, have made artificial animal hide by knotting wool yarns so that their ends hang out. The real breakthrough of Bünyan carpet weaving took place in the twentieth century (especially in the years 1914–1916). During these years, rug looms were made suitable for carpet weaving, and rug and silk carpet weaving disappeared. The use of natural dyes continued for a very short time and became history with the establishment of the Bünyan carpet yarn factory in 1926 [180]. Standard sizes are generally dominant in these carpets. The most woven sizes with length 1.5 times the width are as follows: 60 cm × 90 cm, 90 cm × 130 cm, 120 cm × 180 cm, 120 cm × 225 cm, 2 m × 3 m. In terms of pattern diversity, Bünyan hand-woven carpets are divided into 3 groups as carpets having flowers, carpets having geometric motifs and carpets having central patterns. There are an average of 16–30 loops per cm2 of the carpet. For carpets with 16 loops (knots) per cm2 , 20 nm warp is used, and for carpets with 30 loops per cm2 , 30 nm warp is used. Known as the favorite color of the Turks, the red color is widely used in Bünyan carpets. The fact that this color is a symbol of wealth and nobility has caused it to be used frequently. After the red color, yellow, blue, green, black, and white were also used predominantly [180]. Demirci Hand-Woven Carpet Demirci is a district of Turkey’s Manisa province. The carpet weaving, which was brought to Anatolia by the Turks from Central Asia, was further improved by the Seljuks, and was transmitted to all parts of Anatolia and in the meantime brought to Demirci. Carpet weaving has been a source of livelihood in this region for centuries. In

Sustainable Carpet and Rug Hand Weaving in U¸sak …

Fig. 2 Small size hand-woven carpet loom

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Demirci, the production of wall-to-wall carpets and mosque carpets is quite common [175, 181, 182]. Demirci carpets are classified according to the raw material used among themselves, according to the place they are used and according to the weaving technique. Wool fiber is mostly used in these carpets. There are also carpets produced using cotton, silk, or linen fiber yarns. The yarns used in these hand-woven carpets can be dyed with natural dyes or synthetic dyes. These Demirci hand-woven carpets can be used as prayer carpets, floor carpets, hotel carpets, and mosque carpets. Turkish knot (also known as Gördes knot and ghirodes knot), Persian knot (also known as Sine knot and sennah knot) techniques are generally used in these carpets [181, 182]. In the most common hand-woven carpets in Demirci, three twisted yarns obtained from wool are used as warp yarn (in their original natural color without dye involvement). Weft yarn is made of wool and dyed in a color suitable for the carpet (thicker than warp yarn and with two twists). Loop yarns (generally made from wool fibers) are generally dyed with plant-based natural dyes obtained. Dö¸semealti Hand-Woven Carpet Dö¸semealti region that is at the Turkey’s Antalya province is the area’s oldest hand weaving center. Teke Yoruks who came to Anatolia after the twelfth century and settled in Antalya and its surroundings lived a nomadic life. However, a weaving loom and its products were seen in almost every tent. Tents in nomads are made of goat hair. They also made patterns on textiles in bird and butterfly motifs with colored woolen threads [132, 183–185]. One of the most important features of Dö¸semealtı carpets is that they are generally small in size. Prayer carpets, hall rugs, and carpets (runner carpets) are mostly woven in this region. The sizes of hand-woven products woven in this region are generally 80 cm × 120 cm, 75 cm × 110 cm, 70 cm × 115 cm, 125 cm × 220 cm, 120 cm × 220 cm, 118 cm × 200 cm, 75 cm × 310 cm, 75 cm × 330 cm, 80 cm × 325 cm, 100 cm × 100 cm, 105 cm × 105 cm, and 103 cm × 107 cm [132, 183–185]. The names of the motifs used in the Dö¸semealtı hand-woven carpets (in here, these hand-woven carpet motifs are given in the Turkish language as they were originally used) are as follows; elibelinde (“hands on hips” motif, ejderha (dragon motif), el motifleri (hand motifs), hayat a˘gacı (tree of life), kazaya˘gı, yıldız (star motif), zakkum (oleander motif), deve (camel motif), etc. [138, 186, 187]. The colors used in these carpets are obtained with the use of natural dyes. The used colors vary according to the seasons. In the spring and summer seasons, the green color prevails in the carpets, as the plants are mostly used for painting the leaves and branches. Meanwhile, the roots of the plants are collected and left to dry. The roots that dry in autumn are pounded and turned into powder. These natural dyes in powder form are used for dyeing the yarns of carpets to be woven in winter. For this reason, the colors of the carpets woven in the winter season are mostly blue or red. There are also some symbolic meanings expressed by the colors used in the region. Accordingly, red on carpets signifies wealth, bliss, and joy. While the green color expresses heaven and eternal happiness in line with religious beliefs, the blue color indicates nobility and splendor, the yellow color indicates protection from evil, and the black color indicates the purification from world troubles [132, 183, 187, 188].

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Gördes Hand-Woven Carpet Gördes, it is a district of Manisa in Turkey. Establishing the main population structure of the city center and districts of Manisa, the “Yoruk Turkmen” tribes, who settled intensively since the twelfth century, used the traditions and customs such as color, pattern, weaving technique in carpet making both in their homes and in making their living. They continued the art of carpet weaving here as well, the tribes who knew carpet weaving very well settled in Gördes with the Seljuks. Gördes carpet weaving, which gives its name to the knot technique in Turkish carpets and has a unique place in Turkish carpet art, has spread throughout Anatolia since the sixteenth century [134, 175, 189]. Gördes carpets are also classified according to the raw material used among themselves, according to the place they are used, according to the weaving technique and the number of loops in a decimeter [134, 189]. According to the pattern features, the names of Gördes carpets (in here, names of these hand-woven Gördes carpets are given in the Turkish language as they were originally used) are as follows; Kız Gördes, Elmalı Gördes, Mihraplı Gördes, Göbekli Gördes, Mecid Gördes, Manzaralı Gördes, Keyif Gördes, Çilli Gördes, Muskalı Gördes, Direkli Namazgâh, Samdanlı ¸ Gördes, Basra Gördes, Sinekli Gördes, Marpuçlu Gördes, Taraklı Gördes, Kandilli (˙Ibrikli) Gördes, Çakır Gördes, Nevresim Gördes, ˙Ibrikli Gördes, Avizeli Gördes, and Asmalı Gördes [134, 166, 189]. Both warp and weft yarns used in Gördes carpet weaving are produced from wool, cotton, and silk fibers. Loop (knot) threads are fine, quality threads made of threefold untwisted wool. Yarns that are used in Gördes hand-woven carpets can be dyed with natural dyes and synthetic dyes [134, 189]. Figure 3 exhibits some natural dye sources and naturally dyed yarns used in the coloring of carpet weaving yarns. Some natural dye sources used in the coloring of carpet weaving yarns, and some of the colors obtained by using these natural dye sources are summarized below [134, 189, 190]; Salvia officinalis: Ivory and beige colors can be obtained. Chrysanthemum balsamita: Yellow color is obtained and usually used in color mixtures. Madder: Dark red, light red, cinnamon color can be obtained. Walnut shell: Dark brown, cream, and beige colors can be obtained. Red onion: Khaki, green and olive-green color shades can be obtained. Red pine bark: Yellow, reddish yellow, cinnamon yellow can be obtained. Gallnut: Dark yellow color is obtained. Pomegranate: Black color is obtained. Acorn: Red buff, light buff, gray colors are obtained. Daisy: Yellow color is obtained. Onion skin: Dark yellow color is obtained. Sumac: Different shades of yellow can be obtained with the usage of different mordants [134, 189, 190].

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Fig. 3 Some natural dye sources and naturally dyed yarns used in the coloring of carpet weaving yarns

Hereke Hand-Woven Carpet Hereke is a town in the province of Kocaeli in Turkey. Since Hereke is on the historical “Silk Road” and is close to Istanbul and therefore to the Ottoman Palace, it has been effective in the development of carpet weaving in this region. The first rugs woven are generally coarse carpets (carpet with low number of loops per m2 ). In these rugs, generally geometric and angular patterns, large motifs, and altar compositions are used. In the following periods, studies were initiated to make the carpets more attractive and thin carpets (carpet with high number of loops per m2 ) started to be produced [172, 173]. Apart from the Hereke carpets in the Topkapı Palace, Dolmabahçe Palace was also built, while the Hereke carpets were designed by the palace painter Monsieur Emin Maise, the motifs suitable for the decorative elements of the Dolmabahçe Palace. All the patterns in the carpets used as ceiling to wall and upholstery were produced in a visual balance under the dominance of the same and similar motifs and colors [172, 173, 191, 192]. In Hereke carpets, the motifs showing the characteristics of the nature-admiring Ottoman culture and the eternity theme originating from the Sufi culture gained importance. An average of 200 motifs are used in these carpets. The most important motifs (in here, motif names are given in the

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Turkish language as they were originally used) are lale (tulip), gonca gül (rosebud), yaprak (leaf), karanfil (clove), sümbül (hyacinth), gül (rose), badem (almond), çiçek buketleri (flower bouquets), yedi da˘gın çiçe˘gi, binbir çiçek, kır çiçe˘gi (wild flower), erik dalı, asmalı lale, Zümrüdüanka (phoenix), lalezar, Sultanahmet, polonez, kristal (crystal), gülseri, gülendam, makber, ku¸slu (motif with bird), Da˘gıstan, firuze, bahçesaray, badegül, kö¸sk, s¸ölen, Dolmabahçe, buket (bouquet), and Kafkas (caucasian) [114, 172, 173]. Red and dark blue are used as the ground colors for the Hereke carpet, which has an extraordinary richness of patterns. When the ground color was red, the border color was used as dark blue, and when the ground color was dark blue, the border color was used as red. White, yellow, blue, pink, and orange are generally used as the motif colors in the pattern. In Hereke carpets, products in different materials were made using the technique of silk on silk, wool on silk, and wool on cotton. Hereke carpets usually are woven according to Turkish knot (also known as Gördes knot and ghirodes knot) style with 100% silk fiber warp yarns and 100% silk loop material [172, 173, 191]. Isparta Hand-Woven Carpet Isparta, in Turkey’s lakes region, is a city famous for its roses. The history of hand weaving in Isparta is quite old. Before carpet weaving, rug making was very common in Isparta. After 1896, it is seen that carpet weaving replaced the rug weaving. Seljuk Turks were the first to bring carpet weaving to Anatolia. There is an old commercial weaving tradition that can weave the famous Turkmen carpets and export them to neighboring countries in Isparta and its surroundings, which has hosted a very important Turkmen population since the twelfth century [92, 193, 194]. In Isparta hand-woven carpets, generally used patterns (motifs: in here, motif names are given in the Turkish language as they were originally used) are Gülistan, Serpme, Kompozisyon, Osmanlı, Goblen, Çin, Üzümlü, Dönümlü, Kö¸se göbek, etc. [133, 193, 195]. Carpets woven in Isparta generally use dark blue, brick red, cyan blue, dirty yellow, yellow-green, oil green, beige tones and off-white. Meanwhile, indigo blue and dark brown colors close to black, which generally strengthen the motif edges, are also frequently encountered. Ground colors are generally white and dark blue and there are also plain colored carpets woven as runner carpets (carpet runners) [133, 193]. Ladik Hand-Woven Carpet These carpets were named after the town of Lâdik near Konya. Large tulip or poppy motifs placed on a straight branch are characteristic of Ladik carpets. The oriental carpet organization that developed in Western Anatolia at the beginning of the twentieth century, the “Industry School” carpet weaving in Hereke and Sivas was organized by the managers of the period in Konya with the effect of revitalizing the carpet market. Our semi-industrial carpets, different from traditional hand-made carpets, are called “Ladik carpets” [82, 115, 196, 197]. Ladik carpet weaving has gained its current status in the 1940s. At that time, it was discontinued for essential needs and started production for income purposes, and even a significant amount of foreign currency input was provided for a while. The patterns applied on the carpet are

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inspired by the Iranian-Iraqi patterns. 20% of the village of Ladik earns a living by making hand-made carpets. Wool fiber yarns are generally used in these carpets. This number is quite low compared to previous years. Due to various reasons (most importantly that exports have come to a standstill), the public is turning away from carpet weaving and turning to other fields [115, 196, 198]. Milas Hand-Woven Carpet Milas is a district of Mu˘gla in Turkey. This region is one of the oldest settlements of Turkmen tribes. The region has preserved its historical features in terms of customs, traditions, and clothing. It is accepted that the tradition of carpet weaving in the region started with the weaving of prayer rugs in the sixteenth century. There is a different style of decoration carpet every region in Turkey. Milas is one of the most important weaving centers of Western Anatolia. Although Milas carpets show different characteristics according to the villages they touch, their content is the same in terms of composition, color harmony and quality [160, 199–201]. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Milas carpets are divided into traditional (classical) and baroque styles in terms of pattern and color. Classic carpets are Milas prayer rugs with mihrabs. In these prayer rugs, the altar is in the form of a rhombus. There is a realm on the mihrab, and stylized plant motifs are found on the inner parts of the mihrab. Motifs without contours are seen. The so-called Baroque style was produced in the Ottoman Empire, during the reign of Abdülmecit, when the European influence was intense in architecture and art. In these carpets, flower patterns are placed on the edges defined by zigzags instead of straight lines. The carpets that make up another group in Milas are also examples with medallions. These carpets are in various types such as square, rectangular, hexagonal [199, 202]. The loop, warp, and weft yarns in Milas carpets are generally wool. Madder dyes are used to color the threads. It is possible to classify these carpets according to where they are used as prayer rugs and floor carpets. Turkish knot (also known as Gördes knot and ghirodes knot), Persian knot (also known as Sine knot and sennah knot) are used according to the weaving technique [199, 203]. The pattern names (in here, pattern names are given in the Turkish language as they were originally used) used in Milas hand-woven carpets are as follows; Anahtarlı Cafer, Ada Milas, Baklaçiçe˘gi, Ba¸saklı, Boncuklu muska, Cafer molla i˘gnesi, Caferli, Cennet süpürgesi, Cep, Ceviz yapra˘gı (kabuksuz), Cıngıllı Cafer, Cinli, Dokuz göllü, Donaya, Eli koynunda, Eski su gemi suyu, Feslice, Heybe göllü, Horozlu göllü, Hayat a˘gacı (tree of life), ˙Ibrik (ewer), Kabuksuz böcek, Kandilli göl, Kâ˘gıt suyu, Karanfilli Ada Milas, Karanfil suyu, Testere, Kedi izi (gölcük), Kertenkele kuyru˘gu, Kirmanlı su, Koçboynuzu (ram horn), Kolon suyu, Köpek izi, Madalyon (medallion), Mazı Caferi, Mihraplı cıngıllı Cafer, Muska, Nazarlık, Paracık, Patlıcanlı Ada Milas, Pe¸skir suyu, Sandıklı göl, Sarıklı, Sekiz dalga, Selvili su, Süpürge suyu, Si¸ ¸ seli, Tabaklı, Tabakalı kabuksuz, Tabakalı sandıklı, Tablalı Cafer, Tablalı yollu Cafer, Tahtacı Ada Milas, Tahtacı Milas, Tarak, Taraklı su, Testereli, Testereli gemi suyu, Tosba˘ga (kabuksuz), Ülkercik, Üzümlü, Yengeç, Yılanlı göl, Yıldız (star), Yıldızlı su, Zambaklı göl, Aynalı e˘gmesi, Ay¸se Dudu suyu, Bolsak e˘gme, Çıblak e˘gme, Çifte güllü, Darbulla e˘gmesi, E˘gmeli Göllü, Isparta göllü, Kara Ay¸se e˘gmesi, Karadam e˘gmesi, Karpuzlu

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göl, Kelle, Lâdik, Minareli su, Pabuçlu göl, Sülüklü su, Üç güllü su, Yapraklı su, Yeni köy güllü, and Ye¸sil e˘gme [150, 166, 199, 200, 204]. Ya˘gcibedir Hand-Woven Carpet Ya˘gcıbedir hand-woven carpets have been brought to the present by the nomadic Ya˘gcıbedir Yörük Tribe settled in the provinces of Balıkesir, Sındırgı, Bigadiç, Bergama, Kepsut and Dikili in the last 500 years ago. Its most important features are that its warps and wefts are very fine, woolen yarns. Ya˘gcıbedir hand-woven carpets are woven with Gördes knot (Turkish knot). Carpets have a long life because the knots are tied very firmly. They are tight knotted, short pile carpets. The carpets have 1400–1600 knots in 1 dm2 and 30–35 loops in 1 cm2 . The Ya˘gcıbedir carpet, which was previously woven like a handiwork only for dowry purposes, has become a commercial value in the last 35–40 years [203, 205, 206]. Ya˘gcıbedir carpets handwoven around Sındırgı and Bigadiç in Balıkesir are divided into three according to their pattern features. These are Sındırgı-type, Kepsut-type, and Bergama-type carpets. Sındırgı-type hand-woven carpets are also divided into patterns (in here, pattern names are given in the Turkish language as they were originally used) such as karagöz, heybesulu ve yedielli [91, 206, 207]. Figure 4 shows Balıkesir Ya˘gcıbedir hand-woven natural dyed wool carpet (on the left) and Ya˘gcıbedir kız Bergama (Ya˘gcıbedir girl Bergama) hand-woven natural dyed wool carpet (on the right). No colors other than navy blue, red, black, brown, and white are used in Ya˘gcibedir hand-woven carpets. Plant-based natural dyes are used for weaving yarns. Ya˘gcıbedir carpets are generally carpets with navy-blue grounds. Ya˘gcıbedir carpet patterns are not symmetrical. Some patterns in carpets usually always look in the same direction and are asymmetrical. Animal, vegetable, and geometric motifs are used in the designs. Carpet middle motifs create compositions that complement each other as a whole. The most demanded and produced type is the hall rug-type carpets (carpet runners, runner carpets) of 115 cm × 200 cm. Stars with floral forms arranged in the shape of a tree of life in the middle ground are common. The border is usually seven banded, and the ground color is navy blue, red, or white. In the middle ground, flower, branch, leaf, and star motifs are connected and often side by side. Ya˘gcıbedir carpet patterns describe Turkish culture in Central Asia. When changes are made in the colors and patterns of the carpets, the original state of the carpet deteriorates. Therefore, it is not possible to modernize these hand-woven carpets [91, 205, 206]. Yahyali Hand-Woven Carpet These hand-woven carpets take their name from Yahyalı district in Kayseri province. The history of carpet weaving in Yahyalı begins with the settlement of Turks in Anatolia. When the Oghuz Tribes, who came to Anatolia from Central Asia, settled here, they undoubtedly brought their own culture with them like every other nation. Initially, protection from the cold continued as dowry for bridal gowns and as a contribution to the family economy as it is today. The fact that the local people lived a nomadic life until a short time ago and the motifs used in carpets prove that carpet weaving began in this region during the Oghuz period. On the other hand, the

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Fig. 4 Balıkesir Ya˘gcıbedir hand-woven natural dyed wool carpet (on the left) and Ya˘gcıbedir kız Bergama (Ya˘gcıbedir girl Bergama) hand-woven natural dyed wool carpet (on the right)

basic materials of the carpet, wool fiber yarn, plant-based natural dye, and weaving technique are also a separate evidence for the period of Oghuz tribes [208–210]. In Yahyalı hand-woven carpets, warp, weft, and loop yarns are made from wool fibers. Pile height in Yahyalı carpets pile height is 6–9 mm. The pile part is woven with the Turkish knot (also known as Gördes knot and ghirodes knot). Carpet sizes in the Yahyalı region are not very large. These carpets have 30–40 loops per cm2 . There is a wealth of patterns and motifs in carpets [138]. Navy blue, red, brown, gray, yellow, green, and purple colors are often used. The utilized dyes are completely natural dyes. Color match is quite smooth. Contrasting colors are never used side by side. The weaver has a knowledge of color and the colors coming from the traditions determined the color elements of the Yahyalı carpet. Various shades of a color are used in the same pattern. The abundance of color tones and natural colors add a special feature to the Yahyalı carpet [208, 209]. It is possible to see all kinds of elements from geometric shapes to stylized animal and plant shapes in Yahyalı carpets. The most important types of these hand-woven carpets (in here, Yahyalı hand-woven carpet types are given in the Turkish language as they were originally used) are mihraplı, karpuzlu, göbekli, dabazlı, kemerli, baltalı. The dominant colors in these carpets are sea blue, red, brown and gray. As Yahyalı carpets are used, their colors shine, they do not deteriorate with washing, on the contrary, they become more enlivened [208, 209].

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U¸sak Hand-Woven Carpet The art of weaving has settled in Anatolia with the Seljuks from Turkish tribes. In the past, weaving was a special dowry item traditionally woven in Turkish society. However, later on, it began to be shared as an inheritance or given to mosques due to death [162, 211]. Turkey’s Usak province and regions of the early fifteenth century and creator of the Ottoman period has been the center of Ottoman carpets. The ambassadors who came to the country as a result of the capitulations that started in the 1500s in the country were given the right to trade within the Ottoman borders. Thus, U¸sak hand-woven carpets showed themselves abroad [114, 212–216]. While distinguished families in Europe had their paintings made by famous painters, they used U¸sak carpets as decorations on walls, floors, and tables. The carpets in the paintings of famous painters such as Hans Holbein and Lorenzo Lotto were named after the painters, and they were called Lotto and Holbein carpets [192, 212–214, 217]. U¸sak hand-woven carpets gained great importance during the period of Suleiman the Magnificent. Weaving masters brought from Azerbaijan at that time started to weave carpets unique to U¸sak with new styles. Anatolian Muftis were appointed to prevent the carpets from losing their characteristics and weaving continued under control [212]. The patterns used in the U¸sak hand-woven carpets were designed by miniaturists and home decoration artists and were named palace carpets. Spreading from Ottoman palaces to European castles, from mosques to churches, the U¸sak carpet is not just a carpet, it is a legend that is a symbol of respectability. Historic U¸sak hand-woven carpets are today exhibited in many different museums such as Paris Louvre Museum, Florence Bardini Museum, New York Metropolitan Art Museum, Philadelphia Museum, Victoria & Alber Museum in London, National Gallery of Artta, Budapest National Museum, Istanbul Turkish & Islamic Arts Museum, Berlin Islamic Arts Museum, Metropolitan National Kuwait Museum, Istanbul Foundations Carpet Museum, and Konya Mevlana Museum [212, 214, 215, 217–221]. In order to increase the old awareness of our cultural heritage U¸sak carpet in the world market and leave an artistic legacy to the next centuries, a progress has been made in the field of textile in the 2000s and U¸sak yarns have started to be produced again in factories. The U¸sak carpet, which has made its mark on the history of art with its durability that defies the years, takes its solid structure, which it has preserved, from natural wool carpet yarn. The carpets and rugs issued in this regard by providing services to various companies operating in the hand-woven carpet industry in Turkey, quality is to keep track of continuity [123, 212, 214, 222]. In Fig. 5, women weaving U¸sak carpet is shown. The U¸sak carpet takes its solid structure, which it has preserved over the years, from natural wool carpet yarn. In the U¸sak Organized Industrial Zone, where the factories established in this direction are located, 100% natural wool yarn is manufactured; Turkey and the world’s supply of yarn-to-yarn production 100% natural wool carpet weaving company engaged in various regions are provided. In addition, the necessary care is provided to keep the environment clean, and there is a treatment plant consisting of physical, chemical, biological, and sludge treatment units [212]. As of today, 90% of the yarn needs of hand-woven carpet and rug manufacturers and exporters are provided by companies in U¸sak. Here manufactured 100% natural

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Fig. 5 Women weaving U¸sak carpet

wool yarn for carpets and rugs, hand-woven carpets, and rugs in Turkey’s various regions come to life. These carpets and rugs are exported to America and European countries [212, 217]. One of the most important features of U¸sak carpets is that the weft, warp, and knot yarns are made from wool fibers. Very few carpets with cotton yarns were woven. It is woven with the knot technique, also known as the Turkish knot (also known as Gördes knot and ghirodes knot). The density of stitches woven in a square decimeter varies between 30 × 30 and 40 × 40. This knot also increases the strength and quality of the carpet. The high pile of old U¸sak carpet is a specific feature. The very humid British islands and Dutch people have preferred U¸sak carpets for a long time because they have high pile. One of the values of U¸sak carpets, which have been going on for three or four centuries, comes from here. The colors on the old U¸sak carpets are dark and deep. Three or four colors are dominant on the carpet. These colors include dark blue, dark red, green, yellow, very little white, and camel-hair color. One of the most important features of the old U¸sak hand-woven carpets is the pattern, motif, and model features. U¸sak carpets can be classified into three main types in terms of their motif and composition features. The patterns inspired by book bindings are called “madalyonlu” carpets (carpets with medallion), “yıldızlı” (stelliferous, starry, or starred) carpets with a geometric layout, and the carpets with leaf composition that evoke the shape of a bird are called “ku¸slu” U¸sak carpets (carpets with bird motifs) [212, 222–225]. In general, the basic technical features of U¸sak hand-woven carpets are as follows: • Weft, warp, and loop yarns are made from 100% wool fibers. • The Turkish knot (also known as Gördes knot and ghirodes knot) is used. • Hand rope or worsted rope is generally used.

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• Although they are mostly dyed with natural dyes, chemical dyes can also be preferred, albeit a little. • There are 89,600 nodes per square meter. Each type of U¸sak hand-woven carpets, which are guests of palaces and opened to the world, has been given separate codes and is produced in this way, and their orders are received all over the world. The codes of the carpet are due to changes in the floor color, size or pattern of the carpet, and its border. Let us examine the types of U¸sak hand-woven carpets according to these features. Here, the names of these U¸sak hand-woven carpets, originally in Turkish, are often used in English with the same original Turkish names. We see that it can be used instead of these original names in slightly different words that evoke these names similar to these original names. However, in this book chapter, these U¸sak hand-woven carpet names will be given in accordance with their Turkish original names. Yıldızlı U¸sak Halısı (U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with star motifs) (Code: U¸sak01, U¸sak-02, U¸sak-03): It is woven in 120 cm × 180 cm or 170 cm × 240 cm sizes. The star motif stands for productivity in Turkish carpets. It includes meanings such as birth, peaceful life, and the renewal of the universe. Palmet and Rumis can be seen in the versions of the eight-pointed stars on U¸sak carpets. Geometrical flowers, short branches, and hook motifs are seen in the spaces in the ground [212, 226, 227]. Lotto U¸sak Halısı (Lotto U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet) (Code: U¸sak-04, U¸sak-05, U¸sak-06, U¸sak-07): It is woven in 90 cm × 120 cm or 120 cm × 180 cm sizes. It is the carpet depicted in the paintings of the Italian painter Lorenzo Lotto. On the wide main border, there are stylized dragon, swastika, and rosette motifs in light and dark red on a blue background. The main ground is divided into five squares in width and eleven squares longitudinally. The interior is filled with double rumi motifs and octagons stylized in yellow. In the entire composition based on infinity, there is a cross-shaped order occurring at the junction of the squares [212–214]. Çiçekli U¸sak Halısı (U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with flowers) (Code: U¸sak-08, U¸sak-09, U¸sak-10): It is woven in 120 cm × 180 cm or 170 cm × 240 cm dimensions. It is an example of local U¸sak carpets. A general composition is created with flowers, leaves, and branches on the carpet. The abundance and fertility of nature are described [212, 227]. Madalyon (Madalyonlu) U¸sak Halıları (U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with medallion) (Code: U¸sak-11, U¸sak-12, U¸sak-16, U¸sak-17): They are woven in 150 cm × 220 cm, 170 cm × 240 cm, and 200 cm × 285 cm sizes. Madalyon (Madalyonlu) U¸sak Halıları (U¸sak hand-woven) carpets with medallions were produced in the sixteenth century, and those up to 10 m long were woven. A wide variety of rich medallion types in U¸sak carpets reveal the dominance and creative power of Turkish masters. The middle of the carpet is marked with a large medallion, the corners are marked with a quarter medallion, the inside of the medallions and the ground of the carpet are filled with plant decorations, human and animal figures according to miniature art. The medallion in the middle axis symbolizes infinity [212, 226, 227].

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Ku¸slu U¸sak Halısı (U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with bird motifs) (Code: U¸sak-13, U¸sak-14): It is woven in 90 cm × 120 cm or 120 cm × 180 cm dimensions. This carpet is an example of U¸sak carpets with white grounds. There are leaves facing each other on the ground. It is called bird carpet because the leaf motifs come together and resemble a bird. Bird motifs seen on Turkish carpets have various meanings. Owl and crow birds’ bad luck; Dove, pigeon and nightingale symbolize good luck. Bird is a sign of happiness, joy, and love. It also symbolizes power and strength. It is the imperial symbol of various settlements established in Central Anatolia. Birds also point to divine messages and a long life [212, 227]. Ku¸slu U¸sak Halısı (U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with bird motifs) is shown in Fig. 6. Göbekli U¸sak Halısı [U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with navel (or center) motif] (Code: U¸sak-15): It is woven in 170 cm × 240 cm dimensions. Göbekli U¸sak Halısı [U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with navel (or center) motif] is one of the most striking among the historical U¸sak carpet motifs. In this type of carpet, there are the most unique patterns of traditional U¸sak carpet motifs around the center, which is like an island in the middle. There are flowers and branches in the pattern formed by the quarter and corners of the navel motif [212]. Bulutlu U¸sak Halısı (U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with cloud motifs) (Code: U¸sak18, U¸sak-19, U¸sak-20, U¸sak-21): It can be woven in 75 cm × 100 cm, 80 cm × 250 cm, 80 cm × 300 cm, 90 cm × 120 cm, 120 cm × 180 cm, and 170 cm × 240 cm sizes. Since symmetrical shapes on the ground are likened as clouds, repeated use of clouds describes the continuity of life [212]. Serpme U¸sak Halısı (Serpme U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet) (Code: U¸sak-22): It is woven in 170 cm × 240 cm dimensions. This carpet is another example of local U¸sak hand-woven carpets, and these are the carpets containing indigenous materials, colors, and motifs of the people living in the area [212]. Woman weaving Serpme U¸sak Halısı (Serpme U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet) is shown in Fig. 7. 4 Kö¸se Yıldızlı U¸sak Halısı (U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with 4 Corner Star) (Code: U¸sak-23, U¸sak-24): It is woven in 75 cm × 125 cm and 75 cm × 170 cm dimensions. The star motif expresses productivity in Turkish carpets and also has meanings such as birth, peaceful life, and the renewal of the universe [212]. Kö¸seli U¸sak Halısı (U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with corner motifs) (Code: U¸sak25): It can be woven in 170 cm × 240 cm and 200 cm × 285 cm sizes. It is also known as Sufra/Corner. This name is given to the Kö¸seli U¸sak Halısı (U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with corner motifs) because of the corner patterns [212]. Yaprak U¸sak Halısı (Yaprak U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet) (Code: U¸sak-26): It is woven in the size of 90 cm × 145 cm. It is an example of the last period U¸sak carpet, and this is an original carpet model with repetition using red and dark blue [212]. Yeni Yöresel U¸sak Halısı (New Local U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet) (Code: U¸sak27, U¸sak-28): It can be woven in 80 cm × 150 cm, 150 cm × 220 cm and 170 cm

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Fig. 6 Ku¸slu U¸sak Halısı (U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet with bird motifs)

× 240 cm sizes. It is a model created by natural man’s observation of nature and the model has dagger-shaped leaves and colorful flowers [212]. Çintemani U¸sak Halısı (Çintemani U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet) (Code: U¸sak-29, U¸sak-30, U¸sak-31, U¸sak-32, U¸sak-33): It can be woven in 90 cm × 120 cm, 90 cm × 200 cm, and 120 cm × 180 cm sizes. Two rows of wavy stripes, China (Asia) cloud, tiger ridge, and three triangle-shaped balls are described as leopard’s back. Central Asian Turkish tribal chiefs/leaders take the hides from these animals and wore them above their clothes; they used to see these animal hides as the symbol of power and strength in war and in peace. The “Çintemani motif” was later used in different

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Fig. 7 Weaving process of Serpme U¸sak Halısı (Serpme U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet)

sultan’s clothing and belongings (talisman shirts, caftans, fabrics, carpets, and tiles). The blue, yellow, and red grounds of the Chintamani carpet were produced [212, 227, 228]. The weaving of Çintemani U¸sak Halısı (Çintemani U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet) is shown in Fig. 8. Holbein U¸sak Halısı (Holbein U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet) (Code: U¸sak-34, U¸sak35): It is woven in the size of 90 cm × 120 cm. These carpets are attributed to the German painter Hans Holbein. Since this carpet was depicted in the paintings of Hanz Holbein, the famous German painter of the period, and got his name in this way. The first type of Holbein carpets is octagonal, and baklava pattern composition carpets lined up on different axes starting from the middle of the fifteenth century. These first type of Holbein carpets are depicted in European paintings. In the second type of Holbein carpets, the geometric motifs are replaced by floral motifs and the contours have disappeared. This type of carpet emerged in the early sixteenth century. The second type of Holbein U¸sak hand-woven carpets is decorated with motifs that symbolize life and fertility in the middle area. The border consists of dragon motifs

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Fig. 8 Weaving of Çintemani U¸sak Halısı (Çintemani U¸sak Hand-woven Carpet)

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designed in the shape of a cloud, used to protect life and fertility [229]. These types of U¸sak carpets group have become famous in the European market as Holbein carpets [212, 217]. Seccade [U¸sak Hand-woven Prayer Carpets, U¸sak Hand-woven Prayer Rugs and also called as carpet with mihrab (mihrab: niche of a mosque indicating the direction of Mecca)] (Code: U¸sak-36, U¸sak-37, U¸sak-38, U¸sak-39, U¸sak-40): They can be woven in different ground colors with the size of 90 cm × 120 cm. Prayer carpets, or mihrab carpets, are loaded with the meaning of the sacred space. At the same time, the main theme of the model used in ‘seccade’s (prayer carpets), which functions as a mosque or prayer room, is a mihrab and its motifs [212, 229]. A woman weaving a prayer carpet is seen in Fig. 9. Yöresel Yolluklar (Local carpet runners, Local runner carpets) (Code: U¸sak41): They are woven in 80 cm × 250 cm size [212]. A local carpet runner example is shown in Fig. 10. U¸sak Rugs and Carpets with other patterns and motifs: They can be woven in any size and any ground color according to the desired order (custom made). In addition to different tapestries (wall carpets), cushion patterns are examples of these [212]. The patterns and motifs depicted on U¸sak hand-woven carpets and all other local carpets and rugs, which are known as Turkish carpets in many parts of the world, are equally important and must be learned. Because every pattern and every motif have a meaning. Carpet and rug motifs are the reflection of the traditions and culture that have come for years to daily life. Over the years, people who weave them have tried to express their feelings of knots by using this method with different symbols. In the next section, information will be given about this subject.

4 Patterns and Motifs Used in Turkish Hand-Woven Carpets and Rugs and Their Meanings Patterns and motifs are very important in hand-woven carpets and rugs used as floor mats in weaving. Weaver creates original products by using her/his emotions, thoughts, and creativity. Weaving patterns are one of the most important factors in transferring culture and emotions to future generations [230–233]. Therefore, motifs are people’s way of expressing their emotions and expectations using textile fibers since the past. Motifs can be interpreted in different meanings. Motif is the element that an artist or designer chooses as subject and model from visible objects. Motif is also the smallest part that gathers all the features of the design that constitutes the whole of the decoration. It is a pattern that repeats frequently on any ground. Motif is also the name given to individual shapes that form ornaments in decoration. Under the leadership of all these interpretations, in the art of weaving, all the elements that decorate the floor or wall covers such as carpets and rugs are called patterns, and

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Fig. 9 Weaving of prayer carpet

each of the pieces that make up the whole in decoration is called a motif [91, 133, 138, 193, 234, 235]. Symbolic Interpretations of Carpets and Rugs: [91, 132, 183, 196, 225, 230, 231, 235, 236]

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Fig. 10 Local carpet runner (runner carpet) example

Motifs related to birth, reproduction, and marriage: Woman symbolizes the subtle, sensitive, compassionate, and resourceful side of humanity. Female fertility mostly represents with the “eli belinde” motif (“hands on hips” motif). As motherhood is identified with fertility, it has become a symbol of sacred efforts such as protecting and keeping children alive. Identifying herself with this motif is an indicator of the thoughts such as fertility, having many children and bringing abundance to her home. Ram horn (horn of the ram) is associated with the world of men in today’s understanding, thus symbolizing power, strength, health and happiness, the ability to live and protect men’s productivity. In addition, motifs such as human, calf, star, and earring (“küpe” in Turkish language) are also included in this group [186]. Motifs related to nutrition and livelihood: They are motifs such as abundance, cocklebur, suyolu (watercourse), and fruit. Motifs related to protection and livelihood: These motifs are hand, amulet, snake, eye, and scorpion. Motifs related to the afterlife (hereafter) and lineage: These motifs are tree of life, grave depiction, stamp, and various signs. Religious motifs: These motifs are ewer (“ibrik” in Turkish language), column, and mihrab. Luck and luck related motifs: Bird motif can be given as an example for this group. Other motifs: These are motifs that show specific local characteristics [91, 132, 183, 186, 196, 225, 230, 231, 235, 236].

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Symbol Language Contained in the Motifs: [132, 138, 140, 183, 196, 204, 227, 230, 231, 235, 237, 238] Abundance motif: This motif symbolizes the wish for reproduction and abundance of human sustenance. For this purpose, wheat, opium poppy, ear of barley grain, pomegranate, grape different plant, and fruit motifs are used. Bandeau motif: Bandeau motif (also named as bandeu motif, hair band motif) is a motif that indicates the desire to marry. Earring motif: Earring motif (“Küpe” motif in Turkish language) is a motif that indicates the desire to get married and set up a home (start a family). Trammel motif: Trammel motif (“Buka˘gı” motif in Turkish language) is a type of cuff that is attached to the horse’s feet to prevent it from escaping. It symbolizes the continuation of family unity and the commitment of lovers to each other. The motif of love and union (night and day, ying-yong): It is a motif originating from the Far East. Turkish weaver has added a unique interpretation. It is interpreted as “day and night” in some regions. It is symbolized in the sense that “nothing pure and pure can be found in nature”. Scorpion motif: Scorpions are true natural disasters for nomads. He often goes into the tent, his needles are very painful, sometimes killing. The scorpion motif on carpets symbolizes the instinct of protection against these animals. The nomad believes that the scorpion will not come close to the carpet as long as this motif exists. Dragon motif: It is shown as a symbol of power, puissance, abundance, and felicity. Amulet motif: Amulet (lucky charm) motif is an item that is believed to have a magical power and conceal it. Therefore, it is believed to protect those who carry it. In general, strength protects the freshness of life, intelligence awareness, and the happiness and welfare of family members. The amulet woven on the carpets is a kind of amulet that the weaving woman lays on the floor of her house to protect her home, oba and homeland from evil eye and evil eye. It is believed that it will protect the family hearth from evil. Ewer motif: Ewer motif symbolizes cleanliness and worship. Watercourse motif: It represents fertility and continuity. Hand-comb motif: It is used as a symbol of protection, cleanliness, and order against evil eye. Ram horn motif: Symbolizes auspiciousness, kismet, heroism, strength, and masculinity. Tree motif: It symbolizes life and the hereafter (afterlife). Date palm tree and Cypress tree, which have an important place in Islam, are frequently used. Hook motif: The ends of the hook motifs are used to deflect the evil eye.

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Crate motif: The wedding chest symbolizes the dowry of the young girl who is about to get married. The young girl who is about to marry makes laces and carpets starting from her childhood and takes them to the house where the bride goes. This motif expresses this prepared dowry. These chests are rectangular and square shaped motifs on carpets. Star motif: Symbolizes health and protection from evil eye. Snake motif: The snake is related to the concepts of life and death. Her molting every year is a symbol of birth, immortality, and eternity. The snake is the constant guardian of the tree of life and is seen as the deity of health. Cloud motif: Reflected on weavings as an element of nature. Stamp motif: Stamp motif symbolize tribes [132, 138, 140, 183, 196, 204, 227, 230, 231, 235, 237, 238]. Botanical Motifs: [138, 144, 230, 231, 235, 239–241] The most common botanical motifs used in Turkish weaving art are: Flowers: Floral motifs are flowers, overly stylized flowers of unknown origin (Hatai, rosebud, penç), semi-stylized flowers with a known source (tulip, hyacinth, carnation, etc.), stylized flowers of animal origin and flowers that preserve their naturalistic features. Leaves: The leaf, which could not find its place in the geometrical-patterned Seljuk art, has reached perfection in Ottoman art with its stylized and natural form. In our leaf decoration art, they were drawn as simple and small leaves, segmented and sliced leaves, coarse toothed leaves, middle folded leaves, and geometric leaves. Trees: There is a rich variety of tree motifs (floral and fruity) as well as leaf and flower motifs. Cypress, date palm, pomegranate, fig, olive, vine, palm trees, etc. are symbols of the tree of life. Nuts and Fruits: Nuts and fruits were used as naturalistic and semi-stylized motifs in Turkish weaving art. Wheat, pomegranate, opium poppy, melon, mulberry, fig, grape, etc. in geometric style. They are drawn as fertility motifs. In some regions and generally in Karapınar tülü carpets, the floral motifs frequently used are tulips, roses, and leaves. Figured Motifs: Figured motifs are examined in two groups as human figures and animal figures. Although rarely, a stylized human figure is encountered in textiles. “Eli belinde” motif (“hands on hips” motif) can be given as an example. The human figure used in different materials and techniques was first seen on the pazyryk carpets in the art of weaving. Geometric Motifs: The geometric motifs frequently used in hand-woven carpets and rugs are triangle-, rectangular-, lozenge- and star-shaped motifs. In some carpet weavings, transverse stripes or longitudinal stripes are used without using other specific motifs.

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Motifs with Objects: Due to the mosque depiction, motifs such as mosque, minaret, mihrab, and crescent can be mentioned in this group [138, 144, 230, 231, 235, 239–241]. It is possible to find most of the motifs mentioned above on U¸sak hand-woven carpets and rugs. U¸sak hand-woven carpets are known all over the world with the Turkish carpet brand and quality and have inspired many artists throughout history. U¸sak hand-woven carpets found a place in many pictures, visited many castles, palaces, mosques, and churches. In the next section, information was presented about ensuring the sustainability of U¸sak hand-woven carpets with the highest knot capacity with 89,600 knots per square meter, where our women weave their emotions knot by knot, each yarn and dyeing is natural. In addition, information was given from the projects carried out on U¸sak hand-woven carpets and rugs recently.

5 Rug and Carpet Hand Weaving in U¸sak City In order to ensure the sustainability of U¸sak hand-woven carpets and rugs exhibited in Turkish and world museums and to continue the traditional heritage, studies are carried out by many institutions in the province of U¸sak, with priority to the provincial protocol. Now let’s look at these studies in line. U¸sak Weaving House The Weaving House, which was restored by the U¸sak Municipality by preserving the original materials, rotting, deformed, lost its characteristics, was replaced, and the restoration was completed in 2010 under the name of “U¸sak Municipality Weaving House Traditional Handicraft Carpet Making Center” in accordance with its 160year-old historical texture. There are 20 carpet-rug handlooms in Weaving House. This Weaving House has opened jointly with U¸sak Municipality, Turkey Business Institution, and Public Education Center. Here, the art of carpet weaving, one of the oldest handicrafts in history, is kept alive with the U¸sak carpets and E¸sme Kilims (E¸sme rugs; E¸sme is a town of U¸sak city), which date back to the Seljuks and frequently depicted in the paintings of European painters [192, 212, 214, 217, 223, 224]. In this weaving house, the hand-woven carpet weaving, one of the greatest cultural values of U¸sak, is tried to be kept alive. This weaving house contributes to the economy of U¸sak city by selling these hand-woven carpets to both domestically and to abroad. Thanks to this weaving house, it is aimed to contribute to women’s employment. The carpets woven under the supervision of expert instructors that is shown in Fig. 11 are presented to the taste of U¸sak residents and local and foreign tourists in the exhibition section [212–214, 223, 224, 242]. “Weaving Hands” in U¸sak City The “Weaving Hands Carpet and Rug House”, which was established with the projects of the U¸sak Special Provincial Administration, approved by the U¸sak Governorate, has been put into service as of 8 March 2019. The Governor of U¸sak, who

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Fig. 11 Women weaving hand-woven carpets and rugs at the U¸sak weaving house

wants to emphasize the necessity of increasing women’s employment especially in the province of U¸sak, opened this production facility on March 8, women’s day. Believing in the necessity of ensuring the continuity of our cultural heritage, the Weaving Hands Carpet and Rug House has started its production with its female employees in “Çe¸smeli Çift Konak”, which is one of the historical houses of U¸sak, in a historical place [223]. One of the most important indicators of the development level of a society is the freedom and dignity of women and their place in production and management. Keeping our historical and cultural heritage alive and ensuring its continuity and transferring it to future generations is only possible by increasing women’s employment. When we look at the history of carpet and rug hand weaving, we know that it is women who spread the art of weaving. In this direction, projects and studies to increase women’s employment in U¸sak are increasingly continuing [243, 244]. Ten weaving masters work in the Weaving Hands Carpet-Rug House in Çe¸smeli Çift Konak. There are 3 carpet handlooms and 1 rug handloom. U¸sak hand-woven rugs and carpets can be ordered from anywhere in the world and can be woven in any desired size and pattern (custom made). The web addresses of “Weaving Hands Carpet and Rug House” for carpet or rug orders are: https://www. usakhali.com/ and https://www.dokuyaneller.com/ [224, 244]. Carpet and Rug Shops and Stores in U¸sak City In U¸sak, in order to ensure the sustainability of hand weaving, there are shops and stores that are locals of U¸sak, who continue to weave carpets and rugs in their traditions for generations and try to maintain this heritage and bring it to tourism [222]. Stores typically receive requests through Turkey, especially from big cities like Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir. They stated that after the U¸sak hand-woven carpet presented to the Presidency, their domestic orders have also increased. However,

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international demands are low due to the fact that they are not promoted abroad, stores do not participate in fairs or do not have e-commerce on the Internet. They are especially demanded by the Russians and communicate through consulates. In addition to these, with the contribution of the “Weaving House” and “Weaving Hands” facilities opened in U¸sak with the support of the state, sale of hand-woven carpets and rugs in U¸sak can receive a little more order than in previous years [222]. The Importance of Usak Hand-Woven Carpets in the World and in Turkey The knotted carpet techniques developed by the Turks during the Huns period have a centuries-long tradition from East Turkistan to Western Anatolia. The hand-woven carpet, which has always emerged intertwined with Turks in countries where Turks live, was first introduced to the Islamic world and then to the whole world by the Turks. The traditional Turkish carpet art has a distinguished place in our art history. Carpet art has been formed in the flow of Turkish history. U¸sak hand-woven carpets have left their mark on Turkish carpet history in terms of knot technique, colors, and pattern features. Today, we can talk about the existence of this traditional art with solid textile motifs and knot technique. These technical features of the Turkish carpet have been the mainstay of a regular and continuous development. Knotted carpets possess a very long history, and the invention of this technique is based on the practical reason of a nomadic tribe’s desire to find a thicker and warmer floor. At that time, tribes in and around U¸sak were living as nomads. Carpet was woven by hands in almost every home. The British, who were in Izmir in the sixteenth century, started to buy U¸sak carpets that came to Izmir. Later Italians, Austrians, and Germans bought carpets for both their palaces and their churches [218]. U¸sak hand-woven carpets and prayer carpets (prayer rugs) constitute an important group of sixteenth- to eighteenth-century Turkish carpet art scattered in today’s world museums and collections. Likewise, we come across sixteenth- to eighteenth centuries U¸sak hand-woven carpets and prayer carpets (prayer rugs), which were described and documented by valuable artists as painting elements in European painting art, and which were also included in important museums and collections [212, 218]. “U¸sak” emerges as a city famous for its hand-woven carpets in the history of world cities. One of the foremost cultural assets of our cultural assets, which show Turkish taste and intelligence and disappear day by day, is U¸sak hand-woven carpets and carpet making. This unique cultural heritage is our centuries-old national brand, world cultural heritage, and our own art [223, 224]. In the Ottoman Empire, U¸sak was the first province to bring electricity to Anatolia. The reason for this is known to be about meeting the intense demand for U¸sak hand-woven carpets from abroad. As a result, a real industry was formed in U¸sak, in the structure of agriculture dominated society at that time, factories, weaving mills and looms in houses became the dynamics of this sector [114, 212, 223, 224]. The popularity of the U¸sak carpet had disappeared from time to time until the years of the First World War and continued from time to time with renewal. The striking changes in the Ottoman Empire after the war and the subsequent National Liberation War led to the necessity of a decrease in trade with Europe. After these dates, U¸sak hand-woven carpets began to be known as museum and auction carpets and were exhibited in the world’s

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distinguished museums and sold to collectors at great prices in famous auction halls [114, 212, 223, 224]. The development of carpet hand weaving in U¸sak and its being a commercial entity dates back to the sixteenth century. U¸sak hand-woven carpets, which had gained great importance until that time, were started to be ordered to Istanbul mosques and palaces and were taken to Süleymaniye, Selimiye, and Fatih mosques and tombs. Some pieces of these carpets are still found today in the Süleymaniye Mosque and in various museums in Istanbul [217]. These carpets, woven by hand in large sizes in U¸sak, decorated the palaces of the Ottoman Empire and gained great admiration with their patterns, colors, and durability. Nowadays, due to economic concerns, carpet hand weaving has started to disappear in U¸sak. Carpet weaving in U¸sak has lost its former place due to the fact that it is not promoted enough, and it is very difficult and laborious to do this weaving at home and by hand. In the private sector, efforts are made to keep U¸sak carpet hand weaving alive with some personal efforts, and efforts are being made to convey this culture to future generations. U¸sak hand-woven carpets show a regional difference in terms of color, pattern, and paint feature and knot technique. It should be emphasized that these features are very important in terms of showing the richness of our country. It is all our wish that our hand-woven carpets, which are seen to lose their color and pattern features day by day, do not lose their value and develop without losing their properties [114, 212, 223, 224].

6 Conclusions U¸sak hand-woven carpet and rug production successfully blend many different factors such as culture, craft transfer, knowledge and tradition sharing, selfexpression, hand labor, employment, sustainability, and so on. In this context, handwoven craft, different hand weaving techniques, different types of carpets and rugs, different motifs, and patterns we learned from our ancestors are passed on to future generations. This is a very good example of the sustainability of craft, experience, knowledge, and traditions. The continuation of U¸sak hand-woven carpet and rug production also benefits employment sustainability. Since semi-automatic or automatic weaving machines that consume electrical energy are not used in hand weaving, since the hand weaving process is done by hand, it does not need any energy other than human and again contributes to environmental sustainability in this context. However, unfortunately, most of the carpet producers, who have gone to the most remote villages for years, have experienced a decrease in their sales value due to the cheapness of machine-made carpets as an alternative to hand-woven carpets. Because the consumer preferred cheap carpets instead of high-quality hand-woven carpets. It is emphasized that tradesmen who produce and sell carpets cannot sell the desired quality hand-woven carpets and rugs to the consumers for such various reasons, and thus the quality of carpets and rugs has started to decrease over time. For this reason, hand weaving, which is the root of the cultures, and especially the hand-woven carpet-rug sector has faced retrogression.

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To revive our values that are gradually lost today, we should seek solutions, it should be aimed to introduce these values to our new generations with love and to reconsider them. Modernized societies aiming to preserve and re-evaluate their past and historical values are culturally developed societies. To have conscious generations that will produce and implement projects that will keep its cultural heritage alive, aiming to have young generations who will spread this consciousness and keep it alive will form the basis of being a modern society. For these reasons, many different initiatives have recently been taken to revive the production of U¸sak handwoven carpets and rugs. In order to ensure the sustainability of U¸sak hand-woven carpets and rugs exhibited in Turkish and world museums and to continue the traditional heritage, studies are carried out by many institutions in the province of U¸sak, with priority to the provincial protocol. For instance, “Weaving House (U¸sak Municipality Weaving House Traditional Handicraft Carpet Making Center)” and “Weaving Hands (Weaving Hands Carpet and Rug House)” facilities have recently opened in U¸sak with the support of the state. This Weaving House (U¸sak Municipality Weaving House Traditional Handicraft Carpet Making Center) has opened jointly with U¸sak Municipality, Turkey Business Institution, and Public Education Center. In here, the art of carpet weaving, one of the oldest handicrafts in history, is kept alive with the U¸sak carpets and E¸sme Kilims (E¸sme rugs; E¸sme is a town of U¸sak city), which date back to the Seljuks and frequently depicted in the paintings of European painters. This weaving house contributes to the economy of U¸sak city by selling these handwoven carpets to both domestically and to abroad. Thanks to this weaving house, it is aimed to contribute to women’s employment. On the other hand, the “Weaving Hands (Weaving Hands Carpet and Rug House)”, which was established with the projects of the U¸sak Special Provincial Administration, approved by the U¸sak Governorate. Believing in the necessity of ensuring the continuity of our cultural heritage, the Weaving Hands Carpet and Rug House has started its production with its female employees. Apart from those developments, in U¸sak, in order to ensure the sustainability of hand weaving, there are shops and stores that are locals of U¸sak, who continue to weave carpets and rugs in their traditions for generations and try to maintain this heritage and bring it to tourism. These developments are very important for the sustainability of U¸sak hand-woven carpets and rugs. The increase of such efforts, works, and projects will contribute to both the people of the region and the country. For this purpose, the following steps can be taken in order to continue the production of cultural heritage U¸sak hand-woven carpets and rugs, very famous not only in Turkey but also in the world, and to be sustainable; • In order to ensure that U¸sak hand-woven carpets and E¸sme (a town of U¸sak city) rugs are sustainable for many years, they need to be promoted more effectively. For this purpose, it should be ensured that hand-woven carpet-rug festivals and organizations attract crowds and become known in the city and town. Moreover, the continuity of these festivals and organizations should be established. • Participation in international fairs should be encouraged, supported, and increased. In this way, the promotion of U¸sak hand-woven carpets and E¸sme hand-woven rugs may also be increased.

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• In order for small producers to make their voices heard in around the world, ecommerce should be increased, and local and corporate carpet-rug vendors should be able to make their advertisements all over the world on their websites and on their Facebook and Instagram accounts, etc. • It should be emphasized that U¸sak is one of the world’s leading carpet producers in the carpet-rug sector by ensuring more domestic and international promotion. • The number of state-funded projects and the amount of those support can be increased for U¸sak carpet and rug producers. In this way, the sustainability of carpet hand weaving rug hand weaving may be increased. • Legal arrangements should be increased and audited in order to increase the presence of women in working life and to preserve their current presence. In this way, our women who laid the foundations of carpet-rug hand weaving in the history and weave the firsthand weaving can ensure the sustainability of this sector. • Where possible, patent studies, design registrations, and branding issues for local hand-woven carpets and rugs should be carried out and pursued by these centers and producers. • It may be beneficial to introduce and implement quality standards for hand-woven carpets and rugs to be produced. Thus, companies may be obliged to comply with the standards, thus contributing to branding efforts by providing higher quality and standardization in hand-woven carpets and rugs. • Projects should be developed and prioritized among the private sector, public sector, and universities in order to ensure the transferability of carpet-rug hand weaving from generation to generation. In this sense, projects should be developed to attract the attention of young people and encourage them to this profession. • The use of yarn, knot, and motif features of U¸sak hand-woven carpets and rugs in the production of high value-added materials or artistic products should be encouraged. • It should be ensured that individuals selected from among the experienced personnel who have worked in carpet hand weaving for many years and individuals who have received art history and patterning training should be given carpet expertise certificates and their ability to become experts should be increased. • Continuity of the main disciplines of carpet expertise or handicraft expertise can be maintained in the relevant departments of higher education institutions. • The number of training seminars on hand carpet weaving organized by public and private institutions should be increased. • Turkey has a competitive advantage in hand-woven carpets and rugs field in the world. Implementing policies to protect and develop this competitive advantage can provide significant benefits to hand-woven carpet and rug sector. In this context, having competitive advantage is a remarkable issue in terms of economy and foreign trade. For this reason, it will be beneficial to support the carpet-rug sector with encouraging export and trade steps. Some or most of these steps mentioned here are implemented to a certain point. However, the aim here is to provide a wider perspective by summarizing the efforts to

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ensure the sustainability of U¸sak hand-woven carpets and rugs and the possible steps that can be taken for this purpose. Overall, as mentioned in detail, many efforts are already being made, positive steps are taken, and policies are implemented for the sustainability of U¸sak hand-woven carpet and rug production. However, focusing on the above-mentioned issues and starting or maintaining their implementation will provide extra support to the sustainability efforts already on display. As aforementioned, U¸sak hand-woven carpet and rug production successfully blends many various factors such as culture, craft transfer, knowledge and tradition sharing, selfexpression, hand labor, employment, respect for the environment, sustainability (due to its hand-made character, the usage of natural fibers such as wool and the utilization of natural dyes for yarn coloration) and so on. Therefore, supporting and encouraging the production and use of hand-woven carpet and rug products contributes to the sustainability of the world. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank to U¸sak Municipality Weaving House Traditional Handicraft Carpet Making Center and Weaving Hands Carpet and Rug House for their support and contributions.

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Sustainable Development in the Handloom Industry S. Grace Annapoorani

Abstract The principle of sustainability is about addressing the needs of the present, without missing the chance for future generations to fulfil their own. Yet, the umbrella of sustainability has broader significance than this. At its core, it is an approach to balancing different needs against, and most often fighting for, the understanding of environmental, social and economic limits, etc. The area of handlooms has a special position in our economy. The strength of this industry lies in its uniqueness, versatility and tradition. Handloom manufacturing is a family-based movement and is indistinguishable from the handloom families’ living condition. The handloom division comprises a unique feature of India’s rich cultural heritage and plays an important role in the economy. Handlooms are eco-friendly and are technologically independent and autonomous. Sustainable development and the elimination of harmful impacts on the environment and biodiversity, as well as the provision of sustainable jobs for rural India, are quality-based by the industry. The handloom industry is considered the economy’s second driving segment. This provides small-scale businesses with greater sustainability and growth. They are currently deteriorating right now. Rising trends in fashion firms, competition from less costly machines, physical capital shortages and so on are a few of the factors behind its decline. The major manufacturing states are Rajasthan, Assam, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Kolkata, India. Since these sectors are unstructured, it is important for the growth of GDP to expand and develop small-scale areas. Weavers provide their fabric an appealing dynamism with their skilful combination of tradition, dependency motifs and metaphors. The strength of handlooms lies in creative nature that the power looms sector cannot duplicate. In the mid of universal competition in the textile industry, the declining role of the handloom sector posed a serious risk to the socio-economic existence and source of income of the traditional weaver communities, and it will have an impact on the effectiveness of the government’s drive to boost rural poverty and empower women economically. In this sense, the social, economy and culture of the handloom weaver’s community must be preserved and maintained. S. Grace Annapoorani (B) Department of Textiles and Apparel Design, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Á. Gardetti and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Handloom Sustainability and Culture, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5272-1_4

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Keywords Handloom industry · Culture · Environment · Economy · Sustainability · Weaver · Biodiversity and uniqueness · Versatility

1 Introduction The textile sector occupies a unique position in our country. It accounts for 14% of total industrial production, contributes almost 30% of total exports and is the second largest job generation after agriculture, one of the earliest to come into existence in India. The textile industry in India today comprises four major segments: modern textile mills, independent power looms, handlooms and clothing. In the upliftment of India’s rural economy, the handling industry plays a strategic role. Even today, India’s rural people, mostly women, rely heavily on the postagricultural handling sector, which needs minimum capital and less technical skills and also provides them with a reliable source of income. Handloom plays a very important role in the economy of the country. It is one of the largest economic activities, providing more than 65 lakhs of people engaged in weaving and allied activities with direct jobs. This sector was able to withstand competition from the power loom and mill sectors as a result of successful government intervention through financial assistance and implementation of various growth and welfare schemes. This sector accounts for almost 19% of the total clothing produced in the country and also contributes significantly to export earnings. In its flexibility and versatility, handloom is unparalleled, allowing experimentation and inspiring innovations. Handloom’s strength lies in the implementation of revolutionary designs that cannot be repeated by the power loom industry. Handloom, thus, forms part of India’s heritage and exemplifies the richness and diversity of our nation and the weavers’ artistry. The handloom is an ancient industry in India and has become a mature industry throughout the region, and its use varies, though it is still used primarily as a household staple in some parts of India. Handloom development is a family-based process and is inseparable from the handloom families’ living environment. The handloom industry is a distinct feature of India’s rich cultural heritage and plays a vital role in the country’s economy. Weavers are representative of rural Indians left behind on a large scale by market forces, rapid industry growth (power loom). With the energy and environmental crisis, self-sustainability is becoming more important. Handlooms are eco-friendly and are technologically independent and autonomous. Sustainable development and the elimination of harmful impacts on the environment and biodiversity, as well as the provision of sustainable jobs for rural India, are quality-based by the industry. Since its establishment in 1976, the Office of the Development Commissioner for Handlooms has been implementing various schemes for the promotion and development of the handloom sector and providing assistance in various ways to handloom weavers. Any of the popular programmers are affiliated with:

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Input support Marketing support modernization and up gradation of technology Publicity Infrastructural support Welfare measures Composite growth-oriented package Development of exportable products Research and development.

The numerous schemes implemented by the Office of the Development Commissioner for Handlooms address the needs of weavers at the bottom of the economic ladder, who constitute the underprivileged social strata and occupational classes. Through the schemes and programmes, concerted efforts are being made to improve the development, productivity and efficiency of the handloom sector and to improve the weavers’ income and socio-economic status by upgrading their skills and providing infrastructural support and necessary inputs, Sudalaimuthu and Dev [1].

2 Outline of the Handloom Division One of the richest and most vivid elements of the Indian cultural heritage is the practise of weaving by hand. The ebb and flow of Indian history has been interlinked with her pre-eminence as a manufacturer of enchanting textiles since time immemorial. In handloom fabrics, the level of artistry and sophistication achieved is unprecedented and beyond the reach of modern machines. Innovative weavers provide their fabric with an enticing dynamism with their skilful mixing of myths, religions, icons and imagery. Cloth weaving by hand is not yet another commercial undertaking in India. It reflects a theory, a way of life. The astonishing range of Indian handloom creations represents this vast subcontinent’s ethnic diversity. From the finest muslins to hard rugs, from delicate pastels to vivid earthy hues, from appealingly plain to fascinatingly complex composition, the selection of textures, weaves and designs spun off the handloom is endless. The Indian hand weaving tradition of intricate and painstaking craftsmanship continues to the present day. For decades, Indian handlooms have been popular all over the world and have been exported from our country to many foreign lands. In the days when only handlooms existed, these were looked at in wonder in Rome and Greece in distant civilizations. However, in the handloom industry, the introduction of new methods and liberalization has made serious inroads. The vibrancy of the handloom industry has been challenged by competition from computers, shifting customer tastes and the desire for less demanding livelihoods. Traditional hand-woven goods are in danger of being redundant and face dilution and decline in weaving abilities. However, sufficient and effective technological upgrading of machinery, processes and skills, production of designs and

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diversification of products will generate new dynamism in the handloom industry and revitalize it in order to meet the current challenges. Since independence, the Government of India, through a range of programmes and schemes implemented through the state governments and their agencies employed in the handloom sector, has followed a policy of supporting and promoting the handloom sector. Through these programmes, concerted efforts are being made to increase the production, productivity and efficiency of the handloom industry and to improve the weavers’ income and socio-economic status by improving their skills, providing support for infrastructure and marketing and necessary inputs.

3 Swot Analysis of the Handloom Division Strengths of Handloom Division • Unique strength of traditional handloom sector is in preserving the cultural ethos of the country. • The sector, with 23.77 lakhs handloom, provides employment to 43.31 lakhs persons. • Traditional mode of production with low technology. • Flexible production system. • Diverse design base. • Ability to commercially provide the goods in small volumes, quick switchover to new and exquisite designs. • Potential to arrest migration of rural production. • Large informal school for skill generation and transfer of technology • Production does not require electricity. Weaknesses of Handloom Division • • • • • • • •

Weak institutional base. Fragmented and decentralized handloom sector. Weak organizational network and inadequate market intelligence. Limited scope of technological improvement in case of core weaving activity. Outdated pre- and post-weaving technology. Capacity constraints. Low productivity in comparison to power loom. Infrastructural bottlenecks: lack of work sheds, modern dye houses, etc.

Opportunities in Handloom Division • Vast domestic market • Phasing out of multi-fibre agreement and arrangement of textiles and clothing have created vast export market.

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• Penetration in the unexplored technical textiles. Threats in Handloom Division • Stiff competition from the mechanized mill and power loom sector • Integration of global textile sector has created equal opportunities to global exporters to export textiles produced in India. • Decline of handloom apex cooperatives and corporations in the states and their poor financial health. • Due to withdrawal of duty on cone yarn, CENVAT advantage of 9.2% on hank yarn lost and making handloom products costlier compared to power loom products. • High cost of credit as well as low disbursement of credit [2].

4 Employment Generating Sector Handloom weaving is largely decentralized, and the weavers in the industry are primarily from vulnerable and poorer sectors of society, who weave for their household needs and also contribute to the textile industry’s development. The weavers of this industry hold the traditional crafts of various states alive. In handloom fabrics, the level of artistry and sophistication achieved is unprecedented and beyond the reach of modern machines. It can fulfil any need, from the exquisite fabrics that take months to weave to popular mass produced pieces for everyday use.

5 Distribution of Handloom Workers by Gender There are 43.31 lakh handloom workers in the country of which 89% account for adult (18 years and above) workers. Among the adult workers, most of the workers are females (77%) and the number of male workers (23%) is relatively smaller. Also, most of the female workers are located in rural areas, while a relatively higher proportion of male workers are located in the urban areas.

6 Geographical Distribution of Handlooms The basic infrastructure of the handloom industry are the looms. As per the Third Handloom Census, the total count of looms across household and non-household handloom units is 23.77 lakh. Most of the looms are found in rural areas; therefore, it can be concluded that handloom work is primarily a rural activity. If we look at the geographical spread of the handloom industry in the country, then we see that a vast majority of the handlooms are located in the north-eastern region of India,

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which accounts for nearly 65.2% of the total handlooms that are operational in the country. Within the north-eastern states, Assam is the leading state accounting for 46.8% of the total number of handlooms in the country. The other important states with respect to number of handlooms are West Bengal (12.9%), Manipur (8%), Tamil Nadu (6.5%) and Tripura (5.8%), Third Handloom Census, Government of India [3].

7 Current Status of the Handloom Industry in India The Third Handloom Census shows clearly that India’s handloom industry is not in a very healthy condition. The key metrics for the survival of the handloom industry are alarmingly challenging. The inevitability of problems with shifting lifestyles is a huge question mark! In the crucial period, the revival back to its originality is with the changing belief system and understanding in modern society. It is becoming so clear with the apparent shift in mind set from traditional to modernity that the handloom is likely to become a museum piece of historical craft in the near future. In the number of weavers, the decline rate of 7% per year over the past few years is a direct indicator of the handloom industry’s sunset pattern. On the positive side, from 25 lakhs in the second census to 27.8 lakhs, the Third Census indicates a rise in the number of handloom households; an increase of around 11%. About 87% of the total handloom families are rural and 13% are urban. There is a gap in entirety, however, and this gap will produce more demand and draw more selective and enthusiastic weavers to enjoy the actual fruit of the looms. This condition would carry the shift to the handloom sector by itself in order to be revolutionized.

8 Important Aspects of Handloom Sector From the point of the viability in relation to the status of the handloom sector, certain important aspects of the handloom sector like men, machine, material, market and money have been described as follows:

9 Manpower Perspective • India’s weaving brotherhood comprises more than four million weavers, including its allied manufacturing staff. Next to the agricultural sector, it is the second largest employer. • Of the 89% of adult weavers, 49% are aged 18–35 years, 21% are aged 36– 45 years, 15% are aged 46–60 years and 4% are aged 60 years and above. Unless the handloom industry draws more young generations to this trade, this phenomenon is likely to be a great challenge.

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• Of all adult weavers, 22 and 78% are male and female weavers. There are 83% of weavers who are under HSLC and just 17% are HSLC and above with respect to the educational level of the weavers. In a study on Assam’s female handloom weavers, it was found that only 13% of the weavers had higher education and 87% were under HSLC level (Barooah and Dedhia:2012). This clearly suggests that the degree of literacy for weavers would dramatically decrease. • There are 61% independent weavers, 34% under master weavers/private owners and just 5% under institutional employment by default of employment. • The weavers’ average earnings are Rs.3400 per month as opposed to the average of Rs.4500 per month for all India and well below the wages for an unqualified worker according to the minimum wage act. • Compared to an unskilled, semi-skilled or trained employee of an organization, the quality of life of a handloom weaver is much below.

10 Machinery Perspective • Due to the restricted research and inherent reach, there is not much technological induction in the handloom industry. Traditional methods are still the most common, resulting in unresolved current constraints. This applies to both the pre-loom and the post-loom processes. • As a result, as always, hand weaving remains labour-intensive, low-productive, etc.

11 Material Perspective • Raw materials used in the handloom industry differ depending on quality, product, availability, location, area, market demand, price, tradition, proximity to the market for yarn, etc. Including vital hand spun and mill spun yarns, the most costly as well as the cheapest yarns are used, and often yarns are used regardless of whether they are compatible or feasible. • Many times, it is noticed that there is no environmental concern for the content used in the handloom.

12 Market Perspective • Handloom enjoys a special segment of the market for its products’ intrinsic elegance. Some of the attractive elements that will certainly make handloom sustainable are sheer passion for hand-woven goods, ideology, economic arguments, social effect, culture, emotions, exclusivity, minimum order quantity, etc.

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• Direct business access to the developed communication media would further improve the market potential. • Power loom goods and inexpensive imports, which are unavoidable in free market policy around the world, are the main challenges in the marketplace.

13 Money Perspective • As stated in the profile of the weaver, weavers are typically not cash-rich, as a weaver is equally important in any company. Agents, master weavers and mediators do not always make it possible for weavers to get the worth of their effort for money. This jeopardizes the cash against the actual effort in terms of earning. • Earning an average of Rs.3400.00 per month is not inspiring in day to day scenario for any occupation. A weaver’s minimum earnings must equate, if not more, to at least the minimum wage of a skilled or semi-skilled worker.

14 Approach for Sustainability of the Handloom Sector • Usage of high-value raw material in handloom to balance the material input value and high production costs to generate only value-added goods. • Diversification of handloom goods and production of products to optimize the added value. • Fair-trade practices adaptation • Handloom weaving is sensitized to modern careers such as fine arts, photography and music. • Motivate young people into the handloom industry. • Incentive programmes for hands-on testing. Handloom Census Report (2010).

15 Problems of Handloom Sector Given the above background of handloom sector, the major challenges facing the sector are as follows: a.

b.

Raw Material Limits: Easy yarn availability at reasonable prices continues to be an ongoing problem for weavers across the country, especially in the NER states. As the distribution of yarn by NHDC is in bulk, independent weavers face a major challenge, while independent weavers need small quantities. Less Credit Coverage: Most handloom weavers work beyond the institutionalized funding fold. Nearly, 44.6% of the total households surveyed in the Third Handloom Census depended on master weavers for their credit requirements, while 13.4% only depended on moneylenders. Just 14.8% were able to

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access institutionalized credit sources. In addition, the absence of even rudimentary financial literacy exacerbates the current credit-related barriers faced by weavers. Poor Institutional Arrangements: In general, the cooperative model for the sector has not been effective and, in addition, only about 15% of the country’s total weavers are covered. As far as the handloom sector is concerned, the states in India fall into three categories: first, AP, TN, Karnataka, Kerala and Himachal Pradesh states with a large cooperative network; second, UP, Odisha, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh states where the weaving activity is strong but short-term cooperatives are weak; and third, northeast states where weaving activity is strong but institutions are missing. Marketing complications: The density of innovation and limited dynamism are linked to the handling industry, particularly in the marketing field. The lack of adequate investment, involvement and stakeholding by the private sector, primarily in the marketing and supply chain, is a major factor hindering the expansion and development of this sector. Since 61.1% of the total weaver workforce (24% for non-north-eastern states) consist of independent staff, a majority of weavers obviously carry, with obvious implications, all the risks associated with the procurement, marketing and sales sector, Mishra et al. [4]

16 Strategy Suitable for Handloom Sector Overall cost leadership strategy in handloom industry cannot succeed. It’s very labour-intensive because the goods are handmade as it derives its name ‘handloom’, which makes it costly. It seems that the target of the handloom industry is lower than the price-sensitive middle income community, and the handloom products are highly priced due to manual labour, which is why, on the one hand, the lower/middle income groups refrain from buying these products and, on the other hand, the products are not rich in quality to tap the elite or higher class. A specific section will be limited to the focal strategy. This approach narrows the reach for the mango industry. It is, therefore, proposed that the policy of differentiation should be followed to enhance the handloom industry. The strategy of differentiation produces something revolutionary that is better suited to the manufacturing sector. Differentiation can be accomplished by developing various behaviours that are as follows: • New product identification: The fabric can be woven with the mixing of different yarns and designs as each yard can be modified to weave complex designs that are difficult to manufacture with the power loom. Most weavers involved in durrie production can diversify to material for home furnishing and upholstery. Specifically for each cluster in the handloom market, such as reversible—weft backed furnishing varieties such as yoga mats, floor carpets and pooja mats. can be developed for Jaipur district items.

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• Quality Assurance system: It should be achieved nicely in the quality evaluation of yarns, woven cloth, dyeing, finishing and packaging. It is of utmost importance to establish a permanent room for managing goods in national and foreign market quality assurance. • Promotion: First of all, in the event of handloom, there is a need to raise awareness of the features and benefits of handloom products. Efficient publicity should be carried out through a suitable media mix. Printing and electrical media may be used to the right degree. In order for weavers to get a forum to market their goods, a daily buyer–seller meeting is needed. • Distribution channel: Distribution channel distinction can be accomplished by online sales through the website, marketing staff can be consulted, a connection can be made with boutique owners to sell handloom items and readymade clothing chain sales can be approached, such as Westside and Big Bazaar.

17 Rise of Handloom to a Global Industry The Indian handloom industry is one of the India’s oldest and largest cottage industries, with an ancient heritage dating back thousands of years, reflecting the vibrant Indian community, for its outstanding craftsmanship. Indian craftsmen dating back to the Egyptian Babylonian period had such fine control over their fabrics that their hand spinning, weaving and printing techniques passed down from generations were globally appreciated. In every state of India, historically, handloom industry could be found, and each area had a unique take on their handloom product, such as the tie and die technique from Rajasthan, Chanderi from Madhya Pradesh or the Jacquard from Uttar Pradesh, because of their unique rich variety, Indian handloom industry had a constant high demand for their craftsmanship industry in the Indian market as well as around the world. This industry was a household-based industry and, directly and indirectly, was one of the largest employment industries, providing lakhs of weavers in India with jobs. The handloom industry has flourished in India for thousands of years due to its peculiar existence of requiring minimum capital and little to no power and versatile environmentally friendly revolutionary product. Under British rule, machine-based imported yarn exported raw cotton and flooded the Indian market, and the authorities resorted to intimidation and repression to avoid domestic handlooms. In total, this resulted in a complete loss of livelihoods for the spinners first and increased reliance on machine yarn for handloom weavers. Despite this, until World War 1, when imported machine-made garments entered the Indian market, the Indian handloom industry flourished and maintained itself. The beginning of power loom in the 1920s and the restructuring of the mills and the higher cost of yarn made it difficult for traditional handloom craftsmen and enabled the collapse of Traditional India Handloom with the rise of unfair competition.

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Mahatma Gandhi, the nation’s father, launched the Swadeshi Movement by using ’khadi’ to encourage self-reliance and self-sustainability among rural villages and use it to reject British raj as a means of passive resistance. By using a simple charkha, every Indian was urged to spin their own yarn and to wear khadi proudly. This movement contributed to Manchester’s closing of the mills and was a significant turning point in the fight to gain independence. The Indian government initiated many schemes after independence and made different initiatives to revive the wealthy Indian handloom heritage industry to its former glory and encourages regional handloom culture. The Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) was established by the Government of India to promote khadi and other village industries. With respect to khadi and village industries within India, it is an apex body under the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME). Over the last few decades, the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises has emerged as a key tool in India to patronize entrepreneurs, both clusters and individuals, to move forwards and grow their trade. The government has developed this practice of cottage industry clusters pouring into rural India. MSME Ministry schemes such as the Micro and Small Enterprises-Cluster Development Program (MSE-CDP) aim to enhance the productivity of rural artisan clusters in order to revitalize India’s approach and subsequent livelihood effects. Artisans can increase their efficiency and competitiveness as well as their capacity building as a community by following the cluster growth approach. This method helps to recognize its strengths, limitations, challenges and opportunities (SWOT), issues and impediments, suggestions and a well-drawn action plan to enhance the competitiveness of the cluster units and position the club with the volume of production processes, technology assistance and updating, marketing strategy, quality maintenance, testing, purchasing, outsourcing, etc. Currently, the Indian handloom sector has developed and expanded and holds a unique position in the export market, where 95% of Indian handloom fabric is exported to over 125 countries in the world (Annual Report 2016–17, Ministry of Textiles, GOI). India, with exports estimated at US$353.9 million in 2017, is the second largest exporter of handloom products in the world (Indian handloom industry: potential and prospects, EXIM Banks working paper 80, 2018). They use totally automotive machines to mass produce and alter existing consumer tastes in neighbouring economies such as Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and China; another factor playing in the slowdown of the Indian handloom industry is the slowdown to be blamed in the EU and the US. There is a rich heritage in the Indian handloom industry that existed through time immemorial. The industry, on the other hand, is surrounded by numerous problems, such as low productivity, globalization, inadequate working capital and rapid growth of technology. Therefore, in the new economy, the handloom industry would have to play to its distinct strengths. The energy impacts of handloom technology and environmental pollution are almost zero. The essence of the power loom industry is such that many entrants have great scope, Jain et al. [5]

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It is also true that, because of the artistic weaver’s originality, individuality and workmanship, the industry will thrive and prosper. The wise approach is to bring a balanced compromise between the preservation of the profession’s cultural heritage and the incorporation in the weaving industry of new advanced technology weavers. The handloom sector is recognized as a very old mode of textile production. It has accommodated many socio-economic shifts in its fold over the last 100 years, yet has been able to provide jobs to lakhs of families in India. The shifts in the last decade, however, have been turbulent and revealing. In the last decade and a half, the growth of the handloom industry has become a challenge, and the survival of livelihoods in this sector has become a major target for both the government and others. In this field, the 50,000 crore per year turnover was remarkable. The prospect of near market demand for nearly one lakh crore has become an opportunity. More than three crore families are dependent for their livelihoods on this sector. When controlled suitably, with a focus on the growth of human capital and a sector capable of absorbing them into productive jobs, a significant benefit will be the involvement of professional weavers in an area where investment is increasing and the manufacturing world is ageing. This is a company that often caters to the whims and fancies of textile lovers around the world as an artisan company. It is a serious enterprise, in which procedures and values are developed. These features have been affected by time warp. The hollowness of growth policies is also brought to light, and the proven premises and company and product creation models are also challenged. There is hardly any part of India that is not renowned for specially crafted and woven pieces when it comes to crafts and handloom. This is a large and scalable business. They all have their own story to tell and have their place on the market, be it the silk of Assam or the cotton of Bengal, the Pashmina of Kashmir or the Kanjeevaram of South India. Regardless of how much technology progresses, the talent in people’s hands has its own appeal. There is a lot of tradition that has been passed on, which is no less than the magic of professional hands, over centuries. For 13,000,000 creators, this industry provides jobs. In eco-friendly and low energy settings, many small villages run on these handlooms and handicrafts. Indian products have been appreciated worldwide. There is a great demand outside our country for our products. It has also made its way into many big foreign markets, such as the USA, the UAE and Germany.

18 Challenges of Handloom Industry There is no lack of talent in the country, but what is needed is the right recognition and the means to scale up with the right form of marketing. Artists are not directly linked to markets and that is an impediment to their growth. The positive news is that major designers are now collaborating with artists directly. What we need to do, according to industry experts, is leverage creativity and build goods that are in demand in the global market. This industry gives women in villages and small towns who have shown they are no less likely to have the opportunity. They work with

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experience and this helps them and their families. The need for the hour is to balance the current requirements with traditional designs. The industry is progressing at a rapid pace, but in terms of encouragement and facilities for artisans it requires a little help. There are many ways, in which one can get into this field, such as marketing and designing. Either a master craftsman or an organization can learn the skills. There are a variety of institutes that provide such instruction. There are customer-centred institutions that believe in identifying the customer’s needs first and using the data to produce the right kind of goods. Organizations are using eco-friendly approaches to help build value goods and provide many individuals with jobs by offering the correct form of skill-based training. India is the world’s second largest producer of bananas. The plant is discarded as waste once the banana is harvested. To make very beautiful handicrafts, the artisans use this banana waste. The farmer is also compensated for the waste, Gogna [6]. Therefore, to be able to implement corrective measures to uplift the sector, it is important to first identify the problems as well as the weaknesses of the handloom industry. A review of the literature on the subject shows that there are a few key areas that require attention if the growth and development of this sector is to be strengthened. We present below some of the issues and challenges that are faced by the handloom sector in India. Many consumers choose to purchase a sari at a fair cost rather than at a high cost. When a consumer can get a power loom sari for a reasonable price, they are less likely to purchase handloom goods. Since, handloom goods are more expensive than those made on a power loom. The power loom can reproduce the design of a handloom product at a low cost. The shop owners then sell the power loomed cloths to the customers as handlooms. The buyer could not tell the difference between a power loom and a handloom product. It is true that a high-priced handloom product cannot compete with a power loom product. The quality of handloom products is poor. At the same time, we create a specific product. As a result, both within and outside the region, we are unable to expand our product market. The lack of information available to weavers about various government policies and schemes currently in effect is a major factor in the weaver community’s declining fortunes. Implementing agencies and concerned government departments may not always have all of the necessary details, resulting in crucial implementation gaps. The handloom industry’s infrastructure remains deficient. All handloom development hubs lack basic amenities such as clean drinking water, sanitation, effluent treatment plants and electricity. Systems that ensure effective supply chain management from the availability of handloom raw materials to the selling of finished products are critical for providing weavers throughout the country with easy access to inputs and markets. The sparse existence of population and settlements, minimal local coordination, inadequate implementation of public schemes, lack of proper public oversight and lack of institutionalized assessment and monitoring systems all contribute to this. The lack of a dedicated database for the sector remains a major downside, which has a negative impact on policy formulation and analysis. Its absence also makes it difficult to compare relevant departments across sectors. The government, for

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example, compares the output figures of the handloom industry with those of mills and power looms using aggregate data. However, aggregate data does not capture the rich diversity of handlooms in terms of production trends and product styles across regions and districts. Weavers’ younger generation has been transitioning to other professions due to lower pay and insecure jobs. The weaver culture has shrunk as a result of this. Individually, the weavers are unable to establish and fund research and development facilities due to their precarious financial situation. The state’s laws are insufficient as well. Modern designs are not produced in sufficient numbers or in accordance with changing public tastes. Despite the government’s welfare policies, nearly, half of the handloom weavers come from the poorest and most deprived parts of the population. Weaver families have a high rate of poverty and illiteracy, as well as limited access to basic necessities such as health, water, sanitation, housing and livelihood opportunities. Women’s contributions to the handloom industry are largely overlooked. However, women make up about half of the weavers and staff in this industry, so they have the bulk of the skills and jobs. Women are involved in the manufacturing process from the initial stage of opening the hank to the final stage of finishing the product, even if they do not directly take up weaving work in some regions. The government’s assistance to this sector is insufficient and ineffective. Government policies favour mills and power looms over handlooms most of the time. As a result, the handloom industry loses ground to the power loom industry. Presently, handloom industry is facing many problems related to raw material, marketing and sales network which can be explained as follows: 1.

2.

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4.

Insufficient and Reliable Data A significant deficiency affecting the planning and policy formulation of the handloom sector is the lack of credible data regarding the number of craftsmen, their socio-economic conditions, livelihood conditions, family information and their productivity. Due to non-possibility of inter-sectoral comparison, the lack of data hinders the growth of the handloom sector. Lack of Good Yarn Quality The key problem faced by the handloom sector in the present scenario is the lack of good yarn quality at a fair price. The majority of weavers are from economically deprived families and have limited access to markets that can provide them with good yarn quality. Financial Problems Finance is a very important source of success for any company, but there is a shortage of credit facilities in the handloom industry, so in the handloom market, financial crisis is a very big issue. The lack of financial literacy among weavers increases the challenges for them related to credit. Insufficient Infrastructure The availability of the infrastructure needed by handloom is less satisfactory, leading to a loss of competitiveness in the sector. Also, basic facilities such as clean drinking water, sanitation and electricity are lacking.

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Implementing Innovation in Techniques In their conventional practices, our formal education programmes have not included instruction, training and skills development for the handloom industry. As a consequence, the responsibility for implementing innovation in techniques and designs is left to the initiative of families of weavers who typically lack resources for this vital area. Shortage of Yarn Supply The handloom industry’s prerequisites are cotton, yarn, silk, art silk, chemicals, dyes and zari. Weavers buy yarn from private traders who typically pay very high prices, and the cost of transport is also very high. The yarn supply is not normal even after the high cost, so the issue becomes more severe due to the absence of economies. Working Capital Crisis The handloom industry’s prerequisites are cotton, yarn, silk, art silk, chemicals, dyes and zari. Weavers buy yarn from private traders who typically pay very high prices, and the cost of transport is also very high. The yarn supply is not normal even after the high cost, so the issue becomes more severe due to the absence of economies. Poor Administration Management inefficiency is also a major constraint in the handloom sector’s activity and development. There is a lack of a formal board of directors that influences the sector’s decision-making policies. Shortage of Inputs And Problem of Working Capital The high costs of inputs such as yarn, cotton, silk, art silk, chemicals and dyes and zari, as well as the inconsistent availability of working capital, have an effect on the industry’s operations and continuity, resulting in a drop in handloom product output. Due to a lack of economies of scale, the main raw materials have low yields, which creates challenges in production planning and exacerbates the problem. Lack of Credit A main problem for the handloom sector is a lack of credit facilities and the high cost of accessing credit. In addition, the lack of financial literacy among weavers exacerbates credit-related issues. According to the Third Handloom Census, 44.6% of weavers rely on master weavers for credit, while approximately 13.4% rely on moneylenders. Just 14.8% of handloom weavers had access to institutionalized credit, according to the study. Furthermore, since they are unable to offer sufficient protection to banks and other financial institutions, the majority of weavers find it difficult to meet their credit needs on fair terms. This restricts their ability to repair or purchase new looms. Marketing Issues Some of the concerns about the low volume of finished handloom product sales stem from the fact that weavers lack awareness and information about customer preferences, customers are unable to distinguish between products produced on power looms and those produced on handlooms, promotional

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campaigns are not sustained over time to promote the products and there are times when there are no promotional campaigns at all. Greater Competition from Power Looms and Mill Sector The traditional handloom industry has been seriously threatened by the modernization of the textile industry, which has increased the use of sophisticated technology in the production of fabric. Consumers prefer the diverse product types, low prices, high quality, superior and standardized goods offered by the modern textile industry to the expensive handloom garments. Technological Backwardness The looms used in the production of handloom items are aged, worn out and inefficient, necessitating more labour. This raises the cost of the finished product and makes the industry uncompetitive in comparison to its power loom competitors. Lack of Novelty in Designs To meet evolving customer tastes and competition from alternative varieties, weavers in the handloom industry must continually innovate with their designs and imagination. Reduction in Number of Weavers The younger generation has been found to be uninterested in this career due to low salaries and erratic product sales. This is a major concern because the essence of the industry necessitates the transition of expertise from older to younger generations. The decrease in the number of people looking for other jobs would make art restoration and culture conservation more difficult. According to the Third Handloom Census, only 25.3% of households believe their children would pursue handlooming as a career. The majority of the households responded that they were not sure (35.7%), or they did not believe the children would pursue the activity (24.5%). Poor Policy Dissemination Major institutions providing input—credit, research, technology, management and market development—are centralized and, hence, unable to reach the dispersed home-based weavers. Database Crunch Inadequate database on the handlooms industry serves as a major drawback for policy planning, formation and review. Other Issues Unorganized nature of industry, inconvenient working conditions, limited research and training and lack of information on government schemes among weavers are some of the other factors which are detrimental to the growth of the industry.

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19 Scenario of Handloom Industry During COVID-19 India was the world’s second largest exporter of handloom items in 2017–18. COVID19, however, has changed the condition of the Indian handloom industry drastically, gripping the sector in its firm clutches. This is due to many demand and supply side constraints, such as order termination, lack of working capital and insufficient supplies of raw materials. The government and financial institutions need to ensure quick access to raw materials and credit to address this obstacle. The pandemic, on the other hand, may be a good one for the sector as it would ensure greater localization. This opportunity can also be used by India to create a strong brand of origin and move to a digital go-to-market model. Handlooms have been a staple of Indian culture since the days of ancient history, with exquisite items delicately designed by skilled craftsmen across the country captivating the globe. This rich heritage has stood the test of time even today and is one of the India’s largest cottage industries, thus preserving the vibrant Indian community. There are 3.14 million households involved in weaving and allied activities in the country, according to the 2019–20 National Census of Handloom Weavers. In addition to its position in job growth, in 2017–18, exports were valued at US$353.9 million. As per the Indian handloom industry: potential and prospects working paper by the Export–Import Bank of India, this made India the second largest exporter of handloom products in the world (2018). In the Indian handloom industry, COVID-19 has drastically altered the situation, grasping the sector in its firm clutches. One of the reasons for this is that due to the cancellation of orders, inventories of these domestic retailers and handloom exporters have piled up with goods. In addition, it has affected the sales of cotton handlooms during the summer season as the pandemic put curbs on national and foreign people’s movements. For large-scale exhibitions that have been cancelled or postponed, the same holds true. As exhibitions provide excellent opportunities for craftsmen to display their talent and market their goods, this is a blow to the industry. The fractured supply chain has given the sector a difficult time. Very few weavers are able to keep their production operations going as they had limited raw materials at their disposal and because of the lockdown, they were unable to procure any. In addition, as this pandemic is still looming and customers are seeing their incomes contract all over the world, most cooperatives and master weavers are reluctant to offer other weavers production orders. Weavers would not be in a position to earn their weekly wages with no jobs. Another cause of this volatility in demand is that consumption habits are likely to shift in the pandemic. For instance, before the market for designer gowns and elaborate Indian wedding dresses costing lakhs can revive, it will be a long time. This would have a significant effect on these products’ potential sales. While the pandemic has created a plethora of challenges for the handloom industry in the world, it has also contributed to a slow recovery of India’s top competitor, China. This is a timely moment for the Indian handloom industry to seize the day by

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seeking to take over the place of China as the ‘Maker of the World’. On the part of the industry, this would take a carefully planned strategy. It must be ensured that weavers and artisans have access to raw materials in order for this to happen. In the case of textile weavers, for example a network of regional yarn depots could be developed by the National Handloom Development Corporation Limited with the help of private sector mills. For other kinds of artisans in the field, similar solutions can be produced. Secondly, plans must be made to increase access to working capital for these artisans and entrepreneurs. To ensure that those struggling for survival are included in the scope of financial inclusion, easy access to credit and knowledge of the available schemes must be disseminated. Thirdly, the lockdown caused by COVID-19 culminated in the reverse migration of labour to craft clusters. This is a great opportunity to build more possibilities and grow micro-entrepreneurs. Local governments should build opportunities for these artisans to sharpen their current skills and learn new ones, such as digital exposure, so that their goods can be sold to wider audiences. Fourthly, it is important to collect market intelligence to decipher and determine the demand for the commodity and manufacture goods accordingly. Sustainable fashion is one movement that has captured the imagination of major luxury brands and customers around the globe. Fifthly, now that sales led by exhibitions and tourism have gone for a toss, and the handloom industry needs to boost its digital presence in order to interact through virtual exhibitions with potential buyers around the world. E-commerce sites such as Amazon and Flipkart expand the presence of new clients and markets. They should also provide the artisans with help in areas such as finance, marketing and logistics, and the industry needs to develop a powerful ‘Handmade in India’ brand. This could be achieved by promoting an indication of high-quality goods, the handloom label. This will not only develop the sector’s reputation in the domestic and overseas markets but also lead to the realization of premium prices for handloom products in the long term. In the current climate, a strong competitive differentiator such as this could be useful for Indian handicrafts, where views on sustainability and the environment are likely to be more optimistic than even a few months ago before COVID-19 hit, Subramaniam [7]. In addition to reflecting our rich culture and heritage, Indian handloom describes the creativity and skill of craftsmen carved on a blank canvas. In terms of creativity and modernization, Indian handloom has gone through a massive revolution. Today, after agriculture, the handling sector is considered one of the largest unorganized sectors and forms an integral part of rural and semi-rural livelihoods. One of the wealthiest and most colourful elements of the Indian cultural heritage is handloom weaving. Handloom is recognized for versatility, flexibility and creativity. The strength of the handloom lies in the simplicity of implementing new designs that the power loom sector cannot duplicate. The sector’s benefits include lower capital intensity, the use of minimal power, eco-friendly efficiency, small-scale production flexibility

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and adaptability to market requirements. It is a natural productive asset and cottagelevel practice that has been preserved and established from one generation to another by transferring skills. Handloom weaving is largely decentralized, and the weavers are mostly from the poorer parts of society, for whom this is the primary source of income for others. Handloom weaving is spread through several states in the nation and some of them are in a severe decline. The level of artistry and intricacy achieved in handloom fabrics is unparalleled, and modern machines still have those weaves/designs beyond their reach. It is ironic that we neglect this new gold mine, for this is precisely the industry that could make the ‘Make in India’ and ‘Skill India’ initiatives work. In the absence of equal opportunity, the weavers abandon the industry in droves. And today, if the handloom industry is referred to as ‘sunset industry’, then it is solely due to our inability to protect it. In other words, where the handloom industry is concerned, we are looking at a landmine, and it is time to hear the alarm bells! The industry currently employs 4.3 million weavers, with 75% of them female, according to a handloom study published in 2015, by the Ministry of Textiles. This marks a drastic decrease from what it was in 2009. But undoubtedly, things are looking up. In recent years, there has been a definite rise in demand for handloom products. According to a report by the India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF), with approximate purchases of US$100.08 million, the USA was the largest importer of Indian handloom goods, followed by Italy, the UK and the UAE at US$19.65 million, US$18.45 and US$18.18 million, respectively. Other main export destinations are Spain, Germany, France, the Netherlands, Australia, Japan, Sweden, South Africa, Greece, Thailand, Chile, Sri Lanka, Belgium, Canada, Denmark and Norway.

20 Potency of the Handloom Industry India feeds 95% of the international handloom industry. With Make in India, production of Capability India and weaver and cluster building initiatives, the supply status looks promising although the journey will be long and arduous. Thanks to these three factors e-commerce boom, government support and initiatives such as ‘Make in India’ and most importantly shifting customer tastes and their inclination to buy unique fabrics and designs, the handloom industry had a much needed shot in the arm. While handloom still faces threats and competition from the price-aggressive power loom industry, handlooms are unmatched in terms of ability, aesthetics and delivery of some very high-end sensitivity. Weavers are also continually re-inventing themselves and adding value to make their goods more and more important to the behaviour and needs of the modern customer. Apart from the more obvious benefits of low set-up costs, low and limited use of power, large design database and simple skill training due to the business model centred on the family.

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The ‘New Digital India; is one of the Indian handloom industry’s greatest advantages. Social networking sites have succeeded in bringing together discerning, socially conscious handloom users around the world to provide them with a forum to chat, post-photographs, flaunt, discuss and highlight their beautiful handloom items, thereby generating awareness and interest in the product. In addition to the excitement for safeguarding heritage handloom saris, this inevitably contributes to an increase in demand for the items. Active users of social media are increasingly becoming influencers and collaborating and have a huge effect on consumer demands.

21 The Impact of e-commerce The ability to satisfy consumer demands will have the greatest influence on the handloom industry. The Indian e-commerce industry is the answer to making handloom available to any discerning customer’s door step with the proliferation of Indians all over the world and with the whole world being more of handloom users. Currently, the space for handlooms for e-commerce and physical retail is very fragmented, with no particular single major player owning the space. This will mean two things: there is enough room for many small players to develop their niche and expand in the industry and market conditions, and consolidation is certain to happen in 2–3 years. India’s handloom sector accounts for about 13–15% of the textile output of the country, and India’s 50,000 crore industry is Rs. Since it is rooted in rural areas, there is no need for the government to set up training infrastructure or invest in environmentally friendly technology. It is easy; it has adequate technology and the understanding of which lies with the people. The technology can be easily assembled, and erection or dismantling is not costly. Through both direct and indirect jobs, the handloom industry employs a large number of people in rural, semi-urban and urban areas of India. Apart from the direct connection with agriculture, several other industries, including transportation, financial services, hospitality and others, are estimated to be dependent on handloom development. This industry also affects tourism considerably, with many well-known tourist spots being handloom centres. We fail to consider a well-established industry in pursuit of modernization that requires only favourable policies and decent budget allocation to prosper, Reddy [8].

22 Modernization in Handloom Sector New age agencies such as Dastkaar Andhra, Dastkaar Andhra Marketing Agency (DAMA) and Dastkaar Andhra Marketing Retail Agency (DARAM) operate with the organization of the weavers’ sister constituents of Dastkaar Andhra. They are engaged in providing weavers with marketing support through exhibitions and melas. In order to understand their issues, these organizations arrange conferences, hold

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studies/meetings of weavers. In collaboration with NIFD and other organizations, the production level initiatives involve designing, dying and coordinating preparation for skill development. Working together with weavers and PWCS to build state and national level social and human resources and policy advocacy is also a significant field of their work. Similarly, MULKHA (Mulmul and Khadi) initiatives in Telangana and Maharashtra, Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh, MASUTA in Orissa and Jharkhand, Biswa Bangla in West Bengal, etc., are some examples that work to introduce innovations in the field. Similarly, these agencies’ handloom mark, geographical indication4 (GI) patenting, e-marketing, technology interventions in designing, dyeing, colouring, etc. can assist the industry to learn and upgrade such efforts. Interactions with various stakeholders in the field suggested that through the livelihood promotion path, jobs in the handloom industry will increase, i.e. attending to the growth of infrastructure, enhancement of skills and availability of the necessary credit through the structured method of credit distribution. Ultimately, the recommendations made under various heads concentrate on the sector’s work creation capacity, Tanushree [9].

23 Sustainability of the Handloom Sector In 1984, the World Commission on Environment and Sustainability brought the idea of sustainable development to the attention of the general public around the world. The sustainability paradigm’s sustainable aspect entails that current activities do not affect future generations. Human beings are at the centre of concern for sustainable development (UNCED 1992), which means that livelihood stability is assured and maintained based on the condition of the living environment, culture and economy. In a framework, sustainability means that everyone can live a clean, balanced and prosperous life in accordance with nature and local spiritual values. Traditions and skills are the spiritual ideals of a culture, and they must be respected and passed on from generation to generation. The abandonment of inherited vocational skills have sustained generations and relocation to precarious and unstable means of subsistence point to a greater social decline and uncertainty. Sustainability assessment is a key factor in assessing the essence of trends in a system, and it is often focused on the three interconnected domains of culture, climate and economy. Sustainability is determined at various levels, from the local (household) village level to the larger national and global level, by the existence of interactions within and between these spheres; the conglomeration of sustainability at the local scale defines sustainability at the larger (national/global) scale. At the local level, sustainability in traditional handlooms means ensuring livelihood and cultural values (through expertise retention), gender and social justice in education and health care and resource use in accordance with natural cycles; at the national level, it means contributing to national dignity, economic stability and heritage value. Fundamentally, this will necessitate a change in how traditional handlooms are viewed as a tool for maintaining jobs and well-being, preserving (diverse)

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cultural identity, fostering social cohesion, adoption of (renewable) natural produce (fabric and dyes), economic development (local and export), social justice and democratic representation/choice. Traditional handlooms’ sustainability potential would be irreversibly lost if they were allowed to die out, Balaji [10]. In order to achieve sector sustainability, new models for the procurement of raw materials need to be introduced; new designs, patterns and colour dying techniques need to be implemented at the production level; information technology needs to be introduced for designs, accounting and marketing; different credit models need to be implemented, as suggested in the respective chapters. Sensitization of banks in areas of handloom concentration on topics such as sanctioning weaver loans and proper evaluation of the need for working capital. Though State Cooperative Banks will have to take a lead in this, they should also enable commercial banks to provide good working societies with working capital financing. Efficient training should be provided to weavers in the use of modern marketing handloom product methods. This could include greater use of local haat bazaar, the use of mobile points of sale, greater customer–seller experiences, increased use of online marketing, etc. All these are new areas and suitable models unique to the region will have to be created. The GoI High Level Committee for the Recommendation of the Handloom Sector Financial Package [April 2009] recommended the creation of the Handloom Growth and Equity Fund (HDEF). The study team is of the opinion that the fund can be generated to achieve the objectives indicated above. Fund support will be given, where appropriate, in the form of promotional and development assistance and also as equity support to qualifying PWCS, Apex Cooperative Societies and other similar agencies. This will ensure that handloom weavers receive improved and hassle-free credit flow.

24 Conclusion The handloom industry is a significant sector that provides large-scale jobs and preserves heritage in rural areas. The industry faces many challenges, but a series of strategic interventions in the main constraint areas outlined above could achieve future growth in the handloom industry. Many of these steps could be market-led and implemented by players in the private market. The role of enabler and facilitator will have to be played by governments. In bringing this sector back to life, institutions such as banks (particularly cooperative banks), NABARD, Handloom Development Corporations, Apex Weaver’s Cooperatives, PWCS, technology providers, private companies and traders and a number of others can play an important role. Handloom textiles are a timeless aspect of India’s rich cultural heritage. The aspect of art and crafts present in Indian handlooms makes it a potential industry for the domestic as well as global upper market segments. The sector, however, faces multiple challenges, such as obsolete technology, an unorganized production system, low productivity, insufficient working capital, a traditional product range, a poor marketing link, an overall stagnation in production and sales and, above all,

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rivalry in the power loom and mill sectors. As a result of successful government involvement through financial assistance and the introduction of different development and welfare schemes, these drawbacks have to some degree been resolved by the handling business. Handloom, thus, forms a precious part of the heritage of the century and shows the richness and diversity of our country and the weavers’ artistry. People’s interests in the protection of the environment by the use of these types of goods are friendly, and economic growth is more sustainable. Since, these industries provide many with a great opportunity for jobs. In this current situation, people are chasing after fresh and modern goods that are often detrimental to the environment. Behind the luxury comforts and modern lifestyle, resources are wasted to the fullest. Many individuals still enjoy such eco-friendly goods and encourage sustainable development through their use. They also think that instead of running behind modern progress, our ethnic art and culture must be preserved. Thus, handlooms and handicraft industries are excellent examples of sustainability growth. To encourage the use of handloom, occasion-specific dresses with a mix of contemporary and traditional designs and colours are needed. The introduction of formal shirts for men and women, which are the most frequently purchased dress pieces by young Indians, would increase the frequency of purchase. Along with the expensive range, there is a need to add a parallel range of affordable dresses for everyday use. Handloom products’ lack of success is due to their limited supply and lack of contact and visibility as a product with inherent superior fabric quality. The educated vibrant youth of the country are aware of handloom products only by its literal sense and word of mouth from the earlier generations. As a result, there is an urgent need for handloom goods to be available through a variety of distribution outlets, backed up by related advertising, in order to market the product To ensure availability in India via online e-commerce sites, more exclusive outlets in malls and high streets and branded lifestyle retail chains. Lack of promotion and publicity for handloom products, especially apparels, has resulted in a low level of awareness and interest among the younger generation, resulting in very limited use of handloom products. The majority of people are unable to distinguish between khadi, handloom and cotton fabrics. As a result, there is a need to educate the target consumer about the same, especially handloom items, which necessitates adequate campaigning to encourage the use of handloom apparels among the country’s young adults. There is a need to increase the output of man-made fibre and cotton yarn. The production of handlooms should be increased. Handkerchiefs, dhotis, lungies, woven fabrics and terry fabrics all need to be exported more. Government programmes and policies should be implemented and audited correctly. Promotion of India’s handloom brands, technical advancements and e-commerce can all be used as marketing strategies. In addition, there is an urgent need for handloom items to be available through a variety of retail outlets, accompanied by related advertising. Another tactic is to use public relations to promote superior fabric quality and its airy function, which

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is ideal for the Indian environment. Most significantly, consumer loyalty for handlooms is ensured by quality control in terms of raw materials, packaging, embellishments, weaving design and ensuring social and environmental enforcement in their manufacturing.

References 1. Sudalaimuthu, Dev (2017) Handloom industry in India, https://www.fibre2fashion.com/ind ustry-article/2269/handloom-industry-in india 2. Report of the Working Group on Handlooms for the 12th Five Year Plan (2012– 2017). https://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/wg_ handloom1101.pdf Accessed 12 Sep 2020 3. Third National Handloom Census of Weavers and Allied Workers (2010). Handloom Census of India 2009–2010. www.ncaer.org/downloads/Reports/HandloomCensus Report on 10.9.2012 4. Mishra S, Srivastava R, Shariff (2016) Study report on problems and prospects of handloom sector in employment generation in the globally competitive environment. Bankers Institute of Rural Development, Lucknow 5. Jain DC, Gera R (2017) An analytical study of handloom industry of India. Int J Sci Technol Manage 6:663–665 6. Gogna N (2020) Indian handloom industry: misery spells ‘Opportunity’! https://www.tpci.in/ indiabusinesstrade/blogs/indian-handloom-industry-misery-spells-opportunity 7. Subramaniam V (2017) Why handloom is still an attractive industry for startups? https://www. entrepreneur.com/article/304194 8. Reddy N (2019) The handloom industry is struggling. https://www.gaonconnection.com/read/ indian-handloom-sector-is-struggling-to-survive 46199 9. Tanushree S (2015) A study of the present situation of the traditional handloom weavers of Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. Int Res J SocSci (ISSN 2319-3565) 4(3):48–53 10. Balaji NC, Mani M (2014) Sustainability in traditional handlooms. Environ Eng Manage J 13(2):323–331

Value Addition in Handloom Textile Products for Sustainability M. Gopalakrishnan, R. Vijayasekar, A. Ashok Kumar, and D. Saravanan

Abstract Textile materials play important roles in our day-to-day life. Textiles are used in the areas, like, agriculture, automobile, medical and home decors. Machines including, handlooms, shuttle looms and shuttle less looms are used to produce the woven fabrics with different construction parameters. The production rates of shuttle and shuttle less looms are much higher compared to the handlooms and offer higher advantages than the handlooms. Hence, the manufacturers often prefer the machines which offer higher benefits like automatic looms. However, the handlooms have their own advantages in terms of type of fabrics produced, quality of products and some of the textile products like table mat, decorative curtains and specialized products are not amenable to be produced in the automatic looms. For producing certain specific motifs of irregular orders in sarees, draperies, certain other materials, the automatic looms pose certain limitations. In this chapter, an overview of the various novel home textile materials manufactured in handlooms, processing of recycled textile materials and different variants of handlooms have been explained. Keywords Handloom · Home textiles · Recycled fibres · Sustainability · Textile wastes · Value addition · Handloom modification · Pochampally · IKAT · Sarees · Mat weave

M. Gopalakrishnan (B) · A. Ashok Kumar Department of Textile Technology, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam 638401, India A. Ashok Kumar e-mail: [email protected] R. Vijayasekar Department of Textile Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India D. Saravanan Department of Textile Technology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore 641049, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Á. Gardetti and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Handloom Sustainability and Culture, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5272-1_5

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1 Introduction Handloom is a simple versatile machine, capable of producing a variety of textile materials including conversion of recycled textile materials into different functional products. Today, mounting pressure to reduce the carbon footprint forces every textile manufacturers turn to eco-friendly methods of production, thereby providing a wide range of products to the consumers [1–3]. Many manufacturers reuse old textile materials in both recycled and reclaimed forms, both pre and post-consumer products, for manufacturing different value added products, i.e. upcycling [4–6]. Such efforts considerably lead to lower carbon footprints compared to the use of virgin materials, besides lower cost of raw materials [7, 8]. The quality of the fabric produced in handloom is much superior to the fabric produced in automatic looms. The silk fabric produced in handloom has its heritage and it costs higher than the power loom because of its quality. Handlooms and its modified versions are used to produce a variety of doormats. Even, the handlooms are used to produce the fabric from the kora fibre. Though, the handlooms have some advantages than the automatic looms, and it has also some drawbacks. So the modification in the existing handloom reduce this drawbacks to some extent. This chapter also summarizes some of the efforts that can be implemented in the handloom for producing different products with certain modifications in the looms. This chapter deals with the value addition in the handloom and is divided into three headings, and are, 1. 2. 3.

Handlooms for Home Textiles Handlooms for Traditional Sarees Technology Interventions for Improving Efficiency of Handlooms

The doormats and the weaving of the unconventional fibres and yarns are discussed in the home textiles headings. Weaving of Pochampalli sarees is discussed in the heading 2 handlooms for traditional sarees, and the handloom modification is discussed in under the technology interventions heading. 1.

Handlooms for Home Textiles

Doormats Doormats are one of the essential household items and not only does the doormats enhance the look of the house, but also helps to keep the indoors clean and aesthetic. It is a no brainer that these pieces tend to get the dirtiest and unhygienic due to the constant encounter with dust particles and almost all kinds of impurities. Despite regular cleaning, one should change their doormats at regular intervals. Different kinds of doormats are used for the main areas such as balcony, main door, kitchen, etc. [9]. Variety of doormats is produced through different machines, using coir, jute blended materials and recycled textile materials. Certain doormats are produced in a regular shuttle loom and some can be produced in manual methods. Normally, majority of the doormats are heavy in constructions and are difficult to weave in a

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regular automatic weaving machines, which necessitates the use of handlooms or modified handlooms with few automated features [10]. The warp threads are normally loosely spaced coarse threads, whilst weft threads often consists of, kind of ropes, braided rope/thread-like materials, recycled knitted fabric wastes or a bunch of coarser yarns. These materials give cushion effects to doormats, and weaving of these materials is difficult in automatic looms and practically impossible on account of the unusually coarse nature of the materials used in the production [11]. Nowadays, the recycled fibres play an important role in textile manufacturing. In many situations, the recycled fibres are inferior in quality, especially in terms of strength and length of the fibres. Strength is an important parameter in production of fabrics using automatic looms for hassle free running of the machines. The recycled fibres and the yarns produced from the recycled fibres with inferior quality lead to difficulty weaving in the automatic looms. Another important parameter is the length of the yarns required in the case of automatic looms. With shorter weft yarns / structures, the automatic looms are not effective in producing the doormats, which is not an impeding factor in the case of handlooms [12]. Coir Mats Coir mats are available in woven bleached or natural mats with stencilled or bevelled patterns. The coir mats are commercially used as exterior or interior doormats or decorative mats and carpets. Coir mats can be made in handloom, frames and power looms depending upon the structural features of the mats produced. The brushing nature of the coir (with resiliency) and ability to remove the dirts and ease of detaching and cleaning the mats, makes them unique in nature (Fig. 1). Preparation of warp yarns for coir mats in handloom is different from the regular fabric weaving. The warp beams are known as chain-beam in the coir mat handloom machines, and chainbeam is placed in the back of the weaving machine. The coir warp yarn is drawn from the chain-beam through a back rest, heddle eye, sley and the reeds. There are two ratchet wheels in the handlooms for let-off in the chain-beam, and another one is in the take-up roller. The yarn from the chain-beam that after passing over the back rest beam or chain rest beam is drawn through the heddle eyes and sleyed through the reeds. This is then passed over the waist beam or front rest and tied to a rod and is attached to a wooden roller (tension beam) by means of pieces of rope. The take-up of the woven fabric is effected by operating the ratchet wheel at one end of the wooden roller, with uniform tension. There is another ratchet wheel fixed on the chain-beam and by detaching the catch on the ratchet wheel, necessary length of warp from the chain-beam can be released. Rod Mat In rod mats, the brush or pile structure is formed out of topping yarns. The topping yarn is normally of soft twisted in structure, which helps in getting good brush-like structure. The pile in the mat is produced by cutting the topping yarn wound over a flat, grooved iron rods/bars. The pile height can be varied by using rod of different

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Fig. 1 Coir mat and weaving process

thickness. The proportion of the topping yarns and weft can be varied to suit the required quality. Rod mats are available with natural, stencilled, mottled and inlaid designs. The formation of diagonal lines (rows) on the rear side of the mat is a characteristics feature for identification of the rod mat [13, 14]. Topping Yarn and Weaving Procedure The yarn required for topping yarn is first sorted and is spliced to a continuous length. According to the quality of mat to be woven, these single yarns are drawn in 2, 3 or 4 ends together and stacked into a “punja” form. This heap of yarn is kept near the loom for weaving. For rod mat, one warp beam with necessary number of warp threads two heddle frames and two treadles are required in the loom. In order to ensure firm edges for the mat, at extreme ends, two strands of warp yarn at both sides of the mat are drawn through the same heddle frame, and they are sleyed through a single dent in the reed. The count of the reed depends up on the quality of the mat and generally 30s reed is used [15]. When the shed is formed, a grooved iron rod is kept over the top layers of warp strands across the warp, and the topping yarn is taken from one side of the warp to the other through the shed and wound spirally over the rod along with (alternate) strands of warp in the top layer. The iron rod wound with yarn is brought to the fell of the cloth. Thereafter, a weft is inserted through the same shed, and sley is beaten fast to allow the weft close to the portion already woven. After changing the shed, whilst depressing the other treadle, a knife is passed through the iron rod and the topping yarn wound over the rod is cut. The same process of weaving is continued to weave further length of mat [16].

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Fig. 2 Fibre mat weaving and mat

Fibre Mat As the name indicates that these mats are made out of coir fibres with pile structure that are different from brush mats (Fig. 2). Single-chain and double-chain fibre mats are commonly produced by the coir industry. Coir fibres are inserted in the form of tufts for manufacturing the fibre mats. In this type of mats, the pile structure is produced by cutting the yarn which is wound over a steel rod with grooves. The pile structure produced by this type is different from brush mats, and the mats produced by this method is very firm and compact in nature, which essentially translates to its durability. The design of the mat is varied by colour, stripes, intricate designs, pile heights, stencilled and bevelled to give better clarity. The following are the details of construction of double-chain fibre mats [17]. The fibre mat is made by inserting small tufts of fibres through every alternate ends of warp yarns. The typical loom requires three heddles frames and three treadles for weaving. Being a two chain fibre mat, two kinds of warp prepared separately on two chain beams are necessary. Out of these, one is kept in the loom at maximum tension and is used for inserting the fibre tufts, whilst the other one is kept slack in the loom, at comparatively lower tension levels. This warp works as a binding chain and offers a sturdier construction for the base fabric of the mat. The binding chain interlaces firmly with every pick in the mat and wraps around the bottom part of the fibre tufts. Because of this, the picks in between every row of pile are firmly held in the mat, and bottom part of the fibre tufts is completely concealed [18]. . The tight warp threads are drafted through first and second heddle frames and the slack warp threads through third heddle frame. The tight and slack warp threads are maintained at 1:1 proportion in the mat distribution, with a drafting order of 1, 3, 2, 3. The warp threads are sleyed, two in a dent. Specification of reed used in the manufacture is generally 42s and 36s. Weaving is started after making the preliminary arrangements, by depressing the third treadle so that all the tight warp threads are raised up and slack warp threads lowered. This gives facility for inserting fibre tufts through every alternative tight warp threads (Fig. 3). Usually, the design to be woven on a fibre mat is prepared suitably on graph paper. Looking into the graph paper, the tufts of fibres, according to the colour indicated in the graph paper, are inserted through every alternate strands of tight warp. Whilst doing so, care should

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Fig. 3 Tufting process and tufted mats

be taken to ensure that fibre tufts inserted at the extreme ends (selvedges) of the mats are put a little downwards from bottom level of the other tufts for firmness for the pile at the sides of the mat and to prevent the falling-off of the brush at the sides, whilst in use. After completion of inserting the tuft, the 1st and 2nd treadles are depressed and a weft is passed in and thereafter third treadle is depressed, and another weft is inserted. Now a wooden plank according to the pile height required is placed in front of the fibre tufts and with the help of a big scissors, and top part of the fibre is cut uniformly. Thus, the weaving is progressed repeating the operations as described above, further. In order to facilitate easy weaving of fancy fibre mats the designs, which are intended to be woven on fibre mats are transferred onto a graph paper. Transferring the design on a graph paper helps to get a uniform design on product with exactly similar designs in all the mats, when more number of weavers are engaged for weaving a particular design. In the absence of a loom sketch, the weaver finds it difficult to assess the tufts required for different portions of design and when the designs are woven by more than one weaver, the assessment of the tufts for each colour in the design may vary from weaver to weaver thus causing difference in design from mat to mat. The preparation of loom sketch helps to avoid the above anomalies and facilitate easy weaving. The principle followed in the preparation of loom sketch is that each column in the graph paper indicates a tuft of fibres and the vertical rows of column represents warp, whilst the horizontal rows of column the rows of pile. To transfer a design from the design card to the graph paper, all the number of warp threads and rows required for a particular size of mat for which the loom sketch. Creel Mats Handlooms are predominantly used to manufacture the creel mats with low-pile heights, (Fig. 4) and in certain cases, powerlooms are also used. In creel type of mats, the pile formed from warp itself and a separate yarn is used for the file pile structure which is wound onto a beam. There are always more than one kind of warp yarns for any type of creel mats. One kind of warp, which is held at the maximum tension (tight) interlaces with the weft and produce the base fabric. On the base

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fabric so formed loops of pile structure either cut or uncut are projected by the yarn of slack warp. Grooved rod was used to produce the pile structure by suitably placed coir fibre over the fabric surface. After the weft is inserted, a knife is passed in the groove to cut the piles. A mat with two chain creels and three chain creels are also commercially available, where a three chain creel produces the firmer in structure than the two chain creel mats [19]. Creel Mats—2 Chain For producing the two chain creel mats, looms with three treadle-and-three heddle frames are necessary (Fig. 5). The slack and tight warp threads are prepared separately on two chain beams that are kept suitably at the back of the loom, where slack warp threads are drafted through the 1 heddle frame and the tight warp threads through the 2 and third heddle frames in the order 2-1-1, 3-1-1. Thus, the order of warp in the mat will be in the ratio of 1:2 tight and slack. Three warp threads—2 slack and 1 tight threads are drawn through each dent in the reed.

Fig. 4 Creel mat

Fig. 5 Creel mat production

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When second and third treadles are pressed, during the manufacture, all the slack warp threads are raised up and through the shed formed, a grooved iron rod is inserted, followed by weft insertion and beat up. After the beat up, the 1st and 2nd treadles are depressed, followed by the insertion of another weft thread, which makes the iron rod inserted initially to be held in the mat with slack yarn bent over it. In order to insert the second iron rod, the 2nd and 3rd treadles are again depressed and after inserting the rod, and the 1st treadle is also depressed to pass a weft through the shed formed. As the last step, the 1st and 3rd treadles are depressed, and one more weft is inserted. Now passing a knife through the groove of the 1st iron rod, the slack yarns bent over cuts and forms the pile structure. This cycle of operations is repeated to continue the weaving [20] (Fig. 6). Creel Mats—3 Chain Three chain creel mat is considered as the best quality under the creel-family of mats. When compared to 2-chain creel mats, in the three chain case, there is an additional slack warp, which works as a binding chain in the finished mat structure, which gives added strength to the mat by the way of going over and under the weft threads, and rows of pile. 3-chain creel mat with the base fabric composed of jute twine and pile structure formed by thin vycome coir yarn of soft twist is popularly known as “Carnatic mat” in coir trade. Carnatic mat, which has wide range of applications as doormats, car mats, pile carpets, etc., comes under this category. Carnatic mats have a special appeal due to low-pile height, lightness and other refinements in product structure. To enable the mat to possess the low pile structure, the base fabric of the carnatic mat is formed out of jute twines. Normally, 5-ply jute for tight warp and 2-ply for binding chain or 3-ply jute for weft and vycome carnatic yarn as slack (brush) warp are used in the mat (Fig. 7) [21]. Followings are the advantages of the improved technique over the traditional methods, 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

Number of heddle frames and treadles has been reduced to two thereby initial investments Easy weaving operation, by limiting the number of depression of treadles (twice) for completing the process of weaving, instead of three in the existing method By facilitating the weaver to depress only a single treadle at a time throughout weaving In stationary position of the heddle frames, three types of warp layers are kept at three different positions and therefore, inter-thread friction is considerably reduced, forming sheds with less efforts Replacement of heddles with the new type require only a very nominal investment. The 3-treadle, heddle frames, pulley, etc., are eliminated from the existing loom.

Korai Mats Weaving of korai is found in many places in the southern regions of India. Korai grass, a family of Cyperaceae and grown in a place where the water, is abundant (Fig. 8). A variety of mat weaving spread all over the India and the product is unique

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(a) Position of warp at rest

(b) Position of warp – Second treadle is depressed

(c) Position of warp – First treadle is depressed Fig. 6 Weaving operations

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Fig. 7 Three chain mat

and diverse in nature from other products. Madur mats, sitalpuri mats and korai mats are very familiar one in these regions. Korai grass is the raw material for korai mats, and it is predominantly available in the places including, Karur and Pattamadai, in huge waterbodies of marsh lands and cultivated in the banks of The River Kaveri and Thamirabarani rivers of Karur and Pattamadai. The korai planted during the month of September/October and harvested during February/March months. The korai mats made from Pattamadai is famous, and many families are benefited out of these activities as a way of the livelihood. The mats made in these regions are fine with silk-like appearance and often termed as silk mats. Karur is the second largest production centre of korai mat due to the rich basin of the River Kaveri. Apart from these places, the korai is also cultivated along the banks in Puducherry. The harvested korai grass is dried until the colour is changed from green to golden brown colour under the sunlight. Once the grass is dried, they are ready to weave in the handlooms. The weaving of fine variety of korai is difficult and tedious one. The preparation of korai is different from the regular one and it involves weaving of korai up to the centre pith. The remaining portions, other the centre portion of the korai, are removed [22]. Three main varieties of korai mats are available namely coarse weave, medium weave and fine weave, produced in different regions. Three main steps are involved in the manufacturing of korai mat include harvesting, mat weaving and finishing.

Fig. 8 Korai mats and Korai grass

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Fig. 9 Warp preparation

Apart from these main stages, processes like, warp preparation (Fig. 9), dyeing are also included as the distinctive stages in mat weaving [23]. A stick, kichali (similar to rapier), is used to insert the korai weft into the warp sheet of the handloom. After completing the weaving of the korai mats from handlooms, the edges are cut using the scissors and stitched with coarse threads. The designs of the korai mat are varied by changing the colour of the korai and patterns. Normally, the dark red, green, and indigo colours are used for weaving the mat structures [23]. The entire process is, essentially, eco-friendly in nature and boost the livelihoods of handloom manufacturers. 2.

Handlooms for Traditional Sarees

Traditional Textiles—Pochampally (IKAT) Sarees The traditional sarees worn by the women of India, manufactured in the areas of Pochampally, Andhra Pradesh have earned an excellent name and recognition worldwide for its quality, unique aesthetics and artistic appearance. The term Ikat stems from the Malay—Indonesian expression “Mangikat” meaning to bind, knot or wind around. There are at least 400 villages actively involved in production of these sarees in Andhra Pradesh, India including Pochampally, Koyalagundam. Another name for this unique fabric pattern is known as “Ikat textile”. The Pochampally sarees are produced using silk filaments yarns, dyed using tie and dye style to produce unique patterns in the fabrics [24]. The pattern produced in fabric meant for saree is shown in Fig. 10.

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Fig. 10 Pochampally (Ikat) sarees

The same or similar patterns of sarees are also manufactured in Orissa and Tamil Nadu states of India. In Tamil Nadu, these sarees are named as “Kora cotton sarees”, where approximately 10,000 families are involved in production of the sarees. These families live in a community forming an unorganized sector, and all the family members are involved together to produce these unique patterned sarees [25]. Tie and dye style are originated in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh region [26]. In Tamil Nadu, this method is followed by the people migrated from Andhra Pradesh. This method of producing patterned fabric is time consuming and high level of skills are required to produce fabrics. In principle, Ikat or resist style of dyeing involves the sequence of tieing and dyeing of bunch of yarns [27]. The tied section remains intact during dyeing with

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very less or no penetration of dyes. The patterns formed by this process on the yarns are then woven into a fabric, translated into unique designs. The two basic forms of Ikat are single Ikat and combined Ikat, where in the single Ikat either warp or weft threads are tied and dyed prior to weaving. In the combined Ikat, both the warp and weft yarns are tied and dyed with such a precision, threads from both axis warp and weft mesh exactly at certain point to form a complete motifs or patterns [28]. In single Ikat, weft yarns are taken for designing and fine cotton yarn with the linear density of 2/100 s or 2/130 s Ne is preferable [29, 30]. The yarns are taken dyeing in the form of small bundles, hanks. On the other hand, in the bobbin process, hank yarns are converted into bobbins with a length approximately equivalent to produce 2 or 3 sarees. It can be conveniently used, whilst spreading (laying bunch of yarn on a frame) in the rectangular marking frame. Both ends of the frame consist of blunt needles in length wise direction, based on size of the fabric required. The number of yarns in a bunch taken is decided according to the design and size of fabric. The yarns are wound around oppositely placed needles at a rate of seven layers per needle. According to the pick density in the design, the numbers of turns are decided and for the complicated designs, spreading is carried out in two or more frames. Design is marked on the bunch of yarns directly using erasable ink. In order to maintain sufficient tension for marking, the loops or bunches of yarns are tied in the group using threads. Depending upon the pattern, marking is carried on the bunch yarns and dyed. After the pattern is marked on the bunch of yarn, it is tied with high compression using threads for narrow patterns or thin rubber sheets for wider patterns. Border patterns are tied using threads because the sharp design patterns. Ties are removed after every colour is dyed and then tied in new locations based on the pattern with depth of the shade and colour is chosen based on the design. Tie and dyed yarns are shown in Fig. 11. The tie and dyed threads are grouped based on pattern required is shown in Fig. 12. After completion of tie and dye process, the threads are grouped and each group is divided into required number of sets. Dyed hank yarn is reeled using the staves and bundled, each bundle consisting of dyed hank yarns sufficient for producing one saree.

Fig. 11 Tie and dyed hank yarn

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Fig. 12 Grouping of tie and dyed yarn

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Fig. 13 Tie and dyed hank yarn

In weaving, tie and dyed warp or plain weft yarns or both tie and dyed are converted into fabric using handlooms. Tie and dyed yarns in hank forms are converted into pirns (Fig. 13) using simple handwheel. These pirns are used in handloom shuttles to produce required patterned fabrics. The tie and dye style pattern are produced on the sarees using plain weave. The saree consists of two types of designs; one is design of tie and dye style, and another one is jacquard patterns for side and cross border designs. The process sequence and techniques in this process are time consuming, more skill and training are required. When compared with the other methods of manufacturing, this method gives unique patterned sarees. These unique patterns are very well accepted by the market and provide livelihood for millions of people [31]. 3.

Technology Interventions for Improving Efficiency of Handlooms

5-wheel Take-Up Take-up motion in the handloom is often manually operated and that leads to variation in pick density in handloom fabrics, which in turn influences the fabric quality and texture. The adoption of 5-wheel mechanism in handloom reduces the issue of variation in the pick density. Figure 14 shows the conventional take-up motion of a

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(a)

(b)

Fig. 14 a Conventional take-up motion. b Modified take-up mechanism

handloom and that produces the fabric with variations in pick density and modified one [32]. Out of 5-wheels employed in the take-up motion, the stud wheel, ratchet and cloth roll get motion from the sley sword. The sley sword is attached with sley, and the sley is connected with the crank shaft. If the crank shaft gets rotation, the sley, sley sword, stud wheel, ratchet and cloth roll also get the motion. A rod is connected at the bottom of the sley sword that transfer the motion to a monkey tail. Two pawls; the holding pawl is fulcrum in upper side, and the pushing pawl is fulcrum in the lower side of the monkey tail. The pawls are mounted in the first wheel of the 5-wheel take-up motion. The second wheel gets the motion through the change pinion. The stud wheel, a third wheel is mounted under the change pinion and the take-up roller is mounted in the stud pinion and gets the drive. When a pick is inserted, the sley moves and the monkey tail gets the upward drive and pushes the pawl for one motion. The holding pawl holds the position by holding the ratchet. Finally, the cloth roll gets the drive from gear train and wind (take) the fabric in the handloom [33]. Handloom with Fly Wheel for Beat up and Uniform Picks The sley, in the handloom, is modified by providing a further shuttle box up the centre to accommodate three shuttles boxes with pickers attached (Fig. 15). These three pickers are connected with one another with the assistance of aluminium closed channel bar for giving equal and balanced force to propel the shuttles from one box to other. Right and left pickers are tied with picking handle and in starting position, one shuttle remains within the middle box and therefore the other shuttle could be either within the right or within the left box as per convenience of the weaver. During picking from right to left direction, the shuttle from the proper box travels to middle box and therefore the shuttle of the centre box goes to left-side box. Similarly, whilst picking from left to right direction, shuttle of the left box travels to middle box and

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(b)

Fig. 15 a Conventional beat up. b Modified beat up

shuttle of the centre box goes to right box. There is a swell spring within the middle box to stop the shuttle from bouncing back after hitting the picker inside the box. This way picking of two shuttles for two narrow width fabrics continues within the same fashion as practised in conventional handlooms [34]. Bi-fab Handloom Bi-Fab handloom is capable of delivering two fabrics simultaneously with much ease, where a weaver can effortlessly operate the handloom with the same style as a standard handloom. Bi-fab handlooms are developed (Fig. 16) for various reasons including but not limited to (i) enhance productivity of handlooms engaged in production of narrow width fabrics, (ii) reduce drudgery and fatigue of the weaver, (iii) enhance the quality of the product, (iv) create more marketability of the product and (v) enhance the earning of the weaver [35, 36].

(a) Fig. 16 a Conventional single-fab handloom. b Bi-fab handloom

(b)

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It has been experienced that any additional load if placed on a handloom is rejected by the weaver since it might require additional efforts to work and often leads to work related fatigues. Therefore, precautions are taken neither to feature additional workload to its innovation nor to introduce any new sort of its operation. The bi-fab handloom is a crucial achievement in enhancing the earning of the weavers who are engaged in manufacturing narrow width fabrics like stole, scarf, muffler, mats, napkins, towels, etc. Today in the age of machination, there is very stiff competition between handloom and autolooms. It has become difficult for the handlooms to survive, if engaged in producing similar sorts of products those are made on machine looms just because the later has higher rates of production. It has become pertinent to reinforce the productivity of handlooms also because the quality of its product in one hand and to scale back the drudgery and fatigue of the weaver on the other hand. Presently, there are two techniques practised in the handlooms for weaving narrow width fabrics. In one technique, the material is woven in a double-width size then slit at the middle to produce two products of narrow widths. Disadvantage during this case is that the selvedge in one side is clean and other side, which is slit, needs to be hemmed. In the second technique, narrow fabric is woven on comparatively wider loom, since no separate loom is out there for the actual purpose. This leads to wastage of labour, time and machinery. Because of low productivity, the merchandise becomes costlier and ultimately loses the market. Computerized Designing Kurumbars are one of the six ancient tribal groups in Tamil Nadu of India, who live very much in tune with the nature in the forest/hill areas. Kurumba tribal painting is converted into woven in designs using jacquard looms. Since Kurumba painting is intricate, jacquard looms are selected to weave these patterns whose control mechanism makes use of the cards with holes punched. Jacquard weaves are complex in design, weave large design repeats, with the facility to control the individual warp yarns with special attachments. The first step of the weaving process is procurement of appropriate yarns for both warp and weft. The warping is carried out with different colours as per the design by a hand-driven machine, and the finished warp beam is mounted on the loom. Normally, yarns of three or four colours are used for preparing the warp, depending on the design desired Fig. 17. The punch cards are prepared based on the design in a sequential manner, and these cards are joined by a chain and used in handlooms. The jacquard machine has a rectangular block pedal on which the chain of punch cards run Fig. 18 [37]. When the design and structure of the cloth are worked out, the shafts and peddles are tied up in the correct way in order to achieve that particular weave structure. Threading up is the longest part of the weaving and the most important part of the whole process sequence. The weaver has to constantly keep the pedal with right leg to operate the jacquard machine, whilst pulling the string that controls the shuttle,

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Fig. 17 Warp beam preparation

taking the yarn of the weft across the warp sheet, thus progressing the process of weaving Fig. 19. Handlooms for Physically Challenged Persons Handloom is operated by a human, and it is a manual process. The operator has to use his/her hands, legs, eyes and other body parts for complete operation. If a person is disabled (physically challenged) in any of the body parts, then he/she will not able to weave the fabrics in handloom, a major drawback of the handloom. The handlooms are modified suitably to operate the machine even if the person is disabled with both the legs. There are two variants available in the handlooms, one is for the persons with disabled legs, and another one is meant for the persons with disabled hands. Synchronizing the primary, secondary operations which are easy to operate with improved efficiency. Further development of handloom, replaced the pedal operated system with an electrical motor and a gearbox attached to a pulley mechanism [38, 39].

2 Conclusion Handlooms are though technologically primitive operationally versatile machines that are amenable to produce different materials with high construction set with heavy

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Fig. 18 Punch cards and setting up of loom

threads in both warp and weft. Production of intricate designs using unconventional fibres like coir, jute and recycled heavy textile threads and ropes are possible with handlooms using special attachments and jacquard mechanism. Weaving bi-fabrics in a single frame, use of delicate fibres like silk and production of certain home textile products using handlooms, provide livelihoods in many villages of underdeveloped and developing countries. Handlooms have a unique nature that can be used to produce the fabrics from the unconventional fibres, yarns like, knitting waste, korai fibres and other unconventional fibres. Weaving of these materials need special requirements, and the regular weaving machines are not suitable to process these unconventional yarns effectively. Similarly of Pochampalli sarees need special skills

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Fig. 19 Jacquard weaving

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and the machine should support the weaving of these designs. Handloom is the one which is suitable to weave these kinds of design easily. Handlooms are often modified to suit the needs of the physically challenged operators with different disabilities. This chapter deals the value addition of handloom products in three different headings, handlooms for home textiles, handlooms for traditional textiles and the technology interventions. Various parameters under these heading were discussed in this chapter. Diversification of products of handlooms to manufacture certain technical textiles could possibly enhance the sustainable living of the artisans involved in this unorganized sector.

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My Loom and Me: The Role of the Handloom in a Weaver’s Identity Creation Sharon Nunoo, Rachel Parker-Strak, Marta Blazquez, and Claudia E. Henninger

Abstract Handloom artistry dates back to the seventeenth century in Africa. In Ghana, the handloom is used to produce the traditional Kente textiles, which form part of the country’s identity. This research focuses on Bonwire, Ghana a weaving community in the Ashanti region that is specialised in the weaving of the Kente textile. However, modernisation and globalisation are seemingly threatening this industry, as a new trade law allowed imports of printed Kente-inspired textiles from Europe, America and Asia. This chapter focuses on the artisans involved in the handweaving process of the Ghanaian Kente textiles, by investigating the role of the handloom on the identity of the weavers. Weaving with a handloom has a long-standing tradition in Bonwire, thus exploring the implications of modernisation and globalisation on this traditional trade and subsequently on the identity of the weavers which will be explored. This qualitative enquiry draws on 20 semi-structured interviews with artisans involved in the Kente weaving process, to explore the role of the handloom on their identity. Initial findings highlight that the art of using the handloom is infused into the culture of the weavers of Bonwire. The weavers have taken the handloom to represent a part of their identity, and in that without the handloom, it will appear as though they have no identity. Keywords Handloom · Weavers · Identity process · Kente · Corporate heritage identity · Social sustainability · Bonwire · Ghana

1 Introduction Change is a key part of our society, which sometimes also implies that traditions may disappear. Losing traditions can, in a worst case scenario, lead to also losing parts of a country’s heritage, whilst in other cases, it may support bringing traditions into a new century [2]. One of the few traditions which forms part of heritage that has stayed in the continent of Africa is the art of weaving with a handloom, to create heritage S. Nunoo (B) · R. Parker-Strak · M. Blazquez · C. E. Henninger Department of Materials, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9FL, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Á. Gardetti and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Handloom Sustainability and Culture, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5272-1_6

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materials [24], which traditionally was done by hands only, yet over time has seen the creation of a handloom that simplifies some of the weaving process. To explain, although the handloom is an upgrade from the methods used in weaving in the past [4, 7], it does not stray from the idea that the hands still do the weaving and the handloom only helps to keep threads in line and makes the overall weaving of the textiles easier and more manageable. The art of weaving with the handloom dates back to the seventeenth century in Africa [12]. Even before handlooms were created, there were different ways by which weaving was achieved. The handloom was developed by concerned individuals that sought for a way to weave in a faster manner and achieve a quality finish in the products within a shorter period of time. Research on weaving considers the textiles that are being created [3, 11]. The handloom, however, is rarely discussed and when it is, it is in relation to the different components of the handloom and the role each component plays [3, 36]. As times are changing, so are the minds of people with regards to the methods used to produce certain products [1]. As people are focusing more on speed and being able to produce the Kente cloth (traditional heritage material) in a shorter time [4, 7], the weavers of Bonwire, Ghana, have decided to continue on with their tradition [42]; although it takes time, it is a luxury product that requires attention and great detail. Handloom weaving not only has a long tradition, but also is considered an important activity in West Africa [2], especially in a community such as Bonwire, Ghana. Although the traditional handloom weaving has been threatened by tough competition from European and Asian markets, fostered by globalisation and modernisation and an ever growing demand for textiles to be produced at a faster pace [5], the art form of handloom woven textiles in Western Africa has managed to survive until the present day [2, 19]. A possible explanation for this could be the fact that cultural heritage is embedded within these traditionally produced handloom woven textiles, of which Kente is one. This chapter explores the aspect of ‘cultural heritage further’, by investigating the role of the handloom woven textiles and the artisans (weavers) behind the trade. Thus, we further explore how global changes affect the well-being of these weavers on a social and economic sustainability scale, seeing as globalisation and modernisation are an ongoing trade and will have an impact on communities, such as Bonwire. Bonwire is located in Western Ghana (in the Ashanti Region) and is the birthplace of Kente production, with the community having been established over 300 years ago [4, 31, 32, 42]. The community itself consists of more than 800 houses and is home to approximately 2000 weavers, all of whom are involved in the Kente creation process. Weaving in Bonwire is a predominantly male trade that is supported by females in the early and late stages of the production process. To explain, women, in the past, have processed and dyed yarns in order to be woven into the Kente strips, as well as sell the finished products on the market [12, 42]. In more recent years, yarns are not dyed and spun by women anymore but are rather outsourced due to the lack of care given to the weaving industry and high demand for imitated textiles [11, 12, 31]. Interestingly, it is a taboo for women to weave the actual Kente strips for fear of being barren [12]. Thus, knowledge of the weaving process is passed down to men by their forefathers, whereas the knowledge of spinning and dyeing yarns, and

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selling Kente products is passed down to women from their female ancestors [12]. Based on the weaving process that takes place within Bonwire, social sustainability will be considered. Social sustainability emerges as a potential theme, as it is the aspect of using what is necessary to sustain life and social well-being within a community [38], and this is achieved through the Kente textiles that are being produced in Bonwire [12, 25, 42]. It plays a crucial role in the community as the weavers build their livelihood on the textiles they produce [11]. Cases have emerged about how social sustainability is not being regarded within the fashion industry [40, 43, 49]. An example of this is in regard to the Rana Plaza factory incident in Bangladesh. This incident raised issues about the social concerns associated with fast fashion and brought about the move towards ethical fashion [49]. The social concerns in this case are linked to sustainability, more precisely, social sustainability. Social sustainability considers addressing social concerns within a community, whether it be tangible factors that can be measured [which includes urban planning and design principles [20, 27, 48]] or intangible factors that cannot be measured [18, 22]. The social concerns in this definition can be linked to the case of the Rana Plaza factory, which considers the well-being and safety of the employees, the working conditions [in relation to the environment in which they work] and labour rights [49]. According to [46] social sustainability is made up of three parts: the development aspect, which focuses on meeting basic needs, bridging sustainability, which considers changing behaviour to meet bio-physical environmental goals; and maintaining sustainability which focuses on what can be sustained in social terms. Based on this, this chapter will take a closer look at the level at which social sustainability is applied to Bonwire and will consider the role the handloom plays within these conditions. Handlooms, in communities such as Bonwire, provide jobs for the inhabitants and a learned trade, which provides them with security [12]. The weaving process is their (weavers) means and source of income to take care of themselves and their families [42]. Yet, in the twenty-first century, as was indicated, this source of income and security is threatened by globalisation and modernisation, partially through the trade liberalisation law, which was established in the 1980s, which caused a decline in textile production within communities such as Bonwire being highly impacted by this trade law [13]. Thus, it may not be surprising that wax prints have taken over the Ghanaian market, which often replicate traditional Kente designs, yet are printed on lesser quality fabrics at higher speed, due to using machinery [11]. In order to understand the impact of globalisation and modernisation on the weavers, this chapter will consider if the handlooms bring about a sense of identity for the weavers.

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2 Handloom Weaving and the Identity Process 2.1 Identity Process As indicated, Kente plays an important role in Ghana as this textile contributes to the identity of the country, per the First president of Ghana’s, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, declaration [25]. This shows the importance ascribed to not just the Kente cloth, but also to the processes that take place using the handloom. This section will look into corporate heritage identity (CHI), taking into account the identity the handloom may give the weavers. In looking at CHI, it would be relevant to understand how heritage and identity have been defined by scholars in order to have a clearer understanding of it (corporate heritage identity) which is defined (Balmer 2011). The definition of identity will be drawn from the identity process theory. An identity encompasses the characteristics and distinctive features of a subject and implies that something remains the same irrespective of changes over time [15]. Thus, the identity of something can be maintained regardless of the processes or changes it may undergo. According to [17], an identity ‘is a set of meanings applied to the self in a social role or situation defining what it means to be who one is’ (p. 837). In the case of Bonwire, the social role refers to the weavers, whose trade profession is linked to the past, as it is ‘handed down’ through generations. This aspect of heritage, the aspect of handing down knowledge of the trade, will be linked to Corporate Heritage Identity (CHI) which will consider the collective identity of the weavers within Bonwire. As seen above, [15] and [17] definitions consider the characteristics attached to a subject or the meanings applied to oneself in a social role, respectively. Morton [35] also suggests that an individual’s identity is linked to heritage, heritage here meaning a unique inherited sense of family identity which involves valuable tangible and intangible culture being handed down by previous generations. This definition by Morton [35] links heritage with identity. Heritage, as defined by UNESCO [45], supports [35] notion, by extending it to a location, thereby informing tourists about cultural objects and heritage, in which it was obtained. Harvey [26] suggests that heritage looks at how people use the past and links this with identity construction at a communal and personal level. Heritage, in this sense, is used in the tasks that are to be carried out that also consider future generations [26]. McDowell [33] indicates that heritage ‘can be seen as an aggregation of myths, values and inheritance determined and defined by the needs of societies in the present’ (p. 37). Here, heritage is defined based on the needs of societies in the present. One may suggest that heritage in itself, based on some of the definitions, is an identity. Thus, it can be seen that there is a link between heritage and identity, which is similar to the case of CHI in that CHI refers to organisational traits from the past [heritage] that have remained meaningful and relevant for present and future generations [16]. Having seen the link between heritage and identity, CHI can be further explained and linked to the handloom. CHI can be described as a combination of continuity and change (Balmer 2011), because they are of the past, present and future [16]. This is similar to the definition of identity suggested by Bosma [15], in that there is continuity, which is remaining

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Fig. 1 Organisation side of the CHI framework ([11] adapted from Balmer)

the same, and change. Burghausen and Balmer [16] suggest that some aspects of an organisation’s past are considered as corporate heritage. In the context of Bonwire, what can be considered as corporate heritage, would be the generational tradition of weaving the textiles [12]. Heritage identities change to acquire new identities as time goes by Balmer (2011) [16], which means that although the identities remain the same, the meanings behind them can change over time. This is known as relative invariance (Balmer 2011). They are an accumulation of various identities, which are linked to organisations, places, culture and to timeframes [9] (Balmer 2011). At the core of the framework (Fig. 1) is trust, which shows the relationship between the organisation and the stakeholders of heritage identities [10, 8]. However, this chapter focuses only on the organisational side of the framework (Fig. 1). On the organisational side of this framework, it considers the organisation’s identity in relation to being royal, regal, its rituals and religious aspects. This side of the framework considers the perseverance of the salient heritage features in relation to their authenticity (Balmer 2011). The royal dimension considers the identity of the organisation in relation to its distinction and importance. The regal dimension focuses on the behaviours and the culture of the organisation. The ritual dimension focuses on the values and the beliefs of the organisation. And the religious dimension considers the spiritual attributes which have been infused into the heritage brand. These four dimensions emanate from the authenticity of the organisation. After looking into the identity framework, it would be beneficial to also look into its linkage with the trade of weaving. Bonwire has been a community of interest in relation to the trade of weaving. Some articles have considered the educational aspect in the weaving process [12, 14, 28]. These articles consider the transfer of knowledge of the art of weaving to the upcoming weavers. From an early age, there is the process of learning about all the weaving techniques and how to be able to draft designs in the mind, and be able to apply them physically on the handloom without any physical guidance [12]. Also, the cultural aspect is linked to the handloom [3, 24, 28, 41]. These articles consider the strong culture behind the art of this trade as well as heritage [3, 41]. There are also meanings associated with the textiles that are woven using the handloom [6, 12, 29,

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30]. There is also the most important aspect that is strongly linked to the handloom and that is the art of weaving [3, 6, 12, 29, 30, 42]. This being the most important considers the work the weavers carry out using the loom [42] and is shown in the textiles produced, which in Bonwire is referred to as the Kente cloth (Figs. 2 and 3) [12, 25]. Based on the understanding of the research that has been conducted in relation to weavers and the art of weaving, the dimensions of the CHI framework will be

Fig. 2 Kente strip being woven by weaver (Photographed by Yaw Pare 2019)

Fig. 3 Different Kente strips with different designs (Ghana Tourism Authority 2019)

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explored in relation to the weavers as the organisational part of the CHI framework. The royal dimension, in relation to the weavers, considers what makes them distinct and what also gives them their identity. From the regal dimension, the culture of the weavers is all centred around the art of weaving with a handloom. Their behaviour in relation to the loom will be further explored through interviews which will be discussed in the methodology section. The ritual dimension considers the values and beliefs of the weavers associated with the trade, which would also include the objects they use. And the religious dimension will consider all spiritual or ancestral attributes which have been infused into this trade making it very important. Here, one may say that the religious aspect, which focuses on what is outside the physical realm, strongly drives the trade as the ancestors are still to some extent guiding the trade [11, 39]. After closely looking at the organisational dimensions from the CHI framework in line with the weavers as the organisation in the framework, a few points can be highlighted. According to [47], objects [in this case the handloom] being frequently used increases its linkage between the object and the self. This can be the case in relation to the royal dimension. Objects owned, or in the case of this chapter, inherited, add more value to the object because of the sense of owning it [47]. Objects are often cherished because of their association with beliefs, experiences, memories, people, places or values that are significant to their owners [37]. This can be linked to the ritual dimension. It may be the case in Bonwire as the weavers have been brought up to know about the processes of weaving and have been shown exactly what object [the handloom (Fig. 4) must be used to achieve quality handwoven fabrics. As this trade has been used in Bonwire for over three centuries, one may suggest that the art of weaving and using the handloom in Bonwire is highly cherished due to the beliefs and heritage behind it. From this, the owners of the objects develop a sense of self, in that

Fig. 4 Weaver working on the handloom (Photographed by Yaw Pare Photography 2019)

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they feel that the object completes their identity [37]. Following this, and considering that the community of Bonwire produces textiles, social sustainability sparks an interest into exploring what the social conditions are like within the community in relation to this trade.

2.2 Social Sustainability and the Weavers Considering that Bonwire is a community that is centred around weaving a heritage textile, one may wonder what the working conditions may be like, as well as the livelihood of the weavers. Thus, an aspect of sustainable development must be further explored in such a setting. Sustainable development is usually thought of when social sustainability is mentioned. Sustainable development is defined, per the Brundtland Report (1987) as being able to meet the needs of the present generation without affecting the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs. Following the development of sustainability, social sustainability has been considered a subset from the sustainable development framework [23]. Eizenberg and Jabareen [22] suggest that social sustainability considers people living within certain environments and wanting to work within those environments but are also mindful of the environment, in that they are not abusing the resources. McKenzie [34], however, believes that there has been a struggle for businesses to show concern towards the social dimension of the sustainability framework. In the light of considering the weavers, one of the objectives considers the way by which the trade helps to support the weavers, if it does and how social sustainability can be linked to the object in itself, the handloom (Fig. 5). McKenzie [34] suggests that social sustainability is a ‘life enhancing condition within communities, and a process within communities that can achieve that condition’ (p. 12). This shows that in considering social sustainability, the livelihood of the people involved should be considered. Much like [22], there is the joint mindset of preserving the environment even though some of the resources may be used. From having such a mindset, the processes, as mentioned in [34] definition, will come into play to manage the resources and the environment. This chapter will explore how the handloom can be linked to social sustainability. From the literature so far, one can see that objects bring about a sense of help and help in generating one’s identity [37]. This can be linked to social sustainability as the process of identity can be seen to enhance the lives of the people within communities. Under social sustainability, there is the aspect of maintaining equity between generations, which means that the future generations will be able to also have access to certain features due to the fact that they are not being misused or mismanaged by the current generation [34]. Identity also is linked to social roles [17] and in the case of this chapter that would be the roles as weavers. What is uncertain is whether the handloom will affect the identity of the weavers as well as their livelihood in such a community. Following this, the methodology will discuss the methods involved in obtaining data in relation to this chapter. The methods will aid in understanding what the exact

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Fig. 5 Weavers using the handlooms (Ghana Tourism Authority 2019)

role of the handloom is in Bonwire, as well as if the handloom can be linked to social sustainability.

3 Methodology This research is qualitative in nature in that it aims to explore and understand the relationship between the weavers and the handloom as well as the well-being of the weavers due to modernisation and globalisation which is also affecting their industry. This research takes on a case study format focusing on Bonwire and the weavers within the community. A total of 20 semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted and are used as a method to obtain information from the participants. The duration of the interviews with the weavers lasted between 10 and 30 min, bearing in mind that they have busy schedules and are still working. The average interview lasted 14.36 min. Table 1 gives the details of the participants and their profession as well as their gender. One woman was considered in the interview process who also gave insight to what is being researched on. This was due to the fact that her husband, who is a weaver, was unavailable to be interviewed, so she volunteered to be interviewed in his place. The sampling technique used is the purposive method as this will be the most effective in studying a certain cultural domain [44]. This method of sampling will generate the needed quality of data gathered. As such the technique considers the following criteria: (a)must be a weaver or involved in the weaving process or have a good understanding of the weaving process, (b)must live in Bonwire.

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Table 1 Participant interview information Participant code

Profession

Gender

Interview duration

Interview1Weaver

Weaver

Male

27.28

Interview2Weaver

Weaver

Male

30.32

Interview3Weaver

Weaver

Male

14.11

Interview4Weaver

Weaver

Male

12.33

Interview5Weaver

Weaver

Male

12.45

Interview6Weaver

Weaver

Male

9.18

Interview7Weaver

Weaver

Male

8.20

Interview8Weaver

Weaver

Male

10.55

Interview9Weaver

Weaver

Male

12.31

Interview10Weaver

Weaver

Male

12.35

Interview11Weaver

Weaver

Male

16.06

Interview12Weaver

Weaver/seller

Male

10.42

Interview13Weaver

Weaver/seller

Male

11.24

Interview14Weaver

Weaver/seller

Male

10.28

Interview15Weaver

Weaver/seller

Male

25.33

Interview16Weaver

Weaver/seller

Male

6.07

Interview17Weaver

Weaver/seller

Male

17.24

Interview18Weaver

Weaver/seller

Male

17.40

Interview19Weaver

Seller

Female

15.42

Interview20Weaver

Weaver/seller

Male

8.59

A grounded approach to analysis was used to analyse the data obtained from the participants. It followed [21] seven-step guide in analysing the data to produce desired results. The aim of using this analysis approach is to reveal the phenomena behind the relationship between the handloom and the weavers who use it, by allowing the data collected to speak for itself [21]. The grounded approach to analysis uses the seven steps guide as suggested by Easterby-Smith et al. [21], which are: familiarisation, reflection, open coding, conceptualisation, focused re-coding, linking, and reevaluation (Table 2). The researchers familiarised themselves with the data to understand what the data suggests and the weavers’ point of view and how it is being expressed. The researchers reflected on the theories that were discussed in the literature to understand what the data is about and if it challenges the existing theories or reveals others.

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Table 2 Defining seven steps to grounded analysis [21] S steps to analysis

Purpose

Familiarisation

To go through the data set and be reminded of what the study is about

Reflection

This refers to looking at the existing knowledge provided about the theory and trying to see in what ways the data set relates to it

Open coding

This refers to creating links between chunks of data that appear similar or related

Conceptualisation

This seeks to discover if there are any patterns observed in the codes derived from the dataset

Focused re-coding

Requires the researcher to identify what is more important in the initial codes by referring back to the original dataset and conducting an in-depth analysis

Linking

Refers to drawing links between the patterns emerging between the concepts found in the data set

Re-evaluation

Refers to the researcher going through the data set to see if there are any other important factors that may have been omitted

4 Findings From the interviews conducted with people involved in the weaving process in Bonwire, there are a few highlights that we picked out. These are the fact that the loom acts as the workspace for the weavers, and without it, they cannot work efficiently; second, the loom is a part of the way of life for the weavers. As such, the weavers are very much connected to the loom in that without it, they feel almost lost. Lastly, there is a fear of modernisation with regards to weavers adapting new methods in order to be more efficient in the production of the textiles. These will be explained further below. From the findings, it can be noted that the loom identifies with the social roles of those that use them that is the weavers. As suggested by Wheeler and Bechler [47], the object being used frequently brings about the linkage between the user and the object, and this can be seen in the case of the weavers and the looms they use. It is also important to note that the social concerns in the community, in relation to the jobs and working conditions are managed by the handloom itself as the handloom identifies the individuals as weavers. Without the handloom, there will be no jobs and there also would not be the means to support their families. The loom in this respect addresses to some extent the social concerns that may arise within Bonwire. As seen through [34] insight into social sustainability, the life-enhancing condition here relates to the weavers being able to support their families and the community and the process to achieve this condition is by using the handlooms to weave. The findings thus justify the literature and shows that the handlooms provide a livelihood for the weavers and also gives them their identity.

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4.1 Loom Equals Office Space The recurring words that came up in the interviews that were conducted was ‘we cannot find another way to weave without the handloom because the machine one makes it like a polyester, and you cannot get a texture like that’ (Interview10Weaver). Interview4Weaver further highlights that ‘it is not possible to make the Kente without the handlooms because that loom we have some places that use it before so that thing helps us to make Kente. So, without the loom, we cannot make Kente’. These quotes have several implications: (1) it revealed that they were not interested in any other way of weaving except that which they were taught. This shows a strong tie with heritage that has been passed down and also shows there is a strong connection between the weaver and the loom he uses. This can be seen through the use of words ‘not possible’ and ‘without the loom’. This verifies [37] research in that the object, in this case the loom, completes their identity. And (2) it shows that these weavers take pride in their work and want it to be luxurious rather than being associated with ‘copycat’ items. Kente is a thicker cloth with a well-rounded tactile texture reminding consumers that the product is not only handmade and from natural materials, but also part of a tradition and a luxury item, which further highlights the importance of heritage and value. The handloom is our process. If you remove the handloom right now, you can’t weave Kente. The loom is like your office. You cannot go and sit somewhere without a chair and say here is my office. So far as you create an office, you need certain things to make that office special. The looms show that here is our office. We will find another loom and it is difficult for you to come and pick our looms. Without the looms we cannot do anything (Interview1Weaver)

The quote above was drawn from a weaver who suggests that the loom is like their office. This shows the identity that has been associated with the loom, in that it gives them a profession. The loom provides jobs for the weavers, and this is what contributes to their welfare and well-being. Through the use of the loom, which provides them with jobs, their needs are met in that each Kente that is handwoven by them using this loom will provide income for them to be able to take care of their families. Without the looms, there would not be another way for them to generate income to take care of themselves. There is the Kente Weavers Association which contributes to the social construction of the environment. In the course of the interview, the weavers made reference to the fact that their income is cut short due to the imports of already spun spools which are used in the making of the Kente cloth. Also, almost all the yarns we use are imported. But it adds to our cost. And even that might not be the problem. The problem is, let’s say you come with your colour, you need this colour for a particular...for a purpose. You go to the whole shop, you don’t have that colour. If I intend to use that colour I need to see the importer to import that particular colour and that one will also attract extra cost. So sometimes you have to travel outside to get the materials. So if it will be, it will be better on our side to get, let’s say, a factory here that will produce this yarns for us. So as you come here and you want a particular colour that we don’t have it in the shop, we can easily go to the factory and give the colour to them and they mix the colours and produce it for us. (Interview17Weaver)

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Suggestions were made to set up a local factory within Bonwire that produces and processes the yarns, which will be not only more cost effective for them, but also would bring back some of their traditions. As indicated in the introduction, women used to be responsible for spinning and dyeing yarns, yet due to modernisation and globalisation this tradition ‘has been outsourced’, but not forgotten. Building a factory, thus could also provide on the one hand more jobs for individuals within the community who do not want to weave (males) and on the other hand bring women back into the Kente weaving process. Thus, this also tackles another aspect within the social sustainability strand and in that females may feel more valued by contributing to the Kente creation process and thus national heritage. With regards to the maintenance of social sustainability, the culture and traditions of the inhabitants have been passed down for over 300 years and these traditions still remain today. However, aspects like the workspaces and working conditions are still quite underdeveloped as there can be around 20 weavers within a confined space without much legroom. The Kente Weavers Association aims to develop the community through the contribution they collect together which is taken out of the monies made from the sales of their handwoven masterpieces. It is seen that social sustainability is directly linked to the handloom in that the handloom creates a livelihood for the weavers and provides them with stable income.

4.2 Loom as Part of Way of Life From the interviews, what stood out was how the weavers take pride in the fact that the loom provides them with jobs. As the Kente weaving process is a part of the community culture and plays a major role within the community, this has been infused into the culture and as such is seen as a norm. Young males, after completing high school, are drawn into the process of handweaving. Some learn at a much earlier age, as said by a weaver, but it can take up to 8 years to master this trade. As all the males within Bonwire are involved in this, the skill is passed on to their sons to continue. Thus, everyone becomes at some point self-employed. However, this form of working is a cultural heritage which has to continue to thrive in order for Bonwire to remain relevant. This can then be linked to the identity process and CHI which in that the heritage is passed down to the weavers and has become their identity. We do not want to find any other way to weave. We prefer this kind of weaving than anything else because the Tech people have created their own machine which they use to do the kente cloth so that one they will get a broader loom. But we do not want to go into that. You see, Kente, the joining at least makes it identified as kente. The joining helps us to identify whether it is real kente. Some people prefer hand stitching than machine stitching. If there is no handloom, we can never weave. We can’t do anything. We have these looms, so we are not looking any further. (Interview6Weaver) You cannot make kente without the handloom because all the different pieces in the loom allow us to be able to make the kente. Even without certain pieces in the loom, we cannot

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make the kente. This helps to tighten the threads and keep them in place, and this helps to straighten the thread to make it easier to create the designs. (Interview16Weaver)

From the quotes above, the weavers highlight certain things which shows that they know there are different processes involved in making the Kente cloth and the minute one item is missing, it cannot be made. This shows that they know the trade inside out to the extent that a missing item can interfere with their trade. There is some cultural fulfilment with the weavers taking pride in living in Bonwire. This is an intangible need that is being met by the standards of the development of social sustainability. In relation to bridge social sustainability, there is not clear communication as to inhabitants being ‘eco-conscious’. However, from previous generations, the environment has always been considered in the weaving process, as all the materials that were initially used in the weaving process were obtained from the environment. Now, there is the management of the agricultural aspect within the community to maintain and restore whatever is being taken or used. This chapter considers the handlooms as a way of life for the weavers, which has not been explored. It also shows that the looms, as heritage items, form the identity of the weaver, and without it, they have no way of making a living.

4.3 Loom and Fear of Foreign Take Over We observed that there is a fear of losing their culture if weavers succumb to globalisation and modernisation. The meaning and value that is seen in the Kente cloth will be gone the minute the textile is made using a machine. In this regard, it considers the Kente textile being made completely using a machine (the weaving aspect). The factory as proposed earlier in the finding relates to the community having a factory that produces the yarns that they use to weave the Kente cloth, and as such could contribute to the cultural heritage. However, from the data, it becomes apparent that the weavers are strongly against having factories that produce Kente, but rather the factory should only support in the raw material stage, and the reason that was given previously is that if Kente is made through a machine, it will lose its value. This also puts fear in the weaver that they will be without jobs due to the fact that the looms will not be relevant if the Kente cloth is produced using a machine. You cannot find another way to weave without the handloom. This is what we have been taught to use so without it, we cannot weave. The loom makes me the weaver. Without the loom I cannot weave. Who can go to a farm without a cutlass? Everything is linked to the handlooms. This is our tradition and if we change and use machines, foreigners know machines more than us so they will take away weaving we are doing. (Interview2Weaver)

There is also the fear of losing the tradition and culture to foreigners, which is the hand weaving. To explain, the weavers wanted to have a factory in their community that can be carefully monitored by them, rather than outsourcing their knowledge and traditions. As pointed out previously, the weavers currently have to import the yarns, which can be challenging especially if they need additional colours. If it would be

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produced within the community, these could be sourced faster and potentially more economically effective. Not that factories for yarns are outsourced, there is a fear this may be happening for the weaving process, which would lead to a sense of loss in that their identity will be stripped from them. Although Kente is made to give identity and this textile holds meaning, it does not mean much for the weaver because he gets his identity and recognises himself with the loom. This in a sense can be related to taking the breath out of a person and leaving them lifeless. The breath makes them exist, just as the loom makes the weavers relevant. Without the loom, they feel they are nothing.

5 Conclusion What can be noticed in this chapter is that the identity process is very much linked to the handloom. The handloom in itself gives the weavers their identity. Also, within the identity process, heritage is revealed which then links intangible and tangible aspects to identity. Per the research questions listed above, this section will address the conclusions drawn. 1.

What is the role of the handloom in the Kente producing community such as Bonwire?

As seen from the findings, the handloom is a heritage object that gives the weavers their social roles. This handloom classifies them as weavers within Bonwire, and without it, the weavers feel unable to carry on in the trade. Based on previous research that discusses the textiles woven, one can consider that if the weavers do not have the handloom, there would not be any textiles to research into. The loom acts as their office space where they are able to be creative and weave the textiles manually from memory [12]. As such the handloom gives the weavers their identity as weavers and keeps them within this social role. 2.

Can the handloom be linked to aspects of sustainability, more specifically social sustainability?

As seen above, social sustainability considers the livelihood of the weavers as well as how they work within the environment within which they live without abusing the resources. It also considers the processes involved in bringing about change to improve the lives of people within a community. The handloom, as a heritage object, can be linked to social sustainability in that it provides jobs for the male inhabitants of Bonwire. This can be linked to the definition of social sustainability given by McKenzie [34] which considers that processes should be carried out to improve the conditions within a community. In this case, Kente weaving is known as the main trade of the community. In this sense, the trade is one of the processes to improve the quality of life within the community, Bonwire, as each male is involved in the process. The trade of weaving in Bonwire enhances the lives of the weavers in Bonwire. This enables them to take care of their families as well as the community.

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Both research questions, having been addressed, bring about the contribution of this chapter. This study contributes to the social sustainability literature by linking the role of identity to the social sustainability dimension. The fact that a heritage object gives one identity that in turn enhances their living conditions is something to be considered in research. The study also considers the identity process which leads to a better understanding of CHI. Also, what can be noticed in this study is that heritage can be an identity, per the definition given by UNESCO [45]. This shows that the weavers are identified by what they engage with on a daily basis. Limitations The limitations to this research include the fact that the research focuses on the weavers within a specific community, Bonwire, and has not applied it to other aspects that may be present within a community. As Bonwire is a community, the inhabitants are closely knit together, and hence, the data saturation was met much earlier. As such other members within the community could have been considered to get their views on the handlooms and their role within the community. Future Research Research could be done considering the COVID-19 situation and how this impacted the weavers generally due to the lockdown and social-distancing protocols. This can be further researched considering the social sustainability dimension as well as the identity process and the different stages involved in losing one’s identity linked with a heritage object. Secondly, this research can be explored further within different communities considering heritage items and the roles they play within the communities as they can vary. It can be explored from a cultural or beliefs dimension as well delving further into heritage to draw a stronger linkage between the identity process and heritage.

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32. Mawere M, Mubaya TR (2016) Colonial heritage, memory and sustainability in Africa. Langaa Research and Publishing Common Initiative Group, Cameroon 33. McDowell S (2016) Heritage, memory and Identity. In: Howard P (ed) The Routledge research companion to heritage and identity. Routledge, UK 34. McKenzie S (2004) Social sustainability: towards some definitions. Hawke research institute, working paper series 27, 1–29 35. Morton S (2019) What is heritage? Discover your cultural Identity, family search (online): https://www.familysearch.org/blog/en/what-is-heritage/, 2/01/2021 36. Nyante B, Awuyah IK, Aboagyee I (2019) Exploring double-faced fabric on indigenous Ghanaian Loom. ADRRI J Arts Soc Sci 16(7):1–10 37. Orth D, van den Thurgood C, Hoven E (2018) Designing objects with meaningful associations. Int J Des 12(2):91–104 38. Paris DY (2020) We are the Earth: how cooperation with indigenous communities can change the world, Eco-Age (online): https://eco-age.com/news/how-cooperation-with-indige nous-communities-can-change-the-world, 26/12/20 39. Sabutey G, Adu-Agyem J, Boateng J (2013) Implication of innovation and aesthetics for business growth among small and medium scale enterprises (SMEs): the case study of Bonwire Kente weaving industry. Int J Res Commer IT Manag 3(5):27–39 40. Safi M, Rushe D (2018) Rana Plaza, five years on: safety of workers hangs in balance in Bangladesh. The Guardian (online): https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/ 2018/apr/24/bangladeshi-police-target-garment-workers-union-rana-plaza-five-years-on, 12/01/2021 41. Schneider J (1987) The anthropology of cloth annual. Rev Anthropol 22:409–448 42. Smulders Cohen J (2019) The Kente weavers of Ghana. Textile 17(2): 149–157 43. Thomas D (2018) Why won’t we learn from the survivors of the Rana Plaza disaster?, The New York Times (online): https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/24/style/survivors-of-rana-plaza-dis aster.html, 12/01/2021 44. Tongco DC (2007) Purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection. Ethnobotany Res Appl 5:147–158 45. UNESCO (2017) Heritage is identity, don’t steal it!, UNESCO (online): http://www.unesco. org/new/en/culture/themes/illicit-trafficking-of-cultural-property/videos/heritage-is-identitydont-steal-it/, 27/12/2020 46. Vallance S, Perkins HC, Dixon JE (2011) What is social sustainability? A clarification of concepts. Geoforum 42(3):342–348 47. Wheeler C, Bechler CJ (2020) Objects and self-identity. Curr Opin Psychol 39:6–11 48. Woodcraft S (2015) Understanding and measuring social sustainability. J Urban Regeneration Renew 8(2):133–144 49. Young S (2020) Fashion revolution week: what was the Rana Plaza disaster and why did it happen? Independent (online): https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/rana-plazafactory-disaster-anniversary-what-happened-fashion-a9478126.html, 12/01/2021

Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu—A Case Study R. Rathinamoorthy and R. Prathiba Devi

Abstract Indian handloom sector is one of the age-old cottage industries. The sector provides millions of employments to rural regions of the country either directly or indirectly. This is considered one of the largest employment sectors next to agriculture. Handloom products occupy approximately 40% of the products produced in the Indian market. The handloom industries are termed as the art and craft sector, and it is a part of Indian heritage by representing the richness and diversity of our country. Among various states in India, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh are the dominant states that produce more handloom products. In which, Tamil Nadu leads the market with a higher number of weavers and handlooms than other states. Though the handloom sector plays a vital role in the country’s economies, the sector faces many serious issues like a lower price, higher market competition, antiquated technologies, an unorganised production system, low productivity range, etc. These challenges often affect the weaver’s livelihood due to the poor pricing and the sustainability of the handloom products in the market. Based on the current market situation, this study aimed to measure the various problems faced by the handloom weavers in the Coimbatore region of Tamil Nadu. Several prevailing issues were collected and surveyed among the weavers related to their importance in the sustainability of handloom products in the market. The problems are segmented as production related, sales and marketing related, weaver oriented and health related. The responses were recorded and ranked using the Hendry Garett ranking method to evaluate the ranking of the issue. The results identified the potential issues which affect the sustainability of the handloom sector in Tamil Nadu. Keywords Handloom sector · Local economy · Market issues · Weavers’ issues · Health issues · Societal sustainability · Hendry Garett ranking method

R. Rathinamoorthy (B) Department of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore 641004, India R. Prathiba Devi Department of Apparel and Fashion Design, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore 641004, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 M. Á. Gardetti and S. S. Muthu (eds.), Handloom Sustainability and Culture, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5272-1_7

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1 Introduction Since the time immemorial, the earliest traces of handloom weaving were seen in the Indus Valley civilisation and written treatises were found in the Rig Veda, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Thalia and Kautilya [1]. This literature not only mentioned spinning and weaving but also the high quality and richness of silk and cotton. After the visit of Vasco Da Gama, the export of handloom products began in the early fifteenth century. Burhanpur in Madhya Pradesh served as an international export hub to countries like Egypt, Poland, Russia and the Gulf [2]. At the end of the seventeenth century, 83% of the East India Company trade accounted for clothing exports. Any product either home furnishing or apparel, made of wool or silk was supplied by India [3]. The advent of the Industrial Revolution restricts the import of hand-woven cloth from India and the dumping of machine-made clothes in India from Lancashire, England. This lead the cotton textile sector to face many challenges, and there has always been a tussle between mill-made products and Indian hand-woven textiles which resulted in Swadeshi goods movement. In India, the handloom sector, being the second-largest sector, has unorganised economic activities next to agriculture and constitutes rural and semi-rural areas. The handloom sector is ancient and has a rich cultural heritage. It is more decentralised family-based, laborious work that requires enormous artistic skills [4]. It is the oldest cottage industry and lifeline of Indian cultural heritage. Almost every state in India has a unique handloom product to offer such as Phulkari from Punjab, Chanderi from Madhya Pradesh, Ikats from Andhra Pradesh, Tie and Die from Rajasthan and Gujarat, Dacca from West Bengal, Brocade from Benares or Jacquard from Uttar Pradesh. These artisans transfer their skills from one generation to another and involve family members in every stage of production. India is well known for uniting various diversities among people like religion, culture, race and tradition, similarly, it shows diversity in the Indian handloom sector also, like in products, designs, weaving styles, usage of looms, employment status, economic position, etc. The handloom sector contributes to 14% of the total production of the textile industry. The handloom sector provides employment opportunities for 4.3 million individuals and 2.8 million households are dependent on this sector. Out of this, 65% of the handloom households are distributed in north-eastern states such as Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, and remaining in major states such as erstwhile Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, West Bengal and in other states [5]. From the fourth census data, nearly 72% of handloom weavers in the country are female, and for the first time, the report has covered transgender workers as a separate category. From the third handloom census data, it was identified that 2.377 million looms are available in the country out of which 87% were operated in rural areas. Further, 4.331 million people are engaged in weaving and allied works among these 84% were from rural areas [1]. India, the world’s second-largest exporter of handloom products in the world, had exports worth US$226.05 in the financial year 2020. The industry employed 45 million people and contributed 2.3% to the GDP of the country in the financial year 2020. 95% of the global production of hand-woven

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fabric was from India. USA was the major importer of Indian handloom products in 2018–19 of US$93.34 million followed by the UK, Italy and Germany [6].

2 Sustainability Issues in the Handloom Industry Handloom products are more eco-friendly, durable and sustainable. Sustainable development of the handloom industry not only develops the economy of the country but also the societal well-being of the middle-class people. Most of the handloom sector employees are poor and uneducated people. Hence, providing respect to their artistic skill is necessary for the sustainability of the sector. As the Brundtland Report says [7], “Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

Based on the definition, the major elements, commonly known as pillars of sustainable development are economic growth, environmental protection and social equality. As mentioned in the sustainability definition, the handloom industry directly influences the economical growth of the county, protects the environment and provides societal well-being to the poor labour. This is mainly because, weaving is highly a labour-intensive task, with the labour cost extending up to 65% of the production cost [8]. Due to the nature of the job, weaver’s often use to get health-related issues. The handloom sector development and employment opportunities are discussed a lot, but there is no priority given for the social and physical well-being of the weavers in government policies. The most common health issue among the weaving sector is musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) in the back and shoulders, tendonitis and carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS). These issues occur due to postural strain and that is related to the poor ergonomic design of the looms. It leads to critical physical discomfort and economic consequences for the workers and their families. Other health hazards related to handloom weavers include weakened eyesight, early cataract, loss of vision, high or low blood pressure, heart problems, lung damage, filarial, arthritis, etc. Sometimes they look old due to malnourishment and continuous body movements [9]. In the case of production, the major challenges faced are the raw material constraints; easy availability of yarns at a reasonable price is a persistent problem among the weavers across the country [10]. The thin credit coverage of the majority of the handloom weavers depends on master weavers for their credit requirements, few on money lenders and others on institutionalised sources of credit. The weak institutional arrangements like the cooperative model for the sector have not been successful in general and cover only 15% of the weavers in the country [10]. Lack of innovation and limited dynamism is found in the field of marketing of the handloom sector. Other important factors that hinder the expansion and growth of the sector are an inadequate investment, participation and stakeholding by the private sector, especially in the marketing and supply chain.

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Marketing of the handlooms product is another big problem faced by the handloom industry. The marketing channels followed by the handloom sector includes state handloom cooperative societies, state handloom development corporations, private traders/master weavers, sales outlet of weavers’ societies, sales outlet of weavers’ societies and exhibitions/mela [10]. Each state government provides marketing support, but it was estimated that 80% of the marketing support is from the private traders/master weavers. The change in marketing environments like globalisation, industrialisation and mechanisation has made a great challenge for marketing handloom products. The major challenges in the field of marketing are given below [11]: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The weavers were not aware of the market demand, trend, direct customer feedback to modify their work and lack of communication with the designers Lack of awareness about the quality of the handloom products among the customers disappoints the weavers. Insufficient promotion, regular advertising and marketing of handloom products are essential. Quality standards to be strengthened for handloom products at different stages of production. Improper arrangement of supply chain and logistics management systems.

The government of India has initiated numerous steps in developing a good market position for handloom products. In handloom clusters supported by the Government of India, the designers were placed with the cluster of weavers to provide contemporary designs and train the weavers. Like the weavers, the customers should also be aware of the superior quality and features of the handloom through a national awareness campaign with the help of brand ambassadors. The massive national campaigns of Khadi and Village Industries Commission of India (KVIC) embarks positive results in terms of sales, and likewise, the sector should have a focussed strategy for continuous promotion, regular advertising and marketing. The need for quality standards of the handloom products is assured to the customer through the cluster development programs. The government promotes the use of the wool mark, silk mark and handloom mark which indicates superior quality products at a better price [10]. The handloom sector should look for risk management strategies to strengthen the supply chain and logistics systems. The inadequate supply chain management process results in difficulty in procuring, producing and marketing the product. The current status of the handloom sector indicates the need to revamp the sector more sustainable in development. Due to the increased awareness, customers are more concerned about sustainable products that are ethically made [12]. This is one of the great opportunities for this sector to get its market place. However, the literature survey clearly shows that the self-sustainability of the handloom business is still at risk. The poor workplace and its consequence on employee’s health, lower wages and higher raw material prices are reported as the major reasons for its poor growth. Though the government proposed and implemented several schemes for handloom sectors, the reach and effectiveness of the scheme are not satisfactory. Hence, to evaluate the state of the handloom sector in our locality, this study

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was designed. The analysis is performed in the Coimbatore district of Tamilnadu, India, which is commonly known as ‘Manchester of South India’, based on higher textile business ranging from spinning, handloom, power loom and knitted garment production. In this study, to evaluate the societal sustainability aspects of the handloom sector a questionnaire was developed under four different categories namely production related, sales and marketing related, weaver oriented and health related. These parameters represent the essential societal, economic and health impacts of the handloom process. The weaver’s responses were analysed and reported to represent the current status of the handloom sector in the selected region of the study.

3 Survey and Research Method 3.1 Location and Sample Selection For this study, Coimbatore district (11°1 6 N 76°58 21 E) is selected as many towns in the district are producing handloom textile products. The majority of the people in these areas are doing handloom as the main work for their living. To analyse the sustainability status of handloom, a random sampling method is used to select the subject out of the total population. The main reason for the random sampling selection is its simplicity and equal opportunity to every subject being selected. Total samples of 100 weavers were interviewed to complete the study. Several weavers are not educated or educated till basic school level, so they found it difficult to fill the developed survey form. Hence, the questions were dictated like an interview, and their responses were recorded as oral answers. Later, the answers were and fed into a Google form to statistically analyse the data and to interpret results.

3.2 Questionnaire Structure The questionnaire consists of two different sections, namely personal details and the societal sustainability or well-being related in the second part. The first section consists of six questions, which are of multiple choice and the second section consists of 11 questions with both multiple choice, 5 points Likert scale and finally one open-ended question. The details of the questions were provided in Appendix.

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4 Statistical Analysis 4.1 Henry Garett Ranking Technique In this method, the respondents were asked to rank their opinion regarding the problems faced by them. The order of merit given by the respondents was converted into ranks by using the following formula. Percentage Position =

  100 Ri j −0.5 Nj

where Rij —Ranking position and N j —Total no. of ranks. The percentage position of each rank thus obtained is converted into scores by referring to Table 1 given by Garrett [13]. Then for each factor, the scores of individual respondents were added and divided by the total number of respondents for whom the scores were added. These mean scores for all the factors were arranged in order of ranks and from this inference were drawn.

5 Results and Discussions 5.1 Personal Information Analysis In the first phase of the analysis, the weaver’s personal information is collected to understand the overall state of the respondents. From the results, it is noted that 75% of the respondents are in the age group of 25–45 years. The complete age distribution details of the research participants are provided in Fig. 1. It is also noted that out of the total participants 53% population are men and 47% are women. Concerning the education qualification analysis, it is noted that 35% of the respondents did not have any education even at the school level. Out of the total respondents, 31% of the respondents completed their secondary school education (SSLC) in school and 25% completed higher secondary education (HSC). Only 9% of the weavers noted with undergraduate (UG) education that the details are provided in Fig. 2. No weavers studied after undergraduate to the level of post graduate (PG) and around 35% of the weaver did not complete the education, they were dropped out at primary school level or before completing the secondary school level. In the case of work experience, it is noted that 51% of the respondents had more than 25 years of experience. A total of 31% of the respondents mentioned their experience between 15 and 25 years. Very few weavers, around 18% reported that they have less than 15 years of experience. When it is asked about the number of looms the individuals have, most of the weavers (54%) are having only one loom, as they do it as a family business from home-like cottage industries. A total of 35% of

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Table 1 Henry Garett conversion value [13] Per cent

Score

Per cent

Score

0.09

99

22.32

65

Per cent 83.31

Score 31

0.20

98

23.88

64

84.56

30

0.32

97

25.48

63

85.75

29

0.45

96

27.15

62

86.89

28

0.61

95

28.86

61

87.96

27

0.78

94

30.61

60

88.97

26

0.97

93

32.42

59

89.94

25

1.18

92

34.25

58

90.83

24

1.42

91

36.15

57

91.67

23

1.68

90

38.06

56

92.45

22

1.96

89

40.01

55

93.19

21

2.28

88

41.97

54

93.86

20

2.69

87

43.97

53

94.49

19

3.01

86

45.97

52

95.08

18

3.43

85

47.98

51

95.62

17

3.89

84

50.00

50

96.11

16

4.38

83

52.02

49

96.57

15

4.92

82

54.03

48

96.99

14

5.51

81

56.03

47

97.37

13

6.14

80

58.03

46

97.72

12

6.81

79

59.99

45

98.04

11

7.55

78

61.94

44

98.32

10

8.33

77

63.85

43

98.58

9

9.17

76

65.75

42

98.82

8

10.06

75

67.48

41

99.03

7

11.03

74

69.39

40

99.22

6

12.04

73

71.14

39

99.39

5

13.11

72

72.85

38

99.55

4

14.25

71

74.52

37

99.68

3

15.44

70

76.12

36

99.80

2

16.69

69

77.68

35

99.91

1

18.01

68

79.17

34

100.00

0

19.39

67

80.61

33

20.93

66

81.99

32

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Age group of the Respondents 45

Age group range

40

39

37

35 30 25

18

20 15 10

6

5 0

36 - 45 yrs

26 - 35 yrs

45 and above

18 - 25 yrs

Fig. 1 Age group of the participants

Educational qualification

31

35

SSLC HSC UG PG

9

25

None

Fig. 2 Respondent’s education qualification

the respondents reported having two looms with them. Figure 3 reports the number of looms per weaver as per the survey results. On a question about the working hours, wavers reported that on average they work 10–15 h per day (49% of respondents). However, 38% of respondents mentioned the average working time as 5–10 h per day. Out of this, 6% participant works less than 5 h per day and 7% works more than 15 h. Numer of looms 2% 9%

1 2

35%

54%

3 >3

Fig. 3 Number of looms per weaver

Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu …

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Business 80

68

60 40 20

13

12

7

Individual customers

Wholesale stores

Retail outlets

0 Yarn supplier

Fig. 4 Main business point for the weavers

Concerning the competition, 57% of respondents reported that they do not feel any heavy competition in their business. However, 43% of weavers felt that they are in heavy competition due to the delivery times and order quantities. In the case of business, around 68% of the weaver mentioned that they do products for yarn suppliers. Very few weavers reported that they deliver products to retail stores (7%) and individual customers. The complete breakup is provided in Fig. 4. On the question of profit and sales rate, 50% of the weavers mentioned that irrespective of the seasons and festival, the business will happen in the same phase as they do business with yarn manufacturers. However, 30% of the respondents selected other than the provided options as a second major factor. Since they did not produce the end products, their business did not show much impact on seasons. A total of 20% of the respondents reported their business will be good at the wedding and festival seasons. Concerning the wages, 34% of the weavers mentioned their monthly income in the range of Rs. 15,000–25,000. Other 54% of the weavers mentioned that they use to earn in the range of Rs. 5000–15,000. Very few weavers reported less than Rs.5000 wage (7%) and more than Rs. 25,000 per month (5%). In the case of annual profit percentage, around 82% of the respondent mentioned that they earned around 15–25% of the profit.

5.2 Production-Related Problems Production-related problems were listed based on the preliminary analysis, and the respondents were asked to rank the problem according to their personal experience. Based on the respondent’s responses, the ranks were summarised and the Garett value for each rank was calculated (marked in bold) and reported in Table 2. The estimated Garett values were converted into total value, by multiplying the corresponding issue’s total response with Garett value. Based on the numbers or values, the problems were ranked from the most to least as provided in Table 3. From the statistical analysis results in Table 3, it can be noted that the higher production cost is noted as one of the important and most rated problems among the production-related problems with a higher Garett score of 5919. The nature of

5 100(1–0.5)/6 8.3 77

100(R-0.5)/N

Per cent position

Garett value

7

Delay in the supply of yarn and other materials 26

29

High production cost

Lack of knowledge about value addition

6

Poor raw material quality

Insufficient number of looms

21

1

Rank

Inadequacy in supply of yarns

Factors

63

25

100(2–0.5)/6

29

14

6

22

21

4

2

54

41.6

100(3–0.5)/6

7

23

21

21

10

24

3

Table 2 Respondents ranks and corresponding Garett value for the problems related to production 4

46

58.3

100(4–0.5)/6

9

18

31

16

15

17

5

37

75

100(5–0.5)/6

6

28

21

11

25

30

6

23

91.6

100(6–0.5)/6

23

12

14

1

23

21

170 R. Rathinamoorthy and R. Prathiba Devi

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Table 3 Calculation of total Garett value for production health problems and its ranking Factors

1*77

2*63

3*54

4*46

5*37

6*23

Total

Mean value

Rank

Inadequacy in supply of yarns

1617

252

1296

782

1110

483

5540

55.40

II

Poor raw material quality

462

1323

540

690

925

529

4469

44.69

VI

High production cost

2233

1386

1134

736

407

23

5919

59.19

I

Delay in supply of yarn and other materials

539

378

1134

1426

777

322

4576

45.76

V

Insufficient number of looms

385

882

1242

828

1036

276

4649

46.49

IV

Lack of knowledge 2002 about value addition

1827

378

414

222

529

5372

53.72

III

the handloom industry is mainly labour oriented. Hence, the design and production depend upon several individual factors like loom and manpower availability, working efficiency, etc., concerning the particular handloom cluster. The absence of a common platform to market and promote handloom products is also noted as one of the main drawbacks to standardise the cost of products. The second most rate problem rated by the weavers is the poor knowledge of the products and their value addition, with a Garett score of 5540. It is noted during the interview that the poor exposure to different products and value addition possibilities as the main reason. Due to their lower economic level and lower education, they do not know the real market potential of the product. Along with this information, third and fourth places were occupied by insufficient yarn supply and availability of the looms with a Garett value of 5372 and 4649. Though the timely availability of raw material is an issue, it occupied the third most rank. The availability of the looms is noted as the second least parameter. As the loom is owned by individual weavers and also required high capital cost investment, the majority of the weavers had only one loom (54%) with them. This might be the reason for their feeling; however, they did not consider the labour and other issues when they have more than one loom. With a 4469 Garett score, the quality of the raw material positioned in the least bothered issue. They were able to source good quality raw material that is also one of the main reasons for the higher production cost of the handloom process.

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5.3 Weaver-Related Problems The next set of the question was mainly focused on the technical problems related to the weavers. Tables 4 and 5 represent the Garett value calculation and the ranks provided by the statistical analysis, respectively, as discussed earlier. In Table 4, Garett value and rank calculation steps were marked in bold. The results of the statistical analysis showed that out of the identified problem, with a higher Garett value of 5681, the issue ‘not satisfied with the government schemes provided’ was noted as one of the major problems. The weavers believe that government can still take necessary action to promote and handloom products, and so their lifeline will be saved. The second most mentioned problem with weavers is wage. Most of the labours reported that the wage paid to them is too low. Hence, the problems of lower wage or no satisfaction with wage are rated as the second most important issue among the listed issue. The analysis provided a Garett value of 5556 to the wage-related issues. The third most rated issue is ‘poor knowledge of modern techniques’. The weavers feel that they are not up-to-date in this issue, like power loom industries. Hence, this was ranked third among the different problems listed, with a Garett score of 5120. The other listed problems like lack of skill and lack of training were ranked namely fourth and fifth with a Garett score of 4971 and 4810, respectively. Other than these, the non-availability of active members and age-old people are identified as least addressed issues with a lower Garett value of 4770 and 4158 points, respectively. Out of all the related problems, issues with government schemes and wages are noted as the most addressed issues by the weavers.

5.4 Marketing-Related Problems The third section of the survey deals with marketing-related issues like understanding customer preferences, competition and price ranges, etc. The respondent’s ranks for individual questions were recorded and statistically converted into Garett values (marked in bold) represented in Tables 6 and 7, respectively, as discussed earlier. The statistical results reported that out of all the elucidated problems in the marketing section, a major concern is given to social media awareness. The weavers feel that they are not aware to use the various social media to reach different customers. Hence, the most rated issue is the lack of social media awareness in the case of marketing. The problem is ranked first with a Garett score of 6133 points. Concerning social media, the weavers’ also felt that their handloom products were not attractively promoted as other private brands. They believe that a better promotion will give a higher reach among the customers. As an individual they cannot compete with other brands, hence they never tried any option. Lack of social media interaction was noted as a major concern with this issue. Lack of attractive promotion methods noted as the second most accepted reason by weavers with a Garett value of 5594.

24 26

26

Not satisfied with the wages

Not aware of the government schemes provided 27

9

66

21.4 57

35.7

50

50

43

64.2

34

78.5

21

92.8

78

15

11

9

10

12

9

26

7

Garett value

7

17

11

15

14

17

13

6

7.1

3

4

19

20

24

10

15

5

Per cent position

11

9

13

25

8

18

19

4

100(1–0.5)/7 100(2–0.5)/7 100(3–0.5)/7 100(4–0.5)/7 100(5–0.5)/7 100(6–0.5)/7 100(7–0.5)/7

11

9

22

12

26

26

7

3

100(R-0.5)/N

16

9 10

10

Poor knowledge about modernised technique

6

Lack of active members

14

6

2

Lack of training

10 6

Lack of skilled weavers

1

Rank

Aged people

Factors

Table 4 Respondents ranks and corresponding Garett value for problems

Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu … 173

780 468 468 702 780 2028 2106

Aged people

Lack of skilled weavers

Lack of active members

Lack of training

Poor knowledge about modernised technique

Not satisfied with the wages

Not aware of the government schemes provided

1*78

Factors

1716

1584

1056

594

660

924

396

2*66

627

513

1254

684

1482

1482

399

3*57

Table 5 Calculation of total Garett value for weaver problems and its ranking

550

450

650

1250

400

900

950

4*50

129

172

817

860

1032

430

645

5*43

238

578

374

510

476

578

442

6*34

315

231

189

210

252

189

546

7*21

5681

5556

5120

4810

4770

4971

4158

Total

56.81

55.56

51.20

48.10

47.70

49.71

41.58

Mean value

I

II

III

V

VI

IV

VII

Rank

174 R. Rathinamoorthy and R. Prathiba Devi

13

40

16

100(1–0.5)/9 100(2–0.5)/9 100(3–0.5)/9 100(4–0.5)/9 100(5–0.5)/9 100(6–0.5)/9 100(7–0.5)/9 100(8–0.5)/9 100(9–0.5)/9

5.5

81

Lack of attractive promotion

Lack of awareness towards social media

Competitive price fixation

100(R-0.5)/N

Per cent position

Garett value

69

16.6

21

21

17

12

12

62

27.7

22

6

23

15

56

38.8

11

0

13

20

13

50

50

1

3

2

11

22

44

61.1

2

3

9

10

11

38

72.2

5

7

11

9

9

8

31

83.3

4

12

6

8

14

14

19

94.4

18

8

6

3

11

10

12

7

15

Competition from power loom sectors

9

18

8

18

1

4

14

17

14

9

7

18

12

11

12

Not stressing the Unique selling proposition

7

14

8

13

5

7

7

12

Lack of commercially 5 marketable products

10

12

17

8

9

12

8

Lack of intensive distribution

7

19

6

Not understanding the 4 customer preferences

5

6

4

15

3

Lack of customer relationship management

2

1

Factors

Table 6 Respondents ranks and corresponding Garett value for marketing problems

Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu … 175

1*81

1215

324

972

405

567

972

1053

3240

1296

Factors

Lack of customer relationship management

Not understanding the customer preferences

Lack of intensive distribution

Lack of commercially marketable products

Not stressing the Unique Selling Proposition

Competition from power loom Sectors

Lack of attractive promotion

Lack of awareness towards social media

Competitive price fixation

1449

1449

1173

828

276

345

552

1311

414

2*69

1364

372

1426

930

558

434

620

744

1054

3*62

616

0

728

1120

728

1008

392

392

672

4*56

50

150

100

550

1100

700

700

400

650

5*50

Table 7 Calculation of total Garett value for marketing problems and its ranking

88

132

396

440

484

792

528

484

528

6*44

190

266

418

342

342

304

646

532

342

7*38

124

372

186

248

434

434

248

558

31

8*31

342

152

114

57

209

190

228

133

285

9*19

5519

6133

5594

5487

4698

4612

4886

4878

5191

Total

55.19

61.33

55.94

54.87

46.98

46.12

48.86

48.78

51.91

Mean value

III

I

II

IV

VIII

IX

VI

VII

V

Rank

176 R. Rathinamoorthy and R. Prathiba Devi

Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu …

177

The third important issue reported is the competitive price for developed fabrics and products. The weavers feel that due to the conventional production method, the minimal number of loom availability and labour-intensive works, they could not able to compete with the power loom manufacturers in the market. Hence, they have reported that competitive pricing for their product is also one of the major issues. The analysis results ranked this problem as a tired important one with a Garett value of 5519 points. Secondly, they also mentioned that the power loom sector as their direct competitor. Due to their huge production capacity with more number of looms, they remaining as a threatening competitor for the handloom sector. The respondents reported the competition from power loom manufacturer as an important issue in marketing by providing fourth rank (Garett value—5487). Poor customer relationships, poor distribution strategies or methods and poor knowledge of the customer requirements are the issues ranked in the fifth, sixth and seventh positions, respectively. These issues were provided with consecutive ranks namely fifth, sixth and seventh with a Garett score of 5191, 4886 and 4878. At last, the non-availability of the commercial product, as they all prepare fabric in the grey stage or few products like saree, etc., they do not have an option to sell directly to the customer and so they also not bothered about the sales price and propositions. Hence, these two points were ranked eighth and ninth based on their lower Garett score values out of all other problems discussed.

5.5 Health-Related Problems The last section of the questioner questions related to weaver’s health-related issues. The common potential issues related to the handloom industry are listed, and the respondents were asked to rank the problem based on their experience. Tables 8 and 9 represent the ranks provided by the respondents and its related Garett value and rankings (marked in bold), as discussed earlier. The analysis results showed that out of all the listed problems, the respondents reported that spinal cord alignment-related issues as a major problem due to the nature of the job. The statistical analysis reported a higher Garett value of 5967 for this issue. Next to that, the respondents mentioned ortho-related problems as the second most important issue with a Garett score of 5836 points. It is understandable that as they are working throughout the day sitting in a posture and operating loom, the ortho- and spinal-related issues are most expected issue. However, the survey also showed that the weavers were also affected by ageing, respiratory problems and allergies with Garett scores of 5836, 5454, 5409 and 4648, respectively. The least reported problems are mainly related to the eye vision of the weaver and other common issues. The results showed that most of the respondents reported that they are not exposed to vision-related issues and other common issues compared to the above-mentioned problems. These issues were ranked as the least affecting one with a lower Garett point of 4602 and 3384, respectively.

29

10

100(1–0.5)/7

7.1

78

Others

100(R-0.5)/N

Per cent position

Garett value

3

Allergy

Ortho

9

19

Spinal ailments

Respiratory problems

Ageing

12

14

Improper vision

1

Factors

66

21.4

100(2–0.5)/7

3

22

16

26

17

17

2

2

57

35.7

100(3–0.5)/7

3

18

13

22

33

21

9

3

Table 8 Respondents ranks and corresponding Garett value for health problems

50

50

100(4–0.5)/7

9

5

8

22

17

18

20

4

43

64.2

100(5–0.5)/7

6

3

24

6

15

13

28

5

34

78.5

100(6–0.5)/7

6

18

33

4

5

14

16

6

21

92.8

100(7–0.5)/7

63

5

3

1

4

3

13

7

178 R. Rathinamoorthy and R. Prathiba Devi

Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu …

179

Table 9 Calculation of total Garett value for health problems and its ranking Factors

1*78

2*66

3*57

4*50

5*43

6*34

7*21

Total

Mean value

Rank

936

132

513

1000

1204

544

273

4602

46.02

VI

1092

1122

1197

900

559

476

63

5409

54.09

IV

Ageing

702

1122

1881

850

645

170

84

5454

54.54

III

Spinal ailments

1482

1716

1254

1100

258

136

21

5967

59.67

I

Improper vision Respiratory problems

Allergy

234

1056

741

400

1032

1122

63

4648

46.48

V

Ortho

2262

1452

1026

250

129

612

105

5836

58.36

II

Others

780

198

171

450

258

204

1323

3384

33.84

VII

6 Discussion on the Results The research results showed that most of the weavers in this region are in the age range of 26–45. The results did not show any gender difference in the work, where both men and women equally contributed to the handloom production as it performed as a family activity [14]. Further, the majority of the weavers did not have enough education to understand the latest updates in the sector. As the handloom operations performed as a family business and pass on to the next generation of the family, the weavers had more than 15 years of experience in their activity. With respect to the production-related problems, the cost of the production is noted as the topmost problem in the production-related issues followed by the availability of raw material and lack of knowledge on value addition. These findings were in line with the other researcher who reported a similar problem through their analysis [15]. Concerning these problems, the weavers work in their home and mostly their family members perform the necessary action for production. Most of the weavers reported they have only one loom (Fig. 3) with them. Hence, they spend more than 15 h per day. This is the main reason for the higher cost of the product. Through this research, it is also noted that insufficient loom with the weavers is also one of the reasons and that contributes to the higher cost of the product. Further, in association with this, availability of the yarn is also mentioned as a major issue, and it directly influences the cost of the handloom product. Previous research reported that improving the quality, quantity available, and reducing the cost of the raw material might be the only possible solution to solve this issue [16]. In a similar study conducted in Andhra Pradesh, India, the researcher reported that improper function of the cooperatives was the main reason for higher yarn prices. As the cooperative societies did not moderate and stabilise the price of the yarns, the weavers suffer most [17]. In production-related problems, the most addressed third problem is the lack of knowledge of value addition. As all the weavers receive raw material, convert the product into raw material and again sell it to the manufacturer. About 68% of the weavers sell their product to the yarn manufacturer (Fig. 4), and a very lower percentage (12%)

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R. Rathinamoorthy and R. Prathiba Devi

of the weavers sell to individual or retail customers. This is one of the main reasons that most of the weavers reported they do not have an idea about value addition. In the case of weaver-related problems, the findings revealed that ‘Not aware of the government schemes provided’, ‘Not satisfied with the wages’ and ‘Poor knowledge about modernised technique’ as the topmost problems. The majority of the weavers perform the handloom activity by generation, so based on family contact they get orders and deliver produced product. Also, they are not much educated as stated in the previous section. Hence, they are not aware of government schemes and subsidies. This was reflected in the analysis as most of the weavers believe that the lack of awareness is the main issue and these findings were supported by the previous researchers [18]. They reported that the major reason for the failure is the improper coordination of central and state governments. Also, the low-level budget allocation to the handloom sector is another reason that it is not reaching all sectors of weavers properly [18]. The second most listed problem is lower wages. The weavers feel that they are working 10–15 h per day, but they are being paid very low. The weavers are grouped based on the weavers’ cooperatives. Researchers reported that the cooperatives are not functioning reasonably and that is the reason for the higher expenses of handloom. As the expenses increase, the weavers feel that the wages were low [17]. The poor performance of cooperatives is also reported as a major reason for the lower wages [19]. The third most rated problem is poor knowledge about technology updates. As reported earlier, the handloom sector is not dealing with the customers. Hence, they are not aware of the customer needs and requirements. This is also one of the main reasons for less update on technology. The higher capital costs and requirements of basic literacy to handle the digital equipment and aids are very difficult due to their lower literacy. While discussing the marketing-related problems, it is noted that lack of awareness towards social media, lack of attractive promotion and competitive price fixation as the top three issues. Weavers in the selected location were well aware of the social media power, but at the same time, they do not know where to start and how to integrate their business with online media. The poor literary rate of the weavers is the main reason that restricts them in accessing the Internet and so the social media. The second most important is very few weavers directly dealing with retailers and customers (concerning the analysed region), and a majority of people doing it as job work. That is the main reason they do not have an opportunity to sell their product directly. And so they are not exposed to the customer requirements. This was one of the common problems across the country, hence, recently, the Textile ministry of India launched a social media campaign to kick start the handloom business on the e-platforms [20]. The second and third problems are related to marketing and the non-availability of a brand like any other retail shops. As the weavers dealing with yarn manufactures and not with the customer, they cannot sell their product at the market price. These findings were also supported by the previous government report that mentioned the requirement of a brand for handloom products [21]. That is also the reason for the lack of promotion requirements. The weavers did not have any selling experience; hence, they are not aware of these criteria.

Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu …

181

In health-related problems, spinal ailments issues, orthopaedic issues and ageing were noted as the most common issues among the weavers. This is expected a majority of the time the weavers operating the loom by sitting and pedalling by their foot. So the spinal- and ortho-related issues are expected to a common one. These findings were supported by the previous research workers who analysed the workers’ healthrelated problems in the handloom industry. It is stated that 80% of the workers from the handloom industry suffering from health-related problems. Most of the problems related to musculoskeletal disorder noted as common among the weaver. With an increase in work experience, more health issues were also reported [22]. The common reason noted for the observed problems is work-related stress and pressure. Due to long working hours and they are sitting in a single position for the whole day, it increases the body pain. This is also noted as secondary reasons for the abovementioned problem. Several other research works also supported this finding that the impact of work-related stress on behavioural, mental as well as physical outcomes of the job is significant. It is also understandable that the workplace ergonomics and environment (space, ventilation, etc.) are the direct factors that influence the worker’s health [23]. In common, a longer sitting duration due to long work hours (15 h a day) and the age of the weavers are the most common parameter that interconnects the health issues [22]. Since there is no professional training for these handloom workers, they are not aware of the best work practices. Further to add, as they are often illiterate or had very basic literacy, they are not aware of the personal hygienic practices and they practice very poor personal hygienic [24]. The next most important issue other than the musculoskeletal issues is ageing. The majority of the people reported it as the third most important issue in this analysis. The same reasons like higher work pressure, long working hours and stressful environment are causing this ageing problem too.

7 Limitations of the Study First of all, the study was performed with a random sampling method to represent the true nature of the population. Though the number of the sample taken and interviewed is 100, it is noted as one of the limitations. Due to the restricted mindset of the weavers, many of the selected samples are not ready to answer the survey this is made the process very long and hectic to obtain data from the respondent. Hence, the number of respondents restricted to 100 entries. Secondly, all the issues mentioned are specific to the Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu, which is one of the handloom hubs in India. Though the literature supported many of the identified problems prevailing in all other handloom clusters in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, etc., it is important to consider the locality-based issues. Regarding production- and marketing-related issues, the survey recorded the weaver’s point of view directly, but this may not be the true case all over the place. For example, the high cost of production, lack of social media knowledge and no direct customer or retailer contact are area-specific sometimes. Similarly, in health-related

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issues also, the report results depict the view of the weavers, their personal believes and feelings. No medical tests were conducted clinically to confirm the same.

8 Summary and Suggestion This chapter analysed the social sustainability of the handloom weavers and industry. As social sustainability is aimed towards the impact of business on the employers, customers and local communities, this research analysed the status of handloom employer’s health, wealth and other production-related issues. The findings reported that the higher production cost due to the yarn cost is a major issue for the weavers. It is also noted that the weavers are not satisfied with the existing steps taken by both state and central and state governments. Most of the weavers reported a lower wage for their work. Further weavers felt that they are not aware of government schemes, and so they are losing opportunities and earnings. As they do conversion alone based on the yarn manufacturers’ requirements, they are not exposed to market requirements and they did not have any idea about customer needs. Lack of technology update is also identified as one of the major issues due to their lower literacy rates. Concerning health, due to prolong working time and posture, many of the weavers reported problems related to musculoskeletal disorder. Several other researchers also reported similar findings in their studies concerning handloom workers. Hence, it is important to care about the health and work-related issues of the weavers to bring equilibrium in sustainability. Both local and central governments should take necessary initiatives to solve this issue along with major yarn manufactures; actually, they are the lifeline of these handloom weavers. Through this research, several issues were found with handlooms weavers of the Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu, India. To improve the social well-being in the handloom sector, the study suggests the following points. • Awareness program should be conducted to educate the weavers regarding, new avenues, market scope, personal hygiene practices and also about various government policies and norms then and there it is implemented. The government can make sure that all the schemes and subsides reach the weavers and they are benefited from it completely. • Local cooperatives should educate the weavers regarding various value addition option and mode of sales, so that the weaver will directly sell their product to customers and this will increase the income, so lower-wage issues can be solved • Cooperative agencies should play a key role in fixing yarn prices, so that the production cost can be kept nominal, and so both the weavers and customers will get benefited. • Though the government has initiated steps, development of online platform or brand for handloom products, kind of activities must be implemented throughout the country. This will help the weavers to sell their products online in an attractive manner. A similar training also can be conducted to weavers to educate these criteria.

Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu …

183

• It is important to educate the necessity of maintaining a safe and healthy workplace for the weavers. Maintaining good posture by using ergonomically designed chairs and regular health check-ups can solve the most commonly occurring musculoskeletal issues.

Appendix I: Questionnaire Section A 1. Name: 2. Age 18-25 yrs

26-35 yrs

36-45 yrs

45 and above

3. Gender Male

Female

Others

4.Educational qualification: ‫܆‬SSLC

HSC

UG

PG

None

5.Years of experience < 5 years

5 years to 15 years

15 to 25 years

> 25 years

6.Monthly income: < 5000

5000 – 15000

15000-25000

SECTION B 7.How many looms do you own? 1

2

3

>4

>25000

184

R. Rathinamoorthy and R. Prathiba Devi

8. Do you face heavy competition? Yes

No

9. How long do you work in a day? 15 hrs

10.Where do you sell your products? Yarn suppliers

Individual customers

Wholesale stores

Retail outlets

11.When do you experience a has high sales rate? During festive seasons

Wedding season

Irrespective of seasons

Others

12. What is your annual profit percentage? 50%

13. Rank the following production-related problems on the scale of 1–6? S. No.

Particulars

1

Inadequacy in supply of yarns

2

Pure raw material quality

3

High production cost

4

Delay in supply of yarn and other materials

5

Insufficient number of looms

6

Lack of knowledge about value addition

Rank

14. Rank the following weaver-related problems on the scale of 1–7? S. No.

Particulars

1

Aged people

2

Lack of skilled weavers

3

Lack of active members

4

Lack of training

5

Poor knowledge about modernised technique

6

Not satisfied with the wages

7

Not satisfied with the government schemes provided

Rank

Societal Sustainability of Handloom Sector in Tamil Nadu …

185

15. Rank the following marketing-related problems on the scale of 1–9? S. No.

Particulars

Rank

1

Lack of customer relationship management

2

Not understanding the customer preference

3

Lack of intensive distribution

4

Lack of attractive promotion

5

Not stressing the unique selling proposition

6

Competition from power loom sector

7

Lack of commercially marketable products

8

Lack of awareness towards social media

9

Competitive price fixation

16. Rank the following health-related problems on the scale of 1–7? S. No.

Particulars

1

Improper vision

2

Respiratory problems

3

Ageing

4

Spinal ailments

5

Allergy

6

Ortho

7

Others

Rank

17. What are other problems do you face? Political problems

Competitors

Economic problems

Environmental problems

If others, mention………………………………………………………………………...

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