Novel Sustainable Process Alternatives for the Textiles and Fashion Industry (Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry) 3031354508, 9783031354502

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Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu   Editor

Novel Sustainable Process Alternatives for the Textiles and Fashion Industry

Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry Series Editor Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, Chief Sustainability Officer, Green Story Inc., Canada

This series aims to address all issues related to sustainability through the lifecycles of textiles from manufacturing to consumer behavior through sustainable disposal. Potential topics include but are not limited to: Environmental Footprints of Textile manufacturing; Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Textile production; Environmental impact models of Textiles and Clothing Supply Chain; Clothing Supply Chain Sustainability; Carbon, energy and water footprints of textile products and in the clothing manufacturing chain; Functional life and reusability of textile products; Biodegradable textile products and the assessment of biodegradability; Waste management in textile industry; Pollution abatement in textile sector; Recycled textile materials and the evaluation of recycling; Consumer behavior in Sustainable Textiles; Eco-design in Clothing & Apparels; Sustainable polymers & fibers in Textiles; Sustainable waste water treatments in Textile manufacturing; Sustainable Textile Chemicals in Textile manufacturing. Innovative fibres, processes, methods and technologies for Sustainable textiles; Development of sustainable, eco-friendly textile products and processes; Environmental standards for textile industry; Modelling of environmental impacts of textile products; Green Chemistry, clean technology and their applications to textiles and clothing sector; Eco-­ production of Apparels, Energy and Water Efficient textiles. Sustainable Smart textiles & polymers, Sustainable Nano fibers and Textiles; Sustainable Innovations in Textile Chemistry & Manufacturing; Circular Economy, Advances in Sustainable Textiles Manufacturing; Sustainable Luxury & Craftsmanship; Zero Waste Textiles.

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu Editor

Novel Sustainable Process Alternatives for the Textiles and Fashion Industry

Editor Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu Chief Sustainability Officer Green Story Inc. Kowloon, Hong Kong

ISSN 2662-7108     ISSN 2662-7116 (electronic) Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry ISBN 978-3-031-35450-2    ISBN 978-3-031-35451-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35451-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

This book is dedicated to: The lotus feet of my beloved Lord Pazhaniandavar My beloved late Father My beloved Mother My beloved Wife Karpagam and Daughters – Anu and Karthika My beloved Brother Last but not least To everyone working in making the textiles and fashion sector SUSTAINABLE

Preface

Textiles and fashion sector’s environmental impacts is quite known and well received and also acknowledged by various stakeholders involved in the entire supply chain, especially the manufacturing side of supply chain. The whole textile sector is enthusiastic and optimistic to investigate novel sustainable alternatives in terms of raw materials, processes, and approaches to make the entire textiles and fashion sector sustainable. The thrust to transform the entire sector to be sustainable is the need of the hour. This broad title of novel sustainable alternatives can be split into three subtopics – novel raw material alternatives, novel process alternative, and novel alternative approaches. This volume is dedicated to deal with the Novel Sustainable Process Alternatives for the Textiles and Fashion Industry. There are six chapters selected and published in this book to deal around the novel sustainable process alternatives to transform the textile and fashion sector to be sustainable. I take this opportunity to thank all the contributors for their earnest efforts to bring out this book successfully. I am sure readers of this book will find it very useful. With best wishes, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu

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Contents

 D Printing, a Road to Sustainable Fashion��������������������������������������������������    1 3 Ava Armstrong, S. M. Fijul Kabir, Kavita Mathur, and Abdel-Fattah M. Seyam A Critical Analysis of the Characteristics of Raw and Treated Effluents Generated from Natural/Ayurvedic Dyeing Unit����   29 Chandrasekaran Karuppuswamy and Kandhavadivu Palanisamy  Reality and Challenges in Sustainable Textiles ��������������������������������������������   47 S. Grace Annapoorani Scope of Natural Dyes and Biomordants in Textile Industry for Cleaner Production������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   73 Bhavana Balachandran and P. C. Sabumon  Sustainable Technologies and Materials for Future Fashion ����������������������  107 R. Rathinamoorthy, L. Suvitha, and S. Raja Balasaraswathi Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  139

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3D Printing, a Road to Sustainable Fashion Ava Armstrong, S. M. Fijul Kabir, Kavita Mathur, and Abdel-Fattah M. Seyam

Abstract  The United Nations (UN) has endorsed 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a way to achieve sustainable development (SD), and three-­ dimensional printing (3DP) provides an opportunity for fashion brands and customers to positively contribute to these goals. 3DP is a form of additive manufacturing in which the printer reads a digital file and adds material layer-by-­ layer until the desired product is achieved. The digital file can be optimized and customized to greatly reduce or eliminate waste by only printing where it is necessary and creating intricate and complex shapes that cannot be achieved by traditional technologies. While increased 3DP innovation began in the 1980s, it has only been explored in the fashion industry for a little over a decade. It can be used to make fashion and apparel items more sustainable, but only if it is thoughtfully designed and ethically produced. 3DP can create more sustainable jobs in developing countries, reduce the global supply chain, eliminate waste, and promote innovation. Currently, there are issues in the fashion industry due to waste and overconsumption; however, the personalization to the customer and potential recyclability of 3DP fashion provides feasibility for a circular economy. The technology has been used by a wide variety of companies and could be adopted into more of the fashion space. This literature review aims to educate and inspire fashion brands and customers to take advantage of 3DP due to its sustainability, customizability, and limitless potential. Keywords  3D printing · Sustainability · Sustainable fashion · Supply chain · Circular economy · Apparel

A. Armstrong · S. M. F. Kabir · K. Mathur (*) · A.-F. M. Seyam Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. S. Muthu (ed.), Novel Sustainable Process Alternatives for the Textiles and Fashion Industry, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35451-9_1

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1 Introduction Three-dimensional printing (3DP) is the process of adding material layer-by-layer (additive manufacturing) until the desired product is complete ([29]: 3). 3DP, although highly technical, resembles Mother Nature. Seashells add calcium carbonate layer-by-layer to form shells and provide room for the organism throughout its lifetime ([29]: 4). Biomimicry is the imitation of nature’s processes, thus 3DP is a technological example of how machines can mimic nature [75]. Humans have had such an impact on the planet that 1950 began the Age of the Anthropocene, where impacts to geology and ecosystems are directly credited to human activity ([11]: 3). 3DP is significant because it provides an opportunity for the balance between industrialization and preservation. The 3DP market continues to grow, and by 2026 the market size is expected to reach $34.8 billion with a current compound annual growth rate of 22.5% [3].  The traditional form of creating products is through subtractive manufacturing, where pieces are cut away (machined) until the desired shape is formed ([29]: 5). In the apparel industry, cutting fabric based on the desired pattern is a form of subtractiveness that results in significant waste. 3DP has gained recent traction in the fashion community because it has the potential to create more sustainable practices, such as less waste and ethical production, where sustainability is a major factor influencing decisions from both brands and customers. Notably, through recycling and repurposing, 3DP items can participate in the ultimate goal for a sustainable product, the circular economy, where at the end of the product’s life, it is able to be reused into new raw material for another product. Customers’ willingness to purchase 3DP products is one of the most important aspects in shifting the industry to 3DP. In the United States, 29% of customers have a customized product and are willing to pay more for it [27]. 3DP allows for virtually limitless customization through computer-aided design (CAD). Through CAD and other software, the product can be customized to fit any particular person, allowing for waste reduction/elimination. Additionally, there is a desire for unique pieces and customer’s value being a part of the design process ([77]: 2). Customers are more likely to purchase an item if it aligns positively with their perceptions of aesthetic, self-image, and being societally ‘cool’ [14]. All of these aspects can be utilized by brands to successfully produce and market their products. In 2015, an updated version of the sustainable development (SD) model was endorsed by the UN with five pillars: people, planet, prosperity, peace, and partnership as a part of the 2030 Agenda [62]. The UN also endorsed the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to achieve prosperity and harmony between the pillars. The 2030 Agenda creates targets and indicators on how each of the 17 goals will be achieved, making it the most direct approach to creating overall sustainability. The Venn diagram (Fig.  1) shows how peace and partnerships are required to achieve social, environmental, and economic stability. These SDGs will be referenced throughout the chapter to demonstrate 3DP’s potential to help companies and individuals contribute positively to SD.

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Fig. 1  The relationship between the three pillars and the intersectionality with partnership and peace all encompass sustainability [62]

While there have been other literature reviews discussing 3DP’s relevance to the fashion industry and studies that demonstrate uses of 3DP in apparel and accessories, there has not been work that directly discusses factors of sustainability and methods for improvement. This study aims to encourage brands and makers to learn more about 3PD and integrate it into their practices because of its on-demand flexibility and potential for sustainability compared to traditional methods of clothing and accessory production. It also hopes to educate and motivate consumers to use their purchasing power on 3DP products and encourage their own sustainable 3DP creation. In many other literature reviews, 3DP is deemed as a great technology that has not yet shown potential to be widely used due to its cost and material constraints. However, this chapter aims to show that 3DP has many different functions from accessories, and high-performance wear, to runway apparel. 3DP should be taken seriously by brands and consumers for its innovation and sustainable features, which will be explored further in this chapter. This chapter will delve more into the history, capabilities, functions, materials, end-life, and future of 3DP and 3DP in fashion.

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Brief History of 3DP and Textile Industrial Revolutions The first Industrial Revolution happened from 1784 to 1869 when the steam engine allowed for mass production and the establishment of textile mills. Some other notable inventions from this era include the flying shuttle, power loom, and Jacquard shedding motion, all of which drastically increased production [58]. It was during this time that the earliest conceptual stage for 3DP began in the 1860s with Francis Willene, a photographer who used his camera, a photograph, and pantograph to create a 3D sculpture [34]. The second Industrial Revolution, 1870–1917, brought electricity, the assembly line, and faster production, as a result of individualized machine motors [58]. The third Industrial Revolution, 1969–1990s, was the result of automation and computers. This era brought the automation of textile machinery, CAD, and preprogramming variables that are essential for productivity and intricacy such as pattern change on the fly, variable weaving speed, and variable pick density [58]. In this era, Charles W.  Hull patented the first 3D printer and coined the term ‘stereolithography’ in 1984 and later commercialized the first Stereolithography (SLA) printer from this process ([29]: 6; [26]). Stereolithography is the transformation of a liquid photopolymer with a beam of light into hard objects [26]. Many other important 3DP inventions happened in the 1980s. For example, Carl R. Deckard patented the first Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) machine [34]. SLS uses selective binding to adhere powders or fine particles together with the help of binding or heat ([29]: 5). When a laser builds up layers, this allows for complex designs, but the finer the powder, the more challenging it is to create the shape of the target part ([29]: 5). In the 1980s, Scott Crump created one of the simplest and favored 3D printers, Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) [34]. FDM binds together thermoplastic resins, known also as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF). SLS, FDM, and SLA are all applicable printers for the fashion industry ([71]: 171). The fourth Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0) started in the 2000s, and involves higher levels of automation in the textile industry with artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, and analytics [58]. Air Jet Weaving uses AI to control timing, airflow, and weaving speed to avoid defects and increase efficiency [58]. The decade at the turn of the millennium, 2001–2010, allowed for mass customization, more flexibility, easier accessibility, and greater user-friendliness for 3D printing [34]. Easy accessibility was brought in part by the RepRap project started by Adrian Bowyer, which made 3D printing manageable for a home project through an information-­ sharing system. He shared his design where a 3D printer can make more printer parts ([29]: 7). The industrial revolution has definitely allowed for mass production and consumption. Industry 4.0 and advent of 3DP have made the production more sustainable while contributing to advanced innovation.

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2 Examples of 3DP in the Fashion Industry 2.1 Haute Couture/Runway There are a few innovative fashion and accessory companies that have adopted 3DP into their production process, with some making it essential in their business model. The emergence of 3DP for apparel began with Dutch designer Iris van Herpen. The House of Iris van Herpen was founded in 2007 and made history through incorporating 3DP in her fashion designs [30]. She later gained recognition as the first designer to create a complete runway dress from 3DP in 2011, and her dress was named in TIMES 50 best inventions of 2011 [30]. Iris van Herpen uses 3DP to create complex shapes in her designs that lead to unique avant-garde pieces, demonstrating the link between innovation and creativity (Fig. 2). The House of Iris van Herpen presents collections bi-annually at Paris’s Haute Couture Week, promoting and demonstrating slow fashion [30]. Fashion designer Danit Peleg used 3DP in her 2015 runway collection ‘Liberty Leading the People’ by using an at-home desktop 3D printer [4]. This inspired Peleg to create the first 3DP garment sold online with her customizable bomber jacket [15]. The bomber jacket (Fig. 3) has a silky fabric liner to make it more comfortable for the user, so it is not completely 3D printed. Danit Peleg’s customizable jacket Fig. 2  Iris van Herpen’s 2014 Biopiracy dress beautifully illustrates 3DP avant-­garde [41]

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Fig. 3  Danit Peleg’s bomber jacket can be customized by changing the outer color, the liner color, and adding up to five characters to the back of the jacket [15]

costs 1500 USD and part of this high cost comes from the 100 h it takes to print and assemble [4]. This cost aligns well with the high-end luxury items on the market like Burberry’s 1900 USD trench coat [4].

2.2 High-Performance Apart from Haute Couture and runway, 3DP can be used for functional purposes. Athletic company Nike created the first 3DP shoe upper, Flyprint (Fig. 4) [51]. 3DP allows for the shoes to be more breathable and more lightweight than other shoes [51]. Nike’s process involves capturing data from athletes to create the computational design to best fit their needs. Nike’s Flyprint shoe was only available to Japanese marathon runners and priced at 675 USD [60]. Nike credits 3DP with rapid prototyping; where they are able to prototype 16 times faster than using traditional practices [51]. This form of rapid prototyping saves labor, material costs, and inventory costs compared to traditional overseas prototyping. This practice can be translated to entrepreneurs and small businesses who can prototype their products without huge commitments to a particular manufacturer, material, machining, or financing. Similar to Nike, Adidas has created a 3DP midsole using data from athletes. The Adidas 4DFWD midsole (Fig.  5) redirects the vertical impacts of running into a horizontal motion, so the athlete has a reduced braking force [1]. This change in force is the meticulous result of the 3DP lattice structures, which are specifically organized to support and move with the athlete during their workout. These shoes can currently be bought at Adidas.com for 200 USD; they are priced similar to Adidas’s legendary Ultra-Boost shoes for 190 USD [2].

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Fig. 4  Eliud Kipchoge testing Nike’s Flyprint upper during marathon training. His feedback, data, and rapid prototyping from a previous pair helped to create this shoe, which is 11 grams lighter than the original pair [51]

Fig. 5  Adidas’s 4DFWD shoes with white 3D printed lattice structure [2]

2.3 Accessories Designer Julia Daviy is pioneering 3DP in the jewelry and accessory departments. Daviy demonstrated her dedication to 3DP at New York Fashion Week in 2018 with nine 3DP designs, which she created using solar energy and zero waste [33]. Additionally, she created a Spring 2019 fully 3DP clothing collection with a skirt able to be customized in 1000 different variants [33]. Daviy’s customizable skirt takes 20 h to print [4]. Since then, her creative versatility has grown through her made-to-order Morphogenesis Collection purses (Fig.  6). The New Age lab, co-founded by Daviy to promote sustainable creating, calculated that these nylon purses use ‘92% less CO2, 98% less waste, and 99% less  water usage in the production cycle than an average leather bag in the market’ [33]. Furthermore, Daviy has an incredible jewelry collection, Methanoa, that exemplifies ethical production. All the pieces are made using recycled silver and gold and are locally manufactured. Moreover, 15% of proceeds are donated to the Antislavery organization to directly aid the harmful diamond mining industry [47]. This collection features one necklace (Fig. 7), one bracelet, and two variations of two different earrings. The most being 448 USD for the necklace and 178 USD for one pair of earrings [47]. This is very comparable to other designer jewelry using precious metals.

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Fig. 6  Julia Daviy’s Pandora bag in the Morphogenesis Collection made from 3DP nylon [33]

Fig. 7  Julia Daviy’s Methanoa necklace made with gold-plated silver and recycled silver. It is available for purchase as a digital file or it can be bought as a physical product, giving the customer the option to print it themselves [47]

Glasses are another accessory that has shown to be useful for 3DP. Fitz is a children’s glasses company headquartered in California, but they own their own 3DP facility in Ohio [24]. They have a virtual try-on program through their app. After choosing the glasses, the app measures the customer’s face to get a customized fit. Then the glasses are 3D printed and delivered to the customer (Fig. 8). The glasses

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Fig. 8  Children wearing their colorful 3DP Fitz glasses [24]

start at 95 USD, this is equivalent to the glasses company, Warby Parker, whose glasses begin at 95 USD [24, 74].

3 Factors Affecting Sustainability 3.1 Materials The materials used in the creation of 3DP fashion and apparel products have a large impact on their recyclability and overall sustainability. Polylactic Acid (PLA) will be analyzed because it is made from renewable resources, and its recyclability is deemed promising for a circular economy. PLA is a great alternative for people with allergies to common metals [53], and it has other potential for fashion, such as appliqués on denim [55]. Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU) will also be analyzed because its flexibility makes it a good fit for the apparel industry. TPU is extremely relevant to the fashion industry since Iris van Herpen’s designs, Nike’s Flyprint, and Danit Peleg’s bomber jacket are all made from this material. Both PLA and TPU are thermoplastic materials, so they can be recovered by melting and reused to manufacture other products. Additionally, both these materials are used in Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). FDM is one of the most favored consumer 3D printers for its simplicity and ability to work with thermoplastics [34]. PLA and TPU filaments undergo similar production processes because they are similar types of thermoplastics. The first step is making plastic through catalyzing

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reactions, then the plastic is broken into smaller resin particles, and these are typically sold to filament makers [54]. The pellets are blended with additives for their desired properties to create a consistent blend. Next, the blend is dried to resist degradation from air moisture [54]. After the drying, the pellets are shaped into a string through heating in a filament extruder [54]. To prevent wrapping incorrectly, the filament is dragged through water at different temperatures. Then the filament is ready to be wound on a spool, measured for quality assurance, and sent to the customer. Suggested steps to making this process more economical and sustainable are: to use renewable energy when breaking down the plastic into pellets and extruding the 3DP filament, to recycle the water used in the cooling baths, to create sustainable packaging, and to produce the filament close to the end consumer. 3.1.1 PLA PLA is made from renewable resources, like corn and sugarcane, but there is an ethical debate on using food crops for plastics. On one hand, crops are natural resources and not limited to fossil fuels like crude oil, but if PLA replaced all plastics, there would be 715.5 million tons of food removed from the world’s food supply [70]. The second SDG is ‘Zero Hunger’, meaning that everyone in the world has access to food through the utilization of sustainable agriculture [69]. However, the crops reduce CO2 emissions by absorbing them compared to the creation of CO2 through oil extraction [32]. In 2019, the global production of PLA was 190,000 tons [32]. Despite this large quantity, the land used for bioplastics was only 0.016% of the global agriculture area in 2016 [31]. Nonetheless, more than 3.4 million acres of land, approximately the size of Belgium, was estimated to be needed for bioplastics in 2019 [12]. PLA can help reduce the need for a vast supply chain if the crops are grown near the filament manufacturer, reducing transportation costs and emissions. PLA is often thought of as a green plastic because of its compostability; however, PLA may be composted only if it is taken to industrial composting facilities and treated under certain continuous conditions for 1–6 months, but even then, residue may reside, making it truly not 100% compostable [61]. PLA when recycled is 16 times better than combustion and 50 times better than composting for the environment [61]. Lanzotti et al. found that PLA degradation happens after the third recycling process [37]. Therefore, recycled filament would work best for prototyping or applications where optimal mechanical strength is not a must [48]. This would be applicable for fashion accessories like earrings, necklaces, and bracelets. Pasricha and Greeninger created zero-waste PLA jewelry and buttons using CAD-based tools and 3D modeling MakerBot software with a desktop 3D printer (Fig. 9) [52]. The two earrings created took 15 min each to print. The time it took to produce each piece shows promise for the mass-customization process because this is much quicker than the time it would normally take to

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Fig. 9  Necklace and earrings made by Pasricha and Greeninger out of blue PLA ([52]: 12)

source materials, time for shipment, and time for assembly. Theoretically, a customer could enter a retail store, see earrings on display, request a pair, and look around the store for 15 min while they are prepared, contributing to a zero-inventory store. The time for buttons and necklaces was higher at 3 and 5 h, so this needs to be drastically decreased for the customer to have that same experience, and more complicated designs would benefit from online retail. PLA has been found to be water-soluble, so this needs to be expressed to customers to help protect the longevity of these items. Deforestation has continued to affect every country in the world, and the development of farmland can further contribute to this. A way to combat this problem is to utilize land more efficiently and conduct more research on creating PLA from agricultural waste. Fahim et al. discussed the feasibility of turning Egypt’s food waste into PLA [22]. They estimated that if PLA replaced all synthetic plastics and if all plastics were recycled, then 800 million tons of greenhouse gasses would be reduced. This would help in the achievement of SDG 12, Target 12.3, to halve per capita global food waste [69]. The authors address that this concept would not only produce more environmentally friendly plastic, but also help give Egyptians more jobs and help boost their local economy, helping build social and economic sustainability [22]. Using food waste to make PLA filament should be further explored because it would reduce landfills and create more sustainable filament for printing.

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3.1.2 TPU TPU is a type of Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE) which became more elastic in 2013 in the form of TPE Filaflex and TPU 92A-1 filaments [4]. The feeling of TPU is between a hard plastic and a malleable rubber. Historically, polyurethanes, like TPU, are synthesized from petrochemicals [16]. There is an opportunity to synthesize TPU by using plant oils-based polyols and diols to make it bio-based [16]. There are a few disadvantages of using TPU filament for apparel, such as its inability to release moisture, limited breathability, as well as poor insulation against the cold [4]. Joseph Flynt, author for 3D Insider, wrote that an advantage of TPU 92A-1 is that it can be washed and ironed like normal clothing [25]. These 3D printed garments should be hand washed to maximize lifespan and users need to be educated on proper care [4]. Phone cases made from TPU have shown yellow discoloration in the sun, so this may also happen to clothes over time [67]. TPU is not normally biodegradable, but some companies have made their own version of TPU that can be broken down in the soil because of added organic blocks [67]. Similar to PLA, TPU’s environmental impact can be greenwashed and misunderstood. Recreus created a 100% recycled TPU Filaflex filament called Reciflex made from footwear waste and in-house production [57]. One downfall is that this filament is only available in black, which is needed to give the filament continuity [57]. CREAMELT also created a more sustainable TPU filament called TPU-R; it is 100% made from recycled ski boots [13]. The boots are collected and then disassembled by people with disabilities. This helps give more people jobs, especially helping a marginalized group. This filament is offered in five different colors giving customers a good range compared to other recycled materials [13]. CREAMELT gives approximate mechanical, physical, and thermal properties for the recycled filament but specifies that it is not always accurate because of the variables that occur in recycling. There are many environmental concerns with using petrochemicals because they originate from crude oil and fracked gas, both fossil fuels [19]. Fracking has negative impacts on the environment and nearby people. Methane, a gas involved with fracking, has made its way into the water supply of homes near fracking sites, creating an increased risk of fires due to its flammability [19]. Petrochemical companies release chemicals into the air, for example, the Louisiana’s Formosa company releases 13.5 million tons of carbon pollution each year [19]. The Gulf Coast is one area that has experienced high levels of water pollution due to the petrochemical industry’s proximity to international ports [19]. Indigenous people and communities of color are more susceptible to these negative effects. Petrochemical companies often reside in these areas because the cost of land is less than in privileged areas causing environmental racism [19]. These companies hire outside the local community, force local businesses to relocate, create health problems from pollution, and receive tax breaks that reduce funding for local needs [19]. St. James in Louisiana is a predominantly black community that has been known as a part of the ‘Cancer Alley’ because of the massive amounts of cancer cases, as a result of the petrochemical industry [19].

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Furthermore, fracking takes away vital water resources to areas where water is normally scarce, and if there is not enough water it is transported from other regions [28]. This creates more negative emissions through transportation and reduces the water supply. SDG 6 is to have clean water and sanitation for all, and fracking reduces drinkable water supply and has the possibility of contamination [69]. A by-product of fracking is wastewater, which is injected into underground wells that risk soil contamination and reduce successful crops [28]. 3.1.3 Additional Materials There are a vast variety of materials that can be used for 3DP besides the two thermoplastics discussed above. Printers can use metals, such as stainless steel, bronze, and gold [76]. Two other common materials that  need to be mentioned are Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) and nylon for 3DP. ABS is a very common FDM filament, but it is a non-flexible oil-based plastic making it less applicable to the sustainable fashion industry. ABS is created through the combination of acrylonitrile for strength, butadiene for durability, and styrene for toughness and a smooth finish [73]. ABS is more rigid and durable than PLA, but PLA is often preferred to ABS because it is made from renewable resources [35]. ABS is not biodegradable or compostable making recycling the only way to reduce waste [73]. In a study by Vidakis et al., they found that the optimal functioning properties were between three and five rounds of recycling, and after five, the polymer showed larger signs of degradation [72]. This result for ABS is better than the study by Lanzotti et al. that found that PLA degradation happens sooner, after the third recycling process [37]. Nylon is another popular material, and it is used in SLS. SLS uses powder to create objects, and the leftover powder can be combined with virgin powder to reduce waste. Nylon powder has been used in fashion products, such as some of Julia Daviy’s designer made-to-order Morphogenesis Collection purses and Fitz’s glasses. Nylon powder is a synthetic polyamide (PA) material. There are two different powder types, PA11 and PA12, these differ by one carbon atom, mechanical properties, and their origin. PA11 is sourced from castor oil making it non-petroleum sourced [21]. PA11 has a high strength, elongation at break, and temperature resistance making it a useful material for 3DP [21, 43]. PA12 is derived from petroleum, and has excellent mechanical properties, such as resistance to abrasion and chemical agents, and low water absorption [43]. To prepare for SLS, the nylon powder is distributed on to the entire bed platform regardless the size of the desired object. The leftover powders still go through a thermal process during printing, leading to a variety of degradation. Typically, the recommendation for nylon powder is that from one SLS print cycle: 25% becomes a part, 25% is wasted, and 50% is reused for the next object [5, 36]. These powders can be used a few times before they turn into waste, but these times vary by project. Kumar and Czekanski explored the possibility of using leftover SLS PA12 powder and turning it into a filament for FDM printing [36].

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Nylon powder has the advantage of already being in powder form and therefore making it easier to be combined with additives [36]. This study combined the leftover powder with tungsten carbide to increase its strength. A single screw extruder, the Filastruder, was used to make the powder into a filament. They estimated that using the wasted powders for filament creation is cheaper than the cost of buying new nylon filament from filament manufacturers. This study demonstrates an opportunity to extend the lifecycle of powder waste, but researchers acknowledge that testing, such as tensile testing and differential scanning calorimetry, is needed to ensure that the created filament has the correct attributes for FDM printing. 3.1.4 Composites Composites are very popular in 3DP because each material can serve a different purpose for the product to the same extent that fiber blends exist. For example, a designer may choose to combine TPU with PLA to offer some flexibility to a rigid and durable plastic. However, like fiber blends, there are major environmental concerns with using composites because individual components cannot be separated, in return, this does not allow for recycling and will cause decomposing at differing rates [49].

3.2 Recyclability Suggestions Notably, there are options to recycle old FTM 3D prints, but the best results will be from using all the same types of thermoplastics in the recycling process [61]. Filament extruders like the Filastruder, Felfil Evo, or Filabot take old pellets and create them into recycled filaments [10]. Another option is to buy a pellet extruder like the Mahor-xyz to extract the recycled plastics without having to go through the filament-making step [10]. PLA and TPU can all be recycled through these two processes [10]. Adding the commonly known recycle labels to 3DP objects will help when identifying what the material is made of so recycling can be easier and accurate. It is predicted that most homes in the United States will have 3DPs by 2040 ([42]: 1), leading to an accumulation of failed prints which is undoubtedly going to be an issue unless makers invest in a recycling tool. Perhaps more home 3DPs can be marketed with filament extruders making them a ‘package deal’ to save your materials and money over time. Due to the eventual degradation of recycled materials, there needs to be a tracking system for every piece of plastic to determine how old it is and how many times it’s been recycled. Then there can be a chain where after the material is at the end of its life cycle it can either be composted, incinerated, or discarded based on how many times it has been recycled. This would help in the achievement of SDG 12, Target 12.5, reducing waste generation through reuse and recycling [69].

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3.3 Waste Reduction Many of the previous designers, such as Daviy and van Herpen, have justified their use of 3DP for its waste elimination compared to traditional cut and sew. Some suggestions for ensuring a waste-free print: A. When possible, design built-in fixtures like clasps to adhere to pieces instead of using chemical adhesives, so the user can recycle it easier without chemical residue [8]. B. Rethink product design to avoid supports called rafts. Rafts are added during the printing process as a form of ‘scaffolding’ if the machine views the design as being potentially unstable without it ([52]: 15). These supports may be helpful, but they are essentially wasted material and need to be removed from the object. It is possible to print without supports, but the design needs to be thought through and possibly reoriented; for example, printing a dress horizontally instead of vertically. C. Additionally, utilizing CAD and splicing software before printing will help in reducing in-fill, saving material and time, and positively contributing to SDG Target 12.5, reducing waste through prevention [69].

3.4 Energy Consumption The long time it takes to print clothing items not only creates a higher cost to the end customer, but it also uses large amounts of energy. Energy use can be reduced by speeding up prints and this can be done by adjusting the printer settings, reducing in-fill, and using a bigger nozzle [18]. An in-built power usage model can help the producer monitor their energy consumption to help improve it [18]. ABS plastic filament needs a heating bed to help with adhesion, whereas TPU and PLA do not necessarily need it, but it can help adhere the layers better if used [35, 66, 68]. The heated bed uses a vast amount of energy to be consistently heated, so more research is needed to find solutions for better efficiency and saved energy. SDG Target 7.3 is to double the global rate of energy efficiency by 2030 [69]. To do so requires a controlled environment, faster prints, heated zones only where the object is printing, and better insulation – these will all help save energy [35].

4 Customers Perception of 3DP A study by Yap and Yeong interviewed 15 Chinese millennial luxury shoppers on their perceptions of 3DP [76]. This study found that these consumers associated 3DP with haute couture and extravagant pieces that were described as ‘fragile’ and ‘impractical’ [76]. These customers were more likely to buy 3DP pieces that were

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positioned as innovative rather than just customizable couture pieces. The researchers suggested that retailers should take the time to educate consumers on the creativity, innovation, time, and processes needed to create 3DP products [76]. Better communication with the consumer could help alleviate common misconceptions, such as fragility. Another study, by Cui et  al., designed a sweatshirt with 3DP elements to test consumers’ perceptions and purchase intentions [14]. This sweatshirt had 3D printed paneling made of white TPU as ventilation sewn to a knitted gray fleece. Perceptions were tested by conducting an online survey where 332 people participated. The researchers used the functional, expressive, and aesthetic model (FEA) to determine what is important to customers. Functionality considered utility, expressiveness considered the symbolism and customer’s self-image, and aesthetics considered perceived beauty [14]. They found that aesthetic and expressive/‘coolness’ were more important to participants than novelty and functionality of the apparel, with the exception of fit also being important for purchase [14]. Brands need to utilize strong marketing strategies to communicate a 3DP object as being visually beautiful, societally ‘cool’, and can demonstrate how it will fit on the customer and into their lives. Additionally, stores can utilize 3D body scanning technology to better fit the customer and provide a unique experience [14]. There is a desire in the marketplace for unique pieces and the customers’ perceived value in being a part of the design process ([77]: 2). Luckily, 3DP allows for customization, as shown with Julia Daviy’s customizable skirt and Danit Peleg’s bomber jacket. In a study by Anastasiadou and Vettese, 87.7% of 139 interviewed participants showed interest in general souvenir personalization [6]. During this study, researchers first observed participants’ reactions to the 3D printer, printing in the middle of a popular tourist destination. They observed that many people enjoyed watching the printer, with many people engaging by stopping, watching, and bringing friends over to view it, which led to an emotional connection with the object [6]. This is promising for the future of retail, where fashion retailers may have 3D printers printing their products on-site, and the potential for customers’ customization. The ‘experience’ of 3DP makes it unique and helps engage customers. Over half the participants, 57%, preferred 3DP souvenirs that were customized [6]. Time proved to be an issue for some participants, who were worried about how long it would take for their future theoretical souvenirs to be printed [6]. Time is also an important factor affecting 3DP today, but with industrial 3D printing and reduced in-fills, time can be reduced.

5 Supply Chain Arguably, the supply chain has a larger impact on the sustainability of a product than the actual materials, by accounting for 80% of the environmental impact [40]. Traditionally, the supply chain has been very linear from fiber production, to yarn, to fabric, to cut and sew, to retailers, and finally to customers [63]. Each step is

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typically a stop in the global supply chain, with different specialized factories; however, over half of the traditional steps are subtracted from the process with 3DP, reducing transportation emissions. 3D scanning technology combined with CAD or other digital platforms reduces time by simplifying design, customization, and alteration time [63]. 3DP allows for a small supply chain if the product is made near the consumer.

5.1 Reshoring Reducing transportation has been a current trend, in part to the rising labor costs in outsourced countries, which has prompted reshoring. Companies like Under Armour, Apple, and Ford are diversifying by returning facets of their supply chain to their country of origin for more control over product timeline and proximity to the customer [45]. More localized manufacturing will be possible because of the low-volume ondemand printing that 3DP offers, so less fixed capital costs [63]. Having local production for local consumption approach helps research and development because current trends can be identified faster, and future trends can be produced quickly. The competitive advantage that low-cost countries have in the textile industry could lose its edge, so manufacturers that rely on exports could be hurt by this new economic structure [63]. Typically, designers and merchandisers must plan their seasons months in advance, so they have time to communicate with manufacturers and receive their orders. However, trends continuously change, and what was popular a few months ago may not be all the rage when the products finally hit the stores and online. This leads to markdowns, waste, and an overall decrease in brand image. An example of the shortened supply chain was shown during the COVID-19 pandemic when Italian engineers designed, printed, and donated 100 respirator valves during a shortage in just 24  h for an Italian hospital [23]. The Pandemic expanded collaboration through the utilization of online clouds. These clouds allowed for effortless 3DP design sharing to fulfill the shortage of medical equipment [50]. The teamwork effort to provide Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) worldwide has been claimed the largest ‘collaborative project’ to date [38]. This was evidence of extraordinary human kindness and the effectiveness of 3DP for quick lifesaving production.

5.2 Job Reorganizing 3DP has the potential to change current business models and help achieve SDG 8, which encourages entrepreneurship and decent job creation [69]. The company Shapeways is creating more accessibility to 3DP by helping customers create their CAD files to achieve their desired product. After the file is uploaded to the 3D

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printer, Shapeways prints the item and ships it back to the customer in over 190 countries [59]. Entrepreneurs can prototype their products without huge commitments to a particular manufacturer, material, or machining. Generative design from software like Autodesk and Dassault Systems transforms ideas based on given constraints by the user [17]. Autodesk can design a product 1000 different ways through form synthesis. This software can also produce more efficient parts through lattice and surface optimization and reduce weight by minimizing unnecessary material through topology optimization [7]. This software is exciting because it increases the accessibility of 3D manufacturing to more than just engineers. Creating apparel will be easier for entrepreneurs, and they can focus more on understanding the market to create desired products [17]. Fashion designers should work in collaboration with textile technologists or textile engineers, to have better understanding of different materials and their sustainability, creating a higher need for those positions. 3DP also allows designers to be creative and innovative in their designs, as shown with some of the geometric clothing items in this chapter. Future designers show promise for adopting 3DP.  Lyu et al. surveyed fashion students and found that they had innate innovativeness and high fashion leadership, and in turn, had a positive attitude toward adopting 3DP clothing because of their knowledge of the technology ([42]: 19). While the need for garment workers may decrease with increased automation, the need for waste workers and filament producers will increase. The Protoprint Project (TPP) is an initiative to better the waste pickers’ livelihoods in Pune, India. Waste workers are a part of the informal workforce and are faced with harmful working conditions for less than 1 USD a day [65]. The TPP created a program where waste workers are able to make 15 times more because the plastic waste workers collect is made into 3DP filament. Receiving the training necessary and producing a high-quality product allows the waste workers to make more because of the increased value of wholesale filament compared to the traditional sale of whole plastic to scrap dealers [65]. The TPP hopes to create more filament production sites in India and abroad. This model of filament production in India can be useful for developing countries to create hard-to-source supplies for their citizens, such as school equipment and medical equipment, reducing transportation costs and time. Approximately 80–120 billion USD are lost annually because of only using plastic packaging once ([20]: 22). The TPP can help bring back the economic value of plastic waste through repurpose. A Forbes contributor, Richard A. D’Aveni, recommends two strategies for developing countries to increase their income instead of relying on selling natural resources and goods at a low cost [17]. The first strategy is to produce printer feedstock to sell at higher margins than just the raw plastic materials [17], like the TPP initiative. The second strategy would be selling software and design services and packages [17]. If every city had a 3D printing facility, developing countries could depend internally by focusing on this local production instead of relying on imports; therefore, being less exposed to global economic variability. There is an opportunity for entrepreneurs in these countries to be ‘makers’ of a wide range of essential products. The

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cost for 3D printers is much less than traditional manufacturing equipment, but it requires additional skill to operate so training will be crucial to development. SDG Target 12.A is to support developing countries in strengthening their scientific and technological capabilities to become more sustainable [69]. Multinational companies, like General Electric (GE), are opening facilities in developing countries to expand their production and markets. GE has opened garages in Nigeria and Algeria to teach entrepreneurs and workers about 3DP and give them business skills [9, 17]. Target 4.4 from SDG 4 sets to increase the amount of youth and adults to have relevant skills necessary for employment [69]. Elephab is a Nigerian startup that was created in hopes of bringing local manufacturing back to Africa by printing replacement parts [64]. 3DP could alter the supply chain (Fig. 10). Waste pickers could collect plastic and transform it into filament and then sell this filament to manufacturers. Designers could create their own digital models or seek out engineers to translate their ideas into digital files. Then they could send these ideas to local manufacturers that specialize in different machines and areas of 3DP and work in collaboration to see their ideas come to life. The 3DP clothes could be sent to retailers or mailed from

Fig. 10  Simplified diagram of 3DP apparel supply chain and design process, which results in a circular economy

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online stores. Other options could be for brands to participate in mass customization, where customers can design their own products based on set parameters or variables online and then the file is sent directly to manufacturers and finally to the customer. Perhaps retailers could have their own 3D printers where a customer could pick out an outfit in-store, and then have it printed out to fit their bodies based on a 3D scanner, as seen in the Ministry of Supply’s store [39]. In that case, there is a need for knowledgeable sales professionals to fix any 3D printer jams or mishaps and add needed finishings.

6 Future Research 6.1 Flexibility and 4DP The flexibility of 3DP clothing is a major limitation because it does not have the same stretch and feel of normal clothes. Four-dimensional printing (4DP) has the potential to enhance the comfortability of garments and lead to more ready-to-wear options ([77]: 9). Additionally, 4DP paired with the technology from 3DP opens many opportunities for mass customization. 4DP is known as ‘self-assembling’ because a 3D printed object transforms into another object when exposed to a stimulus like a temperature or light, which causes an energy shift given time [56]. Currently, 4DP has not reached an industrial scale due to the lack of commercialized multi-material printers ([77]: 2). Yu et al. tested the applicability of 4D printing in the fashion and apparel industry by creating earrings out of PLA that grew when exposed to high temperatures ([77]: 11). The prototype started out being 5 cm, grew to 6 cm when exposed to 104 degree Fahrenheit water, and was fully straight at 9  cm after exposure to candle flame ([77]: 11). The same technology could be applicable to glasses where the legs or bridge between the nose could be easily adjusted to be longer or shorter ([77]: 12). This versatility could also be applied to bracelets or watches making each accessory fit the consumer better. Target 12.5 of SDG is to reduce waste [69]; through 4DP, there would theoretically be fewer returns from a customized piece because of its adjustability ([77]: 13). High-quality pieces could be passed down for years and fit each person uniquely while keeping the original design. 4D printing will also help reduce the cost associated with supply chain transportation. Since a 4D printed object can stay 2D until it’s exposed to a stimulus, storage space can be maximized depending on the optimal shipping size ([77]: 9). Another benefit of 4D printing is the possibility of printing objects that are larger than the printer’s capabilities because they can transform into a larger object later [56]. Design studio, Nervous System, created a 4D dress from 1600 nylon pieces connected with hinges (Fig. 11) [46]. To make this dress, the pieces were 3D printed as a single object that was later unrolled into pieces that were larger than the printer [46]. In the future, other clothes could also have this flexibility, like a mini dress expanding to a mid-length dress if exposed to a stimulus.

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Fig. 11  A beautiful dress 4D by Nervous System [46]

6.2 Additional Research Needed There has not been enough research conducted on how microplastics in 3DP clothing will affect the environment. This area needs to be further explored as microfibers from synthetic materials are a huge pollutant in air, land, and waterways. To further the justification for 3DP apparel instead of its traditional counterparts, the plastic shed from both types of clothes needs to be evaluated. There also needs to be more research on how many times filament can be recycled before it is too degraded and brittle to be used. Additional research on consumers’ perceptions of 3DP fashion is important to gauge the rate of adaptability in the industry. Research needs to be done to justify 3DP growth for brands and retailers in response to customer demand/desire for 3DP fashion. 6.2.1 Designer Education There will be a higher demand for designers to be more familiar with 3DP and how to work within its constraints. There will also be closer communication between digital designers, fashion designers, and engineers to ensure that the designs are

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feasible and created with sustainability at the forefront. Education of 3DP will need to be more prevalent in college curriculums, so the next generation of leaders in the fashion industry can become accustomed to this emerging technology. 6.2.2 Protecting Intellectual Property How designers will keep the integrity of their designs will be a challenge when the public has access to similar 3D printers [25]. A collaboration with open-source platforms to download fashion designs could help reduce illegal activity similar to the music industry [44]. There could be a monthly or set fee to join these platforms, much like Spotify, to reduce illegal downloading of 3D files [25]. Designers and brands’ knowledge of 3DP and the construction of apparel pieces will help even if customers have similar resources.

7 Conclusion Sustainability should be at the forefront of innovation to ensure that present and future needs can be met. All five pillars of sustainability: people, planet, prosperity, peace, and partnership, need to be positively incorporated into the entire life cycle of a product to be truly sustainable. 3D printing is leading the fourth Industrial Revolution, and it has the potential to save energy, be less wasteful, shorten lead times, simplify the supply chain, promote more creativity, and provide new jobs. It is helpful to conduct Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) for any intended fashion product to see the impact from ‘cradle to grave’ on the environment. Recycling was found to be the best opportunity to reduce waste and have a Circular Economy. More companies need to be transparent about their environmental impacts, and the companies using 3DP can help lead the way. SDG Target 12.6 encourages companies to integrate sustainability into their reporting cycles [69]. If 3DP begins to show more in the reporting cycles by increased companies, then it will help in educating customers, stakeholders, and other brands. The fashion industry currently has a huge waste problem as a result of overconsumption and overproduction. With the rising interest in reshoring and nearshoring, 3DP provides a unique opportunity for faster and more sustainable production. It has been utilized by independent designers, such as Iris van Herpen and Julia Daviy, as well as global corporate brands, such as Adidas and Nike. There are many different uses for 3DP in the fashion and accessory industry that should be embraced by more brands and consumers. 3DP allows for extreme innovation, creativity, customization, and personalization that customers crave. Through marketing and consumer education, 3DP can lose its ‘fragile’ reputation and become a gateway to limitless imagination.

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A Critical Analysis of the Characteristics of Raw and Treated Effluents Generated from Natural/Ayurvedic Dyeing Unit Chandrasekaran Karuppuswamy and Kandhavadivu Palanisamy

Abstract  Natural dyes are possessed with eco-friendliness, sustainable, biodegradable, comfortable to human skin and offer several health benefits to the wearer. The natural/ayurvedic dyeing units which use natural dyes are expected to generate nontoxic effluents or remnants, but there may be speculation among the natural/ ayurvedic dyeing industry people that the interaction between the various organic materials and mineral mordants used in the dyeing process may generate toxic effluents. Similar to textile dyeing unit wastewater effluent treatment, the effluents generated from the natural/ayurvedic dyeing process need effluent treatment in order to maintain the effluent parameters such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), pH, etc. within the norms prescribed by the government agencies. If the effluents generated from the natural/ayurvedic dyeing units have higher values of effluent parameters, then it poses a threat when released into land or water. Hence it is inevitable to analyse the characteristics of natural/ayurvedic dyeing industry effluents/remnants through systematic studies and testing. Identification of proper effluent treatment methods is essential to safeguard the environment. In this work, the characteristics of effluents generated from natural/ayurvedic dyeing unit were explored along with the effluent treatment methods with selected adsorbents and bio-culture and their effect on the effluent parameters. The test results show that the effluent water treated with membrane filtration and ultrafiltration yielded the permissible effluent parameters level. Keywords  Natural/ayurvedic dyeing · Effluents/remnants · COD · BOD · TSS · TDS · Effluent treatment · Adsorbents · Bio-culture

C. Karuppuswamy (*) · K. Palanisamy Department of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. S. Muthu (ed.), Novel Sustainable Process Alternatives for the Textiles and Fashion Industry, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35451-9_2

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1 Introduction Colouring materials acquired from natural resources such as plants, minerals, etc. were used for the dyeing of several textile materials. Various regions of the world had their own natural dyeing approaches using the natural resources obtainable in that region. Utilization of natural dyes for dyeing started to diminish after the arrival of synthetic dyes in the later part of the nineteenth century. Intensive research efforts in the field of synthetic dyes and fast industrialization of textile production lead to almost whole replacement of natural dyes with synthetic dyes due to their easy availability, uncomplicated application process, reproducibility of shades, and better fastness properties. Recent environmental awareness has again revived interest in natural dyes mainly among environmentally conscious people. Natural dyes can be utilized for the colouration of several types of natural fibres. Recent research works show that they are also capable of dyeing some synthetic fibres. There are numerous challenges and restrictions associated with the use of natural dyes [1]. Even these natural dyes have higher values of effluent parameters, which pose a threat when released into land or water. Hence there is a need for proper effluent treatment methods and plants. This chapter discusses about the natural dyeing/ayurvedic dyeing process, characteristics of raw effluents, effluent treatment methods for natural/ayurvedic dyeing process and the characteristics analysis of the treated effluents.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Textile Industries The process of industrialization is undesirably impacting the environment worldwide. Pollution due to incorrect management of industrial wastewater is one of the main environmental problems. With growing numbers of small-scale industries (SSIs), concern regarding the ever-increasing volume of the effluent produced has immensely increased. The volume of effluent generated by a cluster of SSIs at times exceeds the volume of wastewater generated by a single large industry. Also due to space unavailability, technical manpower, and often finances, individual SSI cannot set up and operate captive wastewater treatment plant, which limits their ability to control pollution. To combat the pollution coming out from industries, implementation of cleaner production technologies and waste reduction efforts are being stimulated across the world [2].

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2.2 Application of Natural Dyes on Textiles Maximum of the natural dyes/colour are eco-safe, excluding a few. Few of the natural colours are not only eco-safe, but also have additional value for their healing effects on skin and are skin friendly. Textile dyers must recognize the chemistry of these natural colours and their added advantages of healing values. Use of appropriate binary or ternary mixtures of similar or well-matched natural dyes for colouring natural eco-friendly textiles in a variety of calming/uncommon shades with eco-­ friendly mordants and finishing agents are the most needed product of the customers for the future. The lack of consistent shade and poor colour fastness, etc., have been partly addressed by many researchers’ continuous efforts in this attempt. So, a textile dyer must recognize the effects of variability for extraction, mordanting and dyeing and should adopt only the standardized recipe for the selection of fibre-­ mordant-­natural dye system to get reproducible colour yield and colour matching in addition to following different eco-friendly ways to enhance colour fastness to a possible extent [3].

2.3 Ayurveda Ayurveda is one of the well-known traditional systems of medicine that has persisted and succeeded from ages till date. With the vast knowledge of nature-based medicine, the connection of human body constitution and function to nature and the elements of the universe that act in synchronization and affect the living beings, this system will continue to perform well in ages still to come [4].

2.4 Ayurvedic Dyeing Ayurvedic dyeing is an old method of dyeing using various parts of medicinal plants or herbs and natural minerals. Ayurvedic dyeing uses natural mordants for fixing dyes with textile fabric and natural gums for keeping the herbs intact with the fabric. The herbal extract prepared in this dyeing method is called as Kashayam [5].

2.5 Characterization of Textile Dyeing Effluents Certain main parameters of textile dyeing effluents are as follows. Colour  Colour is not included in the Environment Conservation Rules (1997) but it is a subject in textile dyeing effluents because unlike other pollutants it is so

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noticeable. The colour of effluents is thus important for the communal awareness of a factory. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)  BOD5 is a degree of the quantity of dissolved oxygen castoff by microorganisms in the biochemical oxidation of the organic matter in the wastewater over a 5-day period at 20 °C. COD is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic material chemically oxidized in the reaction and is found by adding dichromate in an acid solution of the wastewater. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)  Dissolved oxygen determines the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in an aqueous solution. Oxygen gets into the water by circulation from the surrounding air, by aeration (rapid movement), and as a waste product of photosynthesis. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS)  Wastewater can be analysed for total suspended solids (TSS) and total dissolved solids (TDS) after removal of abrasive solids such as rags and grit. A sample of wastewater is filtered through a standard filter and the mass of the deposit is used to calculate TSS. Total solids (TS) are determined by evaporating the water at a specified temperature. pH  pH is a measure of the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration in the effluent and offers an indication of acidity or alkalinity of the textile dyeing effluent. This factor is important because aquatic life such as most fish can only live in a narrow pH range between roughly pH 6–9 [6].

2.6 Effect of Natural Dye Effluent on the Environment The potential of waste-extracted natural dyes and mordants with regard to the environment has been verified and proposed to be comparable to the traditional mordants containing heavy metals. It is interesting to observe that the COD/BOD5 ratio of these natural dyes is approximately 2, which is the desired ratio for effluent treatment. Furthermore, the nonappearance of restricted heavy metals in natural mordants enriches their application in the dyeing process. In a nutshell, the possibility for developing natural dyes and mordants is unlimited [7].

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2.7 Current Textile Wastewater Treatment Techniques Prior to the release of water containing suspended and dissolved particles into natural water, it must first be treated and purified. Several methods have been developed so far to attain efficient and cost-effective wastewater treatment. The treatment techniques include oxidation methods, physical methods, biological methods, and physicochemical approaches, which were further categorized into various methods. Oxidation Methods  The various oxidation methods are UV/H2O2, photocatalytic degradation using nano photocatalysts, combinations of TiO2/UV/H2O2, hydrogen peroxide in subcritical water, acoustic cavitation, hydrodynamic cavitation with H2O2, CCl4, and Fenton’s reagent and hydrodynamic cavitation. Physical Methods  Peat, bentonite clay, fly ash, and polymeric resins were few examples of low-cost adsorbent materials that were tried by certain researchers so that the adsorption approach could be economically feasible. However, the uses of these adsorbents have been restricted by many issues. Therefore, adsorbents should be utilized for processes with low pollutant concentrations or when the adsorbent is cheap or readily regenerated. The physical methods are ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, loose nanofiltration (LNF) membrane, the novel sol-gel assisted interfacial polymerization technique and reverse osmosis. Biological Methods  The biological methods are fungal cultures for degradation of dyes, algae for degradation of dyes and microbial fuel cell. Physiochemical Methods  The physiochemical methods are oxidation, ozonation, adsorption, membrane separation, ion exchange, coagulation and electrocoagulation [8].

2.8 Latest Research Findings on Effluent Treatment Waste minimization is of huge importance in lowering pollution load and production costs. Traditional technologies to treat textile wastewater use the combinations of biological, physical, and chemical methods but these methods need high capital and operating costs. Technologies based on membrane systems are quite popular alternative methods that can be adopted for large-scale eco-friendly treatment processes. A combination of methods adopting adsorption followed by nanofiltration has also been promoted, although a main drawback in direct nanofiltration is a considerable reduction in pollutants, which leads to permeation through flux. The ideal treatment process for reasonable recycling and reuse of textile effluent water should adopt the following steps. Firstly, refractory organic compounds and dyes may be electrochemically oxidized to biodegradable constituents prior the wastewater is subjected to biological treatment under aerobic conditions. Colour

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and odour removal may be achieved by a second electro-oxidation process. Microbial life, if exist, may be destroyed by a photochemical treatment. The treated water at this stage may be utilized for rinsing and washing purposes; however, an ion-exchange step may be hosted if the water is intended to be used for industrial processing [9]. The concept of recycling the treated wastewater and zero wastewater discharge are observed to be technically feasible and economically viable. The average percentage removals of BOD, COD, TDS, sodium and chloride in the advanced treatment technology are noticed in the range of 88–98%, 91–97%, 80–97%, 96% and 76–97%, respectively [10]. Proper selection and use of individual or combination of the advance treatment methods in textile industry can efficiently enable recovery of water from the wastewater for their reprocess purpose in production processes. The advanced methods can also be used to satisfy the need of stringent environmental or regulatory norms by the reuse of water and chemicals. Furthermore, the strategic, comprehensive, preventive methods and advanced production technology can be applied to enhance the material and energy utilization. Similarly, reduction and elimination of the generation and emissions of wastes and the vast use of resources and the risks to humans and the environment are achievable. Avoidance and treatment of dyeing wastewater pollution are complementary. One can both adopt preventive measures along with a variety of methods to control the wastes and reuse of treated water [11]. Treatment of textile wastewater from various dyeing and finishing mills by an electrochemical method is reported. The batch experimental results are evaluated in terms of colour (turbidity) and COD reductions. Numerous operating variables, such as the wastewater conductivity, pH, power requirement and amount of polyelectrolyte added, are probed to determine their respective effects on the treatment efficacy. Optimal operating ranges for each of these operating variables are experimentally measured. The electrochemical method is identified to be quite efficient and is very much competitive as a substitute chemical method for treating textile wastewater [12]. The reported work explored the effectiveness of a polyamide nanofiltration membrane in treating coloured textile effluent. For anionic dyes (acid red 4, acid orange 10, direct red 80, direct yellow 8, and reactive orange 16), the membrane in general showed adequate rejection mainly due to its relatively low cut-off and the cationic dyes were more than 95% retained irrespective of the range of pH and concentration used. Especially, direct red 80 and direct yellow 8 were 100% retained and produced [13]. The parameters of each adsorbent treatment and the outcomes such as absorbance and COD (ppm) are reported. The results show that in the case of water hyacinth adsorbent (5 g) treatment with 100 ml effluent yielded the lowest COD value of 37.12 [14].

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3 Materials and Methodology The study on the analysis of effluent characteristics and effluent treatment was carried out in an ayurvedic dyeing unit, which manufactures ayurvedic dyed clothes for local and export markets, located in Erode District, Tamil Nadu, India.

3.1 Materials Used in Ayurvedic Dyeing Process The materials used in the ayurvedic dyeing process are given in Table 1.

3.2 Ayurvedic Dyeing Process 3.2.1 Desizing Natural surfactant soap nut (Sapindus mukorossi) was used for the process of desizing. Here the fabric is soaked in the soap nut solution for 24 h. Similar results can be brought in desizing by boiling the fabric in soap nut solution. 3.2.2 Scouring The process of scouring was carried out after desizing with ash water. After scouring, the fabric was washed with water. 3.2.3 Bleaching The bleaching was carried out by exposing the scoured fabrics in natural sunlight which carry out photolytic oxidative bleaching.

Table 1  Materials used in ayurvedic dyeing

Name Soap nut Ash water Turmeric Myrobalan Pomegranate

Process Desizing, Washing Scouring Dyeing Dyeing Dyeing

Botanical name Sapindus mukorossi – Curcuma longa Terminalia chebula Punica granatum

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3.2.4 Dye Kashayam Preparation The dye liquor (dye kashayam) was prepared based on the required shade of the fabric. The required blend of herbs (Turmeric, Myrobalan and Pomegranate) is boiled in a controlled temperature and then dyes are extracted and then filtered. Filtered dye liquor was added to the solution at 40 °C, and at 50 °C the fabric was immersed in the dye bath for 1 h. 3.2.5 Washing Process In Ayurvedic herbal dyeing, washing process was carried out by washing the fabric in clean water to remove the excess dye stuff in the fabric. This removes unfixed dyes and surfactants present in the dyed fabric.

3.3 Methodology The effluent water from the ayurvedic dyeing process was treated with selected natural adsorbents and biological treatments. Comparison of the performances of natural adsorbents and biological treatments in the presence and absence of induced aeration, testing the process ingredients separately by boiling them with water, comparison of the performances of natural adsorbent and bio-culture in RO-treated water and bore well water were carried out. 3.3.1 Comparison of the Performances of Natural Adsorbent (Water Hyacinth) in Different Concentrations The pulp of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a natural adsorbent, which was used to treat the dye bath effluent. In this trial, the pulp of water hyacinth was used in two different concentrations: • 10 g of adsorbent per litre of effluent • 50 g of adsorbent per litre of effluent The adsorbent pulps were soaked in the dye bath effluent for about 48 h. Then the effluent was filtered with mesh filters and tested for its effluent parameter levels.

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3.3.2 Comparison of the Performances of Natural Adsorbents and Biological Treatments in the Presence and Absence of Induced Aeration Further trials were carried out with several effluent samples by using water hyacinth and bio-culture. Bio-culture is a bacterial composition which is used to increase the rate of degradation of the micro-organism in the effluent water. It works on the principle of biological augmentation. The trials carried out are as follows: • • • • •

5 g adsorbent per litre of effluent without induced aeration 5 g adsorbent per litre of effluent with induced aeration 1 g bio-culture per litre of effluent without induced aeration 1 g bio-culture per litre of effluent with induced aeration Effluent with induced aeration alone

In this trial, all the effluent samples were treated for 36 h in the above-mentioned conditions. 3.3.3 Testing of the Process Ingredients Separately by Boiling Them with Water In order to identify the root cause of high COD levels, the process ingredients were boiled in water and tested. The samples include the boiled samples of soap nut (Sapindus mukorossi), ash water, turmeric (Curcuma longa), myrobalan (Terminalia chebula), and pomegranate (Punicagranatum) and dye kashayam containing turmeric (Curcuma longa), myrobalan (Terminalia chebula) and pomegranate (Punicagranatum). All the ingredients were heated in water with respect to their treatment conditions in the dyeing process. 3.3.4 Comparison of the Performances of Biological Treatment in the Presence and Absence of Induced Aeration In this trial, bio-culture was used with the following conditions: • 10 g of bio-culture per litre of effluent without aeration • 10 g of bio-culture per litre of effluent with aeration • 5 g of bio-culture per litre of effluent with aeration Here the effluent samples containing bio-culture solution were treated with the respective treatments for 48 h and then tested for their effluent parameter levels.

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3.3.5 Comparison of the Performances of Natural Adsorbent and Bio-­culture in RO-Treated Water and Bore Well Water In this trial, the ayurvedic dyeing process was carried out using both bore well and RO (Reverse Osmosis) treated water; and their effluent waters were tested. The various effluent treatment methods in the final trial are given in Table 2. All these samples were treated for about 48 h in respective conditions.

4 Results and Discussion 4.1 Comparison of Effluent Parameters in Individual Stages of Dyeing Process The test results obtained from the various stages of the dyeing process are given in Table 3 and compared in order to study the variations in effluent parameter levels at each stage. From the above results, it is observed that the effluent parameter values are not within the permissible limit in the dyeing stage when compared with other stages. The effluent parameters are found to be lower after washing when compared with

Table 2  Effluent treatment methods in the final trial Effluent from dyeing in bore well water Raw effluent water Effluent water treated with sediment filter, ultrafiltration, and activated carbon filtration Effluent water treated with sediment filter, ultrafiltration, activated carbon filtration and RO membrane Effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-culture per litre without induced aeration (purified water) Effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-culture per litre without induced aeration and treated with ultrafiltration (turbid water) Effluent water treated with 5 g of bio-culture per litre with induced aeration(purified water) Effluent water treated with 5 g of bio-culture per litre with induced aeration and ultrafiltration (turbid water)

Effluent from dyeing in RO-treated water Raw effluent water Effluent water treated with membrane filtration and ultrafiltration. Effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-­ culture per litre with induced aeration (purified water) Effluent water treated with 3 g bio-culture per litre with induced aeration and ultrafiltration (turbid water) Effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-­ culture per litre without induced aeration (purified water) Effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-­ culture per litre without induced aeration and ultrafiltration (turbid water) Effluent water treated with 5 g of bio-­ culture per litre with induced aeration (purified water) Effluent water treated with 5 g of bio-­ culture per litre with induced aeration and ultrafiltration (turbid water)

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Table 3  Effluent parameter values in the preliminary trial Effluent parameters pH (at 27 °C) TSS (ppm) TDS (ppm) BOD5 (at 20 °C) (ppm) COD (ppm)

After desizing 5.4 92 1430 313

After scouring 6.0 235 3349 287

After dyeing 5.4 402 4662 520

Final effluent water 6.2 140 1279 360

Maximum permissible limits 6.5–8.5 100 2100 30

1632

2960

9360

1728

250

Table 4  Comparison of the performance of natural adsorbent (water hyacinth) in different concentrations Effluent parameters pH (at 27 °C) COD (ppm) BOD3 (at 27 °C) (ppm) TSS (ppm) TDS (ppm)

Raw effluent water 6.5 736 90

Filtered effluent water 6.4 808 325

Effluent water treated with 10 g adsorbent/litre 6.4 1504 436

Effluent water treated with 50 g adsorbent/litre 6 3200 393

Maximum permissible limits 6.5–8.5 250 30

482 1008

281 1158

1092 1827

1625 4996

100 2100

other stages due to the dilution of the total effluent by the water used in the washing stage. From this trial, the methods for effluent treatment were formulated such as, • Usage of Natural adsorbents and Biological treatments • Substitution of process ingredients

4.2 Comparison of the Performance of Natural Adsorbent (Water Hyacinth) in Different Concentrations The pulp of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a natural adsorbent used to treat the textile dyeing effluent. In this trial, the pulp of water hyacinth was used in two different concentrations and the test results are given in Table 4. This effluent treatment methods did not give good results on direct application. Also it posed a threat of sludge removal and disposal. Thus different forms of applications were sought. It is also noticed that 10  g/l of adsorbent seems to be better than the 50 g/l of adsorbent. 10 g/l of adsorbent reduces the TSS and TDS values as there is lower amount of sludge formation.

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C. Karuppuswamy and K. Palanisamy

4.3 Comparison of the Performances of Natural Adsorbents and Biological Treatments in the Presence and Absence of Induced Aeration Due to the unsuitability of the water hyacinth pulp in the tried concentrations, further trials were carried out with several effluent samples by using water hyacinth and bio-culture in the presence and absence of induced aeration and the test results are given in Table 5. Bio-culture is a bacterial composition used to increase the rate of degradation of the micro-organism in the effluent water. It works on the principle of biological augmentation. In all the treatment methods, the BOD values are within the permissible limits. The COD values are higher than the permissible limits in all the treatment methods. In the case of total suspended solids (TSS), Bio-culture with and without aeration treatment methods yielded permissible results. In the case of total dissolved solids (TDS), except adsorbent without aeration treatment, all the other treatment methods yielded permissible results. Since the COD values were high, the raw materials and other process ingredients are to be tested, to find out the real source of problem for the increase in COD value.

Table 5  Comparison of the performances of natural adsorbents and biological treatments in the presence and absence of induced aeration Adsorbent Induced Adsorbent (5 g/l) Raw aeration (5 g/l) with without Effluent effluent treatment aeration aeration parameters water only treatment treatment pH (at 5.59 6.11 6.48 6.18 27 °C) COD 608 576 544 1056 (ppm) BOD3 4 4 2 12 (ppm) TSS (ppm) 104 104 140 176 TDS 1004 1080 1628 2048 (ppm)

Bio-­ culture (1 g/l) with aeration treatment 6.36

Bio-­ culture (1 g/l) without aeration treatment 6.05

Max. permissible limits 6.5–8.5

576

512

250

6

4

30

72 1280

12 984

100 2100

A Critical Analysis of the Characteristics of Raw and Treated Effluents Generated…

41

4.4 Testing the Ayurvedic Dyeing Process Ingredients Separately by Boiling Them with Water In this trial, all the process ingredients were boiled in water separately and in combination and tested for the COD levels. Figure 1 shows the comparison of the COD values of the process ingredients. This attempt was carried out in order to identify the root cause for the higher COD levels. The results revealed that COD levels were found higher in the dye kashayam. After identifying the source of higher COD values, further treatment methods were formulated.

4.5 Comparison of the Performances of Biological Treatment in the Presence and Absence of Induced Aeration Since the process ingredients cannot be replaced, the method of using bio-culture was selected and followed by increasing its concentration. The test results of biological treatment in the presence and absence of induced aeration are given in Table 6. The results show that bio-culture treatment method lowered the BOD and COD values but they are not within the permissible limits. pH and TDS values are found within the permissible limits. But TSS values are found to be on the higher side.

COD (ppm) 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

Fig. 1  Comparison of COD levels of process ingredients

COD

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C. Karuppuswamy and K. Palanisamy

Table 6  Comparison of the performances of biological treatment in the presence and absence of induced aeration

Effluent parameters pH (at 27 °C) COD (ppm) BOD3 (ppm) TSS (ppm) TDS (ppm)

Effluent water treated with 10 g Raw bio-culture/litre effluent (with aeration) 6.32 6.95

Effluent water treated with 10 g bio-culture/litre (without aeration) 6.86

Effluent water treated with 5 g bio-culture/litre (without aeration) 6.54

Maximum permissible limits 6.5–8.5

864 60

320 76

480 50

448 52

250 30

128 1144

572 1180

496 1136

448 1164

100 2100

4.6 Comparison of the Performances of Natural Adsorbent and Bio-culture in Reverse Osmosis-Treated Water and Bore Well Water In this trial, various effluent water samples obtained from the dyeing process using RO (reverse osmosis)-treated water and bore well water are treated with multiple combinations of powdered natural adsorbent (water hyacinth), bio-culture and induced aeration. During the effluent water treatment process, the treated effluent water output was collected in purified as well as in turbid form and tested for their effluent parameters and the test results are given in Tables 7 and 8 respectively. Among the effluent water treated samples in which RO water was used in the dyeing process, effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-culture per litre with induced aeration (purified water), effluent water treated with 3  g of bio-culture per litre without induced aeration (purified water) and in effluent water treated with 5 g of bio-culture per litre with induced aeration (purified water), COD, BOD3, TSS and TDS values are within the permissible limits except pH value. Similarly, effluent water treated samples in which bore well water was used in the dyeing process, effluent water treated sample with sediment filter, ultrafiltration, activated carbon filtration and RO membrane and effluent water treated sample with 5 g of bio-culture per litre with induced aeration (purified water), COD, BOD3, TSS and TDS values are within the permissible limits except pH value. Among RO water and bore well water used in the dyeing process, RO water used in the dyeing process yielded good results. Among the RO water used in the dyeing process, the effluent water treated with membrane filtration and ultrafiltration and the effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-culture per litre without induced aeration and ultrafiltration (turbid water) yielded permissible limits of effluent parameters such as pH, COD, BOD3, TSS and TDS. The permissible limits of effluent parameters attained by the purified water through the above-mentioned treatments

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43

Table 7  Comparison of the performances of natural adsorbent and bio-culture in reverse osmosis-­ treated water used for the dyeing process Item description Permissible limits Raw effluent water Effluent water treated with membrane filtration and ultrafiltration. Effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-culture per litre with induced aeration (purified water) Effluent water treated with 3 g bio-culture per litre with induced aeration and ultrafiltration (turbid water) Effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-culture per litre without induced aeration (purified water) Effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-culture per litre without induced aeration and ultrafiltration (turbid water) Effluent water treated with 5 g of bio-culture per litre with induced aeration (purified water) Effluent water treated with 5 g of bio-culture per litre with induced aeration and ultrafiltration (turbid water)

pH (at 27 °C) 6.5–8.5 4.81 7.14

COD (mg/l) 250 672 160

BOD3 (mg/l) 30 64 12

TSS (mg/l) 100 168 36

TDS (mg/l) 2100 1444 776

5.52

64

12

Absent

68

6.62

288

54

8

972

5.99

128

12

Absent

48

7.01

128

16

12

1044

5.86

32

13

8

60

6.16

512

82

38

944

help to re-use it for the regular ayurvedic dyeing process. Furthermore, the turbid water coming out of these treatment methods can be used for irrigation purpose. The remaining solid remnants of the ayurvedic dyeing process may be dried and used as organic manure for agriculture purpose. Further research works may help to confirm the potential of the dried mass of the ayurvedic dye bath remnants as organic manure.

5 Conclusion • Several effluent treatment methods have been tried and the analysis of the effluent parameters was carried out from the ayurvedic dyeing process effluents. • To reduce the effluent parameters, water hyacinth was used as an adsorbent. Comparatively, 10 g/l of adsorbent showed better results than 50 g/l of adsorbent. • The 1 g/l of bio-culture without aeration treatment method showed better results compared to the effluent treated with water hyacinth. • Dye kashayam was found to be the major cause for the increase in COD value. • The effluent treated with membrane filtration and ultrafiltration yielded very good results and all the effluent parameters are within the pollution control board norms.

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Table 8  Comparison of the performances of natural adsorbent and bio-culture in bore well water used for dyeing process Effluent samples Permissible limits Raw effluent water Effluent water treated with sediment filter, ultrafiltration, and activated carbon filtration Effluent water treated with sediment filter, ultrafiltration, activated carbon filtration and RO membrane Effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-culture per litre without induced aeration (purified water) Effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-culture per litre without induced aeration and treated with ultrafiltration (turbid water) Effluent water treated with 5 g of bio-culture per litre with induced aeration(purified water) Effluent water treated with 5 g of bio-culture per litre with induced aeration and ultrafiltration (turbid water)

pH (at 27 °C) 6.5–8.5 5.70 6.07

COD (mg/l) 250 640 384

BOD3 (mg/l) 30 60 84

TSS (mg/l) 100 232 28

TDS (mg/l) 2100 1808 1460

5.40

192

4

Absent

420

5.96

256

52

Absent

124

6.54

352

74

12

1516

5.93

64

4

0

16

6.31

480

76

28

1280

• The turbid water in the case of effluent water treated with 3 g of bio-culture per litre without induced aeration and ultrafiltration yielded the permissible values of effluent parameter and can be used for irrigation purpose. • The solid ayurvedic dye bath remnants may be dried using standard methods and tested using appropriate test methods to ensure their usage as an organic fertilizer. Acknowledgement  The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to the management of PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore and Dr. K.  Prakasan, Principal, for their support and encouragement for the research work. The authors also thank the 2017 B.Tech. Fashion Technology students of the Department of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Dheepika S P, Sharmeela Banu A, Ebinesan M, Sekar M and Sugumar P for their help and contribution to the research work.

References 1. Saxena, S., & Raja, A. S. M. (2014). Natural dyes: Sources, chemistry, application and sustainability issues. In S. S. Muthu (Ed.), Roadmap to sustainable textiles and clothing, textile science and clothing technology. Springer Science+Business Media Singapore. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­981-­287-­065-­0_2 2. Report on “Global good practices in industrial wastewater treatment and disposal/reuse, with special reference to common effluent treatment plants”. Central Pollution Control Board (Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India).

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3. Samanta, A., & Konar, A. (2011). Dyeing of textiles with natural dyes. https://doi. org/10.5772/21341 4. Jaiswal, Y.  S., & Williams, L.  L. (2016, February 28). A glimpse of Ayurveda  – The forgotten history and principles of Indian traditional medicine. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 7(1), 50–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.02.002 5. https://aurvastra.in 6. Islam, M. R., & Mostafa, M. G. (2018). Textile dyeing effluents and environment concerns – A review. Journal of Environmental Science and Natural Resources, 11(1&2), 131–144. 7. Chan, P. M., Yuen, C. W. M., & Yeung, K. W. (2002). The effect of natural dye effluent on the environment. Research Journal of Textile and Apparel, 6, 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1108/ RJTA-­06-­01-­2002-­B006 8. Halepoto, H., Gong, T., & Memo, H. (2022, November 11). Current status and research trends of textile wastewater treatments-A bibliometric-based study. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1042256 9. Ramesh Babu, B., Parnade, A. K., Raghu, S., & Prem Kumar, T. (2007). Textile technologyCotton textile processing: Waste generation and effluent treatment. The Journal of Cotton Science, 11, 141–153. 10. Ranganathan, K., Karunagaran, K., & Sharma, D. C. (2007). Recycling of waste waters of textile dyeing using advanced treatment technology and cost analysis – Case studies. Resources, Conversation, Recycling, 50(3), 306–318. 11. Mostafa, M. (2015). Waste water treatment in textile Industries  – The concept and current removal technologies. Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences, 7(1), 501–525. 12. Lin, S. H., & Peng, F. C. (1994). Treatment of textile wastewater by electrochemical method. Water Research, 28(2), 277–282. 13. Akbari, A., Remigy, J.  C., & Aptel, P. (2002). Treatment of textile dye effluent using a polyamide-based nanofiltration membrane. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification, 41(7), 606–609. 14. Pramanik, S.  K., et  al. (2011). Adsorbents for dye effluent of high strength COD and their microbiological analysis. Chemistry Journal, 01(01), 29–35.

Reality and Challenges in Sustainable Textiles S. Grace Annapoorani

Abstract  According to the concept of environmental sustainability, people must consume natural resources from the ecosystem of the earth at a rate that allows them to renew themselves. Reducing carbon footprints, packaging waste, water usage, and environmental impact are ongoing goals for manufacturing companies and brands. The financial benefits of these sustainable initiatives have been found by corporations. For example, limiting less on the materials used in packaging typically results in fewer overall costs for those materials. The textile sector contributes significantly to global economic growth, foreign exchange earnings, and the production of goods necessary for ensuring human welfare. The textile sector employs 300 million people, many of whom are women. Because natural resources are limited in the ecology of the world, it is crucial to use them wisely. This wise use heavily relies on sustainability. Together, brands and customers must cooperate to create a better future. Practically speaking, carbon footprints can be decreased by switching to greener options. The circular economy, which places a strong emphasis on minimising and recycling trash, is another significant option. Utilising organic ingredients and effective procedures are no longer sufficient for the textile and apparel industries to be considered sustainable. The textile industry uses a lot of chemicals and hazardous substances, as well as a lot of water and energy. The majority of textile enterprises release a significant amount of hazardous waste, endangering natural bodies. To support not only the textile industries but also the ecosystem as a whole, immediately need to implement modern production techniques that do not harm the environment and to use natural resources. It is obvious that the textile industry is undergoing a transformation to meet the growing demand for sustainable yarns and fabrics. Additionally, “Going Green” does not include making huge financial commitments or aiming to meet impossible standards. In the contemporary climate, the stability of the economy, society, and environment is directly related to corporate performance. The S. Grace Annapoorani (*) Department of Textiles and Apparel Design, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. S. Muthu (ed.), Novel Sustainable Process Alternatives for the Textiles and Fashion Industry, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35451-9_3

47

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government must also establish an environment that will allow businesses to follow a sustainable business model. Consumer awareness will undoubtedly play a significant part in the development of sustainable clothes in the future. The true definition of sustainability is altering one’s behaviour to be more environmentally friendly. The few natural resources will be preserved as a result. The supply of sustainable textiles can be greatly increased if the entire textile industry supply chain adopts responsibility. Keywords  Sustainability · Ecosystem · Textile sector · Economy · Going green and awareness

1 Introduction to Sustainability in Textile Industry The nature of the textile business, sustainability has become a hotly contested topic. If not run under strict control, the textile industry is regarded as one of the most dangerous to both the environment and society. Unfortunately, there is still much need for development in textile sector. The textile industry ability to survive without sustainability is deteriorating. Figure  1 below illustrates about the pillars of sustainability in social, economic, and environmental dimensions. Therefore, the issues that have been highlighted are low productivity, a lack of skilled workers, a lack of adequate infrastructure, inadequate government policies, and rapid fashion.

2 Pillars of Sustainability Environment, economics, and society are the three pillars that support sustainability. Profit, people, and the earth are some informal names for these three pillars. Each pillar is important in classifying the many initiatives that businesses and brands have done. Due to the rapid rise in consumer knowledge and the accessibility of mass online information, it has recently become one of the main areas of concern.

Economical

Fig. 1  Pillars of sustainability

Social

Environmental

Reality and Challenges in Sustainable Textiles

49

3 Environmental Sustainability According to the concept of environmental sustainability, humanity must utilise natural resources from the ecosystem of the planet at a rate that allows them to renew themselves. The environmental component frequently receives the greatest focus. Reducing carbon footprints, packaging waste, water consumption, and environmental impact are ongoing goals for manufacturing companies and brands. The financial benefits of these sustainable initiatives have been found by corporations. For instance, cutting less on the materials used in packaging typically results in lower total costs for those commodities.

4 Economic Sustainability This pillar makes ensuring that economic systems are stable and that everyone has access to things like stable sources of income across the world. Additionally, people may keep their freedom and have access to the resources they need to take care of their basic requirements.

5 Social Sustainability Social sustainability takes into account the fact that just officials who treat everyone equally and uphold individual, cultural, and labour rights are characteristics of healthy communities. People are shielded from prejudice. All people have access to universal human rights and fundamental requirements [1].

6 Classification of Challenges Poor Quality of Raw Materials  The quality of cotton needs to be raised. Low productivity is a result of poor raw material quality. Incorporating cutting-edge technologies will help to raise the raw materials quality. To increase the quality of raw materials, high-quality or hybrid seeds are necessary. Ginning and pressing methods assist to lessen contamination and raise cotton quality. Negative Impact on the Environment and Society  The clothing and textile industries harm the environment. It pollutes the air, soil, and water. Small businesses and a lack of environmental knowledge led to the direct discharge of dirty water into water sources. The dangerous chemicals found in industrially polluted water are bad for both human health and aquatic life. About 10% of the air pollution in the world

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comes from this industry. Consequently, this industry is a major contributor to global pollution. Low Productivity  There are several causes for the low production. A few potential causes include the underutilisation of new technologies, power outages, the use of unskilled labour, and poor infrastructure. Skill Shortage  In this business, there is no formal training for the labour force. Very few businesses spend money on employee training. A lack of skills results in low productivity, which lowers product quality. The entire team should receive training and a workshop to help solve this issue. Furthermore, due to the low salaries in this industry, child labour abuses are highly prevalent. In addition to being a morally and legally improper activity, it is also accountable for the unskilled labour. Poor Infrastructure  Automation is extremely lacking in the Indian textile and garment industries. The majority of industries produce clothing in a traditional manner. Additionally, power outages are a common issue. These issues must be solved if we want to maintain our competitiveness in the global economy. To tackle this issue, more funding, research, and development are needed. Building collapses and industrial fires are accidents caused by this inadequate infrastructure. This results in material and financial losses, but it can also result in fatalities. Lack of Sufficient Governmental Policies  Good government policy is necessary for effective regulation of this industry. Which can fill its gaps, such as the substantial volume of unskilled labour employed in this industry. Also included in the government policy should be strict environmental protection, waste reduction, recycling, garbage handling, etc. Fast Fashion  This started because consumers are not aware of their impact on the environment. Despite not having a necessity, the consumer buys excessive amounts of clothing since it is inexpensive and in the newest style. Due to this reason, consumers threw away outdated clothes before they had finished their product life. As a result, there is now an issue with trash creation and garment disposal.

7 Principles to Achieve Sustainability One of the riskiest technical processes is textile production. Our water base is severely polluted by the large number of effluents produced, especially by the wet processing sector. Therefore, the negative effects on the environment must be considered in the sustainable growth of the textile industry, and appropriate mitigation measures must be put in place. The industry must adhere to these five key principles in order to ensure sustainable growth. But gaining any of these comes with costs. Businesses cannot embrace sustainable practices while still remaining

Reality and Challenges in Sustainable Textiles

51

Value Addition Sustainable Manufacturing

Social Inclusion

Resource Optimization

To Achieve Sustainability

Environmental Hazard Mitigation

Fig. 2  Principles to achieve sustainability

competitive. That is the balance the industry needs to strike in order to progressively embrace sustainable practices so that the added expenses of doing so should not hurt their ability to compete [2] (Fig. 2).

8 Practices to Be Adopted for Sustainability Application of Life Cycle Assessment Method (LCA)  In general, consumers assess a product’s worth in terms of money, but the LCA technique gives information on the resources used in the product’s manufacture. Because the garment and textile sector directly affect the environment and natural resources through factors like water use, carbon emissions, and the eutrophication process, it becomes extremely important. This should be done in order to build and create a product that, after its existence, won’t affect the environment. Eco-Labelling of the Apparel  Eco-labelling for clothing should be done in conjunction with the life cycle analysis of the product. The goal of an eco-label is to inform customers about the clothing. This data includes environmentally friendly production methods, secure disposal, etc. This knowledge encourages consumers to choose sustainable and eco-friendly clothing. Globally, the development of sustainable fashion items depends heavily on ecolabelling. Environment-Friendly Practices  This industry demands extensive use of environmentally friendly techniques. Water pollution and carbon dioxide gas emissions, on the other hand, cannot be completely removed but may be reduced. Utilising

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energy-efficient processes, using renewable energy sources, and other environmentally friendly activities are only a few of the ones listed below: • • • • •

Using dies with little impact. A decrease in the usage of hazardous chemicals. Optimum utilisation of water and land. Reducing the amount of gas emissions used. Remove dangerous metals like lead and cadmium from used water through filtration. • Prevent contaminating surrounding water sources with this polluted water. Eco-Friendly Textile Fibres  Large amounts of insecticide are used in cotton crop cultivation. The cultivation of cotton crops in India accounts for around 55% of all pesticide consumption. Therefore, using organic fibres is necessary. No synthetic agrochemicals, fertilisers, or pesticides are used in the cultivation of organic fibre. Organic fibre manufacturing is therefore ecologically benign even if it is more expensive than regular cotton because it does not in any way degrade the soil. Recycled Clothing  The environmental problem of solid waste is getting worse, and the apparel sector is a big contributor. It has been determined that when the product life is complete, around two-thirds of the clothes production process end up in landfills. The fastest-rising home garbage is this one. Additionally, youthful consumers pay minimal attention to the environment and lack environmental consciousness. They had already discarded the clothing. Although there is recycling of textiles in this industry, it falls short of expectations. The reduce, reuse, and recycle method needs a lot more effort [3].

9 Importance of Sustainable Textiles Sustainable textiles are those that are produced using energy, materials, and techniques that are all derived from sustainable or recycled resources and that are safe for both people and the environment at all stages of the product life cycle. It may also imply that materials may be securely recycled into industrial or natural systems, and that social welfare may be improved at all phases of the product life cycle. The maintenance of human and environmental health and the continuous expansion of sustainable textile industries will be supported by a focus on the development of textiles that have fewer negative environmental effects while yet meeting customer needs. Natural fibres used in the textile industry include organic cotton, bamboo, flax, hemp, jute, ramie, sisal, abaca, and others. People have come to understand that sustainability is a notion for their existence as it is impacting businesses today. Even though the process of finishing fabrics and making clothes uses a lot of resources (such as water and electricity), the manufacturers in the textile industry are already

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considering their sustainable contribution. The first step towards sustainability may be seen in the usage of natural fibre as a raw material for textile production. Due to issues with climate change, greenhouse effect, and carbon dioxide emissions, textile producers, garment brands, and consumers have recently been more interested with the creation of sustainable fabrics. Customers are now demanding ethically made textiles as a result. As a result, there is now more demand for fabrics that are environmentally friendly and sustainable. Most garment and textile businesses now place the greatest importance on sustainability [4].

10 Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions linked to the usage of non-renewable energy are the main cause of the garment supply chain’s environmental effect. The greatest source of the apparel industry’s carbon footprint is fibre production, which includes agriculture for natural fibres and polymer extrusion for synthetic fibres. More than all international flights and maritime transportation put together, the yearly CO2e emissions from the textile industry are 1.2 billion tonnes. The yearly carbon footprint of the fashion business, when taking into account the whole life cycle, is 3.3 billion tonnes of CO2e. In order to create between 80 and 100 billion articles of clothing each year, the textile industry uses 98 million tonnes of non-renewable resources yearly, including oil, to make synthetic fibres, fertilisers for natural fibre growth, and chemicals for processing, dyeing, and finishing. If business continues as normal, the global garment industry’s influence on climate change is predicted to rise by 49% between 2016 and 2030. Determining energy-intensive hotspots at various points in the apparel supply chain and making the switch to renewable energy are therefore urgently needed. Particularly, oil-based synthetic fibres like polyester and nylon must be replaced with sustainable alternatives that have comparable qualities. Energy-intensive processes like spinning and weaving, for example, should limit their reliance on non-renewable energy and swiftly switch to renewable energy. It is important to keep in mind that this shift won’t be simple, given the constraints of available energy options around the globe [5].

11 Eco-Friendly Raw Materials As was already said, employing eco-friendly raw materials may lessen a significant portion of the supply chain’s negative effects. Plant-based materials should be used instead of synthetic fibres made from oil since they have a far lower carbon impact. Therefore, greater research into plant-based alternative fibres is required. To lessen the total environmental impact, eco-friendly practices should be used in the production and processing of those natural fibres. Most of these dyes and chemicals are dangerous and have a significant negative impact on the environment. Therefore,

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if farming and manufacturing are not properly handled, plant-based fibres might not be the greatest option. Sometimes the majority of a detrimental effect occurs later in a fibre type’s life cycle. Therefore, life-cycle impact assessment is crucial to comprehend the overall effects of each type of fibre, take the appropriate action, and select the best alternative material alternatives [6].

12 What Makes a Truly Environmentally Sustainable Clothing Product? The question of what constitutes a truly sustainable clothing product arises despite the fact that the sector can employ a wide range of ethical business practices. A completely clean and environmentally friendly piece of clothing is practically unattainable to manufacture. There isn’t a market for a true sustainable product. Today’s products are only partially sustainable. For instance, a piece of clothing may be made of organic cotton, yet the production methods used were hazardous. Similar to this, a product may be made with no waste in mind, yet the colouring process may involve dangerous chemicals. It is crucial to consider the essential measures that must be taken in order to completely sustain a product. Taking another look at these stages reveals how intricate the supply chain is and how difficult it is to produce sustainable apparel. The following are the essential procedures for creating a totally sustainable piece of clothing, while this list is not exhaustive: • 100% natural fibres, created and obtained locally whenever feasible, and cultivated naturally using the greatest water and land management practises. • The primary steps (spinning, weaving, dyeing, and cut-and-sew process) are performed out in a LEED-certified facility using 100% sustainable power, water, chemical, and organic waste resources that are carefully managed. • Using bio-based chemicals and dyes for printing, finishing, and dyeing processes. Only approved chemicals are used and handled correctly when synthetic colours are utilised. Before discharge, the wastewater receives thorough treatment. • The use of zero-waste fabric cutting is implemented during assembly. This solid trash is handled correctly. • Button, thread, zipper, lace, and other materials used in the trimmings are all environmentally friendly. • Making use of the cradle-to-cradle design philosophy. By carefully collecting customer data, the product incorporates the durable and emotional component. • Use of the most environmentally friendly transport path (for exporting items). Maritime shipping as opposed to airfreight, for instance. • The total cost of the product is determined by factoring in the cost of raw materials, the cost of production, the cost of natural resources, a charge for resource depletion, and margin. The cost of externalities is taken into account in the ultimate pricing. Restoring depleted natural resources is funded in part by the profits earned [7].

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13 Indian Textile Industry Challenges The unorganised sector and small and medium-sized businesses dominate India’s highly decentralised textile industry. The changing state and federal legislation provide serious challenges for the textile industry. The Goods and Services Tax raises the price of the apparel (GST). A key component of this is raising lending prices, labour expenses, and worker remuneration. There is increased attrition in the garment industry. The textile industry is attracting investment even though the federal government is seeking foreign purchasers. Cities like Bangalore, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Tirupur in India are the primary centres for the textile and garment industry. These manufacturers are able to swiftly, affordably, and with acceptable quality produce the entire line of woven garments and knitwear. The Indian textile industry suffers from its own set of problems, including a lack of access to cutting-­ edge technology and a failure to uphold global standards in a highly competitive market. China, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka are formidable competitors in the market for low-cost garments. The global textile sector is faced with major problems from quotas, tariffs, and non-tariff barriers. There are several issues with the textile business in India that are connected to the environment and social issues including child labour and individual safety regulations [8] (Fig. 3).

14 India Goes Green: Textile Industry India is one of the biggest manufacturers and exporters of textiles worldwide. The Indian government gives the textile sector the tools it needs to compete internationally, draw sizable investments, and create jobs. In addition to being a person’s basic needs, textiles have evolved into a fashion statement that generates enormous revenues for businesses both in India and throughout the world. These colourful, unusual clothes do, however, have a bad side since their hues have a negative impact on the surrounding environment. Processing textiles produces Fig. 3  Challenges faced by textile industry in India

Outdated Technology Shortage of power supply Illicit Markets Poor Working Environment

Excise duty on man made fibers Labour related problems

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a sizable amount of wastewater, which exerts a significant environmental pressure. It presents a significant chemical challenge to handle textiles. It makes use of several, ecologically scarce, non-biodegradable substances. When handling materials, the textile industry uses a variety of colours, synthetic mixes, and helper synthetics. The industry is like a two-edged sword, requiring intense monitoring and adherence to regulations to lessen its negative environmental effects. The goal of incorporating sustainability into the textile business is to establish thriving ecosystems and alliances through initiatives like raising the value of local goods and produce, cutting waste, and lessening the damage that manufacturing and consumption due to the environment. Leading Indian firms have made significant progress in integrating sustainability into the value chain of the textile manufacturing industry. Many have focused on structural element rather than only tailpipe management as a preferred approach to sustainability. Cotton is regarded by the business as a crucial ally. By implementing the Sustainable Organic Farming technique to expand their sustainable cotton range, they are creating a sustainable ecosystem from farm to fabric. As steadfast friends, they are ensuring sustainable manufacturing energy, its suppliers, and regulators. They are combining biomass supplies with solar roofing to make their energy mix more environmentally friendly. Some businesses are incorporating sustainability and circularity into every aspect of their supply chain, including trash recycling and the procurement of raw materials. They are focusing on pre- and post-consumer waste as they transition from linear to circular operations. By using recycled LDPE in place of virgin polyester for packing, they are committed to plastic recycling. By recycling industry waste and using textile scrap, they are also consuming less plastic [9]. The three E’s—Equity, Environment, and Economics—are the centre of the sector’s sustainability approach. They are committed to preserving and enhancing the environment by attracting more people back into nature than it now does. Eco-­ friendly textiles are also being developed in the industry to turn garbage into fibre. This approach minimises the loss of vital resources. Utilising trash PET bottles that would have otherwise been burned or dumped into landfills or seas, discarded PET bottles are converted into flakes that are finely transformed into a thread in multiple deniers and cut for spinning into yarn. These 100% recycled polyester fibres perform quite similarly to virgin polyester fibre in terms of quality. The Indian government is undertaking a wide range of programmes and measures to advance the textile sector. One of the Ministry of Textiles’ main plans is to create Mega Investment Textile Parks (MITRA). This plan will provide a top-notch foundation with plug-and-play capabilities to enable international exporting champions. This project would make India a popular destination for domestic and foreign divers looking to enter the textile and apparel industries. Over a 3-year period, the government plans to build seven textile parks. Increased production and export of Indian technical textiles are the goals of the recently introduced Production Linked Incentive (PLI) plan. It aims to significantly increase market share and make India the leading exporter of technical textiles. India has permitted 100% FDI in the Indian textiles sector under the automatic mechanism. 100% FDI is legal in India

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under the automatic system, and neither the non-resident investor nor the Indian company requires approval from the government to contribute. Due to the entry of FDI, the industry has seen an increase in investment over the previous 5  years. Project SU.RE – Sustainable Resolution – was also introduced by the Ministry in 2019. India’s garment sector has made a commitment to provide a sustainable route for the fashion industry. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and long-term objectives in the areas of corporate governance, social responsibility, and the environment will all be supported by this initiative. The textile industry has much to contribute to all of the SDGs and is ideally situated to influence a few key processes. The following SDGs are those that the industry can most directly influence: Promote gender equality and give women and girls more authority. Deloitte claims that because more than 75% of textile workers worldwide are women, supporting SDG 5 is a top priority for the industry. The manufacturing industry benefits from gender diversity through increased innovativeness, a greater return on equity, and increased profitability. Ensure that water is managed responsibly and that everyone has access to it. The need for food and energy forces the textile industry to join forces in a comprehensive, cross-sector effort to address the growing clean water shortage. All parties involved in the textile value chain utilise cutting-edge strategies to conserve water, repurpose water, and restore resources, including agriculture, which often uses a significant amount of water during the textile life cycle. Make ensuring that everyone has access to modern, cheap, dependable, and sustainable energy. The need for renewable energy solutions has long been recognised by the textile industry. They have continued to support the Paris Agreement and other programmes. Within their value chains, enterprises have also backed renewable energy measures. Promote full and efficient employment, inclusive and long-term economic growth, and decent work for everyone The World Bank claims that earnings in this industry are below average globally. However, workers in the textile industry make more money than they would in other industries on the domestic market. Consequently, for millions of low-skilled, underprivileged employees, the textile industry serves as a path out of poverty. Another crucial relation to reducing poverty is that most textile workers are women. Expanding women’s investment opportunities is essential for growth and the eradication of poverty. Increase innovation, promote equitable and sustainable industrialisation, and develop resilient infrastructure The clothing industry has embraced innovation by focusing on the outcomes of consumption and manufacturing as well as by investigating various business strategies.

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Less inequality both within and across nations By putting into practice ideas and tactics that guarantee the protection of human rights, the payment of fair salaries, and the eradication of unfair practices, the industry may better advance this aim. Ensure sustainable consumption behaviour and manufacturing by practising responsible behaviour. Along with resource and manufacturing savings, more sustainable inputs such as preferred fibres and materials, the industry is making impressive progress in testing out more circular models. However, changing consumer behaviour will also play a significant role in lowering consumption habits. Protect, repair, and encourage the sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, Manage Forest areas sustainably, Fight desertification, Halt and reverse land deterioration. Several businesses’ forest or forest-derived products policies have been modified to reflect commitments to purchasing from sustainably managed forests and ecosystems. The SDGs’ emphasised elements have a direct impact on corporate profitability, sustainability, and risk environment. By adopting a cluster-based strategy, the sector should make use of critical capabilities to seize this rare opportunity [10].

15 Eco-Initiatives for Sustainable Textiles 15.1 Right First Time (RFT) in Dyeing The idea was developed in 1970. Following the completion of the dyeing process, it utilises evaluating the colour of the coloured fabric. In the past, the cloth would be dyed, dried, and then tested to see if the colour matched the shade card or requirement sheet. When a discrepancy occurs, which is a frequent problem in the dyeing business, the dying is repeated, producing more effluent. This RFT only describes how to achieve the desired shade while dying for the first time. This approach is now an accepted standard procedure across all industries.

15.2 Naturally Coloured Cotton Since dying garments is the most dangerous process employed, a substitute was sought. Genetic engineering and textiles have progressed to make coloured cotton with earth-toned colours by changing the DNA coding. Additionally, there are several hues, including red, green, and brown. It is incredible how much longer they take to use or clean. The colours linger on the cloth longer than they do on fabrics

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that are naturally coloured. The yields are frequently lower, the fibre is shorter and weaker yet feels softer than the more generally available “white” cotton. This lessens our reliance on dying and, as a result, the dangerous chemicals and dyeing-­ related finishing procedures.

15.3 Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) The development of a textile standard for organic fibre certification was influenced by social and environmental concerns. Fibre is the foundational component of textiles, hence sustainability in goods begins with fibre. For certification, harvesting, labelling, end users, and consumer claims are assessed. Processing, production, labelling, trade, and distribution are further crucial components.

15.4 Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC) This foundation keeps an eye on the textile, accessory, and leather industries, as well as the whole industries value chain, which was chosen to be watched with the objective of “Zero discharge”. Here, the goal is zero harmful compounds, which may be achieved by eco-friendly chemistry and best practices [11].

16 Sustainability is the Major Mantra for Textile Industry Diverse businesses are being challenged to adopt sustainable practices in order to reduce their carbon footprints. Among these are the fashion and textile industries, which have a significant impact on the increase in CO2 levels. Those who are unsure of the need for this might find some sobering information at the Glasgow UN Climate Change Conference. It is well known that climate change may become irreversible if global temperatures rise by more than 1.5 °C. Sadly, the current Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) of countries throughout the world fall well short of the 2050 net-zero objective.

17 Carbon Trail and Our Common Cause Therefore, it is obvious that everyone, not just countries, ought to do their part to achieve the goals of combating climate change in order to save the earth. The fashion and textile sectors might serve as an example for doubters to understand the seriousness of global warming in this setting.

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Globally, the textile industry produces enormous amounts of hazardous chemicals and other effluents, which severely pollutes the air, land, and water. Additionally, significant amounts of water, electricity, and land are needed for its functioning. 1.2 billion tonnes of cotton fibre are discarded annually by garment and textile factories in India. This pre-consumer trash adds to the load on landfills and increases the production of chemical leachate, which has the potential to contaminate groundwater sources [12]. Chlorine, formaldehyde, and other pollutants, along with heavy metals like mercury and lead, are indeed being dumped untreated into water bodies in areas where laws are still lacking. The fact that 25% of all chemicals generated globally are used by the textile industry makes the problem more serious. Additionally, it takes 2700 l of water to grow cotton large enough to make only one cotton T-shirt. Worse, pesticides used on cotton and other textile crops wind up contaminating the environment, endanger wildlife and vegetation, and impair human health. Every human on Earth uses textiles on a regular basis, including clothing. Due to the massive extent of consumption, there are significant issues with pollution, increased demand, and resource waste. On the other hand, this offers great potential for the participants in the fashion and textile industries to tackle these problems by implementing eco-friendly, sustainable operations. Of course, a large number of fashion and textile businesses worldwide are already using sustainable production techniques. These include generating high-quality recycled yarns, avoiding the use of pesticides and other contaminants, recycling fibres, and consuming less energy and natural resources. For instance, a garment company in the Philippines recycles waste materials to create bags and shoes. A Brazilian fashion firm ensures zero waste by recycling old clothing into new ones and avoiding plastic packaging. There are several instances of businesses avoiding ecologically harmful activities by switching from fast fashion to the slower variety [13].

18 Circular, Sustainable, and Beneficial However, according to industry observers, the fashion and textile sector as a whole has to embrace the circular economy in order to reduce waste by recycling, reusing, and repurposing clothing. It is said that a big contributing factor to climate change is the need for fast fashion in the form of affordable, stylish clothing. According to some estimates, the textile sector contributes around 8% of the world’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This is not unexpected considering that producing one kilogramme of textiles requires a significant quantity of freshwater and more than 0.5 kg of chemicals. However, this situation may be changed by widespread advances that support sustainable operations and help lessen their negative effects on the environment. For instance, the pandemic has prodded practically all businesses in the economy to

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switch to a digital or hybrid type of operation that has a smaller harmful effect on the environment. Circularity and sustainability benefit firms economically. Smart product designs help businesses save money by reducing or preventing waste in manufacturing and avoiding pollution throughout processing. Circularity will support attempts to combat climate change. According to some estimations, circular business strategies including renting out clothing, reselling it, renovating, and repairing items can help reduce 143 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. According to a recent UNEP report, for the apparel industry to become more sustainable, better industry governance, more funding for environmentally friendly inventions, and a concerted effort to change customers purchasing patterns are essential. The worldwide textile industry, estimated to be worth $1000 billion in 2020, is expected to expand at a CAGR of 4.4% between 2021 and 2028. In the next years, the market expansion is anticipated to be driven by the quick development of e-commerce platforms and the exploding need for garments in the fashion industry. In the light of this, it is important to keep in mind that the textile industry is connected to five of the UN’s 17 SDGs (sustainable development goals): gender equality, safe drinking water and sanitation, sustainable consumption and production, and environmental policy. Textile industries from all across the world need to actively participate in the effort to end practices that worsen emissions and global warming if these goals are to be achieved by the targeted year of 2030. Meanwhile, it is in the best interests of fashion and textile companies to embrace sustainable practices as investors, shareholders, and other stakeholders become aware of ESG-compliant brands. It also entails the introduction of cutting-edge sustainability methods, procedures, and regulations that protect the health of both people and the environment. Textile businesses that follow environmentally friendly policies and production techniques will undoubtedly have an advantage over competing brands given the growing attention being paid to ESG problems. This might make a significant distinction between successful companies and also-rans in a market that is becoming more and more fiercely competitive [14].

19 Environmental Issues in Textile Industry One of the biggest polluters in the world, the textile sector has received harsh criticism. The chemicals utilised during the production of traditionally manufactured fabrics still remain in them. These chemicals can either evaporate into the air we breathe or be absorbed via our skin. Certain of the chemicals can cause cancer or damage children even before they are born, while others can make some individuals allergic to them. The second-most destructive crop in the world is cotton, which receives 25% of all pesticide applications made worldwide. The majority of cotton is grown under irrigation, and the combination of chemical application through

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Natural fibers include: • Cotton • Wool • Hemp • Bamboo • Flax • Angora • Cashmere • Leather and a variety of other plant or animal based fibers

Synthetic fibers are materials created from petrochemicals such as: • Polyester • Nylon • Spandex • Vinyl • Acrylics

Fig. 4  Various types of natural and synthetic fibre

synthetic fertilisers irrigation creates a direct pathway for hazardous chemicals to travel throughout the world’s groundwater (Fig. 4). A range of different textiles are made chemically. Natural fibres are environmentally friendly and biodegradable due to their origin, provided they are handled without the use of chemicals. Because organic farming requires more attention and doesn’t employ artificial ways to develop the crops, the yield is also lower than with commercial farming, making organically generated fibres pricey. From the development of the fibres through the creation of the finished fabric, there are several procedures involved in the textile industry. Our ecology is negatively impacted by the amount of toxic waste produced by the spinning, weaving, and processing industries. For example, 1. To produce a high yield, herbicides and fertilisers are used in the cultivation of all vegetable fibres, notably cotton. 2. Over time, these herbicides and fertilisers are bad for the ecosystem. 3. Although man-made fibres have advantages over natural fibres, they are not appropriate for wearers in our climate and the technique used to create them is more polluting. 4. Because so little of the water on our earth may be utilised for human use, all the factories that make textiles require a lot of water. 5. To prevent damaging the water table and soil of our world, every processing and dyeing unit must include an ETP (Effluent Treatment Plant). A garments washing has a significant number of environmental effects, especially when it calls for detergents, hot water, or dry cleaning. It is crucial to think about how the clothing will be used and cleaned because this will affect the potential effects over the course of the garment’s life. If all else is equal, cleaning some materials with less detergent and cold water will have relatively less of an impact [15].

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20 The Textile Industry Is Hazardous to the Environment The textile industry has been criticised as being among the biggest polluters in the world since it uses a lot of two materials: 1. Chemicals: The textile industry uses up to 2000 various chemicals, ranging from dyes to transfer agents. 2. Water: At every stage of the process, water is utilised to both transport the chemicals employed during that stage and to wash them out before moving on to the next. Water that has been contaminated by chemical additions is released into the environment as wastewater. • Heat from the effluent • A rise in pH • Saturation with dyes, de-foamers, bleaches, detergents, optical brighteners, equalisers, and many other chemicals used throughout the process are all contributing factors The chemicals utilised during the production of traditionally manufactured fabrics still remain in them. These chemicals can either evaporate into the air we breathe or be absorbed via our skin. Others may produce adverse responses in some people. Some of the chemicals are carcinogenic or may affect children even before birth. The second-most destructive crop in the world is cotton, which receives 25% of all pesticide applications made worldwide. The majority of cotton is irrigated, and irrigation along with chemical application (via pesticides and fertilisers) provides a direct pathway for harmful chemicals to travel throughout the world’s groundwater. Heavy metals, ammonia, alkali salts, hazardous solids, and a lot of harmful colours can all be found in dye bath effluents. A recognised carcinogen, organically bonded chlorine, is present in around 40% of colourants used globally. Depending on the particular dye and mordant used, natural dyes are seldom low-impact. Chromium is one of the very hazardous and damaging mordants (the material used to “fix” the colour onto the cloth). Natural dyes created from wild plants and lichens have a very significant effect since the vast amounts of natural dyestuffs required for dyeing are generally equivalent to or double that of the fibre’s own weight [16].

21 Manufacturing Process of Textiles Fabrics are made using a number of industrial methods, such as weaving, spinning, knitting, wet treatment, and sewing. In addition to the energy and water consumed during production, wastes such as wastewater that might be tainted with chemicals are also inescapably created. Because doing so will lessen the negative effects of manufacturing, preference should be given to manufacturers who utilise cleaner production methods or who have obtained an environment protection certification. The production of fabric and even clothing has negative environmental impacts.

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Consider the clothing business, which produces large amounts of heat and carbon and is equally to blame for ozone depletion and carbon emissions into the environment. Because of the dangerous chemicals utilised in the sector, tougher industrial standards and regulations are required. The three R’s—Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle—should be regarded as the fundamental mantra.

22 Inks and Dyes Most textiles go through a procedure called wet treatment, which includes de-sizing, pre-washing, mercerising, bleaching, printing, and dying. Numerous of these procedures call for chemicals and dyes, which can lead to the production of potentially dangerous waste products, the acceleration of global warming, and the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the atmosphere. Avoid harmful heavy metal inks and dyes (such as those containing cadmium and beryllium) and, if feasible, go for natural colours derived from plant matter. Additionally, search for dye producers who recycle their waste [17].

23 Political, Environmental, and Economic Effects of Cotton Production The two categories of cotton growing are organic and genetically modified. Millions of people depend on the cotton crop for their livelihood, but because of excessive water use, the use of pricey herbicides, insecticides, and fertiliser, cotton is getting more and more expensive to produce. Products made from genetically modified ingredients are intended to be more disease resistant and use less water. The value of the organic industry was $583 million. In 2007, 43% of cotton-growing regions were used to cultivate GM cotton. Water and electricity are also consumed at quite high rates, particularly during operations like washing, de-sizing, bleaching, rinsing, dyeing, printing, coating, and finishing. It takes time to process. The wet processing of textiles uses the majority of the water in the textile industry (70%). The energy required for dyeing makes up around 25% of the overall energy consumed in the manufacture of textiles, including the production of fibre, spinning, twisting, weaving, knitting, and apparel. Spinning uses around 34% of the energy used for processing, weaving uses 23%, chemical wet processing uses 38%, and other processes use 5%. While the consumption patterns for spinning and weaving are dominated by power, chemically wet processing is mostly driven by thermal energy [18].

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24 Use Guidelines and Instructions For particular fabric types, the Wash care labels should be used with extreme caution in order to prolong the life of the textiles and protect the environment. Given that laundry requires the use of water and other chemicals, consumers must also be extra cautious while selecting their clothing and paying attention to the proper wash and care recommendations.

25 Wider Ethical Issues All is fair in business in today’s quick-paced world, but it’s time we stopped to consider what is right and wrong since, in the end, the ones who have to pay the price. God created this lovely natural world for our benefit, but man has abused it to further his own selfishness.

26 Pollution Prevention and Control • Water conservation and more effective use of process chemicals should be the main goals of pollution prevention initiatives. Process modifications might consist of the following: • Refrain from using spinning oils and less-degradable surfactants in washing and scouring operations. • Take into account using transfer printing on synthetics. When possible, use printing pastes that are water-based. • Take into account the usage of pad batch dyeing. • When possible, swap winch dyers for jet dyers. • Refrain from using azoic colours based on benzidine and those that include cadmium and other hazardous metals. Should not use colours that include chlorine. • Avoid using prohibited pesticides, mercury, and arsenic during the procedure. • Manage chemical composition and tailor process variables to cloth type and weight.

27 The Textile Industry Needs to Rethink Sustainability The estimated size of the worldwide textile market in 2020 was $1000 billion, and it is anticipated to increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.4% from 2021 to 2028. In the upcoming years, the market is anticipated to be driven by rising demand for clothing from the fashion sector as well as the development of e-commerce platforms.

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Five of the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—climate action, gender equality, responsible consumption and production, clean water and sanitation, and decent work and economic growth—are related to the textile sector. Globally, textile firms are aggressively promoting pollution-reduction techniques and establishing emission targets to slow down climate change [19].

27.1 The Need of the Hour for Textile Industry The textile sector, one of the most polluting in the world, must look into sustainable practices to reduce resource consumption and pollution, enhance worker safety, and protect customer’s right to make informed purchasing decisions. Agriculture, manufacturing, processing, fabric care, usage, recycling, and disposal are all part of its supply chain. The wet processing sector, in particular, uses many of the riskiest technical techniques and generates large volumes of effluents that severely pollute our water supply. Therefore, the negative effects on the environment must be considered in the sustainable growth of the textile industry, and appropriate mitigation measures must be put in place. The capacity of sustainable textile to decrease waste by ensuring reuse and recycling of goods while reducing the consumption of resources like land, water, and oil is crucial to the industries survival. The textile sector should also concentrate on other sustainability-related issues, such as protecting the environment and public health, workplace safety, gender equality, and satisfying customer demand for eco-­ friendly textile goods [20]. The Biggest Challenge for the Industry Includes: • Increasing the pace of technical innovation in the sector and looking for more sustainable technology solutions in order to achieve sustainability without sacrificing market competitiveness. • Changing the business from one that produces inexpensive ready-made clothing to one that creates products with value-added. • Increasing industry-institute partnerships and encouraging more investment in independent R&D. • Increasing the ability to innovate and giving the resources needed to keep such inventions alive. Important things to concentrate on as we move toward a sustainable future:

27.2 Green Sourcing • Noting the raw material supply that can be useful and durable for this market and sector over the long term.

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• Comparing the costs of sustainable and non-sustainable products and services can be a significant factor in the industry that can be taken into consideration to change its working system. • One should continue to persuade their marketing research team to uncover sustainable and green options for raw goods and more in order to make ends meet in terms of a green alternative. • Regular reviews and monitoring are essential, and the sourcing strategy must change to meet the needs and demands of the allocated company.

27.3 Sustainable Production • Promoting the responsible use of natural resources such as water and energy in manufacturing processes, which has the potential to significantly alter this industry. • Eliminating the use of chemicals in dyeing and coating processes in favour of natural colours and fibres. • Waste management practices that combine high water recovery with disposal to prevent any potential imbalances. • Strict adherence to the application of animal cruelty rules in the purchase of wool, silk, fur, and other products. • Adoption of renewable energy sources to power companies. • Adherence to recommendations to eliminate health hazards to employees and customers. • Continuously replacing outdated models of equipment with ones that use less energy.

28 Stakeholder Engagement • Associations should play a significant role in raising awareness and auditing various developing techniques that would not only benefit the associations but ultimately take a step towards a better future. • Provide ongoing employee training on sustainability issues to improve consciousness and understanding. • Increased conversations and talks on sustainability in this business with governments, associations, customers, and other significant stakeholders to promote multistakeholder cooperation. The competitiveness of industries may be assured by developing new products, improving quality, increasing productivity, controlling costs, and progressively implementing green and eco-friendly activities. The adoption of the relevant sustainable principles will be influenced by all these industry-specific competitive characteristics [21].

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29 Effect of COVID-19 on Textile Industries Sustainable Development The COVID-19 incident has shown once again how important plastic materials are to our daily lives. Throughout the continuing worldwide pandemic, plastics materials have made enormous contributions to the medical services sector and public health security. The continuous use of hand sanitisers along with the use of plastic-based protective gear (PPE), such as hand gloves, medical gowns, aprons, face shields, facial masks, and other necessary PPEs for front-line safety and wellness officers and workers, as well as limitations on travelling and general get-together, have also been implemented to maintain a strategic distance from the situation. Contrary to the background of widespread boycotts or restrictions in many countries, consumer behaviour changes along with the reliance on online shopping through e-commerce websites and take-away facilities for home delivery of essential items during the global pandemic have prompted an impressively expanded interest for plastic-based packaging materials, including single-use plastics. The spread of the disease has also sparked a fresh kind of consumer interest and societal alterations like frenzy buying, amassing food items and groceries among the majority, and therefore causing an increase in the use of plastic-based packaging materials in many countries. Therefore, PPEs and packaging materials are mostly to blame for a surge in the need for plastic across the global pandemic. The plastics used in packing materials primarily consist of polyethene terephthalate (PET), high-density polyethene (HDPE), low-density polyethene (LDPE), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polyurethane (PU), and polycarbonate (PC) [22]. In addition to comparable non-contaminated products from unaffected sources, COVID-19 medical clinics, remote offices, containment zones, and other impacted sources produce harmful and infectious biomedical waste (BMW), which is made up of contaminated plastic-based PPEs and other disposable items. In this way, the widespread use of plastic-based personal protection equipment and other non-­ reusable materials since the start of the new coronavirus outbreak may be directly linked to the development of COVID-19 biological waste. The global amount of plastic waste has grown as a result of the rising use of plastic-based packing materials mixed with the growing demand for medical supplies and packaging materials during the epidemic. In the light of this, the epidemic has created a serious environmental problem involving the production of plastic garbage on a global scale. Under normal circumstances, waste management facilities are typically designed for constant state operations with reasonable variations in waste size and content. However, the routine operation of the existing facilities will probably certainly be impacted by the pandemic-induced change in waste generation and composition factors. Additionally, the decline in plastic recycling caused by falling oil and gasoline prices, taking into account reduced transportation activities during the vital period of lockdowns brought on by the epidemic, has made managing plastic trash an enormous problem. To prevent cross-infection, surgical masks and hand gloves should only be used for a few hours and then properly disposed of. In

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this regard, a few nations have made an effort to implement safety measures with the removal of potentially contaminated PPE in mind. For instance, the Portuguese Environmental Agency recommended that all potentially contaminated personal protective equipment (PPE) used by residents be disposed of as mixed wastes (not recyclables) in fixed and sealed trash containers that will likely be used as landfills or follow incineration facilities. As a result of administration concerns over the possibility of COVID-19 spreading in recycling facilities, a few US states have also discontinued their recycling programmes and are instead focusing on both incineration and landfilling. Such a decline in trash recycling is contrary to the goals of the circular economy and unexpected in that it results in contamination from plastic waste. PPE will typically be discarded carelessly, either in standard municipal garbage with empty hand sanitiser bottles and organic wastes, or, regrettably, left lying around in the local environment. Disposable gloves and face masks, along with other plastic goods, have accidentally been removed and ended up as litter in neighbouring public areas. Depending on how they were used during the pandemic, there are many types of face masks available, including medical facepieces with filters and non-medical masks like fabric ones. Overall, medical face masks have three layers: an outside layer of nonwoven fibres (which are typically water-resistant), a middle layer, which typically contains a melt-blown filter and serves as the mask’s primary filter, and an inside layer of soft fibres. Since they are made with commercial synthetic fabrics like spandex, chiffon, flannel synthetic silk, cotton quilts, and others, cloth masks are particularly washable and affordable. These synthetic fibre-polymer mixes are used to create these engineered textile fabrics. Polyester, nylon, and polyether-polyurea copolymers are the most often used polymers in the construction of these synthetic textile products. Then, as fibres from home washing are dumped into wastewaters, these sorts of textile materials may also contribute to the microplastics pool when they eventually reach wastewater treatment facilities (WWTP). These textile filaments may then be released into the water by a washing machine. In practically every region of the world as of April 2020, face masks were required for anybody spending time outside. In recent years, the production of face masks has increased significantly. Because of the widespread COVID-19 epidemic, this high demand, importation, and improper usage may drive medical professionals and residents to mishandle medical waste. In addition, people’s lack of knowledge about the types of domestic garbage they create and their failure to organise it at home also contribute to the pandemics’ increased plastic pollution. The increase of plastic garbage in aquatic bodies under the current situation has forewarned scientists. Furthermore, as marine life can tangle with the straps, fabric masks pose a risk to them as well. Despite the rising use of disposable plastics and personal protective equipment (PPE), the pandemic has resulted in significant technical advancements to prevent COVID infection. This is demonstrated by the use of silver and copper nanoparticles with dynamic capabilities to combat microbes and ensure asepsis. Chile and Argentina are two South American countries that have demonstrated face masks with fungicidal, bactericidal, and antiviral effects as well as the use of sprays and

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gels containing copper nanoparticles. Clinics, hospitals, and nursing homes are being disinfected with the help of this invention. It has been determined that artificial or manufactured nanoparticles are emerging pollutants. A few studies have shown the release of nanoparticles from commercial products in aquatic flora and fauna, their long-term effects as a common pollution in these water bodies, and their serious harm to marine species [23].

30 Conclusion While there is some consensus that our societies must become more sustainable, there is still a great deal of variability in the goals, political direction, and implementation of these efforts. The statistics also showed this to be true. Alternatives that are environmentally friendly are not always monetarily viable or readily accessible. Sometimes the negative effects of less desirable habits outweigh the advantages of excellent activities. On what practice is the most beneficial, there is frequently disagreement. To better meet the requirements of the present and the future, policy instruments need to be updated. According to the news data, a shared objective between producers and customers, decision-makers and people, as well as across various businesses and nations, is required. The harm to the environment that the global textile industries emissions inflict is unimaginable. Every stage of the manufacturing operation, from the raw materials to the completed product, has an impact on the environment. The only solution to this problem is to change to a sustainable lifestyle. A sustainable way of living comprises utilising products that do not harm animals, should not involve children, provide fair pay for employees, and do not have an impact on the environment. A clean clothing line is also created by a group of cooperative sustainable firms. The main issue they have is that not enough people are aware of sustainable textiles. To compete in the international market, the Indian textile sector needs backing from both the Central and State governments. The Central government’s Make-in-­ India and Skill-India initiatives, spearheaded by Prime Minister Sri Narendra Modi, are assisting the textile sector in obtaining the trained labour it needs as well as a healthy market for textile products. It is past due for the textile sector to modernise their technology and use ERP to improve customer relationship management tasks and simplify the supply chain. These actions are helping the sector become competitive on the world market. The Indian textile sector has a bright future ahead of it, supported by strong local and foreign demand. Since various foreign companies, like Marks & Spencer, Guess, and Next, entered the Indian market, the retail sector has grown quickly due to rising consumption and disposable income. The Indian textile sector has a bright future ahead of it, supported by strong local and foreign demand. Since various foreign companies, like Marks & Spencer, Guess, and Next, entered the Indian market, the retail sector has grown quickly due to rising consumerism and disposable income. Over a 10-year period, the organised apparel market is anticipated to expand at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of over 13%.

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In addition to finalising the rules for the updated Textile Upgradation Fund Scheme, the Union Ministry of Textiles, which has set a target of doubling textile exports in 10 years, intends to sign bilateral agreements with Australia and Africa as well as work on a new textile policy to promote value addition (TUFS). In FY2017–18, it is anticipated that the Indian cotton textile sector would develop steadily, helped along by stable input costs, good capacity utilisation, and sustained domestic demand. Higher disposable income is the outcome of strong economic growth. A vast domestic market has been created as a result of the increase in product demand. By 2025, it is anticipated that the domestic market for clothes and leisure goods, presently estimated at US$ 85 billion, would have grown to US$ 160 billion. In FY2017–18, it is anticipated that the Indian cotton textile sector would develop steadily, helped along by stable input costs, good capacity utilisation, and sustained domestic demand. To take remedial measures, it is crucial to comprehend the environmental effects of the apparel life cycle and the related activities. Since we lack a comparative understanding of various textile materials, our understanding is currently relatively limited. Only research on the life cycles of cotton and polyester fibres are in-depth, while those on other fibres are few. There is never a better moment to act decisively on climate change than now, with COVID-19 threatening to affect many facets of life in 2020. The world should become aware of the effects of climate change as a result of this epidemic. While civilisation can still operate to some extent in the event of COVID-19, this is not possible in the event of a climate-related crisis. Therefore, it is imperative that both supply and demand side players understand how their choices affect the environment and society.

References 1. Guifang, W., Han, K., & Salmon, S. (2009). Applying enzyme technology for sustainable growth. Asian Textile Journal, 78(12), 95–98. 2. Jadhav, C., & Abhishek, A. (2009). Eco-friendly substitution in textiles. International Textile Bulletin, 5, 12–30. 3. Kumar, S., & Goweri, K. (2010). Eco-textiles. The Textile Magazine, 11, 16–20. 4. Marwaha, S. (2006). Eco Friendly Fibres. Asian Textile Journal, 5, 58–62. 5. Nadiger, G. S. (2001). Azo ban, eco norms and testing. Indian Journal of Fiber and Textile Research, 26(6), 55–60. 6. Nalankilli, G. (2010). Eco-friendly substitution in textiles. Textile Research Journal, 71(8), 688–694. 7. Patel, S. B. (2009). Applying enzyme technology for sustainable. Colourage, 12, 57–59. 8. Rao, J.  V. (2001). ‘Green technology’ for safe textiles. Indian Journal of Fiber and Textile Research, 26(6), 78. 9. Saraf, N. M., & Alat, D. (2007). Dyeing without water. Colourage, 7, 27. 10. Teli, M. D., & Landge, S. (2001). Eco friendly clothing. Indian Journal of Fiber and Textile Research, 26(3), 101. 11. Upadhyay, G., & Dedodiya, S. (2011). Ecotextiles: Path to sustainable development. Asian Journal of Home Science, 6(1), 103–106. 12. Samanta, A. K., & Adwaita, K. (2012). Technical handbook on natural dye and colouration (pp. 45–72). Department of Jute and Fibre Tech, IJT, Calcutta University, Kolkata, India.

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13. Bhattacharya, N. (1999). Natural dye–Its authenticity and identification. In Convention proceedings, 1st convention on natural dyes (p. 134). Department of Textile Technology, IIT Delhi. 14. Samanta, A. K., & Agarwal, P. (2009). Application of natural dyes on textiles. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research, 34, 384–399. 15. Tiwari, V., & Vankar, P. S. (2001). Unconventional natural dyeing using microwave and sonicator with alkanet root bark. Asian Textile Journal, 10(5–6), 54. 16. Samanta, A.  K., Singhee, D., & Sethia, M. (2001). Application of single and mixture of selected natural dyes on cotton. In Convention proceedings, 2nd convention on natural dyes. Department of Textiles Technology, IIT Delhi, 20. 17. Teli, M. D., Valia, S. P., & Maurya, S., & Shitole, P. (2014). Sustainability based upcycling and value addition of textile apparels. In International conference on multidisciplinary innovation for sustainability and growth (Vol. 1, pp. 91–97). https://globalilluminators.org/conferences/ misg-­2014-­kuala-­lumpurmalaysia/misgfull-­paper-­proceeding-­2014/ 18. Vadicherla, T., Saravanan, D., Ram, M.  M., & Suganya, K. (2017). Fashion renovation via upcycling. In Textiles and clothing sustainability (Textile science and clothing technology) (pp. 1–54). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­981-­10-­2146-­6_1 19. Purvis, B., Mao, Y., & Robinson, D. (2019). Three pillars of sustainability: In search of conceptual origins. Sustainability Science, 14(3), 681–695. 20. Grace Annapoorani, S. (2017). Social sustainability in textile industry. In S.  Muthu (Ed.), Sustainability in the textile industry (Textile science and clothing technology) (pp.  57–78). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­981-­10-­2639-­3_4 21. Manickam, P., & Duraisamy, G. (2019). 3Rs and circular economy. In Circular economy in textiles and apparel: Processing, manufacturing, and design (The Textile Institute book series) (pp. 77–93). Woodhead Publishing. 22. ISO (International Organization for Standardization). (2006). Environmental management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and framework. ISO 14040:2006. 23. Resta, B., & Dotti, S. (2015). Environmental impact assessment methods for textiles and clothing. In Handbook of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of textiles and clothing (pp. 91–149). Woodhead Publishing series in textiles, Woodhead Publishing.

Scope of Natural Dyes and Biomordants in Textile Industry for Cleaner Production Bhavana Balachandran and P. C. Sabumon

Abstract  Nowadays, it is obvious to everyone that the majority of synthetic dyes pose significant danger to human health since toxic elements are released during their production, use, and ultimate release into the environment. As a result, it has been argued that using natural dyes to color textiles would be a more environmentally beneficial and green alternative. In this regard, scientists have discovered and used several sources of plants, animals, and insects for dyeing fabrics to promote cleaner production. Numerous researchers are interested in natural dyes because they often have multiple benefits, including coloring, antimicrobial, UV absorption, and anti-­ allergic qualities. Therefore, one of the most important goals of researchers in recent decades has been the introduction of new environment friendly color compounds, investigation on their extraction, dyeing potential, and color fastness, as well as some other advantageous characteristics of these dyes. The majority of natural dyes are less fitting to bind to textile fibers. This makes the necessity of large amount of metal mordants to fix the dye on fabric. But, for the sake of the environment, natural dyes and eco-friendly mordants must be used. Biomordants offer acceptable dyeing and solidity properties and are a sustainable and environmentally responsible alternative to metal mordants. Plants having high tannin content or hyper-­ accumulative metal plants are sources of biomordants. This book chapter deals with classification of natural dyes and their extraction processes, dyeing application to fibers, biomordants and their use in textile industry, and advantages and disadvantages of natural dyes and biomordants. The work presented may help to promote cleaner production in textile industry. Keywords  Color · Natural dyes · Biomordants · Textile industry · Sustainability · Tannins · Cleaner production

B. Balachandran · P. C. Sabumon (*) School of Civil Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai Campus, Chennai, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. S. Muthu (ed.), Novel Sustainable Process Alternatives for the Textiles and Fashion Industry, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35451-9_4

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1 Introduction The colors all around us give the world a beautiful appearance. These can be either organic or artificial. Businesses have strived to enhance the attractiveness of the manufactured goods that surround us since the advent of industrialization. Dye is the main substance that gives color to the objects around us. The majority of the color in our clothes and fabrics comes from dyes. Compounds known as dyes have the capacity to adhere to fabric. While the quality of dyes varies depending on the manufacturer. Normally dyes which easily attach to the fabric and chemically stable will be more preferred. When a textile is dyed, the dye molecules and the textile form a robust chemical linkage. The tedious process of dyeing involves numerous chemical stages. Sometimes dyes do not form a strong bond with fibers and can readily separate from them after one or two washing. To improve the fastness properties in these situations, the dyers may also add some mordants and fixative to the dying bath. Most commonly used dye in the synthetic category is azo dyes. They cover up to 60% of the total dyes produced in the world. Around 15–50% of the azo dyes do not attach with textile fibers and release to environment through wastewater [31]. The main driver of a nation’s economic progress is thought to be industrialization. However, the cause of environmental damages is due to inappropriate industrial waste disposal. Emerging trends for environmental restoration have risen as a result of the realization that environmental contamination not only poses a global threat to human health but also both ecological and economic reasons. The textile industry and its effluent are growing in tandem with the demand for textiles and clothing, making it one of the major contributors to the world’s serious pollution problems. The environment should not be exposed to colored effluents in particular their breakdown products which are toxic and carcinogenic as well as their hue [53]. In the textile business, it is estimated that 1600 m3 of water is needed daily to produce 8 tons of cloth [59]. Some of the synthetic colors used in textile industry are either not biodegradable or cause pollution by staying in the environment. Although some of these dyes consist of amines they are generally cancer-causing, the creation of synthetic dyes is reliant on petrochemical sources. The usage of such colors poses major health risks and adversely affects nature’s eco-balance. Furthermore, many nations have already implemented strict environmental regulations on these colors. Because of these stringent regulations, there is a greater need for environment friendly options of coloring the textiles and fabrics. Also, in order to prevent water contamination, it is crucial to remove the dyes from industrial effluents [7] before their disposal to water bodies. In the past, natural dyes attained from plants, insects, mollusks, and minerals had employed by artists to create their paintings. Additionally, to the cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries, natural dyes such as henna, catechu, saffron, and rhubarb were also utilized. Before the development of chemical science, natural substances were utilized as dyes. Natural dyes like hematoxylin, carmine, and orcein are still used in the industry even though they are displaced by synthetic dyes.

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When human-made synthetic dyes were developed in the middle of the nineteenth century, the major market for natural dyes saw a long-term decline. Synthetic dyes quickly took the role of natural colors in the production of commercial textiles. Unlike natural dyes, they could be produced cheaply in large quantities and were suitable for the synthetic fibers. Natural dyes have the advantages of being safe, ecofriendly, non-carcinogenic, biodegradable, and non-allergic [42]. While it is having the disadvantages of less fixation capacity and fastness properties. The excessive utilization of artificial colors, which totals about 800,000  tons annually, can be substituted with natural dyes [24]. Natural dyes are obtained generally from animals, plants, insects, and microbes. Now they are popular among researchers. Plants-based dyes got more recognition compared to other methods due to their less toxic nature and they are easily available. For large-scale production crop-based dyes are found to be more beneficial [56]. Natural dyes were produced and discovered by our ancestors, who successfully employed them in the past for painting, coloring textiles, and other purposes. There are many different places where natural dyes can be found. Plant root of Common madder, rhizomes of Himalayan rhubarb, turmeric, insects (such as Lac insects, Kermes), and secretions of sea snail are a few examples of these. People used indigo to extract blue color and madder to extract red color during the Mediterranean civilization. In the past, Egyptian mummies’ nails were painted with henna. The use of natural dyes has a long history. For example, many other ancient civilizations have also documented using henna, madder, and indigo as natural dyes. Ancient artifacts from Indus valley civilizations excavated at Mohanjodaro and Harappa provided evidence of the use of natural dyes at that period [63]. The evidence from the Mohanjedaro excavations demonstrated that Indian artisans used madder to color cotton fabrics. The colored cloths are mentioned in classics like the Mahabharata and the Code of Manu, giving them particular social and religious meanings. Many other ancient civilizations have also documented using henna, madder, and indigo as natural dyes [35]. The dyers of the Mugal era employed plants like Kachnar, turmeric, saffron, madder, henna, pomegranate, etc. to extract natural colors, according to evidence discovered. They also employed chemical mordants at the same time, such as soluble salts of chromium, aluminum, iron, and tin. The mordants aid in the natural dyes’ adhesion to the fabric fibers [38]. By the end of the fourth century AD, dyers in India had mastered the techniques of bleaching, mordanting, and dyeing. In tenth-century contemporary chronicles, particularly the work of the anonymous Hudud-ul-Alam, there are descriptions of compound colors comprised of purple, blue, black, and red with varying levels of pink & gold. In India, block printing and mordanting techniques extend back to prehistoric times according to “Dyeing of cotton textiles in the Mughal Hindustan” [39]. Due to environmental concerns, several natural dyes and biomordants have gained prominence again in the twenty-­ first century [64]. The need for natural dyes is rising again in the fashion sector at the start of the twenty-first century onwards. There is a rising demand for goods that employ

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natural dyes as Western customers are becoming more worried about the health and environmental effects of artificial dyes, which are manufactured using hazardous by-products of fossil fuels. For instance, the European Union has pushed Indonesian batik fabric manufacturers to transition to natural colors in order to expand their European export market. Cleaner Production (CP) aims to enhance efficiency and reduce problems to people and the environment by integrating the ongoing use of deterrent environmental techniques into processes, goods, and services. The idea of cleaner production is currently being promoted and largely embraced throughout the world. A straightforward policy may be utilized to implement Cleaner Production. It complies with Environmental Management Systems (EMS), such as the ISO 14001 standard, which is used by medium- and large-sized businesses. CP methods involve the following elements: changing up the materials used, altering the processes, modernizing the equipment, redesigning the goods, and improving health and environmental safety (EHS) features including chemical substitution, water conservation, and waste reduction. By widely using Cleaner Production, the textile industries can improve the sustainability [15]. In this context, this book chapter mainly focuses on natural dyes and biomordants which are less harmful compared to the synthetic ones used in textile industry. The study that is being given could aid in modifying the input materials and encourage cleaner production in the textile industry.

1.1 Natural Dyeing Process in Indian Aspects Researchers have discovered textile dyeing artifacts from the Neolithic era. The only sources of fabric colors available during the ancient era were natural dyes created from plants, animal extracts, or minerals. While most dyes came from either mineral pigments or plant extracts derived from materials such as flowers, woods, nuts, seeds, berries, barks, and roots, there were also occasionally dyes made from other materials such as specific fungus or lichens, insects, or shellfish. Since ancient times, we have colored our clothes with materials that are readily available in our area. Nearly 450 plants that produce dye can be found in India. Indeed, at Mohenjo-­ Daro, a 5000-year-old fragment of madder-dyed textile was discovered. It shouldn’t be a surprise that India is one of the top and largest exporters of natural dyes to the rest of the civilized world; in fact, this is nothing new. Ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and even the Phoenicians used Indian dyes extensively. Indigo, yellow, red, and purple were some of the most widely manufactured colors in India with a high demand abroad. The red or black berries found on the common madder plant, which is a member of the coffee family and was previously known as “The Queen of Natural Dye” were used to create various shades of red and pink pigments in India. Turkish red is a natural dye used to dye cotton in the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries. It was derived from the root of rubia plant. It was really created in India long before it

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became famous in Turkey. Kanchipuram silk sarees were formerly dyed with red pigment made from natural, unprocessed shellac or lac. Due to its resemblance to the dry clay or dirt, known in Urdu as khaak, the color khaki, which was created in India until the Middle Ages from a variety of palm plants, received its name. Military personnel frequently wore khaki fatigues because they could effectively conceal their men by blending them with arid, dusty landscapes. Another dye that is still used, if occasionally, comes from the Morinda Citrifolia tree that grows in Sri Lanka and India. It creates reds, various hues of chocolate, and even purple, a pigment that was previously produced from sea clams in antiquity. Due to its exceptional rarity and high value, so it makes sense that only the royals were allowed to wear purple robes in places like ancient Greece, where wearing purple clothing outside of the royal class was punishable by death. The invention of chemical dyes in England occurred in the nineteenth century as a result of massive farmer conflicts and protests against the East India Company’s compelled cultivation of indigo crops. While India used to have a virtual monopoly on the colored and printed textile markets, this move devastated the Indian textile sector, which was already struggling to compete with the English power looms. The once-abundant natural dyes of ancient India, which previously decorated natural handcrafted garments by weavers, are now a rare thing. They were painstakingly extracted from plants and flora. We are currently dealing with a festering flood of chemical dyes that pollute our rivers with toxic trash and in the present era focusing on cleaner production, it is imperative to re-look to use natural dyes in textile industry.

1.2 Lichen and Fungi Since the dawn of time, lichens have been employed as a source of natural colors. The first known dye made from Roccella spp. was orchil (a purple color) through the fermentation of ammonia. The purple dye from Roccella was historically highly significant and known as “Royal-purple” throughout Europe. In addition to their intrinsic capacity to make natural colors, lichens also possess antibacterial qualities [60]. Various fungal species are abundant in stable colorants like anthraquinone, carboxylic acids, pre-anthraquinones, etc., making them an intriguing ecological supply of pigments. From diverse fungus species, a number of anthraquinone derivatives have been found [43].

2 Categories of Natural Dyes The three groups into which natural dyes are divided according to chemical composition, source of origin, and application method. Figure 1 represents the classification of natural dyes.

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Fig. 1  Categories of natural dyes Fig. 2  Chemical structure of indigoids

O NH NH O

2.1 Based on Chemical Structure 2.1.1 Indigoids A diverse range of plants and marine species include an intriguing class of natural substances known as indigoids. There are 13 members in this small family of natural compounds. Indigo is the most prevalent of these 13 chemicals and the main component of indigo dyes. Two indole moieties must be connected for their chemical structures to function as shown in Fig. 2. Despite being scarce, indigoids are among the earliest families of natural compounds used by humans. Their chemical evolution and significance are closely related to the growth of human society and the industrialization in the nineteenth century [12]. Indigoids contain two shades namely indigo and tyrian purple. These indigoids can be produced from the following plants. One of the first sources of indigo dye was a plant species from the bean family called Indigoferatinctoria, usually known as true indigo. Persicariatinctoria belongs to buckwheat family and can produce the dyes from its leaves. Isatistinctoria is commonly known as dyer’s woad or woad. It occasionally

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goes by the name “Asp of Jerusalem”. The plant’s leaves are used to make the blue dye known as woad [13]. 2.1.2 Pyridine-Based Dyes The majority of the botanical materials that contain any substantial quantity of berberine, an isoquinoline alkaloid with a vivid yellow color, are readily identifiable. There are no other dyes in this category but this one. 35 different kinds of yellow dyes were made from natural materials. A representative of this group is berberine. And this color is now known as natural yellow 18. This dye can be extracted from root bark of barberry, Amur cork tree, rhizomacoptidis [35]. 2.1.3 Carotenoids Saffron and annatto, two natural colors, fall within this category. This category of dyes have double bonds with long conjugated chains as shown in Fig. 3. Nearly all plant groups and several other photosynthetic creatures have carotenoids, also known as tetraterpenoids, which are vividly colored natural organic pigments. The organisms that can produce carotenoids are plants, fungi, and prokaryotes. 2.1.4 Quinonoids Quinonoids are abundantly found in nature and range in color from yellow to crimson. Several groups of algae, fungi, bacteria, flowering plants, and arthropods include natural quinones, which make up a sizable class of aromatic chemicals that are abundant in nature. Insects like cochineal from which natural dye carmine can be extracted, Kermes vermilio from which red dye kermes is derived, and lac also include them (Kerrialacca). Their main isolation comes from flowering plants, where other pigments typically cover their colors. These colors are further divided into three groups based on their chemical structures: anthraquinones, benzoquinones, and alpha naphthoquinones [10]. CH3 CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C CH3

Fig. 3  Structure of carotenoids

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Fig. 4  Chemical structure of anthraquinone

2.1.4.1 Anthraquinones With almost 700 molecules investigated, anthraquinones are the biggest category of quinones and its chemical structure is showed in Fig. 4. Nearly half of these come exclusively from plants, with the remaining percentage coming from fungus, insects, bacteria and lichens. Emodin is the most frequently found anthraquinone. In vivo, anthraquinones can exist in free (aglycone) form, combined (glycoside) form, reduced form, or un hydroxylated form. For the purpose of dyeing, anthraquinone sources being actively researched include Rubiacordifolia and Rubiatinctorum, which are common sources of the pigments alizarin, purpurin, emodin, and rhein [10]. From the plant’s root, rhubarb (CI Natural Yellow 23) is extracted. Wool fiber is dyed with rhubarb extract. After being mordanted with alum, it takes on a yellow to orange color [38] 2.1.4.2  Benzoquinone Dyes Benzoquinone is the least common of the three types of quinones. A wide variety of organisms, including flowering plants, lichens, fungi, and arthropods including millipedes, beetles, and other insects, are able to produce benzoquinone and its derivatives. The fundamental component of quinone compounds is benzoquinone as shown in Fig. 5. These substances are generally discovered together, with a small number of alkylated quinones and biquinones typically occurring side by side. They are already completely cut off from all higher plant parts. Carthamin, a component of safflower, is the benzoquinone from biomasses that is most frequently investigated as a color chemical (Carthamustinctorius) [10]. Chemically speaking, 1,4-benzoquinone, commonly known as para-benzoquinone, is a non-aromatic molecule that reduces readily to hydroquinone. Ben-zoquinone units are essential moieties for the production of biologically active chemicals and act as building blocks in the creation of quinones [1].

Scope of Natural Dyes and Biomordants in Textile Industry for Cleaner Production Fig. 5  Chemical structure of benzoquinone

R1

81

O

R2

R4

R3

O Fig. 6  Chemical structure of naphthoquinone

R6

O

R1

R5 R4

R2 R3

O

2.1.4.3  Alpha Naphthoquinones It is the second-largest subgroup in the quinoid category. There are over 120 natural sources from which naphthoquinone can be obtained. Figure 6 shows the chemical structure of naphthoquinone. There are various isomers of these, with the most prevalent and stable being 1,4-naph-thoquinones. There are instances where naphthoquinone is detected in animals, some fungi, or the metabolic output of some bacteria. The variety of plants and microorganisms that contain this family of quinoids is quite broad. Naphthoquinones are often found alone in plants, but they can also coexist with anthraquinones in the same species. This is especially true of the Bignoniaceae and Verbenaceae families of plants. Although they occasionally exist in vivo as glycosides, they typically exist in free form. The majority of sea animals that produce naphthoquinones are members of the echinodermata phylum, including starfish, sea urchins. Some species of sap-sucking insects are also able to produce naphthoquinones. 1,4 naphthoquinone chemicals are commonly found in plants. Lawsone or henna in Lythracea and jugalone in Lawsoniainermis are examples of this category [10, 29]. 2.1.5 Flavonoids It is the largest plant-based dye in the world. Typically, flavonoids are used as mordant dyes. The colors obtained ranges from yellow to greenish yellow and brown. Five hundred million years ago, green algae were the first organism to produce flavonoids. Approximately 4000 flavanoids had been found in nature. Flavanoids can be seen abundantly in buckwheats, citrus family, bean family, etc. Flavonoids can also be found in a few non-plant sources. For instance, the Satyridae, Lycaenidae, and Papilionidae groups of butterflies have these substances in their bodies and

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wings. Additionally, the Canadian beaver’s smell glands are the sole known source of mammalian flavonoids. The majority of flavonoids are found as glycoside molecules in plants. During natural dyeing, these flavonoid molecules typically break into an aglycon and sugar. The natural dye weld comes under this category. The majority of colors are derived from flavones or isoflavones with hydroxyl and methoxy substitutes. Red sandal wood, weld, onion, jackfruit, and kamala are some of the plants which can produce this type of dye [58]. The primary chromophores in flavonoids that contribute to its yellow color are flavones and flavonols (3-hydroxyflavones). Aglycones, glycosides, and methylated derivatives are all forms of flavonoids. Generally, positions 3, 5, 7, 3′, 4′, and/or 5′ are used to hydroxylate flavonoids. About 90% of all yellow dyes are flavonoids. The majority of naturally occurring yellow colors are found in the hydroxyl and methoxyl derivatives of flavones and isoflavones. According to the color index, flavonoids make up close to half of all natural dyes used to color textiles. Figure 7 depicts the chemical structure of flavonoids. Selected classes of flavonoids are described below: 2.1.5.1 Flavones It is known that the flavone-based dyes produce stable complexes with metal cations such as tin, iron, and aluminum [55]. Flavones are organic substances without color. Angiosperms typically contain these substances. The flavone compound melts around 100 °C and is insoluble in water. This chemical also fluoresces violet when placed in concentrated sulfuric acid. Flavanone is created when flavone is treated with an alcoholic alkali, the byproduct of which is flavanone. The ivory and yellow hues of plants and flowers are a result of flavones [9]. 2.1.5.2 Flavonols Quercetin, kaempferol, rhamnetin, morin, myricetin, and fisetin are some flavonols mainly found in plants. These groups of flavanoids are having antioxidant properties. The flavonol dye quercetin was first isolated from oak trees. It is interesting to note that the flavonol class includes the yellow pigment found in the wings of the

Fig. 7  Chemical structure of flavanoids O

O

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Melanargeagelatea butterfly. It can be stated that a species of tamarisk provided the first flavonol dye. Both yellow and green yarns were used to identify the second flavonol color. The flavonolskaempferol, quercetin, myricetin, and fisetin have undergone the greatest research [9]. 2.1.5.3 Flavanones Flavanones have a chiral center at position 2 and lack the double bond between positions 2 and 3. Because flavanones are highly reactive chemicals, hydroxylation, glycosylation, and methylation processes are quickly exposed. They are concentrated most heavily in the citrus crust, specifically. These substances are uncommon and often exist as their glycosides [9]. 2.1.5.4 Isoflavonoids The key structural characteristic that sets isoflavonoids apart from other flavonoid classes is their binding to the carbon atom at position 3 of the B ring. Isoflavones are found in more than 300 different plant species, primarily in the roots and seeds. Only legumes, like soy, can produce isoflavone chemicals. One of the main isoflavones found in Dyer’s greenweed is genistein (4′,5,7-trihydroxyisoflavone). Isoflavonoids and flavones are isomeric. Compared to flavones and flavonols, these molecules have a smaller range [9]. 2.1.5.5 Anthocyanidins The Greek roots of the word anthocyanin are anthos, which means flower, and kianos, which means blue. They are a member of the flavanoids family. They are produced by the phenylpropanoid pathway. They make up the majority of the natural colors that are water soluble. They can be found in a plant’s flower, fruit, stem, leaves, and roots. They typically occur in the watery cell sap and are water soluble. They can also be found in fruits and vegetables notably red cabbage, strawberries, grape skin, blueberries, and raspberries [34]. 2.1.6 Dihydropyran-Based Dye These dyes are mainly used in silk, wool, and cotton. They are produced from Brazil wood and logwood. Log wood produces dark black shade in the textiles. Figure 8 depicts the dihydropyran-based dye’s molecular structure.

84 Fig. 8  Chemical structure of dihydropyran-based dye

B. Balachandran and P. C. Sabumon OH O

HO

OH

OH O

2.1.7 Betalains These are nitrogen-containing water soluble natural dyes obtained from plants. It consists of violet betacyanins and yellow betaxanthins. They provide red-violet and yellow colors to vegetables and fruit. Beetroot betalains are unstable pigments that can change color due to changes in pH or enzymatic hydrolysis when exposed to light. Many factors affect the stability of betalins and by modifying these factors help in better attachment of betalins from beet root to textiles. Normally wool and silks are dyes with betalain from beet root. They cannot be directly dyes with beet root. A mordant has to be used in the dye baths to get colors like milk rose or baby pink [45], for example, beet root and cactus fruit. 2.1.8 Tannin The majority of the vegetable kingdom contains astringent plant substances called tannins. Tannins can be found in many different plant parts. Tannins are phenolic chemicals that are water soluble and have molecular weights of 500–3000. It produces several colors, including yellow, brown, grey, and black, when mixed with various natural dyes. Acacia catechu, Terminaliachebula, Punicagranatum, and Quercusinfectoria are among the plants that contain tannins. Tannins are generally used to keep leather from deteriorating. Tannins are employed as mordants, stains, glues, and inks. Tannins are also utilized in the surface water treatment process to remove heavy metals. By increasing the affinity of fibers for various dyes, tannins play a significant role in natural dyeing.

2.2 Based on Origin 2.2.1 Plant Origin It is possible to extract dyes from all plant sections. There are around 450 plants that produce natural dye in India. Table 1 represents the plants and their parts used to make natural dyes.

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Table 1  Plants and their parts in making natural dyes for textile dyeing Plant name Acacia catechu Alnus sieboldiana Annona reticulate Anthemis tinctoria

Scientific name Cutch tree Alnus Bullock heart Dyer’s chamomile Ardisiahumilis Aringudi Artocarpus heterophyllus Kathal Baptisia australis Baptisia Bidens pilosa Lumb Caesalpinia sappan Coriaria nepalensis Cotinus coggygria

Sappan Makola Young fustic

Dahlia indica

Dahlia

Diospyros malabarica Haematoxylum campechianum

Galab Logwood/ Blood wood Neel

Indigofera tinctoria

Part used Heart wood Fruit Unripe fruit Flower Fruit Wood, Root Flower Leaf

Color obtained Red Red Black Yellowish

Reference [27] [46] [46] [18] [46] [48] [46] [14]

Wood Wood Heart wood, leaf Petals

Yellowish Yellow Yellowish Greenish Yellow Red Red Yellowish orange Peech gold

Unripe fruit Heart wood

Brown Violet-purple

[20] [28]

Leaf

Blue

[8]

[40] [16] [62] –

2.2.2 Insects and Animal Origin Dyes Red dyes obtained from Coccusilicis and Coccus cacti are examples of this category. From antiquity through the middle times, mollusks and shellfish were utilized to extract purple and violet dyes. The color acquired initially from mollusks was known by the names royale purple and tyrian purple [5]. 2.2.3 Mineral Origin Minerals discovered in mines and on the earth’s surface were the source of mineral dyes. To produce the appropriate colors for textiles, hematite was utilized for red, limonite for yellow, and lazurite for blue. The surface of the rocks was scratched to produce a powder that, after being dissolved in water or oil, was ready for usage. Since they have an inorganic origin, colors with a mineral component can survive for a long time. Unlike other natural colors, they don’t disintegrate easily. The hues of natural coloring agents with mineral origins can be used to further categorize them.

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Most common minerals in dying are given below: • Ochreis, a type of iron ore, is also known as limonite, an oxide of an earth mineral. Red, brown, and yellow tints are represented by it. • Malachite is an emerald-green mineral that is composed of copper carbonate and copper hydroxide breaks occasionally as copper ore to create green hues. • Manganese is a metallic substance used to describe dark hues. • Cinnabar is a large, reddish mineral with an adamantine-like metallic sheen. It is produced with quicksilver sulfur used for nuances in red. • Azurite is a copper mineral that is blue or dark blue. It is crystallized and frequently discovered alongside the green mineral malachite. Both are byproducts of the oxidation and erosion of copper mineral applied to blue hues. • Lead is utilized for red nuances. • Aragonite is a typically colorless or white mineral used for white tints. • Blue rock LAPIS LAZULI, also called lapis, consists of silicate minerals other than pyrite, including azurite, calcite, pyroxenite, and others used to describe blue tones. Pigment Categories (i) Red pigments: Natural dyes that fall within the red pigment category include ochre, red lead, cinnabar, red ochre, and realgar. Vermillion is another name for cinnabar, a bright crimson to brick-red type of mercury sulfide which is used as a direct dyeing pigment. A naturally occurring earth pigment called red ochre contains both hydrated and anhydrous iron oxide. Red ochre comes in various tones, such as yellow, orange, and brown, but it is not as vivid as Cinnabar. Red ochre is a highly stable substance that is not degraded by light, acids, or alkalis. Washing the coarse variety of red ochre yields the fine variety. The clothes of monks are dyed with red ochre. (ii) Yellow pigment: Natural earth is selected, grinded, washed, then lavated to prepare the pigment. Raw sienna is a member of the Sienna (Siena earth) class of earth pigments, which also include manganese oxide and iron oxide. The first color employed by humans in cave paintings was sienna earth. Along with sienna, umber and ochre were other colors employed in ancient art. Due to its high degree of transparency, it is employed as a glaze in paintings. Orpiment is an arsenic sulfide mineral with a rich, vivid color that is deep orange-yellow. (iii) Green pigment Green pigment is produced using glauconite, a specific type of clay (sometimes known as “Green Earth”). Glauconite, also known as terre-verte, has been used for centuries to create green hues naturally. Hydrosilicates of iron, magnesium, aluminum, and potassium make up the majority of the green earth, but additional minerals are also probably present. Depending on where it is coming from, the earth’s color fluctuates. The colors range from bright green to greenish grey, and neither light nor chemicals have much of an impact on them. (iv) Blue pigment: Azurite is a delicate, intensely blue pigment created by the weathering of copper ore deposits. However, Indian art only occasionally

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utilized this color. It was often used in Chinese paintings. A deep blue pigment known as ultramarine blue is made from the semi-precious stone lapis lazuli, a mineral. In India, tiny artworks have employed it. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Afghanistan sent lapis lazuli to India. (v) White pigment: Chalk has been used as a pigment since very ancient times and is typically found with quantities of limestone. Indian artists choose conch shell white, which is said to have special characteristics. A complicated salt called white lead has both carbonate and hydroxide. It was previously a component of lead paint. Natural occurrences of it include the mineral cerussite.

2.3 Based on Mode of Application 2.3.1 Mordant Dyes Mordants enable a dye or colorant be adhered to a fiber of cloth. Normally, dyes can’t fix themselves in the fabric. All dyes that can combine with metal mordants are now included in the traditional definition of “mordant dyes,”. Most of these dyes provide a variety of hues and tones when combined with various mordants. Amino, hydroxyl, and sulphonic groups may be present in the dye molecules. The direct dyeing process can be used to apply annatto, Harda, pomegranate peel, and turmeric. It is possible to improve dye exhaustion by using table salt. At 100 °C, the dyeing temperature is maintained. 2.3.2 Vat Dyes The usage of natural vat dyes dates back at least 4000 years. The process of vat dyeing is done in a bucket or vat, hence the name. They become insoluble in the colored state and soluble when colorless. Indigo, woad, and Tyrian purple are the only three natural dyes that may be used as vat dyes. Since indigo is insoluble in water, it must first be dissolved in water before use. Natural indigo becomes soluble with the use of sodium hydroxide. Soluble dye is applied on fiber and after dyeing, the color is developed by oxidizing with H2O2. The indigoid class of vat dyes is represented by indigo dye. 2.3.3 Direct Dye Direct dyes are organic compounds and able to be soluble in water. They can be applied directly to cellulosic fibers like cotton due to their affinity. Direct dyes produce vibrant colors and are simple to use. Their wash fastness is weak even if we apply post treatment because of the poor chemical interaction with the fibers of the fabric. The dye molecules may have sulphonic, amino, and hydroxyl groups. It is

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possible to improve dye exhaustion by using salts. The temperature for dyeing is set at 100  °C.  Safflower, annatto, Harda, pomegranate, and turmeric are some well-­ known direct natural dyes. 2.3.4 Acid Dye Acid dyes are classified as direct dyes. They are utilizing to dye textiles like nylon and wool. With the aid of acidic solutions, they are applied. It was discovered that saffron dye is an acidic dye. The pH range for the dyeing is acidic (4.5–5.5). Tannic acid is used to increase fastness after dyeing. The acid dyeing procedure is used to color wool and silk with saffron. The leveling has produced by the common salt in the dyeing bath. 2.3.5 Basic Dye These dyes are also called cationic dyes. When ionization takes place, cations are created, and these cations have various hues. The carboxylic group of silk and wool will bind with the generated cations. They can be used under neutral to mild acidic conditions. A representative of this group is berberine. This dye has a weak light fastness because of its structural non-localized positive charge that resonates inside the dye. Acetic acid is added to the dye bath to maintain a pH of 4–5. 2.3.6 Disperse Dye Water-insoluble pigments called disperse dyes are used to color polyester and acetate fibers. When compared to the history of natural dyeing, the disperse dyeing concept is a more modern invention. However, several natural dyes, including lawsone, juglone, lapachol, and shikonin, are believed to qualify as disperse dyes due to structural similarities and solubility traits. 2.3.6.1 Lawsone Silk and wool fibers are dyed with lawsone. They create a compound with Mn (II) and Fe (II). The optimal pH for this category is found to be 3. Lawsone, also known as henna, is a well-known chemical found in the leaves of the Lawsoneiainermis henna plant. Countries like India, Pakistan, Egypt, and Afghanistan are famous for henna. Henna is a well-known natural coloring plant from the Lythraceae family [41]. The chemical structure of Lawsone is shown in Fig. 9.

Scope of Natural Dyes and Biomordants in Textile Industry for Cleaner Production Fig. 9  Chemical structure of Lawsone

89

O OH

O

2.3.6.2 Juglone The natural dye juglone is an example of a naphthoquinone structure. The dyestuff is taken from various nut tree parts. In trees and plants, juglone can be found in the glycoside form. Juglone-dyed wool exhibits good moth and pest resistance. The fastness qualities are further improved by mordanting. A brown hue is produced when textiles are dyed with aqueous walnut extract. Juglone can be used to color a variety of textile fibers, including wool, silk, nylon, and polyester.

2.4 Other Classification According to Bancroft, substantive dyes and adjective dyes are the two classifications of natural dyes. Substantive dyes are those which dye the fabric directly, for example, Indigo, turmeric, etc. Adjective dyes, on the other hand, are those that color the fabric using mordants like madder, logwood, etc. Humme categorized the natural dyes into two groups namely monogenetic and polygenetic dyes. Monogenetic dyes are able to produce only one color irrespective of the chemicals used in the dye bath while polygenetic dyes are able to produce different colors with different mordants. According to color indexing natural dyes are grouped based on hue. Table 2 [38] represents the groups based on the hue.

3 Natural Dyes Extraction Methods In general, natural dye content present in their sources is very less and different methods are employed to extract these dyes from the sources.

90 Table 2  Groups of natural dye based on their hue

B. Balachandran and P. C. Sabumon Color index Red Yellow Brown Orange Black Green Blue

No. of dyes present in each hue 32 28 12 6 6 5 3

3.1 Aqueous Extraction For extracting plant parts that are steam-distilled without changing their molecular forms, the conventional, simple water extraction approach works well. The colored components are broken down into tiny pieces, and ground into powder. The powder will remain in the steel container for one night in order to improve the extraction efficiency. These substances either have extremely low water solubility or specific vapor pressure at the boiling point of water of 100 °C. When the water boils, the substance might be transported away by the steam. An oil-water separator is used to isolate the water after condensation in order to extract the necessary plant components. The dye and thin plant remnants can be easily separated using a trickling filter. Boiling may, however, impair the color output of dyes that are sensitive to temperature, thus low temperature is advised. This method can provide dyes that can be applied to textiles. This technique makes it simple to extract flowers from sources of plants. The African marigold flower was successfully used as a source of color by one researcher who merely boiled it in distilled water for 2 h before filtering it [51]. To release the cellular components, dried natural resources are basically ground into a powder and then soaked in water. The source material must be finely chopped or mashed into a paste if it is wet. The dye liquor is next heated and filtered to remove the non-dye compounds. Both are easily used to give many objects color. The aqueous extraction process has some drawbacks, such as the need for a significant amount of water, high-temperature demands.

3.2 Acid and Alkali Extraction Glycosides, which may be extracted in either an acidic or alkaline environment, make up the majority of natural dyes. The natural dye from the tesu flower is extracted using an acidic hydrolysis process. Alkaline solutions work well with dyes that have phenolic groups built into their composition. This technique can be used to extract dyes from annatto seeds. Safflower red dye and insect lac dye are both extracted using this technique.

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3.3 Ultrasonic Microwave Extraction In order to extract dye more quickly and effectively, ultrasonography can be used. The ability of the ultrasonic wave to produce a sturdy cavitation effect, high acceleration, mechanical vibration, crushing, and stirring can all be used to increase the frequency, speed, and penetration of the solvent. Using proper conditions cells can be broken by the microwave. Dissimilar regions of cells have significantly different capacities for absorbing microwave energy, which causes local heating of cells. Under the action of a microwave field, the components that are rich in free water, are heated quickly and water vaporizes. Such high internal pressure cannot be supported by the cell wall or membrane. Therefore, with microwave irradiation, the cells deform. The advantages of microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) include good quality, high yield, high selectivity, low cost, and low energy consumption [51]. In this extraction technique, the source material is heated to a high temperature while taking much less time and extracting more quickly in an aqueous solution. This technique is used to extract color from annatto and butterfly pea seeds. This method has a number of benefits over aqueous extraction. Compared to an aqueous extraction, the treatment takes less time and a lower temperature. An aqueous solution of natural dye is subjected to ultrasonic and microwave waves, which quicken the extraction procedure [51].

3.4 Fermentation Method The fermentation of naturally colored compounds accelerates in the presence of bio enzymes, and natural dyes are obtained. Using this technique, the color from the seeds of annatto, indigo, and turmeric is collected. This procedure has some drawbacks, including the need for a lot of time, a terrible smell caused by microbial action, and the need to extract color right away after harvest.

3.5 Enzymatic Extraction The extraction of valuable components from organic plants is becoming more and more widespread because of recent advancements in biotechnology. There are a number of suitable enzymes that can enhance extraction rates, hasten the release of useful components, and moderately degrade plant tissues. Cellulase, for instance, can break down cellulose, hemicellulose, and other materials as well as cause localized changes in the cytoplasm and cell wall that are loose and swelling. This raises the efficacy of pigment extraction by enhancing the diffusion of active compounds from the cell to the extraction medium. The key variables influencing the effect of the enzyme are temperature and pH.  Enzymatic extraction yields

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anthocyanins at a rate that is approximately 72% higher than solvent extraction. This technique works well for colors that are derived from tough plant parts like bark and roots. Cellulase, amylase, and pectinase are three commercially available enzymes normally employed to dissolve the binding substance found in natural materials like plant parts [51].

3.6 Solvent Extraction This procedure is straightforward, equipment investment is little, the technology is simple to understand and master, and it offers the widest range of practical applications. It is simpler to purify extracted dyes and remove solvents, as well as to reuse them. In comparison to the aqueous technique, water/alcohol extraction has a higher efficiency. Organic solvents like ethanol, methanol, and acetone are frequently used to extract water-soluble pigments. On the other hand, hexane, dichloromethane, and petroleum ether are used to extract fat-soluble pigments. The solute should be highly soluble in the solvent. The dye yield is of high quality, requires little heat, and uses a small amount of water. Leaching, decocting, reflux extraction, percolation, and continuous reflux extraction are specialized extraction techniques that are widely used. The following factors affect extraction: degree of grinding, extraction time, temperature, equipment, and solvent choice. Processing at low temperatures leads to less deterioration. The main drawbacks of this approach include poisonous residues, greenhouse gases, processing challenges brought on by chlorophyll and waxy compounds, and toxic residues [51].

3.7 Supercritical Fluid Extraction Natural colorants derived from plant sources can be extracted and purified using supercritical fluids. The supercritical fluid and natural colorants are brought into contact with one another in an extraction vessel under high pressure so that the desired product becomes appreciably soluble in the supercritical fluid. Normally super critical carbon dioxide is used in extraction process. Carbon dioxide is the widely used and developed supercritical fluid. It is a very potent extraction technique and has the potential to puncture the matrix of the extraction materials. The productivity of the production is increased and the process flow is made easier by combining solvent removal and extraction separation into one unit. Additionally, it offers a few benefits, like quick extraction times, strong selectivity, and the ability to do extraction and segregation at either room temperature or a low temperature. Natural products can retain their original flavor and nutritional value because there is no lingering solvent contamination or environmental degradation. For instance,

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the heat generated during the procedure can damage some natural items, or the chemically susceptible components can be quickly destroyed. Japan has been extracting and purifying raw components for food flavors, cosmetics, medications, and cigarettes using supercritical technology since 1984. In contrast, China recently only began using supercritical technology. Better outcomes, however, have been obtained in China, where a number of textile and agricultural institutes have begun to extract chlorophyll using highly critical technologies [51].

4 Natural Dyes and Synthetic Fabrics Producing new hues with acceptable fastness behavior should be crucial for the commercial viability of natural dyeing on synthetic fabrics. Therefore, utilizing relevant scientific methodologies and approaches is necessary. Prior to creating unusual hues that combine color fastness and environmentally friendly textiles, it is also necessary to do new research on the conventional natural dyeing procedure at each stage of the therapeutic process (preparation, mordant, fastness). Natural fibers are typically dyed with natural dyes. However, there is a dearth of information on the dyeing of synthetic filaments like nylon, polyester, and acrylic. Natural colors, as opposed to synthetic dyes, produce extremely rare, calming, and gentle colors. Because of their accessibility and abundance, plant parts and other natural materials are the sources of natural colors. Adopting the proper and standardized dyeing processes for the specific fiber-natural dye system is necessary for the effective commercial usage of natural dyes for any given fiber. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct scientific research and their results on the standardization of dyeing processes, process factors, kinetics, and tests of the compatibility of certain natural dyes are conducted [51].

4.1 Natural Dyeing on Nylon Fabrics A polyamide fiber called nylon is formed of hydrocarbon repeating units connected by functional amide groups, which are extremely polar. The use of a mordant and steam treatment can strengthen a dye’s ability to adhere to a fabric [47]. Chemical dyes are frequently used while dying nylon. However, natural dyes have recently been taken into consideration for coloring nylon fiber and fabric. In an experiment, three natural dyes Onion, Lac, and Turmeric were studied. Red dye was made from the lac extract of the scale insects. Bright yellow color is produced when turmeric is taken from the rhizomes of the plant. The authors used HTHP dyeing using an open dye bath to apply the aforementioned dyes to nylon fabric that had been pre-mordanted. The findings indicate that while alum and tin bring about brighter coloring hues, copper and iron mordanting only slightly improves light fastness. With all mordants, the wash fastnesses are very good [32].

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Dye isolated from saffron was also used to color nylon fabrics. Acidic extract and cloth were subjected to micro wave treatment for up to 6 min for this purpose. In this project, biomordants were used to dye the fabric sustainably [50]. Neutral henna or Cassia obovat was also studied for their ability to color nylon fabrics. The nylon fabric should be treated with microwave up to 10  min for dyeing. Sustainable biomordants can be used to create new hues with good to exceptional fastness qualities [19]. While nylon dyed with ferrous sulfate and stannous chloride has a stronger brownish-yellow hue. Nylon fabrics dyed with golden shower tree seed shell extract deprived of a mordant have a lighter brownish-yellow hue. Alum and CuSO4 colored nylon substrate produced a duller brownish-yellow color [36].

4.2 Natural Dyeing on Polyester Fabrics Polyester cloth is dyed with natural colors utilizing an exhausting process. Polyester is dyed using the following ingredients: liquor ratios of 1: 15 to 1: 50, temperatures exceeding 90  °C, and pH ranges between 4 and 8. The coloring process takes between 1 and 5 h. Polyester fabric dyed with dye extracted form henna and natural mordant lemon showed promising results. When compared to conventional heating, microwave heating increased dye uptake by up to three times and reduced dying time by 60–65% [4]. In a study three different natural dyes were used to dye polyester fabrics. The polyester fabrics that were colored with Kumkum and pomegranate colors showed notable antioxidant characteristics (radical scavenging >90%), UV protection (UPF  >  270), and also showed suitable antibacterial activity against S. aureus (bacterial colony reduction >85%). In comparison to polyester dyed with Kumkum and pomegranate dyes, indigo dyed polyester showed weaker antioxidant qualities, while it did exhibit considerable UV protection and antibacterial properties. The indigo, Kumkum, and pomegranate-colored polyester textiles showed excellent washing (ratings of 4 and above), rubbing (ratings of 3–4 and above), and light (ratings of 5 and above) fastnesses [61]. According to a study by Motaghi and Shahidi [37], polyster fiber was dyed using natural colors like madder and weld. Rubia Tinctorum, a native of Eurasia, was used to produce the madder color. To obtain red pigment, madder root is used in this instance. Natural weld dye is extracted from the Resesa Luteola plant. This resulted in a vivid yellow color. The plasma sputtered pretreatment samples were dyed directly using madder during the dyeing operations. A chemical link between madder-dyed fabric and polyester fabric was seen after the fabric had been plasma treated The natural dyes were applied on the fabric at boiling temperature. The outcome demonstrated that natural dyes’ ability to cling to synthetic fibers had enhanced following plasma sputtering treatment [37]. Curcumin and saffron were employed as natural colors on polyester and nylon fibers in a study. Saffron is a spice obtained from the flowers of Crocus sativus, usually referred to as the “saffron crocus,” and curcumin is derived from Curcuma longa L., producing yellow color on the textile material. It produces a

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golden yellow tone. Polyester and nylon fibers with ozone pretreatment showed good results. When nylon and polyester were subjected to UV/Ozone treatment at intervals ranging from 5 to 120 min, both fabrics became more dyeable to natural dyes. The dyeability on the basis of wash fastness and light fastness increased significantly when ozone pretreatment had given [11].

4.3 Natural Dyeing on Acrylic Fiber About 85% of the units in the polymer (polyacrylonitrile) used to make acrylic synthetic fiber were acrylonitrile. It manages moisture well and is thermally stable. The production of olive oil results in significant wastewater discharges and this wastewater is rich in natural colors. The dyeing of acrylic fibers might be successfully accomplished using such effluent. pH  3, temperature 100  °C, and reaction time 105 min were discovered to be the ideal conditions for dying this fiber. Additionally, the natural dye found in oil mill wastewater may offer acrylic a significant amount of color, fastness as well as brownish green tints [17]. In the presence or absence of a mordant, Juglans Regia bark remainder extract can be used on these fabrics to create a wide range of colors. And this is resilience to light and washing. The best dyeing and photoluminescence capabilities were likewise discovered to be attained at a pH of 3 and an irradiation time of 500 W for a duration of 4 min [25]. The extraction of curcumin and the dyeing of acrylic woven textiles in the presence of microwaves constitute a workable alternative for the ecofriendly design of textile products. These processes are more effective than traditional ones because they are straightforward, effective, use fewer chemicals, and produce uniform colors and highly fluorescent dyed materials [44]. Rhizomacoptidis and its dyeing capability have been studied in terms of thermodynamic and kinetic characteristics studied already. Rhizomacoptidis (Coptischinensis), a perennial herbaceous plant, that has yellow flowers is also used for dyeing purposes. For dyeing with this flower, orthogonal experiments were used. The results showed that the dyeing temperature had an important role, color value rose during the dyeing process with temperature, and wash fastness was found to be good in both scenarios (4–5 grade) [26].

5 Advantages of Natural Dyes (i) Protecting environment: Given that natural dyes are made entirely from sustainable and natural resources, they are in fact not bad for the environment. They come from plants, fruits, minerals, insects, or plants. More so than synthetic dyes, natural dyes use less water. Baths for coloring and washing can be used repeatedly. For several months, the natural indigo vat, for instance. Simply add the appropriate components to restore it. It is also crucial to keep in mind that petroleum is the source of the synthetic dyes, which first debuted

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at the close of the nineteenth century and became widely used at the start of the twentieth century. Natural dyes are no longer a “utopia”, but rather a topic that demands the attention of researchers and business  people in order to find sustainable and environment friendly dyeing solutions at a time when the scarcity of this resource is becoming a global problem. (ii) Biodegradable: Natural dyes are biodegradable chemicals. On the other hand, synthetic dyes, which are made from petroleum, generate significant pollution since the wastewater, which is still not fully recycled, is dumped directly into the nearby rivers or streams. Even yet, it is crucial to emphasize the value of dyeing water recycling, as is the case, for instance, with GOTS-certified materials. Even the water used for natural dyes must be recycled if it is used in big numbers since even though the ingredients are biodegradable, they still pose a threat to the ecosystem, which would never normally receive this quantity of products. (iii) Suitable for skin: Plant-dyed textiles can be used on all skin types, even the most delicate ones like newborns, because they don’t contain any toxic substances. On the other hand, synthetic dyes, such as the cancer-causing azo dyes that have only been prohibited in Europe since 2003, can be exceedingly harmful to our skin and health. In addition, it is almost inevitable that some items that are currently legal will eventually be prohibited because they are too risky. Better UV absorption is provided by natural dyes in the materials they are applied to. Therefore, one is able to better shield his/her skin from the sun’s damaging rays by donning naturally tinted clothing. Studies comparing the UV protection of clothes dyed with natural dyes with fabrics dyed with synthetic dyes have been done at the University of Colorado. It turned out that clothing with natural dyes offered the skin a superior degree of protection. The UV protection is improved by using darker natural colors. This is true, for instance, of textiles colored with indigo, madder, and cochineal. Additionally, the protection is higher the more concentrated the color is within the fabric [30]. (iv) Natural dyeing provides fabrics with some unique characteristics: Many natural dyes have antibacterial and hypoallergenic qualities, which is crucial to know. They are therefore a fantastic alternative to synthetic dyes. Most dyeing herbs also have therapeutic qualities. In order to ward off predators, draw in pollinators, or attract those who disperse seeds, plants generate these chemicals at the beginning of color development. In Yemen, indigo was originally used as a bandage as well as a natural bug repellant. For instance, turmeric has both anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Sandalwood extract has also been demonstrated to have antiviral properties against herpes simplex and to inhibit the growth of skin cancers. While some synthetic dyes fade over time, some natural dyes get better with age. Natural colors are mouth-proof; therefore they can be used in place of synthetic colors in children’s clothing. Turmeric is an exception to the rule that natural dyes don’t stain other fabrics but rather bleed.

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6 Disadvantages of Natural Dyes Compared to synthetic dyes, natural dyes may require a greater quantity to color a certain amount of fabric. For example, 10  g of synthetic dye can color 1  kg of cotton, while 230 g of natural colorant are required to color the same amount of fabric. Because of this, natural colors cost more to use than synthetic dyes. Another issue is the availability of natural dyes. Since the availability of the raw materials might change over time, place, and species, it might be more difficult to generate than synthetic dyes, which can be produced year-round in laboratories. Natural dyes might also be rather toxic. Two components of logwood, hematein and hematoxylin, are harmful if inhaled, taken via skin. Bloodroot, another natural coloring source, can upset and cause inflammation of the respiratory tract when inhaled. Furthermore, the use of natural dyes can call for mordants. Even if they facilitate the dye’s attachment to fabrics, these substances can nonetheless be dangerous. Aluminum, copper, iron, and chrome are a few examples of metals that are employed as mordants in natural dyes. Despite the fact that natural dye resources are renewable, the sustainability of natural dyes can still be a problem because they require large amounts of land to produce. Only 1% of the total textile is produced with natural color. Over 100 possible natural dyes were mentioned in the UNDP-sponsored study that was carried out in India between 1998 and 2001, several of which were appropriate for replanting wastelands. The SPINDIGO (sustainable production of plant-derived indigo) project, which involved 10 institutions from five countries and was implemented in Europe at the beginning of this century, discovered that the production of high-purity indigo made from plants (woad) is a viable alternative and can supply about 5% of the continent’s total indigo consumption [54].

7 Bio-Mordants Mordant is derived from the Latin word “mordere,” which means “to bite”. Most of the time, a mordant must be used throughout the natural dyeing process. Mordants are those compounds that function as a bridge by attracting both textile fibers and color. For all those dyes that don’t have a fiber compatibility, mordants are utilized. Then they boost the fibers fastness qualities and hues by forming an insoluble complex inside of them. In the natural dyeing mordanting procedure, some mordants are used to produce new shades. Based on the timing of application, meta-­ mordanting, pre-mordanting, and post-mordanting are three different types of mordanting [35]. If the mordant is applied prior to dyeing it is called pre-mordanting and if mordant and dyes are applied simultaneously it is called meta-mordanting and if mordants are applied after the dyeing process then it is called post-mordanting. Potassium aluminum sulfate, ferrous sulfate, K2Cr2O7, CuSO4, nickel chloride, and tannic acid are the commonly used chemical mordants in textile industry. There are

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three types of mordants available now, metal salts or metallic mordant, tannic acid, and oil mordants. It is necessary to use a mordant while natural dyeing. Normally using mordants are derivatives of sulfates, hydroxides chlorides, and oxides [63]. Many of these mordants are not eco-friendly except alum and iron. When these metal salts are used, a small amount of it gets attached with the textile fibers and remaining get wasted and create environmental problems [42]. They are reported to be environment-­ friendly and sustainable alternatives to metal mordants. They have satisfying dyeing and durability characteristics. Plants that have high tannin content or hyper-­ accumulative metal plants are bio-mordant sources [22]. As potential substitutes for iron sulfate II, aluminum, stannous chloride, K2Cr2O7, and CuSO4 as bio-mordants, pomegranate peel, rosemary, and thuja leaves have been suggested [21].

7.1 Mordanting Methods 7.1.1 Pre-Mordanting The practice of applying mordants to textiles before dying is known as pre-­ mordanting. As a result, the mordants have exclusive access to the fabric as well as plenty of time and space to adhere to it. This method of processing natural colorants on textiles results in an appropriate coating of dye, mordant, and textile substance. The color is made to react quickly to light, washing, and rubbing by combining metal with fabric surface sites on one side and dye on the other side. This processing’s chelating complexation ensures correct photon energy dissipation in the complex and improves the dyed materials’ light fastness. This is more sustainable in terms of the ecology, flora, and fauna because of the optimal use of resources during pre-­ mordanting [35]. 7.1.2 Meta Mordanting For dyeing, mordants and dyes are both dissolved at the same time in the dye bath. Through complexation, this type of processing significantly wastes both dye and mordant resources. Uneven dyeing results from the occupation of some textile material sites with mordants and others directly with dye chemicals. There are three different forms of complexations that happen between (1) textiles and mordants, (2) dyes and dyes, and (3) dyes and mordants, which threaten sustainability problems and overwhelm the environment with dye effluent [35].

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7.1.3 Post-Mordanting This procedure involves first applying dye or colorant to the bare textile material, followed by the process of mordanting. This procedure is primarily used to increase the shade range of textile fabrics by complexing dye molecules with a mordant on their surface. This approach might not be the best for ensuring color fastness [35].

7.2 Role of Tannin in Bio-Mordanting For many years, the textile industry has employed tannins as mordants. They initially create vital mordants needed for vegetable fiber dyeing. Second, they frequently have yellow, orange, red, and violet pigments in plants, which they strengthen in the dye bath with their own pigment. Tannin-dyed textiles provide excellent washing and light resistance. Tannin is characterized as naturally occurring polyphenolic chemicals that are water soluble and possess phenolic hydroxyl groups to generate efficient crosslinks with proteins and other macromolecules. Tannins don’t refer to a single substance. They are a sizable class of organic chemicals, many of which exhibit a wide range of chemical composition and reactivity variations. Depending on the kind of phenolic nuclei involved and how they are connected, the tannins are structurally separated into two main types. The first category is known as hydrolyzable tannins, whereas the second category is known as condensed tannins. Condensed tannin produces green color with ferric chloride while hydrolyzable tannin produces blue color with the ferric chloride. With proteins (such as wool and silk) and cellulose fibers, tannins create the three types of linkages listed below: (i) Proteins’ free amino and amido groups form hydrogen connections with tannins’ phenolic hydroxyl groups. (ii) Ionic linkages exist between the cationic groups on protein and the properly charged anionic groups on tannin. (iii) Any quinine or semi-quinone groups in the tannins engage with any other appropriate reactive groups in the protein or other polymer to generate covalent connections. Rosaceae, Geraniaceae, Leguminosae, Combretaceae, Rubiaceae, Polygonaceae, Theaceae, and other plant families are rich in both of the aforementioned categories of tannins.

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7.3 Sustainable Mordants for Natural Dyeing Chromium is the mordant that is most concerning. Old techniques advice using it alone, leaving the used mordant bath containing undesirable amounts of chromium. There is a better formula for reduced chrome mordant that employs the introduction of formic acid and has numerous advantages. When more metal is attached to the wool, less will left in the used mordant bath, making it safer and easier to dispose of environmentally, and because Cr (III) rather than Cr is present, overall light fastness is improved. Chrome can therefore be used in lower concentrations than those advised in outdated techniques of using Cr(VI). When mordanting wool, older techniques call for the use of 3% K2Cr2O7, however by incorporating 2% formic acid into the mordant solution, just 1% K2Cr2O7 is actually required. And also adding 1% lactic acid into the dye bath before the end of mordanting process can increase the exhaustion. CuSO4 mordanting process can also be improved by the same way. Acetic acid enhances the addiction of copper sulfate on the wool fiber, allowing for a cutback in the amount of CuSO4 required for the process by adding 2% CH3COOH to the mordant bath. Naturally, if you can attach more metal to the wool, there will be less of it in the used mordant bath, providing safer disposal. Experiments suggest that the combination of 7% cream of tartar and 8% alum appears to be advantageous for the environment as well, as more metal is actually absorbed by the fiber, making it safer to dispose of the used mordant bath. While in traditional practices 25% alum was used as mordants. From an environmental standpoint, ferrous sulfate is not thought to be a significant issue, although it can be successfully replaced by a more “natural” counterpart. Traditional natural dyeing methods have included the use of iron-rich mud, river water, and “iron water”, which is produced by soaking iron fragments in acidic water. When a dyer solely wishes to employ natural resources, these are all suitable substitutions for the iron source that is chemical. These iron sources can be used to alter the color of a certain dye by adding them to the dyebath, or, in the case of cellulose fibers, by combining them with tannin to create a grey or black tint. Natural sources of tannin are easily accessible and can be used for dyeing that is really natural, meaning that no chemicals are used at all. This is helpful for making eco-friendly yarns in addition to assisting many foreign nations whose rural economies depend on using natural resources from their own countries to color textiles. The tannin needed to adhere natural colors to cellulose fibers can be found in a variety of sources, including oak galls, sumach, barks, and bark resins. Depending on the source, different amounts of tannin can be extracted from various natural goods, but generally speaking, there is enough tannin present to make its use environmentally viable. Natural tannin is also preferable to its synthetic counterpart as a fixative when creating totally eco-friendly yarns [6]. Table 3 represents some of the biomordants used in textile industry.

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Scope of Natural Dyes and Biomordants in Textile Industry for Cleaner Production Table 3  Biomordants in textile industry Source of biomordants Banana flower petaloids

Source of biodyes Turmeric

Textile Bharat Merino sheep wool yarn Silk & cotton

Emblicaofficinalis G.

Natural dyes

Prunuscerasifera

Tesu plant

Jute

Orange peel, pomegranate peel, harda powder, and amla powder Henna, turmeric, pomegranate, acacia

Carica papaya L. leaf dry powder

Protein fabric

Neem bark

Silk

Acacia

Harmala (Peganumharmala) seeds

Cotton

Pomegranate peel, gallnut, catechu

Buteamonosperma

Wool

Rhuscoriaria, Eucalyptus, Terminaliachebula, Quercuscastaneifolia, and Pomegranate

Madder extract

Wool

Condition Reference 3.5% natural mordant [33] and 1.5% chromium (on the weight of yarn) 0.5–1% copper sulfate along with natural mordant increased the efficiency Prunuscerasifera along with aluminum sulfate. 50–90 °C Pre-mordanting

[46]

[52]

[49]

Microwave treatment 2 min, pH 2, methanol extract in 6 g powder, 75 °C temperature, and 65 min dyeing of irradiated silk gives good color shades 7% of acacia were post-biomordants and 10% were pre-biomordants 0.1–5% concentration of biomordants 91–93 °C and retained for 1 h At 90 °C for 60 min

[2]

[3]

[57]

[23]

8 Conclusion Communities all over the world are becoming more opposed to the use of synthetic dyes because of the carcinogenic, non-biodegradable, and detrimental effects on the environment and human health. This initiates the need for natural colors to be once again emerged in human society. However, the interaction between dye molecules and fiber-active sites is relatively weak, necessitating the use of bridging chemicals

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to bind the dye molecules to the fiber. Mordanting compounds are useful in this regard. The effectiveness of natural dyes is decreased by the use of synthetic mordanting compounds, some of which are toxic and not very environmental friendly, raising questions about their use at times. So along with the production of natural dye, natural mordants are also a need for the world. According to reports, biomordants offer acceptable dyeing and solidity properties and are a sustainable and environmentally responsible alternative to metal mordants. High tannin content plants or plants that accumulate metals quickly are examples of biomordant sources. Nature provides naturally occurring pigments in a variety of shades and tones, which are currently used to color food and textiles as well as for other biomedical purposes. The extraction processing of natural dyes and bio-mordants are costly and they also have some drawbacks. So the commercialization of these natural dyes and biomordants are still a challenge to the world and needs further research to make it practicable. Acknowledgments  We gratefully acknowledge the Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, for supporting this work through the research grant DST/TM/WIC/ WTI/2K17/82(G3).

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Sustainable Technologies and Materials for Future Fashion R. Rathinamoorthy, L. Suvitha, and S. Raja Balasaraswathi

Abstract  The textile and fashion industry, responsible for 5.4% of the world’s pollution, is considered the fifth most unsustainable industry. It dramatically impacts the environment, from raw materials to finished goods. Waste generation occurs at every stage of manufacturing, and sustainability stands as the need of the hour. Although natural materials (like cotton, hemp, jute, etc.) are considered sustainable, the production of those materials requires a large amount of cultivation land and water. Most consumers believe that the use of natural textiles protects the environment. However, different sources provide the opposite facts and prove that manufacturing natural fiber (like cotton) is extremely pollutant. The production of synthetic fibers relies on non-renewable resources, and their extraction process involves the usage of high-energy machinery. The most commonly used synthetic material in the fashion industry is polyester, and manufacturing requires intensive heating and a large quantity of water for the cooling process. Besides harming animals, the leather industry is responsible for 15% of human-induced greenhouse gas emissions and uses a large quantity of water and chemicals in the tanning process. To overcome the environmental impacts of existing materials, research works are made to identify sustainable alternatives. This chapter aims to analyze and consolidate the latest, sustainable novel materials and their technologies for the fashion industry. Also, the technological and economic feasibility of those materials in commercialization will be evaluated. Significant importance is given to established materials like citrus fibers, bacterial cellulose in fashion applications, and vegan leather products like cactus leather and mycelium leather. The last section of the chapter outlines the barriers to these future technologies with potential application scope in the textile and fashion industry.

R. Rathinamoorthy ∙ L. Suvitha Department of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India S. Raja Balasaraswathi Department of Fashion Technology, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Bengaluru, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. S. Muthu (ed.), Novel Sustainable Process Alternatives for the Textiles and Fashion Industry, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35451-9_5

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Keywords  Sustainable material · Citrus fiber · Bacterial cellulose · Cactus leather · Mycelium leather · Fashion application

5.1 Introduction The textile industry is one of the world’s largest industries, providing more than 300 million employments in its value chain. Due to the essentiality of textile products, the industry’s growth was also significant over the years. Sustainability can be economical, societal, and environmental. Textile industries are often related to environmental sustainability due to their higher environmental impact. In terms of pollution, carbon footprint, and water consumption, the textile industry is the second most polluting industry, next to the oil industry [1]. Due to an increase in per capita income and purchasing capacity, textile consumption increased, and a steep reduction was noted in the utilization percentage as of 2017 as reported by the Ellen McAurther foundation [2]. This reduced utilization and higher consumption of textiles is also a reflection of the fast fashion adaptation of mass consumers worldwide. Studies reported that developing countries like Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and Russia showed an 8-time higher growth rates in apparel sales than developed countries like UK and USA [3]. McKinsey’s analysis predicted that if 80% of these developing countries utilize the resources like developed countries, in 2025, the CO2 emission, water consumption, and land use will increase by 77%, 20%, and 7%, respectively [3]. If we analyze the sources of such pollution from the textile industry, the point of origin is from two areas, namely, (i) the raw material and (ii) the production process. When the raw materials are considered, cotton is the most common natural fiber used in textiles, accounting for 24% of the total textiles produced [4, 5]. The impact of cotton was reported from its farming stage, where it consumes a higher amount of insecticides, pesticides, and other fertilizers than any other crop. Studies found that cotton cultivation consumes 8 million tons of fertilizers and 0.2 million tons of pesticides yearly [5]. Meanwhile considering synthetic fibers, polyester, polyamide, and nylon share the highest market proportion. When compared to natural fibers like wool, synthetic textiles cause a higher environmental impact in the use and disposal phase, whereas the impact of natural fibers is in the manufacturing phase [6]. The second point, which talks about the environmental impact of the textile production process, was very well analyzed. Every manufacturing process of textiles, namely yarn manufacturing, fabric manufacturing, chemical processing of textile, and finishing, was evaluated for their CO2 emission, water consumption, and environmental impacts [7]. Further, the textile product’s life cycle has also been analyzed until its end of life to understand its environmental impact [8, 9]. The thriving fast fashion industry recently brought a massive amount of synthetic textiles into the environment by focusing on cheaper materials. Polyester fibers are more dominant and most frequently disposed of among the different fibers. One of the significant environmental impacts of such disposal is microfiber emission from the textile into aquatic, atmospheric, and terrestrial environments [10–12].

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Additionally, the initiatives to recycle or reuse such synthetic textiles after their lives were very meager worldwide. Though different governments and non-­ government organizations took several initiatives, the impact of synthetic textiles is still significant to the environment. The concepts of the circular economy, slow fashion, and the use of second-hand clothing were commercialized in the recent past. However, their mass adoption and technical, infrastructural, and economic feasibilities are unrealistic. So, the problem still exists with the textile material and needs immediate attention. Hence, this chapter reviews the upcoming futuristic materials that can be used as textiles instead of conventional synthetic and natural fibers with less or no environmental impact. The first part of the chapter details the production methods, structure, and application potential of citrus fiber, bacterial cellulose, mycelium, and cactus-based leather. The second half of the chapter outlines the commercial feasibilities and barriers in real-time applications.

5.2 Citrus Fiber Citrus fruits are well known for their richness in vitamin C. Major food processing industries are there to produce citrus juice out of citrus fruits. However, only 50% of the whole fruit can be yielded as juice, whereas the rest will be residues. Peel, pulp, seeds, and whole orange fruits of lesser quality will be considered waste in the processing industries [13]. The citrus fruit processing industry generates around 10 million tons of waste annually [14]. Waste management from these processing industries is crucial as these wastes can invite microbes, flies, and molds, which produce mycotoxins that can have an ecological impact [15]. Hence, researchers have found several applications for these wastes to tackle the adverse impact of such wastes. These wastes were identified to have bioactive compounds like pectin, essential oil, polyphenolic-flavonoids, carotenoids, vitamins, and others which can be extracted and used in functional foods [16]. Apart from food, these wastes were used as bio-fertilizers, activated carbon, bio-adsorbent, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals [15]. The effort toward sustainable production in the textile and fashion industries initiated the attempt to develop sustainable fabrics out of these wastes. Researchers and technologists have developed textile fabrics out of the peels of citrus fruits. It generally follows a process of extracting cellulose from different parts of citrus fruits, especially from the peels available at large scale in the food processing industries.

5.2.1 Characteristics of Citrus Fruit Peels The peels of citrus fruits are composed of two tissues: flavedo and albedo. Flavedo is the colored outer layer, whereas albedo is the inner white layer. These layers are rich in soluble and insoluble fibers, lipids, and organic acids [17]. Insoluble fibers

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include hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin, while soluble fibers include gums and pectin [18]. Researchers reported that spinnable cellulose could be extracted from these citrus peel flavedo and albedo tissues, which can further be processed into yarns and subsequently into fabrics [19]. Cellulose can be extracted from flavedo and albedo; where, albedo is rich in cellulose.

5.2.2 Cellulose Extraction from Citrus Fruit Peel A patented method of cellulose extraction from citrus fruit waste (flavedo and albedo) has been reported. Raw material, the citrus peel waste (orange), is first treated with solvents like toluene or ethanol before the extraction. Then, it is treated with hydrogen peroxide solution at alkaline conditions (pH of around 10–13). The advisable temperature for the extraction was 65–90 °C, and the extraction process involves mechanical stirring. After this, the solution is filtered to recover the cellulose as a solid. The solid cellulose mass obtained out of the first extraction will again undergo extraction in the carboxylic acid (acetic or formic acid) with hydrogen peroxide. The same filtration method will be adopted to recover the second level of cellulose mass. This will then be treated with sodium hydroxide solution at 90–110 °C to obtain the final cellulose mass. The recovered mass will be washed in distilled water for neutralization, followed by drying using oven-dry or air-dry methods. The process of cellulose extraction from citrus fruit peels patented by Santanocito is provided in Fig. 1 [19]. The other researchers have extracted cellulose and nano-cellulose from the albedo of pomelo (citrus grandis), one of the largest fruits in the citrus fruit family, as peels of pomelo are very thick and account for 30% of the fruit weight. In their study, cellulose was extracted employing treatment with the alkali solution. The peels are separated from the fruit, dried, and powdered. The powder is then treated with an alkali solution for 2 h, at 100–120 °C, followed by filtration and washing in distilled water. The extracted cellulose was further bleached with sodium chlorite [20]. This extracted cellulose can be further processed to produce yarns and fabrics based on the properties of the cellulose.

5.2.3 Properties of Citrus Fruit Textiles Cellulose extracted from citrus fruit peels was noted to have a high level of purity, low crystallinity, and high water-holding capacity [20]. Santanocito has reported that the cellulose extracted from the citrus waste is more than 90% of alpha cellulose which is the main constituent of the cellulose fibers for the application of textile manufacturing [19]. The fabrics made of orange fibers were found to resemble silk in quality, softness, surface shininess, and color. These fabrics can provide a moisturizing effect to

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Raw Material

Citrus Fruit Peel with Albedo (essential) and Flavedo

Pre-Treatment

Treating with solvents like ethanol or toluene

Level 1 Extraction

Treating with hydrogen peroxide at alkaline conditions

Recovery

Filtration of solution to recover 1st cellulose mass

Level 2 Extraction

1st cellulose mass is treated with carboxylic acid

Recovery

Filtration of solution to recover 2nd cellulose mass

Level 3 Extraction

2nd cellulose mass is treated with NaOH solution

Final recovery

Filtration of solution will give final product

Neutralization

Washing/rinsing in distilled water

Drying

Oven dry or Air dry

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Fig. 1  Cellulose extraction process from the citrus fruit peel

the skin with their rich source of vitamin C and essential oils. Moreover, these fibers can be blended with other fibers like cotton, silk, elastane, and other regenerated cellulose fibers, leading to a diversified product range [21]. With their blending ability, it has been reported that these fibers can be used in denim, leisure wears, sweaters, and scarves [22].

5.2.4 Commercial Viability Orange Fiber is the first brand, founded in 2014, to produce sustainable fabrics from citrus fruit waste. The brand has a patent for cellulose extraction from orange fruit waste and is developing fibers from the extracted cellulose. The company produces 100% citrus fabrics by spinning the pure citrus fibers into yarn and weaving them into fabrics. Figure 2 shows the flow process of citrus fabric production by the brand Orange Fiber [23]. Also, these fibers can be blended with other fibers to develop blended fabrics. To develop blended fabrics, the brand has collaborated with Lenzing Group, one of the leading manufacturers of specialty fibers. They have developed TENCEL™ branded lyocell fiber made of orange and wood pulp. A collection of TENCEL™ Limited Edition was developed in 2021 in collaboration with Orange Fiber [24].

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Fig. 2 (a) Citrus juice leftovers, (b) cellulose extraction, (c) fiber making, (d) spinning into yarn, (e) weaving into fabrics [23]

Fig. 3 (a) Corset top made of orange fiber in the H&M Conscious Exclusive 2019 Collection. (b) T-shirt made of orange fiber with an authentic print from the Capsule collection of Salvatore Ferragamo

Few brands have launched citrus fabrics in their collections in sustainable aspects in collaboration with Orange Fiber. In 2017, Salvatore Ferragamo launched the collection “Capsule” made of orange fibers to celebrate Earth’s Day [25]. Followed by this, the brand H&M launched a collection named H&M Conscious Exclusive 2019, which included corset tops made of orange fibers as a step toward sustainability. Some of the garments made of orange fiber in the collections launched by different brands are provided in Fig. 3.

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5.2.5 Sustainability and Environmental Metrics Citrus fiber is considered to be promising from beginning to end when the sustainability aspect of it has been taken into account. When the raw material is considered, waste from the citrus fruit squeezing industries were used which follows the circular economy principle where the wastes are being upcycled [26]. Being composed of 100% cellulose, Orange fiber is bio-degradable [27]. Knowing the possible manufacturing methods demonstrates that they are more sustainable than the ones already in use. Being a patented material, the manufacturing method which is being adopted for citrus cellulose production by “Orange Fiber” is noted to have reduced environmental impacts. Citrus fabric production technology uses 90% lesser water which is used for the irrigation of cotton. Moreover, citrus crops use 1% of the pesticides used for cotton cultivation [28]. It is worth to mention that the production of cellulose from citrus fiber is noted to have 40% less chemical change than that of normal cellulose production [29]. The key benefit of the extraction of cellulose from citrus peels is that this process does not involve the usage of chlorine compounds which is very common in the extraction of cellulose from other sources such as wood. The presence of chlorine during cellulose extraction can form toxic organochlorine due to the reaction between chlorine radicals and cellulose. Hence, the method of extraction without chlorine is advantageous as this can reduce the toxicity of the waste generated out of the current process [19]. Further, the cellulose production units can be easily set up near to the citrus fruit juice production which can reduce the logistics, thereby, footprint due to logistics [29]. The key consideration is the wet processing of fabrics for fashion use. When making fabrics for clothing, dyeing is an inevitable procedure. Though citrus fibers are reported to be dyed and printed [30], the dyes and auxiliaries that are required to yield better performance need to be explored along with their sustainability aspect which can make the product sustainability questionable. Although the material appears to be more sustainable than other conventional materials, further research is required to determine how sustainable the citrus fiber textile material is over the course of its whole existence. To summarize, Orange fiber is an emerging sustainable raw material for textile production. The sustainable aspects of production technology and the multiple end-­ use properties can make citrus fibers a revolutionary material in the field of sustainable textiles and fashion. Since the company Orange Fiber has a patent for manufacturing, research on the fabric’s functional attributes is not well-detailed. The study of fabric properties and their blending properties in detail is needed for their further applications in the textile and apparel end-use.

5.3 Bacterial Cellulose Cellulose is one of the most abundant polymers used on the earth, which is available in the cell wall of plants, fungi, and animals, and the one produced from microorganisms is known as microbial cellulose or bacterial cellulose (BC). Bacterial

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cellulose is chemically pure and free from lignin, pectin, and other impurities like plant cellulose [31], but the physical and structure properties differ. The bacterial cellulose is produced by some bacteria genes such as acetobacter, achrobacter, aerobacter, and agrobacter. These bacterial species extracellularly protect themselves against different environmental changes such as pH, water content, other pathogenic microorganism’s interaction, and UV rays, using these cellulose fibrils. Among these bacterial species, Acetobacter xylinium is the most widely used bacteria to produce BC due to its higher cellulose production speed compared to other types of bacteria. As it has superior features compared to plant cellulose, these BC have been widely used by researchers in the fields of food, medicine, electronics, textile, and fashion [32]. Due to its high cost, it has been limited to use in industries and in commercialization. As the production of bacterial cellulose needs a high amount of carbon source and less nitrogen source in the culture medium, the production cost is higher. Hence, researchers are working to find a cost-effective method to develop bacterial cellulose using agricultural and industrial waste.

5.3.1 Bacterial Cellulose Formation Brown found bacterial cellulose in 1886 by identifying a chemical structure equivalent to plant cellulose [33]. As bacterial cellulose has its extracellular surface, it has unique properties such as high tensile strength, crystallinity, and water absorption characteristics. Two types of cellulose are formed: Cellulose I, a ribbon-like crystalline polymer due to the uniaxial arrangement of polymer, and cellulose II, which is a more amorphous polymer due to its random arrangement with more hydrogen bonds. Cellulose production is a catabolic process of oxidation that consumes energy from fermentation media. The production of cellulose has been carried out by using nitrogen sources and carbon sources. The carbon source used in the culture helps cell growth and cellulose production. Some of the most commonly used carbon sources are lactose, sucrose, glucose, fructose, hexose, glycerols, mannitols, etc. The nitrogen source used in the medium helps in cell metabolism. The most commonly used nitrogen sources are yeast extract, peptone, polypeptone, casein, hydrolyte, ammonium sulfate, monopotassium phosphate, magnesium sulfate, etc. [34]. The bacterial cellulose has micro-fibrils composed of glucan chains held together by intra- and inter-hydrogen bonding. The acetobacter xylinium is found in rotten fruits and vegetables that produce bacteria during metabolism as segregation under static culture methods, and it forms pellicle-like structures or in the form of micro-fibrils under agitated culture methods [35].

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5.3.2 Culture Mediums and Production Methods of Bacterial Cellulose The different culture methods, static, agitated, shaking, and bioreactors, are used to produce bacterial cellulose. The macroscopic morphology, microstructure, and properties will differ for each method [36]. The cellulose in the form of a gelatinous membrane will be formed on the surface of the nutrition solution in the static culture method, whereas asterisk, sphere, and pellet-shaped cellulose will be formed in the agitated and shaking culture methods [37]. Researchers also said that in the static medium, the cellulose had been produced larger on the upper surface due to the higher amount of oxygen supply in the container, and they also suggest that the bacterial cellulose is uniformly formed in static than in agitated medium. Also, some recent researchers said that the agitated culture could be used for mass production [38]. Hence the production method is selected according to the physical, morphological, and mechanical characteristics and end applications. The factors influencing the bacterial cellulose are environment culture, including bacteria strain, nutrition, pH, and amount of oxygen in the culture medium. These bacterial strains will transform by organic contents and glucose present in the medium as cellulose [39]. The researchers have noted that one bacterium can convert 108 glucose molecules per hour into cellulose. Apart from the type of bacteria, the life cycle of the bacteria will affect the production of bacterial cellulose. Figure  4 represents the cellulose production from bacteria and their downstream process to the end product, as reported by the literature [40].

Fig. 4  Biosynthesis (a) and downstream processing (b) of bacterial cellulose as reported by [40] under creative commons license

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5.3.2.1 Static Culture The static culture method is the traditional and most widely used method for producing bacterial cellulose. In this method, a freshly prepared nutrient solution is maintained at 28–30 °C with pH in the range of 4–7 and fermented for 1–14 days. The bacterial cellulose has been formed in the gas-liquid interface where carbon dioxide has been entrapped during metabolism. The fresh hydrogel sheet has been formed at the surface of the container, which is then neutralized with sodium hydroxide and washed with tap water several times to reach neutral pH. The thickness of the bacterial cellulose depends on the culture time and the type of nutrient used. The thick sheet is formed by the fibrils produced and is crystallized with microfibrils. As this method is relatively simple with lower production capacity, it can be best suitable for laboratory production [41]. 5.3.2.2 Agitated/Shaking Culture Method The agitated or shaking culture method is developed mainly to overcome the problems such as lower production rates and higher costs. In the static method, the oxygen delivery is directly related to bacterial cellulose production. In this regard, the oxygen supply was increased or optimized in the agitated method through internal loop airlift reactors in the culture. It was also found that regardless the oxygen supply is increased or optimized, the quantity produced by the agitated method was equal to that of the static method. Also, in some of the studies, it has been reported that the bacterial cellulose produced in the agitated method was less when compared with the static medium. The agitated/shaking culture method is not suitable for all bacterial strains. However, it allows the bacteria to produce different fibril sizes in various shapes and diameters, and the size is related to the additive type used in the culture medium, the incubation time, and the reactors’ rotating speed [42]. Due to the continuous shear force in the agitated medium, the bacterial cellulose is formed in a sphere shape, and the size depends on the incubation time and type of additives used in the medium. In the agitated medium, the layered microstructure has been formed because it has been formed from the center particle, and then the outer layer has been developed [43]. Hence, some researchers have suggested that the agitated culture method is best possible for economic scale production. Figure  5 consolidates static and agitated methods of bacterial cellulose production and end-product characteristics reported by other researchers [44]. 5.3.2.3 Bioreactor Culture Medium The researchers found that if the oxygen supply, nutrients of the culture medium, and the transfer rate are maintained substantially, then the production of bacterial cellulose will be increased. Hence in recent years, research has been carried out on the fermentation process and preparation of bacterial cellulose in Bioreactor

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Fig. 5  Main factors to consider in bacterial cellulose production. (a) Bacteria genus; (b) carbon sources; (c) different medium conditions, and (d) other culture  medium conditions: static and dynamic fermentation to obtain different 3D shapes; different densities in the network of fibrils and 3D membranes with controlled micro-porosity. (Reproduced with permission from [44])

culture. The function of a bioreactor can characterize the bacterial cellulose with respect to the oxygen-enriched air by using a rotating disc and through biofilm support [45]. An airlift bioreactor produced cellulose with more energy efficient way and less shear stress with sufficient oxygen. The bacteria cellulose obtained by this method was similar to that from the agitated medium, but it has been noted that there is a decrease in the mechanical strength, with higher rate and yield [46]. The rotating disc bioreactor made using Plastic Composite (PC – from agricultural waste) was developed to increase the production yield at a lower cost. This was designed with several discs filled on a rotating shaft, with an inlet, to add different kinds of solids and fibers in the medium to improve the properties of bacterial cellulose. The PC rotating disc can be fully immersed in the culture medium, resulting in a higher yield of bacterial cellulose. The bacterial cellulose produced by this method has a pellet form, and there is no significant difference in the water uptake property, but there is a decrease in the mechanical properties [47]. The trickling reactor produced bacterial cellulose, providing high oxygen concentration with lower shear force. This bioreactor provides high biomass density systems, which can supply a more excellent surface-to-volume ratio; hence, the bacterial cellulose obtained has excellent properties, such as high polymerization, high water holding capacity, porosity, and thermal stability [48]. The PC used as biofilm for bacterial cellulose production is helpful for the high biomass density. So, the PC tubes can be

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Fig. 6  Bioreactor designs (top figure) and shape of BC cultivated from fermentation using the specific bioreactor (bottom figure). (a) Stirred tank bioreactors and grain-like BC pellets with size 5–3 mm, (b) rotating disk bioreactors and BC sheets, (c) airlift bioreactors and thin layer BC pellets. (Reprinted with permission from [50])

bounded on the agitator shaft and bioreactor design to increase bacterial cellulose production. Biofilm reactors increase the production yield, and the bacterial cellulose sheets’ physical, chemical, and mechanical properties improve when compared to the static/agitated medium; thus, these bioreactors can be commercialized to use in the production of bacterial cellulose sheets [49]. Figure 6 reports the different reactor shapes and principles used in bacterial cellulose production.

5.3.3 Applications of Bacterial Cellulose Bacterial cellulose can be used in any field as an alternative to plant cellulose due to its unique properties. Light tissue-engineered materials are highly enthusiastic for healing burns, wounds, injuries, and tissue substitution. The bacterial cellulose nanoparticles provide great potential in biomedical [51]. Various types of devices, such as sensors, batteries, active matrix displays, capacitors, and film transistors, can be used in the application of energy storage devices [52]. The bacterial cellulose composites were used with the wood pulp as an alternative to increasing the paper’s tensile strength. In paper making, bacterial cellulose can be used for making ultra-­ strength paper with coatings, bindings, and thickening agents. Several studies have demonstrated that bacterial cellulose can be a potential material for facial masks due to its high hydration properties. The bacterial cellulose has been replaced as a texture-rich cube, a novel low-calorie in desserts and snacks, and a flat replacer in meatballs [36].

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Fig. 7  Application of bacterial cellulose. (Reprinted under creative commons license from [54])

The bacterial cellulose can be used in leather, footwear, automotive, furnishing, and textile as an alternative to animal skin. These bacterial cellulose composites can be used as a strategic material in the leather and footwear industry which possess enormous potential, mainly focusing on natural and organic products [53]. Potential application sectors of bacterial cellulose were reported in Fig. 7, as mentioned by the previous researcher [54]. Specifically, concerning fashion application, several researchers reported the possibilities of using the textile end-use from Kombucha fermented bacterial cellulose. Ng and Wang reported the first study on bacterial cellulose application in the fashion industry (2016). The study reported several concepts for converting bacterial cellulose in the form of sheet material in both 2D and 3D shapes. The researchers also evaluated the property of the developed material and confirmed it [55, 56]. Later the researchers also measured the application of bacterial cellulose as accessories and other 3D performances for an application like interior textiles [57]. Yim, Song, and Kim evaluated the impact of feedstock material, carbon, and nitrogen

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sources on the material properties. Due to their leather-like appearance, the material was often referred to as an alternative to leather. The results showed that developed bacterial cellulose material showed a higher (2 times) strength and lower elongation (half) of the bovine leather [58]. Other researchers also measured the use of bacterial cellulose material for fashion accessories, but not as a clothing material, based on its thickness, translucency, unpleasant odor, and skin-like and worn appearance [59]. Studies also evaluated bacterial cellulose production with the desired pattern shape with zero waste. Different components of the garment were produced and developed in the required shape and later dyed for the desired color [60]. Researchers evaluated the folding endurance and tensile strength of the bacterial cellulose and reported their suitability for textile application. However, the researchers reported that the moisture properties must be improved for usefulness in the apparel and textile industry [61]. One major drawback noted in bacterial cellulose production was their temperature sensitivity. Based on the different treatment methods and temperatures, the material properties were found to be varied significantly [62]. Though attempts were made to improve the moisture properties of the bacterial cellulose by different researchers [63], their properties will vary based on the combined effect of the finishing treatment and drying method. Temperature-based drying methods increase the tensile strength and crystallinity of the material; however, the stiffness also increases and reduces its apparel endues [62]. One of the recent review reports addressed the impact of various drying methods and their effect on bacterial cellulose properties [64]. Table 1 consolidates the various studies and their proposed application of bacterial cellulose in fashion and textile products. Table 1  Textile and fashion application of bacterial cellulose Reference Methodology adapted [55, 56] Feedstock used: Kombucha, Black tea, green tea, wine, beer, fresh milk, and coconut juice as carbon sources Tests performed: Optimizing the growing conditions and evaluating its comfort and appearance properties Analysis: Exploration of BC growth and moldability [59] Feedstock used: Kombucha Methods: Dyeing with red onion skins by boiling in the dye bath for 40 min, then rinsing Purification, drying, and coating with vegetable-based glycerine by hand Product developed: Women’s bag and fashion accessories [57] Feedstock used: Kombucha for 9–15 days and dyeing with natural blue and red dyes by immersion Methods: The origami pattern was developed by using wet bacterial cellulose, followed by drying

Findings and outcome 15 g/l of green tea concentration broth on 6-day cultivation was noted as the optimal recipe Self-grown bacterial cellulose materials for fashion applications

Subjective assessments were performed for the quality and aesthetic properties Participants accepted bacterial cellulose for fashion accessories but not as a clothing material

Three-Dimensional origami arts using bacterial cellulose

(continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Reference Methodology adapted [60] Feedstock used: Bacterial cellulose SCOBY Methods: Tailored shape and size containers were used to grow bacterial cellulose [58] Feedstock used: Kombucha culture with, Green tea and sucrose Method: Static condition for Kombucha-­ based SCOBY. Wash with distilled water at 100–105 °C for 5 min and dry at 25 ° C for 24 h [62] Feedstock used: Kombucha culture with 7 days of fermentation Method: Washed with distilled water and dried at different temperatures until constant weight [61] Feedstock used: Acetobacter xylinium strain in green tea under static conditions for 3 weeks Method: Purify with 2% NaOH at 90 °C for 30 min, followed by washing with distilled water until neutral pH

[63]

Findings and outcome Garment panel with zero waste production method Developed a short-sleeved shirt with a collar Developed bacterial cellulose was compared with natural leather with similar thickness Bacterial cellulose showed a higher tensile strength (two times higher), but half the elongation Effect of drying temperature on the bacterial cellulose properties Higher temperatures created rapid water loss and brittle properties

Comparison of BC with cotton fabric BC presents lower tensile strength, elongation, and air and water vapor permeability values than the woven cotton fabric Water absorbency and water holding capacity are superior to the cotton fabric Feedstock used: Kombucha culture with tea Thickness, crease recovery, bending strength, tensile strength, and and sucrose elongation properties evaluated Method: Developed bacterial cellulose, 1% glycerol concentration was post-treated with NaOH and then impregnated with different concentrations of reported as optimum glycerol

5.3.4 Commercial Viability Several attempts were made to develop the commercial product using bacterial cellulose, but their cost is the primary barrier in industrial-scale production. As the production of bacterial cellulose mainly depends on the carbon and nitrogen sources along with species type, the cost of the production is very high. Studies reported that this resource accounts for 30% of the total production cost [65]. To tackle this issue, recent researchers proposed using industrial or food waste as an alternative source for bacterial cellulose production. However, the properties of the resultant product must be optimized based on the individual cases. This creates a tremendous technological barrier in terms of large-scale industrial production. The second most crucial issue is the moisture sorption behavior and temperature sensitivity. The higher moisture-holding capacity of the bacterial cellulose increases the cost of the transportation process in the industrial scale application [66].

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Studies predicted that to produce 504 tons of bacterial cellulose per year, the industry must spend 13 Million USD. The tentative manufacturing cost of bacterial cellulose per year is 7.4 million USD; thus, the industry will yield a profit of 3.3 million USD per year [67]. In the case of textiles, applications were considered, and studies reported that higher moisture-holding capacity and temperature sensitivity are the main issues [64]. Future studies must be conducted to optimize the impact of different process parameters in standardizing or modifying these properties which will help in the earlier commercial application of bacterial cellulose in the textile application.

5.3.5 Sustainability and Environmental Metrics Though research on bacterial cellulose production and its environmental impact is meager, the utilized production stages that were detailed in the literature were completely sustainable. Compared to the existing raw materials like cotton, viscose, or synthetic textiles, bacterial cellulose is usually produced from industrial wastes, fruit or food wastes, and other natural resources that cause no environmental impact as detailed in Table 1. It is also a fact that, in several countries, Kombucha, the brewing liquid of bacterial cellulose is consumed as a health drink. This ensures its eco-­ friendliness in terms of raw materials used and the production process adopted. Additionally, the process of developing bacterial cellulose converts the raw material into fabrics directly by skipping textile fiber-to-yarn and yarn-to-fabric conversion steps. This single-step manufacturing eliminated several manufacturing processes which ultimately led to the reduction of energy consumption and carbon footprint. A recent study analyzed the life cycle of bacterial cellulose production using ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) for 1 kg of dried bacterial cellulose. The results reported that the BC production can generate potential environmental impacts in the categories of “Climate change”, “Fossil depletion”, “Human toxicity, non-cancer”, and “Terrestrial toxicity”. The production of raw materials that was used in the bacterial cellulose production had the highest impact. This is due to the pathways and raw materials (corn syrup and carton production were used) assumed in the calculation [68]. This was completely optional when we use some waste as raw material. No such life cycle analysis studies were performed on bacterial cellulose produced from waste raw materials. Additionally, due to the different methodologies and LCA tools used in the assessment, the comparison of the results of existing textile fibers and bacterial cellulose is also not possible at this stage. Future research has to be initiated in this aspect to analyze the standard methods of bacterial cellulose productions (from industry or food waste) and that need to be verified with textile fibers.

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5.4 Fungal Mycelium The fungus species are known as production organisms and have grown more crucial in both research areas and industry. Mycelium is quickly becoming the cutting-­ edge generation of renewable and biodegradable materials for many uses. The vegetative portion of a mushroom is made up of mycelium, a network of intertwined, thread-like hyphae that can take on various shapes, including composite, foam, leather, etc. It is advantageous in the fashion sector because it is biodegradable and environmentally friendly. Applications of fungi for sustainable product development can be found in the packaging and textile industries as well as in isolation materials with a variety of other qualities. Mycelium is emerging as the avant-garde generation of sustainable and biodegradable materials for various applications. Based on species features, growth medium, and environmental factors, mycelium mainly consists of several components in substantially disparate quantities. Raw lipids, cellulose, chitin, vitamins, and minerals are the standard components that are considered when comparing the prospective species due to their unique structure and composition [69]. Their chemical and physical characteristics can be changed based on the growing conditions and the substrate they are fed upon [70]. The hyphae grow by extending and branching their hyphae into substance, which has the basic developmental unit of filamentous fungi [71]. There are numerous varieties of mycelium based materials, including biocomposites, foams, leather, etc. The mycelium materials can be grown by two alternative methods: one involves using the mycelium’s capacity to interlock other substances within its network to produce bulk material or mycelium-based composites; the other involves using a solid or liquid culture method to produce pure mycelium in the form of sheet [70].

5.4.1 Mycelium-Based Composite A mycelium-based bio-composite can be used as a biodegradable substitute for various applications, including building materials, packaging, thermal and acoustic insulation, flooring, and furniture. The materials that arise are entirely natural and compostable and contribute to the shift to a circular economy by reducing waste production. Mycelium-based composites have been developed into two types: sandwich composites and foams. Mycelium-based foams are low-density materials created when fungi colonize the lignocellulosic substrate. Mycelium-based foams can be a sustainable competitor to Polyurethane and polystyrene foams. Comparatively, sandwich composites have a scaffold structure where the external layers are linked by the adhesive ability of the mycelium, resulting in a single block. The process of creating mycelium-based composites involves inoculating the substrate with the fungus strain. Mycelium extends its hyphae from the tip while branching new hyphae and fusing them together to form a dense network. Mycelium destroys and

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populates the organic substrate and uses this as a feeding source [70]. Mycelium has been used by Ecovative Design to create biomaterials. Their product, Mycocomposite, which can be used in place of Styrofoam, which is developed from compost combined with mycelium fungus. They also introduced Mycoflex, a product used as high-performance foam substitutes. Studies developed shoe insole by using mycelium as a binding material. The study further analyzed the compressive strength and stiffness of the developed composite. Out of the selected species, the King oyster species had higher compressive strength and was recommended for application [72]. Mycelium is also used as thermal insulation material in construction, as an alternative to polystyrene and Styrofoam, due to their lightweight foam-like structure [73]. Based on this initial research, various commercial brands developed mycelium composite as an alternative to Styrofoam fire retardant insulation material in construction [74]. Mycelium composite materials generally have excellent thermal insulation properties and inherent low-frequency absorption characteristics [75, 76]. Though several construction applications were proposed with mycelium composites, studies reported poor fire-retardant properties of these composites compared to existing materials [77]. Figure 8 represents the different mycelium composite product applications in the product package. A few manufacturing firms also tried to develop commercial products from mycelium composites and launched them into the market. Ecovative Design, a New  York-based organization  developed mycelium composite material as an

Fig. 8  Mycelium composite-based packing materials developed by (a) TUDelft university design department [78], (b) Ecovative LLC [79], and (c) Mycelium products by ninelaivanova [80]

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alternative to the existing synthetic material using mycelium. A product developed by Ecovative LLC for home application is provided in Fig. 8. Mycoworks is another manufacturing firm that works on the mycelium-based leather-like composite sheet as a biomaterial alternative for leather. The product has several sustainable aspects in it and during the manufacturing process compared to natural leather [81].

5.4.2 Properties of Mycelium Composite Mycelium composites containing high-performance natural insulators such as straw and hemp fibers bound using mycelial growth have low densities and thermal conductivities. This makes them excellent insulation materials that compete with conventional commercial thermal insulation products, such as glass and wool [72]. Lower thermal conductivities are associated with better insulation materials and are primarily influenced by material density and moisture content to a lesser extent [75]. Mycelium is an excellent acoustic absorber, exhibiting strong inherent low-­ frequency absorption (b1500 Hz) and outperforming cork and commercial ceiling tiles in road noise attenuation. This non-typical property means that mycelium foam can be used in conjunction with other materials to improve their low-frequency absorption properties [82]. Alternatively, mycelium composite comprising mycelium-­ bound agricultural residue can provide a broader range of acoustic absorption with 70–75% sound absorption [76]. Mycelium itself has no unique or functional fire-retardant properties, typically exhibiting a three-stage thermal degradation process, with degradation and fire reaction properties typical for cellulosic and other biologically derived materials [77]. One of the most significant issues limiting the use of mycelium composites in material science applications is their tendency to absorb large amounts of water quickly. Mycelium composites are typically hygroscopic, increasing in weight by 40–580 water percentage when in contact with water for 48–192  h. The strong water absorption affinity of mycelium composites results from their typically cellulosic filler constituents, which contain numerous accessible hydroxyl groups, and the hydrophilic porous mycelium binder and biologically derived filler phases, which promote wicking [73]. Air-dried mycelium composites incorporating a fibrous substrate of rapeseed straw or cotton bur fiber can take up 530–550% moisture within 48  h when in contact with water [73, 83].

5.4.3 Pure Mycelium Pure mycelium materials can be produced through solid or liquid cultures. Proper sterilization is required to prevent contamination of mycelium. Depending on the type of fungal strain, the ideal growing parameters for moisture and temperature vary. The culture should be maintained under controlled environmental conditions

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of moisture and temperature to ensure stable growth. When the growing phase is complete, drying the material at 60 °C can prevent further growth. Depending on the additives given for mycelium, the outcome may vary in color, stiffness, and translucency [71]. 5.4.3.1 Culture Medium and Production Methods of Pure Mycelium Mycelium sheet materials can be produced through the liquid culture method and solid culture method. Liquid fermentation of a fungus strain can be done in static or mechanically disturbed vessels. When grown in a static liquid culture, filamentous fungus creates a mat of hyphae at the liquid’s surface. To avoid mycelium infection, proper sterilization is necessary. Depending on the type of fungal strain, the ideal growing parameters for moisture and temperature vary. The culture should be maintained under controlled environmental conditions of moisture and temperature to ensure stable growth [70]. Ross Mazur’s study compared the mechanical characteristics and effects of the manufacturing process of mycelial sheets to those of products from the paperboard and office paper classes of textiles. Two techniques were tested: the liquid culture method (using malt extract broth (MEB) and Sabouraud dextrose broth (SCB)) and the solid culture method (using malt extract agar (MEA) and lactose agar media) [84]. The fungi used were Pleurotus pulmonarius (liquid culture), Pleurotus ostreatus, (liquid culture), and Penicillium camemberti. The two methodologies were used in a variety of ways throughout the duration of the study. Before processing or direct dehydration/desiccation, fungal isolates were cultured in liquid using the first primary method, which used 2 L Erlenmeyer flasks. Fungal isolates were cultured on solid agar media in aluminum trays as part of the second primary procedure. Aluminum trays were chosen because other apparatus would have been too expensive to use, and there were worries that common aluminum salts would hinder mycelia growth. The species considered were those with cell wall characteristics judged appropriate for these activities and those suggested by prior successful studies. While Penicillium camemberti was grown using solid culture techniques, Pleurotus pulmonarius and Pleurotus ostreatus were developed in liquid culture. It was found that the mycelium sheets produced from the liquid culture were more brittle and could not sustain their sheet form, while the sheets produced from the solid culture method were comparatively better than that of the liquid culture [85]. Pure mycelium sheet was developed from Phanerochaete chrysosporium and utilized for wound dressing material. Results confirmed that Phanerochaete chrysosporium produces mycelium efficiently when cultivated on malt extract agar plates enriched with glucose and peptone. The characterization results showed that the hyphae present in the mycelium sheet were noted to increase the mass and strength of the material. The direct evaluation of antimicrobial test results revealed that pure mycelium film had little antibacterial activity [86]. Similarly, other researchers reported the pure mycelium sheet development from different wild fungi. The study compared the production of pure mycelium sheets from liquid fermentation and

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Fig. 9  Dry mycelial mats obtained by Mogu’s patented method after 3 weeks of growth in Petri plates; five repetitions were conducted per strain: (a) Fomitopsis iberica, (b) Daedaleopsis confragosa, (c) Coriolopsis gallica, and (d) Terana caerule. (Reprinted under creative commons license from [87])

patented slurry methods. The analysis results reported that, out of the selected species, B. adusta, G. lucidum, and S. hirsutum showed a higher growth rate than other fungal species. When the thermal characteristics of selected species were compared, a higher temperature-withstanding capacity was noted for the pure sheets developed from liquid culture over the patented method analyzed. The study reported that the Fomitopsis iberica strain is the most suitable species to develop leather alternatives [87]. Figure 9 showcases the mycelium sheet developed using various wild fungi as reported by literature.

5.4.4 Commercial Viability Though researchers successfully developed pure mycelium sheets at of laboratory level, the commercial application of the developed mycelium sheets was yet to explore. Existing literature reported a few significant problems concerning the material properties, namely their physical and mechanical properties. A lower thickness and paper-like properties were found to be significant drawbacks of these materials. Though the researcher used mycelium sheet in wound dressing

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application and reported its commercialization, the property requirement of the particular application is entirely different from textile [86]. The use of different species of mycelium is found to be one of the proposed solutions to obtain mycelium sheets with improved mechanical properties. In literature, Fomitopsis iberica and Penicillium camemberti were referred to as potential species to produce large quantities of mycelium-based textiles. However, none of the studies evaluated the techno-­ economic feasibility and commercial viability in large-scale production. Though studies reported mycelium composite production’s commercial possibilities, analysis on pure sheets was not yet performed. Hence, future studies must be focused on this aspect and provide suitable production methods with lower costs.

5.4.5 Sustainability and Environmental Metrics When the environmental impact of the mycelium products was discussed, no much studies analyzed the fungal mycelium sheet. However, there are few researchers who evaluated the sustainable aspects of fungal mycelium composites. The cradle to gate analysis of mycelium bio-composite showed an embodied energy of 860 MJ/ m3. This amount is 1.5–6 times lower than the current building material that is used in construction. Similarly, the embodied carbon was noted as −39.5 kg CO2 eq/m3. The negative value represented that the fungal composite was acting as CO2 sink in contrast to the currently used composites [88]. Hence it can be understood that, though the development process consumes significant energy, it was noted as very minimal. In the case of CO2 emission, the fungal products are found to be environmental friendly due to their negative CO2 emission. However, future studies need to be performed as per the recent advancement in the mycelium production.

5.5 Cactus Leather Vegan leather produced from the Cactus plant is a recent attraction among researchers due to its sustainable nature. The brand “Desserto®” is the only commercial manufacturer of cactus leather as of now [89]. However, the process of developing cactus leather was invented very early in 1908 [90, 91]. The research on Cactus leather was started long back in 1908. Frederick C. Wright, the pioneer in this field, found remarkable strength and pliability in the bisnaga (Echinocactus wislizeni) cactus species when the water is pressed out from the piece. Later, after drying, it became brittle. A series of attempts were made to improve the properties of that piece of bisnaga without any scientific background. In this process, the researcher cut out the leaf portion of the cacti plant and treated the leaf with tannic acid, glycerine, and water to improve the handle. A 12-h impregnation with this medium gave a perfect leather-like material [90]. The author reported drying as one of the most difficult of all these processes. Further, the addressed limitations are the cutting

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Fig. 10  Articles developed by F. C Wright from the parenchyma of the bisnaga (Echinocactus) and from the parenchyma of the sahuaro (Cereus giganteus). (Reprinted under Creative Commons license from [87])

methods and size of the leaves [91]. The leather samples reported by Wright are provided in Fig. 10. However, the leather produced by Desserto® slightly differs from the conventional manufacturing process. The leaves were plugged from the Nopal cactus plant and sun-dried for 3 days. Later the protein content from the dried leaf and the fibers were separated to make leather products along with some non-toxic polymer and plant-based oil [92]. The main advantage of the process is that due to the inherent nature of the plant, it does not require any water, it can sustain extreme conditions, and a single plantation can last for 8 years without any irrigation. The cactus plantation mainly uses rainwater for its growth and does not require irrigation, fertilizers, or pesticides. Hence, it can yield lesser environmental impact than traditional animal-­based and man-made synthetic leather. One linear meter of cactus leather can be produced from three to four matured leaves of the cactus plant. Due to the organic farming methods adopted by cactus leather manufacturers, the company was approved by USDA organic certification. Though the inventors reported that the manufacturing process of the cactus leather did not use any toxic chemicals, analysis conducted by FILK Freiberg Institute found five restricted chemicals like butanone oxime, toluene, free isocyanate, folpet (an organic pesticide), and traces of the plasticizer Di-isobutyl phthalate [92]. Similarly, though the manufacturer claimed the cactus leather is partially biodegradable, the inventors did not mention how long it will take to degrade and how much it will degrade. Likewise, the studies also reported that the initial stage LCA was also performed for one type of

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cactus leather product and not for all range of products. Hence it is essential to understand all sustainable aspects of the products before commercializing them ultimately.

5.5.1 Structure and Property Recently, one research thesis from California polytechnic university evaluated the mechanical properties of two different cactus leather products from recycled (backing fabric) and standard lines (virgin backing fabric). The study results showed a higher strength with the standard line product and lower strength with the product of the recycled line. The study measured the elongation (in), breaking load (lbs), and elongation at break (%) of the selected samples and reported an elongation range of 45.5–162%. The breaking load for the selected samples was reported in the range of 9.64–35.38 lbs. The study also reported that the higher breaking strength of the standard line product is mainly due to the higher strength of the backing material. Color fastness and staining were good for standard and recycled products [93]. The structure of the Desserto® leather is provided in Fig. 11, as reported by the previous researcher [94]. The study reported that cactus-based leather is made of three different layers, as shown in Fig. 11. The top coat is mainly based on polyurethane-based foam coating, the middle layer mainly contains the organic cellulose-based cellulose from cactus, and the bottom layer is made of textile fabric backup. These materials are top-­ coated with polymer-based finishes to simulate the leather-like feel and optic. The study reported that the tensile strength of the Desserto® product is in the range of 9–20 N/mm2. This research also confirmed that the tensile strength of this cactus

Fig. 11  Structure of Desserto® leather as reported by literature [94] under creative commons license; (a) top-coat; (b) foamed middle layer; (c) textile support

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leather product is mainly dependent on the backing textile fabric. The study also reported that the flex-resistant properties of these materials are satisfactory as per ISO 20942, but the water vapor permeability and absorption of the Desserto® were found to be insufficient. The thermal desorption process identified this material as a potentially harmful substance due to its synthetic top-coat [94].

5.5.2 Commercial Viability As mentioned earlier, though the technology was patented a century ago, the commercial application of cactus leather is recently increased. Desserto® is the only manufacturer that produces and sells cactus leather commercially as an alternative to synthetic leather. The company has its own product range with different colors and surface textures. They also develop these materials in customized colors and textures based on buyers’ requirements. Despite its successful adaption into the market (by a few leading fashion brands), its sustainability aspects are still questionable as the manufacturer uses synthetic chemicals and textiles for production.

5.5.3 Sustainability and Environmental Metrics When the sustainability aspects are considered, cactus helps in the carbon sequestration process. In the Desserto® product catalog, the inventors mentioned that cactus is a natural carbon sink. It has a tremendous CO2 absorption capacity. From the 14 acres, the production process can absorb 8100  tons of CO2/year, while at the farm, it only generates 15.30 tons of CO2 annually [95]. Similarly, the Life cycle assessment of cactus leather (early stage analysis as per ISO 14040 and 14044) showed a reduction of 878.26% of cumulative energy demand (CED), 1864.02% green gas emission (GHG), 500% Eutrophication impact, 164,650% of water consumption, and 1416.66% greenhouse gas while incinerated compared to the animal leather. When the same was compared with PU-based leather, a reduction of 78.96% of CED, 77.69% of GHG, 100% reduction in eutrophication, 190% reduction in water consumption, and 90.55% of GHG emission reduction during incineration with the Cactus leather [95, 96].

5.6 Challenges and Future Scope Recent developments in the biobased alternative material have shown its potential in developing various sustainable materials for commercial applications. This chapter detailed a few upcoming materials and their potential characteristics for textile and fashion applications. Though several positive aspects were identified during the

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laboratory scale production, few difficulties and barriers were observed in commercialization. The main advantage of such materials is their sustainability in feedstock resources and production processes. However, each material has its drawback in different aspects. Out of the discussed materials, orange fiber is a patented technology; hence, few details are publicly available. Though the product was commercialized recently by different high fashion brands, studies on their sustainability characteristics are meager. As the cultivation and production process are similar to natural and man-made cellulosic fiber, a detailed analysis of their water consumption and carbon-di-oxide emission via life cycle assessment is essential. Despite the product’s sustainable nature, the details regarding the environmental impact during production and the afterlife are unknown. In the case of bacterial cellulose, the material is highly sustainable, but the properties like temperature sensitivity and higher water retention properties were barriers in the textile application. Similarly, the process costs were identified as higher due to the feedstock material requirement. Though alternative feedstocks like agricultural and food waste were identified as sources, their commercial viability is still questionable. In the case of textile applications, it is also essential to evaluate the material suitability in terms of laundry and reuse, but no such attempts were made with bacterial cellulose material. As far as the mycelium-based textiles are considered, though the composites were commercially produced, the pure sheets are still in research. Literature showcased their suitability and application viability as wound dressing material. However, the property requirements for fashion and textile applications were not thoroughly addressed. Most researchers are still analyzing different wild fungi’s mycelium sheet growing potential. Significantly, few research reported the properties of mycelium materials obtained from fungi. Even though a few properties like carbon emission, sustainable nature, and energy consumptions are comparatively less than other products, their mechanical properties need lots of improvement. Though the product was made commercially available for cactus-based leather, its sustainability is recently questioned due to the use of synthetic top coat and backing material. Though the manufacturers claim that the material is less energy intensive, carbon negative or neutral, and partially biodegradable, studies reported a contradictive opinion on their sustainability aspects. Other than these issues, the cost, industrialscale production, and commercial application of cactus leather were well explored. Though the applications are explored in non-textile applications, the use of textiles and fashion is limited to accessories. Figure  12 represents the common barriers noted in the review process to commercialize the discussed novel technologies in the field of textile and fashion. Among the discussed novel materials, bacterial cellulose and mycelium textiles were in the infant stage and required much effort to bring them as a commercial product. The major drawback reported was their physical and mechanical properties, so researchers must focus on those aspects. Of course, the latter part must focus on the large-scale bulk production feasibility. This research direction will address the issue of cost and commercial viability in terms of repeatability, reproducibility, etc. As far as the orange fiber and cactus leather are concerned, the product is

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Fig. 12  Common barriers identified in the upcoming novel sustainable materials

commercialized, but the product’s inventors must elaborate on the sustainability aspects of the product, the raw materials used, and the associated production process.

5.7 Conclusions This review summarizes four different novel materials that have substantial future scope in the textile and fashion industry. The analysis showed that the future scope for biomaterials like bacterial cellulose and mycelium textiles is highly desirable. However, the materials lack some essential properties required for end uses. Similarly, orange fiber and cactus leather and their potential were analyzed in this chapter. Though these materials were already commercialized, their sustainability aspects and application expansions need to be evaluated for better reach. The significant barriers identified are the technology availability, the feasibility of bulk production, and associated cost. Future research on these areas will yield fruitful results, so affordable, sustainable materials as commercial products.

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Index

A Adsorbents, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 42–44 Apparel, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 16, 18–22, 51–56, 61, 64, 70, 71, 108, 113, 120

F Fashion application, 119–121, 131 M Mycelium leather, 109, 125

B Bacterial cellulose (BC), 109, 113–122, 132, 133 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 32, 34, 40, 41 Bio-culture, 36–38, 40–44 Biomordants, 74–102 C Cactus leather, 128–133 Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 32, 34, 37, 39–44 Circular economy, 2, 9, 19, 22, 60, 69, 109, 113, 123 Citrus fiber, 109, 111, 113 Cleaner production (CP), 30, 63, 74–102 Color, 6, 12, 74–77, 79–102, 126 E Economy, 11 Ecosystem, 2, 49, 56, 58, 62, 96 Effluents/remnants, 43, 44, 50, 58, 60, 63, 66, 74, 90, 95, 98 Effluent treatment, 30, 32–35, 38, 39, 43

N Natural/ayurvedic dyeing, 30–44 Natural dyes, 30–32, 63, 74–102 S Supply chain, 10, 16–20, 22, 53, 54, 56, 66, 70 Sustainability, 2, 3, 9–16, 18, 22, 48–53, 56, 58, 59, 61, 65–67, 76, 97, 98, 108, 112, 113, 122, 128, 131–133 Sustainable fashion, 2–22, 51 Sustainable material, 131, 133 T Tannins, 84, 98–100, 102 Textile industry, 4, 17, 30, 34, 48–50, 52, 53, 55–70, 74–102, 108, 120, 123 Textile sector, 48, 51, 55, 56, 59–61, 66, 70, 71, 77 3D printing, 4, 16, 18, 22 Total dissolved solids (TDS), 32, 34, 39–44 Total suspended solids (TSS), 32, 39–44

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 S. S. Muthu (ed.), Novel Sustainable Process Alternatives for the Textiles and Fashion Industry, Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35451-9

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