Handbook of Teaching Public Administration 1800375689, 9781800375680

Citation preview

HANDBOOK OF TEACHING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Handbook of Teaching Public Administration Edited by

Karin A. Bottom Associate Professor in Public Sector Learning, Institute of Local Government Studies (INLOGOV), School of Government, University of Birmingham, UK

John Diamond Emeritus Professor of Public Policy and Professional Practice, Faculty of Education, Edgehill University, UK

Pamela T. Dunning Associate Professor (Ret.), formerly of the MPA Program, Department of Political Science, Troy University, USA

Ian C. Elliott Senior Lecturer in Public Leadership and Management, Newcastle Business School, Northumbria University, UK

Cheltenham, UK • Northampton, MA, USA

© Karin A. Bottom, John Diamond, Pamela T. Dunning and Ian C. Elliott 2022

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. Published by Edward Elgar Publishing Limited The Lypiatts 15 Lansdown Road Cheltenham Glos GL50 2JA UK Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc. William Pratt House 9 Dewey Court Northampton Massachusetts 01060 USA A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2022934537 This book is available electronically in the Political Science and Public Policy subject collection http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781800375697

ISBN 978 1 80037 568 0 (cased) ISBN 978 1 80037 569 7 (eBook)

EEP BoX

Contents

List of figuresviii List of tablesix List of boxesx List of contributorsxi Forewordxx Mary E. Guy and Sofiane Sahraoui Prefacexxv Karin A. Bottom, John Diamond, Pamela T. Dunning, and Ian C. Elliott Acknowledgementsxxvi 1

Making the case for research informed practice and situated pedagogy Karin A. Bottom, John Diamond, Pamela T. Dunning, and Ian C. Elliott

PART I

1

STATE OF THE DISCIPLINE

2

A global perspective on public administration? The dynamics shaping the field and what it means for teaching and learning Janine O’Flynn

13

3

The fourfold nature of public administration as science, art, profession, and humanism: implications for teaching Edoardo Ongaro

26

4

A historical and global perspective on teaching and learning public administration: how to govern and what to do when governing Jos C.N. Raadschelders

35

PART II

NATION-BASED TRADITIONS

5

Public administration education in Central and Eastern Europe György Gajduschek and György Hajnal

45

6

History of public administration education in the United States  Bruce D. McDonald III, William Hatcher, and Michaela E. Abbott

57

7

Teaching public administration in Europe Eckhard Schröter and Christoph Reichard

65

8

British public administration: the status of the taught discipline Karin A. Bottom, Ian C. Elliott, and Francisco Moller

75

v

vi  Handbook of teaching public administration 9

Public affairs education in Latin America and the shape of the state: the cases of Brazil, Chile, and Colombia Ricardo Corrêa Gomes, Pablo Sanabria-Pulido, Cristian Pliscoff, and Marco Antonio Carvalho Teixeira

10

Splintered voices: Australian/New Zealand traditions of teaching public administration98 Amanda Smullen and Catherine S. Clutton

11

Public administration teaching and scholarships within Indonesian administrative system developments Eko Prasojo and Desy Hariyati

109

12

Administrative education, training, and capacity building: the role of the Indian Institute of Public Administration Aroon P. Manoharan and Nandhini Rangarajan

117

13

The teaching of public administration in Africa Robert Mudida

86

127

PART III PEDAGOGY AND LEARNING 14

Real-world ethical experiential practice-based action learning for the ‘new normal’ Josephine Bleach

15

Planning for a midcareer MPA program: pedagogical and strategic considerations148 Kevin P. Kearns and Lorna R. Kearns

16

Executive education and leadership development: round peg, square hole? Catherine Mangan and Christopher Pietroni

157

17

Continuing professional learning Peter K. Marks

168

18

The challenges of developing reflective practice in public administration: a teaching perspective Monika Knassmüller

178

19

Inquiry-based learning and the crisis competences for addressing the climate emergency  John Connolly and Alice Moseley

188

20

Teaching with experiments Claire A. Dunlop

139

198

Contents  vii PART IV CONTESTED CONCEPTS 21

Accreditation in public administration education Taco Brandsen

22

Democracy, governance, and participation: epistemic colonialism in public administration and management courses Abena Dadze-Arthur

218

23

Preparing graduates to address big global issues: is accreditation helping or hindering? Nadia Rubaii

227

24

Teaching research methods in public administration: on the way to normal science? Sandra van Thiel

236

25

Using service learning in public administration programs: best practices and challenges Mark T. Imperial and Christopher R. Prentice

244

PART V

210

TEACHING CASE STUDIES

26

Using pop culture to teach public ethics: the case of Parks and Recreation254 Erin L. Borry

27

Teaching public administration with visual methods Ian Robson

263

28

Collective learning from and with social movements Eurig Scandrett

273

29

Show me the money: financial management curricular concerns in public administration education Thad D. Calabrese and Daniel L. Smith

30

Teaching leadership in public administration: an integrative approach Barbara C. Crosby

31

Let’s talk about race: considerations for course design in public administration 300 Dayo Eseonu

32

Applying queer theory to public administration: reimaging police officer recruitment Roddrick A. Colvin and Seth J. Meyer

33

Gamification: using the escape room for teaching public administration Janez Stare, Maja Klun, and Jernej Buzeti

319

34

Teaching dilemmas with street-level bureaucracy Mike Rowe

327

282 290

309

Index334

Figures

9.1

Public officials’ educational levels in Colombia

12.1

Components of APPPA training

123

14.1

Cyclical action learning model 

141

17.1

Career path required learning of the public professional

170

27.1

COVID-19 and public administration

267

27.2

A situation of English community regeneration 

268

27.3

Public policy implementation

269

31.1

Tutorial task

301

viii

93

Tables

3.1

Key issues for developing philosophy for PA programme 

32

5.1

Mean proportions of various disciplines in the three clusters of countries (%, characteristic dimensions and values marked)

48

5.2

Proportions (%) of various disciplines in the five analyzed countries 

49

8.1

University public administration and public management programmes

80

9.1

The context of public administration education in the three countries

94

12.1

Training programs at IIPA

122

16.1

Illustrative range of public sector executive education programmes delivered by the University of Birmingham

158

16.2

Distinguishing between leadership education, training, and development

160

16.3

Summary of activities which offer anchoring, scaffolding, and trellising

164

19.1

Inquiry-based learning strategies and climate competences

191

27.1

Examples of visual or material methods, with educator notes and possible applications in public administration teaching

265

30.1

“Leadership for the Common Good” course design

293

31.1

Guidelines for developing a counterstory

303

31.2

Guidelines for developing CSL projects

304

31.3

Creating brave spaces

305

32.1

General process recruiting police officers

313

ix

Boxes 22.1

Bedoucratic governance

220

22.2

Rhodes must fall

224

26.1

P&R reflection #1 prompts

256

26.2

P&R reflection #2 prompts

257

26.3

P&R reflection #3 prompts

258

26.4

Final paper: All the Queen’s Horses prompts

259

x

Contributors

Michaela E. Abbott is a PhD student at NC State University, USA, and serves as the editorial assistant of the Journal of Public Affairs Education. She also serves on the board of the American Society for Public Administration’s Section for Women in Public Administration. She received her BA in documentary production from Ithaca College, USA, and an MPA from the College of Charleston, USA. Her areas of interests include social equity, women and gender studies, and representative bureaucracy. Josephine Bleach has been the Director of the Early Learning Initiative, National College of Ireland since 2008, and over the course of her career has worked with a wide range of community, voluntary, and statutory agencies on innovative initiatives. She has published widely, with her book Parental Involvement in Primary Education available from Liffey Press. Her research interests are community action research, educational disadvantage, parenting support, prevention and early intervention, professional development, leadership, sustainability, policy development and implementation. Erin L. Borry is Associate Professor and Graduate Program Director in the Department of Political Science and Public Administration at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA. Her research interests include rules, red tape, social equity, and public administration in pop culture. She has published in Public Administration Review, Public Administration, International Public Management Journal, Public Integrity, Journal of Public Affairs Education, and American Review of Public Administration, among others. Karin A. Bottom is Associate Professor in Public Sector Learning and Director of Education (PGT) at the Institute of Local Government Studies (INLOGOV), University of Birmingham, UK. Her research interests revolve around the educational development of public sector practitioners and the teaching of public administration. Karin has extensive experience in the design and delivery of public administration programmes to practitioners, she chairs the UK Joint University Council’s Public Administration Committee, and serves on the editorial board of Teaching Public Administration. Taco Brandsen is Secretary-General of the European Association for Public Administration Accreditation (EAPAA) and Chair of Public Administration at Radboud University, The Netherlands. He has extensive experience in developing and evaluating academic degree programmes on public administration and public management. Jernej Buzeti is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Public Administration, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, where he successfully defended a doctoral dissertation titled ‘The connection between leader behavior and temporary employee absence from work in public administration’. He is also a Vice Dean for Knowledge Transfer at the faculty. His field of research relates to leadership and human resource management or the organization of the public sector. He is also involved in preparing and conducting practical classes and seminars. Thad D. Calabrese, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Public and Nonprofit Financial xi

xii  Handbook of teaching public administration Management at the Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public Service at New York University, USA. His research and teaching have focused broadly on financial decision making in public service organizations: government, not-for-profit, and healthcare entities. He has served in leadership roles in the Association for Budgeting and Financial Management and the Association for Research on Nonprofit Organizations and Voluntary Action. Catherine S. Clutton was awarded her doctorate at the Australian National University (ANU) in 2018, following a long career in the Australian Public Service. Catherine’s research examined the ways in which governments engage with multicultural communities in the development of health policy. Her work compared Australia and Canada at both the federal and state/provincial levels of government. She recently held the position of Visiting Fellow at the ANU during which she continued her interest in public administration, co-authoring work on organizational longevity. Roddrick A. Colvin is a Professor of Public Administration at San Diego State University, USA. Dr Colvin has written extensively on police officers and their shared perceptions. He is the author of the book Gay and Lesbian Cops: Diversity and Effective Policing (Lynne Rienner Publishing, 2012), which was one of the first large-scale empirical studies on policing and sexuality. His current research interest explores the relationships between police departments’ diversity, equity, and inclusion, and improved outcomes, including community trust and police legitimacy. John Connolly is a Professor of Public Policy at the University of the West of Scotland, UK. His research and teaching focuses on governmental crisis management, policy analysis, public health, and modern approaches to pedagogy. He is the editor of the Contemporary Social Science journal and Chief Editorial Adviser for Routledge Open Research for Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences. Professor Connolly is a former public servant with considerable experience in evaluating complex policy interventions, which remains an important focus for his externally funded work. Barbara C. Crosby, emerita faculty at the Humphrey School of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota, USA, has taught and written extensively about leadership and public policy, cross-sector collaboration, women in leadership, and strategic planning. She is the author of Teaching Leadership: An Integrative Approach, and co-author with John M. Bryson of Leadership for the Common Good: Tackling Public Problems in a Shared-Power World. She holds a top teaching award from the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA). Abena Dadze-Arthur spent ten years working as a public policy specialist in governments across Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, before redirecting her career to researching and teaching international public management in 2011. Abena currently works as an Associate Lecturer at the University of Birmingham, UK. Her research interests focus on the transferring and brokering of knowledge across institutional and cultural boundaries, particularly within the real-life contexts of decolonizing education and anchoring governmental change initiatives in indigenous worldviews and local values. John Diamond is Emeritus Professor of Public Policy and Professional Practice at Edge Hill University in the UK. He is co-editor of Teaching Public Administration (published by

Contributors  xiii SAGE three times a year), and one of the co-editors of this Handbook of Teaching Public Administration. Claire A. Dunlop is Professor of Politics and Public Policy at the University of Exeter, UK. She researches science and politics, regulation, policy processes, and European Union (EU) public policy. For the past two decades, Claire has taught public policy process theories and policy analysis to undergraduates, and risk regulation and good governance to practitioner students and policymakers in the UK, US, and EU. She is editor of Policy and Politics and is Vice Chair of the UK Political Studies Association (PSA). Pamela T. Dunning is retired as an Associate Professor from Troy University, USA. She is on the editorial board of Teaching Public Administration and is past chair of the Section on Public Administration Education (SPAE) within the American Society of Public Administration (ASPA). She is also one of the co-editors of this Handbook of Teaching Public Administration. Ian C. Elliott is Director of Education (PGT) at Newcastle Business School, Northumbria University, UK, and is Honorary Chair of the UK Joint University Council. His research interests span public leadership, organizational strategy and change, and public administration pedagogy. He has significant experience in the development and delivery of public administration programmes, including engaging with employers in the co-design of postgraduate programmes. Ian also serves on the editorial boards of Teaching Public Administration, Public Policy and Administration, and Public Administration: An International Quarterly. Dayo Eseonu has a PhD in Politics from the University of Manchester, UK. Her doctoral research titled ‘A new-institutionalist exploration of the “voice-of-colour” in public services delivery’ used new-institutionalist analyses to examine the role of public services in achieving racial equity. She continues to research racial justice in policymaking by centring the knowledge of racially minoritised communities. György Gajduschek is Professor at the Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary, and a Senior Researcher and Chair of a research unit at the ELKH Centre for Social Sciences. He has been an instructor in various MPA programmes and has served as a trainer for the general civil service training programme in Hungary since its introduction. He has participated in the formation and several revisions of the programme. Prof. Gajduschek has published dozens of papers and book chapters addressing the civil service system in the Central and Eastern Europe region. Ricardo Corrêa Gomes has a PhD in Public Management issued by Aston Business School, UK (2003). He is an Adjunct Professor at Fundação Getulio Vargas School of Business and Economics, Brazil. He is Vice President for Latin America and the Caribbean at the International Research Society for Public Management. He is a member of the editorial board of the following journals: Public Management Review, Public Administration, International Journal of Public Sector Management, and Finance and Accountability Management. His areas of interest include stakeholder theory, strategic management, and public services. Mary E. Guy is Professor of Public Administration at the University of Colorado Denver, USA. She has lectured around the globe on the subject of effective public service delivery. Winner of the 2021 Award for Excellence in Public Administration Education and the 2018

xiv  Handbook of teaching public administration Dwight Waldo award, she is a Fellow of the National Academy of Public Administration and Past President of the American Society for Public Administration. György Hajnal is Professor at the Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary, and directs the university’s Institute of Economic and Public Policy, and is Research Professor at the ELKH Centre for Social Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Science Centre of Excellence. His current research interests extend to comparative analysis of public management reforms and reform doctrines at central and local levels, administrative culture, and the structural dynamics of central government organization. Desy Hariyati is a lecturer at the Faculty of Administrative Science, Universitas Indonesia. Her research interests include governance, administrative reform, strategic management, political trust, and local government. Besides academia, she delivers policy advice on bureaucracy reform to various government ministries and local governments. She studied public policy and administration, democratic governance and civil society in Universitas Indonesia and Universität Osnabrück, Germany. She is currently conducting a doctoral research at Universität Potsdam, Germany, and is developing a theory of public trust and participatory policy making. William Hatcher, PhD, is a Professor of Public Administration and Chair of the Department of Social Sciences at Augusta University, USA. He also serves as the co-editor-in-chief of the Journal of Public Affairs Education. He received both a BS in Political Science and an MPA from Georgia College and State University, USA, and a PhD in Public Policy and Administration from Mississippi State University, USA. Mark T. Imperial is a Professor and Director of the Master of Public Administration (MPA) programme in the Department of Public and International Affairs at the University of North Carolina Wilmington, USA. He teaches courses in public management, public policy analysis, coastal management, and environmental policy analysis. His research interests primarily focus on institutional analysis, collaboration, and network governance. Kevin P. Kearns is Professor of Public and Nonprofit Management at the Graduate School of Public and International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh, USA. His research and teaching interests focus on nonprofit management, leadership, and governance. He has been involved in adult education as a teacher and programme administrator for nearly 40 years, and has received numerous awards for teaching and public service. Lorna R. Kearns is a Senior Consultant at the University Center for Teaching and Learning at the University of Pittsburgh, USA (‘Pitt’). As Director of Online Programs at Pitt, she oversaw the Pitt Online portfolio of online academic programmes, the Pitt Professional collection of online continuing education programmes, and the University’s Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) initiative. Through her career, she has worked extensively ‒ as instructor, advisor, programme director, and strategic programming consultant – with adult learners in higher education. Maja Klun, PhD, is with the Faculty of Public Administration, at the University of Ljubljana. Slovenia. She started her career at Ministry of Economic Relationship and Development and soon after that she gained the position at University of Ljubljana. She has been a guest lecturer at various universities across Europe (in Prague, Rotterdam, Ghent, Lisbon, Rijeka,

Contributors  xv Bratislava). Her main fields of research are public finance and economics of public sector. She publishes in several journals and publishes chapters in books from various publishers. Monika Knassmüller is Assistant Professor and Deputy Head of the Institute for Public Management and Governance (WU Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria). She is Co-Chair of the European Group for Public Administration Permanent Study Group IX (EGPA PSG IX) Teaching Public Administration and is on the editorial board of the SAGE journal Teaching Public Administration. Her research interests include public management and governance from an organizational and comparative perspective, organizational communication, and the research‒teaching nexus in higher education, with a focus on teaching public administration/management and training public servants. Catherine Mangan is Professor of Public Management and Leadership in the Institute of Local Government Studies at the University of Birmingham, UK. She has a background as a policy maker and practitioner in public service, and as such has a particular research interest in developing research which can deliver change within the public sector. Her research-informed areas of interest include developing the skills of the future public service workforce, leadership within the public sector, and the contribution that elected councillors make to designing good social care. Aroon P. Manoharan is an Associate Professor in the Institute for Public Service, Sawyer Business School, Suffolk University, USA. He is also the Director of the National Center for Public Performance (NCPP). His research interests include e-government, performance measurement, strategic planning, public communication, public management, state capacity, and comparative public administration. His publications include E-Government and Information Technology Management: Concepts and Best Practices, and E-Government and Websites: A Public Solutions Handbook. He received his PhD from the School of Public Affairs and Administration (SPAA), Rutgers University-Newark, and MPA from Kansas State University, USA. Peter K. Marks is an Associate Professor at the Department of Public Administration at Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands. His theoretical focus is on the development and application of complexity sciences in researching public decision-making processes, for example, the decision-making processes of the Joint Strike Fighter. In his position as Director of the two-year mid-career Master Program Public Administration, he focuses on the theoretical and practical development of teaching programmes to enhance and strengthen the two-year mid-career master program. Bruce D. McDonald III, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Public Budgeting and Finance at North Carolina State University, USA, editor-in-chief of Public Administration, and the co-editor-in-chief of the Journal of Public Affairs Education. His research focuses on public budgeting and finance in the context of the fiscal health of local governments. His research has appeared in the Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Public Administration Review, and the American Review of Public Administration. Seth J. Meyer, LMSW, PhD is an Assistant Professor of Nonprofit Management in the Department of Political Science at Bridgewater State University, USA. His research focuses on social equity within nonprofit organizations, specifically around Jewish and Queer communities. He also does work around organizational behaviour in multi-site nonprofits.

xvi  Handbook of teaching public administration Francisco Moller is a Research Teaching Associate at the Institute of Local Government Studies (INLOGOV), University of Birmingham, UK. His research interests focus on local finances, public sector economics, policy evaluation and data analysis and measurement. Francisco teaches on INLOGOV’s online MPA and its MSc in Public Management. Currently, he is a Senior Researcher on a nationwide survey of Chile and its policies of care during COVID-19. The survey is led by the National Agency of Research and Development. Alice Moseley is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Politics, University of Exeter, UK. She teaches and researches in the areas of behavioural public policy and administration, democratic innovations, and civic engagement, with her most recent work addressing citizen and stakeholder engagement with climate change topics. She teaches undergraduate and postgraduate students including MPA students, and employs inquiry-based and research-led teaching methods in her teaching practice. She is on the editorial advisory board of the journal Teaching Public Administration. Robert Mudida is the Director of Research at the Central Bank of Kenya, and was a Professor of Political Economy at Strathmore University, Kenya. He has authored four books, including most recently An Emerging Africa in the Age of Globalisation published by Routledge. He has also published numerous articles in top international peer-reviewed journals. His research interests are political economy, macroeconomics, financial economics, and industrial organization. Janine O’Flynn is Professor of Public Management at the University of Melbourne, Australia, and an award-winning educator and researcher. Her expertise particularly relates to public sector reform and relationships, and more recently to notions of morality as it relates to public management. Across her research, education, and engagement activities, she seeks to better understand how government works, and to contribute to improving the outcomes of those activities. Edoardo Ongaro is Professor of Public Management at the Open University, UK. Over the period 2013‒2019 he served as the President of the European Group for Public Administration (EGPA), and since 2015 has been an editor of Public Policy and Administration. He has served on various academic and expert committees and in international research projects. Professor Ongaro is a Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences and of the Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences Public Administration Committee. Christopher Pietroni is Professor of Leadership Practice and Director of the Birmingham Leadership Institute (BLI) at the University of Birmingham, UK. The BLI’s focus is on ‘leadership embracing complexity’, and is concerned to better understand the nature of the leadership required to make progress on complex challenges, and how that leadership can be effectively developed. His particular interests lie in applying and integrating insights from narrative, framing, movement building, adaptive leadership, and adult development. Cristian Pliscoff has a PhD in Public Administration from the University of Southern California, USA. He is the Director of the undergraduate programme in Public Administration, at the School of Government of the Catholic University of Chile. He is the former President of the Interamerican Network of Public Administration Education (INPAE). He serves as an associate editor of the journal Public Administration. His research interests are public sector

Contributors  xvii reform, ethics and corruption, public service motivation in Latin America, and pedagogy in public administration. Eko Prasojo is Professor of Policy, Governance, and Administrative Reform, and the former Dean of the Faculty of Administrative Science, Universitas Indonesia. He currently serves as the President of Asian Group Public Administration and the Executive Secretary of the Steering Committee of National Bureaucracy Reform in Indonesia. He was the Vice Minister of Administrative Reform, Republic of Indonesia. He received the Braibant Lecture Award in 2019, the Habibie Award 2019, and the MIPI Award 2018 (Indonesian Political Science Association). Christopher R. Prentice is an Associate Professor of Nonprofit Management and Founding Director of the Center for Social Impact at the University of North Carolina Wilmington (UNCW), USA. He teaches in UNCW’s Master of Public Administration programme, and his research focuses on nonprofit financial management and cross-sector collaboration. He holds a PhD from North Carolina State University, an MPA from George Washington University, and a BA from the University of California, Irvine, USA. Jos C.N. Raadschelders, Professor and Associate Dean of Faculty, John Glenn College of Public Affairs, Ohio State University, USA. He is a Fellow in the National Academy of Public Administration, and also serves as Faculty Director of Professional Development Programs. He is also affiliated with the University of Leiden, the Netherlands. Research interests include: the nature of the study of public administration, the nature of democratic government, comparative government, and ethics. Nandhini Rangarajan is Associate Professor of Political Science at Texas State University, USA. Her research interests are in public management, human resources, and public affairs education. She has published in prominent journals such as the Review of Public Personnel Administration, Public Productivity and Management Review, Journal of Public Affairs Education, and Quality and Quantity. Her book, A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management, provides useful research tools for graduate students. Christoph Reichard is Professor Emeritus of Public Management at the University of Potsdam (Germany). He has been a Visiting Professor at several universities, and serves as a reviewer and member of editorial boards of several international academic journals. For 15 years he was Chair of the European Association of Public Administration Accreditation (EAPAA). His main fields of research include public financial management, performance management, and public sector human resource management. Ian Robson is an educator and researcher at Northumbria University, UK. Ian’s teaching and research interests focus on the use of visual and material methods to help students and practitioners in local government to engage in interdisciplinary forms of enquiry to support collective sensemaking. He has been a senior manager in local government services in the UK, with experience of integrated multi-professional teams. He emphasizes methodological innovation and the importance of reflection in human learning systems. Mike Rowe, University of Liverpool, UK. Dr Rowe was a street-level bureaucrat in the UK civil service before taking up research. His work is ethnographic and has concerned accounta-

xviii  Handbook of teaching public administration bility, urban regeneration, and most recently, policing. The connecting theme in teaching and research remains discretion as exercised by street-level bureaucrats. Nadia Rubaii was Professor of Public Administration and Co-Director of the Institute for Genocide and Mass Atrocity Prevention (I-GMAP) at Binghamton University, State University of New York, USA. She contributed to the development, application, and interpretation of accreditation standards in public affairs as President of the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA), chair of the Commission on Peer Review and Accreditation (COPRA), and as site visit chair and consultant for programmes across the United States and globally. Her research compares national and international accreditation systems for their ability to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion, and to prevent mass atrocity violence. Nadia died suddenly on 12 March 2022. Sofiane Sahraoui has been the Director-General of the International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS) since May 2017, and was the recipient of the Jose Edgardo Campos Collaborative Leadership Award from the World Bank Group in 2017. He is a Senior Advisor of the Institute of Public Administration of Bahrain, founding member of the Middle East and North Africa Initiative for Public Administration Research (MENAPAR) network; and founding President of the Arab Governance Institute (AGI). He is constantly invited to give keynote addresses at major international events. Pablo Sanabria-Pulido is an Associate Professor and Director of Graduate Programs at the School of Government, Universidad de los Andes Colombia, and Affiliate Professor Public Administration Division, CIDE México. His areas of interest are public management and policy, organizational behaviour, corruption and transparency, local governance, and public affairs education. Member of the executive committee of the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA), associate editor for international outreach of Review of Public Personnel Administration, and board member of Public Administration Review, Asia Pacific Journal of Public Administration, and Public Administration. Eurig Scandrett is a Senior Lecturer in Public Sociology at Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh, UK, and a trade union representative. As a pro-feminist man, he continues to be an advocate of education for gender justice. He previously worked in adult and community education, primarily in the third sector. His research interests include popular education and learning in social movements, particularly environmental justice movements in Scotland, India, and Palestine. Eckhard Schröter is a Full Professor of Public Administration at the German University of the Police (Münster). Prior to this, he was a faculty member at Humboldt-University Berlin, Germany; the University of California at Berkeley, USA; and at Zeppelin University (Friedrichshafen), Germany, where he also served as academic Head of programmes in Public Management and Governance. His research interests include comparative public sector reform, administrative culture, metropolitan governance, and the theory and practice of representative bureaucracy. Daniel L. Smith, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Joseph R. Biden, Jr School of Public Policy and Administration and Associate Dean for the Social Sciences in the College of Arts & Sciences at University of Delaware, USA. He is also a member of the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration’s (NASPAA) Commission on Peer Review and

Contributors  xix Accreditation (COPRA). He earned his PhD in Public Administration at the University of Georgia, USA. Amanda Smullen is a Senior Lecturer at the Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National University. She earned her PhD at Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands. Her research of public administration is eclectic, traversing semi-autonomous public agencies, institutions and regulation, organizational cultures and routines, public management reform, accountability, rhetoric, and pragmatism. She has a special interest in multi-level, comparative, and dynamic processes. Janez Stare is a Full Professor of Public Sector Organization at the Faculty of Public Administration, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. The focus of his studies is related to leadership, human resource management, human resource development, and the organizational aspects of administrative work and business in the public sector. He often participates in various professional bodies related to the development of public administration, the rationalization of administrative work and human resources management in the public sector. Marco Antonio Carvalho Teixeira has a PhD in Social Sciences from the Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, Brazil. He is an Adjunct Professor and Researcher at the Department of Public Management at Fundação Getulio Vargas of São Paulo (FGV-EAESP), where he teaches undergraduate courses in Public Administration and Business Administration, Masters and Doctorates in Public Administration and Government, and also the Professional Masters in Management and Public Policy. Sandra van Thiel is Professor of Public Management at the Department of Public Administration and Sociology at Erasmus University Rotterdam and the Department of Public Administration at Radboud University Nijmegen, Netherlands. Her research revolves around executive agencies and their relationship with parent ministries. Sandra teaches on public management and research methods, and has published on both topics in refereed journals and with academic publishers. Sandra is also the editor-in-chief of the International Journal on Public Sector Management.

Foreword

Mary E. Guy and Sofiane Sahraoui

As a profession, public service is gratifying, and it is anguishing; challenging and rewarding; frustrating and comforting. Doing it well requires knowledge, grit, and resilience. Teaching those about to embark on their careers means we are teaching those who will be running into burning buildings while everyone else is running out. Both literally and figuratively, this is why pedagogy is important. The pursuit of public purposes is dynamic, nuanced, complicated, and unpredictable. It is hard, and there is not one best way to do it, whether working in education or public works, healthcare or transit, defense or social services. As faculty we cannot walk alongside our graduates, whispering in their ears as they confront dilemmas. Instead, we must equip them with the logics of inquiry, knowledge of resources, interpersonal skills, and today’s facts, then send them on their way to continuously grow into their jobs as circumstances evolve. Public administration has a triple bottom line of people, process, and performance. It has the lofty goal of implementing and managing programs and outcomes that are equitable, well-managed, effective, and efficient. Achieving this goal requires extensive knowledge drawn from managerial, political, and scientific information. In order to prepare students to practice in this applied, humanistic enterprise, it is up to the field’s pedagogy to equip students with the competencies they will need. Their education should prepare students to perform essential functions while looking around corners and anticipating the unexpected. Like an accomplished juggler keeping a dozen balls in the air, some of their work will be predictable and some will not. The greatest reward from teaching public administration occurs when graduates return years later to report that what they learned in their classes echoes in their heads, informs their priorities, helps them stay abreast of changes, and serves as lampposts to light their way in the murky uncertainties of daily governing. Regardless of country or culture, there will always be a need for collective responses to problems that cannot be solved by the market or by individual actions. Governments form because that is how humans operate to set boundaries around their communities, create a sense of identity, and establish rules for living harmoniously. Whether in New Zealand, Ghana, Indonesia, or the United States, governments shape themselves to accommodate norms and traditions of those governed. As the chapters in this book demonstrate, our job is to help students appreciate the context within which they are practicing and to show them how to adapt their skills and problem-solving accordingly. Whatever the policy arena, public administration is messy from beginning to end. The choice of which public purposes to pursue, and how, is subject to contentious debates. Whichever choices are made, and whether or not there is consensus, the enterprise is a human one, accompanied by all the foibles of human nature. In practice, the orderly and systematic rule of reason that exists on the pages of textbooks gives way to bargaining, compromises, and deference to power.

xx

Foreword  xxi Our graduates are the connectors between state and citizen1 and are responsible for encouraging citizen engagement, bringing public policies to fruition, and for making programs work. The public encounter – when citizens seek services from government or when government seeks compliance from citizens – has a cognitive component, an affective component, and a power differential. Our pedagogy must embrace each of these. Each person’s experience – whether administrator or citizen – has a foot in two worlds: one remembered cognitively and one remembered affectively. The feeling that citizens carry with them from the encounter informs their judgments about the interaction, which then is expressed as an evaluation of how power was used and whether they were treated respectfully. As a result, a positive or negative halo is ascribed to government as a whole. This is why the classroom should be a learning environment not only for cognitive skills but also for communication skills and emotive skills. A book like this, with all the information it contains, is necessary in order to replace the square corners of pedagogical certainty with a pedagogy constructed to engage with the ambiguous and the uncertain. Our task is to prepare students to embrace the wholeness of human experience and the emotional intensity of delivering public services in the worst of times. The resilience and grit required of international aid workers, child protective services workers, law enforcement officers, and even elections officials, cannot be exaggerated. Preparation for all these jobs, and most others, is simultaneously technical and emotive. The power of government suffuses the encounter between citizen and state, creating a heightened emotive cauldron, whether filled with fear, or threat, or gratitude. Whatever the feelings, they affect the interaction, changing it from everyday person-to-person exchanges to interactions that are elevated in intensity, importance, meaning, and consequences. Emotion is an elemental aspect of human behavior and the source of meaning. Rather than discounting it, we serve our students better by teaching how to deal with the flash of anger; how to calm the frightened person; and how to display confidence and self-assurance. A pedagogy for public administration is a pedagogy with public service values infused throughout, from budgeting courses to evidence-based decision-making exercises to human resource management principles. Values form a guide for priorities and actions and amplify motivation, personal fulfillment, and meaningfulness. Much as Herbert Simon noted, facts without values are as useless as one-bladed scissors. In sum, public administration is about nurturing a bouquet of humanity and maintaining systems that appreciate the diversity in that bouquet. I commend this book to you because its breadth of coverage provides thoughtful commentary on how to put the bouquet together. These chapters cover the gamut of contextual issues, techniques for teaching, and inclusiveness issues. The result is a book that provides a holistic approach for equipping students with the competencies they will need to be effective administrators, to sense issues on the horizon, and to improve performance of the state.

xxii  Handbook of teaching public administration

CAPABILITY FRAMEWORKS TO COPE WITH PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DISRUPTIONS Sofiane Sahraoui The Covid-19 pandemic has disrupted the work of public administration like never before. But similar to previous disruptions, learning and development, and thus training and various other forms of capacity building, are the first victims of changing priorities and restricted budgets. This yields a vicious cycle wherein the need to cope with unprecedented situations requires new types of skills that were hitherto not emphasized hence leading to the inability to develop effective solutions for emergent situations. Classical forms of learning and developments are bound to become less relevant during times of uncertainty because there is a pressure to learn new things, and differently, when unexpected problems occur. This brief context, which is time and time again identified by many contributions in this Handbook, illustrates the conundrum faced by public administrations throughout the world as they struggle to maintain normality in their operations and quality service to their recipients. On-the-job learning, which remains the dominant form of learning, is itself disrupted by quick changes in the nature of jobs with informal practices seeping in to allow for new challenges to be met. Peer-based learning, generally the second most prevalent form of learning in organizations, depends largely on the availability of peers who are more successful at coping with crises. Finally, learning through formal courses and training is valid mostly when learning outcomes are clearly defined from the outset, which is not typically the case when organizational situations unravel following major cataclysms such as the coronavirus situation, which is irreversibly creating new organizational realities. Public administrations that are coping best with the new normal imposed by the Covid-19 situation are those that have developed a capability and skills agenda either before or during the crisis. This agenda is generally coated within a more general framework of the professionalization of public administration work. However, it goes beyond the mere development of competency frameworks and the training of public servants to acquire related competencies and skills. Within a capabilities agenda, public administrations try to develop proper public policies for the upskilling and reskilling of public servants in light of the ruptures that are happening. The capability agenda also involves the upskilling and reskilling of public administration itself. Indeed, the new imperatives for public action as a result of major disruptions demand a new type of public service; one that is more professionalized and skilled, one that is resilient, more efficient, responsive, and more useful. The lockdown following the coronavirus health situation has indeed shown us that not all services, public and otherwise, are useful and value-added. The skill sets that exist nowadays in public service are reminiscent of public service that is distant from the battlefield, more regulator than actor, bureaucratic even in its most effective formats. With the dilution of boundaries between states and their objective domains of action, through new public service planning and delivery mechanisms such as the co-construction of public action and public‒private partnerships, for instance, the reskilling of public service will be inevitable. With artificial and other intelligent technologies, the organizational downsizing that took place in private corporations will inevitably upset the traditional hierarchical structures of public administrations and drive the need for more front-office personnel, who will not be bureaucrats, but professionals engaging partners on concrete solu-

Foreword  xxiii tions through the exchange of know-how. These may be preliminary and vague ideas for the moment on how the public service might transform within a capability agenda, but the debate has to take place as we consider new frameworks for learning and development. The debate will not be easy, however, as both bureaucracies and their surrounding intellectual spheres tend to be inherently conservative. The New Public Management (NPM) has brought many concepts and practices from private business to public service. Likewise, the capability agenda could provide many concepts and practices to public service, but unlike the NPM the aim will not be to increase the efficiency of the state apparatus. It will be instead to create a new type of capacity in the public sector that could allow it to cope with the new normal. This capacity will be more people-centered than system-centered. For this, rigorous evidence-based policy solutions and toolsets are required. Human resource (HR) professionals should be exposed to a new type of thinking and solution engineering. There has been a talk for a while about strategic human resource management (SHRM) in the public sector; the time has come to translate that into reality. Indeed, the failure of governments, central and local alike, to tackle fallouts of the epidemic crisis are clear indications that their human resource management (HRM) was not too strategic after all. To be strategic, it has to be able to fend off major threats when they occur. Capable personnel with the right skills and training will fuel the strategic action of public administrations, beyond what systems are supposed to do. In light of the new organizational realities that are emerging, public administrations have to revisit their capability frameworks to focus on acquiring new competencies and skills that public servants can self-develop. These frameworks should be flexible enough to allow people to pick and choose in order to be able to adapt to the requirements of rapidly changing situations. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) framework “Civil service skills for public value”2 is an example of a generic framework for defining the types of skills that people need at four different levels: (1) develop policy; (2) work with citizens; (3) commission and contract; and (4) collaborate in networks. Capabilities are identified within each type of skill domain. There are many such frameworks. A second and no less important element of the new capability frameworks is the mode of delivery. Mentorship as a form of peer-learning and networking within communities of practice will gradually emerge as the most effective forms of learning in the new normal. Global HR societies geared towards public service have to recalibrate some of their offerings towards enhancing formal mentoring and networking opportunities for their clients. This does not mean that learning and development should cease to be internal functions of HRM, but that the nature of these functions should change from a programmatic mode to one of co-constructing learning plans with public servants using non-traditional learning modes. The fixation of assessing the effectiveness of learning should also be replaced with a more holistic approach towards performance management and competency development. And this is why we need collections such as this Handbook which have been written by public administration scholars and researchers who are also engaged with practitioners and their world. This combination provides opportunities for learning with and alongside, not at a distance. And it offers us all ideas and practice from which we can all benefit.

xxiv  Handbook of teaching public administration

NOTES 1.

The word “citizen” is intended in the generic sense, not the legal sense. “Citizen” refers to everyone who is resident in a jurisdiction. 2. OECD Public Governance Reviews (2017), “Skills for a High Performing Civil Service,” viewed November 1, 2021, https://​www​.oecd​.org/​gov/​pem/​Skills​-Highlights​.pdf.

Preface

Karin A. Bottom, John Diamond, Pamela T. Dunning, and Ian C. Elliott

We wanted to set this Handbook in a context which recognised the different public administration (PA) traditions, and the obvious limitations of privileging one tradition over another, as well as exploring the contested nature of curriculum design. Examining these traditions also opens up an exploration of history, place, and the impact of occupations (from empires to economics) on how PA is interpreted and enacted. We end the book with a series of case studies. We have an eclectic set to draw on, and we wanted it to be so. One way of seeing this group is that it gives insight into how PA is imagined and reimagined. Indeed, this idea of ‘reimagining’ leads to a bigger discussion about PA traditions and its roots. We know that a challenge to any field of study, and one which seeks to be rooted in practice, is how it acknowledges, asks, challenges, and seeks to reform questions of inequality, discrimination, and marginalisation. The social justice challenge to PA, and by PA to its constituencies of interest, is profound. Whilst we have sought to position this collection in this critical space, we are aware of our limitations and the absences are our shared responsibility. This edited collection was proposed before Covid-19 and completed in a context which was unimaginable 24 months ago. Whilst, as a number of the chapters which follow identify, the settings in which public administration takes place are changing significantly, the cumulative impact of Covid-19 is still difficult to assess precisely. Indeed, this may be a fruitless exercise to try to undertake. Certainly, there is a risk that for those who have institutional oversight for the teaching of PA the response might be limited to: what Covid-19 told us about the ‘state of readiness’ for online learning; the need to update syllabi to include more on emergency planning and crisis management; and the perception that PA remains a marginal field of study for institutions of higher education. We want to suggest that the opposite is the case. In particular, that whilst PA provision may be distributed across many different organisational structures (from independent departments to subunits within larger settings), an immediate short-term impact of Covid-19 has highlighted the necessity of a public infrastructure (people, systems, values, operational, and leadership models, as well as governance and accountability) to step in at a time of profound crisis. The reservoir of knowledge, skills, and understanding informed by practice and systematic reflection and evaluation do not all reside in most disciplines. But PA is the place where the relationships between research, theory, concept building, pedagogic scholarship, and practice can be at their most creative and self-informing as they inform and learn from (and with) public leaders, practitioners, and professionals. PA, at its very best, is where pedagogical scholarship informs and is informed by research and knowledge sharing. We hope that what follows across 34 chapters and through the contribution of over 50 scholars will stimulate discussion, intrigue you, and help your own thinking and practice. The opening Part I is intended to start that process by inviting you to place PA on a large canvas shaped by global politics, history, philosophy, and social change.

xxv

Acknowledgements

We want to place on record our thanks to all those who joined us in this project and, especially, at a time when the line between the personal and professional was not just blurred but for many was redundant. To everyone who participated from sharing ideas to writing chapters, we thank you. We also want to remember our colleague and contributor Nadia Rubaii, Binghamton University, who left us unexpectedly this year. She leaves an incredible legacy of work which will continue to inform public administration for many generations to come.

xxvi

1. Making the case for research informed practice and situated pedagogy Karin A. Bottom, John Diamond, Pamela T. Dunning, and Ian C. Elliott

A constant challenge for practitioners and teachers of public administration (PA) as well as those researchers and scholars engaged with the field more broadly or conceptually is to accept that both pedagogy and practice are constantly in flux. If one seems stable, then it is likely that the other is not. How to make sense of this from a pedagogical perspective such that practice can be supported remains a source of tension for many. And the opposite is often the case. It seems a cliché to restate that we are living and working through times of profound global disruption. Arguably, we are still seeking to make sense of at least two other periods of change and disruption: the changes in Eastern Europe, and globally following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Global Financial Crisis from 2007 onwards. All of these ‘events’ (although of course they were the culmination of deep changes) have left legacies which we are still working through the consequences of. At the same time the existential challenge of the climate emergency has an unprecedented urgency for us all. In an important sense we suggest in this Handbook that the field of PA perhaps more than other disciplines necessitates a merging of the pedagogical with the empirical. We draw on the social, political, economic, and policy context to enable or to prepare professionals and practitioners to engage with their practice for the benefit of citizens. We have a dual responsibility: to analyse and to enquire, as well as to design, develop, and teach a curriculum which is anchored in experiences of those practitioners but also stretches and engages them through their continuing professional learning and development. For anyone working in PA as a practitioner, researcher, or teacher the lens through which we view these moments of historical change and the context or setting they are working in will vary. There are, however, as we set out in what follows in much more detail, several perspectives or underlying principles which make both the study of and application of the teaching of PA highly relevant and current for our times. We want to suggest for now that these perspectives or principles connect the different ways of seeing that practitioners, teachers, and researchers bring include the following, and they are set out here for they inform the process of curriculum design, development, pedagogical research, and scholarship. We think that they act as ‘bridges’ which connect the discipline of public administration to the teaching of PA: ● The concept of the ‘public realm’ as a public good. ● The centrality of an informed citizenry to work with and be supported by PA professionals and practitioners at all levels. ● A commitment to the principles of independent advice and guidance in decision-making. ● A recognition that the field of public administration is dependent upon a multidisciplinary approach. 1

2  Handbook of teaching public administration ● An understanding that addressing global challenges collectively and sustainably is a necessary but not sufficient imperative for successful public administration. ● A commitment to the continuing professional development and learning of both practitioners and those who teach and research PA. In proposing these shared assumptions and ways of seeing the world we recognise that place matters too. The social, economic, political, and ideological dimensions which define institutions and civil society in different nation states and localities will vary. The ideological assumptions and dominant voices will shape the organisational and practice architecture so that how these principles or perspectives are experienced will vary. It is the case that, regardless of the democratic or representative institutions present, individuals and groups will experience the adoption of these principles differently. The dominant assumption that we made in defining the scope (and limits) of this edited collection was that PA was operating in a highly changed and changing context. How adaptive PA practitioners, scholars, and teachers are towards working in this contested space will vary, from the capacity of scholars and teachers to work autonomously and retain the capacity to respond to needs, to the relative independence of PA practitioners to retain their professional training and standards. In times of crisis, we understand that the opportunities to maintain these ways of working can be constrained. One important illustration for this purpose, of the observable consequences of how Covid-19 has been responded to politically and ideologically, has been the status of public health leaders and managers. In some countries they have been core to leading on the public health messaging and advice. In other jurisdictions they have been under pressure to meet the political priorities of national governments, even if this goes against their professional judgements. We want to set the context to this Handbook on as broad a canvas as possible. We deliberately chose to create a collection of chapters which, whilst including pedagogical questions as central to their focus, also allowed for a number of chapters which went beyond this. In the chapters that follow this introduction we have attempted to create a structure which reflects what we have to engage with at the level of course or programme design or accreditation (at institutional or external level): what is the overarching purpose of your programme (Part I: State of the Discipline); what is the context to your proposal (Part II: Nation-Based Traditions); what is your teaching and learning philosophy (Part III: Pedagogy and Learning); what are the key concepts which have informed your design (Part IV: Contested Concepts); and what examples of curriculum practice you highlight (Part V: Teaching Case Studies). In summary, we wanted to ensure that the quite different parts of the book (whilst different in focus, level of analysis, or discussion) created a whole in which the complexities of addressing the field of PA in a global setting, as well as examining different pedagogical approaches and choices to specific questions or concepts, could sit alongside each other.

ENGAGING WITH THE BOOK We recognise that this is inevitably a big book. Its length, scale, and the diversity of pedagogical issues will probably mean that in the short term readers will seek out what they think will be relevant for them. We planned this as we discussed how to approach the brief we had. We hope that this will become an important reference point not just for those either developing

Making the case for research informed practice and situated pedagogy  3 their skills and knowledge as PA scholars and teachers, or those leading on programmes (or courses) in PA, but also for practitioners. We do recommend that readers dip into the book. We hope that those who do will value the particular part or chapters they look at, and that over time they will read the whole book. In making choices about the structure and content of the book we made some important decisions. We understood that this was not a conventional edited book. Our experiences of either coordinating edited volumes or contributing to them is that there is normally an explicit overarching rationale for the book which provides a ‘spine’ to which each part and each chapter within each part is connected. In a number of cases each part will start with a short introduction and the whole book will end with a conclusion which brings together the themes and ideas examined throughout. We have quite consciously decided not to do this. There are three reasons for this. We wanted to the book to be organised so that each section and each chapter could be read independently of the others. We recognise that the ‘whole’ of this book is much greater than the sum of the independent elements. But we set out with the aim of creating a handbook which was much more than a ‘how to teach’, and in so doing we felt it was important to organise the book in such a way that it took the reader into areas that they could read and reflect on, and then go to other parts of the book for further reading. We are (and were) very conscious of the scale this book is predicated on. Crafting a handbook for teachers of PA in one particular country would be a serious task, but seeking to draw on international examples is challenging. We have, therefore, attempted at the start of the Handbook to offer a series of chapters on practice in different nation states as well as identifying different PA traditions. We understand too that the labels attached to nation states at the time of writing may be relatively young, and that it is necessary to examine these practices in the context of the impact and legacy of empires and colonialism. We wanted to reflect that that the nature of PA (as with all curriculum design) is contested and not straightforward. We do appreciate and wanted to highlight throughout that any PA curriculum is informed by values and ethical considerations often shaped or controlled by ideological preferences or short-term priorities. The PA curriculum in a very important sense is not fixed or immutable. On the contrary, we can observe how it has been designed to meet very particular needs and political priorities. We are living in a time where many of the received assumptions about what constitutes the PA curriculum are rightly under review and challenge. We expect this process to continue, and be part of a broader process too which demonstrates the health (or not) of the discipline not just in those spaces reserved for some of the discussions and debates (institutes and universities) but also in the public realm. Below, in the remaining sections of this introduction, we outline in more specificity how and why we have structured the book as it is.

STRUCTURE The five parts we have chosen to organise this collection around reflect the twin aims of our approach to the Handbook: firstly, to ensure that the ‘golden threads’ which run throughout the book are as explicit as possible, namely the global setting in which public administration takes place; and secondly, that the teaching of PA is a site of contest and debate (from curriculum choices, to the articulation of the aims and purpose of the programme, to the concepts and values it seeks to promote). In determining the particular parts we arrived at, we chose to

4  Handbook of teaching public administration be conventional and go from the macro (global perspectives) to the micro (the teaching case studies). This approach allowed us to do three important things in framing the book: ● It offered an opportunity to provide a clear structure to the reader (we hope) which offers a linear structure which, in turn, creates confidence in the reader that the book has been carefully organised and sequenced. ● It allows the reader to choose how they navigate their way through the book: start with the global setting and then move to a particular teaching case study they are interested in or preparing for; or start with the nation state traditions and go to the case studies or contested concepts and, perhaps, back to the global. Our structure is not a prescription for what order to take, but rather a much more open-ended resource to meet the learning and professional development needs of the reader. ● It frames the discussion and exploration in the context of an incomplete process: public administration is not fixed, it reflects (perhaps at times embodies) conflict and contestation, and in establishing the parts and addressing a range of themes or issues we wanted to reinforce this proposition that as teachers of PA we are in a continuous process of review, reflection, and change. We are acutely aware that the issues included here are not an exhaustive list. Finally, we wanted to adopt a structure that in some senses is recognisable to those working in schools of public administration or departments where PA programmes are located: the expectation is that all programmes can set out their broad aims before drilling down into the specifics of modules or indeed parts of modules. This structure mirrors, as we have suggested, the kind of prompts offered by regulatory or accrediting bodies: explain to us the larger context before setting out how you have designed the teaching, learning, and assessment strategies for a discrete module.

THEMES In this section we want to highlight the specific themes and issues addressed by each chapter within the five overarching parts of the book. We think this section of the introduction is important. It is here that we are attempting to knit together the different elements and to show how we have sought to give the book coherence and consistency. We intend that the coherence comes from the overall structure. Our deliberate intention is to ask readers of this book to think both holistically and globally. Holistically, in the sense that a well-designed and imagined PA curriculum is preparing practitioners for a complex and challenging world, and a multidisciplinary approach to the curriculum along with critical thinking and problem solving are all necessary but not sufficient skills or competencies to prepare practitioners. Globally, because we want readers of the book to think about their practice in a wider conceptual space than their institution or agency. We think it is important that those who are teaching public administration as well as those who practice it understand that their model of PA has been shaped by different traditions and practices. We are inviting readers to think differently about their practice as they engage with the discussions presented here on the nation state level and the global level. We hope the consistency comes from the way we have organised the book and the balance we have struck between the different component parts of the collection. The focus and remit of

Making the case for research informed practice and situated pedagogy  5 the book is the teaching of public administration. In the decisions we made about the balance within the book between different parts, we have 21 chapters (out of 34) on some aspects of pedagogy and the curriculum. Indeed, in the nine chapters on the different traditions of public administration the focus of each is on the development of the curriculum and the assumptions which underpinned the different choices in different places. This focus on questions of pedagogy and practice, and our attempt to ensure that it is reflected throughout the book, is another way of connecting the overarching themes of the book: the global with the pedagogical. Part I: State of the Discipline In the three chapters in this part (O’Flynn, Ongaro, and Raadschelders) we bring together quite distinct and different voices and lines of reflection and discussion. We wanted to set the framework for the whole collection here (allowing for the possibility that some readers may come to these chapters later). O’Flynn (Chapter 2) provides a challenging invitation to all those involved in PA to reflect on where they think the discipline is and where it might go. The assumption is that PA (and especially the teaching of PA) must take account of the disruptions at a global level and the way they impact on individuals and communities. We are asked to think about what this means for curriculum design and, especially, what this might mean for how we include not more content, but rather an appreciation of the relational and the skills and knowledge we need in this time of unprecedented change. Chapter 3 by Ongaro provides yet another lens through which we can engage with PA. He sets out the four ways of thinking about PA – as science, art, profession, and humanism ‒ and then looks at the implications for teaching. This rich and thought-provoking chapter would like us to leave our received ideas to one side as we engage with the proposition he sets out. This chapter requires us to reflect on our previously held assumptions and expectations. Any process of good curriculum design hopes to ensure that decisions made are ‘in awareness’: we know why we made them. The scale and lens Raadschelders has taken in Chapter 4 is both to focus on teaching and learning in PA as well as taking an historical and global approach. This chapter is one which combines with the others in this part and, in so doing, takes the reader well outside their immediate setting of place or agency. The large historical canvas Raadschelders works on allows the reader to step away and back from their immediate frame of reference and invites them to view their world differently. Each of these chapters is intended to establish the scale of the challenge we face and to provide ways of thinking which are open, creative, challenging and possibly disruptive to our known settings. But we think that they set up a profound sense that whilst the global context might appear overwhelming, there are some steps or initiatives which we can take which are about seeking to make a change. Part II: Nation-Based Traditions The nine chapters in this part were all given a similar brief. We thought that it was important that readers had a genuine and informed appreciation of the quite different expectations or traditions which can be found in the PA global family. This is important primarily because it reminds us that curricula are designed, developed, and agreed on as part of a process of discussion, negotiations and sometimes regulation. They are, therefore, open to contest and debate.

6  Handbook of teaching public administration However, we might assume that there is a shared understanding about what constitutes the knowledge base for PA, and that the points of difference are at the margins. This part shows the opposite: whilst there might be some shared understanding about the role and function of public administration, the points of difference are at the core, not the margins. Within these nine chapters over 15 countries are discussed. We could have expanded this part. We think the critical points are foregrounded, and we also think that this remains an ongoing conversation amongst PA scholars. The key critical points are: what, if any, are the core disciplines which make up PA? What is the ongoing impact of colonisation and empire where contemporary PA has been shaped pre-independence? And what is the effect of global agencies (World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and European Union) on the design, adaption, and implementation of PA programmes on those countries outside the G7? In their chapters, Gajduschek and Hajnal (Chapter 5) and Schröter and Reichard (Chapter 7) review, examine, and consider the different traditions present in the teaching of public administration across Eastern Europe and across Europe, respectively. These chapters (as with the others in this part) combine a historical overview of nation states and the ways in which public administration has developed with them. In the cases of those countries which moved towards a more independent state following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, it is important to think about two historically important and separate factors: the impact of the empires pre-Soviet influence, and the impact post-1989. These experiences are not uncommon globally, and what both chapters do is to paint the picture of how PA was developed, changed, and engages with the world. An interesting and significant part of this process is the emergence in different nation states within Europe of distinct and different PA traditions. Indeed, we can add to this the impact of the European Union on how it influenced aspiring members of the former Eastern Europe, as well as those networks established to promote joint cooperation and collaboration: Trans-European Dialogues, Trans-Atlantic Dialogues, and the professional and learned societies which were engaged with cross-boundary collaboration: the European Group for Public Administration (EGPA) and the International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS). Chapter 6 by McDonald, Hatcher, and Abbott (on the United States), Chapter 8 by Bottom, Elliott, and Moller (on Britain), and Chapter 10 by Smullen and Clutton (on Australia and New Zealand), whilst focusing on the uniqueness of their nation states, do have a number of shared dimensions which are important to note. Despite there being some important differences between these places in terms of traditions and shared agreement about curriculum design, there are a number of shared experiences or features: the presence or absence of regulatory or accrediting agencies for PA provision; the organisational home for PA provision in higher education; the overlapping shared values associated with PA; and the assumption that PA provision in universities should have links with employers or governmental agencies. It is not surprising that there are these shared features. They reflect to some extent the shared expectations associated with good government and governance. The differences between them are important, and often imply that there are few or no overlapping areas of agreement or shared practice. There is an interesting overlapping set of observations in each of these chapters about the health of the discipline in their respective countries. The contribution on Britain is, perhaps, the most doubtful; the Australia/New Zealand chapter points to areas of concern; and the United States chapter appears to be the more positive of the three. One of the indicators that they draw on relates to the health of the undergraduate market and the postgraduate market alongside employment in PA-related jobs. As one of the contributions in

Making the case for research informed practice and situated pedagogy  7 the next part observes, whilst the demand for government jobs has declined, there is a growth in the non-governmental organisation sector where the skills and knowledge required are very similar. The presence of empires and the ways in which PA traditions are shaped are extensively considered in Chapter 9 by Gomes, Sanabria-Pulido, Pliscoff, and Teixeira, where they look at the cases of Brazil, Chile, and Columbia. This chapter adds to our understanding of how PA provision is shaped, defined, and constrained (or not) by the legacies of empires (the nature of the administrative state that was created, including the education and recruitment of public servants), as well as by contemporary dimensions including the role of universities and the global community of PA scholars, practitioners, and researchers. As there was a growth in PA accreditation beyond the United States it is not unsurprising that there was cross-dialogue on how the teaching of PA might benefit from debate and discussion globally and regionally. The long legacy of empire is a theme in Chapter 12 by Manoharan and Rangarajan (on India), Chapter 13 by Mudida (on Africa), and Chapter 11 by Prasojo and Hariyati (on Indonesia). As with most of the chapters in this part, they provide a lens to look backwards and offer a point of reference for understanding the present and the future. The impact of empires and independence in terms of the PA infrastructure is varied. It differs between these chapters and within them. There is not a straightforward line to follow. But there are a number of points of similarity: given that the past has shaped their present, each of the chapters points to the challenges of the present (and they vary). These include the impact of the global economy and world trade rules; relative independence of higher education institutions or agencies dedicated to PA; the climate emergency; population growth as well as movement; and the capacity of political and civil society leadership to create and sustain change. Part III: Pedagogy and Learning Across seven chapters in this part, we have brought together what might appear to be an eclectic collection. We wanted to use this part to illustrate two separate but connected elements of the learning process: how to engage with learners (at all stages of their professional and academic journey), and how to see this engagement as part of a continuous process of learning. We hope that all or just one of these chapters will act as a ‘hook’ into this process. One of the recurring themes across the chapters and the collection as a whole is the importance of creating (if it does not exist already) and sustaining a practice of ongoing and continuing professional learning and development. This goes beyond some conventional definitions of lifelong learning: at its best it posits the idea that we are all learners, and that this process goes on within programmes between participant and teacher as well as for the teacher themselves. We think that in Chapter 17 by Marks (‘Continuing professional learning’), Chapter 18 by Knassmüller (‘The challenges of developing reflective practice in public administration: a teaching perspective’), Chapter 19 by Connolly and Moseley (‘Inquiry-based learning and the crisis competences for addressing the climate emergency’), and Chapter 20 by Dunlop (‘Teaching with experiments’), there are a number of examples which work in the setting of devising approaches for a programme working with participants, or taking the examples into the setting of post-qualifying provision, or as part of working with your team. Each of these chapters is rooted in a deep understanding of pedagogical practice and brings a critical eye which seeks to illustrate how we can make some unconventional approaches to the ‘new normal’.

8  Handbook of teaching public administration Chapter 14 by Bleach (‘Real-world ethical experiential practice-based action learning for the “new normal”’), Chapter 15 by Kearns and Kearns (‘Planning for a midcareer MPA program: pedagogical and strategic considerations’), and Chapter 16 by Mangan and Pietroni (‘Executive education and leadership development: round peg, square hole?’) provide connections between the work being done in the classroom or at the planning stage, with practice and the needs of practitioners. Whilst in many PA programmes the audience is undergraduate students, this is not the case uniformly and professional post-qualifying programmes are the norm. The challenge for PA teachers and scholars is to ensure that their programmes are congruent with the needs of practitioners and the market. Each of these chapters illustrates the ways in which planning, and dialogue are necessary elements of ensuring relevance and take-up. But we think that each of these offers much more than merely relevance (which can be fleeting and short-term). They demonstrate how careful analysis and design can inform practice and be informed by it. Part IV: Contested Concepts In this part we wanted to provide examples of how some of the assumptions and ways of knowing which pervade the teaching of public administration are deeply contested, and that some of the issues raised by a critical analysis of public administration remain contested. We have chosen five examples, and there could have been more. We do see an explicit link between this part and the next (Part V: Teaching Case Studies) where we have nine chapters. Chapter 22 by Dadze-Arthur (‘Democracy, governance, and participation: epistemic colonialism in public administration and management courses’) addresses one of the key recurring themes discussed in this collection: the ways in which the legacy of empire and colonialism remains a presence in public administration programmes. The chapter sets out the context for this conclusion and takes the reader through the analysis and invites them to consider what next. The conventional responses which have in the past focused on learning materials and examples or addressing staff representation are, arguably, all givens. The starting point needs to be more than just this list of actions. The ways in which PA individuals respond, as with their organisations, tells us a lot about the pervasive presence of empire and colonialism. A necessary part of the change agenda involves regulatory or accrediting bodies. In this part two chapters – Chapter 21 by Brandsen and Chapter 23 by Rubaii ‒ examine the role of accrediting agencies, but from different perspectives. Both approaches consider whether agencies limit opportunities for innovation and change, or whether they promote and enable it. Both chapters identify the challenges that PA teachers face in dealing with or working with such bodies. In the context of the chapter by Dadze-Arthur, Rubaii offers an interesting insight into the agencies. By asking her question, which is about whether they help or hinder graduates addressing big global issues, she points toward possible solutions rather than arrived-at solutions. The teaching of research methods in public administration courses is often challenging both for participants and for teachers. Van Thiel (Chapter 24) provides a reflection on how to approach research methods and how to make them accessible. The interesting contest here is between those who have relatively fixed ideas about what a research methods curriculum should comprise and why no other option is sufficient. Van Thiel makes the important point that it is necessary to know what you need your participants to know and do, and why. This

Making the case for research informed practice and situated pedagogy  9 might be the point of contest within a team. But they remain amongst the core questions that have to be asked as a programme is being designed. Chapter 25 by Imperial and Prentice (‘Using service learning in public administration programs: best practices and challenges’) examines the opportunities and challenges offered by adopting service learning into a PA programme. The use of a service learning approach is growing in a number of jurisdictions. The context is always important. In some settings these initiatives are a result of good local partnerships between a local university and a local set of organisations, agencies, and employers who want to work with the university PA programme. The relationship is based on a number of important principles and practice. On the other hand, some settings might see the connection as a way of providing unpaid labour, or creating a dependency by the outside agency on student placements or interns. Developing and agreeing partnership principles is core to successful service learning. Part V: Teaching Case Studies In the final part we include nine case studies which are informed by the practice of the authors. They are drawn from their work, and they share their experiences and, in some examples, the experiences of participants in their sessions. There are four chapters which offer insights into questions of diversity and engagement within the context of a PA programme and, crucially, what can be developed. Scandrett’s Chapter 28 on learning from and with social movements focuses on work undertaken with a women’s organisation and a local university. It offers a number of insights and lessons, and a central one repeated across these particular chapters is that of securing long-term change and impact. Crosby’s Chapter 30 on leadership and PA explores questions of contestation and integration. She examines ways of working on leadership concepts, and her pedagogical approach and practice. Colvin and Meyer (Chapter 32) explore applying queer theory to PA through an initiative which reimagined police officer recruitment. As with all the chapters in this part, the authors reflect their current and contemporary practices. This chapter moves the discussion about queer theory from being only an exploration of concepts and history, to one of policymaking and practice. It provides opportunities to examine the practice in depth, as well as moving from that agency to others. Eseonu’s Chapter 31 on teaching critical race practice in public administration is important and timely. The twin combination of Black Lives Matter in the United States and globally, and the examination of those countries with a long colonial past, has made this area of teaching highly contemporary. As with all the chapters in this part, the approach is to look at the teaching of critical race practice: how do you engage participants, develop their understanding, and inform their practice? All of these questions are addressed and answered. The use of culture, visual methods as well as gamification are examined by Borry (Chapter 26, ‘Using pop culture to teach public ethics: the case of Parks and Recreation’), Robson (Chapter 27, ‘Teaching public administration with visual methods’), and Stare, Klun, and Buzeti (Chapter 33, ‘Gamification: using the escape room for teaching public administration’). Each of these chapters works on the assumption that participants will be coming to these sessions unused to looking at questions relating to PA through the lens of pop culture, visual methods, or gamification. This is important to recognise, as the authors show that if we are clear about the skills, underpinning knowledge, and understanding we need to develop, then

10  Handbook of teaching public administration the content is the means to that end. It might be a way into an important discussion or exercise, or it might be that we want to foreground some key concepts, and this helps to do so. Chapter 29 by Calabrese and Smith (‘Show me the money: financial management curricular concerns in public administration education’) reflects a similar concern to that discussed by van Thiel. In this case, what is the core curriculum on financial and budget management that participants need to have? As the authors suggest, the answer revolves around how ‘need’ is defined. The central task which they illustrate is the need for a clear understanding of the overall rationale of the programme, which also suggests that before a discussion on explicit knowledge takes place there needs to be a shared understanding of the overall rationale of the programme. Rowe’s Chapter 34 (‘Teaching dilemmas with street-level bureaucracy’) provides insights into the experiences of practitioners who are themselves working in the public space of a city or neighbourhood. By drawing on their experiences as contemporary street-level bureaucrats Rowe seeks to enable them to consider the relevance of Lipsky’s work to their practice. It illustrates what can happen when there is a considered connection between research, which might seem outdated, and the real experience of practitioners.

MAKING CONNECTIONS, AND WHAT IS NEXT Throughout this Handbook the reader is invited to think about their practice at their institutional or faculty level, as well as to imagine their pedagogical practice being connected to an international discussion on the teaching of public administration. We recognise that shifting levels is not always straightforward, especially if as individuals we are not part of local or national networks, never mind international ones. We have deliberately set the context for this book in an international setting. It is not only about examples of the teaching of PA from around the world: we think it is much more than that. If it were only this, then we would not need the first two parts of the collection, and we would have framed the teaching case studies differently too. What makes this Handbook important, we think, is the way that it locates the teaching of PA in an international setting. In some significant respects we make a bolder claim: Part I: State of the Discipline, goes beyond the international and requires us to think globally, philosophically, and historically in a way that is much more than merely understanding the different traditions of PA at a national level. The book intentionally aims to stretch our thinking and how we engage in our practice. We seek to do this by combining the global dimension with the nation state traditions. It is not always easy to place ourselves outside our immediate setting. We are all subject to an increasing number of demands on our time (for many, we have to ensure that we are publishing as well as undertaking our own research, at the same time as supporting participants on our programmes), and for many in different parts of the world teaching roles can be precarious, and securing tenure is another pressure. With all of these challenges, we are asking practitioners to engage in a process of critical self-reflection about their own practice. We think the professional benefits of working in this way are significant. What follows is, we hope, an exciting and challenging collection of chapters which reflects the interests, concerns, and practice of teachers of PA from around the world. There are gaps in what we do, and the discipline is not always agreed on what the next steps or priorities should be. Public administration is catching up with some of the most significant policy and political

Making the case for research informed practice and situated pedagogy  11 debates of our time. We have to balance the pressures on us to adapt, presented by regulators or accrediting bodies, with those seeking to shape global practices (especially in the field of sustainability and the climate emergency), with those of our participants and the contexts we work in. We have much more to do in the fields of social justice and diversity and inclusion. There are exemplars of practice to learn from, but we should be concerned too about the fragility of some of the steps taken. Embedding practice and changing cultures within institutions on both sides of the teaching and learning divide is difficult. But we know it needs to be done. In what follows we hope that readers will see that informed, engaged, and challenging teachers of public administration can act as the link between the worlds of research and scholarship and the worlds of practice and the lived experience of those who depend on the public servants we work with.

PART I STATE OF THE DISCIPLINE

2. A global perspective on public administration? The dynamics shaping the field and what it means for teaching and learning Janine O’Flynn

Public administration is at an inflection point as public institutions come under increasing pressure, the challenges that confront us rapidly intensify, and social movements demand transformative change. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown how critical public administration is in addressing many of the world’s challenges, and has placed questions of the role of the state and how we go about the work of government front and centre (O’Flynn, 2021). What this means for the field of public administration is profound; not just in terms of the contours of public administration research and how we engage with practice, but also how and what we teach. It is especially through teaching and learning that the thinking and action of those in public service is shaped.1 Some are calling for a new ‘manifesto of government’, arguing government is ‘broken’ and based on an industrial model and mindset that seeks to manage and control, rather than access the collective potential to tackle complex challenges (Brown, 2019). Others make the case that there has been too much focus on developing narrow technical skills (Anheier, 2018), or on policy analysis rather than implementation (Fukuyama, 2018). Debates about where the field should go next reflect a broadening and deepening of perspectives: for example, integrative governance (Carboni et al., 2019), human learning systems (Lowe, 2021), and humble government (Annala et al., 2020) offer unique perspectives. Aspects of each stress a move away from rational, dehumanising aspects of traditional (Western) public administration and new public management, instead stressing aspects such as complexity, hybridity, problem focus, learning, relationality, and humility. There is an associated call for ‘better’ problem-solving government, rather than government which is bigger or smaller (Noveck, 2021a). The future of the field will demand broader and more diverse sets of skills, knowledge, and values to serve the public effectively (Dickinson et al., 2018), a trend that should shape teaching and learning. Related to this, the foundations of the field are being reconfigured, as a broader, more inclusive, and historically accurate account of public administration is breaking through. Challenges to the concentration of power and the associated ability to define public administration are welcome, as is a more critical appraisal which will push the field in exciting directions (O’Flynn, 2021). This means looking far beyond the dominant Anglo-American conceptions towards paradigms of public administration with much deeper roots (Drechsler, 2015; Haque, 2019), and encompassing a greater diversity of worldviews and values (e.g., Ugyel, 2016; Milroy, 2019a; Althaus, 2020). Shifting towards a multicultural public administration (Drechsler, 2015) which reflects and respects a much fuller set of traditions is important because any sense of a ‘global public administration’ with universal standards and aspirations is misguided. This view has marginalised large parts of the world, ignoring long-established

13

14  Handbook of teaching public administration systems of administration, and a fuller set of worldviews and knowledge. As Drechsler (2019, p. 228) has argued: It is intellectually and ethically not really up to scratch to assume a global [public administration] because global [public administration] is not global but Western ‒ carrying White Man’s Burden into the new millennium.

The dominance of Western public administration has meant that a narrow set of ideas, principles, and practices have been transferred, transported, imposed, and implemented around the world. These have been seen as ‘best practice’ with those adopting them in the ‘modernisation’ camp, and that those have not, or cannot, have been seen as laggards and failures. As Haque (2019) has noted, the tendency to generalise Western administrative knowledge as universal ignores the administrative realities of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. This dominance has pushed to the margins centuries of public administration that have developed based on different worldviews, and locked out vital knowledge to confront complex challenges. There is a powerful movement for a decolonisation of public administration: a rejection of Western hegemony, a centring of local knowledge and values, and a recognition that other cultures and nations have their own public administration approaches (Erasmus, 2020; Matsiliza, 2020; Pete et al., 2013). As Erasmus (2020, p. 21) has argued in relation to African public administration, for example: ‘Africa is being defined, characterised, dealt with and reduced into a phenomenon by those who have never set a foot on its soil.’ Althaus (2020) has argued that public administration education has been a powerful driver in the Western dominance of public administration, with the Anglo-American influence on curricula around the world an important symbol of this. Decolonising public administration education includes pushing against the notion of a universal public service perspective or ethos. As Stout (2018, p. 233) argued so powerfully: If we pursue the homogenization of public service in the likeness of one particular approach, we engage in indoctrination rather than education. When considering this practice in light of an increasingly global, diverse, and changing workforce and citizenry, this becomes an undeclared hegemonic project, even if unintended.

Pressure is also building to reckon with a past that places public administration itself as a powerful force of oppression and marginalisation in many parts of the world (Alexander and Stivers, 2010; Blessett et al., 2016; Carboni and Nabatchi, 2019; Berry-James et al., 2021). For example, there has been a critical appraisal of one of the so-called ‘fathers’ of public administration, Woodrow Wilson, who institutionalised race-based segregation into the United States civil service (O’Reilly, 1997; Lehr, 2015). And others have powerfully shown how public administration systems are used to enact systematic evil and trauma (e.g., Adams and Balfour, 2015; Berry-James et al., 2021). The call for centring social equity in public administration is intensifying (Berry-James et al., 2021) as the field grapples with its past and its future. Offering a global perspective amidst these dynamics is challenging. To be sure, there is no global public administration. What we have thought of as a public administration has been extremely narrow, exclusionary, and has shaped public administration practice and teaching in ways that demand radical change. This chapter marks this inflection point by focusing on four main themes that offer a different sort of global perspective. A perspective that offers insight into these dynamics shifts in the field and where it might go, rather than a universal

A global perspective on public administration?  15 set of principles or standards. The first is a transition from questions to challenges, making the case that a challenge focus offers more space for different perspectives, collaboration, and an action orientation. The second is acceptance of living in a turbulent, VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity, ambiguity) world, and what this means for how we think about public administration and the way in which we teach. The third is getting comfortable with humility, and what this might mean for how we conceive of public administration, but also for how we work to develop humility through teaching. And fourth, the embrace of empathy in public administration, and how doing so can help us to focus more on making a difference. These four themes weave together in various ways to provide new insights into public administration as a field and how this should shape teaching and learning. To be clear, there is no promise of a universal set of principles or practices, but rather a call to consider these ideas as the field develops in new and exciting ways.

FROM BIG QUESTIONS TO BIG CHALLENGES: A MORE INCLUSIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION? There has been a long debate about the ‘big questions’ of public administration, but there is increasing pressure to focus on missions, problems, or challenges to move the field forward across a range of fronts (Carboni et al., 2019; Evans, 2021; Noveck, 2021b; O’Flynn, 2021; see also Mazzucato, 2021). There are many reasons for this, including the accumulation of complex, even wicked issues, and a growing sense that addressing these is central to public administration, rather than the purview of others. Moving from questions to challenges may also be a strategy of inclusion in a field that has been dominated for so long by relatively narrow perspectives. The big questions debate has been United States (US)-centric rather than global in perspective. The modern iteration stems from Behn’s (1995) big questions about micromanagement, motivation, and measurement (Mingus and Jing, 2017; O’Flynn, 2021). These were critiqued for being instrumental, narrow, and too focused on the organization, whilst too little attention was paid to ‘consequences and value for the larger society in which public administration is embedded’ (Kirlin, 2001, p. 140). To be ‘big’ questions, Kirlin (1996) argued that they needed to be focused on the impact of public administration on society, and on institutions and meaning, rather than instrumental issues at the organizational level. Haque (2019) argued that the big questions debate missed the ‘foundational paradigmatic questions which can situate public administration in terms of its historical evolution and formation as well as its grand intellectual perspective’ (p. 138). He claimed that Behn (1995) and Kirlin (1996) both missed the big paradigmatic questions of public administration; Behn because he focused too narrowly, Kirlin because of the focus on mid-range issues. Reviewing the literature to uncover the questions that had occupied researchers through the 2000s, Sowa and Lu (2017) pointed to three main themes: how do we deliver public services; how effective is public management; and how do we understand public problems? Two decades on and the US-centric debate has continued to struggle with questions of being instrumental or normative, neutral, or activist (Carboni and Nabatchi, 2019). As Carboni and Nabatchi (2019, p. 316) conveyed from a workshop, some public administration scholars:

16  Handbook of teaching public administration expressed alarm and anxiety about issues that were not being addressed: climate change, wealth and income inequality, social justice and human rights, and democratic roll backs, among many others. Many of these participants asserted that the field should advocate or take a stand on current issues. They decried the silence of the field’s intellectual leaders and professional associations on these and other important issues, and called for the assertion of our role as stewards of democracy and justice. Others argued that these issues are not within the purview of public administration, and are more appropriate for other disciplines such as political science, sociology, and philosophy. They felt that public administration should stay focused on the more conventional issues of management and policy analysis, and that our professional associations and representatives should remain objective and neutral.

Others have lamented whether public administration matters if we are not able to make a difference in the world, something that Kirlin (2001) argued should be our driving force. AbouAssi et al. (2019) argued that public administration voices were needed in the critical issues of our times – for example, poverty, racism, immigration, xenophobia – but there were concerns that too much attention was being given to intellectual rather than impactful research which could produce real change in society. Roberts (2020) made the case that public administration needs to rebuild the capacity to address grand challenges and move on from the small problems of management, rather than big, bold aspirations. Moving towards challenges, missions, or problems can provide a reorientation and even offer a space where these can be explored in a more interdisciplinary and collaborative way. Integrative governance, a more problem-focused, contextually grounded, interdisciplinary perspective, provides a useful approach (Carboni et al., 2019). Adopting a challenge perspective can be powerful not only in scholarship, but also in teaching and learning. Challenges offer a doorway into public administration for students, especially those who are already working in public service, and confronted with problems in their professional lives. A problem-oriented approach can also open a rich toolkit of approaches from a diversity of perspectives. A key theme that emerges from Noveck’s (2021b) work is that, despite differences, we all confront challenges, and it is important to train people to be able to solve complex public problems. Moving to a more challenge-focused approach can be a challenge in itself; one reason being that our current models of government ‘don’t recognise the true nature of the challenges we face, fail to tap our collective human potential to address those challenges and offer static solutions to dynamic problems’ (Brown, 2019). A key part of a challenge focus, then, will be developing ways to identify, define, and tackle these in a more holistic way. The following sections set out three themes that can help to shape a more inclusive approach to public administration, pointing to implications and opportunities for teaching and learning.

WE LIVE IN A TURBULENT, VUCA WORLD An important theme in sketching out a state of the field is to recognise that we live in a turbulent, VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity, ambiguity) world. In this reality, the persistence of approaches that are dominated by bureaucracy, which can solve simple problems, based on rational legal rules, at scale (Ansell et al., 2021), and markets, where new public management ‘offers leaders of all types … something precious and magical: the illusion of simplicity and control’ (Lowe, 2020, p. 17), seems an exercise in futility. Far too often turbulence and VUCA aspects have been pushed aside in the quest for simple, one-size-fits-all approaches and a focus

A global perspective on public administration?  17 on the technical rather than the relational. And, because of this, many governments across the world have developed public sectors that are not able to readily cope with change, experimentation, and adaptation. These capabilities are especially needed in mega-crises, a point that has been so apparent in the COVID-19 pandemic (McConnell and Stark, 2021). Coping with the turbulent, VUCA world demands a greater diversity of worldviews, approaches, mindsets, and skills in public administration. VUCA captures the ideas that the environment can be characterised by volatility – events of unexpected occurrence and duration which disrupt systems and norms; uncertainty – events with unclear short-term and medium-term consequences; complexity – events and issues where features and interrelations are hard to understand; and ambiguity – events and issues marked by contested, hidden, and inconsistent information (van der Wal, 2017, p. 22). In this approach is an acceptance that the environment will have ‘unknowns’ to some extent, across a range of factors, from projected outcomes to skills, strategies, and parameters (van der Wal, 2017; see also Barrett et al., 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic exhibited all four VUCA characteristics (van der Wal, 2020), bringing into stark relief how important public administration is in addressing complex challenges (O’Flynn, 2021). Alongside VUCA sits increasing turbulence in the problems that disrupt society and confront government; turbulent problems being characterized by ‘surprising, inconsistent, unpredictable, and uncertain events’ (Ansell et al., 2021). Barrett et al. (2021) describe a world increasingly subject to viral uncertainty and ongoing crises. In the VUCA world, depending on the dynamics, there is increased demand for flexibility, adaptiveness, foresight, and strategic planning capabilities, as well as experimentation, piloting, and the engagement of ‘unconventional expertise’ (van der Wal, 2017, p. 21). In the COVID-19 pandemic, for example, van der Wal (2020) explained the importance of stakeholder engagement and storytelling, political astuteness, and empowering and leveraging collaborative networks (van der Wal, 2020). In her work on public problem-solving, Noveck (2021b, p. 13) identified a range of skills for ‘public problem solvers’, including collective intelligence, problem definition, and powerful partnerships. Amidst turbulence, Ansell et al. (2021) have stressed the importance of cross-boundary collaboration, public innovation, and robust governance structures to support more adaptive and flexible exploration and adaptation. The importance of systems thinking and systemic intelligence has also been seen as critical in a VUCA world (Covarrubias, 2021). Many have focused on the need for ‘new’ skills, knowledge, values, and approaches to cope with the turbulent, VUCA world. For example, Brown (2019) has emphasised that new values, beliefs, and principles are needed in the British public service to activate human learning systems; an approach developed to cope with complexity. But much of what might be seen as ‘new’ in the dominant public administration discourse has deep roots in other worldviews and knowledge systems. For example, Milroy (2019b) articulates key values from an Indigenous perspective – for example, kinship relationships and holistic approaches – which are part of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture, the longest continuous culture in the world, and calls into question just how ‘new’ this new thinking is: When we think about many of the recent trends in public administration and public sector innovation – such as systems thinking, relational ways of working, human centred-design, participatory democracy and co-design – all of these are fancy new labels for ancient forms of governance: understanding systems, understanding relationships, empathy, consensus/community decision-making, and other ways of knowing and being in the world that Indigenous people practice.

18  Handbook of teaching public administration Grappling with the reality of a turbulent, VUCA world demands a broadening of public administration. In recognising this, we start to see the intersections of challenges and problems with ways of thinking that, whilst unfamiliar to many Western public administration actors, are nothing new. A key theme in teaching and learning, therefore, is how we can develop an understanding of a diversity of worldviews, knowledge systems, and approaches that can more appropriately understand and cope with a turbulent, VUCA world. Developing approaches that are more geared to problem-solving are important, rather than relying on mindsets that privilege stability and rationality: ‘All around the world we have witnessed how, when public servants work differently, government solves problems better’ (Noveck, 2021a). Breaking the dominance of Western public administration will be central to this endeavour as it will provide the entry point for worldviews and knowledge that have been marginalised, but which privilege the perspectives needed in a more turbulent VUCA world.

GETTING COMFORTABLE WITH HUMILITY The ability to accurately assess oneself and one’s actions, to be more openminded, to be able to identify and admit mistakes, and to have a willingness to learn, are important aspects of humility (Oc et al., 2015). They are also important characteristics of dealing with a turbulent, VUCA world as it becomes more difficult, or impossible, to devise rational legal rules for universal action. Humility may also address the pathology that Lowe (2021, p. 13) identified: ‘We have created a public management approach which routinely lies to itself’, through a fixation on measurement, incentives, and targets. Our quest for rationality, order, and knowing means that we often focus on the wrong things. Such things may give us what Barrett et al. (2021, p. 23) refer to as ‘delusions of confidence’. Humility cuts across various aspects of public administration: from emerging work on the notion of humble government (Annala et al., 2020), through to developing passionate humility in public administration (Yanow and Willmott, 1999). At the centre of the call for humility is the reality that ‘no individual (or individual organisation) can achieve sustained positive change in a complex system by themselves’ (Brown, 2019). A defining feature of humility, then, is the willingness to appreciate that we do not know everything, nor do we have all the answers; a difficult proposition for many governments (Heinonen, 2021).2 Going further, humility means that despite our passion, commitment, and conviction, we leave open the very real possibility that we may be wrong or misguided in our actions (Yanow and Willmott, 1999). Being open to our own limitations and our ability to make mistakes, to be humble, could mean that changing course and adaption are more possible (Annala et al., 2020), as opposed to being locked into some path-dependent track. Getting comfortable with humility may be more challenging for some administrative cultures than others. For example, those with a strong commitment to legal-rational processes or macho leadership styles may find humility difficult, or even impossible. In their work on humble government, Annala et al. (2020) explain how a humble approach is more experimental and positions governments to be able to more fully realise the pledges made to citizens: In this context humility means that policy-making begins with an acknowledgement of the prevailing uncertainty and is thus built as a continuously iterative process, in which actors are willing to (and allowed to) change their mind as new information arises. (p. 3)

A global perspective on public administration?  19 Approaches that encourage humility also place emphasis on engagement with people, local context, and drawing on broader sets of expertise and knowledge (Yanow and Willmott, 1999). As Heinonen (2021) explained in relation to Finland: It can be hard for governments to say that we don’t have all the answers, and to put genuine decision-making power into the hands of the public and the workers who serve them. But brave governments do this. (p. 8) We have developed an approach to government that we call Humble Government. It says that government does not know best, but that we can learn together with the people we serve, to help each person – and each place – find what is right for them. (p. 7)

Strongly connected to these ideas is the work of Yanow and Willmott (1999). They argued that building a capacity for passionate humility in public servants means focusing on the humane aspects of administration, and cultivating an ethic of care and compassion alongside technical expertise. Passionate humility stresses the importance of tacit, local, and experiential forms of practical reasoning and expertise derived from lived experience. And this approach shines light on the importance on humility as a check on imposing beliefs on the other. Passionate humility is: qualified by a humbling acknowledgment that the other is a subject, not an object, and is, therefore, endowed with the human capacity of independent agency, including thought, feeling, belief, value, and judgment. (Yanow and Willmott, 1999, p. 451)

Connecting aspects of both humble government and passionate humility are tools that can bring these virtues to life; such tools can play an important part in teaching and learning practice; for example, methods set out in the problem-driven iterative adaptation (PDIA) methodology developed from Andrews’s (2013) research into the limits of reform in developing nations. Andrews’s work is a reaction, in part, to the widespread transplanting and imposition of reforms that were not suited to their context. The PDIA principles of trying, learning, iterating, and adapting sit alongside an ethos of local solutions for local problems, pushing problem-driven positive deviance, and scale through diffusion (Andrews et al., 2015, p. 125). From these perspectives, we take the notion that we always have something to learn, that we need to be prepared to adapt, that context matters, and that the closer we can be to the problem, the better able we might be to develop solutions. Noveck’s (2021b) work on solving public problems also offers a toolkit and that helps to build skills in, amongst other things, a focus on participatory ways of working that build on the collective intelligence of communities, human-centred design principles, and partnerships that cross disciplines. Approaches such as these provide us with a way of bringing together big ideas such as a turbulent, VUCA world, with the virtue of humility, providing a platform for more experimental, locally driven solutions, and this can be a powerful tool in teaching and learning. Accepting that we live in a turbulent, VUCA world can provoke or invoke humility. Humility is an important value in teaching and learning, allowing us to get comfortable with not knowing, and to be driven to seek out knowledge and worldviews that can broaden and deepen understanding. As a field, we could do worse than focus on humility across several fronts.

20  Handbook of teaching public administration

(RE)CONNECTING WITH EMPATHY Empathy has been an important theme in public administration and is one that we need to reconnect to. As Edlins (2021, p. 22) has argued, ‘Empathy is seemingly everywhere in the field of public administration. And nowhere.’ While there has been much talk of empathy, the concept of empathy remains relatively ambiguous, as does the sense of how to be empathetic in different context. As Edlins (2021, p. 24) has argued: there is a significant disconnect within the field of public administration regarding empathy: while it is held up as a positive attribute, there is no consensus on what it is or how to do it in administrative contexts. And despite the implicit value of empathy to the field, the concept has been neither explicitly valued nor pursued as a research end in itself.

Despite this, empathy is seen as critical to public policy success and a value to cultivate. As Sullivan (2017) explains, to have empathy is to put oneself in the place of another. Being empathetic is to be able to see the world as others see it, to understand another’s feelings, to remain non-judgemental, and to be able to communicate an understanding of another’s feelings (Wiseman, 1996, cited in Edlins and Dolamore, 2018). The power of empathy has been stressed by many, as has the importance of developing public servants to have more of it: Being able to understand what the world looks and feels like from another's point of view is key to securing a sound appreciation of why some ideas and policy prescriptions take hold and why different groups will react in different ways. Valuing and building this capacity among our public servants … will improve policy design as well as its communication. (Sullivan, 2017)

A similar argument has been made by Brainard (2021, p. 313), who made the case that in an increasingly diverse society, empathy allows public servants to be able to recognise and ‘appreciate the diverse sets of needs, expectations, and life experiences, which in turn might enable them to craft and implement more effective policies and practices’. The focus on empathy and relationality has become more important in public administration. Lowe (2020) argued that we need to let public servants be human, so that they can give attention to building relationships with the people they serve in order to ‘understand their strengths and needs, and respond appropriately to whatever those are. This means liberating public servants (and those they serve) from attempts to control their work from above, and instead focuses on building trust at all levels.’ Empathy, it is argued, ‘radically prioritizes service to the people’ (Edlins and Dolamore, 2018, p. 302). Empathy is critical to more relational approaches to public administration (Dolamore, 2021), and several approaches have stressed this, including human learning systems (Lowe, 2021), and the relational state (Cooke and Muir, 2012). Empathy and relational aspects are, of course, important characteristics of worldviews outside the Western dominant approach, including Indigenous value systems (Milroy, 2019a, 2019b). Breaking open public administration to such worldviews and incorporating them in teaching and learning is important to the future of the field. Like humility, empathy takes us toward much more human approaches to public administration, and it works well alongside an appreciation of the more turbulent, VUCA world we inhabit, and a more challenge-focused approach. Being able to put oneself in the place of another and see the world as they see it (or try to) and understanding another’s feelings are virtues to which we should aspire in a more inclusive public administration. A more empa-

A global perspective on public administration?  21 thetic public administration can also generate new knowledge and open the field to a broader set of perspectives. Developing approaches that can encourage empathy in teaching and learning is also important, as it can catalyse a fuller range of skills and capabilities needed to cope in contemporary practice.

CONCLUSION The field of public administration is at an important juncture, with pressure building for change. This chapter has sketched out some of these important pressures and issues, arguing that the field of public administration has been dominated by very narrow perspectives and that we are the poorer for it. Having centred public administration in a Western worldview, or more specifically an Anglo-American one, important public administration knowledge has been kept at the margins, constraining both the intellectual and the practical project that is public administration. The next iteration of public administration must reckon with the dynamics shaping the field, its history, and the pressure for change that will challenge us all in different ways. We live in a turbulent, VUCA world, defined as much by unknowns as it is by shocks and surprises. This demands that we reflect on how we think about challenges, and the processes and approaches we have in place to address them. Our ability to do so may be severely constrained by the narrow view of the world that has dominated public administration. If we accept that the world is a much more turbulent one, then we need to get much more comfortable with humility. This encourages us to be more aware of our own limitations and those of the perspectives and approaches that we adopt. A more humble posture opens up a greater possibility of learning and adaptation, of broadening our worldviews and ways of knowing, and of engaging with local perspectives. Together this can enable more appropriate responses to the challenges that confront us. Related to this is an embrace of empathy, of more human and more humane public administration, which encourages us to put ourselves in the place of others and appreciate their perspective. Public administration is critical to enacting solutions to many of the world’s most critical challenges; this much has been laid bare during the global pandemic. Such a catastrophic experience may well be the catalyst for a renewal in public administration, where we come to terms with the complex world we live in, and invest in developing the capacity to cope with and thrive in it. Noveck (2021b, p. 348) makes a passionate case for training public problem solvers ‘who know how to work with rather than for communities, transforming education while producing the leaders and problem solvers we so desperately need to improve people’s lives, transform how we govern, and rescue humanity’. How we think about teaching and learning matters. As Edmondson and Chamorro-Premuzic, 2020) have argued so powerfully: In a complex and uncertain world that demands constant learning and agility, the most apt and adaptable leaders are those who are aware of their limitations, have the necessary humility to grow their own and others’ potential, and are courageous and curious enough to create sincere and open connections with others. They build inclusive team climates with psychological safety that foster constructive criticism and dissent.

22  Handbook of teaching public administration What all this means for teaching and learning is profound, not just for how we think about curricula and andragogy, but also for how we think about the role and responsibilities of educators. As educators we need to be comfortable with many of the tensions and dilemmas that confront public administration, and be able to explain how we can understand and cope with these. Putting challenges at the centre of our practice can help us to draw on a much broader range of worldviews and break the dominance of a few in public administration. This means educating ourselves, moving beyond the ‘classics and the canon’ towards a much more inclusive set of readings, materials, examples, cases, and speakers. It means working collaboratively with our students and learning from them, drawing out their expertise, knowledge, and wisdom, developing communities of inquiry (Shields, 2003), and valuing lived experience and experiential forms of reasoning alongside other forms of knowledge (Yannow and Willmott, 1999). The use of counternarratives can also help in challenging the perceived wisdom and recognising alternative views (Blessett et al., 2016). In doing so we model the very practice that we expect students to develop. As educators we also need to be humble; to accept that we do not, and cannot, have all the answers, especially when confronted with such complex challenges, problems, and dilemmas. Just as we need to cope with this, so we also need to help those we are working with to do the same. In our own practice, this can mean rethinking how we do everything, from the design and delivery of education, through to assessment, and may include adopting approaches such as skilled mutual inquiry, where both student and teacher acknowledge limitations of expertise and knowledge and share the discomfort of these limitations (McClellan, 2020). It means encouraging others to be brave, to take risks, and to learn from them. Doing so means placing a strong emphasis on trust and relationality, humility, and empathy. We have an obligation to practice humility and empathy as we grapple with a turbulent, VUCA world where there are no easy answers. A focus on challenges, a recognition of the turbulent world we live in, humility and empathy, can help us on that journey, as can developing those who help us to get there. A more inclusive public administration is important for many reasons, least of which is that it might just help us to save the world from itself.3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author thanks Patrick Lucas for invaluable research assistance in the preparation of this chapter.

NOTES 1.

Here the language of public service is consciously used because much of the work that government does is done through other actors; actors who we may not readily think of as public servants, despite the fact that they are the face of public services in many nations (Olney, 2021). 2. Formal definitions of humility vary, but in a review Tangney (2000, cited in Oc et al., 2015, p. 69) pointed to six positive aspects: viewing oneself accurately; willingness to admit mistakes and accept weaknesses; receptiveness to new ideas and feedback; awareness of one’s ability and accomplishment; transcendence; valuing the different ways people and things contribute to our world. 3. I was inspired by the Presidential address by Professor Helen Sullivan at the Australian Political Studies Association conference, 2021. In that speech, Helen focused on how political studies can

A global perspective on public administration?  23 change the world. A video of the speech is accessible here: https://​www​.youtube​.com/​watch​?v​=​ rtfvb44EqQQ.

REFERENCES AbouAssi, K., Amirkhanyan, A., Billingsley, G. and Lyon R. (2019). Reflections on the persistent issue of relevance in public administration. Perspectives on Public Management and Governance, 2(4), 239–243. Adams, G. and Balfour, D. (2015). Unmasking administrative evil (4th edn). M.E. Sharpe. Alexander, J. and Stivers, C. (2010). An ethic of race for public administration. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 32(4), 578‒597. Althaus, C. (2020). Different paradigms of evidence and knowledge: Recognising, honouring, and celebrating indigenous ways of knowing and being. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 79(2), 187–207. Andrews, M. (2013). The limits of institutional reform in development: Changing rules for realistic solutions. Cambridge University Press. Andrews, M., Pritchett, L., Samji, S. and Woolcock, M. (2015). Building capability by delivering results: Putting problem-driven iterative adaptation (PDIA) principles into practice. In A. Whaites, E. Gonzalez, S. Fyson and G. Teskey (eds), A governance practitioners’ notebook: Alternative ideas and approaches. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, pp. 123‒134. Anheier, A. (2018). On the future of the public policy school. Hertie School of Government. Annala, M., Leppänen, J. Mertsola, S. and Sabel, C. (2020). Humble government: How to realize ambitious reforms prudently. DEMOS. Ansell, C., Sørensen, E. and Torfing, J. (2021). The COVID-19 pandemic as a game changer for public administration and leadership? The need for robust governance responses to turbulent problems. Public Management Review, 23(7), 949‒960. Barrett, K., Greene, R. and Kettl, D. (2021). Managing the next crisis: Twelve principles for dealing with viral uncertainty. IBM Center for the Business of Government. Behn, R. (1995). The big questions of public management. Public Administration Review, 55(4), 313‒324. Berry-James, R., Blessett, R., Emas, R., McCandless, S., Nickels, A., et al. (2021). Stepping up to the plate: Making social equity a priority in public administration’s troubled times. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 27(1), 5‒15 Blessett, B., Gaynor, T., Witt, M. and Alkadry, M. (2016). Counternarratives as critical perspectives in public administration curricula. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 38(4), 267–284. Brainard, L. (2021). Putting ‘perspectives’ in perspective: Literary fiction, empathy and diversity in the public affairs classroom. Public Integrity, 23(3), 310‒327. Brown, A. (2019). A vision for better government. Centre for Public Impact. https://​medium​.com/​centre​ -for​-public​-impact/​a​-manifesto​-for​-better​-government​-8121132f45ef. Carboni, J., Dickey, T., Moulton, S., O’Keefe, S., O’Leary, R., et al. (2019). Start with the problem: Establishing research relevance with integrative public administration. Perspectives on Public Management and Governance, 2(4), 267‒275. Carboni, J.L. and Nabatchi, T. (2019). Minnowbrook at 50: A post-script. Perspectives on Public Management and Governance, 2(4), 315‒319. Cooke, G. and Muir, R. (2012). The relational state: How recognising the importance of human relationships could revolutionise the role of the state. Institute for Public Policy Research. Covarrubias, M. (2021). Systemic intelligence in a VUCA world. PA Times. American Society for Public Administration, 24 July. Online at: https://​patimes​.org/​systemic​-intelligence​-in​-the​-vuca​-world/​. Dickinson, H., Needham, C., Mangan, C. and Sullivan, H. (eds) (2018). (Re)Imagining the future public service workforce. Springer. Dolamore, S. (2021). Detecting empathy in public organizations: Creating a more relational public administration. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 43(1), 58‒81.

24  Handbook of teaching public administration Drechsler, W. (2015). Paradigms of non-western public administration and governance. In A. Massey and K. Johnston (eds), The International Handbook of Public Administration and Governance. Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 104‒132. Drechsler, W. (2019). After Public Administration Scholarship. In A. Massey (ed.), A Research Agenda for Public Administration. Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 220‒234. Edlins, M. (2021). Developing a model of empathy for public administration. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 4(1), 22–41. Edlins, M. and Dolamore, S. (2018). Ready to serve the public? The role of empathy in public service education programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 24(3), 300–320. Edmondson, A. and Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2020). Today’s leaders need vulnerability, not bravado. Harvard Business Review, 19 October. Online at: https://​hbr​.org/​2020/​10/​todays​-leaders​-need​ -vulnerability​-not​-bravado​#msdynttrid​=​Min​9FKajcEzxp​JShAswNgqw​pnYxvMIFuWW7xRITs0pw. Erasmus, M. (2020). Western ascendency and African capitulation: Antagonism for ‘true’ public administration epistemology. Journal of African Foreign Affairs, 7(2), 21‒33. Evans, A. (2021). Re-imagining a public administration education part I. IBM Center for Business of Government. Online at: https://​www​.​businessof​government​.org/​blog/​re​-imagining​-public​ -administration​-education​-part​-i. Fukuyama, F. (2018). What’s wrong with public policy education? The American Interest, 1 August. Online at: https://​www​.the​-american​-interest​.com/​2018/​08/​01/​whats​-wrong​-with​-public​-policy​ -education/​. Haque, M.S. (2019). The changing foundations of public administration: From identity to modernity to diversity. International Review of Public Administration, 24(2), 138‒145. Heinonen, O. (2021). Foreword. In Human learning systems: Public service for the real world. ThemPra Social Pedagogy. Kirlin, J. (1996). The big questions of public administration in a democracy. Public Administration Review, 56(5), 416‒423. Kirlin, J. (2001). Big questions for a significant public administration. Public Administration Review, 61(2), 140–143. Lehr, D. (2015). The racist legacy of Woodrow Wilson. The Atlantic, 27 November. Online at: https://​ www​.theatlantic​.com/​politics/​archive/​2015/​11/​wilson​-legacy​-racism/​417549/​. Lowe, T. (2020). Human learning systems: A complexity friendly approach to public services. Centre for Public Impact, 9 June. Online at: https://​www​.c​entreforpu​blicimpact​.org/​insights/​human​-learning​ -systems​-complexity​-friendly​-approach​-public​-services. Lowe, T. (2021). Public service for the real world. In Human Learning Systems Collaborative (eds), Human learning systems: Public service for the real world. ThemPra Social Pedagogy, pp. 11‒25. Online at: https://​www​.c​entreforpu​blicimpact​.org/​assets/​documents/​hls​-real​-world​.pdf. Matsiliza, N. (2020). Decolonisation in the field of public administration: The responsiveness of the scholarship of teaching and learning. Teaching Public Administration, 38(3), 295‒312. Mazzucato, M. (2021). Mission economy: A moonshot guide to changing capitalism. Allen Lane. McClellan, S. (2020). Leading with humility in tumultuous times: Evidence from the United States. International Journal of Public Leadership, 16(3), 265–277. McConnell, A. and Stark, A. (2021). Understanding policy responses to COVID-19: The stars haven’t fallen from the sky for scholars of public policy. Journal of European Public Policy, 28(8), 1115‒1130. Milroy, A. (2019a). Indigenous values for the APS: An ANZSOG submission to the Australian public service review. Australia and New Zealand School of Government. Milroy, A. (2019b). Black swans make better policy. The power to persuade. Online at: http://​www​ .powertopersuade​.org​.au/​blog/​black​-swans​-make​-better​-policy/​30/​10/​2019. Mingus, M.S. and Jing, Z. (2017). The big questions of Chinese public management research. Administration and Society, 49(6), 775–797. Noveck, B. (2021a). Old dog, new tricks: Retraining and the road to government reform. Democracy, Fall, 62. Online at: https://​democracyjournal​.org/​magazine/​62/​old​-dog​-new​-tricks/​. Noveck, B. (2021b). Solving public problems: A practical guide to fix our government and change our world. Yale University Press. Oc, B., Bashshur, M., Daniels, M., Greguras, G. and Diefendorff, J. (2015). Leader humility in Singapore. Leadership Quarterly, 26(1), 68‒80.

A global perspective on public administration?  25 O’Flynn, J. (2021). Confronting the big challenges of our time: Making a difference during and after COVID-19. Public Management Review, 23(7), 961‒980. Olney, S. (2021). Serving the public, but not public servants? In H. Sullivan, H. Dickinson and H. Henderson (eds), The Palgrave Handbook of the Public Servant. Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 445‒463. O’Reilly, K. (1997). The Jim Crow policies of Woodrow Wilson. Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 17, 117‒121. Pete, S., Schneider, B. and O’Reilly, K. (2013). Decolonizing our practice ‒ Indigenizing our teaching. First Nations Perspectives, 5(1), 99‒115. Roberts, A. (2020). Strategies for governing: Reinventing public administration for a dangerous century. Cornell University Press. Shields, P. (2003). The community of inquiry: Classical pragmatism and public administration. Administration and Society, 35(5), 510–538. Sowa, J. and Lu, J. (2017). Policy and management: Considering public management and its relationship to policy studies. Policy Studies Journal, 45(1), 74‒100. Stout, M. (2018). The impossibility of a universal public service perspective. Teaching Public Administration, 36(3), 222–236. Sullivan, H. (2017). What the world needs now – Empathy, integrity and expertise. Policy Forum. Asia and The Pacific Policy Studies, 7 February. Online at: https://​www​.policyforum​.net/​world​-needs​-now​ -empathy​-integrity​-expertise/​. Ugyel, L. (2016). Paradigms and public sector reform: Public administration of Bhutan. Palgrave Macmillan. van der Wal, Z. (2017). The 21st century public manager. Macmillan Education. van der Wal, Z. (2020). Being a public manager in times of crisis: The art of managing stakeholders, political masters, and collaborative networks. Public Administration Review, 80(5), 759‒764. Yanow, D. and Wilmott, H. (1999). Considering passionate humility. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 21(4), 450‒454.

3. The fourfold nature of public administration as science, art, profession, and humanism: implications for teaching Edoardo Ongaro

This chapter proposes and elaborates on a broad conception of public administration (PA) as, jointly, a science, an art, a profession, and a form of humanism. The purpose of the chapter is introducing this fourfold nature of PA, substantiating some of its implications and, crucially, outlining the implications for the teaching of PA, as it occurs in higher education institutions and other places where knowledge is transmitted to (or better: co-generated with) learners. The chapter also argues that a philosophical perspective to PA can provide the underpinnings that tie together these four facets of PA, hence its significance and prominence in the teaching of PA. The foundational contribution that philosophical thought may bring to PA can perhaps be better appreciated when recalling the admonition that Hannah Arendt (1951/1958) issued to her contemporary rulers when she referred to ‘the death of Socrates’ as the death of wisdom in both public governance and society at large. From this consideration originated her call to rediscover philosophical wisdom alongside, and in a sense over and above, technical expertise as the only way forward for a better and more humane society and public governance. Her call also resonates today for rulers and public administrators all over the world, at least as much as it did in the 1950s in Europe, and urges the (re-)introduction of philosophical knowledge into the study of PA in a deeper and more systematic way, and with it at bringing back philosophical wisdom into public governance (Ongaro, 2017/2020a, p. 17; Ongaro, 2021). The chapter starts by outlining the fourfold nature of PA that is argued for, then turns to reflecting on the underpinnings of this conception in a broad philosophical perspective, and to the drawing of implications for teaching.

THE FOURFOLD NATURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION There are countless definitions of the term ‘public administration’ and the closely related notions of public management and public governance. It is often held that public administration and public management are two different mappings of the same terrain (Dunleavy and Hood, 1994; Pollitt and Bouckaert, 2000/2017). The emphasis on the role of law is at times used to differentiate public administration from public management, whereby the former is concerned with the ‘preparation, promulgation and implementation of laws’ (Pollitt and Bouckaert, 2000/2017), and the latter is concerned with the relationship between resources consumed and results produced by public organisations. This corroborates the perspective whereby public administration and public management can be seen as different mappings of the same terrain (Dunleavy and Hood, 1994; see also Ferlie et al., 2005; Ongaro and van Thiel, 2018a; Painter and Peters, 2010; Perry and Christensen, 2015; Pollitt, 2016). 26

The fourfold nature of public administration as science, art, profession, and humanism  27 As to the third notion evoked, ‘public governance’ is a term employed to indicate the broader processes of steering of society by public institutions and engaging non-governmental actors into public policy processes, as opposed to the stricter focus on governmental authoritative decisions and administrative processes (Pierre and Peters, 2000; Torfing et al., 2012), and it is in this sense at times used to contrast the allegedly narrower perspective taken when employing the terms of ‘public administration’ and ‘public management’. It should also be pointed out that the notion of ‘public governance’ has been denotated with varied meanings by different authors, and it has quite often been charged with more normative, prescriptive tones (Osborne, 2010). The word ‘governance’ also refers to the broader formal and informal rules, conventions, practices, and beliefs in place in a given political regime. In the remainder of this section, I will refer to all three concepts of public administration, public management, and public governance, often in a collective way to encompass all three meanings (and countless associated hues); for simplicity referring to them just as ‘PA’, unless otherwise specified. I will, specifically, point out to the fourfold nature of PA which, I contend, can be seen as a science, an art, a profession, and a form of humanism, and these facets can and should be seen in a complementary, integrated way. I argue that this conception of PA may be especially apt for the purposes of teaching and learning. The conception of PA as a science provides the underpinning to the study of PA with the methodological rigour that enables the development of warranted, ‘solid’ knowledge. The conception of PA as an art enables the inclusion of those elements of the practice of PA that cannot be fully codified and transmitted in the shape of a formal body of knowledge, but can only be apprehended ‘artistically’, through intuition and direct or vicarious experience from learned more senior practitioners in the field. The conception of PA as a profession – indeed, a range of professions connected by overarching principles and codes of behaviour and deontology that enable us to make sense of notions such as ‘public service’ and ‘public ethics’ – allows us to think of the teaching of PA as the process enabling would-be public servants to be equipped with the formal and substantive requirements demanded of the practice of the job of the public servant. And last but not least, the notion of PA as a form of practical humanism enables us to shed light on the value-laden nature of the practice of PA, and how administrative action is a socially constituted activity whereby people’s lives are transformed; as happens when, for example, a teacher at school contributes to the human flourishing of a pupil, and along the process the teacher themself may become a different – and better ‒ person. It is to the outlining of this fourfold nature of PA that this chapter now turns. PA as Science In terms of the social-scientific study of PA, there seems to be some widespread consensus about PA being defined not as an individual discipline, but rather as a subject matter, that is, a field of inquiry defined by its subject of investigation. Specifically, public administration has been defined as ‘the interdisciplinary study of government’ (famously by Waldo, 1948/1984; see also Frederickson, 1980; Raadschelders, 2011), the study of the administrative dimension of public institutions in general and executive government in particular, by resorting in a combined way to a range of different disciplines. This feature may be a weakness but also a strength. A weakness, because it may be claimed that PA lacks epistemological and methodological consensus about its specific knowledge objectives and methods, because of its very interdisciplinary nature that combines different

28  Handbook of teaching public administration disciplines which uphold different methods and underlying paradigmatic cores. But also a strength, exactly because its interdisciplinary nature makes it possible for PA to provide a more comprehensive understanding of government than paradigm-based disciplines: paradigm-based disciplines by definition ‘see’ only one dimension of the phenomenon they study (so, for example, political science will see government through the lens of the notion of power; or sociology will see government through the lens of the social dynamics that take place in it), while PA sees the totality of it (Raadschelders, 2011; Riccucci, 2010; Stillman, 1991/1999). In this perspective, PA is the study of government from an interdisciplinary perspective with the goal of generating applied knowledge. What are the disciplines from which PA draws? Three are widely held as constitutive of PA ‒ political science, management, and law – but others are crucial too, and these include economics, organisation science, sociology, and social psychology, amongst others. PA as an Art PA has been seen not just as a science but also, on an equal footing and in an equally constitutive way, as an art and a profession (Frederickson, 1980; Frederickson and Smith, 2002). As an art, PA is about the making of decisions for administering a political community, in distinctive ways that fit the distinctive contexts in which different countries, polities and jurisdictions have developed and operate. PA can be interpreted as the art of making decisions for administering a political community, of (gaining and) wielding power, of exercising authority, of administering and managing in varied circumstances; of attaining ‘adequate levels of performance’ of some sort (managing performance): in this sense, PA does require ‘artistry’ and artistic skills. The very polities and jurisdictions around the world, most notably the nation-states, but also international and supranational institutions such as the United Nations (UN) or the European Union (EU), are themselves the embodiment of craftsmanship and the result of the practice of ‘the art of the state’, which is at least as much the ‘art of administration’: the artistry required of building and making administrative systems develop and be able to serve their constituents, as well as be able to adapt over time to the evolving circumstances. PA as a Profession PA is first and foremost being practised as and, in this sense, following Bauer (2018), PA is perhaps best seen as a profession, as primarily interested in instrumental knowledge in the same sense as medicine or engineering. Barzelay (2019) argues for a conception of public management as a design-oriented professional discipline, in line with the ideas of the sciences of the artificial drawn out by Herbert Simon (1969/1981/1996); note that Barzelay distinguishes terminologically between public administration as a science, on one hand, and public management specifically as a profession, on the other. The aim of PA as a profession would, then, be optimising public administration in the widest sense, that is, making the state work as legitimately, fairly, effectively, and efficiently as possible. Codes of behaviour and deontological standards for public servants have been elaborated over time, and institutions for the reproduction and transmission of knowledge, know-how, skills, and expertise have been established and have risen in importance (such as the national schools of administration in many countries). These codes and standards, as well as institutions for the reproduction and transmission of knowledge and expertise for public servants in

The fourfold nature of public administration as science, art, profession, and humanism  29 the various policy sectors (from the so-called uniformed professionals such as policemen and the military in the field of security, to the teachers in the field of education; from clinicians, physicians, doctors, nurses, and the medical professions in healthcare services, to urban planners and social workers in local government), represent in a sense the embodiments of PA as a profession. PA as a Form of Humanism Last, but definitely not least, PA may also be seen – alongside as a science, an art, and a profession – as a form of humanism (a conception very much in line with Waldo’s; see Waldo 1948/1984), administering being concerned also and intrinsically with the making of value-laden decisions which demand the decision-makers to exercise judgement and wisdom. PA is human-made, it is made by humans for humans, and hence it must be informed by knowledge and understanding about human nature (Hodgkinson, 1978), its traits, needs, motivations, and aspirations to well-being, and the rights and obligations associated to our human condition. Bringing to the fore in an explicit way the nature of PA as also a form of humanism, and thence its place in the humanities alongside the social sciences, is a call made by a number of authors, such as Herbel (2018), who makes the case for PA to renew its ties to the humanities, and urges it to ‘come back to the fold’ of the liberal arts from which it originated; or Samier (2005), who makes a plea for PA to conceive of itself as a humanities discipline, and even proposes a humanistic manifesto for PA. If PA is part of the humanities too, then as such it draws from philosophical thought about human nature, about the ontology of social action (Elder-Vaas, 2010; Ongaro, 2017/2020a, Chapter 4), and about the legitimacy criteria that provide justification for a political community in its public governance and administrative dimension (Bird, 2006; Ongaro, 2017/2020a, Chapter 5). PA is in this sense part and parcel of human history, hence an object of investigation by historiography, another discipline in the humanities (Raadschelders, 2000; Rugge, 2006); it is embedded into a societal and administrative culture, and as such is also amenable to being studied through the lens of cultural anthropology, yet another discipline in the humanities (Hood, 1998). In sum, our argument is that the nature of PA lies in it being in an integrated way a social science, an art, a profession, and a form of humanism. We would also add a qualification to the notion of PA as a science in academia: to the extent that PA is a science, the term should be intended in the wider meaning of episteme, as the generation of knowledge through rigorous processes in a broad sense, not necessarily through univocally specified research methods. Moreover ‒ and this is a sense of the term ‘science’ which is better conveyed by the German language term of wissenschaft ‒ PA should be seen as a field of intellectual inquiry which is being conducted through an approach that encompasses a systematic consideration for values and meanings in the study of social phenomena (Gadamer, 1960/1975; Weber, 1922/1978, 1949); in this sense, in PA the notion of ‘explanation’ refers both to the process of identifying the causes of something, and to the process of attributing meaning to something (Demeulenaere, 2011, Chapter 1). Summing up, PA draws from the social sciences and shares with them the common problems and quandaries of social scientific knowledge; at the same time, due to its composite nature, it partly transcends those boundaries to enter the terrain of the codes and practices of a profession (such as medicine or engineering), of a human activity which is also inherently an

30  Handbook of teaching public administration art (the art of governing and administering), and of the humanities (the making of value-laden decisions and the attributing of meaning to the public space).

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT FOR THE TEACHING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION CONCEIVED AS A SCIENCE, AN ART, A PROFESSION, AND A FORM OF HUMANISM As part of the humanities and intended as a form of practical humanism, PA inherently draws from philosophy and philosophical thought, and indeed we argue in this chapter precisely that it should draw more, and more explicitly, from philosophy as one of its core constituent academic disciplines. This happens already in a number of guises. On one hand we have scholarly works which tackle directly the theme of bringing philosophical thought into PA: notably Lynch and Cruise (1998/2006), Ongaro (2017/2020a) and Virtanen (2018). On the other hand, there are works which are infused with and inspired by philosophical thinking: a prominent example being the strategic project of the European Group for Public Administration (EGPA) called European Perspectives on Public Administration (EPPA) (https://​www​.perspectivespa​.eu/​en/​), a project aimed at reflecting on the future of researching and teaching PA (its main findings are summed up in Bouckaert and Jann, 2020). The research project has focused on four strands: ‘futures and PA’, ‘disciplines and PA’, ‘cultures and PA‘, and ‘PA practice’. Notably, the strand ‘futures and PA’ focused on bringing utopian thinking to the fore in PA studies (Bouckaert, 2020; see also Achten et al., 2016; Ongaro, 2017/2020a, Chapter 8) and it is an example of how philosophical thinking may be brought centre-stage in the study and the practice of PA from a broad, humanities-driven and humanistic values-infused perspective; in this case, the reflection on teleological thinking from Aristotle to Thomas More and to the modern and contemporary era. The strand ‘PA practice’ developed by adopting a very broad perspective, which for example has led to exploring the different forms that knowledge takes when applied to the practice of public administration (Ongaro, 2020b). The strand ‘cultures and PA’ considered issues of cultural anthropology, migration, and linguistic difference (Ongaro and van Thiel, 2018b). We would further argue that PA also draws from philosophical thinking in its nature as a science, an interdisciplinary field of social scientific investigation. In fact, each science in the ‘modern’ sense, each area of scientific inquiry carried out with scientific methods, is indebted to philosophical thought from which it originates and of which it may keep key remaining elements, at times called ‘the philosophical residue’. In order to better appreciate this point, we may reflect on the question of what philosophy is (an undoubtedly arduous question). A useful starting point lies in pointing out that philosophy – unlike ‘scientific’ disciplines – does not have a subject matter; rather, it does have key questions and themes, such as (Kenny, 2010): ‘What there is’ (the metaphysical/ontological question on being and God); ‘How to live together’ (the political philosophical question); or ‘How to know/what we know’ (the epistemological question, or philosophy of knowledge). Ultimately, philosophy aims at a deeper understanding, rather than vaster disciplinary knowledge as individual disciplines do. It may be argued that one way or another all the specific individual disciplines have stemmed from philosophy and have detached from it over time:

The fourfold nature of public administration as science, art, profession, and humanism  31 Many disciplines that in antiquity and the Middle Ages were part of philosophy have long since become independent sciences … Perhaps no scientific concepts are ever fully clarified, and no scientific methods are ever totally uncontroversial: if so, there is always a philosophical element left in every science. But once problems can be unproblematically stated, when concepts are uncontroversially standardized, and where consensus emerges for the methodology of solution, then we have a science setting up home independently, rather than a branch of philosophy. (Kenny, 2010, pp. x–xi)

The social sciences are among the disciplines that stemmed from philosophy; for example, economics originally belonged to moral philosophy and then set up home as an independent (albeit far from uncontroversial) science. It ensues from this that when a discipline is far from having its problems unproblematically stated and its concepts uncontroversially standardised, then its ties with philosophy are stronger and the unresolved ‘philosophical residue’ mentioned earlier gains in prominence. Indeed, PA has been defined as the interdisciplinary study of government, and hence not one discipline but rather a set of disciplinary approaches aimed at enhancing our knowledge and understanding of government in action; a nature that further distances PA from a science whose terms are unproblematically stated and concepts uncontroversially standardised, and hence brings it closer to philosophy. Moreover, it may be argued that in each of the constituent disciplines of PA there is an important philosophical residue. Taking by way of example political science as a constituent discipline of PA, we may consider the extent to which it is a discipline whose problems can be unproblematically stated and whose concepts can be uncontroversially standardised, and in which unanimous consensus emerges for the methodology of solution of the stated problems. Political science is the social scientific study of political systems and their interactions (the latter usually goes under the label of ‘international relations’). It generally encompasses the whole of the political process, from politics as mobilisation, to the functioning of political institutions, to public policy. Politics as mobilisation refers to the processes of identity building and creation or depletion of the sense of belonging to the political system by its members (citizens or others), to the dynamics of party politics, to the mechanisms of the electoral systems and the dynamics of electoral competition (in democratic polities) or other forms whereby a party or group attains power (in non-democratic polities). The social scientific study of political institutions encompasses the three main branches of power: government (executive politics), legislative (legislative politics), and judiciary, as well as their manifold interactions. The analysis of public policies encompasses the dynamics of the policy process and the whole range of actors involved, public and non-public. Is the study of political systems and power exclusively the remit of a standard, uncontroversial, unproblematic social scientific approach? The direct answer to such a major question is negative. In fact, for example, it may be argued that an important part of what political science is about are issues of ‘legitimacy’ of a political system: think of the debates around liberal democracy being in expansion or retrenchment around the world, and about the conditions under which elections can be considered ‘fair’ or, vice versa, little more than a cover up for the governing elite to hold an indefinite grasp on power. These are issues that border well into the realm of political philosophy, notably in its quest for the rationale that may underpin the legitimacy – or absence thereof – of a political system. In multiple ways political science, when it deals with many crucial issues for advancing our knowledge and understanding of PA, wades into the domain of political philosophy, and when this happens it becomes as much philosophical reflection as it is a ‘science’.

32  Handbook of teaching public administration Table 3.1

Key issues for developing philosophy for PA programme

Question/issue

Options

Questions about positioning:

Three basic options: (1) inserting topics of philosophy for PA into already

What could be the place of philosophy in PA

established modules in PA programmes; (2) introducing philosophy for PA as

programmes curricula?

part and parcel of the introductory course of PA programmes; (3) setting up

At what level should philosophy be taught

a distinct, stand-alone module of ‘Philosophy for PA’.

(undergraduate, postgraduate, executive

Philosophy for PA could and should be taught at all levels: undergraduate,

education)?

postgraduate, PhD/research degrees, and executive education/lifelong learning (noticing that previous training of students in philosophy at secondary school level varies widely from country to country).

Questions about contents and tools:

Two alternative approaches: focusing selectively on branches of philosophy

What could and should be the key contents of

identified as the ‘most pertinent’ in PA (examples: epistemology, with

philosophy for PA that are being taught?

focus on research methods for PA; ethics, with focus on public ethics; etc.);

What are available teaching tools (books,

alternatively, the focus could be on discussing in their full breadth key

handbooks, other readings, and the like) which

philosophers and philosophies, to then apply these bodies of knowledge to PA.

may support the teaching of philosophy for PA?

A growing range of academic publications in the field supports and enables the teaching of philosophy in PA programmes.

Questions of consistency and methods:

Philosophy for PA should be taught in a way consistent with the other topics/

What should and could be the relations of

courses in the PA programme; philosophical thought can and should act as an

philosophy for PA with the other courses being

integrative force for linking together diverse thematic areas and showing deeper

taught in a PA programme?

interconnections across disciplines and topics (for example, the issue of human

What teaching methods could and should be

liberty and individual agency is a cross-cutting issue in PA, from the analysis of

employed to teach philosophy for PA?

street-level bureaucrats to strategic management or policy-making processes). A range of teaching methods can be employed for teaching philosophy for PA, optimally in a combined way: from more ‘traditional’ frontal lessons (for introducing core topics, especially where students have no previous training in philosophy) to case discussion or role games (e.g., for discussing ethical dilemmas of public administrators).

Sources: Elaborated from Ongaro (2019, 2017/2020a).

This approach is deeply resonant with Dwight Waldo’s definition of PA as political theory, and the significance of issues of legitimacy and values in the conception of the administrative state (Waldo, 1948/1984), and it shows how also in the mainstream PA literature the recognition that philosophical themes underpin the defining issues in PA is widespread, albeit at times possibly overlooked, and inappropriately so. Possibly this happens because adopting this broader perspective of PA raises the bar, demanding of PA scholars and practitioners alike to be competent not just in their specific disciplinary domain, but also more broadly in philosophical thinking (Drechsler, 2017/2020). It is for this reason that I argue that philosophy should be(come) part and parcel of the teaching of PA. Table 3.1 expands on the practical issues to be tackled to make this happen.

CONCLUSION This chapter has proposed and elaborated a broad conception of PA as jointly a science, an art, a profession, and a form of practical humanism. It is argued that adopting such broad conception can enable students of PA, at all levels, to develop a more encompassing and pertinent conception of this so crucial field of human activity. Adopting this fourfold notion of

The fourfold nature of public administration as science, art, profession, and humanism  33 PA also enables students to more clearly see the links between PA topics, as well as the connections between their study of PA and their practice of PA as a profession (whether current or prospective). Philosophical thought provides crucial theoretical underpinnings for bettering the understanding of the four facets of PA, hence its significance in the teaching of PA, at all levels. Philosophical thought in PA can in fact perform an integrative function, enabling the connections across the four dimensions of PA to be developed. It can also enable the deepening by students of their understanding of key issues in the field. To this purpose, in this chapter practical questions for developing philosophy in PA programmes have been discussed and concrete proposals drawn out in order to better equip educators in the field of PA to systematically introduce philosophical thought into PA programmes.

REFERENCES Achten, V., Bouckaert, G., and Schokkaert, E. (eds) (2016) The scholarly quest for utopia. Leuven University Press. Arendt, H. (1951/1958) The origins of totalitarianism. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Barzelay, M. (2019) Public management as a design-oriented professional discipline. Edward Elgar Publishing. Bauer, M. (2018) Public administration and political science. In E. Ongaro and S. van Thiel (eds), The Palgrave handbook of public administration and management in Europe (pp. 1049‒1065). Palgrave. Bird, C. (2006) An introduction to political philosophy. Cambridge University Press. Bouckaert, G. (2020) From public administration in utopia to utopia in public administration. In Bouckaert, G. and W. Jann (eds), European perspectives for public administration: The way forward. Leuven University Press. Demeulenaere, P. (ed.) (2011) Analytical sociology and social mechanisms. Cambridge University Press. Drechsler, W. (2017/2020). Postscript to the second edition: Philosophy in and of public administration today, global-Western and non-Western. In E. Ongaro, Philosophy and public administration: An introduction, 2nd edition. Edward Elgar Publishing. Dunleavy, P. and Hood. C. (1994) From old public administration to new public management. Public Money and Management, 14(3), pp. 9–16. Elder-Vaas, Dave (2010) The causal power of social structures. Cambridge University Press. Ferlie, E., Lynn Jr, L.E., and Pollitt, C. (eds) (2005) The Oxford handbook of public management. Oxford University Press. Frederickson, H.G. (1980) The new public administration. University of Alabama Press. Frederickson, H.G., and Smith, K.B. (2002) The public administration theory primer. Westview Press. Gadamer, H.-G. (1960/1975) Truth and method. Seabury. Herbel, J. (2018) Humanism and bureaucracy: The case for a liberal arts conception of public administration. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 24(3), pp. 395‒416. Hodgkinson, C. (1978) Towards a philosophy of administration. Basil Blackwell. Hood, C. (1998) The art of the state: Culture, rhetoric and public management. Oxford University Press. Kenny, A. (2010) A new history of western philosophy. Oxford University Press. Lynch, T.D., and Cruise, P.L. (eds) (1998/2006) Handbook of organization theory and management: The philosophical approach. CRC Press. Ongaro, E. (2019) The teaching of philosophy for public administration programmes. Teaching Public Administration, 37(2), 135‒146. Ongaro, E. (2017/2020a) Philosophy and public administration: An introduction (2nd edition). Edward Elgar Publishing. Available open access at: https://​www​.elgaronline​.com/​view/​9781839100338​.xm. Ongaro, E. (2020b) Forms of knowledge for the practice of public administration. In G. Bouckaert and W. Jann (eds), European perspectives for public administration: The way forward (pp.  273‒291). Leuven University Press. Available open access at: www​.lup​.be/​EPPA.

34  Handbook of teaching public administration Ongaro, E. (2021) Non-western philosophies and public administration, guest editorial. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Administration, 43(1), 6‒10. DOI: https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​23276665​.2020​.1844027. Ongaro, E., and van Thiel, S. (eds) (2018a) The Palgrave handbook of public administration and management in Europe. Palgrave. Ongaro, E., and van Thiel, S. (2018b). Languages and public administration in Europe. In E. Ongaro and S. van Thiel (eds), The Palgrave handbook of public administration and management in Europe (pp. 61‒98). Palgrave. Osborne, S. (ed.) (2010) The new public governance. Routledge. Painter, M., and Peters, B.G. (2010) Tradition and administration. Palgrave. Perry, J.L., and Christensen, R.K. (2015) Handbook of public administration. Jossey-Bass. Pierre, J., and Peters, B.G. (2000) Governance, politics and the state. Macmillan. Pollitt, C. (2016) Advanced introduction to public management and administration. Edward Elgar Publishing. Pollitt, C., and Bouckaert, G. (2000/2017) Public management reform: A comparative analysis, 4th edition. Oxford University Press. Raadschelders, J. (2000) Handbook of administrative history. Transaction Publishers. Raadschelders, J. (2011) Public administration: The interdisciplinary study of government. Oxford University Press. Riccucci, N. (2010) Public administration: Traditions of inquiry and philosophies of knowledge. Georgetown University Press. Rugge, F. (2006) Social and cultural dimensions in institutions building: The weight of history. Il Politico, 1, 141–147. Samier, E. (2005) Toward public administration as a humanities discipline: A Humanistic manifesto. Halduskultuur, 6, 6‒59. Simon, H.A. (1969/1981/1996) The sciences of the artificial. MIT Press. Stillman, R.J. (1991/1999) Preface to public administration: A search for themes and directions. St Martin’s Press. Torfing, J., Peters, B.G., Pierre, J., and Sorensen, E. (2012) Interactive governance: Advancing the paradigm. Oxford University Press. Virtanen, T. (2018) Administrative behaviour and administrative action: Some philosophical underpinnings. In E. Ongaro and S. van Thiel (eds), The Palgrave handbook of public administration and management in Europe (pp. 1169‒1186). Palgrave Macmillan. Waldo, D. (1948/1984) The administrative state: A study of the political theory of public administration. Ronald Press. Weber, M. (1922/1978) Economy and society. Edited by G. Roth and K. Wittich. University of California Press. Original: Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft: Grundriss der verstehenden Soziologie. J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck). Weber, M. (1949) The methodology of the social sciences. Free Press.

4. A historical and global perspective on teaching and learning public administration: how to govern and what to do when governing Jos C.N. Raadschelders

Government emerges when people live in imagined communities where they no longer know one another on a personal basis. Once small hamlets and villages become cities and city-states, teaching and learning aspects of governing becomes important as soon as those who rule want information about trade, wages, and products recorded. For millennia, instruction in public administration (PA) was focused on advice about how to behave as a ruler and administrator, and on administrative skills and techniques such as literacy and the skills of writing and (ac) counting. Formal instruction across the spectrum of the various elements that today comprises the study of public administration pops up in the late 19th century. In this chapter the development of teaching and learning PA is traced over time. The chapter can only offer a bird’s-eye view, as there are many sources on the six elements of teaching and learning PA (Rutgers, 2004). The six elements are: (1) desirable behaviors of public officials; (2) specific administrative skills; (3) the legal framework within which officials are supposed to operate; (4) what policies governments should and should not be engaged in; (5) how best to organize government functions; and should also include (6) the position and role of government in democratic and totalitarian systems. The first three of these emerged during Antiquity. Ideas about what policies government could and should pursue started in the 17th century. Attention for how best to structure and organize government appeared in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Addressing the position and role of government in (democratic) society should be much more explicit in PA curricula, since it is more important than ever that people understand what it means and takes to be a citizen in a democratic polity. This chapter is organized according to these six elements.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: LEARNING, TYPES OF CIVIL SERVANTS, AND GOVERNING REVOLUTION Kiser and Ostrom’s (1982) three levels of analysis has been used to show how much public administration scholars think in these terms of these levels when they conceptualize ethics, morality, public management, public policy, organizational structure, and so on (Raadschelders, 2003, pp.  386‒387). These levels of analysis organize the various components or elements of instruction in public administration: the operational level captures the day-to-day activities, the collective level circumscribes the boundaries of decision-making and authoritative actions, and the constitutional level serves as the legitimizing basis for actions and decisions. With regard to teaching and learning, we must also distinguish between individual, organizational, and societal levels of interaction. 35

36  Handbook of teaching public administration At the individual level, interaction is that which occurs between individuals such as student and teacher. For much of history, teachers have been preceptors who tutor students as a “sage on the stage.” It is only after the Second World War, and even more since the 1990s, that experiential learning emerges where the instructor is a “guide on the side” who actively seeks to draw from students’ experiences in order to illustrate conceptual and theoretical insights. At this individual level, learning can be based on the knowledge and experience of parents (vertical learning), of peers (horizontal learning), and of the elder to the younger (oblique learning) (Gintis, 2009, p. 224; Gintis, 2011, p. 878). Learning also occurs between lower- to higher-status individuals. Teaching and learning are possible because of cumulative cultural learning, which is what differentiates Homo sapiens from our primate cousins; the social learning of various other types of mammals is based on copying behavior (Boyd and Richerson, 1996, p. 78). For career civil servants in lower-level positions, most learning takes place in more or less formalized classroom settings focused on teaching specific administrative skills and techniques. Upper-level career civil servants receive informal instruction about behavioral expectations. Over time the position and role of career civil servants has changed significantly (Raadschelders, 2020a, p. 9). For most of history they served as personal servants to the ruler, ranging anywhere from very menial jobs such as a cupbearer to high-ranking officials such as a vizier. Once a ruler is no longer the embodiment of the state who perceives the state as patrimonium (that is, personal property), career civil servants can become state servants. This happens from the 17th century on. The contemporary civil servant in many countries, especially in democracies, is appointed on the basis of merit, relevant educational and experiential background, and is subordinate to an incumbent of elected or appointed political office. Career civil servants in democracies do not serve the person, but the political office. The most important transition in the emergence of the modern civil service occurred between 1780 and 1820 (Raadschelders, 2020b, p. 124), when the foundation for democratic government was established. A century later it is upon that basis that government growth was possible beyond the traditional services and tasks of defense, justice, and police (known as the regalian functions). Those institutional changes are described in various places (Raadschelders, 2015; 2020b). It is also during that time that government was no longer only an instrument for those in power, but became a container for the betterment of all people (Gamble, 2007).

EARLIEST TEACHING OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS The earliest teaching is behavior-oriented, and found in the so-called instruction or wisdom literatures of ancient Egypt and ancient Mesopotamia. They provide descriptive norms phrased in terms of “do not,” and beliefs about what people think ought to be (Lapinski and Rimal, 2005). The instructions that we have are by high-ranking officials (Williams, 1972). One of the oldest is the Instruction of Shuruppak from about 2600‒2500 BCE (in Nippur, contemporary Iraq) and advises, the son not to steal, rape, commit adultery, or pass judgment when drinking beer. The earliest in ancient Egypt include The Instruction of Prince Hor-Dedef (27th century BCE) which is ascribed to Ii-em-hotep, a high official of pharaohs Djoser and Hor-Dedef, and praises humility as a worthy characteristic: “[Be not] boastful before (my very) eyes, and beware of the boasting of another” (Pritchard, 1969 [1955], p. 419). From around the same time dates the Instruction of Ka-Gemmi, vizier of Pharaoh Sneferu (2613‒2589 BCE),

A historical and global perspective on teaching and learning public administration  37 and it considers modesty, being calm, and practicing self-control (Gunn, 1906; Lichtheim, 1996). The best-known instruction is The Instruction of the Vizier Ptah-Hotep, city administrator and vizier of Pharaoh Djedkare Isesi, ruling from the late 25th to the mid-24th century BCE at the end of the fifth dynasty. He advises humility and righteousness: “Let not thy heart be puffed-up because of thy knowledge … Justice is great, and its appropriateness is lasting” (Pritchard, 1969 [1955], p. 412). The main focus of the instructions is moral by nature, advising humility, righteousness, justice, truth, patience, and various versions of what we know as the Golden Rule: “To the doer to cause that he do” (Pritchard, 1969 [1955], p. 409). We find the same focus on the virtuous and moral public servant in Confucius (Raadschelders, 2020a, p. 13). There are many such instructions or sebayt (teaching genre) throughout the ancient world (Lambert, 1960; Raadschelders, 2020a). In ancient Greece, philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle focus mainly on how public officials can be accountable to the population. Especially Plato emphasizes that a king should also be wise, a philosopher. In ancient Rome those destined for higher office would receive general education; for lower-level positions instruction mainly concerns routine activities (Beyer, 1959). One of the earliest instructions for a ruler or monarch is by Kautilya (ca. 350‒283 BCE) who wrote his Arthaśhāstra for the first Maurya emperor, Chandragupta. It contains comments on the meaning of kingship and on care for people. The earliest such advice in Europe is written by Seneca, De Clementia (On Mercy) for the Emperor Nero. This teaching tradition continues into the European Middle Ages with instruction for monarchs. An example would be De Regno, Ad Regem Cypri (On the Kingship of Cyprus) by Thomas Aquinas (middle 13th century CE). There are many such Fürstenspiegel in Europe, where the author holds up a mirror to the prince about how best to rule. In the ancient world, and well into the Middle Ages, instructions include both moral norms and practical advice. In Il Principe, Macchiavelli only focuses on political rule. Also emerging in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance were so-called etiquette books that target the behavior of courtiers. The best known is that by Baldassar Castiglinio (Il Libro der Cortegiano, 1528). This type of instruction literature from father to son and from advisor to ruler disappeared after the 16th century, when formal schooling became more widespread.

TRAINING FOR SPECIFIC ADMINISTRATIVE AND PRACTICAL SKILLS The oldest confirmed example of writing in the world is the so-called Kish tablet of around 3500 BCE, but it is unsure what the proto-cuneiform writing is about. The earliest writing of which the content is translated dates back to the Jemdet Nasr period (3100‒2900 BCE) in southern Mesopotamia, and concerns administrative matters such as the rationing of foodstuffs and lists of objects and animals. Indeed, the earliest records are of trade, prices, and wage fluctuations, all issues important to those in power. Hence, governments needed literate people. Formal schooling dates back to late 3rd and early 2nd millennium BCE in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China (the Xia dynasty). In ancient Egypt, writing included copying administrative documents and instruction for clerical work. The Eduba (tablet house, writing school) in Sumer had a curriculum that started with writing techniques, followed by practicing nouns, then lists and tables, and finally focusing on contracts, prose, proverbs, and hymns (Robson,

38  Handbook of teaching public administration 2001, p. 47). A similar focus on practical matters and on administrative and technical expertise can be found in the writing of Shen Buhai, a high-ranking civil servant in the 4th century BCE, and in ancient Rome for routine tasks. In Europe, court schools emerged during the Merovingian and Carolingian period in the 7th and 8th centuries. Charlemagne passed a law in 789 that each convent should have a school with a curriculum focused on writing contracts, forms, and so on. In the 14th century teaching also included double-entry bookkeeping, an innovation that had come from China. In the 20th century training for practical skills included various types of job applicant evaluations, types of performance evaluation, cost‒benefit analysis, and so on.

EDUCATION ABOUT THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK As some parts of ancient Mesopotamia had an urbanization rate of about 80 percent (Wenke, 1997, p. 44), a level not reached in the Western world until the late 20th century, it became necessary to lay down rules of interaction between people. The earliest legal code was issued by Urukagina, king of the city-states of Lagash and Girsu (24th century BCE), and aimed at fighting corruption among public officials (Beaulieu, 2007). His reforms are considered an ancient Bill of Rights, seeking to advance freedom and equality (Foster, 1995). Other early codes include that of Ur-Nammu, king of Ur (2111‒2094 BCE) and of Hammurabi (1792‒1750 BCE), who brought much of Mesopotamia under his rule. We have no knowledge about any training or education in law. The Chinese political philosopher Han-fei-tzu (3rd century BCE) was the first to suggest that education in the rule of law was necessary. Given his attention to civil and criminal law, Kautilya argued the same at that time. Most important is the latter’s observation that no one should be above the law. In Europe the earliest education in law was organized in the universities that emerged in the 11th century. Since then, the study of law has been a stepping stone for a career in the public sector in a variety of countries, and serves the needs of those seeking political office as well as those pursuing administrative positions. With the advent of more focused education for the public sector in the Kameralistik of the 17th and 18th centuries (see also the next section), law was a required topic along with required knowledge about the inner structure of the state, administrative knowledge, economics, finance, statistics, and nature (such as knowledge about agriculture, mining, and industry) (Rutgers, 2004, p. 60). In the middle of the 19th century, and because of the emergence of the Rechtsstaat (constitutional state) concept, attention shifted specifically to state and administrative law (Raadschelders, 2011a, pp. 17‒18). In countries such as France and Germany, law was still the basis of the study of public administration. In the late 19th century, and as a function of rapid industrialization, urbanization, and population growth, government and public administration also drew interest from social scientists. The best-known of these is jurist and social scientist Max Weber, who studied government and bureaucracy as a social phenomenon. His influence in the study of public administration is significant, and not only for his ideal type of bureaucracy. In the course of the 20th century, the study of public administration developed as an interdisciplinary and internationally oriented study (see the last section).

A historical and global perspective on teaching and learning public administration  39

TEACHING ABOUT POLICIES Once people become sedentary, and as populations grow, they find that rules and laws of interaction are needed (see above), and that various tasks and services can no longer be provided via self-governing capabilities. It is then that governments become responsible for tasks and services important to the society as a whole. The earliest examples of policies beyond the regalian functions date back to Antiquity, such as granaries and irrigation works in ancient Egypt, and irrigation works in ancient Mesopotamia and China. The earliest text that addresses a variety of public tasks and services is that by Kautilya offering practical advice for rulers about trade, mines, husbandry, agriculture, and welfare policies for children and the sick. The Tebtunis Papyri, from the Graeco-Roman city of Tebtunis in Ptolemeic Egypt, contain advice about how to inspect canals, how to mediate between people and local government, how to supervise sowing, how to register and distribute royal oxen, and how much corn needed to be shipped to Alexandria (Grenfell et al., 1902). Systematic justification of what tasks and services should be the responsibility of government is found in the earliest textbooks of public administration. In the Teutscher Fürstenstat in 1665, Von Seckendorff provides an overall framework for the understanding of government and administration, with attention for inventories of state (that is, statistics), royal rule, law and justice, revenue, hiring, job descriptions, and so on. The first professorial chairs at university were created in Prussia in 1729. At that time DeLaMare wrote Traité de la Police in six volumes, published between 1703 and 1738. He is more specific about public services and tasks such as healthcare, water and food supply, building maintenance, road construction, and so on. During this first period of the so-called Kameralistik the focus was on the eudaimonic or welfare state (Rutgers, 2004, p. 61). What could government do to improve the well-being of citizens? This was a question already on the mind of the Italian political-economist Serra, who argued that all people will benefit when government regulates for a diverse economy (that is, agriculture, industry, trade), education, and connectivity (for example, roads, canals) (Serra, 2011 [1613]). With the growth of government in democratic systems since the late 19th century, what policies could be and ought to be public became ever more important. After the Second World War, a more or less independent public policy study emerged within the larger context of public administration that contains both theoretical and conceptual elements, that is, policy as process; as well as a focus on various types of policy (transportation, healthcare, education, policing, revenue and expenditure, and so on), that is, policy as substance.

TEACHING ABOUT HOW TO ORGANIZE GOVERNMENT FUNCTIONS For much of history, teaching and learning about government has been reliant upon instruction, first in moral conduct, and given from father to son and from advisor to ruler. Next came higher-level instruction in law, and lower-level instruction in administrative techniques. With Kautilya we also see advice about how to territorially organize a kingdom, from the local up to the national level. How to organize government, however, did not become a topic of study until the late 19th century, when government tasks and services expanded exponentially. At that time Weber studied government as a societal phenomenon, but the study of public admin-

40  Handbook of teaching public administration istration also emerged as a function of the enormous range of challenges local administrators faced. We know that citizens demand that their local government do something about housing conditions, sewage, water supply, garbage collection, labor conditions, and so on. This is a practice-oriented public administration, and it is developed by local administrators (Kickert and Stillman, 1999; Raadschelders, 1998; Stillman, 1998). The modern study of public administration has these local roots in many countries. What happened in the late 19th, early 20th century in Western Europe and North America has happened in China and South Korea since the 1970s. There was no study of public administration in China or South Korea before the 1970s (only one program in South Korea in 1959), today there are hundreds. We have already seen that in the German lands professorial chairs in Kameralistik were created in the 18th century, and that most teaching concerning government focused on law in the 19th century. In the United States of America (USA) the first two PA research institutes were established in 1909 at the universities of Wisconsin and of Kansas, and by 1931 there were 13 university-based bureaus or institutes (Plant, 2015, p. 236). The New York Bureau of Municipal Research opened its doors in 1906, followed by a Training School of Public Service in 1911. These merged into the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, in 1924. The prewar study in the USA focused especially on leadership, personnel management, revenue and expenditure, and on how to organize. Who has not heard of Luther Gulick’s four principles of organization (territory, clientele, process, product) and his seven principles of management (planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting, or POSDCORB)? The number of PA, policy and public management programs increased most rapidly after the Second World War, both in Europe and in the USA. The PA curriculum, however, was still approached as a technical, applied study, and it was not until the late 20th century that this changed.

EDUCATING FOR AN OVERALL UNDERSTANDING OF THE POSITION AND ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN SOCIETY We have seen how teaching and learning initially concerned both moral advice and practical skills. Any study and advice about the position and role of government in society was intended for the attention of the ruler. In Europe, early thoughts on this for a wider audience are found with Serra, Von Seckendorf, and DeLaMare. Education about law was generally limited to institutions of higher learning. In the course of the 20th century civics education emerged in secondary schools either in the context of the social sciences (as in the USA) or as part of the history curriculum (as in, for example, the Netherlands). This civics education focuses on the stamps, flags, and coins of governing, that is, the three branches of government, how a bill becomes a law, the constitution, and the political process. There is very little, if any, attention paid to questions of morality and public values, prompting Louis Gawthrop (1998) to sigh that “the evidence is mounting that the current cadres of public-sector careerists are … immature in their comprehension of the ethical-moral democratic values that are integrally related to the notion of public service” (p. 19). There is also very little attention paid to the meaning and importance of government in and for democratic society.

A historical and global perspective on teaching and learning public administration  41 Government and its bureaucracy are often perceived in a pejorative light, and this could be a function of millennia of experience with a government that is above the people, where it is an instrument to advance the interests of those in power, and where people are treated as subjects to be exploited. It is only on the basis of the institutional reforms during the time of the Atlantic Revolutions, and on the substantive basis of expanding public policy, that government has shifted from being an instrument, to becoming a container for and enabler of the interests of the many. There is no historical precedent for this fundamentally changed position of people as citizens and to the greatly expanded position and role of government in democratic societies. It is, therefore, more important than ever that citizens and public officials learn that government should be conceptualized in a non-stereotypical way (Raadschelders, 2018, 2020b). With declining trust in government, and especially with declining trust in political officeholders, it becomes even more important to teach what governments mean for citizens under democratic conditions and why we can no longer do without them. However, most public administration curricula teach public administration as a series of specializations in the policy process, organization theory, political-administrative relations, public management, law, and a variety of skills classes. This is so to varying degrees in all Western and Southern European countries (Verheijen and Connaughton, 1999), and is most certainly the case in the United States (Raadschelders, 2011b, p. 147).

CONCLUDING REMARKS Serra’s recipe for advancing the general interest was visible during the three decades after the Second World War when income inequality declined significantly for the first time in world history. Fourastié (1979) calls this era the “Glorious Thirty,” because it was a time that social mobility was truly possible. The accomplishments of those decades have since the 1970s been severely undermined by deregulation, contracting-out, privatization, and a strong belief in the application of business principles to public policy (for example, New Public Management). That this happens is the consequence, at least in part, of a civics education at secondary and tertiary levels that does not inform citizens about the position and role of government in democratic society, about rights and duties that citizens have, and about the intergenerational responsibility of leaving a world that is better for the next generation. If anything, learning about and teaching public administration is more important than ever, because it has become the backbone upon which democracy rests. A public administration curriculum that includes the six elements mentioned in the introduction will be a powerful counterweight to beliefs and actions that undermine democracy such as populism and personality politics, distrust in politics, rent-seeking behavior, blind deregulation and contracting-out, and in-group behavior when it leads to overt or ‒ more often – covert discrimination towards segments of the population. Education enlightens, and democracy thrives through knowledgeable, participative, and collaborative citizens. The study of public administration should play a key role in the endeavor to educate citizens as well as career and political officeholders.

42  Handbook of teaching public administration

REFERENCES Beaulieu, P.A. (2007). The social and intellectual setting of Babylonian wisdom literature. In R.J. Clifford (ed.), Wisdom literature in Mesopotamia and Israel (pp. 3–20). Brill. Beyer, W.C. (1959). The civil service of the ancient world. Public Administration Review, 19(4), 243–249. Boyd, R., and P.J. Richerson (1996). Why culture is common, but cultural evolution is rare. In W.G. Runciman, J.M. Smith, and R.I.M. Dunbar (eds), Evolution of social behaviour: Patterns in primates and man (pp. 77–93). Oxford University Press. Foster, B.R. (1995). Social reform in Mesopotamia. In K.D. Irani and M. Silver (eds), Social justice in the ancient world (pp. 165–178). Greenwood Press. Fourastié, J. (1979). Les trente gloriouses ou la révolution invisible de 1946 à 1975. Librairie Arthème Fayard. Gamble, C. (2007). Origins and revolutions: Human identity in earliest prehistory. Cambridge University Press. Gawthrop, Louis C. (1998). Public service and democracy: Ethical imperatives for the 21st century. Chatham House Publishers. Gintis, H. (2009). The bounds of reason: Game theory and the unification of the behavioral sciences. Princeton University Press. Gintis, H. (2011). Gene-culture, coevolution and the nature of human sociality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 366, 878–888. Grenfell, B.P., Hunt, A.S., Smyly, J.G., Goodspeed, E.G., and Elgar, C.C. (1902). The Tebtunis papyri. Oxford University Press. Gunn, B.C. (1906). The instruction of Ptah-hotep and the instruction of Ke’gemmi: The oldest books in the world. J. Murray. Kickert, W.J.M., and Stillman, R.S. (eds) (1999). The modern state and its study: The new administrative sciences in a changing Europe and United States. Edward Elgar Publishing. Kiser, L.L., and Ostrom, E. (1982). The three worlds of action: A metatheoretical analysis of institutional approaches. In E. Ostrom (ed.), Strategies of political inquiry (pp. 179–222). SAGE. Lambert, W.G. (ed.) (1960). Babylonian wisdom literature. Clarendon Press. Lapinski, M.K., and Rimal, R.N. (2005). An explication of social norms. Communication Theory, 15(1), 127–147. Lichtheim, M. (1996). Didactic literature. In A. Loprieno (ed.), Ancient Egyptian literature: History and forms (pp. 243–262). E.J. Brill. Plant, J.F. (2015). Seventy-five years of professionalization. In M.E. Guy and M.M. Rubin (eds), Public administration evolving: From foundations to the future (pp. 232–253). Routledge. Pritchard, J.B. (ed.) (1969 [1955]). Ancient Near Eastern texts relating to the Old Testament. Princeton University Press. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (1998). Vijftig Jaar Bestuurswetenschappen, 1947–1996. In H.M. de Jong (ed.), Bestuurswetenschappen. Een analyse van 50 jaar Bestuurswetenschappen (pp. 4–39). VNG-Uitgeverij. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (2003). Government: A public administration perspective. M.E. Sharpe. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (2011a). Public administration: The interdisciplinary study of government. Oxford University Press. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (2011b). The study of public administration in the United States. Public Administration (UK), 89(1), 140–155. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (2015). Changing European ideas about the public servant: A theoretical and methodological framework. In F. Sager and P. Overeem (eds), The European public servant: A shared administrative identity (pp.15–34). ECPR Studies. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (2018). A reconceptualization of government. TEDx, Ohio State University, April 6. www​.youtube​.com/​watch​?v​=​w​Nm4GrmOcUQ​andfeature. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (2020a). Impartial, skilled, respect for law: Ancient Egyptian ideals about civil servants at the root of Eastern and Western traditions. Korean Journal of Policy Studies, 35(1), 1–27. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (2020b). The three ages of government: From the person, to the group, to the world. University of Michigan Press.

A historical and global perspective on teaching and learning public administration  43 Robson, E. (2001). The Tablet House: A scribal school in Old Babylonian Nippur. Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale, 95(1), 39–66. Rutgers, M.R. (2004). Grondslagen van de Bestuurskunde: Historie, begripsvorming en kennisintegratie. Uitgeverij Coutinho. Serra, A. (2011 [1613]). A short treatise on the wealth and poverty of nations. Edited with introduction by Sophus A. Reinert; translated from Italian by Jonathan Hunt. Anthem Press. Stillman, R.J. (1998). Creating the American state: The moral reformers and the modern administrative world they made. University of Alabama Press. Verheijen, T., and Connaughton, B. (eds) (1999). Higher education programmes in public administration: Ready for the challenge of Europeanisation? Center for European Studies, University of Limerick. Wenke, R.J. (1997). City-state, nation-states, and territorial states: The problem of Egypt. In D.L. Nichols and T.H. Carlton (eds), The archaeology of city-states: Cross-cultural approaches (pp. 27–49). Smithsonian Institution Press,. Williams, R.J. (1972). Scribal training in ancient Egypt. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 92(2), 214–221.

PART II NATION-BASED TRADITIONS

5. Public administration education in Central and Eastern Europe György Gajduschek and György Hajnal

The state and dynamics of public administration (PA) education are widely discussed issues, studied not only in individual states, but also in a wider comparative setting (Pal and Clark, 2016; Reichard and Schröter 2018). They are also relevant for those interested in comparative civil service systems (Bossaert and Demmke, 2001, 2003; Demmke and Moilanen, 2010), since education is a key element of these systems, along with selection, promotion, remuneration, and so on (Naff et al., 2001). Furthermore, PA education may be relevant for students of comparative PA (Kickert and Stillman, 1999; Painter and Peters, 2010b; Verheijen, 2010), as education may in most cases reflect the PA tradition of the given country. In this chapter, we focus on university education: BA and especially MA programs in public administration, policy, or management (hereinafter: PA programs or education, embracing all three fields) in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE).1 The geographical scope of our study is understood as a region situated between Eastern and Western Europe geographically, but also in terms of social organization. Szűcs (1983) traced the region’s identity back to ancient times and the Middle Ages, identifying countries that cannot be understood as belonging to either the Western European or the Eastern European region (the latter referring chiefly to the Russian empire). In his oft-cited analysis covering several centuries of development up to the Second World War, Schöpflin (1990) compares the CEE region to Western Europe and enumerates several major differences. Elites of these countries “took Western Europe as their criterion of modernity” (p. 64), a goal to be reached. As an ideal, however, the “West” often contradicted CEE realities. This arrangement has generated cultural, ideological, and frequently political cleavages between “Westerners” and traditionalist-nationalists, who argue that the Western models do not fit the national tradition and character and that the country has to find its own way. The political system typically is neither democratic nor purely dictatorial. Between 1900 and 1939, practically no incumbent government lost an election in the entire region. Division of powers usually existed formally, with a relatively independent judiciary. Nevertheless, the executive plays a central role, frequently with one dominant leader at its center. Opposition parties were present in the parliament, though their role remained rather marginal. Some criticism may have appeared in the media, some respect for the constitution was present; but still, Schöpflin (1990) speaks about façade politics, without a clear and strong relationship between power holders and constituency. In a broader perspective, a peculiar, yet general feature of social organization in CEE – compared to Western Europe – seems to be a lack of autonomy among various social segments. From a historical perspective, Schöpflin emphasizes the lack of autonomy of cities, universities (academia), and other major social spheres. These factors contribute to a general weakness in civil society and civic organizations, as well as other autonomous modes of social organization in modern and even contemporary times. Due to the lack of strong and autonomous actors, modernization (that is, achieving Western-led standards) inevitably rested on the government. 45

46  Handbook of teaching public administration This required further infringement upon the autonomy of various social spheres and groups (for example, reorganization of agriculture in opposition to the traditions of peasantry). Thus, paradoxically, the drive to catch up to the West further undermined general autonomy, which is a decisive feature of Western social organization and key to the success of Western nations. Most CEE countries were occupied by a foreign empire such as the Ottoman, the Russian, or the Habsburg Empire. This also hampered the Western European orientation. Several countries gained independence only after the First World War. Whereas an overall orientation toward Western models of social and political organization is generally present in the region, there are some nuances especially relevant to how PA and PA education developed. Some countries were predominantly influenced by the Napoleonic model, whereas others were influenced by Germanic state models. Which one of these two models became influential in a given country depended on historical ties. Countries controlled by the Russian Empire were generally oriented to the Napoleonic model, while countries under Habsburg influence followed the Germanic model. In addition to the strong historically rooted similarities outlined above, what really made CEE a specific region (a bloc, in the eyes of external observers) was the post-Second World War era, when the region was occupied by the Soviet army and subsequently became fully controlled by the Soviet Union. Although significant differences within CEE may have been identified, especially from the 1980s onwards (Meyer-Sahling, 2009), the common features of the region’s regimes during this epoch are overwhelming. Kornai (2000) provides an excellent summary of the key features of social and political organization under Communism. The government was fully controlled by the Communist Party. The Party apparatus was built in horizontally and hierarchically, present on both territorial and local levels, controlling government units from ministries to local governments. Party organizations also directed all major factories and other units and mass organizations such as unions. Personnel decisions, at all levels, were fully controlled by the Party, even when it came to appointing judges and prosecutors, as well as leaders of factories and agricultural co-operatives. Constitutions existed, but their practical impact was minimal. The declared principle was unity of powers, assuring unchecked power to the executive branch, which was in practice the Party itself. At the same time, public administration was not considered a specific profession, to prevent state bureaucracy from being alienated from the masses (Gajduschek, 2007). As a result, typically no PA programs existed. The collapse of Communism generated a triple challenge (Offe and Adler, 1991). First, the economy had to be rearranged from a planned economy, with the exclusive dominance of state ownership, to a market system. Second, a democratic political system with a government based on division of powers and the rule of law needed to be established. Third, some countries had yet to establish their independent statehood. The major problem in this situation was that no one had a clear plan regarding this threefold transformation. Meanwhile, the negative economic and social effects (for example, an unprecedented jump in the unemployment rate, large income differences, and a general trend of dramatically dropping gross domestic product levels) resulted in widespread disillusionment (Kornai, 2008). Institutions in the political sector remained unstable, because politicians were not interested in political and governmental stability measures if such legislation could potentially limit the scope of their power and directly lead to lost elections (Elster et al., 1998).

Public administration education in Central and Eastern Europe  47 Public administration and management, however, was quickly accepted as a specific profession. Consequently, schools providing BA and MA degrees in PA were rapidly established in the early years of the democratic era. The disciplinary composition of PA education is supposed to, and normally does, coincide with the character of PA practice. This character is usually termed as “tradition.” On a general level, PA scholarship and education in the United States (US) is traditionally more centered around political science and management (Henry, 1990; Stillman, 1999). The European tradition focuses more on legal studies (Rugge, 2009; Ziller, 2009). In a more refined manner, four main traditions are usually identified in Europe: the Anglo-American, the Napoleonic, the Germanic, and the Scandinavian traditions. The last of these is interpreted by Kickert (2008) as a mix of Anglo-American and Germanic models that has presumably only influenced the Baltic states. (On traditions, see Painter and Peters, 2010a, pp. 20–23; Kickert, 2008; Kuhlmann and Wollmann, 2019, pp. 71‒113.) The disciplinary content of PA education usually reflects PA practices and so informs researchers about the prevailing character of the administrative system at hand. Thus, one may speak about the Anglo-American tradition reflected in the long-standing managerial approach in PA education, invigorated by the internationally influential New Public Management movement. Similarly, the Napoleonic PA tradition may be recognized in most Mediterranean (Southwestern European) countries, with such characteristic elements as the Conseil d’Etat. Over the past decades, a key characteristic of education in these countries may be the higher presence of social sciences, and political science in particular. The emphasis on law, which was long the primary subject, has significantly decreased in the past several decades, although it is still highly relevant (Bartoli, 2008; Chevallier, 1999). The German tradition is usually identified with a strong legal orientation that seems to be a stable element of both PA practice and education in Germany (Seibel, 1999) as well as Austria. Our analysis of PA education focuses, above all, on the disciplinary composition of the curricula of these PA programs; that is, the extent to which they are composed of disciplines such as law, management, or political science. The main aim of our study is to reveal the cross-country patterns and the temporal changes of PA education’s disciplinary composition in the CEE region, and how these interconnect with broader, contextual factors such as historical legacies and, in particular, the historically evolved PA traditions. In the next section, we provide a summary of the findings of various comparative, empirical studies regarding the disciplinary composition of PA programs. We devote a separate section to elaborate the background, potential causes, and effects of these findings. Finally, we briefly address some other features of PA education such as the style of instruction and the institutional framework, and conclude with a brief discussion of the results. Our study relies on previous research published in English. Most publications focus on a single country, and many of them employ somewhat impressionistic (that is, less systematic) methods of empirical research. There are a few exceptions to this rule. In terms of geographical scope, Hajnal’s (2003) study seems to be the most extensive, quantitatively describing 22 countries in both Western and Eastern Europe. Hajnal (2015) focuses on a much smaller set of countries, using a qualitative method, attempting to pinpoint the direction of changes since 2003. Koprić (2013) relies on quantitative data and reviews PA education in Balkan countries. More recently, Pevcin et al. (2019) compared MPA programs in 11 CEE member states of the European Union (EU), employing a qualitative approach. In terms of thematic scope, Staroňová and Gajduschek (2016) seem to provide the most extensive analysis, by addressing

48  Handbook of teaching public administration the content, style, and practice orientation of the education, as well as the composition of public and private universities and their differences (namely, the composition of teaching personnel in terms of their background and other qualities). Below we will rely on these empirical comparative studies systematically. Naturally, though, we will utilize several other relevant sources, as well as previously unpublished results from our own research efforts.

DISCIPLINARY COMPOSITION OF PA CURRICULA Hajnal (2003) analyzed the presence of eight disciplinary fields quantitatively in close to 200 PA programs in 22 European countries. A cluster analysis was performed on country-level data, resulting in three country clusters termed “corporate,” “public,” and “legal.” The overall result is presented in Table 5.1. Table 5.1

Mean proportions of various disciplines in the three clusters of countries (%, characteristic dimensions and values marked)

Variable

Corporate

Public

Legal

Cluster

Mean for all countries

Law

12.5

16.1

33.9

20.5

Economics

14.7 5.2

11.1

13.9

Management

15.7 19.5

10.1

13.8

Political Science

11.3

29.0

9.9

13.9

Interdisciplinary/Other Social Science

9.0

9.6

12.2

10.2

Methodology and Computing

11.8

10.2

10.3

11.0

PA and Public Management

13.2

12.4

8.9

11.6

Specific policy fields

7.0

2.8

3.5

5.1

Source: Hajnal (2003, p. 250).

The legal cluster is characterized by the dominance of law subjects, including the legal regulations of such PA fields as public finance or human resources (HR) management. The corporate cluster emphasizes (generic) management topics; whilst the public cluster characteristically emphasizes political science and general social science approaches to public administration. The legal cluster, according to the findings of the study, included Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia within CEE (across Europe, Greece, Italy, Moldova, and Portugal were also members of this group). The public cluster (represented by Belgium, France, Spain, and Sweden) included no countries from the CEE region. By contrast, the corporate cluster included several CEE countries such as Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Slovakia; in addition to Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, Armenia, and the Ukraine from outside the region (Hajnal, 2003, p. 250). It is worth noting here that, although some countries may not appear to be in the “right place,” Hajnal’s (2003) clusters seem to be in accordance with the three major PA traditions put forward by Painter and Peters (2010a, pp. 20–23) and Kickert (2008): namely, the Anglo-American, the Napoleonic, and the Germanic. Koprić (2013), focusing on the post-Communist countries of the Balkans, used a somewhat different categorization of subject areas, but reached conclusions similar to Hajnal’s. Based on 2009 data, there was found to be an especially high (35‒40 percent) presence of law in

Public administration education in Central and Eastern Europe  49 Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia; whereas there was a significantly lower (27 percent) presence in Slovenia and especially in Macedonia (18 percent) and Montenegro (19 percent). These numbers still seem to be higher than in a typical PA program in Western Europe. In Slovenia, finance and economics were present to a relatively large extent (20 percent); whereas in Macedonia and Montenegro, political science featured relatively highly (13 percent). Law was also found to be crucial in Romania (46 percent). More than a decade after his first study, Hajnal (2015) administered a qualitative survey seeking to identify patterns of stability and change. This research was much more limited in terms of country scope, and it was based on country reports, typically done by one person per country. Six of the ten countries covered were from the CEE region. The study concluded that, except for Hungary, countries previously featuring in the legal cluster left behind their law orientation. Moreover, the proportion of legal subjects in general had decreased. Interestingly, and importantly, countries leaving the legal cluster moved not only towards the corporate-managerial cluster, but also towards the public cluster, which previously included no CEE country members. Staroňová and Gajduschek (2016) analyzed curricula of all PA programs in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Slovakia, and Slovenia, using a subject categorization similar (though not identical) to that of Hajnal (2003). Their main findings are presented in Table 5.2. Fortunately, we can compare findings in Table 5.2 from 2015‒2016 with the 1999 country-level data utilized for Hajnal’s (2003) study. In the late 1990s, the proportion of law in PA curricula was 8 percent in the Czech Republic, 31 percent in Slovakia, 11 percent in Estonia, and 40 percent in Hungary.2 Importantly, this data supports Hajnal’s (2015) finding that the relative presence of legal subjects had generally decreased. Table 5.2

Proportions (%) of various disciplines in the five analyzed countries Law

Pol. Sci.

Economy

Management

Finance Czech

21

15

21

Policy analysis and

Policy fields

Other

12

6

14 21

methodology 10

Republic Slovakia

24

21

19

18

10

4

Estonia

5

25

7

11

22

6

14

Hungary

26

20

13

16

7

0

15

Slovenia

11

50

6

0

0

0

11

Source: Staroňová and Gajduschek (2016, p. 262).

Pevcin et al. (2019) approach the issue with a qualitative methodology and, similarly to Hajnal (2003), they differentiate between law-centered and not law-centered countries. In line with Hajnal’s (2015) conclusions, they find that disciplinary areas other than law are increasingly involved. Also, these areas largely include subjects that would appear in the public cluster, and not in the corporate cluster, based on Hajnal’s typology.

50  Handbook of teaching public administration

FACTORS EXPLAINING THE DISCIPLINARY ORIENTATION OF PA EDUCATION In this section, we give an overview of the factors put forward by earlier research in order to explain the patterns and dynamics of PA disciplinary identity introduced in the previous section. Hajnal (2003) found, a decade after the collapse of Communism, one major characteristic difference among CEE countries: countries having existed as independent states during the Communist era typically fell into the law category, while others occupied the corporate cluster. Pevcin et al. (2019) suggest a similar, though somewhat more refined, distinction. They distinguish between countries that already operated PA programs during the 1980s and those that did not. The authors argue that in countries where such education previously existed, the academic and educational community preserved its position after the transition. Thus, the dominantly legal orientation of PA education remained largely intact. Newly established PA educational institutions were more open to an interdisciplinary approach, and countries with no legacy of PA education from the Communist era became populated by less law-oriented institutions. By and large, this explanation, based on qualitative information, seems to be in accordance with Hajnal’s (2003) quantitative findings. Another explanation for the law-versus-management nature of PA education focuses on the effects of international assistance programs aimed to improve PA education and training in the 1990s. Reflecting the spirit of the times, these programs predominantly followed the corporate management-spirited approaches to PA, inspired by New Public Management. Presumably, the impact of these assistance programs was more significant in countries which, at the advent of the transition period, did not have strong traditions in PA education and scholarship. Several publications refer to the impact of the New Public Management (NPM) approach, usually conveyed by international players and donors (Bouckaert et al., 2008, 2011; Gajduschek and Hajnal, 2003; Hajnal and Jenei, 2007; Pollitt and Bouckaert, 2011). Some view this positively (Dan and Pollitt, 2015), others negatively (Drechsler, 2005; Drechsler and Randma-Liiv, 2016; Randma-Liiv, 2008). Based on qualitative information, Hajnal (2015) examined the potential factors shaping PA curricula in CEE countries. He sought, in particular, to identify forces driving the trajectory from the legal cluster to the other two (that is, the public and the corporate), as well as forces that prevent this type of change. Within the educational system, he identified two such “internal” forces. First, the hearts and minds of academics changed in favor of the new PA paradigms, thus driving a shift away from the law-based curriculum. Second, “old dinosaurs” still dominating the field could freeze the existing law orientation of PA. Out of the five CEE countries covered in that study, there was only one, Hungary, where both of these factors appeared to play a significant role. Hajnal (2015) mentions three additional “external” factors. The first is the lack of demand (by either employers or students) for new types of PA education. In other words, while universities might be ready to provide a more complex, more interdisciplinary education, practice (namely, the employer organizations and potential future civil servants) prefers the established, law-based curricula. This factor appears in four CEE countries out of the analyzed five, Romania being the only exception. Second, the international exposure of programs and the resulting drive to follow PA education trends perceived to be state of the art seemed to play a catalyst role. Because PA was perceived for a long time in the mainstream professional literature within the managerial NPM framework, this certainly

Public administration education in Central and Eastern Europe  51 weakened the position of legal subjects and played a significant role in the Czech Republic, Slovenia, and Romania. The third and final external factor was the – typically NPM-inspired – administrative reforms that had taken place in practice. This factor did not seem to play a role in the PA education of CEE countries covered by the study. An additional factor, not named in the study, may be the long-term impact of pre-Second World War traditions of PA in the given country. That may provide a reasonable explanation for the recurrence of the public cluster, related to the French-Napoleonic orientation. Staroňová and Gajduschek (2016) found a potential tension between the non-legal character of some PA programs and the governance reality that requires legal expertise for most public administration positions.3 This tension can also be detected in the differences between university programs, on the one hand, and government-run civil service training programs, on the other, with the latter being dominantly legal in character. Somewhat oddly, the gap between PA practice and PA education is wider in the case of more prestigious universities. Instructors of such universities are expected and/or eager to publish in leading, predominantly Anglo-American journals.4 This situation motivates professors to find research topics and approaches that are internationally more well received and legitimate, despite their relative lack of relevance in a CEE setting. Another important element influencing patterns of change and stability of PA curricula is evidently the internationalization of the field of PA as both theory and practice. Practice especially has been largely influenced by Europeanization, which had a tremendous impact on the political and PA system of CEE countries (Radaelli, 2000; Schimmelfennig and Sedelmeier, 2002), their civil service systems (Meyer-Sahling, 2011), and PA education (Connaughton and Verheijen, 2000; Randma-Liiv and Connaughton, 2005). Most papers tackling the issue detect the increasing presence of EU issues, either in the form of specific “EU” or “multilevel governance” courses, or (which is perhaps more typical) within existing subjects that deal extensively with aspects of the EU.

SOME ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF PA EDUCATION In a previous study (Gajduschek and Hajnal, 2003), we argued that PA education and civil service training programs in CEE countries almost entirely followed the “talk and chalk” style. The instruction focused solely on knowledge transfer, disregarding skills development and attitude change. Students were expected to assume a passive role, as no interactive methods such as case studies, individual and group work, and problem-solving were used. This arrangement tellingly reflects the traditional method of university education that is still dominant in law schools on the European continent (Jakab, 2007). Indeed, law schools may have served as a model for PA education in terms of didactics in the early 1990s, and this may have corresponded to the somewhat authoritative style of PA inherited from both the Communist and the pre-Communist period. Even in public management programs, where one would expect otherwise, “lecturing is still the dominant teaching method” (Nemec et al., 2012, p. 1094). This has gradually changed, though, and some universities increasingly apply various interactive training methods. The practice-versus-theory nature of programs is an issue closely related to the content and style of instruction. Staroňová and Gajduschek (2016) found that less than a fourth of the investigated programs required or offered credits for internships. Also, movement between

52  Handbook of teaching public administration government and university positions, which is typical in some countries (for example, the US), is relatively infrequent. The ownership (private versus public) of universities offering PA programs is another factor occasionally scrutinized in order to explain variations and changes in PA education. The proportion of private universities providing PA programs has naturally increased in the region over time, since no such universities existed before 1990. Staroňová and Gajduschek (2016) found that one-third of all programs analyzed are provided by private universities. The nature and the direction of private versus public ownership on PA education triggers some debates, nevertheless. Pevcin et al. (2019), as well as Koprić (2013), emphasize in a positive light that private institutions are more open for new approaches and tend to apply more interdisciplinary (that is, not so much law-centered) curricula. Staroňová and Gajduschek (2016), however, suggest that the quality of education may be lower in privately operated universities, because they lack adequate staff. Also, institutions seek to increase their revenues rather than ensuring high quality education. Another feature occasionally scrutinized in relation to the region’s PA programs – vis-à-vis other programs such as business management – is how attractive they are to would-be students. Naturally, more attractive programs entice more, and presumably more capable, students. The findings in this regard differ along a broad spectrum, depending on both the country and the time period. Connaughton and Verheijen (2000, p. 203) found that although civil service employment was not appreciated in the early stage of transition, the attractiveness of PA programs had become relatively high by the time of the study. Kopric (2013), focusing on former Yugoslavian countries, found that those who seriously plan a civil service career prefer law programs at public universities instead of genuine PA programs. Pryadilnikov (2016) emphasizes that PA programs are attractive in Russia, because “[w]orking for the public sector is now considered to be prestigious and safer than working for a private enterprise” (p. 372). Presumably, the attractiveness of PA programs everywhere depends mostly on the relative position of civil service employment in the labor market. In the early period of transition, the civil service may have seemed a relatively safe job, though with clearly low salaries. It seems to be a general tendency that civil service wages have gradually approached those in the market sector. Meanwhile, job safety has somewhat improved in the private sector.

CONCLUSIONS Certainly, the disciplinary orientation of PA education varies on a broad spectrum in CEE countries, reflecting the lack of a single and overarching, dominant PA tradition in the region.5 Taking into account that before the Communist period there were already at least two points of orientation (namely, the Napoleonic and the Germanic), this may not be surprising. However, there was no clear relationship between the historic orientation of the countries’ PA practice, and their PA curricula now. Most obviously, Hajnal (2003) could not identify any country from the region that may be characterized by the public orientation. That orientation, as we argued above, typically accompanies present-day Napoleonic tradition. Yet, he identified a large number of countries with a typically corporate-managerial orientation, which is usually related to the Anglo-American tradition. Furthermore, we could not always easily identify a relatively stable, homogeneous curricular composition within individual countries. For example, curricula may depend on the academic unit or faculty in charge, with economics

Public administration education in Central and Eastern Europe  53 faculties focusing predominately on economics, law faculties upon law, and so on. In other words, random arrangements overrode other factors such as a strong PA tradition and its curricular consequences. Searching for reasons, patterns of historical discontinuity may be named, especially with the Communist era interrupting long-term traditions, including long-standing orientation towards the West. After the collapse of Communism, not only did the government and PA systems have to be rebuilt from scratch, but also PA education had to be established, especially as it had not existed in most countries. Furthermore, a large number of conflicting external pressures, reinforced by the fact that these countries have historically been open to external ideas (that is, traditions), increased the confusion. Remnants of the Communist past, combined with new ideas regarding the rule of law, service orientation, and pale memories of the pre-Communist administrative orientation, intermingled with the new and largely alien market and management orientation of New Public Management, have only heightened the sense of disorientation. The only generally identifiable feature was the legal orientation of both PA practice and education. Somewhat surprisingly, law, as a set of obligations (certainly not of rights), played a key role in the Communist system (Hajnal and Jenei, 2007). Law is also a key element of the present Germanic system, as it was in the Napoleonic tradition before the Second World War. This may have been strengthened by the fact that perhaps the most important element of post-Communist administrative transition was the adoption of the rule of law. Recent tendencies, especially in PA education, indicate change in this regard. It seems that the significance of legal subjects has dropped in several programs in most countries. At the same time, the “public” orientation that is characteristic of the Napoleonic educational tradition nowadays has reasserted itself in some countries. This fact may indicate that the original orientation of CEE countries may re-emerge with an updated Western goal, whereas some countries, such as Estonia, clearly subscribed for the managerial approach, be it the Scandinavian or the Anglo-American version.

NOTES 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

Thus, we pay less attention to PA training, especially to on-the-job training, which may be a crucial human resources (HR) development method in public administration. Note, however, that the reliability of this comparison is limited, since the two projects relied on different data collection methodology. The sharp increase in the proportion of law in the Czech Republic may be due to the emergence of new private universities that provide PA programs dominantly by law subjects taught by lecturers. Slovenia does not appear in Hajnal’s (2003) study, because at that time Yugoslavia was the unit of analysis. The overview of PA systems in CEE provided by Liebert et al. (2013) seems to verify the importance of the legal approach in PA practice, as most country-wide studies explicitly indicate that. According to the ranking of the 2019 SCImago Journal, there are only two journals (4 percent) out of the top 50 that are not published by either a US or United Kingdom publisher. This seems to contradict the thesis of Kuhlmann and Wollmann (2019, pp. 113–120), who identified the “Central Eastern European model” (of administrative culture), although they speak about models instead of tradition.

54  Handbook of teaching public administration

REFERENCES Bartoli, A. (2008). The study of public management in France. In Walter J.M. Kickert (ed.), The study of public management in Europe and the US: A comparative analysis of national distinctiveness (pp. 14–41). Routledge. Bossaert, D., and Demmke, C. (2001). Civil services in the Europe of fifteen: Trends and new developments (K. Nomden and R. Polet, eds; rev. edn). European Institute of Public Administration. Bossaert, D., and Demmke, C. (2003). Civil services in the accession states: New trends and the impact of the integration process. EIPA. Bouckaert, G., Nakrošis, V., and Nemec, J. (2011). Public administration and management reforms in CEE: Main trajectories and results. NISPAcee Journal of Public Administration and Policy, 4(1), 9–29. Bouckaert, G., Nemes, J., Nakrosis, V., Hajnal, G., and Tônnisson, K. (2008). Public management reforms in Central and Eastern Europe. Network of Institutes and Schools of Public Administration in Central and Eastern Europe (NISPAcee). Chevallier, J. (1999). Administrative science in France. In Walter Julius Michael Kickert and R.J. Stillman (eds), The modern state and its study: New administrative sciences in a changing Europe and United States (pp. 83–99). Edward Elgar Publishing. Connaughton, B., and Verheijen, T. (2000). Developing public administration education in Central and Eastern Europe: The significance of the European dimension in academic programmes. Building higher education programs in public administration in CEE countries, 2000, 328–345. Dan, S., and Pollitt, C. (2015). NPM can work: An optimistic review of the impact of New Public Management reforms in central and eastern Europe. Public Management Review, 17(9), 1305–1332. Demmke, C., and Moilanen, T. (2010). Civil services in the EU of 27: Reform outcomes and the future of the civil service. Peter Lang. https://​www​.google​.com/​books​?hl​=​enandlr​=​andid​=​63C4fSrcpvYCandoi​ =​f ndandpg​=​P A1anddq​=​B ossaert+​D emmkeandots​=​P​- m0iBdHW8andsig​=​x FQd39Q​_ t9uvAej​ _z2PywoTrcks. Drechsler, W. (2005). The re-emergence of “Weberian” public administration after the fall of New Public Management: The Central and Eastern European perspective. Halduskultuur, 6, 94–108. Drechsler, W., and Randma-Liiv, T. (2016). In some Central and Eastern European countries, some NPM tools may sometimes work: A reply to Dan and Pollitt’s “NPM can work.” Public Management Review, 18(10), 1559–1565. Elster, J., Offe, C., and Preuss, U.K. (1998). Institutional design in post-communist societies: Rebuilding the ship at sea. Cambridge University Press. https://​www​.google​.com/​books​?hl​=​ enandlr​=​andid​=​QTxz7beGYGYCandoi​=​fndandpg​=​PR9anddq​=​Elster​,+​Jon+​Offe​,+​Clausandots​=​ VlFOLhpN2Aandsig​=​B​Ry3JbBeM5y3PfXz7yy7o​_Y9zLw. Gajduschek, G. (2007). Socialist and post-socialist civil service in Hungary. In András Jakab, A.F. Tatham, and P.I. Takacs (eds), The transformation of the Hungarian legal order 1985‒2005: Transition to the rule of law and accession to the European Union (pp. 123–126). Wolters Kluwer Law and Business. Gajduschek, G., and Hajnal, G. (2003). Civil service training assistance projects in the former communist countries: An assessment. Open Society Institute. http://​pdc​.ceu​.hu/​archive/​00006906/​. Hajnal, G. (2003). Diversity and convergence: A quantitative analysis of European public administration education programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 9(4), 245–258. Hajnal, G. (2015). Public administration education in Europe: Continuity or reorientation? Teaching Public Administration, 33(2), 95–114. Hajnal, G., and Jenei, G. (2007). The study of public management in Hungary: Management and the transition to democratic Rechtsstaat. In W.J.M. Kickert (ed.), The study of public management in Europe and the United States: A comparative analysis of national distinctiveness (pp. 208‒232). Routledge. Henry, N.L. (1990). Root and branch: Public administration’s travail toward the future. In N.B. Lynn and A. Wildavsky (eds), Public administration: The state of the discipline (pp. 3‒26). Chatham House. Jakab, A. (2007). Dilemmas of legal education: A comparative overview. Journal of Legal Education, 57(2), 253–265.

Public administration education in Central and Eastern Europe  55 Kickert, W.J.M. (2008). Distinctiveness in the study of public management in Europe: An introduction. In Walter J.M. Kickert (ed.), The study of public management in Europe and the US: A comparative analysis of national distinctiveness (pp. 1–13). Routledge. Kickert, W.J.M., and Stillman, R.J. (eds) (1999). The modern state and its study: New administrative sciences in a changing Europe and United States. Edward Elgar Publishing. Koprić, I. (2013). Governance and administrative education in South Eastern Europe: Genuine development, conditionality, and hesitations. Hrvatska i Komparativna Javna Uprava: Časopis Za Teoriju i Praksu Javne Uprave, 13(1), 5–39. Kornai, J. (2000). The socialist system: The political economy of communism. Clarendon Press. Kornai, J. (2008). The great transformation of central Eastern Europe: Success and disappointment. In J. Kornai, L. Mátyás, and G. Roland (eds), Institutional change and economic behaviour (pp. 1–37). Springer. Kuhlmann, S., and Wollmann, H. (2019). Introduction to comparative public administration: Administrative systems and reforms in Europe. Edward Elgar Publishing. Liebert, S., Condrey, S.E., and Goncharov, D. (eds) (2013). Public administration in post-communist countries: Former Soviet Union, Central and Eastern Europe, and Mongolia. CRC Press. Meyer-Sahling, J.-H. (2009). Varieties of legacies: A critical review of legacy explanations of public administration reform in East Central Europe. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 75(3), 509–528. Meyer-Sahling, J.-H. (2011). The durability of EU civil service policy in Central and Eastern Europe after accession. Governance, 24(2), 231–260. Naff, K.C., Riccucci, N., Shafritz, J., Rosenbloom, D.H., and Hyde, A.C. (2001). Personnel management in government: Politics and process. Marcel Dekker. Nemec, J., Spacek, D., Suwaj, P., and Modrzejewski, A. (2012). Public management as a university discipline in New European union member states: The Central European case. Public Management Review, 14(8), 1087–1108. Offe, C., and Adler, P. (1991). Capitalism by democratic design? Democratic theory facing the triple transition in East Central Europe, Social Research, 865–892. Painter, M., and Peters, B.G. (2010a). Administrative traditions in comparative perspective: Families, groups and hybrids. In M. Painter and B.G. Peters (eds), Tradition and public administration (pp. 19–30). Palgrave Macmillan. Painter, M., and Peters, B.G. (eds) (2010b). Tradition and public administration. Palgrave Macmillan. Pal, L.A., and Clark, I.D. (2016). Teaching public policy: Global convergence or difference? Taylor & Francis. Pevcin, P., Špaček, D., and Klimovskỳ, D. (2019). Public administration education in the CEE countries: How has it developed during the recent decades? NISPAcee Journal of Public Administration and Policy, 12(2), 217–232. Pollitt, C., and Bouckaert, G. (2011). Public management reform: A comparative analysis ‒ New public management, governance, and the Neo-Weberian state. Oxford University Press. https://​ www​.google​.com/​books​?hl​=​enandlr​=​andid​=​E0fdN3KiPmgCandoi​=​fndandpg​=​PP2anddq​=​Pollitt+​ Bouckaertandots​=​FavF37MHQgandsig​=​UVh6PX3V​_8eIDt1K925Vpy5lk​_o. Pryadilnikov, M. (2016). Public policy training and development of MPA/MPP programs in the Russian Federation. Policy and Society, 35(4), 371–383. Radaelli, C.M. (2000). Policy transfer in the European Union: Institutional isomorphism as a source of legitimacy. Governance, 13(1), 25–43. Randma-Liiv, T. (2008). New public management versus neo-Weberian state in Central and Eastern Europe. NISPAcee Journal of Public Administration and Policy, 1(2), 69–81. Randma-Liiv, T., and Connaughton, B. (2005). Public administration as a field of study: Divergence or convergence in the light of “Europeanization”? TRAMES: A Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 9(4), 348‒360. Reichard, C., and Schröter, E. (2018). Education and training in public administration and management in Europe. In Edoardo Ongaro, Sandra Van Thiel (eds), The Palgrave handbook of public administration and management in Europe (pp. 41–60). Springer. Rugge, F. (2009). Administrative traditions in Western Europe. In B.G. Peters and J. Pierre (eds), Handbook of public administration (Reprinted, Concise paperback edn). SAGE.

56  Handbook of teaching public administration Schimmelfennig, F., and Sedelmeier, U. (2002). Theorizing EU enlargement: Research focus, hypotheses, and the state of research. Journal of European Public Policy, 9(4), 500–528. Schöpflin, G. (1990). The political traditions of Eastern Europe. Daedalus, 119(1), 55–90. Seibel, W. (1999). Administrative science as reform: German public administration. In W.J.M. Kickert and R.J. Stillman (eds), The modern state and its study: New administrative sciences in a changing Europe and United States (pp. 100‒117). Edward Elgar Publishing. Staroňová, K., and Gajduschek, G. (2016). Public administration education in CEE countries: Institutionalization of a discipline. Policy and Society, 35(4), 351–370. Stillman, R.J. (1999). Public administration in the United States. In W.J.M Kickert and R.J. Stillman (eds), The modern state and its study (pp. 39‒79). Edward Elgar Publishing. Szűcs, J. (1983). The three historical regions of Europe: An outline. Acta Historica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 29(2‒4), 131–184. Verheijen, T. (2010). New memeber states of The European Union: Constructed and historical traditions and reform trajectories. In M. Painter and B.G. Peters (eds), Tradition and public administration (pp. 217–233). Palgrave Macmillan. Ziller, J. (2009). The continental system of administrative legality. In B.G. Peters and J. Pierre (eds), Handbook of public administration (Reprinted, Concise paperback edn, pp. 167–175). SAGE.

6. History of public administration education in the United States Bruce D. McDonald III, William Hatcher, and Michaela E. Abbott

Public administration education has been a component of the United States (US) since the start of the nation. Some have pointed to Alexander Hamilton as the founder of American public administration and others have recognized the importance of Thomas Jefferson for the field (Newbold, 2006, 2010). Through the Federalist Papers, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay sought to “teach” the newly drafted, but not adopted, Constitution to the nation’s elites. Thus, the field of public administration in the US has a rich history of connecting theory to practice. This connection is done throughout all aspects of public administration education, including our academic programs, community partnerships, and classrooms. During the Progressive Movement, the field moved toward a focus on education through the training of public administrators with the goal that they will employ efficiency and other so-called rational measures in their decision making (McDonald, 2010). During this period, professional training and education began to emerge and spread to all of the levels of government in the US. The federal government started moving toward a civil service system. State and local governments began to adopt bureaus of municipal research (McDonald, 2010). The movement promoted good government at all levels, while early theorists associated with this movement held “nativist, anti-democratic, and racial” views that were in line with democratic governance (Lee, 2011, p. 88). Public administration education has evolved significantly since these first movements in the early 1900s. This evolution has included waves of reforms, philosophy disagreements, and backlash against the field not experienced by many other professions. And today, there are hundreds of MPA programs throughout the world continuing the work of educating public servants (Barth and Hamel, 2020; McDonald and Hatcher, 2020).

ORIGIN OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION EDUCATION Public administration education in the United States can trace its origins to the New York Bureau of Municipal Research (McDonald, 2010). Established in 1906, the Bureau sought to address societal inequities and government responsiveness by encouraging efficient citizenship, the belief that when citizens are informed, administrators will be encouraged to act ethically and efficiently. Promoting a hands-on approach to research, Bureau staff would observe the work processes of city employees and apply the principles of scientific management to improve processes and employee outcomes. Once a study was completed, the results would be disseminated to all households in the city, allowing for the citizens to hold their elected officials accountable (Dahlberg, 1966). 57

58  Handbook of teaching public administration The success of the Bureau in New York led citizen groups and government officials throughout the United States to form their own local bureaus, using the Bureau’s approach as the foundation of their methodology. With the expansion came a need for experienced staff to run the organizations. While staff from the Bureau became the early poaching point for the expansion, it also became clear to the Bureau that there was a need to train new staff to carry out the study and administration of government. Founded in 1911, the Bureau’s training school was established with a curriculum of practical experience alongside education. Over time the curriculum was expanded to include topics of municipal law, politics, and accounting, while also maintaining a lecture series and class symposiums to bring in notables such as Mary Parker Follett and Frederick Taylor. A second transformation in the school’s curriculum took place in 1915 with the appointment of Charles Beard as its director. Beard believed that “many students had not the background to plunge immediately into field work, or that they had experience that permitted only a narrow specialization” (Graham, 1941, p. 138), and that they needed a year of more systematic study before any practical work. Under Beard’s leadership, the school moved from a fragmented curriculum into an operational framework focused on developing an interdisciplinary approach to public administration. Out of this transformation came the start of coursework in public administration as an academic field. Prior to the establishment of the Bureau’s training school, coursework in public administration on college campuses was limited (McDonald, 2010). Columbia University and Harvard University, for example, both offered some coursework in public administration, but neither offered a program or degree that focused on the management of government. With the growth of the bureau movement, the Bureau stepped up to meet the demand for training and education. In a report to the American Political Science Association, Beard wrote that the “Training School fulfills every requirement of a university … In my opinion one year at the Training School is equal in discipline and academic training to a year spent in any university with whose graduates I am acquainted” (Bureau of Municipal Research, 1914, pp. 5‒7). The success of the Bureau at producing qualified graduates from its training school led to the establishment of its curriculum as a template for universities to create their own programs (Stone and Stone, 1975). Soon after the Bureau established the training school, the University of Michigan began offering a Master of Arts degree in public administration (Upson, 1938). Administered by former men of the Bureau, Michigan’s program focused on government administration and included six months of practical experience with the Detroit Bureau of Governmental Research. In 1915, the University of California at Berkley began offering an undergraduate program in public administration, followed by the University of Missouri in 1917. The expansion of public administration programs continued to increase with their introduction at the University of Kansas and the University of Minnesota by 1925. One of the most important outgrowths of the Bureau’s training school was the creation of the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs. Established in 1924 and housed at Syracuse University, the early days of the Maxwell School were highly dependent on the Bureau for its existence (Dahlberg, 1966; McDonald, 2010). Its new programs on public administration were staffed with several faculty members who had previously worked at the Bureau and taught in its training school. In recognition of the Bureau’s success and the importance of its training school, William Mosher was hired as the Maxwell School’s first dean. Before joining the faculty at Syracuse, Mosher had served as the director of the Bureau and as a teacher in its school. The influence of the Bureau on the Maxwell School was so strong that

History of public administration education in the United States  59 many of its first students followed Mosher and other faculty members and came as transfers from the Bureau’s training school.

MODERNIZING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION The traditions of public administration theory and research in the US are based on a rich background, but the field did not start separating into a unique discipline until recently. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, when municipal research bureaus were developing, public administration scholarship started to emerge from multiple fields, including management, sociology, and political science. Henry’s (1975) paradigm of public administration is a useful lens to view the history of public administration scholarship and traditions in the US. Henry (1975) identified the politics‒administration dichotomy from 1900 to 1926 as the first paradigm. Research by Frank J. Goodnow and Leonard D. White legitimized public administration as a scholarly field, but also put forth the flawed theoretical idea of a clear separation between politics and administration. Additionally, from a normative perspective, the politics‒administration dichotomy harms democratic administration in that the construction calls for administrators to focus on efficiency and not to worry about equity, fairness, and democratic ideals (Frederickson, 1990), and even encourages support for regimes as horrible as Hitler’s government (Roberts, 2019). The second paradigm identified by Henry (1975) is the period from 1927 to roughly 1937, when the field focused on public administration as being a principles-driven field. This period can be exemplified by Luther H. Guilick’s description of public administration as being a field focused on planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting (POSDCORB) (Gulick, 1937). During this period, public administration practice was in many ways at its height. Presidents, governors, and other macro-level political elites turned to the field’s experts for advice, leading to forums that produced change such as the Brownlow Commission. But within the field, scholars and practitioners started to challenge the focus on public administration as value-free, and argued for the importance of politics in the administration. Scholars such as Chester Barnard, Herbert Simon, Dwight Waldo, and John Merriman Gaus put forth attacks against the principles approach to public administration. This call for public administration to consider politics ushered in Henry’s (1975) third identified paradigm in public administration, in which the field started being considered as political science. It can be argued that public administration started looking for an academic home not as a separate discipline, but in the overall field of political science and also administrative sciences. Henry notes that this began in 1950, with the third paradigm emerging with a focus on political science, and a fourth paradigm emerging with a focus on administrative science. Some scholars focused more on the politics of administrative decisions and the function of public administration within political systems; whereas others focused more on the management side of the field. The commonality is that these paradigms caused the field to lose its way to a certain degree, and roam without an academic home. Starting in the 1970s, public administration started to emerge as its own academic discipline, though it could be argued that the emergence is a return to viewing itself as a separate field and its own academic home. Since the 1970s, the field has been concerned with being on its own, but that does not mean there has been agreement in the field. The field has splintered into a number of schools of thought, traditions, and subfields, such as efficiency and market-focused scholars grouping around the ideas of New Public Management, democratic

60  Handbook of teaching public administration and equity-focused scholars collecting around the arguments of New Public Administration, and other philosophies such as New Public Service being promoted throughout the field. A commonality is that the field started a journey toward being more theoretical, organizing its ideas around theories of bureaucracy, politics, management, ethics, fairness, diversity, and other important components of public administration (Frederickson et al., 2016). The modernizing of the field led many to focus again on public administration education. This trend, coupled with the need for educated public managers, led to the growth of MPA programs throughout the US.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION COMMUNITY After the initial spread of the Bureau movement and its training school, public administration spread progressively throughout the country, though it was not until the establishment of the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA)1 in 1969 that public administration merged into a cohesive educational approach in the United States (see Holmes, 2020). Under NASPAA, public administration has rallied around five competencies of education. These are: • • • • •

To lead and manage in public governance; To participate in and contribute to the policy process; To analyze, synthesize, think critically, solve problems and make decisions; To articulate and apply a public service perspective; To communicate and interact productively with a diverse and changing workforce and citizenry. (NASPAA, 2016, p. 6)

Public administration programs comprise several types of degrees. These include the Master of Public Administration (MPA), Master of Public Policy (MPP), and Master of Public Affairs (MPAffairs),2 among others. In their recent study on graduate programming in public administration, Barth and Hamel (2020) report that MPA programs are the most common, with 242 programs in the US. The frequency of degrees is followed by MPP programs, with 35 programs. The more general MPAffairs programs are less prevalent, with only 19 programs. What are the differences between these types of programs? MPA programs follow the curriculum established by the Bureau, primarily focusing on the management skills and techniques needed to manage public organizations. MPP programs differ in that the coursework tends to emphasize policy analysis over management. Programs often have an area of focus, such as nonprofit, budgeting, sustainability, planning; and/or a level of focus, such as local government, state government, or federal service (Maher et al., 2020; Meares, 2020; Rangarajan and Joshi, 2019; Stabile et al., 2019). In recent decades, some public affairs programs have branched out into multiple areas of focus, including social policy, urban government, research methods, and election administration. Moreover, in recent years, colleges and universities in the US have even started to adopt undergraduate programs in public affairs, in particular in areas of nonprofit administration (Weber and Brunt, 2020). The majority of programs are accredited by NASPAA (Holmes, 2020). As of 2020, there are 308 member programs with 205 programs at 187 universities being accredited (NASPAA, 2020). Accordingly, 61 percent of member programs are accredited. While NASPAA does not have a template for its curriculum, many accredited and member programs have similarities in

History of public administration education in the United States  61 their curricula, and accredited programs must have at least 36 credit hours of coursework (see Miller, 2019; Zeemering, 2020). Again, in MPA programs, there is a focus on management techniques with a standard set of core courses, such as: introduction to public administration, budgeting and finance, human resources, and program evaluation (Denison and Kim, 2019; Miller, 2019). However, MPA programs often do have some coursework in the areas of policy analysis and implementation (Evans et al., 2019). Across these programs, students often have flexibility in designing their plans of study through a large number of elective credits that can be used toward concentrations and/or certificates. This degree of flexibility and emphasis on elective coursework is one of many key differences between MPA programs and MBA degrees, which tend to have their students complete 30 hours of specific core coursework. The coursework in public affairs programs in the US is influenced by NASPAA, but also the curriculum of programs is the product of decades of philosophical approaches to the field of public administration.

TRENDS IN FOCUS To conclude our discussion on the history of public administration education in the US, we would like to connect the past with where the field has taken its focus over the past 25 years. To do so, we looked towards the literature on the scholarship of teaching and learning within the field. In celebration of the Journal of Public Affairs Education’s 25th anniversary, Raadschelders et al. (2019) conducted an analysis of trends in the research from the journal’s founding in 1995. Frederickson (2004) categorized content as relating to curriculum, pedagogy, or educational philosophy; the early years of research on public administration education showed that half of the published research focused on curriculum content and about 40 percent of the research focused on pedagogy. The remaining 10 percent focused on educational philosophy (see also Frederickson, 2004). By 2018, this had increased to 60 percent, 25 percent, and 9 percent, respectively. Also of importance are the topics of focus that the research took up. Based on trends in the literature, a key subject area that has emerged has been diversity and inclusion. This includes research directed towards gender-oriented topics, such as the work of Bishu et al. (2019), D’Agostino et al. (2020), Edwards et al. (2019), and Stivers (2019). This focus on gender reflects the prominent role that women are taking within public administration. As public administration has increased its gender diversity, it has also sought to increase its racial diversity. This is seen within the public administration education by scholars such as Thomas (2019) and Azevedo et al. (2020). Despite the isolationist policies adopted by the US in recent years, a growing trend in public administration education has been an international perspective (Perlman, 2019). This international perspective takes the perspective of discussing public administration education issues that are important for an international audience (see van der Wal and Mussagulova, 2020; Zhang and Qian, 2020), but it also includes research that relates the status of public administration education internationally to an American audience. Torneo (2020), for instance, provides this connection through his discussion of the history of public administration education history in the Philippines. Similar treatments have also been made for Thailand (see Tamronglak, 2020) and India (see Manoharan et al., 2020). Still others

62  Handbook of teaching public administration have reflected on the connection between US-based education and education elsewhere (see Hamidullah and Astudillo-Rodas, 2019). Two other trends in public administration education that we find are an increased awareness of issues related to doctoral education, and new attention to nonprofit education within the published research. On the side of doctoral education, we have begun to focus on what our doctoral students are studying (see Diaz-Kope et al., 2019; Slagle and Williams, 2019; Yun et al., 2020) and how we are preparing them for careers as academics (see Hall et al., 2019; Yusuf et al., 2020). On the side of nonprofit education, its placement in public administration has always been met with some hesitation, but the recent attention to nonprofit education and incorporating it within MPA and MPP curricula has shown a greater acceptance of subdisciplinary specializations within public administration education (see Denison and Kim, 2019; Kuenzi et al., 2020; Weber and Brunt, 2020).

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS Public administration education in the US has progressed significantly over the years. Public affairs programs have become more mainstream, with MPA programs growing in prestige as the degree of choice for not just government service but also nonprofit leadership, and even many positions in the private sector. Despite our successes, the establishment of the grand challenges in public administration by the National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA) remind us that there is still work to be done (see Gerton and Mitchell, 2019). Moreover, NAPA’s grand challenges remind us that the work often begins in the MPA classroom as we train and prepare students to be future leaders (Gerton and Mitchell, 2019). We also worry about the implications of the field’s growing, but perhaps unclear, identity. By this, we mean the field branching out from public administration, with a clear focus on the theories and practice of public management, toward the broad umbrella of public affairs, which focuses on public policy, nonprofit leadership, public administration, and many other areas of public service. This growing identity expands our field, of course, but it also presents an additional grand challenge for scholars and practitioners. We do not have an answer to this challenge at this time, except to issue a call that, going forward, scholarship on education in our field needs to consider the implications of the broadening from public administration to public affairs.

NOTES 1.

In 2013, the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration changed its name to the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration. 2. It is important to note that many MPAffairs programs use the acronym of MPA despite their focus on affairs instead of administration. For the purpose of this chapter, we included all Master of Public Affairs programs here, regardless of whether they identify by the acronym MPA or MPAffairs.

History of public administration education in the United States  63

REFERENCES Azevedo, L., Shi, W., Medina, P.S., and Bagwell, M.T. (2020). Examining junior faculty work–life balance in public affairs programs in the United States. Journal of Public Affairs Education. https://​ doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2020​.1788372. Barth, T.J., and Hamel, J.D. (2020). Understanding the degrees: MPA, MPP, versus MNM. In B.D. McDonald and W. Hatcher (eds), The public affairs faculty manual: A guide to the effective management of public affairs programs (pp. 11–32). Routledge. Bishu, S.G., Guy, M.E., and Heckler, N. (2019). Seeing gender and its consequences. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(2), 145–162. Bureau of Municipal Research (1914). Efficient citizenship (Vol. 670). Bureau of Municipal Research. D’Agostino, M., Levine, H., and Sabharwal, M. (2020). Gender in negotiation: Preparing public administrators for the 21st century workplace. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(1), 96–116. Dahlberg, J.S. (1966). The New York Bureau of Municipal Research, pioneer in government administration. New York University Press. Denison, D.W., and Kim, S. (2019). Linking practice and classroom: Nonprofit financial management curricula in MPA and MPP programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(4), 457–474. Diaz-Kope, L., Miller-Stevens, K., and Henley, T.J. (2019). An examination of dissertation research: The relationship between gender, methodological approach, and research design. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(1), 93–114. Edwards, L.H., Holmes, M.H., and Sowa, J.E. (2019). Including women in public affairs departments: Diversity is not enough. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(2), 163–184. Evans, A.M., Morrison, J.K., and Auer, M.R. (2019). The crisis of policy education in turbulent times: Are schools of public affairs in danger of becoming irrelevant? Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(3), 285–295. Frederickson, H.G. (1990). Public administration and social equity. Public Administration Review, 50(2), 228–237. Frederickson, H.G. (2004). The Journal of Public Affairs Education at age ten: History, content, and prospects. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 19(2), 83–89. Frederickson, H.G., Smith, K.B., Larimer, C.W., and Licari, M.J. (2016). The public administration theory primer. Westview Press. Gerton, T., and Mitchell, J.P. (2019). Grand challenges in public administration: Implications for public service education, training, and research. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(4), 435–440. Graham, G.A. (1941). Education for public administration. Committee on Public Administration of the Social Science Research Council, Public Administration Service. Gulick, L. (1937). Notes on the theory of organization. Classics of organization theory, 3(1937), 87–95. Hall, J.L., Hatcher, W., McDonald, B.D., Shields, P., and Sowa, J.E. (2019). The art of peer reviewing: Toward an effective developmental process. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(3), 296–313. Hamidullah, M.F., and Astudillo-Rodas, M. (2019). Going beyond study abroad: An introduction to United States and Chinese joint undergraduate degree programs in public affairs education. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(2), 171–181. Henry, N. (1975). Paradigms of public administration. Public Administration Review, 35(4), 378–386. Holmes, M.H. (2020). The accreditation process. In B.D. McDonald and W. Hatcher (eds), The public affairs faculty manual: A guide to the effective management of public affairs programs (pp. 98–109). Routledge. Kuenzi, K., Stewart, A., and Walk, M. (2020). Nonprofit graduate education: Who gets the degree and why? Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(1), 11–30. Lee, M. (2011). History of US public administration in the Progressive era. Journal of Management History, 17(10), 88–101. Maher, C.S., Ebdon, C., and Bartle, J.R. (2020). Financial condition analysis: A key tool in the MPA curriculum. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(1), 2020. Manoharan, A.P., Viswanath, S., and Sabharwal, M. (2020). Public administration pedagogy in India. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(3), 291–312. McDonald, B.D. (2010). The Bureau of Municipal Research and the development of a professional public service. Administration and Society, 42(7), 815–835.

64  Handbook of teaching public administration McDonald, B.D., and Hatcher, W. (2020). The public affairs faculty manual: A guide to the effective management of public affairs programs. Routledge. Meares, W. (2020). Understanding the need for planning for public administrators: An examination of planning courses and concentrations in NASPAA member programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2020​.1716656. Miller, D.R. (2019). Do undergraduate public administration, policy, and affairs programs mimic graduate curricula? Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(4), 475–494. Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) (2016). NASPAA standards: Accreditation standards for master’s degree programs. Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration. Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) (2020). Roster of accredited programs. https://​www​.naspaa​.org/​accreditation/​roster​-accredited​-programs. Newbold, S.P. (2006). All but forgotten: Thomas Jefferson’s contribution to the development of public administration in the United States. Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Tech. Newbold, S.P. (2010). All but forgotten: Thomas Jefferson and the development of public administration. SUNY Press. Perlman, B.J. (2019). A qualitative analysis of JPAE’s international context articles: Comparative emphasis in public affairs education. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(1), 30–50. Raadschelders, J., Whetsell, T., Dimand, A.M., and Kieninger, K. (2019). Journal of Public Affairs Education at 25: Topics, trends, and authors. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(1), 51–72. Rangaranjan, N., and Joshi, S. (2019). Sustainability education in public administration and policy: A multi-method study of NASPAA accredited programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(3), 343–363. Roberts, A. (2019). Shaking hands with Hitler: The politics‒administration dichotomy and engagement with fascism. Public Administration Review, 79(2), 267–276. Slagle, D., and Williams, A.M. (2019). Changes in public affairs and administration doctoral research, 2000 and 2015. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(4), 441–456. Stabile, B., Grant, A., and Salih, S. (2019). Gendered differences in choice of concentrations in Master of Public Administration programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(2), 207–225. Stivers, C. (2019). Forging new tools for new administrative houses: Comments on the symposium. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(2), 142–144. Stone, A.B., and Stone, D.C. (1975). Early development of education in public administration. In F. Mosher (ed.), American public administration: Past, present, future (pp. 11–48). University of Alabama Press. Tamronglak, A. (2020). Impacts of the Thailand qualification framework–public administration on public administration education in Thailand. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(3), 276–290. Thomas, N. (2019). In the service of social equity: Leveraging the experiences of African American women professors. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(2), 185–206. Torneo, A.R. (2020). Public administration education in the Philippines 1951–2020: History, challenges, and prospects. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(2), 127–149. Upson, L.D. (1938). Contributions of citizen research to effective government. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 199, 171–175. van der Wal, Z., and Mussagulova, A. (2020). Are Asian public affairs students different? Comparing job sector attitudes and sector preference between public affairs students at an Asian and Dutch University. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(2), 150–170. Weber, P.C., and Brunt, C. (2020). Continuing to build knowledge: Undergraduate nonprofit programs in institutions of higher learning. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(3), 336–357. Yun, J.A., Hamidullah, M.F., and McDougle, L.M. (2020). An analysis of gender differences in public administration doctoral dissertation research. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(1), 73–95. Yusuf, J., Saitgalina, M., and Chapman, D.W. (2020). Work–life balance and well-being of graduate students. Journal of Public Affairs Education. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2020​.1771990. Zeemering, E.S. (2020). Student public service value priorities. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(3), 358–379. Zhang, X., and Qian, Y. (2020). The curriculum design of lower-level tertiary public administration education in China: Challenges and redevelopment. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(2), 182–204.

7. Teaching public administration in Europe Eckhard Schröter and Christoph Reichard

European nation states, particularly on the Continent, have a long tradition of teaching public administration (TPA). Arguably, though, these European traditions tend to differ across the Continent depending on notions of the state, the sequence of historical developments, and the relative power of interests associated with specific actors or institutions. It is to these patterns of commonalities and differences that we turn in our analysis. The scope of the following review is affected by a number of implicit assumptions. To begin with, we confine ourselves to the European landscape of institutions and programs that provide teaching for public administration. In other words, the patterns of education and training for paid positions in the executive apparatus of government lie at the core of the analysis. These patterns are in part likely to be shaped by the way the teaching of public administration (as an academic discipline) is organized in any given country, but it is important to keep these two perspectives conceptually distinct. As for the notion and practice of public administration as a subfield of academic teaching and research, we employ a broad definition so as to encompass policy-oriented and political science-driven approaches, as well as programs rooted in public management and economics or in more traditional institutional and legal schools of thought. The focus on paid positions in the executive apparatus of government needs further specifications. First, we are not concerned with voluntary activities, important as they may be in the delivery of public services. Second, we concentrate on core governmental organizations and their workforce at the central level (or in federal systems, at the federal and state levels) of government. Here we are particularly interested in the positions of non-technical, general administrators. Within this bracket of government personnel, we want to shed light on the education and training of those officials, who qualify for positions in middle and senior management, which usually require some degree of academic education. Against this background, our argument unfolds as follows. First, we discuss the most influential factors of the European-wide variation in TPA, before introducing three analytical dimensions as yardsticks for international comparisons in our field of inquiry. In particular, our analysis probes into the institutional features of the training providers, their predominant program content, as well as the prevailing teaching styles employed. We continue by discussing current shifts towards increasing academization and openness, plus a trend towards sequentiality.

SHAPING FACTORS AND ANTECEDENTS OF TEACHING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION The core of our analysis is located at an intersection where at least three different streams of thought and practice cross each other. Consequently, we will briefly address these shaping factors to structure the variety of European approaches. 65

66  Handbook of teaching public administration TPA as a Function of State and Administrative Traditions Deeply rooted notions of the state and administrative traditions are salient antecedents of TPA (see also Van der Meer et al., 2015; Bouckaert and Jann, 2020). What we refer to in this section are cultural or structural attributes of the administrative system itself. A cultural attribute, for example, is the notion of the state as encapsulated in the idea of a Rechtsstaat entrenched in German intellectual history. If the making and implementation of the law takes center stage, it does not come as a surprise that the legal profession takes a prominent role in shaping the upper echelons of government bureaucracies. This deeply rooted legal tradition in many European countries can also be traced back to the sequence of historical developments. In fact, in most of continental Europe the bureaucratization and professionalization of the civil service and of public administration as a whole preceded the advent of mass democracy. As a consequence, judicial control of the legality of administrative acts had been well in place long before (party-)political control of the executive apparatus was established. What is more, most absolutist monarchies left behind, particularly in centralized nation-states, elite training institutions (for example, grandes écoles in the Napoleonic tradition) for specific segments of government officials. In Central and Eastern Europe, most administrative systems inherited from former Soviet-type party dictatorships a centralized system of schools to prepare future leaders of the “cadre administration.” Another precursor to public sector education and training points to the question of whether civil service systems tend to be rather closed or open, as measured by the degree of lateral entry and intersectoral mobility between public and private employment. A key determinant in this context is the distinction between career-based systems (such as in the French and German traditions) or position-based approaches in other systems of public sector employment (primarily of Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian provenance). It flows from the career system that entry into the civil service typically occurs at an early point of the work biography, with an expectation that the individual completes their work life in the employ of government. From this vantage point, it makes a lot of sense to make access to the career ladder dependent upon certain levels of qualification, and to prepare new entrants rather comprehensibly for future steps in public employment. TPA as a Function of Labor and Educational Markets The relative power of market pressures may also play a significant part in explaining varieties across European borders. Teaching depends on what qualifications are required for what positions. In some national economies, often grouped together under the rubric of “liberal market economies” such as the United Kingdom (UK) or Ireland, the boundaries between public and private sector labor markets are rather permeable, so that sector- or industry-wide regulations of employment conditions, including required standards of qualification, are rare. It flows from this that secondary and tertiary education tends to provide generally applicable qualifications that need to be augmented and specified by on-the-job training, mid-career programs, or other sequences of in-house qualification. By way of contrast, so-called “coordinated market economies” feature industry-wide standards of qualification levels for specified job descriptions. In keeping with this approach, public sector personnel here have to pass regulated pre-entry training programs tailor-made for employment in public sector organizations.

Teaching public administration in Europe  67 The dynamics of educational markets are of equal importance; in particular with regard to barriers to market entry. When entry barriers are lifted, new providers of higher learning might offer new training programs and respond faster to upcoming challenges (such as managerial approaches or technology-driven content). Across Europe, however, the most influential game changer in this regard appears to be what has come to be known as the Bologna Process. As a rule, the results of this process shifted attention from institutions to programs (thus leveling the playing field), moved away from state approval of programs to approval by independent accreditation agencies, and introduced European standards of academic degrees (plus a sequence of bachelor and master degrees that was hitherto unknown in most European countries). TPA as a Function of Cultures of Higher Learning The way in which knowledge is produced and disseminated depends in no small measure on established cultural norms and practices. How we define and what we understand by “teaching,” for example, is an important starting point of this discussion. Does teaching always involve a teacher in the sense of formal in-class instruction, or may teaching also take alternative forms, such as horizontal learning among peers, research-oriented self-study, or training on the job? As a rule, countries in Northwestern Europe tend to show greater openness for informal and student-centered teaching styles than nation states in the South or East of the Continent. The roles and functions of institutions of higher education differ remarkably across Europe. The mold of the Humboldtian tradition has shaped many research universities worldwide since its inception in 19th century Germany. In spite of many changes, the consequences of this tradition are still felt today. In German-speaking countries and Scandinavia, for example, research universities are considered the best training ground for future senior administrators, and academic education is seen as a gold standard. While the Humboldtian model has proliferated widely, there are still intriguing differences across Europe. In Eastern and Southern European countries, we find a preference for specialized national academies (without university affiliation) when it comes to preparing future top officials for their positions. In part, this preference also follows from the fact that “preparation” for senior management is here often understood as “socializing” future elite members into a socially and culturally cohesive group, rather than providing academic education in specific scientific disciplines. As for the specific choice of those relevant academic disciplines, again, the characteristics of national education systems leave their imprints in discernible patterns. In the Netherlands and in Scandinavian nations, for example, public administration tends to be mostly affiliated with political science or policy studies; while in many Central and Eastern European countries the “science of the state” is predominantly couched in terms of economics. In still other systems, the overall picture is more mixed, because traditional key disciplines (administrative law, for example, in the cases of France, Germany, and Italy; or political science in the UK) have given way to peculiar mixes of public law, political science, and management studies.

68  Handbook of teaching public administration

ANALYTICAL DIMENSIONS: CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND AND EMPIRICAL FINDINGS In order to identify significant analytical dimensions for comparisons across Europe, we use a categorization of major propensities of education and training programs introduced by Schröter and Röber (2015) for the comparative analysis of public sector reforms and appropriate training programs. We propose that any public sector education and training system can be described and compared along the following three dimensions (for more details, see also Reichard and Schröter, 2018): ● The institutional arrangements of a program: Which type of organization is offering the program (for example, a university department or a government school)? Which types of programs are offered (for example, leading to a bachelor’s or master’s degree)? How do length and workload of the program differ (for example, full-time or part-time)? ● The content of a program: Is it covering the whole scope of public administration or is it concentrating on one or a few subjects? What are the dominant teaching objectives? Is the content provided in a more generic and analytical (“academic”) way, or does it follow a more vocational pattern? Does a program offer a variety of electives and concentrations? ● The learning concept of a program: What pedagogical approaches are applied? Which teaching and learning philosophy is dominant? What is the role of formal lecturing? How many contact hours are requested? What role does self-study and reflection by students play? Which didactical tools are frequently used (for example, case studies, projects)? What is the role of online or blended learning, and of internships? In the following, we present our empirical picture along these functional dimensions. Institutional Characteristics of Education and Training Programs Here, a key question is to what extent major training providers qualify as academic institutions. In this context, “academic” is operationalized by indicators such as the relative time of faculty devoted to research versus teaching; the degree of granted academic freedom; the proportion of full-fledged professorial staff (as opposed to practitioners) who consider themselves part of the academic community; and, finally, the extent of the autonomy of teaching institutions. While full-fledged research universities are the epitome of this idea of an “academic institution,” most of the national administrative schools, civil service colleges, academies, or other in-house government training centers have traditionally displayed ‒ at best ‒ only modest signs of academization. Southern European countries, which usually follow the Romanic or Napoleonic state tradition, mostly maintain a career-based civil service system with quite distinct regulatory regimes governing the education, selection, and recruitment of future civil servants. As cases in point, France, Italy, and Spain prepare their candidates for senior positions in the civil service primarily in highly selective state-run and in-house government schools with fairly comprehensive pre-entry training programs; for example, by the École Nationale d’Administration (ENA) in France, the Scuola Nazionale dell’Amministrazione in Italy, and the Instituto Nacional de Administracion Publica in Spain. In Germany, future mid-level administrators are prepared at internal civil service colleges. Training systems in a fair number of Central and Eastern European countries have inherited from former political regimes academies and/or

Teaching public administration in Europe  69 national schools of public administration that continue to play a role in public sector training. By contrast, the majority of Western European countries, including Germany (for senior civil service careers), the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and all Nordic countries, recruit their administrative personnel from the general system of higher education, primarily from full-fledged universities. As a consequence, their graduates have been furnished with a more generally applicable competence profile, allowing them to enter careers in not only the public but also the private sector. Generally speaking, there has recently been a move towards more academically minded institutions of higher education. This trend can even be observed in countries with a penchant for more restricted in-house training programs. In France, for example, the university-based instituts d’études politiques, as well as other university departments, are now offering a greater choice of multidisciplinary degree programs in public administration in addition to the traditional grandes écoles (Bartoli, 2008). In Germany, former “internal” civil service colleges have morphed into “universities of applied sciences” with more academic independence granted to them, and with newly developed courses of study focusing on public administration (Schröter and Röber, 2015). On top of that, there has also been a noticeable outreach of universities in several European countries to the growing demand for mid-career and executive training (Reichard, 2017). Program Content and Curricular Developments Contents of teaching programs differ across Europe (see Hajnal’s cursory overview of 2003, confirmed in 2015, albeit on a weak empirical basis). Hajnal identifies three rather distinct, though very roughly categorized, clusters of program content. First, a legal cluster, dominated by jurisprudence and law training (for example, in Italy, Spain, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Greece). Second, a public cluster with program content revolving around issues of traditional public administration (understood as the theory and practice of core public sector organizations), policy studies, and/or political science (for example, in Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, France). Third, a corporate cluster emphasizing management studies and economics (for example, in the UK, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania). The canonization of program content in public administration programs is an ongoing process. There is, however, some common understanding that public administration as an academic area of expertise should consist of a number of core components (EAPAA, 2013), including political science, economics, management sciences, law, sociology, public finance, and information science. From a historical perspective, in much of continental Europe, administrative issues were traditionally couched in terms of the complex conglomerate of Staatswissenschaften and later of public law, given the preponderance of the legalistic notion of the Rechtsstaat (Raadschelders and Rutgers, 1999). In stark contrast, Anglo-Saxon traditions of state–society relations have given rise to the so-called “public interest” model, emphasizing power relations in politics and society rather than legal issues when conceptualizing modern statehood. As a consequence, candidates for senior civil service positions in the UK have traditionally been recruited from a liberal arts background (preferably educated at prestigious universities), with public administration and policy training accounting only for a side stream of the major flow of successful applicants to the higher civil service (Chandler, 2002).

70  Handbook of teaching public administration Despite their deeply rooted traditions, European training systems for the public sector have adapted over time, also with regard to the content of their programs (Connaughton and Randma, 2002; Brans and Coenen, 2016). Subsequently, new developments have taken form, for example the strong move towards managerial and economics training, particularly in the UK (Horton and Van Wart, 2015) and in a number of Central and Eastern European countries (Nemec et al., 2012; Pevcin et al., 2019). In Italy, various programs are offered by political science and public management departments resulting in a shift towards a more “public” cluster (Cepiku and Meneguzzo, 2007). In Germany, despite a still strong legal bias in the education for the civil service (Goetz, 2000; Jann and Veit, 2015, p. 186; Schröter and Röber, 2015), graduates of interdisciplinary governance, public management, and public policy programs appear to gain more access to the German civil service (Schröter and Röber, 2015). Finally, executive training programs targeting experienced mid-career professionals with significant work experience and usually a first academic degree are more widely accepted in public sector training (Reichard, 2017). In various countries, these programs are offered by universities, sometimes in collaboration with government schools (for example, in the Netherlands and in Italy). Teaching Philosophies and Learning Concepts Higher education institutions differ remarkably with regard to their pedagogical concepts. The commitment to creating theory-driven and research-oriented learning environments, for instance, is a constituting element of the institutional identity of research universities, whereas civil service training centers usually give preference to practice-oriented case work and more formal instruction. What is more, academic disciplines have their own teaching cultures, ranging from orthodox frontal classroom teaching and mass lecturing that is still the norm in many European law or economics departments, to more discursive and seminar-style classes in the humanities. More generally, patterns of teaching philosophies differ across Europe with regard to national and/or regional cultures of higher education. There are indications, for example, that teaching approaches in the East and also the South of the Continent tend to place higher emphasis on formal instruction, passive learning, and factual knowledge than in the West and the North of the European continent where student-centered learning, analytical knowledge, and critical reflection – particularly in the humanities and social sciences – have a long and deeply entrenched tradition (Kickert, 2008). In line with general changes in European higher education, we have also experienced a remarkable change of teaching and learning styles in PA. The balance between teacher and student has moved from a largely teacher-focused style to a much more student-centered learning concept in which the independent learning experience of students has increasingly taken center stage, whereas the role of the instructor has changed towards a facilitator of students’ learning. Apart from teaching in the sense of a lecturer communicating knowledge to their students, self-study in the form of analytic reading, problem-solving, discussing, and/ or reflecting has become more and more relevant in accredited education and training programs (Van der Meer and Marks, 2013). Teaching formats have changed accordingly: from large-scale lectures to small-scale seminars, with various didactical tools designed to facilitate active learning such as case studies or simulation games. Concepts and tools of information and communication technlogy support and blended learning have also been added to these new developments.

Teaching public administration in Europe  71 We have to be aware, however, that learning concepts vary remarkably between research universities, polytechnics, and internal government schools (Schröter and Röber, 2015, p. 34). For example, there is anecdotal evidence from accreditation missions that factual learning of formal rules and procedures not only dominates teaching in most internal government schools, but also plays a significant role in public administration programs at Southern and Eastern European universities (Reichard, 2010), in which frontal teaching in large-scale lectures and memorizing factual knowledge for written exams are still more relevant than activating methods of learning.

TRENDS IN EUROPEAN EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS There are several general trends of how TPA is developing in Europe. We suggest three broadly defined components, labeled as openness, sequence, and academization. Openness Openness refers to the degree of specificity of qualifications acquired through the education and training system. Openness also refers to the transferability of qualifications across sectors of the employment system. Ideal-typically, “low openness” represents exclusive public sector training programs for future civil servants only; whereas “high openness” indicates a more intersectoral and interorganizational usability of qualifications. Both options have their very own assets and liabilities. On the one hand, greater openness broadens the pool of available talent, nourishes knowledge transfer between sectors of the employment system, makes individual careers more flexible, and eventually gives more degrees of freedom to human resource managers in public and private organizations. On the downside, however, openness may work against necessary specialization and role perceptions that acknowledge the genuinely “public” tasks and functions of government bureaucracies and their distinct political and societal challenges. Sequence Sequence relates to the timing of training at various stages of an individual employment history and to the extent to which qualification is either offered as a full-fledged degree program or in a piecemeal, modularized form over the course of a work life. The stereotypical “low sequence” case is characterized by a comprehensive pre-entry training program at an early stage of an individual’s career; while the “high sequence” option can be illustrated by a series of several learning activities, starting with rather basic and generic pre-entry training, followed by several consecutive or non-consecutive degree courses, and augmented by short-term training programs as needed. It goes without saying that specific strengths and weaknesses tend to be associated with each of those approaches. For one, the traditional nexus between comprehensive formal training on the one hand (low-sequence variant), and access to a specific level of civil service career on the other hand, lies at the heart of the merit-based professional civil service. By contrast, the high-sequence approach seems to be more in line with the concept of life-long learning and makes public sector training more adaptable to environmental changes. High-sequence

72  Handbook of teaching public administration systems also tend to make employment systems more flexible, as they specifically cater to lateral entry into the civil service and facilitate job rotation and job enrichment within public sector organizations. Further, a more “sequential” approach to public sector education and training may eventually increase the chances of interdisciplinary qualifications over the course of a civil service career. Academization Academization refers to the tendency to compose training programs in the direction of more theory-based learning, instead of programs aiming predominantly to meet the needs of hands-on professionals or craftsmen. The “low-academization” variant of public sector education and training features training institutions and programs – degree granting, socially prestigious, and elite-focused as they may be – that give preference to applicable skills, “cadre-building,” and hands-on training. Instead, the “high-academization” system puts a premium on theory-driven education, training in methodological and analytical skills, and research-oriented programs akin to courses of study at full-fledged research universities. Doubtless, the low-academization variant has several advantages. In such cases it will be easier to socialize new recruits into existing civil service patterns and to put their practical knowledge to use in administrative reality. Further, processes of selection and self-selection may result in higher degrees of social cohesion among group members thanks to a common sense of esprit de corps. This may reduce the transaction costs of personnel mobility within public administration. On the other side, the high-academization variant will result in an increased horizontal and vertical mobility of civil servants, and holds the promise of making civil servants at all levels more capable of responding to complex and dynamic challenges, and of taking decisions after comprehensive analysis. Reform trajectories of European public sector training systems indicate significant shifts towards greater openness, increased sequentiality, and higher academization. These trends are embedded in broader and secular trends in modern societies that have come to value more university-based education in contrast to vocational training, and to pay a premium on life-long learning approaches. From a normative point of view, the observed reform trends resonate well with a modernized notion of public sector training systems that provide their graduates with more generally applicable and analytical competences, and prepare them for future changes in job requirements inside and outside the public sector.

CONCLUSION Public sector education and training programs in Europe are highly diversified. To a large extent, this is the result of strongly diverging administrative traditions, of different patterns of the educational and labor markets, and of varying educational cultures in the different countries. However, our discussion of reform trajectories has also indicated significant trends towards more commonalities with regard to the institutional status, program content, and teaching styles in European public sector training programs. Increasingly, university-type standards determine the status of training institutions. Consequently, academic degree programs are becoming more relevant for the training of civil servants in various European countries. Contributions to the development of program curricula

Teaching public administration in Europe  73 have traditionally come – and still do – from a broad range of academic disciplines. Although there is still a great variance of academic disciplines relevant for training programs, there are some signs of a growing overlap between established disciplinary approaches. Still, many programs across Europe are primarily embedded in their country-specific systems of higher education. Similarly, the diversity of teaching styles in European public sector programs is still high, although there are noticeable shifts toward “active learning” and more interactive, discursive teaching formats. In general, contemporary concepts of public sector training have become less specific and exclusive to the requirements of public sector bureaucracies, and they are more open to intersectoral and cross-functional competence profiles. European training systems also pay more attention to the “sequence” of the different stages of a qualification process over the course of a lifetime, or rather of a professional career. Finally, the shift towards “academization” as a secular trend also left very visible traces in the landscape of European public sector training programs. It would be quite naïve, however, to assume that education and training programs only exist to convey a certain body of knowledge and expertise to their participants. The functional and meritocratic element of education and training is often rivaled, if not altogether pushed aside, by political and power-related motives, as well as aspects of social selection. For example, public sector training systems can be used or abused to create personal loyalties and/or political biases. Also, institutions of higher education serve as important agents of professional socialization, and perform functions of social exclusion or inclusion. When observing current and future trends in the education and training of government bureaucrats, we are all well advised to keep a watchful eye on the political power games that manifest themselves in patterns of teaching public administration in Europe.

REFERENCES Bartoli, A. (2008). The study of public management in France. In W. Kickert (ed.), The study of public management in Europe and the US: A comparative analysis of national distinctiveness (pp. 14–41). Routledge. Bouckaert, G., and Jann, W. (eds) (2020). European perspectives for public administration: The way forward. Leuven University Press. Brans, M., and Coenen, L. (2016). The europeanization of public administration teaching. Policy and Society, 35(4), 333‒349. Cepiku, D., and Meneguzzo, M. (2007). Public administration education in Italy: A statistical analysis. McGraw-Hill. Chandler, J.A. (2002). Deregulation and the decline of public administration teaching in the UK. Public Administration, 80(2), 375–390. Connaughton, B., and Randma, T. (2002). Teaching ideas and principles of public administration: Is it possible to achieve a common European perspective? EPAN Occasional Papers. http://​bl​.ul​.ie/​epan/​. Accessed January 21, 2016. EAPAA (2013). Accreditation criteria of the European Association of Public Administration Accreditation, Version 9-2013. http://​www​.eapaa​.eu/​process. Accessed October 31, 2020. Goetz, K. (2000). The development and current features of the German civil service system. In H. Bekke and F. van der Meer (eds), Civil service systems in Western Europe (pp. 61–91). Edward Elgar Publishing. Hajnal, G. (2003). Diversity and convergence: A quantitative analysis of European PA Education. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 9(2), 245–258.

74  Handbook of teaching public administration Hajnal, G. (2015). Public administration education in Europe: Continuity or reorientation? Teaching Public Administration, 33(2), 95–114. Horton, S., and Van Wart, M. (2015). The United Kingdom. In M. Van Wart, A. Hondeghem, and E. Schwella (eds), Leadership and culture: Comparative models of top civil servant training (pp. 41–55). Palgrave Macmillan. Jann, W., and Veit, S. (2015). Germany. In M. Van Wart, A. Hondeghem, and E. Schwella (eds), Leadership and culture: Comparative models of top civil servant training (pp. 183–198). Palgrave Macmillan. Kickert, W. (ed.). (2008). The study of public management in Europe and the US: A comparative analysis of national distinctiveness. Routledge. Nemec, J., Spacek, D., Suwaj, P., and Modrzejewski, A. (2012). Public management as a university discipline in new European member states. The Central European case. Public Management Review, 14(8), 1087–1108. Pevcin, P., Špaček, D., and Klimovsky, D. (2019). Public administration education in the CEE countries: How has it developed during the recent decades? NISPAcee Journal of Public Administration and Policy, 12(2), 217‒232. Raadschelders, J.C.N., and Rutgers, M. (1999). The waxing and waning of the state and its study: Changes and challenges in the study of public administration. In W. Kickert and R. Stillman (eds), The modern state and its study: New administrative sciences in a changing Europe and United States, 2nd edition (pp. 17–35). Edward Elgar Publishing. Reichard, C. (2010). Challenges of public administration accreditation in a fragmented institutional setting: The case of Europe. Administration-Uprava, 8(2), 37–53. Reichard, C. (2017). Academic executive programs in public administration and management: Some variety across Europe, Teaching Public Administration, 35(1), 126–138. Reichard, C., and Schröter, E. (2018). Education and training in public administration and management in Europe. In E. Ongaro and S. van Thiel (eds), The Palgrave handbook of public administration and management in Europe (pp. 41‒60). Palgrave Macmillan. Schröter, E., and Röber, M. (2015). Values, competences, and public sector training: The value base of administrative modernization. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 21(1), 25–40. Van der Meer, F., and Marks, P. (2013). Teaching and learning reflection in MPA programs: Towards a strategy. Teaching Public Administration, 31(1), 42–54. Van der Meer, F., Steen, T., and Wille, A. (2015). Civil service systems in Western Europe: A comparative analysis. In F. Van der Meer, J. Raadschelders, and T. Toonen (eds), Comparative civil service systems in the 21st century (pp. 38–56). Palgrave Macmillan.

8. British public administration: the status of the taught discipline Karin A. Bottom, Ian C. Elliott, and Francisco Moller

British public administration (PA) has a history of debating its identity and future standing within the academy (for example, Chandler, 1991, 2002; Hood, 2011; Liddle, 2017; Rhodes, 1995, 1996; Rhodes et al., 1995). Perhaps, then, it is not surprising that discussions often glorify the past, catastrophise the present, and advocate a return to more traditional and purer forms of the discipline. In contrast, alternative lines of argument emphasise PA’s need to modernise and deliver a curriculum which more effectively addresses the complex and ‘wicked’ challenges the sector must address. This chapter explores how this tension manifests in current PA provision within British1 higher education (HE). It reflects on the development of the discipline, its relationship with teaching, its internal debates, and current challenges. Following a brief history of PA teaching in Britain, the chapter illustrates current thinking on the requirements of good PA educational provision. The chapter then briefly sets out the method employed to identify and analyse taught postgraduate PA programmes in British universities. Analysis is then presented, and the chapter concludes by suggesting that the taught discipline is developing slowly but needs to incorporate a better balance between traditional and non-traditional subjects. Though PA shows some signs of flexibility and responsiveness in its current educational offer, it is yet to fully recognise the need to place a number of contemporary issues at its fore.

THE NATURE OF BRITISH PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION In the establishment of public administration as an academic subject, Britain is still an under-developed country. (Ridley, 1972, p. 65)

British PA is perhaps unique in how its system of government is lauded across the world. Yet those charged with the management of government are treated as enthusiastic amateurs (Fulton Report, 1968, cited in Greer and Jarman, 2010: see also Fry, 1969). Such assessment of the United Kingdom (UK) Civil Service has a long trajectory with the Fulton Report describing it as being based on the cult of the amateur with no specific education or formal training.2 The Report led to the formation of the Civil Service College (latterly renamed the National School for Government),3 which only operated between 1970 and 2012. Since then, a private limited company acquired the name ‘Civil Service College’ along with many of the training resources of the old National School for Government. It now operates as a private business offering training to the Civil Service and other parts of the public sector. During its 42 years of service, as part of the UK government, the Civil Service College enjoyed no more than a fleeting engagement with universities (Chapman, 1980). Indeed, Sir William Armstrong of the UK government’s Civil Service Department noted that ‘as far as I know, British adminis75

76  Handbook of teaching public administration tration and the Civil Service has regarded itself as not requiring academic insights or advice’ (Armstrong, cited by Chapman and Munroe, 1979, p. 3). Considerable efforts were made by the Joint University Council’s Public Administration Committee (PAC),4 particularly following publication of the Fulton Report, to establish stronger links between universities and the UK government. There was even reference to ‘cautious optimism’ (Chapman and Munroe, 1979, p. 3), and yet only seven years after establishment of the Civil Service College, it was noted that ‘the future [of this relationship] appeared very uncertain’ (p. 4). The UK Civil Service has changed dramatically over time (Greer and Jarman, 2010), and arguably, wider public services have changed even more so. Yet, there has been a reticence to support the continuing education of those employed in public service, in respect of requirements for educational qualifications in PA. Key institutes such as the Civil Service College and the Royal Institute of Public Administration (RIPA)5 have either been allowed to fold or have been sold to the private sector. It is notable, for example, that questions were raised about the value and effectiveness of the Civil Service College soon after its inception, and that significant funding cuts followed (Chapman, 1982). Similarly, the RIPA, which was established in 1921, received its first government grant of £6000 only in 1949, yet at the same time a grant of £150 000 was given to the newly formed British Institute of Management (Chapman, 1978). The British Institute of Management continues today as the Chartered Management Institute (CMI) whilst the RIPA folded in 1992, having failed to receive government support which would have enabled its continuation (Chapman, 1992a). Notwithstanding this, there have been moments when teaching PA has seen a rise in demand (Rhodes, 1996); however, a certain distain for academic qualifications in PA has endured. As a result, training, even education, has predominantly been delivered by consultants and practitioners. At the same time, the quality of instruction provided by management consultants and practitioners who are not actively engaged in PA research has long been questioned. As noted in 1974, ‘The quality of much of their teaching is poor and the material often inadequate and outdated, partly the result of physical and intellectual isolation from those who teach and write about PA in the universities and polytechnics’ (Wright, 1974, p. 73). Similar comments could be made today about civil servants and other public managers studying MBA courses that are devoid of public policy and administration content (see Chandler, 1991). The poor standing of PA teaching in the UK has always been in stark contrast to countries elsewhere. Ridley’s (1972) comparison of PA teaching in the UK, Germany, and France highlighted the latter two countries’ traditions of teaching PA, dating back to the 1800s. In a similar vein, particular comment has been made of contributions made by the École Nationale d’Administration in Paris and Strasbourg (Mackenzie, 1979). Similarly, the discipline’s origins date back to 1727 in Prussia (Fry, 1969) and the late 1700s in Sweden (Molitor, cited by Fry, 1969), with the first book on PA published in France in 1808 (Molitor, cited by Fry, 1969).

A BRIEF HISTORY OF BRITISH TEACHING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Many histories of British PA have been written, often with a focus on key institutions such as the RIPA (Chapman, 1993; Rhodes, 1995, 1996; Rhodes et al., 1995; Shelley, 1993), the PAC of the Joint University Council (Chapman, 2007), and the National School of Government (previously the Civil Service College). What links many of these analyses and commentaries

British public administration: the status of the taught discipline  77 is a preoccupation with definition and semantics, a lamenting of former glories, and an unease with forces for change.6 Indeed, a cursory review of this literature would leave an optimist somewhat disillusioned. References point to the end of Whitehall (Wilson and Campbell, 1995), the Civil Service (Chapman, 1992b), the Whitehall model (Wilson and Barker, 1995), the deprivileging of the Civil Service (Hood, 1995), intellectual crisis (Boyne, 1996), decline (Chandler, 1991, 2002), decay (Elcock, 1991), discontent (Ridley, 1972), or demise (Greenwood, 1999). These reviews date back over a number of decades and repeat many of the same themes and concerns. For example, an early commentary bemoaned that ‘the Civil Service has never shown much or even any interest in university courses in the subject either for first or higher degrees’ (Robson, 1975, p. 193). This analysis was based on 25–35 years of experience, but similar grievances have been raised in the five decades since, and this context sits in stark contrast to a number of other countries (as noted above) where national and regional governments are the primary source of students for PA programmes and often work closely with their local universities to both support staff development and inform policymaking and practice. This has rarely been the case in Britain where universities have typically had to look elsewhere and be adaptive to attract students, directing their focus to local government, the local public sector, and more recently, the international market (Fenwick and McMillan, 2014). Alongside frustrated narratives focusing on the decline and demise of the discipline are definitional debates and diagnoses of the causes of apparent decline in the teaching of PA. Discussions have typically centred on the use and meaning of PA, public management, public governance, and other variations (reflected partly in Elcock, 2004; Carmichael, 2004). For some, these terms relate to distinct approaches, for others they represent wholly different foci, and yet others use them more interchangeably. Such debates are not as prominent in other subjects, such as business administration (or business management). Whereas the fractious nature of discussion around nomenclature within PA has led to a plethora of differently titled programmes and modules, and even confusion about what constitutes an MPA or a DPA (Jones, 2012), MBAs and DBAs sit comfortably alongside MScs in business management. Several explanations seek to diagnose PA’s apparent decline. Chandler (2002) draws attention to how deregulation and the introduction of mass education launched a marketisation of the sector. He goes on to suggest that many smaller ‘niche’ programmes, such as PA, were casualties of this change which instigated the competitive large courses that so many educators are familiar with today. Liddle (2017) also highlights the marketisation of HE and its impact on PA, pointing to the rise of the business school within UK academia. With others, she argues that such developments have squeezed PA out in favour of business-orientated subjects (see also Chandler, 1991, 2002; Elcock, 2004; Fenwick and McMillan, 2014; Jones, 2012) and injected a strain of ‘new right’ philosophy into the teaching of PA (Liddle, 2017).7 Following from this is a more generalised suggestion that the location of PA teaching in departments predominantly focused on other subjects has diluted the subject and introduced new perspectives (Johnston Miller, 2012; Jones, 2012). Additionally, it is noted that for many, public administration is not considered an attractive career option (Ritz and Waldner, 2011; Shand and Howell, 2015), and despite the increasingly complex nature of government, student populations show a reticence to study it (Johnston Miller, 2012). This may be exacerbated by a failure to include PA within curricula at secondary school level (Jones 2012). Finally, it is suggested that government policy towards academia, the civil service, and the wider public sector has contributed to its demise (Elcock,

78  Handbook of teaching public administration 2004; see also Liddle, 2017). Yet these varied diagnoses focus on external factors. Few have considered internal factors such as the philosophy, concepts, and pedagogy of British PA itself.8 Of course, PA is not alone in facing significant threats over the last 30 years (often driven by external forces). Where a difference may be noted is in its response. When Rhodes (1996) characterised the British PA of the 1950s–1970s as insular and unreflective, he could as easily have been referring to the 1990s–2010s. Whilst many academic subjects have experienced a cultural or postmodern turn, PA has largely held on to modernist assumptions of rationality and progress. In fact, it could be argued that changes to the British university sector, particularly driven by the Research Excellence Framework – which assesses research quality across British universities – and the associated push to demonstrate ‘international’ excellence (Hood, 2011), has led PA to become increasingly methodologically reductionist and less relevant to practitioners (Pollitt, 2017).

SHIFTING PRIORITIES IN THE TEACHING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION PA education in Britain was first introduced in 1968,9 and within the decade, seven institutions delivered PA programmes (Jones, 2012). Exclusively focused on the post-experience market, these degrees, initially aimed at civil servants, trained public sector workers in managerial skills, placing a focus on traditional PA topics, and introducing theoretical and epistemological perspectives towards the end of the 20th century (Rhodes et al., 1995). More recently, a significant voice within the academy has argued that PA programmes have failed to keep abreast of and address crucial changes in society. As a result, it is suggested that current and future public sector leaders may well be leaving higher education ill-equipped to address the needs of their communities. Indeed, Sabharwal et al. (2018) highlight the importance of preparing future public sector leaders to effectively serve a diverse citizenry. White and Rice (2015) advocate for practitioners having a greater appreciation of demographic change and the diverse environment in which they live. Over a decade ago, Page et al. (2008) argued for the inclusion of equality and diversity in the education of public sector managers. Focusing on Britain, Johnston Miller and McTavish (2011) exposed the failure of PA curricula to include gender, women, or feminism. Highlighting the impact of such omissions on student learning, they argued for programmes and pedagogy that equipped women to manage the masculine discourse and practice so dominant in the public sector. Scholars also lobby for a more international perspective in PA teaching. Jreisat (2005) argues that modern-day public sector leaders must possess cross-national analytical skills; and Basheka (2012) makes a case for a broader PA curriculum that incorporates indigenous traditions and structures. Manoharan et al. (2018) convincingly argue for a more comparative approach to teaching PA; and Matzslita (2020) calls for a decolonised PA that provides opportunities for students to reflect on their background. While PA’s failure to reflect and evolve is addressed elsewhere in this chapter (see Rhodes, 1996, 2010), its well-recognised multidisciplinary and pluralistic nature (Raadschelers, 2008, 2010; see also Johnston Miller, 2012)10 suggests that it should be open to more expansive perspectives and ideas. Building on previous analyses that have assessed the provision of PA in higher education (see Johnston Miller, 2012; Johnston Miller and McTavish, 2011; Jones, 2012), the remainder of this chapter explores the extent to which the modern-day PA curric-

British public administration: the status of the taught discipline  79 ulum in Britain has progressed beyond a traditional and rationalist focus. It places particular emphasis on programme content and the extent to which the academy has sought to broaden the curriculum and deliver programmes that seek to address modern-day challenges.

IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF PROGRAMMES Research was funded by the Joint University Council’s Public Administration Committee to identify current PA programmes and their content. It was conducted in three phases between January 2020 and September 2021. Research comprised an initial review of the literature and two separate reviews of programme provision: all work was internet-based.11 Given the demise of undergraduate PA education in Britain,12 the focus of this work is postgraduate taught programmes. These are typically vocational in nature, providing specialist degrees or MBA-level qualifications specialising in the public sector (Fenwick and McMillan, 2014). Initial scoping identified key search terms including ‘PA’, ‘public management’, ‘public services’, ‘public sector’, and ‘public policy’, though final search terms were confined to ‘MPA’, ‘public administration (PA)’ and ‘public management’. While debate concerning the distinctions between PA and public management continue, these semantics are not pertinent to the research. The Which Guide to University and Colleges13 structured the research which utilised university search engines to identify taught postgraduate programmes. This was supplemented by programme searches through Google. All programmes were categorised in terms of delivery mode, duration, target cohort, key marketing, and whether optional modules were offered. Assessment of programme content was captured through descriptions of programme narratives and core and optional modules. Traditional PA content was identified as that which focused on ‘the study of the public sector’, ‘institution, structures and decision-making processes’, ‘policy formulation and implementation’, and ‘the role of the people involved’ (Jones, 2012, p. 126). Less traditional PA content was categorised in reference to discussion elsewhere in this chapter (Basheka, 2012; Jreisat, 2005; Manoharan et al., 2018; Matzslita, 2020; Sabharwal et al., 2018; White and Rice, 2015). Modules explicitly referring to comparative, international, and/or global perspectives, social equity and diversity – characteristics protected in the Equality Act 2010 – were categorised as non-traditional.

FINDINGS Thirty programmes taught across 16 universities and one management school were identified. A number of universities offered more than one programme and a number of offers were derivatives of the same programme (see Table 8.1). Twenty were taught within what are termed as the research-intensive Russell Group universities. Eighteen were titled as MPAs, and eight MPAs with a speciality were identified. Of the seven institutions teaching PA in the 1970s,14 three still deliver MPA programmes. Compared against research for the PAC in 2008 (see Johnston Miller and McTavish, 2011), seven universities had discontinued eight MPA courses.15

80  Handbook of teaching public administration Table 8.1

University public administration and public management programmes

University

Degree

Delivery

Full-time (FT) / part-time (PT)

Birmingham, University of

MPA

Campus

FT and PT

Birmingham, University of

MPA Finance

Campus

PT

Birmingham, University of

MPA Human Resources

Campus

PT

Birmingham, University of

MPA

Online

PT

Birmingham, University of

MSc Public Management and

Blended

PT

Birmingham, University of

Degree Apprenticeship and MSc,

Blended

PT

Leadership Public Management and Leadership Birmingham, University of

MSc Public Management

Campus

FT

De Montfort University

MA Public Leadership and

Blended

PT

Exeter, University of

MPA

Campus

FT and PT

Huddersfield University

MPA

Campus

PT

Management

Manchester Metropolitan University MPA

Campus

FT and PT

Leeds, University of

Campus

FT and PT

MPA

London School of Economics (LSE) MPA

Campus

FT*

North West Wales Management

Online

PT

MPA

School Nottingham, University of

MPA

Campus

FT and PT

Portsmouth, University of

MPA Degree Apprenticeship

Campus

PT

Portsmouth, University of

MPA

Online

FT and PT

Southampton, University of

MPA

Campus

FT

Teesside University

MPA

Campus

FT and PT

Teesside University

MPA applied

Campus

FT

University College London (UCL)

MPA Public Administration and

Campus

FT and PT

Management Ulster, University of

MPA

Campus

FT

West Scotland, University of

MPA

Campus

FT

York, University of

MPA

Online

PT

York, University of

MPA (International Development)

Online

PT

York, University of

MPA (Public Policy and

Online

PT

Management) York, University of

MPA (Social and Public Policy)

Online

PT

York, University of

MPA

Campus

FT and PT

York, University of

MPA (Public Policy)

Campus

FT and PT

York, University of

MPA (International Development)

Campus

FT and PT

Notes: * LSE full-time programme is two years in length. Sources: Above-mentioned university websites.

One pure public management MSc and two public management programmes integrated another subject (all at the same university). Finally, one MA in Public Leadership and Management was included in the analysis, given its central focus on public management. The majority of programmes were listed as campus-based, and in line with the subject’s vocational status, over two-thirds of programmes offered part time study as an option or as the only method of delivery. The dominance of part-time programmes appeared to suggest strong links with the public sector, or an ability to attract these professionals. Two programmes offered a degree apprenticeship. While one programme offered a placement option, another took a specifically applied context, and a small number offered capstone options which

British public administration: the status of the taught discipline  81 provide for an ‘integrated educational experience’ that is practice-orientated and theory-based (Reid and Miller, 1997). One department offered microcredit qualifications to supplement formal qualifications. While part-time programmes were generally marketed to experienced professionals, a number of those offering full-time or both study options also did the same, while others took a more catch-all approach to recruitment. By virtue of set government funding requirements, both degree apprenticeship programmes required applicants to possess public sector experience, though one did not articulate this. Table 8.1 summarises the university public administration and public management programmes. While six programmes failed to provide any notable programme narrative, the remaining 24 followed similar paths, tending to start with an explanation of how society needs professionals with the appropriate qualifications and skills to navigate challenging times. Following this, many then referred to the skills and tools provided by their postgraduate programme. The majority listed the different fields involved in the syllabus, such as sociology, government, economy, and research methodologies. A small number detailed their distinctiveness, in terms of the institution (part of a specific institute and rankings), academics involved in the programme (staff qualifications and/or research expertise), or learning opportunities (field trips, internships and learning experiences). Interdisciplinarity was used as a strategy to merge narratives, instead of articulating a single distinctive theoretical approach. Finally, many programmes highlighted employability options and potential employers in private, public, and third sector organisations. This was especially clear in programmes that were not tailored to post-experience applicants. All programmes failed to shape a narrative around specific societal problems where an MPA can make a difference, though a number made minor reference to this. Without exception, programme marketing failed to acknowledge that successful public sector working is contingent on collaboration. All narratives were individualised and focused on prospective student success. Eleven programmes comprised core modules only, 16 offered options, and three were unclear on programme content beyond broad topic coverage. In a number of cases, option topics were social science-based as opposed to PA-based, perhaps reflective of PA’s broad appeal and spread across disciplines (Jones, 2012).16 Public administration-focused and public management-focused programmes did not appear to significantly differ in context, justifying the authors’ position on terminology. Traditional PA topics (Jones, 2012) constituted the majority of core modules across all programmes, though a number of programmes that did not offer options included non-traditional modules. Of the 27 programmes that detailed specific modules, comparative or globally focused modules were the most common form of non-traditional content, with 21 programmes offering this, 11 as core. A number of programme narratives stressed a global or comparative approach, irrespective of module content. Seventeen programmes offered modules that explicitly or implicitly addressed social equity, seven as core. Only seven programmes offered modules that addressed diversity and in only one was it a core subject. In contrast to findings by Johnston Miller and McTavish (2011), three programmes offered a module on gender. It should be noted that a sizable portion of non-traditional modules appeared more social science-focused as opposed to PA-focused. Programme locations differed: the majority were based within departments or schools associated with politics, but a number did not state a location. While this may be an indication of how, unlike most social science-related disciplines in HE, British PA is nomadic in nature, it

82  Handbook of teaching public administration may indicate the host’s department lack of support for the subject (see Elcock, 2004, Liddle, 2017),17 or a catch-all approach to recruitment.

CONCLUSIONS The history of British PA provides significant insight into the current state of teaching. Despite concerns and grievances highlighting the impact of external pressures, such as a lack of government support and the role of business schools in undermining the educational offer of PA, it remains a significant presence in HE. As a discipline, PA’s resilience, flexibility, and innovation are clearly demonstrated in the ongoing delivery of programmes to domiciled students employed in an increasingly fragmented public sector, and overseas students who are largely post undergraduates. An additional measure of PA’s health is the extension of its educational reach. Multiple universities now offer sector-specific programmes, for example to health professionals or the police. Others offer derivative programmes, such as those in public policy, a specialism that, while allied to PA, does not focus on the mechanics and processes of the public sector. As discussed elsewhere in this chapter, PA is both multidisciplinary and pluralistic. Therefore, a strong case can be made for including it within more generalised HE studies, for example politics and business management programmes.18 Yet, equally, the identity of taught PA must be protected, whether as part of a broader programme or as a full PA degree located within other disciplines. Indeed, this challenge is particularly stark in business schools, where greater efforts must be made in ensuring that PA students are equipped for careers in the public sector. To conclude, our research shows that PA, as a subject, continues to evolve, though the pace of change is slow. While programmes are placing a greater focus on less traditional topics, the pace of demographic and social change, the prevalence of intractable wicked issues, and the global nature of challenges faced by the public sector suggest that more progressive topics deserve a central positioning within taught programmes. Significant revision of programme content may, however, pose a challenge, particularly for post-experience programmes, given the public sector’s reticence to modernise. Importantly, such change may also serve to highlight the heterogeneity of PA students’ real and perceived learning needs, given the subject’s vocational nature and the discipline’s ability to attract both post-experience and post undergraduate students. This will require the discipline to reflect on what it teaches and why.

NOTES 1. It avoids discussion on the intricacies of British geopolitics and understands ‘Britain’ to include all parts of the UK. 2. The Fulton Report made recommendations for the modernisation of the Civil Service. 3. The Civil Service College was created to develop an efficient and educated administrative class (Mackenzie, 1979). 4. The Joint University Council (JUC), a Learned Society and its Public Administration Committee (PAC) provide an oversight of higher education-focused training and seek to influence government policy and practice (Chapman, 2007). 5. The Royal Institute for Public Administration (RIPA), later titled the Royal Institute of Public Administration (1922‒1992), was a professional body promoting the civil service profession and the study of PA (Nottage and Stack, 1972).

British public administration: the status of the taught discipline  83 6. 7. 8.

For a more positive perspective on the health of PA, see Hood (2011). See Chandler (2002) for an overview of the debate on new right values and PA. Johnston Miller draws attention to a number of internal factors that may have had a negative impact on the discipline. First, PA scholars have neglected the discipline and failed to nurture and develop junior scholars (see Hood, 2011; see also Johnston Miller, 2012). Second, a failure to establish the accreditation of PA through a learned society has limited the discipline’s ‘voice’ and devalued it as a unique and important subject of study (Johnston Miller, 2012). 9. Sheffield Polytechnic was the first institution to introduce a PA undergraduate degree (Jones, 2012). 10. For a comprehensive overview on PA’s multidisciplinarity, refer to Johnston Miller (2012). 11. A number of programmes were streamlined or cut during the preparation of the chapter; a number of new programmes were identified. 12. Only De Montfort University offers an undergraduate programme: BA Hons in Public Administration and Management. 13. Now TheUniGuide. 14. Glasgow Caledonian University, De Montfort University, Manchester Metropolitan University, Robert Gordon University, Sheffield Hallam University, Teesside University, University of Glamorgan. 15. University of Greenwich, University of Liverpool, University of Manchester, University of Newcastle (two programmes), Open University, Robert Gordon University, University of Warwick. 16. Possibly also a reflection of programme streamlining during the Covid-19 pandemic. 17. Both Elcock (2004) and Liddle (2017) refer to business schools’ lack of support for PA programmes. 18. Ridley (1972) forwarded an argument for an interdisciplinary approach to teaching PA; see also Jones (2012).

REFERENCES Basheka, B.C. (2012). The paradigms of public administration: Re-examined. Journal of Public Administration, 47(1), 25–67. Boyne, G.A. (1996). The intellectual crisis in British public administration: Is public management the problem or the solution? Public Administration, 74(4), 679–694. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1467​9299.1996.tb00890. Carmichael, P. (2004). Shackled to a corpse? Reply to Howard Elcock. Public Policy and Administration, 19(2), 8–12. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​095207670401900203. Chandler, J.A. (1991). Public administration: A discipline in decline. Teaching Public Administration, 11(2), 39–45. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​014473949101100205. Chandler, J.A. (2002). Deregulation and the decline of public administration teaching in the UK. Public Administration, 80(2), 375–390. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​1467​-9299​.00309. Chapman, R.A. (1978). The development of the academic study of public administration in the UK, the US, Canada and Ireland. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 44(1), 40‒49. Chapman, R.A. (1980). The PAC and teaching public administration in the 1970s. Public Administration Bulletin, 34, 9–20. Chapman, R.A. (1982). Public administration education in Britain. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 6(3), 48–55. DOI: 10.1080/0309877820060306. Chapman, R.A. (1992a). The demise of the Royal Institute of Public Administration (UK). Australian Journal of Public Administration, 51(4), 519–520. Chapman, R.A. (1992b). The end of the civil service? Teaching Public Administration, 12(2), 1–5. doi​ .org/​10​.1177/​014473949201200201. Chapman, R.A. (1993). The demise of the RIPA: An idea shattered. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 52(1), 466–474. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1467​-8500​.1993​.tb00302​.x. Chapman, R.A. (2007). The origins of the Joint University Council and the background to Public Policy and Administration: An interpretation. Public Policy and Administration, 22(1), 7–26. https://​doi​.org/​ 10​.1177/​0952076707071500.

84  Handbook of teaching public administration Chapman, R.A., and Munroe, R. (1979). Public administration teaching in the civil service. Teaching Politics, 8, 1–12. Elcock, H. (1991). Change and decay? Public administration in the 1990s. Longman. Elcock, H. (2004). Public administration: Why are we in the mess we’re in? Public Policy and Administration, 19(2), 3–7. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​095207670401900202. Fenwick, J., and McMillan, J. (2014). Public administration, what is it, why teach it and why does it matter? Teaching Public Administration, 32(2), 194–204. doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0144739414522479. Fry, G.K. (1969). Some weaknesses in the Fulton Report on the British Home Civil Service. Political Studies, 17(4), 484‒494. Greenwood, J. (1999). The demise of traditional teaching: Public administration in Britain. Teaching Public Administration, 19(1), 53–61. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​014473949901900104. Greer, S.L., and Jarman, H. (2010). What Whitehall ‒ Definitions, demographics and the changing home civil service. Public Policy and Administration, 25(3), 251–270. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 0952076709356867. Hood, C. (1995). ‘Deprivileging’ the UK Civil Service in the 1980’s: Dream or reality? In J. Pierre (ed.), Bureaucracy in the modern state: An introduction to comparative public administration (pp. 92–117). Edward Elgar Publishing. Hood, C. (2011). It’s public administration, Rod, but maybe not as we know it: British public administration in the 2000s. Public Administration, 89(1), 128–139. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1467​-9299​.2011​ .01905​.x. Johnston Miller, K.J. (2012). The future of the discipline: Trends in public sector management. In J. Liddle and J. Diamond (eds), Emerging and potential trends in public management: An age of austerity (pp.  1–24). Emerald. http://​dx​.doi​.org/​10​.1108/​S2045​-​7944(2012)​0000001004. Johnston Miller, K., and McTavish, D. (2011). Women in UK public administration scholarship? Public Administration, 89(2), 681–697. doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1467​-9299​.2010​.01895​.x. Jones, A. (2012). Where has all the public administration gone? Teaching Public Administration, 30(2), 124–132. doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0144739412462169. Jreisat, J.E. (2005). Comparative public administration is back in, prudently. Public Administration Review, 65(2), 231–242. doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1540​-6210​.2005​.00447​.x. Liddle, J. (2017). Is there still a need for teaching and research in public administration and management? A personal view from the UK. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 30(6), 575–583. DOI: 10.1080/0305006790150103. Mackenzie, C. (1979). The Ecole Nationale d’Administration and the Civil Service College. Comparative Education, 15(1), 11‒16. Manoharan. A., Mirbel. W., and Carrizales, T.J. (2018). Global comparative public administration: Are graduate programs responding to the call? Teaching Public Administration, 36(1), 34–49. doi​.org/​10​ .1177/​0144739417708835. Matzslita, N.S. (2020). Decolonisation in the field of public administration: The responsiveness of the scholarship of teaching and learning. Teaching Public Administration, 38(3), 295–3 12. doi​.org/​10​ .1177/​0144739420901743. Nottage, R., and Stack, F. (1972). The Royal Institute of Public Administration 1922‒1939. Public Administration, 50, 281–37. Page, M., Oldfield, C., and Urstad, B. (2008). Why not teach ‘diversity’ to public sector managers? International Journal of Public Sector Management, 21(4), 368–382. DOI 10.1108/09513550810880241. Pollitt, C. (2017). Public administration research since 1980: Slipping away from the real world? International Journal of Public Sector Management, 30(6–7), 555–565. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1108/​ IJPSM​-04​-2017​-0113. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (2008). Understanding government: Four intellectual traditions in the study of public administration. Public Administration, 86(4), 925–949. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (2010). Identity without boundaries: Public administration’s canon(s) of integration. Administration and Society, 42(2), 131–159. Reid, M., and Miller, W. (1997). Bridging theory and administrative practice: The role of a capstone course in PA programmes. International Journal of Public Administration, 20(10), 1513–1527. doi​ .org/​10​.1080/​01900699708525274.

British public administration: the status of the taught discipline  85 Rhodes, R.A.W. (1995). The changing face of British public administration. Politics, 15(2), 117–126. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1467​-9256​.1995​.tb00129​.x. Rhodes, R.A.W. (1996). From institutions to dogma: Tradition, eclecticism, and ideology in the study of British public administration. Public Administration Review, 56(6), 507–516. https://​doi​.org/​10​.2307/​ 977249. Rhodes, R.A.W. (2010). Public administration. In G. Bouckaert and W. Van de Donk (eds), The European Group for Public Administration (1975‒2010): Perspectives for the future (pp. 26–30). Bruylant. Rhodes, R.A.W., Dargie, C., Melville, A., and Tutt, B. (1995). The state of public administration: A professional history, 1970–1995. Public Administration, 73(1), 1–16. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1467​ -9299​.1995​.tb00814​.x. Ridley, F.F. (1972). Public administration: Cause for discontent. Public Administration, 50(1), 65–78. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1467​-9299​.1972​.tb00081​.x. Ritz, A., and Waldner, C. (2011). Competing for future leaders: A study of attractiveness of public sector organisations to potential job applicants. Review of Public Administration, 31(3), 291– 316. Robson, W.A. (1975). The study of public administration then and now. Political Studies, 23(2–3), 193–201. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1467​-9248​.1975​.tb00060​.x. Sabharwal, M., Levine, H., and D’Agostino M. (2018). A conceptual content analysis of 75 years of diversity research in public administration. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 38(2), 248–267. Shand, R., and Howell, K.E. (2015). From the classics to the cuts: Valuing teaching public administration as a public good. Teaching Public Administration, 33(3), 211–220. Shelley, I. (1993). What happened to the RIPA? Public Administration, 71(4), 471–490. https://​doi​.org/​ 10​.1111/​j​.1467​-9299​.1993​.tb00987​.x. White, H.L., and Rice, M.F. (2015). The multiple dimensions of diversity and culture. In M.F. Rice (ed.), Diversity and public administration: Theory, issues, and perspectives (2nd edn, pp. 3–23). M.E. Sharpe. doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0734371X16671368. Wilson, G.K., and Barker, A. (1995). The end of The Whitehall Model? West European Politics, 18(4), 130–149. doi​.org/​10​.1080/​01402389508425110. Wilson, G.K., and Campbell, C. (1995). The end of Whitehall: Death of a paradigm. Blackwell. Wright, M. (1974). Teaching public administration. Public Administration, 52(1), 73‒78. https://​doi​.org/​ 10​.1111/​j​.1467​-9299​.1974​.tb00166​.x.

9. Public affairs education in Latin America and the shape of the state: the cases of Brazil, Chile, and Colombia Ricardo Corrêa Gomes, Pablo Sanabria-Pulido, Cristian Pliscoff, and Marco Antonio Carvalho Teixeira

Public administration education is a context-dependent phenomenon. As public administration and policy has been built as an interdisciplinary field, higher education programs have emerged either as by-products or as a mixture of elements from different fields: business administration, political science, law, sociology, economics, amongst other disciplines of the social sciences. As a result, it is very difficult to depict a general fit-to-all framework, even when comparing countries with similar cultural, political, and socio-economic backgrounds, like those in Latin America. In this chapter, we present public administration education from three countries from South America: Brazil, Chile, and Colombia. Besides being located in the same region, the three countries have run different paths in terms of public administration development, which has impacted their institutional capacity and their educational supply for public service. The three countries in our comparative analysis arose around the same time and were colonized by Iberian countries. Brazil is a 521-year-old country; initially occupied by Portugal, it became independent in 1822. Brazil adopted the republican regime in 1891. Chile was occupied by the Spanish in 1520. It became independent in 1810. The Spaniards arrived in Colombia in 1499. In 1810, it became independent from Spain. At the moment, the three countries have democratic institutions with democratically elected presidents. Yet, Brazil and Chile have experienced dictatorship exerted by military power; whereas Colombia has been one of the three longest-lasting democracies in the whole continent. Brazil and Chile each experienced a very short military government and a period of a state of siege under democratically elected governments. Hence, these experiences affected the pace of developing their public administration apparatus, which appears to be relatively young, like most of Latin America. In accordance with that, public affairs education appears to be an area of most recent development in the region. The actual configuration of republics with sufficient administrative capacity did not occur until well into the 20th century. Noticeably, most parts of its public administration structures began to be configured belatedly when compared to other regions of the world. Moreover, in Latin America, creating independent civil services and consolidated public sector organisations seems to be a process that is still in progress. In that vein, it is not surprising that the first public affairs educational programs in the three analysed countries only began to appear after the 1950s (in a very hesitant way) and only accelerated after the 1990s, as shown below. Yet, the three countries show different processes, with dissimilar speeds and intensities. We will provide some insights regarding those differences, starting with the experience of Brazil, then Chile, and finally Colombia. According to Coelho and Nicolini (2014), public administration education in Brazil can be seen under three phases: the teaching of public administration 86

Public affairs education in Latin America and the shape of the state  87 in the second half of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century (1854‒1930), organization of the administrative state (1930‒1944), and the creation of the Getulio Vargas Foundation (1944‒1952). The movement has effectively created forces with the bureaucratic model’s adoption, and the need to implement efficiency models, in both the public and private spheres. On the other hand, public administration education has been part of university activity since the University of Chile was founded in 1842. The need to educate those working for the state was part of the university’s initial mandate and its current academic offer (combined with other disciplines) until 1954, when the first university program was created. The interest in educating students in the concepts and theories regarding how public administration works can be traced back to several educators in the second part of the 19th century. The expansion of higher education in the late 1990s and the previous century implied the creation of an important number of schools and undergraduate programs in the subject. Finally, although Colombia engaged in very early works regarding the design of an administrative state for the nascent republic, even before renowned authors in Europe and the United States, namely Florentino Gonzalez in 1839 (Gonzalez, 1994), different studies have identified it as a country exhibiting late development of its educational programs in public affairs (public policy and public administration) (Careaga et al., 2014; Sanabria-Pulido et al., 2016). Most master’s programmes started only after the year 2000, and only very recently have some undergraduate and doctoral programs started to be offered. Although Colombia created the public Higher School of Public Administration (ESAP by its Spanish acronym) in 1958, it remained the sole option for public administration education in the country. Thus, the three countries have displayed different developments that have led to different state configurations, but show similarities in the development of public affairs programs that only started to take place and accelerate in the second half of the 20th century. As a guideline, we focus on the following research question: “How has the shape and the type of the state influenced public administration education in the three countries?” The chapter structure is as follows: following this introduction, we present information and data from Brazil, Chile, and Colombia; a comparative section is then provided, and a conclusion.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION EDUCATION IN THREE LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES Brazil: History of the Field in the Country and Some Figures The complexity of roles assumed by governments and non-governmental organizations and other public and private organizations required not only investment in multidisciplinarity, but also a challenging of the configuration of higher-level courses that were more integrated with the territorial reality in which each of them operated. The professional mosaic of the public sector, given the different socio-economic realities of each municipality, state, or region, challenged the elaboration of syllabi that dialogue with the contents and conformations of economic, social, and political environments. The different denominations reflect the diversity of Brazil’s field and the demand for multidisciplinary approaches in teaching and researching activities in the context of different areas of knowledge. The idea behind this was an attempt to train professionals guided by principles

88  Handbook of teaching public administration common to all courses such as democracy and ethics, whether in improving management, developing and implementing social welfare policies to fight inequalities, respect for the environment, and ethnic and cultural diversity. The responses to the different challenges of training professionals to work in the public sector have, over time, been multiple and in tune with the historical moment. For example, José Murilo de Carvalho (1996) shows that when we went through the imperial period, we observed that most of the first echelon’s professional staff in the nascent Brazilian state sector came from a single formation: law. Between 1822 and 1831, 52 percent of the ministers had legal training. At the end of the Empire (1888), legal training was already responsible for 86 percent of ministers, with the other 14 percent divided between military careers and medicine. The formation of a professional with a conservative tendency was introduced: professionals who in their daily life acted with a focus on the legality of their acts and the preservation of the order, rather than public servants who observed the role of the state and its public policies to be the search for a less unequal society. Pursuing these objectives in that historical period meant putting the law and social order into question, including the need to review the rules; something that a monodisciplinary training professional would certainly have more difficulties doing. The 20th century, until the introduction of the 1988 Constitution, also fell short of a more forceful questioning of the social order. Women achieved the right to vote only in the 1930s. However, as the social structure is still mostly guided by a vision that puts men at the centre of power, women, despite representing more than 50 percent of the population, occupy just over 10 percent of the positions in the House of Representatives, the Senate, city halls, and state governments (Brasil, 2021). In addition to these issues, the public administration begins the 20th century as embryonic in terms of structure and organization. One of the most relevant problems was the difficulty of being a modern bureaucracy, able to select its staff and to create a career progression system. As Luciano Martins (1995) observes, both administrative modernization and professionalization in the public sector appear more effectively as important issues for the country only in the 1930s. According to this author, modernization and professionalization arose as a product of the 1930 Revolution, and was developed during a period called the Estado Novo (1937‒1945).1 The creation of public positions with different perspectives became crucial. The challenge was to deal with new economic actors who were able to transform themselves into new political players. They organized themselves around specific demands of their social groups, such as the nascent labor unions that gained strength with the expansion of social and labor rights, during the President Vargas (1930‒1945) period. The Brazilian government increased in complexity, and as a result, the production of knowledge and training needed to be reviewed. In this context, the law began to lose the monopoly of providing the state’s administrative positions and careers. It opened spaces for professionals who look at a reality beyond compliance with rules and regulations. In this spirit, the first public administration courses aimed at training officers with a multidisciplinary approach and a higher concern with professionalism. As a result, the search for the promotion of social justice began to emerge. In his doctoral thesis, Fernando Coelho (2006) makes a diagnosis and analyses the development of courses and teaching of public administration in Brazil. The first undergraduate course emerged at the Getulio Vargas Foundation in Rio de Janeiro in 1952: the Brazilian School of Public Administration (EBAP). Soon after, and between 1952 and 1965, new graduations with similar objectives were emerging, but located in different universities. For example,

Public affairs education in Latin America and the shape of the state  89 the Universities of São Paulo, Paraiba, Minas Gerais, and Amazônia placed their public administration courses in economics. The Pernambuco Higher Education Foundation (FESP) and the State University of Santa Catarina began to train administrators in their respective administration schools. Finally, the University of Brasilia allocated its degree in the Institute of Humanities. After 1964, many transformations in the country took place, and the public administration courses themselves were reconfigured. From the military regime to the democratic opening (1985), changes in the Brazilian state’s public service caused new curricular challenges. Two critical junctures impacted public administration and the formation of the public administrator in re-democratization: the 1988 Constitution, and the 1995 Management Reform. The 1995 Management Reform was developed with two basic objectives: promoting fiscal adjustment, and modernizing public administration by making its services more accessible to citizens (Bresser-Pereira, 2003). Amongst the results achieved was the redefinition of limits of state action, establishment of what a state monopoly is, what should be passed on to private initiatives, and also what could be done in the form of partnership between government and social and business organizations. Besides, it also highlighted important elements about public service quality: establishing management goals, controlling results, and valorizing government planning. The transformations brought by the New Public Management (NPM) reform impacted various organizations, both public and private, in different ways. In a complex environment, the educational courses dedicated to public administration needed to adjust themselves to cope with this new reality. In this sense, public policy and public managers were taught strong common components in management tools, public policies, law, and political science. However, the changes that were witnessed have to do with the local reality’s particularities and each course’s pedagogical projects’ configuration. As a result, there are several types of public administration education courses in Brazil, all of which aim to equip professionals for working in government and not-for-profit organizations. In terms of graduate courses, Fundação Getulio Vargas offered the first master’s degree in public administration in 1967. Around four decades later, there were 20 full postgraduate programs in public administration in Brazil (Fadul et al., 2014). Some programs were fully dedicated to public administration, others only offering it as an alternative option to business. According to the Ministry of Education database, there are 105 full postgraduate programs in Brazil: 83 (79 percent) dedicated to business administration and 22 (21 percent) to public administration. It is worth mentioning that public administration programs include those fully dedicated to PA (77 percent) and those in which PA is only a research line (23 percent). Chile: History of the Field in the Country and Some Figures Public administration education has been part of higher education since the University of Chile was founded in 1842. Initially studied along with political science, the interest to educate students in notions regarding how public administration works can be traced back to several educators of the second part of the 19th century. The first name of the School of Law was the Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas (Faculty of Law and Political Sciences) (Drapkin, 2006). Despite that name, the only academic program offered for an important period was law. Several attempts were made to change that situation, particularly with propositions to offer an academic program in public administration (in 2009). The first effort was presented in

90  Handbook of teaching public administration 1888 by two prominent scholars, Valentin Letelier and Pedro Montt; the former was President of the University of Chile from 1906 to 1913, and the latter was President of Chile from 1906 to 1910. In the second part of the 19th century and the early 20th century there was an important production of works regarding public administration inquiry (Guerrero, 1994, 2015; Barria-Traverso, 2017). Particularly interesting are two specific works from Chilean scholars: Pérez de Arce (1884) and Letelier (1917). They worked as professors at the University of Chile, highlighting the relevance of studying public administration for future civil servants. From this time, public administration and law were intertwined, conceiving public administration as a study field within law. In 1954 the University of Chile decided to offer an academic program in public administration, which was translated into two organizations: the Institute of Political Sciences and the School of Political and Administrative Sciences. The Institute had three objectives: to advance theory and practice in public administration, provide expert advice to public agencies, and provide training for public employees (Drapkin, 1989). The School of Political and Administrative Sciences had the responsibility to offer an undergraduate program in public administration, delivering the degree of “Public Administrator.” These two entities were part of the Faculty of Law, with limited autonomy, and competing with other faculties to influence the public domain (Rizzo, 2011). Despite this administrative context, the public administration field showed initial efforts towards being considered an academic field. The book Elements of the Science of Public Administration by Bascuñan (1963) is a good example of the academic inquiry level at that time. Yet, public administration education was not isolated from the political and social turbulences that the country suffered with the coup d’état in Chile in 1973. The dictatorship intervened at the University of Chile, particularly in the social sciences. In this context, public administration academic activities were moved from the Faculty of Law to the Faculty of Business and Economics. This movement had an ideological justification in terms of thinking that public administration, as a field, is a section of private administration. This decision reduced the number of faculty members, reduced the number of students, and even forbade new students in 1987, limiting academic activities and resources. In other words, the intention was to give activity in this domain minimal expression (Drapkin, 2006). This decision was overruled in 1990 by the new democratic authorities that reopened the academic program in 1991. The School of Political and Administrative Sciences at the University of Chile was the only academic entity offering an undergraduate degree in public administration for many years. The University of Chile had several campuses before 1973. In Osorno, the university offered a technical degree in public administration, which was upgraded to a professional degree in 1973. It then became part of the academic offer of the Instituto Profesional de Osorno. That institution was the entity that emerged after the dictatorship split the University of Chile, limiting its presence only to the capital, and creating a network of public universities in the rest of the country. A further milestone occurred in 1983, when the Universidad Central, a private university, initiated the program with an academic curriculum and an orientation similar to that offered at the University of Chile. The 1990s was a period of expansion in the number of universities and students enrolled in public administration programs. Currently, 22 universities offer programs across the country.2 There are two elements to bear in mind when analysing public administration education in Chile. As shown in the initial paragraphs of this section, this field is connected to law and

Public affairs education in Latin America and the shape of the state  91 political science. At the outset, public administration studies were part of administrative law. The founders of this discipline in the late 19th century put forward the notion that public administration should be seen as a different field, particularly because of its interdisciplinary orientation. The book El Administrador Público (Pérez de Arce, 1884) is a clear expression of that orientation. But this proximity with the law is not the only element to highlight when analysing public administration education. The other situation is the connection between this field and political science. As mentioned, the school where these studies emerged was called the School of Political and Administrative Sciences. Despite that name, what was studied was what we would recognize as public administration studies, leaving limited room for political science in its strict sense (Rehren and Fernández, 2005). Political science as an autonomous field has as a milestone the creation in 1969 of the Instituto de Ciencia Política at the Catholic University of Chile (Figueroa et al., 2005). The second element to bear in mind when analysing the Chilean case is public administration education’s professional orientation. From the outset of these studies, the orientation has been to train individuals for future government positions. This practice created a tradition of training practitioners rather than building a discipline. The faculty in charge of administering the academic program and developing research in the field was integrated mostly by part-time professors with experience in the public sector (Rizzo, 2011). When this field was starting to gain recognition, the decision to move these studies to the Faculty of Business and Economics had an enormous impact on the field. Only in the 1990s, when the University of Chile decided to resume this academic program, placing it in a different organizational context with more autonomy, did the discipline start to gain more interest and recognition. More schools were opened, and master’s programs were offered. However, there is still a final step to achieve total consolidation: offering a PhD program in the area. This remains a goal that scholars in the field have, which could be a final milestone in the consolidation of this academic domain. Colombia: History of the Field in the Country and Some Figures Studies have characterized Colombia as one of the countries in the region with a late development of its supply of educational programs in public affairs (public policy and public administration) (Careaga et al., 2014; Sanabria-Pulido et al., 2016). In this country, most master programmes started just after the year 2000, and only recently have some undergraduate and a few doctoral programs been started. Although Colombia created the Higher School of Public Administration (ESAP by its Spanish acronym) in 1958, it remained the sole option for public administration education in the country. Most Colombian universities were hesitant in starting programs, meaning that those who wanted to pursue education in public affairs had to attend universities abroad. Although there have been evident expansions in the supply of public affairs education in Colombia, the development of the field in the country could be rated as still in progress. A small group of universities are developing public affairs departments/ schools and faculty teams that have teaching activities, conduct research, and generate local knowledge to improve the functioning of public service organizations in the country. All in all, the development of Colombia’s graduate and undergraduate programs in public administration appears to have been undertaken at a more rapid pace during the last two decades. According to the National System of Higher Education Information (SNIES by its Spanish acronym), the country has a total of 102 programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels in areas named public administration, public management, public policy, and/or govern-

92  Handbook of teaching public administration ment. Of those 102 degrees, 36 are undergraduate programs, divided between 24 professional programs and 12 leading to technician or technology degrees. This type of education has accelerated in recent years, especially the technological/technical programs, which are still few but have grown consistently during the last decade. The remaining 66 programs are split between 33 “specialisations” (that is, especialización in the Colombian higher education system), 31 master’s degrees and two doctorates. As Rubaii and Sanabria-Pulido (2020) show, the supply of public administration and policy programs in the country remained almost non-existent for decades. In contrast, in other Latin American countries, many programs in public affairs were being created. Accordingly, most of the extant programs are less than 10–15 years old. Subsequently, their scope and impact over public servants’ education at all levels appear to be still beginning (Sanabria-Pulido and Avellaneda, 2014). Even though the Higher School of Public Administration (ESAP) has a national scope, most of its educational programs do not appear to impact equally all hierarchical levels of Colombia’s public administration, nor a high number of organizations at different levels of government (Leyva and Sanabria-Pulido, forthcoming). Hence, the field is still developing its ethos in Colombia. According to Sanabria-Pulido et al. (2016), before 2000, most related programs had either an economics or planning focus, or an administrative law emphasis. They were not considered as public affairs programs. Only after 1998 did other schools of business administration and/or political science begin opening programs explicitly titled “Public Administration” or “Public Management.” After 2000, many higher education institutions adopted a more decisive approach towards public affairs teaching and research, even creating programs at all levels (undergraduate, master’s and PhD) and increasing the number of undergraduate degrees. Recently, a new trend appears to be starting. Since 2016, two doctoral programs have been created, in Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano in Bogotá and Universidad del Valle in Cali. Although the recent figures reflect a more developed scenario for public affairs education in this Latin American country, Colombia still has key challenges in enhancing its officials’ public affairs education (Sanabria-Pulido, 2018; Sanabria-Pulido and Avellaneda, 2014). This challenge can be illustrated by the fact that, according to data (see Figure 9.1) from the Department of the Public Function of Colombia (DAFP by its Spanish acronym), 48 percent of public officials in the country hold undergraduate and specialization degrees. In contrast, only 4.3 percent have master’s, and only 0.13 percent are PhD holders. These figures show that there is still room for improvement in raising the educational levels and bettering the occupational skills of Colombian public officials through MPP/MPA degrees. In this way, Colombia appears to have a field of public affairs that is still in progress, at least from an analysis of its educational programs’ trajectory. There is only one school of government resembling the United States model of schools of public affairs, located in Universidad de Los Andes, and the aforementioned ESAP. Most other undergraduate and graduate programs are located in schools/departments of political science, business administration/finance, economics, or the law. Yet, it is evident that the field is booming, according to the breadth of its supply of training opportunities in public policy and public administration. However, most of the programs are still located in the country’s five most populated cities, imposing limits to the scope, reach, and supply of training. In this way, the country still has visible challenges to improve public officials’ training, at both the national and the subnational levels. By and large, one explanation for the scant presence of public administration/policy master’s degree holders among public servants in the Colombian public sector might be the late

Public affairs education in Latin America and the shape of the state  93

Source: Based on data from the Departamento Administrativo de la Función Pública.

Figure 9.1

Public officials’ educational levels in Colombia

and slow development of the country’s public affairs field. As some authors have illustrated, the negligible presence of a body of scholars devoted to public affairs in Colombian higher education institutions was characteristic of most of the 20th century in Colombian universities (Leyva and Sanabria-Pulido, forthcoming). According to the same authors, the absence of such a body of scholarship, and the more prevailing presence of lawyers and economists, has even affected the shape and foci of state reform processes in the country’s history. Notwithstanding this, our review of educational supply reveals that the field appears to have been slowly developing a more evident presence during the last two decades. The body of instructors and researchers appears to be more active in teaching research and practice. For instance, the creation of a national network of public affairs scholars attests to this.3

WHAT HAS BEEN DONE DIFFERENTLY IN THE THREE COUNTRIES? In this section, we present a brief comparison of the countries. As illustrated in Table 9.1, we have three countries with clear differences in size by population and economy. Whereas Brazil is the 6th most populated globally, Colombia is the 29th, and Chile the 63rd. Their differences can also be seen in the size of their economies, according to the World Bank.4 In 2019, Brazil’s gross domestic product (GDP) was around US$1.84 trillion, whereas Colombia’s was US$323 616 billion, and Chile’s was US$282 318 billion. All three countries became independent from other countries in the 19th century, with slight differences in timing. Likewise, it seems that in the three countries, the constitution of actual republics (and their public administrations) took some decades to materialize. Each of the three countries appears to have started developing

94  Handbook of teaching public administration Table 9.1

The context of public administration education in the three countries

Comparative terms

Brazil

Chile

Colombia

Population*

213 863 000

18 473 000

50 220 000

Year of independence

1822

1810

1810

Civil Service Development

Index 65, Rank 2nd out of 16

Index 67, Rank 1st out of 16)

Index 52, Rank 4th out of 16

Index and ranking

countries

Creation of undergraduate

1950

1954

1958

countries

1967

1998

After 2000

schools Creation of first graduate programs in public affairs (master’s degree)

Note: * United Nations (2020). Sources: Based on data from Coelho (2006) and Velarde et al. (2014).

most of its institutional capacity around the 1950s. Thus, it is not surprising that the first schools of public administration were created basically at the same time in the three countries. Table 9.1 also shows the Civil Service Development Index, a measurement of institutional capacity conducted periodically for a group of Latin American countries by the Inter-American Development Bank. According to the three analysed countries’ figures, they are three of the top five (that is, the most developed civil services) in the region. Therefore, if these countries epitomise the most developed civil services in the region, it is possible that the supply of public affairs education in Brazil, Chile, and Colombia shows evident progression compared to other Latin American countries. Although there are evident differences in size amongst the three countries, they show similar numbers in higher education institutions with programs in public affairs. There are key similarities in the evolution of the training of civil servants in the three countries. For instance, there is a predominance of public officials, especially at the higher levels, with training in law rather than in public administration. This situation is part of a long-lasting trend that also explains why graduate education in public affairs appears to be a very recent activity in Latin American higher education institutions. In the same vein, it is not surprising that postgraduate courses started in Brazil in 1967, in Chile in 1998, and in Colombia after 2000. Professionals in law are the most frequent profession in their civil services. On the other hand, public administration education in the countries has some differences in terms of emphases. In Brazil, the curriculum used to be mainly based on law and business administration. Nowadays, public administration students in the undergraduate segment receive a more multidisciplinary education which provides them with the abilities and competencies to act in a diverse and complex reality. In Chile, the curriculum was more related to political sciences and law rather than business. In Colombia, schools had more of an economics/planning focus or an administrative law emphasis, but recently they have moved towards a greater focus on public management and leadership, and other methods from social sciences such as economics and political science. Actual numbers indicate a solidly growing supply of programs in the three countries. At the moment, there are 22 research degree programs (some have both master’s and PhD, and others have only master’s). Dealing specifically with public administration, master’s programs started in Colombia in this millennium. Currently, Colombia has 33 master’s degrees and two PhD programs. Chile has a wide offer of master’s programs in public management, government, public policy, and other related areas. According to the database “Base de datos

Public affairs education in Latin America and the shape of the state  95 de Oferta Académica 2020,” there are 42 programs in this domain. Only eight out of 42 are accredited, which gives an idea of the diversity of this academic offer in terms of quality. Other similarities can be identified in the length of the programs. PhD programs in these countries last at least four years for completion, while master’s programs last between one and two years. Undergraduate programs have a duration that fluctuates between four and five years. The programs’ contents show that although earlier programs appeared to have disciplinary predominance from the law, and to a lesser degree from business administration and political science, the current supply tends to be rather interdisciplinary and located increasingly in independent schools/departments of government/public affairs.

CONCLUSIONS This chapter aimed to present an overview of public administration education in three Latin American countries. To this end, we have presented evidence from Brazil, Chile, and Colombia. The evidence provides an overview of the evolution and the current state of undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral education in public affairs in the three countries. The balance shows that the three countries share a relatively recent (and late) development of their supply of public affairs education which consequently, and until very recently, affected the cadres of public officials who have received degrees in public administration and public policy. Nonetheless, Brazil’s development shows numbers that indicate a very solid supply of public affairs education at the three levels, while Chile shows an intermediate development. Colombia appears to be passing the first stages of such a process. To summarize, public administration in Brazil is represented by two lines of thought: as a branch of business administration, and as a field which includes the principles of sociology, anthropology, and political science and seeks to move public administration education towards an identity that sets it apart from business administration. The movement has been successful so far, due to acknowledgement from the Federal Brazilian Government (mainly the Ministry of Education) that public administration is a field of knowledge independent from business administration. Currently, there are several schools educating public managers able to work in government agencies and third sector organisations. In Chile, public administration education has been connected to the evolution of the Chilean state. Before the first centenary of the country, public administration education was understood as a subfield of law studies in the context of a weak and limited state. However, when the Chilean state began to grow, a new generation of professionals for the state was required in the first part of the 20th century. This necessity was addressed by the program offered in the School of Political and Administrative Sciences in 1954. The consolidation of the field was truncated by the dictatorship and its intention to create a minimal state, which gives little room for public entities to play a role in the society. Public administration programs were not suitable for a society that required more entrepreneurs and businesspersons. The recovery of democracy in Chile also implied that it requires public institutions with good performance for the market to work properly. Public administration education in the 1990s became a necessity for helping the modernization of the state apparatus and overcoming the social needs of a highly unequal society. The late development of the educational supply in public affairs in Colombia reflects how public affairs education barely 20 years ago started influencing public servants’ education

96  Handbook of teaching public administration in the country. What is more, since the actual public administration apparatus shows just six decades of development (Leyva and Sanabria-Pulido, forthcoming), it can be argued that the shape of the state has probably been influenced more by professionals from other fields, such as lawyers and economists without training in public administration and policy, than people with public administration and public policy education. As Sanabria-Pulido and Avellaneda (2014) show, most higher public officials did not hold degrees in public administration or public policy. Considering that the role of the ESAP has been limited to this purpose (Collazos, 2010), and considering that most of the supply dates from over the last two decades, we could argue that in Colombia the effect of public affairs education on the configuration of the echelons of civil service is yet to be seen. In conclusion, public affairs education in these three Latin American countries shows a path of recent development. However, the development of undergraduate and graduate programs appears to be more rapid in Brazil than in Chile, which are regarded as having the two most developed civil services in the region. In terms of size, the number of schools in Brazil appears to be high in terms of programs, considering its size and economy. Although lagging before this century, Chile has many schools, and Colombia appears to be catching up. In terms of content, the three countries started with curricula in their programs mostly focused on law or business administration. More recently, they appear to be rapidly moving to include topics of the public affairs field, with a clearer multidisciplinary outlook. By and large, public affairs education appears to be growing in Latin America. Although these are three of the most developed public administrations in the region, our comparative analysis shows that there is still room for improvement and development of the local supply of education in public policy and public administration.

NOTES 1. 2. 3. 4.

The Estado Novo is the period just after the creation of the republican state in 1889. According to the website of the Ministry of Education, www​.mifuturo​.cl. Red Colombiana de Gobierno y Políticas Públicas (REGOPP). World Bank Indicators. Retrieved from https://​data​.worldbank​.org/​indicator/​NY​.GDP​.MKTP​.CD​ ?locations​=​BR​-CO​-CL.

REFERENCES Barria-Traverso, D. (2017). Positivism, evolutionism, and public administration: The work of Valentín Letelier (1886–1917). Administrative Theory and Praxis, 39(4), 275–291. Bascuñan, A. (1963). Elementos de Ciencia de la Administración Pública. Editorial Jurídica de Chile. Brasil (2021). Calendário eleitoral – Eleições. TSE. Retrieved 28 April from https://​www​.tse​.jus​.br/​ eleicoes/​calendario​-eleitoral/​calendario​-eleitoral. Bresser-Pereira, L.C. (2003). Da administração burocrática à gerencial. In L.C.B.-P.e.P. Spink (ed.), Reforma do Estado e Administração Pública Gerencial (pp. 237–270). Editora da Fundação Getulio Vargas. Careaga, M., Sanabria-Pulido, P., and Caballero, C. (2014). Servidores públicos más profesionales e íntegros vía educación más profesional? Retos y oportunidades en el caso de Colombia y la Universidad de los Andes. In C. Pliscoff (ed.), Enseñanza y Aprendizaje de Administración y Políticas Públicas en las Américas (pp. 149–180). RIL Editores. Carvalho, J.M.d. (1996). Unificação da elite: uma ilha de letrados. A construção da ordem. Brasília.

Public affairs education in Latin America and the shape of the state  97 Coelho, F.d.S. (2006). Educação superior, formação de administradores e setor público: um estudo sobre o ensino de administração pública, em nível de graduação no Brasil Fundação Getulio Vargas. São Paulo. Coelho, F.D.S., and Nicolini, A.M. (2014). Revisitando as origens do ensino de graduação em administração pública no Brasil (1854–1952). Revista de Administração Pública, 48(2), 367–388. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1590/​0034​-76121597. Collazos, A.A. (2010). Repensando la ESAP:¿ qué ha sido, qué es hoy y qué debería ser? Escuela Superior de Administración Pública. Drapkin, Á. (1989). Aníbal Bascuñán Valdes y su aporte al estudio de la Ciencia de la Administración Pública. Anuario de Filosofía Jurídica y Social. EDEVAL. Drapkin, Á. (2006). Reseña histórica sobre los estudios de las ciencias políticas, el gobierno y la administración pública de la universidad de chile (1842–1999). Documento de Apoyo Docente No. 8, Instituto de Asuntos Públicos, Universidad de Chile. Fadul, É., Coelho, F.d.S., Costa, F.L.d., and Gomes, R.C. (2014). Public administration in Brazil: Reflections on the field of knowledge from the Academic Division of the National Association of Postgraduate Studies and Research in Administration (2009–2013). Revista de Administração Pública, 48(5), 1329–1354. Figueroa, P., Morales, M., and Navarrete, B. (2005). La ciencia política en Chile y el estado de su docencia. Estudios Sociales, 116(2), 25‒52. Gonzalez, F. (1994). Estudio Introductorio. In F. Gonzalez (ed.), Elementos de Ciencia Administrativa (pp. 7–38). Escuela Superior de Administración Pública. Guerrero, O. (1994). Estudio Introductorio. In F. Gonzalez (ed.), Elementos de Ciencia Administrativa (pp. 7–38). Escuela Superior de Administración Pública. Guerrero, O. (2015). Estudio introductorio. In H.P.d. Arce (ed.), El administrador público. Principios generales de administración (pp. 53–74). INAP-Colegio de Administradores Públicos de Chile. Letelier, V. (1917). Génesis del estado y de sus instituciones fundamentales: introducción al estudio del derecho público. Cabaut y cia. Leyva, S., and Sanabria-Pulido, P. (forthcoming). El estado del Estado: ¿Un proyecto inconcluso? La evolución de la administración pública colombiana y el conocimiento de las reformas del Estado. In P. Sanabria-Pulido and L.S. (eds), El Estado del Estado. Ediciones Uniandes/Editorial EAFIT/ Departamento Administrativo de la Función Pública. Martins, L. (1995). Reforma da administração pública e cultura política no Brasil: uma visão geral. Escola Nacional de Administração Pública. Pérez de Arce, H. (1884). El administrador público: O sea estudios sobre principios jenera-les. Imprenta Victoria, de H. Izquierdo y Co Santiago. Rehren, A., and Fernández, M. (2005). La evolución de la ciencia política en Chile: un análisis exploratorio (1980–2000). Revista de ciencia política (Santiago), 25(1), 40–55. Rizzo, N. (2011). La formación académica de los profesionales del Estado: la institucionalización de la ciencia política y la administración pública en la Universidad de Chile, entre la Economía y el Derecho (1954–1976). Espacios Públicos, 14(31), 227–243. Rubaii, N., and Sanabria-Pulido, P. (2020). Evolution of policy analysis as a field of study and instruction in Colombia. In P. Sanabria-Pulido and N. Rubaii, Policy Analysis in Colombia (pp. 31‒46). Policy Press / Bristol University Press. Sanabria-Pulido, P. (2018). Public service motivation and job sector choice: Evidence from a developing country. International Journal of Public Administration, 41(13), 1107–1118. Sanabria-Pulido, P., and Avellaneda, C.N. (2014). The training of senior civil servants in Colombia. In M. Van Wart, A. Hondeghem, E. Schwella, and V.E. Nice (eds), Leadership and Culture: Comparative Models of Top Civil Servant Training (pp. 271–287). Palgrave Macmillan. Sanabria-Pulido, P., Rubaii, N., and Purón, G. (2016). Public affairs graduate education in Latin America: Emulation or identity? Policy and Society, 35(4), 315–331. United Nations (2020). Population Databases. Department of Economics and Social Affairs. Available at https://​www​.un​.org/​en/​development/​desa/​population/​publications/​database/​index​.asp. Velarde, J.C.C., Lafuente, M., Sanginés, M., Schuster, C., Echebarría, K., et al. (2014). Serving citizens: A decade of civil service reforms in Latin America (2004–13). Inter-American Development Bank.

10. Splintered voices: Australian/New Zealand traditions of teaching public administration Amanda Smullen and Catherine S. Clutton

This chapter reviews the historical experience and contemporary state of university teaching of public administration in Australia and New Zealand. Key focus is upon the embedding of postgraduate public administration education, in particular Master of Public Administration (MPA) programmes and how these have evolved. Pioneers of teaching programmes of public administration in the Antipodes were motivated by concern to provide scholarly knowledge and relevant competencies to public service practitioners, which continues today. However, scholars and educators identifying as public administration experts have since waned in number. Instead, competing or overlapping fields, for example in Master of Public Policy (MPP), management and organizations, or comparative government, among others, are now more prominent. Some commentators interpret this as a dilution and weakening of the field, while others see it as a necessary diversification and adaptation to contemporary challenges (see Scott, 2014, vis-à-vis Carroll, 1991). This chapter argues that a stronger identity for public administration within postgraduate public service/executive education has something distinctive to offer, not least a focus on public sector ethics, governance and relations of public organizations, management and bureaucratic politics, human resources and civil service traditions; which all pertain to identifying and evaluating administrative capacity (Bargallie, 2020; O’Leary, 2017). These get lost in any swallowing up of public administration themes when located within a Master of Public Policy curriculum, or other overarching disciplinary foci. The chapter begins with a history of teaching public administration in the Antipodes up to the 1980s. This is followed by a discussion and overview of MPAs and other postgraduate studies since then. These sections shed light on the interaction between professionalization, pedagogical orientation, and institutionalization of public administration (Geva-May and Maslove, 2007). Finally, internal and external accreditation and regulatory processes are described. While self-regulation is prominent, particularly for the more established universities, regulatory and quality assurance demands are extensive. However, they do not per se protect the content or embedding of multidisciplinary fields, such as public administration. On the one hand, the demise of MPAs in Australia and New Zealand reflects increasing corporatization and competition between subdisciplines within universities. On the other hand, it can be attributed to lack of formalized accredited knowledge for a university-educated public servant as a professional, such as exists in Europe or North America. Public sector professional bodies in Australia, for example the Institute of Public Administration (IPAA), have not clearly advocated for specific public administration skill sets, knowledge, curriculum, and degrees from universities. Their position remains closely entwined with (lack of) government funding.

98

Splintered voices: Australian/New Zealand traditions of teaching public administration  99

FRAMEWORK OF ANALYSIS The chapter draws loosely on Geva-May and Maslove’s (2007) categories of professionalization, pedagogic orientation and institutionalization to describe and evaluate the evolution and contemporary state of university teaching of public administration in the Antipodes (see also Di Francesco, 2015). Following descriptions by Di Francesco (2015, pp. 264‒265), these refer to: ● Professionalization: the extent to which public administration practitioners ‘have been formalized as an occupational class’ and the extent to which public administration is a ‘body of knowledge standardized by professional associations’. It concerns both the status and training requirements of public servants, but also standardization and accreditation of relevant knowledge and competencies. ● Pedagogical orientation: the ‘disciplinary traditions’ that public administration as a realm of study has straddled and the ‘orientation of research and instructional methodologies’. ● Institutionalization: the demand for public administration knowledge within government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) fulfilling public functions; and the way in which this knowledge is integrated into the activities of practitioners. Like many social science concepts, these categories are not mutually exclusive. At the very least they interact in contextual processes of embedding areas of study and their teaching/ learning practices.

HISTORY OF UNIVERSITY AND POSTGRADUATE TEACHING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND University teaching of public administration in Australia and New Zealand is closely entwined with the development of their states and societies. In Australia, this meant that incubation of public administration as a subject began in the universities of colonies and states. Given the limited funding of these jurisdictions, and wider anti-intellectual cultural dispositions associated with Australian (convict) egalitarianism, it is perhaps unsurprising that Australian public administration first appeared in economics and commerce departments (Encel, 1956). These were in the form of skills-based diplomas in the 1920s, with subjects such as financial and budgetary management or economics. Prior to this time, rare examples of so-called elite public administration course offerings existed, such as within history or law at the University of Melbourne in the colony of Victoria (mid- to late 1800s). Australian state and federal (from 1901) governments were reticent to fund or require training of public officials. Earliest examples of this occurring include a diploma in the (first) Public Administration Department of the University of Sydney in the 1930s (Encel, 1956; Scott and Wettenhall, 1980). Australian and New Zealand departments of politics (in arts faculties) later became the more familiar ‘landlords’ of public administration (vis-à-vis economics), although these did not emerge or expand in Australia until the 1950s (Scott and Wettenhall, 1980). These formative years of institutionalizing the teaching of Australian public administration saw a number of fissures that remain extant today. Firstly, there was both division and variation in the degree or timing in which public administration diversified from its early dominant location within economics and commerce departments. To the extent that public adminis-

100  Handbook of teaching public administration tration studies remained in these departments, it tended to be conceived more narrowly as compared to programmes hosted by arts faculties. Secondly, while there was a common view among university advocates that governments should commit to training public servants, there was disagreement about whether this should be technical, skills-based training (a commerce preference), or more in the humanist tradition of offering a generalist education (Parker, 1989; Scott and Wettenhall, 1980). These debates continue today, occur in cycles, and become more acute in periods of economic austerity. Historically, a skills-based orientation in Australia appealed to egalitarian sentiments. Specifically, there were concerns over whether the protections afforded by a union-informed ‘career public service’ would be threatened by the embrace of a highly educated administrative cadre1 (Parker, 1989, pp. 20‒21). Thirdly, the emergence of professional bodies for public servants was significant to exchanges about relevant university education and its development. Both Australian and New Zealand branches of the Royal Institute of Public Administration (RIPA, today known in Australia as the Institute of Public Administration Australia, IPPA2), were established in the 1920s, together with an Australian Journal of Public Administration. This had a parent institute and the prestigious journal Public Administration in London. The institutes remain key constituencies and likely advocates of university-based education. In the 1920s and 1930s academics from across Australia appealed to the institutes in their efforts to pioneer the university study of public administration (Scott and Wettenhall, 1980). New Zealand distinguished itself early from Australia by being first, in 1936, to attain government political and financial support for university education of public servants. This followed the New Zealand Institute of Public Administration successfully collaborating with the then Victoria University College (VUC) to have the Public Service Commissioner inaugurate a two-year full-time diploma firmly entrenched in middle-management training programmes (Parker, 1989; Scott and Wettenhall, 1980). In efforts to ‘catch up’ with international movements, New Zealand appointed Leslie Lipson, with a PhD from the University of Chicago, inaugural head of the Department of Political Science, VUC (Martin, 2015). RIPA, and its regional groups, were important points of diffusion and exchange between Westminster countries as to university and post-appointment training of public servants. For example, the Australian Robert Stewart Parker, a former New South Wales public servant, was also appointed to a lectureship at VUC with Lipson. Parker’s academic experience made him well suited to this position (Wettenhall, 1980, p. 12). Parker was commissioned by New Zealand institutes to investigate opportunities for senior government and business executives to exchange experiences and advance ideas to enhance the development of distinguished practitioners (Parker, 1989, p. 19). One visit was to Noel Hall’s Administrative Staff College at Henley-on-Thames, following which he would be appointed part-time Director to a similar New Zealand initiative (Parker, 1989; Wettenhall, 1980). In neither Australia nor New Zealand was there cultural or government financial appetite for ‘preferential treatment of the university graduate in these early days, such as given in the administrative grade in England’ (Martin, 2015). Strong antipathy towards its association with an elite ‘privileged class’ was bolstered by prevailing alternative Antipodean legends such as ‘that every member of the public service was in embryo, a potential departmental secretary’. Indeed there were few, but still enough, examples of telegram boys rising to departmental heads, thereby confirming and perpetuating antipathy for intellectual development of administrators (Weller, 2011).

Splintered voices: Australian/New Zealand traditions of teaching public administration  101 Although Parker’s ambition to harness political support for improvements in training and standards for public servants was not wholly realized, public administration studies and university/higher education executive training nevertheless expanded from the 1950s to the 1980s, fuelled by post-war government expansion and increased funding of university education. Australia’s top, increasingly university-educated, mandarins of the time were at the forefront of change in a period when their professional knowledge often exceeded that of the politicians they advised (Weller, 2011). Among important initiatives in Australia were the creation of the Australian National University (ANU) in 1946; establishment of an Australian Administrative Staff College (1957‒1977) (inspired by Noel Hall’s Administrative College) and expansion of Canberra University College (CUC), later to become the University of Canberra. Under pressure from regional RIPAs, diplomas were being abolished in favour of degree-type teaching (Scott and Wettenhall, 1980). Despite the concerted efforts of key scholars, and perhaps their too narrow and descriptive foci, a large critical mass of Australian public administration scholars never really evolved (Scott and Wanna, 2005). The 1970s and 1980s are recognized as a period of greater academic focus on the public sector, including expansion of public policy and rise of public management. Whilst this meant the establishment of MPAs and their uptake by public sector executives, it also saw competition from MPPs and eventually a revival of public executive training in business management schools (Carroll, 1991). Considering professionalization, and the degree of institutionalization of public administration in universities, it seems fair to observe that weakness, or rather dispersion, on both dimensions has left a specified ‘public administration’ education or identity vulnerable to competition and demise in the university curriculum. This assumes a somewhat narrow definition of public administration, since both public management and particularly public policy have expanded in scope more recently. Antipodean scholars identifying as ‘public administration’ experts are certainly in decline and rare. Critically, the emergence of public management (and the demise of public administration) occurred at twin moments of the creation of a Senior Executive Service in both Australia (federal and states) and New Zealand in the 1980s, and attacks on and the demise of long-established institutional protections of the independence and ethics of public servants (Parker, 1989), such as Public Service Commissions and Merit Boards (Parker, 1989). It meant ongoing, and even revived, MPA and MPP attention to public sector ethics and accountability, particularly where MPAs still exist. This is less evident, though likely also occurring, in MBAs.

OVERVIEW OF CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL OFFERINGS AND PEDAGOGY (1980‒PRESENT) The 1980s, and with it the rise of New Public Management (NPM), had a significant impact on public sector reform in the Antipodes. Public management reform fashions, including governance, have continued a trend of departure from and disparagement of what has been caricatured as ‘traditional public administration’ (Pollitt and Bouckaert, 2011). Australia and New Zealand were no bit players in these reform trends, particularly NPM reforms. Indeed, enactment of NPM ideas has been identified as amongst the most ideologically pure (in New Zealand) and (for both countries) among the most extensive in the world, for example the embrace of privatization and financial management reforms (in Australia). This is consistent

102  Handbook of teaching public administration with their comparative Anglo-American government traditions, although variation in policy fields is evident internationally. In concert with the public sectors’ emulation of business practices in NPM, university supply of MBAs expanded. Supply arguably preceded their demand by public servants and other international development programmes hosted by Australian universities (Djelic and Sahlin-Anderson, 2006). This created both the impetus for expansion of, but also competition with, MPAs. The rise of NPM, and later governance, also saw more general inclusion of public management within the lexicon and content of different degree types such as MPA, MPP, and specializations, MBA (Carroll, 1991). Competition between public administration and business degrees already had precedent in early public practitioner training, and was consolidated in the 1970s as MPAs developed alongside the creation of the Australian Graduate School of Management, among others. Of note is that some of the traditional Australian university liberal/arts strongholds of public administration – to the extent that they exist – continue to offer MPAs or related postgraduate diplomas, such as ANU and the University of Melbourne. Neither the University of Canberra nor the University of Sydney, which were among public administration strongholds, continue to offer MPAs today. Besides its impact on the public sector, NPM was significant at the time to debates about and internationalization of public administration scholarship and teaching. This is evident in sheer quantity of scholarly references to NPM, more attention to (cross-country/sector or evaluative) comparative research on public sector management reform, and debates about convergence (Pollitt and Bouckaert, 2011). It also saw the rise of a far more critical debate about public administration in the Antipodes, and political and academic consternation regarding different academic interpretations (Painter, 1988). While some commerce, economics, and business management schools had long maintained a cohort of public servants, particularly economists and accountants, marketing to this student cohort expanded between 1980 and 2010. One important innovation during this period was the establishment of the Australian New Zealand School of Governance (ANZSOG) in 2003. ANZSOG continues to offer an Executive Master of Public Administration (EMPA) in cooperation with 15 universities, including in New Zealand. The presence of ANZSOG assures ongoing teaching of public administration among Antipodean public sector executives, and across several Antipodean universities. ANZSOG has a prestigious national and international reputation, with world-renowned scholars convening its courses. Courses are designed in explicit consultation with participating governments. In terms of the interplays between professionalization, pedagogy, and institutionalization, it is insightful to review the public administration curriculum and instruction traditions across a sample of Antipodean tertiary institutions. This information derives from a desktop analysis of university websites in October‒December 2020. Among initial findings was that MPA programmes have become marginal in both Australia and New Zealand. While ANZSOG’s EMPA continues across member universities, stand-alone (non-executive) MPA programmes have completely disappeared from other New Zealand universities. Instead, we find Master of Policy and Governance (Canterbury University) or novel translations to contemporary issues such as the Master of Environment and Policy Management (Lincoln University) or a focus on risk management and artificial intelligence (Otago University), wherein public administration courses often exist. MPP programmes continue to be offered at key New Zealand institutions. Similarly in Australia only four MPA programmes remain. These are hosted respectively by two so-called Group of Eight (G8) Universities ‒ University of Melbourne (created 1853) and

Splintered voices: Australian/New Zealand traditions of teaching public administration  103 Australian National University (ANU) (1946); Flinders University (1958); and one younger university, Griffith University (1970): ● ● ● ●

School of Government, University of Melbourne (G8); Crawford School of Public Policy, ANU, Canberra (G8); Centre for Governance and Public Policy, Griffith University, Brisbane; College of Business, Government and Law, Flinders University, Adelaide.

Flinders University appears to offer the most extensive set of public administration programmes and courses. Public administration themes and courses remain incorporated in other graduate programmes. For example, both the University of Western Australia (G8) and University of New South Wales (G8) offer specializations of public administration and governance within their MPPs, and other MPP programmes have adopted new labels such as the Master of Governance and Public Policy (University of Queensland, G8), Master of Public Policy and Management (University of Melbourne, G8), and Master of Science in Public Policy and Management (Carnegie Mellon). All G8 universities and at least 16 key universities across Australia offer MPPs. MBAs remain prominent in both Australia and New Zealand, outliving MPAs in locations such as the University of Tasmania, Monash University (Victoria) and University of Auckland (NZ). There are clear differences in the curriculum of MPA-specific programmes compared to public administration themes or courses incorporated into MPPs. For example, the four Australian MPA programmes incorporate core courses dedicated to public management and/ or theories of public sector organizations, human resources, administrative law and structures, and ethics or leadership. Courses on communication or persuasion, and managing public finances, are common core or elective subjects. Furthermore, they give focus to intergovernmental management or governing regions, multicultural and Australian Indigenous communities. In terms of pedagogical orientation, there is strong emphasis on Harvard case study techniques, use of simulations, and recent initiatives utilizing policy labs for teaching and research. In terms of teaching research skills, qualitative research methods, such as qualitative comparisons and evaluation, are the most prominent. Arguably, one advantage of the growth of MPP programmes has been the tendency to share research methods courses and to expand the quantitative skills and orientation of MPA graduates. When embedded in MPPs, some public administration themes and courses tend to be maintained, namely ethics and leadership, and managing public finances. Comparative public sector management courses, a bedrock of the internationalization of public administration, remains listed for future offerings only at ANU. The thematic of political institutions continue in core public policy courses, though with administrative, civil service, and public performance dimensions often excluded. This is surprising and concerning, given the impact of NPM on administrative and civil service structures and the public service as a profession across Australia and New Zealand. Furthermore, former bastions of MPA programmes and scholarly expertise have now been abolished and merged into MPPs, such as at the University of Canberra and the University of Sydney. The impact of this decline in MPA programmes on training researchers and future scholars of public administration in the Antipodes is not yet clear. Anecdotal evidence suggests that there is a demise in attention to public sector organizational practices (as opposed to focus on policy settings, policy analysis, and policy design interactions), management and leadership craft, and the ongoing effects of NPM for public servants and organizations.

104  Handbook of teaching public administration University reformers argue for the abolition or merging of public administration programmes or subjects into MPPs on the grounds of apparent client group preference for MPPs. This tends to be evidenced by dwindling numbers in MPA programmes, expressed difficulties in crafting consistent messages about distinct MPP and MPA programmes, and claims of lesser professional status associated with MPAs vis-à-vis MPPs in Australia and New Zealand. The extent to which the various Australia/New Zealand IPPA branches have been consulted or condone this view is less evident, or at least less publicized. A more likely scenario is that the cuts have occurred at intervals of varying speed interior to university processes. Not least, dwindling numbers in MPA programmes can in part be explained by the declining supply or breadth of those programmes, and the competition for student numbers, and streamlining practices, that arise with efforts to expand MPP programmes. The argument of declining professional demand for MPAs appears questionable, given recent initiatives of the Australian Public Service (APS) to establish an APS Academy to teach craft and core capabilities to public sector professionals. Furthermore, evidence of positive student evaluations of MPAs negates qualitative, as opposed to financial or marketing, rationales for their demise. Professional associations such as Australian branches of the IPPA have been less vocal about these developments in university curricula. The APS Academy has opened the door to tailored postgraduate training programmes in partnership between the federal government and universities.3 Among these are the Public Sector Management Programme delivered by the Queensland University of Technology for Executive Level 1 and 2 public servants. Longer-standing partnerships incorporated under APS Academy include initiatives such as Sir Roland Wilson (PhD) Scholarships, in cooperation with the Crawford School of Public Policy (ANU). Other cheaper university programmes such as Graduate Diplomas of Public Administration are, ironically, as in the early years of Australian public administration, gaining popularity and presence across different Australian universities.

EXTERNAL REGULATORY DEMANDS AND ACCREDITATION PROCESSES There is no local pathway to professional accreditation for Australian and New Zealand MPAs or other university programmes (Di Francesco, 2015), despite good membership numbers and activities of the IPPA. Nor has the IPPA identified professional accreditation of MPAs and MPPs, and related programmes, as a requirement from universities. A recent international initiative established the International Commission on the Accreditation of Public Administration and Training Programs (ICAPA), which offers a pathway to accreditation of MPA programmes worldwide. There is also the European Foundation for Management Development (EFMD) European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS) Accreditation for business and management schools which 17 business schools in Australia have acquired. It remains to be seen whether Antipodean universities, hosting MPAs and MPPs, will seize such opportunities, and whether this enhances the curriculum and student recruitment. Accreditation systems exist in other Anglo-Saxon traditions where there are highly formalized accreditation systems. For example, the United States Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) or the Canadian Association of Programs of Public Administration (CAPPA). The Victoria University of Wellington (NZ) has, in recent

Splintered voices: Australian/New Zealand traditions of teaching public administration  105 years, achieved accreditation of its Master of Public Management and MPP programmes through NASPAA. It can be argued that lack of accreditation for public servant education is consistent with an unsettled professional status. It fits with ongoing and competing accounts of the various knowledge, competencies, and skills they should command. In contrast to business and management schools, Australian university departments hosting public administration curricula, with the exception of the University of Sydney, have rarely aspired to national or international affiliation (Di Francesco, 2015). Arguably, the rise of casualized political advisors and increasing politicization has also detracted from the momentum to cement agreement on professional accreditation (Maley, 2017). A recent Independent Review of the Australian Public Service identified concerns about poor recruitment, development, and diversity of APS professional capabilities, which finds a basis in academic studies too (Grafton et al, 2020; O’Flynn, 2020). Professional accreditation aside, there are a range of external and internal regulatory processes to which public administration degrees and programmes must adhere. These evolved from a system of individual university responsibility for developing, implementing, and enhancing quality assurance, including development of national quality frameworks. Whilst major discipline reviews within universities are key mechanisms for assessing the quality of teaching programmes, along with accreditation processes, these reviews have been criticized for lack of implementation mechanisms to address recommendations. Although Australian state governments retain legislative power to accredit individual higher education courses within their jurisdictions, a more active national orientation and quality framework began to emerge from the 1990s. It now takes the form of a Higher Education Standards (HES) framework, with two components: (1) on the standards for higher education in seven domains; and (2) criteria for higher education providers. The higher education standards are more detailed and onerous than the requirements for higher education providers.4 At present, universities and a small number of other independent higher education providers have self-accrediting authority for some or all of their courses. While there is no doubt that regulatory requirements and processes to assure quality for higher education have expanded, the generic nature of the demands leave the fate of different disciplines to university management,5 consumer demand, and turf wars and financial resources in relevant departments/ schools. It must also be recognized that university management are increasingly attuned to marketing issues and potential (financial) benefits of subsuming public administration units within politics or public policy degrees. In turn the loss of entire degrees devoted to public administration, particularly MPAs, can be detrimental to the quantity and quality of postgraduate degrees and future academics of the discipline. For university teaching of public administration to survive and even thrive within these regulatory and neoliberal financial conditions, it is important not to lose sight of some of the distinctive contributions of public administration and management knowledge (O’Leary, 2017). Careful consideration of the distinctive learning outcomes and competencies that can be derived from this knowledge needs to be specified. In the Australian context, where debates about the role of universities tend to swing between emphasizing concerns for the ‘clever country’ (innovation) and jobs and skills, there may be significant opportunities for embracing competency frameworks for public administration and public administration professionals. Furthermore, alongside the increasing number of international students (at least, pre-COVID-19) in these courses, greater attention to the internationalization of disciplinary standards, or at least cross-fertilization, presents opportunities to strengthen the standing of public administration within the Antipodes.

106  Handbook of teaching public administration

CONCLUSION: ONGOING FRAGMENTATION AND CLEAVAGES This chapter has reviewed the development and contemporary state of teaching public administration in Australia and New Zealand. Specific focus was upon the embedding and seeming demise of the MPA in the Antipodes, alongside ongoing survival and expansion of the MPP in particular. Through the lens of professionalization, pedagogical orientation, and institutionalization, it becomes apparent that the study of public administration never really obtained a critical mass in either Australian or New Zealand politics departments or business schools, is splintered or often diluted in alternative degree programmes such as MPPs and MBAs, and in New Zealand has even been entirely swallowed up by MPPs and business schools. As casualized ministerial advisers and concerns for ethics and integrity expand in Anglo-Saxon countries, a sceptic might suggest that the state of university public administration studies has co-evolved with the decline of the public servant’s status and independence in these countries (Parker, 1989). However, alternative interpretations exist. Not least that the Antipodes are small national markets (especially New Zealand), though in Australia tertiary education through international student enrolments constitutes one of the largest export sectors (pre-COVID-19). The implication is that such change is simply reflecting market demands, innovation, and ongoing general cuts or streamlining to higher education funding (Shah et al., 2011). Given the prestige of the ANZSOG EMPA and full funding of public servants by their governments, reductions or diminishing presence of public administration at universities or other higher education institutions could be seen to have been justified by the presence or addition of ANZSOG. In Australia in particular there remain potential student cohorts among the lower ranks of the public sector, NGOs, and public servants or international students. Furthermore, there has been some recent revival in the creation of postgraduate diplomas of public administration to serve changing government demands and emphasis upon skills. Ironically, this returned the Antipodean study of public administration to its early twentieth century roots and expansion as a university area of study. Although demand by public servants for postgraduate training continues, MPP programmes exclude attention to significant administrative courses and knowledge such as a focus on public sector organizations – their design and practices, on civil service traditions and human resources, and management craft and leadership. The exit of universities from MPAs cannot be clearly attributed to lack of public officials’ interest in administrative themes since, in Australia at least, the public service is pursuing new university partnerships such as the APS Academy. There are ironies in these empirical developments, as decline in university teaching of civil service traditions and human resources appears consistent with concerns over a substantive decline in status, independence, and permanency of public sector professionals. Nevertheless, the expansion of MPPs, MBAs, and a range of postgraduate public policy and public administration diplomas testifies to ongoing education of public practitioners, albeit under different labels and with new foci. They indicate important changes in the foci of professionalization, pedagogical orientation, and institutionalization of the knowledge of public professionals, but not per se the strengthening of any of these.

Splintered voices: Australian/New Zealand traditions of teaching public administration  107

NOTES 1. In a prize-winning journal article, Parker notes that British principles of recruitment and training, such as a special class of Honours graduates of the best universities, was deemed ‘irrelevant in the Australian community’. In Australia the assumption was that ‘recruiting University men to the First Division because of their psychological and social compatibility with a “governing class”’ was deemed inappropriate and also, given educational standards, impractible (Parker, 1939, p. 432). 2. IPAA has a National Council and eight divisions, or rather chapters representing each state/territory: Queensland, New South Wales, Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia, Northern Territory. This mirrors the regional groups of the London-based Institute of Public Administration that were present at Federation in 1901. 3. See website: https://​www​.apsc​.gov​.au/​initiatives​-and​-programs/​learning​-and​-development/​aps​ -academy. 4. See Higher Education Standards Framework ‒ Department of Education, Skills and Employment, Australian Government at dese.gov.au for more detail. Last accessed 5 October 2021. 5. Though, to be fair, accreditation processes set out a role for the academic board and related committee systems within the university to make assessments of management decisions with respect to cutting courses or degrees.

REFERENCES Bargallie, D. (2020). Unmasking the racial contract: Indigenous voices on racism in the Australian Public Service. Aboriginal Studies Press. Carroll, P. (1991). Whatever happened to the master of public administration (MPA)? Australian Journal of Public Administration, 50(2), 199‒202. Di Francesco, M. (2015). Policy analysis instruction in Australia. In B. Head and K. Crowley (eds), Policy analysis in Australia (pp. 261‒282). Policy Press. Djelic, M.L. and Sahlin-Andersson, K. (2006). Transnational governance: Institutional dynamics of regulation. Cambridge University Press. Encel, S. (1956). The study of public administration in Australia. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 15(4), 305‒318. Geva-May, I. and Maslove, A. (2007). In between trends: Development of policy analysis instruction in Canada, the United States, and the European Union. In M. Howlett et al (eds), Policy analysis in Canada: The state of the art (pp. 186–217). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Grafton, R.Q., Colloff, M.J., Marshall, V. and Williams, J. (2020). Confronting a ‘post-truth water world’ in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia. Water Alternatives, 13(1), 1–28. Maley, M. (2017). Temporary partisans, tagged officers or impartial professionals: Moving between ministerial offices and departments. Public Administration, 95(2), 407‒420. Martin, J. (2015). An age of the Mandarins? Government in New Zealand, 1940‒1952. In Furphy, S. (ed.), The seven dwarfs and the age of the Mandarins (pp. 81‒110). ANU Press. O’Flynn, J. (2020). Confronting the big challenges of our time: Making a difference during and after COVID-19. Public Management Review, 23(7), 961‒980. O’Leary, R. (2017). The new guerilla government: Are big data, hyper social media and contracting out changing the ethics of dissent? Politics and Society, 50(1), 12‒22. Painter, M. (1988). Editorial. Public management: Fad or fallacy? Australian Journal of Public Administration, 47, 1‒3. Parker, R.S. (1939). Educational standards and differential recruitment to the public service. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 17(4), 414‒433. Parker, R.S. (1989). The quest for administrative leadership. Political Science, 41(2), 18‒29. Pollitt, C. and Bouckaert, G. (2011). Public management reform: A comparative analysis, 3rd edn. OUP. Scott, J. and Wanna, J. (2005). Trajectories of public administration and administrative history in Australia: Rectifying ‘a curious blight’? Australian Journal of Public Administration, 64(1), 11‒24. Scott, R. (2014). Institutions and organizations: Ideas, interests and identities. SAGE.

108  Handbook of teaching public administration Scott, R. and Wettenhall, R. (1980). Public administration as a teaching and research field. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 39(3‒4), 478‒498. Shah, M., Nair, S. and Wilson, M. (2011). Quality assurance in Australian higher education: Historical and future development. Asia Pacific Education Review, 12(3), 475‒483. Weller, P. (2011). Australia’s mandarins: The frank and the fearless? Allen & Unwin. Wettenhall, R. (1980). Intellectual stance: R.S. Parker. Australian Journal of Public Administration, 39(3‒4), 269‒282.

11. Public administration teaching and scholarships within Indonesian administrative system developments Eko Prasojo and Desy Hariyati

This chapter discusses the relationship between the scholarship of public administration reflected in teaching in universities, the curriculum, research, and publication activities, and its practical application in various government agencies. The relationship in question also includes the role of scientific contributions in shaping public administration and the involvement of academics in the efforts to improve public sector reform in Indonesia. Significant changes in public administration practices have occurred, especially since the regime change in 1998 under which the government system has been more open and decentralized. This open system of government has allowed more opportunities for policy transfer, including introducing various public administration approaches (Ingrams et al., 2020). Since then, the development of administrative science at the global level has played a significant role in shaping the milestone of administrative reform in Indonesia. The New Public Management approach has been the most prominent approach adopted in formulating the reform agendas, especially since 2010 when administrative reform was set as a national priority program under Yudhoyono’s presidency (Turner et al., 2019). In parallel, administrative reform and its related agendas have been studied more deeply by scholars and students at universities, and thus there have been more academic publications on this topic (Putera and Pasciana, 2021). In public administration teaching, the subjects of bureaucracy, governance, and reform are specifically developed and taught in most public administration study programs for bachelor’s and master’s degrees (Indonesian Association for Public Administration, 2018). Since 2017, bureaucracy and governance has become a national subject proposed by the Indonesian Association of Public Administration that is actively contributing to developing national curricula for public administration teaching. The significant relation between the development of public administration as scholarship and as practice in Indonesia is epitomized by academics who take strategic positions in government institutions. The existence of academics and their roles in policymaking at central and local levels bestow a better image on public administration as scholarship and as a study program at university. Public administration is seen as a strategic field of study necessary for better policymaking and successful government reform. The development of this better image of public administration is an advance on its previous perception as a mere clerical field. Thus, in the last ten years, more high-ranking public officials in Indonesia have studied public administration for their master’s and doctoral degrees. Their strategic position in government institutions has become an opportunity to bring public administration scholarship to the fore of real professional practices. Related to the need for professional practices, public administration teaching in Indonesia has adopted more of an Anglo-American model, as compared to the continental European model. This can be seen in the curriculum content that accommodates practical subjects 109

110  Handbook of teaching public administration and tools, such as public procurement, balanced score card, performance management, and evidence-based policy. The development of these subjects is also enhanced by some international cooperation between Indonesian higher education institutions and their counterparts overseas. There are various forms of cooperation, including joint research and publication, academic exchange, and double master’s degrees. All of these developments have impacted the quantity and quality of teaching, research, and publication in the area of public administration in Indonesia.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SCHOLARSHIP AND THE PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION The practice of Indonesian public administration has experienced a reasonably dynamic journey, which is in general divided into four periods, namely: the period before independence; the period of colonialism; the era after independence, divided into two regimes, namely the Old Order (under Sukarno’s presidency) and the New Order (under Suharto’s presidency); and the reform era. Public administration in each of these periods is reflected explicitly in the differing characteristics of the bureaucracy, state‒citizen relations, and bureaucratic‒political relations. Before Indonesia’s independence, the system of government in various regions was indigenous, according to the social institutions and local knowledge in each region. Before the reform era (or under the Old and New Order regimes), the practice of public administration in Indonesia was centered on the accumulation of patrimonialism practices (Thoha, 2007). Public administration as a discipline did not play a strategic role nor contribute significantly to the practice and development of public institutions. In the context of the relationship between public administration as a discipline and as practice in Indonesia, there have been significant changes between the pre-reform and post-reform periods. In the pre-reform, the scientific development of public administration at the global level was not widely adopted in Indonesia, apart from the emergence of the image that public administration only concerned clerical tasks in government. The start of the reform era in 1998 opened the door for policy transfer from the global sphere to Indonesia, including various developments in the paradigm of public administration, which in practice has increasingly played a strategic and contributing role in the course of the bureaucratic reform process. This policy transfer, for example, occurred through the inclusion of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) assistance through partnerships for governance reform; Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) with Support for Good Governance (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, GIZ); and various types of assistance to improve the quality of public services and develop civil servant competencies from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA). As a discipline that focuses on governance, public administration in Indonesia began to receive attention, especially from 1957, with the establishment of the National Institute of Public Administration (Lembaga Administrasi Negara, LAN). This was formed with the mission of developing a complete and concrete plan to form an institution for the education and the development of a capable and skilled civil service. It was strengthened by establishing

Indonesian administrative system developments  111 the Ministry of State Apparatus (Menpan) in 1968. The main focus of activities revolved around strategic steps in the fields of institutions, staffing, management, and development supervision. Public administration at that time was not positioned as an independent science but as part of legal science, which over time also became part of social and political science. The development of administrative science in Indonesia was also heavily influenced by scholars who had studied in Europe, including founding fathers such as Mohammad Hatta, Sutan Sjahrir, and Soepomo, who brought back many concepts of welfare, and the notion of the unitary state. This was also the background to the main character of the continental European public administration until the end of the New Order regime. After the collapse of the New Order regime, the character of public administration in Indonesia underwent a significant change. The process of bureaucracy reform was heavily influenced by New Public Management (NPM) ideology. This is reflected, for example, by the increase in the practice of public‒private partnerships, public service innovation, the opening of broader participation, performance-based remuneration, the obligation to disclose public information, and the strengthening of the function of the Ombudsman (ORI) in resolving public complaints. This paradigm began to take hold at the end of the New Order in around 1995 when the book Reinventing Government (Osborne and Gaebler, 1992) became popular among public officials and academics. The book was taught in civil service training institutions, and as literature in universities for public administration study programs. In the context of bureaucracy reform, the NPM doctrine developed by Hood (1991) was generally adopted by institutions that were selected as pilot projects in 2006, such as the Ministry of Finance, the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Audit Agency. Features of bureaucracy reform at the Ministry of Finance, for example, included applying new standard operating procedures and revising the performance management system using the balanced scorecard to regulate, monitor, and adjust the calculation of organizational performance. After the reforms were undertaken incrementally through these pilot projects, attention to administrative reform efforts continued to increase. In 2010, under the administration of President Yudhoyono, the Grand Design for National Bureaucratic Reform was published, with the main vision being to become a “world-class” public service by 2025. This grand design was considered to be a systemic effort to change the dominance of the old public administration paradigm that had been applied in previous eras to a hybrid New Public Management–New Public Service (Turner et al., 2019). The scholarship of public administration has played an increasingly strategic role in the era of Yudhoyono’s administration, especially in the efforts to reform the bureaucracy. The government’s deep concern for this agenda is also reflected in the change of the nomenclature of the Ministry of State Apparatus Empowerment (Pemberdayaan Aparatur Negara, PAN) to the Ministry of State Apparatus Empowerment and Bureaucratic Reform (KemenPAN-RB) in 2009, as the institution responsible for overseeing the implementation of bureaucracy reform nationally. In addition in that era, for the first time, a vice-minister from academia with expertise in the field of bureaucracy reform helped to introduce and internalize various concepts of public administration in succeeding reform agendas. These various moves reflect the fact that the scholarship of public administration ‒ including the development of paradigms and various concepts such as administrative reform, human capital development, organizational restructuring, new public governance, and digital governance ‒ was increasingly seen as necessary, with a strategic role in the journey towards public sector reform in Indonesia.

112  Handbook of teaching public administration Efforts to oversee bureaucracy reform are still being made today under the leadership of President Joko Widodo (Jokowi); for instance, through the implementation of Law 5/2014 on Civil Service (ASN), which proposed a merit system in human resource management (HRM). In addition, the law adheres to the principles of openness and competitiveness in making decisions on positions, remuneration, rewards, and punishment, based on performance, integrity, and standards of behavior that uphold the public interest; ensures effectiveness and efficiency in HRM; and protects the civil service from practical politics in the workplace (Turner et al., 2019). In addition to human resource issues, the quality of public services is also a priority agenda, as exemplified by various service innovations, such as the Public Service Mall, which adopts the One-Stop Service concept. These change agendas reflect the robust NPM paradigm in the course of administrative reform in Indonesia, which is also marked by the increasing collaboration between the government, the private sector, and the community. In addition to the NPM paradigm, some of the characteristics of the New Public Service (NPS) paradigm have also emerged in the last decade; for example, the formation of school committees, health committees, and committees in other fields that involve many non-governmental actors.

THE RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION PRACTICE AND TEACHING IN HIGHER EDUCATION The relationship between public administration as a science and practice, as well as its contribution to the development of public institutions, has a direct or indirect correlation with the climate of teaching and research in the field of public administration in universities. For example, the National Institute of Public Administration (LAN) played an essential role in the Old Order, New Order, and early reform eras in shaping the curriculum and teaching of public administration for civil servants and students at the national level. This role was also realized through the publication of the book Public Administration System in the Unitary State of Indonesia (Sistem Administrasi Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia, SANKRI) as the primary reference for public administration teaching in universities. However, after the start of the reform era, LAN was no longer in that strategic position. Each university public administration study program was based on its own curriculum, meaning that there were variations and gaps in these and in the teaching materials used. This situation was realized by academics in the field of public administration who were members of the Indonesian Association for Public Administration (IAPA), the professional association which was formed in 2010. This association plays a strategic role in shaping the curriculum of public administration, ensuring the standardization of teaching materials and the competence of graduates at the national level. The formation of the national curriculum took place in 2017 through the determination of compulsory and recommended courses for the undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral levels for all public administration study programs in Indonesia. Compulsory courses set at the undergraduate level included Introduction to Public Administration, Public Policy, Leadership, Public Service Management, Bureaucracy and Public Governance, and Digital Governance (Indonesian Association for Public Administration, 2017). The contributions of public administration as a discipline and its relationship with practice in public institutions in Indonesia also have an impact on its image as a study program in universities. Although the public administration study program already existed and was beginning

Indonesian administrative system developments  113 to develop, especially from 1957, along with the establishment of LAN, its role in policymaking at the national level was still limited, especially during the New Order era. Furthermore, the program is still underestimated and believed to be identical to clerical training, and is not seen as an independent discipline. In its development between 1960 and 1965, public administration received official recognition, and it was then the forerunner to the establishment of the Faculty of Administrative Science Universitas Brawijaya. Along with strengthening the role of public administration in various sectors, and in policymaking at the national level, especially during the administrative reform process in Indonesia, the public administration study program changed its image from one based on clerical tasks to one on strategic tasks. Subsequently, faculties of administrative sciences were then also established at other universities, such as the Universitas Indonesia and Krisnadwipayana University. In addition to the establishment of faculties, the number of public administration study programs also multiplied, including those delivered by members of the current IAPA association, which comprises 242 institutions and 1332 academics (Indonesian Association for Public Administration, 2021). In various public administration science study programs, the development of the public administration curriculum has moved from pure public administrative science to applied public administrative science by paying attention to market demands and needs, as well as by improving public administration practices. The pure science curriculum emphasizes the scientific development of public administration, while the applied science curriculum emphasizes instruments and tools such as the balanced scorecard, policy analysis, innovation in public services, strategic management, e-government, and organizational learning, used to solve problems related to public administration. The learning method applied is also more applicable to student-centered and problem-based learning methods. In addition, the curriculum is also continuously improved, with links and matches between universities, and according to the needs of employers of public administration graduates. In addition to the realm of learning in higher education, the development of public administration as a science and its practice in public institutions also have an impact on the research and publication climate. In the pre-reform era, the state effectively co-opted knowledge creation, and the role of knowledge was minimal in the state development process (Dwiyanto et al., 2017). The role of academics in the field of state administration is also still limited; only a few are involved in influencing policy, and advocacy is even considered to be politically taboo, and categorized as a subversive activity (Pane et al., 2018). Research in public administration began to develop since the reform era, as indicated by data from Scopus, which shows that in the period 2000‒2019, 924 articles were published by writers from Indonesia and 14 573 globally on the topic of public administration. The themes of public administration research in the last two decades in Indonesia also have expanded to include bureaucratic reform, local government, leadership, human resource management, and good governance. In addition, Indonesian authors have also collaborated in the field of public administration with authors from other countries, with the top five collaborators being from Australia, the United States, Malaysia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom (Putera and Pasciana, 2021). Collaboration in the development of public administration has also been made by professional associations. The establishment of the Indonesian Association for Public Administration (IAPA) was a milestone in such development in Indonesia; it is internationally connected with professional public administration organizations in Asia, such as the Asian Association for Public Administration (AAPA), Asian Group for Public Administration (AGPA), and Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration (EROPA); as well as at the global

114  Handbook of teaching public administration level, with organizations such as International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS), International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA), European Group for Public Administration (EGPA), United Nations Committee of Experts on Public Administration (UN-CEPA), and American Society for Public Administration (ASPA). In fact, in the 2013‒2019 period, several Indonesian public administration scientists formed the board committee at AAPA, and in 2019‒2022 one of them became the President of AGPA. These international connections are optimized by IAPA through the organization of various collaborations in conferences, research, and teaching (Indonesian Association for Public Administration, 2020). Cooperation also takes place with various universities abroad for the implementation of double degrees; for example, the Master of Administration and Public Policy of the Universitas Indonesia in collaboration with the Master of Public Policy and Management of the University of Melbourne; its e-Government Studies with the Master’s of e-Government of Victoria University of Wellington; and its Master’s in Public Policy (Universitas Indonesia) with the Master of Public Administration of the University of Canberra (Faculty of Administrative Science Universitas Indonesia, 2020). In addition, at Gadjah Mada University, the Master of Public Administration is run in collaboration with four graduate schools in Japan, namely the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, the Graduate School of International Cooperation Studies of Kobe University, the Graduate School of International Relations of Ritsumeikan University, and the Graduate School of Policy Science of Ritsumeikan University in a master’s linkage program (Magister Administrasi Publik Universitas Gadjah Mada, n.d.). The collaboration opportunities also encourage universities to improve their publication platforms by strengthening journal management in the field of public administration. In recent years, national journals have continued to improve their quality, such as Jurnal Bisnis dan Birokrasi, Jurnal Kebijakan dan Administrasi Publik, Jurnal Borneo Administrator, Policy and Governance Review, and Journal of Governance. The development of these journals is also supported by the obligation for master’s and doctoral students to publish (Lembaga Layanan Pendidikan Tinggi/LLDikti, 2019). Various curriculum developments, research, and publications in the field of public administration have a reciprocal relationship and contribute to the development of public institutions in Indonesia. Various administrative reform agendas require the development of the competencies of graduates of public administration, such as policy analysts and personnel analysts, so that curriculum development is also based on these needs. The merit system and professionalism regulated in the Civil Service Law are taught to students, as are the topics of openness covered in Public Information Disclosure Law, public services, and innovations based on Public Service Law; the procurement of goods/services; performance management contained in the Performance Accountability Management System (SAKIP); and various strategies and programs of bureaucracy reform that have become national policies. The same process has occurred in the context of research, with topics based on various problems in the public sector, meaning that the research results are not restricted to the academic realm in the form of academic papers, but are also practical, in the form of policy briefs. The rapid development of the public administration curriculum is inseparable from the increasing contribution of academics to policy formulation and advocacy, in managerial positions, research teams, and as expert staff. The involvement of academics in the field of public administration, for example, as Executive Secretary of the Steering Committee of National Bureaucracy Reform (KPRBN) in 2015‒2019, and as the Chair of the Independent Team of National Bureaucracy

Indonesian administrative system developments  115 Reform (TIRBN) in 2020‒2024. Academics in the field of public administration are also directly involved in the reform agenda at the national level, such as the Chairman of the Indonesian Civil Service Commission (KASN) and the Deputy Minister for Accountability and Monitoring of Bureaucracy Reform in the Ministry of Administrative Reform. They also play a role at the regional level as members of teams of experts in the provinces and districts/ cities. The practical experience of academics impact the development of a curriculum that is tailored to the needs and problems of public administration in Indonesia. The implementation of the latest policy strengthens the development and standardization; Merdeka Learning ‒ Merdeka Campus (Merdeka Belajar ‒ Kampus Merdeka) links education, research, and public administration practice through student exchanges, internship programs, student research, and openness to the learning process between universities, thereby triggering curriculum standardization and learning quality (Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology, 2020). This standardization and improvement in the quality of learning also need to be adapted to various strategic issues at the global level, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), big data in decision-making, and the Internet of Things (IoT), in order to change the way organizations and public services work, and to reform practices through the application of agile bureaucracy. Indonesia must make adjustments quickly, with a quantum leap in reform, connecting to industrial revolution 4.0 in Indonesia, moving from a traditionally politically oriented bureaucracy to a knowledge-based one, and developing a citizen-focused bureaucracy based on the development of science, technology, knowledge, and ethics.

CONCLUSION Public administration development in Indonesia has changed significantly, especially before and after the reform era which began in 1998, and after the issuance of the Grand Design for National Bureaucracy Reform in 2010. Notable changes can be seen; for instance, in the shifting paradigm from the Weberian style to the New Public Management approach; the development of curricula of public administration study programs in higher education; greater contribution and participation of academics in the policymaking process and reform agendas; broader cooperation among universities at national and global levels; and more research and publications in the area of public administration. In the Indonesian case, public administration as a scholarship is developing in the context of teaching, research, and publication in higher education, and it strongly correlates with and contributes to the practice of modernizing the public administrative system. The future research agenda might depart from the phenomena introduced in this chapter, in that there is an increasing number of middle- to high-ranking public officials being educated in postgraduate programs of public administration. The agenda is worth further examination as to whether these phenomena open more opportunities of bridging knowledge of public administration to the policy process. A possibility for such bridging might come from public officials who become students of the public administration study program. These public officials can offer policy-related projects from their offices to their professors, hence influencing the directions and priorities of public administration research.

116  Handbook of teaching public administration

REFERENCES Dwiyanto, A., et al. (2017). Reformasi birokrasi publik di indonesia. Gajah Mada University Press. Faculty of Administrative Science Universitas Indonesia (2020). Program magister double degree. FIA UI. https://​fia​.ui​.ac​.id/​double​-degree/​. Hood, C. (1991). A public management for all seasons? Public Administration, 69(1), 3‒19. Indonesian Association for Public Administration. (2017). Surat keputusan mata kuliah wajib dan direkomendasikan. IAPA. https://​www​.iapa​.or​.id/​download/​. Indonesian Association for Public Administration (2018). RPS MK jenjang S1, S2, S3 administrasi publik. IAPA. https://​drive​.google​.com/​drive/​folders/​1YsFf7LZ​_mKwr​unyhIR46d7​CYCCsPnofm. Indonesian Association for Public Administration. (2020). Workshop instrumen akreditasi program studi 4.0. IAPA. https://​www​.iapa​.or​.id/​workshop​-iaps/​. Indonesian Association for Public Administration (2021). Anggota aktif individu dan institusi. IAPA. https://​iapa​.or​.id/​member/​daftar​-anggota. Ingrams, A., Piotrowski, S., and Berliner, D. (2020). Learning from our mistakes: Public management reform and the hope of open government. Perspectives on Public Management and Governance, 3(4), 257–272. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1093/​ppmgov/​gvaa001. Lembaga Layanan Pendidikan Tinggi/LLDikti (2019, June 13). Edaran: publikasi karya ilmiah program sarjana. program magister, dan program doctor. LLDIKTI. Edaran, Publikasi Karya Ilmiah Program Sarjana, Program Magister, dan Program Doktor – Lembaga Layanan Pendidikan Tinggi Wilayah VIII (ristekdikti.go.id). Magister Administrasi Publik Universitas Gadjah Mada (n.d.) Master linkage. MAP UGM.lhttps://​map​ .ugm​.ac​.id/​master​-linkage/​. Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology (2020). Buku panduan merdeka belajar: kampus merdeka. Kemendikbud Ristek. https://​kampusmerdeka​.kemdikbud​.go​.id/​announcement/​1/​ buku​-panduan​-merdeka​-belajar​-kampus​-merdeka. Osborne, D., and Gaebler, T. (1992). Reinventing government: How the entrepreneurial spirit is transforming the public sector. Penguin Press. Pane, F., Kuntjoro, I.A., Ruhanawati, S., Djafar, T.N., and Nugroho, K.P. (2018). The role of policy research institutes in policymaking in Indonesia. In Pellini, A., Prasetiamartati, B., Nugroho, K.P., Jackson, E. and Carden, E. (eds), Knowledge, politics, and policymaking in Indonesia (pp. 31–46). Springer. Putera, P.B., and Pasciana, R. (2021). Identity, intellectual and paradigm dialogue: India and Indonesia public administration research in global order. Journal Library Philosophy and Practice, January, 1‒15. Thoha, M. (2007). Birokrasi dan politik di Indonesia. Raja Grafindo Persada. Turner, M., Prasojo, E., and Sumarwono, R. (2019). The challenge of reforming big bureaucracy in Indonesia. Policy Studies, 1‒19. doi:​10​.1080/​01442872​.2019​.1708301.

12. Administrative education, training, and capacity building: the role of the Indian Institute of Public Administration Aroon P. Manoharan and Nandhini Rangarajan

Public administration is a “pracademic” discipline that is deeply connected to its practitioner side. “Public administration can be understood as an academic discipline and as a profession that rests upon a body of specialized knowledge that progressively reinvents itself to bridge the gap between theory and practice” (Manoharan et al., 2020, p. 2). Like professional fields such as medicine, law, and economics, public administration requires extensive instructional techniques (Geva-May and Maslove, 2006). As Posner (2009, p. 13) observes in the context of public affairs education: the world of practice serves as the center point of the academic compass for most professional programs. Just as schools of engineering and law are disciplined by the marketplace, which seeks well-trained students, so our programs must perennially find ways to address the fast-changing needs of practitioners, whether they be government, nonprofit organizations, consulting firms or contractors.

Strong interlinkages between the academic and practitioner domains ensure that public administrators are trained in the skills and knowledge needed to govern an increasingly diverse and pluralistic society. An important linkage to strengthen and reinforce this relationship is the content and curriculum of the programs in public administration and policy. Posner (2009) observes that when academic programs are not aligned with their markets, it can lead to the rise of other alternative providers with inadequate professional quality and perspective. Such trends may diminish interest in professional academic programs, and cause the decline of the discipline in the long term. These consequences are observable in India, which experiences a paucity of accredited public administration programs. Not only the needs of practitioners, but also the administrative aspirations of those who want to enter the civil service, are affected by this misalignment of professional education and preparation. In many regions the practice of public administration developed independently of the academic discipline. Such a tenuous relationship is prevalent in India, which retains many tenets of its pre-independence era bureaucracy. Civil service professionals in India are selected and appointed through the All-India Civil Service entrance examinations conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) at the national level, and the various Public Service Commissions at the state level. The two stages are the preliminary and the main examinations. The main examinations consist of nine papers, of which seven are mandated by the UPSC and the remaining two are optional papers. Candidates can choose to write from 26 available optional subjects, including public administration. The exam papers influence the development of the academic discipline of public administration in India, and illustrate its current boundaries. However, the outdated content of the 117

118  Handbook of teaching public administration examinations does not emphasize the practical issues faced by public administrators in their daily functioning (Roberts and Manoharan, 2020). This has perhaps been the predominant reason for the tentative presence of public administration as an academic discipline in India. Manoharan et al.’s (2020) research findings highlight that few universities offered degrees in public administration, mostly in the form of a Masters of Arts (MA) degree. As public administration is not a required subject for the civil service examinations (one of the 26 optional papers), there is less incentive to pursue a degree in the field. Moreover, civil service recruits in India are not required to have any academic education in public administration, public policy, political science, or related fields. Therefore, those preparing for and subsequently entering the civil service do not possess much formal education in public administration, policy, or management. India has roughly 6.4 million government employees managed by a force of 50 000 civil service officers (Civil Services Survey, 2010), spread across 26 categories of administrative services at the central and state level, such as the Indian Administrative Service, Indian Revenue Service, Indian Foreign Service, and so on. (Vishwanath, 2020, p. 3).There are approximately 5000 officers in the Indian Administrative Services alone (Vishwanath, 2020, p. 4; Civil Services Survey, 2010), and roughly 60 percent of them hold a master’s degree, with over 7 percent holding a doctorate as well (Civil Services Survey, 2010). Data from India’s National Informatics Center (see: https://​easy​.nic​.in) show that only a total of 211 out of 5000 ‒ that is, around 4.2 percent ‒ of these officers have a degree in public administration, policy, and/or public management. Few schools provide graduate and undergraduate degrees in public administration in India (Manoharan et al., 2020). The lack of foundational education in these core fields among officers of the Indian Administrative Service is perhaps related to the fact that there are only 53 universities with 200 faculty members across a nation of India’s size offering public administration programs, out of which only 29 programs are housed in stand-alone departments of public administration (see Manoharan et al., 2020, p. 297). In essence, the public administration educational system is not aligned with the needs of India’s practitioners of public administration. Those entering the civil service have varying levels of preparation for the demands of the profession. Several factors play a role in the education and preparedness of civil servants. Varying accessibility to established schools and programs of public administration; personal motivation to learn about public administration issues; prior knowledge in a related field such as law, sociology, public accounting, and so on; could all have an impact on the readiness for administrative service.

CHAPTER PURPOSE The lacunae in public administration education must be addressed by other means such as in-service education, training, development, and capacity building initiatives. Therefore, the main purpose of this chapter is to describe the role of one such institution, which is not part of the traditional higher education system, but which is synonymous with public administration learning in India. This chapter highlights the role of Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) in addressing the needs of PA pedagogy, training, and development. “Mid-career education is the arena in which practice and academe intersect” (Quinn, 2016, p. 15), and this chapter uses the lens of meaningful academic‒practitioner relationships to understand how

Administrative education, training, and capacity building  119 the IIPA connects pedagogy and research to the practice of public administration through its mid-career training initiatives for public administrators.

ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE ACADEMIC‒PRACTITIONER RELATIONSHIPS The literature on academic‒practitioner relationships discusses multiple ways in which these two groups could work together effectively. Meaningful academic‒practitioner experience consists of “collaborative and research-oriented relationships between academics who are interested in practice concerns and practitioners who are reflexive and seek to implement based on research” (Powell et al., 2018, p. 64). In the context of public administration, “pracademic” is defined as an effective academic‒practitioner relationship that would enable high-quality research and strengthen public administration education, service, and practice (adapted from Powell et al., 2018, p. 65). Posner (2009, p. 16) defines pracademics as adaptable boundary-spanning brokers and cross-pressured actors who “serve the indispensable roles of translating, coordinating, and aligning perspectives across multiple constituencies.” He states that pracademics can play a major role in bridging the academic‒practitioner gap, and strengthen communication, cooperation, and collaboration between them. IIPA fosters a synergistic relationship between its faculty and practitioners who access its knowledge-sharing and training services. IIPA is synonymous with research, training, advisory services, and the dissemination of information. Its mission is to be an “example of excellence in public governance by encouraging the development of a humanistic, democratic and collegial environment in the Institute.” Its vision is to “be one of the world’s leading academic centers of thought and influence on public governance, policies and implementation so that public governance systems are more responsive to human needs and aspirations and aligned with human values.” The following sections discuss how IIPA’s history has aided its role in fostering meaningful academic‒practitioner relationships. Subsequent sections of the chapter discuss how IIPA, through its various centers of excellence, research, and training initiatives for mid-career professionals, has promoted meaningful collaboration between academia and practice.

INCEPTION OF IIPA: FOUNDATION FOR ACADEMIC‒ PRACTITIONER CONNECTIONS Prior to independence, the training of Indian administrators was often considered an in-service activity, with less dependence on academic institutions. The administrators in the erstwhile, colonial era Indian Civil Service (ICS) were primarily expected to possess skills needed for revenue collection and the maintenance of law and order (Mishra, 2013). Such skills were understood to be acquired directly from supervisors (Maheshwari, 2006). The early efforts to provide formal public administration education and training include the Diploma in Public Administration at Madras University in 1937, and the Department of Public Administration and Local Self-Government at Nagpur University in 1949 (Mishra, 2013). After Independence, the Planning Commission organized the formal training of public administrators at the Staff College, which prepared officers from multiple sectors (Maheshwari,

120  Handbook of teaching public administration 2006). IIPA was established on March 13 and inaugurated on March 29, 1954 by India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, following the recommendation of Professor Paul H. Appleby of Syracuse University in the United States. Based on his observation, Prof. Appleby lauded the Government of India as one of the most advanced governments during that period, specifically as an advanced democracy. He also noted that the Indian Constitution is broad and adaptable to changes and growth (Tummala, 2004). The administration was receptive to critical feedback and continuous improvement to its processes. IIPA was established with a vision to provide a people-oriented administration for the newly independent sovereign democratic republic. Nehru’s primary intention was the transformation of administration from a colonial-era approach to a more democratic approach with a sense of accountability to the public. He was also the first President of IIPA and remained so till the end of his tenure as Prime Minister. This sense of purpose and public service was also shared by other national leaders. The first President of India, Dr Rajendra Prasad, considered public administration to be crucial for the well-being of the public, and emphasized the need for a human approach to the implementation of public programs. He underlined that: “Administration, let it not be forgotten, is not an end in itself. It is essentially a means to an end which is promoting the welfare of the community. This can be achieved only if those entrusted with the task of administration undertake it in a spirit of public service” (Agarwal, 2013, pp. 1‒2). Dr Radhakrishnan, the first Vice-President of India, stressed the need for administrators to be non-political and impartial in their public service functions and duties. As echoed by them and other political leaders, the nation needed a new administration and new administrators with a new vision. Going forward, administration was to be based on knowledge, training, and expertise in various issues pertaining to democratic governance. Administrators were expected to replace colonial administrative values and priorities with public service values. Such a rapid transformation in the administrative mission, vision, and values required the establishment of a formal training process through institutions and colleges. IIPA was established to train public administrators to serve with such renewed focus, and to implement policies with a public value perspective. Established with a vision of a people-oriented administration, the Institute and its faculty aim to “enhance the frontiers of knowledge in public policy and governance through applied research and education as well as training of administrators to serve the people of India.” The faculty are involved in research and advising on the betterment of policies and procedures to ensure improved service delivery. IIPA also focuses on skill development and promoting the study of public administration through training courses, conferences, lectures, and research. The Institute’s primary emphasis is to enhance the leadership and managerial capabilities of the public administrators while instilling public service values. Globalization and society’s rapid changes require the civil services to respond appropriately to the needs and expectations of all sections of the society, including rural, urban, and semi-urban India.

CONNECTING PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE IIPA promotes a pedagogy of public administration that is integrated with economics and political science. Along with regular courses, some of the initiatives of the Institute include

Administrative education, training, and capacity building  121 conferences, guest lectures, and collaborative research on government and the machinery of administration. It provides a foundation for scholarship in public administration through journals, research reports, and book publications. The Institute also coordinates with established regional branches across India and with related institutions in other fields to promote the goals and ideals of public administration. With a wide network of members and alumni in India and abroad, the Institute remains well connected to the nation and the profession through 24 regional branches and 43 local branches. The regional and local branches help to “promote exchange of ideas on current trends and practice in public administration to public servants, academics, students and the IIPA members at the local level.” The branches curate a set of seminars, capacity building programs, conferences, and research symposiums to enhance awareness of the field of public administration. IIPA also collaborates with several international institutes and centers on topics related to public administration and governance. The campus is spread across 7 acres of land area in the main part of the nation’s capital, New Delhi, ideally located to nurture effective relationships with public sector entities. It houses seven centers of excellence: Centre for Urban Studies; Centre of e-Governance (IIPAeGov); Centre of Tribal Research and Exploration; Centre for Economic Growth and Management Studies; Centre for Good Governance; Dr Ambedkar Centre for Public Policy; Centre for Climate Change, Environment and Drought Administration; and the Centre for Consumer Studies.

STRENGTHENING ACADEMIC‒PRACTITIONER TIES THROUGH TRAINING A principal objective of IIPA is to offer comprehensive, cutting-edge training on various topics to skill or reskill Indian and international public administrators from various administrative and policy realms. Since its inception in January 1959, as of October 2020, IIPA has trained 88 609 participants through a total of 3528 training programs that are either fee-based or government-sponsored. The Indian government allocated approximately US$33 million (238.45 Crore INR) for the domestic and foreign training of bureaucrats and to expand necessary infrastructure for 2020‒2021 (PTI, 2020). Roughly US$7 million (50 Crore INR) was allocated for overseas training of 300 officers in 2019‒2020 (Ghosh, 2020). The domestic training of the remaining civil service personnel is the responsibility of institutions such as IIPA. Training is offered by the Institute’s faculty members, each having their own varied academic and research interests. Currently the IIPA offers ten training courses, as shown in Table 12.1. In addition to these, it offers training on Environment, Climate Change and Disaster. Two of these programs – International Training Program on Global Strategic Leadership, and Environment, Climate Change and Disaster – are offered to foreign administrators as well. Trainees from Asia, Africa, and Latin America have participated in these two training programs. Some foreign administrators occasionally participate in the Institute’s Advanced Professional Program in Public Administration as well. Through its training programs IIPA helps to accomplish the twin objectives of imparting administrative competencies and creating a strong network of trainees with university, industry, and government partners. From 2014 to 2019, the Institute held approximately 101 training programs each year for an average of 4816 people. These numbers speak to IIPA’s continued presence in the training and education of India’s public administration corps. Furthermore, it has continued to meet the training needs

122  Handbook of teaching public administration Table 12.1 1

Training programs at IIPA

Name of training program

Date of inception Target group

Program length

Advanced Professional

1975

10 months

Services, Defence Services, Technical Services, and

Program in Public

officers of state governments

Administration 2

Urban Management and

Senior officers of the All India Services, Central

1996

Real estate administrators/professionals

3 days/1 week

2003

Scientists and technologists of government scientific

8 weeks

Development 3

Program for Scientific Personnel

4

Training of Trainers for

institutions 2007

Members of voluntary consumer organizations (VCOs)

Consumer Protection and

and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and

Welfare

Presidents and members of the Districts Consumer

3 days/1 week

Forums 5

Personality Development

2011

Training Program 6

Advanced Leadership

Probationary officers of Central Public Works

4 weeks

Department 2014

Senior Manager/Executive of public service undertakings 4 weeks

2015

District-level officials from Scheduled Caste/Scheduled

Program 7

Digital India

3 days/1 week

Tribe Areas 8

Mid-Career Training

2017

Officers of the Indian Revenue Service

4 weeks

2017

Foreign government officials

1–4 weeks

2018

Judicial officers

1 week

Program 9

International Training Program on Global Strategic Leadership

10

Management Development Program

Source: Based on information from IIPA.org.

of its clients even during the COVID-19 pandemic, via digital modules covering a wide range of topics. The Advanced Professional Program in Public Administration (APPPA) is the Institute’s flagship training program. It is a well-curated combination of theoretical and practical modules, as shown in Figure 12.1. Learning objectives for APPPA are achieved through a variety of instructional tools such as group discussions, debates, field visits, presentations, and a study abroad program. APPPA emphasizes research, and trainees complete a dissertation on a topic of their choice. Trainees come away with an enhanced understanding of public administration research, a keener appreciation for academic writing and reflective practice. For the first five months, APPPA trainees learn theories and concepts via four specific modules entitled: (1) Basic Module: Theories and Concepts; (2) Thematic Module: Policy, Administration and Governance; (3) Public Policy Module: Critical Concerns in Governance; and (4) Contemporary Governance Issues, which has 12 streams. The trainee can choose to be evaluated in one area of interest out of 12 possible streams offered in the fourth module. A special experiential module requires trainees to present one significant administrative experience encountered as professionals through field visits to a rural, an urban, and a forward area. Forward areas are those at the Indian border such as Leh or Sikkim, and visits to them are meant to inculcate a better understanding of civil‒military relations and the preparedness of armed forces.

Administrative education, training, and capacity building  123

Source: Based on information from IIPA.org.

Figure 12.1

Components of APPPA training

In addition to these visits, the experiential component includes a knowledge visit to academic partners such as Panjab University and the Indian Institute of Technology at Roorkee, Uttarakhand. Trainees are also expected to complete a project elaborating upon their personal understanding of social responsibility and specifying ways in which they fulfill it.

ENHANCING ACADEMIC‒PRACTITIONER RELATIONSHIP THROUGH RESEARCH An important yardstick for meaningful academic‒practitioner relationships is rigor and relevance (Bartunek and Rynes, 2014). The IIPA faculty conduct what is stereotypically called rigorous academic research, and also engage in what Tranfield and Starkey (1998, p. 347, citing Gibbons et al., 1994) called mode 2 research/knowledge production, which is based on application in the real world, involves multiple players, and “which results in immediate or short time to market dissemination,” thereby emphasizing relevance. IIPA undertakes diverse research projects addressing a wide array of issues. It conducts policy evaluations, service delivery, and impact analyses which are primarily applied and focused on resolution of public problems. These projects are undertaken pursuant to requests from various entities in India’s central government and state governments, private sector companies, and other research entities. IIPA is a “think tank to government” and helps to address multiple academic and applied research questions through its role as a research consultant. The studies are generally sponsored by the central government, and in some cases by other national and international organizations. In addition to research conducted at the request of external entities, IIPA faculty are actively researching and publishing their work, not only in the flagship journal of the institute, the Indian Journal of Public Administration, but also in other research outlets. In the year 2019‒2020, IIPA completed a total of 155 research projects, and had numerous

124  Handbook of teaching public administration projects in the pipeline. Its publications include books, scholarly articles, monographs, reports, working papers, and compendiums related to governance and public administration. Other IIPA publications include the Nagarlok and Lok Prashashan journals, a bibliographic journal, Documentation in Public Administration, and a monthly newsletter. The exchange of ideas with members of IIPA happens through an annual conference organized in October. The conference themes thus far have covered good governance and United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, the impact of demonetization, food security in India, and trends in central government‒state relations. Regional centers of IIPA conduct pre-conference events on the same theme, and reports from these pre-conference events are presented at the annual conference. IIPA is an ideal venue for the cross-pollination of ideas of interest to both practitioners and academics. The Institute’s thriving alumni association also arranges for lectures on important topics of interest, such as intellectual property rights and cyber security.

CONCLUSION The main objective of this chapter was to highlight IIPA’s role in education, training, and professional development, and the Institute’s efforts to create meaningful academic‒practitioner interactions. Since its inception more than six decades ago, IIPA has played a central role in connecting pedagogy, research, and practice. The signature functions of IIPA have been training administrators and policy personnel, and providing scholarly support for the applied and academic research needs of the leading governance and administrative units of India. It is a primary actor in a network of central, state, and regional entities that offer training opportunities for inductees and mid-career administrative professionals. It facilitates collaboration between practitioners, academics, students, and administrative aspirants. As discussed earlier in this chapter, there is a pronounced mismatch between demand for public administration education and training, and the number of educational institutions dedicated to meeting those demands in India. IIPA undoubtedly plays a vital role in mitigating this incongruity in the domestic context. However, IIPA’s work and influence is not limited to India. It has had a far-reaching impact in the developing countries of the world, given that many trainees from other Asian, African, and Latin American countries seek professional development and professional connections via this institution. This chapter has traced the past and present initiatives undertaken by IIPA that solidify its status as an institution that bridges the gap between academia and practice. Future opportunities to strengthen ties between the institution and the practitioner community are rapidly increasing. Today, administrative reform in India that is focused on recruitment, training, promotion, and career advancement is on the upswing. IIPA can continue to play a greater part in such crucial initiatives, and be a role model to other institutions and universities pursuing similar goals and objectives, particularly in strengthening academic‒practitioner ties. The Institute is unique, as it “blends theoretical presumptions with action research” (Tripathi, 2021). IIPA’s objective is “to motivate a rule bound bureaucrat to become a problem-solving manager,” and in this regard, the Institute’s approach to excellence in building capacity for good governance is modular, multidisciplinary, and results in lifelong learning among the administrative officers (Tripathi, 2021).

Administrative education, training, and capacity building  125 India has recently announced the launch of Mission Karma Yogi, a major initiative aimed at revamping human resource development at all levels in India. This is part of the “National Programme for Civil Services Capacity Building (NPCSCB), which will enable a comprehensive reform of the capacity building apparatus at the individual, institutional and process levels” (Express Web Desk, 2020). Such initiatives will call for a stronger academic‒practitioner connection which will strengthen the academic rigor‒practical relevance dimensions. IIPA’s longevity and expertise, as a premier academy for knowledge sharing, learning, and training, will be called upon for this mission, which is a testament to the stature of IIPA, the quality of the Institute’s work, and the trust placed by the central government on its approach to education, training, and development. IIPA has been an enduring presence in the administrative learning and training realm in India. Despite the multiplicity of administrative training opportunities available across India, IIPA plays a prominent role in the administrative journey of Indian civil servants. Its illustrious history, its vast academic and scholarly resources, and an engaged network of alumni, scholars, and practitioners makes it an ideal institution that symbolizes the pracademic approach to public administration.

REFERENCES Agarwal, U.C. (2013). Broad goals and tasks of civil services ‒ IIPA’s role in their training.  Indian Journal of Public Administration, 59(1), 1–6. Bartunek, J.M., and Rynes, S.L. (2014). Academics and practitioners are alike and unlike: The paradoxes of academic–practitioner relationships. Journal of Management, 40(5), 1181–1201. Civil Services Survey (2010). Retrieved October 20, 2020 from http://​darpg​.gov​.in/​darpgwebsite​_cms/​ Document/​file/​Civil​_Services​_Survey​_2010​.pdf. Express Web Desk (2020, September 3). What is mission Karmayogi? Indian Express. https://​ indianexpress​.com/​article/​what​-is/​what​-is​-mission​-karmayogi​-6580380/​. Geva-May, I., and Maslove, A. (2006). Canadian public policy analysis and public policy programs: A comparative perspective. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 12(4), 413–438. Ghosh, A. (2020, June 17). Modi govt says no foreign training for officials this year, cites Covid and austerity measures. ThePrint. https://​theprint​.in/​india/​governance/​modi​-govt​-says​-no​-foreign​-training​ -for​-officials​-this​-year​-cites​-covid​-austerity​-measures/​443588/​. Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman, S., Scott, P., and Trow, M. (1994). The new production of knowledge: The dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. SAGE. Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) (2021). Retrieved from https://​www​.iipa​.org​.in/​cms/​ public/​. Maheshwari, S.R. (2006). Public administration in India: The higher civil service. Oxford University Press. Manoharan, A.P., Viswanath, S., and Sabharwal, M. (2020). Public administration pedagogy in India. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 26(3), 291–312. Mishra, R.K. (2013). History and context of public administration in India. In M. Sabharwal and E.M. Berman (eds), Public administration in South Asia: India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan (pp. 29–50). Taylor & Francis. Posner, P.L. (2009). The pracademic: An agenda for re‐engaging practitioners and academics. Public Budgeting and Finance, 29(1), 12–26. Powell, E., Winfield, G., Schatteman, A.M., and Trusty, K. (2018). Collaboration between practitioners and academics: Defining the pracademic experience.  Journal of Nonprofit Education and Leadership, 8(1), 62–79.

126  Handbook of teaching public administration PTI (2020, June 17). No foreign training of bureaucrats during this financial year due to COVID-19 pandemic: Govt. Hindu. https://​www​.thehindu​.com/​news/​national/​no​-foreign​-training​-of​-bureaucrats​ -during​-this​-financial​-year​-due​-to​-covid​-19​-pandemic​-govt/​article31849241​.ece. Quinn, B.C. (2016). Teaching and research in mid-career management education: Function and fusion. Teaching Public Administration, 34(1), 7–18. Roberts A., and Manoharan A.P. (2020). UPSC examination papers on public administration in India. In A. Farazmand (ed.), Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance (pp. 1‒11). Springer. Tranfield, D., and Starkey, K. (1998). The nature, social organization and promotion of management research: Towards policy. British Journal of Management, 9(4), 341–353. Tripathi, S.N. (2021). Personal communication from the Director of IIPA. Tummala, K. (2004). Paul H. Appleby and Indian administration. In P.L. Sanjiva Reddy, J. Singh, and R.K. Tiwari (eds), Democracy, governance and globalization: Essays in honor of Paul H. Appleby (pp. 209–228). Indian Institute of Public Administration. Viswanath, S. (2020). Public servants in modern India: Who are they? In H. Sullivan, H. Dickinson, and H. Henderson (eds), Palgrave handbook of the public servant. Palgrave Macmillan. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1007/​978​-3​-030​-29980​-4​_96.

13. The teaching of public administration in Africa Robert Mudida

The teaching of public administration in Africa is closely associated with the public administration context in particular African states (Rougevin-Baville, 1963). The critical objective of the teaching of public administration in Africa is to produce public administrators who will work in government at central, provincial, and local levels of a country’s administrative system with a focus on enhanced public service delivery (Basheka and Dassah, 2014). The teaching of public administration in Africa is primarily done at public and private universities and also at specialised public administration institutes or schools of government set up by different African governments, usually in the early post-independence period. At universities, it is done through undergraduate and graduate teaching programmes where the learners acquire a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree in Public Administration. At institutes of public administration or Schools of Government, such as the Kenya School of Government (which was formerly known as the Kenya Institute of Administration), the learners acquire professional certificates or diplomas, and these are often vital for their promotion in the civil service. In some cases institutes of public administration collaborate with public universities to offer graduate degrees in public administration. The early post-colonial period provides the origins of public administration capacity building which was often influenced by the colonial heritage of institutions in particular African states. Its focus in the post-colonial era was nation building. In the last two decades, however, public administration teaching in Africa has been profoundly impacted upon by greater globalisation, which has influenced both the content and the pedagogy of public administration programmes (Zemrani, 2018). African states continue to struggle to improve their public service delivery, and many have adopted new models based on devolution in the 21st century, which also is a vital element of public administration teaching in recent years. This chapter begins by examining the influence of the colonial heritage on public administration teaching traditions in Africa. In addition, early post-colonial public administration teaching priorities in African states are examined with a focus on nation building. The chapter considers the impact of globalisation on public administration teaching, and also the differences between pedagogy in public and private universities. It concludes with a critical appraisal of public administration teaching in Africa, considering its achievements and challenges.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLONIAL HERITAGE ON DISTINCT PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TEACHING TRADITIONS IN AFRICA The colonial heritage initially had a profound impact on public administration teaching in Africa. This was because the extractive institutional structures of the colonial period were characterised by critical gaps which newly independent African states tried to address, but they also borrowed some institutional characteristics from the colonial period, creating some continuity with the colonial period (Ghai, 1991). The colonial experiences of different African 127

128  Handbook of teaching public administration states impacted upon the public administration systems that emerged in the early post-colonial heritage. Former British systems emerged as parliamentary systems based on the Westminster model, with elections being held in single-member constituencies so as to decide the make-up of the legislature. Former French colonies tended to draw on a very different model, of power sharing between a directly elected president and a nominated prime minister (Cheeseman, 2018). Public administration teaching was initially focused on how to enhance the effectiveness of distinct governance models in the local African context. Colonial states in Africa were largely the outcome of political processes in which domestic African forces were only a small element (Englebert and Dunn, 2013). In the first two decades after independence, public administration traditions were profoundly influenced by distinct colonial and linguistic heritages across Africa. Public administration traditions originated in the colonial period. In Nigeria, for example, the British colonialists under the leadership of Lugard unified the Northern and Southern protectorates in 1914 as part of the colonial service. The British invested themselves with executive, judicial, and legislative powers (Ewoh, 2014). Initially, the British colonialists introduced a double system of public administration where separate principles and practices were applied in the North and South. The Northern style was characterised by monopoly of power by public servants in the policy process and resource allocation; their Southern counterparts had to conduct their duties with impartiality. These distinct administrative systems were to be associated with a North‒South divide that defined Nigerian politics for decades after the departure of the British (Dibie, 2004). Another aspect of colonial domination associated with inadequate education and training of the local population was that it created an indifferent attitude to work by civil servants. The civil service that emerged in the post-independence period often lacked the capacity to address the development challenges that emerged (Ijeoma and Okafor, 2014). This created a critical challenge which post-independence public administration teaching attempted to address. The call for Africanisation of the civil service had emerged in the colonial period. In Ghana, for example, there was a call for the Africanisation of the civil service that began during the inter-war years. This call coincided with an intensification of nationalist agitation (Amoah, 2014). The colonialists were unsuccessful in enhancing the indigenous character of the civil service, resulting in most senior positions being in the hands of non-Africans (Arden-Clarke, 1958).

EARLY POST-COLONIAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TRAINING IN AFRICA Once African nationalists were victorious in their independence struggles against colonialism, the commitment to a liberal and democratic outlook was not a priority. Their priority became to restore a society in which indigenous values would prevail, as distinct from European values. There was often a focus on re-traditionalising and not modernising traditional African societies (Hyden, 2013). There was often a tension between the European ideals of public administration which sought to introduce transformation, and post-colonial African leaders who sought to address immediate challenges such as unity and nation building. The notion of dependency theory was very pronounced in many African states in the early post-independence period and greatly informed the decolonisation discourse. Dependency theory argued that the

The teaching of public administration in Africa  129 social, economic, and political conditions prevailing in developing states were due to the same world historical process by which First World countries became developed, which in the developing countries involved a process of subordinate development. The prime mover in this process was capital seeking profits, as had occurred in the colonial period. In the post-colonial era there was a great concern with neo-colonialism (Leys, 1996). Nkrumah echoed this influential view in post-independence African states by arguing that colonial policy had the critical objective of promoting colonial power’s economic interests rather than that of the colonial subjects. He argued that the nationalist phase, while necessary, was insufficient in overcoming colonial exploitation. In the post-colonial era Nkrumah urged African states to be very wary of neo-colonialism (Martin, 2012). This explains the emphasis on re-traditionalising African societies in the early post-independence period. The idea of a national project was a central theme in early post-independent African states. In the decolonisation discourse, the issue of the national project is vital. A national project was often closely intertwined with governance, which was expressed in different ways by the political elite, in some cases becoming a tool of political domination. Ultimately, however, African states produced public administration frameworks based on incoherent national projects (Lumumba-Kasongo, 2011). A vital objective in many early post-independence African states was to create a political order more aligned to the incumbent regime, as had been the case with colonial regimes (Mudida and Rubaii, 2017). The fluidity of the political situation at independence had to be crystallised in certain directions, which are determined by the party in power. If this involved changing the constitution, then it would be changed. The primacy of politics over the constitution emerged as a norm in many African states (Ghai, 1991). In Africa, however, even neo-patrimonial regimes claimed to play a unifying role, and public administration was purported to play a nationalistic role (Lumumba-Kasongo, 2011). Education, in general, was a priority for many post-colonial African states. At independence, many African states lacked the requisite human resources, and there was a need to develop a critical group of individuals who could assist to transform African countries from colonies to self-sufficient states. The educational system aimed to make African states self-sufficient and less reliant on foreign countries (MacBeath, 2010). Public administration teaching was heavily influenced by the characteristics and needs of public administration in post-independent African states. Public administration education was a subsector of education in general and was influenced by overall educational policy objectives. A prominent view in many African states in the early post-independence period was that professional public administration education should be undertaken within staff colleges directly under government control rather than at universities. Academics were considered to be too theoretical and not in touch with practical policy matters, hence limiting their impact on professional capacity building (Baker, 1969). Institutes of public administration were often directly controlled and funded by government (Kayuni, 2014). However, over time, in many African states public adminis­tration courses were introduced at the university level, but such courses still co-existed with government staff institutes as some civil servants had not studied public administration at university level. In some cases, the institutes have been used as induction centres for all government employees. Public administration training aimed at enhancing development and promoting nation building (Kayuni, 2014). This focus was important because colonial governments had focused on extractive economic activities and paid insufficient attention to the social aspects of development. It

130  Handbook of teaching public administration was difficult, however, to establish a development-oriented public service because of a strong preoccupation with security at independence (Mboya, 1986). African states had diverse experiences with public administration teaching in the decades after independence. In Malawi, similarly to other African states, public administration training was prioritised after independence in 1964 and the Institute of Public Administration was set up in 1965. The basic reason was that it was considered critical to equipping a newly independent Malawi with the required indigenous personnel to support the current and growing human resources needs of the public service (Kayuni, 2014). In Ghana, the Africanisation policy was the first major attempt at reconfiguring a hitherto colonial civil service which had been focused on the goals of colonialism, into a new civil service that was competent and fully dedicated to the developmental goals of the newly independent Ghanaian state. The Africanisation policy proved a daunting task since it needed to be complemented by a well-considered training and education component. Africanisation went beyond a mere replacement of British civil servants with Ghanaians. Competent Ghanaians with the requisite technical know-how and leadership skills were needed to fill the void, and development concerns made this even more critical. Corruption became a fundamental challenge. By the 1970s, Ghana’s once enviable and highly respected public service was beginning to develop a bad reputation for being corrupt, associated with a proliferation of unaccounted public funds and shocking inefficiency (Amoah, 2014). In Nigeria, public administration departments were set up in the universi­ties and public service training institutes across the country. Initial efforts at reorienta­tion, education, and training started with the introduction of public administration education in two federal universities in the early 1960s. The two institutions pioneered public administration education in Nigeria, and were very influential in public administration training until the setting up of the Administrative Staff College of Nigeria (ASCON) (Dibie, 2004). Subsequently, the establishment of other federal universities in different zones across the coun­try saw public administration courses taught by either the public administration or the political science departments. The need to provide management training and research with a strong emphasis on institutional capacity building prompted the government to establish the ASCON (Ijeoma and Okafor, 2014). In Botswana, the University of Botswana, the Botswana Institute of Administration and Commerce (BIAC), and Institute of Development Management (IDM) played a vital role in providing the civil service with necessary knowledge, skills, and competencies to roll out the development programme of a newly independent nation. As the economy of Botswana expanded in the early years after independence, new challenges emerged and the effectiveness of the public service was questioned. Coordination of efforts between stakeholders such as government and training providers was poor, and hence only modest success was attained. The BIAC bore the brunt of lack of success of these initiatives and was eventually dismantled and replaced by the Botswana Public Service College (BPSC), modelled after the Singapore Civil Service College. Technical assistance by development partners is another mode through which capacity building for the civil service is pursued in Botswana. Through bilateral and multilat­ eral agreements, Botswana has relations with countries and international institutions that have developed expertise in the administration and management of public ser­vices (Tshukudu and Lucas, 2014). Benchmarking and technical assistance from development partners has become more institutionalised.

The teaching of public administration in Africa  131 In Zimbabwe, the attainment of independence in 1980 was associated with the expansion of public service programmes to formerly marginalised areas, especially in rural areas. There was a need to transform the public service to assist in the development of critical development objectives and the accompanying skills gap. The training of civil servants therefore became vital, and in 1984 the government established the Zimbabwe Institute of Public Administration and Management. Some successes in health and education were realised, but in general, poor performance management and an unprofessional public service culture emerged as challenges (Mukonza, 2014). Political instability in many African states commenced in the 1970s and lasted until the turn of the century. In Nigeria, for example, successive military regimes characterised the country from the 1970s until the late 1990s. During times of political instability many regimes in Africa did not invest adequately in public administration teaching. The demand for a more knowledgeable and skilled public service to enhance service delivery was not adequately met (Ijeoma and Okafor, 2014). Given the highly centralised and personalised nature of African states that emerged, public administration teaching was often strongly supportive of existing government ideologies which were often intolerant of any opposition. Such public administration teaching often uncritically defended the government position on critical national policy issues, whereas what was sometimes required was a more critical evaluation of the policies to assess whether national development outcomes were being achieved. The implementation of structural adjustment programmes in many African countries from the early 1980s until the mid-1990s was also influential. The new public management model dominated this period and led to a call for a leaner and more efficient public service to match the new economic realities (Mukonza, 2014). Ultimately, structural adjustment programmes had an adverse effect on growth, poverty, and vulnerable groups in society in many African states, and International Monetary Fund programmes in the late 1990s largely abandoned the structural adjustment approach, with new programmes initiated under the Poverty Reduction and Growth facility.

THE IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TEACHING IN AFRICA While the colonial legacy was important in influencing public administration teaching in the early decades after independence in Africa, its impact has diminished over time. Indeed, the relevance of colonial legacies to institutional quality is rapidly disappearing (Maseland, 2018). With increasing globalisation has come pressure to implement governance reforms and overcome historical institutional challenges. These institutional reforms are much more scrutinised in a globalised world (Mudida, 2021). Although policies related to good governance have been implemented throughout Africa, insufficient attention has been paid to the competencies needed to implement such reforms through education and training. Public administrators need to be trained effectively as they are often the targets of governance reforms such as devolution. With globalisation, the nature of the African public services is also changing rapidly. In an increasingly globalised world, citizens are considered as active partners in development who engage public managers and other stakeholders in implementing policy (Haruna, 2014). At present, global development policy is profoundly affected by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which were launched in 2015 and have been domesticated in many African

132  Handbook of teaching public administration states (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2018). Public administration teaching at universities has often reflected this greater emphasis. However, public administration teaching at institutes in Africa needs to be re-invigorated to have a greater emphasis on achieving the SDGs within the context of more efficient public administration systems. The issue of appropriately contextualising public administration training to the African context remains, however, even in an increasingly globalised world. Dibie (2004), for example, explores the teaching of public administration in Nigeria before and after 1986 in the context of globalisation. The article examines the poor fit between the British and American models and the political environment in Nigeria. Using the examples of the British and American models Dibie contends that there has often been a disconnect between the Western approaches of teaching public administration and the framework most relevant to Nigerian realities. With the increase in the pace of globalisation, many African universities have begun to adopt more innovative methods in teaching public administration. Globalisation has given rise to greater collaboration with public administration programmes particularly in North America and Europe. This has contributed to greater academic exchange, with some visiting professors from the West, and also some African academics have travelled as visiting professors. These academic exchanges have had an important influence on the teaching of public administration in African universities. Collaboration with Western universities by African universities has, for example, led to a greater use of the case method. Public administration teaching prior to these academic exchanges was very traditional and based mostly on the lecture method.

NON-WESTERN INFLUENCES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TEACHING IN AFRICA Non-Western influences, particularly from developing countries in the African and non-African context, have been very important, especially in the last decade. There is a greater appreciation that there are many valuable lessons to be learnt from similar public administration contexts. The case method, in addition to being a wonderful pedagogical tool, also inspires students in African countries. Cases are carefully chosen from African countries, and also frequently from countries in South East Asia and Latin America that began with similar circumstances as African countries and can provide inspiration for African public administration (Mudida and Rubaii, 2017). The practice and public opinion in other developing countries have also impacted upon modernisation in Africa in important ways. This has resulted in an increased demand for and writing of public administration case studies derived from a similar context. For example, public administration case studies in recent years have drawn frequently from Botswana, Rwanda, Mauritius, and Tanzania, which offer insightful comparative experiences. However, such non-Western influences are not restricted to learning only from the African context. In a typical public policy and administration Master’s class at Strathmore University in Kenya, for example, about two-thirds of the case studies used are derived from existing developing countries or from countries such as Singapore and South Korea that were recently developing countries and emerged from that status, thus providing useful public administration lessons. There is also an increased emphasis in public administration teaching in Africa for home-grown solutions where insights from outside a country are combined with indigenous solutions to enhance policy buy-in from the local population. This trend has sometimes been

The teaching of public administration in Africa  133 captured in the phrase ‘African solutions for African problems’ (Mudida, 2021). However, experienced public administration teachers tend to combine insights from African countries with those of other developing regions of the world ‒ for example, Asia and Latin America ‒ so as to avoid ‘reinventing the wheel’ where similar public administration challenges have already been overcome in other parts of the developing world and provide useful insights for African states.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION CHALLENGES IN AFRICAN STATES Despite a number of positive trends in the teaching of public administration in Africa, the challenges in running modern governments efficiently in Africa remain critical. This, in turn, has vital implications for public administration training and education. Uganda’s public service, for example, is widely perceived as slow and unresponsive to the needs of service users. Challenges in public service have contributed to citizen apathy (Basheka and Dassah, 2014). Policymakers in many African states need to overcome critical development challenges such as poverty and economic stagnation. In their attempts to improve administrative efficiency and service delivery, many states in Africa adopted devolved systems of government after the turn of the century. Themes on enhancing the effectiveness of devolution have received great prominence in public administration teaching over the last decade in both university and institute curricula. Such teaching in a globalised world has attempted to draw on comparative public policy experiences of devolution from other parts of the world. Regional mechanisms such as the African Peer Review Mechanism have also enhanced public administration within African states. The media has also provided a vital catalyst for good governance in Africa (Vyas-Doorgapersad et al., 2013).

DIFFERENCES IN THE TEACHING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES IN AFRICA Important differences exist in the teaching of public administration in public and private universities in Africa. Public universities tend to be more closely affiliated with the government and receive a substantial amount of funding from the government. There is therefore less of an incentive to innovate in the teaching of public administration. Some public universities offer graduate programmes such as Master in Public Administration programmes in conjunction with specialised institutes of public administration where public servants are trained. In such public administration programmes teaching methodologies tend to be much more traditional, focusing on the lecture method, and in some cases are less critical of government. Criticism of government was particularly not tolerated during the era of the one-party state that characterised many African countries from the early independence period up to the 1990s. A key employer of public administration students is national or local government. Public universities therefore gear their programmes more directly to the public administration needs of government. The orientation tends to be domestic and is aimed at addressing critical skill shortages in the private sector.

134  Handbook of teaching public administration Private universities in Africa, on the other hand, do not receive any direct financial support from the government. They therefore have to be financially viable to survive. This provides them with a much greater incentive to innovate in the teaching of public administration. They are also less constrained by the need to take a stand favourable to the government. This is more of an issue in relatively authoritarian African states such as Burundi and Uganda. In more democratic states such as Kenya, faculty members at public universities are often extremely critical of the government. Private universities, on the other hand, often train a broader range of students from government, civil society, and even the private sector. The needs of the public administration programmes are therefore often more diverse. Private universities tend to be more concerned with quality and therefore often seek accreditation for their programmes from institutions such as the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs and Administration (NASPAA). There are several NASPAA member universities and accredited programmes in Africa; for example, in Kenya and Egypt. Student evaluations are also taken much more seriously in private universities, where faculty members obtaining low evaluations can be discontinued from teaching. At public universities some professors can survive for years despite being poor teachers. The evidence for this is the remarkable continuity exhibited in pedagogy at many public universities over several decades, and the frequent complaints evident in student evaluations regarding the prevalence of such traditional pedagogy. However, such negative student evaluations in many public universities have only very rarely led to disciplinary action against the offending professors. Many of these student complaints have therefore persisted, sometimes for decades. The gradual introduction of executive education programmes in public administration, particularly in private universities, has also been an important influence in the teaching of public administration in Africa. Executive education teaching in public administration is much more demanding in terms of the requirement for practical and innovative ideas which public executives can apply in their work contexts. Universities that also run accompanying executive programmes tend to be much more innovative in their overall teaching of public administration. For example, they use the case method, which is much more practical than the traditional lecture method. This factor also has a positive impact on their academic programmes in public administration. Such academic programmes also often attract students from all over a region and not just from a particular country, further internationalising the public administration programmes. Similarities, however, exist between public administration programmes teaching in public and private universities in Africa. Both programmes emphasise the developing country context (Subban and Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2014). Examples are rarely drawn in teaching from the developed country context, which is considered to be very distinct from developing country realities. Comparative public administration focuses considerably on emerging country experiences. A critical challenge, however, has been that weak collaborative linkages still persist between private and public institutions, and this has reduced potential beneficial spillover effects of innovative pedagogies such as case teaching. Such weak collaboration is often symptomatic of very distinct academic cultures at public and private institutions. Public universities were also dominant academic institutions for several decades after independence, as very few private universities existed in African states until the 1990s. Public universities also often attracted many of the top faculty members, obtaining their doctoral degrees either locally or abroad. The longevity of the public universities was often associated with greater prestige, and such public universities were for a long time preferred to private universities which were considered less established. The existence of several pre-eminent scholars at public universi-

The teaching of public administration in Africa  135 ties often exacerbated this trend. This academic dominance led to a growing complacency in many public universities in Africa which has stifled the adoption of innovative pedagogies in public administration. Eventually, by the early 2000s, private universities had become more established in many African contexts and began to attract good scholars owing to their innovation and, in some cases, better remuneration.

CONCLUDING REMARKS: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TEACHING IN AFRICA, AND THE WAY FORWARD In an increasingly globalised world, it is vital for public administration training in Africa to equip individuals with the competencies for public leadership. More vibrant public administration institutions are critical for the effective implementation of public policies (Haruna and Vyas-Doorgapersad, 2014). Early post-independence public administration training was heavily influenced by colonial legacies and the realities of African states in the wake of independence. The focus on nation building, Africanisation, and enhanced public service delivery were dominant themes in early public administration teaching in Africa. Public administration teaching in the early post-independence years was heavily influenced by the characteristics and needs of public administration in post-independent African states. There was a severe shortage of qualified public administrators, and public administration teaching sought to bridge this human resource gap. As many African states became increasingly authoritarian, however, the voice of innovative public policy teaching was muted for several decades. Teachers of public administration were fearful of challenging existing regimes which were often intolerant of critical views. The political instability of many African states in the four decades after independence also weakened public administration teaching and its potential impact on development outcomes. The ineffectiveness of structural adjustment programmes, which were often accepted as part of conditionalities from international financial institutions, further undermined the impact of public administration teaching. The 21st century, however, has in many ways revitalised public administration teaching in Africa. Increasing globalisation has created a demand for innovative teaching methodologies in public administration, although these have been more widely adopted in private than in public universities, many of which still tend to use the traditional lecture method. A core innovation arising from greater academic exchanges has been a greater use of the case method, which has made public administration teaching much more practical and effective. Several African universities have sought international accreditation of their public administration programmes. This trend has created a greater emphasis on the quality of teaching in a number of institutions. Universities that have executive education programmes accompanying traditional academic programmes have been more open to introducing innovative pedagogies than those that have only academic programmes. Weak linkages, however, still exist between private and public institutions, and this has reduced the potential beneficial spillover effects of innovative pedagogies. Changes in public administration systems in African states have also influenced public administration teaching. Devolved systems of government and the SDGs have been adopted in many African countries with a view to enhancing public service delivery, and these are now core themes in many public administration curricula in Africa. Even so, public service

136  Handbook of teaching public administration delivery is still a challenge in many African states. This indicates that a gap still exists between the teaching and practice of public administration. A core challenge of public administration teaching over the next few decades will be to progressively narrow this gap as Africa seeks to enhance her role in an increasingly globalised world.

REFERENCES Amoah, L.G.A. (2014). Training for public service in Ghana in an evolving world: Some suggestions for the future. In P. Haruna and S. Vyas-Doorgapersad (eds), Public administration training and development in Africa: Competencies in development management (pp. 83‒105). Taylor & Francis. Arden-Clarke, C. (1958). Gold Coast into Ghana: Some problems of transition. International Affairs, 34(1), 49–56. Baker, C. (1969). Education and training for administration. In C. Baker (ed.), Training for public administration (pp. 1‒13). English Press. Basheka, B.C. and Dassah, M.O. (2014). Public administration training and development in Africa: The case of Uganda. In P. Haruna and S. Vyas-Doorgapersad (eds), Public administration training in Africa: Competencies in development management (pp. 190–209), Taylor & Francis. Cheeseman, N. (2018). Introduction: Understanding African politics: Bringing the state back in. In N. Cheeseman (ed.), Institutions and Democracy in Africa (pp. 1–38), Cambridge University Press. Dibie, R. (2004). Implications of globalization in the teaching of public administration in Africa: The case of Nigeria. International Journal of Public Administration, 27(3–4), 151–169. Englebert, P. and Dunn, K.C. (2013). Inside African politics, Lynn Rienner. Ewoh, A.I.E. (2014). Public administration education and training in Nigeria: Problems, challenges and prospects. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 20(4), 455–468. Ghai, Y.P. (1991). The role of law in the transition of societies: The African experience. Journal of African Law, 35(1‒2), 8–20. Haruna, P. (2014). Training public managers to implement governance reform: Opportunities and challenges in African nations. In P. Haruna and S. Vyas-Doorgapersad (eds), Public administration training in Africa: Competencies in development management (pp. 2–27), Taylor & Francis. Haruna, P. and Vyas-Doorgapersad, S. (2014). An assessment of public administration training and development in Africa: Lessons learned and the way forward. In P. Haruna and S. Vyas-Doorgapersad (eds), Public administration training and development in Africa: Competencies in development management (pp. 209‒231). Taylor & Francis. Hyden, G. (2013). African politics in comparative perspective (2nd edn), Cambridge University Press. Ijeoma, E.O.C and Okafor, C. (2014). Public administration education and training in Nigeria: A reflection. In P. Haruna and S. Vyas-Doorgapersad (eds), Public administration training in Africa: Competencies in development management (pp. 108–139), Taylor & Francis. Kayuni, H.M. (2014). Public administration training and development in Malawi. In P. Haruna and S. Vyas-Doorgapersad (eds), Public administration training in Africa: Competencies in development management (pp. 164–189), Taylor & Francis. Leys, C. (1996). The rise and fall of development theory, East African Educational Publishers. Lumumba-Kasongo (2011). The national project as a public administration concept: The problematic of state building in the search for new development paradigms in Africa. African Development, 36(2), 63–96. MacBeath, J. (2010). Living with the colonial legacy: The Ghana story, Center for Commonwealth Education, CCE Report No. 3. Martin, G. (2012). African political thought, Palgrave Macmillan. Maseland, R. (2018). Is colonialism history? The declining impact of colonial legacies on African institutional and economic development. Journal of Institutional Economics, 14(2), 259–287. Mboya, T. (1986). Freedom and after, East African Educational Publishers. Mudida, R. (2021). An emerging Africa in the age of globalisation, Routledge. Mudida, R. and Rubaii, N. (2017). Providing context and inspiring hope: Using the case method to teach public policy in developing countries. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 23(2), 691–712.

The teaching of public administration in Africa  137 Mukonza, R.M. (2014). Training and development for service delivery enhancement in public administration: Issues and perspectives for Zimbabwe. In P. Haruna and S. Vyas-Doorgapersad (eds), Public administration training in Africa: Competencies in development management (pp. 140–163), Taylor & Francis. Rougevin-Baville, M. (1963), The organization and content of training for public administration in Africa. Journal of Local Administration Overseas, 2(3), 123‒136.  Subban, M. and Vyas-Doorgapersad, S. (2014). Public administration training and development in Africa. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 20(4) 499–514. Tshukudu, T.T. and Lucas, T.B. (2014). Public administration education and training in Botswana. In P. Haruna and S. Vyas-Doorgapersad (eds), Public administration training in Africa: Competencies in development management (pp. 42–63), Taylor & Francis. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. (2018). Achieving the sustainable development goals in the least developed countries: A compendium of policy options, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Vyas-Doorgapersad, S., Tshombe, L.M. and Ababio, E.P. (2013). Public administration in Africa: Performance and challenges, Routledge. Zemrani, A. (2018). Teaching public administration: The case of Morocco. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 20(4), 515–528.

PART III PEDAGOGY AND LEARNING

14. Real-world ethical experiential practice-based action learning for the ‘new normal’ Josephine Bleach

While public administration is always under scrutiny, the Covid-19 pandemic and the Black Lives Matter movement have amplified gender, cultural, and racial differences in how governments across the world treat their citizens. Unfortunately, as recent events have shown, where policies and practices differ, people may die. Every public administrator needs to understand the impact of their decisions and actions on others and how they contribute to the common good, even if this is disputed. This chapter examines how real-world ethical action learning can be used to develop public administrators who have the skills, disposition, and resilience required to contribute to the dignity, worth, and potential of all citizens (Appleby, 1947) and the creation of inclusive sustainable communities. Enabling public administrators to address environmental, economic, and social issues that are complex, interdependent, and rapidly changing are considered. A pedagogical framework and practical supports are outlined that will help public administration students to understand their professional and ethical imperative to build a society that enables all people to live fulfilling lives, in a safe, sustainable, and environmentally friendly manner. Public administration is ‘centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programs as well as the behaviour of officials formally responsible for their conduct’ (UN, 2006). It involves the implementation of government policy and the translation of political decisions into the reality that citizens see every day (Kettl and Fesler, 2009). The quality of public administration depends entirely on people, their values and beliefs, and their willingness to act with integrity and make fundamental changes in the way they think, act, and relate to others, when needed. Ireland, like many other countries, is replete with examples of when the opposite happens (Scally, 2021) and public administrators fail to protect and support their most vulnerable citizens. An ethical moral sense of responsibility is required in all aspects of public administration. How results are achieved and the impact on other people is a crucial aspect to consider, particularly as the actions of public administrators can have such long-term local, national, and global consequences. Cross-cultural and sectoral competencies are critical, particularly the ability to negotiate comfortably between different worlds, including third-level education, community, non-profit, and government, along with the ‘swampy lowland’ of immediate real-life challenges, and the ‘high hard ground’ of complex policy and ‘research based theory and technique’ (Schön, 1983, p. 42). Reflective practice and action learning are critical competencies in navigating successfully unknowable unpredictable challenges, both present and future. This chapter draws on the experience of the Early Learning Initiative (ELI), National College of Ireland, in addressing educational disadvantage through working with public administrators and other stakeholders to develop and implement Government policy. Over 14 500 children, parents and professionals actively engaged in ELI in 2019‒2020 (ELI, 2020), 139

140  Handbook of teaching public administration with 81 organisations involved at local level. Public administrators in government departments, statutory agencies, and in the community and voluntary sector work closely with ELI to improve outcomes for vulnerable children and families, a key Irish Government objective. Projects include the North East Inner City (NEIC) Initiative, which is led by the Department of the Taoiseach (Irish Prime Minister); the Area Based Childhood (ABC) Programme, which is the responsibility of the Department of Children and Youth Affairs and Tusla, the Child and Family Agency; and the Sláintecare Integration Project, which is funded by the Department of Health. ELI is involved in various interagency networks including Children and Young People’s Services Committees (CYPSC) and the Prevention and Early Intervention Network (PEIN). This lived experience of the increasing interweaving of governmental functions deeply into every fibre of the non-governmental sector (Kettl, 2015), and working daily with public administrators, both statutory and non-governmental organisations, directly influences the theory and methodologies outlined in this chapter. Like other public administrations around the globe, ELI works in an environment of constant rapid change, in terms of national policy and the infrastructure for the delivery of services. Government reforms, both top-down and bottom-up (Cerna, 2013), are an integral part of these ongoing processes of change with government polices being both a response to and a source of change (Gornitzka et al., 2005). Mission creep, funding uncertainty, and frequent change in personnel are always issues. A key learning for ELI in terms of public administration is that working with real people within social systems is a continuous challenge, particularly when participants move between diverse levels of action, and authority is dispersed across multiple tiers (that is, national, regional, or local) (Hooghe and Marks, 2001). Not everyone will share your values, act as you wish, and some, for many reasons, will default on agreements. The only certainty is that things will not always go according to plan. Despite these challenges, ELI’s achievements, like those of other public administrations, are the result of many people working together to achieve common goals.

PEDAGOGICAL FRAMEWORK Community action research provides the framework for ELI’s public administration work (Bleach, 2016; ELI, 2020) as it enables a community development ‘bottom-up’ approach, which is both participative and empowering, rather than a top-down public administrator-led approach. This approach is more useful for public administrators when there is high uncertainty and a lack of consensus about the means to achieve a goal (Suggett, 2011), such as educational disadvantage in the case of ELI. It provides the ongoing data required for policy development and implementation, while giving a genuine voice to participants through a democratic methodology that directly involves them as co-constructors. This process informs the pedagogical framework suggested in this chapter. In today’s world, public administrators require the ability to develop and sustain multiple complex emergent collaborative processes (Bleach, 2016), while simultaneously dealing with multifaceted unpredictable situations. The proposed cyclical model (Figure 14.1) focuses on the co-construction of knowledge and skills, the use of a systematic, enquiry-based approach, and the inclusion of opportunities for engagement and reflection (Timperley, 2011). It operates at two levels, that of programme development with the teacher as a facilitator and that of multiple projects with the students as leaders. The framework of first-, second- and

Real-world ethical experiential practice-based action learning for the ‘new normal’  141 third-person practice (Torbert, 2001; Coghlan and Brannick, 2014) should be incorporated into each element of the process. First-person practice is the ability to foster an inquiring approach in one’s own life; to act with awareness; to assess and modify the impact of one’s actions on others (Reason and Bradbury, 2001). Second-person practice is the ability to build and sustain collaborative relationships; while third-person practice is the ability to contribute to the development of theory and practice. First- and second-person practices are essential to third-person practice as they support the development of the personal and interpersonal skills needed to communicate with different audiences.

Source: Adapted from Bleach (2014).

Figure 14.1

Cyclical action learning model

Level 1 of the cyclical model (Figure 14.1) is the overarching programme development, which needs to be a collaborative evolving process, where the tutor explicitly models for the students how to use the action research cycle. A core component of this level is first-person practice, which requires the teacher to reflect on and critique the pedagogical framework used so that it prepares public administration students to deal with the complexity of modern society, where fundamental rights and values are contested, and wicked problems are the norm. Involving the

142  Handbook of teaching public administration students in this process will deepen their understanding of public administration (Vygotsky, 1978); encourage responsibility, ownership, and responsibility for their learning (Schön, 1983); while allowing the teacher to adapt the programme to meet the students’ interests and needs. A ‘combined teaching structure’ (Alvestad and Rothle, 2007) ‒ that is, mixed, flexible, dialectal teaching ‒ should be used with each class, consisting of key questions for small group discussion, which are either preceded or followed by the theory and examples of best practice in public administration and management. Using a flipped classroom approach, where research, action, and reflection is done prior to the actual class, creates a learner-centred model (Abeysekera and Dawson, 2015) in which in-class time is used to explore topics in greater depth and develop higher-order thinking skills such as problem-solving, design, analysis, and decision-making. The process should incorporate social justice education (Adams and Bell, 2016) to develop more sophisticated understanding of diversity and social group interactions, as well as enabling students to critically evaluate oppressive social patterns and institutions. This supports the second level of the cyclical model, where each student uses the action research process (Figure 14.1) to develop their own project. Level 2 requires the students to take a real-life public administration problem or issue; analyse it along with related theories, perspectives, research, and practice; and then devise, implement, and evaluate an action plan to address some element of the problem or issue. Priority should be given to an area of interest where it is possible for the student to have some impact and make some improvements, however minor. Topics can vary from public littering, greening strategies, youth engagement, housing needs, minority participation, and welfare policy implementation, to emerging post Covid-19 communities. Key questions are: What do I want to change? Why is this important to me and those affected? How can I involve those most impacted upon by the issue and understand it from their perspective? Who is already working to resolve this issue and can help me? Being realistic and choosing just one priority that is feasible for the student to implement, given their resources and workload, should be encouraged. Follow-up in-class sessions can be used to motivate and support the students in the implementation of their action plans. A key element of the project is for the students to conceptualise the role and responsibilities of public administrators and to understand how to balance the often conflicting roles of change agents, ‘centres of gravity’ (Shamir, 1999, p. 63), and agents of continuity. Reflexivity should be a critical element of the project, requiring each student to observe, analyse, and critically evaluate their unquestioned, inherited bias (Scally, 2021) as well as the impact of their action plans and decisions on others. The next section takes a deeper look into the methodologies involved in the process.

METHODOLOGIES The four goals of action research, as outlined by Herr and Anderson (2005, p. 54), are particularly relevant for public administrators and for this pedagogical approach. The first is the generation of new knowledge, which is needed to address the ever-changing environmental, economic, and social issues effectively. Described as wicked problems by Rittel and Webber (1973), these issues are by their nature challenging, as they are often ill-defined with no prescribed way forward, involve stakeholders with different perspectives, and have no ‘right’ or ‘optimal’ solution (Conklin, 2005). The second goal is the achievement of action-orientated outcomes, which will support the well-being of citizens and communities. Thirdly, the

Real-world ethical experiential practice-based action learning for the ‘new normal’  143 education of both public administrators and stakeholders through action learning is critical to increasing their reflective, relational, and representational knowledge (Park, 2001) and developing their capacity to solve wicked problems collaboratively. Finally, the fourth goal, ensuring that the results are relevant to and rooted in the local context, is important learning for public administrators, who tend to opt for short-term quick fixes rather than long-term sustainable solutions that are embedded within and have the buy-in of local communities. Solving wicked problems requires a collaborative approach, one which gives a genuine voice to those people who are being affected and includes them as active participants in the public planning process (Bleach, 2016). Action research and learning are closely related. Both involve identifying a problem, planning an intervention, implementing the intervention, and evaluating the outcome (Lewin, 1946; McNiff and Whitehead, 2006). They are both linked to experiential learning (Kolb, 1984), where knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. As action research incorporates continuous self-evaluation (Koshy, 2005), it linked to reflective practice. Reflecting on public administration practices, comparing practices to theories, and then developing action plans to improve practice, are essential elements. However, reflective practice requires a level of sophistication with ample knowledge and experience of oneself as well as of systems, people, and wicked problems. The challenges associated with using inquiry-based learning, particularly with students who may only have a brief time to assimilate complex theories and concepts and may be more used to a more didactic tradition of education, should not be underestimated (Moseley and Connelly, 2020). This will require the teacher to assume the roles of facilitator, mentor, and coach rather than lecturer, and as outlined in Level 1, to take a reflective pedagogical approach. Beginning with a more guided directive approach and gradually progressing towards more open inquiry as well as continually scaffolding learning (Vygotsky, 1978) may be required. While public administrators perform a wide range of tasks, a core task is communicating with and coordinating the activities of a group of people efficiently. Action learning projects ‒ which require collaborative working on solving complex problems of mutual concern; sharing experiences, ideas, feelings; and critically reflecting on what works and what does not, how, and how not, and why or why not (Zuber-Skerritt, 2015) ‒ will support students’ understanding and development of the skills and processes needed to build and sustain collaborative relationships. This will require them, at times, to labour through an array of tensions, challenges, and conflicts (Montoya and Kent, 2011) in order to understand the resistance to various public projects and develop a strategy of motivation. Support from the teacher will be critical to students understanding and working though these issues. Power and control are at the heart of public administration. Understanding how different mindsets and political interests experience working together, and how they are processing and interpreting that experience (Coghlan and Brannick, 2001; Bleach, 2016), is critical to dealing with these issues effectively. Incorporating trauma-informed and restorative practices in the programme will support students to understand and engage with more marginalised members of society, on whom the actions of public administrators have the greatest impact. Trauma-informed practice recognises the prevalence of trauma and its impact on the emotional, psychological, and social well-being of people, communities, and public administrations. Understanding trauma, its effects and survivor adaptations, is a philosophical and cultural stance (Hopper et al., 2010) that needs to be combined with an active ethical commitment to safety, trustworthiness, choice, collaboration, and empowerment (Harris and Fallot, 2001). It

144  Handbook of teaching public administration requires public administrators to be able to recognise the importance of choice, efficacy, and personal control for citizens, and to have the skills to involve those directly impacted upon in change initiatives, strategic plans, and the day-to-day delivery of services. Restorative practice is about restoring and building relationships and community (Wachtel, 2013). At its core is that citizens are happier and more likely to make positive changes when things are done with them, rather than to them or for them. Reflective practice is a key element of any action learning project. Students’ reflections can be used by the teacher to support the in-class discussions, and the conceptualisation of the professional roles and ethical norms of public administrators. The end result should be the creation of an inquiry-driven, living system (Wadsworth, 2008) within the classroom, which thrives on borrowing, adapting, and juggling facts, words, ideas, and beliefs, co-opting them into serving variable ends and new systems of meaning (Chevalier and Buckles, 2013); thereby enabling the students to acquire the language, theory, and practice necessary for innovative ethical public administration.

IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES; MANIFESTATIONS OF THE APPROACH Over the past 15 years, ELI has worked effectively with public administrators as together they learnt that to reach from knowledge to doing required practice; to reach from doing to knowing required articulation and critical inquiry that led to reflective insights (Freidman, 2003) that could be used to influence government policy. Facilitating regular ‘dynamic conversations’ (Schön, 1983) between public administrators and citizens using open-ended key questions enabled ELI to refine existing theories and generate new ones. Personal responsibility, collective ownership, and developing realistic solutions that work for real people, including public administrators, in real time are key to ELI’s successes. My Place to Play is an example of how public administration action learning projects can influence government policy and practices. In 2018, ELI’s ABC 0-2 Coordinator, Marion Byrne (2018), was tasked with choosing a final-year project for her Level 8 Early Childhood Education Degree at the National College of Ireland (NCI). As she was visiting babies in cramped living conditions in Dublin’s inner city at the time, she decided to design a play mat that encouraged parents to support their children’s physical development through ‘tummy time’. Including an activity sheet and some toys, she trialled it with the parents and babies she was visiting at the time. The following year, supported by local public administrators who, while trying to house 75 per cent of the homeless population in Ireland, were continually faced with media articles on the negative impact of homelessness on babies, the programme was rolled out across North Dublin. In 2019, the programme won an Irish Health Care Award and since then the government has been mainstreaming the programme throughout Ireland as one of its responses to the Covid-19 pandemic and the ongoing migrant and housing crises (ELI, 2020). The quote below illustrates the impact of a student research project on at-risk children: Mum advised me the mat saved her during a very difficult time period in her life when she had 3 small children in one room in a hotel. Mum was already stressed and then felt completely overwhelmed when the Public Health Nurse (PHN) noticed her baby was not lifting his head. Mum felt like she had no room for tummy time. Once I delivered the mat to mum and discussed the benefits, mum began

Real-world ethical experiential practice-based action learning for the ‘new normal’  145 using the mat daily and is now continuing with mat time since being moved to a bigger home. Mum said the mat has ‘definitely’ improved and strengthened her baby. (ELI, 2020, p. 24)

Projects like My Place to Play support students to identify and analyse dehumanising socio-political process, reflect on their own positions, and think proactively about alternative actions (Adams and Bell, 2016). They also teach future public administrators how to work more democratically with others to create just and inclusive practices and social structures.

CONCLUSION: THOUGHTS GOING FORWARD Preparing public administration students to deal with the complexity of modern society, where fundamental rights and values are contested, and wicked problems are the norm, is challenging. Central to the framework and pedagogy outlined in this chapter is Appleby’s (1947) definition of public administration in a democracy as actions that respect and contribute to the dignity, worth, and potential of all citizens. Public administrators are tasked with integrating theory, policy, and practice in real-life circumstances in daily life. They need to have the skills, attitude, and disposition to meet unknowable unpredictable challenges, both present and future, while doing the right thing right for the right people at the right time, in a world where even the concept of ‘right’ is problematic and disputed. Understanding and accepting that wicked problems and social messes (Horn and Webber, 2007) will only be resolved through collaborative inquiry-driven living systems (Wadsworth, 2008) is essential, as is the ability to engage with others in long-term emergent, evolutionary, experimental, educational, and transformative processes (Herr and Anderson, 2005). This will require first-person practice and self-transformation to model and encourage transformation in others (Torbert, 2001). Drawing on the Early Learning Initiative, National College of Ireland experience of public administration, a cyclical action learning model (Figure 14.1) is proposed, which will prepare public administration students for immediate concrete situations (Azizuddin and Hossain, 2021) where knowing is not consistent and sustained, but is interactive, generative, and innovative (Ramsey, 2014). Operating at two levels, Level 1 is a collaborative evolving process led by the teacher as facilitator through which the programme is developed. Level 2 requires the students to take a real problem or issue; analyse it along with related theories, perspectives, research, and practice; and then devise, implement, and evaluate an action plan to address some element of the problem or issue. Engaging in action learning projects will enable students to acquire practical wisdom that generates wise action (Ramsey, 2014), and learn how to deal with those times when expertise, habit, and competence (Raelin, 2007) will inevitably fail them. It will encourage ‘living continually in process, adjusting, seeing what emerges’ (Marshall, 1999, p. 156), and adopting a range of strategies and ways of behaving to support this, including recognising the importance of choice, efficacy, and personal control for citizens and involving them in the design and evaluation of change initiatives, strategic plans, and services. It will prepare students for when society is unstable and the organisations they oversee deviate from the norm, as well as for the good times between chaos-level events (McDonald, 2021). For the educators of public administrators, this pedagogical model has implications for their teaching style and their continuous professional development. It will require them to continually test, revise, and recalibrate their instructional methods and products (Capobianco

146  Handbook of teaching public administration et al., 2019), as well as engage in the complexities of conducting pedagogical action research. Adopting multiple roles of facilitator, mentor, and coach rather than just lecturer will be required to maximise their students’ experience and learning. Shared ownership and collective reflective practice, led and scaffolded by the teacher, will be central to enabling students to develop the skillset required to navigate and influence different mindsets, sectors, and contexts, and to integrate theory, policy, and practice in real-life circumstances.

REFERENCES Abeysekera, L. and Dawson, P. (2015). Motivation and cognitive load in the flipped classroom: Definition, rationale and a call for research. Higher Education Research and Development, 34(1), 1–14. Adams, M. and Bell, L.A. (2016). Teaching for diversity and social justice (3rd edn). Routledge. Alvestad, M. and Rothle, M (2007). Educational forums: Frames for development of professional learning. A project in early childhood education in Ireland. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 15(3), 407‒425. Appleby, P. (1947). Toward better public administration. Public Administration Review, 7(2), 93–99. Azizuddin, M. and Hossain, A. (2021). Reflections on public administration education with a case of Bangladesh. Teaching Public Administration, 39(1), 46‒66. Bleach, J. (2014). Developing professionalism through reflective practice and ongoing professional development. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 22(2), 185‒197. Bleach, J. (2016). Community action research in Ireland: Improving educational outcomes through collaboration in the Dublin Docklands. In L. Rowell, C. Bruce, J. Shosh and M. Riel (eds), Palgrave International Handbook of Action Research (pp. 177‒188). Palgrave Macmillan. Byrne, M. (2018). To assess the impact of a home based play intervention for infants as perceived by parents in the Docklands. Unpublished. Bachelor of Arts in Early Childhood Education, National College of Ireland. Capobianco, B.M., Eichinger, D., Rebello, S., Ryu, M. and Radloff, J. (2019). Fostering innovation through collaborative action research on the creation of shared instructional products by university science instructors. Educational Action Research, 28(4), 646‒667. Cerna, L. (2013). The nature of policy change and implementation: A Review of different theoretical approaches. OECD. https://​www​.oecd​.org/​education/​ceri/​The​%20Nature​%20of​%20Policy​ %20Change​%20and​%20Implementation​.pdf. Chevalier, J.M. and Buckles, D.M. (2013). Participatory action research: Theory and methods for engaged inquiry. Routledge. Coghlan, D. and Brannick, T. (2001). Doing action research in your own organisation (1st edn). SAGE. Coghlan, D. and Brannick, T. (2014). Doing action research in your own organization (4th edn). SAGE. Conklin, Jeff (2005). Dialogue mapping: Building shared understanding of wicked problems. Wiley. Early Learning Initiative (ELI) (2020). End of Year Report 2019‒20. https://​www​.ncirl​.ie/​Portals/​0/​ELI/​ End​%20Of​%20Year​%20Report​%202019​-20​%20FINAL​%20​%20(1)​.pdf​?ver​=​2020​-10​-09​-194151​ -167andtimestamp​=​1602269190202. Freidman, K. (2003). Theory construction in design research: Criteria, approaches and methods. Design Studies, 24(6), 507‒522. Gornitzka, A., Kogan, M. and Amaral, A. (eds) (2005). Reform and change in higher education: Analyzing policy implementation. Springer. Harris, M. and Fallot, R.D. (eds) (2001). New directions for mental health services: Using trauma theory to design service systems. Jossey-Bass/Wiley. Herr, K. and Anderson, L. (2005). The action research dissertation: A guide for students and faculty. SAGE. Hooghe, L. and Marks, G. (2001). Multi-level governance and European integration. Rowman & Littlefield.

Real-world ethical experiential practice-based action learning for the ‘new normal’  147 Hopper, E.K., Bassuk, E.L. and Olivet, J. (2010). Shelter from the storm: Trauma-informed care in homelessness services settings. Open Health Services and Policy Journal, 3, 80‒100. Horn, R.E. and Webber, R.P. (2007). New tools for resolving wicked problems. Microsoft Word ‒ Tools_For_Resolving_Wicked_Problems_2-1.doc (strategykinetics.com). Kettl, D. (2015). The job of government: Interweaving public functions and private hands. Public Administration Review, 72(2), 219‒229. Kettl, D. and Fessler, J. (2009). The politics of the administrative process. CQ Press. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall. Koshy, V. (2005). Action research for improving practice: A practical guide. Paul Chapman. Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2(4), 35‒66. Marshall, J. (1999). Living life as inquiry. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 12(2), 155–171. McDonald, M. (2021). Teaching in uncertain times: The future of public administration education. Teaching Public Administration, 39(1), 3‒8. McNiff, J. and Whitehead, J. (2006). All you need to know about action research. SAGE Publications. Montoya, M.J. and Kent, E.E. (2011). Dialogic action: Moving from community-based to community-driven participatory research. Qualitative Health Research, 21(7), 1000‒1011. Moseley, A. and Connolly, J. (2020). The use of inquiry-based learning in public administration education: Challenges and opportunities in the context of internationalization. Teaching Public Administration. https://​journals​.sagepub​.com/​doi/​full/​10​.1177/​0144739420935971. Park, P. (2001). Knowledge and participatory research. In P. Reason and H. Bradbury (eds), Handbook of action research, participative inquiry and practice (1st edn, pp. 81‒90). SAGE. Raelin, J.A. (2007). Toward an epistemology of practice. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 6(4), 495–519. Ramsey, C. (2014). Management learning: A scholarship of practice centred on attention? Management Learning, 45(1), 6–20. Reason, P. and Bradbury, H. (2001). Introduction: Inquiry and participation in search of a world worthy of human aspiration. In: P. Reason and H. Bradbury (eds), Handbook of action research, participative inquiry and practice (1st edn, pp. 1‒14). SAGE. Rittel, H.W.J. and Webber, M.M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2), 155–169. Scally, D. (2021). The Best Catholics in the World. Penguin. Schön, D.A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. Shamir, B. (1999). Leadership in boundaryless organisations: Disposable or indispensable? Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(9), 49‒71. Suggett, D. (2011). The implementation challenge: Strategy is only as good as its execution. SSA/ ANZSOG Occasional Paper, 15. ANZSOG. Timperley, H.S. (2011). Realizing the power of professional learning. Open University Press. Torbert, W.R. (2001). The practice of action inquiry. In P. Reason and H. Bradbury (eds), Handbook of action research, participative inquiry and practice (pp. 250‒260). SAGE. UN (2006). UN Economic and Social Council, Committee of Experts on Public Administration. Definition of basic concepts and terminologies in governance and public administration (E/C.16/2006/4). https://​ digitallibrary​.un​.org/​record/​566603. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Wachtel, T. (2013). Dreaming of a new reality: How restorative practices reduce crime and violence, improve relationships and strengthen civil society. Piper’s Press. Wadsworth, Y. (2008). Systemic human relations in dynamic equilibrium, System Practice Action Research, 21, 15‒34. Zuber-Skerritt, O. (2015). Participatory action learning and action research (PALAR) for community engagement: A theoretical framework. Educational Research for Social Change (ERSC), 4(1), 5‒25.

15. Planning for a midcareer MPA program: pedagogical and strategic considerations Kevin P. Kearns and Lorna R. Kearns

Graduate programs in public affairs, whether they emphasize public administration or policy analysis, share a common goal: to prepare students for professional positions in public service (Morçöl et al., 2020). A well-designed and executed midcareer degree can accelerate achievement of this goal because in-service students are already in professional posts, perhaps even in senior leadership positions, where they can have an immediate impact on the quality of public service and leadership. A midcareer MPA program can advance other goals as well, such as enhancing institutional visibility, contributing to faculty development, catalyzing applied research, building important external professional networks, and possibly generating significant tuition revenue. This chapter discusses what it takes for midcareer MPA programs to be successful from two perspectives: (1) addressing the learning needs of adult students; and (2) ensuring the viability and sustainability of a midcareer MPA program. This chapter synthesizes literature regarding midcareer MPA programs and evidence-based practices in adult learning. In addition, the authors draw on more than 50 years of combined experience designing, implementing, and teaching in midcareer programs. One author began his career as director of executive programs at Carnegie Mellon University and subsequently designed the midcareer Master of Public Policy and Management degree at the University of Pittsburgh. He has also conducted more than 150 executive development seminars for large and small organizations around the world. The other author has occupied senior leadership positions in the University of Pittsburgh’s Center for Teaching and Learning. She oversaw the growth and expansion of online learning at the university, with particular emphasis on professional master’s degree programs and online continuing professional education for midcareer students. She has consulted extensively with other institutions on the design and implementation of programs for adult learners.

WHO ARE MIDCAREER STUDENTS? We use many terms for students who are seeking the MPA while also working full-time in professional positions, such as in-service students, non-traditional students, adult learners, and most frequently, midcareer students. All of these terms have the effect of labeling this particular constituency with the implication that they are homogeneous in terms of age, experience, and other characteristics, when in fact they are remarkably diverse.

148

Planning for a midcareer MPA program: pedagogical and strategic considerations  149 While demographic data on midcareer MPA students is scant (NASPAA, 2018), our years of experience with this constituency suggest the following: ● Midcareer students, unlike pre-service students, are multigenerational with an age range often spanning decades. ● Depending on the institution’s entry requirements, many students in midcareer MPA programs have only several years of professional service experience and are perhaps better described as early to midcareer students.1 ● For some midcareer students it has been several decades since they were in college and, depending on their undergraduate training, they may not have taken a college-level course in public administration. ● Some midcareer students have a laser-like focus on their goals, while others come back to school hoping to explore options regarding their professional direction and trajectory. ● Many, if not most, midcareer students have substantial personal and professional obligations that compete for their attention, time, and energy. Research in the field of adult education tends to focus on vulnerable student groups such as adult undergraduates whose lack of experience in higher education may contribute to high rates of attrition (Kearns, 2006). In contrast, midcareer MPA students are a relatively well-resourced group, already in possession of a bachelor’s degree and frequently supported by tuition benefits from their employers. Because of this, they may be perceived as less in need of our attention. Indeed, some MPA programs may become complacent about their midcareer students, viewing them as mature, self-motivated, and a predictable source of tuition income. In this chapter we argue that midcareer MPA students deserve our attention and that MPA programs will more likely succeed if they appreciate the diversity of these students, apply a pedagogy geared to the adult learner, and do market analysis to ensure that the program is sustainable.

THE ADULT LEARNER A fundamental truth about midcareer degree programs is that the students are adults in every sense of the term. Malcolm Knowles et al. (2005) have described a set of assumptions that can be made about adult learners: ● Adult learners need to understand the benefits and reasons for learning something. ● They value agency and see themselves as self-directed. This self-concept extends to their participation in the learning process. ● Adults bring a rich accumulation of life experience to the classroom. ● They are motivated to learn by a readiness to address an issue in their lives. To make the most of this readiness, the learning must be relevant to their needs. From these assumptions, we can infer that prospective midcareer MPA students seek out academic programs when they need to solve a problem, address a gap, or explore a new direction in their professional lives. We know that adult lives consist of a complex weave of work, family, social, and civic responsibilities. Before enrolling in a program of study, prospective

150  Handbook of teaching public administration students must feel prepared to commit time and resources to see it through. Support from family members, colleagues, and employers is extremely important. In the classroom, they wish to encounter issues that resonate with their own experiences. They have a need both to share their own experiences and to learn from the experiences of others. What they hope to find in their instructors is a perspective on their field that helps them to see how their own professional experiences and aspirations fit into the big picture. They are also interested in meeting other midcareer professionals like themselves with whom they can expand their professional network (Hiedeman et al., 2017).

PEDAGOGY FOR THE ADULT LEARNER Combining these assumptions with what we know of effective teaching practices enables us to outline some guidelines for pedagogies that are likely to be effective with these learners. Using the Wiggins and McTighe (1998) framework for designing instruction, we begin by identifying learning objectives. What is it that students will be able to do upon completion of the academic program? For midcareer students, learning objectives should emphasize practical, relevant skills with strong connections to the foundational theories and seminal literature of the field. This is not to say that midcareer graduate students desire only vocational training or purely utilitarian skills. To the contrary, they are interested in concepts, theories, and the broader context of their work, but they must see relevance and application of these ideas. As an example, let us assume that the midcareer MPA program is designed around a foundational core curriculum after which students have the option to select a specialization. The learning objectives of such a program might be something like this: Students in the midcareer MPA will acquire an interdisciplinary foundation of administrative, organizational, and political theory with an emphasis on the application of these theories to contemporary problems and issues in the public sphere. Through classroom and field work, they will then master specific analytic techniques and tools for detecting, diagnosing, and framing problems including quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Finally, they will engage in program design, implementation, and evaluation activities in preparation for leadership in public service.

With learning objectives in place, we consider how to assess whether students have achieved those objectives. In other words, what evidence will be required to demonstrate mastery? Traditional exams can be useful for courses that cover science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)-like content such as microeconomics or quantitative methods; but authentic assessments, for example, memos, policy papers, and project presentations, are even more effective in helping students to connect the analytical approaches of the classroom to the real-world problems they encounter on the job. Adult learners appreciate having a stake in such assignments and will likely have examples from their own professional settings to call upon in class discussion and assignments. We recommend giving adult learners assignments that help them to critically apply the concept or skill to their current or anticipated professional role. We use the term “critically” because the instructor should encourage adult learners to achieve the highest level of learning: not just mastery of the concept, but the ability to critique the concept and adapt or even reinvent it to meet their needs. In this respect, the adult learner actually can become a co-contributor to the course, not just a passive receptacle (Quinn and Wennes, 2008).

Planning for a midcareer MPA program: pedagogical and strategic considerations  151 With learning objectives stated and accompanying assessments identified, faculty should plan learning activities that provide students with opportunities to practice the principles, methods, and frameworks of the profession. In the classroom it will be useful to balance lecture with discussion, case studies, and small group work. We find that adult students appreciate opportunities to apply theories and frameworks to their own particular professional settings, and to share their experiences with one another in ways that weave in topics from the course material. For classes in which both midcareer and younger, pre-service students are enrolled, there may be opportunities to conduct activities in small groups composed of both types of student. Both older and younger students may benefit from becoming familiar with one another’s perspectives.

FACULTY DEVELOPMENT We use the term “faculty development” to refer to systematic programming efforts undertaken by colleges and universities to assist faculty in improving their teaching. Previously, we outlined some assumptions that can be made about adult learners. We make the same assumptions that faculty members are experienced professionals and self-motivated learners. They value agency, autonomy, and choice. They often turn to their peers when in need of direction to inform their teaching. In doing so, they may form a community of practice. The concept of a community of practice was developed in the 1990s to describe a theory of learning that is social and situated (Lave and Wenger, 1991). Participants in a community of practice share an identity and a commitment to a set of goals and practices. Within their professional domain, they rely on shared resources, tools, and strategies for solving recurring problems. They exchange information and collaborate on projects. Communities of practice composed of university faculty focused on a particular problem domain are known as faculty learning communities. A faculty learning community focused on teaching midcareer students should meet regularly to ensure continuity and sustainability. Common topics might include leading class discussions, teaching with cases, and creating authentic assignments. The institution’s teaching and learning center, staffed by professional instructional designers, can be a valuable resource. The first few meetings of a faculty learning community will often elicit questions and problems that can be topics for future sessions. Faculty who have experience with midcareer students can facilitate a session by sharing what they have learned from their successes and mistakes. Other professionals within the university community can also be invited as speakers. The point is to provide a space for faculty to share ideas, learn from one another, and work together to continually improve their teaching. Newcomer and Johnson (2020) suggest some of the ways such communities might function within the context of public affairs education, including creating a setting in which faculty might brainstorm ideas for moderating class discussions about sensitive topics such as racism, or exchanging information on how to meet the learning needs of an increasingly diverse student population.

152  Handbook of teaching public administration

THE MARKET FOR MIDCAREER PROGRAMS: A MOVING TARGET Trend data on midcareer MPA degree programs is fragmented and of questionable accuracy. In 2006 the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) conducted a study of midcareer degree programs in member schools. Of the 133 responding programs, 11.3 percent had a dedicated executive degree program, and 10.5 percent reported having a special track for midcareer students within their traditional degree program. In addition, 31.6 percent reported offering non-degree certificates for professionals, and 42.9 percent offered executive seminars or contracted training programs for particular agencies. Nearly 55 percent reported that they did not offer any type of program for executives (NASPAA, 2006; see also Holmes, 2012). Unfortunately, NASPAA has not tracked midcareer programs since that 2006 survey. Member schools are required to report the number of in-service and pre-service students every seven years as part of the accreditation process, but very few programs voluntarily submit annual data on in-service students. Trend analysis of midcareer MPA programs internationally also is complicated by national and regional variations (Reichard, 2017; Yu et al., 2012). Simply stated, there are no reliable trend data on midcareer MPA programs. A surrogate measure is general demand for adult post-secondary education and, at least in the United States, demand has been sluggish. The National Center for Educational Statistics reports that enrollment of college students age 35 years and older grew steadily from 1970 to 2010, after which enrollments have been relatively flat or even slightly declining (US Department of Education, 2019). The COVID-19 pandemic has severely stretched the resources of public and non-profit organizations (National Council of Nonprofits, 2021), potentially forcing them to focus on the most essential needs and services at the expense of professional development opportunities for their employees. Thus, even if an institution’s MPA faculty are committed to all of the pedagogical strategies discussed in the previous section, there are no guarantees that there will be sufficient student demand for the program to be sustainable.

STRATEGIC ASSESSMENT Before embarking on the design and implementation of a midcareer MPA program, the faculty and staff should carefully assess their prospects for success in meeting the needs of these unique students. A thorough discussion of this type of strategic analysis is provided in Kearns (2000, pp. 50‒131), and an overview of a strategic planning process as applied to public affairs programs is given by Coggburn and Llorens (2020). Institutional Mission and Faculty Aspirations Faculty and staff should be convinced that a midcareer MPA degree will help to advance the program’s mission in teaching, research, and service. They will be even more supportive if they perceive that a midcareer MPA could possibly enhance their research agenda as well as their teaching interests (Balkin and Mello, 2012; Godwin and Meek, 2016; Hull and Bennett, 2012; Quinn, 2016; Strausman, 2019).The authors of this chapter have co-authored published

Planning for a midcareer MPA program: pedagogical and strategic considerations  153 work with midcareer students (e.g., Kearns et al., 2015), but this approach is rare in major public administration journals (Bushouse et al., 2011). Accreditation The MPA faculty and administrators must decide whether to seek accreditation or endorsement of the midcareer degree from an oversight organization. Most midcareer programs would be well aligned with NASPAA’s overarching accreditation standard to prepare students to be “leaders, managers, and analysts in public service” (NASPAA, 2019, p. 3), but NASPAA has many specific accreditation standards, some of which may be more onerous for a midcareer program. Some accreditation standards require a track of performance which may delay program accreditation for several years. Organizational Capacity The MPA program and its host institution should have an organizational climate that welcomes midcareer students with, for example, appropriate admissions criteria, career counselling services and academic support tailored to midcareer students, a dedicated program administrator, logistical support to help midcareer students navigate the university bureaucracy, and the capability to offer some or all of the midcareer program in a high-quality online format (Darolia et al., 2014; Ginn and Hammond, 2012; Scutelnicu et al., 2019) Market Boundaries and Demand Flowing from the capacity assessment, the MPA faculty should establish the boundaries of the midcareer market they wish to serve, and gather data regarding actual demand for a MPA program within that market. Some institutions will choose to serve a local or regional market, whereas others may have the capacity and reputation to serve national or even international markets. If the institution has a unique comparative advantage, it may decide to target a very precisely defined subgroup or niche market (see for example Faerber et al., 2019). Goals and Expectations of Prospective Students Market research should provide insights on the goals of prospective students. This is perhaps the most challenging aspect of market analysis because there is no single answer. Some students envision immediate outcomes from their MPA studies such as acquiring the qualifying credential for promotion. Others, however, may be searching for their next career move, perhaps laterally or to another sector, with only a vague notion of how the MPA will be useful to them. At a more granular level, effort should be made to elicit from prospective students their preferences regarding design components of a midcareer program such as a mixture of face-to-face and online learning, certificates or other non-degree options, and compressed courses that can be completed in shorter intensive study segments (Aaron and Watson, 2010; Naylor and Wilson, 2009; Oldfield, 2017). Governmental databases such as the National Center for Educational Statistics (US Department of Education, 2019) and the Occupational Outlook

154  Handbook of teaching public administration Handbook (US Department of Labor, 2021) may also be consulted to form a picture of market competition and market demand. A Business Plan Faculty and staff should be fully aware of both the direct and the indirect costs of a midcareer MPA program, and anticipated revenues. These data can be used to construct a variety of financial performance scenarios, giving the faculty and staff a reasonably accurate estimate of the break-even point or whether the program will need to be subsidized for a period of time. Outcome Assessment Van der Meer and Marks (2018) provide a useful template for the design and periodic reassessment of midcareer MPA curricula to ensure that they are keeping pace with emerging public service issues and trends. Hiedeman et al. (2017) make a compelling case for building a public service logic into the curriculum and the pedagogy of midcareer programs. Assessing actual outcomes of a midcareer MPA can be conducted around two overarching questions. First, does the program advance the institution’s mission? Second, does the program achieve its desired outcomes with respect to the student experience? The answer to the first question will depend, of course, on what the institution hopes to gain when launching a midcareer program within the context of its overall strategy and trajectory. Thus, this inquiry will be unique to each institution. The answer to the second question, however, could be informed by established frameworks for assessing learning outcomes. A framework that is based on a continuum of learning outcomes – student satisfaction, learning, transfer to the workplace, and impact on public service ‒ is particularly appropriate for evaluating actual outcomes of midcareer MPA programs (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2007). The first two outcomes of the Kirkpatrick framework are relatively easily measured through surveys and testing protocols. However, measuring the extent to which the student’s learning actually is transferred to their professional work and, in turn, the extent to which that transfer impacts their organization, is quite complex and requires continuous evaluation using a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION In this chapter we have suggested that midcareer MPA programs will succeed to the extent that they apply pedagogical approaches that are demonstrated to be effective with adult learners, and also make the institutional commitment to ensure that the program is sustainable. We have drawn upon a well-established body of literature on adult learning and a growing body of literature and case studies on midcareer MPA programs. While the literature on midcareer MPA students is growing, we find that much of it addresses ‒ as it should ‒ specific research questions within confined empirical spaces. Several times in this chapter we have lamented the paucity of cross-institutional data on midcareer MPA students. It has been more than 15 years since NASPAA attempted a cross-institutional study on in-service students, and to our knowledge there have been no large-scale studies on the most important questions about midcareer MPA students: their

Planning for a midcareer MPA program: pedagogical and strategic considerations  155 demographic and professional profile, their motivations and goals, their satisfaction with their MPA educational experience, the impact of the degree on achieving their professional and personal aspirations, and ultimately the impact of their training on improving the quality of public service. Others seem to agree with this assessment (Hiedeman et al., 2017). Perhaps the time has come for a collaborative effort involving multiple institutions and spanning national borders to begin building a research design and database that will help us to answer fundamental questions about one of our most important constituencies. As a group, midcareer MPA students make significant contributions to our field in both scholarship and practice. They deserve more from us in return.

NOTE 1. The Maxwell School of Citizenship at Syracuse University, consistently among the top-ranked programs in the United States, requires only five years of experience for admission to its midcareer master’s program.

REFERENCES Aaron, K. and Watson, D. (2010). Bringing the university to city hall: The master of public affairs in city hall. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 16(3), 475–485. Balkin, D.B. and Mello, J.A. (2012). Facilitating and creating synergies between teaching and research: The role of the academic administrator. Journal of Management Education, 36(4), 471–494. Bushouse, B.K., Jacobson, W.S., Lambright, K.T., Llorens, J.L., Morse, R.S. and Poocharoen, O. (2011). Crossing the divide: Building bridges between public administration practitioners and scholars. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21 (Issue Supplement 1), i99–i112. Coggburn, J.D. and Llorens, J.J. (2020). Strategic planning for your program. In B.D. McDonald III and W. Hatcher (eds), The public affairs faculty manual: A guide to the effective management of public affairs programs (pp. 77–97). Routledge. Darolia, R., Potochnick, S. and Menifield, C. (2014). Assessing admission criteria for early and mid-career students: Evidence from a U.S. MPA program. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 22(101). https://​epaa​.asu​.edu/​ojs/​article/​view/​1599. Faerber, A., Andrews, A., Lobb, A., Wadsworth, E., Milligan, K., et al. (2019). A new model of online health care delivery science education for mid-career health care professionals. Healthcare, 7(4). https://​www​.sciencedirect​.com/​science/​article/​abs/​pii/​S2213076417302476. Ginn, M.H. and Hammond, A. (2012). Online education in public affairs: Current state and emerging issues. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 18(2), 247–270. Godwin, M.L. and Meek, J.W. (2016). The scholarly practitioner: Connections of research and practice in the classroom. Teaching Public Administration 34(1), 54–69. Hiedeman, A.M., Nasi, G. and Saporito, R. (2017). A public service dominant logic for the executive education of public managers. Teaching Public Administration, 35(1), 66–87. Holmes, M.H. (2012). Raising the ranks of public service leaders: Results of a national survey of executive masters of public administration programs. Public Personnel Management, 41(3), 449–463. Hull, K.O. and Bennett, M. (2012). Public administration scholarship and the politics of coproducing academic–practitioner research. Public Administration Review, 72(4), 487–496. Kearns, K.P. (2000). Private sector strategies for social sector success: The guide to strategy and planning for public and nonprofit organizations. Jossey-Bass. Kearns, K.P., Livingston, J., Scherer, S. and McShane, L. (2015). Nonprofit leadership skills as construed by chief executive officers. Leadership and Organization Development, 36(6), 712–727. Kearns, L.R. (2006). Graduate students in higher education: Refocusing the research agenda. Adult Learning, 17(1–4), 40–42.

156  Handbook of teaching public administration Kirkpatrick, D.L. and Kirkpatrick, J.D. (2007). Implementing the four levels. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Knowles, M., Holton, E. and Swanson, R. (2005). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development. Elsevier. Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. Morçöl, G., Tantardini, M., Williams, A. and Slagle, D.R. (2020). Master of public administration and master of public policy degrees: Differences and similarities in the curricula and course contents. Teaching Public Administration, 38(3), 313–332. National Council of Nonprofits (2021). Data on how the pandemic and economic crises are affecting nonprofits. https://​www​.councilofnonprofits​.org/​data​-how​-the​-pandemic​-and​-economic​-crises​-are​ -affecting​-nonprofits, retrieved April 27, 2021. Naylor, L. and Wilson, L. (2009). Staying connected: MPA student perceptions of transactional presence. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 15(3), 317–331. Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) (2006). Survey of executive education programs. Received from Stacy Drudy, NASPAA data analyst, April 8, 2021. Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) (2018). NASPAA data admissions directors meeting. Presented to annual meeting of admissions directors, July 11, 2018 at the Trachtenberg School of Public Policy and Public Administration, George Washington University. NASPAA Data Center. Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) (2019). NASPAA Standards: Commission on Peer Review and Accreditation, as amended October 19, 2019. Newcomer, K. and Johnson, J.M. (2020). Effective faculty development. In B.D. McDonald III and W. Hatcher (eds), The public affairs faculty manual: A guide to the effective management of public affairs programs (pp. 122–138). Routledge. Oldfield, C. (2017). Changing times: A changing public sector may require changes to public management education programmes. Teaching Public Administration, 35(1), 8–21. Quinn, B.C. (2016). Teaching and research in mid-career management education: Function and fusion. Teaching Public Administration, 34(1), 7–18. Quinn, B. and Wennes, G. (2008). Mind-sets, mirrors and mid-career education: The why, what and how of promoting critical enquiry among managers. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 21(4), 353–367. Reichard, C. (2017). Academic executive programs in public administration and management: Some variety across Europe. Teaching Public Administration, 35(1), 126–138. Scutelnicu, G., Tekula, R., Gordon, B. and Knepper, J.J. (2019). Consistency is key in online learning: Evaluating student and instructor perceptions of a collaborative online-course template. Teaching Public Administration, 37(3), 274–292. Stausman, J. (2019). Co-production as a way to bring practice into the classroom: Reflections on bridging the academic/practitioner divide: “Drugs and Thugs” as a case study. Teaching Public Administration, 37(2), 147–155. US Department of Education (2019). Digest of Education Statistics. Table 303.40. Total fall enrollment in degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by attendance status, sex, and age of student: Selected years, 1970 through 2029. National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS). https://​nces​.ed​.gov/​programs/​digest/​d19/​tables/​dt19​_303​.40​.asp. US Department of Labor (2021). Occupational Outlook Handbook. Bureau of Labor Statistics. https://​ www​.bls​.gov/​ooh/​. van der Meer, F. and Marks, P. (2018). An agenda for rethinking mid-career master programs in public administration. Teaching Public Administration, 36(2), 126–142. Wiggins, G. and McTighe, J. (1998). Understanding by design. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Yu, W., Rubin, M. and Wu, W. (2012). An executive MPA program for China: Lessons from the field. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 18(3), 545–564.

16. Executive education and leadership development: round peg, square hole? Catherine Mangan and Christopher Pietroni

Executive education programmes for public administration professionals often incorporate a specific learning outcome of leadership development. This is certainly true for the various executive education programmes delivered by us for public servants. But this catch-all phrase requires unpacking in order to understand what we are seeking to achieve, and how far the executive education setting is able to deliver this outcome. In this chapter we apply our knowledge of designing and delivering executive education programmes to the questions of what we really mean by leadership development; what the challenges are to delivering leadership development through executive education; and, if a convincing case can be made, what pedagogies and practices are required to underpin an effective executive education programme that can genuinely claim to deliver leadership development.

EXECUTIVE EDUCATION AS A VENUE FOR LEADERSHIP LEARNING The distinguishing feature of executive education is its orientation towards professional development. Where many undergraduate or postgraduate courses are designed to enhance employability or skills development, executive education is specifically intended for those who have professional experience. Executive education incorporates a wide range of learning environments such as accredited postgraduate degree apprenticeships and masters programmes, credit or non-credit bearing open enrolment programmes and short courses. The duration of executive education programmes varies from two years to one day, and with the increase in virtual online delivery, they can be shorter still (Rasmussen and Callan, 2016). Table 16.1 illustrates these variations, drawing on executive education programmes delivered by us for public servants in the United Kingdom. Given this focus on in-work professional development, executive education programmes frequently include leadership development as a specific learning outcome (Kellerman, 2018). The programmes we deliver are no exception. This raises a key question: what is the nature of the ‘leadership’ that is being ‘developed’, and to what extent is the executive education setting well suited to achieving this outcome?

157

158  Handbook of teaching public administration Table 16.1

Illustrative range of public sector executive education programmes delivered by the University of Birmingham

Programme and accreditation

Duration

Participants

Delivery method

Degree Apprenticeship/MSc

2 years part-time

Mid-career public sector

Blended online and face-to-face

professionals

in Public Management and Leadership National Graduate

2 years alongside 4 in-work

Development Programme

placements in local government competitively selected for the

Early-career participants programme

for Local Government with

Virtual online sessions fortnightly with one two-day residential with action learning sets

ILM Level 7 Certificate in Leadership and Management 21st Century Public Servant

9 months alongside full-time

Late mid-career professionals

10 days delivered face-to-face

Leadership Programme for

work

mostly in public health

or virtually with action learning sets

Aspiring Directors of Public Health with Certificate of Completion Full range of experience from

Face-to-face or virtual online

Systems Leadership and Public

newly qualified to senior

delivery

Narrative – no accreditation

executive

One-day programmes in

1 day

WHAT KIND OF LEADERSHIP ARE WE TRYING TO DEVELOP? THE RISE OF VUCA There is a growing recognition that the contexts in which leaders operate are definitionally complex. The term VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous) has gained prominence as a description of the nature of these environments (Van Der Wal, 2017). The ‘VUCA’ term was first used by the United States Army War College to describe the post-Cold War environment (Barber, 1992). Although the term tends to be used generically, the four individual terms can be used to distinguish between related but distinct characteristics (Bennet and Lemoine, 2014). Identifying ways to develop leaders to operate effectively in VUCA environments has been identified as a pressing challenge for the public and private sectors (Corporate Research Forum, 2018). This may require a paradigm shift, since exercising leadership in VUCA contexts calls for approaches which are suited to these particular challenges and which move beyond ‘heroic’ models of leadership (Mangan and Lawrence-Pietroni, 2019). Insights from the field of adult constructivist development suggest that leaders most capable of offering leadership in VUCA contexts will be those at more advanced ‘developmental stages’ (Kegan and Lahey, 2016, p. 72). Horizontal development is associated with the acquisition of new knowledge of skills (Petrie, 2014), while vertical development is associated with the movement between developmental stages. These stages can be thought of as worldviews, with each stage being referred to as an ‘action logic’ since it determines understanding of one’s own and others’ behaviour, underlying understanding of purpose, and therefore the goals and needs one acts on (Kegan, 1994; Kegan et al., 2009; Rooke and Torbert, 1998, 2005; Wilber, 2000). In general, leaders at later developmental stages are known to be rated more highly by peers, subordinates, and supervisors for leadership performance (Bartone et al., 2007; Strang and Kuhnert, 2009). ‘VUCA-ready’ leaders have been shown to outperform their competition

Executive education and leadership development: round peg, square hole?  159 threefold (Sinar et al., 2014). There are multiple ways in which leaders operating at later stages of development might be more adept; for example: ● better facilitators of organisational learning (Merron et al., 1987); ● better able to convince colleagues to consider alternative ways of seeing, thinking, and acting, and to develop a shared understanding of reality (Fisher and Torbert, 1991); ● better able to lead effective organisational transformation (Rooke and Torbert, 1998). Operating at a later development stage is different from acquiring a new skill or absorbing new knowledge or ideas. Taking a smartphone as an analogy: adding new skills, information, and knowledge is like adding new apps, while ‘upgrading’ to a new development stage is the equivalent of updating the phone’s entire operating system (Boston and Ellis, 2019). Moving to a new developmental stage allows for new ways of understanding, relating, and responding to yourself, other people, and the world around you. While horizontal development remains critical to expand knowledge, understanding, and skills, the potential impact of vertical development could fundamentally alter not only the nature of the leadership offered but also the understanding of the role, purpose, and meaning of leadership in VUCA contexts. However, the majority of the population does not operate at a level of mental complexity that enables them to effectively handle the complexity they face, and exercise leadership accordingly (Kegan, 1994; Torbert, 1987). Enabling more people to operate from a later stage of development could therefore enable more effective leadership in VUCA contexts. As two leading scholars have put it, ‘Leadership programs of the future will have to do a better job of leveraging adult learning principles if they hope to accelerate and enhance … critical and complex [leadership] capabilities’ (Conger and Benjamin, 1999 cited in Kellerman, 2018, p. 72). Given that enhancing leadership capacity is a commonly stated objective of executive education, the question of whether and how this can be achieved in such a setting is critical.

HOW CAN MORE EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP FOR VUCA CONTEXTS BE ENABLED? This question is made more complex by a lack of clarity about what we are doing when we aim to support others to improve their capacity for leadership. This confusion is demonstrated by the language used: are we engaging in leadership education, leadership training, or leadership development individually or in some combination? These terms have been historically used in vague and ill-defined ways (Kellerman, 2018). Distinguishing between them may help us to identify the contribution that can be made in creating greater leadership capacity in an executive education setting. Building on Kellerman’s (2018) typology, leadership education is learning about leadership: how it has been understood, theorised, and researched. Leadership training is learning about how to lead: approaches, activities, tools, and techniques that will enhance leadership practice. The term ‘leadership development’ we would reserve for activity intended to support movement between developmental stages with the intention of supporting more effective leadership in complexity. Leadership education and training do not necessarily support leadership development; though they certainly can. Leadership development, by contrast, is likely to encompass leadership education and training. We suggest that enabling greater capacity for

160  Handbook of teaching public administration effective leadership in VUCA contexts requires a combination of leadership education, training, and development (see Table 16.2). Table 16.2

Distinguishing between leadership education, training, and development Pedagogical approach

Presumed outcome

Leadership education Learning about leadership

Purpose

Theory, literature, research

Knowledge

Leadership training

Learning how to lead

Models, tools, techniques, approaches, Skills

Leadership

Inner shift that supports

Support, challenge, stretch, reflection

development

movement between

practice Greater capacity for leadership in complexity

developmental stages

Source: Based on a typology taken from Kellerman (2018), adapted and extended.

Leadership education and leadership training are clearly deliverable within an executive education setting of any duration. However, the extent to which leadership education and training can contribute to leadership development will depend on the content and pedagogy used, and the extent to which it is linked to deliberately developmental activity. Drawing on our practice, we suggest that anchoring can provide one such pedagogy.

ANCHORING AS A DELIBERATELY DEVELOPMENTAL PEDAGOGY Vertical development requires participants to recognise the limit of their own meaning-making and to move beyond that stage of development. Facilitating this move requires a developmental bridge ‘anchored’ at one end in a person’s current level of meaning-making, and at the next developmental stage at the other end. Within an executive education programme these anchors can be offered through the programme content, such as leadership theories and concepts, or work-based contextual experiences that provide raw material for development, such as challenging implicit assumptions about leadership, encouraging debate about diversity, reflective skills training, or in-situ learning such as large systems challenges. Below we describe two executive education programmes which anchor developmental processes through leadership education and training. Leadership Education Case Example: Leadership in Public Services Module (MSc in Public Management and Leadership, University of Birmingham) The first six weeks of the module provide a survey of leadership theory from mid-nineteenth century to the present day. This is clearly leadership education with a focus on acquiring knowledge. In this sense it provides for horizontal rather than vertical development. Students are invited to take a critical perspective on the leadership theories through weekly, semi-directed reflective activity, and are encouraged to notice how their own ideas about leadership have been formed. They are asked to consider what implicit leadership theories are present in their own organisations and how these emerged. By combining leadership education with critical reflective practice we aim to create a deliberately developmental environment. In addition to knowledge acquisition, we provide

Executive education and leadership development: round peg, square hole?  161 challenges to draw students closer to or beyond their current level of meaning-making and so aid an inner process of development. Leadership Training Case Example: Public Narrative The public narrative framework (Ganz, 2010) forms an integral part of several executive education programmes delivered by us. Public narrative is described as a leadership practice and a ‘skill to motivate others to join you in action under conditions of uncertainty’ (Ganz, 2010), and falls clearly into the domain of leadership training and horizontal development. When developing their narrative, participants are invited to develop three interlinked stories: ● A story of self that draws on personal life experiences to explain why our values motivate us to take action. ● A story of us that draws on shared experiences to create a sense of shared mission and purpose. ● A story of now that creates a narrative focussed on the action that ‘we’ need to take next in the face of a challenge. The process of developing a public narrative for leadership purposes is deliberately developmental (Mangan and Pietroni, 2020), as it draws attention to the process of meaning-making that is central to adult constructivist development. The ability to recognise that one’s worldview is itself a construction (rather than something that is objectively ‘true’) is part of what distinguishes later stages of development (Kegan et al., 2009). For example, when developing a story of self, individuals are invited to consider their personal experiences not as a series of objective facts, but rather as a set of narrative resources that can be shaped and given new meaning in the context of a particular leadership challenge.

THE CHALLENGES OF LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY IN EXECUTIVE EDUCATION: TIME, CONDITIONS, ETHICS, AND EVALUATION So can leadership development itself, that is, an inner shift that supports movement between developmental stages, be meaningfully enabled via executive education programmes? And if so, what are the practical and pedagogical challenges that need to be taken into account? Furthermore, the ambiguous nature of leadership development raises questions about the evaluation of impact, and also, since leadership programmes are a multi-billion dollar industry worldwide, raises ethical questions about the process of development and the claims made for the product being sold. We consider each of these in turn. Time The adult constructivist development literature proposes that the process of adult development progresses over a lifetime with ‘plateaus’ between developmental stages: periods when change occurs, and periods when it does not. In the population as a whole, mental complexity tends to increase with age, although there will also be considerable variation between individuals and

162  Handbook of teaching public administration only a minority of the population appears to achieve later stages of development (Kegan and Lahey, 2016). Adult development takes time, is unpredictable, and appears to be challenging to achieve. It is not possible to somehow ‘deliver’ leadership development in a one-day, one-week, or even a one-year programme. Indeed, trying to deliver leadership development through executive education might be considered as a classic ‘round peg, square hole’ situation. Given this, we might conclude that the leadership field should restrict itself to education and training and leave the less easily defined process of development alone. However, we believe this would be the wrong conclusion to draw. Adult development is a life-long process; the implication of this is not that leadership development is impossible, but that leadership development also needs to be understood as a life-long process. Executive education which is disconnected from an ongoing process of leadership development is unlikely to have a significant impact. We draw two conclusions from this. Firstly, that executive education programmes need a high degree of humility, realism, and honesty about the development that will be enabled. Secondly, that programmes should be situated within the ongoing process, recognition, and stages of leadership development for each individual student. This means that executive education for leadership development needs to consider what happens after the programme ends, and how it can provide students with practices and sources of support and challenge to assist the developmental process. We think of this as ‘trellising’, and discuss this concept later. Conditions While the speed and trajectory of adult development is unpredictable, we know that certain sorts of experiences can help to support development. One study found that a leadership development course with a deliberately developmental pedagogy brought individuals with earlier stages of development to the limit of their meaning-making and thus provoked developmental growth (O’Brien, 2016). The kinds of pedagogies and practices that support students to achieve developmental growth can be extremely demanding and disorientating, involving experiential learning environments in which students are faced with uncertain and ambiguous tasks or conditions which they are unable to make sense of within their current action logic. These can be described as ‘heat’ experiences (Petrie, 2013), which may be sustained and repeated, providing multiple opportunities for disorientation and meaning-making. Alongside these activities, opportunities for critical reflective practice may play a role in making visible to students the boundaries of their current meaning-making. We can see that in order for this kind of work to take place, appropriate scaffolding needs to be in place. Additionally, participants must understand the nature of the leadership development they are engaging in; both to enable the process, and to ensure informed consent. This leads us to ethical considerations. Ethics The leadership industry makes millions out of big promises for which there is little evidence (Kellerman, 2018). Leadership development done in the way we suggest here should face this

Executive education and leadership development: round peg, square hole?  163 head on and not make claims that cannot be substantiated. We are unlikely ever to be able to fully demonstrate cause and effect, but we can market on the basis of what we do know: ● We set out the case for leadership embracing complexity, what it takes to develop it, and how a given intervention may help. ● We stress that leadership development is life-long and requires personal commitment from the participants; it cannot be done to them. ● We offer trellising to support the life-long process. ● We explain the pedagogy underpinning the programmes, what that requires from participants, and how the experience is likely to feel. ● We avoid the claim that leadership development is transformational in some way; attempting to ‘transform’ people without their consent (Wilson, 2016). Engaging in deliberately developmental activity should be an active choice of the students. This final point is crucial: leadership development in executive education is an inherently uncertain process. Well structured and delivered, and for participants ready and able to take advantage of it, we believe that it can deliver developmental growth. But there are no guarantees, and the direct effect of a particular experience of leadership development in executive education will always be extremely difficult to demonstrate. Evaluation A fundamental challenge for executive education is to demonstrate that it achieves any sort of leadership development, either short-term or longer-term. Where heat experience approaches are used, students may feel uncomfortable, as the experience of pushing against their own level of meaning-making is often disconcerting. Students may become confused or upset during these experiences, leading to potentially negative ‘happy sheet’ evaluations. This does not mean, however, that the experience has been ineffective: ‘growth and development does not always equal “feeling good.” … We don’t define flourishing by sitting-around-the-campfire moments. We ask people to do seemingly impossible things’ (Kegan and Lahey, 2016, p. 35). This means that the value of the leadership development may only be recognised much later; perhaps years later. Given the potential for negative feedback on programmes that seek to achieve leadership development, this work does not fit in easily with the normal processes of commissioned or open access programmes. It takes a brave commissioner of executive education to put their employees into an uncomfortable and ambiguous situation. It is even harder to try to convince students to join an open access programme that may make them feel upset and confused. How can we square the circle of engaging students in development that they may not welcome at the time, but that will ultimately help them to succeed as leaders? We suggest that the only way to manage this is to be honest and transparent with students, commissioners, and evaluators.

ANCHORING, SCAFFOLDING, AND TRELLISING1 Given the contexts and challenges set out here, how should we design and deliver an executive education programme which actively seeks to deliver leadership development? What elements

164  Handbook of teaching public administration should commissioners and students look for in a programme that is promising leadership development? In addition to anchoring, outlined above, we suggest that there are two additional required elements: scaffolding and trellising (see Table 16.3). Table 16.3

Summary of activities which offer anchoring, scaffolding, and trellising

Elements to support leadership development Examples of activities Anchoring for development:

Leadership education – e.g., leadership theories and concepts.

the education or training content that

Critical reflection on theories and concepts through directed activity.

is delivered, or work-based contextual

Challenging understanding of leadership concepts and encouraging debate about

experience that provides the raw material for diversity in leadership. development.

Leadership training in skills to support leadership practice, such as public narrative, reflective practice. In-situ learning – e.g., systems leadership challenges, action research, simulations and role plays.

Scaffolding:

Heat experiences, e.g., leadership challenges without a clear ‘question’.

the structures that are put in place during the Skilled facilitators to enable students to reflect on the limits of their current meaning learning programme to support development. making, manage the discomfort, and deal with challenge. Right balance of support and challenge; ability to ‘flex the heat’. Trellising: the structures that are put in

Before a programme: 360-degree exercises with a meaning-making orientation (e.g.,

place before, during, and particularly after

University of Leeds, 2020), exercises to provide insights into their own limitations for

a programme to equip students with practices meaning-making, implicit leadership questions. to support the process of ongoing leadership During: small group work which brings together a range of different perspectives to development.

bear on a question, reflective journalling. Post: exercises and processes for developable capacities, ongoing action learning, alumni sessions, coaching.

Scaffolding Scaffolding consists of the pedagogies and practices which provoke levels of disorientation which bring participants to the boundaries of their current capacity for meaning-making. These might include heat experiences, simulations, or experiential tasks which include an element of ambiguity and uncertainty, such as asymmetrical levels of knowledge, or continually shifting goalposts, to challenge current levels of understanding and sense-making. Scaffolding practices include skilled facilitation to support students to reflect on the limits of their current meaning-making. This often requires a high staff-student ratio and facilitators who are able to hold participants within a heat experience, manage the discomfort, and deal with challenge. The final element of scaffolding is the balance of support and challenge offered. Students need to be challenged sufficiently to enable them to recognise the limitations of their current capacity for meaning-making, but not to be pushed so far out of their comfort zones that stress-induced emotions prevent learning taking place. This again requires skilled facilitators to recognise the levels of discomfort being felt by individual students and the whole group, who can flex the level of heat being generated and turn it up or down depending on the levels of discomfort being experienced.

Executive education and leadership development: round peg, square hole?  165 Trellising Trellising consists of approaches to support ongoing leadership development by equipping participants with practices to support the ongoing development of their own meaning-making. Drawing on adult constructivist research, four developable ‘capacities’ have been identified which themselves act as trellising for longer-term leadership development (Boston and Ellis, 2019). These are defined as: ● Sense-making: observing, understanding, and processing the complexity of the situation. ● Perspective-shifting: developing a more realistic and multifaceted understanding of a situation or relationship. ● Self-relating: observing, understanding, regulating, and transforming yourself; for example, making sense of your own reactions, thoughts, and feelings. ● Opposable thinking: responding to dilemmas and conflicting ideas that can create tensions within us and/or between us (Boston and Ellis, 2019). Trellising to support these capacities should, for maximum impact, be offered before, during, and after the executive education programme itself.

CONCLUSION We have sought to argue that in order to provide effective leaders of public administration in VUCA contexts, executive education programmes need to offer opportunities for leadership development through education and training approaches. We highlight fundamental challenges to the concept of developing leaders through executive education, including the length of time that is needed for leaders to shift their developmental capacity, the challenges of potentially negative evaluation of programmes that genuinely deliver a shift in participants’ meaning-making capacities, and the ethical justification for some of the developmental claims made by those selling executive education programmes. Despite these challenges, we suggest that it is possible to achieve leadership development through executive education by drawing on three elements to design-in development opportunities: anchoring, scaffolding, and trellising. We offer some examples of these elements, with the hope that this might go some way to facilitating the insertion of the round peg of executive education into the square hole of leadership development.

NOTE 1. The authors gratefully acknowledge many helpful conversations with Karen Ellis on the subject of anchoring, scaffolding, and trellising.

166  Handbook of teaching public administration

REFERENCES Barber, H.F. (1992). Developing strategic leadership: The US army war college experience. Journal of Management Development, 11(6), 4‒12. Bartone, P.T., Snook, S.A., Forsythe, G.B., Lewis, P., and Bullis, R.C. (2007). Psychosocial development and leader performance of military officer cadets. Leadership Quarterly, 18(5), 490‒504. Bennett, N., and Lemoine, G.J. (2014). What a difference a word makes: Understanding threats to performance in a VUCA world. Business Horizons, 57(3), 311‒317. Boston, R., and Ellis, K. (2019). Upgrade: Developing your capacity for complexity. LeaderSpace. Conger, J.A., and Benjamin, B. (1999). Building leaders: How successful companies develop the next generation. Jossey-Bass. Corporate Research Forum (2018). Facing disruption. HR Directors’ Briefing Paper: Facing disruption. Fisher, D., and Torbert, W. (1991). Transforming managerial practice: Beyond the achiever stage. Research in Organizational Change and Development, 5, 143‒173. Ganz, M. (2010). Leading change: Leadership, organization, and social movements. Handbook of leadership theory and practice, 19, 1‒10. Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Harvard University Press. Kegan, R., and Lahey, L.L. (2016). An everyone culture: Becoming a deliberately developmental organization. Boston: Harvard Business Review Press. Kegan, R., Kegan, L.L.L.R., and Lahey, L.L. (2009). Immunity to change: How to overcome it and unlock potential in yourself and your organization. Harvard Business Press.Kellerman, K. (2018). Professionalizing leadership. Oxford University Press. Mangan, C., and Lawrence-Pietroni, C. (2019). More rave than waltz ‒ Why the complexity of public service means the end for hero leadership. In H. Dickinson, C. Needham, C. Mangan, and H. Sullivan (eds), Reimagining the future public service workforce (pp. 81‒92). Springer. Mangan, C., and Pietroni, C. (2020). Telling stories and turning up the heat: Exploring new approaches to developing public servants. In H. Sullivan, H. Dickinson, and H. Henderson (eds), The Palgrave Handbook of the Public Servant (pp. 1‒18). Palgrave Macmillan. Merron, K., Fisher, D., and Torbert, W. (1987). Meaning making and management action. Group and Organization Studies, 12(3), 274‒286. O’Brien, T.J. (2016). Looking for development in leadership development: Impacts of experiential and constructivist methods on graduate students and graduate schools. Doctoral Dissertation. Retrieved from Harvard Library. Petrie, N. (2013). Vertical leadership development – Part 1 developing leaders for a complex world. Centre for Creative Leadership. Rasmussen, K., and Callan, D. (2016). Schools of public policy and executive education: An opportunity missed? Policy and Society, 35(4), 397‒411. Rooke, D., and Torbert, W.R. (1998). Organizational transformation as a function of CEO’s developmental stage. Organization Development Journal, 16, 11‒28. Rooke, D., and Torbert, W.R. (2005). Seven transformations of leadership. Harvard Business Review, 83(4), 67‒76. Sinar, E., Wellins, R.S., Ray, R., Abel, A.L., and Neal, S. (2014). Ready-now leaders: 25 findings to meet tomorrow’s business challenges. Development Dimensions International and The Conference Board. Retrieved from: http://​www​.ddiworld​.com/​ddi/​media/​trend​-research/​global​-leadership​-forecast​-2014​ -2015​_tr​_ddi. pdf. Strang, S.E., and Kuhnert, K.W. (2009). Personality and leadership developmental levels as predictors of leader performance. Leadership Quarterly, 20(3), 421‒433. Torbert, W.R. (1987). Managing the corporate dream: Restructuring for long-term success. Dow Jones-Irwin. University of Leeds (2020). Developmental feedback for leadership and management: Narrative 360. University of Leeds. Van der Wal, Z. (2017). The 21st century public manager. Macmillan International Higher Education.

Executive education and leadership development: round peg, square hole?  167 Wilber, K. (2000). Integral psychology: Consciousness, spirit, psychology, therapy. Shambhala. Wilson, S. (2016). Thinking differently about leadership: A critical history of leadership studies. Edward Elgar Publishing.

17. Continuing professional learning Peter K. Marks

Higher education institutions delivering public administration and management programmes invest significant resources to educate and train students for becoming public professionals (Cervero, 2001). After graduation the subsequent 40 years of public professional practice requires them to continuously upgrade their knowledge and skills to cope with modern life, in both their professional and their private lives (Evans et al., 2019; Laal, 2011, p. 470). Moreover public professionals without prior public administration and management education need to acquire the necessary qualifications after joining the public sector (OECD, 2009). Hence, continuing professional learning is imperative for a successful and effective career. The pace, turbulence, and diversity of often intertwined societal developments, as well as related administrative and public management challenges, frequently pose new, often complex, problems for public administration professionals (Bryer, 2014; Laal, 2011; Rosenbaum, 2014; van der Meer and Marks, 2018; Wessels, 2000). Urbanisation, ongoing technological transformation, austerity measures, and Covid-19 are examples of challenges that professionals may not have been prepared for in their initial education and training (European Commission, 2019; Wessels, 2000). As such, the ability to learn the needed new skills is an ever more important basic skill. Adult and continuing education has developed in this context of a growing importance of knowledge (Egetenmeyer et al., 2019). In the last 25 years, higher education institutions have had to (re)think their role as providers of lifelong learning (Brandt, 2001). Lifelong learning means that learning opportunities should be provided at every stage of a person’s life as part of a coherent system encompassing all forms of formal, non-formal, and informal learning (OECD, 2009, p. 6). A continuing professional learning culture ensures that after compulsory education, individuals have opportunities to participate in learning activities to enhance their skills throughout their adult life (Laal, 2011; OECD, 2020). Given the general consensus that continuous learning is important, it is remarkable that research is scarce on what continuous learning is and how higher education contributes. This is all the more surprising as potential students for continued professional learning outnumber the group of ‘regular’ bachelor and master students. Against this background, the chapter addresses the following questions: ● Who is this professional that needs continued education, and what should be learned at different stages in their career path? ● What kinds of learning and teaching strategies are suitable? ● What may the future hold for continuing professional learning?

168

Continuing professional learning  169

THE PROFESSIONAL LEARNER After a relatively short period of pre-service education, continuing professional learning is the means to cope within a professional life characterised by constant change and often competing values (Cervero, 2001, p. 24; Darling and Cunningham, 2016). Learning on the job, or learning by doing/working, increases productivity through experience and innovation. By increasing their individual knowledge, capabilities and initiative, learning professionals collectively create synergetic effects that enhance the organisation’s flexibility and adaptability (Aidone et al., 2009, p. 6). In other words, in continuing professional learning there is an interdependent mix of development of: (1) the individual learner; (2) the individual as a member of the organisation; and (3) the individual, their organisation, and the external environment (Egetenmeyer et al., 2019; Fisher, 1973). The learning public professional will function more effectively as an individual, which also benefits the organisation. The organisation, in turn, will be able to more effectively fulfil its goals in response to the changing administrative context. Throughout their career, professionals will continuously update their individual work styles, preferences, and work-related beliefs that underpin behaviour, so that knowledge and skills are applied effectively (Darling and Cunningham, 2016; ESCO ‒ Skills/competences ‒ European Commission, n.d.). The European Skills, Competences, Qualifications and Occupations (ESCO) project has compiled a general overview of relevant skills for (public) professionals: ● Communication and collaboration skills: communicating, collaborating, liaising, and negotiating with other people, developing solutions to problems, creating plans or specifications for the design of objects and systems, and imparting knowledge to others. ● Information skills: collecting, storing, monitoring, and using information; conducting studies, investigations, and tests; maintaining records; managing, evaluating, processing, analysing, and monitoring information and projecting outcomes. ● Assisting skills: providing assistance, service, and support to people; ensuring compliance to rules, standards, guidelines, or laws; assisting the public by answering questions, making recommendations, and providing information or support in response to requests. ● Management and leader skills: managing people, activities, resources, and organisation; developing objectives and strategies; organising work activities; allocating and controlling resources; and leading, motivating, recruiting, and supervising people and teams. ● Computer skills: using computers and other digital tools to develop, install, and maintain information and communication technology software and infrastructure; and to browse, search, filter, organise, store, retrieve, and analyse data; to collaborate and communicate with others; to create and edit new content. While all professionals have to continually update their knowledge, attitudes/values and skills, different foci are required at different stages of the individual career path (e.g. Wessels, 2000: p. 320). In the early stages of the professional career the focus is on skills needed for the current job, and on incorporation of principles and frame of reference of the organisation (Aidone et al., 2009; Egetenmeyer et al., 2019; Fisher, 1973; Noe et al., 2014). It is estimated that 75 per cent of learning within organisations is informal learning, which ‘includes both cognitive activities and behaviours, including learning from oneself through self-reflection; learning from others such as peers, and supervisors; and learning from non-interpersonal sources, such as reading print or online material’ (Noe et al., 2014, pp. 247‒248). Non-formal learning (that is, organized by non-higher educational organizations) is in the form of

170  Handbook of teaching public administration organised, systematic educational activities, mostly provided by private training schools and in-house by organisations for their own employees (Cervero, 2001; Egetenmeyer et al., 2019; OECD, 2001). This informal and non-formal learning holds the danger that it may be subverted by attempts to align worker’s identities with organisational goals (Garrick and Usher, 2000, in Webster-Wright, 2009, p. 719) To prepare the public professional for greater responsibility, and possibly the next step up the career ladder, the learner focuses more on problem-solving, applying new knowledge, and interpreting and creating multiple frames of reference (Knassmüller, 2016). Teaching institutions will have to deal with the formed and socialised public professional when they enter university training at the age of around 30 and older. Notwithstanding the differences between national civil service systems, higher education mostly targets these middle managers who have the resources, capacity, and inclination to participate in mid-career programmes (Reichard, 2017; Wart et al., 1999). In later stages of the career path, public professionals need primarily adjustment, refreshment, and extension of their competences, which is mainly provided though more expensive executive programmes (Reichard, 2017, p. 127). See Figure 17.1.

Figure 17.1

Career path required learning of the public professional

The public professionals acquire both explicit, that is, well documented and easily articulated knowledge, and tacit knowledge that is subconsciously learned through experience in determining when and how to apply, adopt, or abandon those practices (Noe et al., 2014, p. 246). The educational activities range from workshops on training specific content and/or skills to full master and/or executive programmes lasting a couple of years. The content offered is also very diverse: from budgeting skills for public managers to advanced summer programmes on financial management, and from the art of delegation to internationally recognised Certified Public Manager (CPM) programmes on public leadership. There is a growing use of technology for delivering and facilitating learning, because it is relatively cheap and easy to deliver to geographically dispersed employees, with massive open online courses (MOOCs) with class sizes of up to 300 000 people as a prime example (Aidone et al., 2009; Noe et al., 2014; Pérez-González and Ramírez-Montoya, 2019).

Continuing professional learning  171 All in all, public professionals have the opportunity to upgrade their knowledge and skills at every stage of their career, as non-formal and formal education is offered that is in tune with their specific needs; be they part-time or full-time, face-to-face or blended or online, management or policy-oriented, and so on.

LEARNING AND TEACHING STRATEGIES At the start of the career path, the junior professional mostly learns readily applicable knowledge and skills without much scrutinisation (van der Steen et al., 2017). The next steps in the career path are much more focused on problem-solving, drawing new innovative conclusions, and most importantly, challenging previously fixed frames of reference. This requires academic thinking and reflexive in-depth education in settings outside the workspace (Adriansen and Knudsen, 2013; Quinn, 2013; Reichard, 2017; van der Steen et al., 2017). The university classroom is the (virtual) place where participants introduce their real-world challenges and share their knowledge with their fellow students. Here they learn about the intricacies of working in the public administration context through activation of the rich experiences, skills, and expertise of participants (Jarzabkowski and Whittington, 2008, in Van der Steen et al., 2017, p. 108). Practical knowledge is developed by being in the situation and ‘reflecting on action and reflecting in action’ (Schön, 1983, in Knassmüller, 2016, p. 22). Faculty need to add theories and reflection to these interactions to analyse and better understand these challenges (Quinn, 2013; van der Meer and Marks, 2013; van der Steen et al., 2017). This is not as easy, owing to two conflicting logics. Scientific knowledge builds generalisations and theories involving causal relationships to explain how specific situations are instances of more general cases (Van De Ven and Johnson, 2006, p. 806), which can clash with the practical knowledge that deals with specific situations and problems deeply rooted in professional experience (Knassmüller, 2016, p. 22). This means that the learning for public professionals is an active process of exploration and discovery (Webster-Wright, 2009, p. 722), where they learn to analyse situations and responses in a systematic way that draws on practitioners’ experience, perceptions, knowledge, and actions in order to frame and reframe the issues that confront them (Quinn, 2013, p. 11), and as such to reframe ‘known’ problems through new vocabularies, and possibly achieve a change of perspective (Knassmüller, 2016, p. 29). The reframing of perspectives requires double-loop learning in which the public professional students will question the underlying assumptions and as such make new links between experience, knowledge, and actions (Argyris, 2002; Blaschke, 2012). That is, students learn to link theory and practice in both practical and reflective manners. This linking of research and teaching generates positive outcomes for students, and enhances the societal impact of research by producing scientifically produced practice-oriented knowledge for practitioners. Many programmes make efforts to link theory and research on the one hand, with actual real-life situations, developments, and challenges on the other (Kearns, 2014; Majgaard et al., 2017; Peters, 2015). At the same time, teaching staff have to guide the public professionals to reach the required academic level: Conveying and appropriating knowledge for the purpose of individual development is the core objective that teaching methods and didactics are supposed to support or assure. By creating its own frame of reference (and language), every concept, theory or practical problem from a parent system will be

172  Handbook of teaching public administration reinterpreted on the basis of the distinct logic of the classroom setting, while in turn every solution worked out in the contact system will be reinterpreted if picked up in one of the parent systems. (Knassmüller, 2016, p. 24)

For public professionals it is essential to become reflexive practitioners (Schön, 1983) enabling them ‘to work out their relationship to other individuals (including employees and citizens), to understand their role in a diverse and complex society, and to understand the need for organisational members to act in more critical, responsive, and ethical ways’ (Cunliffe and Jun, 2005, p. 226). In the continuing professional learning context, the reflexive public professional is able to connect theoretical ideas to the aforementioned interdependent mix of the individual; the individual as member of the organisation; and the individual, his organisation, and the external environment (Cunliffe and Jun, 2005; Păvăloaia et al., 2019; Quinn, 2013). This situatedness of the practitioner’s experience, and the fact that public professionals are self-motivated, means that teaching is more about helping the professional to learn, rather than teaching them (Quinn, 2013). Facilitating the continuing professional learning process means that the teacher is no longer central in the learning strategy, but the students are. For public professionals to thrive in their workplace, a more self-directed and self-determined approach to learning is needed (Richardson, 2003). Most students undertake continuing professional learning with a deep learning approach; that is, an intrinsic interest and appropriate engagement in the task, which is accompanied by seeking for meaning as a learning strategy (Baeten et al., 2010, p. 244). To facilitate and enhance this deep learning approach many different teaching methods have been developed in which the student is at the centre of learning, for example, andragogy and heutagogy (Blaschke, 2012; Canning, 2010; Hase and Kenyon, 2007). Notwithstanding the variety of teaching methods, three characteristics are shared: (1) activity and independence of the student; (2) coaching role of the teacher; and (3) knowledge is regarded as a tool instead of an aim (Baeten et al., 2010, p. 245). The student-centred approaches strengthen a deeper learning and understanding, increased responsibility and accountability on the part of the student, an increased autonomy of the learner, and interdependence between teacher and learner (Lea et al., 2003, p. 322). This active learning (Pérez-González and Ramírez-Montoya, 2019; Prince, 2004) ‘enables students to develop mental models, test the validity of these models (an individual’s understanding), and then change potentially faulty understanding and misconceptions’ (Albert and Beatty, 2014, p. 420). An important aspect of a course, then, is what the student does (Butt, 2014); but also the strategy and coherence of how technology is used to engage the students inside and outside the classroom (Strayer, 2012), and how assessment is organised (Struyven et al., 2006; Trigwell, 2010). Technology through blended learning (Ginns and Ellis, 2007; Strayer, 2012), flipped or inverted classroom designs (Abeysekera and Dawson, 2015; Baker, 2000; Lage et al., 2000), provides the teacher with the opportunity to move ‘more passive activities (such as reading course notes and textbooks and viewing/listening to lectures) outside of the classroom’ (Butt, 2014, p. 34). Students can allocate their time and pace learning the online material to match their own level of comprehension. The classroom becomes the place where students actively engage with the material, such as problem-solving and case studies, usually in collaboration with other students. Teachers are able to monitor student performance and provide instant adaptive feedback to either individual students or groups (Kim et al., 2014). The formative assessment is crucial to keep the students in their deep learning

Continuing professional learning  173 approach. The assessment programme should match the teaching programme, because if the assessment is performed differently, students will adjust their approach to the assessment programme (Nieweg, 2004, p. 204). In other words, if during a course students spend time on analysing a problem, the assessment should be in harmony and assess their analytical skills. Improved formative assessment will strengthen the learning outcomes of students. Summative assessment is still necessary to have ‘formal’ results. ‘Using multiple assessment styles could support the development of a greater range of skills, such as communication and collaborative problem-solving skills, and may create more opportunities for constructive feedback’ (McLean et al., 2016, p. 54). All in all, in each phase of the career path public professionals have informal, non-formal learning possibilities. Formal higher education provides the mid-career and higher managers with student-centred programmes where the public professionals actively learn multiple frames of reference to become more reflexive practitioners.

FUTURE OF CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL LEARNING Being no exception to the dynamics described in the opening section, the field of professional education itself is subject to permanent and ever faster rates of change. Standardisation of teaching and learning is recognised as a prerequisite to facilitate international exchange and innovation, but also to help achieve public goals (Hampson-Jones, 2011, p. 6). For instance, the European Bologna Process established a standardisation of teaching and learning in 2000. Over the years, higher education has become more and more coherent, inclusive, connected, and accessible (European Commission, 2018a), and students and staff are able to work with partners all over the world. In the course of this globalisation, many higher education institutions have agreed on credits, learning outcomes, equivalence, and the facilitation of mobility (European Commission, 2018b). This increasing conformity means that public professional students have more control over their learning strategy by creating a ‘curriculum’ based on discrete modules that are independent and non-sequential, leading to a specific qualification (Bridges, 2000; Dejene and Chen, 2019; Ghemawat, 2017). At the same time, the boundaries between formal, non-formal, and informal learning are fading. This development leads to the expectation that companies and private education providers will provide alternative paths through digital learning based on flexible, tailor-made, and modular learning systems, as such shaping public professional learning development (European Commission, 2020, pp.  5‒7). These (corporatised) educational institutions are mostly hidden from public control and their teaching materials, didactics, and so on, are not publicly provided. To make sure that public professionals learn the required knowledge and skills for the next steps in their career path, the knowledge and skills taught, didactics, and assessment must be visible for evaluation and scrutinisation. Also, notwithstanding the good intentions of these institutions, there is the danger that they do not socialise the public professional students in creating different frames of reference; that is, building an analytical reflexive attitude may remain underdeveloped. Hence, the learning and teaching of multiple frames of reference, and a critical reflexive attitude to young and mid-career public professionals, should be embedded in higher education (Evans et al., 2019; Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005). It is up to higher education to ensure that public professionals can acquire the skills and knowledge for the latter stages of their careers (Cendon, 2017; Evans et al., 2019). Public

174  Handbook of teaching public administration administration and management departments of higher education institutions need to develop study programmes for the specific target groups in collaboration with partners who these public professionals work with (Elliott et al., 2020). The formal embedding of continuing learning is essential for both higher education and public professionals to remain relevant in the coming decades (Evans et al., 2019).

REFERENCES Abeysekera, L., and Dawson, P. (2015). Motivation and cognitive load in the flipped classroom: Definition, rationale and a call for research. Higher Education Research and Development, 34(1), 1–14. Adriansen, H.K., and Knudsen, H. (2013). Two ways to support reflexivity: Teaching managers to fulfil an undefined role: ‘A problem cannot be solved at the same level of thinking that created it’ ‒ Albert Einstein. Teaching Public Administration, 31(1), 108–123. Aidone, E.R., Pogarčić, I., and Marković, M.G. (2009). Professional development management in public administration: The role of information communication technology. International Conference on Methodologies, Technologies and Tools Enabling e-Government. Albert, M., and Beatty, B.J. (2014). Flipping the classroom applications to curriculum redesign for an introduction to management course: Impact on grades. Journal of Education for Business, 89(8), 419–424. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​08832323​.2014​.929559. Argyris, C. (2002). Double-loop learning, teaching, and research. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 1(2), 206–218. https://​doi​.org/​10​.5465/​amle​.2002​.8509400. Baeten, M., Kyndt, E., Struyven, K., and Dochy, F. (2010). Using student-centred learning environments to stimulate deep approaches to learning: Factors encouraging or discouraging their effectiveness. Educational Research Review, 5(3), 243–260. htps://​doi​.org/​10​.1016/​j​.edurev​.2010​.06​.001. Baker, J.W. (2000). The classroom flip: Using web course management tools to become the guide by the side. Selected papers from the 11th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning, 15, 9‒17. Blaschke, L.M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 13(1), 56. https://​doi​.org/​10​.19173/​irrodl​.v13i1​.1076. Brandt, E. (2001). Lifelong learning in Norwegian universities. European Journal of Education, 36(3), 265–276. Bridges, D. (2000). Back to the future: The higher education curriculum in the 21st century. Cambridge Journal of Education, 30(1), 37–55. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​03057640050005762. Bryer, T.A. (2014). Beyond job creation and service learning: Putting the public back in public affairs education. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 20(2), 233–252. Butt, A. (2014). Student views on the use of a flipped classroom approach: Evidence from Australia. Business Education and Accreditation, 6(1), 33–43. Canning, N. (2010). Playing with heutagogy: Exploring strategies to empower mature learners in higher education. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 34(1), 59–71. Cendon, E. (2017). The universities and the challenge of educating throughout life. International Congress ‘The Future of the University’, Bogota. Cervero, R.M. (2001). Continuing professional education in transition, 1981‒2000. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 20(1–2), 16–30. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​09638280010008282. Cunliffe, A.L., and Jun, J.S. (2005). The need for reflexivity in public administration. Administration and Society, 37(2), 225–242. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0095399704273209. Darling, S.D., and Cunningham, J.B. (2016). Underlying values and competencies of public and private sector managers. Asian Education and Development Studies, 5(4), 371–387. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1108/​ AEDS​-09​-2015​-0050. Dejene, W., and Chen, D. (2019). The practice of modularized curriculum in higher education institution: Active learning and continuous assessment in focus. Cogent Education, 6(1), Research Article. https://​ doi​.org/​10​.1080/​2331186X​.2019​.1611052.

Continuing professional learning  175 Egetenmeyer, R., Breitschwerdt, L., and Lechner, R. (2019). From ‘traditional professions’ to ‘new professionalism’: A multi-level perspective for analysing professionalisation in adult and continuing education. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, 25(1), 7–24. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 1477971418814009. Elliott, I.C., Robson, I., and Dudau, A. (2020). Building student engagement through co-production and curriculum co-design in public administration programmes. Teaching Public Administration, 014473942096886. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0144739420968862. ESCO ‒ Skills/competences ‒ European Commission (n.d.). Geraadpleegd 5 november 2020, van https://​ ec​.europa​.eu/​esco/​portal/​skill. European Commission (2018a). The European Higher Education Area in 2018: Bologna Process Implementation Report. Publications Office of the European Union. https://​eacea​.ec​.europa​.eu/​national​ -policies/​eurydice/​content/​european​-higher​-education​-area​-2018​-bologna​-process​-implementation​ -report​_en. European Commission (2018b). The EU in support of the Bologna process. Publications Office of the European Union. http://​op​.europa​.eu/​en/​publication​-detail/​-/​publication/​e437d57d​-5e32​-11e8​-ab9c​ -01aa75ed71a1. European Commission (2019). Education and Training: Monitor 2019. European Commission (2020). Prospective report on the future of non-formal and informal learning. Publications Office of the European Union. https://​op​.europa​.eu/​nl/​publication​-detail/​-/​publication/​ f2f326a0​-1343​-11eb​-9a54​-01aa75ed71a1/​language​-en. Evans, A.M., Morrison, J.K., and Auer, M.R. (2019). The crisis of policy education in turbulent times: Are schools of public affairs in danger of becoming irrelevant? Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(3), 285–295. Fisher, F.E. (1973). Give a damn about continuing adult education in public administration. Public Administration Review, 33(6), 488–498. Ghemawat, P. (2017). Strategies for higher education in the digital age. California Management Review, 59(4), 56–78. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0008125617717706. Ginns, P., and Ellis, R. (2007). Quality in blended learning: Exploring the relationships between on-line and face-to-face teaching and learning. Internet and Higher Education, 10(1), 53–64. https://​doi​.org/​ 10​.1016/​j​.iheduc​.2006​.10​.003. Hampson-Jones, N. (2011). Higher Education and Standardization: Knowledge Management Between Generations. BSI Group. Hase, S., and Kenyon, C. (2007). Heutagogy: A child of complexity theory. Complicity: An international journal of complexity and education, 4(1), 111‒118. Kearns, K.P. (2014). The Nonprofit Clinic at the University of Pittsburgh: Preparing students for transition to professional settings. Teaching Public Administration, 32(1), 21–38. Kim, M.K., Kim, S.M., Khera, O., and Getman, J. (2014). The experience of three flipped classrooms in an urban university: An exploration of design principles. Internet and Higher Education, 22, 37–50. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1016/​j​.iheduc​.2014​.04​.003. Knassmüller, M. (2016). Turn! Turn! Turn! A time for engaged learning. The engagement of scholarship and practice in a classroom setting. Teaching Public Administration, 34(1), 19–39. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1177/​0144739416630785. Laal, M. (2011). Lifelong Learning: What does it mean? Procedia ‒ Social and Behavioral Sciences, 28, 470–474. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1016/​j​.sbspro​.2011​.11​.090. Lage, M.J., Platt, G.J., and Treglia, M. (2000). Inverting the classroom: A gateway to creating an inclusive learning environment. Journal of Economic Education, 31(1), 30–43. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​ 00220480009596759. Lea, S.J., Stephenson, D., and Troy, J. (2003). Higher education students’ attitudes to student-centred learning: Beyond ‘educational bulimia’? Studies in Higher Education, 28(3), 321–334. https://​doi​.org/​ 10​.1080/​03075070309293. Majgaard, K., Nielsen, J.C.R., Quinn, B., and Raine, J.W. (eds) (2017). Developing public managers for a changing world (1st edn). Emerald. McLean, S., Attardi, S.M., Faden, L., and Goldszmidt, M. (2016). Flipped classrooms and student learning: Not just surface gains. Advances in Physiology Education, 40(1), 47‒55.

176  Handbook of teaching public administration Naidoo, R., and Jamieson, I. (2005). Empowering participants or corroding learning? Towards a research agenda on the impact of student consumerism in higher education. Journal of Education Policy, 20(3), 267–281. Nieweg, M.R. (2004). Case study: Innovative assessment and curriculum redesign. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 29(2), 203–214. Noe, R.A., Clarke, A.D.M., and Klein, H.J. (2014). Learning in the twenty-first-century workplace. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 245–275. https://​ doi​.org/​10​.1146/​annurev​-orgpsych​-031413​-091321. OECD (2001). Lifelong learning for all: Policy directions. In Education policy analysis 2001 (pp. 1–34). OECD Publishing. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1787/​epa​-2001​-en. OECD (2009). Lifelong learning. In Education Today 2009: The OECD Perspective (pp. 59–95). OECD Publishing. OECD (2020). Creating a culture of lifelong learning in Northern Ireland. In OECD Skills Strategy Northern Ireland (United Kingdom). OECD. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1787/​5e6257ae​-en. Păvăloaia, V.-D., Georgescu, M., Popescul, D., and Radu, L.-D. (2019). ESD for public administration: An essential challenge for inventing the future of our society. Sustainability, 11(3), 880. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.3390/​su11030880. Pérez-González, M.-E., and Ramírez-Montoya, M.-S. (2019). Techno-andragogic ecosystem model for active learning: Digital age learners. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality, 930–934. Peters, R.A. (2015). Anchored learning and the development of creative, critical thinking and life-long learning skills. Teaching Public Administration, 33(3), 221–240. Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3), 223–231. Quinn, B. (2013). Reflexivity and education for public managers. Teaching Public Administration, 31(1), 6–17. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0144739413478961. Reichard, C. (2017). Academic executive programs in public administration and management: Some variety across Europe. Teaching Public Administration, 35(1), 126–138. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 0144739416645651. Richardson, J.T.E. (2003). Approaches to studying and perceptions of academic quality in a short web-based course. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(4), 433–442. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1111/​1467​-8535​.00340. Rosenbaum, A. (2014). Putting first things first: Critical issues for public administration education. Teaching Public Administration, 32(1), 80–94. Schön, D.A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. Strayer, J.F. (2012). How learning in an inverted classroom influences cooperation, innovation and task orientation. Learning Environments Research, 15(2), 171–193. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1007/​s10984​-012​ -9108​-4. Struyven, K., Dochy, F., Janssens, S., and Gielen, S. (2006). On the dynamics of students’ approaches to learning: The effects of the teaching/learning environment. Learning and Instruction, 16(4), 279–294. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1016/​j​.learninstruc​.2006​.07​.001. Trigwell, K. (2010). Promoting effective student learning in higher education. In P. Peterson, E. Baker and B. McGaw (eds), International Encyclopedia of Education (pp. 461–466). Elsevier. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1016/​B978​-0​-08​-044894​-7​.00863​-0. Van De Ven, A.H., and Johnson, P.E. (2006). Knowledge for theory and practice. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 802–821. https://​doi​.org/​10​.2307/​20159252. van der Meer, F.-B., and Marks, P. (2013). Teaching and learning reflection in MPA programs: Towards a strategy. Teaching Public Administration, 31(1), 42–54. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0144739412470839. van der Meer, F.-B., and Marks, P. (2018). An agenda for rethinking mid-career master programs in public administration. Teaching Public Administration, 36(2), 126–142. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 0144739418764530. van der Steen, M., Van Twist, M., and Frissen, P. (2017). Learning from experience: From case-based teaching to experience-based learning. Teaching Public Administration, 35(1), 105–125. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1177/​0144739416670701.

Continuing professional learning  177 Wart, M.V., Holzer, M., and Kovacova, A. (1999). The scope of public administration continuing education in universities: An exploratory study. Public Productivity and Management Review, 23(1), 68. https://​doi​.org/​10​.2307/​3380793. Webster-Wright, A. (2009). Reframing professional development through understanding authentic professional learning. Review of Educational Research, 79(2), 702–739. https://​doi​.org/​10​.3102/​ 0034654308330970. Wessels, J.S. (2000). Equipping public officials for the challenges of responsible governance: A South African perspective on lifelong learning. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 66(2), 311–324. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0020852300662007.

18. The challenges of developing reflective practice in public administration: a teaching perspective Monika Knassmüller

In light of increasingly VUCA environments (volatile, uncertain, complex, ambiguous) (e.g., van der Wal, 2020) and associated wicked problems (Rittel and Webber, 1973), reflective practice has literally become the guiding principle for resourceful and adaptive action, in the public sector and beyond (Ferguson, 2018; Kinsella, 2009, p. 4; Quinn, 2013). Not least because evidence of reflective practices is increasingly required for professional licensing (Mann et al., 2009, p. 596), a particularly vast body of literature focuses on the fields of health (Goulet et al., 2016; Mann et al., 2009), social work and helping professions (Ferguson, 2018), as well as (teacher) education (Beauchamp, 2015; Elkjaer and Nickelsen, 2015; Loughran, 2002). Notably, the ‘reflective turn’ (Quinn, 2013, p. 8) has also spurred work on reflective practices in public management along with public administration and public management (PA/ PM) education (for example, a Teaching Public Administration Special Issue on ‘Developing the reflexive public manager’, 2013, 31(1)) as well as management education in general (Cunliffe, 2004). Similar to reflection/reflexivity,1 reflective practice has been associated with a variety of meanings (Finlayson, 2015; Kinsella, 2009). Ranging from just ‘thinking about something’ to elaborated concepts with very specific meanings and related actions, they all revolve around the common element of a puzzling, curious, perplexing, troubling, or bewildering situation; in short, a problem (Loughran, 2002, p. 33). For the purpose of this chapter, reflective practice refers broadly to more or less institutionalised forms of thinking about (one’s own) actions and its communicative processing, thereby engaging in some kind of discourse with oneself or with others. Dialogic in nature, this approach emphasises conscious and systematic reflection, supported through the use of techniques and tools as well as various formats of organised joint reflection. From this perspective, reflective practice serves to develop and promote reflexivity as a deeper level of engagement. Going beyond reflection on professional practice, reflexivity requires an ‘unsettling’ (Cunliffe, 2004, p. 407) critical questioning of one’s own assumptions, thereby ‘fostering critical thinking and enabling confrontation of the contradictions and conundrums encountered in professional and personal situations’ (Quinn, 2013, p. 12). Therefore, reflection can be considered a ‘vital step on the way to reflexivity’ (Cotter and Cullen, 2012, p. 229). This chapter addresses the challenges of developing reflective practice in (professional) PA/ PM programmes as follows. The central purpose of reflective practices is elaborated to further reflect the potential of theories (conceptual use of research; Knassmüller, 2016) as a powerful means to achieve this purpose. After addressing the challenges of teaching reflective practice in PA/PM higher education programmes in terms of developing both skills and awareness at the individual level, issues of transfer to the working environment are discussed, emphasising 178

The challenges of developing reflective practice in public administration  179 the importance of organisational contextual factors for the implementation and effectiveness of reflective practices. Finally, the concluding remarks briefly address issues of status and interest in relation to reflective practices.

THEORIES AS REFLECTIVE PRACTICE TOOLS: MAGIC WAND OR MENTAL ACROBATICS Starting from Dewey’s (1933) work on the link between experience and learning, influential traditions developed, particularly experiential learning (A.Y. Kolb and Kolb, 2009; D.A. Kolb, 1984), transformative learning (Mezirow, 1991, 1998), and action learning (Raelin, 2007; Revans, 2011). In particular, Schön’s (1983, 1987) concept of the reflective practitioner gained particular significance for the relationship between practice/experience, reflection, and learning, emphasising the need for broad and diverse knowledge and the importance of reflection in cultivating these other kinds of knowledge (on the concepts’ developments, see for example Finlayson, 2015; Kinsella, 2009; Mann et al., 2009; Moon, 2004; Vince and Reynolds, 2009). The value of reflective practice lies in questioning the taken-for-granted assumptions, identifying and challenging the dominant perspective on a situation in order to gain alternative perspectives, and hence laying the foundations for innovative solutions to tackle a (wicked) problem (e.g., Quinn, 2013, p. 7). The ability to deliberately change perspectives by systematically applying multiple frames of reference (frame and reframe, Schön, 1983, 1987) is most important for the development of reflective practice as it affects subsequent actions in practice (Loughran, 2002, p. 35). For this purpose, theories are a particularly powerful tool as they each offer a specific, consistent frame of reference with its own specific vocabulary for describing and explaining what is being observed (situation, problem, solution, process, and so on). Since the successful application of theoretical concepts requires both a deep understanding of the specific logic of argumentation and a competent use of vocabulary,2 it almost automatically forces a change of perspective. In the process, the established line of reasoning derived from experience is systematically questioned and reflected upon. Thus, when practitioner theories meet (and collide with) theoretical concepts, learning from experience is boosted by theoretical thinking. With time (and sufficient practice), the trained mind develops the ability to switch quickly between frames of reference to uncover blind spots and develop innovative solutions; in short, to adapt to a dynamic and complex environment. With this in mind, one might expect students, especially working students, to appreciate theoretical approaches and enthusiastically embrace this world of systematic reflection. Instead, a notable lack of student engagement in reflective practice is observed (e.g., Betts, 2004; Brown, 2020; Rigg and Trehan, 2008; F. van der Meer and Marks, 2013),3 questioning the chances of successfully introducing reflective practice into work (Griggs et al., 2018). To understand students’ difficulties in realising the benefits of reflective practice, complexity might again be the key, but in a different way: the focus on the importance of reflection for effective decision-making in complex environments may obscure the fact that the actual level of complexity still varies greatly due to situational characteristics (Knassmüller and Meyer, 2013). Applying sophisticated theoretical approaches to reflect extensively on tame problems is like using a sledgehammer to crack a nut, and doomed to be perceived as (tedious) mental acrobatics by students and practitioners alike. To be experienced as meaningful, beneficial,

180  Handbook of teaching public administration and sometimes even magical, the use of theoretical approaches as tools of reflective practice must be appropriate to the problem. It is the responsibility and challenge of higher education institutions to expose students to suitable theoretical approaches, to stimulate interest in critical reflection, and ultimately to achieve a lasting commitment to theoretical thinking. In essence, it is about finding a right match.

RELATIONSHIP BUILDING: SUSTAINABLY ENGAGING STUDENTS IN THEORY APPLICATION Analogous to sustainable relationships whose success is based less on the characteristics of the individual elements than on the quality of their interplay, students must find their own approach to theoretical concepts, and not every combination will make a promising match. As matchmakers, universities need to know the success criteria for this type of relationship and master an appropriate repertoire of matchmaking techniques. Falling in Love: Experiencing a Spark of Excitement From the outset, a clear understanding of the intended fit between programme and students is crucial. On the programme side, it is particularly important to be clear about: (1) the theoretical pillars it is built on; (2) the characteristics of the specific theoretical approaches presented in the courses; (3) how relevant they are to the professional environment of the target group; (4) how appropriate they are to the challenges that characterise their professional environments; and (5) how applicable they are to current issues and problems in these environments. Equally important is clarity about the required profile of the target group in terms of educational background, work experience, job requirements, learning types, logic of their mental models and resulting practitioner theories, and so on. When a possible match is identified, the introduction has to be staged carefully to ensure that this first encounter spurs genuine interest and avoids unintended ‘halo effects’. Therefore, the decision about when, where, and how to introduce students to theoretical approaches for the first time should be based on an assessment of students’ expectations, complemented by tailored expectation management (F. van der Meer and Marks, 2013). More Than a Fling: Committing For Real Once the spark is lit, students need to be guided towards sustained engagement with theoretical thinking and reflective practice. At this point at the latest, a considerable amount of effort and resources (time, attention, energy, stamina) is required from the students. To make the necessary commitment, the practical benefit of reflective practice ‒ that is, framing and reframing ‒ has to be demonstrated and experienced. Hence, relevance takes centre stage: when applied to practical issues, theories must be fit for purpose. Professional PA/PM programmes4 can exploit the students’ ‘wealth of experience’ (Quinn, 2013, p. 8) and take actual problems from their professional environment as a starting point. However, a teacher naming a problem may not make it visible to students, as differences in experience affect both perception and framing of the problem, and students need ‘a reason to be able to see the problem in different ways’ (Loughran, 2002, p. 35). In discussing real

The challenges of developing reflective practice in public administration  181 problems, developing and sharing assertions about their nature and characteristics is a first step for students in moving beyond a simple (if comforting) exchange of experiences. Although the results are unlikely to provide new insights for the lecturer or a wider audience, the ownership derived from the direct link to their experiences sets the stage for a real engagement by the students (Loughran, 2002, p. 38). At this crucial point, the reflection process needs to be adequately supported by a theory that is highly attuned to the specific problems of the students. To make a match, the theoretical approaches applied have to be appropriate for reframing the problem at hand in a useful way, otherwise the interest will dry up and/or it will become a ‘purely academic’ exercise (perceived as mental acrobatics). Given the size and diversity of the public sector, with its varying levels of complexity, this is anything but a simple task: first, it requires the teacher to guide the students in the selection of the problems to tackle; second, both an appropriate repertoire of theoretical approaches ready for use, and the ability to apply them spontaneously and flexibly, is required. Besides the necessary knowledge and skills, thorough preparation is key to success. Even if a good fit is achieved, avoidance strategies such as justification and rationalisation are to be expected when discussing real problems (Loughran, 2002). For example, a common justification by students is that the problem (or its cause) is beyond their control, and therefore the nature of their practice would have little or no impact on it.5 Furthermore, such experiential beliefs may constitute a frame of reference (or practitioner theory), often commonly shared in a professional environment. The application of a different theoretical framework enables ‒ indeed, demands ‒ a systematic change of perspective that might shake up the taken-for-granted assumptions. When the familiar has been successfully made unfamiliar through reframing, rationalisations of previous justifications are challenged, and new ways of seeing are opened up (referring to teachers’ education; Loughran, 2002, p. 38). To practice reflective thinking in educational or training settings, the instruments and tools described in the literature are countless (e.g., Gray, 2007; Thompson and Thompson, 2018, p. 74ff).6 While most tools involve some form of writing such as journals, portfolios, or reflective essays (e.g., Kapucu and Koliba, 2017; Moon, 2006), as well as reflective metaphor, critical incident analysis, repertory grids, or concept mapping (Gray, 2007), others are more relational in nature, such as reflective conversation, dialogue, and storytelling (Gray, 2007). However, even the most sophisticated tools are of no use if the necessary student engagement in and commitment to theoretical thinking has not been achieved first. If this is not the case, students may treat reflective practice superficially, or perhaps even fake it, reject tools such as learning logs as unnecessary, or question the relevance of reflective practice in general (Griggs et al., 2018, p. 1173; and the studies cited there). Forevermore: Building a Durable and Robust Relationship When students are committed, the next challenge is to prepare for transfer into professional practice. What is needed to develop a lasting and resilient engagement of students with theoretical thinking and reflective practice in different professional environments and settings? There is scepticism and a noted lack of empirical evidence in the literature regarding a successful transfer of reflective practice into professional practice (Griggs et al., 2018, p. 1173). While internalising theoretical thinking through processes of transformative learning would be a promising strategy, the learning process involved is both unpleasant and lengthy: uncovering deeply rooted, taken-for-granted elements of knowledge pushes both for an understanding

182  Handbook of teaching public administration of their logic and for an assessment of their relevance, appropriateness, and consequences (Mezirow, 2003). Moreover, knowledge is not enough to master a skill (as any musician will wholeheartedly attest): a lot of practice is required, which implies an investment of time and energy, and is ideally guided by the teacher’s feedback. In addition, going through crises, overcoming difficulties, and persevering in times of adversity and doubt will be part of the students’ experience when transformative learning is under way. The successful accompaniment of such processes requires sufficient resources (time and effort) provided within a curriculum. However, given scarce resources, programmes may not be able to meet these requirements, but need to rethink what can be achieved, for example, in increasingly modularised programmes with rather weak coupling of the different elements. There is a risk that students are repeatedly confronted with ‘first encounters’ in different courses and modules without undergoing the necessary processes for a lasting and sustainable engagement in theoretical thinking and reflective practice.

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN THE WORKPLACE: A FOCUS ON INSTITUTIONAL SETTINGS A teaching and learning perspective often limits discussions on reflective practice to individual capabilities. However, context is crucial when reflexivity is theorized ‘not [as] a capacity that one either develops or not, but a contextual practice’ (S. Parker et al., 2020, p. 298). Through formal and informal incentives, the professional environment might be fertile or toxic for theoretical thinking, and thus for the implementation of reflective practice (see also Griggs et al., 2018, p. 1180). Therefore, students can experience a formidable culture clash when they return to a workplace where their new awareness is not valued or appreciated (Reynolds, 1999; Rigg and Trehan, 2008). Enabling students to identify in advance possible tensions, but also existing room for manoeuvre, is another challenging task when teaching reflective practices. This points to: (1) processes and means of implementing reflection in the workplace (Vince, 2002; Vince and Reynolds, 2009); and (2) the environmental features promoting reflective practice or even compelling individual actors to engage in reflective thinking and action. While purpose, scope and limits of reflective practice have to be considered against the background and requirements of the environment, both formal and informal institutionalised forms of reflection (for example, on processes of problem-solving, decision-making) can indicate the reflective maturity of an environment. Do PA/PM programmes: (1) make their students familiar with the repertoire of such tools and measures; (2) teach them how to evaluate their context-specific strengths/weaknesses and benefits/costs; and (3) teach them how to implement and maintain them in practice? Again, the nature of the problems typical for a particular context can serve as a pivotal point for a systematic discussion. In relation to environmental uncertainty, the role that reflective practices play will vary depending on the complexity and dynamics of the environment. In stable environments characterised by a high degree of standardisation and routinisation, for example, reflective practice is essential to prevent the routinisation of unfavourable actions and the occurrence of associated problems (Loughran, 2002, p. 34, referring to educators). However, it is precisely the lack of permanent problem pressure that quickly makes the application of systematic reflective practices seem like a waste of time and resources. Only when a problem arises (for example, due to extrinsic drivers such as a reorganisation in the course of a change of government) does

The challenges of developing reflective practice in public administration  183 reflective practice become an ad hoc issue. In complex and dynamic environments, on the other hand, reflective practices might be crowded out by time pressure and a culture of action, not reflection (Raelin, 2002, p. 66). To align reflective practices with the contextual requirements, the specific working situations regarding tasks and responsibilities are to be taken into account (Knassmüller and Meyer, 2013). Newcomers to public administration, for example, need different means and measures for reflection than do senior experts, or top civil servants operating in a micropolitically challenging environment. Regarding the tools repertoire, some of the instruments described in the previous section might be used in working settings as well (see Gray, 2007), complemented by means such as peer consultancy groups, organizational role analysis, group relations conferences, and communities of practice (Vince, 2002), as well as mentoring, peer mentoring, and peer coaching (P. Parker et al., 2008). As techniques used in academic settings are often not adopted in working practice, a diverse and flexible approach to teaching reflective techniques is advised (Griggs et al., 2018, p. 1181). Given the variety and diversity of policy fields, most discussions on reflective practices are field-specific. However, due to space limitations, only one institutional setting can be discussed in more detail here: PA/PM programmes in higher education institutions. Like any other organization, (applied) universities are faced with the challenge of encouraging reflective thinking among their staff (Herzog, 2004, p. 225). The extensive literature on teacher education emphasises the importance of reflective practice in the educational system to counter the danger of teachers teaching ‘as they were taught, not as they were taught to teach’ (Altmann, 1983, cited in Kruse-Weber and Hadji, 2020, p. 112). This is a particular challenge for PA/ PM programmes, as their teaching staff consist mainly of academics, possibly supplemented by selected practitioners. Scholars are usually not educated as teachers, trainers, or coaches, but as highly specialised experts who are trained in conducting rigorous research in order to advance the progress of relevant knowledge (for addressing current issues) that can be published in high-tier journals (for pursuing a successful academic career). Consequently, their expertise – if not their unique selling point – in teaching is often based less on personality development than on the development of analytical skills. On the downside, however, there may be a lack of awareness of the need to implement and systematically use reflective practice in the context of one’s own teaching practice, leading to a low appreciation of the measures involved. In fact, universities were considered as particularly averse and reluctant environments in relation to reflective practice (Herzog, 2004, p. 228). For a long time, faculty has been encouraged to pursue their research, if necessary at the expense of more time-consuming teaching strategies and associated reflective practices (Raelin, 2007, p. 496). In particular, career paths primarily based on research excellence tend to make academic teaching the poor relation. However, to be won over for an engaged and lasting commitment to reflective practices, faculty (just like students or practitioners of other contexts) need to be convinced of their benefits for their work and careers. In addition to ‘prompts and pushes’ (Griggs et al., 2018, p. 1180), rewarding engagement in reflective practices effectively through internal incentive and career systems would be a strong signal of appreciation on the part of the universities.

184  Handbook of teaching public administration

CONCLUSION Developing reflective practice in PA/PM programmes is a challenging task for higher education institutions as well as for teachers and students. It demands thorough planning on both the strategic level (programmes, curricula) and the operative level (courses), taking individual (students, teachers), situational (academia), and organisational (working environment) contextual factors into account. While there is a rich literature on this topic in the form of field reports on tools, course designs, and so on, the impact on and effectiveness in the practice of PA/ PM is still largely unexplored, and sound empirical evidence is scarce. Furthermore, critical statements about the lack of implementation of reflective practices in the work environment must not overlook the political dimension of framing and reframing processes. Reflection, and especially critical reflection as it complements performative aims with an emancipatory claim (Rigg and Trehan, 2008, p. 376), is never value-free but always driven by interests. Moreover, by generating new insights and options for action in the course of reflective practices, established ways of working as well as established authority relationships and leadership approaches are necessarily challenged. Thus, unspoken and unconscious organisational dynamics that protect organisational members from the consequences of reflection are by no means accidental, but are rather expected (Vince and Reynolds, 2009, p. 98). The question of cui bono of reflective practice (Knassmüller and Meyer, 2013, p. 85) should therefore already be addressed in PA/PM programmes in order to create an awareness of any tensions that may result from it. In other words, students should also be trained to reflect on the reflective practices themselves in order to assess how the status quo is challenged by the reflective practices, and what the intended and unintended consequences might be. This requires the development of a fine sense for the specific work environment, guided by a competent use of appropriate analytical means to identify different logics and related interests and rationalities (keywords, for example, administrative/organisational culture, micro-politics, power, ethics). As important and relevant as this is, it makes the task of developing reflective practices even more complex and challenging.

NOTES 1.

For further discussions: Marshall (2019); Quinn (2013) on PA/PM education, variants of reflection/ reflexivity; Beauchamp (2015) on teacher education; Cotter and Cullen (2012) on philosophical roots and understandings of reflexive management learning. 2. Astley and Zammuto (1992, p. 449) emphasise the constitutive importance of language and corresponding vocabulary for any frame of reference, whether developed in science or in practice: ‘Managers espouse their own “theories” about the way their world works and the conceptual language they use establishes a context within which organizational life is constructed and reconstructed’. 3. Students are reported to have difficulty understanding the relevance of theories (Brown, 2020), and to be reluctant to tap into the broader meaning of observed practice while focusing on improving, enhancing, and coping (Betts, 2004), relying heavily on an instrumental approach to methods, models, and theories (Knassmüller and Veit, 2016; F. van der Meer and Marks, 2013; F.-B. van der Meer and Ringeling, 2010; and on the instrumental, conceptual, and symbolic use of research in PA/ PM programmes, Knassmüller, 2016). 4. In undergraduate or subsequent master programmes, curricula might allow for real-life experiences through service learning or internships (Cross and Grant, 2006; S. Parker et al., 2020).

The challenges of developing reflective practice in public administration  185 5. Loughran’s example matches many statements of mid-career MPA students in the study of Knassmüller and Veit (2016). 6. For examples and cases consult journals such as Reflective Practice, Journal of Public Affairs Education, or Teaching Public Administration.

REFERENCES Astley, W.G., and Zammuto, R.F. (1992). Organization science, managers, and language games. Organization Science, 3(4), 443–460. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1287/​orsc​.3​.4​.443. Beauchamp, C. (2015). Reflection in teacher education: Issues emerging from a review of current literature. Reflective Practice, 16(1), 123–141. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​14623943​.2014​.982525. Betts, J. (2004). Theology, therapy or picket line? What’s the ‘good’ of reflective practice in management education? Reflective Practice, 5(2), 239–251. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​14623940410001691009. Brown, P.R. (2020). What tutors bring to course design: Introducing political and policy theories to disengaged students. Teaching Public Administration, 38(1), 12–23. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 0144739419858682. Cotter, R.J., and Cullen, J.G. (2012). Reflexive management learning: An integrative review and a conceptual typology. Human Resource Development Review, 11(2), 227–253. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 1534484312438874. Cross, J., and Grant, N. (2006). Teaching MPA internships built on reflection in practice. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 12(1), 19–31. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2006​.12001410. Cunliffe, A.L. (2004). On becoming a critically reflexive practitioner. Journal of Management Education, 28(4), 407–426. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​1052562904264440. Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process (1933). D.C. Heath & Company. Elkjaer, B., and Nickelsen, N.C.M. (2015). Researching critical reflection in management education. In J. Fook, V. Collington, G. Ruch, and L. West (eds), Researching critical reflection: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 145–157). Routledge. Ferguson, H. (2018). How social workers reflect in action and when and why they don’t: The possibilities and limits to reflective practice in social work. Social Work Education, 37(4), 415–427. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1080/​02615479​.2017​.1413083. Finlayson, A. (2015). Reflective practice: Has it really changed over time? Reflective Practice, 16(6), 717–730. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​14623943​.2015​.1095723. Goulet, M.-H., Larue, C., and Alderson, M. (2016). Reflective practice: A comparative dimensional analysis of the concept in nursing and education studies: A concept analysis of reflective practice. Nursing Forum, 51(2), 139–150. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​nuf​.12129. Gray, D.E. (2007). Facilitating management learning: Developing critical reflection through reflective tools. Management Learning, 38(5), 495–517. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​1350507607083204. Griggs, V., Holden, R., Lawless, A., and Rae, J. (2018). From reflective learning to reflective practice: Assessing transfer. Studies in Higher Education, 43(7), 1172–1183. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​03075079​ .2016​.1232382. Herzog, R.J. (2004). Teaching what you practice: The need for self-reflection in academic settings. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 10(3), 225–232. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2004​ .12001361. Kapucu, N., and Koliba, C. (2017). Using competency-based portfolios as a pedagogical tool and assessment strategy in MPA programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 23(4), 993–1016. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2017​.12002301. Kinsella, E.A. (2009). Professional knowledge and the epistemology of reflective practice: The epistemology of reflective practice. Nursing Philosophy, 11(1), 3–14. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1466​-769X​ .2009​.00428​.x. Knassmüller, M. (2016). Turn! Turn! Turn!: A time for engaged learning. The engagement of scholarship and practice in a classroom setting. Teaching Public Administration, 34(1), 19–39. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1177/​0144739416630785.

186  Handbook of teaching public administration Knassmüller, M., and Meyer, R.E. (2013). What kind of reflection do we need in public management? Teaching Public Administration, 31(1), 81–95. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0144739413479199. Knassmüller, M., and Veit, S. (2016). Institutional constraints of experimental learning formats in professional PA Master programmes. Developing Public Managers for a Changing World, 5, 231–259. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1108/​S2045​-794420160000005012. Kolb, A.Y., and Kolb, D.A. (2009). Experiential learning theory: A dynamic, holistic approach to management learning, education and development. In S.J. Armstrong and C.V. Fukami (eds), The SAGE handbook of management learning, education and development (pp. 42–68). SAGE Publications. https://​doi​.org/​10​.4135/​9780857021038​.n3. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall. Kruse-Weber, S., and Hadji, N. (2020). Reflective practice in der Hochschullehre. In S. Hummel (ed.), Grundlagen der Hochschullehre (pp. 109–137). Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1007/​978​-3​-658​-28181​-6​_6. Loughran, J.J. (2002). Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), 33–43. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0022487102053001004. Mann, K., Gordon, J., and MacLeod, A. (2009). Reflection and reflective practice in health professions education: A systematic review. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 14(4), 595–621. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1007/​s10459​-007​-9090​-2. Marshall, T. (2019). The concept of reflection: A systematic review and thematic synthesis across professional contexts. Reflective Practice, 20(3), 396–415. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​14623943​.2019​ .1622520. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (1998). On critical reflection. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(3), 185–198. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1177/​074171369804800305. Mezirow, J. (2003). Transformative learning as discourse. Journal of Transformative Education, 1(1), 58–63. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​1541344603252172. Moon, J.A. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. Routledge. Moon, J.A. (2006). Learning journals: A handbook for reflective practice and professional development (2nd edn). Routledge. Parker, P., Hall, D.T., and Kram, K.E. (2008). Peer coaching: A relational process for accelerating career learning. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 7(4), 487–503. Parker, S., Racz, M., and Palmer, P. (2020). Reflexive learning and performative failure. Management Learning, 51(3), 293–313. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​1350507620903170. Quinn, B. (2013). Reflexivity and education for public managers. Teaching Public Administration, 31(1), 6–17. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0144739413478961. Raelin, J.A. (2002). ‘I don’t have time to think!’ versus the art of reflective practice. Reflections: SoL Journal, 4(1), 66–79. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1162/​152417302320467571. Raelin, J.A. (2007). Toward an epistemology of practice. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 6(4), 495–519. https://​doi​.org/​10​.5465/​amle​.2007​.27694950. Revans, R.W. (2011). ABC of action learning. Gower. http://​site​.ebrary​.com/​id/​10481789. Reynolds, M. (1999). Grasping the nettle: Possibilities and pitfalls of a critical management pedagogy. British Journal of Management, 10(2), 171–184. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​1467​-8551​.00118. Rigg, C., and Trehan, K. (2008). Critical reflection in the workplace: Is it just too difficult? Journal of European Industrial Training, 32(5), 374–384. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1108/​03090590810877094. Rittel, H.W.J., and Webber, M.M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2), 155–169. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1007/​BF01405730. Schön, D.A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions (1st edn). Jossey-Bass. Thompson, S., and Thompson, N. (2018). The critically reflective practitioner. Macmillan Education UK. van der Meer, F., and Marks, P. (2013). Teaching and learning reflection in MPA programs: Towards a strategy. Teaching Public Administration, 31(1), 42–54. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0144739412470839.

The challenges of developing reflective practice in public administration  187 van der Meer, F.-B., and Ringeling, A. (2010). An education strategy for practitioners in public administration Master’s programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 16(1), 77–93. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​ 15236803​.2010​.12001585. van der Wal, Z. (2020). Trends and drivers of public administration in the twenty-first century. In A. Graycar (ed.), Handbook on corruption, ethics and integrity in public administration (pp. 10–28). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://​doi​.org/​10​.4337/​9781789900910​.00008. Vince, R. (2002). Organizing reflection. Management Learning, 33(1), 63–78. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 1350507602331003. Vince, R., and Reynolds, M. (2009). Reflection, reflective practice and organizing reflection. In The SAGE handbook of management learning, education and development (pp. 89–103). SAGE Publications. https://​doi​.org/​10​.4135/​9780857021038​.n5.

19. Inquiry-based learning and the crisis competences for addressing the climate emergency John Connolly and Alice Moseley

This chapter focuses on the importance of inquiry-based learning (IBL) for the work of modern public managers in light of the long shadow cast on societies as a result of the climate emergency. As Jagals and Ebi (2021) note, ‘anthropogenically-induced climate and other significant environmental changes pose serious threats to human health and well-being by exacerbating existing health inequities, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations, detrimentally altering the social and environmental determinants of health’ (p. 1). Social scientific education, including public administration programmes, is not only important for understanding complex environmental problems but is also key for training public leaders of the future to implement climate-based solutions (McCright, 2012). The modern public manager is called upon to be ‘climate‒environment competent’ in their work in order to manage services, departments, and organisations to maximise their environmental sustainability. Those who seek to occupy managerial positions in the public sector need to be able to steer and navigate and lead within (and across) networks and partnerships. This involves understanding the value of programmes and services within complex environments (Connolly, 2016). This navigation exercise by public managers is particularly challenging when dealing with creeping or endemic wicked problems. For example, the climate emergency is one such issue which requires joined-up working and a ‘whole of government’ approach in terms of working across departments and services to minimise the prevalence of carbon emissions to protect the health of the environment and populations (Marinucci et al., 2014; Kirsop-Taylor, 2020). There are questions about how public managers are equipped both to lead and to manage in the public sector in the interests of addressing the omnipresent crisis of climate change. Although the public sector contributes only a fraction of carbon emissions, as compared to that of private industry, public servants have a moral duty not only to promote environmental protection but also to ensure that emissions do not creep up from the combustion of fuel in public sector buildings, such as schools, hospitals, and offices (Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, 2018). It is also the case that the outsourcing or contracting out of services is an opportunity for public managers to be cautious about the environmental implications of procurement decisions (Viitanen and Kingston, 2014); which, among other aspects of public governance, require public servants to develop a crisis prevention and management mindset (Drennan et al., 2014). In this context, this chapter considers IBL as an approach to equip modern public servants with the skills, knowledge, and understanding to be ‘climate competent’. In this respect, the chapter identifies what public administration programmes, such as Masters in Public Administration (MPAs), need to embed in order to train the public managers of today and tomorrow. The chapter discusses the role and importance of IBL in developing climate com188

Climate emergency: inquiry-based learning and crisis competences  189 petences as part of the public administration curriculum. This discussion is accompanied by examples of IBL strategies that can be employed to develop modern public servants.

INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING FOR DEVELOPING CLIMATE COMPETENCES Knowledge about the nature of the climate crisis, and associated skills and competences, we suggest, need to be core components of public administration education. Indeed, recent declarations of a ‘climate emergency’ by public authorities (Climate Emergency UK, 2021), denote the seriousness with which public institutions are now taking the challenges created by climate change. The complexity of the public sector is such that both short-term and long-term lateral thinking are needed. A further challenge facing public administration teachers who include environmental planning as part of the curriculum, according to Vos (2000), relates to ‘the number and diversity of topics that could be and often are covered in such courses, the problem of educating students in the basic science behind environmental issues, and the need to address the roles of economy and equity in environmental planning’ (p. 125). There is a balancing act between understanding climate science and the craft of implementing governance strategies to lead and manage services with climate issues in mind (Gerber, 2014). But what does this really mean for the practice and education of public administrators? And how can IBL help to develop these competences? IBL, in the context of public administration education, can be regarded as an active form of problem-based learning, often based on scenarios, which is anchored towards learning through discovery rather than through didactic forms of pedagogy. IBL can help to achieve deeper learning than more passive pedagogical approaches, as learners are engaged in identifying problems, and formulating responses and solutions. IBL emphasises experimentation, self-direction, learner responsibility, active participation, and problem-solving in order to predict, observe, and explain real-world problems (Spronken‐ Smith and Walker, 2010; Pedaste et al., 2015). As a pedagogical strategy it is vital for helping to educate public managers who have to deal with long-term wicked problems (Öberg et al., 2019). IBL approaches, such as simulations or case studies, have considerable value in mirroring the ‘real thing’ in terms of addressing wicked problems (‘t Hart, 1997; Borodzicz and Van Haperen, 2002). IBL strategies for the crisis management of the climate emergency involve educating public servants with strategic leadership, public engagement, and networking and evaluation skills in a policy space whereby the crisis is ‘creeping’ and less overtly ‘sudden’ (unlike, for example, the management of COVID-19). Embedding IBL into the teaching and assessment strategies of environmental modules within MPAs and other public administration programmes is crucial if environmental principles are to be embedded within the day-to-day workings of the public sector. These principles include assessing the environmental impacts of existing and new policies and regulations, and ensuring that public procurement, service provision, and policy implementation are conducted with environmental impacts in mind. This requires strategic leadership content of programmes in order to help students to understand what it takes for public managers to address the climate emergency and, as part of this agenda, how the ideas from public sector innovation can dovetail with this topic (Arundel et al., 2019). For instance, ‘crisis management proofing’ requires the need to consider non-incremental change and the piloting of initiatives in order

190  Handbook of teaching public administration to be radical enough to mitigate against radical threats, which the climate crisis most certainly is. Familiarising students with tools such as a sustainability SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis (Metzger et al., 2012), and applying these in classroom settings to students’ own professional or public sector contexts, can help to develop these necessary strategic management skills to address environmental concerns. In addition to building the strategic content of MPA programmes, increasing student awareness and skills in resilience should be a learning outcome across ‘climate competences’ mentioned in this chapter. The word ‘resilience’ comes from the Latin resilio, which means to ‘jump back’, that is, to be responsive and flexible in adopting to uncertain and evolving situations. The climate emergency is inherently uncertain and evolving in nature, with unpredictable elements and uncertainty in terms of both science and future impacts. Coping with this uncertainty requires resilience on the part of both public managers and the organisations in which they work (Brassett et al., 2013). Public managers also need to be able to identify barriers to tackling the climate emergency, and be equipped to respond flexibly to new opportunities and developments to improve environmental performance. Public administration education, therefore, should embed the concept of resilience into its training on crisis management and risk management. IBL approaches, because of their problem-based nature, can help to promote the skills that public managers require to strategise, network, and evaluate their way through processes of organisational adaptation. The focus on organisational adaptation to ensure that systems future-proof themselves against the forces of climate change has been something of concern to leaders and managers within the private sector (Berkhout et al., 2006). Yet the fact that climate change will impact on socio-economic systems requires that public administration programmes also include the development of such competences within teaching strategies. In other words, future-proofing is not simply a private sector concern, but also a matter for political and policy leadership, including how public managers can support the generation of knowledge so that evidence-based choices are made about the achievement of effective organisational adaptation. With climate competences in mind, we have distilled eight linked competences informed by subnational and national primary documentation (UK Government, 2011; Scottish Government, 2020), and that of the Association of Climate Change Officers (ACCO) (2020). For each of these we follow with some examples of IBL-type methods that could be used with students of public administration (see Table 19.1). These include active learning techniques such as role-playing, simulations, collaborative learning, and case study/problem-based learning activities. As Table 19.1 demonstrates, the pedagogical emphasis for the development of climate competences is based on problem-solving, knowledge acquisition through student empowerment, and the practice of applying knowledge to deepen understanding, which are all hallmarks of IBL (Aditomo et al., 2013). However, Table 19.1 also needs to be seen within the wider context of climate competences. Public administration education has had to ‘internationalise’ given the prevalence of the forces of globalisation, multi-level governance, and the internationalisation of the student population (Moseley and Connolly, 2021). That is not to say that localism and the role of public managers in local government is not important (Bulkeley and Kern, 2006) – far from it, given that local environment officers are key in mitigating climate change ‒ but the knowledge of public managers about the environmental developments at higher tiers of governance is equally important (Jagals and Ebi, 2021). This includes the

towards a common aim, negotiating competing priorities, and overcoming organisational boundaries to develop a way forward.

services to interface with local and regional partnerships.

In practice, this involves mediating between governmental

IBL approach to develop practitioners’ abilities to identify the appropriate capacities

electric bus fleet and route for a municipal authority and encouraging the public to use it. Here, engineering, as well as transport policy, economic and planning expertise might be needed, as well as knowledge from behavioural science, to address public adoption of the new bus service.

essential, when it comes to policymakers addressing the

climate emergency (Connolly, 2017). Public managers

need to facilitate policy design processes, working with

knowledge integration.

a shared goal that they work towards in an effort to enable

scientists, and programme leaders to ensure that they have

environmental officers, urban planners, public health

knowledge and expertise to address a specific problem, such as developing an affordable

the social and natural sciences is not only desirable, but

impact assessments or strategic environmental assessments (Bhave et al., 2016). Disciplinary mapping. Students work together on a project to identify interdisciplinary

health both highlight how interdisciplinarity between

Work across disciplines/silo avoidance The literatures on ecological public health and planetary

(Patterson and Huitema, 2019).

this will naturally challenge teachers of public administration decision-making (RDM) in conditions of uncertainty using tools such as environmental

conceptual weakness in urban climate change governance and within organisational systems. Emphasis should also be placed on how to support robust

institutional innovation and change occurs remains a key

in governance to address climate change. Understanding how diagnostic tools for assessing organisational effectiveness could form part of a practical

There is a need to identify capacities for innovative practice

al., 2020).

adaptation policies (see Bauer and Steurer, 2014; Jensen et

actors, in order to build adaptive capacities and inform

Audit and inspection-based assessments. Learning to use skills, audit tools and other

change mitigation or adaptation. Here, students would learn about working together

emergency requires that they organise programmes and

Capacity identification

organisations tasked with devising a strategic response to a particular aspect of climate

for public managers (Hansen et al., 2013), but the climate

levels, and fostering networking between public and private

Simulations exercises. Individual students work in a team and assume the role of different

Coordination and collaboration skills are transferable skills

IBL strategy

Description

Networking

Inquiry-based learning strategies and climate competences

Competence

Table 19.1

Climate emergency: inquiry-based learning and crisis competences  191

Public engagement

Performance monitoring

determine which actors need to contribute to deliberative processes of formulating an outcomes-focused evaluation plan.

insights from methodologies used in development studies

and building these into the public administration curricula,

public administration education for developing competences around the use of performance

use of environmental performance monitoring which can

challenges of doing so across organisational boundaries, or even national boundaries.

structures which avoid governance vacuums and hiding

be to engage public administration students as members of a mock public deliberative forum, such as a citizen’s jury, to co-design environmental policies. This would involve the teacher/facilitator setting out broad aims for the deliberative forum and then supporting students to formulate a plan and a set of questions for deliberation, which are then addressed by students as members of the mock jury.

environmental initiatives with various governance actors

(Mauser et al., 2013). In other words, modern public

administration education should, as part of public value

content in the curriculum, highlight the value of citizen

engagement and explore how this can be done; for example,

(Howarth et al., 2020; Sandover et al., 2021).

mandate for climate action in the post-COVID-19 context

mechanisms could be a powerful way to build a social

argued, convincingly, that such deliberative engagement

generate solutions to climate change issues. It has been

through citizens juries and assemblies which can help to

Role-playing of a citizen’s jury. A strategy for embedding IBL for this competence would

Environmental sustainability requires the co-creation of

governance initiatives (Persson, 2019, p. 1).

for climate change has meant limited legitimacy of global

metrics. The lack of a clear global-level problem framing

global policy, which is not helped by a lack of performance

emergency is significantly challenged by the ambiguities of

places. Global adaptation towards addressing the climate

environmental policy, the degree of success or otherwise in reaching these targets, and the

level, however, students need to learn about accountability

report against national and international targets. At a strategic monitoring could entail students exploring, through case studies, specific target regimes in

Design a performance system and reporting process. Problem-based approaches to

At an operational level, the focus should be on the adequate

(James et al., 2017).

increasingly used in policy evaluation and public management

approaches such as randomised controlled trials which are

analysis (Fisher et al., 2015), or other outcomes-based

for example, results-based approaches, such as contribution

programmes. This would involve undertaking a stakeholder mapping exercise to

appropriate theories of change. This can include borrowing

in order to facilitate effective policy design, also incorporating own programme evaluations based around evaluation methodologies taught on MPA

Public managers need to evaluate the progress of programmes Outcomes-focused evaluation plan. Students can be tasked with designing their

Evaluation

IBL strategy

Description

Competence

192  Handbook of teaching public administration

Description

Impact assessment

specific contracts in order to tease out how these principles can be embedded into

Contract development and commissioning exercise. Students could work through

IBL strategy

long-term strategies require continuous review and a degree of stubbornness in terms of not being distracted from ultimate goals when there are multiple priorities and problems which demand attention. The case study approach could enable teachers to set scenarios whereby students have to develop adaptable EIAs within changing political environments, and gain understanding of how resilience strategies can be employed as part of this process.

incorporation of environmental impact assessments (EIAs)

into the syllabus. The teaching of EIAs would be best

placed within modules which focus on strategic leadership

and management, given that impact assessments are about

(Hyman, 2019).

or strategic consequences for environmental sustainability

sector programmes, but also their medium- and longer-term

understanding not only the short-term outcomes of public

Problem-based case studies. The student of public administration needs to be aware that

administration programmes should normalise the

for potential bidders.

In a similar way to equality impact assessments, public

principles should be a feature of public sector contracts.

but the essence of this is that environmental precautionary

environmentally focused services, such as waste management,

contractual obligations. This might include the more obvious

sustainability through tendering or via the management of the

processes have an important role in elevating environmental

good (Connolly and Pyper, 2020). Public sector procurement environmental principles into commissioning through the design of public contract adverts

opportunities for maintaining strong stewardship of the public contract specification and design. This would also include identifying how to incorporate

governance is a complex area, as there is scope for missing

Managing contractualisation processes The space between public sector governance and corporate

Competence

Climate emergency: inquiry-based learning and crisis competences  193

194  Handbook of teaching public administration importance of being able to demonstrate progress within services and programmes led by public managers towards United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) ‒ particularly SDG 13, which focuses on ‘Climate Action’, yet several SDGs cross-cut matters relating to the management of the climate ‒ as well as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and the Paris and subsequent agreements. This takes the chapter back to its opening argument that public managers need to be equipped with the skills to strategically navigate through network complexities on an ongoing basis. However, they need to do this with a degree of stubborn patience, given that the climate emergency is one which is characterised by its creeping and long shadow nature, which requires continued evaluation and organisational learning within bureaucratic contexts. In many respects this is an argument for ensuring that IBL strategies within public administration programmes are designed to equip students to be sensitive to global and local political, social, and economic developments. This is also the beauty of MPA programmes: that is, developing this political astuteness in students is what marks out a strong MPA (Fenwick and McMillan, 2014). The argument follows, therefore, that an MPA is the most appropriate place for public managers to become climate competent and, as such, MPA programmes should also seek to continually strengthen their governance and crisis management content. Perhaps this will help to future-proof MPA programmes themselves.

CONCLUSIONS The climate emergency poses a host of complex challenges for public administration as a creeping crisis, which also has some extreme and visible (and increasingly regular) manifestations requiring rapid responses. Public managers need to be able to respond to these challenges, through creating resilient public organisations, which embed environmental values as a guiding principle throughout their practices and processes. We have shown how inquiry-based learning as a pedagogical approach offers tools and techniques for developing the competences that present and future public administrators need to possess to meet these challenges. This is not to suggest IBL is the only valuable form of learning in this context. Yet IBL does provide the opportunity for students to develop their skills and competences rather than simply be taught them, and to acquire understanding of the complex issues at stake. The solutions-focused nature of the IBL approach also ensures that public managers will have a ready set of skills, methods, and techniques which can be applied within the work setting. The climate emergency shares characteristics with other wicked issues tackled in public administration in that it cuts across sectors, organisational boundaries, levels of governance, and disciplinary frontiers. Public administrators are accustomed to navigating this sort of terrain, and skills in collaboration and coordination are already taught within public administration education. Yet there are specific issues relating to the climate emergency that create new educational challenges: decision-making under uncertainty, the need for innovation and change, the need to achieve public support for implementing efforts to tackle the climate emergency, as well as the need for strategic long-term thinking. Developing evaluation skills, appropriate performance monitoring, and ensuring that environmental considerations are central to procurement processes and to new regulation and policy development, are all steps that can be taken in the short term but which can have longer-term impacts. IBL approaches

Climate emergency: inquiry-based learning and crisis competences  195 can help towards the development of the skills and competences needed in the public managers of today and tomorrow to ensure that these essential steps are taken.

REFERENCES Aditomo, A., Goodyear, P., Bliuc, A.M., and Ellis, R.A. (2013). Inquiry-based learning in higher education: Principal forms, educational objectives, and disciplinary variations. Studies in Higher Education, 38(9), 1239–1258. Arundel, A., Bloch, C., and Ferguson, B. (2019). Advancing innovation in the public sector: Aligning innovation measurement with policy goals. Research Policy, 48(3), 789–798. Association of Climate Change Officers (ACCO) (2020). Core Competencies for Climate Change Officers and Professionals. Retrieved December 2, 2020, from https://​ climateofficers​ .org/​ core​ -competencies. Bauer, A., and Steurer, R. (2014). Multi-level governance of climate change adaptation through regional partnerships in Canada and England. Geoforum, 51, 121–129. Berkhout, F., Hertin, J., and Gann, D.M. (2006). Learning to adapt: Organisational adaptation to climate change impacts. Climatic Change, 78(1), 135–156. Bhave, A.G., Conway, D., Dessai, S., and Stainforth, D.A. (2016). Barriers and opportunities for robust decision-making approaches to support climate change adaptation in the developing world. Climate Risk Management, 14, 1–10. Borodzicz, E., and Van Haperen, K. (2002). Individual and group learning in crisis simulations. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 10(3), 139–147. Brassett, J., Croft, S., and Vaughan-Williams, N. (2013). Introduction: An agenda for resilience research in politics and international relations. Politics, 33(4), 221–228. Bulkeley, H., and Kern, K. (2006). Local government and the governing of climate change in Germany and the UK. Urban Studies, 43(12), 2237–2259. Climate Emergency UK (2021). List of councils who have declared a climate emergency. Retrieved March 2, 2021, from https://​www​.climateemergency​.uk/​blog/​list​-of​-councils. Connolly, J. (2016). Contribution analysis as an approach to enable public managers to demonstrate public value: The Scottish context. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 29(7), 690–707. Connolly, J. (2017). Governing towards ‘one health’: Establishing knowledge integration in global health security governance. Global Policy, 8(4), 483–494. Connolly, J., and Pyper, R. (2020). Public servants and corporate governance failures: Developing for the future by learning from the past. In Sullivan, H., Dickinson, H., and Henderson, H. (eds), The Palgrave handbook of the public servant (pp. 1623‒1641). Palgrave. Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (2018). UK greenhouse gas emissions. Retrieved December 7, 2020, from https://​assets​.publishing​.service​.gov​.uk/​government/​uploads/​ system/​uploads/​attachment​_data/​file/​862887/​2018​_Final​_greenhouse​_gas​_emissions​_statistical​ _release​.pdf. Drennan, L.T., McConnell, A., and Stark, A. (2014). Risk and crisis management in the public sector. Routledge. Fenwick, J., and McMillan, J. (2014). Public administration: What is it, why teach it and does it matter? Teaching Public Administration, 32(2), 194–204. Fisher, S., Dinshaw, A., McGray, H., Rai, N., and Schaar, J. (2015). Evaluating climate change adaptation: Learning from methods in international development. New Directions for Evaluation, 2015(147), 13–35. Gerber, B.J. (2014). Climate change as a policy development and public management challenge: An introduction to key themes. Risk, Hazards and Crisis in Public Policy, 5(2), 97–108. Hansen, M.B., Steen, T., and Jong, M.D. (2013). New public management, public service bargains and the challenges of interdepartmental coordination: A comparative analysis of top civil servants in state administration. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 79(1), 29–48.

196  Handbook of teaching public administration Howarth, C., Bryant, P., Corner, A., Fankhauser, S., Gouldson, A., et al. (2020). Building a social mandate for climate action: Lessons from COVID-19. Environmental and Resource Economics, 76(4), 1107–1115. Hyman, E.L. (2019). Combining facts and values in environmental impact assessment: Theories and techniques. Routledge. Jagals, P., and Ebi, K. (2021). Core competencies for health workers to deal with climate and environmental change. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(8), 3849. James, O., John, P., and Moseley, A. (2017). Field experiments in public management. In James, O., Jilke, S.R., and Van Ryzin, G.G. (eds), Experiments in public management research: Challenges and contributions (pp. 89–116). Cambridge University Press. Jensen, A., Nielsen, H.O., and Russel, D. (2020). Climate policy in a fragmented world – Transformative governance interactions at multiple levels. Sustainability, 12, 10017. doi:​10​.3390/​su122310017. Kirsop-Taylor, N. (2020). Bureaucracy in the anthropocene: A research agenda for public administration scholars. British Politics and Policy at LSE. https://​blogs​.lse​.ac​.uk/​politicsandpolicy/​. Marinucci, G.D., Luber, G., Uejio, C.K., Saha, S., and Hess, J.J. (2014). Building resilience against climate effects ‒ A novel framework to facilitate climate readiness in public health agencies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 11(6), 6433–6458. Mauser, W., Klepper, G., Rice, M., Schmalzbauer, B.S., Hackmann, H., et al. (2013). Transdisciplinary global change research: The co-creation of knowledge for sustainability. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 5(3–4), 420–431. McCright, A.M. (2012). Enhancing students’ scientific and quantitative literacies through an inquiry-based learning project on climate change. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 12(4), 86–101. Metzger, E., Putt del Pino, S., Prowitt, S., Goodward, J., and Perera, P. (2012). sSWOT: A Sustainability SWOT: User’s guide. World Resources Institute. Retrieved March 2, 2021, from https://​pdf​.wri​.org/​ sustainability​_swot​_user​_guide​.pdf. Moseley, A., and Connolly J. (2021). The use of inquiry-based learning in public administration education: Challenges and opportunities in the context of internationalization. Teaching Public Administration, 39(3), 270‒286. doi:​10​.1177/​0144739420935971. Öberg, L.M., Nyström C.A., Littlejohn A., and Vrieling-Teunter E. (2019). Communities of inquiry in crisis management exercises. In Littlejohn, A., Jaldemark, J., Vrieling-Teunter, E., and Nijland, F. (eds), Networked Professional Learning (Research in Networked Learning) (pp. 55‒68). Springer. Patterson, J.J., and Huitema, D. (2019). Institutional innovation in urban governance: The case of climate change adaptation. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 62(3), 374–398. Pedaste, M., Mäeots, M., Siiman, L.A., De Jong, T., Van Riesen, S.A., et al. (2015). Phases of inquiry-based learning: Definitions and the inquiry cycle. Educational Research Review, 14, 47–61. Persson, Å. (2019). Global adaptation governance: An emerging but contested domain. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 10(6), e618. Sandover, R., Moseley, A., and Devine-Wright, P. (2021). Contrasting views of citizens’ assemblies: Stakeholder perceptions of public deliberation on climate change. Politics and Governance, 9(2), 76–86. Scottish Government (2020). The role of public sector bodies in tackling climate change: Consultation analysis. Retrieved December 7, 2020, from https://​www​.gov​.scot/​publications/​role​-public​-sector​ -bodies​-tackling​-climate​-change​-analysis/​pages/​3/​. Spronken‐Smith, R., and Walker, R. (2010). Can inquiry-based learning strengthen the links between teaching and disciplinary research? Studies in Higher Education, 35(6), 723–740. ‘t Hart, P. (1997). Preparing policy makers for crisis management: The role of simulations. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 5(4), 207–215. UK Government (2011). Skills for a green economy: A report on the evidence. Retrieved December 7, 2020, from https://​assets​.publishing​.service​.gov​.uk/​government/​uploads/​system/​uploads/​attachment​ _data/​file/​32373/​11​-1315​-skills​-for​-a​-green​-economy​.pdf. Viitanen, J., and Kingston, R. (2014). Smart cities and green growth: Outsourcing democratic and environmental resilience to the global technology sector. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 46(4), 803–819.

Climate emergency: inquiry-based learning and crisis competences  197 Vos, J. (2000). Teaching environmental planning and policy by linking theory and praxis. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 6(2), 105–113.

20. Teaching with experiments Claire A. Dunlop

This chapter presents a teaching form whose popularity in public administration has increased in recent years: experiments. The chapter first outlines three prevalent experimental forms: survey experiments with students exposed to a treatment; in-class experiments drawn from social psychology; and simulations and role-playing games. Though the trend toward experiments is relatively new and motivated by the push for student-centred active learning, its pedagogical roots are old: these are a contemporary manifestation of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984). As such, experiments have much to recommend them. The chapter then focuses on their utility for public administration, advancing seven specific claims. It closes by noting the challenges for would-be experimenters. The chapter examines experiments involving experiential or active learning: that is, learning events where, at some point, students are ‘doing something that relates to discovering, processing, and applying information’ (Ishiyama, 2013). It is interested in ‘experiences in which students are thinking about the subject matter’ (McKeachie, 2002); this thinking is stimulated by engagement with some task that goes beyond simply listening or reading, and moves to reflecting, analysing, discussing, and so on (Bonwell and Eison, 1991).

TEACHING EXPERIMENTS Survey Experiments with Students Survey experiments with students typically involve a teaching treatment; most commonly a particular format, medium, or object. The impact of the treatment is assessed either by pre- and post-treatment surveys of the same group of students, or by using a control group not exposed to the treatment and comparing control and treatment cohorts by follow-up surveys. Whichever form it takes, for a survey experiment to have pedagogic impact it should involve a big ‘reveal’ moment at the end where students are ‘let in’ on the experiment and encouraged to reflect on their responses together. In this way, throughout the experiment, students’ status shifts from research participants at the outset, to learners, and even advisors, at the end. One recent example in public administration is a single class survey experiment on the impact of one form of public policy teaching. Specifically, Cooper and Dunlop (2018) explored Paul Sabatier’s trenchant rejection of the classic policy cycle or ‘stages’ approach to policy teaching and research. Sabatier (1991) criticizes the approach as an oversimplification, misleading students into thinking that the policy process is: comprised of discrete episodes, largely top-down in nature, finite, and involves learning only at the very end when some policies are evaluated. Pre- and post-treatment surveys of two successive undergraduate cohorts were used to examine the impact of the stages teaching treatment on students’ comprehension of the four areas pinpointed by Sabatier as misleading. Overall, the survey suggests that Sabatier’s con198

Teaching with experiments  199 cerns exaggerated, and students understood the stylized nature of the stages approach. The results did, however, suggest two areas where Sabatier’s criticisms had some traction: on how episodic policymaking is, and how top-down it is. These findings formed the basis of fruitful discussions with the students and allowed the teaching team to adjust the case study examples used in the tutorials. These sorts of survey experiments are planned, and use interventions designed to scaffold learning around a specific public administration theme. Yet, in the dynamic and reflexive space of the classroom, experiments can also happen by accident. Clarke (2019) documents one such case. Clarke had worn a gay pride T-shirt while delivering an undergraduate lecture, and afterwards the class received negative responses to it. Specifically, many students took the T-shirt’s slogan – ‘Some people are gay. Get over it!’1 – as signalling an implicit presumption that they were homophobic. With Clarke and her T-shirt becoming a sort of unintentional experimental treatment, Clarke used a follow-up survey to enable students to further explore their reactions. While this example was entirely unplanned (and so had no control group or pre-intervention test), gay pride T-shirts (and caps and badges) have been used deliberately by psychologists to examine homophobic attitudes (Clarke, 2019). These experiments, and Clarke’s ‘on the fly’ quasi-experiment, demonstrate not only the social unacceptability of being thought to be homophobic, but also the social dominance of heterosexuality reflected in many students’ hostile responses to those wearing gay apparel. Clarke gave herself licence to use the T-shirt as an experimental opportunity and, in doing so, demonstrates the power of interventions in the classroom. Specifically, the example also demonstrates the utility of ‘objects’ in teaching (see Stone, 1988 on chocolate cake and equity; for a wider discussion see Alford and Brock, 2014), although it underscores that such objects may not always be neutral. In-Class Social Psychology Experiments Public administration research’s growing interest in behavioural science and social psychology is well documented (see for example Grimmelikhuijsen et al., 2019). Central to this movement has been the use of experimental methods to understand decision-making in public organisations, and transfer of knowledge of cognitive biases to policy instruments themselves (most obviously with the idea of ‘nudges’; see Thaler and Sunstein, 2008 for the foundational work). These seismic (and perhaps belated) impacts of social psychology on policy research and practice are well documented. Less discussed, however, is the potential offered by social psychology experiments in public administration teaching. Here, one recent in-class treatment experiment with practitioner students is spotlighted. Though the ‘nudge agenda’ has increased policymakers’ interest in citizens’ cognitive biases, much less is known about the impact of biases on policymakers themselves (after all, policymakers have minds as well, and therefore their own choices can be biased). Dunlop and Radaelli (2016) broached this subject with two cohorts of Master of Public Administration (MPA) participants using a mix of case study, conceptual teaching, and an in-class experiment. Interested in their groups’ feelings about the limits of regulation, they first generated awareness about the idea of regulatory humility, using the case study of legal scholar and activist Larry Lessig. Lessig (2010) argues that it is necessary to protect the world against ‘irrational legislation’ controlling the internet. Specifically, he is concerned that future regulatory interventions aimed at increasing transparency in, and control over, the online world may at best

200  Handbook of teaching public administration be futile, and at worst produce unanticipated harms (Lessig, 2010). Practitioners are taken through this case study and encouraged to discuss the idea of regulatory humility. Previous experience of discussing the potential limits of what policymakers can control revealed that while they understand the argument, practitioner students with experience of policymaking can struggle to see it as relevant to their own professional lives. Regulatory humility is useful for the public administrator ‘next door’, but not something they themselves need to exercise. To address this, Dunlop and Radaelli (2016) put an experiment into the teaching mix. Specifically, they adapted one of the classic social psychology experiments: Ellen Langer’s (1975) ‘illusion of control’. Based around a lottery draw, Langer (1975) explores the hypothesis that people often struggle to distinguish between events determined by chance and those determined by skill. This is made up of two assumptions. First, people are motivated to control their environments: we believe that control helps to prove our competence and avoid negative consequences that suggest having no control. As levels of perceived control increase, so too do our levels of psychological comfort (Langer, 1975, p. 323). Second, individuals tend to disassociate themselves from the illusion; that is, it is only ‘other people’ who suffer from a tendency to overestimate their capacity to regulate events. Langer’s experiment finds that people who picked their lottery number – that is, had exercised a choice – were more confident that they would win than entrants who had simply been assigned a numbered ticket. Moreover, the confidence of the choosers increases every time they are asked. This increasing confidence is not the case for the non-choosers. Thus, introducing elements of choice is enough for people to mistake what is still a chance situation for one that they can control in some small way, and over time this feeling intensifies. Re-running an adapted version of this lottery in the classroom2 produced some surprising results. While confidence was higher for the students who chose their ticket, the non-choosers’ confidence did increase over time. Though it was contrary to Langer’s (1975) expectations, this confounder was a blessing in disguise. When the results were given to the students for discussion, they triggered a lengthy debate about the operation of hope and fear in the workplace, and about the reliability of social psychology experimental findings across different population groups (Dunlop and Radaelli, 2016). The ‘illusion of control’ experiment proved a good fit to regulatory humility. Though policymaking is not a lottery, this extreme example created a memorable learning episode to bring the issue of control into relief in a way that triggered personal engagement and presented students with the opportunity to face their own assumptions about what they themselves could control. It also enabled a more open-minded discussion of classic works on regulatory limits; notably, Vickers’s (1965) The Art of Judgment. Course discussion, evaluations, and assignment scores all suggest that this combination of teaching tools produced extensive reflection amongst practitioners (Dunlop and Radaelli, 2016). Rowe (2013) uses insights from social psychology in teaching policy practitioners in a similar way, drawing insights from Asch’s (1956) experiments on group conformity to explore the behavioural dynamics of small group teaching. Simulations and Role-Playing Games Role-playing games or simulations (essentially, complex role-playing games) are one of the most active forms of teaching experiment, and they are becoming increasingly popular in public policy and political science to scaffold the teaching of abstract concepts. Simulations

Teaching with experiments  201 are particularly popular in teaching in the United States (US) (for example, Coffey et al., 2011 on political campaigning; and McIntosh, 2001 on the model United Nations). Substantial capacity is now being built in Europe around simulations exploring the complex multi-level policymaking processes of the European Union (EU) (for an account of transatlantic efforts in building this scholarly community, see Buonanno et al., 2003) and so-called ‘serious games’ (both analogue and digital) that aim to emulate the complexity of the policymaking world (see for example, Dente and Vecchi, 2021 on policy entrepreneurs; Melloni and Vasilescu, 2021 on collaborative processes; Olejniczak, 2017; Olejniczak et al., 2021 on evidence-based policymaking). Before going into recent examples in public administration teaching, it is necessary to acknowledge some of the classic simulations of the post-war era. The applied nature of policy concepts, and the power of games to capture complex substantive and political phenomena, means that simulations have long been a feature of practitioner training (Mayer, 2009 provides an excellent review of the history of games and simulations in policy studies). Two of the classics come from the United Kingdom (UK) Civil Service College: the ‘Midfordshire’ (Bristow, 1980) and ‘Castlemount’ simulations (Berridge and Clark, 1980). Working with mid-career civil servants from analytical divisions – pure and applied sciences – Berridge and Clark (1980) developed a case to simulate engagement, conflict, and negotiation between different groups facing a policy challenge. Specifically, it was intended to develop analysts’ communication skills with different audiences impacted upon by a make-believe Ministry of Defence proposal to site a torpedo factory in a beautiful part of the countryside next to the fictitious village of Castlemount. Accustomed to working with civil servants in their own departments, the role-play took practitioners out of the office and into the shoes of community representatives, pressure groups, local government, and so on. While the authors of both the Castlemount and Midfordshire cases reflect on their own experiences as instructors, frustratingly their evaluation of student engagement is fairly cursory (though positive). The importance of building in evaluation to these experiments is a theme that is returned to in the conclusions to this chapter. Fast-forwarding a few decades, Bots et al. (2010) explored whether role-playing games can help (non-practitioner) public administration students internalize the difference between two policy styles better than if they were attending a traditional lecture. Specifically, the game was designed to help students experience two distinct conceptualizations of the policy process: policymaking as a rational design process, and policymaking as a political negotiation process. Students in the lecture control group received the standard education familiar to policy scholars which compares technical-rational accounts (Axelrod, 1976) with incrementalism (Lindblom, 1959). By contrast, students in the treatment group were part of a role-playing game in which two sets of players examined policy design to increase debt settlement: either from the viewpoint of rational design, where causal logics in policymaking are the focus, or where political negotiation is the primary driving force. Students’ comprehension of the concepts was then assessed using a survey questionnaire comprised of seven questions. The results are mixed, with the role playing game boosting learning (when compared with the lecture group) on some aspects of the concepts but not others. These mixed results are not uncommon in experimental teaching (see Eber, 2007). Certainly, experimental treatments should not be assumed to perform better than traditional teaching methods in all instances; interaction for its own sake is no guarantee of advances

202  Handbook of teaching public administration (Alford and Brock, 2014; Brock and Alford, 2015). Rather, the design of the treatments and their evaluation should be used to inform future iterations of the teaching methods. Moving beyond complex policy challenges and dense concepts, simulations are also used to tackle sensitive, and hard-to-address, social issues. For example, modified versions of well-known board games have been used in classrooms to advance understandings of the structural dimensions of social inequality. Stout et al. (2016) provide a powerful account of using a game called Ships and Shoes (essentially an adapted Monopoly) to help simulate the historical nature of racial inequality in the US. Rules that create inequalities between players in turn-taking, distribution of resources, borrowing limits, and so on, mimic the lack of opportunities under-represented communities faced in early American history (and still face today). The game provided a safe space for students to understand and experience the legacies of discrimination. Cultural familiarity with games, their association with relaxed down-time, and the universal language they operate with, make board games a useful and inclusive way to handle complex contexts or social issues (Olejniczak et al., 2020).

WHY USE EXPERIMENTS IN TEACHING? We know that active and interactive learning techniques are associated with increased student engagement, understanding, retention, and ownership of their learning as compared to listening and reading alone (Smith and Boyer, 1996; Stice, 1987). Thinking about public administration students, interactive and experimental teaching methods help to deliver the skills needed by policy practitioners: for example, understanding and gathering an evidence base for policy, achieving consensus, respecting accountability, evaluating policy, empathizing, understanding context, and exercising judgement. More than anything, in-class experiments provide an effective means to help students think reflectively. Creating space for reflection and teaching ‘how to do’ reflection are enduring preoccupations for MPA instructors (Ahmad et al., 2013; Cunliffe and Jun, 2005; Meer and Marks, 2013). Here, seven particular reflective dimensions promoted by experiments are elaborated on. Initiating Conversations About Sensitive Subjects One of the key benefits of experiments is that they are a means to initiate conversations about sensitive subjects. Given the ethical implications of resource allocation and policy implementation, teaching tools which help expose values and biases are especially needed in public administration (Menzel, 2009). Values, norms, and ethics are central to a public administration education (Liddle, 2017; Moynihan, 2017), yet what stands as an ethical obligation can be controversial and culturally contingent. Experiments which assure anonymity, or require students to role-play, expose ethical dilemmas and lack of confidence on sensitive issues without spotlighting individual learners. Take Dunlop and Radaelli’s (2016) illusion of control experimental adaptation. Designed to reproduce feelings of control that are central to the human condition, the experiment offered a way to expose how illusory such emotions can be. When presented with an entirely chance situation – a lottery – cognitive biases can trick us into thinking that we can control the outcome. And so, the experiment offered an exaggerated and interactive way for students to access those emotions. It was then used as a springboard to discuss the pressures that public

Teaching with experiments  203 administrators experience to be ‘masters of the universe’, and when it is possible to acknowledge the limitations of regulatory interventions (which are predicated on the assumption that social problems can always be ameliorated in some way). Without the experiment, it would be all too easy for regulatory humility to be a concept that remained abstract, or something to be exercised by others. Experiencing illusory feelings of control allowed practitioner students to be open about their own cognitive biases and limits as human beings (and as policymakers). Stout et al.’s (2016) simulation game illustrates how experiments enable discussion of deep-rooted discrimination in ways which are ‘less personal and socially weighted’ than the traditional classroom. Similarly, Clarke’s (2019) experience enabled reflection for both teacher and students around the sensitive topic of homophobia. Importantly, it revealed the internalized (and thus hidden) nature of prejudice which rendered the meaning of the T-shirt more ambiguous than intended. It is unlikely that revelations about the nuanced nature of homophobia, and assumptions of heterosexuality as free from power relations, would have been possible without the T-shirt as an unwitting intervention. Making Public Administration Teaching More Inclusive Interactive experiences embedded in experiments can also help to make public administration teaching more inclusive. Many studies have confirmed the marginalization of under-represented communities in our classrooms. For example, we know that when it comes to discussion work, male students tend to dominate (see for example, Diller et al., 1996). The anonymity of experiments and drama-based techniques of simulation can depersonalize the classroom and may help to alleviate inhibitions. Moreover, the assignment of a specific part to every student in role-playing games can make space for diverse voices. Demystifying Concepts Experiments are also a means to link concepts to the real world (Brock and Cameron, 1999). Indeed, ‘concept learning’ (Gagné, 1965) is made most accessible when other tools are used to contextualize experiments in real-world public administration scenarios. Creating concrete experiences is especially resonant for MPA students, who are professional practitioners who have been away from full-time formal education for some years, or may be operating in a second or third language in the classroom. The need for memorable and simple hooks upon which they can hang complex material is clear (Cunningham, 1997). What students take in may be shaped more by the vividness of the lesson than the difficulty of the material (Hess, 1999; Sivan et al., 2000). In Dunlop and Radaelli’s (2016) ‘illusion of control’ experiment with public sector practitioners, reading and discussion sessions on the limits of regulation, impact assessment, and specifically the concept of regulatory humility would have been esoteric had they not been contextualized using the choice versus chance game (Dunlop and Radaelli, 2015; Etzioni, 1989; Vickers, 1965). In the same way, Stout et al.’s (2016) adapted Monopoly game was used to scaffold critical and open-minded engagement with two challenging policy texts on inequality: Wilson’s (1987) The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy, and Rustin’s (1965) classic civil rights commentary ‘From protest to politics’. And, in the same

204  Handbook of teaching public administration vein, Bots et al.’s (2010) role play simulation on debt resettlement was designed to support the differentiation of two challenging concepts: substantive and political rationality. Improving Communication Skills Using experiments also encourages the development of a particular skill set needed in public affairs often overlooked on the public administration curriculum: communication. Both classic UK simulations – Midfordshire and Castlemount – reveal the centrality of being able see a situation from other perspectives (through playing unfamiliar roles). Yet, too often the ability to relate is treated as a soft skill that resides in the idiosyncrasies of someone’s personality and, as such, is not amenable to training. Yet, we know that through role-playing in non-threatening teaching spaces, students can learn how to work collaboratively, become sensitive to context, negotiate, and diffuse potential conflicts. These experimental tools can help to build communication and emotional intelligence skills; sensibilities which public administration scholars have long known to be important (Aristeguieta and Denhardt, 2015; Denhardt and Aristeguieta, 1996), and will arguably become essential skills for public servants in this century (Institute for Government, 2021). Improving Research Literacy Using experiments helps to boost students’ research literacy. Actually, being part of an experiment is about much more than being a data point. Students are being taken into the ‘back office’ of the research process which exposes the reality of doing research, which is messy and often produces unexpected results. Such first-hand exposure to how data are generated can reduce reification of scientific methods, qualitative or quantitative; promoting nuanced understandings about what different methods provide as well as the power and limits of research. This improved research literacy is especially valuable for practitioners trying to understand, prioritize, and address policy challenges that are complex and characterized by uncertainty (Franke, 2011; Mushkat, 2003). Such first-person experiences also empower practitioner students to commission research from a position of knowledge. In an era of information overload, alternative facts, and fake news (Diamond and Schultz, 2018; Dunning, 2018; Egege, 2020; Haigh, 2020; Jones and Baumgartner, 2015), more than ever before, public administration students need tools that encourage critical engagement in knowledge production. Putting Professional Baggage in Its Place Experiments and simulations which involve plausible (but fictitious) policy scenarios also provide ways of freeing students from their own preconceptions. This is especially important for practitioner students, who bring along a good deal of professional baggage from their own experiences of public administration. Pollitt memorably reminds us that while this is: potentially a most valuable resource … in practice it is often misused. Students are dogmatic supporters of some particular organizational technique – or unreasonably dismissive of another – simply because ‘I was twenty years in the Brighton Education Department and I can tell you …’ (Pollitt, 1980, p. 23)

Teaching with experiments  205 Simulations create new contexts which help students to move beyond their own direct workplace experience and engage with fresh eyes. In this way, the best experiments do not simply demonstrate empirical phenomena, but act as a platform for students to develop conceptual understandings that are individual to them. Making Public Administration Fun! Finally, the hands-on active learning of experiments fosters fun, excitement, and playful challenge in the classroom. And, as any experienced teacher will tell you, the spirit of the classroom is not a trivial matter. We know that students enjoy active experiences which take learning beyond the traditional lecture (Cloke, 1987; Smith and Boyer, 1996). Making public administration learning accessible, and finding fresh ways to demystify our concepts, may provide a much-needed boost to the profile of public services: not only as an academic topic, but also as a career (much maligned in recent times; Dunning, 2018).

CONCLUSIONS Using experiments in public administration teaching is on the increase, for good reason. They help generate reflection about dense but important concepts, sensitive issues, the nature of research itself, and much else besides. As a teaching innovation, experiments address many of the concerns our learners bring to the classroom; for example, the need to be inclusive and lift diverse voices; the increased expectation of personalized learning; and the desire to participate in their own learning. They also work incredibly well with the standard toolkit of public administration teaching: lectures, case studies, placements, options papers, and so on. But designing teaching experiments involves considerable sunk costs and, as such, may seem to be beyond the resources of many academics. Certainly, it may be too challenging to design and execute a fully controlled teaching experiment. This chapter has shown a variety of ways in which public administration scholars have used teaching experiments which are pedagogically effective, professionally rewarding, and suited to a world where resources are finite.

NOTES 1.

This slogan, and variations of it, are part of the ‘Get Over It!’ anti-homophobia campaign run since 2007 by Stonewall, the UK’s biggest LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) charity. 2. Given cultural sensitivities to gambling and the importance of informed consent, participation was entirely voluntary, and students were reassured there would be no disadvantage for anyone not wanting to participate. It was also made clear that no money was involved, and the lottery ‘winner’ would receive a modest, course-related prize (a public administration book). Of the 29 students in our two cohorts, one student chose not to participate, citing religious reasons. But that student enjoyed the spectacle and participated fully in the discussions (Dunlop and Radaelli, 2016).

REFERENCES Ahmad, Y., Ry Nielsen, J.C., Raine, J., and Synnott, M. (2013). Developing the reflexive public manager. Teaching Public Administration, 31(3), 3–5.

206  Handbook of teaching public administration Alford, J., and Brock, J. (2014). Interactive education in public administration (1): The role of teaching ‘objects’. Teaching Public Administration, 32(2), 144–157. Aristigueta, M.P., and Denhardt, R.B. (2015). Developing intrapersonal skills. In J.L. Perry and R.K. Christensen (eds), Handbook of public administration (3rd edn, pp. 564–578). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Asch, S. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 70(9), 1–70. Axelrod, R. (ed.) (1976). Structure of decision: The cognitive maps of political elites. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Berridge, J., and Clark, M. (1980). The Castlemount simulation: An exercise for graduate specialists at the Civil Service College. Teaching Public Administration, 1(6), 22–28. Bonwell, C.C., and Eison, J.A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. ASHE-Eric Higher Education Report. Washington, DC: George Washington University. Bots, P.W.G., Wagenaar, F.P., and Willemse, R. (2010). Assimilation of public policy concepts through role-play: Distinguishing rational design and political negotiation. Simulation and Gaming, 41(5), 743–766. Bristow, S. (1980). The Midfordshire simulation: Learning by doing? Teaching Public Administration, 1(5), 4–8. Brock, J., and Alford, J. (2015). Interactive education in public administration (2): Strategies for teachers. Teaching Public Administration, 33(1), 6–21. Brock, K.L., and Cameron, B.J. (1999). Enlivening political science courses with Kolb’s learning preference model. PS: Political Science and Politics, 32, 251–256. Buonanno, L., Mather, J., and Nugent, N. (2003). Organising, managing and assessing an intercampus transnational EU simulation. Teaching Public Administration, 23(1), 1–14. Clarke, V. (2019). Some university lecturers wear gay pride t-shirts. Get over it! Denials of homophobia and the reproduction of heteronormativity in responses to a gay-themed t-shirt. Journal of Homosexuality, 66(5), 690–714. Cloke, P. (1987). Applied rural geography and planning: A simple gaming technique. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 11(1), 35–45. Coffey, D.J., Miller, W.J., and Feuerstein, D. (2011). Classroom as reality: Demonstrating campaign effects through live simulation. Journal of Political Science Education, 7(1), 14–33. Cooper, S., and Dunlop, C.A. (2018). Evaluating the stages heuristic in policy teaching. Political Studies Association, Cardiff, 26–28 March. Cunliffe, A.L., and Jun, S.J. (2005). The need for reflexivity in public administration. Administration and Society, 37(2), 225–242. Cunningham, B. (1997). Experiential learning in public administration education. Journal of Public Administration Education, 3(2), 219–227. Denhardt, R.B., and Aristigueta, M.P. (1996). Developing intrapersonal skills. In J.L. Perry (ed.), Handbook of public administration (2nd edn, pp. 682–695) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Dente, B., and Vecchi, G. (2021). The P-Cube educational game teaching public policy improving engagement and learning through a digital game experience. International Conference on Public Policy (ICPP) Barcelona, 5–9 July. Diamond, J., and Schultz, D. (2018). Democracy and the teaching of public administration. Journal of Public Administration Education, 24(1), 3–7. Diller, A., Houston, B., Pauly Morgan, K., and Ayim, M. (1996). The gender question in education: Theory, pedagogy, and politics. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Dunlop, C.A., and Radaelli, C.M. (eds) (2015). International handbook on impact assessment. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing. Dunlop, C.A., and Radaelli, C.M. (2016). Teaching regulatory humility: Experimenting with student practitioners. Politics, 36(1), 79–94. Dunning, P.T. (2018). Why public administration is needed now more than ever: First Public Lecture sponsored by Teaching Public Administration. Teaching Public Administration, 37(2), 127–134. Eber, N. (2007). Experimental economics as a pedagogical tool: Which efficacy? Revue D’Economie Politique, 11(3), 607–629. Egege, S. (2020). Becoming a critical thinker. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Teaching with experiments  207 Etzioni, A. (1989). Humble decision-making. Harvard Business Review, 89(4), 122–126. Franke, V. (2011). Decision-making under uncertainty: Using case studies for teaching strategy in complex environments. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, 13(2), 1–21. Gagné, R.M. (1965). The learning of concepts. School Review, 73, 187–196. Grimmelikhuijsen, S., Jilke, S., Olsen, A.L., and Tummers, L. (2019). Behavioral public administration: Combining insights from public administration and psychology. Public Administration Review, 77(1), 45–56. Haigh, Y. (2020). Increasing complexities: Teaching public policy in the age of discontent. Teaching Public Administration, 38(1), 24–45. Hess, F.M. (1999). Bringing the social sciences alive. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Institute for Government (2021, 19 April). How can the civil service develop the right skills? https://​ www​.youtube​.com/​watch​?v​=​pzio9tJE47Q​&​t​=​19s (accessed 13 August 2021). Ishiyama, J. (2013). Frequently used active learning techniques and their impact: A critical review of existing journal literature in the United States. European Political Science, 12(1), 116–126. Jones, B.D., and Baumgartner, F.R. (2015). The politics of information. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Vol. 1. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Langer, E.J. (1975). The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(2), 311–328. Lessig, L. (2010, 11 March). Internet is freedom. Speech to the Italian Parliament. http://​www​.youtube​ .com/​watch​?v​=​fe2UsBXr​-ls (accessed 13 August 2021). Liddle, J. (2017). Is there still a need for teaching and research in public administration and management? A personal view from the UK. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 30(6–7), 575–583. Lindblom, C.E. (1959). The science of muddling through. Public Administration Review, 19(2), 79–88. Mayer, I.S. (2009). The gaming of policy and the politics of gaming: A review. Simulation and Gaming, 40(6), 825–862. McIntosh, D. (2001). The uses and limits of the model United Nations in an international relations classroom. International Studies Perspectives, 2(3), 269–280. McKeachie, W.J. (2002). McKeachie’s teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers (11th edn). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Meer, F.-B. van der, and Marks, P. (2013). Teaching and learning reflection in MPA programs: Towards a strategy. Teaching Public Administration, 31(1), 42–54. Melloni, E., and Vasilescu, C. (2021). The ENLARGE CYOA gamebook: Adventures in collaborative policy making. International Conference on Public Policy (ICPP) Barcelona, 5–9 July. Menzel, D. (2009). Teaching and learning ethical reasoning with cases. Public Integrity, 11(3), 239–250. Moynihan, D. (2017). Public administration under Trump: An age of institutional decline? Public Management Research Association. Available at: https://​pmranet​.org/​special​_posts/​public​ -administration​-under​-trump​-an​-age​-of​-institutional​-decline/​ (accessed 13 August 2021). Mushkat, M. (2003). Uncertainty as a factor in policy research and teaching. Teaching Public Administration, 23(1), 27–45. Olejniczak, K. (2017). The game of knowledge brokering: A new method for increasing evaluation use. American Journal of Evaluation, 38(4), 554–576. Olejniczak, K., Kupiec, T., and Wojtowicz, D. (2021). The experiences and prospects of moving serious games to digital environment: Case of evidence-based policymaking. International Conference on Public Policy (ICPP) Barcelona, 5–9 July. Olejniczak, K., Newcomer, K.E., and Meijer, S.A. (2020). Advancing evaluation practice with serious games. American Journal of Evaluation, 41(3), 339–366. Pollitt, C. (1980). Public administration, relevance and the pleasure principle. Teaching Public Administration, 1(5), 22–24. Rowe, M. (2013). Thinking about behaviour and conformity in groups: Some social psychological resources. Teaching Public Administration, 31(2), 218–225. Rustin, B. (1965). From protest to politics. Commentary, 39(February), 25‒31. Sabatier, P.A. (1991). Toward better theories of the policy process. PS: Political Sciences and Politics, 24(2), 147‒156.

208  Handbook of teaching public administration Sivan, A., Wong Leung, R., Woon, C., and Kember, D. (2000). An implementation of active learning and its effect on the quality of student learning. Innovations in Education and Training International, 37(4), 381–389. Smith, E.T., and Boyer, M.A. (1996). Designing in-class simulations. PS: Political Science and Politics, 29, 690–694. Stice, J.E. (1987). Using Kolb’s learning model to improve student learning. Engineering Education, 77, 291–296. Stone, D. (1988). Policy paradox: The art of political decision-making. New York: W.W. Norton. Stout, V., Kretschmer, K., and Stout, C. (2016). The continuing significance of history: An active learning simulation to teach racial inequality. Journal of Political Science Education, 12(2), 230–240. Thaler, R.H., and Sunstein, C.R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth and happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Vickers, G. (1965). The art of judgment. London: Chapman & Hall. Wilson, W.J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

PART IV CONTESTED CONCEPTS

21. Accreditation in public administration education Taco Brandsen

Accreditation has become one of the foremost mechanisms for quality control in higher education. In a process of accreditation, a third party (that is, neither the programme or institution itself, nor its funder) assesses the quality of an educational institution or programme on the basis of certain standards. While it is mostly seen as a technical and rather bureaucratic process, it does implicitly raise some difficult questions about the nature of public administration (PA) education and what constitutes good practice. Although such questions pertain to all types of programmes, they are especially vexing in fragmented fields such as PA education, where there is no mainstream understanding of the discipline. Despite such inherent hurdles, accreditation in PA has existed for several decades and is expanding globally. In this chapter, I explain what drives programmes to seek accreditation and how it functions, noting the importance of peer review in dealing with the great variety of approaches in PA. A few lines of demarcation. The analysis in this chapter is primarily based on my personal experience with the European Association for Public Administration Education (EAPAA), an agency that conducts discipline-specific programme accreditation. Like similar agencies in the world, it only evaluates educational programmes, not entire institutes (as, for instance, business school accreditors do). It exclusively accredits PA programmes, unlike commercial accreditation agencies, which tend to be active in various types of disciplines. Please note that I here refer to PA in a broad sense, covering classical public administration, public policy, and public management. Finally, I here restrict myself to a discussion of European accreditation by EAPAA, noting that there are similar, equally valuable agencies in the world ‒ especially the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) and the International Commission on the Accreditation of Public Administration and Training Programs (ICAPA) ‒ which must here be left out for reasons of space. I start the chapter by giving a short overview of discipline-specific accreditation in the field of public administration. I then go on to analyse the drivers behind accreditation, noting the importance of regulation, market competition, and peer pressure. My next step is to describe the two key elements of the discipline-specific accreditation of PA: general standards of quality and external assessment through peer review. The chapter ends with a brief summary and reflection on the future direction of accreditation in PA teaching.

THE BACKGROUND OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ACCREDITATION Accreditation has existed for a long time, dating back to ancient times, and has become a widely used tool in many public service areas, including higher education. However, the paths by which countries have arrived at their present systems of higher education accredi210

Accreditation in public administration education  211 tation differ markedly. In Western Europe, direct control over higher education was relaxed under the influence of the New Public Management doctrines in the 1980s and 1990s, while simultaneously new systems of external accountability were introduced in its stead. In Central and Eastern Europe, regime change during the 1990s led to the decentralisation of higher education, which was accompanied by state-controlled accreditation (Schwarz and Westerheijden, 2007). The introduction of accreditation was further boosted by the Bologna Process, a series of agreements aiming to create shared benchmarks in European higher education. The establishment of accreditation agencies such as EAPAA that focus solely on PA programmes and operate at the international level was a bottom-up initiative, started by a group of PA programmes, born from the desire to boost the standing and distinctiveness of PA as a discipline, and from dissatisfaction with the standardised, box-ticking kind of quality control practised in many countries. Unlike business school accreditors, PA-specific accreditation focuses on the programme level rather than the institutional level. This is logical, as PA programmes are mostly part of bigger faculties or schools with a predominance of disciplines such as management, economics, or social sciences. Another typical feature of PA-specific accreditors is that they are not-for-profit organisations with few paid staff members, relying largely on free in-kind contributions by academics and practitioners, thus keeping their services affordable to programmes with limited resources. To put this in perspective: most PA programmes are either not accredited at all, or are institutionally accredited as part of their faculty or school. However, PA-specific (and more generally, discipline-specific) accreditation is a growing niche.

THE PURPOSES OF ACCREDITATION: WHY DO PROGRAMMES CHOOSE IT? Accreditation by EAPAA and similar agencies is always voluntary. In that sense, it is more similar to business school accreditation than to the state-controlled accreditation dominant in many European countries. So, a legitimate question is why programmes choose to engage in such an activity, which is inevitably time-consuming. Accreditation, from a governance perspective, is a kind of certification: the confirmation that an entity, in this case a programme in higher education, conforms to certain standards. In the same way that a degree from the programme confirms a graduate’s skills, so accreditation confirms that the programme’s degree can be trusted. In turn, for the accreditor’s judgement to be trusted, it must review the programme’s performance against a set of legitimate criteria. The criteria are considered legitimate when they have been adopted by the community of which a programme is part. From the perspective of institutional theory, accreditation theoretically is both a product and a driver of homogenisation, contributing to the institutionalisation of certain values and procedures in an organisational field (in this case, of higher education in PA). There are various mechanisms behind such a process of isomorphism. Sometimes it is a regulatory requirement that must be fulfilled to receive public funding, as a means of accountability (for example, in France, Germany, and The Netherlands). This is a reason why many programmes grudgingly submit to national accreditation. Since the criteria for accreditation are centrally specified, it can act as a force for isomorphism, strengthening the uniformity of the field of higher education (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983).

212  Handbook of teaching public administration Market competition in higher education has a similar effect. Being accredited allows programmes to distinguish themselves from less worthy competitors, which can be useful in the hunt for students and the accompanying revenues. At the same time, it means becoming part of a selective club of peers, shaping a more uniform subfield within the broader organisational field of schools. Even for those who are not part of the club, the values associated with accreditation become benchmarks. In the case of business schools, there is even more prestige in acquiring ‘triple accreditation’: combined membership of different elite clubs, specifically the European Quality Improvement System (EQUIS), the Association of MBAs (AMBA) and the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) (Smith et al., 2017). In such a case, where education has to some extent been globalised, (international) accreditation is seen as vital to a school’s standing and prospects. This happens even if the effect of accreditation on educational quality is disputed; with regard to reputation, what matters is the belief that it is believed. That is probably never going to be the case in public administration, at least to the same extent. Unlike in engineering or business schools, there is no international labour market to speak of. PA students tend to be trained within their country of origin, in the national language, for employment by their own national and subnational governments. These are inherent barriers against internationalisation, which is why convergence in PA has been relatively limited. There are cases where programmes (for instance, certain MPA programmes in Singapore, the United Kingdom and the United States) have managed to market themselves as globally relevant and attract large numbers of foreign students, but this remains the exception rather than the rule. In other words, the power of agencies such as EAPAA to shape their field is comparatively limited. Whether that is good or not is a question of perspective. Accreditation can improve quality, but has also been criticised as a mechanism for spreading ideology and rewarding conformity, if its disciplining force becomes too strong (Bell and Taylor, 2005; Prasad et al., 2019). The more the field of higher education in PA is institutionalised, the more likely it is that a third mechanism comes into play: social conformity. Programmes are often led by professionals who are connected through personal networks and feel incentives to comply with the standards of their peers. If accreditation becomes ‘the thing to do’, it may encourage them to seek accreditation even if the benefits are intangible. At the programme level, innovations are often led by what other programmes have done, especially if those programmes are seen as leading the field. Thus, the standards of accrediting agencies may extend well beyond the subset of accredited programmes. Finally, without question, accreditation is (or should be) about learning and self-improvement: self-evaluation and feedback from external evaluators allow a programme to reflect upon itself and pursue organisational or strategic improvements. In other words, accreditation is a mechanism for collaborative learning. The learning effect appears to be greatest when programmes are first accredited, and diminishes in later rounds (Ulker and Bakioglu, 2019). In my experience, not surprisingly, this desire for self-improvement is greatest at the professional level, whereas concerns over market position and standing dominate at the managerial level. One could argue that these different interpretations of the meaning of accreditation represent different aspects of professionalism in higher education, as a social community and as a community of knowledge. How do they impact upon each other? In theory, this can go both ways. The desire for self-improvement may be lost in the pursuit of more instrumental needs. In particular, programmes may conceal crucial information from evaluators to avoid admitting

Accreditation in public administration education  213 mistakes, thus losing the opportunity to receive constructive feedback. However, the reverse is also true: the desire for market share or conformity drives programmes to improve themselves. At the very least, the process forces some self-reflection, for which there is usually no time in day-to-day routines.

ACCREDITATION CRITERIA: WHAT ARE PROGRAMMES JUDGED BY? General Standards Accreditation involves a third party judging a programme or institution on the basis of a set of externally provided criteria. These criteria are rarely specific to that programme or institution and have been defined independently. This is different from an evaluation (say, of a public policy initiative), in which the criteria by which it will be judged have been defined in tandem with its creation. The challenge in PA education is to apply general criteria against the great diversity of programmes that have emerged in practice. There are different sets of general principles underlying the accreditation of higher education in PA. In Europe, the criteria accreditation agencies such as EAPAA use are based on the European Standards and Guidelines (ESG), which define standards both for higher education institutions and for external quality assurance agencies. These include (summarised in my words): that programmes should have clearly defined learning objectives; that programmes should be designed so as to achieve these outcomes; that students should be encouraged to be active and that assessment should reflect this; that programmes should have clear procedures and standards for student admission, progression, and graduation; that staff should be demonstrably competent; that programmes should collect and analyse sufficient data to improve themselves; and that there should be ongoing monitoring and periodic review of the programme, of which international accreditation may be part. Generally, such criteria assume a rational design in which all elements of a programme link together logically. In other words, the underlying value is coherence. For instance, if a programme purports to train students to be analytically critical, but the actual tests amount only to replication, this is a bad fit. If a programme’s learning objectives claim to acquaint students with all aspects of public administration, but its staff consists only of lawyers, or economists, then the question is whether that goal can be met. In addition, the criteria incorporate some principles for good didactics (for example, valuing interactive approaches to teaching), organisational learning (for example, feedback mechanisms), and good governance (for example, diversity). Specific Issues in Public Administration Accreditation Although accreditation in PA is mostly based on the application of general standards, it does raise a few specific issues that are challenging in an international context: (1) the extent to which a programme accredited as a PA programme should have certain specific content; and (2) the extent to which programmes should instil (Western understandings of) democratic principles.

214  Handbook of teaching public administration The first complex issue is the extent to which PA content should be in the curriculum. At an abstract level, this seems straightforward: a programme that is accredited as PA should be about public administration. In practice, it is trickier than it sounds. Although PA has a long tradition as a research discipline, there is no international consensus over what counts as public administration education. That, by extension, can make it hard to determine whether a programme has enough of it to qualify as a PA programme. PA programmes have very different origins (a situation described elaborately in Chapter 4 of this book). In the Netherlands and Flanders, it is a multidisciplinary social science with a shared object, which grew mainly out of political science. In the Central and Eastern European (CEE) region, PA programmes often grew out of economics. In Anglo-Saxon countries, it often belongs to business schools, as a specialist track within management studies. Agreeing on a single conception of the discipline at an international level is likely to be impossible (and, I would say, undesirable). By extension, a discussion of which subjects should be covered in a PA curriculum (for example, which disciplinary perspectives and theories) is difficult. A second issue is how to deal with programmes operating under less than liberal regimes. Agencies such as EAPAA were founded in Western democracies, where adherence to democratic principles could be assumed. However, as they have moved further out of their geographical comfort zone, they have been forced to face some difficult questions. The first of these is a moral one: whether accreditation is justifiable in some places at all. This is an issue for all accrediting agencies, but the more so in areas of education that sit close to a regime, few more so than public administration. If an agency accredits a programme or institution operating under a dictatorial regime, is it lending credibility to that regime, or is it doing the opposite by supporting the proponents of academic freedom and linking them to the international community? Answering this question is not easy. It does not help that there are many different types of authoritarian and hybrid regimes, and that within such regimes, institutes have varying allegiances. A related issue is the extent to which the values of good public administration and democracy can be separated. If an agency helps to improve the training of civil servants working within an undemocratic and corrupt regime, is it helping to perpetuate that regime, or is it infusing a minimal level of technical competence into a public sector that has no significant other checks on its quality? It is a conundrum that is likely to be increasingly vexing as PA accreditation expands globally. Another relevant question is to what extent a programme should demonstrably attempt to instil democratic values in students. This is easy in theory – all accrediting agencies are committed to democratic values – but the question is what one can realistically expect from students and staff. On exiting the room after a presentation, someone once told me that ‘if I do what you say I should be doing, I would be arrested’, obviously baffled at my naivety. Whereas in some countries classes can openly discuss failed policies, discuss critical texts, and promote democratic values, in others this is risky, if not impossible. Even if it is in practice done (and it often is), it is unlikely to show up in the formal reports and interviews that accreditation processes are based on. An alternative is to conduct an input-based assessment of whether students are given the tools to be critical participants in the public sphere; for instance, by providing them with materials that allow them to draw comparisons (for example, through international readings), through foreign exchanges, or through methodology courses that allow them to read statistics. In such ways, without openly supporting democratic values, programmes can nudge students in the right direction.

Accreditation in public administration education  215

PEER REVIEW: WHY IT IS NECESSARY AND CHALLENGING Accreditation always involves an external review committee that visits the institution; hence the common term ‘site visit team’. The current practice is for the site visit team to make this judgement based on materials submitted by the programme, combined with interviews and observations. Usually, they conduct separate group interviews with various stakeholders of the programme: programme management, managers of the institute/university, students, past graduates, and employers. Typical of discipline-specific accreditation in PA is that professional peer review is the prime mechanism for the application of general principles to specific practices; in other words, that the evaluating team consists mostly of people who are themselves PA teachers. This follows in the tradition of academic research, where peer review is the bedrock upon which self-regulation is based. Such a mechanism is indispensable in accreditation, although it carries with it the general disadvantages of peer review. It is indispensable because the criteria by which PA programmes are evaluated are quite general and in themselves give little guidance. For instance, one criterion is that assessments should fit learning goals or intended competences; but what does that mean in specific cases? For teenagers fresh out of school, assessments will usually be different from those for mid-career students; depending upon the size of the group, the scope for tailored assessment will vary; some content lends itself better to some types of assessment than to others. Clearly, the quality of education cannot be evaluated through standardised, detailed measures. Generally, the differences among PA programmes are vast, both between and within countries. As mentioned before, there is a strong disciplinary variety between PA programmes that is often deeply rooted in national histories. Programmes also have very different audiences, ranging from teenagers fresh from school to seasoned practitioners. They may be full-time or part-time; on-location, digital, or hybrid. Any attempt to pin down accreditation criteria is likely to flounder in the face of such variety. For example, the types of assessments appropriate for students emerging fresh from their bachelor’s degree are quite different from those for practitioners with several years’ experience taking a part-time programme. Given this great variety, imposing standardised interpretations of the evaluation criteria is going to be very difficult. Nor, I should add, would we consider such standardisation desirable. From a systems perspective, diversity is necessary for higher education to be innovative and resilient. When differences become problematic in themselves, because they hinder the smooth application of external standards ‒ rather than because differences lead to inferior outcomes – we are on a slippery slope. Allowing higher education a significant degree of autonomy is also a vital element of democracy. Accreditation agencies such as EAPAA are always at risk of becoming the unwitting agents of bureaucratisation, or worse. Therefore, maintaining a certain level of generality in our criteria is essential. Having said that, it does not make the job of evaluators any easier. Understanding how well a programme is performing in terms of general standards requires a complicated effort on their part: first by immersing themselves sufficiently in the context of the programme to understand its institutional and cultural constraints, and then to assess how it realises its potential within that context and whether that is sufficient by international standards. Such intellectual acrobatics are best performed by thematic experts who, through personal knowledge and experience, can judge most accurately how to interpret the general principles in a given context.

216  Handbook of teaching public administration There are understandable doubts over whether an external committee can really learn to understand a programme on the basis of self-evaluations and a few rounds of interviews. This ability is habitually overestimated by site visit team members, and underestimated by the programmes themselves. It speaks for itself that the information presented to accreditation agencies and their reviewers is not neutral: self-evaluation reports leave out potentially damaging information, interviewees are carefully selected and briefed. However, by questioning different stakeholders and demanding hard data where possible, site visit teams are able to form a reasonable impression of a programme’s state of development. Again, that underlines the importance of involving peers: they have both research skills and personal experience of teaching. They are less easily fooled than outsiders. Peer review is also important in that it confers legitimacy on the evaluation. External evaluators can easily be dismissed as ignorant and irrelevant – though usually only when they are critical ‒ but this is more difficult when they are part of one’s own profession. They are, in sociological terms, our reference group. Also, they are most likely to give useful recommendations, given that they ‘have been there’. In that sense, accreditation reinforces norms and relations within the professional community. In research, peer review has been noted to have certain drawbacks (Benos et al., 2007). There is no reason to believe that the situation is fundamentally different in evaluating teaching. For instance, peer reviewers can be biased against alternative or new perspectives, on the basis of nationality, gender, and more. It should be noted that the extent and effects of this remain largely unproven (Lee et al., 2013). Another criticism is the extent to which peer review can reliably detect flaws. In research, there have been notable cases of journals failing to expose scientific misconduct and major methodological errors. In EAPAA’s accreditation, there have to my knowledge been no such scandals, possibly because peer review is team-based and many people are involved in reviewing the final assessment. Here it is also undoubtedly an advantage that peer review is not blind – committee members do not usually come in disguise – and the academic field of PA is small, making it harder for committee members to act out personal biases and grievances. Of course, the more open nature of the process also has drawbacks. In particular, it may deter team members from voicing criticism for fear of souring relations. Agencies such as EAPAA lower this risk by separating fact-finding from judging, making different teams responsible for each task, and never allowing one person to dominate decision-making. This is as much a question of culture as of governance.

CONCLUSION In this chapter, I have discussed the background and process of accreditation in the field of PA, specifically of discipline-specific programme accreditation. I have argued that the distinctiveness of discipline-specific PA accreditation is less in the evaluation criteria used for such evaluations than in how these criteria are applied. In that respect, the role of peer review is crucial. The advantage of peer-based discipline-specific evaluation, practised by agencies such as EAPAA and NASPAA, is that it makes assessments both closer to the state of the art in academic research and sufficiently receptive to contextual differences. Accreditation can contribute to shaping the field of higher education in an area by encouraging the adoption of certain institutional features and practices. Indeed, if such quality control

Accreditation in public administration education  217 comes with strong pressure to quantify and standardise, it can become a powerful tool for control (cf. Engebretsen et al., 2012). Given the lack of a coherent paradigm in the discipline of PA, coupled with the predominant focus of programmes on their national contexts, the impact of PA accreditation on the overall field has been limited. However, various factors may combine to change this: the numbers of voluntarily accredited programmes continue to grow; international-level accreditation is becoming more widespread; the identity of public administration as a distinct discipline has become more widely acknowledged over time. A small but sustainable cross-national community of programmes has been emerging. Over time, the effects of PA accreditation on the practice of teaching PA could increase significantly.

REFERENCES Bell, E., and Taylor, S. (2005). Joining the club: The ideology of quality and business school badging. Studies in Higher Education, 30(3), 239–255. Benos, D.J., Bashari, E., Chaves, J.M., Gaggar, A., Kapoor, N., et al. (2007). The ups and downs of peer review. Advances in Physiology Education, 191(5), 1291–1292. DiMaggio, P.J., and Powell, W.W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160. Engebretsen, E., Heggen, K., and Eilertsen, H.A. (2012). Accreditation and power: A discourse analysis of a new regime of governance in higher education. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 56(4), 401–417. Lee, C.J., Sugimoto, C.R., Zhang, G., and Cronin, B. (2013). Bias in peer review. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 64(1), 2–17. Prasad, A., Segarra, P., and Villanueva, C.E. (2019). Academic life under institutional pressures for AACSB accreditation: Insights from faculty members in Mexican business schools. Studies in Higher Education, 44(9), 1605–1618. Schwarz, S., and Westerheijden, D.F. (eds) (2007). Accreditation and evaluation in the European higher education area. Springer Science & Business Media. Smith, G.E., Barnes, K.J., and Vaughan, S. (2017). Introduction to the Special Issue on Current Issues in AACSB Accreditation. Organization Management Journal, 14(1), 2–6. Ulker, N., and Bakioglu, A. (2019). An international research on the influence of accreditation on academic quality. Studies in Higher Education, 44(9), 1507–1518.

22. Democracy, governance, and participation: epistemic colonialism in public administration and management courses Abena Dadze-Arthur

Democracy, governance, and participation are central concepts in teaching and learning about the art of administering the public sector, developing public policies, and providing public services. However, this chapter submits that current approaches to imparting knowledge about the concepts of democracy, governance, and participation epitomise, perhaps like no other key concepts in public administration and management courses, the ongoing decontextualisation, fallacious universalism, power imbalances, and lack of reflexivity that are rampant in the field (Abdi and Cleghorn, 2005; Adebisi, 2016; Castro Romero and Capella Palacios, 2020; Nyamnjoh, 2012;). In pondering this proposition, we need to remember that the general belief is that there is a single modern public administration and management paradigm. De facto, however, Western countries have fostered the modern public administration and management paradigm, which is also the reason for it featuring predominantly Anglo-American theories and practices (Drechsler, 2015; Gulrajani and Moloney, 2012; Mahbubani, 2013).1 Although the various state traditions of Western countries, combined with the post-New Public Management jostle between networked governance, digital era governance, and other strands, might not amount to a cohesive Western public administration and management paradigm, it is nonetheless a historical, social, cultural, philosophical, and economic product of the West (Gulrajani and Moloney, 2012; Parekh, 1992). Over the last few decades, the political developments in an increasing number of non-Western economies are indicating that the Western paradigm of public administration and management is unlikely to be the desired model for all economies in the coming decades. Indeed, the ascent of non-Western powerhouses, such as China, Russia, Singapore, and the Gulf monarchies, is fuelling a more assertive multipolar world, with a number of contemporary states unapologetically rejecting Western-style public administration and management for their respective societies (Dadze-Arthur, 2016). These states condemn the fact that modern public administration and management has been defined and fashioned by Western nations, yet is presented as being isomorphic (Dadze-Arthur, 2016; Kayuni, 2008; Mahbubani, 2013). They challenge the presumed superiority of Western interpretations over local or indigenous templates, and question the Weltanschauung, normative legitimacy, and causal relationships that are woven into the fabric of constitutive concepts in public administration and management; the concepts of democracy, governance, and participation being particularly emblematic examples (Dadze-Arthur, 2016). Rejecting a ‘Western-size-to-fit-all’, emerging economies and new global powers are searching for other forms of public administration and management that accommodate divergent worldviews, allow for grounding in local meaning systems, and enable culturally appropriate reforms. Some scholars, such as Drechsler (2015), are beginning to create the theoretical foundation by arguing that there ought to be, at the very least, a distinct 218

Democracy, governance, and participation  219 paradigm of Islamic and Chinese public administration, because each is based on centuries of practice, a vast body of theoretical writings, significant contemporary relevance, a credible carrier country, and a largely original system. The implication is that the continued relevance of public administration and management courses depends on a flexible pedagogy that is pliant enough to adapt to the modern requirements of a multipolar world, and humble enough to embrace an interpretive approach that is wider than the limits set by Western worldviews. Education in the field of public administration and management must evolve to include the theories and practices of non-Western governance contexts, and consider as equally worthy the value systems, social contracts, and power structures that underpin these. Key concepts that are currently heavily imbued with the norms and narratives of Western societies, such as democracy, governance, and participation, must be critically examined and exposed for their Eurocentrism, and instead new, more inclusive conceptualisations, based in rigorous scholarship and practitioner enquiries, must be developed. After all, as Gulrajani and Moloney (2012) contend, public administration and management should be a ‘globally inclusive endeavour’ that constructs knowledge ‘cumulatively through collaborative arrangements that collapse geographic, methodological, and disciplinary boundaries’, and in so doing informs some of the intractable challenges of the 21st century (p. 78). In contributing to such an evolution, this chapter critically explores the two concepts of ‘democratic governance’ and ‘effective public participation’, before lifting its gaze to education in the field of public administration and management more generally and considering the epistemic exclusion of non-Eurocentric knowledge systems. The chapter concludes by mapping out first steps to begin decolonising public administration and management courses.

THE FALLACIOUS UNIVERSALISM OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE The West’s normative conceptions of democratic governance inevitably underpin most public administration and management courses, notwithstanding the fact that neither Western-type liberal democratic governance arrangements nor the priorities and values of a democratic ideology are universal (Mahbubani, 2013; Parekh, 1992). Rather, more than half of the world’s population live in governance contexts that do not have Western-type democratic institutions, promote civil rights for all, or seek to assure transparent, public interest government (Dadze-Arthur and Skelcher, 2016). Societies living in these settings argue that Western-type democratic structures, institutions, and practices fail to reflect their people’s specific culture and history, and thus cannot claim universal validity (Andrews, 2013; Dadze-Arthur, 2016; Mahbubani, 2013; Parekh, 1992). Indeed, from a historical perspective, the concept and practice of democracy (literally ‘rule by the people’) is usually traced back to Athens in ancient Greece circa 450 BC, although a similar form of popular rule also emerged in the Roman Republic during the same era. Athenian, or classical, democracy is often held up as a ‘pure’ or ‘direct’ example of democracy from which modern forms both grew and diverged (Somerville, 2011). In classical democratic governance contexts, decision-making remained the preserve of a small minority of the population: adult men of a certain status. Classical democracy, as Parekh (1992) usefully highlights, ‘took the community as its starting point and defined the individual in terms of it’

220  Handbook of teaching public administration (p. 161). This conception of the individual as intrinsically bound to or defined by the community is also reflected in many non-Western cultures and political systems. Having said that, classical democracy gave way to more authoritarian forms of government, but re-emerged in the modern era in a distinctive form: liberal democracy, operating at the much larger scale of the nation-state. The liberal form of democracy, the kind which is widely promoted, emerged in Europe, North America, and Australia, albeit with some divergence due to the history and traditions of different countries. It is a historically, geographically, and culturally specific form of governance, which is no longer premised on communities, with individuals being the defining units and making up society (Parekh, 1992). As Dadze-Arthur and Skelcher (2016) remind us, modern liberal democracy ‘is associated with the promotion of individualism and the capitalist market economy that cut across forms of communal identity, craft industry and collective conservation of resources’ (p. 228). Considering the historicity of democracy, it is unsurprising that most of the contemporary states that are governed by liberal democratic systems are concentrated in Europe and the Americas, although even in these contexts, a consistent and pervasive pattern indicates a retreat in democracy. Various annual projects, which attempt to define and rank countries in terms of the quality or level of their democratic governance arrangements ‒ including, for example, Freedom in the World, the Polity IV Project, and the Democracy Index ‒ have found that long-standing democracies have regressed each consecutive year over the last decade. Reasons include antiliberal populist politics, which reject basic democratic principles, such as constitutional checks, the separation of powers, or the protection of human rights. Whilst the trend towards democratisation tends to assume that democracy is both universally desirable and achievable, these assumptions need to be challenged (see Box 22.1). Pivotal questions include whether the right conditions exist for democracy, and whether democracy is compatible with pre-existing beliefs, attitudes, and ways of doing things; what can be described as ‘political culture’ (Dadze-Arthur and Skelcher, 2016). In the past, states in Africa, Asia and Eurasia have struggled to adopt Western-type liberal democracy because it is not simply about the political ideal of ‘one person, one vote’. In reality, Western liberal democracy is a hegemonic project that requires other societies to restructure and modify their culture and economy (ibid.). Therefore, transplanting liberal democracy into African, Asian, or Latin American contexts has led not only to practical challenges and adverse impacts, but above all to a well-documented catalogue of failed outcomes (see e.g., Andrews, 2013).

BOX 22.1 BEDOUCRATIC GOVERNANCE Bedouin democracy, or Bedoucracy as it is sometimes called, proffers a model of Arab public management that originates in the Bedouin tribal culture and joins traditional bureaucratic design with tribal power culture (Al-Suwaidi, 1995). Bedoucrats believe that for Arabic Bedouin societies a Western-style democracy with aggressive advocacy and public naming and shaming would never work (see e.g., Al-Suwaidi, 1995; Heard-Bey, 2005). The Bedouin culture of ‘saving face’, mediating by means of patience and forgiveness, seeking compromise, and safeguarding family honour and tribal traditions, is not compatible with the controversial publicity, reform-seeking debates, and mudslinging tirades that typify

Democracy, governance, and participation  221 Western-style democracies. Under the vantage point of Bedoucrats, liberal democracy is a narcissistic and disgraceful circus. Source: Adapted from Dadze-Arthur (2016).

THE DECONTEXTUALISATION OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION Although public participation is ‘an infinitely malleable concept’ that can be used to describe ‘almost anything that involves people’ (Cornwall, 2008, p. 269), under the perspective of the Western paradigm of public administration and management it refers to the involvement of citizens in decision-making processes or the governance of public sector organisations. It is often normatively constructed as a means of deepening democracy and improving governance (see e.g., Somerville, 2011). Such framing disregards the reality of those states that are still keen to dialogue with their citizens, despite being labelled non- or partially democratic by Western countries because they may not have the institutions and practices that come with political democracy as a system of governance (that is, free and fair elections, autonomous associations, freedom of expression, and so on). In these cases, the desire for public participation tends to be closely linked to governmental efforts to modernise aspects of their public administrations and public service provision (Dadze-Arthur, 2016). These countries have demonstrated that democratic governance contexts are neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for effective public engagement and well-working public services that meet the requirements of modern citizens (Mahbubani, 2013). Indeed, some states that by Western normative standards are even considered semi-authoritarian, such as Singapore, or entirely autocratic, such as the United Arab Emirates, have been particularly successful in engaging the public and taking on board the citizens’ personal experiences of policies and services in order to inform modernisation and advance public service improvement (Dadze-Arthur, 2016). Singapore’s special United Nations Public Service Award 2012, in recognition of the island state’s efforts in using online tools to create opportunities for effective public participation and social inclusion, is a testament to this. The United Arab Emirates’ invitation to the public to design the next 50 years together with the help of its state-of-the-art, interactive, real-time digital tools is equally commendable. Having established that effective citizen engagement can happen in a variety of governance contexts, this begs the question whether the participation theories and engagement techniques that are being taught in Eurocentric public administration and management courses offer the same opportunities in non-Western type governance settings. Of course, some theories and practices might usefully be adapted to non-Western contexts, as long as their underpinning key normative assumptions have been critically considered. For instance, theories on expressly non-political and non-state-oriented popular participation, such as Bang’s (2010) notions of ‘expert citizen’ and ‘everyday maker’, are also relevant to many collectivist societies and certainly offer helpful conceptual entry points for thinking about engagement in some non-Western contexts. However, these theories are likely to be defined and operationalised rather differently as a result of the divergent norms, worldviews, and institutions that underlie non-Western societies. In many African societies, for example, expert citizens and everyday makers would most certainly include leaders of charismatic and other churches, imams, retired politicians, powerful businessmen, members of the intellectual elite, and famous local artists

222  Handbook of teaching public administration or national sport heroes. They not only advocate and implement policies, but often also finance public services and ‘do politics’, sometimes in a manner that by Western normative standards perhaps might be seen as ‘adulterated’ or ‘corrupt’, as opposed to ‘cooperative’ and ‘drawing upon networks’. We also need to keep in mind that, depending on the governance context, some of the issues surrounding public participation in Western societies take on various degrees of relevance or urgency. For example, in a governance context with no democratically elected institutions, the need to balance deliberative democracy with representative democracy is not a concern. While it is certainly always imperative to tailor any engagement activity to its purpose, we need to keep in mind that the underpinning motivations of public engagement in Western governance contexts are different to those in non-Western type governance settings. Frequently, participatory activities in states with non-Western type governance arrangements are not aiming to tackle a democratic deficit, accomplish egalitarian objectives, or wholly enhance governmental accountability (Dadze-Arthur, 2016). The purpose of citizen engagement is not to provide a platform for collectively debating political questions behind services and policies, nor to strengthen inclusion, equality, or equity beyond particular segments of the population, as it might be in the West. Being clear about the purpose of participatory activities in non-Western type governance settings requires a holistic understanding of the respective local context, or life world, which is a state of affairs in which the everyday world is experienced by the people, who simultaneously create social reality while being constrained by it (Drechsler, 2015). It not only includes a deeper appreciation of a society’s core values and ethics, its normative worldview, and the shared meanings that motivate people’s actions, but also involves the historical social contracts that help to structure the relationship between the people and the government (Dadze-Arthur, 2016). For instance, a citizen panel or ideation exercise, where groups of citizens meet to raise problems and identify solutions, might make for a productive public engagement activity in a Western context, where people value above all individual rights and personal expression, and are used to openly criticizing their leaders. Such an approach to public participation is in harmony with the social contracts found in Western civilizations, which typically construct mankind as free and equal by nature, and base political authority on the individual self-interests of members of society (Rousseau and Scott, 2012). Irrespective of how expertly designed such a citizen panel or ideation exercise might be, it would not work equally well in many collectivist societies in non-Western contexts, where people do not believe in equality, self-centred individualism, and personal freedom. For instance, the Balinese life world is based on viewing the cosmos as a grand hierarchy, wherein animals and demons are at the bottom, gods and god-kings are at the top, and ordinary mortals are distributed throughout an elaborate assortment of fixed status ranks in between (Geertz, 2000). The openly critical and cantankerous nature of Western-type citizen panels, that assume every human being is equal and has a right to pursue their self-interest, would be viewed as an incomprehensible and disrespectful exercise that causes more damage than good to the community and established hierarchies.

Democracy, governance, and participation  223

THE EPISTEMIC VIOLENCE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT COURSES Education, as Nyamnjoh (2012) aptly observes, inculcates facts as knowledge in addition to instilling a set of values with which we appraise said knowledge. Non-Western countries, however, have had little opportunity to contribute to the array of facts that amount to ‘legitimate’ knowledge in the field of public administration and management (Drechsler, 2015; Gulrajani and Moloney, 2012; Kayuni, 2008). To this day, indigenous facts are dismissed as inferior and lacking in robustness, and thus remain excluded from the established body of knowledge (Adebisi, 2016). More often than not, contemporary learners are taught to adopt Eurocentric paradigmatic conceptions of democracy, governance, and participation without also being taught to critically scrutinise their inextricable links with the historicity, cultures, positionality, and values of European countries (Abdi and Cleghorn, 2005). The few who do question the legitimacy and comprehensiveness of the established knowledge on democracy, governance, and participation make their argument by applying the norms and referencing the precepts of the very theories they criticise (Mudimbe, 1988). The consequences of public administration and management courses imparting Eurocentric knowledge are calamitous. Students hailing from, or living in, African, Asian, or Latin American societies are not only having to cross a cultural border each time they attend class (Cleghorn, 2005), but they also fail to be equipped to benefit the societies they live in (Adebisi, 2016). Effectively, the lack of congruency between public administrative education and the reality of learners in non-Western contexts creates graduates who are abstracted from their life world (Wa Thiong’o, 1994). These graduates turn into practitioners who employ Western-inspired concepts in considering, evaluating, and addressing local policy and governance issues. Their approaches frequently fail to yield the anticipated results and waste considerable resources because local systems of meaning are completely overlooked. Testament to this is a catalogue of real-life cases and multi-country analyses (see e.g., Andrews, 2013), as well as the disparate, small-scale, and descriptive body of research on non-Western public administrations (see Gulrajani and Moloney, 2012). Ultimately, as Wa Thiong’o (1994) instructively posits, ‘a sound educational policy is one which enables students to study the culture and environment of their own society first, then in relation to the culture and environment of other societies’ (p. 97). Controlling and transmitting knowledge has always been one of the pivotal instruments for exerting power and reproducing hegemonic hierarchies and imperialist dependencies (Adebisi, 2016). As Shizha (2005) poignantly explains, ‘mental or psychological colonisation was conducted through, among other mechanisms, Western education, texts, and literature’ (p. 67). Effectively, colonialism masqueraded as education in attacking the heterogeneity of humanity’s knowledge and thought (Adebisi, 2016; Nyamnjoh, 2012). The colonial legacy continues today in the teaching and learning of public administrative knowledge, not least due to contemporary lecturers and scholars generally failing to acknowledge the world’s heterogeneous conceptions of key concepts, such as democracy, governance, and participation, and their varieties of normative underpinnings (see Box 22.2). Thereby, education in public administration and management continues to silence other knowledge systems, which as neo-colonial scholars argue, amounts to a form of epistemic violence (Adebisi, 2016; Castro Romero and Capella Palacios, 2020; Spivak, 1988). The fact that education in the field of public administration and management remains ‘un-decolonised’ not only renders it ethically

224  Handbook of teaching public administration and pedagogically indefensible and deficient, but also ultimately violates the human right to education (Adebisi, 2016).

BOX 22.2 RHODES MUST FALL On 9 March 2015, Chumani Maxwele, a black South African student, threw faeces against a statue of British imperialist Cecil John Rhodes which decorated the campus of the University of Cape Town (UCT). Rhodes was a British-born mining magnate who, in 1890, during his office as Prime Minister of Cape Colony, introduced racial segregation policies. Chumani Maxwele’s action initiated the formation of the #RhodesMustFall (#RMF) student movement, which rapidly spread to other South African campuses before reaching Oxford University in the United Kingdom. Although UCT removed the statue of Rhodes, the student campaign did not end there. The statue was only the focal point of a campaign that called on universities to decolonise their Eurocentric curricula and reading lists, and stop ignoring works by black and minority ethnic groups and women. Student activists displayed ‘epistemic disobedience’ by demanding the adoption of a decolonial framework that is based on Black Consciousness, Pan-Africanism, and Black radical feminism, and integrates local and other subjugated epistemologies into curricula.

CONCLUSION: DECOLONISING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT COURSES Decolonisation, despite being a slippery concept, has proven a productive framework for critically examining and transforming education (Adebisi, 2016; Castro Romero and Capella Palacios, 2020; Mampane et al., 2018). Petitioning for a radical renewal, decolonisation can propel forward a process of ‘liberatory thoughts and practices that invite possibilities of other knowledges and worlds’ (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013, p. 15). The future programme of work that is decolonising public administration and management courses will involve deconstructing old epistemologies and embracing new ways of knowing for the purposes of reconstructing knowledge. More precisely, deconstruction will require the unmasking of apparent universally applicable concepts, such as democratic governance or decontextualised notions of ‘effective’ public participation, and critically examining them with a view to embrace an increasingly pluralistic approach (Castro Romero and Capella Palacios, 2020). Here, deconstruction as advanced by post-colonialists, such as Jacques Derrida (1978), can usefully guide the examination and challenging of the premises of rationality upon which Western knowledge of public administration and management and its constitutive concepts are based (see for example, Stocker’s 2006 guidebook on Derrida’s approach to deconstruction). Reconstruction, on the other hand, will require engaging with the truths of non-Western societies and employing their perspectives with a view to forging ‘glocal’ public administrative learning content and methods, that draw on indigenous knowledge while also integrating wider, international views (Mampane et al., 2018). Inevitably, such an undertaking must be based on equally considering indigenous public administration and management systems, and their underpinning values, social contracts, and hierarchies of power (Hallen, 2000). In pursu-

Democracy, governance, and participation  225 ing reconstruction, Freire’s (2000) theories on persistent human inquiry and equal relationships of dialogue have already proven their prowess in the pedagogic reform processes undertaken by the African countries of Guinea-Bissau, Egypt, and Kenya (Adebisi, 2016). Ultimately, decolonising education in public administration and management will teach students the analytical processes of ‘locally sensitive diagnostics’ (Grindle, 2011), and empower them to find tailored solutions to local issues that reflect their ‘lived experiences’ (Freire, 2000). Above all, it will ensure that learners enjoy their human right to an education that enables them to address the challenges of the 21st century.

NOTE 1. Adopting Drechsler’s (2015, p. 320) definition, ‘West’ and ‘Western’ describes a Eurocentric paradigm of public administration and management, which is ‘embodied by the core EU [European Union], North America, and Australia and New Zealand, with its Greco-Christian-Enlightenmen t-Scientism legacy plus both production and consumer Capitalism’.

REFERENCES Abdi, A. and Cleghorn, A. (eds) (2005). Issues in African education. Palgrave Macmillan. Adebisi, F. (2016). Decolonising education in Africa: implementing the right to education by re-appropriating culture and indigeneity. Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly, 67(4), 433‒452. Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995). Arab and Western conceptions of democracy. In D. Garnham and M. Tessler (eds), Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East (87‒88). Indiana University Press. Andrews, M. (2013). The limits of institutional reform in development. Cambridge University Press. Bang, H. (2010). Everyday makers and expert citizens: active participants in search for a new governance. In J. Fenwick and J. McMillan (eds), Public management in the postmodern era: challenges and prospects (163‒169). Edward Elgar Publishing. Castro Romero, M. and Capella Palacios, M. (2020). Co-constructing a decolonising praxis in academia through dialogues and pedagogical experiences between the UK and Ecuador. International Review of Psychiatry, 32(4), 365‒373. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​09540261​.2020​.1762548. Cleghorn, A. (2005). Language issues in African school settings: problems and prospects in attaining education for all. In A. Abdi and A. Cleghorn (eds), Issues in African education (103‒105). Palgrave Macmillan. Cornwall, A. (2008). Unpacking ‘participation’: models, meanings and practices. Community Development Journal, 43(3), 269–283. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1093/​cdj/​bsn010. Dadze-Arthur, A. (2016). Homo Subjectivus: shoehorning customer-centric reform into the subjectivities of Abu Dhabi’s public administrators. Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham. https://​ etheses​.bham​.ac​.uk/​id/​eprint/​6628/​1/​Dadze​-Arthur16PhD​.pdf. Dadze-Arthur, A. and Skelcher, C. (2016). Democratic governance: the role of politics and politicians. In T. Bovaird and E. Loeffler (eds), Public management and governance (3rd edition) (223‒235). Routledge. Derrida, J. (1978). Writing and difference. University of Chicago Press. Drechsler, W. (2015). Paradigms of non-Western public administration and governance. In A. Massey and K. Johnston Miller (eds), The international handbook of public administration and governance (104‒132). Edward Elgar Publishing. Freire, P. (2000). The pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum. Geertz, C. (2000). The interpretation of cultures: selected essays. Basic Books. Grindle, M.S. (2011). Governance reform: the new analytics of next steps. Governance, 24(3), 415‒418. Gulrajani, N. and Moloney, K. (2012). Globalizing public administration: today’s research and tomorrow’s agenda. Public Administration Review, 72(1), 78–86.

226  Handbook of teaching public administration Hallen, B. (2000). The good, the bad, and the beautiful. Discourse about values in Yoruba culture. Indiana University Press. Heard-Bey, F. (2005). The United Arab Emirates: statehood and nation-building in a traditional society. Middle East Journal, 59(3), 357‒375. Kayuni, H.M. (2008) A critical analysis of public administration training/education in the University of Malawi: struggling, stabilising or striving ahead? Research paper presented at the Chancellor College’s Research and Publications Conference, 8‒9 April, Great Hall, Zomba. Mahbubani, K. (2013). Mahbubani on what is governance. Governance blog. http://​governancejournal​ .net/​2013/​03/​26/​mahbubani/​. Mampane, R.M., Omidire, M.F., and Aluko, F.R. (2018). Decolonising higher education in Africa: arriving at a glocal solution. South African Journal of Education, 38(4). https://​doi​.org/​10​.15700/​saje​ .v38n4a1636. Mudimbe, V.Y. (1988). The invention of Africa: gnosis, philosophy, and the order of knowledge. Indiana University Press. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J. (2013). Why decoloniality in the 21st century? The Thinker: For Thought Leaders, 48, 10–15. http://​www​.thethinker​.co​.za/​resources/​48​%20Thinker​%20full​%20mag​.pdf. Nyamnjoh, F. (2012). Potted plants in greenhouses: a critical reflection on the resilience of colonial education in Africa. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 47(2), 129‒154. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 0021909611417240. Parekh, B. (1992). The cultural particularity of liberal democracy. Political Studies, 40(1), 160‒175. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1467​-9248​.1992​.tb01819​.x. Rousseau, J. and Scott, J.T. (2012). The major political writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau: the two discourses and the social contract. University of Chicago Press. Shizha, E. (2005). Reclaiming our memories: the education dilemma in postcolonial African school curricula. In A. Abdi and A. Cleghorn (eds), Issues in African education (65‒83). Palgrave Macmillan. Somerville, P. (2011). Democracy and participation. Policy and Politics, 39(3), 417‒437. Spivak, G. (1988). Can the subaltern speak? In C. Nelson and L. Grossberg (eds), Marxism and the interpretation of culture (271‒313). Macmillan Education UK. Stocker, B. (2006). Philosophy guidebook to Derrida on deconstruction. Routledge. Wa Thiong’o, N. (1994). Decolonising the mind: the politics of language in African literature. East African Publishers.

23. Preparing graduates to address big global issues: is accreditation helping or hindering? Nadia Rubaii

“Go big or go home” is a phrase alternatively attributed to an advertising slogan or to the jargon of extreme sports. Regardless of its origin, it has been appropriated to a variety of settings to refer to a philosophy that encourages one to be bold, invest all of one’s effort, and take risks. These are not characterizations commonly associated with public management practice, education, or accreditation. But perhaps this is precisely what the twenty-first century demands of public service education and accreditation. The challenges facing public administrators have become increasingly complex and globally interdependent, demanding global-minded public service innovators and entrepreneurs more than parochial technocrats. Are accreditation standards in public administration keeping pace with these new demands? In this chapter, I examine the extent to which the accreditation standards of the two global accreditors of public administration programs encourage or impede a “go big or go home” philosophy; that is, the extent to which they foster curriculum design to promote teaching and learning about big global issues and conceptual frameworks to challenge traditional Global North‒South divides. I begin by making the case for examining accreditation based on a critical perspective grounded in a social responsibility of accreditors that extends beyond quality assurance. Next, I explain what is meant by big global issues in the context of wicked problems (Rittel and Webber, 1973), dark times (Arendt, 1968; Nabatchi et al., 2011; Stivers, 2008), and the United Nations’ (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). I then provide a brief summary of the profession’s two accreditation organizations that operate on a global scale, the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) and the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA). The main contribution of the chapter is a critical review of the standards of these accreditors in terms of their emphasis on big global issues and their advocacy of a conceptual framework of global interdependence.

WHY FOCUS ON ACCREDITATION? Accreditation is first and foremost a tool for quality assurance and accountability. It conveys information to various stakeholders including prospective students, financial supporters, and government regulators. Accreditation systems vary across countries and professions (Martin and Stella, 2007), reflecting political, economic, and social values (Rubaii and Lima Bandeira, 2018 [2016]). Accreditation may be granted by governments, professional associations, or for-profit entities, and awarded to institutions or programs. It may be legally mandated as a condition of operation, necessary for reputational competitiveness, or purely voluntary. The criteria may be rigorous and designed to ensure excellence, or superficial and certifying only basic levels of quality; the goal of review may be formative and/or evaluative. The process may rely solely on written records or include visits by external evaluators. The public may be 227

228  Handbook of teaching public administration informed only of final decisions, or of the basis for decisions as well. And the costs of these reviews may be exorbitant or reasonable, and uniform or adjusted based on resource capacity. A common characteristic across all systems is the articulation of standards by which quality can be assessed. Early accreditation standards evaluated inputs such as: the number and qualifications of instructors; the content of courses and frequency of offerings; and the adequacy of physical spaces, support services, and financial resources. While some accreditors continue to rely on input measures as the basis for their decisions, most now place greater emphasis on outputs and outcomes, with particular emphasis on measuring student learning. Beyond its role in formal certification of quality, accreditation can serve other purposes. The self-assessment stage of accreditation processes provides an opportunity for introspection, and often leads to improvements. For specialized program accreditation, standards define the boundaries of a profession, thereby identifying what unites those within a profession and what distinguishes them from others. Accreditation standards may be enlisted to promote broad social objectives. Just as higher education has a role in alleviating global inequalities (Trani and Hollsworth, 2010), promoting democracy (Cooper et al., 2014), and reducing poverty (Martin and Stella, 2007), so too can accreditation encourage positive social change. Accreditation standards can push a profession to incorporate new content or competencies in the curriculum. The curriculum of an individual program represents, explicitly or implicitly, an underlying conceptual framework. Collectively, the curricular designs across a profession define the operational conceptual framework for the field. By emphasizing certain values and learning outcomes, accreditation can influence conceptual frameworks and curriculum. Accreditation has been demonstrated to be able to promote ethics, social responsibility, and sustainability (Cooper et al., 2014) as well as diversity, equity, and inclusion (Rubaii, 2016). It could also help to move public administration to better address big global issues and promote appreciation for global interdependencies.

BIG GLOBAL ISSUES AND GLOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE The evolution of teaching and learning within the field of public administration both reflects and influences changes in society over time. The changes have been most extensively documented in the United States (US) context (Rubaii, 2018; Stokes, 1996). US public administration and public policy education has had great influence in other parts of the world (Geva-May and Maslove, 2006; Peters, 2018). Program design and pedagogical approaches are also understood to be greatly influenced by contextual factors of each country’s history, economics, politics, and culture (Geva-May et al., 2008), resulting in a unique blend of emulation of US and European models coupled with country-specific identity (Sanabria et al., 2016). Some program content needs to be tailored to the context, but there are universal challenges of public service that demand the attention of public administrators around the world, and this is arguably an important space for global accreditors. Policy issues specific to a particular jurisdiction and the internal management functions reminiscent of Gulick’s (1936) PODSCORB (planning, organizing, directing, staffing, coordinating, reporting, budgeting) acronym remain important to practicing administrators and thus still warrant some attention in the classroom, but the field also has a responsibility to move beyond fads or tools of administration (Jun and Gross, 1996) to address larger issues of global significance (Nabatchi et al., 2011) in both its scholarship (Appe et al., 2020) and its teaching

Preparing graduates to address big global issues  229 (Rubaii et al., 2019). In an increasingly globally interdependent world, public management education throughout the world has a responsibility to address global challenges. This is not a new idea. As early as 1948, Waldo called on the field to reject claims of value-neutral technocratic public administration, and each of the four Minnowbrook Conferences between 1968 and 2018 reaffirmed the need for public administration education and scholarship to devote more attention to pressing social problems not limited to one’s own agency, community, or country. The UN SDGs provide a useful framework for examining what public administration education needs to prepare graduates to address. They call on us to prioritize the most pressing issues of our time, as represented by 16 substantive goals and a 17th goal related to partnerships (https://​www​.undp​.org/​content/​undp/​en/​home/​sustainable​-development​-goals​.html). The SDGs remind us that all countries, regardless of development status, share responsibility, and that the Global North does not have a monopoly on moral authority or creative ideas for sustainable development (Alasuutari and Andreotti, 2015). Valuing what can be learned from the Global South is important not only for public administration scholarship (Gulranji and Moloney, 2012), but also for education in the field (Basu, 2019). Underlying each of the SDGs lies one or more “wicked problems” which involve a multitude of stakeholders and are characterized by high degrees of uncertainty, complexity, and intractability (Rittel and Webber, 1973). Wicked problems are further complicated by what Arendt (1968), Stivers (2008), and Nabatchi et al. (2011) refer to as “dark times.” The dark times include conditions such as global pandemics, climate change, refugee crises, mass atrocities, economic collapse, democratic backsliding, and violence by state- and non-state actors in domestic and international arenas. Interconnected wicked problems in dark times create particular demands on public administrators and public administration education, for example as evidenced by the intersection of the COVID-19 pandemic with climate change (Lopez-Feldman et al., 2020), racial justice (Berry-James et al., 2020), and mass atrocities (Rubaii et al., 2020). Individual programs may make changes to their conceptual frameworks and curricula in response to these circumstances, but accreditation has the potential to move an entire field.

A CRITICAL REVIEW OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ACCREDITATION Public administration programs may be accredited by national quality assurance agencies as well as by specialized accreditors operating at the national, regional or world level. Because of the global scope of this volume and the chapter, I focus on the two accreditation organizations that make their services available worldwide: NASPAA and IASIA. The two organizations differ considerably in their history, scope, and standards. NASPAA began as the Council on Graduate Education for Public Administration (CGEPA) in 1950, became the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration in 1970, and in 2012 changed its name to the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration while maintaining the NASPAA acronym. For most of its history, NASPAA was an accreditor of programs in the United States; only recently has it moved to the global stage. Accordingly, NASPAA’s standards were developed in a US context, and then modified with input from the increasingly global membership to be more universally applicable. By

230  Handbook of teaching public administration contrast, IASIA has had a global scope since its inception in 1961, but only began engaging in accreditation in 2008. IASIA’s standards were developed in coordination with the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) and thus have always reflected a global perspective. The process for both accreditors includes a self-assessment, a review of the written materials, and an external site visit; the scope of accreditation and the nature of their decisions differ. NASPAA accreditation is limited to master’s degree programs at colleges or universities; IASIA reviews university-based bachelors, masters, and doctoral degrees, as well as training programs at national institutes. NASPAA reviews result in a final determination by its accrediting arm, the Commission on Peer Review and Accreditation (COPRA), as to whether a program is in substantial conformity with the standards, and this determines whether a program receives or maintains accreditation. In contrast, IASIA explicitly states that its standards are not a “measuring rod for ‘judging’ programs or institutions”, but rather are “intended to be used for self-evaluation in a learning process” (UN DESA and IASIA, 2008, p. 4). Both NASPAA and IASIA make accreditation available worldwide and both assert their pre-eminence in this domain. NASPAA’s tagline is “The Global Standard in Public Service Education” (https://​www​.naspaa​.org). IASIA’s website, referring to its accrediting arm, the International Commission on Accreditation of Public Administration Education and Training (ICAPA), asserts that “while there are other national and regional accrediting authorities, ICAPA is the only truly international accrediting body” (https://​iasia​.iias​-iisa​.org/​ accreditation​.php). The reality is that their individual and collective reach is more modest. As of December 2020, NASPAA had accredited 206 programs at 188 schools (representing 59 percent of its 318 member schools) in nine countries (China, Colombia, Egypt, New Zealand, Qatar, South Korea, the United States, Venezuela, and Vietnam), with the vast majority in the US (NASPAA, 2020). At the same point in time, IASIA’s accrediting arm, ICAPA, had 11 accredited programs at six institutions in six countries (Belgium, Brazil, Colombia, Egypt, Portugal, and the United States) with more than one-quarter of the programs (three out of 11) at a single university in the US (https://​www​.iias​-iisa​.org/​page/​icapa​-accreditated). Notably absent from the list of either are entire regions of the world, and several countries that are discussed in other chapters of this volume. Thus, while accreditation offered by NASPAA and IASIA is available globally, neither has yet to realize its global potential. Even with the more limited reach, accreditation standards warrant a closer look. Both NASPAA and IASIA count large numbers of representatives from around the world among their active and engaged membership. The cross-pollination of ideas between accredited and unaccredited programs, and the use of accreditation standards as the basis for continuing professional development within both professional networks, keeps their standards relevant. The question remains: what do those standards have to say about the prioritization of big global issues?

LOOKING FOR BIG ISSUES IN THE STANDARDS For the purposes of this chapter, I evaluate the standards administered by COPRA and ICAPA on behalf of NASPAA and IASIA, respectively, on two dimensions. Specifically, I explore the extent to which the standards: (1) prioritize competencies related to big global issues as oper-

Preparing graduates to address big global issues  231 ationalized by the UN Sustainable Development Goals, versus narrow technocratic tools and techniques of administration; and (2) foster a conceptual framework for the field that centers on global interdependence versus a more traditional US- or Euro-centric model that glorifies the Global North and either vilifies or ignores the Global South. Using the same approach applied in an earlier study which compared NASPAA, IASIA, and the national accreditation systems in four Latin American countries (Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, and Paraguay) in terms of their attention to diversity, equity, fairness, equality, inclusion, and non-discrimination (Rubaii, 2016), I reviewed the standards of both accreditors in their entirety. I looked for explicit mention of either of the two topics of interest, as well as implied references. Because of the focus of this volume on teaching and learning, I paid particular attention to the standards that relate to curriculum. NASPAA Standards NASPAA standards have evolved in three distinct phases, or generations (Rubaii and Calarusse, 2012). The current third-generation standards (2009‒present) are solidly mission-driven and based on a program evaluation model. NASPAA standards are presented in a nine-page document that lists preconditions, standards, and rationales, and are supplemented by an 80-page Self-Study Instructions document that provides guidance on how to demonstrate conformity with the standards. The seven substantive standards address: (1) strategic management; (2) program governance; (3) faculty performance; (4) student services; (5) student learning; (6) program resources; and (7) communications. Regarding the two topics of interest, relevant material was found in the precondition related to public service values and the universal required competencies in Standard 5. The most directly relevant reference is within a lengthy paragraph articulating the importance of public service values as a precondition for accreditation. It states: “NASPAA’s public service values are consistent with globally recognized sustainable development goals to build effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels” (COPRA, 2019, p. 2). This is qualified, however, by the closing statement, which gives each program the autonomy to “define the boundaries of the public service values it emphasizes, be they procedural or substantive, as the basis for distinguishing itself from other professional degree programs” (COPRA, 2019, p. 2). In this way, programs are encouraged to think in terms of the SDGs but are not required to do so. A key element of the NASPAA standards is the articulation of five broad student learning outcomes labeled universal required competencies. Standard 5 states: As the basis for its curriculum, the program will adopt a set of required competencies determined by its mission and public service values. The required competencies will include five domains: the ability • to lead and manage in the public interest • to participate in, and contribute to, the policy process • to analyze, synthesize, think critically, solve problems and make evidence-informed decisions in a complex and dynamic environment • to articulate, apply, and advance a public service perspective • to communicate and interact productively and in culturally responsive ways with a diverse and changing workforce and society at large. (COPRA, 2019, pp. 7‒8)

232  Handbook of teaching public administration Each competency is intentionally vague, and programs are responsible for defining the competencies based on their mission, measuring students’ performance, analyzing the results at a program level, and making programmatic changes as necessary. Any or all of the five competencies could be defined by a program to encompass wicked problems of global importance, but they could alternatively be defined in more parochial, technocratic, and traditionally US-centric ways. As Fritzen (2008) has noted, despite increasing internationalization of the student body, the education provided by US-based public policy programs is still largely US-centric, with examples and case studies drawn predominantly from the US context. Notably absent from either the public service values or the universal competencies is anything requiring that programs acknowledge global interdependencies, and the role that the Global South can play in providing lessons to the Global North. IASIA Standards The IASIA standards are the result of a task force created in 2005 by the UN Division of Public Administration and Development Management (DPADM) of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA), and IASIA. The 20-page Standards of Excellence document (UN DESA and IASIA, 2008) prefaces the standards with a description of the process and people involved in their development. The eight standards are labeled as: (1) public service commitment; (2) advocacy of public interest values; (3) combining scholarship, practice, and community service; (4) the faculty are central; (5) inclusiveness is at the heart of the program; (6) a curriculum that is purposeful and responsive; (7) adequate resources are critical; and (8) balancing collaboration and competition. Following a brief description of each standard, a series of 47 specific criteria organized into five categories are presented. The criteria are presented first in the form of detailed lists and then as part of a rubric. For each of the criteria, the rubric defines four levels of performance: non-existent, basic level, intermediate level, and high-performing. Given IASIA’s international orientation and the active role played by UN agencies in the development of the standards, we might expect IASIA accreditation to better represent the big global issues. The introduction to the IASIA standards provides some reason for optimism in that respect. Here, public administration education is described as being “conceived and implemented with the aim of making current and future public sector leaders capable of effectively addressing the key issues facing the world today” (Bertucci, 2007, quoted in UN DESA and IASIA, 2008, p. 4) and “to provide public administrators with the competencies and capacities to contribute to the improvement of the quality of life, especially for the most economically, socially, and politically disadvantaged members of society” (UN DESA and IASIA, 2008, p. 5). The sections on curriculum content are less encouraging. A purposeful and responsive curriculum (Standard 6) is described as preparing public administrators to “make strong, positive contributions to public service generally” and inculcating them with “a commitment to making a difference” (UN DESA and IASIA, 2008, p. 6) but the criteria used to measure this standard suggest technocratic and mechanistic measures. In fact, the criteria look remarkably similar to the first-generation NASPAA standards as described by Rubaii and Calarusse (2012), in terms of detailed lists of curriculum components and the emphasis on government more than governance. The ICAPA standards list five areas for the curriculum: (1) the management of public service organizations; (2) improvement of public sector processes; (3) leadership in the public

Preparing graduates to address big global issues  233 sector; (4) the application of quantitative and qualitative techniques of analysis; and (5) understanding public policy and the organizational environment. Reminiscent of first-generation NASPAA standards, these curriculum component areas include lists of corresponding traditional topics such as human resource management, budgeting and financial management, and effective communication skills. Across the spectrum of the 30 subcategories that comprise the five broad curriculum components, only one from the category of leadership in the public sector – developing approaches to poverty alleviation – explicitly addresses any of the SDGs. Others, such as “creative and innovative problem solving” and “conflict prevention and resolution strategies,” provide opportunities to encompass big global issues, but also could be interpreted on a smaller scale within an organization. Within the rubric, all of the curriculum components are grouped into a single assessment criteria labeled “public administration essentials” and high performance is defined as “[t]he program contains essential elements of the public administration discipline, like political and legal theory, HRM [human resource management], public budgeting, information management, policy design, implementation and evaluation, public economy, organizational behavior and management” (UN DESA and IASIA, 2008, p. 18). High performance by this standard does not require addressing big global issues or adopting a perspective of global interdependence. If we were to stop there, the two organizations would be remarkably similar in their coverage – or lack thereof – of big global issues and global interdependencies. However, the IASIA standards include an additional element which speaks more directly to the topics of interest. Related to program content, but distinct from the curriculum components, the IASIA standards identify “other criteria that are relevant for assessing the excellence of programs … [that] contribute to the more overarching goals that are critical to the well being [sic] of any society” (UN DESA and IASIA, 2008, p. 10). These criteria are grouped in three categories related to ethos, skills, and nature of the public sector, and their descriptions have the most to offer with respect to the criteria of big global issues and global interdependence. Specifically, ICAPA explicitly identifies respect for individual and basic human rights, social equity and the equitable distribution of goods and services, sustainable development, organizational justice and fairness, and recognition of global interdependence as part of the public sector ethos; dealing with uncertainty and ambiguity, involving other groups and institutions in society to realize policy goals as an essential public sector skill; and internationalization and globalization, the impact of multinational organizations and agreements, the weakening of the state, and collaborative governance as key elements of the public sector nature (UN DESA and IASIA, 2008, pp. 10‒11). If the goal is to move public affairs education to address big global issues and global interdependencies, this section of the IASIA standards is the most encouraging, albeit tempered by recognition that IASIA does not require high performance on any of its standards, and acknowledgement that less than a dozen programs worldwide have formally undergone review using these standards.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The standards of NASPAA and IASIA allow accredited programs to prioritize global issues and to apply a conceptual framework of global interdependence, but do not require them to do so. In terms of the question posed by the chapter title, accreditors are neither helping nor

234  Handbook of teaching public administration hindering progress. The accreditation standards do not prevent individual programs from preparing their students to address big global issues, but neither do they lead the profession in this direction. IASIA provides more guidance and shows greater inclination to lead, but by virtue of its emphasis on self-learning rather than external assessment, and the small number of programs it accredits, it has more limited impact. NASPAA has demonstrated the capacity to use its standards to move the field in the past on other issues (Rubaii, 2018), but has yet to demonstrate sufficient collective will with respect to the topics at hand. In their conferences and other activities, both NASPAA and IASIA prioritize the SDGs and demonstrate a recognition that international learning is multidirectional; their accreditation standards suggest less commitment by still making that optional. Accreditation has the potential to move the field and to better equip public administrators to respond to the wicked problems that underlie each of the SDGs. There is both an opportunity and an imperative for one or both accreditors to step up to the plate, and to more explicitly articulate an expectation that public administration programs teach and students learn about big global issues, and that they adapt conceptual frameworks of global interdependence and mutual learning in North‒South relations. It is time for one or both of the accreditors to go big.

REFERENCES Alasuutari, H., and Andreotti, V. (2015). Framing and contesting the dominant global imagery of North–South relations: Identifying and challenging socio-cultural hierarchies. Policy and Practice: A Development Education Review, 20, 64–92. Appe, S., Rubaii, N., and Whigham, K. (2020). Expanding the reach of representativeness, discretion, and collaboration: The unrealized potential of public administration research in atrocity prevention. Public Administration Review. Online first: https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​puar​.13296. Arendt, H. (1968). Men in dark times. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Basu, R. (2019). Public administration in the 21st century: A global south perspective. Routledge India. Berry-James, R.M., Blessett, B., Emas, R., McCandless, S., Nickels, A.E., et al. (2020). Stepping up to the plate: Making social equity a priority in public administration’s troubled times. Journal of Public Affairs Education. DOI: 10.1080/15236803.2020.1820289. Commission on Peer Review and Accreditation (COPRA) (2019). NASPAA standards: Accreditation standards for Master’s degree programs. Adopted October 16, 2009, last amended October 18, 2019. Retrieved from: https://​www​.naspaa​.org/​sites/​default/​files/​docs/​2019​-11/​NASPAA​%20Accreditation​ %20Standards​%20​-​%202019​%20FINAL​%20with​%20rationale​.pdf. Cooper, S., Parkes, C., and Blewitt, J. (2014). Can accreditation help a leopard change its spots? Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, 27(2), 234–258. Fritzen, S.A. (2008). Public policy education goes global: A multi-dimensional challenge. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 27(1), 205–214. Geva-May, I., and Maslove, A. (2006). Canadian public policy analysis and public policy programs: A comparative perspective. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 12(4), 413–438. Geva-May, I., Nasi, G., Turrini, A., and Scott, C. (2008). MPP programs emerging around the world. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 27(1), 187–204. Gulick, L.H. (1936). Notes on the theory of organization. In L. Gulick and L. Urwick (eds), Papers on the science of administration (pp. 3–35). Institute of Public Administration. Gulrajani, N., and Moloney, K. (2012). Globalizing public administration. Public Administration Review, 72(1), 78–86. Jun, J.S. and Gross, B. (1996) Tool tropism in public administration. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 18(2), 108–118.

Preparing graduates to address big global issues  235 Lopez-Feldman, A., Chávez, C., Vélez, M.A., Bejarano, H., Chimeli, A.B., et al. (2020). Environmental impacts and Policy responses to Covid-10: A view from Latin America. Environmental Resource Economics, 13, 1–6. Martin, M., and Stella, A. (2007). External quality assurance in higher education: Making choices. UNESCO International Institute for Education Planning. Nabatchi, T., Goerdel, H.T., and Peffer, S. (2011). Public administration in dark times: Some questions for the future of the field. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21(Suppl 1), i29–i43. NASPAA (2020). 2020–2021 roster of accredited programs. Retrieved from: https://​ www​ .naspaa​ .org/​s ites/​d efault/​f iles/​d ocs/​2 020​- 09/​2 020​- 2021​% 20Annual​% 20Roster​% 20of​% 20Accredited​ %20Programs​%20​-​%20September​%204​%2C​%202020​.pdf. Peters, B.G. (2018) The influence of policy analysis in the United States on the international experience. In J. Hird (ed.), Policy analysis in the United States (pp. 339–352). Policy Press. Rittel, H.W.J., and Webber, M.M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2), 155–169. Rubaii, N. (2016). Promoting social equity, diversity, and inclusion through accreditation. Quality Assurance in Education, 24(4), 541–561. Rubaii, N. (2018). The status of the profession. In J. Hird (ed.), Policy analysis in the United States (pp. 319–338). Policy Press. Rubaii, N., Appe, S., and Lippez-De Castro, S. (2019). Administering prevention or administering atrocities? Public affairs education in dark times. Teaching Public Administration, 37(2), 175–198. Rubaii, N., and Calarusse, C. (2012). Cultural competency as a standard for accreditation. In K. Norman-Major and S. Gooden (eds), Cultural competency for public administrators (pp. 219–243). Routledge. Rubaii, N., and Lima Bandeira, M. (2018 [2016]). Comparative analysis of higher education quality assurance in Colombia and Ecuador: How is political ideology reflected in policy design and discourse? Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis, 20(2), 158‒175. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​13876988​ .2016​.1199103. Rubaii, N., Whigham, K., and Appe, S. (2020). The public administration imperative of applying an atrocity prevention lens to COVID-19 responses. Administrative Theory and Praxis. Online first at: https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​10841806​.2020​.1829260. Sanabria, P., Rubaii, N., and Purón, G. (2016). Public affairs graduate education in Latin America: Emulation or identity? Policy and Society, 35(4), 315–331. Stivers, C. (2008). Governance in dark times: Practical Philosophy for Public Service. Georgetown University Press. Stokes, D.E. (1996). Presidential address: The changing environment of education for public service. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 15(2), 158–170. Trani, E.P. and Hollsworth, R.D. (2010). The indispensable university: Higher education, economic development, and the knowledge economy. Rowman & Littlefield. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) and International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA) (2008). Standards of Excellence for Public Administration Education and Training. Retrieved from: http://​sspa​.it/​www​.sspa​.it/​wp​-content/​ uploads/​2010/​03/​IASIA​_UN​_Standards​-of​-excellence​-08​.pdf. Waldo, D. (1948). The administrative state: A study of the political theory of American public administration. Ronald Press Company.

24. Teaching research methods in public administration: on the way to normal science? Sandra van Thiel

Methodologically speaking, public administration research has two important features that impact upon the way in which research methods could or should be taught. First, public administration has no established or uniform methodological paradigm. Public administration research is characterized by a large diversity in methods. Second, public administration research still has a predominantly practice-oriented focus, aiming to diagnose, evaluate, and design solutions to actual problems of and for governments and public sector organizations. These two features are a reflection of where public administration as a discipline stands when it comes to academic rigour and becoming ‘normal science’. Both features have important implications for teaching, such as the choice of which or how many methods to teach, but also asks for skills to be learned beyond the application of research methods, such as prescription and assessment of the quality of research proposals. This chapter discusses these characteristics and their impact on teaching students from undergraduate to postgraduate, and I offer potential ways to deal with them in designing method teaching courses and programmes in public administration.

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A ‘NORMAL’ SCIENCE Public administration is a relatively young discipline with a strong interdisciplinary background (cf. Ricucci, 2010; Raadschelders, 2011). In many countries, public administration came into existence as a subfield of political science or of law. There have also always been strong connections to sociology and economics. In more recent times, theories and methods from business administration and psychology have been introduced into public administration research, evidenced by the inclusion of public administration research groups in business schools and the rise of the behavioural public administration, respectively (Grimmelikhuijsen et al., 2016). This raises questions about the independence and maturity of public administration as an independent academic discipline (Ricucci, 2010). Thomas Kuhn (1996 [1962]) identified three criteria for a discipline to be qualified as ‘normal science’: (1) having a shared paradigm; (2) achieving accumulation of knowledge; and (3) using established and common methods. Whether public administration meets these criteria is open for debate. On the one hand, because of its interdisciplinarity public administration does not have one shared paradigm, neither theoretically nor methodologically (Raadschelders, 2011). Scholars use many different theories, ranging from neo-institutional economics, political science and international relations, and behavioural concepts (from social psychology), to management tools (from business administration), theories on the rule of law, but also ideas from geography, information science, and many more. This diversity makes sense when one considers the complexity of the research subject: government, governance, and the public sector as a whole 236

Teaching research methods in public administration  237 are not only large entities, but they have many different aspects that can be studied (Nesbit et al., 2011). A combination of theoretical perspectives is needed to understand all complexities and aspects; comparable to the methodological principle of triangulation: combining methods, researchers, or data sources renders more realistic and hence more valid results. However, combining theories is no easy task: theories can be based on very different or even contradicting assumptions, leading to very different discourses. So even if theories use similar sounding concepts, they may not mean the same thing. See for instance the use of the word ‘network’ in the policy network theory, or in social network theory, or even in information science or neurology. This imposes high requirements on the ability and skills of a researcher who wants to use multiple theories. Next to misconceptions and inappropriate use of theories or jargon, other risks involved in using multiple theories are the difficulty of being truly interdisciplinary and the risk of superficiality. Interdisciplinarity calls for the integration of different theories or strands of ideas, moving beyond doing separate analyses from different angles. Stacking multiple analyses also implies the risk of superficiality: using many different perspectives makes research broader, but less in-depth (Nesbit et al., 2011). Similar to the diversity in theories, public administration scholars use many different research methods. Reviews of articles in top journals in public administration (Bouwman and Grimmelikhuijsen, 2016; Groeneveld et al., 2015; Pitts and Fernandez, 2009) show a range of methods being used, from a highly qualitative interpretative style of research (for example, action research, textual analysis, case studies, ethnography) to advanced quantitative analyses (for example, experiment, systematic literature review, structural equation modelling, Bayesian statistics). The latter techniques have gained ground in recent years, but overall, the majority of public administration research is still mostly qualitative in nature with the case study as the most often used research strategy (Groeneveld et al., 2015). The methodological diversity of public administration research is paired with imperfections in the understanding and use of research methods (cf. Haverland and Yanow, 2012). For example, although the use of techniques for the systematic analysis of qualitative methods has increased, with the aid of software, case studies are often carried out in a ‘sloppy’ fashion (Ospina et al., 2018; Timney Bailey, 1992). Gill and Meier (2000) make similar observations when it comes to the application of statistical methods (see also Wright et al., 2004). Research methods are taken from other disciplines and, like theories, are based on certain assumptions. For example, experiments test individual behaviour (at the micro level), while in public administration research units are mostly found at the meso level (organizations) or macro level (countries, sectors). Application of experimental methods is therefore not always appropriate or possible, unless one is studying the behaviour of individual civil servants or citizens. Experiments are often criticized for lack of external validity, as they may take place in a lab setting; however, such criticism neglects the strong focus on internal validity of this method (James et al., 2017; Morton and Williams, 2010). The example of experiments shows that the choice for a particular method, fitting with the research topic and aim, requires in-depth knowledge of the pros and cons of such a method, which imposes high demands on the teacher of research methods (Haverland and Yanow, 2012). The dominance of case study research, combined with less attention for academic rigour, can be explained by the applied nature of public administration: that is, the focus on solving actual problems of public sector organizations and policymaking (Nesbit et al., 2011). The relevance of public administration for practice is an important part of its identity; see for example the results of the various Minnowbrook conferences on the art and nature of public admin-

238  Handbook of teaching public administration istration (Carboni and Nabatchi, 2019). The need to be relevant for practice, however, has undermined the accumulation of knowledge, the second criterion of Kuhn, as aggregation of case studies is not an easy matter (Flyvbjerg, 2006) but also is not often carried out, despite the rise in systematic literature reviews. The body of knowledge in public administration therefore consists mostly of theories that have originated in other disciplines and then had to be adjusted to fit with the public sector context. There are only a few theories that have been developed within the discipline itself, for example, policy network theory (Kickert et al., 1997), public service motivation (Perry and Wise, 1990), and new public governance (Osborne, 2009). In sum, public administration does not seem to meet the criteria for normal science that well yet. This is reflective of the age of the discipline, its multidisciplinary origins, and the focus on being relevant for practice (Ricucci, 2010). One cannot therefore expect the establishment of one shared theoretical paradigm any time soon; if this is considered desirable at all, as the complexity of the subject under study will continue to call for a multifaceted approach. The further development of public administration, moving towards normal science, will therefore more likely make progress by achieving more methodological rigour (cf. Perry, 2012; Nesbit et al., 2011). And that also requires more attention to the methodological training of our researchers. In the remainder of this chapter, I formulate a number of challenges that the teaching of research methods in public administration faces, based on two characteristics of the discipline as outlined above: methodological diversity and relevance for practice. Each of these two characteristics poses three challenges for teaching and teachers of research methods.

TEACHING CRAFTMANSHIP The diversity in the use of research methods calls into question whether students can or should be trained in all – or at least multiple – methods, or whether they should specialize. This choice implies three challenges for teaching programmes and for teachers of research methods. First of all, mastering all research methods does not seem feasible. There would be no room in the educational programmes for substantive courses (on policy, governance, and management). So, choices will have to be made when developing public administration curricula. There are different options. For instance, teachers can opt for a broad scope, with short introductions into a large variety of methods; or go in-depth by zooming in on one or a limited number of methods with intensive training. A broad scope approach would give public administration graduates a firm basis for making methodological choices, either as scholars or as practitioners (see the section below), being able to weigh the pros and cons of various methods for a particular study. However, a broad scope may make it more difficult to achieve strong academic rigour in applying the method (cf. Gill and Meier, 2000). Choosing to zoom in on one or a few methods makes students specialists, but raises a further question: which methods should be selected? Teachers could choose the methods which are used most often already – which will not contribute to further development of the discipline, though – or the most basic or the most advanced methods that are currently in use, or the ones that have become more popular most recently (such as the rise of experimental research), or the ones that are also applied in practice most often, as that would reinforce the relevance of the students’ knowledge. The different options have different benefits and disadvantages and are linked to different pedagogical aims of the whole curriculum. It is therefore most important that teachers make well-considered choices fitting with the philosophy underlying their curriculum.

Teaching research methods in public administration  239 Alternatively, teachers can set up different courses for different groups, with only basic training for undergraduates and more specialized courses for PhD candidates. In that way, a student who goes from undergraduate to postgraduate will gain more and more knowledge and training over time. PhD candidates and postgraduates – and senior staff members as well – can of course also make use of the specialist courses that are on offer through summer schools and PhD training courses. However, participation in such courses does not guarantee a broad knowledge of various research methods; that would require a life-long commitment to learn new methods as they come along. In many professions it is quite customary to receive on-the-job training on a regular basis, or to take postgraduate courses to keep one’s knowledge up to date. Think of lawyers, for example, who need to keep up their knowledge to retain their licence to work. Perhaps the professional associations in public administration could consider such practices as well (cf. Brans and Coenen, 2016). Regardless of the choice for a broad or focused curriculum, or variation over time, it is of course important that students learn to master the methods that are being taught in a rigorous way. Nowadays this includes aspects such as research ethics, open science, and data management. A second challenge concerns the quality and background of those who teach research methods. The diversity of methods in use imposes strong demands on their knowledge and level of craftmanship. It does not seem feasible (or reasonable) to expect teachers to be familiar with all methods that are available. So, teachers will be more skilled in certain methods than others. This is not necessarily a bad thing, though, as some degree of specialization is also needed to be able to teach about a specific method because that requires a high level of knowledge and in-depth control of the method. Staff composition and their methodological expertise are therefore an important parameter in the design of a curriculum, potentially limiting the amount and content of method teaching. Hiring teachers from other disciplines – experts on methods not familiar to the public administration staff members – is only a partial solution (although often tried), as the translation of methodological knowledge to the public administration discipline is at risk. The latter point relates to the third challenge I discuss here: most literature on research methods, particularly textbooks, comes from other disciplines such as sociology, psychology, and political science (see e.g., Babbie, 2015; King et al., 1994; Pierce, 2008). Examples and exercises in those study materials do not relate to public administration themes, which makes it difficult for students, in particular undergraduates, to translate methodological knowledge to public administration research and their studies. It is therefore important that teachers invest in the application of the methodological knowledge to public administration themes and topics. This will be easier when these teachers are public administration scholars, and when textbooks are used that have been written for public administration teaching (see e.g., McNabb, 2013; Miller and Whicker, 1999; Van Thiel, 2014). The reader may have noticed that I have not mentioned the qualitative‒quantitative divide here, when discussing making choices on which methods should be taught or not. This is done on purpose, as both types of research can be deemed suitable for public administration research, depending perhaps on the topic and research aim. Moreover, as mixed method designs have become increasingly popular (Mele and Benardinelli, 2019), it is imperative that public administration students and scholars master both types of research; which makes a choice between one or the other irrelevant.

240  Handbook of teaching public administration

TEACHING SKILLS FOR PRACTICE Relevance to practice is an important characteristic of public administration research (Nesbit et al., 2011). In this respect, public administration research can take on three different forms, and combinations thereof: research for practice, research of practice, and research in practice. Each of the forms has important implications for teaching about research methods. First, research for practice aims to produce results that can be used in practice, for example in the development of policy and legislation, in the design and management of organizations, or the solution of political, societal, or administrative problems. Typical examples are commissioned research, advice, or consulting activities, and evidence-based policy recommendations. This kind of research can be carried out by academics, but is also working ground for consultants, think tanks, advisory bodies and committees, audit offices, and the like; organizations where public administration undergraduate students may find a job after finishing their training. Second, research of practice concerns research aimed to improve the functioning of public administration in practice. Think, for example, of the development of decision-making models, models for the structure of organizations, new management techniques, or skill sets for public servants. Such results will be laid down in academic publications and textbooks (for example, on policy or management) and thus become part of public administration educational programmes at universities, postgraduate courses, and/or on-the-job training of public servants (cf. Aristigueta and Raffel, 2001). The research will likely be carried out mostly by academic scholars, although consultancy companies also often offer new models and the like. Third, most public administration research takes place in practice, notably in case studies but also through data collection in surveys and field experiments. As Timney Bailey (1992, p. 51) puts it: ‘[the] laboratories of public administration are the offices of practitioners’. This is a logical consequence of the applied nature of the discipline, but it does bring its own challenges for method teaching, as doing research in the real world calls for specific skills from researchers (Robson and McCartan, 2016). For example, researchers have to be able to deal with people and situations, and all their variabilities and complexities. For example, people may adjust their behaviour because of their awareness of being studied (the so-called Hawthorne effect), or they may have learned from previous encounters with the researcher. Situations may develop abruptly, or new conditions may evolve, for example because of changing political events or crises, without the researcher having any kind of control over these changes and hence the effects on their research. Moreover, the presence of a researcher in the research situation is known to be a risk for the validity of findings, either through affecting the people or the situation, but also because of researcher bias (ibid.). Dealing with all these circumstances and risks calls for specific skills from the researcher, which have to be taught and internalized during training. In sum, the applied nature of public administration research imposes a number of additional challenges for method teaching, next to mastering the methods themselves. The aim of public administration research is often more about diagnosing, evaluating, and designing solutions to actual problems of/for governments and public sector organizations, rather than hypothesis testing and theory development (Van Thiel, 2014). This also affects the approach that a researcher takes and their choice of research methods, with a preference for methods such as case studies, action research (Stringer, 2014), or design thinking (Considine, 2012; McGann et al., 2018) rather than lab experiments or historical analysis. The previous section

Teaching research methods in public administration  241 has dealt with the challenge of choosing which methods to teach or not, so I will not go into that topic here, but it is clear that the applied nature of public administration research could be an important parameter in that choice. The focus on research for practice means that students have to master the ability of prescription; that is, to formulate recommendations based on their research (see e.g., Evans, 2007). Formulating recommendations, however, is only part of the process: they have to learn how to formulate prescriptions that are concrete and feasible enough for practitioners to make sure that they will be implemented (cf. Pawson and Tilley, 2004). Also, prescription is a normative activity, which is quite different from the empirical way of working in collecting and analysing data. Teachers can train students through practical assignments such as doing actual research for practice, or by involving them in commissioned research of staff members, or through analysis of existing research reports (desk research). However, prescriptive skills also come with age and experience, so cannot all be trained in the early years of the curriculum. A final skill set that is necessary for public administration students to acquire is to be able to assess and evaluate research done by others. Because most undergraduate students become practitioners rather than scholars, they have to learn how to commission research, for example to obtain advice on a new policy or evaluate existing policies or organizations. Commissioning research means that students have to learn how to assess research proposals and designs, bearing in mind that the results have to be useful for practice, which is a very different criterion from academic rigour (Verschuren and Doorewaard, 2010). This would also be an important aim of method teaching in postgraduate training programmes for practitioners (Fitzpatrick, 2000).

CONCLUSION Public administration research has two characteristics that impose challenges on teaching and teachers of research methods. The large methodological diversity makes it necessary to make choices about which methods are being taught, to which student groups, and when. The applied nature of most public administration research calls for other types of skills of students, besides knowledge of various methods, such as being able to prescribe, being able to deal with the complexities of doing research in real-life situations with actual people, and being able to assess and evaluate research by others for its usability for practice. Based on these characteristics a number of challenges have been discussed, which are summarized below. When designing a curriculum, teachers should take the following aspects into consideration: ● Go for a broad scope and offer a very large set of methods, or zoom in on a select number of methods? And in the case of zooming in, which methods should be taught, based on which criteria? ● Focus more on academic rigour, or on relevance of research for practice, or both? ● Invest in a diverse staff composition with varied expertise in research methods but preferably working in public administration. ● Commit to life-long learning about research methods for staff members. ● Choose study materials appropriate to the discipline.

242  Handbook of teaching public administration In addition to teaching methods, teachers should also pay attention to: ● Awareness by students of the specific attributes and risks of doing research in and for practice, such as validity issues, but also having people skills to deal with people and the situation under study. ● The ability of students to prescribe, that is, formulating recommendations based on research findings. Recommendations have to be practical and feasible in order to maximize the chance that they are implemented. ● The ability of students to assess and evaluate research bids, to prepare for a role as a commissioner of public administration research when they become practitioners. Both academic rigour and relevance for practice play a role in such assessment.

REFERENCES Aristigueta, M.P. and J.A. Raffel (2001). Teaching techniques of analysis in the MPA curriculum: Research methods, management science, and ‘the third path’. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 7(3), 161‒169. Babbie, E.R. (2015). The practice of social research (14th edn). Cencage Learning. Bouwman, R. and S. Grimmelikhuijsen (2016). Experimental public administration from 1992 to 2014: A systematic literature review and ways forward. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 29(2), 110‒131. Brans, M. and L. Coenen (2016). The Europeanization of public administration teaching. Policy and Society, 35(4), 333‒349. Carboni, J.L. and T. Nabatchi (2019). Minnowbrook at 50: A prelude. Perspectives on Public Management and Governance, 2(4), 235–237. Considine, M. (2012). Applying design theory to public policy. Politics and Policy, 40, 704‒724. Evans, M. (2007). The art of prescription: Theory and practice in public administration research. Public Policy and Administration, 22(1), 128‒152. Fitzpatrick, J. (2000). What are our goals in teaching research methods to public administrators? Journal of Public Affairs Education, 6(3), 173‒181. Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12(2), 219–245. Gill, J. and K.J. Meier (2000). Public administration research and practice: A methodological manifesto. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 10(1), 157–199. Grimmelikhuijsen, S., S. Jilke, A.L. Olsen and L. Tummers (2016). Behavioral public administration: Combining insights from public administration and psychology. Public Administration Review, 77, 45‒56. Groeneveld, S., L. Tummers, B. Bronkhorst, T. Ashikali and S. Van Thiel (2015). Quantitative research in public administration analyzing its scale and development through time. International Public Management Journal, 18(1), 61‒86. Haverland, M. and D. Yanow (2012). A hitchhiker’s guide to the public administration research universe: Surviving conversations on methodologies and methods. Public Administration Review, 72, 401‒408. James, O., S.R. Jilke and G.G. Van Ryzin (eds) (2017). Experiments in public management research: Challenges and contributions. Cambridge University Press. Kickert, W.J.M., E.H. Klijn and J.F.M. Koppenjan (eds) (1997). Managing complex networks. SAGE. King, G., R.O. Keohane and S. Verba (1994). Designing social inquiry: Scientific inference in qualitative research. Princeton University Press. Kuhn, T.S. (1996 [1962]). The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago Press. McGann, M., E. Blomkamp and J.M. Lewis (2018). The rise of public sector innovation labs: Experiments in design thinking for policy. Policy Sciences, 51, 249–267. McNabb, D.E. (2013). Research methods in public administration and nonprofit management: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. M.E. Sharpe.

Teaching research methods in public administration  243 Mele, V. and P. Belardinelli (2019). Mixed methods in public administration research: Selecting, sequencing, and connecting. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 29(2), 334–347. Miller, G. and M.L. Whicker (1999). Handbook of research methods in public administration. M. Dekker. Morton, R.B. and K.C. Williams (2010). Experimental political science and the study of causality: From nature to the lab. Cambridge University Press. Nesbit, R., S. Moulton, S. Robinson, C. Smith, L. DeHart-Davis, et al. (2011). Wrestling with intellectual diversity in public administration: Avoiding disconnectedness and fragmentation while seeking rigor, depth, and relevance. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21, 13‒28. Osborne, S. (ed.) (2009). The new public governance? Routledge. Ospina, S.M., M. Esteve and S. Lee (2018), Assessing qualitative studies in public administration research. Public Administration Review, 78, 593‒605. Pawson, R. and N. Tilley (2004). Realistic Evaluation. SAGE. Perry, J.L. (2012). How can we improve our science to generate more usable knowledge for public professionals? Public Administration Review, 72(4), 479–482. Perry, J.L. and L.R. Wise (1990). The motivational bases of public service. Public Administration Review, 50(3), 367–373. Pierce, R. (2008). Research methods in politics: A practical guide. SAGE. Pitts, D.W. and S. Fernandez (2009). The state of public management research: An analysis of scope and methodology. International Public Management Journal, 12(4), 399‒420. Raadschelders, J.C.N. (2011). Public administration: The interdisciplinary study of government. Oxford University Press. Ricucci, N.M. (2010). Public administration: Traditions of inquiry and philosophies of knowledge. Georgetown University Press. Robson, C. and K. McCartan (2016). Real world research (4th edn). Wiley. Stringer, E.T. (2014). Action research: A handbook for practitioners (4th edn). SAGE Publications. Timney Bailey, M. (1992). Do physicists use case studies? Thoughts on public administration research. Public Administration Review, 52(1), 47‒54. Van Thiel, S. (2014). Research methods for public management and administration. Taylor & Francis. Verschuren, P. and H. Doorewaard (2010). Designing a research project (2nd edn). Boom Juridische Uitgevers. Wright B.E., L.J. Manigault and T.R. Black (2004). Quantitative research measurement in public administration: An assessment of journal publications. Administration and Society, 35(6), 747‒764.

25. Using service learning in public administration programs: best practices and challenges Mark T. Imperial and Christopher R. Prentice

Public service is a critical component of public affairs, public administration, and public policy (hereafter referred to as public administration) education and practice. Service learning allows students not only to learn and apply managerial and policy skills, but to also witness the values embraced by public and nonprofit professionals (Carrizales and Bennett, 2013). Incorporating service learning into the curriculum of public administration programs is a practical way to cultivate public service values, develop professional competencies, and build interpersonal networks, particularly among pre-service students. Service learning is a pedagogy that links service activities to course learning outcomes through reflection (Imperial et al., 2007) and can be integrated into public administration programs via internships (Bringle and Hatcher, 1996; D’Agostino, 2008; Gerlach, 2016; Reinagel and Gerlach, 2015), client-based courses (Bernstein et al., 2003; Bushouse and Morrison, 2001; Waldner and Hunter, 2008), capstone projects (D’Agostino, 2008; McGraw and Weschler, 1999), or practicum experiences (Sprague and Hu, 2015). Service learning engagements complement traditional course activities and facilitate desired course and student learning outcomes by demonstrating the application and usefulness of sometimes abstract theories and concepts, providing students the occasion to observe and work with professionals in their chosen field, and affording students opportunities to employ tools learned in the classroom to real-world scenarios. Among the most commonplace service learning activities are internships, and many accredited Master of Public Administration (MPA) programs require students to fulfill an internship requirement (D’Agostino, 2008; Reinagel and Gerlach, 2015). These learning engagements are vital to the professional and ethical development of public administration students, particularly for those students without significant prior work experience. Internships typically vary in length and nature but generally require at least 300 hours of service in an organization, working in direct contact with a supervisor who meets certain educational or professional standards (for example, has a Master’s degree or 5+ years of relevant professional management or policy experience). Students can work full- or part-time, with or without compensation. Internships can be structured in various ways, where students log their hours by shadowing leaders, rotating through different departments to perform varied tasks, or being assigned a significant project for the organization. Specific tasks aside, for internships to be resonant they must incorporate student reflection. Client-based courses are structured to produce a useful report or product for a local public or nonprofit organization and are common to capstone or practicum courses (McGraw and Weschler, 1999; Sprague and Hu, 2015). Skills and tools based MPA courses – for example, strategic planning, program evaluation, policy analysis, financial management, resource development, and so on – are well suited for client-based projects. In these engagements, the client’s organization becomes a laboratory for exploring and applying course concepts or tools (Waldner and Hunter, 2008). Faculty integrate theory with practice, and students benefit from 244

Using service learning in public administration programs  245 working with public and nonprofit professionals to produce a report or product of need to the client (or clients). These reports and products are typically provided pro bono. We begin this chapter by defining service learning and briefly describing how this pedagogical approach differs from other forms of experiential learning. Next, we demonstrate the value of service learning as a pedagogical approach in public administration programs. We conclude by highlighting the challenges associated with this pedagogy and offering guidance for navigating those challenges and incorporating service learning into public administration courses.

PEDAGOGICAL VALUE OF SERVICE LEARNING Public administration programs incorporate service learning into their curricula in many ways. This focus is not surprising given the discipline’s interest in public service and the prominence of national service programs such as AmeriCorps (Perry and Imperial, 2001). Graduate public administration programs typically require an internship for pre-service students (D’Agostino, 2008) and one or more courses that incorporate service learning through client-based projects. Additionally, it is common for faculty to incorporate client-based projects across varied public administration courses to complement in-class activities and facilitate student learning. However, not all applied learning experiences are inherently “service learning.” Service learning is “a form of experiential education in which students engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote student learning and development. Reflection and reciprocity are key concepts of service learning” (Jacoby, 2003, p. 3). Effective service learning experiences establish clear learning objectives that require the application of concepts, content, tools, or skills from public administration. This practice allows students to develop knowledge through the experience, while reflection fosters critical thinking and builds their public service ethos (Stout, 2013). Dicke et al. (2004) identify four rationales for employing service learning in public administration programs. First, it provides a way to incorporate meaningful public or community service to develop a sense of civic responsibility while learning academic skills. Second, service learning can develop socialization experiences that promote moral and ethical development. Third, it can promote social justice and foster political activism by combating apathy, distrust, or contempt towards government. Finally, the authors champion service learning from an instrumental perspective by focusing on its effectiveness as an educational tool (Dicke et al., 2004). Scholars also contend that service learning produces rewarding interactions between faculty, students, the university, and communities that generate a variety of student outcomes: personal outcomes (for example, interpersonal development, teamwork, leadership skills); social outcomes (for example, social responsibility, commitment to public service); learning outcomes (for example, applying skills and course concepts, critical thinking); career development (for example, networking, resume building); and enhanced relationships with the academic institution (for example, relationships with faculty, student satisfaction, improved graduation rates) (Astin and Sax, 1998; Eyler et al., 2001; Waldner and Hunter, 2008). Much of the scholarship on this topic focuses on traditional undergraduate experiences, with comparatively less research on nontraditional students and adult learners (Carpenter, 2011; Imperial et al., 2007). While practice generally outpaces scholarship, particularly at the graduate level and with adult learners, research identifies many benefits of service learning for graduate public administration students (Bushouse and Morrison, 2001; Whitaker and Berner,

246  Handbook of teaching public administration 2004; Imperial et al., 2007). There is also evidence that the service learning pedagogy can be used effectively in distance learning and courses with a compressed term (Helms et al., 2015; Waldner and Hunter, 2008). Benefits of Service Learning A hallmark of public administration is “learning by doing” (Gerlach, 2016, p. 482). Service learning furthers the understanding of course content while providing a broader appreciation of the discipline and the public service values embraced by professionals. Experiences foster an ethic of public service and civic engagement by allowing students to become engaged in policy issues in their communities (Stout, 2013) and to hone their skills by applying what they learn in traditional in-class activities to real-world examples (Irvin, 2005). These experiences also provide tangible experiences that strengthen student resumes (Reinagel and Gerlach, 2015), shape their career paths (Sprague and Hu, 2015), and build their professional networks and access to job opportunities (Gerlach, 2016). Faculty take on the added work associated with incorporating service learning into a course for several reasons. Service learning can lead to higher satisfaction with the quality of student learning (Eyler et al., 2001) and provide faculty with more opportunities to engage the community (Dicke et al., 2004; Imperial et al., 2007; Irvin, 2005). Faculty derive personal and professional fulfillment from using their professional skills and those of their students to build organizational capacity and address community problems. Client projects also provide faculty opportunities to network with local professionals, which can provide new avenues for scholarship and potential extramural funding (for example, grants and contracts). Finally, these service learning activities are also valued in the tenure and promotion policies of some universities. MPA programs benefit from these service learning engagements by expanding and deepening relationships with community organizations whose personnel may serve on the program’s community advisory board or provide donative financial support (Gerlach, 2016). These engagements can also enhance client relationships with the university more broadly (Eyler et al., 2001). Client satisfaction with projects and interns provides an indicator of how useful the academic training is to potential employers (Sprague and Hu, 2015) and may produce a pipeline for placing students in jobs upon graduation, an important indicator of programmatic success. Community organizations also benefit from service learning projects (Carpenter, 2011; Perry and Imperial, 2001). Student-produced work is often helpful, particularly when it provides new resources for community organizations and helps them to leverage or build capacity (Schachter and Schwartz, 2009; Sprague and Hu, 2015; Stout, 2013; Whitaker and Berner, 2004). Students provide new ideas and perspectives that challenge conventional thinking, and this fresh, outside perspective can also help to focus attention on organizational problems (Carpenter, 2011). Some members of community organizations also welcome the opportunity to work with and mentor younger students (Sprague and Hu, 2015). Challenges Associated with Utilizing Service Learning Developing an effective service learning experience is challenging, and the good intentions of faculty often give way to practical realities: for example, deadlines on research and grant

Using service learning in public administration programs  247 projects, service activities, and the time demands associated with other courses (Irvin, 2005; Shea and Weiss, 2013; Waldner and Hunter, 2008). Designing an effective service learning experience is much more demanding of faculty time than course preparation without such activities, particularly when faculty have taught the course numerous times. It takes time to find clients and work with them to craft projects that achieve learning objectives while benefiting the community organization. The additional time required to deliver a service learning course often comes at the expense of research and other factors valued in the tenure and promotion process of many universities. Accordingly, the lack of university support or reward systems that promote faculty involvement in service learning can make faculty reluctant to commit the time needed to incorporate service learning into their courses (Shea and Weiss, 2013). Choosing to forgo these intensive engagements is prudent where faculty time is constrained. Poor preparation and the inefficient use of a client’s time may make them less willing to engage in future projects (Gazley et al., 2013). Although client-based projects provide a variety of benefits to students, they require more time than in-class assignments and present a host of logistical issues, especially for adult learners who work full-time (Shea and Weiss, 2013; Sprague and Hu, 2015). Difficulties also arise from the need to fit projects within the confines of a traditional academic calendar, and having project deadlines during the busiest time in student and faculty schedules (Shea and Weiss, 2013; Sprague and Hu, 2015). Moreover, the arbitrary timing of the semester and its deadlines may not coincide with the timing needs for the community partners. Community organizations may lack the capacity to allocate the time needed to effectively host interns or provide students with the support needed to complete client-based projects, which may lead to a poor learning experience (Gazley et al., 2013; Shea and Weiss, 2013). Indeed, the organization’s lack of resources might be why they were selected to host the client-based project.

BEST PRACTICES FOR EFFECTIVE SERVICE LEARNING While service learning is a useful pedagogical tool, faculty must be realistic and assess whether their situation allows for its effective use. The remainder of this chapter describes best practices (that is, design principles) for incorporating service learning into the public administration curriculum first proposed by Imperial et al. (2007), based on their review of the literature. These best practices provide useful guidance for designing effective service learning activities for in-person and distance learning courses (Helms et al., 2015). The seven design principles are: connecting service to course learning objectives; reflection; adequate time commitment or contact; student input; faculty commitment and support; perceptible impacts of the service activity; and feedback loops (Imperial et al., 2007). To this list we posit an additional design principle: client commitment and support. Each of the best practices is described in more detail below. Connecting Service to Learning Objectives A wide range of public administration courses provide natural opportunities to use service learning to achieve course learning objectives (Bushouse and Morrison, 2001; Imperial et al., 2007; Killian, 2004; Whitaker and Berner, 2004). However, as Dicke et al. (2004) note, the “benefits of service learning pedagogy do not occur when a community-based project is added

248  Handbook of teaching public administration to a syllabus” (p. 199). Projects must be designed with clear learning objectives in mind that are obvious to students and community partners. Otherwise, the project can be time consuming and have limited impact on student learning (Dicke et al., 2004). Faculty need to carefully consider what students are expected to learn and then use the service learning experience to complement other course activities. In planning the service learning activity, faculty must ensure that the type and level of work are appropriate, students have the requisite skills to complete a high-quality project, and there is sufficient time for students to produce a high-quality deliverable without requiring significant supervision by the faculty or the client (Shea and Weiss, 2013). Reflection Reflection is what distinguishes service learning from community service (Hatcher and Bringle, 1997; Imperial et al., 2007). Reflection involves students considering the service experience and connecting it with other course material and learning objectives. Faculty can employ a combination of means to encourage thoughtful reflection, including journals, class discussion, essays, progress reports, focus groups, blogs, and presentations to classmates or the client (Imperial et al., 2007; Shea and Weiss, 2013). Benefits of reflection include: enhancing the quality of student‒faculty relationships, identifying important social issues, gauging the consequences of one’s actions, and valuing the potential for assuming future leadership roles (Imperial et al., 2007). Hatcher and Bringle (1997) suggest that effective reflection links service activities to learning objectives, provides clear guidance for the reflection, schedules regular reflection activities, provides opportunities for feedback and assessment, and includes a clarification of values. Accordingly, reflection should not be reserved for the end of the service learning experience (Imperial et al., 2007). Adequate Time or Contact The issue regarding how much time needs to be spent on service for effectiveness remains unresolved, and research findings are mixed (Imperial et al., 2007). No apparent formula exists, so faculty should use their best judgment to consider the attributes of the students, the community organization and context, and the nature of the service engagement, to ensure that the amount of time is sufficient to craft a meaningful experience. Allocating adequate time to the service activity is vital (Imperial et al., 2007). Students need to spend enough time in the service activity to understand the problem, appreciate their role in the activity and the impact on the community organization, and create a sense of ownership over the product they are producing. Students also need enough time to reflect on the experience periodically, and to craft a polished final product that effectively communicates findings to the client (Sprague and Hu, 2015). Student Input Imperial et al. (2007) argue that “it is reasonable to assume that levels of interest and dedication in service learning will rise when student servers have a voice in designing the nature of the service” (p. 243). Student input can increase motivation and commitment to the service activity. Conversely, students may not perform well when there is a mismatch between the

Using service learning in public administration programs  249 service activity and other course material or when they lack interest in the client (Shea and Weiss, 2013). Unmotivated students can be unprepared, unprofessional, or disinterested in client engagements (Sprague and Hu, 2015), all of which can reflect poorly on the faculty and program. Student involvement in shaping the parameters and goals of the client-based project – in conjunction with faculty and their clients – can increase student buy-in and improve overall performance (Imperial et al., 2007). Faculty can work with students to learn their interests and to create teams that match student skills to agency needs (Gazley et al., 2013; Helms et al., 2015; Shea and Weiss, 2013). Similarly, students may value internship experiences more when they have a role in selecting their placements. Faculty Commitment and Support Irvin (2005) observes: “Service learning is what we wish we had time for, but often do not” (p. 315). Effective service learning engagements require a great deal of time in addition to the time normally associated with course preparation and teaching (Irvin, 2005; Shea and Weiss, 2013). To be successful, faculty must plan a service activity that is consistent with the course learning objectives, allocate adequate time to solicit useful projects, cultivate partnerships with local service providers, prepare students for the service project, supervise the students, and work with the clients to make sure that students have adequate access to organizational resources and personnel (Imperial, et al., 2007). Monitoring a variety of student/team projects and providing frequent and timely feedback for work in progress (for example, reviewing drafts of client deliverables, providing feedback on student reflection, and so on) requires significant commitment. Similarly, faculty supervising internship placements should take the time to meet with students periodically to help them reflect on their experiences and make the most of their placements. Service learning can be intimidating to incorporate, so institutional support is needed to incentivize this pedagogy and help faculty to make the most of service learning engagements (Imperial et al., 2007). For example, faculty will be more likely to sustain the commitment and support needed to have effective service learning engagements if it is balanced against other faculty commitments, and valued in tenure and promotion or annual review processes. Similarly, institutions might consider offering faculty compensation or a reduction in teaching load to provide the time needed to enhance the learning component of the internship experience. Client Commitment and Support A central tenet of service learning is that the experience should benefit both students and the communities where they serve and learn (Gazley et al., 2013). Therefore, effective service learning requires that the community organizations being served have a commitment to support the work of students. Unresponsive clients can undermine learning (Waldner and Hunter, 2008). Accordingly, faculty should consider the “supply side” of service learning and the community organization’s capacity to engage, mentor, and manage interns, and support client-based projects (Gazley et al., 2013; Shea and Weiss, 2013). Project sponsors must carve out manageable projects from their normal workflow (Irvin, 2005), which takes time and may be inconvenient for staff. It also takes time to meet with students and provide feedback, a precious commodity in understaffed, overworked organiza-

250  Handbook of teaching public administration tions (Irvin, 2005). Supervising students, setting project objectives, and evaluating outcomes should be a shared responsibility (Gazley et al., 2013). Regardless of the specific course design, faculty must cultivate client commitment, calibrate client expectations, and ensure that students incorporate client feedback throughout the engagement. Doing so will increase client buy-in and improve the likelihood that the partnership yields a useful product. The time and resources that community organizations contribute to the service learning experience are not trivial and can be quite burdensome for organizations with limited staff resources. This cost could outweigh the benefits of hosting interns or client-based projects (Sprague and Hu, 2015). Accordingly, it is useful to manage the expectations of community partners, and to maintain clear lines of communication to ensure that they are aware of the resource demands. Some faculty and programs utilize a request for proposals (RFP) process to gauge interest and capacity to support projects (Shea and Weiss, 2013). Having students and clients develop written agreements or memoranda of understanding specifying the client’s commitments to support the project and the project deliverables are commonplace (Gazley et al., 2013). It is also imperative to select clients who understand that this is primarily a learning experience, and that there is often uneven quality in student projects (Waldner and Hunter, 2008). Working with members of a community advisory board or alumni can be a useful approach, since they are often willing to make the effort to provide students with the support and feedback needed for an effective service learning experience. Perceptible Impacts of the Service Activity The service learning experience can benefit from a universal and shared understanding of the outcomes of an engagement among all parties: faculty, students, and clients. When clients see the potential value of service learning projects, it increases the likelihood that they will provide the support necessary for students to succeed. When faculty see projects making a difference in addressing community problems or improving service delivery, they may be more willing to invest the extra time needed to deliver a high-quality opportunity for students. When students see the positive effect service activities have and recognize the connection to the course material and learning outcomes, they may be motivated to produce higher-quality work products. For example, by the end of their internship, the student should feel that they have contributed to some positive outcome or produced a meaningful work product for the client. Similarly, clients showing interest in students’ work and providing meaningful recommendations further motivates students to make the most of the learning experience. Casting these service learning experiences in mutually beneficial terms, and effectively communicating the expected positive outcomes, is integral to the success of the engagement. Feedback Loops The final design principle is borrowed from general teaching methodology. Feedback mechanisms should be established throughout the service learning experience to help students, faculty, and clients increase alignment, make prudent adjustments, mitigate challenges, and optimize outcomes (Imperial et al., 2007). Research on service learning commonly concludes that frequent feedback to students from faculty and clients throughout the experience is important (Bushouse and Morrison, 2001; Sprague and Hu, 2015; Whitaker and Berner, 2004). Feedback can be solicited at any point during the service experience and should occur

Using service learning in public administration programs  251 frequently to ensure that client needs are met and that student learning outcomes are achieved. The iterative nature of these feedback loops is a critical part of the reflection process noted earlier, and is what distinguishes service learning from other forms of community service.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Service learning as a pedagogical tool has taken root in public administration curricula. The benefits of service learning activities outlined in this chapter are manifold and accrue to students, faculty, clients, and university programs. However, to be effective, service learning requires significant planning and a sustained commitment from faculty, students, and sponsoring organizations. Moreover, faculty who incorporate service learning into course design must prepare for the unexpected and remain flexible. In our experience, the best-laid plans often go awry. We enumerate the many challenges of incorporating service learning activities into public administration courses in order to move past the facile notion that it is a pedagogical tool that “ought” to be used. Service learning is not for everyone. Incentives associated with tenure and promotion do not always reward faculty for the investment of time associated with teaching service learning courses. Additionally, some courses are more difficult to incorporate service learning experiences into than others. It is imperative to consider the course and student learning outcomes, needs and abilities of the students, needs of the client, number of students/ project teams in a class, and time frame for completing the work, among other factors, before deciding to integrate service learning activities. Moreover, the pedagogy is typically employed as a complement to traditional classroom instruction, so one must consider how to modify service learning for use in distance education (Helms et al., 2015). Once designed and implemented, faculty must stay involved throughout the engagement to contain the scope of the project, temper student ambitions, and calibrate client expectations. The eight best practices (that is, design principles) outlined in this chapter provide useful guidance for designing effective service learning activities for public administration curricula.

REFERENCES Astin, A.W., and Sax, L.J. (1998). How undergraduates are affected by service participation. Journal of College Student Development, 39(3), 251–263. Bernstein, J.L., Ohren, J., and Shue, L. (2003). A collaborative-teaching approach to linking classes and community. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 9(2), 117–127. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​ .2003​.12023581. Bringle, R.G., and Hatcher, J.A. (1996). Implementing service learning in higher education. Journal of Higher Education, 67(2), 221–239. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​00221546​.1996​.11780257. Bushouse, B., and Morrison, S. (2001). Applying service learning in master of public affairs programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 7(1), 9–17. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2001​.12023491. Carpenter, H. (2011). How we could measure community impact of nonprofit graduate students’ service-learning projects: Lessons from the literature. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 17(1), 115–132. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2011​.12001630. Carrizales, T., and Bennett, L.V. (2013). A public service education: A review of undergraduate programs with a community and service focus. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 19(2), 309–323. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2013​.12001735.

252  Handbook of teaching public administration D’Agostino, M.J. (2008). Fostering a civically engaged society: The university and service learning. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 14(2), 191–204. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2008​ .12001519. Dicke, L., Dowden, S., and Torres, J. (2004). Successful service learning: A matter of ideology. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 10(3), 199–208. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2004​.12001359. Eyler, J., Giles Jr, D.E., Stenson, C.M., and Gray, C.J. (2001). At a glance: What we know about the effects of service-learning on college students, faculty, institutions and communities, 1993‒2000 (3rd edn). Vanderbilt University Press. Gazley, B., Bennett, T.A., and Littlepage, L. (2013). Achieving the partnership principle in experiential learning: The nonprofit perspective. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 19(3), 559–579. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2013​.12001751. Gerlach, J.D. (2016). Nonprofit management education in MPA programs: Lessons for successful track building. Journal of Political Science Education, 12(4), 471–486. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15512169​ .2016​.1165105. Hatcher, J.A., and Bringle, R.G. (1997). Reflection: Bridging the gap between service and learning. College Teaching, 45(4), 153–158. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​87567559709596221. Helms, M.M., Rutti, R.M., Hervani, A.A., LaBonte, J., and Sarkarat, S. (2015). Implementing and evaluating online service-learning projects. Journal of Education for Business, 90(7), 369–378. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1080/​08832323​.2015​.1074150. Imperial, M.T., Perry, J., and Katula, M.C. (2007). Incorporating service learning into public affairs programs: Lessons from the literature. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 13, 243–264. Irvin, Renee A. (2005). The student philanthropists: Fostering civic engagement through grantmaking. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 11(4), 315‒324. Jacoby, B. (2003). Fundamentals of service-learning partnerships. In B. Jacoby (ed.), Building partnerships for service-learning (pp. 1–19). Jossey-Bass. Killian, J. (2004). Pedagogical experimentation: Combining traditional, distance, and service-learning techniques. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 10(3), 209–224. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​ .2004​.12001360. McGaw, D., and Weschler, L. (1999). Romancing the capstone: The jewel of public value. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 5(2), 89–105. Perry, J.L., and Imperial, M.T. (2001). A decade of service-related research: A map of the field. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 30(3), 462–479. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​0899764001303004. Reinagel, T.P., and Gerlach, J.D. (2015). Internships as academic exercise: An assessment of MPA curriculum models. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 21(1), 71–82. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​ .2015​.12001817. Schachter, D.R., and Schwartz, D. (2009). The value of capstone projects to participating client agencies. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 15(4), 445–462. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2009​ .12001571. Shea, J., and Weiss, A.F. (2013). From traditional to client-based nonprofit management course design: Reflections on a recent course conversion. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 19(4), 729‒747. Sprague, M., and Hu, O. (2015). Assessing the value to client organizations of student practicum projects. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 21(2), 263–280. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2015​ .12001832. Stout, M. (2013). Delivering an MPA emphasis in local governance and community development through service learning and action research. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 19(2), 217–238. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2013​.12001731. Waldner, L.S., and Hunter, D. (2008). Client-based courses: Variations in service learning. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 14(2), 219–239. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2008​.12001521. Whitaker, G.P., and Berner, M. (2004). Learning through action: How MPA public service team projects help students learn research and management skills. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 10(4), 279–294. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​15236803​.2004​.12001367.

PART V TEACHING CASE STUDIES

26. Using pop culture to teach public ethics: the case of Parks and Recreation Erin L. Borry

There has been an increase in scholarship focusing on the use of popular culture in the public administration classroom, including the television shows Parks and Recreation (Borry, 2018a, 2018b), The Wire (Gaynor, 2014), The Good Place (Meyer, 2020), Game of Thrones (Yu and Campbell, 2020), and the video game Papers, Please (Exmeyer and Boden, 2020). Each of these provide an opportunity for public administration students to learn from fictionalized accounts of real-life scenarios. In addition, the use of such media can better engage students and allow them to practice public administration in various forms – ethics, cultural, leadership, and administrative decision-making – in the classroom. Parks and Recreation has previously been established as useful for the public administration and public ethics classrooms (Borry, 2018a, 2018b). As noted in Borry (2018b), the effectiveness of ethics education may lie in the approach with which it is taught. That is, case studies and the opportunity to “practice” ethics may be more effective than simply teaching concepts. The series itself provides a robust source of “case study” material because of its focus on a local government department. It features employees and friends of the Parks and Recreation department in fictional Pawnee, Indiana, United States. The main protagonist is Leslie Knope (played by Amy Poehler), the Deputy Director of the department. Her boss is Ron Swanson (Nick Offerman), and she works closely with her co-worker Tom Haverford (Aziz Anzari). Other characters include her best friend Ann (Rashida Jones), intern April Ludgate (Aubrey Plaza), and sometimes part-time employee Andy Dwyer (Chris Pratt). Not only do these characters represent some common perceptions and stereotypes of government bureaucrats (see Borry, 2020), but they are also in fictionalized scenarios not unlike those in the real world. Thus, the series is highly relevant for the public administration classroom, especially regarding ethics. This chapter focuses on one way to incorporate Parks and Recreation (hereafter, Parks) in the ethics classroom. While previous research has provided insight into how the series can be used to teach ethics (Borry, 2018b), this chapter presents my experience in doing just that, by including information about how the show informed class discussions and assignments. This chapter begins with an overview of the course. Then, it turns to the three main assignments which were developed using Parks. Here, the episodes for those assignments are described, as well as the assignments themselves. Next, I reflect on these assignments, including student reactions and learning, and provide additional examples of ways to use Parks – along with other popular culture – in the classroom.

254

Using pop culture to teach public ethics: the case of Parks and Recreation  255

MPA: ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS This chapter focuses on the implementation of Parks during one semester of an Administrative Ethics course, which is one of eight required courses within the Master of Public Administration program in which I teach. The course aims to equip students with an understanding of their role as public administrators as well as with ethical theories, concepts, and tools to guide them as they do their important work. To meet these objectives, students were expected to participate in class discussions, present a current event article related to ethics, and complete three short papers (called P&R reflection papers) and a final paper. The course largely followed the set-up of the course textbook, Lewis and Gilman’s (2012) third edition of The Ethics Challenge in Public Service, which is broken up into three parts: “ethical duties in public service,” “tools for individual decision-making,” and “ethics and the organization.” Each of these three parts corresponded with one reflection assignment; the final paper was cumulative in that it required reflection of all aspects of the textbook and the course. In addition to the textbook, students were encouraged to maintain a Netflix subscription for the duration of the semester so that they could watch assigned episodes of Parks and Recreation. While all episodes were shown during class meetings, the subscription allowed them to watch episodes on their own as they prepared their assignments.1 Integrating Parks and Recreation into the Course The utility of Parks in the ethics classroom has been established elsewhere (Borry, 2018b), so the focus here is on the implementation of it during a full semester. To introduce students to Leslie Knope and the Pawnee Parks Department, the first class featured “Leslie’s House,” episode 14 of the second season (Goor and Hardcastle, 2010). Here, Leslie wants to host a dinner party to impress a man she is dating, but her house is in disarray. To get it ready for the dinner party, she enlists instructors from the Pawnee’s summer recreation program. She later enlists other instructors to help with the dinner party itself. The issue here is that Leslie, in her role as Deputy Director, had earlier been tasked with determining which classes to eliminate from the summer recreation program because of budget cuts. These instructors, then, assume that their assistance with the dinner party is an opportunity to influence Leslie’s decision and compel her not to cut their classes. The purpose of showing this episode was to spark class discussion and prime students for the course. Students first needed to recognize that Leslie’s role as a public servant makes her more susceptible to public scrutiny and held to a higher standard. Importantly, Leslie does not think that she is doing anything wrong, as she views the dinner party as separate and apart from the budget cut decisions. Students then grapple with the idea that the appearance of unethical behavior – in this case, Leslie’s potential abuse of power, or susceptibility to favoritism – is as critical as an actual instance of unethical behavior. P&R Reflection #1: “Boys’ Club” The first portion of the course focused generally on what public service ethics is. It guided students in understanding the role of the public administrator as it relates to ethics and ethical expectations of government. Other specific topics included accountability, values, low and

256  Handbook of teaching public administration high road ethics, duty to law, impartiality, and conflicts of interest. This reflection paper focused on “Boys’ Club.” “Boys’ Club” is the fourth episode of the series (Yang and McCullers, 2009). Leslie receives a wine and cheese basket from a local contractor. She tells her co-workers that she must return the basket, since gifts over $25 are against the rules. Later, city planner Mark (Paul Schneider) and his male co-workers hang out and drink beers in the courtyard after work. Leslie, wanting to “bust into” the “boys’club,” joins them with her friend Ann. As everyone winds down to head home, Leslie grabs the wine from the gift basket to encourage them to stay. The next day, Leslie is distraught at her indiscretion, as she knows that opening the gift basket was against the rules. She directs her boss Ron to punish her, which he initially refuses to do, but eventually – through some other unfortunate events – others are made aware and Leslie has a disciplinary hearing. After all this, Leslie receives a notice to go in her file; when she tells Mark, he shares that he has several of those letters, and through this commonality, she feels that she has entered the real boys’ club. In their reflection papers, students were first tasked with identifying the ethical issues (see Box 26.1). There are several: opening the gift basket; drinking on government property (and presumably, on the clock); providing an 18-year-old intern with access to alcohol; blowing the whistle; and more. Considering low and high roads required students to think beyond rules-based ethics: for example, is accepting a gift wrong only because the rules say so? Several characters committed wrongdoing, and students were tasked with describing how accountability and responsibility were taken for their actions, as well as how the organizational culture may have contributed (or not) to the issues at hand.

BOX 26.1 P&R REFLECTION #1 PROMPTS 1. Describe the ethical issue(s) in the episode. (15 points) 2. Describe how the low road and high road of ethics apply to the ethical issue(s). (20) 3. Describe the ways in which characters took accountability/personal responsibility (or not) for their actions. (15) 4. Describe the way(s) in which the organizational culture may have contributed to the issue(s). (20) 5. Was Leslie unethical? Describe your answer. (20) The final question invited students to consider whether Leslie was unethical. On the one hand, she certainly was unethical when she opened the basket and drank on government property. On the other hand, she was ethical in taking accountability and seeking to be held responsible for her actions. Ideally, students think beyond the gifts rule and more broadly about the complexities of the situation portrayed in the episode. P&R Reflection #2: “Sister City” The second portion of the course focused on making decisions. This included understanding various ethical theories and frameworks, such as teleological, deontological, and virtue-based ethics, as well as tools from the textbook (Lewis and Gilman, 2012). One of these is a check-

Using pop culture to teach public ethics: the case of Parks and Recreation  257 list for administrators to use when they are making an ethical decision. This checklist invites administrators to consider things such as the facts and causes of the dilemma, the stakeholders involved, possible results and harm based on a potential action, empathy, change, disclosure and appearance to public, and ultimately asks about the decision, “Can I live with this?” (Lewis and Gilman, 2012, p. 145). “Sister City” is the fifth episode of the second season and Fred Armisen guest stars as Raul, a representative of Pawnee’s Venezuelan sister city, Boraqua (Yang and Schur, 2009). The delegation is visiting Pawnee, and Parks employees immediately realize that the delegation members are much wealthier and more arrogant than they expected. As Leslie shows them around the modest parks in Pawnee – especially the pit for which she needs to raise $35 000 to turn into a park – they brag about their facilities and how much money they have. After many mishaps and cultural clashes, Raul offers Leslie the $35 000 she needs to turn the pit into a park, but only on the condition it be named after Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez. It is this decision with which students were asked to grapple. Because the whole episode was shown, students had to ignore what Leslie does, and instead focus on the decision she needs to make: to accept or refuse the $35 000 offer. As noted in Box 26.2, students were asked to put themselves in her shoes. First, they were asked to identify the ethical issue, and then provide options according to two ethical frameworks: teleology and deontology. For example, students could think about what actions would produce the greatest good and/or least harm (teleology); for the deontological lens, they could consider which duties Leslie must uphold and how those influence her choices. Lastly, they were asked to apply Lewis and Gilman’s (2012) checklist, which required them to think beyond consequences (teleology) and principles (deontology). Instead, it forced students to consider many bits of information as they arrived at their own decision about what they would do.

BOX 26.2 P&R REFLECTION #2 PROMPTS 1. 2.

Describe the ethical issue in the episode. (10 points) Disregard Leslie’s decision and put yourself in her shoes. a. Consider the situation and your options from the lens of teleology. (20) b. Consider the situation and your options from the lens of deontology. (20) 3. Apply the checklist in exhibit 6.1 (page 145; an example beginning on page 155). a. List out each one and address it. Some will have more content than others. (40) 4. What would you do? Defend your answer. (10)

P&R Reflection #3: “Gin It Up!” and “Park Safety” In the third part of the course, students explored the organizational influences on ethics. The assigned readings leading up to this paper touched on ethics in the context of the organization, including organizational rules related to ethics and how to instill ethics and ethical behavior into an organization. Notably, students read about ethical codes (Svara, 2014) and compliance-based ethics (Roberts, 2009). With all of this in mind, students were urged to think about the ethical culture of the Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department.

258  Handbook of teaching public administration For this third reflection paper, two episodes were screened in class. The first, “Gin It Up!” (season 6, episode 5; Murray and Taccone, 2014) highlights two main ethical issues: Donna (Retta) accidentally publishing a tweet meant for her personal Twitter account to the Parks account; and Tom wasting a permit applicant’s time, simply because he wanted to ask her out on a date. In the second episode, “Park Safety” (season 2, episode 19; Muharrar and Trim, 2010), Jerry (Jim O’Heir) is mugged while filling hummingbird feeders in a park. Often the butt of jokes, Jerry lies about being mugged – he fell – because he is embarrassed. Both provide some context about the Department’s culture and how individuals interact with and are affected by it. Other ethical issues are also present in both episodes. For example, “Gin It Up!” also shows how the city deals with seemingly minor infractions (Donna appearing in front of the City Council), and personal privacy, as her personal tweets are subject to scrutiny. “Park Safety” highlights workplace bullying (the constant picking on Jerry) and lack of productivity (Tom not doing his job, to get a date), among others. This third reflection paper differed from the first two by requiring students to take a position as a public sector ethics consultant and write a memo to Pawnee City Manager Chris Traeger (Rob Lowe) (see Box 26.3). In it, they were to describe the ethical culture using evidence from episodes, highlight items that should be part of the Department’s code of ethics, and offer recommendations to improve the Department’s ethical culture.

BOX 26.3 P&R REFLECTION #3 PROMPTS Imagine you’re a public sector ethics consultant. Your single-spaced, 2–3-page memo must be addressed to city manager Chris Traeger, include an introductory and conclusionary paragraph, and include the following specific things: 1.

Describe the ethical culture of the Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department, as evidenced by these two episodes. (30 points) a. Provide at least two examples ‒ one from each of these episodes ‒ to support your description. You may also reference previously screened episodes to help support your claims. 2. Suggest 3–5 components that should be included in the Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department Code of Ethics. (30) a. Explain and support these suggestions with evidence from the episodes and readings. You may also reference previously screened episodes to help support your claims. 3. Provide 3–5 recommendations to help the Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department foster a better ethical culture. (30) a. Explain and support these recommendations with evidence from the episodes and readings. You may also reference previously screened episodes to help support your claims. While this assignment drew heavily from the two episodes noted, students were also encouraged to use examples from any episode screened in class, as these may also provide evidence about the Department’s ethical culture. These included the episodes from the first two papers as well as others screened in class for discussion purposes: “Road Trip” (Wittels and Miller, 2011), “Soda Tax,” (Hiscock and Newacheck, 2012), and “The Fight” (Poehler and Einhorn,

Using pop culture to teach public ethics: the case of Parks and Recreation  259 2011). “Road Trip,” episode 14 of season 3, features Leslie and Ben (Adam Scott) taking a work trip to Indianapolis, and highlights their feelings for each other, despite rules forbidding workplace dating. At the same time, staff back in the Department spend their day playing a game Tom created. “Soda Tax,” episode 2 of season 5, features Leslie as a city councilor who must choose whether to vote for a proposed soda tax in Pawnee. This decision weighs heavily on her, and the episode focuses largely on the information she gathers and how she arrives at her final decision. “The Fight” is episode 13 of season 3; in it, Leslie pressures Ann to apply for the open position in the city’s Public Health Department, culminating in a drunken fight at Tom’s nightclub, Snakehole Lounge – one for which he promotes via city resources (and is reprimanded for doing so). While these were shown in class to spark discussion, they also provided context worthy of inclusion in the memo. Other Uses of Pop Culture Parks was not the only show used in this class. For a discussion of ethical decision-making frameworks, students watched “The Trolley Problem” episode of The Good Place (Siegal et al., 2017), which forced students to think about ethical consequences (teleology) and principles (deontology) (for more on using The Good Place as a teaching tool, see Meyer, 2020). Though fictionalized, “seeing” examples of the trolley problem ethical dilemma, compounded by additional details, generated a large amount of student discussion. The final paper was based on All the Queen’s Horses (Pope, 2017). This documentary2 covers the largest municipal fraud in United States history, which took place in Dixon, Illinois. Dixon’s comptroller, Rita Crundwell, stole more than $50 million over her 20-year tenure. The documentary raises questions about personal responsibility, ethical responsibility as a public administrator, public scrutiny, and systems of accountability. Different from other assignments, however, students were grappling with real events, and in some ways, were playing “armchair ethics quarterback” as they applied course materials to case events in their final paper. See Box 26.4 for the assignment prompts.

BOX 26.4 FINAL PAPER: ALL THE QUEEN’S HORSES PROMPTS 1.

Consider the moment when city clerk Kathe Swanson discovers the secret account and is contemplating what to do. a. Explore the role conflicts Kathe may have. (10 points) b. Explain who the internal, external/direct, and external/indirect stakeholders are in this situation. (20 points) c. Explore Kathe’s options by applying the deontological and teleological approaches. (20 points) 2. Consider Rita Crundwell’s crime and how she was able to carry it out. a. Provide 3–5 recommendations for the city to improve their ethics system. (20 points) i. Use specific examples to support these recommendations. 3. Consider Rita’s actions and Kathe’s discovery and answer the following: a. Is lying ever justified? (20 points) i. Use specific examples to support your answer.

260  Handbook of teaching public administration

INSTRUCTOR REFLECTION Using Parks and Recreation as a basis for assignments in a graduate-level ethics course allowed for the use of “visual” case studies. Written case studies are popular in public administration classrooms, and particularly so for ethics, but visual cases via film allow for a break from reading and may have other learning benefits (see Borry, 2018b). The first two assignments were more traditional case study applications: students watched the episodes and answered some questions that required application of concepts to the events of the episodes. One thing that I found especially beneficial is that episodes offer far more context than written cases do. There are subplots, facial expressions, and even seemingly irrelevant conversations that provide information about characters and the Parks Department that, on paper, would not come alive. This additional information required students to think a bit more critically – particularly because they had more information to work with – and it provided for more varied responses: students picked up on different things. One downside to this additional information, however, is that there are often multiple examples of ethical decisions, and students may not focus on the one they are intended to focus on. The second assignment required clarification in that they were to apply the decision-making frameworks to Leslie’s decision to accept the check. Without this clarification, students might have considered other issues, such as the cultural clash between the delegates and Pawneeans, or Tom accepting tips from the Venezuelans despite it being against the rules. Thus, when using television or other popular culture as a case study, I recommend instructors be as clear as possible. In this particular case, it might also work to stop the episode at the point when the money is offered, so that students do not learn what Leslie chooses. The third assignment was the most successful assignment in this class. Students had fun with it: some created a name for their consulting firm, others created a letterhead for their memo, and others added backstory to their “character” as a consultant. While these were not required elements of the assignment, students who did this seemed to have more fun with the assignment and thought outside the box. It also put them in a position to write with authority in ways other assignments did not. This led to a more confident tone, and they typically provided more concrete evidence to back up the claims they provided in the memo. From an instructor standpoint, these were the most fun assignments to grade, and I have since thought of incorporating similar memo-style assignments in other courses. There are some limitations to relying heavily on one television series throughout a course. First, while television as an instructional tool can increase student engagement, it is unclear whether engagement is sustained for students who do not like the show. While it seems that students did enjoy the assignments and the series, it is likely (perhaps inevitable) that some students liked the show less than others. Because of this, I have worked in this class (and others) to vary content when I can. In addition, the show is an American sitcom set in an American city. This matters for at least two reasons. First, its use in other countries and cultures may not work, especially if the government structure is different. This does provide a unique opportunity, however, to invite students to discuss these differences. For example, some international students may be willing to share how things are similar or different in their hometown or country. All students may be able to relate a character or scene to something similar in their workplace or experience. Second, the tone and humor may not translate well to those from other cultures. While I did not receive any specific feedback from international students about this issue, it may be worthwhile for instructors to formally or informally poll

Using pop culture to teach public ethics: the case of Parks and Recreation  261 students about the shows they use. Again, it is important to vary content and include other perspectives, as necessary.

CONCLUSION In this chapter, I have shown how one could use Parks and Recreation as the basis for assignments in an MPA-level administrative ethics course (see Borry, 2018b for other suggestions). Overall, the use of these assignments and the series was successful. One thing that is uncertain, however, is whether this implementation leads to increased student learning. Instructors might consider surveying students about whether the episodes helped their understanding of the material. In my experience, students liked using Parks for assignments, but I did not do any formal data collection. One way to do this is to do an assessment after the introduction of a concept, and again after the screening of and discussion or assignment about an episode. While that is certainly up for investigation, I do think that the varied use of material – written and visual – benefits students as they grapple with challenging concepts.

NOTES 1. 2.

As of October 2020, Parks and Recreation is no longer available on Netflix and instead is available on Peacock. This documentary was available on Netflix at the time the course was taught; it is no longer.

REFERENCES Borry, E.L. (2018a). Linking theory to television: Public administration in Parks and Recreation. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 24(2), 234–254. doi:​10​.1080/​15236803​.2018​.1446881. Borry, E.L. (2018b). Teaching public ethics with TV: Parks and Recreation as a source of case studies. Public Integrity, 20(3), 300–315. doi:​10​.1080/​10999922​.2017​.1371998. Borry, E.L. (2020). Bureaucratic representation in Parks and Recreation. In H. Sullivan, H. Dickinson, and H. Henderson (eds), The Palgrave Handbook of the Public Servant (pp. 1–14). Palgrave Macmillan. Exmeyer, P.C. and Boden, D. (2020). The 8-bit bureaucrat: Can video games teach us about administrative ethics? Public Integrity, 22(1), 1–16. Gaynor, T.S. (2014). Through the wire: Training culturally competent leaders for a new era. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 20(3), 369–392. Goor, D.J. (Writer) and Hardcastle, A. (Director) (2010). Leslie’s House [Television series episode]. In G. Daniels, H. Klein, D. Miner, and M. Schur (Producer), Parks and Recreation. NBCUniversal Television Distribution. Hiscock, N. (Writer) and Newacheck, K. (Director) (2012). Soda Tax [Television series episode]. In G. Daniels, D.J. Goor, H. Klein, D. Miner, M. Sackett, and M. Schur (Producer), Parks and Recreation. NBCUniversal Television Distribution. Lewis, C.W. and Gilman, S.C. (2012). The Ethics Challenge in Public Service: A Problem-Solving Guide (3rd edn). Jossey Bass. Meyer, S.J. (2020). Everything is fine! Using “The Good Place” to teach administrative ethics. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 27(2), 1–15. Muharrar, A. (Writer) and Trim, M. (Director) (2010). Park Safety [Television series episode]. In G. Daniels, M. Schur, D. Miner, and H. Klein (Producer), Parks and Recreation. NBCUniversal Television Distribution.

262  Handbook of teaching public administration Murray, M. (Writer) and Taccone, J. (Director) (2014). Gin It Up! [Television series episode]. In G. Daniels, M. Schur, and H. Klein (Producer), Parks and Recreation. NBCUniversal Television Distribution. Poehler A. (Writer) and Einhorn, R. (Director) (2011). The Fight [Television series episode]. In G. Daniels, M. Schur, D. Miner, and H. Klein (Producer), Parks and Recreation. NBCUniversal Television Distribution. Pope, K.R. (Producer and Director) (2017). All the Queen’s Horses [Motion Picture]. Gravitas Ventures. Roberts, R. (2009). The rise of compliance-based ethics management. Public Integrity, 11(3), 261–277. Siegal, J. and Morgan, D. (Writers) and Holland, D. (Director) (2017). The Trolley Problem [Television series episode]. In D. Goddard, D. Miner, M. Sackett, and M. Schur (Producer), The Good Place. NBCUniversal Television Distribution. Svara, J.H. (2014). Who are the keepers of the code? Articulating and upholding ethical standards in the field of public administration. Public Administration Review, 74(5), 561–569. Wittels, H. (Writer) and Miller, T. (Director) (2011). Road Trip [Television series episode]. In G. Daniels, M. Schur, D. Miner, and H. Klein (Producer), Parks and Recreation. NBCUniversal Television Distribution. Yang, A. (Writer) and McCullers, M. (Director) (2009). Boys’ Club [Television series episode]. In G. Daniels, H. Klein, and M. Schur (Producer), Parks and Recreation. NBCUniversal Television Distribution. Yang, A. (Writer) and Schur, M. (Director) (2009). Sister City [Television series episode]. In G. Daniels, M. Schur, D. Miner, and H. Klein (Producer), Parks and Recreation. NBCUniversal Television Distribution. Yu, H.H., and Campbell, T.M. (2020). Teaching leadership theory with television: Useful lessons from Game of Thrones. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 27(2), 1–35. DOI: 10.1080/15236803.2020.1746137.

27. Teaching public administration with visual methods Ian Robson

HOW WE TEACH, AND SPECIFICALLY HOW WE TEACH PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, MATTERS Generally, any teaching and learning activity needs to both engage and enable students in the social activity of enquiry and be able to open up subjects to learners (Lowe and El Hakim, 2020). This is a particular challenge for the teaching of public administration because it is a subject too often reduced to its technical aspects, and consequently made less interesting (Brown, 2020). The reality, as this Handbook has shown, is that public administration as a subject is diversifying, creating space for new conversations (e.g., Anuoluwapo and Ljeoma, 2020) and perspectives (see Boin and Lodge, 2016), as concepts and practices such as public value, implementation, governance, and political representation evolve at pace. Teaching public administration in the same way is not an option; educators need to help its students connect diverse elements, change perspectives, and appreciate its material and affective aspects. Visual Methods for Public Administration Effective educators use approaches and methods appropriate to the topic and the demands of engaging with it (Cox, 2019; Morris, 2016; Zhu et al., 2019). This chapter supports that ambition by introducing readers to the potential of visual methods for the teaching of public administration. An argument is made that all public administration educators (not only those who are visually orientated or artistic) should develop visual methods as part of their repertoire, so that they are able to match methods to teaching and learning challenges (Ashwin et al., 2020; Bovill, 2020). The term ‘visual methods’ used here builds on the typology of visual methods previously offered by Pauwels (2019), which defines any given visual method in relation to: (1) its origin and nature (found, researcher-initiated, secondary use or respondent generated); (2) the research focus and design; and (3) the format and purpose. Here, ‘visual methods’ include material, embodied, and tactile experiences, adding practices such as picking, handling, and moving objects to the more familiar tasks of viewing or scanning associated with images or diagrams. Whilst the chapter offers a worked example which is primarily visual, it points to broader aesthetic and material aspects of teaching and learning. As an educator reading this chapter, you are invited to consider the unique affordances of visual methods and how they can be used to support more diverse forms of enquiry in your subject specialism.

263

264  Handbook of teaching public administration More Than Decoration Visual methods are trivialised and misused if simply considered to be ‘decorative’: things to be added after the substance of content is formulated. As socio-cultural scholars (e.g., Daniels, 2016) tell us, there are no neutral methods, as all methods relate learners to subjects in different ways, co-constructing knowledge as learners interact and participate in communities of learning, creating knowledge as connections, assemblages, and patterns emerge from activity. Visual methods have their own affordances, which can be described in relation to aesthetic, relational, and experimental domains of enquiry. These domains are an important alternative to logical-rational-linear forms of enquiry which emphasise quantification and categorisation, and are defined here as follows: ● Aesthetic domain: sensory-emotional register, speaks to the nature of judgement of appearance, and affect. ● Relational domain: the nature of collective or interactive action between diverse elements (incl. people, places, things, concepts). The relational domain is concerned with that which is more than, between and through individual learners, what Barad (2007) calls ‘intra-action’. ● Heuristic domain: forms of practical and spontaneous improvisation. From Neglect to Appreciation These specific inter-relating domains of enquiry, to which visual methods contribute, are underexplored in the study of public administration, which has been dominated by logical-rational-linear domains, and associated images of organisation (Bjerge and Rowe, 2020). In this paradigm, teaching and learning are reduced to describing normative models, summarising ‘facts’, and simplifying the challenge of making things happen in the public sphere. Such a focus neglects the complex, dynamic, and ambiguous topics of multiplicity, emergence, and collaboration (Jukić et al., 2019) which also constitute the practice of public administration. As more diverse visions of public administration are developed, so other domains of knowledge and enquiry are required. Educators must respond to this epistemological challenge (that is, what we can know and how we can know it) by developing their teaching and learning strategies and methods to address complexity, dynamism, and ambiguity. Visual methods provide means to explore aesthetic, relational, and heuristic domains of public administration. Like all methods, they are best developed in relation to learning philosophies and objectives, and through cycles of reflection with students (Bovill, 2020), actively informed by observations and evaluations of how they enable these explorations (that is, conceptualisations, descriptions, and critical or analytical insights developed through visual forms of enquiry). There are limitless variations of visual methods available to public administration educators. An introductory typology of visual methods is presented in Table 27.1.

Teaching public administration with visual methods  265 Table 27.1 Example visual

Examples of visual or material methods, with educator notes and possible applications in public administration teaching Description / example

method

How might this method shape

Possible applications in teaching

enquiry and what support may be

public administration

needed? Enable students to see connection

Object-oriented

Physical or virtual artefact / e.g.,

enquiry

policy document, fictional eviction between specific, tangible aspects notice.

Introduce a complex or abstract topic by working back; appreciate

of a topic and more abstract

why object(s) may be significant as

aspects. Objects provide specific

artefact, tool, cultural object within

gateways into topic. Reflective

a system, process, or practice in

prompt questions guide enquiry. Image-elicitation

Provide physical or electronic

Useful way to start enquiry

public administration. It may be useful to work with

related methods

images for selection, ordering, or

(picking images can be simple

familiar images from the public or

annotation / e.g., risk prioritisation but leads to other questions, activity, stakeholder analysis.

observations, or lines of enquiry).

civic realm, articulating their frame of reference.

Support to articulate ‘thinking in action’ (e.g., Why does that go there? Why circle that point in the process?). Mapping, modelling

Materialise elements of a situation Useful in relating elements,

or scenario building

through drawing, craft or found

providing basis for description,

materials, or mapping / e.g., create explanation, etc. Materialises

Useful for shared enquiry; can be useful to consider role of place in public administration; potentially

a topic map, use building bricks to student understanding of situation. engaging. model a situation. Sensory environment Provide sensory environment /

Can help attend to embodied,

e.g., immersive film, soundscapes, material, and emotional aspects

Useful for considering experience as a starting point to enquiry.

audio diaries, or augmented reality of topics. Requires careful (AR).

introduction and consideration of participants’ psychological safety.

Gamification

Variations on structured

Can help students identify or

Potentially useful for identifying

role-playing scenario, often with

debate a topic (e.g., What should

and interacting variables in

rules‒goals‒game mechanics /

feature?) and the conditions,

a situation and how phenomena

e.g., adapted board games or card

structures, rules that should apply. develop over time. Allows for

selection games.

collective debate and simulation.

HOW VISUAL METHODS CAN HELP TO EXPLORE AESTHETIC, RELATIONAL, AND HEURISTIC DOMAINS: THREE EXAMPLES Three examples of my image-elicitation methods follow. The examples themselves invite readers to imagine how they might be used in discussion with students of public administration, and the associated description and discussion of each example highlight ways in which each might be used to explore previously listed aesthetic, relational, and heuristic domains of enquiry. The three images presented in this chapter were developed in the style of a project on social policy and leadership co-designed between academics and students, in collaboration with UK Children’s Services. In this project, I produced a booklet titled ‘Picturing Childhoods’, comprising a set of images with prompts for teaching and learning activity. As students commented that the original booklet was a useful way to engage and explore topics

266  Handbook of teaching public administration which they felt were new or possibly complex, the method was developed further to produce examples for this chapter. With multiple starting points and points of focus, layered and collaged images, and so on, the images featured here provide a rich and unusual resource for students. Images contain varied elements and give the impression of an expansive visual landscape. They present various options for being ‘read’ as opposed to the usual conventions of text or traditional diagrams. Part of the effect of the images is to disorientate the reader, and this is presented here as a useful feature. Aesthetic, relational, and heuristic phenomena must be explored, experienced, and interpreted, and may initially be strange or confusing. Following the perspective of Weick (1995), the activity of sensemaking is the process of coming to terms with something confusing or otherwise problematic, so to act upon it. Visual methods are suited to this task, as they can potentially materialise and present these confusing elements or compositions. Public administration educators may then also use visual methods to de-centre, disrupt, and create doubt as a primer for new lines of enquiry. Initiating sensemaking activity may be supported with very open prompts such as: ‘What is this?’, and ‘What do you see?’, welcoming diverse responses, alongside permission not to know, or to be confused. As students hear others’ diverse starting points, they appreciate multiple lines of enquiry into the topic they can utilise. In these figures, progression is achieved as various lines of enquiry are developed and students focus on individual features, connections, patterns, or text. Asking ‘Who or What Matters?’ With Images and Objects Figure 27.1 is a draft of an image created around the topic of COVID-19 and public administration responses. It is presented as a visual topic map, and in that sense is a development of a familiar form of representation such as spider diagrams or concept maps. Image elicitation with resources such as Figure 27.1 work best when they are presented as a shared object or space of enquiry, not reduced to a slide or handout. By introducing it as such, educators help students to orientate themselves to ambiguous or strange subject matter and to consider more tentative and exploratory language in their enquiry. For those less familiar with working with these methods, some practice in looking at and talking about images (for example, collages, documentary photography, paintings) will rehearse a suitable attitude and mode of engagement. Forms of enquiry in Figure 27.1 can be diverse, but students should be encouraged to work heuristically via practical, tentative exploration, utilising their senses and emotions as they make their own sense of it (Robson, 2020). Actions can include scanning and gazing (feeling, appreciating, categorising), pointing out (noticing, starting enquiry), and connecting (How does this relate to that?). Figure 27.1 contains a set of topic questions to prompt general reflection, but if more structure is required it would equally work well with a set of tasks, such as finding examples, relating diverse elements, filling blank spaces, or creating a narrative. As images allow students to work with heterogenous elements in the same space, educators can attend to neglected aesthetic, relational, and heuristic aspects of topics. In doing so, visual methods materialise public organising as sets of practices (Nicolini, 2013), in which diverse elements (places, ideas, atmospheres, objects, people, and so on) orchestrate into familiar patterns (Hui et al., 2016), which their communities might call ‘how we do things round here’. This is less strange than it might first appear: public administration always has been, and is increasingly, about the relating of diverse elements in topics such as policy implementation

Teaching public administration with visual methods  267

Figure 27.1

COVID-19 and public administration

and emergent forms of organising. For example, students of public administration are encouraged to consider relations across time (for example, longitudinal and comparative studies), space (for example, measuring and organising on different geographical scales), and positions (for example, political, philosophical, or theoretical). The topic is less rational and ordered than one may first assume and is a candidate for such visual sensemaking. One useful starting point to engage with public administration as practices is to identify and map ‘who and what matters’ (Clarke, 2005) in an image or collection of objects. This is possible when images are presented as a scenario or situation which students need to orientate themselves to. In working with visual elements, activity, lines, points, and objects can be moved or adjusted, allowing students to model and appreciate how one element relates to others. Seeking to understand this is helpful in de-centring, disrupting, challenging, or otherwise changing a given understanding of a topic. Such disruption and orientation to enquiry supports critical thinking, as students discuss why situations may appear as they do, and what dynamics might be involved in such situations. Of course, using such methods will not automatically engage students with aesthetic, relational, or heuristic domains of enquiry. In working with them, educators must model openness, emotional intelligence, speculation, and curiosity. In a way, visual methods challenge educators to become strangers (again) to the topics in which they claim expertise. Working in this way is integral to their role as facilitator of shared narratives, as learners are encouraged to notice emotional and bodily responses, make observations, and create their own lines of enquiry in visual‒social spaces.

268  Handbook of teaching public administration Using Visual Images to Trace Connections Visual methods provide a unique type of space in which relationships can be explored. In this space, artefacts such as images or objects appear together in a provisional sense, but are not presented in a formal narrative. Instead, visual methods prompt students to develop a narrative as educators move beyond rote learning or simplistic transmission of knowledge. Figure 27.2 takes up the theme of community regeneration as a collaborative public administration activity. The draft image is abstract, but also includes images that reference aspects of regeneration activity, in particular stakeholders such as central government, local government, and contractors such as architects and residents. It includes text boxes that support navigation of the image around the topics of: (1) stakeholders; and (2) intersections of interests (on political, legal, professional, and technical points). As a site of enquiry, it is intentionally complex, with a central collage set in a composition of planes of images, accompanied by black narrative bars. Between the stakeholder images, twisting white lines depict connections to the shared topic of regeneration. At points, these lines tangle and connect, and four circles depict types or topics of interaction between stakeholders. The image conveys a sense of entanglement and intersectionality. One way to ‘read’ the image is to move from discrete stakeholder identification on the outer edges of the image, in towards more complex interactions via a set of traced lines. At the centre of the space is a geometric shape which acts as a focal point for the stakeholder activity.

Figure 27.2

A situation of English community regeneration

Images such as Figure 27.2 become sites of exploration and experimentation as they are read. Text boxes and abstract lines suggest connectivity within the image, and before a rational

Teaching public administration with visual methods  269 analysis takes place, the eye begins to trace movements and to discern pattern and composition. This visual searching helpfully precedes initial confusion, or curiosity, which in turn motivates the development of questions (How does …? What would happen if …? Can I …?). Image-elicitation (in this case) engages viewers at aesthetic, sensory and emotional levels, and helps to provide a hook for student motivation to persist in enquiry. Public administration needs teaching methods that invite enquiry, particularly in topics which superficially seem unappealing to some students. Complex and dynamic images (or collections of objects, maps, or any other visual method) juxtapose heterogeneous elements: concepts, places, actors, processes, policies, and so on. These images require their own kind of active, exploratory reading. Students are challenged to invest in the act of meaning-making as they switch perspectives, compare text and image, relate activity at different scales, and appreciate aspects of situations that too often go unrecognised, and are not made visual. Advantages of Visual Narratives At other times, visual methods can present a form of narrative which invites evaluation. Figure 27.3 presents a draft visual narrative about the enactment of policy, and invites students to consider ways in which policy is never simple or neutral, and how the enactment of policy has (sometimes unintended) consequences as it is animated in local circumstances.

Figure 27.3

Public policy implementation

One possible starting point in the image is in the top left-hand side with the text ‘there are no neutral policies’, so ‘shiny boxes’ of ideal policy are seen in contrast with the emergent complexity (mess?) of other parts of the image. This narrative direction can be followed, via

270  Handbook of teaching public administration a series of text boxes, to the right of the image (from A to B), then down, accompanied by the text ‘as they are enacted’, towards ‘as they are diffracted through’. The text boxes work with a set of abstract geometric shapes and diagrams, hinting at issues of clean and smooth policies which have a more complex form as they are implemented. The geometric ‘dome’ shape contains various local factors (for example, politics, history, place) which diffract and change previously ‘clear and direct’ policies. Because the image requires work to be read, students are challenged to follow each part of the (visual) narrative in their sensemaking task. In doing so, they are required to relate the text and its proximal images (What is this? How do I connect words and images?). Clearly, this is a particular visualisation of the narrative: reflective, smooth surfaces of a seemingly ‘ideal’ policy, the unravelling and twisting of shapes as the idea of enactment is introduced, the image of a diffractive lens at the site of implementation, and so on. Visual elements amplify and illustrate the text in explicit ways, and provide opportunities to pause, comprehend, evaluate, and ask: Is it really like this? To what extent? How? The more bold, strange, and fantastical the image, the stronger the prompt to critically reflect. Alternative activities could include creating alternative text, or images, or having to annotate each stage of the narrative with links to empirical evidence, theoretical discussion, or policy documents.

DISCUSSION This Handbook illustrates ways in which the subject and teaching of public administration is changing. One way that this is occurring is by the increased consideration of its aesthetic, relational, and heuristic domains, which demand that methods of teaching and learning must change alongside it. Visual methods offer students and scholars of public administration the opportunity to address phenomena central to public administration, but often neglected in its study: emergence, ambiguity, materiality, aesthetics, and more. The image, artefact, installation, augmented or virtual reality environment offer students a place to encounter, explore, and construct knowledge about these things. Visual methods do this by bringing together diverse elements into the same space, by disrupting, foregrounding senses, changing units of analysis, and making possible new lines of enquiry. By making things strange and materialising them, students can review, select, relate, and organise enquiry in new ways. This offers the potential to enhance and expand the ways in which the topic of public administration can be appreciated and explored, potentially strengthening forms of analytic and critical enquiry, as students develop and test more insightful, comprehensive, and reflexive arguments which relate to the practices of public organising. Visual methods have the potential to support collective enquiry by creating shared objects which force participants to make sense. Used purposefully and as part of best practice in teaching and learning, they help to resist the urge to reduce and simplify the complexities of the topic and promote more inventive ways to co-enquire (Ashwin et al., 2020; Bovill, 2020): to see from multiple perspectives and to make new connections.

Teaching public administration with visual methods  271

CONCLUSION Like all methods, visual methods do not automatically enhance teaching and learning, and the habitual use of any method is undesirable. Developing or adapting visual methods is advisable to ensure that educators can confidently facilitate their use. Such development needs to consider: (1) the learning objectives of any given programme; (2) an appreciation of the aesthetic, relational, and heuristic domains of enquiry in relation to public administration; and (3) the affordances of different visual material methods. Meaningful engagement with, and use of, any visual method rests on a set of preconditions, which involve giving students: (1) permission; (2) a basic visual literacy; and (3) starting points or prompts. By giving permission, and modelling diverse and heuristic forms of enquiry, educators can help students to engage in more diverse discourses about public administration. This can help students to resist reported enculturation (Coertjens et al., 2017) into dated disciplinary conventions and language associated with fixed curriculum and methods, which reduces the subject in so many ways. This is not without challenge for educators, who must adopt a degree of openness and co-enquiry with their students that is demanded by visual methods. For ‘non-artists’ and creative educators alike, it is possible to become familiar with the types of methods listed in Table 27.1, to acknowledge different ways of knowing (feelings being valid, for example), or to help students appreciate the many ways they might ‘read’ an image (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2017; Robson, 2016; Taylor, 2017). Knowing how to start working with visual methods involves knowing how to start things off (Manning and Massumi, 2014, pp. 89‒97). In teaching public administration, asking ‘What do you see here?’ or ‘What can you do here?’ opens a world of relevant questions and new opportunities for learning.

REFERENCES Anuoluwapo, D., and Ljeoma, E. (2020). The changing face of public administration in the fourth industrial revolution. African Journal of Development Studies, 10(2), 105‒121. Ashwin, P., Boud, D., Calkins, S., Coate, K., McArthur, J., et al. (2020). Reflective teaching in higher education. Bloomsbury. Barad, K. (2007). Meeting the universe halfway: Quantum physics and the entanglement of matter and meaning. Duke University Press. Bjerge, B., and Rowe, M. (2020). Public service iconography: Desks, dress, diploma, and décor. The Palgrave handbook of the public servant. Palgrave Macmillan. Boin, A., and Lodge, M. (2016). Designing resilient institutions for transboundary crisis management: A time for public administration, Public Administration, 94(2), 289‒298. Bovill, C. (2020). Co-creating learning and teaching: Towards relational pedagogy in higher education (Critical Practice in Higher Education Series). Critical Publishing. Brown, P.R. (2020). What tutors bring to course design: Introducing political and policy theories to disengaged students. Teaching Public Administration, 38(1), 12‒23. Coertjens, L., Brahm, T., Trautwein, C., and Lindblom-Ylänne, S. (2017). Students’ transition into higher education from an international perspective. Higher Education, 73, 357–369. Clarke, A.E. (2005). Situational analysis: Grounded theory after the postmodern turn. SAGE. Cox, A.M. (2019). Learning bodies: Sensory experience in the information commons. Library and Information Science Research, 41(1), 58‒66. Daniels, H. (2016). Vygotsky and pedagogy (Routledge Education Classic Edition). Routledge. Hui, A., Schatski, T., and Shove, E. (eds) (2016). The nexus of practices: Connections, constellations, practitioners. Taylor & Francis.

272  Handbook of teaching public administration Jukić, T., Pevcin, P., Benčina, J., Dečman, M., and Vrbek, S. (2019). Collaborative innovation in public administration: Theoretical background and research trends of co-production and co-creation. Administrative Sciences, 9 (90), 1‒17. Kress, G., and van Leeuwen, T. (2017). Reading images ‒ The grammar of visual design (2nd edn). Routledge. Lowe, T., and El Hakim, Y. (2020). An introduction to student engagement in higher education. In T. Lowe and Y. El Hakim (eds), A handbook for student engagement in higher education: Theory into practice (pp. 3‒26). Routledge. Manning, E., and Massumi, B. (2014). Thought in the act: Passages in the ecology of experience. University of Minnesota Press. Morris, C. (2016). Making sense of education: Sensory ethnography and visual impairment. Ethnography and Education, 12(1), 1‒16. Nicolini, D. (2013). Practice theory, work, and organization: An introduction. Oxford University Press. Pauwels, L. (2019). An integrated conceptual and methodological framework for the visual study of culture and society. In L. Pauwels and D. Mannay (eds), The SAGE handbook of visual research (pp. 15‒36). SAGE. Robson, I. (2016). Management learning as collaborative visual encounter: Learning lessons from research and practice. Management Teaching Review, 1(4), 278–286. Robson, I. (2020). Improving sensemaking in social work: A worked example with Deleuze and art. Qualitative Social Work, 20(5), 1204‒1222. doi: 10.1177/1473325020968916. Taylor, C.J. (2017). Reading images (including moving ones). In T. Bartlett and G. O’Grady (eds), The Routledge Handbook of systemic functional linguistics (pp. 575‒590). Routledge. Weick, K.E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations (Foundations for Organizational Science Series). SAGE. Zhu, L., Witko, C., and Meier, K.J. (2019). The public administration manifesto II: Matching methods to theory and substance. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 29(2), 287‒298.

28. Collective learning from and with social movements Eurig Scandrett

[T]he path from the concept of lifelong education to its realisation is characterised by struggles in social life and educational institutions in such areas as: the type of relationship between formal and non-formal education i.e. dialectical or dependent; the contribution of such non-teaching educators as cultural, social and political movements to education activities; the criteria for assessing the effectiveness of the educational system both internally and externally; the extent to which self-directed learning is encouraged, especially that of a collective nature. (Gelpi, 1985, pp. 8‒9)

The development and implementation of public policy is a result of the interaction between administrations and publics. Publics express their assent or dissent to policy through collective action, in social movements (Annetts et al., 2009). Thus, what is desirable in public administration, or even feasible, requires a degree of consent from movements which articulate the collective interests of particular publics and are focused on achieving policy goals. Social movements, moreover, learn their skills through collective praxis; the shared endeavour and division of labour that means that their impact on society is greater than the sum of the parts of the individuals engaged. This is what we understand by collective, self-directed learning, to which Ettore Gelpi (1985) refers in his conception of lifelong education in educational institutions. The opportunities and limitations of policy, therefore, are shaped by the cognitive praxis of social movements (Eyerman and Jamieson, 1991), which reflect the competing interests of subaltern publics (Fraser, 1990) seeking to change or disrupt policy in the interests of social justice claims (movements from below), but also of powerful groups seeking to defend privilege (movements from above) (Cox and Nilsen, 2014). Public policy is therefore a dynamic process of, on the one hand, the collective expression of demands on administration from publics, and on the other, the capacity of the administration to manage competing demands within particular policy frameworks. This involves incorporation of elements of these demands and resistance to others. Social movement scholars have pointed to the role of structured learning and informal education in the articulation of collective interests and successful political intervention (Hall et al., 2012). Movements ‒ ranging from structured civil society organisations such as trade unions and non-governmental organisations, through highly motivated horizontal groups enacting prefigurative politics, to the more reluctant citizens’ action of communities responding to injustices ‒ become ‘schools’ in which people are educated in issues of concern, as well as the means of realising these, both within existing policy frameworks and also by intervening to seek to change policy. How can public administration educators learn from these collective learning processes of social movements to enhance their own pedagogy? This chapter explores this question through extending out (Burawoy, 1998) from a case study of an educational programme at Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh (QMU) in the field of gender-based violence, linked with social movement collective learning: a module on gender justice and violence for sociology students, activists, and professionals in the field 273

274  Handbook of teaching public administration involving a collaboration with Scottish Women’s Aid (SWA). There is a long, varied, and contested history of higher education institutions engaging with social movements, community groups, and civil society organisations, (some of which involve collective learning) such as University Extension, University Settlements, Science Shops, Service Learning, and the UNESCO Chairs in Community Based Research and Social Responsibility in Higher Education (Mayo, 2020, pp. 137‒153; Scandrett, 2020a). QMU was founded in 1875 as the Edinburgh School of Cookery, by activists in the Edinburgh Association for the University Education of Women, at a time when women were ineligible to matriculate in Scottish universities and there was no provision of any form of post-school education for working-class women. In more recent times, the university has developed various approaches to collaborating with civil society and social movements, such as through programmes of public sociology education (Scandrett, 2020b). The collaboration with SWA, and other examples of pedagogical engagement with social movement organisations, are analysed in more detail elsewhere (for example Ballantyne et al., 2020; Orr et al., 2013; Orr and Whiting, 2020; Scandrett, 2017; Scandrett and Ballantyne, 2019), whereas this chapter draws out certain insights from pedagogical methods and approaches which can be applied in public administration education, as well as the challenges that this brings.

COLLECTIVE LEARNING IN THE NEOLIBERAL INSTITUTION One of the major tensions over collective learning in the context of formal education has been individual accreditation. Almost by definition, formal education involves the comparative assessment of individual learners in a competition for marketable goods: grades, certificates, degrees, and so on. Moreover, the neoliberal disciplinarity of the educator in nearly all educational institutions requires obedience to that individualised competitive logic, through such disciplinary measures as surveillance, new public management, and performance management. Students, as customers, demand a service that allows them to compete in the market for assessments; and teachers, as employees, are required to deliver that service more productively and competitively in fulfilment of operational plans. In that context, individual acquisition of assessable knowledge and skills is hegemonic over collective learning for social benefit, let alone the shared pursuit of learning of the community of scholars. Thus, any educator attempting to encourage collective learning needs to work with this individualisation of learning and consciously seek to challenge, disrupt, subvert, or accommodate to it. Whilst not new, the increasing hegemony of individualised learning cannot be ignored. This contradiction was recognised by Ettore Gelpi, head of lifelong education at the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) in the 1980s, at a time when neoliberal ideology was rapidly being deployed internationally. His assertion is that the realisation of lifelong education occurs in ‘struggles in … educational institutions in such areas as … the contribution of … social and political movements to education activities … the extent to which self-directed learning is encouraged, especially that of a collective nature’ (Gelpi, 1985, pp. 8‒9). Note that lifelong education is realised, not delivered. It emerges in the midst of such struggles demanded by the contradictions of individual accreditation and collective benefit, between competition for outputs and collaboration for social good. A central organisational principle here is what C. Wright Mills (1959) called the sociological imagination, taught to sociology students at basic level through to advanced research. The

Collective learning from and with social movements  275 sociological imagination is what turns ‘private troubles’ into ‘public issues’; in other words, the collective must learn from the experiences of the individual. A valuable source of insights into collective learning comes from the trade union movement. Public sector organisations are amongst the most densely unionised sectors, with the union federation Public Services International representing 30 million members in over 150 countries (PSI, n.d.), and many students of public administration will be aware of the trade unions that represent public sector employees. Trade unions are longstanding social movements and institutions constructed by and for the working class for the collective benefit of workers, and operate in the contradiction between the demands of employers for increased productivity and the interests of employees for improved working conditions. Collective learning has always been a significant part of the operation of trade unions and other working-class institutions. In the nineteenth and into the early twentieth century, the working class was largely excluded from formal education, and working-class movements in industrial countries such as Chartists, Owenites, and Marxists organised their own independent and collective forms of education, including through co-operatives, socialist Sunday Schools, study circles, and the trade unions. Advocating independent working-class education, such radical organisations in Britain derived the term ‘really useful knowledge’ (in satirical counterpoint to the Whig Edinburgh lawyer Lord Brougham’s philanthropic Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge) to define education in which the selection of the curriculum was collective, accountable to, and in the shared interests of the working class (Johnson, 1976). In 1917, in the middle of the Great War and having just been released from prison, John MacLean attracted 500 working-class students to his classes on Marxist economics in Glasgow (Cooke, 2006). In more recent (and considerably more reformist and instrumentalist) times, the British Trade Union Congress Education Trade Union Studies approach has privileged collective learning through workshops, role plays, discussions, and skill shares. Individual accreditation (often necessary for shop stewards and other trade union representatives to be able to carry out their duties in the workplace) has been achieved through attendance at and, by necessity, participation in such activities, rather than assessments on the basis of competitive achievement. Moreover, the basic discipline of trade union organising has collective learning at its heart: the principle of collectivising from the experiences of individual workers. While workers experience issues as individuals – conflicts with their line managers, excessive workloads, pay, casualisation, stress, surveillance, safety risks, threat of redundancy – the job of the trade union, through its representatives, is to support the worker in their ‘private trouble’ and collectivise it into a ‘public issue’ through collective bargaining. Conflicts with line managers, when multiplied, become collective challenges to managerialism. Workload, experienced individually, becomes collective resistance to efficiency savings. The collective learning, here, depends on emergent patterns that are more than the sum of the parts of the individuals experiencing them.

PEDAGOGY FOR COLLECTIVE LEARNING Pedagogically, many of the insights for collective learning have come from the work of Paulo Freire (1972), whose ‘pedagogy of the oppressed’ methodology is the foundation stone for so much practice in collective learning; formally, non-formally, and informally. In particular the approach to collective learning has been founded on Freire’s insistence on the dialectical nature

276  Handbook of teaching public administration of education: between theory and practice, the word and the world, the concrete and abstract, the generic and particular, analytical and normative, between oppression and liberation, and between mythical consciousness and critical consciousness. The methodology contradicts the linear model of education in which learning outcomes are established in advance by educators, who then deliver the pedagogy to enable the students to attain the required knowledge, understanding, and skills which can then be assessed; what Freire refers to as a banking model of education. Freire’s dialogical or ‘problem-posing’ pedagogy starts with an exploration of the concrete social world of the learners, in a joint investigation involving educators and learners, in which the latter are the experts. Aspects of this social world are then represented as a ‘code’ which is both familiar to the learners and also contains within it the capacity to derive abstract analysis through collective interrogation: The coding of an existential situation is the representation of that situation, showing some of its constituent elements in interaction. Decoding is the critical analysis of the coded situation. … a sketch or a photograph which leads by abstraction to the concreteness of existential reality. (Freire, 1972, p. 77)

Through a collective process of decoding, usually involving the teacher asking groups of learners progressively analytical questions, generative themes emerge – abstractions and analyses – and through further investigation the learners can assess for themselves whether these constitute valuable interpretations of their concrete situations. Intrinsic to whether such analyses are valuable is whether they facilitate the learners’ collective capacity to change their social context. In other words, does this generate ‘really useful knowledge’? Freire’s influence has been immense, even though banking education has remained hegemonic in institutions of learning. A strand of practice which has developed Freire’s ideas into a wide range of contexts is ‘popular education’ (originally developed in Freire’s native Brazil as educação popular, more accurately translated as ‘people’s education’). According to the largely university-based international Popular Education Network, popular education is defined as follows: Popular education is understood to be popular, as distinct from merely populist, in the sense that it is: • rooted in the real interests and struggles of ordinary people • overtly political and critical of the status quo • committed to progressive social and political change.

The process of popular education has the following general characteristics: • its curriculum comes out of the concrete experience and material interests of people in communities of resistance and struggle • its pedagogy is collective, focused primarily on group as distinct from individual learning and development • it attempts, wherever possible, to forge a direct link between education and social action. (Crowther et al., 1999, p. 4)

The requirement for collective pedagogy creates an immediate contradiction between popular education and the procedures of the university, driven by the quality assurance agencies, whose interpretation of quality is based on standards and assessments of individual students, rather than fidelity to social movement praxis or collective learning for social benefit. A sig-

Collective learning from and with social movements  277 nificant contradiction is that popular education requires learning outcomes to be negotiated by the learners through dialogue with the educators, whereas quality assurance procedures generally require defining the learning outcomes at the point of programme validation, before the students have even been recruited. Thus, developing programmes of collective learning in universities require educators to identify learning outcomes which guarantee a collective learning experience based on the material interests of participants. At times, this has involved engaging directly with communities engaged in struggles, providing an educational intervention in order to facilitate campaigns and social movement activities, such as campaigns against environmental pollution (e.g. Scandrett, 2014), in which learning outcomes were defined on the basis that they demonstrate that what the student learned was shared with others, either in their community or engaged in the same struggle for environmental justice. This enabled the curriculum to emerge from the struggles of the communities in dialogue with the academic resources which could be provided by the educators. Thus, despite quality assurance processes being designed to reproduce the hegemony of an individualised competitive market in outcomes, it was possible, marginally, to subvert this in order to validate collective learning. The following case study will serve to illustrate attempts ‒ never perfect – to reverse the hegemonic privilege of individualised learning over collective learning through engagement with the disciplines of social movements, in particular, the feminist movement.

GENDER JUSTICE AND VIOLENCE This case study relates to the provision of a module on gender justice and violence as a collaboration between QMU and the social movement organisation Scottish Women’s Aid. Women’s Aid is a collective response to domestic violence. In the 1960s and 1970s, many women in Western democracies started to share their ‘private troubles’ of experiencing domestic violence and other forms of abuse and control from their intimate partners, through such collective learning contexts as consciousness-raising groups and women-only spaces. The feminist movement of the time mobilised in order to turn these private troubles into public issues. Domestic violence which had, until then, been either legitimised by the state or regarded as a private issue in which the state had no responsibility, became an issue of public concern as feminists made demands in the public sphere (Dobash and Dobash, 1992). As progress was made in public policy, and domestic violence and abuse was increasingly recognised as a legitimate area for public intervention, feminists gained increased access to policymaking. In Scotland, the Scottish government adopted a definition of gender-based violence which recognised the significant empirical basis as well as the analysis of the feminist movement: Gender based violence is a function of gender inequality, and an abuse of male power and privilege … By referring to violence as ‘gender based’ this definition highlights the need to understand violence within the context of women’s and girls’ subordinate status in society. Such violence cannot be understood, therefore, in isolation from the norms, social structure and gender roles within the community, which greatly influence women’s vulnerability to violence. (Scottish Government, 2009)

As a result, the Scottish government committed to an education and training strategy on gender-based violence. The experience of collaboration with social movement organisations at QMU made an alliance between the training strategy and the university feasible, especially

278  Handbook of teaching public administration given the personal connections between the educators at Women’s Aid and the presence at QMU of a lecturer in sociology with a background in the pro-feminist men’s movement. The proposal was to create a module which was: ● forged of a coherent collaboration between a social movement organisation (Scottish Women’s Aid) and the university (Queen Margaret University) with integrity; ● located in QMU as part of a degree programme, in order to protect its sustainability; ● accountable to the feminist movement, both its activist-experiential and its academic-empirical elements, in equal measure; ● based on dialogue between practice and theory, action and reflection. Thus, the collaborative module, currently called ‘Gender Justice and Violence: Feminist Responses’, was developed and has been delivered successfully for more than 15 years. The conflict between individual and collective learning was also addressed through the selection of the student body. The module was constituted as an elective for students of public sociology in their honours year, as well as for people working and active in issues relevant to gender justice and challenging gender-based violence, attending as continual professional development (CPD) and registered as associate students solely for this module. Thus, the class regularly contained workers in Women’s Aid shelters and other women’s organisations, social workers, nurses, midwives, police, community workers, and support workers from alcohol, drug use, and other community health and welfare projects, as well as full-time sociology students. For the full-time students, achieving a good grade was a significant issue as they progressed towards their honours degree. For CPD students, eager to develop their theoretical understanding of their practice, obtaining a grade was less significant and, in some cases, they opted not to submit an assessment. The contradiction between individual and collective learning was addressed through putting dialectical interactions at the heart of the programme. Thus, the fact that the programme was co-produced by SWA and QMU meant that it was possible to draw equally on academic resources and the practice of the feminist movement in tackling gender-based violence. The lecturers were all engaged in both academic scholarship and social activism on gender justice, and attested to the dialectical relationship between the two in their own praxis. Offering the course as CPD to practitioners as associate students, as well as honours-level full-time sociology students, meant that there was always a capacity for dialogue between experience and study, between theory and practice. Many of the associate students had years of experience in Women’s Aid refuges, social work, health, the police, and other public services, as well as campaigns for women’s rights, and were looking for the opportunity to gain more theoretical insights from academia in order to resource their practice. At the same time, most of the full-time students had spent more than three years absorbed in sociological scholarship and were close to graduating, but lacked significant experience of engaging in social struggles. In any one year there were always a few students who were conducting an honours-level research project in a gender-related subject, and many who aspired to careers in social service, including in addressing gender-based violence through direct service provision, policy development, education, or research. Dialogues facilitated between groups of students with complementary experience provided rich opportunities for collective learning. Thus, the programme always explicitly foregrounded the dialectical relationship between theory and practice, and between academia and activism, and was delivered through dialogical pedagogical methods.

Collective learning from and with social movements  279 The mix of full-time and associate students also provided the opportunity for part of the assessment to include elements of collective learning. The course was taught in two blocks of two days each, six weeks apart. From a practical perspective, this enabled many practitioners to plan to take blocks of time away from employment for concentrated study, and for those living some distance away the opportunity to travel to Edinburgh twice for an intensive course with an overnight stay. The six-week gap between the two blocks, moreover, provided the opportunity for a period of critical reflection on an issue related to gender-based violence which could then be collectivised on return for the second block of teaching. At the end of the first block, after two days of structured dialogical education, and after work had gone into establishing a level of mutual trust, students were asked to identify what they understand by sexual harassment. This usually provided an interesting and sometimes painful discussion of experiences that students had been through, and generally led to a shared understanding of what constitutes sexual harassment, albeit sometimes with some disagreement. Students were then probed to identify where the limits to sexual harassment occur, particularly where disagreements revealed areas of contestation, and in particular to identify circumstances which they felt might cause discomfort, but which might not be defined as sexual harassment. The group was then asked to consider how this has changed over recent generations. Thus, by historicising the contexts which may or may not constitute sexual harassment, the group were able to appreciate that the naming of and challenge to sexual harassment is part of a social movement process of struggle. They were then introduced to a theoretical model derived from the feminist analysis of gendered violations in organisations (Hearn and Parkin, 2001) which identifies what they classify as ‘mundane violations’ – everyday occurrences which exploit gendered inequalities and generate feelings of violation ‒ as sites of contestation which can be called out as sexual harassment. The students were then tasked, over the following six weeks, to identify in their social worlds (student life, work, families, the street, media, and so on) examples of: (1) ‘mundane violations’ (everyday and unidentified sexism); (2) ‘intermediate violations’ (identifiable forms of sexual harassment and other forms of exploitation); and (3) ‘structural violations’ (sex inequalities and the gender regimes that underpin them), as well as opportunities to challenge these. On return, in groups, the students discussed their experiences of identifying gendered violations and identifying opportunities to challenge them, and then gave a group presentation to the rest of the class, which was assessed as a group. This exercise facilitated a link between the university curriculum and the ‘real-world’ context (which may include the ‘hidden curriculum’ in the university), with students being recognised as the whole, socially located people that they are, as parents, workers, carers, activists, and so on. Finally, in many cases, these reflections on concrete situations, followed by essays linking theory and practice, have led to students taking on projects during, and sometimes after the course. One full-time student, who worked as a bouncer at a night club, introduced material designed to counter sexual harassment at the club. An associate student, a midwife, went on to develop policy on female genital mutilation for her health board (see Orr and Whiting, 2020).

280  Handbook of teaching public administration

CONCLUSIONS Collective learning, as Gelpi (1985, pp. 8‒9) identified, is an important part of lifelong learning in educational institutions, and has particular relevance for public administration education, given the dependence on the collective learning of social movements for the legitimacy of public policy. The creation of opportunities for collective learning, however, must be set in the context of the pressures on academics and students for individualised grading in order to compete in a marketplace of accreditation. This is exacerbated by the neoliberalisation of the university, through league tables, employability targets, metrics which pass for student experience, excellence frameworks, performance appraisal, new public management, and dependence on student fees (even in Scottish universities, where Scottish domiciled students’ fees are state funded). The case study examined here is an attempt to generate collective learning in the context of higher education, and this has been extended out to other areas which are relevant to the learning and practice of public administration, with its distinct relationship at the interface of public policy and social movement process. Collective learning covers a range of possibilities, including study groups sharing their own learning so that all learn from all; through a division of educational labour so that different individuals in a study group learn different things which together lead to benefit for the group; to student engagement with a wider public with whom their university learning is shared. The insights and methodologies of Paulo Freire have been central to the range of approaches outlined here, with his insistence on collective problem-posing and dialectical relationships between teaching and learning, action and reflection, concrete and abstract, theory and practice, and so on. Rather than deploying a specific set of techniques or seeking to apply the insights of one case study in another context, it is the commitment of the educator to develop opportunities for collective learning based on these principles which is paramount. This chapter has demonstrated how collective learning can be incorporated into a university system designed not for education but for the production of graduates. The linear process of assessing students against learning outcomes predetermined by educators, which is increasingly driven by new public management structures of quality control, can be questioned and challenged as students face the task of learning collectively for common benefit. Moreover, collective learning provides distinctive value to public administration education. First, publics make political claims against the unjust outcomes of public administration through organising in social movements, and public administrators have a responsibility to be responsive to these. Collective learning can facilitate the process by which ‘really useful knowledge’ – discerned by subaltern counter-publics, that can support aspirations for social justice – can be identified. Second, public bodies are learning organisations, and notwithstanding the neoliberal capture of this concept, collective learning can contribute to a process of collectivising the experience of individual struggles as demonstrated by trade union practice. And finally, understanding the educational processes which occur in social movements, which by their nature are collective, provides a valuable insight for public administrators. Attempts to incorporate into the formal curriculum the collective learning which occurs in social movements help to erode the distinction between the formal and hidden curricula, and retain the spirit of critical and transformative action in dialogical education.

Collective learning from and with social movements  281

REFERENCES Annetts, J., Law, A., McNeish, W., and Mooney, G. (eds) (2009). Understanding social welfare movements. Policy Press. Ballantyne, E., Maclean, K., Collie, S.-A., Deeming, L., and Fraser, E. (2020). Mad people’s history and identity: A mad studies critical pedagogy project. In E. Scandrett (ed.), Public sociology as educational practice (pp. 25‒35). Bristol University Press. Burawoy, M. (1998). The extended case method. Sociological Theory, 16(1), 4‒33. Cooke, A. (2006). From popular enlightenment to lifelong learning: A history of adult education in Scotland 1707‒2005. National Institute for Adult and Continuing Education. Cox, L., and Nilsen, A.G. (2014). We make our own history: Marxism and social movements in the twilight of neoliberalism. Pluto Press. Crowther, J., Martin, I., and Shaw, M. (eds) (1999). Popular education and social movements in Scotland today. National Institute for Adult and Continuing Education. Dobash, R.E., and Dobash, R.P. (1992). Women, violence and social change. Routledge. Eyerman, R., and Jamieson, A. (1991). Social movements, a cognitive approach. Wiley. Fraser, N. (1990). Rethinking the public sphere: A contribution to the critique of actually existing democracy. Social Text, 25‒26, 56‒80. Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Penguin. Gelpi, E. (1985). Lifelong education and international relations. Croom Helm. Hall, B.L., Clover, D.E., Crowther, J., and Scandrett, E. (eds) (2012). Learning and education for a better world: The role of social movements. Sense Publishers. Hearn, J., and Parkin, W. (2001). Gender, sexuality and violence in organizations: The unspoken forces of organization violations. SAGE. Johnson, R. (1976). Really useful knowledge: Radical education and working class culture 1790‒1848. In J. Clarke, C. Critcher, and R. Johnson (eds), Working class culture: Studies in history and theory (pp. 7‒28). Hutchinson. Mayo, M. (2020). Community-based learning and social movements: Popular education in a populist age. Policy Press. Orr, L., Scandrett, E., and Whiting, N. (2013). An educational approach to gender justice. Concepts, 4(1), 1‒4. Orr, L., and Whiting, N. (2020). ‘Seeing things differently’: Gender justice and counter-hegemony in higher education. In E. Scandrett (ed.), Public sociology as educational practice (pp. 37‒52). Bristol University Press. PSI (n.d.). Public Services International. https://​publicservices​.international/​resources/​page/​about​-us​?id​ =​5428​&​lang​=​en (accessed 13 September 2021). Scandrett, E. (2014). Popular education methodology, activist academics and emergent social movements: Agents for environmental justice (action note). Interface: A Journal for and about Social Movements, 6(1), 327‒334. Scandrett, E. (2017). Still spaces in the academy? The dialectic of university social movement pedagogy. In J. Winn and R. Hall (eds), Mass intellectuality and democratic leadership in higher education (pp. 81‒95), Bloomsbury Academic. Scandrett, E. (2020a). Provocation III: Public sociology practices, privatising universities. In E. Scandrett (ed.), Public sociology as educational practice: Challenges, dialogues and counter-publics (pp. 331‒342). Bristol University Press. Scandrett, E. (ed.) (2020b). Public sociology as educational practice: Challenges, dialogues and counter-publics. Bristol University Press. Scandrett, E., and Ballantyne, E. (2019). Public sociology and social movements: Incorporation or a war of position? In M. Breeze, C. Costa, and Y. Taylor (eds), Time and space in the neoliberal university (pp. 169‒190). Palgrave Macmillan. Scottish Government (2009). Safer lives: Changed lives: A shared approach to tackling violence against women in Scotland. https://​www​.webarchive​.org​.uk/​wayback/​archive/​20180517125819/​http://​www​ .gov​.scot/​Publications/​2009/​06/​02153519/​0 (accessed 21 December 2020). Wright Mills, C. (1959). The sociological imagination. Oxford University Press.

29. Show me the money: financial management curricular concerns in public administration education Thad D. Calabrese and Daniel L. Smith

In this chapter, we make a normative argument for a broad and sweeping core course that introduces students to key aspects of financial management that are applicable across organizations and sectors; this core course may then be followed with robust upper-level course offerings that can allow students to focus their coursework on sector-specific skills or on topics that span across multiple sectors while learning vocabulary and techniques common to all organizations. Public administration graduates in the United States currently work across industries and sectors. Public administration programs have historically focused on budgeting, especially budgeting as a policy process, as the core – and sometimes only – financial management topic of study (see Moody and Marlowe, 2009). This approach made sense when public administration program graduates were largely working in public agencies, where developing, implementing, and controlling budgets are key managerial tasks. However, this approach is suboptimal when significant numbers of students are employed in nongovernmental public service organizations in which public budgeting is of minimal direct value. While government employment is still an important path for many students, many graduates now work in the not-for-profit sector or even in for-profit companies, and many move between sectors throughout their careers. That is, as public service organizations increasingly cross sectors, public administration programs must evolve with the needs of their students and equip students to manage organizations in different industries and sectors. According to one recent survey, nearly one-half of graduates from public affairs schools work in government agencies post-graduation, about one-fifth work in private organizations, about one-quarter in not-for-profit organizations, and the remaining one-tenth are in other organizations or not employed.1 Public administration programs, therefore, need to prepare students for employment across sectors. Do the skills taught in public budgeting courses translate to the needs of a nonprofit program manager? Or an analyst at a bond rating agency? Or a hospital administrator? Further, students who do work in government in the United States or abroad face an increasingly complex operating environment. The recognition a decade ago of this increasingly complex reality has not changed, and may now actually be more acute. Purtell and Fossett (2010, p. 96) acknowledge that: Public and nonprofit employees frequently have to prepare or review budgets, evaluate investments in personnel or equipment, negotiate the financial terms of contracts for provision of public services, borrow or invest money, propose or set rates to be paid for particular services, regulate financial institutions, and make a variety of other decisions with financial consequences for their organizations and citizens at large. Techniques for evaluating the alternatives and consequences of these decisions are well-established and taught in other professional programs but are only slowly finding their way into public administration or policy programs.

282

Financial management curricular concerns in public administration education  283 Ideally, public administration programs would cover a variety of topics to prepare students accordingly. In reality, public administration programs may offer one core course that covers topics in financial management, and some may have additional offerings beyond that. In one survey, two-thirds of schools offered required courses that covered budget execution and analysis (Moody and Marlowe, 2009). Yet such a course would cover only a limited amount of the need articulated by Purtell and Fossett (2010). Further, when the analysis is extended to the topics covered, Moody and Marlowe (2009) find only about one-third of the time is spent on topics that might be classified as financial accounting and reporting, and such topics rank as only the tenth most important to cover. Therefore, what core courses offer and what students need for successful careers in public service seem misaligned. Given this, how might instructors and programs conceive of building a financial management course from scratch, or adjust their current course to the realities of administering public agencies and nonprofit organizations? The goal of this chapter is to assist in this navigation process.

WHAT IS THE COURSE THE SCHOOL IS OFFERING? Unlike many disciplines, there is no relatively common or accepted curriculum in public administration programs related to financial management or public budgeting. Further, there are different approaches and philosophies about what should be in such a curriculum. Whereas most schools offer some standard course in microeconomics in which students learn about basic supply and demand concepts, externalities, and the way in which governments might address these externalities, such is not the case with financial management. This is because different programs offer students different pieces of the potentially expansive field. Some schools, for example, offer courses in “fiscal administration,” defined by Mikesell (2007, p. 657) as the “activities involving finance and taxation.” Courses in fiscal administration, as suggested by the description, focus on government finance, which is natural given public administration’s roots in schools that prepared government officials and bureaucrats. Topics in fiscal administration might include public pension management, spending of public funds, auditing of public programs and departments, the mechanics of specific tax items, managing user fees and fines, debt and investment administration, and financial accounting and reporting for governments. This is not intended to be an exhaustive list of topics that courses in fiscal administration might cover; rather, the list merely highlights that these courses focus on government finance. The focus of government finance courses, moreover, is often from the point of view of the central budget office. Reviewing the topics mentioned above are clearly concerns of central budget offices rather than agencies in the government. Few fiscal administration courses adopt the agency perspective, which would focus mostly on programmatic cost estimates, budget modifications, estimating personnel costs, and cash management concerns to ensure that the agency does not overspend its allocations. One of the few texts that takes this agency perspective is Chen et al. (2014). Finally, these courses largely focus on state and local government finance. Few schools offer comprehensive public finance courses on the federal government. Curiously, however, many continue to teach the politics of the budgetary process with an emphasis on the federal government, despite the fact that the federal government has not followed its own budget process for the better part of a decade.

284  Handbook of teaching public administration As the field of public administration has expanded to include nongovernmental organizations that provide public services, the subfield of financial management and finance has shifted as well.2 Finkler et al. (2020, p. 2) define financial management as a “subset of management that focuses on generating financial information that can be used to improve decision making.” This information might be budgets to better plan for needed resources during the year, or financial statements to analyze how an organization performed during the year, or investment options to inform the best choice among many for an organization. Financial management is a comprehensive managerial framework that covers planning (budgeting), reporting (accounting), and the sources and uses of funds in an organization. The emphasis on sources and uses of funds requires that students become familiar with external funding sources and all the rules and regulations that are attendant with them, including the laws and principles that govern the management of gifts with donor restrictions, and the buying and selling of bond securities in the municipal market. Even seemingly trivial matters, such as how a line of credit works, are essential to understanding how nonprofit organizations obtain and manage their funds. Further, financial management is applicable to all organizations and not just governmental entities. Rather than teaching sector-specific skills or topics, this approach focuses on teaching skills relevant across sectors, with sector-specific content included as needed. As an example, a broad financial management course would teach how any organization might create and implement an annual operating budget and plan for contingencies; a fiscal administration course, by contrast, might offer lessons in the government budget cycle and the politics of public budgeting. Whereas the broad financial management course would focus on skills that might be transferable across sectors – since public goods or services may be provided by the public, for-profit, or not-for-profit sector – the latter would tend to focus on a sector-specific approach to the topic. Structuring the Curriculum: The First Course While there may be significant heterogeneity between programs on topics covered, many public administration programs require students to complete a core course that covers some topics in financial management. Moody and Marlowe (2009), for example, find that most students in schools of public administration are required to complete a course that covers the topics of budget execution, budget analysis, budget preparation, and performance budgeting. The implication here is that these courses largely cover budgeting for the public sector, akin to the fiscal administration approach described above. Again, given the history of public administration preparing students for jobs in government, and given the faculty available to offer these curricula, this focus is unsurprising. Moody and Marlowe (2009) note that a significant minority of public administration programs that required public budgeting courses in the past focused on the politics of budgeting. While unsurprising given public administration’s development initially as a subfield of political science, the choice to teach students of public administration politics rather than the nuts and bolts of financial management is misguided. Few students will ascend to professional positions in which politics is the foremost concern in money matters. Rather, most will in short order need to develop budgets and manage the financial operations of a program, agency, department, and so on. Nevertheless, we would argue that core courses should cover budgeting broadly speaking (that is, across sectors) and include more analytical tools that prepare students for careers that will likely span different sectors and different types of organizations. These courses should

Financial management curricular concerns in public administration education  285 be aimed at preparing students to be consumers of information and managers of those who generate this information. As noted by Purtell and Fossett (2010, p. 102): We need to prepare students to be informed users of financial information, prudent managers of financial specialists, and informed consumers of financial-advisory services. In essence, they need to be able to ask the right questions, interpret the results, know when to ask for assistance and, on occasion, complete a simple analysis for their own use.

Financial accounting in particular is too often avoided in financial management courses. Assuming that students will find the material overly technical and perhaps excessively boring provides a ready excuse to instructors not to bother with it. It is true that many managers, board members, and elected officials “get by” without learning any of the “dirty details” of financial accounting. Nonetheless, graduate programs in public administration exist to prepare students to excel as analysts, managers, and representatives, not merely to get by. Teaching students even a relatively small amount of the language of business – to which financial accounting is often referred – better prepares them to plan and implement budgets, and analyze and audit financial data, across sectors. These are tangible skills that can (and do) set apart public administration graduates while positioning them to enter and elevate themselves in positions in any sector. Ironically, learning the language of business is perhaps most important for students who wish to pursue careers in government finance, where a working knowledge of fund types and fund accounting is essential. Just as a statistics course would be expected to train students to use some data management and analysis program such as SPSS, R, Stata, or SAS, so financial management courses should also include guidance in computer programs that are commonly used in the workplace. The most obvious computer program used in financial management is a spreadsheet program such as Excel, Sheets, or Numbers. Such programs should be taught alongside topics so that students can immediately see how the program might be used to accomplish the financial management task. Spreadsheets are used routinely in: ● ● ● ● ●

Developing and presenting operating budgets for a program or department. Producing and maintaining budget scenarios. Detailing the employees of a program or department with salary details. Analyzing financial statements. Comparing budget to actual results by line item for a program or department.

If the core course includes capital budgeting analysis, the use of spreadsheets is also critical. Time value of money techniques were frequently taught in the past using financial calculators so that exams that covered time value of money concepts could be administered in-class. The problem, of course, is that no one uses financial calculators any longer. As a result, financial management core courses that rely on a calculator to teach time value of money concepts are essentially “teaching to the test” and not training students for their professional careers. Spreadsheet programs have built-in functions that can be used to teach: ● ● ● ● ●

Basic time value of money concepts. The basics of public pensions. Investment analysis. Debt valuation. Basic cost‒benefit analyses.

286  Handbook of teaching public administration In an ideal world, the core course might be split between the budgeting portion (or the managerial accounting section) and the financial accounting section. Doing so would allow instructors to dive more deeply, provide more examples or cases to practice on, and ensure better student competencies in financial management. However, this is impractical in reality. Most programs cannot add additional required core courses to students’ courses of study. The single core course in financial management is the only finance course that many students will complete. Thus, one reason why the recommended core course is so expansive is that many students will not complete additional courses in financial management. An expansive course such as this permits students to get the basic skills they need in financial management, learn the basics of a spreadsheet program, and have references for further explanations of topics that might be useful for any job. Structuring the Curriculum: Upper-Level Courses An additional reason why the core course is structured to be so expansive is that it prepares students who are interested in additional course work in financial management. Students might find that a particular topic covered in the core course is worthy of further deep study. But this discovery is conditioned upon students having that introduction in the core course in the first place. While a single class (or part of a class) on how bonds are valued and issued is not sufficient for those students seeking a career in the investment banking industry, for example, such a class serves to guide students to upper-level courses that are more specialized. Different institutions will have different abilities to offer additional courses beyond the core course. Faculty may have expertise in areas that lend themselves to additional financial management courses. Adjunct faculty that have specialized expertise in various financial management topics will vary by location; for example, schools located in financial centers (such as New York City) might have deeper pools of adjuncts to draw from to lead courses in the financial markets, while schools located in state capitals might have deeper pools of adjuncts to lead courses in auditing. Therefore, we acknowledge that upper-level financial management courses at schools may have significant heterogeneity due to the realities all schools face around the supply of potential faculty and adjunct. Upper-level courses in financial management might be classified into two categories or typologies. First, these upper-level courses might be sector-specific, so that students may prepare themselves for desired careers (including upward mobility in current careers). For example, students interested in a career in government (bureaucracy, for elected officials, public authorities, and so on) might explore coursework in courses that might include tax analysis and administration, financial condition analysis, government financial accounting, pension management and analysis, governmental budgeting, and the politics of public budgeting. Students interested in careers in the not-for-profit and related sectors (such as healthcare) might pursue coursework in financial accounting, financial statement analysis, cost accounting, contract management, fundraising, and healthcare payment systems. These are clearly not exhaustive lists of courses, but intended to illustrate what a sector-specific approach to upper-level coursework might look like. Schools might use the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) survey of core competencies in financial management across several sectors to determine which types of courses would be most valuable to students in their careers. In the not-for-profit curricula, Denison and Kim (2019) find

Financial management curricular concerns in public administration education  287 a gap between what employers say they want and what schools actually offer in their courses. Aligning courses with these surveys might naturally result in a series of upper-level courses. The second type of upper-level courses might be described as topical electives. These might be courses best understood as exploring a subject area that could have application regardless of which sector a student might pursue a career in. Such topical courses might include debt management, debt issuance and structuring, cost‒benefit analysis, business planning, advanced spreadsheet modeling, information systems management and security, internal controls, and ethics. These courses could have applications to government or the private sector, but the topics would be broadly applicable across all sectors. A curriculum has to permit room for the development of new courses covering new topics. An expansive core course that covers fundamental topics in managerial and financial accounting will need to be adjusted to developments (for example, new accounting standards or new techniques in budget analysis). But we would suggest that an expansive core course should remain relatively stable over time. Financial management is a forever developing field, however, and these new topics need to be incorporated as appropriate. Schools can develop these new topics as stand-alone courses for their students, or incorporate these new topics into already-existing courses. For example, a course in government budgeting traditionally starts with the assumption that budget constraints exist for a government and trade-offs are made within these constraints to meet some objective; new theories have emerged about how strict budget constraints really are, how the constraints are malleable, and empirically there is little to suggest that these budget constraints are as firm as once believed. But the point is that these new theories ought to be brought into public administration curricula, and likely belong in upper-level courses after students have learned the basics about public budgeting theory and implementation.

MODALITIES OF INSTRUCTION AND PEDAGOGY Even before COVID-19, public administration schools were moving into online instruction. For example, nearly two-thirds of undergraduate public administration programs had some online offerings as of 2019, although the vast majority were not entirely virtual programs.3 The global pandemic may have accelerated this trend, but there exists some history of online education in schools of public administration. Nevertheless, traditional face-to-face teaching remains the norm in schools of public administration. Despite this, we suggest that the movement towards online instruction is a net positive for instructors and students of financial management, even given long-standing concerns about the quality of online education, the effect this modality has on faculty development and recruitment, and lower demonstrated outcomes for students (McDonald, 2020). Online instruction has several advantages for financial management courses. First, and while not unique to financial management, asynchronous lectures permit students to go through the material multiple times at their own pace. Some students find the material in financial management courses difficult at first, and the ability to re-engage with the material multiple times if necessary is an advantage. Second, demonstrating spreadsheets – a key component in financial management instruction – is easier when instructors can record and share videos of spreadsheet functionality, or can share screens during live sessions to demonstrate spreadsheet capabilities. Students can follow along with their own spreadsheets in real time, potentially enhancing the learning experience.

288  Handbook of teaching public administration Regardless of the modality, either online or face-to-face instruction, it is usually helpful to have a blend of problems and cases on which students may practice, including a review of homework assignments that had been submitted in advance of class.4 Financial management is best learned through repetition and practice. It is not a spectator sport. This might be accomplished through dedicating a portion of class time to these exercises or, if possible, having an extra recitation section for students specifically for these purposes of solving problems. Assuming an instructor is confined to a weekly three-hour lecture class format – that is, without the benefit of a weekly recitation section to supplement – they might structure class sessions as follows to incorporate problem-based learning: ● ● ● ● ●

15‒30 minutes: Homework review. 60‒75 minutes: Lecture. 15 minutes: Break. 30‒60 minutes: Groupwork on a problem. 15 minutes: Debrief.

The homework review sets the stage by allowing students to put to rest any lingering doubts they have about the prior week’s material, thereby boosting their confidence. The lecture introduces them to new concepts and, finally, the problem-based learning session allows them to dive right into new concepts and methods. If the course modality is partially or fully online, this approach arguably works even better than when instruction is in-person. First, each student can access their own copy of the homework solutions during the review portion, which may be recorded by the instructor if the online modality is asynchronous. Second, the lecture portion can be transformed into a series of short videos if the online modality is asynchronous, or an informal discussion can replace much of the lecture if the modality is partially or completely synchronous. Finally, Zoom and various learning management systems allow small groups of students to meet in either random or pre-assigned breakout sessions to work on problems. Online, students can share screens, easily making their work transparent to their peers. This is especially helpful for learning problem-solving in Excel using functions and cell references.

CONCLUSIONS Public administration schools no longer prepare students simply for careers in government bureaucracies. Students pursue careers in not-for-profit organizations, healthcare organizations, and private organizations that provide public goods or services as well. Perhaps more importantly, students often move between these different sectors, and their education must prepare them for this professional reality. Further, the financial management curriculum is no longer sufficient with students completing a single course in the politics of budgeting, or in how budgets are implemented in large bureaucracies. The tasks of public service have grown increasingly complex, and managers – current and future – must know the right questions to ask, the correct vocabulary, and the correct analytical approaches to use to solve problems. While we would argue that most students would benefit from multiple courses in financial management to address the increasing complexity of public service, we also recognize that most programs do not have the capability to increase required courses for students. As such, in the absence of additional courses, an expansive core financial management course that covers

Financial management curricular concerns in public administration education  289 essential topics in managerial and financial accounting should become the default option for public administration programs. Further, we are optimistic about changes in modalities for offering such a course. As COVID-19 has shown, online education is manageable at a large scale, and financial management is amenable to remote instruction. Financial management is likely to increase as a critical management skill over the next decade as governments attempt to right themselves after a significant pandemic shock. Public administration schools and programs can assist by preparing their students with a skill set that is broadly applicable across sectors and prepares them – and their employers – for success.

NOTES 1. Data from NASPAA’s annual alumni survey, available at: https://​www​.naspaa​.org/​data​-center/​ alumni​-survey. 2. Such public service organizations include not-for-profit organizations that provide public goods and services, bond rating agencies that assess the credits of governments, and healthcare entities that provide government-funded services to the public, among others. 3. From NASPAA Undergraduate Survey 2019, available at: https://​www​.naspaa​.org/​data​-center/​ download​-naspaa​-data/​archived​-data. 4. Mallinson (2018) offers two web-based simulations related to public budgeting that are best used in online modalities.

REFERENCES Chen, G.C., Weikert, L.A., and Williams, D.W. (2014). Budget tools: Financial methods in the public sector, 2nd edition. CQ Press. Denison, D.V., and Kim, S. (2019). Linking practice and classroom: Nonprofit financial management curricula in MPA and MPP programs. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 25(4), 457‒474. Finkler, S.A., Smith, D.L., and Calabrese, T.D. (2020). Financial management for public, health, and not-for-profit organizations, 6th edition. CQ Press. Mallinson, D.J. (2018). Teaching public budgeting in the age of austerity using simulations. Teaching Public Administration, 36(2), 110‒125. McDonald, B.D. (2020). Teaching in uncertain times: The future of public administration education. Teaching Public Administration, 39(1), 3‒8. Mikesell, J.L. (2007). Fiscal administration: Analysis and applications for the public sector. Thomson Wadsworth. Moody, M., and Marlowe, J. (2009). Recent iterations in the public financial management curriculum: Is what practitioners need being taught? Journal of Public Affairs Education, 15(1), 47‒58. Purtell, R.M., and Fossett, J.W. (2010). Beyond budgeting: Public-service financial education in the 21st century. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 16(1), 95‒110.

30. Teaching leadership in public administration: an integrative approach Barbara C. Crosby

Teaching leadership is fraught with challenges yet vitally needed in any field, perhaps even more so in public administration. In our field, leadership becomes entangled in ultimate questions of public life: What is the aim of government? What form of government best serves its citizens? Who should govern and how? What are the roles and responsibilities of citizen leaders as well as elected or appointed officials? A reasonable starting place for anyone seeking to teach leadership in public administration is answering the question, “Why should I (or we) be doing this?” Moreover, “What conception of leadership will guide me (or us) in this endeavor?” For me, the answer to these questions became clearer in the process of developing and teaching a seminar on leadership and public policy at the Humphrey School of Public Affairs in the United States in the early 1980s. I knew I wanted to help mid-career professionals gain needed skills in leading their organizations and contributing to society. The more I engaged with the work of leadership scholars, my teaching colleagues, and students, the more I felt the need to settle on my own definition of leadership. Here it is: leadership is the inspiration and mobilization of others to undertake collective action in pursuit of the common good. Before settling on your own preferred definition of leadership, however, I urge you to engage with a range of leadership perspectives and take seriously the major conflicts over definitions and practices. See for example, Montgomery Van Wart’s (2017) text, Leadership in Public Organizations, which describes multiple leadership theories, from the influential transformational/transactional model (focusing on leader behaviors in organizations) to critical approaches (focusing on power and social practices). Sonia Ospina (2016) explores the move in public leadership theory from a focus on leaders to a focus on systems, via four major schools: transformational, leader‒member exchange, shared/distributed, and collective. Crosby and Bryson (2018) assess the state of public leadership research and offer guidance for those seeking to understand public leadership as a collective endeavor. Suze Wilson (2016) provides a well-researched critique of mainstream “Western” leadership scholarship and discourse, and questions the assumption that leaders and leadership are the answers to the world’s problems. My own leadership frameworks, developed jointly with John Bryson and drawing on an array of leadership theories, are presented in Leadership for the Common Good: Tackling Public Problems in a Shared-Power World (Crosby and Bryson, 2005) and “Integrative leadership and policy change: A hybrid relational view” (Crosby and Bryson, 2012). The next section briefly describes the integrative approach I recommend for teaching leadership classes and workshops for public administration students. I then describe how I have enacted those practices in a semester-long course designed to help mid-career public affairs students deepen their understanding of leadership and strengthen their leadership practice. 290

Teaching leadership in public administration: an integrative approach  291

THE INTEGRATIVE APPROACH If educators understand leadership as exercised by a shifting array of leaders and followers, any effective teaching approach must offer ways to connect theories and research findings to the contexts in which students live and work. It must offer opportunities for understanding self and others, be practical, and offer opportunities to experiment, to apply lessons learned, and recalibrate. Drawing on my own experience and research and the insights of many colleagues, I have developed an integrative approach (Crosby, 2017) consisting of five core practices: ● ● ● ● ●

Using personal narrative to foster self-understanding and commitment. Hosting and hospitality. Tackling organizational and societal problems. Strengthening citizenship. Assessing, coaching, and mentoring.

Each practice combines attention to the “heart, head, and hands” of leadership education. Heart refers to the passion and energy (purpose and motivation) at the core of each practice; head encompasses the theory and research supporting a practice; and hands refers to the practical tools and methods that educators employ in virtual and face-to-face settings. I will describe each of the practices before turning to a specific example of how I have enacted them in a course called “Leadership for the Common Good.” Using Personal Narrative Leadership, I believe, occurs at the intersection of personal passion and public need. Thus, a crucial starting place for one’s leadership development is self-understanding and opportunities to share and reflect on that understanding. My courses typically include chances for participants to flesh out their leadership story, to shape more intentionally their identities as leaders and engaged followers, to assess their strengths and weaknesses, to learn from experience, and commit to leadership work that calls to them. A personal leadership story also plays out in context. Thus, at the outset of my courses, I provide participants with the opportunity to consider the following: ● What leadership views are shaping opportunities for progress on issues I care about? ● What are the social, political, economic, technological, and ecological conditions and trends that affect opportunities for progress on issues I care about? Hosting and Hospitality This may seem to some to be an unlikely candidate for a key practice in leadership and leadership teaching. Yet it captures a necessity. It is about welcoming diverse learners into a learning community, which includes attention to the links between leadership and gender, race, religion, class, and other social groupings. It is about building relationships and developing participants’ emotional intelligence and group facilitation and conflict management skills. It requires attention to physical and virtual environments, to participants’ diverse backgrounds and needs, to verbal and nonverbal communication. As hosts, we teachers/leaders show up

292  Handbook of teaching public administration as embodied figures of authority, knowing that we may activate varying responses to our positions of power. Tackling Organizational and Societal Problems This practice focuses on the public need that calls for leadership. It requires an understanding of context, team building, organizational dynamics and structures, and political and ethical requirements, among other things. A comprehensive view of power undergirds the Leadership for the Common Good approach to tackling organizational or societal challenges; in this view sustainable change comes about when leaders and committed followers are able to wisely design and use forums (where meaning is created and communicated), arenas (where administrative, executive, and legislative decisions are made and implemented), and courts (where ethical principles are reinforced and conduct is sanctioned). Strengthening Citizenship If the purpose of leadership is to foster the well-being of organizations and communities, then leadership education will necessarily include attention to citizenship, governance, and the common good. Participants will explore the meaning of being a citizen within a community, a country, and the world. They will gain insights and tools for helping a diverse group discern the common good in a particular situation. They will consider the role of people in different sectors – government, nonprofit, business – in producing public value. Assessing, Coaching, and Mentoring The purpose of this tripartite practice is to help participants accomplish their goals of leadership development and be able to demonstrate their readiness for further leadership challenges. Formal assessments include graded assignments and instruments such as the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire or MLQ (https://​www​.mindgarden​.com/​16​-multifactor​-leadership​ -questionnaire). Informal assessments may take the form of written reflections, peer conversations, stories of critical incidents, or goal reviews. Coaching and mentoring support participants in learning from their experiences and assessments, and adapting their goals and behaviors based on that learning.

LEADERSHIP FOR THE COMMON GOOD I have taught leadership courses in many formats over varying time periods, from half-day workshops to weekly sessions over the course of nine months. My students have come from around the world and ranged in age from 19 to 90. Regardless of student demographics, my courses are always designed to help participants understand themselves as leaders and gain the skills they need to address difficult public challenges and promote the well-being of their organizations and communities. The example I offer here is a semester-long hybrid course designed for graduate public affairs students at the University of Minnesota. Table 30.1 presents the course design, aimed

Teaching leadership in public administration: an integrative approach  293 Table 30.1

“Leadership for the Common Good” course design

Module

LCG capability

Key questions

Most relevant teaching practice

1

Leadership in context and personal

What is leadership and why does it

Hosting and hospitality

leadership

matter?

Using personal narrative

How is leadership linked to context? 2

Leadership in context and personal

Is leadership born or made?

Using personal narrative

How do we welcome the other, the

Hosting and hospitality

leadership 3

Personal and team leadership

stranger in order to develop diverse, productive groups or teams? 4

Team and organizational leadership How can leaders and followers deal

Hosting and hospitality

effectively with conflict in teams (and beyond)? 5 6

Organizational leadership

Is leadership a technical or adaptive

Tackling organizational and

practice?

societal problems

Visionary, political, and ethical

Is leadership based on universal

Tackling organizational and

leadership

ethical principles?

societal problems

What happens when ethical principles conflict with each other or political requirements? 7

8

Visionary, political, and ethical

How do we cross boundaries without Tackling organizational and

leadership

getting lost as we foster collaborative societal problems governance?

Strengthening citizenship

Putting it all together

How do leaders and followers enact

Tackling organizational and

(policy entrepreneurship)

the common good over the course of

societal problems

a policy change cycle?

Strengthening citizenship

at helping students to develop the eight leadership capabilities included in the Leadership for the Common Good framework. The capabilities are: ● Leadership in context: understanding the social, political, economic, technological, and ecological givens as well as potentialities. ● Personal leadership: understanding and deploying personal assets on behalf of beneficial change. ● Team leadership: building effective work groups. ● Organizational leadership: nurturing humane and effective organizations. ● Visionary leadership: creating and communicating shared meaning in formal and informal forums. ● Political leadership: making and implementing decisions in formal and informal legislative, executive, and administrative arenas. ● Ethical leadership: sanctioning conduct and adjudicating disputes in formal and informal courts. ● Policy entrepreneurship: coordinating leadership tasks over the course of a policy change cycle. While I have chosen to use Leadership for the Common Good as the main text for the course, other excellent overall texts are Van Wart’s (2017) Leadership in Public Organizations or Paul t’Hart’s and Lars Tummers’s (2019) Understanding Public Leadership. Reflecting the

294  Handbook of teaching public administration multifarious and often conflicting perspectives on leadership, I deal in each module with one or two questions that reflect some of the key debates in leadership studies. Each module spans two weeks and includes a face-to-face session. I employ a course website to introduce each module with an exercise or video that focuses on one or more of the questions. The website also directs students to assigned readings and additional exercises that prepare them for the face-to-face sessions. The website includes forums in which students post their analyses of the readings and their responses to the face-to-face sessions. In some modules, students make and post short videos about an assigned topic. Every module requires participants to reflect on their own and others’ experience, grapple with divergent views, and hone their written and oral communication. This section moves through each module, describing the animating questions, suggesting useful resources that would supplement the texts, and highlighting the integrative practices most relevant to the module. (A more extended course description is in Crosby, 2017, Ch. 9). The practice of assessing, coaching, and mentoring is not included in the table, because various assessments are included in all modules, and I typically schedule at least two individual coaching sessions in the middle of and late in the course. Mentoring may occur after the course is done in the case of students who seek longer-term guidance. Module 1 The organizing questions for this introductory module are: ● What is leadership and why does it matter? ● How is leadership linked to context? I introduce class members to individuals (including the Humphrey School’s namesake and several alumni) who have exercised leadership in diverse settings and from positions of formal and informal authority. The chief takeaways, or learning outcomes, that I intend participants to have at the end of the module are: that leadership is multifaceted, context-dependent, and consequential. Leadership may be exercised by prominent individuals, ordinary people, and groups of people. Exercises may include a group brainstorm and discussion of words and images that participants associate with leadership. Alternatively, I may ask participants to draw a quick picture of leadership. We post the images on the wall and consider the views of leadership they convey. In some iterations of the course, I have used the following exercise (originally developed by my colleague Robert Terry). I present participants with a list of leadership debates: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Leadership is inborn vs. leadership is learned. Leadership is individual vs. leadership is relational/team. Leadership is positional vs. leadership is everywhere. Leadership is a process of engagement vs. leadership is getting results. Leadership is coercive and noncoercive vs. leadership is only noncoercive. Leadership is realistic and present-focused vs. leadership is idealistic and future-focused. Leadership is ethical and unethical vs. leadership is only ethical. Leadership is secular vs. leadership is spiritual.

Teaching leadership in public administration: an integrative approach  295 I then ask for 16 volunteers to argue for a side in each of the eight debates. Following the argument for each debate, I ask all participants to mark their own view on a continuum between the two positions, and then we discuss. The debates invariably are lively and prompt participants to take seriously views of leadership different from their own. In addition to the texts, other readings might be assigned that help participants to understand leadership as a phenomenon that encompasses individual and collective practices in context. See, for example, Katherine Quick’s (2017) “Locating and building collective leadership and impact,” focusing on efforts to promote environmental stewardship in Grand Rapids, Michigan; and Catherine Mangan and Chris Lawrence-Pietroni’s (2019) “More rave than waltz – Why the complexity of public service means the end for hero leadership,” focusing on public service leadership capabilities for a world characterized by volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity. The practice of hosting and hospitality is a major consideration as I choose course readings, design exercises, and set up a virtual and in-person classroom in order to make the learning environment accessible and welcoming for all. In the first class session I often use a norming exercise, which allows participants to establish shared norms for fostering mutual learning and provides a method for finding common ground in a group. Using personal narrative is incorporated via examples of leaders and leadership. Module 2 I organize this module around the perennial question: Is leadership born or made? The takeaway I intend for the module is: personal leadership assets are our commitments (passions) plus what we are born with and what we have acquired – in relation to the context. Also important is acknowledging personal liabilities and blind spots. In addition to the texts, other helpful readings are: Susan Murphy and Stephanie Johnson (2011), “The benefits of a long-lens approach to leadership development: Understanding the seeds of leadership”; Goleman et al. (2002, Ch. 4), focusing on emotional intelligence; Ronald Riggio (2020), Daily Leadership Development: 365 Steps to Becoming a Better Leader; and Jeffrey Yip et al. (2020) “Coaching new leaders: A relational process of integrating multiple identities.” Using personal narrative is especially prominent in this module, though it is woven throughout the course in the form of individual reflective exercises that are shared in dyads or small groups. In this module, I might ask participants to complete the Leadership Highs and Lows exercise, which prompts them to map and reflect on occasions over their lifetime in which they have attempted to tackle organizational or societal challenges. They also note personal ups and downs (promotions, illnesses, marriage, and so on). They then identify themes and leadership lessons that emerge from the map. Another exercise is the Narrative of Commitment, developed by my former colleague Gary DeCramer. Participants are asked to describe a core commitment that has guided their work, its origins, barriers to carrying out the commitment, and sources of sustenance in the journey. This exercise, in particular, helps participants to renew their sense of purpose for their leadership work.

296  Handbook of teaching public administration Module 3 The big question for the module is: How do we welcome the other, the stranger in order to develop diverse, productive groups or teams? The takeaways are: self-knowledge is a basis for welcoming others; and strangers can become familiar through structured processes. I offer assessments, such as the Myers‒Briggs Personality Type Indicator (https://​www​ .myersbriggs​.org/​my​-mbti​-personality​-type/​mbti​-basics/​), that help participants to understand their own and others’ modes of communicating, evaluating information, and dealing with difference. A useful exercise is Exploring Social Group Membership (Crosby, 2017, p. 50), which asks participants to consider ways that their gender, ethnicity, religion, nationality, and other characteristics strengthen or hamper their leadership. An important way that hosting and hospitality are practiced in this module is via entering the perspectives and experiences of people from diverse gender, class, ethnic, religious, and other backgrounds. I have assigned Chapters 13 and 14 from Nelson Mandela’s (1995) Long Walk to Freedom and the introduction to Juana Bordas’s (2007) Salsa, Soul and Spirit. I recommend Stephanie Simon and Crystal Hoyt’s (2019) chapter “Gender and leadership,” in Peter Northouse’s general leadership text; and Rachel Breslin, Sheela Panday, and Norma Riccucci’s (2017) “Intersectionality in public leadership research: A review and future research agenda.” Module 4 The focal question is: How can leaders and followers deal effectively with conflict in teams (and beyond)? The takeaway is: that conflict and leadership are intertwined. Effective leaders draw on a repertoire of approaches to orchestrate conflict productively. I often use the Thomas‒Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (https://​kilmanndiagnostics​ .com/​overview​-thomas​-kilmann​-conflict​-mode​-instrument​-tki/​) to help participants identify their default modes of dealing with conflict and develop a wider range of conflict management styles. Helpful readings include Mark Gerzon’s (2006) Leading through Conflict and Barbara Kellerman’s (2008) Followership. Hosting and hospitality again is the central integrative practice in this module, since appreciating and reconciling diverse perspectives, values, and interests is a key concern. Module 5 In the fifth module, the big question is whether leadership is a technical or an adaptive practice. Assigned videos, readings, and exercises are intended to help participants distinguish between technical and adaptive problems, consider the uses of formal and informal authority in helping groups work on problems, and apply the four organizational leadership frames that Lee Bolman and Terrance Deal have elaborated in their books. The takeaways from this module are: formal and informal authority are leadership assets. Use them to help people distinguish between technical and adaptive problems and confront and work on adaptive problems. Use framing and reframing to assist in this work. I recommend choosing case studies that feature complex adaptive problems, and highlight the importance of adeptly using the Bolman and Deal frames (structural, human resources, political, and symbolic) to diagnose and respond to organizational and societal challenges.

Teaching leadership in public administration: an integrative approach  297 Helpful readings include The Practice of Adaptive Leadership by Ronald Heifetz et al. (2009), and Bolman and Deal’s (2017) Reframing Organizations, 6th edition. Timely case studies include Suze Wilson’s (2020) “Pandemic leadership: Lessons from New Zealand’s approach to COVID-19” and Keith Grint’s (2020) “Leadership, management, and command in the time of the Coronavirus.” Tackling organizational and societal problems is the most relevant integrative practice in this module, and the case study is the key methodology for this practice. I use structured historical cases, as well as the cases in which participants have been or are involved. The participant cases are an especially potent mode of action learning; they allow participants to apply leadership theories and tools to analyze their own leadership and followership and try new behaviors in their workplaces and communities. Module 6 This module continues attention to leadership in organizations and communities with an emphasis on stakeholder analysis and engagement as a foundation for visionary, political, and ethical leadership. The big questions are: Is leadership based on universal ethical principles? What happens when ethical principles conflict with each other or political requirements? The takeaway is: visionary, political, and ethical leadership are linked together in fostering democratic practice, policies, and institutions. Participants view two online video lectures on stakeholder analysis and strategic thinking and read “What to do when stakeholders matter” (Bryson, 2004). Again, case studies are a useful method. I have frequently used the disability rights movement in the United States (Shapiro, 1994). Alyson Nicholds et al. (2017) describe the case of leadership in developing “smart cities” in the United Kingdom, which highlights the importance of understanding stakeholder perspectives. A useful reading for exploring ethical leadership is Fahad Shakeel et al.’s (2019) “Ethical leadership as process: A conceptual proposition.” Tackling organizational and societal problems is the most relevant integrative practice in this module. Module 7 The focus is on integrative leadership, the work of bringing diverse groups and organizations together across sectoral, geographic, and cultural boundaries to tackle complex public problems and advance the common good. The big question for the module is: How do we cross boundaries without getting lost as we foster collaborative governance? The takeaway is: integration at personal, group, organizational, societal, and transnational levels can add up to beneficial outcomes. I begin the module with an online mini lecture on integrative leadership and Rotary International’s highly successful campaign to eliminate polio worldwide. Readings might include Crosby and Bryson’s (2010) “Integrative leadership and the creation and maintenance of cross-sector collaborations,” and Janine O’Flynn et al.’s (2014) Crossing Boundaries in Public Management and Policy: The International Experience, focusing on the increased reliance on cross-sector, cross-agency approaches to governance. The integrative practices most prominent in this module are tackling organizational and societal problems and strengthening citizenship.

298  Handbook of teaching public administration Module 8 “Putting it all together” is the title of this last module. The big question is: How do leaders and followers enact the common good over the course of a policy change cycle? The takeaway is that as leaders and followers engage in shaping and reshaping policy systems, they debate and shape the common good in overlapping forums, arenas, and courts over the course of a policy change cycle. I typically assign Chapter 5 of Leadership for the Common Good, which offers a range of perspectives on discerning the common good, and provides guidance for achieving regimes of mutual gain through democratic policymaking. The integrative practices most prominent in this module are tackling organizational and societal problems and strengthening citizenship. This module may include the opportunity for participants to practice integration as they revisit and refine their narratives of commitment and plan next steps in their own leadership cases.

CONCLUSION We teachers of leadership in public administration are able to draw on a wealth of frameworks, tools, and research that can help students to become more effective and humane leaders in government, nonprofits, community organizations, and cross-sector collaborations. Actual course design will necessarily be affected by student characteristics, academic setting, and current economic, political, social, technological, and ecological conditions. I have offered a course design that has been altered over decades as my colleagues and I have learned more about meeting learner needs. The purpose has remained the same: to foster leadership for the common good wherever students live and work.

REFERENCES Bolman, L.G., and Deal, T.E. (2017). Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership (6th edn). Jossey-Bass. Bordas, J. (2007). Salsa, Soul, and Spirit: Leadership for a Multicultural Age. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Breslin, R.A., Pandey, S., and Riccucci, N.M. (2017). Intersectionality in public leadership research: A review and future research agenda. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 37(2), 160–182. Bryson, J.M. (2004). What to do when stakeholders matter: Stakeholder identification and analysis techniques. Public Management Review, 6(1), 21–53. Crosby, B.C. (2017). Teaching Leadership: An Integrative Approach. Routledge. Crosby, B.C., and Bryson, J.M. (2005). Leadership for the Common Good: Tackling Public Problems in a Shared-Power World (2nd edn). Jossey-Bass. Crosby, B.C., and Bryson, J.M. (2010). Integrative leadership and the creation and maintenance of cross-sector collaborations. Leadership Quarterly, 21(2), 211–230. Crosby, B.C., and Bryson, J.M. (2012). Integrative leadership and policy change: A hybrid relational view. In S. Ospina and M. Uhl-Bien (eds), Relational Leadership (pp. 303–334). Information Age. Crosby, B.C., and Bryson, J.M. (2018). Why leadership of public leadership research matters: And what to do about it. Public Management Review, 20(9), 1265–1286. Gerzon, M. (2006). Leading through Conflict. Harvard Business School Press. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., and McKee, A. (2002). Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence. Harvard Business School Press. Grint, K. (2020). Leadership, management, and command in the time of the Coronavirus. Leadership, 16(3), 314–319.

Teaching leadership in public administration: an integrative approach  299 Heifetz, R.A., Grashow, A., and Linsky, M. (2009). The Practice of Adaptive Leadership: Tools and Tactics for Changing Your Organization and the World. Harvard Business Press. Kellerman, B. (2008). Followership: How Followers are Creating Change and Changing Leaders. Harvard Business Press. Mandela, N. (1995). Long Walk to Freedom. Crown. Mangan, C., and Lawrence-Pietroni, C. (2019). More rave than waltz – Why the complexity of public service means the end for hero leadership. In H. Dickinson, C. Needham, C. Mangan, and H. Sullivan (eds), Reimagining the Future Public Service Workforce (pp.  81‒92). Springer. Murphy, S.E., and Johnson, S.K. (2011). The benefits of a long-lens approach to leader development: Understanding the seeds of leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 22, 459–470. Nicholds, A., Gibney, J., Mabey, C., and Hart, D. (2017). Making sense of variety in place leadership: The case of England’s smart cities. Regional Studies, 51(2), 249–259. O’Flynn, J., Blackman, D. Halligan, J. (eds) (2014). Crossing Boundaries in Public Management and Policy: The International Experience. Routledge. Ospina, S.M. (2016). Collective leadership and context in public administration: Bridging public leadership research and leadership studies. Public Administration Review, 77(2), 275–287. Quick, K.S. (2017). Locating and building collective leadership and impact. Leadership, 13(4), 445–471. Riggio, R.E. (2020). Daily Leadership Development: 365 Steps to Becoming a Better Leader. Barnes & Noble Press. Shakeel, F., Kruyen, P.M., and Van Thiel, S. (2019). Ethical leadership as process: A conceptual proposition. Public Integrity, 21(6), 613–624. Shapiro, J. (1994). No Pity: People with Disabilities Forging a New Civil Rights Movement. New York Times Books. Simon, S., and Hoyt, C. (2019). Gender and leadership. In P.G. Northouse (ed.), Leadership Theory and Practice (8th edn, pp. 403–432). SAGE. t’Hart, P., and Tummers, L. (2019). Understanding Public Leadership (2nd edn). Red Globe Press. Van Wart, M. (2017). Leadership in Public Organizations: An Introduction. Routledge. Wilson, S. (2016). Thinking Differently about Leadership: A Critical History of Leadership Studies. Edward Elgar Publishing. Wilson, S. (2020). Pandemic leadership: Lessons from New Zealand’s approach to COVID-19. Leadership, 16(3), 279–293. Yip, J., Trainor, L.L., Black, H., Soto-Torres, L., and Reichard, R.J. (2020). Coaching new leaders: A relational process of integrating multiple identities. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 19(4), 503–520.

31. Let’s talk about race: considerations for course design in public administration Dayo Eseonu

Introducing alternative and critical perspectives into teaching public administration is fundamental to understanding inequity, disparity, and injustice within society (Blessett et al., 2016). As public administration educators, intentionality in incorporating these alternative and critical perspectives to ‘promote an awareness of, and offer exposure to, issues’ relevant to marginalized groups in society contributes to equity and justice (Blessett et al., 2016, p. 268). The #BlackLivesMatter movement highlights the subjugated experiences of racially minoritized (RM) groups and the COVID-19 pandemic has laid bare the disadvantages borne by these groups, shining a spotlight on the social and cultural contexts that public administration operates in. Social and cultural contexts inform interactions and decision-making, public policy development and implementation, and the management of public institutions and programmes (Blessett et al., 2016, p. 267). Berry-James et al. (2020, p. 8) have rightly said that these critical moments signify ‘a call for a professional standard of practice that pursues social equity and social justice in our field’. This chapter seeks to provide some considerations on how we can heed this call to equip students with an ethic of race so that they can do critical race practice. An ethic of race is when public administrators commit to addressing racial disadvantages and racism (Alexander and Stivers, 2010) and critical race practice (CRP), a term used by Williams (1997), means that students are equipped to act for those who are marginalized in society. Before students can do either of these things, they must first understand the social situation of racially minoritized people, how society is organized along racial lines, and how to transform it for the better (Delgado and Stefancic, 2012). One way to develop this understanding is using one of the tenets of critical race theory (CRT): countering dominant and problematic assumptions made about RM groups with different perspectives, viewpoints and stories (ibid.). The next section provides a brief case study of how to counter problematic assumptions on a particular topic. The rest of the chapter discusses the possibilities for equipping students with an ethic of race to do critical race practice from a course design point of view, using counter storytelling and community service learning projects. Therefore, it offers up considerations for those who wish to introduce discussions about racial disadvantage and/or racism to future public administrators.

CASE STUDY: PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND RACE I was a graduate teaching assistant at a university in the United Kingdom, teaching an optional course for undergraduate students on the politics of the policymaking process. One of the topics I taught on this course was public participation, and I saw it as an opportunity to reshape how learning occurs (Ortiz and Jani, 2010). 300

Let’s talk about race: considerations for course design in public administration  301 The lecture on public participation covered normative and instrumental reasons why it was important to ensure all demographic groups were involved in policymaking. For the corresponding tutorials, students were tasked with identifying examples of participation practices and attending tutorials prepared to share their thoughts on which aspects of their examples were good or bad, and why. This pre-tutorial task was part of their preparation for the main tutorial activity centred around a scenario (see Figure 31.1).

Figure 31.1

Tutorial task

RM groups in participatory processes are usually under-represented and have often been labelled hard to reach within public service delivery; this hegemonic script of being hard to reach has persisted. The ‘hard to reach’ label used by public administrators does little to problematize the deficient organizational practices in public service delivery (Cook, 2002; Boag-Munroe and Evangelou, 2012; Cortis, 2012). This tutorial activity used inquiry-based and collaborative learning pedagogies of engagement (Smith et al., 2005) to introduce a counterhegemonic script to this topic stressing the need to change practices that fail to engage RM groups (Blessett et al., 2016). Firstly, it allowed students to demonstrate their understanding of the general issues around racialized experiences and in particular within public participation. Secondly, collaborative learning helps to develop critical thinking, which is a valuable skill when deciphering social and cultural contexts public administration operates in. Martin (2008) argues that ‘teachers must become aware of their ideological beliefs around race, as well as their expectations and personal beliefs’ (p. 162). I was conscious of how I approached the topic and, therefore, the impact on students. In particular, introducing counterhegemonic scripts could contest students’ worldviews and their understanding of the world, which some might find challenging (Lichtenstein, 2010). The classroom space was made conducive for working through these issues because they are important aspects of teaching and

302  Handbook of teaching public administration learning critical thinking; I set it up for small group discussions (Lowe, 2015). As Hutchings (2006, p. 4) noted, the tutor’s role as a facilitator of student-led inquiry ‘is to create conditions propitious to carrying out of a task’. I did not design the scenario above to be sensitive; I did not intend to elicit discussions of racism in public administrative practices (Lowe and Jones, 2010). However, in the small group discussions, when coming up with the participation strategies, students could express views about racially minoritized people that could be viewed as racist. This topic was not the first in the course, so students had come to understand my tutorials’ ethos. I was there to facilitate their inquiry-based learning process, and their contributions would drive learning in the tutorials. At the start of the course, the students and I in each tutorial came up with a set of ground rules that governed the class discussions. Some of the ground rules included being respectful in tone and words, and letting others speak and not speaking over somebody. They also knew my positionality as a critical race scholar. Still, the learning environment I was able to create meant that we could have open and honest discussions without students’ answers succumbing to social desirability bias due to my ethnicity. Whilst I cannot say that this was categorically true for all students, student evaluations and observations of teaching attested to the environment I created. These strategies discussed above are drawn from Konradi’s (1993) approach to creating safe spaces in tutorials. During the group discussions, I rotated between the groups, and all appeared to be adhering to ground rules. Some students had strongly held differing opinions, but students within those groups presented counternarratives and handled the discussions well; I did not need to intervene. In groups where I wanted to encourage the critical evaluation of some of the hegemonic scripts such as colourblindness, I introduced counternarratives from my experience. I used my experience (research, practitioner, and communities’ point of view) to highlight why refusing to acknowledge that racially minoritized people have different experiences could make the proposal less successful. One learning outcome for the tutorials was to expose students to alternative and critical perspectives that they might not otherwise have known about. This case study could be classified as a success. However, the light-touch approach with no specific discussion on racial disadvantage and racism no longer seems sufficient in 2020, which appears to be a pivotal year in the journey towards racial equity. There are opportunities to engage with systemic racial disadvantage and racism in public administration on a deeper level than the pedagogies of engagement used in the case described above. The next section puts forward two of such pedagogies of engagement that can equip students with the ethic of race to do critical race practice (CRP).

CRITICAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES CRP means refusing assumptions about racially minoritized people, seeking out the voice or experiences of racially minoritized people, and asking the right questions, all with a focus on transforming society for the better (Ortiz and Jani, 2010). It involves standing up for racially minoritized populations, redressing unequal opportunities and unjust outcomes created by unfair public policies, programmes, and practices (Berry-James et al., 2020). I posit that critical learning experiences which provide an experiential dimension for teaching and learning around race and ethnicity will increase the likelihood of students developing an ethic of race

Let’s talk about race: considerations for course design in public administration  303 which then leads to CRP (Nasir, 2006). A critical learning experience inspires and motivates students to learn, so that learning influences their future actions. Teaching CRP requires pedagogies of engagement that facilitate students’ translation of theoretical principles and apply them to fictional stories or use them in the real world to be responsive to marginalized groups’ experiences within public services and organizations. (Blessett et al., 2016). Two pedagogies of engagement for teaching CRP are put forward: the first is counter storytelling, and the second is community service learning (CSL) projects. Counter Storytelling Where a public administration educator wants to introduce discussions of racial disadvantage and racism, rather than using a scenario such as the one discussed earlier, counterstories can be used. Storytelling is a central tenet to CRT to expose colour-blind or race-neutral hegemonic scripts. There are two main types of stories in CRT: stock stories, which are ‘stock explanations that construct reality in ways favourable to [ingroups]’ (Delgado, 1989, p. 2438); and counterstories which seek to challenge and displace these stock explanations. Delgado speaks of five features to consider when developing an effective, authentic counterstory for teaching about race and racism. Table 31.1 presents the elements of a counterstory (in Joseph, 2020, p. 173). Table 31.1

Guidelines for developing a counterstory

The story should: 1.

Provide a version that challenges the stock story.

2.

Be constructed in a way that invites readers to suspend any judgment, read the points contained in the story and then decide what they (dis)believe.

3.

Directly challenge the dominant narrative that is the perspective of the story the majority share about themselves in a way that brings to life how this dominant narrative is not true for all.

4.

Not attack too frontally the audience it hopes to affect, to minimize resistance from the audience.

5.

Focus on attacking the mindset of individuals rather than on individual acts. The idea here is to debunk a mindset, not a person.

Source: Adapted from Delgado, in Joseph (2020, p. 173).

Counter storytelling used as a pedagogical tool can engage students in critical discussions of race in public administration because it highlights the importance of race, while using the benefits of fiction to create the distance sometimes necessary for self-reflection and emotional internalization (Starke et al., 2018). Counterstories allow students to engage in critical reflective discussions from their own personal positions; they permit students to locate their positions, place themselves in relation to outgroups, and conceptualize new ways of doing (Nasir, 2006). Joseph (2020) and Starke et al. (2018) offer illustrations of how counterstories can be used to challenge hegemonic scripts. As a critical race scholar committed to transforming communities, counter storytelling is not the gold standard. The ultimate course design would be exposing students in my classroom to the realities of systemic racism by engaging them in projects that are beneficial and empowering to communities (Williams, 1997).

304  Handbook of teaching public administration Community Service Learning As a pedagogical tool, community service learning (CSL) is an opportunity for students as future public administrators to engage with RM groups’ social and material conditions. This engagement can help to develop a deep understanding of RM groups’ realities and equip students with the knowledge and skills for critical race practice. Astin et al. (2000) find that service learning positively impacts upon commitment to activism and promotes racial understanding. CSL ‘provides students experiential learning opportunities while they engage in tasks with community members in community settings, outside of classrooms, laboratories, practice studios’ (VanLeeuwen et al., 2017, p. 130). The community service learning literature stresses the importance of challenging hegemonic worldviews, connecting theories learnt in classrooms to the realities of lives in racially minoritized communities to instil a passion for social justice (ibid.). Whilst counterstories are based on fiction, students engaged in CSL are likely to be exposed to real-life instances of the practices, attitudes, and beliefs that constrain racially minoritized communities. Going further than the tutorial activity based on a scenario, as used in the case described earlier, students undertake a CSL project for the duration of the course. The gold standard would be to design a course around a CSL project; direct engagement with racially minoritized communities where topics in public administration are introduced to students and counternarratives (counterstories) support critical and reflective discussions of positionality, identity, and values (Nasir, 2006). For the CSL project to achieve its learning outcomes and equip students with critical race practice, Conner and Erickson (2017) add to Allport’s contact theory in stipulating the conditions that must be fulfilled. I would also add the requirement of ethical considerations, so that students do not negatively impact upon the communities they work with through CSL projects. To minimize risk to these communities, students should know how to appreciate or respect people who are different to them, and be capable of applying effective behaviours and considerations as and when necessary (Rice, 2010). It is also crucial that the CSL project is not based on an exploitative relationship with communities and partner organizations, ensuring that communities and partner organizations benefit from participating in the project. Table 31.2 outlines the minimum conditions for a CSL project. Table 31.2

Guidelines for developing CSL projects

The CSL project should be designed to: 1.

ensure equal status contact between students and communities;

2.

pursue common goals where communities determine what is of importance to them, and their perspectives/experiences are included in the design of the project;

3.

facilitate cooperation between students and communities;

4.

have institutional support (universities, partner organizations, and any other relevant bodies);

5.

warrant sustained, long-term contact between students and communities;

6.

help students to reflect on their discomfort/anxiety about working with communities;

7.

help students to reflect on their identity and values;

8.

include ethical considerations of minimizing risk to communities.

Sources: Adapted from Conner and Erickson (2017), Borrego and Johnson (2012), and Rice (2010).

Let’s talk about race: considerations for course design in public administration  305 Creating Brave Spaces Both counter storytelling and community service learning require spaces for critical reflective discussions. The discussion of racial disadvantage and racism is seen as a sensitive topic because it can evoke an emotional response for those who have experienced it, or there might be competing ideas of what it is, and how it should be understood or addressed (Lowe and Jones, 2010). Scholars argue that such discussions require brave spaces: moving away from creating an environment where people are polite and comfortable, and towards creating environments that do not shy away from the nervousness or discomfort in discussions around racial disadvantage and racism (Starke et al., 2018). Brave spaces aim to create non-oppressive and affirming learning environments where discussions can take place. Discussions on racial disadvantage and racism can evoke emotional responses in those who are racially privileged as well as those who are not; a non-oppressive and affirming learning environment is one where students come to realize or reflect on their privilege (or lack of) to opt out of such discussions (Arao and Clemens, 2013). Strategies to create such a learning environment are suggested by Arao and Clemens (2013). They are outlined in Table 31.3 to guide educators who want to create brave spaces when teaching racial advantage and racism in public administration. Table 31.3

Creating brave spaces

Brave spaces should: 1.

Allow for controversy with civility; ensure that contrasting and dissenting views can be heard with a commitment to understanding sources of conflict to work towards common goals.

2.

Enable individuals to reflect carefully on their own positionality, identity and values so that they can choose their words and actions carefully due to the impact they can have on others.

3.

Leave room for students to consider their privilege (or lack of) in engaging with issues of racial disadvantage and racism.

4.

Be clear on what respect looks like for a particular set of students rather than a readily adopted consensus on the importance of respect.

5.

Differentiate between a personal attack and a challenge to a mindset/idea/belief.

Source: Adapted from Arao and Clemens (2013).

Though educators can take every care to ensure that the learning environment is a brave space, to maximize the potential for teaching CRP through counter storytelling and community service learning, there is an element of risk as to how students will react in the classroom. Therefore, educators must have a plan to manage a range of possible reactions, such as having details of organizations which can help to deal with the trauma of racism, or procedures for managing a malicious student who persists in their use of racist remarks. The managing of risk does not mean the avoidance of uncomfortable discussions around racial disadvantage and/ or racism. It means that educators are ‘caring for the souls’ of students, sensitive subjects are worked with and through so that students learn the critical skills necessary not just for their degree, but also to be able to think deeply about broader societal issues (hooks; Amsler in Lowe, 2015, p. 128).

306  Handbook of teaching public administration

CONCLUSION Students recognize the importance of working through sensitive subjects as part of their education, so talking about race should not be avoided (Lowe, 2015). However, we know that there is student resistance to engaging in discussions of race and racism, ranging from withdrawing from the class to not participating in class discussions (Crobsy, 2012). Student resistance could occur because some are too angry, some too scared, and others anxious (Housee, 2006). My personal experience of introducing counternarratives in the classroom has also been met with refusals to acknowledge the need for remedial action for racially minoritized people in public administrative systems. Resistance to discussions on racial disadvantage and racism comes from white students and racially minoritized students. Many white students respond with discomfort and denial when discussing racism (Körner and Garrard, 2006). When racially minoritized educators talk about race, it is often dismissed by white students as personal and subjective, borne out of resentment (Nasir, 2006). Conversely, racially minoritized students may also be resistant to talking about race with a white educator because of a belief that ‘there could be no real understanding of racism, and certainly no authentic teaching around “race” and racism; only the stuff of books that might or might not take black people seriously as subjects rather than objects of study’ (Housee, cited in Housee, 2008, p. 417). When the educator is white, ethnicity seems to matter less to students if the educator interrogates their positionality and their teaching strategies are inclusive of racially minoritized experiences (ibid.). Evidence shows that students’ responses and reactions are influenced by educators’ race (Housee, 2008). The question, therefore, is: should race matter when teaching critical race practice? Race should not matter; what matters is educators’ engagement with critical race/whiteness pedagogies when teaching about racial disadvantage and racism (ibid.). It cannot fall solely on educators from racially minoritized backgrounds to teach critical race practice. The lack of diversity amongst academic staff within the United Kingdom higher education sector is one reason why teaching CRP cannot just be done by racially minoritized educators. Furthermore, the experience of being from a racially minoritized background does not equate to having the academic or pedagogic expertise to teach critical race practice (Housee, 2008). I agree that it is vital for students to see their white educators teach critical race practice (ibid.). Teaching critical race practice increases the interpersonal and political dynamics in a learning environment, and the educator needs to be cognizant of this. Crosby (2012) suggests a critical examination of oneself and the use of therapeutic spaces before teaching so that your words or actions do not silence dominant and dissenting views. She argues that although it is a delicate balance to achieve, educators should aim to be sympathetic but neutral, without removing the responsibility to challenge, correct, or redirect student comments that are damaging or factually erroneous. To conclude, the pursuit of equity should no longer be an addendum to teaching, but centred alongside the other public administration pillars. Public administration has so far focused heavily on economy, efficiency, and effectiveness. It is important that public administration educators answer the clarion call by Berry-James et al. (2020, p. 7) to produce students who can work side by side with citizens and across multiple sectors to make decisions that meet the unmet needs of citizens in the real world, equipping them with the necessary skills and abilities to stand up for vulnerable populations, and redress unequal opportunities and unjust outcomes created by unfair public policies, programmes, and practices.

Let’s talk about race: considerations for course design in public administration  307

REFERENCES Alexander, J., and Stivers, C. (2010). An ethic of race for public administration. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 32(4), 578‒597. Arao, B., and Clemens, K. (2013). From safe to brave spaces: A new way to frame dialogue around diversity and social justice. In L.M. Landreman (ed.), The art of effective facilitation: Reflections from social justice educators (pp. 135–150). Stylus Publishing. Astin, A.W., Vogelgesang, L.J., Ikeda, E.K., and Yee, J.A. (2000). How service learning affects students. Higher Education, 144. https://​digitalcommons​.unomaha​.edu/​slcehighered/​144. Berry-James, R., Blessett, B., Emas, R., McCandless, S., Nickels, A.E., et al. (2020) Stepping up to the plate: Making social equity a priority in public administration’s troubled times. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 27(1), 5–15. DOI: 10.1080/15236803.2020.1820289. Blessett, B., Gaynor, T.S., Witt, M., and Alkadry, M.G. (2016). Counternarratives as critical perspectives in public administration curricula. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 38(4), 267–284. Boag-Munroe, G., and Evangelou, M. (2012). From hard to reach to how to reach: A systematic review of the literature on hard-to-reach families. Research Papers in Education, 27(2), 209–239. Borrego, E., and Johnson, R.G. (2012). Cultural competence for public managers: Managing diversity in today’s world. CRC Press. Conner, J., and Erickson, J. (2017). When does service-learning work? Contact theory and service-learning courses in higher education. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 23(2), 53–65. Cook, D. (2002). Consultation, for a change? Engaging users and communities in the policy process. Social Policy and Administration, 36(5), 516–531. Cortis, N. (2012). Overlooked and under‐served? Promoting service use and engagement among ‘hard‐ to‐reach’ populations. International Journal of Social Welfare, 21(4), 351–360. Crosby, D.B. (2012). Meeting the challenge: Teaching sensitive subject matter. Journal of Effective Teaching, 12(2), 91–104. Delgado, R. (1989). Storytelling for oppositionists and others: A plea for narrative. Michigan Law Review, 87(8), 2411–2441. Delgado, R., and Stefancic, J. (2012). Critical race theory: An introduction (2nd edn). New York University Press. Housee, S. (2006). Battlefields of knowing: facilitating controversial classroom discussions. In S. Spencer and M.J. Todd (eds), Reflection on practice: Teaching ‘race’ and ethnicity in further and higher education (pp. 54–70). University of Birmingham (C–SAP). Housee, S. (2008). Should ethnicity matter when teaching about ‘race’ and racism in the classroom? Race Ethnicity and Education, 11(4), 415–428. doi: 10.1080/13613320802478960. Hutchings, W. (2006). Facilitating enquiry-based learning: Some digressions. A keynote lecture given at the 2nd Southern Universities EBL Network Event, University of Surrey, 11 January. http://​www​ .campus​.manchester​.ac​.uk/​ceebl/​resources/​papers/​surreyjan06​_keynote​.pdf. Joseph, E. (2020). Composite counterstorytelling as a technique for challenging ambivalence about race and racism in the labour market in Ireland. Irish Journal of Sociology, 28(2), 168–191. Konradi, A. (1993). Teaching about sexual assault: Problematic silences and solutions. Teaching Sociology, 21(1), 13–25. Körner, B., and Garrard, D. (2006). ‘Is it wrong to be racist?’ Dealing with emotion and discomfort in classroom discussions of ‘race’ and ethnicity. In S. Spencer and M.J. Todd (eds), Reflection on practice: Teaching ‘race’ and ethnicity in further and higher education (pp. 18–53). University of Birmingham (C–SAP). Lichtenstein, B. (2010). Sensitive issues in the classroom: Teaching about HIV in the American deep south. Enhancing Learning in the Social Sciences, 2(3), 1–23. doi:​10​.11120/​elss​.2010​.02030002. Lowe, P. (2015). Lessening sensitivity: Student experiences of teaching and learning sensitive issues. Teaching in Higher Education, 20(1), 119–129. Lowe, P., and Jones, H. (2010). Teaching and learning sensitive topics. Enhancing Learning in the Social Sciences, 2(3), 1–7, doi: 10.11120/elss.2010.02030001. Martin, P. (2008). ‘I’m White, now what?’ Setting a context for change in teachers’ pedagogy. Counterpoints, 319, 161–179. http://​www​.jstor​.org/​stable/​42979856.

308  Handbook of teaching public administration Nasir, S. (2006). ‘Well you would say that wouldn’t you?’ Subject positions and relationships between knowledge and common sense. In S. Spencer and M.J. Todd (eds), Reflection on practice: Teaching ‘race’ and ethnicity in further and higher education (pp 71–98). University of Birmingham (C–SAP). Ortiz, L., and Jani, J. (2010). Critical race theory: A transformational model for teaching diversity. Journal of Social Work Education, 46(2), 175–193. Rice, M.F. (2010). Cultural competency, public administration, and public service delivery in an era of diversity. In M.F. Rice (ed.), Diversity and public administration: Theory, issues, and perspectives (2nd edn, pp. 189–209). M.E. Sharpe.  Smith, K.A., Sheppard, S.D., Johnson, D.W., and Johnson, R.T. (2005). Pedagogies of engagement: Classroom‐based practices. Journal of Engineering Education, 94(1), 87–101. Starke, A.M., Heckler, N., and Mackey, J. (2018). Administrative racism: Public administration education and race. Journal of Public Affairs Education, 24(4), 469–489, doi: 10.1080/15236803.2018.1426428. VanLeeuwen, C.A., Weeks, L.E., and Guo-Brennan, L. (2017). Indigenous perspectives on community service-learning in Higher Education: An examination of the Kenyan context.  International Journal of Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement, 5(1), 129–143. Williams Jr, R.A. (1997). Vampires anonymous and critical race practice. Michigan Law Review, 95, 741–765.

32. Applying queer theory to public administration: reimaging police officer recruitment Roddrick A. Colvin and Seth J. Meyer

While queer theory has been sporadically applied to public administration, only recently have scholars begun to devote concerted energy to understanding and applying queer perspectives to administrative issues (Bertone and Gusmano, 2013; Elias and Colvin, 2020; Gaynor, 2018; Lee at al., 2008). With roots in critical race theory, feminist theory, women’s studies, and gay and lesbian studies, queer theory pushes our understanding beyond sex and sexual orientation to encompass a broader perspective of all things that reside outside what is thought to be “normal, legitimate and dominant” (Halperin, 1997). In other words, while traditional public administration – through its routine management of public goods and services – is the mechanism through which we decide what is normal, legitimate, and dominant in our society, queer theory is posited to question and challenge those assumptions of routine management, including the value we place on such concepts as efficiency, effectiveness, and equity. This chapter will explore queer theory in definition and application. In definition, we will discuss contemporary uses of queer theory in public administration. In its application, we will apply queer theory to police departments’ recruitment strategies for new officers as a case study for how queer theory can be used in a public administration classroom and setting. Using police recruitment in the United States as a case study, we plan to show the power of this theoretical framework and its ability to reimagine the public provision of goods and services.

QUEER THEORY: HOW CAN WE UNDERSTAND IT? Queer theory is a critical theory framework that explores how we understand the world through power and binaries. Fighting against binaries, queer theory acknowledges complexities and fluidities within the world. The theory evolved out of the works of scholars who originally advanced critical and feminist viewpoints. Foucault (1990) linked sexuality and knowledge to political power, and Butler’s (1990) work rejected the idea of stable sexual orientation and gender identities. Sedgwick (1990) called attention to the discursive definition of homo/ heterosexuality in society, which further refined what it meant to be queer. Based on their writings, queer theory offers an examination of queerness or difference through the process of questioning binary structures. Within its original context, the theory posited that sexuality was not binary (homosexual/heterosexual) but was instead fluid and based on time and place (for example, socially constructed). In addition, sexuality could be used as a source of power, to control people through ideals of heterosexuality as the norm (that is, heteronormativity), and anything outside this norm being the “other” or deviant perspective. 309

310  Handbook of teaching public administration Building on heteronormativities, queer theory is interested in power dynamics that exist between those in power and those who are considered “others,” specifically how norms are created, utilized, and weaponized to create a binary of what is “normal” and what is “not normal.” In its application, the theory questions socially established norms and common binary categories, such as heterosexual/homosexual, male/female, rich/poor, and white/ non-white. Most important, for public administration, it goes beyond these binaries to contest the general private/public dichotomy as well as effectiveness/efficiency, and discretion/ accountability. Queer theory is about going against the grain, questioning (or queering) these norms. By being oppositional, queer theory can shed light on the ways in which people create and exert power through norms and how these norms may be damaging to other individuals or groups who are not in power.

QUEER THEORY IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Queer theory is a theoretical framework that has been used minimally in the field of public administration but can help to move praxis forward. Two pieces have been published in public administration journals regarding queer theory: one looking at queer theory and policing (Dwyer, 2019) and one looking at queer theory in the field of public administration in general (Lee et al., 2008). It has not been used in nonprofit studies (Meyer et al., 2021). In Public Administration, Lee et al. (2008) explore how the field can use queer theory. Interestingly, they show how qualitative research can be queered to gain more in-depth knowledge of internal power relationships, and how these power structures lead to a failure to provide support and services to men who have sex with men (MSM) who are identified as the “other.” Using queer theory, Lee et al. (2008) showed how organizational and cultural norms govern identities and practices, and showed how services can suffer from these unexamined assumptions. In Administrative Theory and Praxis, Dwyer (2020) used queer theory to understand the relationship between queer people and Australia’s police. By queering this context, Dwyer was also able to identify how the power dynamics within the police administration hampered constructive relationships between the police and LGBTQ+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and others) people.

MASCULINITY, POLICE CULTURE, AND REPRESENTATIVE BUREAUCRACY An overarching theme within policing research is the idea of “hegemonic masculinity.” According to Connell (1992), hegemonic masculinity involves the legitimation and maintenance of male dominance in societal social structures while subordinating feminine identities, as well as any identity considered to be queer (that is, gay, bisexual, non-binary, transgender). Hegemonic masculinity is entrenched within police culture because it upholds the patriarchal dominance of white, heterosexual males who have traditionally been the majority in policing. This hegemony continues, in part, because of the privileges that it bestows on societies’ majority (white straight cis-identifying men and women) and their unwillingness to acknowledge their dominance. Police officers are trained to adopt police culture, conform, and emphasize law enforcement’s shared values over individual identities (Loftus, 2010). This is true for

Applying queer theory to public administration: reimaging police officer recruitment  311 queer (and other minority) officers, although the process is more difficult for identities deviating from hegemonic masculinity (Mennicke et al., 2018). The results of these hegemonic forces in policing can be seen in the disparate treatment of women, people of color, and queer people in the application of criminal justice policies, as well as the minimal representation of these groups among the ranks in police departments. Efforts to diversify policing with more women, racial minorities, and sexualities have hinged on recruiting and are based on the theory of representative bureaucracy. The idea of representative bureaucracy is well grounded in public administration research. The theory of representative bureaucracy proposes that a public organization is more likely to serve its constituents when it is demographically similar to those constituents. This can have particular relevance when the organization is outwards-facing – such as the police – in its service to the community (Lipsky, 2010). Because much of the thought about representative bureaucracy has focused on perceived sex and race, there is much more uncertainty when the concept is applied to sexual orientation or other “queer” representations. Unlike sex and race, sexual orientation and gender identity are generally not observable characteristics. Because these are not often observable, LGBTQ+ individuals must decide whether, when, and to what degree to disclose their sexual orientation and/or gender identity (Chojnacki and Gelberg, 1994). As an outward-facing agency with most police staff as front-line employees, police departments are ideal organizations for representative bureaucracy. Passive and active representation provides residents with observable representation. Representativeness of the police can causally influence how citizens view and judge the law enforcement agency (Riccucci et al., 2014). A more representative view can improve communication, enhance trust, and improve police effectiveness as residents are more likely to report crimes and participate in community policing initiatives. Thus, the recruitment process is a critical component for creating more diverse, inclusive, and representative police departments.

POLICE OFFICER RECRUITMENT PROCESS: CURRENT PROCESS Several factors govern the decision to recruit police officers in the United States. The most common factor driving recruitment is the need to maintain current officer staffing levels. The maintenance of staffing levels is usually caused by officer separations from the department, including retirements, voluntary separation (for example, new job or relocation), involuntary separations (for example, termination for misconduct), health and medical separations, and untimely deaths. Beyond maintaining existing staffing levels, there is no universal formula for deciding when additional officers are needed. Regardless of the impetus, hiring more police officers is the first step in the recruitment process. Once the jurisdiction decides to hire more officers, the position is announced, and recruiters promote the openings. This includes announcing the position via governmental sites and outlets, as well as more specific and targeted recruitment. For example, the openings are usually promoted at job fairs and announced via social media. The exact promotion strategies will vary by jurisdiction, with the pool’s diversity or representativeness being driven, in part, by the promotion strategies selected by the jurisdiction. Once the closing date has passed, the pool of applications is screened for minimum qualifications for becoming a police officer (for example, citizenship, residency, age, and education) and for disqualifying factors (for

312  Handbook of teaching public administration example, recent drug use, a history of domestic abuse, criminal history, or financial problems). Applicants who meet the minimum requirements and are not disqualified are invited to advance in the process, usually the written test. See Table 32.1 for a summary review of the recruitment process.

QUEERING THE POLICE OFFICER RECRUITMENT PROCESS Policing is ripe for queering (Dwyer, 2019). In this case, we apply such questioning to the process of recruiting police officers. By queering this process, we aim to destabilize and disrupt that which is taken for granted and questioning how hegemonic heterosexuality supports those who are privileged over others (Berlant and Warner, 1998; Few-Demo et al., 2016). Furthermore, we aim to explore identity as fluidity instead of binary (Fleischmann and Özbilgin, 2009). From a public administration perspective, queer theory supports breaking down boundaries, connecting the realities of administrators and those being served (Lee et al., 2008). Overall, the process of queering questions the way we understand the world and the processes we use to create our knowledge. The first step would be to take down the boundaries in place which perpetuate power (Lee et al., 2008). While power structures exist throughout the recruitment process – from deciding to recruit more officers, to targeting certain outlets for recruits, to deciding who will be recruitment officers, to deciding applicant qualifications or disqualifications – this section will look at only the first part of the recruitment process: the decision to add police officers.1 The first step in recruitment is deciding that new police officers are needed. Importantly, queer theory is interested in queering not only the decision to hire but also the decision of what position will be open. Specifically, does the department need more officers or does it need other types of service providers within the organization? Given that about 4 percent of calls for service in the United States are for violent crimes, emphasizing candidates with military-style skills and abilities might not meet the community’s needs (Asher and Horwitz, 2020). Furthermore, non-criminal-related calls, including mental health and welfare checks, account for over 40 percent of most communities’ calls in the United States (Asher and Horwitz, 2020). This suggests that other skills and abilities might better meet the needs of the community. With even basic data, we can start to queer how the very act of opening a job perpetuates certain power structures and hegemonic masculinity. Instead of focusing on police officers with traditional skills and abilities, a queer approach might look at creating more non-officer positions, such as health specialists and social workers. These positions are usually considered to be more “feminine” professions, and thus, despite the apparent need in policing, are not usually prioritized for recruitment.2 By deciding to hire staff such as health specialists, social workers, or other community-focused positions, the police department would show that it is responding to community needs (for example, staff who can help and support community members with their specialized expertise) instead of imposing policing desires (for example, more traditional officers with general expertise) on the community. Furthermore, by working with communities to identify what types of specialists are needed, departments will start breaking down barriers between the police and those who are policed. To better understand how dominant hegemonic and masculine forces can persist in policing, let us consider a typical police recruitment video. In 2017 in California, the San Diego

 

 

Job boards

2. Position is announced

3. Recruiters promote

 

LinkedIn

Local job fairs

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

opening

Action (general)

1. Position is opened

Community events

Specific fairs and general fairs

Specific fairs and general fairs

Specific fairs and general fairs

Community Colleges

Universities

 

 

advanced officers

Broad site for job seeker professionals, usually for

specifically in police careers

 

Announcement to individuals and groups interested

position

Popular job board (general announcement)

other listservs and organizations of people

government sites

 

 

communities?

with the colleges and universities in our

How does that impact the ways we interact

up relationships with in these communities?

represent the police force? Who have we built

Who are we sending to community colleges to

 

 

and “not police material”?

we create the dichotomy of “police material”

groups continue to influence the ways in which

hierarchy of who applies? How do these specific

these decisions continue to influence a certain

specifically interested in police careers? How do

led to the determination of one group being

Who has created these relationships? What has

Ask how these groups have been decided.

 

announce it there.

who may not normally access these sites and

Who has access to government sites? Explore

Municipality and department posts to official

may be influenced by current power structures.

important than others and how these decisions

Question why certain jobs are deemed more

police to help explore who is represented.

attrition, department maintenance, or expansion

Queering Bringing in a community group to work with

Activity Municipality determines a need for more officers:

State regulators announce

Indeed website

 

 

Action (specific)

General process recruiting police officers

Step

Table 32.1

Applying queer theory to public administration: reimaging police officer recruitment  313

Specific fairs and general fairs Virtual and real announcements in the community

Industry-specific job fairs  

Queering

Which community do we have relationships with

 

 

Disqualifying admissions:

 

Source: Based on Cox et al. (2018).

drug use, criminal history

Minimum qualification

4. Review of applications

 

 

application form

false, or incomplete information given on the

affiliations, poor employment record; or incorrect,

unreported past crimes, past or current gang

of domestic violence, not clean driving license,

from military service, bad credit history, history

drug use or past drug abuse, dishonorable discharge

Felony convictions, serious misdemeanors, current

does that create limits on who can apply? How

criminal record

and those they serve?  

do these limits create hierarchies between police

What are our minimum qualifications? How

Citizenship, residency, age, education, vision,

community” and “not our community”?

How do we create the dichotomy between “our

Post flyers in local

 

Specific fairs and general fairs

Activity

that we are sending out these announcements to?

 

 

Action (specific) Military outreach

barbershops, etc.

 

 

community: gyms,

Action (general)

Step

314  Handbook of teaching public administration

Applying queer theory to public administration: reimaging police officer recruitment  315 Police Department released a 2-minute, 20-second promotional video to encourage individuals to apply to become police officers. The video is meant to highlight the “adventure” of being a police officer. There are five different police scenes presented, and each appears to encourage masculine heteronormativity (straight white men) and to discourage women, queer, non-white, or any person perceived as the other. The first scene shows a single woman of color completing a physical obstacle course. The course consists of running, jumping, wall-scaling, and dragging a body to safety. A critical view of this scene suggests that the job relies on your physical ability more than any other strengths. It also suggests that you will likely be the only woman in most policing environments, and that the obstacle course might be a metaphor for the experiences you would face as a female officer. The second shows a helicopter, and shows men flying it around the city. The helicopter is presented in the same way that new cars are often displayed: as advanced “toys for boys.” Next, the video cuts to a scene with a police dog and five men who all appear to be white. Two of the men have their weapons drawn and they are walking into conflict. The dog is aggressive and barking. To be blunt, this scene looks like a slave patrol. The barking dog and the officers have drawn weapons, suggesting an “us or them” dichotomy between law enforcement and the communities. In the fourth scene, there are six men in full military-style combat gear. One man is shown loading bullets into a cartridge, then firing an assortment of firearms. The six men are later shown conducting a search of a facility that looks like a home. Guns are cocked and loaded. In the final scene, yet another man is shown engaging in extreme physical activities. This officer appears to be rappelling down a building, intending to challenge the first person he encounters on the ground. This creates a heteronormative narrative, focusing on perpetuating what could be argued as the “masculine.” It also emphasizes the division between those being policed and the police and the power dynamics inherent in this binary. A “queer-ed” recruitment video would show police working with the community to create a safer world together. Furthermore, a diverse group of police officers would be engaging in community-based policing, and with police and community residents investing in the production of community safety. A queer approach would show more practical activities and everyday police work activities, such as responding to requests for welfare checks and helping with non-criminal activities. This type of recruitment video would disrupt the masculine stereotypes of policing, present a police force that works with the community, and attract people who would not be interested in work that relies on hegemonic masculine behaviors, such as using battering rams on doors and rappelling from buildings. At the front end of the recruitment process, even the decision to recruit and hire more officers has prima facie implications for maintaining the existing power relations between communities and the state. The situation is compounded when police departments accept existing archaic ideas and notions about their profession, such as physical abilities over other abilities, the whiteness and heteronormative over diversity and egalitarianism, and hegemonic masculinity over individual expressions.

QUEERING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION EDUCATION Above is one application of queer theory within public administration, but the applications are endless. One way to promote this application is through teaching queer theory in public administration education. Providing students with education on queer theory allows them to

316  Handbook of teaching public administration start to explore traditional power models in the organizations which they will be a part of, and ways to queer them. Along with the articles discussed in this chapter (Dwyer, 2019; Lee et al., 2008; Meyer et al., 2021), there are other fields that have explored how to incorporate queer theory, such as management (Fleischmann and Özbilgin, 2009; Ozturk and Rumens, 2014) and counseling (Few‐Demo et al., 2016), amongst others. These resources can be a starting point in building a comprehensive queer theory pedagogy for public administration. When teaching queer theory, it is useful to start with an organization, such as the police. Using this case study, students can first identify the specific power structures that exist, and the binaries (in this case study, for example, the binary is between those who are police and those who are policed). In this case, we showed how these binaries are perpetuated through the recruitment process and a recruitment video. Using both processes and artifacts to examine the perpetuation of power binaries and the forcing of minorities to fit into mainstream “normalness” to be accepted (compulsive heteronormativity), can help students to see (and deconstruct) these processes in real time. Queering these binaries can help students to question how their organizations are limited in recruiting staff best suited to interacting with clients, or in providing services to the community. Helping students to break down these barriers can help to create a more equitable, and more queer, public administration.

POLICING AND RECRUITMENT AS EXEMPLARS To highlight the utility of applying queer theory to public administration, we intentionally chose two relatable areas: recruitment and policing. Jurisdictions and agencies, large and small, engage in this basic function of human resource management. Through recruitment, we show that even the central and basic functions are riddled with assumptions and norms that have yet to be appropriately challenged. By queering the human resource process, we can create better tools for processes that emerge downstream (for example, queering selection, performance evaluations, training, and others such as compensation). In selecting policing, we chose a public service universally known among public administrators, with nearly 80 000 police departments across the United States (Brooks, 2020). In general, public administrators understand law enforcement’s work and the need for more dramatic action to improve service provision and representation. For example, in 1998, women represented about 13 percent of sworn police officers in the United States. Twenty years later, women still represent about 13 percent of sworn officers (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020). Despite the numerous initiatives, reforms, and training that police departments have implemented to improve employment equity with women, we can easily see how queering policing might yield better policy and policing outcomes than continuing to do “business as usual.”

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Queering public administration is no easy task. In many ways, public administration is built on ideas that are anathema to queering. For example, bureaucracy, an organizing principle of public administration, promotes a hierarchical management structure. Each level in the organization controls the levels below and is governed by the level above. The structure establishes authority and responsibilities within the organization and each position, and it establishes

Applying queer theory to public administration: reimaging police officer recruitment  317 a power dynamic between levels and positions. These are types of power dynamics that queer theory seeks to challenge. This dynamic is not limited to the structure of public administration. The provision of goods and services by an agency to the public establishes both a power dynamic (the state defining the parameters of services to the public) and a binary relationship between government and residents. Police departments are an illustrative example. Departments are hierarchical in a military-style. Rank and time in service are important factors that determine who is promoted within the organization. Individuals with new or innovative ideas must also be in a position of authority (to influence someone in authority) to carry them out. Police departments are slow to change because the most influential voices are rarely the most progressive voices. Furthermore, because of the nature of the services provided (public safety), there is both a power dynamic (which is the power of the state to enforce the laws) and an implicit binary of “us versus them” (lawbreakers and law enforcers). In this context, queering public administration becomes a powerful tool for improving government. By openly and unapologetically questioning power and structures, queer theorists force administrators to defend basic assumptions about how goods and services are delivered. Queer theory questions processes and procedures assumed to be efficient, effective, or equitable, and challenges administrators to make the case underlying those assumptions. In making these challenges, queer theory often promotes more transparent and more equitable outcomes. For example, in policing, we showed how the approach could radically open up the recruitment process. We do this to challenge the notion that more officers on the beat (instead of more social workers and counselors) would be the best approach for maintaining public safety. Queer theory could be a powerful tool for public administration. Its applications are boundless, as power dynamics and binaries define the majority of public administration settings. With one eye on the theory and the other on praxis, we can begin to attack public administration’s assumptions that have hampered many diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts.

NOTES 1. More examples of queering the recruitment process in policing can be found in Table 32.1. 2. In 2015, the Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 83 percent of employed social workers were female.

REFERENCES Asher, J., and Horwitz, B. (2020, June 19). How do the police actually spend their time? New York Times. https://​www​.nytimes​.com/​2020/​06/​19/​upshot/​unrest​-police​-time​-violent​-crime​.html. Berlant, L., and Warner, M. (1998). Sex in public. Critical Inquiry, 24(2), 547‒566. https://​doi​.org/​10​ .1086/​448884. Bertone, C., and Gusmano, B. (2013). Queerying the public administration in Italy: Local challenges to a national standstill. In Y. Taylor and M. Addison (eds), Queer presences and absences (pp. 260‒278). Palgrave Macmillan. Brooks, C. (2020, August 20) Local police departments: Policies and procedures, 2016. Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). https://​www​.bjs​.gov/​index​.cfm​?ty​=​pbdetail​&​iid​=​7006. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2020). Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey. Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. Routledge Press.

318  Handbook of teaching public administration Chojnacki, J.T., and Gelberg, S. (1994). Toward a conceptualization of career counseling with gay/ lesbian/bisexual persons. Journal of Career Development, 21(1), 3‒10. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 089484539402100101. Connell, R.W. (1992). A very straight gay: Masculinity, homosexual experience, and the dynamics of gender. American Sociological Review, 735‒751. https://​doi​.org/​10​.2307/​2096120. Cox, S.M., Massey, D., Koski, C.M., and Fitch, B.D. (2018). Introduction to policing. SAGE Publications. Dwyer, A. (2019). Queering policing: What is best practice with LGBTQ communities? Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 31(3), 396‒411. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​10345329​.2019​.1640172. Dwyer, A. (2020). Queering police administration: How policing administration complicates LGBTIQ– police relations. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 42(2), 172‒190. Elias, N., and Colvin, R. (2020). A third option: Understanding and assessing non-binary gender policies in the United States. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 42(2), 191‒211. Few‐Demo, A.L., Humble, A.M., Curran, M.A., and Lloyd, S.A. (2016). Queer theory, intersectionality, and LGBT‐parent families: Transformative critical pedagogy in family theory. Journal of Family Theory and Review, 8(1), 74‒94. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​jftr​.12127. Fleischmann, A., and Özbilgin, M.F. (2009). Queering the principles: A queer/intersectional reading of Frederick W. Taylor’s ‘The Principles of Scientific Management’. In M.F. Özbilgin (ed.) Equality, diversity and inclusion at work: A research companion (pp. 159‒170). Edward Elgar Publishing. Foucault, Michel (1990). The history of sexuality: An introduction. Vintage. Gaynor, T.S. (2018). Social construction and the criminalization of identity: State-sanctioned oppression and an unethical administration. Public Integrity, 20(4), 358‒369. Halperin, D. (1997). Saint Foucault: Towards a gay hagiography. Oxford University Press. Sedgwick, E. (1990). Pedagogy in the context of an antihomophobic project. South Atlantic Quarterly, 89(1), 139‒156. Lee, H., Learmonth, M., and Harding, N. (2008). Queer (y) ing public administration. Public Administration, 86(1), 149‒167. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​j​.1467​-9299​.2007​.00707​.x. Lipsky, M. (2010). Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public service. Russell Sage Foundation. Loftus, B. (2010). Police occupational culture: Classic themes, altered times. Policing and Society, 20(1), 1‒20. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​10439460903281547. Mennicke, A., Kennedy, S.C., Gromer, J., and Klem-O’Connor, M. (2018). Evaluation of a social norms sexual violence prevention marketing campaign targeted toward college men: Attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors over 5 years. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​ 0886260518780411. Meyer, S.J., Dale, E.J., and Willis, K.K. (2021). “Where my gays at?” The status of LGBTQ people and queer theory in nonprofit research. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 08997640211021497. Ozturk, M.B., and Rumens, N. (2014). Gay male academics in UK business and management schools: Negotiating heteronormativities in everyday work life. British Journal of Management, 25(3), 503‒517. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1111/​1467​-8551​.12061. Riccucci, N.M., Van Ryzin, G.G., and Lavena, C.F. (2014). Representative bureaucracy in policing: Does it increase perceived legitimacy? Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 24(3), 537‒551. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1093/​jopart/​muu006.

33. Gamification: using the escape room for teaching public administration Janez Stare, Maja Klun, and Jernej Buzeti

The challenges of teaching public administration at higher education levels relate to both content and implementation. A way of making the teaching‒learning process more attractive is to introduce game elements, the positive effects of which are seen in the emotional engagement of the students (Souza-Concilio and Pacheco, 2013) in the sense of shaping a positive emotional environment. Their development and use for pedagogical purposes is known as game-based learning, while the use of games in non-game contexts to engage people and solve problems is known as gamification (Warmelink et al., 2020). One gamification concept is the escape room, which can be used as a method of teaching (Humphrey, 2017). The experience of several universities (Gómez-Urquiza et al., 2019; Hermanns et al., 2018; Lopez-Pernas et al., 2019) indicates the possibility to integrate a variety of subjects and various topics. The basis for setting up an escape room is the idea to offer something that simultaneously enables relaxed learning, networking between participants, and entertainment. Approaches and pedagogical and didactic aspects of the concept are yet to be fully developed (Warmelink et al., 2017). This was a sufficient motive for setting up an escape room at the Faculty of Public Administration of the University of Ljubljana (FPA UL), which can be used as a learning method in public administration education. This chapter is a pilot study based on a descriptive qualitative method. It presents the theoretical concept of the escape room, the suitability of the escape room method for teaching public administration, and the process of setting up the escape room at the FPA UL.

GAMIFICATION: ESCAPE ROOM AS A TEACHING METHOD There are multiple approaches to motivating students for active participation, but the idea behind all of them is participatory learning. There is a need to expand our vision of pedagogy so that learners are active participants or co-producers rather than passive consumers of content (McLoughlin and Lee, 2007, p. 664). The possibilities and methods vary, but they all strive to take advantage of the positive features of gamification. Gamification consists of adding game elements to non-game contexts, to engage users and encourage them to adopt specific behaviours. It draws on the motivational characteristics of good games which, unlike traditional learning materials, can deliver information on demand and within context, thus balancing the difficulty levels of challenges according to participants’ abilities (Kay, 2008). When game elements are applied for educational purposes, Kapp (2013) distinguishes between two types of gamification: structural and content gamification. Structural gamification is the application of game elements to propel a learner through content with no alteration or changes to the content itself; while content gamification is adding challenges, hints, stories, 319

320  Handbook of teaching public administration and so on, to generate new knowledge. Hence, a lecturer will use structural gamification to motivate the students to learn, and content gamification to generate new knowledge. Many theories support the idea of serious games that positively affect motivation (Garris et al., 2002; Ryan and Deci, 2000). On the other hand, Wouters et al. (2013), based on a broader study, claim that serious games are no more motivating than other teaching methods used in comparative groups. Landers (2019), too, is critical of gamification; therefore gamification will achieve its purpose only if it is developed with the aim of achieving learning goals. An example is the escape room. Escape rooms as a teaching tool are not only important tools for motivation, but also and even more to gain different competences and study the content at the same time. Through tasks in the escape room, participants get to know the subject matter in a practical way; therefore, it is easier for them to remember the key points of the presented task (Humphrey, 2017; Wise et al., 2018). Furthermore, it contributes to the functioning of all five senses, and forces students to maximise the use of their mental abilities. The work of the educationalist is much more complex in the phase of content preparation and implementation (Palacios, 2016). It is essential that the tasks are coordinated and designed to involve all participants in the game. The tasks must be thematically related to the theme of the room. Moreover, it is important that the room provides participants with all the necessary information and tools to solve the tasks, which should follow the sequence: challenge, solution, and reward (Wiemker et al., 2015). Nicholson (2018) believes that there are three main reasons for using the escape room in the learning process: escape games are cooperative games; adding a timer creates an urgency that drives student teams to engage with the content in a way that a traditional activity structure may not; and finally, escape games are based on solving puzzles and accomplishing tasks. Using the escape room is useful not only for students in public administration, but also across a broad spectrum of courses and disciplines (Plump and Meisel, 2020). Particularly, public administration studies as interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary studies can realize the connection of different courses in one room. Therefore, the content of several courses can be used in one escape room, and students are forced to use the knowledge from different courses to solve one or more puzzles. Even more importantly, the escape room experience addresses different competences at the same time, which are difficult to obtain with other teaching methods. According to research on the competences needed for public administration (Intelligenceunit, 2018; Kruyen and Van Genugten, 2020; OECD, 2017), it is obvious that they are developing and changing. They are in line with future competences and skills defined in different fields (OECD, 2019; WEF, 2020). These competencies can be gained directly by using an escape room: team work, communicative skills, to organize, commitment, to convince, negotiation skills, to overcome self-interest, time management, being tactical, strategical, data analysis, leadership, proactive, non-conformist, curious, solution-oriented, creative, to innovate, to collaborate, co-creation.

THE CASE STUDY OF USING AN ESCAPE ROOM AT THE FACULTY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA The perceived practice of using escape rooms for educational purposes encouraged a team of researchers at the FPA UL to develop and set up an escape room, also known as the room for

Gamification: using the escape room for teaching public administration  321 team cooperation, seeking solutions, and emotional experiences. The main theme of the escape room was related to public administration development and operation. The escape room itself was designed by rearranging one of the lecture halls into three rooms: a control room and two playing areas. The theme highlights the aspects of both classic bureaucratic organisation and contemporary modern administration, which is based on an information network and human cooperation. It is because of the type of theme that this concept has two rooms: the first room is a display of public administration in the past; the second, larger room is a reflection of contemporary public administration that borders futurism. The concept comprises mental and physical tasks. The content covers administrative law, European institutions, developments in local self-government in Slovenia, public finance, information technology (IT), statistics, leadership, and human resource management. The participants solve the tasks through logical linking, with the use of the learning material (books and textbooks), modern IT, and skills in using the objects in the room. The cooperation of the whole team that works its way through the set tasks is of the utmost importance. In 2019, students participated for the first time in our escape room as part of the tutorials in two courses: one on leadership, and the other on human resource management (HRM) in the public sector. We also conducted a short survey among these students. Students from both courses received the instructions to be followed in the escape room, and then we divided each course group into two, and then into subgroups: the subgroups that actively played and solved tasks, and the subgroups that observed and analysed the group in the escape room and its cooperation by means of cameras, a screen, and pre-prepared instructions. The groups of students who performed the analysis answered questions related to the content of the course, as they had to determine who took on the role of leader, who played which part according to Belbin’s team role theory (Belbin, 1993), how they cooperated, and so on. Students who actually played in the escape room had to submit a report in the form of an analysis of the use of the escape room in the study process, also describing their feelings about it, their cooperation in the escape room, and the potential usability of the escape room experience in the work environment. For the leadership course group, participation was mandatory, while in the HRM course group students voluntarily applied to participate after choosing from available alternatives of active participation. During both tutorials, we conducted a survey among students to answer the following research questions: ● Does this method help students to understand the theoretical content of the course in specific situations or practices? ● Will students be able to identify the situations from the escape room in the work environment, and which part of this experience could they use in their work as public administration employees? ● What is student satisfaction with using the escape room method in the study process? ● Did the students have any previous experience with the escape room, and how did they cooperate with each other during the game? In order to answer the research questions, qualitative and quantitative research methods were used which helped us to draw reliable, objective, verifiable, and accurate conclusions. For the purpose of our analysis, the questions for students were divided into five sets. In the first three sets, the questions were to be answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or descriptively, while in the last two

322  Handbook of teaching public administration sets the answers were recorded on a five-point scale (1 – very bad, 2 – bad, 3 – neither good nor bad, 4 – very good, 5 – excellent). The five sets included the following questions: ● Set 1: Did the students have any previous experience in the escape room? How did the students feel before entering the escape room as part of the study process? ● Set 2: Does such a method help students to understand the theoretical content of the course in specific situations or practices? ● Set 3: Are students able to identify situations from the escape room in the work environment and which part of this experience could they use in their work? ● Set 4: How do you rate student cooperation in the escape room game? ● Set 5: How do you rate student satisfaction at using the escape room method in the study process? The study involved a total of 36 students, 14 from the leadership course and 22 from the HRM course. The analysis in the leadership course shows that none of the 14 participating students who played in the escape room had any previous experience. More than 80 per cent of students expressed enthusiasm, and said they had no idea what to expect. Many of them had great expectations and wondered how things would look and how they would react to different situations. As regards the question of whether the escape room method helps students to understand the theoretical content of the course in specific situations or practice, we can estimate – based on a qualitative analysis of reports, and from what we could see in practice – that over 90 per cent of students in both groups (the playing group and the observing group) agree that using the escape room helps students to understand the theoretical content of the course in a more practical way. The analysis shows that most students (90 per cent) who played in the escape room are able to recognise the usefulness of the escape room experience in the work environment. A detailed analysis shows that the vast majority of students (88 per cent) believe that a similar way of communication and cooperation would be used in the work environment, as they cooperated and communicated by expressing their opinions, suggestions, and ideas, which they consider important for successful work. Likewise, more than 90 per cent of the students pointed out that there was an extremely good atmosphere among the students in the escape room while playing the game. Being able to create a good atmosphere when performing common tasks seems important to them, and they also believe that a positive atmosphere in the work environment is important for performing work assignments and for the well-being of employees. Interestingly, the participants in the escape room said that the person they saw as a leader had a cooperative or democratic leadership style. Identical conclusions were drawn by students of the second group who observed the escape room group from outside. The latter group also quickly realised who was taking on the role of group leader. Thus, the escape room and the situations in which students found themselves helped them to understand what a cooperative and democratic style of leading people means in practice. When asked how the students in the escape room cooperated with each other during the game, the analysis of the answers shows that cooperation was very good in 43 per cent of the cases; good in 43 per cent of the cases; and sometimes good, sometimes bad in 14 per cent of the cases. Some group members acted in concert, others less so. Quite a few students said that they were confused at first as they did not know how to start. They were partly disorganised. Poor communication was perceived among those who did not work together well. However,

Gamification: using the escape room for teaching public administration  323 most students pointed out that if they had the feeling that they could not solve something on their own, the best thing to do was to consult the group members and find a solution together. Cooperation is closely related to communication. Interestingly, students wrote in their reports and analyses that communication was largely good. As regards student satisfaction with the escape room method used in the study process, the analysis of reports and student responses shows that 72 per cent of students rated the use of the escape room in the study process as excellent, and 28 per cent of students as very good. Here are some answers from students: “When working on the analysis of what was going on in the escape room, I dug deeper into the content of exercises and lectures for this course”, “The learning content is now so much easier to understand ...” The experience of the students of the HRM course was similar. Of the 57 students enrolled in this course, 22 participated in the escape room game. Twenty-three percent of them already had experience in the escape room, but not for teaching purposes. Thirty-six percent chose to participate in the escape room game for fun, as an exciting experience, and from curiosity as to whether such an experience can be relived during the study process. Half of the students chose to participate because they expected something different, and 14 per cent participated in order to avoid other obligations (video movie analysis, book reading). The analysis shows that 77 per cent of the students experienced enthusiasm and expectation. As regards the question of whether the escape room method helped students to understand the theoretical content of the course in specific situations or practice, we can estimate – based on qualitative analysis of reports, and from what we saw in practice – that the vast majority of students in both groups (the playing group and the observing group) believed that the use of the escape room helped them to understand the theoretical content of the course in a more practical way. However, analysis also shows that the majority of students playing in the escape room were not able to recognise the usefulness of the escape room experience in the work environment, which is in contrast to the previously observed (leadership course) group. Most of the students mentioned that they had too little work experience to be able to directly link individual events from the escape room to situations in the work environment. When asked how they cooperated with each other during the escape room game, the analysis of the answers shows that cooperation was very good in 40 per cent of cases; good in 35 per cent of cases; and sometimes bad, sometimes good in 25 per cent of cases. Some group members acted in concert, others less so. Quite a few students said that they were confused at first because they did not know how to start. In fact, they drew back from the other group members because of unsuccessful cooperation or inability to participate in individual cases; one participant said she left the group (terminated her student work). It is also interesting that the students of the three subgroups who knew each other well believed that the team roles were already “naturally” distributed among them. The participants drew attention to different types of communication, and to the fact that it was difficult to communicate when they had failed to find the correct solution for the third or fourth time. They described their feelings in different ways: some experienced increased motivation; others a lack of motivation, or annoyance; some wanted to find a solution by themselves without cooperating with a teammate with whom they had previously failed several times. When asked about their satisfaction at using the escape room method in the study process, the analysis of reports and student responses shows that 61 per cent of the students rated the use of the escape room in the study process as excellent, 26 per cent as very good, and 13 per cent as neither good nor bad. Compared to senior students (in the leadership course), we see

324  Handbook of teaching public administration that satisfaction in this course was lower. The results show that 87 per cent of the students of the HRM course considered the use of the escape room as a method of gamification and a method of teaching to be very useful and beneficial. We can conclude that although the focus of observation in the escape room game was related to the leadership, cooperation, motivation, and communication content, we also observed the substantive resolution of the problems posed. Most questions related to the general knowledge of public administration and the content of other courses of the study programme. In doing so, the participants combined content based on their own experience and sought solutions in a creative way. The participants only had difficulties with logically combining partial solutions into the final password (which was the key to the final solution), which in one part implied reading a longer text (understanding the message).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The first experience with the escape room performance confirms the practice of other universities: that it is appropriate to introduce the escape room into public administration studies as a learning or teaching method. After our first performance experience, we believe that the escape room contributes to the development of skills related to team cooperation, time management, problem solving, and acting under pressure. We also believe that a wide variety of themes can be integrated in the teaching process; in this respect, we should develop themes based on cross-curricular integration. Cross-curricular integration is one of the advantages of using the escape room for teaching purposes in public administration. The other advantage, not necessarily connected only to public administration study, is gaining competences that are difficult to obtain during the courses (active team work rather than group work in paper presentations; playing roles in situations with several puzzles rather than role playing in the classroom, and so on). The results of our small piece of research confirm all the above. Although at first glance the concept of the escape room follows the logic of socialising and fun, in designing the tasks, we should bear in mind that a deeper connection with the topic or teaching content is hidden in the logic of the game. The game should motivate students to familiarise themselves with the content and seek to understand it in a broader context of their studies, by encouraging themselves and others to cooperate in a creative way. Our findings connect to the views of Humphrey (2017) and Wise et al. (2018), because they believe that the escape room as a teaching tool is important not only for motivation, but also and even more so to gain different competences. Participants get to know the content of different subjects in a practical way, which in our case is the content of public administration. We are considering using the escape room to gain further competences, that is, intercultural cooperation. The challenges of using the escape room in the future include formulating tasks in the room in a way that will enable international students attending the FPA UL as part of the Erasmus+ programme to participate in the study process. This is particularly important because it will shift the focus to the challenge of cooperation between people from different cultures. This will also be very interesting for Slovenian students, as escape rooms could be used in foreign language study programmes where Slovenian students could work together with international students to solve tasks in the room. During the process, foreign students can learn about Slovenian public administration, and vice versa.

Gamification: using the escape room for teaching public administration  325 Using the escape room for teaching purposes is a challenge not only for students, but for teachers as well. It can be noted that the use of this tool (escape room) leads to changes in the roles of teachers and students. Teachers increasingly and almost entirely progress from traditional teaching to a mentorship role, guiding students through solving tasks in the study process. This applies particularly to teachers who are not proactive and flexible when it comes to using new teaching methods and approaches. The physical environment and the spatial design of the escape room could pose a major problem. It is important to highlight the challenges related to faculty capacities, considering the fact that many faculties already lack sufficient space to conduct the study process using traditional teaching methods and tools, let alone set up an escape room on faculty premises. If a suitable space is available at the faculty or elsewhere, another challenge or weakness of using escape rooms in the study process is related to the sizeable financial investment that is required, particularly if the escape room can be used free of charge and does not generate other income to recoup the investment. From the evaluation, we can conclude that the students liked this kind of activity very much and found it useful to gain knowledge in this way. Even students with poor grades had good results in the final quiz. Many students stated after the activity that they had never thought how many things one could learn through a game like this. According to Gómez-Urquiza et al. (2019), the escape room game is a highly useful learning activity which allows students to remember and apply the knowledge gained in class. Moreover, it motivates them to study even if no exam is imminent, as it is enjoyable and promotes teamwork.

REFERENCES Belbin, R.M. (1993). Team Roles at Work. Butterworth-Heinemann. Garris, R., Ahlers, R., and Driskell, J.E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. Simulation and Gaming, 33(4), 441–467. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1177/​1046878102238607. Gómez-Urquiza, J.L., Gómez-Salgado, J., Albendín-García, L., Correa-Rodríguez, M., González-Jiménez, E., and Cañadas-De la Fuente, G.A. (2019). The impact on nursing students’ opinions and motivation of using a ‘Nursing Escape Room’ as a teaching game: A descriptive study. Nurse Education Today, 72, 73–76. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1016/​j​.nedt​.2018​.10​.018 Hermanns, M., Deal, B., Campbell, A.M., Hillhouse, S., Opella, J.B., et al. (2018). Using an ‘escape room’ toolbox approach to enhance pharmacology education. Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, 8(4), 89–95. https://​doi​.org/​10​.5430/​jnep​.v8n4p89. Humphrey, K. (2017). The application of a serious, non-digital escape game learning experience in higher education. Sport and Exercise Psychology Review, 13(2), 48–54. Intelligenceunit (2018). The Global Skills Gap in the 21st Century, QS Global Employer Survey 2018. Institute of Student Employers. https://​info​.qs​.com/​rs/​335​-VIN​-535/​images/​The​%20Global​%20Skills​ %20Gap​%2021st​%20Century​.pdf. Kapp, K.M. (2013, 25 March). Two Types of #Gamification. Kapp Notes. http://​karlkapp​.com/​two​-types​ -of​-gamification/​. Kay, J. (2008). Life-long learning, learner models and augmented cognition. In B.P. Woolf, E. Aïmeur, R. Nkambou, and S. Lajoie (eds), Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Vol. 5091. ITS 2008. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (pp.  3–5). Springer. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1007/​978​-3​-540​-69132​-7​_2. Kruyen, P.M., and Van Genugten, M. (2020). Opening up the black box of civil servants’ competencies. Public Management Review, 22(1), 118‒140. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​14719037​.2019​.1638442. Landers, R.N. (2019). Gamification misunderstood: How badly executed and rhetorical gamification obscures its transformative potential. Journal of Management Inquiry, 28(2), 137–140. https://​doi​.org/​ 10​.1177/​1056492618790913.

326  Handbook of teaching public administration Lopez-Pernas, S., Gordillo, A., Barra, E., and Quemada, J. (2019). Examining the use of an educational escape room for teaching programming in a higher education setting. IEEE Access, 7(2019), 31723–31737. https://​ieeexplore​.ieee​.org/​document/​8658086. McLoughlin, C., and Lee, M. (2007). Social software and participatory learning: Pedagogical choices with technology affordances in the Web 2.0 era. In R. Atkinson, C. McBeath, S.-K.A. Soong, and C. Cheers (eds), ICT: Providing Choices for Learners and Learning (pp. 664–675). Centre for Educational Development, Nanyang Technological University. Nicholson, S. (2018). Creating engaging escape rooms for the classroom. Childhood Education, 94(1), 44–49. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1080/​00094056​.2018​.1420363. OECD (2017). Core Skills for Public Sector Innovation. OECD. https://​www​.oecd​.org/​media/​oecdorg/​ satellitesites/​opsi/​contents/​files/​OECD​_OPSI​-core​_skills​_for​_public​_sector​_innovation​-201704​.pdf. OECD (2019). Conceptual Learning Framework ‒ Skills for 2030. OECD. https://​www​.oecd​.org/​ education/​2030​-project/​teaching​-and​-learning/​learning/​skills/​Skills​_for​_2030​_concept​_note​.pdf. Palacios, G. (2016, 5 April). Der Gründer von AdventureRooms stellt sich vor. Adventurerooms. https://​ www​.adventurerooms​.de/​escape​-game​-gruender​-stellt​-sich​-vor/​. Plump, M., and Meisel, S.I. (2020). Escape the traditional classroom: Using live-action games to engage students and strengthen concept retention. Management Teaching Review, 5(3), 202–217. https://​doi​ .org/​10​.1177/​2379298119837615. Ryan, R.M., and Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​ 0003​-066X​.55​.1​.68. Souza-Concilio, I.A., and Pacheco, B.A. (2013). How to make learning management systems more exciting and entertaining: Games, interaction and experience design. 2013 IEEE Conference on e-Learning, e-Management and e-Services, Malaysia, pp.  18–23. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1109/​IC3e​.2013​ .6735959. Warmelink, H., Koivisto, J., Mayer, I., Vesa, M., and Hamari, J. (2020). Gamification of production and logistics operations: status quo and future directions. Journal of Business Research, 106, 331–340. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1016/​j​.jbusres​.2018​.09​.011. Warmelink, H., Mayer, I., Weber, J., Heijligers, B., Haggis, M., et al. (2017). AMELIO: Evaluating the team-building potential of a mixed reality escape room game. CHI PLAY’17 Extended Abstracts, pp.  111–123. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1145/​3130859​.3131436. Wiemker, M., Elumir, E., and Clare, A. (2015). Escape room games: ‘Can you transform an unpleasant situation into a pleasant one?’. https://​thecodex​.ca/​wp​-content/​uploads/​2016/​08/​00511Wiemker​-et​-al​ -Paper​-Escape​-Room​-Games​.pdf. Wise, H., Lowe, J., Hill, A., Barnett, L., and Barton, C. (2018). Escape the welcome cliché: Designing educational escape rooms to enhance students’ learning experience. Journal of Information Literacy, 12(1), 86–96. https://​doi​.org/​10​.11645/​12​.1​.2394. World Economic Forum (WEF) (2020). The Future of Jobs Report. http://​www3​.weforum​.org/​docs/​ WEF​_Future​_of​_Jobs​_2020​.pdf. Wouters, P., van Nimwegen, C., van Oostendorp, H., and van der Spek, E.D. (2013). A meta-analysis of the cognitive and motivational effects of serious games. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 249–265. https://​doi​.org/​10​.1037/​a0031311.

34. Teaching dilemmas with street-level bureaucracy Mike Rowe

I am tempted to start this chapter by congratulating you on making it this far. But that is not how collections like this are read. Nevertheless, it is appropriate to reflect on the positioning of this chapter as the last of more than 30. Representing, as it does, a more bottom-up approach to understanding public administration, public policy, and policy implementation (Hill and Hupe, 2014), perhaps at the bottom of the table of contents is the only place it could be? Perhaps, having considered the teaching of public administration from all other angles, this is the culmination, the bringing together of strands in a framework that connects them? This contribution will work from both of these starting possibilities. It will also be a personal reflection on Lipsky’s (1980) work, its influence on me as a practitioner and, more recently, as an academic. This autobiographical aspect is not simply self-indulgence but illuminates the way Lipsky comes into my own teaching. As a civil servant in a social security agency, I was funded to study for a master’s in public and social administration in the early 1990s. We were taught something of the history and development of the welfare state in the United Kingdom and beyond (Mishra, 1984). Crucially, we covered Max Weber (1947) and models of bureaucracy as the foundations of public administration. As a grand framework, this made some sense of my experience of practice, particularly the inordinate detail of codes and rules (my favourite remains the Post Opening Manual), but not of all of it. A course on public choice introduced us to Niskanen (1971) and Dunleavy (1991), to budget-maximisers and to bureau-shapers. Again, this explained some budgeting practices and end of financial year spending behaviours (Dowding, 1995). These two competing frameworks, presented often as alternatives, explained different aspects of the context in which I worked. Models of the policy process (Ham and Hill, 1993) and of policy implementation (Hogwood and Gunn, 1984; Pressman and Wildavsky, 1973) integrated some of this, but they tended to take a national vantage point, seeking to control imperfections rather than understanding how these imperfections emerge. Where these models lacked explanatory value was in helping me to understand what I actually did as a civil servant. Social security administration is about as bureaucratic as you can get in the public services. In local offices across the country, folders of rules lined the walls and topped the filing cabinets that acted as partitions between sections. Administrative assistants scurried round the building with trollies of papers and records, moving them on from one process to the next. However, beneath the surface, we were not the hide-bound officials we might have appeared (Bjerge and Rowe, 2021). While rules were abundant, they were not as explicit as their ubiquity might suggest. In the workplace, confronted with more work than we could easily handle in one working day, we prioritised. Before computerisation, we faced a stack of paper files, representing new claims to benefit or changes to the circumstances of an existing beneficiary. Which should we do first? Should we work on the easier ones (a young unemployed male) to improve the volume count of cases cleared, or the trickier files (lone parents) that might 327

328  Handbook of teaching public administration represent greater need? We could tell which case fell into which category simply by the depth of the file: anything over a centimetre was bound to be problematic, having a complex history, numerous forms, and lengthy correspondence. We might then debate cases and interpretations, the evidence needed in corroboration, and the credibility of their story. When files were transferred from other offices across the country as benefit recipients moved home, we noted the different ways in which others interpreted the rules, structured the contents, and even used the forms. Latour (2010) has famously described the development of a file. What any civil servant knows is that every file can be assembled differently (though I should note that computerisation has standardised things a good deal). There was much less uniformity than one might expect, even in probably the most bureaucratic domain in the civil service. Furthermore, while the budget-maximising models did illuminate some of the machinations of local managers and more senior civil servants, they did not significantly impinge on this day-to-day.

ENTER LIPSKY The contrast, on encountering Lipsky (1980), was stark. I am not suggesting that street-level bureaucracy, as an idea, explained everything. Indeed, for me, the key words in the title of Lipsky’s book are ‘dilemmas of the individual’. The work stimulated me to reflect upon the habits and routines I and my colleagues had developed to manage pressures. What rules of thumb? What shortcuts? How did we balance the competing pressures ‒ of rules, targets, budgets, and client expectations ‒ one against the other? There were no answers in Lipsky, but lots of instructive dilemmas. The purpose was not simply to better understand those routines. Lipsky was also concerned with the consequences, for the ‘decisions of street-level bureaucrats, the routines they establish, and the devices they invent to cope with uncertainties and work pressures, effectively become the public policies they carry out’ (Lipsky, 1980, p. xii). Whatever was the policy intention, reality was shaped in the interactions between street-level bureaucrats and their clients. We cannot think of welfare providing a safety net in some abstract sense if the experience is of forms, rules, delay, appeals, obstacles, indifference, or hostility. However, this is not the place to detail the work itself, nor its use in research (Hupe, 2019; Hupe et al., 2016), but rather it is the place to focus on the value of the work in teaching public administration. Lipsky changes the classroom discussion of public administration. The idea of street-level bureaucracy moves conversation away from grand models and ideal types that suggest front-line officials are bound into some overarching structure in an almost mechanical way. From a more traditional public administration perspective, they should be applying the law in a dispassionate manner, treating everyone alike and profiting nothing themselves (du Gay, 2008). Turning to public choice, bureaucrats become self-interested, driven by economic motivations to attract money and other resources while minimising effort. Neither model appears interested in real people, real public servants, or real clients and beneficiaries. Lipsky is. And his interest opens up discussion in the classroom, particularly among those undertaking professional development or post-experience education, and engages with a wider range of academic disciplines. Perhaps more importantly, the idea of street-level bureaucracy and of the dilemmas of those individuals transforms an academic (in the worst senses of the word) discussion into a debate of real value about practices.

Teaching dilemmas with street-level bureaucracy  329

ENGAGING PRACTITIONERS IN THE CLASSROOM The focus on dilemmas at the heart of street-level bureaucracy has two immediate benefits for our teaching. It recognises the day-to-day experience of those working with clients, managing demands, and interpreting rules in specific cases. Lipsky does not suggest that there is a right answer. Instead, he is sympathetic to those who enter public service with every intention of helping others and find themselves severely constrained in what they can actually achieve. He understands that the rules of thumb and shortcuts that a street-level bureaucrat might have developed over time serve the purpose of making some space in the day to go above and beyond. Maynard-Moody and Musheno (2000, 2003) have suggested that those same frontline workers can act as an agent either of the state or of the citizen, in the way that they interpret situations, cases, and rules. This is an appealing model, but it does not fully recognise the multitude of cases where there is not the time or scope to indulge in such deliberations. Most often, the dilemmas are resolved by learned patterns, recognising categories, and reaching swift judgements about the relative merits of a case. Sometimes, street-level bureaucrats ignore or file for later action cases that they hope will simply go away. This is a world recognisable to those public service professionals in the classroom. However, Lipsky is not judging them for these swift calls. Unlike Maynard-Moody and Musheno, he puts these decisions in a clearer institutional context. Time, demand, and budgets all mean that only some can receive the attention that perhaps many more deserve. Triaging those cases is not some deliberate decision to be an agent of the state for some, and of the citizen for others. It is a coping strategy, a survival mechanism. These decisions may appear impersonal, even discriminatory, to clients but they are not routinely the product of some personal animus or malice. There is a tendency to assume that any patterns in decisions are the product of irrational prejudices, and they undoubtedly are in some instances. But they can also be the product of the complex interactions of institutional structures, policies, supervision, demands, and other factors that confront the street-level bureaucrats as dilemmas to be squared (Pearson and Rowe, 2020). So, rather than an individual failing (whether arising from deliberate prejudice or otherwise), street-level bureaucrats act in circumstances not of their own choosing (with apologies to Karl Marx). Lipsky prompts reflection on those habits and practices that individuals and teams have developed to cope with the dilemmas and demands they confront (Schon, 1983; Wenger, 1998). Yes, part of any coping mechanism will reflect the personal assumptions and categories a person has developed with time, but these are affected, enabled, and curtailed by policies, procedures, and supervision. Working with students in the same team or professional service area, the discussions that ensue can be illuminating and challenging, raising questions about shortcuts that may have served a purpose at one time but perhaps no longer do. Working across services, with social workers, healthcare practitioners, police officers, and youth workers, for example, reveals how much these professionals share in common and the extent to which they experience very similar dilemmas. Where the classroom includes those working as advocates for clients in community or civil society organisations, they will recognise similar tensions (often more acute in terms of demands on their time and resources). However, they will also take the focus away from the internal dynamics to consider the effects of the procedures, judgements, categories, and decisions of street-level bureaucrats on their clientele. Thus, Lipsky’s work is a starting point for classroom conversations about personal experiences and motivations. I have used it with a developmental focus, informed by psychometric

330  Handbook of teaching public administration tests, but always recognising that the individual public servant is not solely responsible for the nature of the dilemmas and the ways they are resolved. Classroom discussion then turns to questions of individual agency and responsibility (Abdelnour et al., 2017; Emirbayer and Mische, 1998). What are the opportunities to affect the institutional environment or to change policies or procedures at a local level? If we recognise that street-level bureaucrats are making policy, as Lipsky argues, then making that a more deliberate part of the role becomes the focus of classroom debates. How does our conduct appear as policy? What kind of policy?

BROADENING THE CURRICULUM Turning the focus from the internal dynamics to the effect of those upon clients is a central part of the process of reflection for any professional in public service. In my review of Lipsky (Rowe, 2012, p. 11), I pointed to a diverse array of studies that embraced a street-level perspective in a number of policy fields. Since then, there have been notable additions to this body of work (for examples, see Hupe et al., 2016; Vohnsen, 2017) and the field has developed to embrace ideas of screen-level bureaucracy (e.g., Hansen et al., 2018; Pors, 2015). However, less well developed is the client perspective of those street-level bureaucracies. Perhaps largely for reasons of access, research design, and ethics, we do not often see the world from the perspective of clients. We learn something of their experiences in particular encounters and from the studies of specific policies or agencies (e.g., Rowe, 2002), but these are only partial glimpses. More exciting is to introduce students to work that explores the experience of poverty and dependence on welfare (e.g., Dawney et al., 2020; Smith, 2017). In these worlds, the street-level bureaucrat may only have a walk-on part, but the sometimes dramatic consequences of a little care and attention, or of a denial of assistance, can become more apparent. Such work is limited, and we often have to turn to development studies and similar disciplines to understand how policies play out. David Mosse (2004, 2005), in particular, has illuminated some of the challenges of implementing policies in India, for example. But I want to use the work of Tess Lea to explore this point a little further. She has been studying government policies as they concern Australia’s indigenous communities. In particular, she has focused upon public health and upon housing policies. Her work turns the focus of our attention away from the good intentions of the policymakers and of those tasked with implementing their policies. She asks us to look at them from the perspective of the indigenous communities they are meant to be helping (Lea, 2008, 2012). From this perspective, the housing provided is not housing. If it is not connected to water and cannot endure the climate in which it is located, it is not housing. Public health professionals appear adrift in a world they understand little of, but enough to know that they should tread carefully and with tact. Policy in this environment is, in fact, unruly and wild (Lea, 2020). It is at the local level, of the community, where the hard work takes place to make the disparate threads of fragmented policies cohere in some meaningful manner. This perspective is brought out with humour and some telling insight in an article on those public servants working in such communities and trying to make sense of the intersections between policy and context (Mahood, 2012). Mahood compares them to Toyota vehicles that are abandoned when they break down and simply replaced by another. Anyone who has worked in communities beset by complex social problems will recognise the parallels in the challenges, and the experience of feeling ‘cannibalised, overturned, gutted and torched’.

Teaching dilemmas with street-level bureaucracy  331 The reason I dwell on these examples is because, in teaching, it is sometimes easier for students to look at the ways in which public bureaucracies work in other parts of the world, rather than look too closely or directly at their own practice. After only a short discussion, the parallels to their own are immediately apparent. For example, in a policing context, I have likened the practice of patrolling social housing projects to an occupying colonial force (Pearson and Rowe, 2020, p. 29). The population can appear alien, with their own strange practices and rituals. They have recognisable boundaries with and hostilities towards neighbouring communities. They are ungrateful for the attention they receive, and hostile to the police, social workers, youth workers, and others trying to help them. Seeing this in Australia or India makes it a little easier to begin to recognise it in our own back yards. Of course, Australian and Indian students might do better to look at examples from other countries as a starting point, not least my own. This foray into research that explores how policies are experienced takes us into the world of anthropology, a discipline that has much to give to the teaching of public administration and to our understandings of street-level bureaucracy. Increasingly, anthropologists study organisations close to home (e.g., Vohnsen, 2017), but work more in keeping with the traditions of studying others is as valuable (e.g., Scott, 1997, 2009). Discussing the impact of policies and of implementation also opens up other literatures, including psychology, urban geography, and others less familiar to our core discipline. Lipsky’s work reminds us that public administration, in many ways, is not an academic discipline. It is rather concerned with the application of ideas from other disciplines (most commonly politics, sociology, law, and economics) to the practical problems of government and of policy. Opening up that discussion to evidence from a breadth of academic disciplines enriches what can sometimes be a very arid curriculum.

A POINT OF COHERENCE At the same time as the study of street-level bureaucracy opens up connections to other disciplines and ideas, it is also an endpoint for our study of public administration. I suggested at the outset that it is a fitting subject for the last chapter in this Handbook for two reasons. First, in many senses, it is the study of the product of the other themes of our discipline. Street-level bureaucrats make sense of the policies and procedures, the institutional arrangements, and of the resources available. As scholars and practitioners, we must have some regard to the ways in which they interpret and apply rules in their working context, and in response to the needs, demands, and expectations of clients as they present themselves. No longer can we simply understand policy from the vantage points of Whitehall, Washington, Brussels, Delhi, or Brasilia, and be surprised to find that our vision is muddied by practice. Instead, we need to anticipate the ways in which events might play themselves out at the street level. Second, and perhaps most challenging, we might argue that we should see policy not from the vantage point of some remote capital, but from the street. It is at this level that we gain a truer perspective. If we take seriously Lipsky’s statement that the ‘decisions of street-level bureaucrats, the routines they establish, and the devices they invent to cope with uncertainties and work pressures, effectively become the public policies they carry out’ (Lipsky, 1980, p. xii), then the street level is not the endpoint, it is the focal point (Lea, 2020). While other subjects can be treated in isolation (classically in modules on, for example, the policy process,

332  Handbook of teaching public administration policy analysis, public finance, or multi-level governance), they must be integrated in any understanding of street-level bureaucracy. What, then, might such an approach to the curriculum begin to look like? I would suggest that it puts the practitioner at the heart of teaching. If, through their decisions and actions, they make policy, then they (with their motivations, their individual strengths and weaknesses, their proclivities, and their biases) are policy instruments. Reflecting on these, using psychometric tools, coaching, and mentoring, is as much about policy implementation as it is about personal development. Teaching of a more traditional character offers opportunities for our students to think through the ways in which politics, policies, procedures, structures, and resources come together at that focal point, whether it be an interview room, a hospital ward, or a traffic stop. They are no longer cogs in some machine, whether rule-following or budget-maximising. They are active agents. They cannot simply pass responsibility for their actions onto others in those well-worn phrases we have all heard when confronting a bureaucratic barrier: ‘those are the rules’ or ‘don’t blame me, I just work here’. But I would go further to suggest that our teaching of practitioners must also engage with the clients, or at least with those civil society, welfare, and community organisations that speak for and represent those clients. Understanding street-level bureaucracy, I would argue, is as important for practitioners in these organisations. In part, as I have already noted, this is because they will experience many of the same or similar dilemmas. More to the point, forearmed with an understanding of street-level bureaucrats as policymakers, any advocate will be in a better position to represent their clients. Knowing the pressures and constraints any caseworker, doctor, or police officer is under, and the scope they have to exercise agency, such advocates can work with rather than simply challenge them. If they also happen to have met in our classrooms, so much the better. However, I should also note that, in the classroom, many of our students may no longer be at street level. Their contact with clients may be a distant memory, as they have risen to supervisory grades. Nevertheless, many of the dilemmas unfolded in Lipsky’s work are recognisable at other points in an organisation. The demands may not come from external clients, but the same sorts of tensions arise from limited time and resources. As such, street-level bureaucracy provides a useful framework for thinking about the dilemmas and choices faced throughout a public agency. To paraphrase one of Geertz’s stories, one might argue that public administration is street-level bureaucrats all the way up (Geertz, [1973] 1993, p.29).

REFERENCES Abdelnour, S., Hasselbladh, H., and Kallinikos, J. (2017). Agency and institutions in organization studies. Organization Studies, 38(2), 1775–1792. Bjerge, B., and Rowe, M. (2021). Public service iconography: Desks, dress diploma and décor. In H. Sullivan, H. Dickinson, and H. Henderson (eds), The Palgrave handbook of the public servant (pp. 1337‒1354). Palgrave. Dawney, L., Kirwan, S., and Walker, R. (2020). The intimate spaces of debt: Love, freedom and entanglement in indebted lives. Geoforum, 110, 191‒199. Dowding, K. (1995). The civil service. Routledge. du Gay, P. (2008). Without affection or enthusiasm: Problems of involvement and attachment in ‘responsive’ public management. Organization, 15(3), 335‒353. Dunleavy, P. (1991). Democracy, bureaucracy and public choice: Economic explanations in political science. Harvester Wheatsheaf.

Teaching dilemmas with street-level bureaucracy  333 Emirbayer, M., and Mische, A. (1998). What is agency? American Journal of Sociology, 103(4), 962–1023. Geertz, C. ([1973] 1993). The interpretation of cultures. Fontana Press. Ham, C., and Hill, M. (1993). The policy process in the modern capitalist state (2nd edn). Harvester Wheatsheaf. Hansen, H-T., Lundberg, K., and Syltevik, L.J. (2018). Digitization, street-level bureaucracy and welfare users’ experiences. Social Policy and Administration, 52(1), 67‒90. Hill, M., and Hupe, P. (2014). Implementing public policy (3rd edn). SAGE. Hogwood, B., and Gunn, L. (1984). Policy analysis for the real world. Oxford University Press. Hupe, P. (ed.) (2019). Research handbook on street-level bureaucracy: The ground floor of government in context. Edward Elgar Publishing. Hupe, P., Hill, M., and Buffat, A. (eds) (2016). Understanding street-level bureaucracy. Policy Press. Latour, B. (2010). The making of law: An ethnography of the Conseil d’État. Polity. Lea, T. (2008). Bureaucrats and bleeding hearts: Indigenous health in northern Australia. University of New South Wales Press. Lea, T. (2012). When looking for anarchy, look to the state: Fantasies of regulation in forcing disorder within the Australian Indigenous estate. Critique of Anthropology, 32(2), 109‒124. Lea, T. (2020). Wild policy: Indigeneity and the unruly. Stanford University Press. Lipsky, M. (1980). Street-level bureaucracy: The dilemmas of the individual in public services. Russell Sage Foundation. Mahood, K. (2012). Kartiya are like Toyotas. Griffith Review, 36. Retrieved from: https://​ www​ .griffithreview​.com/​articles/​kartiya​-are​-like​-toyotas/​. Maynard-Moody, S., and Musheno, M. (2000). State agent or citizen agent: Two narratives of discretion. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 10(2), 329–358. Maynard-Moody, S., and Musheno, M. (2003). Cops, teachers, counselors: Stories from the front lines of public service. University of Michigan Press. Mishra, R. (1984). Welfare state in crisis: Social thought and social change. Harvester Wheatsheaf. Mosse, D. (2004). Is good policy unimplementable? Reflections on the ethnography of aid policy and practice. Development and Change, 35(4), 639–671. Mosse, D. (2005). Cultivating development: An ethnography of aid policy and practice. Pluto Press. Niskanen, W. (1971). Bureaucracy and representative government. Aldine Transaction. Pearson, G., and Rowe, M. (2020). Police street powers and criminal justice: Regulation and discretion in a time of change. Hart Publishing. Pors, A.S. (2015). Becoming digital – Passages to service in the digitized bureaucracy. Journal of Organizational Ethnography, 4(2), 177–192. Pressman, J., and Wildavsky, A. (1973). Implementation. How great expectations in Washington are dashed in Oakland; Or why it’s amazing that Federal programs work at all, this being a saga of the Economic Development Administration as told by two sympathetic observers who seek to build morals on a foundation of ruined hopes. University of California Press. Rowe, M. (2002). Discretion and inconsistency: Implementing the social fund. Public Money and Management, 22(4), 19‒24. Rowe, M. (2012). Going back to the street: Revisiting Lipsky’s street-level bureaucracy. Teaching Public Administration, 30(1), 10‒18. Schon, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. Scott, J.C. (1997). Seeing like a state: How certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed. Yale University Press. Scott, J.C. (2009). The art of not being governed: An anarchist history of upland Southeast Asia. Yale University Press. Smith, K. (2017). ‘You don’t own money. You’re just the one who’s holding it’: Borrowing, lending and the fair person in North Manchester. Sociological Review, Monograph Series, 65(1), 121‒136. Vohnsen, N.H. (2017). The absurdity of bureaucracy: How implementation works. Manchester University Press. Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organisation. Oxford University Press. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge University Press.

Index

academic contributions 109–10, 112–15 academic–practitioner relationships call for stronger connection 125 enhancing through research 123–4 essentials of effective 119 foundations for connections 119–20 strengthening through training 121–3 academization 72, 73 accountability accreditation as tool for 227 governmental 222 and IIPA 120 introduction of systems in Europe 211 and public service ethics 255–6 student 172 accounting cost 286 financial 283, 285, 286, 287, 289 fund 285 government 286 managerial 286, 287, 289 reporting 283, 284 standards 287 accreditation in Africa PA programs 135 private universities 134 in Australia and New Zealand 104–5, 107 characteristics 227–8 individual, in context of collective learning 274–5, 280 midcareer MPA programs 153 move toward in Europe 67 of public administration comparison of standards 230–234 consequences of failure to establish 83, 105 critical review 229–30 specific issues 213–14 in public administration education background and context 210–211 criteria 213–14 impact and possible changes 216–17 peer review 215–16 purposes 211–13 in public sector executive education programmes delivered by University of Birmingham 158

as tool for quality assurance and accountability 227 see also EAPAA; IASIA; ICAPA; NASPAA action learning as critical competency 139 cyclical model 141, 145 implementation issues 144–5 implications for educators of public administrators 145–6 influencing government policy and practices 144 methodologies 142–4 pedagogical framework 140–142 potent mode of 297 reflective practice as key element of 144 action research community 140–142 four goals of 142–3 IIPA blending theoretical assumptions with 124 link to reflective practice 143 active learning definition 198 European shifts toward 73 fostering fun 205 student-centred 172, 198 techniques 190, 202 administrative ethics MPA 255–9 instructor reflection on 260–261 administrative reform in CEE countries 51 in India 124 in Indonesia 109, 111–12, 113, 114–15 administrative skills for career civil servants 36 as element of teaching and learning PA 35 training 37–8 administrative traditions 66, 72 administrative training African early post-colonial 128–31, 135 Indian Institute of Public Administration 118–25 and practical skills 37–8 adult development 161–2 adult learners nature of 149–50 pedagogy 150–151, 154 and service learning 245–6, 247 see also students: midcareer

334

Index  335 Africa public administration challenges 133, 134, 136 early post-colonial training 128–31, 135 teaching public administration critical appraisal and way forward 135–6 differences between public and private universities 133–5 impact of globalisation 131–2, 135 influence of colonial heritage 127–8 non-Western influences 132–3 anchoring as developmental pedagogy 160–161 summary of activities offering 164 applied learning 245 art, public administration as 27, 28, 29–30 assessing 292 Australia and New Zealand civil service/civil servants in 103, 106 government in 99–101, 103–4, 105, 106 MPA programs 98, 101–6 public administration identity in 98, 101 tradition 101–2, 104–5, 106 state development 99 teaching public administration contemporary educational offerings and pedagogy 101–4 context 98 external regulatory demands and accreditation processes 104–5 framework of analysis 99 history of university and post-graduate 99–101 ongoing fragmentation and cleavages 106 Bedoucratic governance 220–221 big global issues overview 228–9 prioritization in standards 230–234 Bologna Process 67, 173, 211 bottom-up approach 140, 211, 327 brave spaces, creating 305 Brazil comparison with Colombia and Chile 86–7, 93–6 PA education history of 87–9 three phases of 86–7 British public administration see United Kingdom (UK) budgeting 282, 284–7, 288

capability frameworks xxii–xxiii capstone projects 80–81, 244 Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) Communism 46, 50, 51, 53 comparison with Western Europe paths to accreditation 210–211 social organization 45–6 PA education additional features 51–2 disciplinary composition of PA curricula 47, 48–9, 52–3 factors explaining disciplinary orientation 50–51, 52–3 previous research 47–8 programmes often growing out of economics 214 state-controlled accreditation 211 certification see accreditation challenges African 128, 130–131, 133, 134, 135–6 big global 13–18, 21–2 challenge perspective 16 of developing reflective practice in PA programmes 178, 182–4 in enhancing Columbian officials’ public affairs education 92 epistemological 264 for experimenters 202–5 of exposing students to suitable theoretical approaches 180 grand 16, 62 leadership development 158, 160, 161–3, 165 to managerialism 275 for method teaching 240–241 need for skills, attitude and disposition to meet 145 for PA teachers 8, 263, 271 of peer review 215–16 placing at centre of practice 22 policy 201–2, 204 preparing for transfer into profession practice 181–2 professional unpreparedness for 168 programmes seeking to address modern-day 79 public administration addressing 13, 17, 20–21 in Africa 133, 134, 136 applying general criteria against diversity of programmes 213 real-world 171 reflective practice and action learning for navigating 139

336  Handbook of teaching public administration tackling organizational or societal 292, 295, 296–7 of teaching environmental issues 189, 191–2, 194 teaching leadership as fraught with 290 of teaching PA at higher education levels 319 for teaching programmes and teachers of research methods 238–42 of training professionals for work in public sector 88 transplanting liberal democracy into non-Western contexts leading to 220 universal 228–9 of using escape room in future 324 for teaching purposes 325 using inquiry-based learning 143 using service learning in PA programs 246–7, 251 wicked 75 working with real people within social systems as 140 change 140, 142, 144, 145 Chile comparison with Colombia and Brazil 86–7, 93–6 history of PA education and figures 89–91 citizenship, strengthening 292, 293, 297–8 civil service/civil servants in Africa 128, 129, 130, 131 in Australia and New Zealand 103, 106 in Europe 66, 68–70, 71–3 in India 117–18, 119, 120, 121, 125 in Indonesia 110–111, 112 in Latin America 86, 90, 94, 96 and role-play 201 training in CEE countries 51–2 types of 36 United Kingdom 75–7, 82 client-based projects 244–5, 247, 249–50 climate emergency climate competences 191–3 inquiry-based learning developing 194 context 188–9 presenting new educational challenges 194 coaching 292 collective learning benefits of 280 context 273–4 gender justice and violence 277–9 in neoliberal institution 274–5 pedagogy for 275–7 Colombia comparison with Brazil and Chile 86–7, 93–6 history of PA education and figures 91–3

colonialism colonial era Indian Civil Service 119–20 early post-colonial PA training in Africa 128–31, 135 influence on PA teaching traditions in Africa 127–8, 131 in public administration and management courses 218–25 common good collective action in pursuit of 290 leadership for (course) 292–8 public administrators contributing to 139 community service learning (CSL) 304 continuing professional learning future of 173–4 importance of 168 learning and teaching strategies 171–3 professional learners 169–71 career path required learning 170, 171, 173 skills for 169 core courses ability to offer additional courses beyond 286 argument for including budgeting 284–5, 286 expansive financial management as default option 288–9 financial management included in 284, 286 misalignment 283 normative argument for 282 recommendations for expansive 287 as structured for expansiveness 286 use of calculators and spreadsheets 285–6 counter storytelling 303 course design considerations for race in 300–306 incorporating service learning into 251 Leadership for Common Good course 292–3, 298 Covid-19 pandemic amplifying gender, cultural and racial differences 139, 300 highlighting importance of PA in addressing global challenges 13 IIPA meeting training needs of clients during 121–2 intersection with climate change 229 maintaining project as Irish government response to 144 and public administration image 267 severely stretching resources of organizations 152 VUCA characteristics 17 crisis management 189–90, 194 critical race practice (CRP) 300, 302–3, 304, 305, 306

Index  337 critical race theory (CRT) 300, 303 curriculum broadening 330–331, 332 developments in Europe 69–70 disciplinary composition in CEE countries 47, 48–9, 52–3 failure to include PA within secondary school 77 financial management 282–3, 284–7, 288 public administration across Antipodean tertiary institutions 102–3 best practices for incorporating service learning into 247–51 communication as often overlooked 204 failure to include gender, women or feminism 78 importance of IBL in developing climate competences as part of 188–9 pure and applied science 113 curriculum design 1, 3, 5, 6, 227, 228 decolonisation discourse in Africa 128–9 of PA education 14, 124–5 of public administration and management courses 224–5 democracy advent of mass 66 in Africa 128, 134 allowing autonomy as element of 215 beliefs and actions undermining 41 growth of government in democratic systems 39 HE’s role in promoting 228 in India 120 in Latin America 86, 89, 90, 95 leadership style 322 liberal 31, 220–221 political systems 45, 46–7 politics–administration dichotomy 59 programmes instilling values of 214 in public administration and management 218 courses 224 democratic governance 219–21, 222, 224 questioning legitimacy of established knowledge on 223 role of government in democratic societies 40–41 dependency theory 128–9 discretion 310

EAPAA (European Association for Public Administration Accreditation) 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216 Early Learning Initiative (ELI) 139–40, 144–5 education about legal framework (historical) 38 five competences of 60 lifelong 273, 274 for understanding of position and role of government 40–41 see also executive education; higher education; leadership education; public administration education; public affairs education education and training programs as highly diversified in Europe 72 institutional characteristics of 68–9 and political power games 73 self-study becoming more relevant in 70 education and training systems dimensions for describing and comparing 68 European trends 71–3 educational markets 67 empathy embrace of, in PA 15, 21 obligation to practice 22 reconnecting with 20–21 environmental issues 188–94 escape room case study 320–324 as gamification concept 319 as teaching method 319–20, 324 challenges 324–5 for team cooperation, solution seeking and emotional experiences 320–321 ethics ethical commitment of public administrators 143–4 public administration ethical moral sense of responsibility required 139 using popular culture to teach 254–61 Europe accreditation 104, 210–214 building capacity around simulations 201 court schools 38 earliest advice for rulers or monarchs 37 early education in law 38, 40 four main traditions 47 globalization giving rise to greater collaboration in PA programmes 132 and post-colonial African leaders 128 skills/competences 169 standardization of teaching and learning 173 teaching public administration

338  Handbook of teaching public administration conceptual background and empirical findings 68–71 embedded in country-specific systems of HE 72–3 as function of cultures of higher learning 67 as function of labour and educational markets 66–7 as function of state and administrative traditions 66 political power games manifesting in 73 strong tradition of 65 trends 71–2 Western versus CEE countries paths to accreditation 210–211 social organization 45–6 executive education anchoring, scaffolding and trellising 163–5 challenges of leadership development activity in 161–3 enhancing leadership capacity as objective of 159 programmes in Africa 134, 135 anchoring developmental processes 160–161 University of Birmingham 158 as venue for leadership learning 157–8 executive training 69, 70, 101 experiential learning and community service learning 304 emergence 36, 179 ‘heat’ experiences 162 as knowledge creation through experience transformation 143 see also action learning; experiments experiential practice-based action learning see action learning experiments reasons for use in teaching demystifying concepts 203–4 improving communication skills 204 improving research literacy 204 initiating conversations about sensitive subjects 202–3 making PA teaching more inclusive 203 making public administration fun 205 professional baggage 204–5 teaching in-class social psychology 199–200 simulations and role-playing games 200–202 survey experiments with students 198–9 faculty aspirations 152–3

faculty commitment and support 249 faculty development 151, 287 feminism 277–9 financial management curricular concerns 282–3 modalities of instruction and pedagogy 287–8 nature of course offered 283–7 recommendations 288–9 structuring curriculum first course 284–6 upper-level courses 286–7 formal education 118, 171, 203, 273, 274–5 gamification for emotional engagement 319 escape room as teaching method 319–20, 324 as example of visual method 265 gender justice and violence 277–9 global disruptions 1, 5 global interdependence 228–9, 231, 233–4 global issues see big global issues global public administration big questions and big challenges 15–16, 21–2 complexity of addressing 2 context 13–15 empathy 20–21 global setting 2, 3–4 humility 18–19 living in turbulent, VUCA world 16–18, 21 making connections 10–11 moving towards multicultural PA 13 nation-based traditions 5–6, 7 as non-existent 14–15 state of discipline 5 globalisation impact on teaching PA in Africa 131–2, 135 PA education internationalizing due to 190 recommendation for civil service in India 120 standardization of teaching and learning 173 governance accreditation from perspective of 211 in Africa 129, 131, 133 in Australia and New Zealand 101–3 Bedoucratic 220–221 for climate-based solutions 189, 190–194 collaborative 233, 293, 297 as discipline in India 120, 121, 122, 124 integrative 13, 16 public 26–7, 29, 60, 119, 188 in public administration and management 218 democratic 219–21, 224

Index  339 questioning legitimacy of established knowledge on 223 Western and non-Western 221–2 government in Africa 127, 129–31, 133–4, 135 in Australia and New Zealand 99–101, 103–4, 105, 106 Brazil 87–9 and climate emergency 188, 190, 191 and Communism 46, 53 in definition of PA 27–8, 31 democratic, foundation established 36 educating for understanding position and role 40–41 employment 282, 284, 285, 286, 288 finance, as discipline 283–4, 286–7, 289 and gender-based violence 277–8 and gender, cultural and racial differences 139–40, 144 humble 13, 18–19 in India 118, 120–122, 123–4, 125 in Indonesia 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114 limitations of current models of 16, 17 recent challenges provoking questions about 13 in several elements of teaching and learning PA 35 teaching about organizing functions of 39–40 teaching about policies 39 United Kingdom 75–7, 82 ‘hard to reach’ label 301 HE see higher education (HE) hegemonic masculinity 310–311, 312, 315 higher education (HE) British provision of PA in 75–82 cultures of 67 relationship between PA practice and teaching in 112–15 role in promoting democracy 228 standards 105 hosting and hospitality 291–2, 293, 295, 296 human resources decline in university teaching of 106 gap in Africa 130, 135 queering process of 316 revamping in India 125 humanism, PA as form of 27, 29–30 humility ancient Egyptian praise for 36–7 becoming comfortable with 18–19, 21 defining feature of 18 developing through teaching 15 emphasis on 13, 22 executive education programmes 162

obligation to practice 22 positive aspects of 22 regulatory 199–200, 203 IASIA (International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration) comparison with NASPAA 229–30, 233–4 evaluation of standards 232–3 IIPA see Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) India administrative reform in 124 All-India Civil Service entrance examinations 117–18 education of civil service recruits in 118 initiative aimed at revamping human resource development 125 public administration lack of schools offering degrees in 118, 124 paucity of accredited programs 117 retaining pre-independence era bureaucracy 117 see also Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) and academic–practitioners 119–25 context 118–19 inception of 119–20 objective of 124 roles in administrative journey of Indian civil servants 125 in connecting pedagogy, research and practice 120–121, 123–4 in education, training and professional development 124 in fostering academic–practitioner relationships 119–20 in PA pedagogy, training and development 118 as research consultant 123 Indigenous public management 218, 223, 224–5 Indigenous values 17, 20, 128, 132, 330 Indonesia administrative reform in 109, 111–12, 113, 114–15 context 109–10 future research agenda 115 public administration professional practice of 110–112 relationship between practice of, and teaching in HE 112–15 as scholarship 109, 111–12, 115 significant change in development 115

340  Handbook of teaching public administration innovative methods see escape room; experiments inquiry-based learning (IBL) approach for future public managers 194–5 solutions-focused nature of 194 challenges associated with 143 developing climate competences 189–90, 194 importance for modern public managers 188 strategies 191–3 institutionalization 99, 101, 102, 106, 211–12 integrity 106, 112, 139, 278 internationalization 51, 102, 103, 105, 134, 190, 212, 232, 233 internships 244, 245, 249, 250 Ireland Early Learning Initiative 139–40, 144–5 as liberal market economy 66 recruitment of administrative personnel 69 labor markets 52, 66, 72 Latin America consequences of transplanting liberal democracy into 220 public administration education background and context 86–7 Brazil 87–9, 93–6 Chile 89–91, 93–6 Colombia 91–6 country comparisons 86–7, 93–6 and Western knowledge 14, 223 law as discipline in Australia 99, 103 in CEE countries 47, 48–50, 52–3 in Europe 67, 69 in India 117, 118 in Indonesia 112, 114 in Latin America 90–91, 92, 94–6 in Slovenia 321 in United States 58 education about 38, 40, 41 in Latin America 88, 89 PA coming into being as subfield of 236 playing prominent role in Europe 66 and police 310–311, 315, 316–17 and street level bureaucracy 328 leadership capabilities 293 enabling effective, for VUCA contexts 159–60 in public services module 160–161 teaching, in public administration 290–298 leadership development anchoring for 160–161, 165

challenges conditions 162 ethics 162–3 of operating effectively in VUCA environment 158 summary 165 systems 160, 164 time 161–2 executive education programs frequently including as learning outcome 157 helpful readings for 295 leadership training and leadership education 159–60 practices to help accomplish goals of 292 self-understanding as starting place 291 trellising for longer-term 164 and VUCA 158–9 leadership education case example 160–161 citizenship, governance, and common good 292 “heart, head, and hands” of 291 leadership training and leadership development 159–60 Leadership for Common Good course content 294 course design 292–3, 298 leadership capabilities 293 modules 294–8 leadership learning 157–8 leadership training case example 161 leadership education and leadership development 159–60 learning applied 245 of civil servants 36 concepts 70–71 continuing professional 168–74 at individual level 35–6 leadership 157–8 North–South 227, 229, 231, 232, 234 and pedagogy 7–8 public administration and democracy 41 historical and global perspective on 35–41 making accessible 205 six elements of 35 see also action learning; active learning; adult learners; service learning learning strategies for continuing professional learning 171–3 inquiry-based 191–3 legal framework

Index  341 education about 38 as element of teaching and learning PA 35 LGBTQ+ 310, 311 lifelong education 273, 274 lifelong learning see continuing professional learning Lipsky, M. 311, 327, 328–30, 331, 332 masculinity 310–311, 312, 315 Master of Public Administration (MPA) programs administrative ethics 255–9 instructor reflection on 260–261 in Australia and New Zealand 98, 101–6 embedding IBL 189–90, 194 internships 244 and service learning 246 skills and tools based 244 United Kingdom 79–81, 212 United States 60–61, 62, 212 see also midcareer MPA programs mentoring 292 method teaching 239–41 midcareer MPA programs adult learners 149–50 context 148 faculty development 151 market for 152 midcareer students goals and expectations 153–4 nature of 148–9 paucity of data on 154–5 pedagogy 150–151, 154 strategic planning 152–5 see also Master of Public Administration (MPA) programs MPA see Master of Public Administration (MPA) programs NASPAA (Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration) in Africa 134 comparison with IASIA 229–30, 233–4 evaluation of standards 231–2 five competences of education 60 midcareer degree programs accreditation by 153 study of 152, 154 peer-based discipline-specific evaluation 216 survey of core competencies in financial management 286 United States accreditation system 60–61, 104–5 nation-based traditions 5–7 nation states 2, 3, 6, 28, 65, 66, 67 neo-colonialism 129, 223–4

neoliberal institution 274–5 New Public Management (NPM) in Africa 131 in Antipodes 101–2, 103 application of business principles to public policy 41 and assessing students against learning outcomes 280 Communist system intermingled with 53 as disciplinary measure 274 in Indonesia 109, 111–12, 115 inspiring corporate management-spirited approaches to PA 50 offering ‘illusion of simplicity and control’ 16 rational, dehumanising aspects of traditional 13 transformations from reform 89 in Western Europe 211 New Zealand see Australia and New Zealand non-Western influences on teaching PA in Africa 132–3 public administration and management 218–25 normal science 236–8 North–South learning 227, 229, 231, 232, 234 openness civil service law adhering to principles of 112 educators adopting with students 237, 271 as taught to students 114 as trend 71, 72 organizational and societal problem-solving 292, 293, 295, 296–8 PA see public administration participation of adult learners 149 in communities of learning 264 in escape room 321–4 in mid-career programmes 170 in NPM approach 111, 115 participatory learning 319 in public administration and management 218 decontextualisation of 221–2 effective 219, 224 questioning legitimacy of established knowledge on 223 public, and race, case study 300–302 pedagogy for adult learners 150–151, 154 anchoring as developmental 160–161 for collective learning 275–7

342  Handbook of teaching public administration IIPA connecting with research and practice 119, 120–121, 124 and learning 7–8 neo-colonial 223–4 pedagogical orientation in Australia and New Zealand 99, 102–3, 106 and teaching PA in UK 78 value of service learning 245–7 peer review 215–16 personal narrative 291, 293, 295 philosophy developing for PA programme 32 ‘go big or go home’ 227 philosophical thought 30–32, 33 teaching 70–71 police culture 310–311 police officers as exemplars of queer theory 316, 317 recruitment process general 311–12, 313–14 queering 312–15 as slow to change 317 policy dependence on collective learning of social movements for legitimacy of 280 shaped by cognitive praxis of social movements 273 and street-level bureaucracy 327, 330, 331–2 teaching about 39, 41 policy implementation 142, 189, 202, 266–7, 269, 327, 330, 331–2 political science in Chile 89, 90–91 as constitutive discipline of PA 28, 31, 47, 48–9, 69 definition 31 PA development as subfield of 59, 86, 92, 111, 236, 284 role-playing games and simulations becoming popular in 200–201 popular culture instructor reflection 260–261 integrating into PA course 254, 261 All the Queen’s Horses 259 Boys’ Club 255–6 Gin It Up and Park Safety 257–9 Parks and Recreation 255–9 Sister City 256–7 post-independence PA training 128–31, 135 practical skills training 37–8 practice IIPA connecting with research and pedagogy 119, 120–121, 124 practice-based action learning 139–46 public administration

professional, relationship with scholarship 110–112 reciprocal relationship with teaching in HE 112–15 teaching research skills for 240–241 practice-oriented educational experience 80–81 practice-oriented educational public administration 40 practice-oriented research 236, 240–241 private universities differences with public universities in PA education in Africa 133–5 in CEE countries 52 teaching PA in Africa 127 profession accreditation standards defining boundaries of 228 police 315 public administration as 27, 28–9, 33, 117 professionalization 88, 99, 101, 102, 106 program content Europe 69–70 United Kingdom 79, 81, 82 Progressive Movement 57 public administration accreditation comparison of standards 230–234 consequences of failure to establish 83, 105 critical review 229–30 specific issues 213–14 and action learning implementation issues 144–5 implications for educators of public administrators 145–6 methodologies 142–4 pedagogical framework 140–142 Africa challenges 133, 134, 136 early post-colonial training 128–31 applying queer theory to 309–17 capability frameworks to cope with disruption xxii–xxiii conceptions of democratic governance underpinning 219 contested concepts 8–9 courses conceptions of democratic governance underpinning 219 decolonising 224–5 epistemic violence of 223–4 participation theories and engagement techniques 221 ethics

Index  343 ethical moral sense of responsibility required 139 using popular culture to teach 254–61 experiments in 198–205 fourfold nature of as art 27, 28, 29–30 benefits of adopting 32–3 concepts 26–7 as form of humanism 27, 29–30 as profession 27, 28–9, 33, 117 as science 27–8, 29, 31 significance of philosophical thought in 30, 33 historical and global perspective on teaching and learning 35–41 as at important juncture 13, 21 in India 117–25 Indonesia future research agenda 115 professional practice of 110–112 relationship between practice of, and teaching in HE 112–15 as scholarship 109, 111–12, 115 significant change in development 115 necessity of merging pedagogical with empirical 1 non-Western 218–25 as operating in changed and changing context 2 power and control at heart of 143 as “pracademic” discipline 117 programmes developing reflective practice in 178–9, 182–4 using service learning in 244–51 queer theory in 310, 317 race, considerations for course design 300–306 state of discipline 5 teaching leadership in 290–298 teaching research methods in 236–42 themes 4–10 United Kingdom 75–82 United States community 60–61 modernizing 59–60 visual methods for 263 Western/Eurocentric paradigm 218, 221, 223, 225 see also global public administration; teaching public administration (TPA) public administration education accreditation background and context 210–211 criteria 213–14

impact and possible changes 216–17 peer review 215–16 purposes 211–13 American history 57–62 in CEE countries additional features 51–2 disciplinary composition of PA curricula 47, 48–9, 52–3 factors explaining disciplinary orientation 50–51, 52–3 previous research 47–8 programmes often growing out of economics 214 climate crisis and climate competences 188–95 as context-dependent phenomenon 86 decolonising 14, 224–5 financial management curricular concerns in 282–9 Latin America background and context 86–7 Brazil 87–9, 93–6 Chile 89–91, 93–6 Colombia 91–6 country comparisons 93–6 queering 315–17 state and dynamics of, as widely discussed issues 45 United States origin 57–9 significant progression in 62 trends 61–2 public administration identity in Australia and New Zealand 98, 101 disciplinary, in CEE countries 48–9 as distinct discipline 217 United Kingdom 75, 82 United States 62 public administration tradition in Africa 128–9, 132, 133–4, 135 Anglo-American 47, 48, 52, 53, 101 Anglo-Saxon 66, 69, 104–5 application of law 328 Australia and New Zealand 101–2, 104–5, 106 CEE countries centralized system of schools 66 lacking dominant 52–3 Chilean 91 education reflecting 45 versus escape room 319–20, 325 European 47, 65, 66, 69–70, 72–3 versus experimental treatments 201–2, 203, 205 face-to-face teaching 287

344  Handbook of teaching public administration French 66, 76 Germanic 47, 48, 53, 66, 76 Humboldtian 67 Napoleonic 47, 48, 52, 53, 66, 68 pre-Second World War 51 as research discipline 214 Scandinavian 47, 66 and service learning 244, 245–6, 247, 251 teaching, benefits 332 United Kingdom 76, 78–9, 82 United States 47, 59 Western cleavages with 45 move away from dehumanising aspects of 13 public affairs education communication as relevant skill 204 and faculty learning communities 151 goal to address big global issues 233 goal to prepare students for professional positions in public service 148 Latin America 86–96 public service as component of 244 United States 60–61, 62 public governance concept of 27, 77 as dimension of public administration 29 IIPA’s mission regarding 119 new 111, 238 philosophical wisdom 26 public management Arabic model 220–221 in Australia and New Zealand degrees 102, 105 emergence 101 MPA programs 103 concept of 26–7, 77 courses conceptions of democratic governance underpinning 219 decolonising 224–5 epistemic violence of 223–4 participation theories and engagement techniques 221 differentiation from public administration 26–7 as discipline in CEE 48, 51 education responsibilities 229 and humility 18 indigenous 218–19, 223, 224–5 non-Western paradigm 218–19 as profession 28 programmes British university 80–81, 158, 160–161 Colombia 92, 94–5

in Italy and Germany 70 significant investment in 168 reflective practices 178 Western/Eurocentric paradigm 218, 221, 223, 225 see also New Public Management (NPM) public narrative 161 public officials Australian governments reticent to fund or require training of 99 Colombian 92–3 desirable behaviours 35 earliest legal code aimed at fighting corruption among 38 earliest teaching of 36–7 in Indonesia 109, 111, 115 in Latin America 94, 95, 96 public universities collaboration with PA institutions in Africa 127 differences with private universities in PA education in Africa 133–5 in CEE countries 52 quality control accreditation as mechanism for 210, 216–17 box-ticking kind of 211 NPM structures of 280 queer theory definition 309–10 masculinity, police culture and representative bureaucracy 310–311 police officer recruitment process general 311–12, 313–14 queering 312–15 policing and recruitment as exemplars 316 in public administration 310, 317 queering public administration education 315–16 barriers to 316–17 as tool for improving government 317 race

community service learning 304 considerations for PA course design background 300 case study 300–302 challenges and recommendations 306 critical learning experiences 302–5 counter storytelling 303 creating brave spaces 305 critical race practice 300, 302–3, 304, 305, 306 critical race theory 300, 303

Index  345 ‘hard to reach’ label 301 and public participation 300–302 systemic racism 302, 303 realities in Africa disconnect with Western 14, 132 new economic 131 post-independence, PA training influenced by 135 in developed versus developing countries 134 disconnect with Western in Africa 14, 132 in CEE countries 45 social 87, 222 recruitment as exemplar of queer theory 316 police 311–15 reflection critical as example of anchoring 164 on gender-based violence 279 as long and deeply entrenched tradition 70 experiments enabling 202–3, 205 in flipped classroom approach 142 as leadership development pedagogical approach 160 Lipsky prompting 329 Parks and Recreation by instructor 260–261 prompts 255–9 and service learning as best practice 248 feedback loops 251 as key concept 245 student incorporating into internships 244 used to support in-class discussions 144 reflective practice action research link to 143 combining leadership education with 160–161 context 178–9 developing in PA programmes 178–9, 182–4 as important competency in navigating challenges 139 as key element of action learning projects 144 and student meaning-making 162 sustainably engaging students in theory application 180–182 theories as tools 179–80 in workplace 182–3, 184 regulation

accreditation as regulatory requirement 211 extensive demands for 98 external demands for in Australia and New Zealand 104–5 regulatory humility 199–200, 203 representative bureaucracy 311 research enhancing academic–practitioner relationships through 123–4 IIPA connecting with pedagogy and practice 119, 120–121, 124 see also teaching research methods Rhodes, C.J. 224 role-playing games as active learning technique 190 and collaborative working 204 as experimental form 200–202 as gamification example 265 as inquiry-based learning strategy 192 scaffolding 143, 162, 164 scholarships 110–112 science concept of 29 normal 236–8 philosophical thought 30–31, 33 public administration as 27–8, 29, 31 see also political science sensemaking 266–7, 270 sequentiality 71–2, 73 service learning benefits of 246 best practice adequate time or contact 248 client commitment and support 249–50 connecting service to learning objectives 247–8 faculty commitment and support 249 feedback loops 250–251 perceptible impacts of service activity 250 reflection 248 student input 248–9 challenges of utilizing 246–7, 251 community 304 internships 244, 245, 249, 250 pedagogical value of 245–7 simulations as active learning technique 190 classic UK 204 as experimental form 200–202 as inquiry-based learning strategy 189, 191 as scaffolding and anchoring example 164 for student engagement 204–5 use in Australia 103

346  Handbook of teaching public administration social equity 14, 79, 81, 233, 300 social movements benefits of collective learning in relation to 280 Black Lives Matter 139, 300 feminist 277–9 learning skills through collective praxis 273 long history of HE institutions engaging with 274 trade unions as 275 standards accreditation 227–8 comparison 230–234 general 213, 215 higher education 105 prioritization of big global issues 230–234 for public servants 28–9, 101 university-type 72–3 see also IASIA; NASPAA state traditions 10, 66, 218 storytelling 303 strategic planning accreditation 153 business plan 154 goals and expectations of prospective students 153–4 institutional mission and faculty aspirations 152–3 market boundaries and demand 153 organizational capacity 153 outcome assessment 154 street-level bureaucracy broadening curriculum 330–331, 332 emergence via Lipsky 328 engaging practitioners in classroom 329–30 and policy 327, 330, 331–2 recommendations for 331–2 situation leading to 327–8 as useful framework for thinking about dilemmas and choices 332 students engagement in theory application building durable and robust relationship 181–2 commitment 180–181 experiencing spark of excitement 180 input from as service learning best practice 248–9 midcareer goals and expectations of prospective 153–4 nature of 148–9 paucity of data on 154–5 survey experiments with 198–9 sustainable communities 139, 143

sustainable development goals (SDGs) in Africa 131–2, 135 big global issues in context of 115, 229, 231, 233, 234 global development policy affected by 131–2 relating to management of climate 194 sustainable engagement 180–182 sustainable programs 149, 152, 154, 217 systemic racism 302, 303 teaching case studies 9–10 teaching experiments 198–202 reasons for using 202–5 teaching leadership in public administration as fraught with difficulties 290 integrative approach assessing, coaching and mentoring 292 hosting and hospitality 291–2 personal narrative 291 strengthening citizenship 292 tackling organizational and societal problems 292 Leadership for Common Good course 292–8 starting place 290 teaching public administration (TPA) in Africa 127–36 in Australia and New Zealand contemporary educational offerings and pedagogy 101–4 context 98 external regulatory demands and accreditation processes 104–5 framework of analysis 99 history of university and post-graduate 99–101 ongoing fragmentation and cleavages 106 in Europe analysis 68–71 shaping factors and antecedents of 65–7 trends 71–3 historical and global perspective on conceptual framework 35–6 earliest teaching of public officials 36–7 educating for understanding of position and role of government 40–41 education about legal framework 38 teaching about organizing government functions 39–40 teaching about policies 39 training for specific administrative and practical skills 37–8 in Indonesia 109–15 significance of philosophical thought 30–32, 33

Index  347 six elements of 35 and street-level bureaucracy 327–32 in United Kingdom history of 76–8 shifting priorities 78–9 using escape room for 319–25 with visual methods 263–71 teaching research methods in Australia 103 craft of 238–9 for practice 240–241 public administration as normal science 236–8 recommendations 241–2 teaching strategies 171–3 television instructor reflection on use of 260–261 Parks and Recreation 255–9 use of popular culture in PA classroom 254 theoretical thinking 179, 180–182 time as leadership development challenge 161–2 as service learning best practice 248 training administrative African early post-colonial 128–31, 135 Indian Institute of Public Administration 118–25 and practical skills 37–8 leadership 159–60, 161 strengthening academic–practitioner ties through 121–3 trellising 162, 163, 164, 165 turbulent world 15, 16–18, 19, 21, 22 United Kingdom (UK) civil service/civil servants 75–7, 82 classic simulations 201, 204 government 75–7, 82 imperialist statue 224 lack of diversity amongst academic staff 306 as liberal market economy 66 MPA programs 79–81, 212 public administration continuing to evolve as subject 82 findings 79–82 history of teaching 76–8, 82 identification and analysis of programmes 79 identity 75, 82 nature of 75–6 shifting priorities in teaching of 78–9

tradition 76, 78–9, 82 recruitment of administrative personnel 69 United States (US) big questions debate as US-centric 15 first two PA research institutes established 40 globalization giving rise to greater collaboration in PA programmes 132 MPA programs 60–61, 62, 212 NASPAA 229–30 police recruitment case study 311–16 Progressive Movement 57 public administration community 60–61 modernizing 59–60 tradition 47, 59 public administration education origin 57–9 significant progression in 62 trends 61–2 simulations as popular teaching methods in 200–201 sluggish demand for adult post-secondary education 152 visual methods examples 265 as more than decoration 264 from neglect to appreciation 264–5 for public administration 263 recommendations 271 use in exploring aesthetic, relational and heuristic domains 265–70 advantages of visual narratives 269–70 asking who or what matters with images and objects 266–7 using images to trace connections 268–9 VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity, ambiguity) enabling more effective leadership for 159–60, 165 living in world of 15, 16–18, 19, 21, 22 and reflective practice 178 rise of 158–9 wicked problems 141, 142–3, 145, 179, 188, 189, 194, 229, 232, 234 work environment escape room experience in 321–3 reflective practice in 182–3