Halal and Kosher Food: Integration of Quality and Safety for Global Market Trends [1 ed.] 9783031414589, 9783031414596

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Osman Ahmed Osman Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman   Editors

Halal and Kosher Food

Integration of Quality and Safety for Global Market Trends

Halal and Kosher Food

Osman Ahmed Osman Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman Editors

Halal and Kosher Food Integration of Quality and Safety for Global Market Trends

Editors Osman Ahmed Osman Department of Standards Qatar General Organization for Standardization Doha, Qatar

Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman Department of Biology College of Science University of Hail Hail, Saudi Arabia

ISBN 978-3-031-41458-9    ISBN 978-3-031-41459-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41459-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

This book is dedicated to: Our wonderful families, whose continuous support and encouragement have helped us complete this endeavor and who have been driving factors in our pursuit of knowledge and understanding. Consumers who meticulously seek out certified products and make thoughtful decisions that match their ideas and values, may this book provide you with the knowledge you need to confidently navigate the marketplace. Experts in the food business who work persistently to assure compliance and the integrity of halal and kosher food manufacturing, your passion and commitment to following religious dietary rules are admirable. Certifying organizations and authorities who work tirelessly to evaluate and validate halal and kosher food products, your stringent standards and inspections are critical to fostering consumer trust and confidence. Scholars and experts who contribute to the study and development of halal and kosher food standards on a regular basis, your research and advice help to improve our understanding of these dietary patterns. Finally, to all those who recognize the significance of religious dietary requirements in creating inclusivity and respect in the food realm, your openness and readiness to learn make a difference. May this book serve as a guide and resource for halal and kosher food conception, authenticity, and certification. With heartfelt indebtedness, Dr. Osman Ahmed Osman Prof. Dr. Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman

Preface

The demand for halal and kosher food products is increasing in today’s diversified and linked global market. Millions of people around the world follow halal and kosher dietary standards, which are anchored in religious and cultural traditions. As these markets expand, it is critical to ensure that quality and safety procedures are integrated per the changing expectations of consumers worldwide. This book, Halal and Kosher Food: Integration of Quality and Safety for Global Market Trends, investigates the many features of the halal and kosher food industries, stressing their relevance, difficulties, and potential solutions. We seek to provide an in-depth understanding of the regulations and best practices required to enable the production and distribution of halal and kosher food that meets the highest standards by addressing the integration of quality and safety measures. This book’s primary goal is to be a valuable resource for professionals, researchers, and industry practitioners active in the halal and kosher food sectors. To present a comprehensive perspective on the problem, we gathered experts from different fields, such as food science, religious studies, regulatory affairs, and quality control. Using their experience, we hope to provide insights and practical solutions to expedite procedures, improve product quality, and assure compliance with halal and kosher requirements. The book has been separated into 30 chapters covering a wide range of topics, beginning with the importance of halal food and its legality in Islamic and non-­ Islamic communities worldwide. Examples of the chapters include: The Dilemma and Concepts of Halal Safe Food; Metrology’s Importance and Application in Halal Food Assurance; Fermentation Techniques Used to Enhance Halal Food Products; Principles and Techniques of Sensory Evaluation for Assessing the Quality of Halal Foods; and Veterinary Drugs Acceptable Maximum Residue Levels in Halal Foods; in these chapters, we examine the concepts and criteria that regulate the development of halal and kosher dietary practices and their religious and cultural importance. We also look at the problems of certification and labeling, such as the role of regulatory authorities and the necessity for standardization and harmonization. This book’s principal subject is integrating quality and safety measures within the halal and kosher food sectors. We investigate many elements of food safety, such vii

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as ingredient sourcing, processing procedures, storage, and distribution, focusing on maintaining the integrity of halal and kosher requirements across the supply chain. We also look at how technology can help provide transparency, traceability, and effective control over halal and kosher food manufacturing. As a final point, considering rising consumer demand, technological improvements, and a dynamic regulatory framework, we explore halal and kosher food market access, challenges, prospects, and new trends. This book will catalyze additional research, conversation, and collaboration, ultimately contributing to the sustained growth and success of the global halal and kosher food industries. We sincerely hope that Halal and Kosher Food: Integration of Quality and Safety for Global Market Trends will be a valuable resource for readers wishing to better understand the halal and kosher food businesses and their growing landscapes. By highlighting the significance of quality and safety integration, we aim to sustain the development of a global halal food market that meets the expectations of consumers while upholding the principles and values that underpin this vital industry. Doha, Qatar Hail, Saudi Arabia

Osman Ahmed Osman Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman

Contents

1

 The Importance of Halal Food and Its Legality in Both Islamic and Non-Islamic Communities Around the World��������������������������������������    1 Osman Ahmed Osman

2

 Dilemma and Concepts of Halal-Safe Food������������������������������������������   17 Abdellatif Eldaw and Osman Ahmed Osman

3

 Metrology’s Importance and Application in the Halal Food Assurance System������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   29 Osman Ahmed Osman and Tamador Salih Saeed

4

 Concept and Significance of the Halal Traceability System����������������   41 Mohamed Elwathig Saeed Mirghani and Ahmed Adam M. Elnour

5

 Kosher and Halal Food Dissimilarities and Challenges in Accessing International Markets�����������������������������������������������������������������������������   55 Osman Ahmed Osman

6

 One Health- New Approach Towards Halal Food Safety ��������������������   67 Adil Mohamed Ahmed Salman

7

 Laboratory Methods for Authenticating the Conformity of Halal Foods ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   77 Muna Saad M. S. Al Olan and Aneez Ahamad Padippurathundil Yossouf

8

 Models for Risk Analysis Applicable to Halal Food Products ������������   93 Adil Mohamed Ahmed Salman

9

 Halal and Kosher Slaughter Procedures in Livestock and Poultry�������� 107 Twadu Ali Saeed, Sit Albanat Mohamed Elhassan Ali, and Osman Ahmed Osman

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10 The  Origins, Usage, and Production Methods of Halal and Kosher Gelatin������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  119 Nahid Ahmed Osman and Hala Mohamed Abo-Dief 11 Fraud  on Halal Food: Principles, Quality Challenges, and Safety Concerns ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  131 Osman Ahmed Osman 12 Standards  and Their Application to the Production, Manufacture, and Storage of Halal Food����������������������������������������������������������������������  145 Osman Ahmed Osman 13 Fermentation  Techniques Used to Enhance the Quality of Halal Food Products������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  157 Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman 14 Principles  and Techniques of Sensory Evaluation for Assessing the Quality of Halalfoods ������������������������������������������������������������������������������  175 Onaheid Ahmed Osman, Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman, and Osman Ahmed Osman 15 Good  Practices: Conception and Implementation Through the Halal Food Supply Chain������������������������������������������������������������������������  189 Twadu Ali Saeed 16 Contamination  of Halal Beef Carcasses by Bacteria Grow or Survive During Cold Storage������������������������������������������������������������������  201 Abdel Moneim E. Sulieman, Isam M. Abu Zeid, and Awatif Haddad 17 Inherent  and Extrinsic Factors Related to the Shelf Life of Halal Food Stuff�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  215 Osman Ahmed Osman and Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman 18 Impact  of Fluctuating Storage Temperatures on the Sensory and Microbiological Quality of Halal Beef Products ����������������������������������  233 Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman, Osman Ahmed Osman, Zakaria Ahmed Saleh, and Onaheed Ahmed Osman 19 Food  Additives and Their Applications in the Production of Halal and Kosher Foods������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  247 Twadu Ali Saeed 20 The  Origin of Enzymes and Their Applications in the Production of Specific Halal Products����������������������������������������������������������������������������  261 Walied Abdelrahman Mustafa, Osman Ahmed Osman, Twadu Ali Saeed, and Ahmed Elawad Elfaki 21 Pesticides  Maximum Residues Levels (MRLs) in Halal Food ������������  273 Moawya Ibrahim Yousif Abdalla, Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman, Marwa Mohamed Eisa Eltohami, and Isam M. Abu Zeid

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22 The  Prevalence of Microorganisms and Their Impact on the Wholesomeness of Particular Nile Fish and Fish Products������������������  287 Onaheed Ahmed Osman, Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman, Walied Abdelrahman Mustafa, and Osman Ahmed Osman 23 Significant  Risk of Shiga Toxin-Producing E. coli in Certain Halal Foods ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  301 Saria Abdel Rahman Mohammed Saeed 24 Antimicrobial  Resistance: Challenges and Incidence in Various Halal Food Products��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  319 Thamar Elamin Abdalla 25 Manufacturing  Procedures for Controlling Harmful Microorganisms in Halal Chicken Meat Products��������������������������������  329 Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman and Isam M. Abu Zeid 26 Effects  of Heavy Metal Contamination on the Safety of Halal Foodstuffs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  345 Hind AbdelAziz Elnasri and Intisar Ahmed Mohamed Osman 27 Veterinary  Drugs Acceptable Maximum Residue Levels in Halal Foods ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  355 Ishraga Gaafar Ibrahim 28 The  Incidence of Aflatoxins in Feedstuff and Foodstuff and Its Significances on the Wholesomeness of Halal Food������������������������������  367 Ibtisam E. M. El Zubeir 29 Non-alcoholic  Drink Safety and Halal Certification����������������������������  381 Osman Ahmed Osman 30 Production  of Halal Meat Using HACCP System: Idea and Implementation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  395 Elniema Abdelkhalig Mustafa Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  409

About the Editors

Osman Ahmed Osman  is an esteemed senior food standards expert currently holding a prominent position at the Qatar General Organization for Standardization. Previously, he served as a director’s assistant in the Research Department of the Sudanese Standards and Metrology Organization in Khartoum, Sudan, where he made significant contributions across various divisions. Throughout his career, Dr. Osman has actively participated in forums and workshops, further expanding his knowledge of quality and safety concepts. He has played a pivotal role in the development, adoption, and implementation of standards, solidifying his reputation as a globally recognized expert in the field of food quality and safety. The extensive publication record of Dr. Osman, which includes over 10 scientific books and peer-reviewed publications, demonstrates how well-known his expertise is. His scholarly contributions have greatly enriched consumers’ understanding of food standards and regulations. Furthermore, Dr. Osman’s reputation has earned him the opportunity to deliver lectures at prestigious food science institutions, where he imparts his vast knowledge and experience to aspiring professionals in the field. Dr. Osman’s influence extends beyond academia, as he has actively served on numerous committees dedicated to enhancing food standards. Notably, he has been a valuable contributor to the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Additionally, Dr. Osman has contributed his expertise to the OIC Standardization Experts Committee, specifically focusing on the development of halal standards and many other aspects of the GCC Standardization Organization (GSO) committees. Abdel Moneim Elhadi Sulieman  is a professor and researcher in the Department of Biology at the University of Hail in Saudi Arabia as well as the Department of Food Engineering and Technology, College of Engineering, University of Gezira, Sudan. He has authored a large number of articles in referred journals (ISI- Scopus) and has been participated to different international conferences. He published many references and textbooks in the area of food science and microbiology. He is a member of many national and international academic associations. He supervised and conducted many national and international research projects. He also supervised many master and PhD students in his field of expertise.

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Contributors

Moawya Ibrahim Yousif Abdalla  Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Gezira, Wad-Medani, Sudan Thamar Elamin Abdalla  Sudanese Standards and Metrology Organization H.Q., Khartoum, Sudan Hala Mohamed Abo-Dief  Department of Science and Technology, Ranya Collage Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Isam M. Abu Zeid  Department of Biology, College of Science, University of King Abdulaziz, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Osman Ahmed Osman  Department of Standards, Qatar General Organization for Standardization, Doha, Qatar Sit Albanat Mohamed Elhassan Ali  Department of Food Safety and Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bahri, Khartoum, Sudan Muna Saad M. S. Al Olan  Food Laboratories Section, Ministry of Public Health, Doha, Qatar Abdellatif Eldaw  Riyadh International College, Khartoum, Sudan Abu Dhabi Food Control Authority, Abu Dhabi, UAE Ahmed  Elawad  Elfaki  Faculty of Agriculture Studies, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum, Sudan Hind  AbdelAziz  Elnasri  College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bahri, Khartoum, Sudan Ahmed  Adam  M.  Elnour  National Oilseed Processing Research Institute, University of Gezira, Medani, Sudan

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Contributors

Centre of Excellence for Advanced Research in Fluid Flow (CARIFF), University Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Kuantan, Malaysia Marwa  Mohamed  Eisa  Eltohami  Department of Pesticides and Toxicology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Gezira, Wad-Medani, Gezira State, Sudan Ibtisam E. M. El Zubeir  Institute of Studies and Promotion of Animal Exports, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan Awatif Haddad  Department of Environment and Resources, College of Applied Sciences, Red Sea University, Port Sudan, Sudan Ishraga  Gaafar  Ibrahim  Department of Biochemistry, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, Animal Resources Research Corporation, Khartoum, Sudan Mohamed  Elwathig  Saeed  Mirghani  National Oilseed Processing Research Institute, University of Gezira, Medani, Sudan Saria  Abdel  Rahman  Mohammed  Saeed  Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Alzaiem Alazhari, Khartoum North, Sudan Elniema Abdelkhalig Mustafa  Department of Food Safety and Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bahri, Khartoum, Sudan Walied  Abdelrahman  Mustafa  Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Bakht-Alruda, Eldueim, Sudan Intisar Ahmed Mohamed Osman  College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bahri, Khartoum, Sudan Nahid  Ahmed  Osman  Department of Science and Technology, Ranya Collage Taif University, Taif, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Onaheid Ahmed Osman  Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Bakht-Alruda, Eldueim, Sudan Tamador  Salih  Saeed  Sudanese Standards and Metrology Organization H.Q., Khartoum, Sudan Twadu  Ali  Saeed  Department of Animal Quarantines, Ministry of Animal Resources, Khartoum, Sudan Zakaria Ahmed Saleh  Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University of Gezira, Wad-Medani, Sudan Adil Mohamed Ahmed Salman  One Health Centre, University of Bahri Khartoum North, Khartoum, Sudan

Contributors

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Abdel  Moneim  Elhadi  Sulieman  Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Hail, Hail, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University of Gezira, Wad-Medani, Sudan Aneez Ahamad Padippurathundil Yossouf  Food Laboratories Section, Ministry of Public Health, Doha, Qatar

Abbreviations

ADI Acceptable daily intake AFLP Amplified fragment length polymorphism ALOP Appropriate level of protection AMR Antimicrobial resistance As Arsenic ATR Attenuated total reflectance BC Blockchain BIPM Bureau International des Poids and Measures CAC Codex Alimentarius Commission CAPCOD CRISPR-Cas-based PCR DNA barcoding CCCF Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods CCPs Critical control points CCRVDF Codex Committee on Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Foods Cd Cadmium CFT Complement fixation test CGPM The General Conference on Weights and Measures CRMs Certified reference materials Cu Copper CVMP Committee for Veterinary Medical Products DEC Diffusely adherent Escherichia coli DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid E N European number EC European Commission EFSA European Food Safety Authority EHEC Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli FAME Fatty acid methyl ester FBD Foodborne diseases FDA Food and Drug Administration FFA Free fatty acids FINS Forensically informative nucleotide sequencing FS Food safety xix

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Abbreviations

FSIS Food Safety Inspection Services FSO Food Safety Objective GC Gas chromatography GC-MS Gas chromatography mass spectrometry GHPs Good Hygiene Practices GLC Gas liquid chromatography GMO Genetically modified organism GMPs Good Manufacturing Practices GPVD Good Practice in the use of Veterinary Drugs GSO Gulf Standards Organization HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points HAS Halal Assurance System HCA Hierarchical clustering analysis HCCPs Halal Critical Control Points HCE Halal Certification Europe HFSC Halal food supply chain Hg Mercury HIA Halal Integrity Assurance HOR House of Risk HPLC High-performance liquid chromatography HSCES Halal Supply Chain Echo System HS-MDGC/MS Headspace multidimensional gas chromatography IFANCA Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America IHAF International Halal Accreditation Forum INHART International Institute for Halal Research and Training INS International Numbering System IRMS Isotope ratio mass spectrometry ISQ International System of Quantities LCFA Long-chain fatty acids MCFA Medium-chain fatty acids MRLs Maximum residue levels MS Malaysian Standard NMIs National Metrology Institutes NOAEL No-Observed Adverse Effect Level OH One Health OIC Organization of Islamic Cooperation ORIT Overnight rapid identification test Pb Lead ppm Parts per million RA Risk analysis RAPD Random amplified polymorphic DNA fingerprints RFLP Restriction fragment length polymorphism RM Risk management RT Real time SCFA Short-chain fatty acids

Abbreviations

SDS SMEs SMIIC SPS STEC TBT TPB TRA WTO

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Sodium dodecyl sulphate Small and medium-sized enterprises Standard and Metrology Institute for Islamic Countries Sanitary and Phytosanitary Shiga Toxin-producing Escherichia coli Technical Barriers to trade Theory of Planned Behaviour Theory of Reasoned Action World Trade Organization

Chapter 1

The Importance of Halal Food and Its Legality in Both Islamic and Non-Islamic Communities Around the World Osman Ahmed Osman

1.1 Introduction According to Al-Qardawi (2013), Islamic law is based on five principles: obligatory, advisable, permissible, deplorable, and prohibited. Al-Qur’an verses Al-Baqarah 2:168, Al-An’am 6:118, Al-Ma’idah 5:99, An-Nahl 16:66, and An-Nahl 16:141 all advise eating wholesome food. (https://islamonline). Numerous studies have demonstrated the impact of religion on consumer attitudes and behavior (Delener 1994; Pettinger et al. 2004), particularly about food shopping decisions and consumption practices (Mennell et al. 1992; Steenkamp 1993; Steptoe and Pollard 1995; Swanson 1996; Shatenstein and Ghadirian 1997; Asp 1999; Mullen et al. 2000; Blackwell et al. 2001). The 1.4 billion Muslims who reside in the OIC states, along with the 805 million Muslims in Asia, the 300 million Muslims in Africa, the 210 million Muslims in the Middle East, the 18 million Muslims in Europe, and the 450 million Muslims in North America, make up the Muslim population of over 112 countries (eight million). (Ireland and Rajabzadeh 2011; Sumali 2006). According to Khoshdouni Farahani and Khoshdouni Farahani (2021), the concept of halal food is really important to Muslims around the world. Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa together account for more than 60% of the world’s Muslim population (Pew Research Center 2009). Asia, specifically Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh, is home to four of the top five Muslim-majority nations. According to Maemunah and Syakbani (2021), the Halal industry continues to garner major media attention on a global scale.

O. Ahmed Osman (*) Department of Standards, Qatar General Organization for Standardization, Doha, Qatar © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 O. Ahmed Osman, A. Moneim Elhadi Sulieman (eds.), Halal and Kosher Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41459-6_1

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1.2 The Sharia’s Methodology on Halal Food The goal of Shari’a, according to Al-Qardawi (2001); (Wiechman et al. 1996; Lada et al. 2009), is to maintain the main five comprehensives: religion, self, mind, offspring, and money. The general rule of the Shari’a is also: “All that is harmful is forbidden (to eat or drink).” This rule may be used to confirm if items meet the requirements for halal food (Osman 2009). Al-Qardawi (2001) refers to the Al-Qur’an, Genuine Hadith, Ijma (consensus), Qiyas (analogical reasoning), and Fatwaa (religious explanation) in the Maliki, Shafii, Hanbali, or Hanafi Madhabs, which are supported by relative authorities of Fatwaa, as the tools for evaluating the wholesomeness of food. Sharia is Islamic law derived from the Quran and Prophet Muhammad’s teachings, which provides a methodology for determining what is halal (permissible) and haram (forbidden) in relation to food. The methodology includes food prohibition, slaughter method, contamination prohibition, ingredient verification, ethical considerations, intention and consciousness, and ethical considerations. The Halal slaughter method involves cutting an animal’s throat and major blood vessels while invoking Allah’s name. Contamination prohibition is stressed, and ingredients must be verified. Ethical considerations include respecting animal rights and welfare, promoting fair trade, and avoiding exploitation in the food production and supply chain.

1.3 Perception of Halal and Tayyib According to Sack (2001), Christianity is a notable exception to the general rule that certain foods are forbidden. Islam and Judaism, for instance, forbid eating pigs, but Hinduism and Buddhism forbid eating cattle. The word “halal,” which means “permitted or permissible,” is used globally in the context of Islam. Halal and non-Halal refer to various aspects of Muslim life, including social justice, animal welfare, and environmental sustainability in addition to food and drink (Khattak et  al. 2011; Norazmi and Lim 2015; Majid et al. 2015). Ahmat (2011), Arif and Sidek (2015) clarified the concepts of halal and tayyib. Tayyib is frequently related to food safety (Demirci et  al. 2016). Tayyib’s opposite, Kahbith, is used to describe anything repulsive in Arabic. Additionally, “Khabith” refers to any chemical hazards that have the potential for carcinogenicity (Rudel et al. 2007). Codex Alimentarius, ISO 9002, Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), veterinary inspection, and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) (Talib and Ali 2009) The same author said, “By emphasizing the benefits relating to health, sanitation, safety, climatic change, and animal welfare that are associated with the Halal notion, Halal can become more widespread among non-Muslim consumers.”

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1.4 General Principle of Prohibition Here are four principal foods that are forbidden: blood, pig meat (pork), carcasses from dead animals, and animals that have not been slaughtered in line with Islamic regulation or that have not been dedicated to Allah in His name (Al-Qardawi 2013). The forbiddance of food in Shari’a is mainly due to two reasons, the first of which is the faith reason: the dedication of slaughtered animals to anyone other than Allah. The second reason for forbiddance is due to safety and hygienic reasons, such as the consumption of dead animals, shed blood, and pork, which are associated with disease-­causing or health hazards (Bonne et al. 2007; Osman 2009).

1.4.1 Religious Concerns The animal intended for slaughter must be halal to eat according to Islamic Shari’a law and satisfy health and sanitation conditions (Osman 2009). Imam Malik, Imam Ahmed, Imam Abu Hanifa, and most of the scholars of fiqh approved that an animal is illegal to consume if the slaughterer intentionally does not recite the name of Allah. Also, the meat slaughtered by the people of the book is lawful, and they are qualified to slaughter animals in the Islamic way. There is consensus among Islamic scholars that the meat of animals that are slaughtered by disbelievers and pagans who are not from the people of the Book is not lawful to consume, even if the animal is slaughtered according to the Islamic law. Similarly, this is withheld in countries where there are many different religious groups such as Muslims, fire worshipers, and idol worshipers. It is the same in countries where many of the inhabitants are people of the book as it is in countries where the majority of the people are Muslims, because the same laws for slaughtering animals apply (Al-Qardawi 2013). Halal food is guided by specific religious principles and dietary laws in Islam, and there are certain concerns and practices that render food forbidden (haram) for Muslims. Certain animal-derived ingredients, such as pork and its byproducts, as well as any food containing alcohol or intoxicants, are prohibited under Islamic dietary laws. Prohibited ingredients, improper slaughter, cross-contamination, unknown or ambiguous ingredients, gelatin and animal-derived additives, and halal certification are among these factors.

1.4.2 Safety and Hygienic Reasons In relation to food consumption, Islam emphasises safety and hygiene, such as preventing foodborne illnesses, ensuring proper animal welfare, avoiding contamination, preserving health and well-being, and maintaining high standards of cleanliness. These factors contribute to the prohibition of certain foods, such as pork, due to the

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increased risk of disease and parasite transmission. Halal slaughter is used to minimise animal pain and stress while avoiding contamination and preserving animal health and well-being. Hand washing before and after handling food, using clean utensils and cooking equipment, and ensuring proper food storage and preservation are also encouraged. By adhering to these principles, Muslims aim to ensure the well-being and protection of themselves and their communities. Based on the potential of food safety risks Muslim experts have argued for food prohibitions (Ambalia and Bakara 2014). The justification for a restriction, according to the same author, is explained by several factors, including biological and chemical elements that are mixed with halal food, such as blood, pig, and dead animals. Awan (1988) stated that consuming carrion and dead animals is prohibited as their degradation generates substances that are hazardous to humans. According to several authors, it is unsafe to consume blood since it comprises pathogens, toxic materials, and metabolic waste (Awan 1988; Hussaini and Sakr 1983). In addition, eating pork is not advised since it may contain harmful worms like Trichinella spiralis and Taenia solium that can infect humans. Moreover, it has been discovered that the high fatty acid content of pig fat impairs the ability of human fat systems to work effectively (Hussaini and Sakr 1983; Awan 1988). The Qur’an prohibits all intoxicants, including alcohol and all types of narcotics, whether they be liquid or solid. It’s possible that the prohibition on intoxicants is justified on the grounds that they harm the nervous system (Awan 1988; Al-Qaradawi 1984).

1.5 Halal Food’s Potential Market Size According to Billah (2020), the $2.02 trillion in Halal business spending is a contribution from two billion Muslims. The market for halal goods is anticipated to grow from its present competitive level of USD 1.37 trillion in 2018 to USD 2.0 trillion by 2024 Alzeer et  al. (2018). Food production worldwide is monopolized by Malaysia (Mustun 2021). Currently, Indonesia is the finest country to purchase halal food products, according to (Agus et al. 2020). Fuseini et al. (2017) advocated paying more attention to adhering to their stringent safety requirements while complying with Halal regulations to ensure that consumers have confidence in halal foodstuff. The market for Halal food is no longer considered to be a distinct market segment, according to (Syed et al. 2022). The halal industry also boasts among the best growth rates in the world (Tan et al. 2022). Islamic nations have recently made significant efforts to internationalize the concept of halal in the assumption that consumers who are not Muslims will accept it. Muslim communities around the world are now supporting several initiatives to increase awareness of the morals Muslims must abide by to consume food and goods labelled as Halal (Sazali and Ligte 2019). Due to the exponential growth of affluent Muslims and the desire for more moral consumption, particularly considering the Covid-19 outbreak.

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1.6 Significance of Halal Food for Muslims The second-largest religion in the world is Islam (Desilver and Masci 2017). Therefore, it is anticipated that demand for Halal products will increase significantly, necessitating the expansion of its global market (Bux et al. 2022). Muslim communities all over the world are paying nearly focus on the idea of Halal eating. In contrast to countries that practice Islam, the rest of the world understands that the halal mark on food labels guarantees the quality and safety of the products, and consumers, including those who do not practice Islam, prefer these things (Khoshdouni Farahani and Khoshdouni Farahani 2021). According to Berry (2008), there is a significant market for Halal products in non-Muslim communities since Halal products are also becoming more and more well-liked due to the favorable image that Halal products are healthier, safer, and produced with compassionate treatment of animals. Studies on consumer acquiescence of halal foodstuff had been rumored in more than a few countries, including the UAE, Pakistan, and Malaysia (Salman and Siddiqui 2011; Ireland and Rajabzadeh 2011; Rezai et  al. 2012; Khalek 2014).

1.7 Significance of Halal Food for Non-Muslim Foods that are halal are drawing more and more interest from both Muslims and non-Muslims. More people around the world are becoming aware of the value of halal and safe food, which may be the cause of this market expansion (Ambalia and Bakara 2014). Non-Muslims perceive the term “halal” as a symbol of conformity to Muslim dietary restrictions, according to (Bonne et  al. 2007; Rahim 2022). The halal certification equivocally establishes trust and encourages non-Muslim customers to learn more about halal food as a wholesome, trustworthy, and high-quality food (Bonne and Verbeke 2008). Furthermore, according to Bonne (2007), the convenience of halal food is increased by the labeling of halal products. The Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America’s (2009) indicated that the emphasis on healthful food also presents a great opportunity to sell Halal food as a lifestyle option; the new “organic product,” especially in the United States of America and Europe where people already pay premium rates for organic foods. De Boni and Forleo (2019) claim that the institutional environment, a lack of basic knowledge of halal principles and practices, and some resistance toward Islamic food and culture that have not yet appeared well-known and accepted on the local market are the major barriers that non-Islamic countries, markets, and businesses face when implementing halal practices.

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1.8 Comprehensive Conception of Halal Food The concept of permissible and prohibited is one of the most significant ideas taught in the Qur’an and the Prophet’s Sunnah (Zakaria et al. 2022). Muslims are more aware of the consequences of eating halal food since it goes hand in hand with their religious commitments (Ali et  al. 2017). Halal, Haraam, and Mashbooh are the three categories of food for Muslims. Muslims are only permitted to eat halal foods, according to the Qur’an and the Authentic Hudith (Talib et al. 2010; Amalia et al. 2021). Muslim academics define halal as acceptable and in accordance with Shariah (Islamic law), (Mukhtar and Butt 2012). According to Bonne et al., “halal” is a term used to refer to foods and beverages that are permitted to eat and drink in line with Shariah in the Muslim community. Also, according to Regenstein et al. (2003), the halal concept is employed for the processing, slaughtering, storing, and displaying of animal products. Halal is defined as something that is permissible and legal (Zailani et al. 2015). The first official definition of halal food was released in 1997 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The key tenets of the concept, according to Wibowo et al. (2022), were centered on how the products were produced, processed, transported, and stored.

1.9 Islamic and Non-Muslim Communities’ Halal Experiences 1.9.1 Halal Standing in Islamic Countries 1.9.1.1 Halal Food Situation in Malaysia The halal food industry is now thought to be growing at the fastest rate in Malaysia. Malaysian food producers can practically envisage joint ventures with recognized food producers, especially those from Australia, New Zealand, and Japan, to serve the Asian, Middle Eastern, European, and US markets Shoshoni Farahani and Khoshdouni Farahani (2021). The Department of Islamic Development, a body devoted to Islam, is responsible for issuing halal certificates in Malaysia (JAKIM). Products that follow and cover Islamic dietary guidelines are certified. The certification is only valid for 2 years before it must be renewed by the owner of the food business. The adoption of halal-certified food products seems to be boosted by both Muslim and non-Muslim consumers. Because they are halal, Muslims can eat these goods with perfect assurance. Different Marzuki (2012) (Latif 2006; Anonymous 2005; Latif 2007). MS 1500:2004 and MS 1514:2001, General Principles of Food Hygiene, are used in Malaysia’s Halal Certification system. The MS 1500:2004 document provides a framework for additional, sector-specific codes that are appropriate. The MS 1514:2001 standard describes the hygienic requirements for

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producing food that is safe and fit for eating along the whole food supply chain, from primary production to the ultimate consumer. 1.9.1.2 Indonesian Halal Food Situation Indonesia has become the world’s top halal producer (Hudaefi and Jaswir 2019). Since there are many Muslims in Indonesia, there is a high demand for halal products, and the Indonesian Council of Ulama’s (MUI) halal certification is regarded internationally including non-halal products like fresh vegetables, Indonesia is the second-largest exporter in the OIC, with halal commodities valued at $8.6 billion. Indonesia is the main exporter of fats and oils, whether they come from animals or plants to the OIC members. Indonesia has a wide range of natural resources, particularly palm oil (Prabowo et  al. 2015). Numerous halal-based studies on the Indonesian market have been carried out, including those on halal certifications, exporters’ perceptions of the market, economic prospects, and halal labeling (Faridah 2019). Numerous authors have discussed the status of halal food in Indonesia, including certification issues (Septiani and Ridlwan 2020), issues with the current halal act, consumers’ psychological reactions to halal products (Maison et al. 2018), and factors influencing consumer awareness of halal products (Hudaefi and Jaswir 2019). 1.9.1.3 Halal Food in Pakistan The Organization of Islamic Conference was designated by the Halal Authority Act, 2015, to control whether a food product is considered halal. The essential requirements for manufacturers, producers, and traders should be met at every level, and these recommendations are particularly detailed in this regard. Manufacturers, producers, and traders should meet the fundamental standards at every level, and their guidelines are particularly specific in this regard (Gillani et  al. 2017). Because Muslims make up over 96% of the population in Pakistan, Halal and Haraam were addressed in the sector’s policies even before the formal Halal structure and system were created. As a result, the importation of alcohol and pigs has been ruled illegal (Salman and Siddiqui 2011). Only Muslims commit murder in this country since it is an Islamic one with a large Muslim population. It was identified and found that there is a connection between a few antecedents from academic works on education and the intention to purchase halal (Awan et al. 2015). It also seeks to identify which antecedents, out of all antecedents, most significantly contribute to the increase in the tendency to consume Halal cuisine, according to the same author. Products that are halal are currently quite popular with consumers everywhere. Similar to this, halal food products are becoming more popular all around the world. As a result, numerous studies have concentrated on how halal is viewed, comprehended, and accepted in distinct global contexts (Sohaib and Jamil 2017). Even before the official Halal structure and system were developed, Halal and Haraam were addressed

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in the sector’s regulations because Muslims make up roughly 96% of the population in Pakistan (Mazhar et al. 2018).

1.9.2 Halal Status in Non-Islamic Communities Non-Muslims today dominate around 90% of the global halal food market (Wan Hassan and Awang 2009). For instance, major beef producers are usually found in Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, India, the UK, and France, which is listed as having one of the greatest chicken businesses globally among non-Muslim nations. According to statistics, 75% of France’s exports of frozen beef are reportedly halal. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Yemen, and the United Arab Emirates were its most crucial Islamic markets (Fauzi et al. 2021). 1.9.2.1 Halal Status in China There are 55 legally recognized minority groups in China, ten of which are mostly Sunni Muslim (Ali et  al. 2018). According to data from the National Bureau of Religious Affairs, there are currently close to 23 million Muslims living in China, accounting for 2% of the nation’s overall population (Ahmed et  al. 2014). Even though these numbers are lower than China’s entire population, they are nonetheless substantial when compared to other Muslim countries throughout the world. Currently, Muslims live across China, although the majority are concentrated in the northwest provinces of Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, and Ningxia, where they number over 18 million, or nearly 80% of all Muslims in China (Stewart 2016). Faradina et al. (2018) asserts that a modernized industrial chain in Ningxia has already started to take shape, embracing both indigenous traits and Muslim norms. It is currently acting as a base for China’s halal business as it expands onto the international scene in addition to emerging as a new pillar of the developing Ningxia economy. 1.9.2.2 Halal Food in the European Union Muslim populations are increasing in Europe even though there are more Christian groupings than Muslim ones. However, there is a market in Europe for Halal food (Fuseini 2017). Wealthy Europeans, who may or may not be Muslims, as well as the Muslim population, make this demand. Due to their belief that halal food is safer and healthier, many Europeans now eat it (Kayadibi 2014). Because of the strict food safety regulations established for product quality and animal welfare, the Muslim community in Europe typically accepts meat products (Bhatti et al. 2021). Demand for halal food items will be fueled by consumers’ trust in local, traceable, and high-quality ingredients (Yakin and Christians 2021).

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1.9.2.2.1  The Halal Food Situation in the United Kingdom In the UK, applicable food regulations and standards are put into effect under the administration of the Food Standards Agency (FSA). Moreover, it checks out production facilities (FSA 2015). One of its primary responsibilities is to defend animal welfare during the slaughter of animals (Chandia and Soon 2018). Quality control in food processing plants is a problematic task due to the additional Halal production requirements, particularly considering the morality of processes like stunning, slaughtering, and ceremony, which are still being debated (Thomas et al. 2017). As a result of these difficulties, the FSA was required to provide clarification and direction to its inspectors in 2010 regarding what constitutes halal (FSA 2015). In the UK, the demand for halal meat is increasing rather quickly. Even though Muslims made up fewer than 3% of the population in the UK in 2001, Mintel calculated that the market had an 11% share of total meat sales in the country. The market for halal food is expected to rise by 30% in 2006 alone, according to the Halal Food Authority (HFA) (www.halalfoodauthority.co.uk), one of the most well-known and prominent certifying organizations, even though the Muslim population is only growing by 3%. Currently, according to the HFA, 25% of all meat sold in the UK is halal, with 75% of that market being HFA-certified (White and Samuel 2016). 1.9.2.2.2  Halal Food Situation in New Zealand Trade agreements with the Middle East have made New Zealand the world’s largest supplier of beef and sheep meat that has been slaughtered in accordance with halal standards (Calcinai 2007). In New Zealand, around 60% of cattle and 98% of sheep are slaughtered halal in compliance with Islamic Shariah laws (New Zealand Islamic Meat Management 2009). About 90% of the halal food market in the world is currently run by people who are not Muslims (Raja Adam 2006). 1.9.2.2.3  Halal Food Situation in Norway According to numerous studies (Helgesen et al. 1997; Kubberød et al. 2002; Bhatti et al. 2021), most Norwegians prefer eating lamb. The Norwegian Muslim community’s preferences for meat consumption have not, however, been investigated. Knowing these inclinations helps one better comprehend the possibilities for meat consumption in the Norwegian HM market. 1.9.2.3 Brazil’s Halal Food Situation According to the Arab Brazilian Chamber of Commerce, Brazil shipped US$ 14 billion to the 22 members of the League of Arab States in 2021, a 26% increase from the previous year. Brazilian exports increased by 9.52% in 2021 to $8.92

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billion USD, surpassing the ISO 22000, MS 1500, HAS 23000, GSO 993, GSO 2055-1, GSO 2055-2, MUIS-HC-S001, UAE-S 2055-2, UAE-S 2055-1, UAE-S 993, and Cdial. Among the parameters addressed by the halal audit are the halal criteria (Fauzi et al. 2021). Contrarily, Brazil is without a doubt the world’s top exporter of agricultural and animal products. It’s amazing to see how many of Brazil’s food exports have Halal certification. A sign is that more than 30%, or around 1.1 million and 100,000 tons, of Brazil’s exports of boneless beef are halal. Brazil’s two top beef export consumers are Iran and Egypt (Erdemir and Aksu 2017). It is well known that Brazil is the largest exporter of agricultural and animal products worldwide. It’s noteworthy to notice that a large portion of Brazil’s food exports are labeled “halal.” An indication is the roughly one million and a hundred thousand tons of boneless beef exported from Brazil, more than thirty percent (30%) of which is halal. Brazil’s two most important export destinations are Iran and Egypt (Erdemir and Aksu 2017). This is applicable to all nations that are members of the Persian Gulf Cooperation Council (Fauzi et al. 2021).

1.10 Conclusion Worldwide, halal food is significant for both Muslim and non-Muslim communities for a variety of reasons, including ethical, market, cultural, and religious ones. In order to emphasise the significance and legitimacy of halal food, take into account the following key points: A. Halal food is crucial to maintaining Muslim identity and faith. It is viewed as a representation of dedication to Islamic principles and values. Muslims who eat halal food can rest assured that their dietary preferences are in line with their religious principles. B. Halal food standards address a wide range of food safety and quality issues. The halal certification procedure ensures that stringent regulations are followed during the production, processing, and handling of food, lowering the risk of contamination from unsafe procedures and hazardous materials. Consumers, both Muslims and non-Muslims, benefit from the frequent alignment of halal food regulations with internationally recognised food safety standards. C. The global halal food market is expanding quickly due to rising non-Muslim demand for halal products as well as an expanding Muslim population. The ability to reach a large consumer base obligations to halal food certification increases business opportunities for trade, market access, and economic growth. D. Halal food requirements include moral considerations like the handling of animals during slaughter. Halal slaughter practices aim to minimize animal pain and suffering while promoting compassionate behaviours. These methods include the use of sharp knives and specific animal welfare guidelines. E. Transparency and assurance that food products adhere to halal standards are provided to both Muslim and non-Muslim consumers through halal c­ ertification.

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Obligations to halal labelling and certification, customers can make informed choices and have confidence in the quality of the foodstuffs they purchase. F. Many countries have developed rules and regulations that govern the manufacture, labelling, and distribution of halal food products. These legal frameworks aim to uphold both the authenticity and integrity of halal food sold on the market and the rights of consumers. In order to enforce these laws and safeguard the interests of consumers, regulatory authorities and halal food certification organisations cooperate with each other.

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Talib Z, Zailani S, Zainuddin Y (2010) Conceptualizations on the dimensions for the Halal orientation for food manufacturers: a study in the context of Malaysia. Pak J Soc Sci 7(2):56–61. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjssci.2010.56.61 Tan A, Gligor D, Ngah A (2022) Applying blockchain for Halal food traceability. Int J Log Res Appl 25:947–964. https://doi.org/10.1080/13675567.2020.1825653 Thomas AM, White GRT, Plant E, Zhou P (2017) Challenges and practices in Halal meatpreparation: a case study investigation of a UK slaughterhouse. Total Qual Manag Bus Excell 28(1–2):12–31 Wan Hassan WM, Awang KW (2009) Halal food in New Zealand restaurants: an exploratory study. Int J Econ Manag 3(2):385–402 White GR, Samuel A (2016) Fairtrade and Halal food certification and labeling: commercial lessons and religious limitations. J Macromark 36(4):388–399. https://doi. org/10.1177/0276146715620236 Wibowo MW, Putri ALS, Hanafiah A, Permana D, Sh Ahmad F (2022) How education level polarizes Halal food purchase decision of Indonesian millennials. J Islam Mark 13(12):2582–2610. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-­10-­2020-­0323 Wiechman DJ, Kendall JD, Azarian MK (1996) Islamic law: myths and realities. https://www. iium.edu.my/deed/lawbase/ilw_myth_real.htm Yakin AU, Christians LL (2021) Rethinking Halal: genealogy, current trends, and new interpretations. Brill. ISBN: 9789004459229, Leiden. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004459236 Zailani S, Kanapathy K, Iranmanesh M, Tieman M (2015) Drivers of Halal orientation strategy among Halal food firms. Br Food J. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-­01-­2015-­0027 Zakaria MH, Sulaiman AN, Ab Razak RR, Yusoff MHM (2022) Penyelidikan dan Pembangunan Ekosistem Halal dalam Meningkatkan Daya Saing Industri Halal Malaysia. Malays J Soc Sci Humanit (MJSSH) 7(10). https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v7i10.1826

Chapter 2

Dilemma and Concepts of Halal-Safe Food Abdellatif Eldaw and Osman Ahmed Osman

Abbreviations CCCF CCRVDF DNA GMO MS

Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods Codex Committee on Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Foods Deoxyribonucleic acid Genetically modified organism Malaysian standard

2.1 The Concept of Safety in Halal Food Safety is a fundamental aspect of Halal food, ensuring that it meets not only the religious requirements of Islamic dietary laws but also the highest standards of food safety. The concept of safety in Halal food extends beyond the absence of Haram (forbidden) ingredients or substances; it encompasses the overall quality and wholesomeness of the food. Halal food safety involves various dimensions, including the sourcing and handling of raw materials, the production and processing methods, storage and distribution practices, and the overall hygiene and cleanliness throughout the food chain. Each step in the production and supply chain is critical in maintaining the safety of Halal food and preventing contamination or adulteration. Contaminants, whether chemical, biological, or physical, can pose risks to the safety of Halal food CAC/GL (63-2007). These contaminants can arise from various sources, such as agricultural practices, processing equipment, packaging materials, and environmental factors. They can impact the quality, shelf life, and overall safety of the food. Contaminants reaching any food can pose hazards to human health, and the extent of the risk depends on factors such as the type of contaminant, age, A. Eldaw Riyadh International College, Khartoum, Sudan Abu Dhabi Food Control Authority, Abu Dhabi, UAE O. Ahmed Osman (*) Department of Standards, Qatar General Organization for Standardization, Doha, Qatar © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 O. Ahmed Osman, A. Moneim Elhadi Sulieman (eds.), Halal and Kosher Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41459-6_2

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immunity, dose, duration, human body response, virulence or toxicity, and mechanical damage (Alzeer et al. 2018). In the context of Halal and Kosher food safety definitions, the considerations go beyond the food itself and include the source of the food. For example, kosher meat authorities may deem certain parts of an animal unacceptable for consumption, even if other parts of the same animal are suitable. While safe food brings benefits to consumers and causes no harm, it must be handled with care (Uddin et  al. 2021). It’s important to note that safe Halal food, sourced from acceptable sources by Muslim consumers and processed according to their religious beliefs, may not necessarily align with the WHO’s definition of safe food. The factors that affect food safety are also the same factors that influence halal food safety (Norazmi and Lim 2015). Halal-safe food is prepared in a manner that ensures safety, avoids najis (impure) ingredients, and undergoes processing using equipment free of contaminants. Contaminants known to have poisonous or deleterious effects are considered non-halal and unsafe. Generally, halal food is considered safe if it meets the requirements set by halal food authorities. However, halal food may still contain various contaminants, some originating from production sites or sources. Environmental contaminants, such as radiation, insecticides, and herbicides, can reach the food and feed chains through air or water pollution, agricultural or animal products, or physical contaminants like stones, metal, production machine parts, rubber, animal bones, wood parts, wood shavings, insect parts, and more from various sources (Osman 2009). Chemical contaminants can enter the human body through food during production, processing, canning, or storage (ISO 2018). Microbial contamination of Halal food can arise from diverse sources, including the source and type of food, harvesting and processing methods, as well as handling, storage, and transportation. Examples of these microorganisms include Salmonella, Campylobacter, Pseudomonas, Enterobacteriaceae, and Enterococcus (Meyer et al. 2013). The emergence of biotechnology and the incorporation of its products in food production have raised concerns regarding the halal and safety status of Muslim food (Alzeer et al. 2018). Genetically modified food (GMO) that utilizes DNA from microorganisms adds complexity to the safety definition of Halal food. The verification of biotech food products is costly and requires specialized expertise. The classification of microorganism-extracted DNA as Halal or unsafe remains ambiguous. However, it is generally disliked for human consumption when DNA is extracted from microorganisms in sewer systems or from objectionable sources (Nawaz et al. 2023). Critical control points for Halal products need to be thoroughly assessed and determined, and Halal characteristics cannot be solely examined through laboratory means (Kua et al. 2022). Food contaminants such as feces, urine, drugs, alcohol, blood, pork meat, gelatin, enzymes, and meat from predators, dead animals, or animals that died before proper slaughter complicate the concept of Halal food safety. The safety of Halal food comprises two components: adherence to WHO’s safety standards and alignment with the beliefs of Muslims (Al-Qaradawi 1984). Defining the “safety of Halal food” requires knowledge of the food source and the inclusion of what Muslims classify as “HALAL.” This may lead to situations where unsafe

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food is consumed as Halal as long as the consumer remains unaware of the presence of non-halal ingredients, such as meat from an animal that just died, alcohol, pork gelatin, or narcotics (Bonne and Verbeke 2008). Food additives, unless approved by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), can be a significant source of contamination for Halal food and are considered non-halal and unsafe (CX/MRL 2-2021). JECFA is an international body responsible for studying and monitoring the safety of food additives. However, many countries require further expertise to assess the risks associated with these additives. Determining the Halal status of food necessitates knowledge of the food sources, ingredients, and additives used during preparation, processing, packaging, and labeling (Laganà et  al. 2017). Safe Halal food must comply with both the WHO’s standards for food safety and the guidelines set by Halal authorities in Muslim nations (WHO 2006).

2.2 Halal Food Contaminants Contaminants in food are on the rise due to new technologies, brands, disasters, changes, and emerging microorganisms (Baeumner 2003). These contaminants can have small, short-term, or long-term effects, and in some cases, they may have no health effects at all. However, when new technologies are employed to detect the presence or impact of contaminants, they may identify non-halal substances. Halal food contaminants may originate from food produced according to Halal requirements or production procedures, such as the presence of hair on carcasses or excessive blood in Halal-slaughtered animals or animals that were stunned before slaughter. Another safety violation occurs when halal animals are administered drugs that may affect meat safety but are slaughtered before an appropriate withdrawal period (OIC/SMIIC 1:2019). To ensure food safety, standards such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), and ISO 22000-2005 are in place (Osman 2013, 2017). Halal standards and safety systems aim to produce Halal-compliant food by controlling and monitoring both Halal requirements and safety control points (source: https://www.worlddata.info/alliances/oic-­ organization-­of-­islamic-­cooperation.php). The complexities surrounding Halal and its safety status may arise when certain parts of animals considered Halal as food sources for Muslims contain organisms that can impact consumer health, such as the liver of cattle infected with tapeworm larvae (Osman 2009). Animal feedstuffs typically find their way into human food through the consumption of various animal products. Animal feeds can consist of a single ingredient or a combination of ingredients from different species and sources (Offifah and Adesiyun 2007). Animal feeds are susceptible to contamination from wastewater, polluted rainwater, pest infestation, chemical contamination, and microbial growth. Although the inclusion of certain animal parts in animal feeds is prohibited in Halal food, some feeds may still contain such parts, posing potential hazards to human

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health CXC (45-1997). Therefore, strict precautions, monitoring, and careful assessment are necessary before using them as animal feed. It is important to prevent the seepage of such feeds into different production ingredients, including those used in Halal food production (Yousof and El Zubeir 2020). Different feed additives and veterinary drugs also present potential contaminants and hazards to Halal food (CXG 2-2021). Compliance with Codex Alimentarius recommendations regarding feed additives and veterinary drugs is crucial for ensuring Halal safety (CXG 3-1989). Animal feed ingredients should be procured from reputable suppliers, stored in secure environments, and declared on feed labels (CXC 45-1997). Considering the need for ultimate safety in Halal requirements, some countries have developed standards by integrating Halal requirements with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Hygiene Practices (GHP), and HACCP (Majid et al. 2015). Multiple factors can compromise the wholesomeness and safety of food, and these factors may not be inherently unsafe but are considered unsafe for Muslims due to Islamic laws (Sharia). Human factors, particularly those involving workers engaged in food and animal feed production, play significant roles in ensuring food safety (CXC 1-1969). Therefore, these workers must receive appropriate training and adhere to the safety systems implemented for producing Halal-safe food. Safety systems encompass identifying critical points to eliminate hazards that may naturally occur in food or be introduced during different stages of the production process. Improperly trained workers can act as vectors for contaminants, both within the production and handling process and by introducing contaminants from outside the production areas. They have the potential to contaminate farms, agricultural produce, transportation vehicles, and the final products (CXC 1-1969). Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Hygiene Practices (GHP), and HACCP are essential in maintaining the safety of Halal food and preventing potential health risks (Osman 2013).

2.3 The Impact of Breaching the Safety of Halal Food As a general rule, all contaminants have an impact on safety, whether they are minor, severe, or simply objectionable, even if they do not directly affect health. The presence of contaminants in Halal food has a negative effect on various aspects of the food chain, including human health, food quality, and food trade (Kantiani et al. 2010). The safety of Halal food is influenced by multiple factors, ranging from the sourcing of raw materials to farming practices, harvesting, storage, processing, transportation, sale points, and consumption. Contaminants can also affect partially processed and ready-to-eat foods (Liang and Scammon 2016). Any instance of contamination at any stage of handling can have repercussions on the food and human health (Kher et al. 2013). According to Osman (2017), information regarding food safety is shared and disseminated through organizations such as INFOSAN, ADFCA, EFSA, FSAI, and other relevant authorities concerned with food safety.

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2.4 Examples of Food Incidence Affecting Halal and the Safety Status of Food Historically, there have been numerous food incidents involving various commodities that have had significant impacts. One example is the 2008 melamine contamination of milk and dairy products in China, which affected products distributed in 47 countries (Xiu and Klein 2010). This contamination led to various actions taken by countries, ranging from no action to banning all imports of milk and milk products from China. Apart from the health implications, there were substantial financial losses and food trade barriers resulting from this incident (Gossner et al. 2009). Such incidents of food contamination not only have economic repercussions but also raise concerns regarding the violation of halal and safety requirements. While some incidents may not appear directly related to halal, they are considered significant because halal concepts emphasize the safety and well-being of the human soul as an integral part of Islamic beliefs (CAC/RCP 61-2005; CAC/RCP 67-2009). Another example of a food safety breach with international implications is the occurrence of the Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) epidemic in the EU and EEA from 1999 to 2004. This disease is caused by the same agent responsible for BSE (mad cow disease) (CDC 2021). The impact of vCJD extended beyond beef products and trade barriers. Precautionary measures and regulations were implemented, including restrictions on the donation of blood and transplantable tissues from vCJD patients as well as limitations on the use of medical equipment to prevent iatrogenic transmission (Ludlam and Turner 2006). Radioactive materials can also pose risks to food safety. Although small amounts of naturally occurring radioactive materials may deposit on the surface of vegetables, fruits, or animal grazing areas, they usually have minimal impact on human health as our bodies naturally eliminate these materials. However, countries have monitoring systems to ensure the safety of food, particularly for infants who may be more susceptible to potential harms (FDA 2021). In the aftermath of incidents like the Chernobyl accident in 1986 and the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan, countries-imposed sanctions on importing food products, restricted food distribution domestically, and continued to monitor food importation from affected regions. While radioactive materials do not have a halal status, they are considered non-halal and dangerous if they harm human health and the soul, underscoring the importance of preventing their presence in food (DSA 2021). Overall, these examples highlight the significance of food safety and the potential consequences of food contamination incidents, both in terms of public health and international trade. It is crucial for countries to maintain robust monitoring systems, adhere to safety regulations, and take appropriate measures to prevent and address food safety risks.

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2.5 New Regulations for HALA-Safe Food Halal food regulations have traditionally focused on the concept of Halal in relation to the animals permitted for meat consumption by Muslims and the methods of their slaughter. However, as food safety standards and systems have evolved, the concept of Halal food has also incorporated safety as an integral part of its standards and systems. The Halal concept extends beyond the type of food and encompasses the permissible usage of products. For instance, alcohol alone is not considered Najs or non-Halal, as Muslims use it in perfumes. However, when alcohol is added as a component in food, the food becomes non-halal, unsafe, and objectionable (Roger et al. 2019). There have been debates in many Muslim countries for decades regarding the small concentration of ethyl alcohol naturally produced during the manufacturing process of fruit nectars and juices, and whether it changes the Halal status of these products. Currently, there is a growing consensus among standard food agencies and food control bodies in Muslim countries that the alcohol content in juices or other food products resulting from normal manufacturing processes does not affect their Halal or food safety status (GSO 18:2022). Studies conducted in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia on the storage effect on alcohol concentration in fruit juices (Alsaleem et al. 2022) have demonstrated that storage has no impact on alcohol concentration and, therefore, does not affect the Halal and safety status. Food agencies in Muslim countries routinely test the alcohol concentration in various products as part of their monitoring activities, following the limits set by local authorities rather than the limits stated by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (GSO 18:2022). Another important aspect to address is the stunning of animals and birds during the Halal slaughtering process and whether this procedure may contaminate the resulting products. According to Halal requirements, reversible stunning must be used (Riaz et al. 2021). However, complications may arise in this procedure, leading to situations where certain products derived from stunned animals, such as enzymes and metabolic products, are considered non-Halal and unsafe. This occurs if the animals or birds die during stunning or if insufficient bleeding results in higher blood retention in the animal’s body. The safety and Halal status of these products can only be verified if the source is known. Many countries that produce food of animal origin or utilize animal products closely monitor the stunning procedures (Lankhaar and van de Nieuwelaar 2005; GSO 993:2015). However, there is disagreement among countries regarding the use of animal stunning. It is crucial to closely monitor the traceability of metabolic products at their sources and production plants. Stringent control and regulation through standards and Islamic laws are necessary for all such products. Halal standards developed by standards organizations in Islamic nations are presented in Table 2.1, while Table 2.2 lists international codes of conduct and standards for contaminants established by codex committees.

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Table 2.1  Halal Standards developed by Standards Organizations in OIC Countries Organization The Standards and Metrology Institute for Islamic Countries (SMIIC) GCC Standardization Organization (GSO) The Singapore Muis Halal Standards (SMHS The Department of Standards Malaysia (Standards Malaysia)

Standard Name of standards number General Requirements for SMIIC Halal Food 1:2019 Halal Food – Part One: General Requirements for Halal Food General Guidelines for the Handling and Processing of Halal Food Halal Food: Production, Preparation, Handling and Storage

Reference https://www.smiic.org/en

GSO 993:2015

https://www.gso.org.sa/ en/about-­gso/

MUIS-­ HC-­S001

https://www.muis.gov.sg/ Halal/Halal-Certification/ Halal-Standards https://www.jsm.gov.my/

MS: 1500:2009

Table 2.2  International standards and codes of practices developed by the codex committees on contaminants Example of Type of food contaminants Food and General feed

Reference CODEX STAN 193-1995 CAC/RCP 50-2003

Juices and beverages

Chemical contaminant

Organic food

Natural contaminant (heavy metal contamination) Secondary metabolites (Food borne mycotoxin)

CAC/RCP 56-2004

Natural and chemical substances

CAC/RCP 61-2005

a chemical linked to cancer

CAC/RCP 67-2009

Alcoholic drinks

Foods of animal origin Plant-based foods

CAC/RCP 63-2007

Title General standard for contaminants and toxins in food and feed Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of patulin contamination in apple juice ingredients in other beverages Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of lead contamination in foods Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of ochratoxin A contamination in Wine Code of practice to minimize and contain Antimicrobial resistance Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of Acrylamide in foods

Committee CCCF

CCCF

CCCF

CCCF

CCRVDF

CCCF

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2.6 Consumer Concerns on HALAL-Safe Food Produced Through Nanotechnology Nanotechnology has immense potential in the field of food science, but it has also raised apprehensions among consumers regarding food produced using this technology. While nanotechnology can enhance the taste, freshness, safety, and nutritional value of food, there are concerns about its potential toxicity (McClements and Xiao 2017). Currently, consumers are hesitant to accept food produced using nanotechnology due to insufficient information regarding the safety of such products. Addressing this issue requires comprehensive investigation using appropriate risk assessment methodologies (Eldaw 2011). Despite the limited regulation in place, some food products utilizing nanotechnology are already available in the market (Luo et  al. 2021). However, more research is needed to understand the potential toxicity and risks associated with novel nanoparticles used in food nanotechnology (Bryksa and Yada 2012). Nanoparticles present in food produced using this technology pose hazards and risks to consumers due to a lack of knowledge and information. Further research is necessary to assess the safety of these types of food, and consumers have the right to access adequate information before consuming them. The issue of traceability, a crucial requirement for Halal and food safety, needs to be addressed and carefully managed. Some countries and food control authorities have uncertainties regarding food produced using nanotechnology. While there have been in vitro risk studies on food produced using this technology (Lucas-González et  al. 2018), such studies are not sufficient to categorize these foods as safe and Halal. In vitro models, either static or dynamic, have been developed as alternatives to simulate the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and estimate the bioaccessibility of compounds during digestion (Melton et al. 2013). However, the origin of nanoparticles and nanomaterials used as carriers or vehicles for food molecules remains an area of uncertainty that urgently requires investigation to ensure the safety and Halal status of these food products. Nanotechnology is appealing to food producers because structures at the nanoscale (100  μm and less), both biological and non-­ biological, possess unique and novel functional characteristics not observed at regular scales. These enhanced functionalities of nanomaterials have significant implications for food production and related materials (FAO/WHO 2010). The potential of nanotechnology is evident from its current applications as well as those under development in the food and agricultural industries (FAO/WHO 2013). However, risk assessment must continue to address real concerns. Methodologies or models are necessary to determine the half-life and ultimate fate of various nanoparticles (both natural and synthetic) within tissues, cells, and various food products developed using nanotechnology.

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2.7 Food Habits and Cultures and Their Impact on Safety and HALAL Status Different groups of people, including various nationalities, tribes, ethnic groups, religious communities, and individuals influenced by specific educational or cultural backgrounds, often have distinct food preferences, cooking methods, taste preferences, and choices between raw, fermented, or cooked foods (Faille et  al. 2018). These factors contribute to the consumption of specific types of food. However, different types of food can carry and be susceptible to various contaminants originating from different sources, such as natural contaminants in cultivated land or contaminants introduced during cooking processes or microbial growth during storage (Baeumner 2003). Moreover, these contaminants can impact the Halal status of food. The international trade of food plays a significant role in the transportation of contaminated food from producing countries to consumers in different regions and countries. Most cases of foodborne illnesses are associated with bacteria, viruses, prions, or chemicals (Todd 2014). Food incidents related to habits and cultures often emerge as focal points in specific countries, regions, or populations with distinctive dietary practices (Lianou et al. 2017). If poor eating practices, such as consuming raw or undercooked food, meat, or products from wild animals, are not addressed, foodborne infectious diseases will continue to pose a significant risk factor for outbreaks and epidemics (Zhou et al. 2020). The consumption of raw and improperly cooked food is prevalent in South and Southeast Asia (Grundy-Warr et al. 2012). In Japan, where seafood resources are abundant and the culture of consuming raw food is widespread, more than 70% of foodborne illnesses are linked to seafood consumption (Scoging 1991). Sushi and sashimi, which are originally Japanese seafood dishes, are now consumed by Muslims and non-Muslim individuals in many countries. It is important to note that while sushi and sashimi are Halal foods, additives used in these dishes need to be clarified to ensure their Halal status. Some additives can change the status of Halal-safe food to non-Halal or unsafe food. For example, if alcohol is included in the ingredients of additives used in sushi, it would render the dish non-Halal. Raw meat is another type of food that may contain disease-causing agents if not properly inspected by veterinary authorities. While raw meat can be Halal, it is not necessarily safe. There is a long list of parasites and other infectious agents that can be transmitted through meat, including tapeworms, BSE, trichinosis, salmonella, scrapie, and more (Zolfaghari et al. 2017).

2.8 Conclusion Halal-safe food encompasses food products that comply with the halal requirements of Islamic dietary laws while maintaining high standards of safety, quality, and ethical considerations. However, challenges such as limited availability, ingredient verification, cross-contamination risks, varying halal certification standards, and the

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intersection of ethics and sustainability can create dilemmas in the pursuit of halal-­ safe food. These challenges often lead to confusion and uncertainty among consumers, who may question the credibility and reliability of different certification labels. Additionally, balancing the principles of halal and ethical sustainability can present a moral dilemma for individuals seeking both halal and ethically sustainable food options. Addressing these complexities is crucial to ensure transparency, trust, and access to a wide range of halal-safe food choices.

References Al-Qaradawi Y (1984) The lawful and the prohibited in Islam: al-Halal wal-haram fil Islam. American Trust Publications, Indianapolis. ISBN: 9780892590162, 0892590165 Alsaleem T, Alsaleem T, Al-Dhelaan R, Allaheeb G, Alkhidhr M, Bintalhah A, Alowaifeer A (2022) Evaluation of ethanol formation in fruit juices during refrigerated storage time and its Halal status. Int J Halal Res 4(1):19–28. https://doi.org/10.18517/ijhr.4.1.19-­28.2022 Alzeer J, Rieder U, Abou Hadeed K (2018) Rational and practical aspects of Halal and Tayyib in the context of food safety. Trends Food Sci Technol 71:264–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. TIFS.2017.10.020 Baeumner A (2003) Biosensors for environmental pollutants and food contaminants. Anal Bioanal Chem 377:434–445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-­003-­2158-­9 Bonne K, Verbeke W (2008) Muslim consumer trust in Halal meat status and control in Belgium. Meat Sci 79(1):113–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2007.08.007 Bryksa BC, Yada RY (2012) Challenges in food nanoscale science and technology. J Food Drug Anal 20(1):38. https://doi.org/10.38212/2224-­6614.2104 CAC/GL (63-2007) Principles and guidelines for the conduct of microbiological risk management codex. Codex Alimentarius International Food Standards. https://www.fao.org/ fao-­who-­codexalimentarius/codex-­texts/guidelines/en CAC/RCP (50-2003) Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of patulin contamination in apple. https://www.fao.org › download › standards CAC/RCP (56-2004) Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of lead contamination in foods. https://www.fao.org › download › standards CAC/RCP (61-2005) Code of practice to minimize and contain antimicrobial resistance. Codex Alimentarius International Food Standards. https://www.fao.org/fao-­who-­codexalimentarius/ codex-­texts/guidelines/en CAC/RCP (67-2009) Code of practice for the reduction of acrylamide in foods. Codex Alimentarius International Food Standards. https://www.fao.org/fao-­who-­codexalimentarius/codex-­texts/ guidelines/en CDC (2021) USA, Variant Creutzfeldt−Jakob disease (vCJD)., National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology (DHCPP). Page visited on 9 Dec.2022 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CX/MRL (2-2021) Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) and Risk Management Recommendations (RMRs) for residues of veterinary drugs in food. Codex Alimentarius International Food Standards. https://www.fao.org/fao-­who-­codexalimentarius/codex-­texts/guidelines/en CXC (1-1969) General principles of food hygiene. Codex Alimentarius International Food Standards. https://www.isdi.org/wp-­content/uploads/2020/04/CAC-­RCP-­1-­1969.pdf CXC (45-1997) Code of practice for Aflatoxin B1 reduction in raw materials and supplements feeding stuff for milk producing animals. https://www.fao.org/fao-­who-­codexalimentarius/ codex-­texts/guidelines/en

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DSA (2021) Radioactivity in food and drink. The Norwegian Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority. https://dsa.no/en/radioactivity-­in-­food. Accessed on 9/12/2022 Eldaw A (2011) Nanotechnology in elevation of the worldwide impact of obesity and obesity-­ related diseases: potential roles in human health and disease. J Diabetes Sci Technol 5(4):1005–1008. https://doi.org/10.1177/193229681100500424 Faille C, Cunault C, Dubois T, Bénézech T (2018) Hygienic design of food processing lines to mitigate the risk of bacterial food contamination with respect to environmental concerns. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 46:65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2017.10.002 FAO/WHO (2010) Expert meeting on the application of nanotechnologies in the food and agriculture sectors: potential food safety implications. Meeting report. http://www.faoorg/ag/ agn/agns/files/FAO_WHO_Nano_Expert_Meeting_Report_Final.pdf. Accessed December 18, 2009. [PubMed] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; World Health Organization FAO/WHO (2013) State of the art on the initiatives and activities relevant to risk assessment and risk management of nanotechnologies in the food and agriculture sectors FAO/WHO technical paper. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization Rome 2013 FDA (2021) FDA Response to the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Facility Incident. Content current as of: 09/21/2021 accessed on 9/12/2022 Gossner CM, Schlundt J, Ben Embarek P, Hird S, Lo-Fo-Wong D, Beltran JJ, Teoh KN, Tritscher A (2009) The melamine incident: implications for international food and feed safety. Environ Health Perspect 117(12):1803–1808. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0900949 Grundy-Warr C, Andrews RH, Sithithaworn P, Petney TN, Sripa B, Laithavewat L, Ziegler AD (2012) Raw attitudes, wetland cultures, life-cycles: socio-cultural dynamics relating to Opisthorchis viverrini in the Mekong Basin. Parasitol Int 61(1):65–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. parint.2011.06.015 GSO (993:2015) Requirements for slaughtering animals according to Islamic provisions. https:// www.gso.org.sa/ GSO (18:2022) Non-alcoholic soft drinks. https://www.gso.org.sa/ ISO (22000:2018) (2018) Food safety management systems—Requirements for any organization in the food chain. https://www.iso.org Kantiani L, Llorca M, Sanchís J, Farré M, Barceló D (2010) Emerging food contaminants: a review. Anal Bioanal Chem 398:2413–2427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-­010-­3944-­9. Epub 2010 July 31 Kher SV, De Jonge J, Wentholt MT, Deliza R, de Andrade JC, Cnossen HJ, Luijckx NBL, Frewer LJ (2013) Consumer perceptions of risks of chemical and microbiological contaminants associated with food chains: a cross-national study. Int J Consum Stud 37(1):73–83. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1470-­6431.2011.01054.x Kua JM, Azizi MMF, Talib MAA, Lau HY (2022) Adoption of analytical technologies for verification of authenticity of Halal foods – a review. Food Addit Contam A 39:1906–1932. https://doi. org/10.1080/19440049.2022.2134591 Laganà P, Avventuroso E, Romano G, Gioffré ME, Patanè P, Parisi S, Moscato U, Delia S, Laganà P, Avventuroso E, Romano G (2017) The Codex Alimentarius and the European legislation on food additives chemistry and hygiene of food additives, pp 23–32 Lankhaar JA, van de Nieuwelaar J (2005) Ritual slaughter of poultry and the use of controlled atmosphere stunning (CAS) and electrical stunning. Animal welfare at ritual slaughter. 4(02):85–88 Liang B, Scammon DL (2016) Food contamination incidents: what do consumers seek online? Who cares? Int J Nonprofit Volunt Sect Mark 21(4):227–241 Lianou A, Panagou EZ, Nychas GJE (2017) Meat safety—I foodborne pathogens and other biological issues. Lawrie’s Meat Sci:521–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-­0-­08-­100694-­8.00017-­0 Lucas-González R, Viuda-Martos M, Pérez-Alvarez JA, Fernández-López J (2018) In vitro digestion models suitable for foods: opportunities for new fields of application and challenges. Food Res Int 107:423–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.02.055

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Ludlam CA, Turner ML (2006) Managing the risk of transmission of variant Creutzfeldt Jakob disease by blood products. Br J Haematol 132(1):13–24. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1365-­2141.2005.05796.x Luo Y, Ren C, Xu Y, Yu J, Wang S, Sun M (2021) A first principles investigation on the structural, mechanical, electronic, and catalytic properties of biphenylene. Sci Rep 11(1):19008. https:// doi.org/10.1038/s41598-­021-­98261-­9 Majid MAA, Abidin IHZ, Majid HAMA, Chik CT (2015) Issues of Halal food implementation in Malaysia. J Appl Environ Biol Sci 5(6):50–56 McClements DJ, Xiao H (2017) Is nano safe in foods? Establishing the factors impacting the gastrointestinal fate and toxicity of organic and inorganic food-grade nanoparticles. npj Sci Food 1:6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-­017-­0005-­1 Melton JR, Wania R, Hodson EL, Poulter B, Ringeval B, Spahni R, Bohn T, Avis CA, Beerling DJ, Chen G, Eliseev AV (2013) Present state of global wetland extent and wetland methane modelling: conclusions from a model inter-comparison project (WETCHIMP). Biogeosciences 10(2):753–788. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-­10-­753-­2013 Meyer PA, Yoon PW, Kaufmann RB (2013) Introduction: CDC health disparities and inequalities report—United States, 2013. MMWR Suppl 62(3):3–5 Nawaz MZ, Nawaz S, Guzmán F, Plotkina D (2023) The aftermath of Covid-19: the rise of pandemic animosity among consumers and its scale development. J Bus Res 157:113550. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113550 Norazmi MN, Lim LS (2015) Halal pharmaceutical industry: opportunities and challenges. Trends Pharmacol Sci 36(8):496–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2015.06.006. Epub 2015 July 14 Offifah N, Adesiyun A (2007) Occurrence of aflatoxins in peanuts, milk, and animal feed in Trinidad. J Food Prot 70:771–775. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-­028X-­70.3.77 OIC/SMIIC 1: (2019) General requirements for Halal food. The standards and metrology Institute for Islamic Countries. www.smiic.org Osman OA (2009) Halal food: potential in The Sudan through science and development. Sudan Currency Printing Press, Khartoum Osman OA (2013) Good practices: standards in the chain of foodstuffs of animal origin, Arabic ed. Sudan Currency Printing Press, Khartoum Osman OA (2017) Food safety in international trade. Sudan Currency Printing Press, Khartoum Riaz MN, Irshad F, Riaz NM, Regenstein JM (2021) Pros and cons of different stunning methods from a Halal perspective: a review. Transl Anim Sci 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1093/tas/txab154 Roger O, Mian N, Riaz M, Chaudry M (2019) Alcohol in Halal food production in handbook of Halal food production, 1st edn. C.R.C. Press, p 6. eBook ISBN9781315119564 Scoging AC (1991) Illness associated with seafood. CDR 1(11):R117–R122 Todd ECD (2014) Foodborne diseases: overview of biological hazards and foodborne diseases. Encyclopedia Food Safety 221–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-­0-­12-­378612-­8.00071-­8 Uddin SMK, Hossain MM, Sagadevan S, Al Amin M, Johan MR (2021) Halal and Kosher gelatin: applications as well as detection approaches with challenges and prospects. Food Biosci 44:101422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2021.101422 WHO (2006) Fact: food safety. World Health Organization, Rome Xiu C, Klein KK (2010) Melamine in milk products in China: examining the factors that led to deliberate use of the contaminant. Food Policy 35(5):463–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. foodpol.2010.05.001 Yousof SSM, El Zubeir IEM (2020) Chemical composition and detection of Aflatoxin M1 in camels and cow’s milk in Sudan. Food Addit Contam Part B Surveill 13(4):298–304. https://doi. org/10.1080/19393210.2020.1796826. Epub 2020 Jul 29 Zhou M, Zhang N, Zhang MG, Ma. (2020) Culture, eating behavior, and infectious disease control and prevention. J Ethn Food 7:40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42779-­020-­00076-­y Zolfaghari Emameh R, Purmonen S, Sukura A, Parkkila S (2017) Surveillance and diagnosis of zoonotic foodborne parasites. Food Sci Nutr 6(1):3–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.530

Chapter 3

Metrology’s Importance and Application in the Halal Food Assurance System Osman Ahmed Osman and Tamador Salih Saeed

Abbreviations BIPM CGPM CRMs ISQ NMIs

Bureau International des Poids and Measures The General Conference on Weights and Measures Certified reference materials International System of Quantities National Metrology Institutes

3.1 Introduction Efforts by organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and scientific institutions aim to improve food quality and safety by implementing regulations on the proportions of sugar, salt, and fatty acids in the food supply (WHO 2016). To achieve comparable and traceable analytical values in food, Westenbrink et al. (2010) suggest the importance of precise measurement. The field of metrology, derived from the Greek word “metro” meaning “measure,” is concerned with determining accurate measured values in various scientific and technological fields (BIPM 2017; Emadinia et al. 2021). Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach to overcome limitations in sensitivity for food analysis (Chausali et al. 2022). Throughout history, humans have utilized measurement standards for social and economic organization, as demonstrated by the precise construction of the Egyptian pyramids (Lanza et al. 2008; Hausnerová 2010). Metrology plays a vital role in the food industry by contributing to evidence-­ based decision-making, fulfilling food safety analysis requirements, and facilitating risk management (Zappa and Zoani 2015). In the context of halal food, metrology O. Ahmed Osman (*) Department of Standards, Qatar General Organization for Standardization, Doha, Qatar T. S. Saeed Sudanese Standards and Metrology Organization H.Q., Khartoum, Sudan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 O. Ahmed Osman, A. Moneim Elhadi Sulieman (eds.), Halal and Kosher Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41459-6_3

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ensures compliance with halal standards through activities such as halal certification, ingredient analysis, contamination detection, and accurate labeling (Osman 2009).

3.2 Concept of Metrology and Domains According to Sorbo et  al. (2013), metrology aims to enhance the reliability and comparability of analytical results, and one way to achieve this is through the use of quality reference standards (Iyengar 2007). Validating analytical requirements is crucial for obtaining reliable conclusions (Magnusson and Örnemark 2014), and validation studies can be conducted both externally and internally using reagents, test samples, measurement standards, reference materials, and certified reference materials (Barwick 2016). Proficiency testing (PT) is utilized by accredited laboratories to improve their analytical skills, but it is important to select appropriate matrices and repeat exercises (Juniper 1999; ISO/IEC 17043:2010; ISO 13528:2015). Good reference materials (RMs) are essential for obtaining consistent results in food safety measurements (BIPM 2012), and the agri-food industry requires novel RMs and advancements in analytical techniques to support laboratory accreditation and ensure food safety (Grombe et al. 2015). Contaminants, including toxins, microplastics, nanomaterials, and chemicals that are currently being studied for potential regulation, can be detected and characterized using analytical methods such as GC-MS, LC-MS, and mass spectrometry (Farré and Barceló 2013; Kantiani et al. 2010).

3.3 Categories of Metrologies According to BIPM (2004), metrology can be categorized into three main parts:

3.3.1 Scientific Metrology Scientific metrology involves the analysis, administration, upkeep, and development of the International System of Units (SI) standards. National Measurement Institutes practice scientific principles and globally verify them to ensure accurate and reliable measurements in food manufacturing processes (BIPM 2004). In the context of halal food, scientific metrology establishes and maintains measurement standards, calibrates measurement instruments, develops and validates measurement techniques, and supports research and innovation in halal food analysis. It also contributes to quality control and standardized halal food analysis.

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3.3.2 Industrial Metrology Industrial metrology ensures the integrity of halal food through various measurement methods and applications. This includes equipment calibration, dimension measurements, temperature monitoring, weighing and portioning, packaging integrity assessment, hygiene and cleanliness monitoring, and traceability systems. These procedures improve measurement accuracy, reliability, and consistency, thereby raising the standards for quality control and compliance with halal standards in the food industry.

3.3.3 Legal Metrology Legal metrology encompasses the regulatory requirements for measurements and instrumentation to ensure health and environmental safety, assess taxation, protect consumers, and facilitate fair trade (BIPM 2004). In the context of halal food manufacturing, legal metrology plays a crucial role in ensuring compliance with regulations related to weight, quantity, labeling, packaging standards, halal certification, traceability, authenticity, inspections, and consumer protection. It builds trust and confidence among consumers by ensuring that halal food products meet the required standards and regulations.

3.4 International System of Units (SI) The International System of Units (SI) is a modern, globally accepted system of measurement that provides a logical and consistent framework for expressing and comparing physical quantities. It is based on seven base units that serve as the foundation for measuring fundamental physical quantities. The SI system also incorporates prefixes to indicate decimal multiples or submultiples of units by adding them to the base units. The SI system offers several benefits, including universality, coherence, accuracy, precision, scalability, and adaptability. The Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) plays a crucial role in supporting the SI system and promoting its adoption worldwide. The International System of Quantities (ISQ), as defined by ISO/IEC Guide 99, is the quantity system that supports the SI system. The General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) has adopted the SI system, including the names and symbols of its units, as standardized units of measurement (BIPM 2022). Table 3.1 showcases the seven base quantities of the ISQ, along with their corresponding base units and symbols, which form the basis of the SI system.

32 Table 3.1  Base Seven: Quantity Unit Nomenclature

O. Ahmed Osman and T. S. Saeed Base quantity Name Length Mass Time Electric current Thermodynamic temperature Amount of substance Luminous intensity

Base unit Name Meter Kilogram Second Ampere Kelvin Mole Candela

Symbol m kg s A K mol cd

ISO/IEC Guide 99:2007

3.5 Application of Legal Metrology in Halal Food 3.5.1 The Concept of Prepackaged Packages In the context of halal food, legal metrology plays a significant role in ensuring compliance with regulations related to packaging. Prepackaged containers are used in halal food to enhance convenience, maintain product safety, and meet legal requirements. The halal certification process ensures that the ingredients, processing methods, and packaging materials align with Islamic dietary laws. This verification of ingredients empowers consumers to make informed decisions and protects against the contamination of halal food products. Prepackaged halal food must adhere to specific labeling standards set by regulatory authorities. Proper labeling facilitates portion control, assists with traceability, and enables consumers to identify halal products. Manufacturers and distributors have the responsibility to comply with legal requirements, employ appropriate packaging techniques, and ensure the integrity of packaging throughout the supply chain. To ensure authenticity and compliance, consumers should carefully read packaging information and look for reliable halal certification symbols such as GSO and OIML R8.

3.5.2 Requirements of Halal Food Labeling Labeling plays a crucial role in certifying food products as halal, indicating their compliance with Islamic dietary laws and suitability for consumption by Muslims. Halal food labeling encompasses various requirements, including the use of permitted ingredients according to Islamic dietary laws, adherence to halal standards during processing and manufacturing, prevention of cross-contamination, obtaining certification from a reputable halal certification authority, clear labeling indicating the product’s halal status, and maintaining traceability records.

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These guidelines for halal food labeling are outlined in standards such as (GSO 9:2022) (issued by the Gulf Standardization Organization) and ISO/IEC Guide 99:2007 (International Organization for Standardization/International Electrotechnical Commission Guide). Compliance with these labeling requirements ensures transparency, builds consumer trust, and facilitates the identification of halal products in the market.

3.6 Using Metrology in Halal Food Production and Manufacturing 3.6.1 Utilization of Measurements When Slaughtering Animals In halal food production and manufacturing, accurate measurements play a crucial role in ensuring compliance with regulations and maintaining the integrity of halal practices. When slaughtering animals, various measurements are utilized to ensure proper procedures and adherence to halal standards. Weighing scales are used to measure the weight of animals before and after slaughter, ensuring that they meet the required criteria. Temperature monitoring is employed to maintain appropriate conditions during the slaughtering process and to ensure the safety and quality of the meat. pH measurement is performed to assess the quality and freshness of the meat. Microbiological testing is conducted to detect any potential contaminants or pathogens that may compromise the halal status and safety of the meat. Traceability measures are implemented to accurately record data related to animal identification, carcass tracking, and product labeling, allowing for proper verification and authentication. These measurements and procedures are outlined in standards such as GSO ISO (3974:2015) and GSO (993:2015) which provide guidelines for halal slaughtering practices. Different stunning methods are employed to render animals unconscious before slaughter. Mechanical stunning, electrical stunning, and CO2 stunning are commonly used techniques. These methods aim to minimize animal suffering and ensure compliance with halal standards. The specific stunning methods employed may vary depending on the type of animal and regional practice (Beyssen et al. 2004). For birds, specific stunning methods such as water bath stunning, head-only stunning, and controlled atmospheric stunning (CAS) are utilized. Water bath stunning involves submerging the head and upper neck of the bird in water while applying an electric current. Head-only stunning moistens the feathers on the bird’s head, and CAS is employed for certain bird species by controlling the atmospheric conditions (Beyssen et al. 2004). These measurements and stunning methods contribute to maintaining the welfare and quality of halal-slaughtered animals, ensuring compliance with halal standards throughout the slaughtering process.

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Fig. 3.1  Temperature monitoring of beef carcasses (https://www.dreamstime.com/)

Figure 3.1: Temperature monitoring of beef carcasses during the slaughtering process is an example of the application of metrology to ensure proper handling and food safety.

3.6.2 Methods of Measurement Utilized to Characterize Halal Hazards In halal food production and manufacturing, various methods of measurement are utilized to characterize and manage halal hazards. These methods ensure that the food products comply with Islamic dietary laws and do not contain any prohibited substances. HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) is a widely used system to ensure food safety. In the context of halal assurance, HACCP is adapted to identify and eliminate any potential Haram (prohibited) ingredients. A decision tree approach is employed to determine Critical Control Points (CCPs) that specifically address the elimination of Haram substances, which have zero tolerance in halal food (Ramalingam et al. 2012). Critical Limits (CLs) are established in both general HACCP systems and Halal Assurance Systems (HAS). While conventional CLs focus on acceptable levels of food safety hazards using variables such as time, temperature, and specific

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detectors, Halal CLs aim to eliminate Haram substances entirely from the system (Rejeb 2018). Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be used to assess and characterize halal risks. Quantitative characterization requires extensive data and the use of probability density functions, while qualitative measures employ tools such as risk rating matrices developed by organizations like the British Department of Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) (OIE 2014). Detecting and measuring halal food contaminants is crucial for minimizing the risk of halal contamination. Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) are used to define the abnormally high concentrations of contaminants in feed or food throughout the production, transportation, delivery, and consumption processes. International organizations like the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) provide guidelines for the maximum acceptable limits of residues in foodstuffs for different substances used in livestock (FAO and WHO 2019; Sanders et al. 2016). Regulatory bodies, such as the U.S.  Food and Drug Administration (FDA), establish safe concentration levels for edible tissues based on the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI). Depletion studies are conducted to determine withdrawal durations for drugs with MRLs. The calculation of MRLs takes into account the ADI, which is derived from toxicological or pharmacological data using a formula that considers the No Observable Effect Level (NOEL) and a safety factor (often 100) (FDA 2006). By employing these measurement methods and establishing MRLs, the halal food industry aims to ensure that the products meet the required standards and do not contain any substances that are prohibited according to Islamic dietary laws.

3.6.3 Using Scientific Metrology to Authenticate Halal Food Scientific metrology plays a crucial role in authenticating halal food by employing various measurement methods to assess physiochemical properties and detect non-­ halal ingredients. For the assessment of physiochemical properties of halal food, several measurement methods are utilized. The water holding capacity (WHC) is measured following the method outlined by Judge and Mills (1986). Cooking loss is determined according to the method described by Babiker and Tibin (1986). Drip loss (%) is measured using the method described by Anon and Calvelo (1980), and pH measurement is conducted according to the guidelines provided by ISO (1999). The moisture content is measured using the AOAC 1984 method, while the protein content is determined using the Kjeldahl method (AOAC 1990). Fat content is determined using the method described by AOAC (1984), and ash content is measured following the AOAC (1990) guidelines. These physiochemical properties provide important information about the composition and quality of halal food products (Table 3.2).

36 Table 3.2  Measurements of physical parameters of halal meat products

O. Ahmed Osman and T. S. Saeed Parameter WHC % Cooking loss % Drip loss % pH Moisture % Ash% Peroxide value Crude protein %

Reference Huff-Lonergan and Lonergan (2005) Babiker and Tibin (1986) Anon and Calvelo (1980) ISO (1999) AOAC (1990) ISO (1998) AOAC (1984) AOAC (1990)

Chromatographic methods, such as liquid chromatography (LC) and gas chromatography (GC), are employed to identify non-halal ingredients in food samples (Mota et al. 2021). These techniques allow for the separation and analysis of different components present in the sample, enabling the detection of any prohibited substances. The chemometrics approach, which involves the application of mathematics and statistics to manage chemical data and evaluate multivariate data, is also utilized in halal food authentication. It aids in the interpretation and analysis of complex data sets, facilitating the identification of patterns and correlations related to the composition of food samples (Miller and Miller 2005). Infrared spectroscopy is another technique used in halal food authentication. It investigates the scattering, reflection, absorption, or transmission of infrared (IR) light in the spectral range of 800 to 1,000,000 nm. This method provides valuable information about the molecular composition of food samples, allowing for the detection of specific ingredients or contaminants (Witjaksono et al. 2017). Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) amplification is employed to detect the presence of specific meat species and confirm their base size using agarose gel electrophoresis. This technique utilizes the amplification of specific DNA sequences to identify the presence of particular species in the food sample. Mitochondrial DNA is often preferred as the target for PCR analysis due to its higher copy number and better stability compared to nuclear DNA (Yusop et al. 2012). By utilizing these scientific metrology methods, halal food producers and certifying bodies can authenticate halal products, ensuring that they comply with Islamic dietary laws and do not contain any prohibited ingredients.

3.7 Measuring Microbiological Parameters in Halal Products To assess the microbiological quality and safety of halal products, various measurement methods are employed following the guiding principle defined in GSO (810:2006) and GSO (1016:2015). The following steps outline the process:

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1. Serial Dilution: A serial dilution is prepared by diluting the sample in a sterile diluent. This dilution process helps in obtaining a viable range of microorganisms for accurate counting. 2. Sterilization: Culture media and glassware used in the measurement process are sterilized to prevent contamination from unwanted microorganisms. Sterilization can be achieved through autoclaving or other suitable methods. 3. Total Viable Bacterial Count (TVBC): Plate count agar and nutrient agar are commonly used to determine the total bacterial count (TBC) in halal products. The prepared dilutions are spread onto these agar plates. The plates are then incubated at 37  °C for 48  hours, following the guidelines outlined in GSO 1016:2015. After incubation, the colonies on each plate are counted using a manual colony counter or an automated device such as a Gallenkamp colony counter. The total bacterial count is calculated as colony-forming units per gram of sample (cfu/g). 4. Yeast and Mold Enumeration: Potato dextrose agar (PDA) is utilized to enumerate yeast and mold colonies in halal products. Similar to the TVBC measurement, the dilutions are spread onto PDA plates, which are then incubated under suitable conditions for yeast and mold growth. After incubation, the colonies are counted, and the results are reported. 5. Coliform Bacterial Count: MacConkey broth and Brilliant Green lactose bile broth are commonly used to measure the coliform bacterial count in halal products. The sample is inoculated into these broths, and the tubes are incubated at the appropriate temperature for coliform growth. The number of positive MacConkey broth tubes is recorded, and the most probable number (MPN) per mL is calculated using the ISO/TS 17728:2015 guidelines. These microbiological measurements help determine the microbial load and presence of specific microorganisms in halal products. By monitoring and controlling these parameters, manufacturers can ensure the safety and quality of their products, conforming to the required standards and regulations.

3.8 Conclusion In conclusion, metrology plays a critical role in ensuring accurate measurements, compliance with regulations, and maintaining the integrity of halal food analysis. The disciplines of legal, scientific, and industrial metrology contribute to the development, verification, and certification of halal food products. Through scientific metrology, precise measurement techniques and standards are established to guarantee the accuracy and reliability of halal food analysis. Industrial metrology ensures the integrity of measurements in various stages of halal food production, from processing to packaging, enhancing quality control and compliance with halal standards. Legal metrology establishes the system requirements for measurements, ensuring compliance with regulations, and providing consumer protection.

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Errors in metrology within the halal food context can have serious consequences, such as non-compliance with halal standards, mislabeling, contamination risks, and financial implications. To minimize these errors, robust measurement protocols, equipment calibration, and training for staff on precise measurement techniques are essential. Transparency and traceability throughout the halal certification process are also crucial to maintaining accuracy and reliability in halal food analysis. Overall, the proper application of metrology in halal food production and analysis contributes to consumer trust, regulatory compliance, and the overall integrity of halal food products. By upholding the highest standards of accuracy and reliability, metrology ensures that halal food meets the required standards and regulations, providing assurance to consumers and promoting confidence in the halal food industry.

References Anon MC, Calvelo A (1980) Freezing rate effects on the drip loss of frozen beef. Meat Sci 4(1):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/0309-­1740(80)90018-­2 AOAC (1984) Official method of analysis, 14th edn. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington DC AOAC (1990) Official methods of analysis, 15th edn. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington DC Babiker S, Tibin I (1986) Comparative study of camel meat and beef Sudan: Camel Research Unit. University of Khartoum, Khartoum, pp 73–77 Barwick, V. (Ed), (2016). Eurachem/CITAC guide: guide to quality in analytical chemistry: an aid to accreditation, 3rd ed. ISBN 978-0-948926-32-7. Available from www.eurachem.org Beyssen C, Babilé R, Fernandez X (2004) The effect of current intensity during ‘head-­ only’electrical stunning on brain function in force-fed ducks. Anim Res 53(2):155–161. https:// doi.org/10.1051/animres:2004002 BIPM (2017) Calibration and measurement capabilities in the context of the CIPM MRA (CIPM MRA-D-04), Version 5, pp 18–20 BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures) (2004) Measuring condition used for the calibration of ionization chambers at the BIPM. Rapport BIPM-04/17. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures BIPM (2012) International vocabulary of metrology—basic and general concepts and associated terms. JCGM 200:2012 3rd edition. JCGM Publication file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/ JCGM_200_2012.pd BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures), Chausali N, Saxena J, Prasad R (2022) Recent trends in nanotechnology applications of bio-based packaging. J Agric Food Res 7:100257 Chausali N, Saxena J, Prasad R (2022) Recent trends in nanotechnology applications of bio-based packaging. J Agric Food Res 7:100257 Emadinia O, Vieira MT, Vieira MF (2021) Development and characterization of AISI 316L micro parts produced by metal powder hot embossing. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 113:407–417. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s00170-­021-­06662-­x FAO and WHO (2019) Codex Alimentarius commission – procedural manual twenty-seventh edition, Rome, 254 pp Farré M, Barceló D (2013) Analysis of emerging contaminants in food. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 43:240–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2012.12.003 FDA (2006) General principles for evaluating the human food safety of new animal drugs used in food-producing animals: guidance for industry. Food and Drug Administration. https://www. fda.gov/media/70028/download

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Grombe R, Allmaier G, Charoud-Got J, Dudkiewicz A, Emteborg H, Hofmann T, Larsen EH, Lehner A, Llinas M, Loeschner K, Mølhave K (2015) Feasibility of the development of reference materials for the detection of Ag nanoparticles in food: neat dispersions and spiked chicken meat. Accred Qual Assur 20:3–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00769-­014-­1100-­5 GSO (810:2006) Gulf standard microbiology  - General guidance for microbiological examinations. gso.org.sa GSO (993:2015) Gulf technical regulation animal slaughtering requirements according to Islamic rules. gso.org.sa GSO (1016:2015) Gulf technical regulation. Microbiological Criteria For Foodstuffs. gso.org.sa GSO (9:2022) Gulf technical regulation labeling of prepackaged food stuffs. gso.org.sa GSO ISO (3974:2015 ISO 3974:1977) Gulf standard definitions of living animals for slaughter -Ovines gso.org.sa Hausnerová B (2010) Rheological characterization of powder injection molding compounds. Polimery 55(1):3–11 Huff-Lonergan E, Lonergan SM (2005) Mechanisms of water-holding capacity of meat: the role of postmortem biochemical and structural changes. Meat Sci 71(1):194–204. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2005.04.022. Epub 2005 June 14 ISO (1999) ISO standard 2917 (reference method): meat and meat products: measurement of pH. International Organization for Standardization. Geneva, Switzerland ISO 13528:2015 (2015) Statistical methods for use in proficiency testing by inter-laboratory comparison. ISO, Geneva ISO/IEC (17043:2010) Conformity assessment—General requirements for proficiency testing. ISO, Geneva ISO/IEC Guide (99:2007) International vocabulary of metrology — Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM). http://www.iso.org/sites/JCGM/VIM-­introduction.htm ISO/TS (17728:2015) Microbiology of the food chain — sampling techniques for microbiological analysis of food and feed samples. Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.iso.org/sites Iyengar V (2007) Metrological concepts for enhancing the reliability of food and nutritional measurements. J Food Compos Anal 20:449–450 Judge MD, Mills EW (1986) Assessing collagen thermal stability by differential scanning calorimetry. Fleischwirtsch 66(9):1380–1382 Juniper I (1999) Quality issues in proficiency testing. Accred Qual Assur 4:336–341 Kantiani L, Llorca M, Sanchís J, Farré M, Barceló D (2010) Emerging food contaminants: a review. Anal Bioanal Chem 398(6):2413–2427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-­010-­3944-­9. Epub 2010 July 31 Lanza IR, Short DK, Short KR, Raghavakaimal S, Basu R, Joyner MJ, McConnell JP, Nair KS (2008) Endurance exercise as a countermeasure for aging. Diabetes 57(11):2933–2942. https:// doi.org/10.2337/db08-­0349. Epub 2008 Aug 20. Erratum in: Diabetes. 2012 Oct; 61 (10):2653. PMID: 18716044; PMCID: PMC2570389 Magnusson B, Örnemark U (eds.) (2014) Eurachem guide: The fitness for purpose of analytical methods  – A laboratory guide to method validation and related topics, 2nd edn. ISBN 978-91-87461-59-0. Available from www.eurachem.org Miller JN, Miller JC (2005) Statistics and chemometrics for analytical chemistry, 5th edn. Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate Harlow, England, pp 213–239 Mota MFS, Waktola HD, Nolvachai Y, Marriott PJ (2021) Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for characterisation, assessment of quality and authentication of seed and vegetable oils. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 138:116238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2021.116238 OIE (2014) Guidelines for animal disease control. http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/home/eng/our_ scientific_expertise/docs/pdf/a_guidelines_for_animal_disease_control_final.pdf Osman OA (2009) Halal food: potential in The Sudan through science and development. Sudan Currency Printing Press, Khartoum

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Ramalingam K, Yang T, Febrianto N, Wan Nadiah W, Aris A (2012) A decision tree based approach for the identification of Halal critical control point for Slaugtering according to Islamic dietary law. Int J Food Safety 14:48–53 Rejeb A (2018) Halal meat supply chain traceability based on HACCP, blockchain and internet of things. Acta Technica Jaurinensis 11(4):467. https://doi.org/10.14513/actatechjaur Sanders P, Henri J, Laurentie M (2016) Tools to evaluate pharmacokinetics data for establishing maximum residue limits for approved veterinary drugs: examples from JECFA’s work. Drug Test Anal 8(5–6):565–571. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.2006 Sorbo A, Colabucci A, Ciaralli L (2013) Control charts to evaluate long-term performance in proficiency tests. Accred Qual Assur 18:291–298 Westenbrink S, Roe M, Oseredczuk M, Castanheira I, Finglas P (2010) EuroFIR quality approach for managing food composition data, where are we in 2014? Food Chem 193:69–74. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.02.110. Epub 2015 Mar 5 WHO (World Health Organization) (2016) Addressing and managing conflicts of interest in the planning and delivery of nutrition programmes at country level: report of a technical consultation convened in Geneva, Switzerland, on 8–9 October 2015 Witjaksono G, Saputra I, Latief M, Jaswir I, Akmeliawati R, Rabih AAS (2017) Non-Halal biomarkers identification based on Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Gas Chromatography-Time of Flight Mass Spectroscopy (GC-TOF MS) techniques. EPJ Web Conf 162. https://doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201716201007 Yusop MHM, Mustafa S, Che Man YB et  al (2012) Detection of raw pork targeting porcine-­ specific mitochondrial cytochrome B gene by molecular beacon probe real-time polymerase chain reaction. Food Anal Methods 5:422–429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-­011-­9260-­y Zappa G, Zoani C (2015) Reference materials in support to food traceability. Agrochim Pisa 59:304–318. https://doi.org/10.12871/0021857201543

Chapter 4

Concept and Significance of the Halal Traceability System Mohamed Elwathig Saeed Mirghani

and Ahmed Adam M. Elnour

Abbreviations BC Blockchain HFSC Halal Food Supply Chain HIA Halal Integrity Assurance HSCES Halal Supply Chain Echo System INHART International Institute for Halal Research and Training TPB Theory of Planned Behaviour TRA Theory of Reasoned Action

4.1 Introduction The halal mark on food labels guarantees the quality and safety of the products (Khoshdouni Farahani and Khoshdouni Farahani 2021). Consumers, including those who do not practice Islam, prefer halal products (George et al. 2019). During the fermentation process, alcohol is produced, and it is difficult to remove all of it from the final products (Khoshdouni Farahani and Khoshdouni Farahani 2021). Traditional methods for determining the concentration of volatile substances are high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (Martuscelli et al. 2020; Tseng et al. 2022; Rohman and Putri 2019; Hossain et al. 2021). In recent years, biosensors have been developed to assess the amounts of alcohol, non-halal meat, and other non-approved microbial metabolites

M. E. S. Mirghani (*) National Oilseed Processing Research Institute, University of Gezira, Medani, Sudan A. A. M. Elnour National Oilseed Processing Research Institute, University of Gezira, Medani, Sudan Centre of Excellence for Advanced Research in Fluid Flow (CARIFF), University Malaysia Pahang Gambang, Kuantan, Malaysia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 O. Ahmed Osman, A. Moneim Elhadi Sulieman (eds.), Halal and Kosher Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41459-6_4

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present in a mixture (Khoshdouni Farahani and Khoshdouni Farahani 2021; Dahlan et al. 2020). An official definition of halal food was initially proposed in 1997 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Joint Committee of the World Health Organization (WHO). A product is considered halal if it does not include any ingredients forbidden in Islam, such as pork or alcohol (Maemunah and Syakbani 2021; Prayudanti and Sucipto 2021).

4.2 Concept of Halal Food

50.00 45.00 40.00 35.00 30.00 25.00 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

Total Citations Per Contery

Average Art ical Citat ions of halal concept t

The perception of halal foods is a requisite for Muslims (Khoshdouni Farahani and Khoshdouni Farahani 2021), requiring the well-known acceptance of this impression, several noticeable food quandaries, and authorized arguments concerning foodstuffs, and facilities (Zin et al. 2021). Because of the need to ensure halal reliability using statistics and digital data, halal food supply chains present an opportunity for blockchain (BC) technology. There are now several initiatives around the world’s Muslim communities to draw attention to the requirements Muslims must meet to consume foods designated as halal (Sazali and Ligte 2019). The halal criteria stipulate that food and drink must not contain pork, alcohol, or pork products. It is possible to deduce from the halal label on the product that they have put it through all the rigorous tests necessary to receive halal certification (Wibowo and Violita 2020). Muslims are searching for halal cosmetic items and anything related to expanding halal cosmetics on the market (Abd Rahman et  al. 2015). Figure  4.1

Most Cited Counteries for Halal Concepts Aticals TC

Average Art icle Citations

Fig. 4.1  Contributions of IsDB-MCs compared to non-IsDB-MCs based on total citation and average article citations of halal concept

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demonstrate the most cited countries for halal concept articles published in Islamic Development Bank (IsDB)-Member’s countries compared to non-IsDB-MCs over 20 years.

4.3 Impact of Traceability System on Halal Food Vanany et al. (2021) examined the halal food traceability system and the appliances of blockchain (BC) technology. Tieman et al. (2019) report showed that organizations known as Halal Certification Bodies (HCBs) have reached a consensus on BC technologies’ role in maintaining halal integrity across the supply chain. This is especially the case regarding halal shipping, storage, and halal-compliant terminals in countries where Muslims comprise most of the population. Figure 4.2 represents the source impact of the most frequently cited key terms and trends based on abstracts regarding the traceability system for halal food. On the application of BC technology in agricultural supply chains, Tan Duan et al. (2022) bluntly noted this weakness and showed that further study is required in the future to bridge this gap (Tan et al. 2022). An RFID-based application developed by Nasir et al. (2011) is not yet another application for determining whether products have a halal (Nasir et al. 2011; Allata et al. 2017). Hossain et al. (2021) certification (For example, in the real estate industry, BC is used to provide a secure system for property registration (Shuaib et al. 2020); It implemented blockchain to prevent counterfeiting in the wine industry (Danese et  al. 2021). BC serves as a tracking mechanism in intelligent cargo transportation (Baygin et al. 2022), and BC ensures data integrity in the agriculture industry (Shuaib et al. 2020). At any moment and in any situation, a peer-to-peer network is a crucial component of BC technology (Galvez et al. 2018). A BC-based system can improve food traceability while

Fig. 4.2  The trend topic using abstract as a keyword with bigrams terms frequency from 2013 to 2021 of most frequency keywords terms impact of traceability system using on halal food worldwide. (Source: Personal elaboration by the authors using R- software)

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guaranteeing the food’s safety and quality (Feng et al. 2020). The IoT and artificial intelligence will provide stakeholders with access to the high-quality data necessary to make better-informed decisions (Rahmiati et al. 2021). Systems that track food products assure honesty in food production and allow customers to trust halal product claims (Masudin et al. 2022). Customers can check the authenticity of products through BC technology, which helps maintain their trust in the products (Sarah and Bergmans 2021; Abidin and Perdana 2020). Intelligent packaging makes it possible to trace the logistics of the product from the producer to the store or restaurant where it was purchased (Maemunah and Syakbani 2021). The newly created method should speed up the process of gaining halal certification. The system’s openness encourages Muslim customers to have greater confidence in the products they buy (Abidin and Perdana 2020; Lee et al. 2020; Giyanti et al. 2019; Azizah 2022; Kasdi et al. 2021). Because of the benefits of adopting traceability management, information related to halal standards may be routed, allowing food makers or consumers to check halal products and ensure that halal requirements are stated. This helps to ensure that halal certification is maintained (Shafii and Khadijah 2012). In Thailand, the CICOT does not allow halal food production from spirits (Karahalil 2020; Ab Talib and Ai Chin 2018). This information may include the names of companies and manufacturers of the products, and a food maker may trace back to the supplier who provided the halal certification (Kasdi et al. 2021). Labeling meats and other meat products are required because consumers have the right to know what they consume (Rohman and Putri 2019). Confidence in the halal supply chain is almost entirely predicated on the presence of the halal mark or certification on the product packaging (Ali and Ali 2017; Zulihuma and Shibghatullah 2022). The government should offer financial incentives to manufacturers who do not have their products recognized as halal to consider getting their products certified as halal (Halimi et al. 2021; Jannah and Al-Banna 2021; Arwani et  al. 2022). The automotive industry is an admirable example of how BC technologies can stimulate supply chain unification and the maintainable implementation accomplished by supply chains (Alamsyah et al. 2022). BC technology in the supply chain for halal certification can be understood by evaluating food integrity, supply chain integration, Islamic duties, and well-founded performance (Zulihuma and Shibghatullah 2022). Evidence from Japanese and Korean companies regarding the influence of supply chain integration on the correlation between diversification and performance (Ali et  al. 2019a). According to (Haleem 2021), having reliable ICT in the halal supply chain is essential since it boosts the chain’s performance and efficiency and enables better integration among LSPs. Traceability along the food supply chain may assist in applying blockchain-enabled solutions (Sarah and Bergmans 2021; Fauzi 2022; Jannah and Al-Banna 2021). The perceived advantage and traceability system influence food manufacturers’ desire to implement halal assurance (Martuscelli et al. 2020). There is no correlation between perceived ease of use (PEOU) and the adoption of IoT in small and medium-sized halal agro-food businesses (Ahmad Tarmizi et al. 2020; Hossain et  al. 2021; Kamarulzaman and Tarmizi 2020). The halal food sourcing traceability system is quickly growing in demand (Masudin et  al. 2022). One

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explanation for its ever-increasing demand is that consumers are becoming more concerned about product quality and public health (Islam and Rahaman 2020; Auda 2022). Food safety criteria continue to become more critical, besides the adulteration of haram or shubhah chemicals (Zin et al. 2021; Alzeer and Hadeed 2021; Auda 2022; Tseng et al. 2022). One can find a range of publications on the significance of procurement and halal as a competitive advantage (Tseng et al. 2022). Combinatorial biosynthesis is a technique that scientists have turned to manufacture novel natural compounds to produce drugs because it has become increasingly challenging to get new antibacterial and anticancer agents from natural sources with the qualities needed. Combinatorial biosynthesis is a technique scientists have used to manufacture novel natural compounds to produce drugs (Wiesner et al. 2002). The growing number of halal-certified companies is causing significant concern for procurement specialists regarding the complexity of the standards for purchasing halal products and services (Auda 2022). Thus, systems for halal traceability and tracking strengthen the HFSC for the food business (Ahmed et  al. 2021). According to Zulfakar et al. 2014 traceability may be used to monitor the halal status of individual food items at each port. When BC technology is used in the halal supply chain, it helps maintain the integrity of the food supply chain as a whole (Gotel and Finkelstein 1994; Tan et al. 2022). The perceived benefits of halal integrity assumed to be reached with a BC supply chain are improved halal authenticity, transparency, trust, a traceability system, and integration with their suppliers (Vanany et al. 2021). A supply chain can be defined as a network of connected and interdependent organizations that work together to control, manage, and improve the flow of materials and information from suppliers to users (Ling and Wahab 2020). The current research has produced empirical evidence to suggest that implementing halal logistics strategies leads to improvements in the efficiency of supply chains (Abd Rahman et  al. 2021). Traceability, visibility, quality, and risk assessment are some of the fundamentals that must be comprehended to ensure that the supply chain maintains its integrity. Because of the substantial costs involved, barcodes or RFID are not envisaged for tracing food along the entire supply chain to verify halal compliance (Tan et al. 2022; Mustun 2021; Khan et al. 2018; Aung and Chang 2014; Fayezi et  al. 2015; Sumarliah et  al. 2021). The new Halal Supply Chain Echo System (HSCES) will be adapted as a sustainable industrial idea throughout the scope and purpose of the article by Sayed et al. (2022). The halal sector assurance system aims to ensure that all businesses involved in halal food and drink production comply with all Halalan Toyibban (HT) requirements for all their operations. These requirements include management systems, halal risk assessments, halal facilities, equipment, and infrastructure. Arguments concerning the implementation of BC technology by halal supply chains in institutional theory and agency theory made some substantial contributions to the body of research conducted on halal food chain transparency (Tan et al. 2022). The institutional and agency theories provide acceptable theoretical perspectives on evaluation instruments for incorporating sustainable business practices into the international supply chain (Mahbubi and Uchiyama 2020). These two theories are among the theoretical lenses that support

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the application of BC technology in halal supply chains, as was previously described (2022). The halal sector assurance system aims to ensure that all businesses involved in halal food and drink production comply with all Halalan Toyibban (HT) requirements for all their operations (Tan et al. 2022). Based on the facts presented, it has been determined that halal supply risk management (SRM) includes both a risk mitigation technique and a particular supply risk (which includes quality, cost, price, and supply uncertainty) (behaviour-based management, buffer-based management, and traceability-based management). Zulfikar et  al. (2012) developed a conceptual framework to improve the halal integrity of the HFSC (Ali et al. 2019b). The research conducted by Ma’aram and Bin Nordin (2021) and the recommendation made by Zailani et al. (2015) to implement a traceability system to increase the transparency and visibility of the production chain are discussed. As stated by Zulfikar et  al. (2012), traceability can also track the halal status of certain food products at every level of the supply chain. By implementing a traceability system, consumer confidence in halal food products can be increased, leading to increased sales of those products (Prayudanti and Sucipto 2021). Because it ensures that the halal food to be consumed is safe, the halal traceability system has the potential to improve customer confidence (Prayudanti and Sucipto 2021). Studies must incorporate technologically advanced applications such as IoT technology to ensure halal SFSC authentication and increase consumer confidence in halal food products (Tseng et  al. 2022). Customers’ confidence in the halal food assurance system’s reliability will increase due to the system’s capability to eradicate the risk of cross-­ contamination and improve the management of the HFSC currently in operation (Mohamed et al. 2022). Many other nations are researching alternative methods to improve food traceability by using a standard food traceability system data platform for their particular HFSCs (Tan et al. 2022). Moreover, Zulfikar et al. (2012) developed a conceptual framework to bolster the halal integrity of the HFSC. This framework included trust, facility specificity, quality assurance, and traceability systems. Using BC technology, Chandra et al. (2019) highlighted the challenges encountered in the halal food market and reinterpreted how existing systems can implement BC applications. If businesses in the pharmaceutical and poultry slaughtering industries already have a traceability system, establishing halal integrity via BC technology will be a pretty basic procedure for them to examine. However, the digital transformation of the system, IoT traceability solutions, and the BC layer all improve the quality of food information and the traceability of agri-food products. Because these products had low levels of toxicity, black cumin was used as a flavor enhancer in bread and pickles (Elnour et al. 2023). Therefore, using this combination approach would not only improve the credibility and integrity of the halal product status, but it would also guarantee the safety of the food by preventing it from becoming contaminated with haram ingredients. Since it can be obtained through numerous processes, using food additives can confuse the product’s halal status (Anggarkasih and Resma 2022). Rhizophora used to be detectable in the middle, but their population density has diminished because silt has covered the plant seed (Ryandini et  al. 2018). There are some examples of potential non-halal components found in foods

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and pharmaceuticals, such as components that are recognized because they incorporate flavoring, stabilizing, or coloring compounds. They used additives in the formulation process of pharmaceuticals to stabilize the active ingredients and make it simpler for the drug to be absorbed, distributed, and excreted (Alzeer and Hadeed 2021). The practice of utilizing the skin, hair, and horn of halal animals (animals that have not been killed) for the production of medicine, and the creation of cosmetics is not against the law to include in things that are not meant to be consumed, such as cosmetics and some medications, but it is against the law to use it in food products (Hudaefi and Jaswir 2019). They cannot separate the high cost of food and the appeal of utilizing halal medications and cosmetics from the production process since Islamic law forbids them to do so. The competition with other nations will be more challenging for them than it would have been under other circumstances (Antonio et  al. 2020). This raises food prices and creates a growing demand for halal pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.

4.4 Significance and Effectiveness of Halal Food The $1.9 trillion has generated significant investment prospects and the establishment of worldwide halal food brands (Battour 2018). The literature connects halal with food and eating (Haleem et al. 2020), and the growing demand for halal goods and services on a global scale is a significant factor driving the rise of the halal food market. As a result, HTS will enhance halal transparency and visibility across the entire food supply chain (Ma’aram and Bin Nordin 2021). The mentality of Muslim customers significantly influences the likelihood that they will purchase halal food from halal businesses (Vanany et al. 2020; Fernando et al. 2022; Omari 2021). Halal agro-food SMEs in Malaysia did not exhibit any significant correlations between their knowledge level, annual turnover rate, or attendance of Muslims in their workplaces (Ahmad Tarmizi et  al. 2020). Although it is stated that traceability has a substantial effect on the consumption of halal food, we only included the online traceability of halal food information in a narrow region where there are gaps between the views of both consumers and business shareholders (Azizah 2021). In addition, the factor indicated a progressive trend, which recommends a substantial influence on both the insight into halal food’s wholesomeness and the traceability of statistics concerning halal food (Omari 2021). The SFSC’s essential indicators are food consumption, food safety, food security, resilience, and food waste management (Tseng et al. 2022; Salindal 2018). Supply chain logistics control (SCLC) is vital to protect the integrity of halal food along a supply chain (Mohamed et  al. 2022). Halal Integrity Assurance (HIA) might be easier to understand if companies had a human resources department whose only job was to handle HFSC-related tasks (Mohamed et al. 2022).

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4.5 Halal Traceability System and Its Impact on Consumers’ Behavior Previous studies have examined the impact of halal principles on halal food safety and certification processes. This study solely focused on research that has already been conducted within the realm of the food and beverage industry. The conclusions and some suggested ramifications are as follows: Halal traceability systems might increase customer confidence since they guarantee that the food consumed is safe and halal (Prayudanti and Sucipto 2021). Although it is stated that traceability has a significant impact on halal food consumption, it includes online traceability of halal food information in a limited region (Azizah 2021). A study proposes to assess the influence on HIA owing to the management of the HFSC, considering the moderating role of the halal traceability system (Ma’aram and Bin Nordin 2021). Consumer behavior is affected by product quality, such as the purchase of high-quality food that is halal, safe, or sanitary (Bambale et al. 2021; Jaafar et al. 2012). Employing a logistical approach in policymaking makes it probable to authorize halal products for customer manners and places equivalent prominence on Muslim and non-­ Muslim users (Dabphet 2021). Aziz et al. (2018) expanded the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) to forecast levels of consumer behavior (attitude, social norms, and perceived behavioral control and intention). It was determined whether there is a connection between various factors by examining both models (Bashir et al. 2019). Integrating BC technology into the HFSC positively impacts the entire integrity of the halal supply chain within the food industry (Jannah and Al-Banna 2021). There is no evidence that halal traceability can lessen the influence of halal awareness on purchase intent from the consumer’s perspective (Jannah and Al-Banna 2021). On the demand side, customers’ attitudes, intents, behaviors, levels of satisfaction, and loyalty toward halal cuisine have shifted because of their Islamic faith. The influence of the perceived benefits and traceability system on preparing a food manufacturer to deploy a HAS has cause and effect (Jannah and Al-Banna 2021; Haryono and Handayani 2019; Masudin et al. 2022).

4.6 Concept of Halal Food: Current Situation and Future Prospective A general idea of the basic theories on the subject of traceability in agriculture and HFSC and their possible technological outcomes (George et al. 2019; Khoshdouni Farahani and Khoshdouni Farahani 2021). Future, the industry’s predictions are about the halal supply chain (Fauzi et  al. 2021), which emphasizes diverse outcomes to examine some features of food security. These aspects include, for example, determining the specific groups of people interested in the subject (Tseng et al. 2022). The demand for halal products will continue to increase, and currently, the

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estimated entire value of the halal business has reached close to one billion US dollars (Abidin and Perdana 2020). Future supermarkets must invest in facility upgrades, as it is necessary to impress potential and current customers (Zainuddin et  al. 2021). Applying BC technology for halal certification exemplifies current trends and opportunities for the future (Bux et al. 2022; Jaafar et al. 2021). Regarding halal logistics survey findings, LSPs confront both opportunities and constraints (Ardiantono et al. 2021). Despite this, the halal food business is expected to have a prosperous future (Mustun 2021). To bridge the gap, a data-driven method to display and compare indicators based on the literature follows the existing halal scenario up to the halal and non-halal SFSC (Rohman and Putri 2019; Rahman et al. 2021; Kasi et al. 2019).

4.7 Conclusion Halal food is prepared without using forbidden ingredients and has a favorable effect on the person eating it. To detect products that include non-halal ingredients, traceability mechanisms must be developed. Effective halal traceability is a strong source of competitive differentiation in today’s corporate world. As a result, it proposed the halal traceability system as a concept and significance as an alternative to more sophisticated methods. On the assumption that the values and importance of the halal traceability system are used, the consequences may be understood visually even without an indicator. Acknowledgements  The postdoctoral scholarship merit program supported this book chapter, the Islamic Development Bank (IsDB) (grant number ID: 2020-276278). The authors also acknowledge the facilities of the International INHART and the Biotechnology Engineering Department at IIUM.

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Chapter 5

Kosher and Halal Food Dissimilarities and Challenges in Accessing International Markets Osman Ahmed Osman

Abbreviation FSIS SPS TBT WTO

Food Safety Inspection Services Sanitary and Phytosanitary Technical Barriers to Trade World Trade Organization

5.1 Introduction Food preparation and consumption among followers of different religions are essential aspects that extend beyond prayer and communication (Abd Rahim et al. 2017). For example, Hindus adhere to the principle of ahimsa, which promotes non-injury to all living creatures and has led to the practice of vegetarianism within the religion (Fischer 2016). Many religions also have moral commandments that include restrictions on rituals surrounding meals (Rahim et al. 2011). Islam and Judaism, in particular, have dietary rules that dictate what can be eaten (Motamedzadegan et al. 2018). According to Sulan (2003), both Jews and Muslims follow strict dietary regulations. Halal and kosher practices share associations as they both originate from the Abrahamic religion. These food laws aim to establish consistent regulatory and processing procedures in the food industry to uphold their values and expand their market potential globally (Shuhaimi et al. 2022). There are similarities between kosher and halal dietary restrictions, such as the prohibition of certain foods, strict rules regarding food production and storage, and regulations concerning the slaughter of animals for human consumption. Halal certification requires inspection by a certifying organization, such as the Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America. It is crucial for businesses to understand the similarities and differences between the O. Ahmed Osman (*) Department of Standards, Qatar General Organization for Standardization, Doha, Qatar © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 O. Ahmed Osman, A. Moneim Elhadi Sulieman (eds.), Halal and Kosher Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41459-6_5

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kosher and halal food markets to cater to these consumer trends (Abraham 2003). The global expansion and internationalization of the food industry have prompted dietary laws to adopt regulatory standards and procedures, not only to uphold their regulations and beliefs but also to provide greater convenience to their international markets (Shuhaimi et al. 2022).

5.2 Kosher and Halal Food Concepts and Principles Halal food refers to meals or food products that adhere to Islamic standards (shari’ah) and are permissible according to Islamic law. Muslims seek assurance that the food they consume is halal (Farahani and Farahani 2021). The term “halal food“is widely recognized, and there has been an increase in the availability of halal food and dedicated facilities (Zin and Bánvölgyi 2021). Muslim communities actively emphasize the significance of halal standards to promote consumer trust in both Islamic and non-Islamic food items that bear the halal designation (Sazali and Ligte 2021). The halal label on a product indicates that it has undergone necessary testing and certification as halal (Wibowo and Violita 2020). Blockchain technology presents an opportunity for halal food supply chains to ensure and verify halal reliability (Farahani and Farahani 2021; Bux et al. 2022). Halal requirements encompass various practices, such as abstaining from alcohol, pork, or pork products (Wibowo and Violita 2020; Abd Rahman et al. 2015). The concept of halal food requires a scientific foundation to determine the food’s suitability for human consumption and entails careful selection of raw ingredients (Alzeer and Abou Hadeed 2016; Fuseini et al. 2016; Lubis et al. 2016). Kosher foods are foodstuffs approved for consumption according to Jewish law (Regenstein et  al. 2003). The principles of kosher originate from the Bible and encompass four main aspects: abstaining from consuming blood, following specific rules for animal products, avoiding the mixing of dairy and meat, and refraining from consuming certain animal parts. When butchering mammals for human consumption, a Shochet uses a special knife called a chalef (Abd Rahim et al. 2017). Jews are only permitted to consume meat from animals that have been slaughtered according to Jewish law (Abd Rahim et al. 2017). Kosher regulations require equipment and ingredients to be category-appropriate, and the consumption of predatory and scavenger foods is prohibited (Abd Rahim et al. 2017). Both halal and kosher regulations prioritize animal welfare and compassion, which include specific protocols for the slaughter of animals (Tieman and Hassan 2015).

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5.3 Potential of Halal and Kosher Food Global halal food brands have created significant value, estimated at $1.9 trillion (Battour et al. 2018). The concept of halal is closely linked to food (Haleem et al. 2020), and the increasing global demand for halal food and related facilities is a major driving force behind the growth of the halal food industry. Transparency and awareness of halal practices throughout the food supply chain are also crucial factors (Mohamed et  al. 2021). The purchasing decisions of Muslim consumers are heavily influenced by their mindset, making them more likely to choose halal food from dedicated halal shops (Vanany et al. 2020; Fernando et al. 2023; Omari 2021). Islamic countries have been actively promoting the wider acceptance of the halal concept, hoping to attract non-Muslim consumers as well (Maemunah and Syakbani 2021). Halal products are increasingly embraced by people worldwide due to their perceived superior quality and safety. The definition of halal food, established in 1997, considers the origin of ingredients as well as their processing, handling, and storage requirements (Ahmed et  al. 2021). The halal market, which was estimated to be worth around $2 million annually before 2005, is projected to reach a value of $739.59 billion by 2025 (Farahani and Farahani 2021). In terms of specific countries and products, Brazil is the largest exporter of agricultural and animal products, while France has a significant presence in the chicken industry. The USA ranks as the third-largest exporter of beef, and New Zealand is the fourth-largest exporter with a substantial amount of its boned beef recognized as halal (Soong 2007; Riaz and Chaudry 2004). Israel imports kosher meat primarily from Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, while the US kosher meat market primarily serves its domestic demand (Kagan et al. 2020). Interestingly, only 8% of kosher consumers are Jewish, with the rest comprising health-conscious individuals, vegetarians, lactose-intolerant individuals, or those fulfilling non-Jewish religious requirements such as halal (Lytton 2013). The kosher market in the USA generates over $12 billion in annual retail sales (Billah et al. 2020). Muslims contribute significantly to the halal industry, with an estimated $2.02 trillion in Halal business spending. Alzeer et al. (2018) predict that the halal industry will reach USD 2.0 trillion by 2024. Malaysia and Indonesia stand out as the world’s largest food producers (Mustun 2021; Hermawan 2020). Consumer trust in halal food products is crucial for ensuring safety, as reported by Fuseini et al. (2016). The halal market is expanding rapidly, and Muslim-majority countries are striving to internationalize halal certification to gain wider recognition (Syed et al. 2022; Tan et al. 2022; Mu’ti Sazali and Ligte 2021). The $1.9 trillion value has facilitated the emergence of global halal food brands (Battour et al. 2018). Halal practices and the concept of halal food extend beyond the boundaries of Muslim communities and resonate with consumers from diverse backgrounds (Haleem et  al. 2020). The growth of the halal food industry is driven by increasing global demand and the emphasis on transparency and visibility of halal practices throughout the entire food supply chain (Mohamed et al. 2021). The preferences and choices of Muslim consumers significantly influence their decision to purchase.

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5.4 Halal Food Regulations Halal beef must adhere to safety regulations throughout the entire supply chain, from primary production to consumption. Mohammed and Wang (2015) suggest considering factors such as farm biosecurity, animal welfare, recommended vaccinations, and the proximity of pig farms when assessing primary production and animal welfare guidelines (The World Organization for Animal Health 2022; Soon et al. 2017). Biosecurity principles, including isolating sick animals and maintaining records of their treatment, are crucial for audits conducted by certified authorities (Mohammed and Wang 2015). In Malaysia, guidelines from 2004 and 2009 state that genetically modified livestock that incorporates elements from Haram species is not considered Halal and should not be consumed. Animal welfare regulations should also be taken into account during the transportation of animals from feedlots to slaughterhouses, with trucks being subject to national and international regulations (The World Organization for Animal Health 2022; Rejeb 2018). Halal animal slaughter laws vary globally, particularly in countries with non-­ Muslim majorities. The United States Department of Agriculture’s Food Safety Inspection Services (FSIS) permits the use of the “Halal brand” on meat and poultry product labels if they are produced in accordance with Islamic law and certified by a Halal certifying body. Some European countries, such as the UK, Poland, Cyprus, France, Germany, Luxembourg, and Spain, allow religious slaughter without stunning, while others do not provide exceptions to the general stunning requirement (Global Legal Research Center 2018). Muslim-majority countries apply Islamic dietary guidelines to the production of Halal food and require imported food products to obtain Halal certification before entering the country. The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), founded in 1969 and comprising 57 member countries with significant Muslim populations, is the second-largest intergovernmental organization globally after the United Nations (OIC 2013, 2015). The Standards and Metrology Institute for Islamic Countries (SMIIC), an international agency affiliated with the OIC, aims to harmonize standards among OIC countries (SMIIC 2018). The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) established the Gulf Standardization Organization (GSO) in 2001 to promote regional standardization (GCC 2014; GSO 2008). In Malaysia, JAKIM is responsible for Halal certification and verifying the Halal status of raw materials (JAKIM 2016; Yusof and Wan Jusoh 2013).

5.5 Kosher Food Regulation A kosher diet entails the exclusion of certain foods and the implementation of specific practices to ensure optimal health (Kagan et  al. 2020; Hossain et  al. 2022; Regenstein et  al. 2003). Kashrut rules dictate that kosher animals must be

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slaughtered according to specific guidelines (Fischer 2016; Tieman and Hassan 2015). The species of the animal and the method of slaughter are crucial factors in determining the kosher status of a dish (Allen 2014). Kosher food is less likely to contain unknown contaminants or ingredients, as it follows strict regulations regarding animal slaughter and meat preparation. It is strictly prohibited to combine dairy and meat in any form, and only a shochet, an expert in ritual animal slaughter, is permitted to perform the slaughter. Equipment used for meat processing must be certified as kosher (Regenstein et al. 2003; Vanany et al. 2021; Kagan et al. 2020; Tieman and Hassan 2015). Utensils can be rendered kosher by contact with meat and animal products (Tieman and Hassan 2015). In kosher law, specific requirements must be met for meat and dairy products. Kosher dietary laws prohibit the consumption of items such as shellfish, which may be contaminated with harmful chemicals or hormones from the animals used in their production (Blech 2009). Kosher laws also require that meat must come from domesticated birds, the slaughter must be performed by a shochet, and meat-­specific utensils must be kosher and distinguishable (Tieman and Hassan 2015).

5.6 Impact of WTO Agreements on Halal and Kosher Food Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) measures have a significant impact on the market access of halal and kosher food. These measures, implemented by countries to ensure food safety, protect human, animal, and plant health, and regulate product quality, can both serve legitimate purposes and create barriers to international trade (WTO 2019; Pauwelyn 2019; Wilson 2019). In the context of SPS measures, regulations related to food safety, animal health, and plant health are included. These measures encompass requirements for the inspection, testing, certification, and quarantine of food products. Their primary aim is to protect domestic agriculture and consumers from potential health risks. However, strict SPS requirements can pose challenges for exporters, especially those from developing nations, due to the high costs of compliance and the need for technical expertise. SPS regulations may also vary from one country to another, making it difficult for exporters to meet multiple standards. To facilitate market access, international organizations such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO) advocate for the elimination of redundant testing and certification processes. They promote the concepts of equivalence and harmonization of SPS standards, which can reduce the burden on exporters. Mutual recognition agreements between countries can also expedite compliance with SPS regulations, providing a streamlined process for exporting halal and kosher food products. These initiatives aim to ensure that SPS measures do not unduly restrict trade while maintaining the necessary level of consumer and public health protection. Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) measures encompass regulations related to product quality, labeling, packaging, and other technical specifications. These

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measures are put in place to protect consumer interests, address environmental concerns, and ensure national security. However, they can unintentionally create obstacles for foreign products to enter the market, especially if the regulations are complex, burdensome, or serve as de facto protectionist measures. Differences in technical regulations and standards between countries can create barriers to trade, particularly when they are intricate, burdensome, or act as de facto protectionist measures. Compliance with specific labeling requirements and product specifications can be expensive and time-consuming for exporters, especially smaller businesses with limited resources. To alleviate unnecessary trade barriers, promoting harmonization and international standardization efforts can be beneficial. Encouraging the use of internationally recognized standards and the adoption of best practices can enhance market access and facilitate fair competition. This can help reduce the costs and complexities associated with complying with multiple sets of regulations. Striking a balance between ensuring consumer protection and facilitating international trade is crucial for countries. The World Trade Organization’s (WTO) SPS and TBT Agreements provide guidelines for countries to follow when implementing these measures. The aim is to minimize unnecessary trade restrictions while safeguarding public health and safety. Through these agreements, countries are encouraged to base their measures on scientific principles, consider risk assessment, and avoid arbitrary or unjustified barriers to trade. Regular consultations and transparency in the development and implementation of these measures are essential for fostering mutual understanding and resolving trade disputes.

5.7 Differences and Similarities Between Halal and Kosher Many researchers concentrated on the differences and similarities between Halal and Kosher (Reinharz et al. 2017; Van der Merwe and Vorster 2021).

5.7.1 Differences Between Halal and Kosher I. Religious Requirements: Halal dietary regulations are founded on Islamic principles as stated in the Quran, whereas kosher dietary regulations are taken from Jewish sacred sources, such as the Torah and Talmud. The two religions have different stipulations and limitations. II. Slaughter Methods: Halal mandates that the animal intended for slaughtering must be halal to eat according to Islamic Shari’a law and satisfy the health and sanitation conditions. The animal must be alive or almost alive at the time of slaughter. Tazkiyah includes slaughter (Zabh), which is defined as the cut of the trachea (halgom), oesophagus (mari), both carotid arteries from both sides, and jugular veins (wadajain), which is used mostly in sheep, cattle, and birds.

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Kosher requires the animal to be slaughtered by a Jewish person using a similar method called “Shechita,” which also involves cutting the throat and allowing the blood to drain. III. Prohibited Ingredients: Halal prohibits the consumption of pork, alcohol, and any food items containing ingredients derived from pork or alcohol. Kosher prohibits the consumption of pork and the mixing of meat and dairy products. IV. Certification Symbols: Halal products are often certified with specific Halal symbols, such as the letter “H” or the Halal certification logo, while Kosher products are certified with Kosher symbols, such as the letter “K” or the Kosher certification logo.

5.7.2 Similarities Between Halal and Kosher (a) Dietary Restrictions: Both Halal and Kosher dietary laws impose restrictions on certain types of meat, such as pork, and specify methods of slaughter. Both require the proper draining of blood from the animal. (b) Certification Processes: Halal and Kosher foods are frequently certified to guarantee that they adhere to the relevant dietary requirements. Certified Halal and Kosher products are clearly labeled to assist consumers in making well-­ informed choices. (c) Labeling and Traceability: To protect the integrity of the dietary restrictions and provide transparency to consumers, both Halal and Kosher products emphasize proper labeling and identification.

5.8 The Access of Halal and Kosher Food to International Markets The access of Halal and Kosher food to international markets faces several challenges, as discussed by various authors, including regulatory frameworks, certification requirements, logistics, cultural perceptions, and market demand (Tham 2019; Abdul Talib and Zainol 2020; Reinhardt et al. 2017; Zainal Abidin and Wan Ismail 2019). Here are some key challenges faced by Halal and Kosher food access to international markets: 1. Regulatory Frameworks: Exporters may encounter difficulties due to the diverse laws and certification requirements for halal and kosher products across different nations. Harmonization of these requirements would make it simpler to reach the market. 2. Certification and Compliance: It can be challenging and expensive to obtain halal and kosher certifications. Specific protocols, ingredient sourcing, and production techniques must be frequently followed to meet certification criteria. For

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smaller manufacturers or those operating in areas with limited access to halal and kosher ingredients, meeting these requirements could be difficult. Labeling and traceability: Consumer confidence depends on accurate labeling and traceability of Halal and Kosher items. In situations where there is cross-­ contamination or shared production facilities, it can be difficult to provide accurate and visible labeling as well as preserve traceability across the supply chain. Logistics and Supply Chain: Halal and Kosher product supply chain management and logistics can be complex. To avoid cross-contamination with non-­ compliant products, certain storage, transit, and handling measures are needed. Additionally, certain regions may have logistical difficulties due to the accessibility and availability of halal and kosher ingredients. Cultural Perceptions and Market Demand: Halal and Kosher products market demand and cultural views may differ from country to country. Halal and Kosher items may not be as popular or accepted in some areas due to a lack of knowledge about these dietary standards. Halal and Kosher Infrastructure: In some areas, the supply of Halal and Kosher infrastructure, like accredited slaughterhouses and processing facilities, may be constrained. The manufacturing and distribution of Halal and Kosher foodstuffs may be hindered by a lack of suitable infrastructure. Trade Barriers: Halal and Kosher products may find it difficult to access global markets due to trade hurdles like tariffs, import limitations, and non-tariff barriers. These obstacles may be put in place because of various legislative frameworks, protectionist policies, or a lack of agreements on mutual recognition.

5.9 Conclusion Halal and Kosher dietary laws have distinct religious requirements, slaughter methods, prohibited ingredients, and certification symbols. The implementation of SPS and TBT measures has a significant impact on the market access of Halal and Kosher food. SPS measures encompass regulations related to food safety, animal health, and plant health, while TBT measures encompass regulations related to product quality, labeling, packaging, and other technical specifications. These measures, while important for safeguarding human, animal, and plant health, can create challenges for exporters, including high compliance costs and the need for technical expertise. The adherence to SPS and TBT measures can determine the ability of Halal and Kosher food products to enter international markets. Harmonization of regulations, simplification of certification processes, improvement of labeling and traceability systems, and trade facilitation efforts can help address these challenges and promote fair market access for Halal and Kosher food products.

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Chapter 6

One Health- New Approach Towards Halal Food Safety Adil Mohamed Ahmed Salman

Abbreviations AMR FBD FS OH

Antimicrobial Resistance Foodborne diseases Food safety One Health

6.1 One Health- Background Humans integrated animal and human health in hominid civilizations, but specialization led to separation (Martin Hitziger et al. 2018). With the development of the communal context between humans and animals and increased human performance in many civilizations, epidemiologists began to see human and animal health as complementary (Zinsstag J, et al. 2011). The anatomical and physiological similarities between humans and animals led to communicable diseases and drove the need for the OH approach. Also, those concerned with the environment realized that the health and Safety of the environment and its continued prosperity are directly related to human and animal health (Cumming and Collier 2005). Although the animal has become an obedient tool in the hands of man, who uses it for travel and fieldwork in rural societies or as a companion animal, the differences in cultures and religions across the world generally form the basis of the relationship between man and animal. In many societies, there is no evident interest in animal health or the health of foods of animal origin (Bunch et al. 2003).

A. M. A. Salman (*) One Health Centre, University of Bahri, Khartoum, Sudan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 O. Ahmed Osman, A. Moneim Elhadi Sulieman (eds.), Halal and Kosher Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41459-6_6

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6.1.1 Health and OH Approach Applying the OH approach means following an integrative principle in looking at health. This principle or approach is vital since the individual’s health is closely related to animal health, food safety, and environmental Safety. The health of humans and animals depends on the ecosystem’s health (Barrett et al. 2010). The WHO defines health as the state in which a person is physically, mentally, and socially comfortable. Physical health is not limited to physical diseases or disorders. Veterinarian-public health aims to make available optimum care for animals to produce hale foodstuffs for human beings. Nevertheless, it also aims to provide safe food for animals for the sake of animal health and, ultimately, human health. The environment’s health depends on pollutant-free, clean air; abundant, clean water; properly nutritious, safe food; and clean, healthy housing (Assmuth et  al. 2020). Thus, the excellent relationship between community members and their environment will develop human and community health (Conrad et al. 2009).

6.1.2 Definition of One Health The one health approach is a cooperative methodology including numerous sectors and disciplines to achieve one goal: achieving human health well-being by ensuring a healthy environment, healthy food, and peaceful coexistence with animals free of health problems; and that this cooperation takes place at all levels, from the local environment to include the global environment (Rabinowitz and Conti 2013). Employees in numerous health areas must collaborate to reduce environmental contamination and temperature change to protect human and animal health (Nabarro 2012). Multidisciplinary teams work together to resolve developing health difficulties. Teamwork among different disciplines will undoubtedly have a better return, especially in complex health problems like foodborne diseases (Zinsstag et  al. 2005). It is necessary to strengthen the spirit of joint action so that all of the activities fall into one path aimed at enabling one health in order to achieve control over emerging and zoonotic diseases, neglected diseases, and diseases resulting from contaminated food, as well as addressing the factors that contribute to the spread of antibiotic-resistant microbes (AMR) and rationalizing the use of antibiotics to control antibiotic residues (Kahn et al. 2008).

6.1.3 Domains of One’s Health The one-health approach deals with multidimensional health problems requiring an approach that cares about humans, animals, and the environment they share regarding water, air, and soil. Therefore, to ensure the success of this approach, whole

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interaction must be made between these sectors to produce integrated information and knowledge across local or global levels (Zinsstag et al. 2019). The OH strategy focuses on emerging infectious diseases, which account for 70% of all human illnesses (Lee and Brumme 2013): “Diseases can be transmitted directly from animals or their environment to humans, but the spread of diseases through food has become one of the most important concerns facing the global health system” (Wellinga and Schlundt 2013). The OH approach, with its inclusion of the Safety of the environment, agricultural lands, communicable and non-communicable diseases, AMR, antibiotic residues, wild animals, and their environment, in addition to social, economic, and legal studies, is suitable as an approach to addressing food issues in terms of availability and Safety (King 2012). The focus on communicable diseases between humans and animals leads us directly to the availability and Safety of foods of animal origin (Alwan 2011).

6.2 One Health and Food Security and Safety The OH strategy collaborates to enhance health everywhere. Food safety lies at the heart of complex problems that require an OH approach (King et  al. 2008). The FAO and WHO are most concerned about food availability and Safety because food traders have become dominated by international multinational corporations. The transfer of raw or manufactured foodstuffs between countries has become a daily task that almost crosses borders, making the issue of foodborne diseases an unavoidable obsession (Lubroth 2013; FAO 2011). Food can carry bacteria resistant to several antibiotics, and using such food by individuals or groups contributes to the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (AMR) (Mack et al. 2012). Therefore, food safety and AMR are two of the most significant issues facing the OH approach (INFOSAN 2013). The Safety and quality of halal food have made it a global brand. Religious influence plays a crucial role in the secret of this Safety and quality and acts as an added value to halal. Yuhanis and Chok (2013): The availability and Safety of food attract concerns about animal health (Makita 2021). Animal husbandry is crucial to rural communities since people rely on it for their food supply. Therefore, caring for animal health in those areas contributes to providing goodquality food and provides a measure of food safety that helps fill the shortage of essential proteins for vulnerable groups (Catley et  al. 2001). The importance of animal protein availability from healthy animals necessitates the importance of the OH approach in food security and Safety, for the OH approach is the standard that considers human Safety and animal health (Mahamat et  al. 2015). Therefore, in addition to the direct interest in animal health, attention must be paid to animal feed and ensuring its Safety for the health and growth of the animal and its ability to produce food in a larger quantity while at the same time providing safe and healthy food that has a positive impact on human physical and spiritual health (FAO et al. 2013). The need to search for simplified means to address complex food safety issues is the goal of applying the OH approach, and this, of course, requires the

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search for complete solutions for these complex problems through knowledge of the fundamental interlocking factors that affect food safety problems (Jean-Richard 2013). Although research in the field of food safety, especially concerning the analysis of microbiological and chemical risks related to food, provided reliable solutions for FS issues, the emergence of new and different problems related to food safety made it necessary to involve multidisciplinary approaches (King et al. 2008). The adoption of the OH approach contributes effectively to reducing the cost of controlling diseases and thus increasing production and productivity, in addition to reducing the transmission of these diseases to humans directly or indirectly through food and thus achieving human well-being (Zinsstag et  al. 2008; Bonfoh et  al. 2011). From another perspective, the decrease in animal production contributes to the inability to provide sufficient and safe food resources, which in turn may lead to the problem of malnutrition, especially for vulnerable groups, and the consequent diseases that increase the mortality rate among them (Anema et al. 2013).

6.3 One Health and Religion Religion is an important part of life, especially in Islamic countries. The relationship of religion with health takes on a special dimension in Islamic societies, where religious legislation and fatwas touch the entirety of Muslims’ daily lives (Rômulo et al. 2010). Islamic legislation is concerned with the physical and spiritual health of Muslims, thus adding spiritual health to the components of the OH approach. There has been an interdisciplinary exploration of the relationship between religious law and personal health (Levin and Vanderpool 1987). All the evidence confirms the positive effects of various religious factors on public health and, consequently, on OH. Researchers in the current era are trying to discover this relationship and how it affects health (Levin and Vanderpool 1989). Science has focused on the physical aspect of health—physical health. An important trend has emerged recently in realizing the interconnected relationship between spiritual and physical health (Jones 2004). Some researchers have tended to believe that religious or spiritual behavior falls within the contexts that help clarify some of the behaviors of a healthy nature in religious societies (Rômulo et al. 2010). Some distinguished clinical centers have begun to introduce religion or spirituality into treatment protocols so that the treatment becomes spiritual, physical, mental, and psychological at the same time, or the so-called “three-dimensional treatment”: natural (through herbs); psychological, and spiritual; chemical, and surgical (Levin and Chatters 1998). An individual’s spiritual and physical well-being may benefit from following the rules of their faith (Jones 2004). Based on these principles, we can conclude that spiritual health must be part of the components of public health (WHO 1997) and, consequently, of the OH approach. The precise definition of public health, which the scientist Charles Edward Amory Winslow formulated, states that public health concerns strengthening the public health system to prevent and combat the spread of diseases through the selection and implementation of specific means that contribute

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to achieving the well-being of societies (Anita and Aidalina 2014). The community health system helps people by focusing on illness prevention and treatment (Anita and Aidalina 2014). From this perspective, public health is a human necessity and a basic need for every person. The concept of health in Islam does not depend on preserving human faith and belief; rather, the concept of health includes preserving human Safety from diseases and their causes. For this reason, Islam sets general rules to defeat harm to the human spirit’s, and physical health and preserve them (Maulana 2002). It is imprudent to neglect the teachings that organize earthly life in Islam. Islam came around the seventh century AD to teach people about God and how to worship, but another goal went along with worshipping God, which was to organize people’s daily lives (Anita 2012). Islamic teachings guided them to the most effective ways to prevent diseases through personal and public hygiene and food, commonly called Halal food. As a result, these teachings became daily habits for Muslims. To be healthy and productive, obedience to God is necessary (Basil 2014). God made man in his image, and his duty as Caliph is to ensure that the entire world and the environment in which they all share are healthy, safe and peaceful. Preventing epidemics is strongly encouraged by Islamic beliefs. The Prophet called for the implementation of isolation principles, isolating the diseased and preventing the healthy from mixing with them (Al-Saber 2020). Washing one’s hands and face at least five times daily constitutes proper ablution. Although the essence of ablution is religious and a way of worshipping God, it indicates the interest of Islamic law in the issue of personal hygiene. The issue of preventing the mixing of the sick with the healthy extended to include sick animals and not mixing them with the healthy (Alharawiu 2002). Another aspect of food the Prophet dealt with was the amount required daily. He urged people to eat small amounts and leave spaces in the abdomen cavity for air and water, which, of course, helps to ensure individual health. Islam requires clean hands before and after eating. Islam also encouraged exercise, which is today considered a sign and an indicator of health. Likewise, we find in the actions of the Prophet evidence that he did not shake hands with some patients with skin diseases (Al-Qasem 2021).

6.4 One Health and Halal Foods Spiritually, a Muslim’s life is shaped by Islamic law because it emphasizes devotion to God and the performance of religious rites. However, these laws are also concerned with the daily life of a Muslim and his health, which includes, among other things, the food that the individual takes to be healthy and sound, as well as attention to personal hygiene to the extent that cleanliness is evidence of faith (Ahmed et al. 2014). Here, thinking about and eating halal food, a religious duty, helps the Muslim and makes him constantly think about his religion and health. Islam has legislated daytime fasting for 30  days every year (the month of Ramadan), thus achieving the principle of one health by integrating spiritual and physical health. There is no doubt that Muslims are part of a sizeable Muslim community. Therefore,

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the association with personal hygiene, health, and halal food, which in their appearance are social systems, contributes to the interdependence of Islamic societies and the strengthening of the spiritual, social, and cultural bond between Muslims (Ahmed et al. 2014). Healthy food is the basis for a healthy physical and mental being, and it is one of the main goals of the OH approach, as we indicated in the previous paragraphs (Dixey et al. 1999; Zulkiple and Nur Salimah 2006). Ghazali and Sawari (2015) Compared eating unsafe food, which can lead to physical stress and foodborne illnesses, to consuming halal cuisine that positively affects both physical and spiritual well-being (Sawari et al. 2015). Furthermore, Halal is a safe food system with high quality globally because, the driving forces behind its production were religious forces that glorify personal hygiene and health through strict adherence to health standards in production, manufacturing, and distribution through the Halal network, many consumers are willing to use it (Vogt et al. 2012; Bonne et al. 2007). Faith in God and trust in the purity of food motivate people to choose halal options, promoting holistic wellness (Zulkiple and Nur Salimah 2006). Consuming halal effectively contributes to psychological and spiritual health and that halal food is a healthy food that strengthens physical health. A close link between religiosity and halal food prompts us to emphasize that a Muslim’s dedication to the halal diet and nutrition positively affects spiritual and physical health, (Ahmed et al. 2014; Bonne et al. 2007), whereas Rezai et al. (2012) stated that halal food enjoys a great deal of Safety and is free from contaminants, which supports physical health, quality, and cleanliness. The concept of OH aims to link all health fields into one crucible. The emphasis Islam places on halal food, personal hygiene, and health to create spiritually and physically healthy Muslims, reflects an old idea of “one health“that Islam has presented to advance health in Islamic societies. This fully justifies the necessity of considering the spiritual health emanating from religious belief as part of the OH approach.

6.5 Conclusion The healthcare system is an integrated process to encourage believers to maintain the caliphate they have bestowed upon them. Religious groups are concerned about ensuring individuals have clean, safe places to live. As a consequence, OH is a vital component of various religious precepts. Because of their deep concern for human life, Islam enacted laws protecting it in all dimensions. Among these laws was a mandate for promoting health as a complex, nuanced, and interconnected concept. Therefore, the OH approach should also include consideration of spiritual health.

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Chapter 7

Laboratory Methods for Authenticating the Conformity of Halal Foods Muna Saad M. S. Al Olan and Aneez Ahamad Padippurathundil Yossouf

Abbreviations ATR CAPCOD FAME GC GC-MS GLC HCA HPLC HS-MDGC/MS IRMS

Attenuated Total Reflectance CRISPR-Cas-based PCR DNA barcoding Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Gas Chromatography Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry Gas Liquid Chromatography Hierarchical Clustering Analysis High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Headspace Multidimensional Gas Chromatography Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry

7.1 Introduction Muslims, as part of their desiderium in Qur’anic injunctions, strive to inculcate how such rules conform to modern reason and the findings of scientific research. For instance, the food we eat has been categorized as “Halal“and “Haram”. Halal food is described as any source of food or its products that are allowed to be consumed according to Islamic rules (shari’ah). Thus, pork-based products and foods containing alcohol are non-halal components, or “haram” foods. Nonetheless, a major factor in halal meat production is the slaughtering procedure followed as determined by Islamic jurisprudence. Therefore, the meat must not be from dead animals or animals that have been killed by unnatural means (Alzeer and Abou Hadeed 2016) or from carnivores or predatory birds (Lubis et al. 2016). The Halal food connotation conveys a scientific basis that the food is suitable for human consumption, and it decodes a careful selection of the raw materials for food preparation. For example, the bacterial density will be minimal when the meat blood is removed during the Muna Saad M. S. Al Olan (*) · A. A. P. Yossouf Food Laboratories Section, Ministry of Public Health, Doha, Qatar © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 O. Ahmed Osman, A. Moneim Elhadi Sulieman (eds.), Halal and Kosher Food, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41459-6_7

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halal slaughtering process (Fuseini et al. 2016). The quality of chicken meat was compared after stunning, employed as a pre-slaughter treatment by Wong (2015), against birds slaughtered without the stunning technique. A non-stunned sample group of broiler breast meat exhibited significantly greater tenderness (lower shear force) and a more acceptable textural quality. The effect of halal and non-halal slaughtering methods on the metabolite profiles of poultry was studied by Ali et al. (2020) using metabolomics fingerprinting with the help of Ultra-High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography (UHPLC)  – Quadrupole Time-of-Flight (QTOF) mass spectrometry. Non-halal slaughter resulted in higher utilization of energy, as indicated by the elevated amino acid breakdown, gluconeogenesis, inosine hydrolyzation, and hypoxanthine production. Inosine Monophosphate (IMP) is considered a key index of meat flavor (Chen et al. 2002). Slaughtering according to halal methods favored the meat quality and energy savings of the animal, thereby promoting the welfare philosophy. Effective marinating of halal meat is a proven advantage over non-halal meat (Leal-Ramos et  al. 2011). Nucleic acid-based technologies such as Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and spectroscopic technologies based on metabolomics and lipidomics have all been developed for meat authenticity detection in the previous two decades (Li et al. 2020). Further, the latest technology, Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) has enabled the simultaneous sequencing of millions of DNA fragments (Akbar et  al. 2021) and provided a massively parallel and extremely high-throughput analysis of multiple samples. The advent of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats in the CRISPR-Cas system has also brought a newly emerging diagnosis method in food authentication (Kua et al. 2022). The presence of non-halal components or derivatives in halal foods that affect the safety and quality of halal foods could be detected. The presence of alcohol in the food products could also be measured with the help of analytical methods. This chapter will focus on the application methods used to authenticate the safety and quality of halal foods.

7.2 Application of the Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Method The use of Stable Carbon Isotope Ratio (SCIR) obtained by combusting the material to generate CO2 and analyzing the mass distribution in the CO2 by Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS) is an interesting field of research. This technique is used for establishing the isotopic profile of a material by measuring the ratios of the stable isotopes of elements such as 13C/12C, 15N/14N 2H/1H and 18O/16O. Interestingly, only few studies have been carried out on the use of IRMS to study animal fats as described by Rossell (1998), where non maize oils including animal fats were distinguished from maize oils. Similar studies have been carried out by Woodbury et  al. (1995, 1998) by coupling Gas Chromatography/Combustion with IRMS to deduce the isotope ratios of individual fatty acids. This kind of studies will greatly

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help food control authorities to carry out tests on products suspected to contain lard and to protect the consumers from hoodwinkers (Yanty et al. 2011). The fatty acid distributional pattern in animal fats was resolved using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the data generated from Gas Chromatography (Araujo et  al. 2010). Multivariate methods such as PCA have been employed to reduce the dimensionality of a data set by discriminating the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profiles of various oils. The reliability of Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-­ MS) and Elemental Analyzer-Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (EA-IRMS) were studied by Nizar et al. (2013) for the discrimination of lard, chicken fat, beef fat, and mutton fat. Fatty acid data from chromatography was subjected to chemometric analysis to classify animal fats into distinct subclasses. It was identified that stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids were the most discriminating parameters in the clustering of animal fats. The study also suggested that the determination of δ13C value (ratio of carbon isotope) of bulk animal fats could be a useful tool as a discriminating factor since the δ13C value of lard (−23.2‰) was significantly (p 1000 bp outer primer pair) with starting conc. 1 ng. (Khairalla et al. 2006) MW

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Fig. 11.1b  Same DNA samples in figure 7.1 (1000  bp). (Khairalla et al. 2006)MW: 100 bp DNA Ladder, Lane 1: pork DNA +ve control, Lane 2: marinated ham, Lane 3: microwaved ham for 15 min, Lane 4: smoked ham, Lane 5: boiled ham supernatant, Lane 6: boiled ham sediment, Lane 7–8: Frozen ham. Lane 9: cooked luncheon. Lane 10: boiled pork. Lane 11: boiled luncheon sediment. Lane 12: Frozen pork. 13: canned pork. 14: pig fat (tallow) MW 1

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Fig. 11.2b  Same DNA samples in figure 7.1 ( 0.05) in texture, flavor, and general approval were noted. Compared to the other types, the yogurt made from raw goat milk had the poorest texture and the best flavor. The overall acceptability of yogurt samples showed significant differences (P