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English Pages 246 Year 2006
GLOBAL IRELAND Irish Literatures for the New Millennium
edited by
ONDŘEJ PILNÝ & CLARE WALLACE
þ Litteraria Pragensia Prague 2005
Copyright © Ondřej Pilný & Clare Wallace, 2005. Copyright © of individual works remains with the authors Published 2005 by Litteraria Pragensia Faculty of Philosophy, Charles University Náměstí Jana Palacha 2, 116 38 Prague 1 Czech Republic www.litterariapragensia.com All rights reserved. This book is copyright under international copyright conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the copyright holders. Requests to publish work from this book should be directed to the publishers. The publication of this book has been supported by research grant MSM0021620824 “Foundations of the Modern World as Reflected in Literature and Philosophy” awarded to the Faculty of Philosophy, Charles University, Prague, by the Czech Ministry of Education. Cataloguing in Publication Data Global Ireland: Irish Literatures for the New Millennium, edited by Ondřej Pilný & Clare Wallace.—1st ed. p. cm. ISBN 80‐7308‐103‐2 (pb) 1. Irish Literature. 2. Irish Studies. I. Pilný, Ondřej. II. Wallace, Clare. III. Title. Printed in the Czech Republic by PB Tisk Typeset and design by lazarus
Contents Introduction
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I. GLOBALISATION IN THEORY & PRACTICE
Thomas Docherty The Place’s Fault José Lanters “Cobwebs on Your Walls”: The State of the Debate about Globalisation & Irish Drama Jason King Black Saint Patrick: Irish Interculturalism in Theoretical Perspective &Theatre Practice
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II. POSTMODERNITY, EXILE & HOME
Rajeev S. Patke Paul Muldoon’s “Incantata”: The “Post‐” in “Postmodern” Gerold Sedlmayr Between Copacabana and Annaghmakerrig: Paul Durcan’s Global Perspective Kinga Olszewska Preliminary Notes on the Issue of Exile: Poland & Ireland Honor O’Connor “While Stocks Last”: The Poetry of Dennis O’Driscoll & Contemporary Ireland
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III. PLACE, GENDER & THE BODY
Monica Facchinello Sceptical Representations of Home: John Banville’s Doctor Copernicus & Kepler Harvey O’Brien Local Man, Global Man: Masculinity in Transformation in the Horror/Fantasy of Neil Jordan Susan Cahill Doubles & Dislocations: The Body & Place in Anne Enright’s What Are You Like?
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IV. CANONICAL WRITERS & INTERCULTURAL LINKS
Richard Kearney Epiphanies in Joyce Karl Chircop Eveline & Mommina by the Window at Twilight: On the Window Motif in James Joyce’s “Eveline” & Luigi Pirandello’s “Leonora Addio!” Máirín Nic Eoin “Kafkachas”: Kafka & Irish‐language Literature Jeremy Parrott From Samsa to Sam: The Metamorphoses of Beckett’s Ms Emilie Morin “But to Hell with All This Fucking Scenery”: Ireland in Translation in Samuel Beckett’s Molloy and Malone Meurt/ Malone Dies Notes on Contributors Index
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Introduction Global Ireland: Irish Literatures for the New Millennium Globalisation has become a ubiquitous term in contemporary political, economic and socio‐cultural discourses to the extent that consciousness of the global has permeated even what seem to be the most local of debates. So what does it mean to speak of a ‘global Ireland?’ The theme of the 2005 International Association for the Study of Irish Literatures conference, hosted by the Centre for Irish Studies at Charles University, Prague— ”Ireland: A Global Village?”—aimed both to playfully recall the phrase popularised by Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s, but also to suggest an interrogation of the Irish cultural ‘village’ as it develops in the twenty‐first century. McLuhan’s “global village” points to the shrinkage of the world via developments in communications, media and technology while at the same time recasts the centrality of the metropolis and the urban to modernity. The notion of Ireland as a global village turns upon the connotations of the village, positioned somewhere between the cosmopolitan concerns of the city and the traditional values of the rural; a local, communal space that has become displaced and is no longer anchored within the boundaries of the nation. Conventionally theories of modernity have largely been founded on the notion of rupture or radical break with the past, the pre‐modern, the traditional or primitive, in favour of a ‘progressive,’ more developed, more enlightened present and future. In Irish Studies the critical discourses around the modern and modernity are highly developed and perhaps at this stage even saturated. As Joe Cleary observes in the introduction to The Cambridge Companion to Modern Irish Culture, the question of Ireland and modernity has long been a “vexed” one; “Irish intellectuals and cultural commentators have over the centuries returned time and again to questions as to whether Ireland was a modern society at all, whether the modern was to be equated with progress or its obverse (and if 1
the former, with the progress of what and for whom), whether the agencies that had apparently generated or stymied the modern were largely external or internal to Irish society, and so forth.”1 Irish modernity then has frequently been conceived as belated, anomalous or at least highly ambivalent, providing a vantage point for critiquing the assumptions of Western modernity. In contrast, Ireland’s accession to the global, in the shape of a much‐vaunted ‘Celtic Tiger’ economy, at first glance at least, has been the opposite—exemplary and precocious. If the discourse of modernity seems mired in its own inadequate oppositional logic, then the global and globalisation presents a different set of coordinates, a still more complicated set of relations—of links, rhizomatic connections, disjunctions and deterritorialisations. Many social theorists have seen this process primarily in terms of negative outcomes: the diminished role of the nation‐state, the increased and unregulated power of transnational organisations/corporations, the consequent disenfranchisement of the masses, the homogenisation of culture and destruction of local specificity. Yet, simultaneous with such threats comes a heterogeneous and destabilised re‐imagining of the cultural and the local. In Modernity at Large, anthropologist Arjun Appadurai attempts to articulate the dimensions of this process, identifying the two primary forces in the imagining of the cultural under globalisation as the media and migration. Both forces necessarily tend to place more traditional forms of nationalism or national identity under strain, and debatably usher in an age of postnational identities. He argues that “[t]he modern nation‐ state […] grows less out of natural facts—such as language, blood, soil, and race—and more out of a quintessential cultural
1 Joe Cleary, “Introduction: Ireland and Modernity,” The Cambridge Companion to Modern Irish Culture, eds. Joe Cleary and Claire Connolly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) 2.
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product, a product of the collective imagination.”2 Indeed, in the Irish context the claim that the nation is (perhaps) primarily an “imagined community”3 and the role of cultural media vital in its creation is well attested to in critical and scholarly work across the spectrum of the humanities and social sciences.4 Appadurai emphasises the need to question what he refers to as the “trope of the tribe,” to address fully the implications of the postnational where cultural and political loyalties can no longer be mapped onto territorial states and “the nation‐state and its postnational Others” may come increasingly into conflict.5 Migration and the media too are key vectors in Irish experiences of both modernity and, more recently globalisation. Clearly due to a long history of emigration and exile, Irish culture is familiar with deterritorialisation, displacement and the reproduction of local communities far from a territorial homeland. What has changed in the contemporary equation is the direction of such migration and the issue at stake now is of how a globalised Ireland can reconcile itself to a new role as host to some of its “postnational Others.” With regard to the media, while Ireland’s cultural impact on the history of modern English literature and theatre is incontestable, it was chiefly due to its interaction with the media (in particular computer technology) that Ireland gained the status of an “icon of the globalisation process” in the 1990s.6
2 Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996) 161. 3 See Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1991). 4 This is discussed at length by Colin Graham in Deconstructing Ireland: Identity, Theory, Culture (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2001) and also in the essays collected in Theorizing Ireland, ed. Claire Connolly (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), to cite but two recent examples. 5 Appadurai 159, 169. 6 Fintan O’Toole, “Irish Culture in a Globalised World,” Kaleidoscopic Views of Ireland, eds. Munira H. Mutran and Laura P.Z. Izarra (São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, 2003) 76.
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In its engagement with the global, the present volume which has resulted from the 2005 IASIL conference specifically addresses just one aspect of this burgeoning field, the cultural dimensions of the global in relation to Irish literatures today. Irish literature and Irish criticism’s negotiations of identity in relation to place and nation are well established; how globalisation affects the realm of literary and cultural studies and what happens to a literature and culture, so heavily defined by the national, in an arguably ‘postnational’ era are open questions that the essays here begin to investigate. While evidently each author in the collection approaches the theme differently, we have grouped the essays in four blocks which we hope will highlight correspondences and open space for further dialogue between them. The first three contributions discuss the very concepts of globalisation and interculturalism based on their operation in the discourse of Irish poetry, and in the theory and practice of Irish theatre. Thomas Docherty stresses that, far from being a relatively recent phenomenon, globalisation in fact precedes nationalism, and as such is a founding condition of a national consciousness. However, nationalism as a strategy of containment has clearly failed us; in the words of Derek Mahon, “Places as such are dead / Or nearly.” In the developed economy and politics of contemporary Ireland, there is moreover no need for the resistance of which nationalism was perhaps a useful tool. All this makes the argument of “poetry‐as‐place” anachronistic: if incompleteness is indeed the essential feature of Irish—and, for that matter, any other—identity, i.e. the place is continuously characterised by a “fault,” attention should now be turned towards issues of sovereignty rather than victimhood. Sovereignty in this context should however not entail an internalisation of a colonial mentality in relation to, for instance, immigrants or travellers; it should rather follow from language not being subservient to any given discourse. The realisation that any “we” must be characterised by puzzlement represents a sublime moment for Docherty. What is also implied is a 4
certain sense of liberation brought about by embracing the moment of fracture—the “fault”—which lies at the very core of identity. José Lanters points out in her detailed survey of the most recent developments in Irish theatre that it has “tended to present cultural diversity through a focus on minority ‘problems,’” displaying a tendency towards patronising tolerance rather than the celebration of difference. The situation has not been helped by the fact either that a lot of the politically engaged recent plays focused on issues of interculturalism have come rather too close to agitprop. Most Irish drama still seems to Lanters to be firmly centred around the notion of Irishness (albeit in the frequent attempts to move beyond it), or at least continues to be received as such. Indeed even critics of Irish drama have displayed a certain reluctance towards considering the broader relevance of the plays’ themes. ‘Authenticity’ continues to be an essential requirement for Irish plays, while the commodification of the virtual image of rural, mythical Ireland is clearly fostered to a large extent by the globalisation of the Irish economy. However, Lanters stresses that the “global” reach of this stereotype should not be overstated as its permeation is largely the matter of Europe and the United States. Discussing the fate of the immigrant actors involved in Calypso theatre company’s 2002 “Tower of Babel” project, Jason King offers a scathing critique of the practice of interculturalism in Ireland. He claims that immigrants and asylum‐seekers are often made to act as “spurious agents of social and cultural diversity who gain no obvious reciprocal right to remain in the ostensibly culturally diverse society they appear to represent.” Although Declan Kiberd has argued the case for Irish culture’s accommodation of difference, for King the threat of deportation which many of the immigrants active in cultural productions in Ireland are facing shows that the question of whether Irish culture is inherently hospitable towards cultural difference is still far from resolved. 5
The second group of articles investigate a set of concepts inherently bound with globalised Ireland: postmodernity as modernism’s exile, the re‐negotiations of ‘home’ that globalisation inevitably triggers, and the essential role that writing from exile has had on the contemporary reality. In his reading of Paul Muldoon’s “Incantata,” Rajeev Patke examines the specific ways in which the diffuse term “post‐modern” may be useful in analysing the discourse of contemporary poetry. He comments on the seamless connection of “spontaneously far‐fetched associations that manage to appear random” with the meticulous regularity of Muldoon’s form, concluding that “[w]ithin each insouciant postmodernist there lurks a hurt modernist.” Patke goes on to discuss in this context Muldoon’s constant return to Samuel Beckett’s fictional world and its figures: unlike Beckett—who is seen to accept finality and the threatening silence of a dialectics at a standstill (to use Walter Benjamin’s concept)—Muldoon’s postmodern approach is driven by the fear of poetry being silenced. It is at the “border‐ crossing between the need for speech and the need for silence” that “the postcolonial and the postmodern stand frozen.” In contrast, Gerold Sedlmayr explores the global Ireland mapped in Paul Durcan’s poetry in terms of movement across borders both physical and metaphorical. He shows that although Durcan’s work is often firmly embedded in the local, it is driven by an effort to shape the inevitably globalised and potentially dehumanised Ireland in an idealised spirit of fairness and friendship. Durcan’s speakers and characters are thus conceived of as nomads in search of a promised land, looking for “signs of humanity behind the rapidly gathering mists of the globalised landscape,” while this quest is seen as a journey towards our innermost human emotions. Comparing Poland under communism and pre‐Celtic Tiger Ireland, Kinga Olszewska argues that in both cases, exile has been “the mother of invention” for writers, and discusses the multiple ways in which exile literature has contributed to the current shape of the respective cultures. She asserts that while 6
the nature of Polish exile was essentially political, Irish writers were driven into exile for predominantly cultural reasons—for them, “exile was an escape from provincialism and nationalism seen as the source of xenophobia and intolerance.” Olszewska goes on to make what may be viewed as a somewhat provocative claim that while Polish exile writing “voiced an open critique of the authoritarian system and led a dialogue with European tradition,” the gaze of exiled Ireland remained fundamentally introverted, focussing on the reassessment of the national culture and literature. In her survey of Dennis O’Driscoll’s poetry, Honor O’Connor returns the focus to the notion of home within a globalised world as seen from an internal perspective. The understanding of Ireland as a global village which underlies her argument is one of a rural community which finds itself grappling with the pressures of the global economy. It is in this context that she discusses O’Driscoll’s concerns with mortality, the relationship of humankind with the natural world, and the ubiquitous commercialism. As in Sedlmayr’s account of Durcan, the stress is principally on the effort of poetry to come to terms with the dehumanising forces of globalisation. The following three essays revolve around the need for a constant re‐examination of the notions of identity, home and nationality as called for in the work of prominent fiction writers. Monica Facchinello provides a reading of John Banville’s novels Doctor Copernicus and Kepler in which she points out that the failure of the astronomers’ systems to represent reality forms a pertinent analogy with the enterprise of historiography and historical fiction for Banville. The failure to represent the truth in narrative not only “paves the way to re‐examination” but is also viewed as a celebration of uncertainty by Facchinello. The destabilising forces of the global are thus perceived in a positive light as they dismantle the logocentric discourse of a particular brand of Irish history writing. Considering Neil Jordan’s works of fantasy, Harvey 7
O’Brien presents the physical transformations of Jordan’s characters as an expression of the crisis of rationality which has traditionally been viewed as an essentially masculine feature. Masculinity in Jordan’s fiction and films is described by O’Brien as “an unstable, shifting boundary between the personal and the political which also echoes the theme of movement from the local to the global.” O’Brien argues that Jordan’s gender(ed) transformations dramatise transgression in a way that provides a template for the considerations of the position of the self in a global world which is “in perpetual crisis and yet also in a state of eternal evolution.” Susan Cahill continues O’Brien’s examination of gender and corporeality in her discussion of Anne Enright’s 2001 novel What Are You Like? Cahill asserts that the novel is characterised by a general sense of dislocation which manifests itself not only in the confusion the individual characters feel, but also in a “complicated interrelation between corporeality and architecture.” Embodied subjectivities are seen to productively interact with ideas of movement, openness and location in the novel. Cahill concludes that Enright is determined to maintain the unsayable at the centre of her text; however, this leads her to the unwitting re‐engendering of “the silent space of the maternal body” which fails to liberate one of the essential characters from dislocatedness. The fourth group of essays strive to broaden the understanding of major canonical authors by examining specific intercultural links that have influenced their work. The section opens with Richard Kearney’s extensive analysis of epiphanies in Joyce. Kearney turns our attention to the notion of epiphany as haecceitas which Joyce took from his study of Duns Scotus and preferred in his later work to Aquinas’s epiphany conceived as quidditas. Kearney demonstrates that epiphany in Ulysses and Finnegans Wake is no longer discussed (as, for instance, in Stephen Hero) but rather happens; it is an event which manifests a paradoxical structure of time summed up by the “Palestinian formula for ‘remembering the one who is 8
still to come.’” This links Joyce firmly with recent thinkers as Levinas, Benjamin and Derrida, and literary precursors as Gerard Manley Hopkins. Moreover, Joyce’s dialectic remains open without offering a final synthesis: in Ulysses, the eschatological and the scatological, Greek and Jew, life and death constantly “rub shoulders.” Karl Chircop extends the discussion of Joyce by juxtaposing Joyce’s writing with that of Luigi Pirandello. Besides summarising the points of actual contact between the two authors, Chircop provides a comparative reading of two short stories and their central tropes. Chircop’s essay complements Kearney’s in its concluding concern with epiphany. He shows that unlike Joyce, Pirandello’s epiphanies tend to involve their own disintegration: for Pirandello, “every absolute epiphany is always hindered by the [wearing of a] mask and by the multi‐ faceted game between appearance and reality in his poetica dell’ umorismo.” Similarly pursuing a comparative methodology, Máirín Nic Eoin’s essay teases out the links between a variety of modern Irish‐language writers and Franz Kafka. She points out that not only has Kafka been perceived as a major point of reference in relation to the gradual turn of Irish‐language literature towards the urban and the international, but his position as a German‐ language writer within a predominantly Czech‐speaking culture provides a remarkable analogy with the situation of the current authors who persist in writing in Irish instead of turning to the language of the majority. Nic Eoin shows that the analogy goes in fact even deeper, as the minoritised position has in both cases brought about writing characterised by “its audacity, its lack of concern for conventional audience response, the fact that logically or economically speaking its very existence doesn’t make sense.” Despite the fact that the modern Irish‐language writer may be seen as a “hunger artist” striving not to succumb to the forces of history, his/her predicament may according to Nic Eoin also be seen as perfect ground for literary experimentation. 9
Kafka remains the centre of attention in the following article, in which Jeremy Parrott explores the hitherto under‐ researched territory of linkages between Kafka and Beckett. Parrott starts by providing a thorough examination of which texts by Kafka was Beckett likely to have read and at what stage, based on biographical and documentary evidence, and then turns towards the meticulous concern that both authors had with character naming. Unravelling the striking similarities in the obsession with onomastics in the case of both, Parrott concludes that while Gregor Samsa and K. desperately cling to their names and identities despite their unbearable quandaries, Beckett goes a stage further in the “Trilogy” and How It Is where his “characters” “freely chang[e] (and ultimately discard […]) their names as merely provisional and approximate titles for their ongoing ontological works in regress.” Finally, Emilie Morin continues the exploration of Beckett by discussing the author’s self‐translation from the French as an instance of combating a particular cultural stereotype of Ireland. Morin examines the differences in the role Irish references have in the French and the English versions of Molloy and Malone Meurt and asserts that bilingualism allows Beckett to reject the parochialism of the Irish Literary Revival and at the same time to push “its exoticism to the point of absurdity.” What results is a “hybrid cultural space” marked by experimentation which expresses conflict in its very language. Clare Wallace & Ondřej Pilný
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I GLOBALISATION IN THEORY & PRACTICE
Thomas Docherty
The Place’s Fault A Dying Place In “Brighton Beach,” Derek Mahon stands us on the end of Brighton pier, and, looking across the channel to mainland Europe, asks that we become aware, “in this rancorous peace” of “the spirit of place.” He writes: Europe thrives, but the offshore Islanders year by year Decline, the spirit of empire Fugitive as always. Now, in this rancorous peace, Should come the spirit of place. Too late though, for already Places as such are dead Or nearly; the loved sea Reflects banality.1
“… already / Places as such are dead / Or nearly.” I shall return to that “Or nearly” later. “Places as such are dead”: such a statement, of course, is highly contentious, and perhaps especially to those of us who have been engaged recently in postcolonial history and theory. The phrase makes an initial sense in contemporary terms: in an age of globalisation, the specificity of the particular place or village loses substance and importance; or, we all drink Starbucks now. Yet the phrase is one that remains problematic for us as literary critics. Homi Bhabha’s work, for example, is very much focused on “the location of culture”; and the location in question, in his work as in that of many others concerned with coloniality and
1 Derek Mahon, Collected Poems (Loughcrew, Meath: Gallery Press, 1999) 155.
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postcoloniality, is very much a ‘place,’ a specific geographical, geo‐cultural and, finally, geo‐political location. In a splendid essay from 2003, “Mahon and Longley: Place and Placelessness,” Terence Brown draws particular attention to this Mahon line. He points out, rightly, that “Brighton Beach” recalls the earlier “Day Trip to Donegal” (specifically the third stanza of the first section, about talking to the fishermen);2 and, from this, Brown is able to consider Mahon’s relation to “the attractions of the rural scene” and to “an imagined England.” The argument then is that: It is clear that for Mahon the attractions of an English pastoral are no real alternative to the “chaos and old night” of reality imagined as a metaphysically awesome Irish vista. It is corrupted by a historical legacy of imperialism and poisoned by modernity.3
This is a compelling and persuasive argument; and all the more powerful for directing our thinking towards the question of the legacy of imperialism and the ambivalences of modernity for a contemporary Ireland. However, I want to contend here that it is precisely when we start to generalise from Brown’s astute observation, and to accept the crudity of the hint that “places as such are dead,” that we begin to see some limitations or problems with the classic positions of both postcoloniality and nationalism. Place as such being dead is, as it were, the condition of globalisation or even of the village as a globalised location. Place ‘lives’ when it is specific, and characterised by difference; it is that singularity, indeed, that transforms the more generalised or abstract space into the precise particularity that is
2 See Derek Mahon, Collected Poems. 3 Terence Brown, “Mahon and Longley: Place and Placelessness,” The Cambridge Companion to Contemporary Irish Poetry, ed. Matthew Campbell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) 136.
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place at all.4 Brown himself points out that “If places are in fact dead in the modern world, the titles of Mahon’s poems reflect an obsession with what place might once have been when it was possible to conceive of it as a stabilising point of reference,” for many of Mahon’s titles allude specifically to particular places. However, it might be worth pushing this argument yet further, and if we do so, it goes like this: places are dead, and a poetry (a literature, even a culture) that figures itself around locatedness, of being in situ, is also therefore impossible. We should be alert to the consequences of such a position, which are rather more radical than it may at first appear. In brief, what this suggests is that for instance a national literature, with all that it implies, is now structurally and logically an impossibility. “Or nearly,” as Mahon says. From a rather different angle, Seamus Deane offers a formulation that, with typical lapidary brilliance, articulates neatly the stakes of the problem. In his introduction to the first Faber volume of Brian Friel’s Plays, he indicates that From the beginning […] Friel has played a number of variations on the theme of exile. The central figures in these plays find themselves torn by the necessity of abandoning the Ireland which they love […T]heir ultimate perception is that fidelity to the native place is a lethal form of nostalgia […].5
Gar, in Philadelphia, Here I Come! arrives at precisely this awareness when he rants about his hatred of Ballybeg and his desperate desire to leave:
4 The classic formulations of this lie in the work of Henri Lefebvre, of course. For a typical example of work informed by this kind of thinking, see, for instance, Derek Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993). See also the work of David Harvey, especially his Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996) and Paris, Capital of Modernity (New York: Routledge, 2003). 5 Seamus Deane, “Introduction” to Brian Friel, Selected Plays (London: Faber, 1984), repr. as Plays: 1 (London: Faber, 2001) 13.
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All this bloody yap about father and son and all this sentimental rubbish about ‘homeland’ and ‘birthplace’—yap! Bloody yap! Impermanence—anonymity—that’s what I’m looking for; a vast restless place that doesn’t give a damn about the past. To hell with Ballybeg, that’s what I say! 6
For Deane, then, the “sentimental rubbish” regarding the primacy of place and locatedness can be characterised as “lethal”; and, of course, it goes without saying that such a claim can be easily substantiated in the world of an Irish history that is outside of poetry and theatre: the shout in the street that can accompany the march or the act of brutal violence. Paulin also brings these issues together when he presents his sense of Mahon as an aesthete in his essay “A Terminal Ironist.” In Paulin’s words, “Mahon is fascinated by a place of pure being which exists outside history.”7 Interestingly, though, for present purposes, Paulin suggests that that aesthetic space can also be firmly characterised: “death and art are virtually identical in his work.”8 After Brown, Deane and Paulin, what might we now say to the phrase, “Places as such are dead?” One implication of this nexus of the three views offered here would allow us a reconfiguring of the phrase: we would say that an aesthetic Ireland as a localised culture is synonymous with a mortality. To misquote Yeats, “aesthetic Ireland’s dead and gone”; or an abstract myth or idea of Ireland can be equated with death. We thus have two attitudes to place. The first is one that is easily and immediately recognisable to us. In this, place is considered as a kind of originary source, and our identification with it is what gives us legitimacy and a proper voice or authentic being. That is, in this view, place—and more precisely
6 Friel, Plays: 1 79. 7 Tom Paulin, Writing to the Moment (London: Faber, 1996) 83. 8 Paulin, Writing to the Moment 83‐4.
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still, the possession of a place, and our being possessed by a place—is the guarantor of autonomy. Now, though, set against this is a rival version of the function of place in writing and in culture more generally. According to this second view, our identification with a place, far from guaranteeing autonomy, in fact hampers autonomy, for it identifies us with our mortality. In this latter view, identification with place gives us the freedom to die, as it were; and only the freedom to die, for it is in death, according to this view, that our autonomy is realised and given its fullest being. (That this latter is theological, we can leave aside for the moment.) In what follows, I shall attend to what I want to call, after Philip Hobsbaum, “the place’s fault.”9 I begin from this consideration of the relation of place and death, and how we might argue that it is death that defines place as such; or, better, that the condition of any identification of an individual with place‐as‐such is governed and characterised by a mood, disposition or ethos of mortality. Following from this, I turn to the more specific issue of the locatedness of a nation; and here I make the claim that I think is at the centre of the argument. It goes like this: far from a historical state of affairs in which globalisation is seen as a relatively recent phenomenon that calls the existence of the nation‐state into question or doubt, globalisation in fact actually precedes nationalism, and is the founding condition of the possibility of establishing a national consciousness as such. Further, the nation state, historically, exists primarily or is called into being as an attempt to ward off the power of globalisation, to ‘contain’ the global as it were. The reason that we have globalisation more firmly on the agenda now is that nationalism was a strategy of containment that has failed us; and it is thus that “nations as such are dead.” Finally, if extremely briefly, I shall turn to questions of language.
9 This is the title poem in Philip Hobsbaum, The Place’s Fault (London: Macmillan, 1964). Among other things, it is a riposte to Larkin.
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An Incomplete Place A key question driving this meditation should therefore be whether, in an age of globalisation, poetry can serve the functions that it used to when it was firmly and clearly located, tied to a local habitation and a name; when poetry was, as it were, a matter of imagination, and not an imagination of matter. To gloss that phrase, we would need to look at Act 5 of Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream, when Theseus, attempting to explain all the mysteries of the play, says that: The lunatic, the lover, and the poet Are of imagination all compact. One sees more devils than vast hell can hold: That is the madman. The lover, all as frantic, Sees Helen’s beauty in a brow of Egypt. The poet’s eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven, And as imagination bodies forth The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing A local habitation and a name.10
In passing here, it is surely worth noting the echo of this in Heaney’s famous “An Open Letter,” obsessed as that poem is by ‘proper naming’ and by the proper naming of a place: You’ll understand I draw the line At being robbed of what is mine, My patria, my deep design To be at home In my own place and dwell within Its proper name— Traumatic Ireland!11
10 A Midsummer Night’s Dream, V.i.7‐17.
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More generally, though, the question is the relation between airy nothing and matter, between the spectral or ghostly on the one hand, and the historically real and locatable on the other. And we may recall after Marx, of course, that in modernity, “all that is solid melts into air.” We have come to know this idea of the location of culture— the materialisation of airy nothing or of the ghosts of the past— not just through recent work on postcolonial studies, but rather as a very condition of modern literature almost. It is a splendid paradox that, alongside the growth and development of literary and artistic modernism, one of the most international of all ‘movements,’ there grows a developed interest in the link of literature to place, and specifically to nation and nation state. Seamus Deane has traced this interest at least as far back as the French revolution, and to Burke’s reactions to that revolution. In Deane’s analysis, Burke effectively sets up a contrast between ancestry on one hand (which Burke sees as good) and cosmopolitanism (or what we might call a version— or, at least, an effect—of globalisation) on the other. Burke had a view of human nature as a kind of universal, but a universal that was described or characterised by ancestry (time) rather than space. The French Revolution subverts this, by placing secular values (the here and now) above ancestral voices, effectively. Thinking through the voice of Burke, as it were, Deane writes that, for Burke, “To choose atheism is to choose to leave society. A group of atheists has, therefore, no civil existence.”12 Burke, horrified at the turmoil and violence in the revolution, constructs an argument against its possibility in England:
11 Seamus Heaney, “An Open Letter,” Seamus Deane et al., Ireland’s Field Day (London: Hutchinson, 1985) 26. 12 Seamus Deane, The French Revolution and Enlightenment in England 1789‐1832 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988) 9.
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the English had remained loyal and would remain loyal to their ancient traditions because these were in conformity with the requirements of human nature […] the English, unlike the French, had a national propensity toward the natural. Native common sense gave the English an advantage over the vain, fickle, brilliant, frivolous French.13
It is on account of his horrors at the revolution that Burke constructs a notion of a national character in England that is inimical to such excesses. And yet this idea of a national character is itself not new at this time either. In reply of sorts to Deane, Denis Donoghue claimed that “people were concerned with their national characters before Christ was crucified” (though he added: “But I agree that the question became virtually a fixation in the nineteenth century”).14 Standing a little between these two—in what is a necessary but uncomfortable position—I myself would highlight the debates in the late seventeenth century, especially between England and France, about the primacy of their respective cultures and their links to an origin in a classical state of beauty; for these were also debates that argued for national character and national characteristics among peoples. We see this in what Michael Dobson has called “the making of the national bard,” in the English ‘invention’ of Shakespeare in the late seventeenth‐ century adaptations of his work; and we see it also, as I have argued elsewhere, in the theoretical and theatrical contests for a national supremacy between Corneille and Dryden.15 In all these cases, the claim for primacy of a national character lies with the claim for an essentially authentic ancestry. And this should give us pause; for what it is saying, fundamentally, is
13 Deane, The French Revolution 12. 14 Denis Donoghue, “Afterword,” Deane et al., Ireland’s Field Day 118. 15 See Michael Dobson, The Making of the National Poet (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); and see also Thomas Docherty, Criticism and Modernity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
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that the spirit of place or even the identity of place is essentially given by the dead. By definition, the dead are, in a material sense, absent: ghostly “airy nothings.” Yet, as Marx was profoundly aware, they shape the very conditions and possibilities of our autonomy. At the start of the Eighteenth Brumaire, he famously writes that: Men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please; they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under given conditions directly encountered and inherited from the past. The tradition of all the generations of the dead weighs like a nightmare on the brain of the living.16
This, of course, is what we see in much of Irish modernism and since. It not only conditions the obvious texts, such as Joyce, Yeats, Beckett; but also more recent writings, such as those associated with Field Day. In many ways, this is what we might call the dominant condition of Irish modernism, even of Irish literature. Now, here is my move. Thinking such as this—which I see as being of the very essence of modernity, and perhaps especially of Irish modernity—characterises autonomy as a condition that is always grounded in a radical incompleteness. That is to say: our autonomy—and perhaps thus also, by extension, our very freedom as such—requires that we are not fully ourselves; but rather, that our identity is fractured, that we are haunted by the ghosts of tradition—or by that “lethal nostalgia” that Deane identified in Friel’s typical characters. It is an identity that as a rule is fractured in time, according to this; but, we should now recall what I noted earlier about writers as diverse as Mahon and Friel; and, behind both of them, Burke. For these writers, the temporal is also pre‐figured by the spatial:
16 Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1978) 9.
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Mahon’s recall or memory of the day trip to Donegal structured around a place‐logic of the relation between mainland Europe and the islands on which he stands; Gar, in Friel, shaped in his forward‐looking attitude by the place‐logic of Ballybeg and Philadelphia. Identity, in this mode of thinking, is conditioned by a fracturing of the self in space as well. The logic here is that what we call the identity of the nation must, by analogy, require an image of the nation precisely as incomplete: nations are nations precisely to the extent that they do not know their own borders; and their identity is necessarily given by the nature of their internal fissures and fractured condition. Nations are nations precisely to the extent that they are fractured, incomplete. Putting this yet more crudely, the nationalist idea of ‘Ireland’ (in which its fractured condition is seen as an exception to a more generally shared condition of whole nationhood supposedly enjoyed by other nations) is not, after all, the exception; rather, it is the norm. Surely this is also what gives some sense to those lines in Mahon, in the first half of “Brighton Beach” where Mahon describes himself in Donegal as “Out of my depths in those / Waters,” recalled now and here where “the sea shuffles ashore.” Surely it is also the sense of the imprecision of that “Or nearly,” the indefiniteness of the “fugitive” spirit of empire, the “decline” of the islanders. Is it controversial to describe the nation thus: as an entity conditioned necessarily by fracture? The “place” is characterised by a “fault”; and it is both senses of that word that I now need. A border can be a fault‐line; but it is a fault or an imperfection that is necessary for the perfect idea or image of the complete and autonomous nation state as such; and thus it both is and is not ‘faulty,’ broken or fractured.17
17 It should be noted, in passing, that this also is far removed from being an apology for a crude unionism. It is the logic of the argument as I advance it that unionism, too, needs to see the fractured condition of a nation as being exceptional. Thus, the ostensible contest between two positions—nationalism
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The Ireland of which we speak, then, is predicated on the necessary existence of a fault, a border; globalisation and the village both ask the same question: “where is that border?” I guess that the logic of my argument thus far says in reply that the border is that which is there between the dead and the living, or between imagination (a ghostly airy nothing) and a proper name (a local habitation). Global Sovereignty Globalisation, like poverty, has always been with us. As I have argued elsewhere, globalisation is not an entirely new phenomenon.18 The world of the European renaissance, for example, saw very similar untrammelled movements of goods and services across the globe, and at that time, globalisation as we now think of it was certainly not an issue. In an age of fledgling mercantile empire building, it is not at all controversial for writers to present the world as an entity that can somehow be experienced all at once, here and now. Lyotard rather satirised the position as one characterised by the enjoyment of a certain eclecticism: Eclecticism is the degree zero of contemporary general culture: one listens to reggae, watches a western, eats McDonald’s food for lunch and local cuisine for dinner, wears Paris perfume in Tokyo and ‘retro’ clothes in Hong Kong.19
Long before this, however, we see similar kinds of attention to the global market in Milton, Donne, Shakespeare, for some typical examples.
and unionism—is not a contest at all, but rather a ‘scandal’ generated in order to occlude the real state of affairs. 18 See Thomas Docherty, “Newman, Ireland, and Universality,” boundary 2, 31:1 (2004) 73‐92. 19 Jean‐François Lyotard, “Answering the Question: What is Postmodernism?” repr. in Thomas Docherty, ed., Postmodernism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993) 42.
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For all of this, globalisation is not an issue; it is, as it were, taken as a logical extension of perception and of the widening view of the world—an apotropaic warding off of death, in fact.20 It becomes an issue when politics and economics diverge the one from the other. That is to say, it is an issue when the world starts to become organised around the existence of sovereign nation states that are seen to determine autonomously their own political and economic conditions of living (or what we often—erroneously—call a local, even a national, culture). Globalisation, therefore, is intimately related to culture and emerges as an issue when we note the tie between culture and place, when it is “the place’s fault.” Globalisation requires the existence of national political boundaries in order to transgress them economically; and a global economy is identifiable only if it operates at a level beyond that of the autonomous nation state and thereby threatens the autonomy or sovereignty of the nation state— precisely because it promises unity, unification or identification across boundaries, between localised villages. This is the theoretical position of a George Soros, say, who is careful to distinguish between what he sees as the economic triumph of capitalism on one hand and the failures of global political emancipation on the other. “Capitalism and democracy do not necessarily go hand in hand” he writes;21 and he notes that it is indeed one of the major threats to freedom in our time that we have established in many places an over‐intimate relation between business and government. This is almost certainly what Bill Readings is also getting at when he writes
20 For more on this notion, see Hans Blumenberg, The Legitimacy of the Modern Age, trans. R.M. Wallace (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1983). It is useful to place Blumenberg on modernity and death alongside the work of Maurice Blanchot, especially the essays collected in The Work of Fire (1949), trans. Charlotte Mandel (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995). 21 George Soros, Open Society: Reforming Global Capitalism (New York: Little, Brown, 2000) xi.
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that globalisation is not experienced the same in Dakar and in New York; really, he claims, what we are often talking about under the sign of globalisation is actually Americanisation.22 In the Irish context, we might think of this in terms of an essentially normative position of things being “the place’s fault”; as a result of which Irish writers look outwards even when they seem to be most introspective. Thus Yeats looks to the East and Byzantium, Joyce finds the Liffey in the Mediterranean; and so on right up to Durcan “Going Home to Russia,” seeing “Westport in the Light of Asia Minor,” and the like. Nationalism has reached the end of its line of usefulness as a strategy of resistance in particular contexts; and I would say especially so in the context of a developed economy and politics such as that of Ireland. This is anathema, of course, to the geography of a poetry‐as‐place argument; it is anathema to a condition where it is always “the place’s fault” that things are thus or as they are. It asks instead a question concerning sovereignty. Let me turn to this: sovereignty as a strategy of resistance that attends to the local (or the village). It is important to get the context right: Ireland, now, is a developed and advanced economy, with an equally advanced and developed political infrastructure. It is therefore no longer appropriate to consider the contemporary state of affairs in terms of a generalised or even specific victimhood; the key questions for our time concern agency in what is, essentially, a victor‐community. As a further consequence, the classic position that would internalise of a colonial mentality (one that might make it awkward for travellers, say, or for the new immigrant communities) is also untenable.23
22 Bill Readings, The University in Ruins (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996). 23 See the work of Paul Delaney on traveller communities in Ireland. Cf. also the nomadic Bono or Bob Geldof in this respect.
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In this section, I want to attend to the relations between sovereignty, autonomy, and death. We have usually considered sovereignty in terms that are philosophically akin to those governing autonomy. Yet there are subtle differences. To be autonomous means, effectively, to be in a position where one ‘gives oneself the law;’ to be sovereign implies a position where one is effectively standing outside of the law that one enforces and stands over (thus, a monarch, say, is sovereign because she or he cannot be called to account in the law that is executed in her or his name). Deane expresses it differently. He writes: “Those who live under the law are civilians; those who live beyond it are barbarians.”24 The sovereign legitimises herself precisely by being, in a very precise sense, illegitimate: a barbarian (or ‘foreigner’), an outlaw. Insofar as a sovereign individual describes herself as ‘civilised,’ she must also realise that her very civility is grounded in an intrinsic barbarism. In some ways, of course, this is an analogy with Benjamin’s famous seventh thesis on the philosophy of history: “There is no monument of civilisation which is not at the same time a document of barbarism.”25 My argument here is that the freedom that I claim precisely as a citizen, which is ostensibly given to me by my subscription to a logic of place, is actually dependent on my being always already ‘foreign’ or always containing within myself some element of that which comes from ‘outside my borders.’ To be Irish, in these terms, is at once therefore to lay sovereign claim to six further counties while also and simultaneously recognising that ‘my’ land in the republic is not ‘mine.’ In a fine poem that is much concerned with proper naming, Paul Durcan comes close to the spirit of what I am trying to describe here. Here is “Oxtail”:
24 Seamus Deane, “Civilians and Barbarians,” Ireland’s Field Day 33. 25 Walter Benjamin, Illuminations. Essays and Reflections, ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1968) 256.
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When you’d set down oxtail soup Before me on the kitchen table— Baxter’s— You’d cry: ‘Drink up your oxtail soup.’ If I stayed dumb, making no reply, You’d repeat it: ‘Drink up your oxtail soup.’ If I still made no reply You’d cry out again: ‘Drink up your oxtail soup.’ Why was I so dejected At the spectacle of oxtail soup? You presumed because I am an ox Thereby I am insulted by oxtail soup But no—what demented me Was the possessive pronoun in your cry: That ‘your’—that ‘your oxtail soup.’ Is there not in possessiveness An estranging note Which the gods abhor? I am an ox who abhors Oxtail soup that’s yours. The only grass that is good Is the grass that is not mine Or yours—the grass that grows In the changing skies between our toes. The night is not unchanging.26
I want to start here by looking at the proper name: “Baxter’s.” Because of where it comes in the poem, its identification is already ambiguous. It could be a reference to the owner of the table on which the soup is placed: that is, as a way of identifying whose table we are eating or being silent at. But Baxter’s is also the name of a very popular kind of soup. Baxter’s began as a local concern in the Scottish village of Fochabers, in 1868. Right from the start, the brand was given an
26 Paul Durcan, “Oxtail,” Cries of an Irish Caveman (London: Harvill, 2001) 129.
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identity by a slogan: “be different, be better.” By the 1940s, it was effectively a global brand. However, Baxter’s do not make oxtail soup. The prime maker of oxtail soup in the global market is HJ Heinz. Why does Durcan mistake the name? Heinz, of course, has also been very important in Ireland, since Tony O’Reilly was, until 1998, its Chairman and Chief Executive. Though Irish, O’Reilly was knighted by the Queen; rather like a Rupert Murdoch figure, national identity seems here to be a rather trivial matter, to be cast on and off like a more or less comfortable shawl. So, in the end, whose soup is this? Baxter’s? Heinz’s? That, of course, is what the poem itself focuses on: possession and silence. It is in the silence that possession and identity are denied. And it is a silence that Heaney famously rued in his “Open Letter” concerning his own nomination. Aware that he should have spoken out, he breaks his silence; but at a time after the fact. That is to say, he remains within the British anthology, while also denying that he is at home within its covers. He straddles the fault, as it were; and sees it precisely as a fault, a fault in placing and in location. For Durcan, the fault lies in the simple fact of being thus located in a name. Sovereignty, we might say, depends upon the barbarism that is involved in straddling a place’s fault. It depends not on my identification of myself with a home or a single place, but rather my identification of myself as ‘different,’ as foreign to myself. My freedom and sovereignty depend upon me noting and indeed celebrating the fact that I am a kind of Greek within the walls of Troy. I thereby give Troy an identity, and identify myself, paradoxically, as Trojan in my very being as Greek. Or, as Joyce will have it, in a much different context, I find myself as “jewgreek.” A Talking Place In this final section, I want to turn attention more closely to matters of language, to yet another “new look at the language 28
question,” as it were. I take my cue from the argument proposed by Clair Wills regarding Muldoon. She argues, in Improprieties, that Muldoon’s poetry is “fundamentally bound up with an investigation of the nature of origins”; but also that, when he is interested in linguistic origins, “his work can be read as a thorough‐going rejection of the notion of stable or univocal origins.” This, I think, though of its time, is nonetheless factually correct. Wills goes on: At issue here is the security of our personal and national borders, borders which, Muldoon’s poetry implies, are continually breached by “improper” forms and modes of behaviour, where impropriety consists in being both inside and outside the border at the same time.27
This is exactly akin to the argument that I have been advancing; but it turns the focus of the argument firmly towards language and to the question of linguistic rootedness. An approach such as this offers us a very different view of the question from the more typical and dominant view such as we see it in Paulin. When Paulin took his ‘new look’ in 1984, some ten years before Wills, he wrote that “[t]he history of a language is often a story of possession and dispossession, territorial struggle and the establishment or imposition of a culture.”28 To put it in these terms, though, is to be complicit with that ethos of mortality that I hope to have persuaded us to discard. However persuasive it appears as an argument, my contention is that Paulin’s position effectively leads us into the blind alley of a crude identification of person and place, whose only outcome can be war: the war over control of places that are other than ‘mine.’ It is against that politicisation of space, and its attendant reification of human possibility, that the present
27 Clair Wills, Improprieties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993) 194. 28 Tom Paulin, Ireland and the English Crisis (Newcastle: Bloodaxe, 1984) 178.
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paper is written. Paulin; Baxter; Heinz; British; Irish—all of this reduces identity to a question of the colour of a passport and the languages in which the passport is written. It describes the legality of identity but not its legitimacy. In terms of poetry, we have two tendencies in Irish writing, I believe. On the one hand, there is the mode of Heaney, say. In this mode (which is almost exactly in line with Paulin), the function of words is to establish a kind of rooted authenticity, or an authenticity in rootedness itself. The word ties us to a place; and we can go digging archaeologically for origins that will in themselves somehow authenticate our speech, our writing—and, by extension, the claims therein, including the claims on land. Against this, we have a tendency such as can be seen in McGuckian, say, or in Muldoon. In writers like these, there is a massive interest in language as such; but often, their poetry in all its quaint exoticisms reads as if it has been dictated by some kind of international dictionary. In McGuckian, all those terms that she explores—ylang‐ylang, vetiver, mazurka, querencia, balakhana and the like—and her playing on their odd relations to English, help situate her poetry in a linguistic context that is clearly global. In Muldoon’s case, the dictionary is often the dictionary of contemporary global rock culture, in which he is as much at home as he is in the language of Southey or Wordsworth or Coleridge or Frost or Stevens—with the concomitant effect that he situates those poetries, too, in the global position of rock. Here, against all this, is Paulin on Noah Webster. Webster, he claims, argues that “uniformity of speech” helps to form “national attachments,” while local accents hinder a sense of national identity. Here his argument resembles Dante’s in De Vulgari Eloquentia, for like Dante he is advocating a language that is common to every region without being tied to any particular
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locality.29
I think that we see here the crux of the issue. It has a root in the aesthetic philosophy of Frances Hutcheson. In Hutcheson, beauty arises whenever we note “variety amidst uniformity” (or vice‐versa). That is to say, the aesthetic perception of beauty depends upon the regulations between the general and the particular. The argument, in Hutcheson, essentially establishes the aesthetic as that area in which we regulate the claims of the particular (variety) against those of the general (uniformity). Any such position becomes one in which the individual utterance has to be seen in two aspects: on one hand, it is utterly idiosyncratic and individual, and on the other and simultaneously, it is entirely typical. That is to say, insofar as we can apply this to language, any utterance becomes an act of representation. Paulin’s line here is one in which representation becomes the central problematic of language; and in this, we look to language for representation (of an individual, of a community, of a nation). What this occludes is what we might call, following thinkers such as Agamben and, yet more centrally here, Badiou, a singularity. A singularity is that which is not encompassed by its representations. It would be, in language, an event of speaking that cannot be recuperated into the proper name or identity of a speaker. It would be an event whose effect is to produce the very possibility of being a speaker for the first time; and such a speaker would be one whose language could not be prescripted or pre‐scribed. It would be, literally, an original speech, a speech in which the speaker originates. Here, sovereignty comes from the fact that the speech in question is madder according to the laws of speech but not subservient to the laws and rules of any specific or given discourse. The authentication of the speech does not lie in its
29 Paulin, Ireland and the English Crisis 184.
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rootedness in place, but rather lies in the possibility that it generates the requirement for further speech, for further originary acts. It is therefore ‘sovereign’ in the sense that it authenticates the speaker without limiting her or him; and, in speaking in this fashion, one is constantly ‘altering’ oneself, constantly inventing or discovering oneself. If a “terrible beauty” could ever be born, it would be one in which we become aware that we are foreign when we are most at home; that the world is with us and at our innermost core. What makes this terrible and awesome—even sublime—is the moment when we realise that, if this is indeed the case, then we cannot ever come to know ourselves at all. ‘We Irish’ might as well be said by a Scot as an Irish person; and, whenever it is said, it is characterised and must be characterised by puzzlement, by an awareness that even as we say ‘we,’ we are never ourselves alone.
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José Lanters
“Cobwebs on Your Walls”: The State of the Debate about Globalisation & Irish Drama Much has been written in recent years about the changing face of Irish drama, and the need for different critical responses to it, in the context of that what has been broadly called “globalisation.” As several critics have pointed out before me, the term “globalisation,” while widely used, is also problematic in that it is often used very loosely and in contradictory ways. On the one hand, the term has been employed, in a generally positive sense, to refer to the increasingly international, multiracial and multicultural nature of individual societies—as a celebration of diversity, if you will, stemming from the idea of the “global village,” which also leads to a greater diversity of who is represented on stage. On the other hand, it has been used, more negatively and in a more political sense, to describe a form of economic and technological imperialism: the creation of what is frequently called a “McWorld” dominated by global brand names, where culture comes in a standard one‐size‐fits‐ all package. Patrick Lonergan has recently argued that, however one looks at the term, globalisation changes our understanding of and response to geographical difference, which for the business of theatre means that its production and reception are now “increasingly determined by global factors, rather than national or local ones.”1 My focus here will be on questions of internationalisation, universality, and globalisation in relation to Irish theatre, and the applicability and usefulness of these terms in the current critical debate. In recent decades, there have been increasing attempts by
1 Patrick Lonergan, “‘The Laughter Will Come of Itself. The Tears Are Inevitable:’ Martin McDonagh, Globalization, and Irish Theatre Criticism,” Modern Drama, 47.4 (Winter 2004): 642.
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Irish playwrights to internationalise their material, to move away from specific Irish locales and themes, and to complicate the issue of “Irishness.” Sebastian Barry’s White Woman Street (1992) comes to mind as an example. Set in a small town in Ohio in 1916, the play focuses on a group of outlaws: an Englishman originally from Lincolnshire, an Amish man from Ohio, a New Yorker of Russian‐Chinese descent, an African American from Tennessee, a Native American from Virginia, and Trooper O’Hara, who is originally from Sligo in Ireland. For all its ostensible diversity, the play sets up a rather narrow analogy between the Irish and the American Indians—both once proud cultures destroyed by invaders—only to complicate it by representing the Irish as perpetrators as well as victims. As Trooper puts it: “The English had done for us, I was thinking, and now we’re doing for the Indians.”2 White Woman Street is not one of Barry’s greatest hits, and plays like this tend to be less successful because the analogy is too obvious, and the political message too one‐dimensional. An example of a more complex play with an international dimension, Frank McGuinness’s Someone Who’ll Watch Over Me (1992), featuring an Irish, an English and an American hostage held in Beirut, is successful largely because it moves away from global politics: it is less about the causes of global terrorism than it is about the characters’ common humanity. As far as representing, let alone celebrating, diversity is concerned, Irish theatre has not been very successful, probably for the simple reason that, until very recently, Ireland was not a very diverse society. Ronaldo Munck, an academic of Argentine descent now resident in Dublin, remarked in a recent opinion piece in the Irish Times that the Irish tend to confuse migration with multiculturalism, and that “respect for diversity” is frequently accompanied by platitudes “that most often reflect a bland, patronising tolerance for others, whom we consider
2 Sebastian Barry, Three Plays by Sebastian Barry (London: Methuen, 1995) 158.
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strangers, aliens or, in official parlance, non‐nationals.”3 Irish theatre has indeed tended to present cultural diversity through a focus on minority “problems.” Writing in Irish Theatre Magazine, Nigerian‐born actor and musician Bisi Adigun identifies that focus itself as a problem: In recent years, a number of productions have tried to depict the fact that Ireland is no longer a monocultural society—albeit usually through the introduction of a character who is an asylum seeker or a refugee. I have yet to see an Irish theatre production where a black actor comes on stage to play a role that has no relevance to his/her skin.4
Adigun suggests that a truly multicultural Ireland would happily accept a Nigerian actor playing Christy Mahon opposite a Chinese‐born Pegeen Mike. That suggestion, which might raise hackles in some traditional quarters, foregrounds the extent to which the Irish drama of the past 100 years has been about “Irishness,” or has been received as such. Indeed, Michael West argues that “Irishness has become a subject in and of itself—this is in many ways what Irish theatre is about.”5 For all its tongue‐in‐cheek provocativeness, Adigun’s casting suggestion would be a way of broadening the debate about Irishness and of opening up new angles of interpretation. Writing in the climate of cultural nationalism of the late nineteenth century, W.B. Yeats argued that universality—or what he called “universalism”—can only be attained “through what is near you, your nation, or […] your village and the cobwebs on your walls […] One can only reach out to the universe with a gloved hand—that glove is one’s nation, the
3 Ronaldo Munck, “We Need to Learn to Live with Difference,” Irish Times, 13 June 2005 . 4 Bisi Adigun, “In Living Colour,” Irish Theatre Magazine, 4.19 (Summer 2004): 31. 5 Michael West, “Authentic Fictions,” Irish Theatre Magazine, 4.16 (Autumn 2003): 20.
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only thing one knows even a little of.”6 Irish playwrights, critics and audiences have often allowed the cobwebs of the nation to get in the way of the bigger picture, displaying a reluctance to consider the broader relevance of a play’s themes beyond its obvious Irish subject matter. Tom Murphy’s A Whistle in the Dark (1961) was revived at the Abbey three weeks after 11 September 2001, on the eve of the start of the US bombing of Afghanistan. The play focuses on an Irish father and sons living in Coventry, and explores the roots of brutal and seemingly mindless male violence in dispossession, alienation, humiliation, and lack of agency. To me those issues seemed relevant in the context of questions that were being asked at the time about the roots of terrorism in similar conditions. But that angle of the play went totally unexplored by critics, and Michael Billington, for example, who interviewed Murphy during that same week, never moved the scope beyond the play’s original premise of the “migratory Irish workers, their sense of betrayal by their homeland and the cult of violence that often surrounded them.”7 In a recent review of Murphy’s The Sanctuary Lamp, Patrick Lonergan also argued that a critical fixation with “themes of exclusively Irish interest” has obfuscated the universal relevance of Murphy’s plays.8 Similarly, a play like Martin McDonagh’s The Lonesome West can serve as a metaphor for the bitterness and intractability of civil war and tribal conflict anywhere, from Northern Ireland to the Middle East, but Irish audiences have had trouble seeing beyond what they perceived as its derogatory or satirical representation of the rural West of Ireland. It is not easy to
6 W.B. Yeats, Letters to the New Island, ed. Horace Reynolds (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1934) 174. 7 Michael Billington, “Which Side Are You On, Boys?” The Guardian, 13 October 2001 . 8 Patrick Lonergan, review of The Sanctuary Lamp by Tom Murphy, Irish Times, 17 June 2005 .
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gauge to what extent audiences elsewhere are different. John Patrick Shanley set his recent Broadway hit Doubt in a Catholic school in 1964 and made it revolve around the question of clerical abuse. In interviews he has made it clear, however, that he was originally inspired to write the play by his concern about the attitude of absolute certainty that pervades the American political climate today. The focus of the play’s title on the abstraction—doubt—rather than the specifics, as well as the play’s subtitle—”a parable”—indicate its openness to other readings in other places and times, perhaps more so than is the case with the Irish plays mentioned above. But it remains unclear whether American audience members have come away from the play with that broader understanding. In spite of entrenched attitudes on the part of audiences and critics, it is possible to see a gradual move away from insular themes and positions in Irish drama over the past few decades. An example of this trend can be seen in the shift of focus that has taken place within the large number of Irish adaptations of Greek tragedies since the early 1980s, particularly Antigone. In the 1980s, versions of that play by Tom Paulin and Aidan Mathews were designed very specifically to point up its relevance to the Northern Irish conflict. By narrowing the focus, Paulin’s version in particular (The Riot Act, 1984) was generally felt to have reduced the tragedy to political melodrama.9 Following the sequence of events after September 2001, the political scope of the adaptations shifted (and arguably broadened), even as they were still focused through an Irish lens. Conall Morrison placed his version of Antigone (2003) in the Middle East, but directed his actors to use a variety of Irish accents, both northern and southern.10 Aware of the play’s Irish history (“How many Antigones could Irish theatre put up
9 Marilynn Richtarik, Acting Between the Lines: The Field Day Theatre Company and Irish Cultural Politics 1980‐1984 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2001) 218. 10 I am indebted to Dawn Duncan for this information.
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with?”), Seamus Heaney nevertheless justified doing another version, The Burial at Thebes (2004), on the grounds that the Bush administration’s strategy in “the war on terror” meant that “there was a meaningful political context for a new translation.”11 At the same time, Heaney’s writerly inspiration again came from an Irish source, Eibhlín Dhubh Ní Chonaill’s lament for her murdered husband, Art Ó Laoghaire. If, in recent decades, Irish playwrights turned to Greek tragedy which they then proceeded to make less “universal” (in the sense that Antigone’s original act of civil disobedience is based on humanistic rather than political principles), and more Irish and/or more political, Vincent Woods’s new version of the Irish Deirdre myth, A Cry from Heaven (2005), approached by its director as a “Greek tragedy,”12 reverses this trend. Unlike AE, Yeats and Synge, Woods did not want his version of the myth to be a political allegory or a narrowly Irish play, and French director Olivier Py realised that he was chosen for the job in part because he would not “go into this Celtic attitude.”13 As a result, the piece is lifted out of a specific place and time: The landscape of Woods’s play is not recognisably one of Irish mythology. His tropes and motifs could refer just as easily to ancient Athens as to the Irish annals; the raw sexual energy of his women and men roots the piece as much in the modern age as in the pre‐Christian. And at the play’s heart is a terrible realism, a knowledge of war and its return, over and over, that
11 Seamus Heaney, “Seamus Heaney Reflects on ‘The Gates of Thebes,’ His Translation of Sophocles’ Antigone,” Sunday Times, 21 March 2004. Cited in Friends of Classics . 12 Karen Fricker, review of A Cry from Heaven by Vincent Woods, The Guardian, 11 June 2005 . 13 Belinda McKeon, “Deirdre—Without the Celtic Mist,” Irish Times, 17 June 2005 .
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could only be possessed from the standpoint of the now.14
In its transnational approach and its emphasis on a mythical theme (the inescapability of war) rather than allegories of Irishness, the Woods/Py version of the Deirdre story seems the antithesis, not just of the Deirdres of the Revival period, but of the Paulin/Field Day version of Antigone as well. It is debatable whether the eagerness of an Irish playwright to downplay the Irishness of his material, or the choice of universally appealing mythical material, can be ascribed to “globalisation.” Indeed, there are Irish plays that are more overtly and more politically engaged with the effects of globalisation, but these have often received mixed reviews precisely because of their activist focus, with audiences and critics expressing skepticism at what they perceived as a one‐ dimensional message. Calypso Productions, for example, takes the view that theatre should be “a force for progressive change,” and its mission statement emphasises the use of theatrical creativity for the production of “distinctive work that challenges injustice and social exclusion in today’s rapidly changing world.”15 Vic Merriman has written extensively on what he sees as the merits of this theatrical approach to globalisation, which he contrasts sharply with what he calls the voyeuristic “Theatre of Tiger Trash”16 produced by the likes of Martin McDonagh and Marina Carr, whose characters, he argues, “turn out to be representations of those most fully betrayed by indigenous self‐rule: emigrants, under‐educated peasants, bachelor smallholders, women abandoned in rural
14 McKeon, “Deirdre.” 15 Calypso Productions website . 16 Vic Merriman, “Decolonisation Postponed: The Theatre of Tiger Trash,” Irish University Review, 29.2 (Autumn/Winter 1999): 305‐17.
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isolation by economic collapse.”17 Whether one agrees with this assessment or not, the popularity of the plays of Carr and McDonagh over politically engaged theatre is not merely a factor of audience complacency. As Ronan McDonald puts it, it is not easy for theatre to avoid “apolitical artiness” without coming perilously close to becoming “coarse agitprop.”18 According to Yeats, the universal can only be touched by the hand gloved by the nation, and while critics like Christopher Murray have argued that “Irish drama continues to take seriously the task of holding the mirror up to […] the nation,”19 others contend that the national glove came off the Irish dramatist’s hand several decades ago. Fintan O’Toole has made the case that the worlds created by playwrights after the late 1980s often are “fragments not of a coherent whole called Ireland, but of a mixed‐up jigsaw of the continents.”20 In such plays, conflict, plot, and naturalistic convention are less important than poetry and language, in that they are “concerned to evoke or conjure up a world rather than to create one.”21 That world is located in the theatre more than anywhere else; Conor McPherson’s plays, for example, often have no specific location other than the stage on which they are performed. If a local Irish landscape is evoked (and that is still often the case even in these plays), it serves as a symbolic locale. Commenting on Bickerstaffe’s 1994 production True Lines, Karen Fricker notes the play’s reticence “to identify its content
17 Vic Merriman, “Settling for More: Excess and Success in Contemporary Irish Drama,” Druids, Dudes and Beauty Queens: The Changing Face of Irish Theatre, ed. Dermot Bolger (Dublin: New Island, 2001) 60. 18 Ronan McDonald, “Between Hope and History: The Drama of the Troubles,” Druids, Dudes and Beauty Queens 232. 19 Christopher Murray, Twentieth‐Century Irish Drama: Mirror up to Nation (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1997) 11. 20 Fintan O’Toole, “Irish Theatre: The State of the Art,” Ireland: Towards New Identities?, ed. Karl‐Heinz Westarp and Michael Böss (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1998) 173. 21 O’Toole, “Irish Theatre” 174.
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as Irish,”22 and the absence of the “usual anchors of Irish society—land, family, Catholicism, the national question.”23 Likewise, a playwright like Dermot Bolger, according to O’Toole, champions “new places, […] places without history“ where “the old totems of Land, Nationality and Catholicism” are absent.24 The focus of such plays is more often than not still on “identity,” but questions are structured around individual issues of “who am I?” rather than collective anxieties relating to “what is my nation?” There is plenty of truth in these observations, although the very fact that so many commentators note what is not there in these plays indicates the extent to which they have been conditioned to think in such terms. It may also be possible to overstate the degree to which earlier plays were always narrowly focused on the Irish themes identified here. Patrick Lonergan sees this perceived trend away from specific Irishness as a function of globalisation and argues that “[t]he growth of a global touring circuit has led to the development of plays that do not attempt to be universal or local, but, rather, attempt to make themselves sufficiently open to interpretation to be understood in different ways by different audiences.”25 However, Clare Wallace, writing about the Czech reception of Irish theatre, makes the point that “the relative attractiveness of Irish plays to European theatres is determined very unevenly,”26 and may depend on the quality of a translation, the director’s interpretation, the actors or the set design as much as the nature of the play itself—in other words,
22 Karen Fricker, “Travelling Without Moving: True Lines and Contemporary Irish Theatre Practice,” Druids, Dudes and Beauty Queens 105. 23 Fricker, “Travelling” 106. 24 Quoted in Martine Pelletier, “Dermot Bolger’s Drama,” Theatre Stuff: Critical Essays on Contemporary Irish Theatre, ed. Eamonn Jordan (Dublin: Carysfort, 2000) 252. 25 Lonergan, “Laughter” 644. 26 Clare Wallace, “Irish Theatre Criticism: De‐territorialisation and Integration,” Modern Drama, 47.4 (Winter 2004): 667.
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the usual combination of factors that determine the success or failure of any production anywhere. Indeed, one may argue that, regardless of the global circuit, truly great plays (by Sophocles, Shakespeare, Chekhov, or Friel) always have the ability to be understood in different ways by different audiences. It is not just that they are “universal” in a broadly humanistic way, but that they gain new relevance in new social or political circumstances without having to have that relevance emphatically imposed on them. The debate about the (de)merits of “global“ theatre enterprise versus the “universal” appeal of individual productions or playwrights is not confined to Irish theatre. In the wake of the RSC’s announcement that it will stage all of Shakespeare’s thirty‐seven plays in the course of next year, with performers and directors from every continent except Antarctica, Dominic Dromgoole and Gary Taylor debated in the Guardian newspaper whether the undertaking was inspired by “the bard’s continuing relevance” or “box‐office takings.” While Dromgoole argued the universal case—for each age, Shakespeare suits “the pressure of its own moment,” because he “celebrated all the world, not the section he favoured”27— Taylor wondered, “Are we talking about the ‘global reach’ of an NGO or a multinational corporation?” and concluded that foreign theatre companies “want to increase their own cultural capital by ensuring that consumers associate their brand‐name with ‘Shakespeare.’” Like Wal‐mart, “Bard‐mart distorts entire cultures. Including his own.”28 Given the problematic nature of the term “global,” I am not sure how fruitful it is to look for “global” issues within specific plays, or to try and approach individual plays from a “global” perspective. It may also be wise to remind oneself that the
27 Dominic Dromgoole, “Welcome to Will’s World,” Guardian Weekly, 22‐28 July 2005: 21. 28 Gary Taylor, “Any Colour as Long as It’s Shakespeare,” Guardian Weekly, 22‐28 July 2005: 21.
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blanket term “Irish drama” covers a multitude of sins. Different types of plays fulfil different functions in relation to a variety of audiences: some productions are successful locally but do not travel well, and vice versa; others appeal to audiences world‐ wide—although that “world” tends to comprise only its western(ised) part. What one can say is that there is still an intense awareness of and preoccupation with the notion of “Irishness” in Irish theatre, which has historical roots and cannot be simply thought away, but that that legacy now manifests itself, broadly speaking, in two different ways. On the one hand, many playwrights deliberately attempt to move beyond it; on the other, there are those who happily exploit it. According to Declan Hughes, Irish theatre has reacted to “the perceived collapse of cultural identities” in part by nostalgically harking back to a time when Ireland still thought it had an identity. He complains that “even plays supposedly set in the present seem burdened by the compulsion to… well, in the narrowest sense, be Irish.”29 And “the rest of the world colludes in this because they want us to be Irish too; hell, they’d like to be Irish themselves.”30 As Michael West puts it, “the work that travels, the work that is seen as being Irish, is to a large extent measured not by its art but by its authenticity, by which is meant its essential Irishness, and […] this Irishness is somehow regarded as the natural measure of the work.”31 Patrick Lonergan has also commented on the global commodification of rural or mythical “Irishness” on the stage, “with ‘Ireland’ being offered as a reassuring counterpoint to the world to which audiences will return when they step from the theatre.”32 Again, however, the “global” reach of the Irish stereotype should not be overstated, as such audience reactions are largely
29 Declan Hughes, “Who the Hell Do We Think We Still Are? Reflections on Irish Theatre and Identity,” Theatre Stuff 13. 30 Hughes, “Who the Hell Do We Think We Still Are?” 12. 31 West, “Authentic Fictions” 22. 32 Lonergan, “Laughter” 648.
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confined to Europe and the United States of America.33 Lonergan thinks such over‐determined perceptions could be remedied by a change in Irish theatre criticism, which could work “to tackle the misrepresentation of Irishness abroad.”34 That might work if the misrepresentations were confined to the realm of theatre: but the industry of selling “Ireland” is a broader phenomenon that impacts on the reception of Irish theatre in ways no theatre critic alone can counter. One need only look at the soft‐focus commercials selling mythical Ireland‐ of‐the‐welcomes as a holiday destination to American television viewers. Those tourists may arrive in Ireland and find themselves driving straight through the remnants of its mythical past on a brand‐new motorway. The globalisation of the Irish economy fosters the commercialisation of a virtual image of Ireland whose actual counterpart is fast disappearing under the pressure of those same global economic forces. From that perspective, Ireland has a virtual and an actual face, and those faces do not necessarily see eye to eye. That Janus figure is currently also appearing on the Irish stage.
33 Sahar Abbass, a delegate from Cairo to the 2005 IASIL conference in Prague, pointed out that Irish theatre is virtually unknown in Egypt, and that the general population has no impression of Ireland beyond a vague notion that its inhabitants are prone to violence for no apparent reason. 34 Lonergan, “Laughter” 654.
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Jason King
Black Saint Patrick: Irish Interculturalism in Theoretical Perspective & Theatre Practice “I had a dream [in which] there are no slaves and no masters,” declares Saint Patrick, played by a Nigerian asylum‐seeker in Ireland, in the final scene of Calypso theatre company’s production of Mixing It On The Mountain which was performed over the course of the St. Patrick’s Festival in 2003.1 In the words of the company’s artistic director, Bairbre Ní Chaoimh: “Mixing It On The Mountain grew out of a multi‐ethnic project called “The Tower of Babel” which the company initiated in February 2002 […to provide] a series of drama and music workshops […] in the hall of O’Connell’s Christian Brothers’ School in Dublin for a group of young people from Ireland, Nigeria, Angola, Albania, Kosovo, Palestine, Macedonia, and Vietnam.”2 The play itself featured a mixed cast of professional Irish actors and unaccompanied minors, with the former cast in the role of Celtic raiders and slave traders whose captives were played by child asylum‐seekers in the care of the state, many of whom have gone on to perform in a variety of intercultural theatrical spectacles which this article will examine. For example, on 14 March 2003, the cast of Mixing It On The Mountain performed the final scene of the play on the Late Late Show, alongside Irish and Welsh celebrities such as Westlife, Tom Jones, and Christie Moore. Two years later, however, on 15 March 2005, the life paths of the cast’s professional Irish actors and child asylum‐seekers had radically diverged. Thus, the production’s professional Irish actress, Lisa Lambe, had
1 Unpublished Script. Maeve Ingoldsby, Mixing It On The Mountain (Dublin: Calypso Productions, Revised Script, 3 March 2003) 40. 2 Bairbre Ní Chaoimh, “Programme Note” for Mixing It On The Mountain, Calypso Productions (March 2003) 3.
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achieved considerable success and was cast in Rough Magic’s musical comedy entitled Improbable Frequency, which had recently transferred from Dublin’s Project Arts Centre to the Abbey Theatre, whereas one of the Nigerian actors3 from “The Tower of Babel” who appeared alongside her in Mixing It On The Mountain found himself incarcerated in Dublin Airport, having been arrested earlier that day and about to be deported, although after a last minute legal intervention he was granted a stay of deportation, and so he remains in Ireland.4 The obvious ideological contraction between cultural acclamation and exclusion experienced by these young Irish and African actors after they appeared together in the same production is illustrative of the polarising effects of globalisation and its impact upon the development of Irish cultural life and theatrical forms: one that points up the vast disparity between entitlements and opportunities that were available to them as a result of the accident of their respective births on either side of the North‐South geopolitical divide. More broadly speaking, it is an ideological contradiction that implicitly puts into question the capacity of Irish culture to generate its own social imaginaries, and of whether any symbolic capital accrues from cultural achievement to immigrants in Ireland. Recently, I have examined the intercultural aspirations and performative dimension of Calypso’s production of Mixing It On The Mountain in The Irish Review;5 here I want to shift my focus away from the production
3 At the request of Calypso Productions, I will not identify any members of its “Tower of Babel” project. 4 Kitty Holland, “Immigration Bureau Prepares to Deport 80 Nigerians,” Irish Times, 15 March 2005. 5 Jason King, “Interculturalism and Irish Theatre: The Portrayal of Irish Immigrants on the Irish Stage,” Irish Review, 33 (Spring, 2005): 23‐39. See also Victor Merriman, “Songs of Possible Worlds: Nation, Representation and Citizenship in the Works of Calypso Productions,” Theatre Stuff: Critical Essays on Contemporary Irish Theatre, ed. Eamonn Jordan (Dublin: Carysfort Press, 2000) 280‐91.
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itself to consider the actual fate of black Saint Patrick as well as his fellow immigrant cast members from “The Tower of Babel,” many of whom have been served with deportation notices in the past year. In particular, I want to argue that the portrayal of Celtic masters and African slaves in Mixing It On The Mountain is itself reflective of a wider Hegelian master‐slave dialectic that is inscribed in the interrelations between asylum‐seekers and members of the Irish host society: one that is obviously debilitating for the slaves, but is also potentially damaging for the masters, specifically in relation to conceptions of Irish culture. From a broader perspective, it is the question of whether one can become culturally Irish—or Irish at all—through purely cultural means that is of most concern here. My intention, then, is to consider the plight of “The Tower of Babel’s” immigrant actors in relation to ideals of interculturalism in Ireland that they are often called upon to embody and enact as spurious agents of social and cultural diversity who gain no obvious reciprocal right to remain in the ostensibly culturally diverse society they appear to represent. In the master‐slave dialectic, “as interpreted by Kojève,” notes Michael Valdez Moses, “Hegel tells a philosophical tale in which human history begins with a violent struggle for prestige between two human beings”: “what Kojève […] calls the ‘struggle’ for ‘universal recognition.’”6 and what Charles Taylor modifies into “the politics of recognition” in his seminal work entitled Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition.7 Thus, the dialectic of the master and the slave involves the former’s subjugation of the latter in order to achieve external recognition of his mastery and human dignity, only for the master to become ironically dependent on the slave for the provision of
6 Michael Valdez Moses, The Novel and the Globalization of Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995) 6. 7 Charles Taylor, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1994) 26.
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that recognition which is nevertheless unsatisfying because of the slave’s lack of human dignity and patent inequality to begin with. This is precisely the type of relationship that is enacted between Irish masters and African slaves in Mixing It On The Mountain. The inequitable and obviously self‐defeating nature of their exchange in the formulation of identity both encapsulates and reflects the paradoxical struggle for recognition that takes place between asylum‐seekers and members of the Irish host society in the world off stage. Both asylum‐seekers and members of the Irish host society exhibit symptoms of mutual dependency, in other words, in their respective forms of desire for political and cultural recognition from one another that nevertheless work at cross purposes from each other rather than provide the basis for meaningful and reciprocal intercultural exchange. For if the task of the intercultural theatre practitioner, as Rustom Bharucha contends, is to explore and subvert “different modes of citizenship across different national contexts, through subjectivities that are [relatively unmediated] by the agencies of the state,” then the absolute vulnerability of the asylum‐seeker before those state agencies circumvents any meaningful “process of exchanging differences”8 from developing out of their intercultural encounter. Instead, the Irish host society appears dependent upon asylum‐seekers from across the North‐South geopolitical divide in order to make recognisable its sense of cultural diversity to itself, whereas those asylum‐ seekers who perform in spectacles of intercultural contact are in no way engaged in a process of reciprocal cultural exchange but remain politically and socially unrecognisable in the eyes of the Irish state. Thus, I want to focus, in particular, on three recent examples of intercultural theatrical spectacle in which members
8 Rustom Bharucha, The Politics of Cultural Practice: Thinking through Theatre in an Age of Globalization (London: The Athlone Press, 2000) 33, 37.
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of Calypso’s “Tower of Babel” youth theatre group have performed that exemplify the development of this master‐slave dialectic in contemporary Irish society: namely, 1) their appearance in Mixing It On The Mountain; 2) their performance under the auspices of Arambe theatre company as part of The Parable of the Plums street theatre dramatisation of the “Aeolus” episode of Ulysses that officially marked the Bloomsday Centenary on 16 June 2004; and 3) their performance on 24 November 2004, for Ireland’s former President Mary Robinson in honour of her visit to O’Connell Schools in Dublin, where many of them are enrolled. What all of these examples of intercultural theatrical spectacle have in common, I want to suggest, is their tendency to infuse the defining markers of Irish historical memory with a spirit of cultural diversity—whether it be the myth of Saint Patrick, the Bloomsday Centenary, or the achievement of the “Celtic Tiger’s” modernity and prosperity during the Robinson era. And yet, the cumulative effect of these reclamations of Irish historical memory in the name of cultural diversity has been to stage an ideal of interculturalism that appears at odds with the actual life experiences of those immigrant theatre practitioners who have been called upon to enact it. Recent Irish theatre criticism has grappled with the impact of globalisation on the development of Irish theatrical forms, and questioned the adequacy of postcolonial theory to provide an interpretive framework that situates Irish drama in relation to contemporary social reality;9 but there has been surprisingly little discussion to date about the emergence of “intercultural theatre“ in Ireland, or about the capacity of Irish theatre to reflect the experiences of those immigrants most effected by the
9 See, in particular, Patrick Lonergan, “Recent Irish Theatre: The Impact of Globalization,” New Voices in Irish Criticism 4, eds. Fionnuala Dillane and Ronan Kelly (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2003) 19‐28; and Shaun Richards, “Throwing Theory at Ireland? The Field Day Theatre Company and Postcolonial Theatre Criticism,” Modern Drama, 47.4 (Winter 2004): 607‐23.
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socio‐economic processes of globalisation. Indeed, few Irish theatre scholars have engaged with the theoretical perspectives on intercultural theatre developed by critics like Patrice Pavis and especially Rustom Bharucha in The Politics of Cultural Practice,10 let alone considered what the contours of an Irish interculturalism would actually look like in specific theatre practice. By contrast, the question of whether ideals of Irish nationality have been either amenable or inhospitable to external cultural influence is one that has both exercised and divided contemporary theorists. At the risk of oversimplifying, then, I want to propose that there are two competing models of interculturalism in Ireland today, developed by Declan Kiberd and Ronit Lentin, both of whom deploy the concepts of psychoanalysis to explain Irish attitudes towards the arrival of immigrants in relation to the historical memory of emigration which Ronit Lentin has memorably described as the “return of the national repressed.”11 In the case of Declan Kiberd, he has argued “that Ireland itself was always multi‐cultural, in the sense of being eclectic, open, and assimilative,” because “the history of the Irish, themselves dispossessed yet ever more sure of their communal identity, seemed to bear out the idea of a nation open to endless joiners.”12 The historical ideal of Irish nationality is in no way inherently inhospitable, in other words, to external cultural influences or the interests of immigrants or minorities living in Ireland now. This can be fairly described as a liberal model of interculturalism that seeks to rehabilitate the ideal of Irish nationality and what Gerard Delanty terms “the
10 Bharucha, The Politics of Cultural Practice 20‐44. 11 Ronit Lentin, “Anti‐racist Responses to the Racialisation of Irishness: Disavowed Multiculturalism and its Discontents,” Racism and Anti‐Racism in Ireland, eds. Ronit Lentin and Robbie McVeigh (Belfast: Beyond the Pale, 2002) 233. 12 Declan Kiberd, “Strangers in their Own Country,” Multi‐Culturalism: A View from the Two Irelands (Cork: Cork University Press, 2001) 63, 55.
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republican conception of political community”13 from charges of cultural insularity, as Luke Gibbons also does in his entry on “Versions of National Identity” in the Field Day Anthology.14 For Kiberd, traditional standard bearers of Irish national identity are in no way antagonistic towards the arrival of newcomers in Ireland. Indeed, he argues that the struggle for recognition by Irish language advocates might even provide a model of communitarian cultural activism for immigrant Nigerian and Romanian communities, in defining a place for themselves in the mainstream of modern Irish society. His basic premise that there is nothing inherently inhospitable in the ideal of Irish nationality to external cultural influence would seem to be irrefutable, but mainly because he never discovers the limits of his own analysis. There are certainly occasions, for example, when the interests of Irish language advocates are pitted directly against those of immigrants in Ireland, such as An Garda Síochána’s “plan to waive the mandatory provision that Garda recruits must be able to speak Irish” in order to achieve “greater ethnic and cultural diversity within the force.”15 Real questions of interculturalism arise, in other words, as is the case in Hegelian tragedy, when two positive public ideals appear irreconcilably at odds and in conflict with one another. By contrast, Ronit Lentin would argue that the normative cultural ideal of Irish nationality, from the moment of its inception and institutionalisation in the Irish State, has been inherently racialised, even though Ireland historically “was never the monoculture” that it represented itself to be.16 Thus,
13 Gerard Delanty, “Irish Political Community in Transition,” Irish Review, 33 (Spring, 2005): 15. 14 Luke Gibbons, “Constructing the Canon: Versions of National Identity,” Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing, Vol. II, ed. Seamus Deane (Derry: Field Day Publications, 1991) 950‐55. 15 Carl O’Brien, “Garda Entry Rules to Change in Effort to Attract Ethnic Minorities,” Irish Times, 23 August 2005. 16 Lentin, “Anti‐racist Responses” 21.
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she “propose[s] that a political theory of Irish multiculturalism must begin with an interrogation of the [idea of the] nation”17 and nationality in Ireland, rather than envisioning it, as Kiberd does, in terms of a receptive host that is infinitely amenable to the interplay of cultural differences. For Lentin, then, a figure like Leopold Bloom is exemplary “of the racialisation of the Irish Jews,”18 whereas for Kiberd he has much “more in common with the members of the historic Irish nation” who, like Bloom, were always suspicious, Kiberd claims, of mono‐ cultural ideals.19 If Kiberd is unwilling to countenance intercultural conflict, however, then Lentin herself is too beholden to poststructuralist criticism, and too dismissive of what she terms “the official version of the Irish nation”20 and its conception of cultural and national identity, which she would seem ready to dismantle in their entirety. Deconstruction without reconstruction is perfectly legitimate for identifying the aporia, and lack of narrative resolution or closure in literary texts, but has more limited scope for application in the social sphere, where questions about cultural identity, definitions of citizenship, and of the pathways to national belonging are absolutely never left unresolved. What Kiberd and Lentin have in common, on the other hand, is a tendency to interpret the spectre of the immigrant in Ireland in terms of “the return of the national repressed”: as a collective psychological catalyst, in other words, for the recrudescence of “the pain of emigration, returning to haunt the Irish”21 from the deep recesses of historical memory, as manifest in the form of dramatic and literary texts. Their mutual insistence that Irish expressions of antipathy towards immigrants are rooted in the return of the national repressed is
17 Lentin, “Anti‐racist Responses” 233. 18 Lentin, “Anti‐racist Responses” 154. 19 Kiberd, “Strangers” 63. 20 Lentin, “Anti‐racist Responses” 230. 21 Lentin, “Anti‐racist Responses” 233.
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obviously indebted to Kristeva’s idea that the fear of the stranger is predicated upon a more internal anxiety about self‐ alienation from “the Other“ we harbour within ourselves. The crucial difference, however, is that for Kiberd and Lentin Irish anxiety about the immigrant is a resolutely historical and culturally specific phenomenon that is embedded in the collective memory of migration, whereas for Kristeva the fear of the stranger is a product of a more universalised condition of self‐alienation in which “we are foreigners to ourselves.”22 The point, then, is that each of the intercultural theatrical spectacles that I have alluded to is explicitly designed to engender sympathy for immigrants by making specific points of cultural and historical connection between them and the definitive markers of Irish historical memory, by insisting upon the commonality of experience between Irish nationals and newcomers as fellow migrant peoples. In Mixing It On The Mountain, for example, Ireland’s patron saint was cast as a black Saint Patrick in order to symbolically conflate the nation’s foundational myth with the lived experience of vulnerable asylum‐seekers appearing on stage. Less certain than the play’s narrative resolution of the master‐slave relationship, however, is the question of whether it will have any force or impact upon the lives of the actual African and Irish actors and audience members who came together from the world off‐stage for each of the work’s performances. It is a question that is pertinent not simply to Mixing It On The Mountain but to other examples of intercultural theatrical spectacle as well. A case in point is the ground breaking Parable of the Plums street theatre performance—funded by Ireland’s Arts Council and Dublin City Council—that took place under the spire on O’Connell Street on 16 June 2004, one of the cultural high points of the Bloomsday Centenary. It was a compelling theatrical spectacle,
22 Julia Kristeva, Strangers to Ourselves, trans. Leon S. Roudiez (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991) 170.
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which has been incisively described by Matthew Spangler. According to Spangler, the Parable of the Plums was a “ground breaking and transgressive work of Irish street theatre” because its organisers—Brian Fleming, Raymond Keane, and Bisi Adigun—”recruited performers from Dublin’s inner city Asian and West African communities,” including members of “The Tower of Babel,” in order to make “a powerful statement about contemporary race relations and Irish identity.”23 The confluence of the Bloomsday Centenary and the Citizenship referendum only five days earlier made this public performance a “radical gesture,” in Spangler’s view, precisely because it transformed what had previously been regarded simply as a celebration of Joyce’s text into a vibrant theatrical spectacle of “cultural diversity and racial amalgamation” that “made a bold and progressive statement very much within the spirit of Ulysses itself.” Ultimately, Spangler concludes, the Parable of the Plums did more than simply show Dublin’s racial diversity. It [also] invited people of colour to participate in a theatrical representation of one of Ireland’s national literary treasures, and in doing so, implicitly conferred equal citizenship upon them at a time when many are struggling for equal rights.24
The uncertainty that arises from Spangler’s insightful analysis, however, is what social and political efficacy this spectacle of cultural conferral of citizenship on asylum‐seekers will actually have on their lives off‐stage, and that remains a very open question. For those who are currently under threat of deportation, theirs is not a struggle for equal rights but rather the most basic of rights to remain in Ireland, to be granted a stay of deportation and leave to remain. Thus, in cultural and theoretical terms, theirs is not even a struggle for recognition in
23 Matthew Spangler, “The Parable of the Plums,” Theatre Journal, 57.1 (2005): 100. 24 Spangler, “The Parable of the Plums” 102, 103.
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the communitarian sense because as asylum‐seekers they remain juridically unrecognisable in the eyes of the Irish State. Indeed, less than six months after their performance in Parable of the Plums many of its African cast members from “The Tower of Babel” did receive deportation notices, and were under threat of deportation when they performed for Mary Robinson on 24 November 2004 at O’Connell Schools in Dublin. In response to their performance of yet another intercultural theatrical spectacle, Mary Robinson paid tribute to them for providing “a wonderful opportunity for Irish people to renew ourselves in a new, modern, vibrant, and diverse Ireland.”25 The ideological contradiction that underlines Mary Robinson’s statement, Mixing It On The Mountain, and the Bloomsday Centenary is that many of the African asylum‐ seekers who have performed in these events and acted as agents for Irish cultural renewal and embodiments of “the new, modern, vibrant, and diverse Ireland” have enjoyed few benefits and thus far only narrowly escaped deportation from the intercultural Irish nation they have helped to define. Like in the master‐slave dialectic, they are needed by Irish society to provide visible emblems of its cultural diversity and renewal while they remain in a situation of complete dependency, as figures who simultaneously embody a form of cultural recognition yet suffer social and political occlusion from the mainstream of the Irish social order. In conclusion, the cultural conferral of citizenship that is implicit in The Parable of the Plums, the invitation to the cast of Mixing It On The Mountain to appear on The Late Late Show, and in former President Robinson’s endorsement of “The Tower of Babel” requires a political complement if the ideological contradiction engendered in contemporary Irish culture’s master‐slave dialectic is to be meaningfully resolved. At stake is not simply the well‐being of individual immigrant performers,
25 “School of Welcome,” Face Up, 5.1 (January 2005): 39.
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but the capacity of Irish culture itself to produce what David Bennett terms “politically representable citizens”26 and to generate its own pathways of national belonging, along which the contours of an emergent ideology of Irish interculturalism will to some degree take shape. Whether or not it will incorporate “the pulse of an anti‐racist tradition in Ireland,” which is based, in Steve Garner’s view, on “Ireland’s long experience of colonialism, and anti‐colonial organisation, its positive links with the developing world, and potential empathy with emigrants”27 remains open to question. The very ideal of Irish interculturalism itself is implicated, in other words, in the fate of “The Tower of Babel’s” immigrant actors, who have been educated in Irish schools and called upon by various agencies of the Irish culture industry to showcase Irish social diversity as exemplars of cultural integration in practice. These agencies of the Irish culture industry, such as The Irish Arts Council, Dublin City Council, and Mary Robinson herself represent powerful institutions and social actors that could apply pressure to have their respective cultural conferrals of citizenship on vulnerable immigrants politically realised in the form of discretionary leave to remain, within the provisions of Irish immigration law, on the basis of their length of residence, degree of integration, and potential contribution to Irish society.28 Irish based artists and academics should also not be indifferent to but should empathise with the plight of “The Tower of Babel” immigrant theatre practitioners. As the most vulnerable members of the Irish arts community, their fate is also intertwined with broader conceptions of Irish culture,
26 David Bennett, Multicultural State: Rethinking Identity and Difference (London: Routledge, 1998) 12. 27 Steve Garner, Racism in the Irish Experience (London: Pluto Press, 2004) 221. 28 Ursula Fraser, “Complementary Protection and Temporary Protection,” Sanctuary in Ireland: Perspectives on Asylum Law and Policy, eds. Ursula Fraser and Colin Harvey (Dublin: Institute of Public Administration, 2003) 211‐14.
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including the question of whether Irish theatre is amenable to either external cultural influence or internal cultural difference, or even capable of representing the polarising effects of globalisation. It is singularly ironic, for example, that at approximately the same time that “The Tower of Babel” members were being served their deportation notices, a “Culture Ireland” agency was established for “the promotion of [Irish] artistic endeavours overseas.”29 And yet, if culture is only for export and not to be absorbed from newcomers and new communities, then Ireland will become increasingly incapable of any form of reciprocal cultural exchange. There is a danger of the calcification of Irish culture in the global era, in other words, that is portended in the fate of Calypso’s “Tower of Babel”: whereby the oxygen of external cultural influence might become increasingly thin, and the breathing space for meaningful integration and reciprocal cultural exchange ever more constricted, because those communal leaders and cultural intermediaries most capable of providing viable models of integration were deported from the country after the completion of their artistic endeavours. The cultural conferral of citizenship is meaningless, in other words, if Irish artists and theatre practitioners cannot persuade politicians and decision makers to make use of their legislative powers and due discretion in the form of leave to remain in order to transform the intercultural artistic visions manifested in Mixing It On The Mountain, the Bloomsday Centenary, or former President Robinson’s rhetoric of “cultural renewal” into a social and political reality. Ultimately, the question of whether Irish culture is inherently hospitable or insular in relation to cultural difference, intrinsically racialised or receptive to external cultural influence, hangs in the balance, but is inextricably intertwined with the fate of Calypso’s “Tower of Babel” immigrant theatre practitioners.
29 Irish Times, 2 February 2005.
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II POSTMODERNITY, EXILE & HOME
Rajeev S. Patke
Paul Muldoon’s “Incantata”: the “Post‐” in “Postmodern” Poetry and the Two “Post‐”s: Introductory Claims Notions that qualify a term through the use of the prefix “post’”—such as “postmodern“—are at once both opportune and importunate, especially in relation to poetry. What makes them importunate is their ill‐concealed propensity to crowd diversity and difference beneath an umbrella of bent concepts and threadbare clichés. What makes them opportune when it comes to talking about poetry is the likelihood that the “post‐” might offer some account of how the aftermath of “modern“ might be implicated in the ways in which the poem can be read. The reading serves two aims: a) it helps one clarify one’s response to specific instances of contemporary poetry, and b) it uses instances of contemporary poetry to test the usefulness of a discourse informed by the “post‐modern.” My claims are contingent upon the poem I propose to examine here: Paul Muldoon’s “Incantata.” The notion of “postmodern” does not have to be treated as if it were necessary to how the poet went about the writing of the poem, nor does my argument imply that what is sustainable on the basis of a reading of one poem could be valid for other poems or poets. Clarifying “Modern”/”Postmodern” Since the term I invoke is notoriously diffuse, and defers to and differs from the word it qualifies, the use of either here might require a brief description. I shall recognise “modern“ as mediated by two contrary manifestations: “modernity” (or “modernisation”) and “modernism.” I read “modernity” as referring to a social project with utopian and Enlightenment origins, and “modernism” as referring to art practices whose implications can be treated either as symptoms of the influence 61
of modernity on culture, or as the reaction of artists to the social and cultural consequences of modernity. I also distinguish between “postmodernity“ and “postmodernism,” taking the first to refer to a cultural predicament, and the second to refer to an ideology of art practices. I take “modernism“ to refer to a phenomenon which found its most concentrated expression in European (and American) art during the early decades of the twentieth century. I use the term as a form of retrospective nomination that refers broadly to four forms of rupture in a traditional view of art. In terms of poetry, the first affects the relation between the poem as artefact and the poet as artist (a movement away from self‐expression towards objectification), the second concerns the relation between poem and reality (a movement from relatively uncomplicated representation to an internalisation of reference), the third concerns the relation between poem and audience (a movement away from giving the consumers what they expect), and the fourth concerns the relation between poem and poetry (a movement towards greater self‐reflexivity about the relation of the poem to the historicity of poetic forms, conventions, and traditions). Artists and writers who were among the earliest and the most innovative in presenting these four relations in a state of acute crisis constitute the modernist generations; the artists and writers who respond to the sense of crisis with an attitude of belated (i.e. self‐reflexive) irony can be called postmodern. I shall develop these claims in more detail later with reference to Muldoon, keeping in mind three features identified by Lyotard in “Note on the Meaning of ‘Post‐’” (1988): the historical need to break with tradition and find a new direction, resulting in a rupture, a way of forgetting or repressing the past that repeats without surpassing; the coming to grief of human aspirations to knowledge and technology that were meant to lead to freedom and emancipation; and finally, creativity in the arts as a form of
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anamnesis, that is, a recalling to memory, with medicinal overtones of diagnosis and therapy.1 Muldoon’s Elegy: Formal Features Elegy as a poetic form—uniquely occasional yet universal and perennial, at once intensely private and ceremonially public— entails a responsibility in which the freedom to forget negotiates with the obligation to remember. What Muldoon admires in Robert Frost, “his mischievous, sly, multi‐layered quality,”2 is here obliged to address the matter of death, grief, loss, despair, and emptiness. Terry Eagleton remarks in the context of Ireland and revisionism that in respect to amnesia and nostalgia, “the inability to remember and the incapacity to do anything else, are terrible twins. The genuinely free nation would be one which could recollect its history without fetishising it, praise its popular leaders without canonising them.”3 I would like to transpose the terms of this description to “Incantata,” where Mary Flowers is the person to be praised without being made into a fetish, while the poet who would be a nation unto himself struggles to balance the compulsion toward nostalgia with the need for amnesia. The form Muldoon chooses for his elegy has certain curious properties: 45 eight‐line stanzas, rhymed loosely, that is, freely mixing slant rhyme, half‐rhyme, consonance and assonance, and with flexible line length that accommodates three shorter lines in each stanza, generally (but not invariably) the second and fifth lines. Peter McDonald notes that the rhyme scheme aab bcddc is “taken from Cowley by Yeats for ‘In Memory of
1 Jean François Lyotard, The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence 1982‐1985, trans. and ed. Julian Pefanis and Morgan Thomas (1988; Sydney: Power Publications; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992) 75‐80. 2 Lyn Keller, “An Interview with Paul Muldoon,” Contemporary Poetry, 35.1 (1994): 131. 3 Terry Eagleton, Crazy Jane and the Bishop and Other Essays on Irish Culture (Cork: Cork University Press, 1998) 314.
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Major Robert Gregory.’”4 In his book on elegy, Peter Sacks associates Yeats’s use of the rhyme scheme with “its celebration of passionate energy expressed in the rhythmic momentum” and “the assertion of a force that seems to outlast individual death, a more than personal life‐force associated with happiness and joy.”5 The rhyme scheme, as used by Muldoon, is less foregrounded than in Yeats, given Muldoon’s quite deliberately approximate notion of what constitutes a rhyme. But there is an additional baroque nuance to the prosodic scheme of the poem, which could be said to apply to the poem as a whole a logic of reverse‐imaging found in the sestina. The rhymes of the first stanza correspond to those of the last; those of the second correspond to those of the penultimate, and so on. Thus, the first 22 stanzas mirror the rhymes of the last 22, leaving stanza 23 as a kind of centre piece: 1=45
2=44
3=43
4=42
5=41 9=37 13=33 17=29 21=25
6=40 10‐36 14=32 18=28 22=24
7=39 11=35 15=31 19=27 23
8=38 12=34 16=30 20=26
At the level of form, this adds up to a kind of half‐way house between the semblance of freedom and an extreme degree of (partially concealed) formalism. End‐words play gently with their counterparts from lines near and far. Their logic is no less compelling for being half‐concealed, so that the surprise or illusion of fortuitous agreement in sound is harmonised with the absolute determinacy of a given pattern, no less binding for being arbitrary. Ian Gregson notes how the half rhymes “do not
4 Peter McDonald, Mistaken Identities: Poetry and Northern Ireland (Oxford: Clarendon, 1997) 182. 5 Peter Sacks, The English Elegy: Studies in the Genre from Spenser to Yeats (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985) 271.
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so much clinch ideas as force a double take that reassesses them.”6 McDonald notes that the fatalism with which the subject of the elegy accepted her cancer is matched formally by poet’s structural logic: “‘nothing’s random, nothing arbitrary’ in language or in life.”7 Consider the very first stanza of “Incantata.” It illustrates the casual, throw‐away quality with which Muldoon indulges his capacity for spontaneously far‐fetched associations that manage to appear random without compromising the formalism of his rhyme scheme. It also illustrates another aspect of responsibility: towards the freedom that even death and grief must not solicit or circumscribe. Terry Eagleton has remarked of Yeats that he “has in common with the modernists a certain philosophical extremism: his scenarios are often violent, histrionic, unbalanced, even savage; but the very stability and well‐temperedness of the verse‐forms can succeed wonderfully well in concealing this.”8 A comparable kind of concealment is at work in Muldoon’s formal predilections: his forms tend to be more flexible than those of Yeats, and what he brings to them is less well‐temperedness than a form of affability, which is at ease with every type of dishevelment from half‐rhymes to anarchism. This is how “Incantata” begins: I thought of you tonight, a leanbh, lying there in your long barrow colder and dumber than a fish by Francisco de Herrera, as I X‐Actoed from a spud the Inca glyph for a mouth: thought of that first time I saw your pink spotted torso, distant‐near as a nautilus, when you undid your portfolio, yes indeedy, and held the print of what looked like a cankered potato at arm’s length—your arms being longer, it seemed, than
6 Ian Gregson, Contemporary Poetry and Postmodernism: Dialogue and Estrangement (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996) 53. 7 Gregson, Contemporary Poetry and Postmodernism 184. 8 Eagleton, Crazy Jane and the Bishop 288.
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Lugh’s.9
The Irish reader might pick up a leanbh (child of our clan), and the allusion to Lugh of the Long Arm (a Celtic Mercury), and many might be familiar with X‐Acto blades, but Francisco de Herrera is bound to send all but the most compendious art critic scurrying to the library or the Internet search engine. Peter McDonald observes that “In praising Muldoon’s transformative allusions and counter allusions, one is also, to some degree, praising his folly.”10 In other words, allusions are scattered habitually by Muldoon, like chaff in the eyes of the unwary; but here, their function is to distract grief and cure sorrow, without necessarily giving up on the freedom to amuse the knowing and befuddle the ignorant, while making all that scattering of references cohere now in unavailing retrospection around the single loss that had held them magnetised while Mary Powers had been alive, along with her cancer and her predetermination to let the pattern she believed in take shape in death. The reader is thus made to feel as if he intrudes on private conversation between friends and lovers, or on a surreal monologue of overheard thoughts. Take the first analogy: was de Herrera (the Elder? the Younger?) really the last word on painting cold dumb fish? The pun on “dumb” is not without its pathos, since dumb as speechless merges oddly with the sense of how dumb as foolish is used as a sort of belated reproach administered by the poet to his beloved for having accepted a course of action in relation to illness that he regarded as unwise. The potato that the poet carves into an Inca glyph alludes to a potato from an earlier poem from Quoof (1983): “Mary Earl Powers: Pink Spotted Torso.”11 Carving a glyph is an act of commemoration solemn in intent; doing so with a potato
9 Paul Muldoon, Poems 1968‐1998 (London: Faber, 2001) 331. Further references to this edition appear in the text. 10 McDonald, Mistaken Identities 156. 11 Cf. Muldoon, Poems 1968‐1998 113‐14.
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renders the solemnity in playful terms. Affectionate remembrance holds not just a cankered potato, or its image, or the recollection of its image, but death itself, at arm’s length: distant yet near. The glyph carved into the potato also becomes an emblem for the poet’s function, the mouth through which art speaks: I wanted the mouth in this potato‐cut to be heard far beyond the leaden, rain‐glazed roofs of Quito, to be heard al the way from the southern hemisphere to Clontarf or Clondalkin. (335)
Muldoon’s Elegy: Self‐reflexivity via Auden and MacNeice Muldoon’s elegy provides ground on which to build a sense of how art may deal with life, its potato‐like ordinariness, and the violence (in this case, the violation of life caused by cancer) seeded within that ordinariness. Stanza 19 offers a meditation on this theme: I thought again of how art may be made, as it was by André Derain, of nothing more than a turn in the road where a swallow dips into the mire or plucks a strand of bloody wool from a strand of barbed wire in the aftermath of Chickamauga or Culloden and builds from pain, from misery, from a deep‐seated hurt, a monument to the human heart. (335)
Muldoon here traverses again the ground he had covered in “7 Midagh Street” (1987), where several voices had debated about the merits of the view expressed by Auden in his elegy on Yeats, that poetry makes nothing happen, and the voice of Louis MacNeice was adopted to ventriloquise the following: Wystan likes to tell how he lost his faith in human nature […] Since when he’s set himself up as a stylite 67
waiting for hostilities to cease, a Dutch master intent only on painting an oyster […]. (190)
Louis’s eventual and partly Yeatsian retort to this is as follows: In dreams begin responsibilities; it was on account of just such an allegory that Lorca was riddled with bullets […] For poetry can make things happen– not only can, but must– and the very painting of an oyster is in itself a political gesture. (192)
Within each insouciant postmodernist there lurks a hurt modernist. After all, as Zygmunt Bauman reminds us, “Modernism was a protest against broken promises and dashed hopes.”12 It is in that spirit, I would like to suggest, that Muldoon the postmodernist keeps returning to the figure of, and the figures in, Samuel Beckett’s fictional world. They emblematise for Muldoon a sense of being “at a standstill long before the night / things came to a head” (333), a predicament that is both personal and more than personal. Muldoon’s Elegy and Beckett Beckett is an exemplary and companionable presence throughout “Incantata.” Allusions to his work begin in the third stanza with a reference to Krapp’s looking up “viduity” in the dictionary. Being widowed and bereft is thus aptly invoked as recognition that life takes a path not foreseen while perhaps being always already predetermined by a logic that remains
12 Zygmunt Bauman, Postmodernity and its Discontents (Cambridge: Polity, 1997) 96.
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absurd to the pairs in Beckett, Hamm and Clov, Nagg and Nell, Watt and Knott (333). “Incantata” hinges on the central 23rd stanza, in which the sense of being trapped in a world invented—or first recognised as such—by Beckett is at its strongest: The fact that you were determined to cut yourself off in your prime because it was pre‐determined has my eyes abrim: I crouch with Belacqua and Lucky and Pozzo in the Acacac‐ ademy of Anthropopopometry, trying to make sense of the “quaquaqua” of that potato‐mouth; that mouth as prim and proper as it’s full of opprobrium, with its “quaquaqua,” with its “Quoiquoiquoiquoiquoiquoiquoiquoi.” (336)
However, there is a difference. Things in Beckett are unspeakably desperate. As Adorno remarks of the situation in Endgame: The violence of the unspeakable is mirrored in the fear of mentioning it. Beckett keeps it nebulous. About what is incommensurable with experience as such one can speak only in euphemisms, the way one speaks in Germany of the murder of Jews. It has become a total a priori, so that bombed‐out consciousness no longer has a place from which to reflect on it.13
In contrast, the consciousness in Muldoon is neither quite bombed‐out nor left with no place from which to reflect on his predicament. Therefore, his allusions to the entire cast from Beckett are more a form of inverted snobbery than elective
13 Theodor Adorno, “Trying to Understand Endgame,” Notes on Literature 1, trans. Shierry Weber Nicholsen (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991) 245‐46.
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affinity, which cannot quite mask the gap between their desperation and his misery. Be that as it may, the poet is indeed brought to a standstill by Mary Powers’ belief in a pre‐ determined fate. That now becomes the potato‐mouth which leaves him “eyes abrim,” stuttering with Lucky about life’s derelictions. Up to this point in the poem, the poet has been narrating how the memory of Mary Powers and what they did together comes to mind. From stanza 24 to the end of the poem, that is, for its entire latter half, the poet adopts a syntactic formula of catalogues, a pile of debris, memories piled up as a list of all that won’t now or ever again be the same. The poem, in all its 360 lines, reveals a structure which could be condensed to a single proposition in 3 parts: I thought of you tonight… The fact that you were determined … has my eyes abrim That’s all that’s left of….
The poem concludes with a litany of “of”s. The repetition piles up a mountain of metonymic evocations of times past. Each detail from the final 22 stanzas is like a particle of grit in the eye of memory, which keeps poetic vision alive to what hurts, and keeps it fixed at the point where the narrative of love and grief comes to a standstill because once the reason for the difference between the poet and his theme (of love and grief) has been stated, there is only the past to bring up and lay on the ground of the occasion for elegy. There is no magical leaf that the Irish Hermes, Lugh, might retrieve to “anoint and anneal” Mary (341). In death, she becomes emblematic of loss, and loss becomes emblematic of poetry, its theme and topos. Without it, Orpheus would not only have no chance of recovering Eurydice even in the fictions of his verse, since he would lose that which subsidises his capacity for poetry. What “Incantata” practices as an incantation of grief is also an incantation of verse, Orpheus cutting his fingers on his “steel‐strung lyre” (all half‐puns intended), as the one and only way of keeping his Eurydice alive, as someone never his to lose: 70
Of that poplar‐flanked stretch of road between Leiden and The Hague, of the road between Rathmullen and Ramelton, where we looked so long and hard for some trace of Spinoza or Amelia Earhart, both of them going down with their engines on fire: of the stretch of road somewhere near Urney where Orpheus was again overwhelmed by that urge to turn back and lost not only Eurydice but his steel‐strung lyre. (337)
This is that moment in the poem’s self‐reflexive allegory to which one could apply a now‐familiar image from Benjamin: dialectics at a standstill.14 In Muldoon’s case, the image underlines a fear: not death but poetry’s silencing. When applied to Beckett, however, the image invokes finality and closure: the acceptance of silence, as in the following from Endgame: CLOV: A world where all would be silent and still and each thing in its last place, under the last dust.15
The difference in sameness thus revealed between Muldoon and Beckett might be the border‐crossing between the need for speech and the need for silence where the postcolonial and the postmodern stand frozen. Conclusion To conclude, what then does Muldoon’s poem suggest about the use of “postmodern?” The determinism with which Mary Powers succumbed to, or accepted her fate (“your notion that nothing’s random, nothing arbitrary,” stanza 22) presents a
14 Walter Benjamin, The Arcades Project, trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1999) 911‐12, 917. 15 Samuel Beckett, The Complete Dramatic Works (London: Faber, 1986) 120. Cf. Adorno, “Trying to Understand Endgame” 274.
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view that the poet resists, obliquely. The tension articulated by the poem is not merely between his confession of another person in his life, and her revelation that she too has her “own little secret,” with a sting in its tail (stanza 12). This resistance, however unavailing, illustrates a curious internalisation of a feature identified by Linda Hutcheon (from a Canadian perspective) as part of what brings the two “post‐”s together: “a strong shared concern with the notion of marginalisation, with the state of what we would call ex‐centricity.”16 When the notion of the challenge to a grand narrative is applied to Muldoon’s poem, one could say that it was either Mary Powers who was ex‐centric about her stubborn refusal to seek certain kinds of medical treatment; or that it was Muldoon who was ex‐centric in not being reconciled to her acceptance of the idea of fate. Stanza 14 declares “you had a winningly inaccurate / sense of your own worth.” The poem freezes on the tension between the two viewpoints as on a differend, Lyotard’s term for a situation in which two self‐consistent systems of thought or belief remain mutually incommensurate and incompatible: “I would like to call a differend the case where the plaintiff is divested of the means to argue and becomes for that reason a victim.”17 Muldoon’s poem also illustrates another feature discussed by Hutcheon, the doubleness of irony: “doubleness is what characterises not just the complicitous critique of the post‐ modern, but […] the two‐fold vision of the post‐colonial.”18 I would like to extend the application of this idea of complicity by suggesting that the ambivalent relation at the personal level
16 Linda Hutcheon, “Circling the Downspout of Empire: Post‐colonialism and Postmodernism,” Ariel, 20.4 (1989), rpt. The Post‐colonial Studies Reader, eds. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin (London and New York: Routledge, 1995) 132. 17 Jean‐François Lyotard, The Differend: Phrases in Dispute, trans. Georges Van Den Abbeele (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988) 9. 18 Hutcheon, “Circling” 134.
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between subservience and resistance to another person’s more dominant or authoritative view corresponds at the literary level to the relation self‐consciously dramatised between the world view implied by Muldoon’s persona in “Incantata” and that emblematised within the poem by Beckett’s characters. The allusions to Beckett (somewhat different in this respect from Muldoon’s other habitually more outlandish allusions) function as a badge of ambivalent affiliation. They present Muldoon partly in the guise of the compliant (literary) colonial, a person who is eager to be counted as among the progeny of a particular kind of modernism, the one in which being ex‐centric in art and writing is aimed at corresponding to the many ways in which Beckett’s characters are ex‐centric, with the additional feature that Beckett’s characters are ex‐centric only in terms of relativising the question of whether life itself is somehow ex‐ centric. The postmodern is caught in the act of accepting a history whose shaping force is both acknowledged and turned in the acceptance. Between the two there is both commonality and tension. It seeks a closure to an ambivalence that cannot be resolved. The “post‐” is part of a differend that cannot be resolved.
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Gerold Sedlmayr
Between Copacabana & Annaghmakerrig: Paul Durcan’s Global Perspective In one of the entries in Paul Durcan’s Diary, a collection of pieces for radio published in 2003, Durcan asks: “is there really such a thing as ‘the Settled Community’? […] Are we not all of us Travellers, in our deepest, buried, innermost human feelings?”1 In Durcan’s case, the answer to this rhetorical question must of course be ‘yes.’ His poetry swarms with references to travelling, to moving, within Ireland, but frequently beyond it. Already the titles of some of his collections—O Westport in the Light of Asia Minor (1975), The Berlin Wall Café (1985), or Greetings to Our Friends in Brazil (1999)—indicate his transgressive orientation; a transgressiveness which, from a superficial point of view, may seem to be directionless at times, but whose deep structure always aims to locate what he identifies, in the above quotation, as “our deepest, buried, innermost human feelings.” The long eponymous introductory poem to Greetings to Our Friends in Brazil shall serve here as an illustration, or rather as one possible map of Durcan’s global country. This may sound strange considering that, geographically, the poem is situated in County Mayo, on the west coast of Ireland. The speaker, probably a version of Durcan’s favourite persona ‘Paul Durcan,’ lives in a cottage in the village of Dugort on Achill Island. As if this alone were not enough to stress his remoteness from any metropolitan life, he laconically adds that it is “a cottage with no television.”2 Bearing in mind modern Ireland’s first large‐ scale economic growth in the 1960s—television was introduced
1 Paul Durcan, Paul Durcan’s Diary (Dublin: New Island, 2003) 23. 2 Paul Durcan, “Greetings to Our Friends in Brazil,” Greetings to Our Friends in Brazil: One Hundred Poems (London: Harvill, 1999) 3‐12. All subsequent quotations from this edition of the poem appear in the text.
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in 1962—and its more recent boom as the globalised Celtic Tiger from the 1990s on, especially its top position as a producer of information technology, the speaker’s choice of lodging and voluntary disconnectedness may appear, even to well‐meaning observers, rather ‘provincial.’ You might even begin to suspect that the man is on the run from progress, hiding away in this “ex‐soldier’s outpost / On the side of a mountain—a German soldier / Who had fought on both fronts” (3). Yet it is precisely with this ostensibly unimportant bit of information that Durcan turns his speaker’s inward‐looking position of seclusion and privacy into the outward‐looking position of a public observer, without, however, assuming the Heaneyesque pose of a divine seer. Sleeping on the same “Army surplus bed” (3) which his predecessor used, the speaker connects not only to the politically neutral, economically stagnant, and culturally disillusioned Ireland of the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s, but also beyond it: to the atrocities of the Holocaust as well as to the Second World War’s battlefields the world over. And so, subverting the relaxed and typically humorous, casual tone of Durcan’s narrative, it is difficult not to link the formally closed line “Who had fought on both fronts” with the subsequent “Like everyone else in Mayo and Kerry,” despite its innocent continuation: “I was keen to see the match” (3). The result is an eerie atmosphere which, without necessarily implying the more dubious aspects of Ireland’s self‐understanding during the so‐called ‘Emergency,’3 does make clear that attempts to close oneself off may in fact amount to self‐betrayal.4
3 Cf. e.g. J.J. Lee, Ireland 1912‐1985: Politics and Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 265‐68. 4 A more positive reading might identify the German ex‐soldier’s dwelling with the Heinrich‐Böll Cottage in Dugort which has been used as a residence for artists, including Paul Durcan, since 1992. Just as Böll, in his Irish Journal, reached out beyond Germany, towards Ireland and especially Achill, Durcan, in his work, habitually leaves the borders of his own home country to explore
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This atmosphere, though, quickly disperses in the section that follows. The match in question is the All Ireland Football Final of 1997, which the speaker is on his way to watch—on television!—at his friend Father Patrick O’Brien’s place in Kilmeena, thirty miles away. The occasion itself, the All Ireland Football Final, indicates in which way the speaker’s act of crossing over to the mainland follows, in Eamonn Grennan’s words, the “concept of extension”5 inherent in all of Durcan’s poetry. To watch this match, “the highlight of the year” (4), along with the majority of the Irish, means to have a share in a communitarian act which transcends and, for the time being, dissolves political and other divisions—”No politics; / No jealousy or rivalry” (3)—despite and probably also because of psychological rules shared by football and warfare. Thus, in order to connect and observe, in order to burst open the constricting “cast‐iron frame” (3) of his resting place, the speaker gets in his car in the morning, covers those thirty miles, and drives, first “up the hill to Kilmeena parish church,” from which one can see “the holy mountain / Of Croagh Patrick,” to attend Father O’Brien’s Sunday mass, then down again to have lunch with him “in the Asgard on Westport Quay” (4), and afterwards to his place to watch the match. Though their combination may seem arbitrary, all these places signify both a vertical and a horizontal movement: both spiritual elevation as well as the covering of geographical distance. Croagh Patrick is the mountain thousands of pilgrims climb each year to visit the spot where Saint Patrick, the embodiment of Ireland’s Christian heritage, built his church. Asgard is, of course, not only a restaurant; it is also the realm of the ancient Norse gods. Besides this, Westport has taken on a new role since Durcan, in an early poem, displaced it by illuminating it “in the Light of
other regions. Dugort, seen from this perspective, does not signify stasis and ‘parochialism,’ but, on the contrary, becomes a symbol for movement. 5 Eamon Grennan, “Paul Durcan: A Collage,” The Kilfenora Teaboy: A Study of Paul Durcan, ed. Colm Tóibín (Dublin: New Island, 1996) 70.
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Asia Minor.”6 The latter poem’s threatening implications—”Behind the sky stood God with a cleaver raised”7—are, however, completely absent in this poem. Even the mediocrity of the golfing middle class as well as the “normal social hypocrisies of Sunday church attendance” can be ignored now, since, as the speaker says, “I felt like a man without a care in the world” (4). Surprisingly, this tone of optimism and light ease, triggered off by movement, culminates in a sudden contraction of space and time during the long, meditative description of the mass. “Ordinary Time” is displaced by another time, a time which covers “that instant” in which Father O’Brien “became a prophet of the Lord” and in which “The future [is] not a chimera but a possibility; / The past not a millstone but a life raft” (5). Although physically still, the speaker’s spirit soars high along the vertical axis: rest and dynamism complement each other. After this interval, in the confines of Father O’Brien’s living room, normal pace and movement resume, involving distances even more dramatic than that between the speaker’s place on Achill and Kilmeena. After turning down the volume of the television set, We tuned in to the radio commentary By the cordial Kerry maestro Mícheál Ó Muircheartaig. “We send greetings to you all from Djakarta down to Crossmolina And the ball goes to Kenneth Mortimer having a great game for Mayo He has a brother doing research work on the Porcupine Bank But now it goes to Killian Burns of Kerry The best accordion‐playing cornerback in football today. We hope you’re on the astra if you’re in outer space.
6 Paul Durcan, “O Westport in the Light of Asia Minor,” O Westport in the Light of Asia Minor (1975; London: Harvill, 1995) 13. 7 Durcan, “O Westport” 13.
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On my watch it says two minutes and fifty—three seconds left but We haven’t had time to send greetings to our friends in Brazil Proinnsias O Murchu and Rugerio da Costa e Silva.” (7‐8)
This reported speech is an example of Durcan reaching out into as many directions as possible—to Djakarta in Indonesia, to Brazil, even to a possible audience in outer space—in order to bring them in touch with Ireland—Crossmolina in Mayo, Kerry, the entire audience everywhere in front of their televisions. The relations between these places, however, are never fixable; they change their respective positions to one another as quickly as players in a football match. Arguably, this passage reveals what Durcan wants the globalised Ireland of today to be. If globalisation means that the nations of the world keep chasing the ball of economic and/or political success in order to score their goal of affluence and win the game of power—a chase that involves teams of highly trained and effective global players, furiously played at a pace intended to cover as much territory as possible in as little time as possible—then this game should at least be one marked by fairness and a spirit of friendship. This sounds very idealistic, but it is likely that Durcan, as a poet, has to arrogate such idealism to himself in order to make himself heard and thereby counter the deficits of what Michael Cronin calls the “chrono‐politicisation of Ireland.”8 Because of globalisation, including the development of increasingly efficient information technology and the constantly escalating mobility of the global citizen, “[p]eripherality is no longer geographically but chronologically defined. It is defined by the speed with which information‐rich […] and design‐rich […] goods and services can be delivered to potential consumers.”9
8 Michael Cronin, “Speed Limits: Ireland, Globalisation and the War against Time,” Reinventing Ireland: Culture, Society and the Global Economy, eds. Peadar Kirby, Luke Gibbons and Michael Cronin (London: Pluto, 2002) 55. 9 Cronin, “Speed Limits” 57.
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In its role as the Celtic Tiger, offering exactly these goods and services, Ireland has eventually succeeded in shifting from its longstanding peripheral position into the centre. This, however, involves not only “a dramatic acceleration in the nomadisation of the Irish,”10 it also increases the danger of creating velocities of development that are incompatible with each other and so, when they touch, produce friction. To quote Cronin again: “The general friction is the ideological gear‐change in Ireland where the pure speed of the knowledge‐intensive economy clashes with the different pace and rhythm of groups in the society that cannot delocalise and remain bound to place.”11 In simpler words, there are those who can keep up with the speed and requirements of globalisation while others cannot: The chrono‐politicisation of Ireland thus engenders its own spatial contradictions, its own categories of exclusion and its own redefinition of mobilising myths in Ireland. There is a further aspect to recent changes in Ireland which is that revolutions famously begin with a repudiation of the past and make loud claims for the future. Dromocratic [i.e. speed‐bound] revolutions are no exception. […] The faster you go, the quicker you forget.12
Durcan, in all of his poetry, is careful not to forget. While he is a poet who is obsessed with moving and travelling, who remains neither here nor there but is constantly in transit, he always attempts to keep movement and speed at bay and so remain able to dedicate himself to those victims of friction who are in danger of drowning under the uncontrollable speed wave globalised society is riding on: “The future not a chimera but a possibility; / The past not a millstone but a life raft” (5). Although this global match demands quickness, and although
10 Cronin, “Speed Limits” 57. 11 Cronin, “Speed Limits” 59‐60. 12 Cronin, “Speed Limits” 65.
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there may only be “three seconds left” on the clock, there has to be time “to send greetings to our friends in Brazil” (8), time to play the accordion, time to do “research work on the Porcupine Bank” (7) an extensive shallow section of the Atlantic Ocean near the Irish west coast. The potential results of ‘taking time’ are manifold. While the latter research work may, for example, bring forth certain important geological findings about this maritime phenomenon, it may also reveal that the Porcupine Bank is indeed what remains, as some researchers believe, of the legendary, cloud‐hidden island of Hy‐Brasil.13 As Durcan writes in another poem: “Living in the clouds in Brazil / Or living in the clouds in Ireland / Is vast of a vastness.”14 Throughout all of his poetic journeys, covering immense amounts of space, Durcan is indeed always searching for the promised land which could provide a ‘home.’ Yet he refuses to passively and uncritically move with the throng, choosing his own way, just as Eldad and Medad in the Old Testament Book of Numbers, whose story is referred to in “Greetings to Our Friends from Brazil.” They are blessed by the Lord’s spirit even though they, unlike the remaining elders, “went not out unto the tabernacle.”15 Like them, Durcan is an independent spirit who is not blinded by the superficial glories of progress. As we have already seen, speed and movement alternate constantly with moments of rest and devotion. Otherwise, it would not be possible to perceive those nomads who are travelling at a different speed than their globalising fellow nomads, and who would otherwise be likely to become lost in time and space. In this respect, the last two sections of the poem in question are of utmost importance. The speaker, after saying goodbye to Father O’Brien, embarks “On the Siberian, Saharan, Gobi drive back to Achill Island” and stops on the way “to give a lift / To a
13 Cf. P.A. Ó Síocháin, Ireland—A Journey into Lost Time (Dublin: Foilsiúcháin Eureann, 1985) 112. 14 Paul Durcan, “Samambaia,” Greetings 22. 15 Num 11:26.
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small, middle‐aged woman standing alone / On the edge of the road in the grieving storm” (8). The significance of this character is twofold. Firstly, as the quotation from Joyce’s Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man—”In darkness and secrecy and loneliness” (8)—shows, she represents what Ireland used to stand for: the dark, destitute, backward‐looking, but still alluring image of Mother Ireland, as propagated by the writers of the Irish Renaissance, yet also the rejection of such imagery by Joyce’s Stephen in favour of new, forward and outward‐ looking alternatives. Controversial though both options may be, they, as many others, essentially belong to Ireland’s historical identity, and the obliteration of these or any other components of identity formation by a superimposed, all‐devouring, lofty, and somewhat empty global identity is unacceptable. While it is absolutely indispensable to reach out beyond static concepts of Irishness, every move away from something radically involves this very something and thereby alters it. In Luke Gibbons’s words, Durcan questions “the assumption that welcoming other cultural influences requires an act of amnesia, or a disavowal of the heterogeneous and often conflicting elements within one’s own culture.”16 The poem’s speaker must halt his car to let the lady, who represents these elements, in. There is no way to leave her in the desert, all on her own. Secondly, in contrast to the more abstract issue of the past, there is also the very concrete issue of the present situation of this woman. At one point, the speaker is forced to stop his car altogether, because “the rain teemed so hard I could not see out the windscreen” (9). What follows is a gentle and intimate scene, in which the characters get very close to each other. So close physically, in fact, that the woman can see a baby spider caught up in the speaker’s “bushy left eyebrow” (9). So close, spiritually, that the speaker confesses he takes anti‐depressants. The woman, in turn, confesses that she is so destitute she
16 Luke Gibbons, “The Global Cure? History, Therapy and the Celtic Tiger,” Reinventing Ireland 93.
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hardly knows how to feed her family of nine children, and how to cope with a husband only referred to as “Himself.”17 Realising that this woman is definitely one of society’s losers, the speaker is dumbstruck, hands her some money when she leaves the car, and utters “God bless” (10). Back at home, “in the German soldier’s cottage,” he falls into a mad, repetitive soliloquy, culminating in the following passage: “I hear sheep baa‐baaing to sheep on the mountainside: / Genocide, genocide. / I hear ravens diving the peaks: / Ethnic cleansing, ethnic cleansing. / I hear tied‐up terriers barking: / Thoughtlessness, thoughtlessness” (11). The speaker is back where he set out, back with visions of the Holocaust and war, but whereas his departure then was full of hope and joyful anticipation, he is now completely shattered. If Father O’Brien is correct and “Mercy is by definition exclusively divine” (12), how can a merciless and barbaric world like ours, in which genocide, famine and inequality are still the order of the day, be changed for the better? The divinity and fullness which Croagh Patrick, Asgard, or Hy‐Brasil stand for have disappeared. However, Durcan would not be, in Fintan O’Toole’s words, “the national bard of the Republic of Elsewhere,”18 if he ended this poem in a posture of immobility and resignation. On the contrary, the speaker’s prayer in the end, “Greetings to our friends in Brazil” (12), and its spirituality, referring back to the poem’s moment of
17 A connection can also be established between this woman’s situation and Durcan’s harsh rejection of conservative elements within the Catholic Church, as embodied here by the former “Archbishop of Dublin—/ His Grace John Charles McQuaid” (6). McQuaid’s critique of the so‐called Mother and Child Scheme in the early 1950s led to the government’s decision to abandon it. It would have involved free maternity care for all mothers and free medical care for all children up to the age of sixteen, regardless of income. McQuaid and other church representatives thought that parents alone should be responsible for the family, and not the state; moreover, the scheme was suspected to promote birth control and abortion. Cf. Lee 316‐17. 18 Fintan O’Toole, “In the Light of Things as They Are: Paul Durcan’s Ireland,” The Kilfenora Teaboy 40.
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greatest optimism during Father O’Brien’s mass, signifies that he will get up again and continue his quest for the promised land, searching for signs of humanity behind the rapidly gathering mists of the globalised landscape. After all, the poem stands at the very beginning of a substantial book of poetry. Already in the second poem, Durcan clears through the mist a bit, celebrating Father Frank Murphy, Founder of the Recife Children’s Project [in Brazil], Thirty years working in the streets of Recife, For whom poetry is reality, reality poetry, Who does not carry a gun, Who does not prattle about politics or religion, Whose sign is the thumbs‐up sign of Brazil, […] Che? Frank! No icon he— Revolutionary hero of the twentieth century.19
This is what constitutes Durcan’s “migratory humanity”:20 even in its most surreal moments, his poetry always interlocks with reality, above all the reality of the disadvantaged, no matter when, no matter where. Without disputing the advantages of globalisation, Durcan focuses on and accompanies those who cannot keep up with its pace. Of course, these journeys towards the Other(s) are always journeys towards the Self. Nonetheless, precisely because Durcan dares both himself and the reader to take the detour via the Other(s), they avoid turning into ego‐trips. To take another poem as an example, the speaker—in his role as a famous poet, parading a self‐enclosed haughtiness before giving a reading in São Paulo—unlearns his pride when he is epiphanically confronted with the humility of “a small, lean, nine‐year‐old
19 Paul Durcan, “Recife Children’s Project, 10 June 1995,” Greetings 16. 20 O’Toole, “In the Light” 40.
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black […] shoeshine boy kneeling at my feet,”21 polishing his shoes. True pride belongs to the humble, like this boy, or like another figure who appears, named Fernando, “proudest of the proud,” wheeling the speaker across Copacabana beach, dreaming “his dream / Of emigrating to Phoenix, Arizona,”22 together with his wife and children. Here is the crux: the poet’s global perspective, his refined search for the promised land, has to match itself continuously against Fernando’s, maybe naïve, yet deeply honest aspirations. Durcan’s “Theory of Floating,”23 as he terms it in Cries of an Irish Caveman, is ambivalent and dangerous. Having swum too far out into the sea—this time off the Australian coast—the speaker realises: “I strike out for home. / Only to find myself swimming backwards!”24 But still, for Durcan, only the willingness to venture into unknown territory and thus to risk losing one’s self—learning “The necessity of being nothing”25— opens up the chance of finding it eventually, of being something or someone. Home, accordingly, is equally nowhere and everywhere: “When [Paul Durcan] was in Copacabana he was homesick for Annaghmakerrig; / When he got back to Annaghmakerrig / He was homesick for Copacabana.”26 Or, as he writes elsewhere: “I am homesick for Ireland, / Yet sicker at having / To return to Ireland.”27 In conclusion, Durcan’s border‐crossing poetics is informed, in Derek Mahon’s words, not by the backward, but by “the
21 Paul Durcan, “The Last Shuttle to Rio,” Greetings 17‐18. 22 Paul Durcan, “Fernando’s Wheelbarrows, Copacabana,” Greetings 20‐21. 23 Paul Durcan, “Give Him Bondi,” Cries of an Irish Caveman (London: Harvill, 2001) 6. 24 Durcan, “Give Him Bondi” 8. 25 Durcan, “Give Him Bondi” 19. 26 Paul Durcan, “Self‐Portrait ’95,” Greetings 119. 27 Paul Durcan, “Beatrice Monti della Corte von Rezzori,” The Art of Life (London: Harvill, 2004) 82.
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sideways look.”28 ‘Ireland’—especially the globalised Ireland of the Celtic Tiger—can only be perceived from an angle which has been shifted in one way or another. Whether the point of departure is a wheelbarrow in Copacabana or a spinning high stool in Oslo,29 Durcan cunningly manages to twist perspectives and borderlines, to alter speeds, and to subtly modify ‘exteriors’ so that they surprisingly end up as ‘interiors’ and vice versa. Every journey is, in the end, essentially a journey towards “our deepest, buried, innermost human feelings.”
28 Derek Mahon, “Orpheus Ascending: The Poetry of Paul Durcan,” The Kilfenora Teaboy 165. 29 Cf. Paul Durcan, “Norway,” Greetings 53‐55.
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Kinga Olszewska
Preliminary Notes on the Issue of Exile: Poland & Ireland Exile is at the core of all religions and histories of all nations. We live in an age of migrants, refugees and exiles, and the idea of literary homelessness is part of the experience of all nations and cultures. Homelessness and exile have also become part of Polish and Irish cultures. In the context of Polish and Irish contemporary literature as well as the historical, social and political circumstances of both post‐war republics, exile is not only a physical state of absence and displacement, but most of all it involves a sense of loss of identity and a separation or even banishment from indigenous culture, community, language, tradition and history. Yet, it is important to bear in mind that exile in both Polish and Irish cultures does not connote an exclusively negative experience. Two aspects of exile exist: one of dispossession and the other of hybridity, that is a condition for creativity. Saidean exile as “a condition of terminal loss”1 is supplemented by Kołakowski who recognises exile as a “mental discomfort,” one, however, which “frequently turns out to be productive and […] beneficial.”2 The cross‐cultural and cross‐linguistic experience of exile presents itself as a cultural challenge, which offers more colourful and varied ways of artistic expression. The contact zone of different cultures and languages can sensitise an artist to aspects of culture s/he has never participated in before, and also become a source of encouragement. Dislocation and dispossession bring a culture out of its self‐contained
1 Edward W. Said, Reflections on Exile and Other Literary and Cultural Essays (London: Granta, 2000) 173. 2 Leszek Kołakowski, “In Praise of Exile,” Altogether Elsewhere, ed. Marc Robinson (San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1994) 191.
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environment and posit it in an environment of cultural diversity which, as Homi Bhabha recognises, is a category of comparative ethics, aesthetics and ethnology.3 It cannot be denied that some of the best works of literature were created in exile. Being outside tribal life seems to provide the most fertile ground for creativity. Exile is the mother of invention as the examples of Joyce, Beckett, Nabokov, Conrad, Rushdie, Miłosz and Kołakowski himself have shown. The analysis of Irish and Polish literatures of exile necessitates an awareness of the similarities as well as the differences between the expression of exile in both countries. These are most clearly pronounced in political and cultural contexts. There are three major factors that allow one to place both countries in a comparative context: oppression and the introduction of censorship; the hybridisation of identity; and the extent to which both countries have become diasporic nations. These very factors are suggestive of similarities, but even more so, they draw attention to the stark contrast between the two. Ireland’s politics contained theocratic elements, which targeted the immoral and the indecent that defied the ethics of the Irish Catholic Church. Human sexuality was the subject of taboo; censorship was implemented in order to control all spheres of individual and communal life in a strictly moral sense. Poland was ruled by ideocracy. The question of morality and ethics was posed in the context of human rights rather than in the context of demeanour and carnal knowledge. In Poland, the politics of the state led to dehumanisation and captivity; censorship was sensitive to any manifestation of ‘liberal’ thought. The state in Poland aimed to secularise society and eradicate national culture, while the Irish Catholic Church, due to its firm grip on the moral and cultural aspects of societal life,
3 Homi Bhabha, “Cultural Diversity and Cultural Differences,” The Post‐Colonial Studies Reader, eds. Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin (London: Routledge, 1995) 206.
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aimed to preserve the idea, however distorted, of a national identity. A number of Irish writers have perceived analogies between Polish and Irish experience, both in the context of the Republic as well as Northern Ireland. In The Government of the Tongue Seamus Heaney remarks that there is something ‘attractive’ in the poetry of Eastern Europe that appeals to an Irish reader, which is the moral challenge that an Eastern European poet faces.4 For Brian Moore, Poland was the place where he learned the meaning of endurance, as a term for the resilience of people in the most extreme states of psychological stress and physical deprivation.5 The fact remains that the Polish experience of the Second World War, and of the post‐war totalitarian regime, was much more atrocious than the Irish historical predicament. Tom Paulin has observed that the analogy between Poland and Ireland is “vulnerable in certain points” as Britain was eager to exit the occupied territory; indeed ultimately he finds the comparison particularly shallow.6 Heaney’s close readings of Eastern European poets (Miłosz, Herbert, Mandelstam and Holub in particular) prove the suggestion that comparisons seem vulnerable at times when he notices that: “‘ungoverned’ poetry and poets, in extreme totalitarian conditions, can become a form of alternative government, or government in exile.”7 This “alternative government” created by poetry and poets is the very feature that distinguishes Polish and Irish figures of exile. The nature of Polish exile was extensively political. Repression, persecution and censorship resulted in the exile of many intellectuals and artists. Exile was also an ultimatum given by the state to those whose political views appeared to
4 Seamus Heaney, The Government of the Tongue (London: Faber, 1989) xx. 5 Brian Moore quoted in Denis Sampson, Brian Moore. The Chameleon Novelist (Dublin: Marino, 1998) 59. 6 Tom Paulin, Ireland and the English Crisis (Newcastle upon Tyne: Bloodaxe, 1984) 214. 7 Heaney, The Government 97.
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the authorities too democratic. Political emigration created all the ethical and cultural values of the free nation. The intellectuals and artists in exile were representatives of the “government in exile,” which was divorced from old political solutions and divisions. This “government” was a mainstay of Polishness and cultural continuity. Its prerogatives were the formulation of a new way of thinking, with new cultural values based on and rooted in national culture, and a complete negation and critique of totalitarian systems. The “alternative government” promoted a new political awareness; it secured the continuity of moral and ethical norms and an anti‐ totalitarian viewpoint. The “government in exile” created a new quality of culture which did not address the postulations of an all‐encompassing ideology, and was not a derivative of the unified culture imposed by the Soviet Empire, but appealed to the national literary tradition. This “government” strongly supported the alternative ‘underground’ literature that existed beyond the official structures and that was not controlled by the regime. The Eastern European moral authorities of the “government in exile“ exerted an immense influence on freedom movements in countries ruled by totalitarian regimes. The historical predicament and cultural and political catastrophe that those countries were experiencing invited a revision of the histories of other nations. The response of Irish writers and cultural theoreticians reveals a visible imbalance between the necessity and the nature of poetic responses to the historical and political circumstances in both Ireland and Eastern Europe. Terence Brown noted that poems from such places [Eastern Europe and the Soviet republics] come with the imprint of a savage and terrible history on their very structures, bearing the marks of pain in the flesh of their language, courage in the syntactical scruple with which they comport themselves in the face of terror. They afford the Irish poet a way of deepening the local sense of a frighteningly flawed national life while they offer a means of 89
escape from a futility and inanity which must result from the fact that our flawed Irish world only occasionally presses with a defining immediacy on the individual.8
The discrepancy between the pressures and menaces that an individual faced in Eastern European countries and Ireland also draws attention to the difference in the expression of exile between the two worlds. The nature of Irish exile was cultural in two respects. Exile was an escape from provincialism and nationalism seen as the source of xenophobia and intolerance. Exile, both internal and external, was also a response to the crisis of culture and identity described by many Irish writers as well as cultural theoreticians, and an expression of postcolonial hybridity. The latter is defined by Thomas Kinsella in his essay “The Divided Mind.”9 The phenomenon of the divided mind, as Kinsella describes it, is a sense of being torn between two different languages, traditions and cultures, neither of which express one’s ‘true’ identity, as can be seen in the works of Heaney, Boland, McGahern and Kinsella himself. The divided mind of an Irish writer reposes between Irish and English literary traditions. The linguistic isolation of an Irish writer comes from two sources. One is that a modern Irish writer feels separated from the great tradition of literature written in the Irish language, since the language of his expression belongs to a different literary tradition; second is that a modern Irish writer, whose literary medium is English, does not belong to an English tradition either as Irish poetry is perceived, according to Kinsella, as “an adjunct to English poetry.”10 The division also concerns a writer in Irish, as s/he is linguistically separated
8 Terence Brown, “Translating Ireland,” Krino 1986—1996, eds. Gerald Dawe, et al. (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1996) 138. 9 Thomas Kinsella, “The Divided Mind,” Irish Poets in English. The Thomas Davis Lectures on Anglo‐Irish Poetry, ed. Sean Lucy (Cork and Dublin: Mercier, 1973) 208. 10 Kinsella, “The Divided Mind” 208.
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from the majority of the society that does not speak Irish. Kinsella recognises the divided mind “as a function of rootlessness, of historical and social deprivation or alienation,” and adds that it “may not be the exclusive property of the modern Irish poet.”11 Indeed, the phenomenon of the “divided mind” has also been the ‘property’ of Polish writers. Czesław Miłosz in The Captive Mind describes this division not only in linguistic and cultural, but also in ethical terms. After World War II most of the artists were presented with a choice between loyalty to the state and loyalty to their conscience. In the first post‐war decade, communism enjoyed limited support from society at large and the artistic community. For those who supported it, communism was not only a hope for social equality, but also an assurance of a new and better world and time. Communism offered freedom, however illusory, from the past and cultural heritage. The danger of the new philosophy of dialectical materialism promoted by the communist government lay in the fact that “it created social and political circumstances in which a person could not write and think in a different way to what was required.”12 An artist knew that to succumb to schematism meant to create worthless works and admit that the philosophical and literary tradition they grew up in was sheer “silliness.”13 However, if the state proclaims all works that do not follow the principles of socialist realism worthless, the fear of losing a voice becomes much more powerful than the fear of being untrue to oneself. Thus, by inciting fear the aim of the cultural politics is achieved. The price that an artist, who decided to follow the pronouncements of socialist realism, had to pay was the renunciation of emotional, cultural and historical continuity. Patriotism, loyalty toward the past and
11 Kinsella, “The Divided Mind” 214. 12 Czesław Miłosz, Zniewolony Umysł (The Captive Mind) (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1999) 34. My translation. 13 Miłosz, Zniewolony Umysł 34.
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appreciation of the tradition and culture s/he grew up in needed to be rooted out and substituted with a “monolithic unity of culture regulated from the Centre [the Soviet Union].”14 A writer was thus torn between two systems of ethical and moral values, two different social and cultural realities. If his/her responsibility is to tell the truth, the awareness of the division within him/herself makes him/her as isolated from tradition and language as the Irish writer described by Kinsella. This moral duality of the writer is recorded in Miłosz’s The Captive Mind under the mysterious name of “Ketman.” Ketman is a phenomenon recognised in the Muslim societies of the Middle East. A quote from Miłosz (derived from a book by Joseph Arthur de Gobineau, a French writer and diplomat) defines the principle of Ketman: “One must be silent about one’s true convictions if it is only possible. […] ‘However, […] there are cases when silence is not an appropriate strategy as it can also be read as admitting guilt. Then one should not think twice. Not only is it necessary to publicly renounce one’s views and opinions, but it is recommended that one should use all possible ruses in order to mislead the opponent.’”15 The practice of Ketman Miłosz recognises as a popular one in communist countries. He describes various instances of Ketman (starting with the national, through aesthetic, to metaphysical and ethical Ketman) to illustrate the duality of opinions, feelings, political, ethical and aesthetic views in Polish society. The duplicity depicted by Miłosz testifies also to the division between the ‘official’ and ‘unofficial’ culture and literature. Those who practice Ketman participate in the ‘official’ culture by promoting ‘politically correct’ views and conforming to the ‘officially‐sanctioned’ aesthetic requirements, but they also participate in the ‘unofficial’ culture by defending national tradition and culture and creating what Miłosz calls ‘honest
14 Miłosz, Zniewolony Umysł 39‐41. 15 Miłosz, Zniewolony Umysł 79‐80.
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literature.’ This hybridity of identity experienced by both Polish and Irish writers ensured them the status of internal and external exiles. However, it also enabled Polish writers to create a new quality of culture, and gave Irish writers the possibility of renegotiating their allegiances towards national culture and authenticating their literary expression. Both Polish and Irish exiles played culturogenic roles. For both Polish and Irish writers in exile writing was distinguished as a way of dealing with the political and social matters of homeland. It was re/creating visions and projections of the country whose culture and tradition were often misread and misappropriated due to historical and political reversals. To a degree both Polish and Irish exile is related to the issue of colonialism. The nature of that struggle stems from their diverse, and yet, at the same time, remarkably similar political and historical situations. The negative response of the pre‐war and post‐war Irish exiles toward the idea of homeland and community originated in the isolationist and anti‐intellectual politics of the new state. However, the nationalist politics of the new state was a response of a sovereign country to the post‐colonial moment. The search for identity and attempts at defining it were part of the post‐colonial process of re‐adopting national identity and subjectivity. Frantz Fanon recognised that the “time of liberation is […] a time of cultural uncertainty, and […] of significatory or representational undecidability […].”16 The uncertainty and undecidability accompanying liberation generates a nationalism that stresses the necessity of a homogenised culture and that evokes intolerance and chauvinist provincialism. The critique of Irish society and state politics by intellectuals was directed toward nationalism with its artificially‐created national values and its hermeticism which resulted in cultural inertia.
16 Frantz Fanon quoted in Bhabha, “Cultural Diversity” 206.
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If culture is a political struggle in a colonial situation, as Fanon viewed it, the struggle of Polish emigrants and the profound sense of common political responsibility shared among exiles reflects this very nature of culture.17 Poland was politically, morally and culturally sovietised by the Eastern Empire, which aimed at creating an empire ruled by one thought and one political system, advocating unified culture and literature. Even though Poland was partitioned for a century and a half, endured years of German occupation during the Second World War and the post‐war sovietisation of the country, it was not confronted with a crisis of identity. Censorship, anti‐intellectual and denationalising politics introduced by the communist regime and earlier by the colonising powers in the 18th and 19th centuries, did not succeed in eradicating Polish culture. Despite the politics of denationalisation and attempts to eradicate cultural and national fixity, Polish literature preserved the authenticity of Polish culture. Polish culture and literature in exile were a homogenising and unifying force, as they articulated the importance of resistance toward re‐historicisation and translation of national values by the colonising power. It was not a process of re‐defining and re‐adopting national identity in a post‐colonial situation, but rather it was a struggle for preservation of national identity in a colonial situation. Retention of cultural and national symbols was possible because of the political engagement of both external and internal exiles. Polish culture survived due to its “amphibious skills” and the existence of “government in exile,” as Heaney noticed; however, its strength lay also in the anachronistic nature of Polish literature. Polish literature is a literature of community; it is not private; its message is addressed to the world at large. This ‘communal’ nature of Polish literature Zagajewski recognises as positive anachronism in a world
17 Bhabha, “Cultural Diversity” 207.
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where literature is profoundly private and hermetic: “Great Polish poetry—Miłosz, Herbert, Szymborska—is still the poetry of community, its voice is directed toward the world.”18 Two great Polish myths: the myth of community and the myth of emigration contributed to the survival of Polish culture: “In truth the Polish writer in exile was not alone as he had the awareness of the existence of a community that would listen and that was waiting to hear his voice. […] I could sense an invisible protection above and around me; Polish tradition spreads a protective umbrella over an artist.”19 If Fanonian ‘culture‐as‐political‐struggle’ can find its realisation in a culture, then Polish culture in the colonial and post‐colonial situation represents this model. Polish political emigration prepared the ground for a new cultural revolution, a ‘White Revolution,’ whose strength and victory lay in the power of dialogue and recognition of national culture and ethics. Kołakowski believes that the “values of the national culture are revealed only in international competition; cultural production centred on the disciplines devoid of competition, can be, of course, of great value; however, if everything valuable in culture were to be created in those disciplines […] culture would dwarf itself.”20 If the true value of a national culture can be revealed in comparison with other cultures, then such a perception and reception of culture is possible in and through exile. Irish literature in exile broadened the horizons in the literary and cultural world; the dialogue with other cultures and nations encouraged the dialogue with and in the native culture and tradition. Exile offers reconciliation with the native culture and recognition of its authenticity: “Art will always undertake to restore a world lost under the brute evictions of
18 Adam Zagajewski quoted in Katarzyna Janowska and Piotr Mucharski, Rozmowy na Koniec Wieku (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Znak, 1998) 68. My translation. 19 Adam Zagajewski quoted in Janowska and Mucharski, Rozmowy 68. 20 Leszek Kołakowski, “Sprawa Polska,” Kultura, 4.307 (1973): 13. My translation.
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history; music, dance, dreams, literature are what fill the vacuum when an eviction has occurred.”21 The role of art is to regain the inherent originality of culture and to re‐appropriate the ancestral culture in accordance with the changing role and position of culture in the present. Modern literature in Ireland sought to separate itself from the literary tradition of the colonising country and from the nationalism of the sovereign republic. The gravitational pull of exilic literature was directed toward Ireland, “the grocer’s republic” to use Anthony Roche’s phrase, but it offered polemics with Irish history and culture; in a way it was also a reckoning with the past and the present of the country. However, while exiled Ireland held its introverted gaze on the affairs of the new republic and tried to establish the nature of the postcolonial identity, Polish exilic literature voiced an open critique of the authoritarian system and led a dialogue with European tradition. Polish emigration propagated humanist values, it preserved national identity and culture; however, it regarded national values in a wider spectrum. It appreciated those values not in terms of a national cause, concerning one nation and nation’s definition of itself as homogenic and unified, but in terms of European values. Polish exilic writing expressed the necessity of sovereignty not of one nation but all nations suppressed by totalitarian regime. Writers were creating new cultural humanity that in Fanonian terms, defined “a new humanism both for itself and for others”22 and which, according to Kołakowski, was defined by the belief that “humanity, nation and the individual are entities, each of undeniable value.”23 Literature is one of the organic crystallisations of culture that teaches the nation not only how
21 Declan Kiberd and Michael D. Higgins, “Culture and Exile: The Global Irish,” New Hibernia Review, 1.3 (1997): 11. 22 Frantz Fanon quoted in Gerry Smyth, Decolonisation and Criticism. The Construction of Irish Literature (London: Pluto, 1998) 20. 23 Kołakowski, “Sprawa Polska” 5.
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to preserve culture, but also how to be one. Without a living and evolving culture a nation loses its sense of identity. Literature in exile often becomes the only possibility of preserving and rediscovering the nation’s history and culture in countries ruled by authoritarianism. Why is exilic literature so crucial in both Irish and Polish culture? Ireland suffered from the postcolonial impasse: the difficulty with cultural and national definitions of identity, national politics instructed by the unconditional obedience of the ten commandments, and a desire to escape from insular and nationalist perceptions and representations in order to participate in a wider European cultural tradition. The most crucial cultural problem of communism was that its concept of cultural revolution was based on a lie. In the Irish context, exile created a new quality and understanding of national culture and tradition; it also offered a revision of native cultural and historical continuity through close encounters with other cultures. It offered the possibility of reconciling the hybrid nature of exiles at home and abroad, and of discovering an inheritance based on cultural difference. In the Polish context, exilic literature represented moral power supporting political opposition. It taught that it is imperative to realise the principle of “living in truth.” The strength of the opposition in the country supported by powerful emigré circles presented a menace for totalitarianism. Exilic literature and culture became the foundation of the new sovereign state. As Václav Havel observed: “I am convinced that we will never build a democratic state ruled by law, if at the same time we do not build a state […] which is human, moral, intellectual and spiritual as well as cultural.”24 If, as Havel noted, culture is one of the crucial elements in building a democratic, sovereign and humanist state, its preservation and nourishment are essential for the survival of a nation.
24 Václav Havel quoted in Bronisław Geremek, “Król—Filozof,” Gazeta Wyborcza, 22 October 2004: 18. My translation.
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Honor O’Connor
“While Stocks Last”: the Poetry of Dennis O’Driscoll & Contemporary Ireland The poet Dennis O’Driscoll was born in 1954 in Thurles, Co. Tipperary. He was educated locally and then in University College, Dublin, where he studied law. He has published six volumes of poetry and a collection of essays and literary criticism. This brief survey of Driscoll’s poetry to date will reveal a writer who grapples with the universal themes of mortality and mankind’s relationship with the natural world, and also a writer for whom Ireland is indeed a global village. Nobody in Ireland today can ignore the fact that the country is part of the global economy, with many jobs dependent on foreign investment and on exports; nor is anyone unaware of global communication and cultural trends. But for O’Driscoll Ireland is also a village in being the place where he lives and where he, like a village sage, observes and reflects on what he sees around him. The clarity of his vision is matched by a direct and uncluttered style that leaves us in little doubt about his thoughts and feelings. A central theme running through O’Driscoll’s poetry, especially that written in the 1990s, is how the transition of Ireland from near‐bankruptcy in the early 1980s to Celtic Tiger growth‐rates of 8‐10 percent in the mid‐1990s impinges on people’s lives. Workers have had to adjust to national and international competitiveness and new managerial practices; and ‘productivity,’ the new buzzword, has caused stress at both managerial and shopfloor levels. Irish people generally feel that social values and the conditions of their lives have changed, with congested roads and the inflated cost of housing just two instances of what many have to contend with every day. In his scrutiny of contemporary life in Ireland O’Driscoll, as a full‐ time civil servant, writes from within the world of work. He is 98
by turn compassionate or satirical, rather than polemical. He certainly mocks the pretensions of the new managerial elite and the conspicuous consumerism that follows new money; but he is sympathetic towards individuals. The titles of O’Driscoll’s collections are somewhat misleading. While they indicate how his stance has become more ironic over the years, they do not lead us to expect poems of great beauty about nature or poems like “Life Cycle, in memory of George Mackay Brown.”1 O’Driscoll’s first collection appeared in 1982 with the title Kist, an old word for a chest or coffin. This volume is permeated by grief on the premature deaths of his parents and by a sense of death itself; but it is also shot through with his delight in the natural world and with memories of a happy childhood. The title of his second collection, Hidden Extras (1987), pokes fun at the charges lurking in small print of documents. Long Story Short (1993), his third collection, is O’Driscoll’s definition of poetry itself. In giving his fourth volume the title, Quality Time, (1997) he mocks the pretence that ‘quality time’ can compensate for absence from one’s family. Weather Permitting (1999) took its title from one of its poems. His choice of another title‐poem for his next collection, Exemplary Damages (2002) stresses his mockery of the compensation culture rampant in Ireland. His latest collection has the ironic title Foreseeable Futures (2004). O’Driscoll chose “The Bottom Line” as the title for his satire on corporate Ireland, which was published separately in 1994, and three years later as Part II of Quality Time. It is included in his New and Selected Poems (2004) from which all the poems referred to or quoted in this paper are taken. Over the past twenty‐five years O’Driscoll has been keeping Ireland attuned to the outside world through his reviews and critical essays, all of which reveal his wide knowledge of poetry written in English, as well as poetry in translation, particularly
1 Dennis O’Driscoll, New and Selected Poems (London: Anvil, 2004) 162. All subsequent citations from this edition appear in the text.
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from the languages of Eastern Europe. Many of his reviews and essays about the state of poetry in Ireland were published by Gallery Press as a collection: Troubled Thoughts, Majestic Dreams (2002). He edited Poetry Ireland Review in 1987 and 1988; and he is a frequent contributor to radio programmes on poetry. Even a cursory reading of O’Driscoll’s New and Selected Poems shows that the raw material for much of his poetry is the range of experience he shares with the majority of working adults in Ireland. For example, his daily journey by train from Naas, in Co. Kildare to Dublin was the genesis of the poem, “Reading Primo Levi on the Train.” Its first stanza makes this clear: We breach the ordered peace of our atrocity‐free mornings forsaking the solitary confinement of sleep for transportation by commuter train to where labour pays debts owed to building society and bank. (82)
In such cross‐fertilisation of poetry by the routines of commuting and work O’Driscoll, the civil servant, is never far from O’Driscoll, the poet. The short poem, “While Stocks Last,” from his collection Exemplary Damages (2002) provided the title of this article because it expresses one of O’Driscoll’s key ideas: that we would be well advised to see ourselves and our work in relation to, and part of, the natural world. If we do this, the poem suggests, we can understand that human affairs have only relative importance in the scheme of things. The snappy cliché from sales jargon, “while stocks last,” alerts us to three dangers: that nature itself is vulnerable, that our personal stock of time is uncertain, and that we can be so caught up in the mundane that we allow it to overwhelm us. The poem as a whole, however, stresses that we have eyes and imaginations which can ‘distract’ us to other, more beneficial, planes of thought. The poem makes its point in four short stanzas: 100
As long as a blackbird still mounts the podium of the aspen tree, making an impassioned plea for song. As long as blue tits, painted like endangered tribesmen, survive in their rain‐forest of soaring larch. As long as the trilling lasts above the office car park and hands tingle to inscribe in the margins of buff files, ‘The skywriting of a bird is more permanent than ink’ or ‘The robin’s eagle eye questions these projections.’ (211)
As vellum invited the early Irish monks to gloss their manuscripts or to write verses in the margins to relieve the tedium of copying, so too buff folders and sky outside the office window offer imaginative escape‐routes from meetings and seminars. While O’Driscoll is well aware of the importance accorded to economic projections and other strategies of the business world, he sees them in the context of the business of living. He deals with the same idea from a different perspective in “Sermons in Stones,” from his latest collection, Foreseeable Futures (2004). This poem could be understood as a comment on the decline of organised religion in contemporary Ireland, for it points to mountains, not churches, as sources of wisdom: What mountains know is gleaned from rifts and faults and shifting plates, a faith moving across millennia, 101
sermons in stones handed down in granite seams. (232)
Yet O’Driscoll knows that in a country where religion was the foundation of life for most of the population, nature cannot immediately fill the void once occupied by belief in God. His poem entitled “Missing God” lists situations in which the comforts offered by religion are sorely missed: Miss Him when a choked voice at the crematorium recites the poem about fearing no more the heat of the sun. (197)
O’Driscoll’s unflinching scrutiny reaches into corners of private life, as well as into changing life‐styles and attitudes to work. He exposes people’s awareness of uncertainties which religious faith and traditional ways of life tended to obscure, or even hide. O’Driscoll’s poetry is certainly not obscure; not a wisp of Celtic mist shrouds any of his ideas. His style is clear, lean, elegant and flexible, with the sense strengthened by rhythm rather than by rhyme. End‐rhyme does not play a part in his work, though clever half‐rhymes and internal rhymes do. He pays consistent attention to the way language works. He chooses words so that they strike the ear as single sounds, like the notes of a flute; he combines them to express ideas directly or to form sharply focused pictures that embody or reinforce ideas. Love of language is the theme of his poem, “To a Love Poet”: You are no longer a meaningful contender in the passion stakes. But a love poet must somehow make love if only to language, fondling its contours … (160)
In a television interview with Michael Garvey, now edited and 102
published in Troubled Thoughts, Majestic Dreams, O’Driscoll referred to the importance of texture in a poem: “More important than what is being said is how it is being said— including the sub‐music of the poem, its undercurrent, its pitch, its tone.” When asked about humour he said: “people approach poetry with such serious expectations that they may miss the humour on the page if it’s not laid on fairly heavily. Insofar as my poems are humorous, it tends to be in a black or deadpan way.”2 While it may be disconcerting at first, O’Driscoll’s use of black humour deepens rather than undercuts the gravitas of his treatment of death. In one of his strongest poems, “Someone,” from Kist (1982), the stark shock of sudden death is emphasised by the seemingly flippant tone: “Someone is dressing up for death today, a change of skirt or tie / eating a final feast of buttered sliced pan […]”(13). Another example of his use of black humour to remind us of our mortality is in “Churchyard View: The New Estate” from Weather Permitting (1999). This long poem plays on the contrast between the optimistic pride of a couple moving in to their new house and the past lives of those buried in the adjoining cemetery. Its grim and unrelenting images make the poem a memento mori for our time. The opening lines set the scene: Taking it all with us, we move in. On their side, inviolable silence. On ours, hammering, pounding, sawing, clawing out foundations with the frenzy of someone buried alive. We like our dead well‐seasoned. Newly‐ground soil disturbs. (170)
2 Dennis O’Driscoll, Troubled Thoughts, Majestic Dreams: Selected Prose Writings (Oldcastle, Co. Meath: Gallery, 2001) 44.
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“Churchyard View: The New Estate” is like many of O’Driscoll’s poems in being ‘built up’ through several vivid images to form a collage, rather than structured by sequential thought. In his review of O’Driscoll’s New and Selected Poems in the Irish Times, 8 January 2005, the poet Bernard O’Donoghue described this technique as follows: “he winds up a poem on the spring of an idea that keeps it running through instance after instance.”3 To return to my point that for O’Driscoll Ireland is a global village, I must draw attention to “The Bottom Line” (1994). Each of this poem’s 50 eleven‐line stanzas is a vignette depicting an aspect of the business world, building up what O’Driscoll called a “cubist construction” when discussing the poem in Troubled Thoughts, Majestic.4 The anonymous speakers’ voices are heard without commentary. In stanzas 44 and 46, for example, we hear the voices of managers bearing up under fire: A monumentally awful day, shopfloor staff baying for your blood; sighs, grumbles, union officials clamouring for redress… Then the recriminations taking you aback: like a drowning life, your past is brandished on the far side of the desk, your certainty about the fairness of the way you run the branch is challenged, old feuds reopen, and, with tension high, you still maintain control, adopt a mild, sincere tone, just as the books advise. (110) Not afraid of risks, not listening to cagey advice; striking out from time to time, irrespective of whose toes you’re forced to tread on—whatever’s
3 Bernard O’Donoghue, “The Guardian of Poetry,” Irish Times, 8 January 2005. 4 O’Driscoll, Troubled Thoughts 43.
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needed to bring your plans on‐stream. However tight the ship, there will always be some weak links in line management: bypass them, oblige the shirkers to shape up or go—any fallout from your hardline approach may be made good in due course; meanwhile, stand your ground. (111)
The cumulative effect of “The Bottom Line” gives an insight into the lives of individuals whose lives are dominated by dead‐lines and bottom‐lines. These people may be newcomers finding their way gingerly, or bosses fresh from courses in management, or old hands baffled by new work practices, but for O’Driscoll they are all people, not cogs in the machinery of commerce. The poem has many facets and shifting tones. Its use of clichés mocks their overuse in the business world and in media coverage of it, where clichés often substitute for fresh thinking and sometimes can camouflage downright crooked thinking. O’Driscoll’s light touch belies his serious intent, which is to express the stress, confusion, or sheer effort of coming to terms with the pressures generated by Ireland’s being more and more linked to, and dependent on, the global economy. That this state of affairs prevailed in the early 1990s when O’Driscoll was writing the poem is vouched for by Michel Peillon in his article, “Culture and the State in Ireland’s New Economy,” in the collection of essays Reinventing Ireland: Culture, Society and the Global Economy (2002).5 Peillon explores the disparity between the pace of economic growth and the rate at which people’s attitudes and their culture are able to change. In catching this process of adjustment to the global economy as it was taking place in Ireland, “The Bottom Line” presents us with, as it were, documentary evidence of its reality. However, this documentary aspect of the poem does not make it
5 Peadar Kirby, Luke Gibbons, and Michael Cronin, eds., Reinventing Ireland: Culture, Society and the Global Economy (London: Pluto, 2002).
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parochial. It has much to say about contemporary work‐ practices that would find echoes in offices round the world, for it has given serious thought to a hitherto neglected topic. In this way “The Bottom Line” complements O’Driscoll’s poems that deal with the universal themes of life and loss, death, and nature. I would argue that the work included in O’Driscoll’s New and Selected Poems—which provides an overview of his work over the past twenty‐five years—rings true in its Irish context and, because it does, it can cross the frontiers of time and place. Proof that the poetry has crossed the Atlantic is Dennis O’Driscoll’s winning this year’s E.M. Forster Award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters as announced in The Irish Times, 16 April 2005. I am sure that more poems will appear and that he will continue to look beneath the surface of life in Ireland, provoking thought and sometimes dismay, but also wry amusement about what is really going on in the village we call Ireland.
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III PLACE, GENDER & THE BODY
Monica Facchinello
Sceptical Representations of Home: John Banville’s Doctor Copernicus & Kepler Personally, […] I believe that myths of blood and race should be, not discarded, perhaps, but constantly re‐examined.1
In the ‘historical’ fictions, Doctor Copernicus (1976) and Kepler (1981), John Banville suggests that the inevitability of failure of scientific theories as of historical narratives to obtain the truth is, among other things, a precondition of constant revision. In the novels past and present come in contact in two ways and both show the writer’s higher concern with the present than the past. First, the author’s re‐fashioning of the past—the historical astronomers and their scientific discoveries—is visibly moulded on the writer’s intention to foreground re‐examination. Second, by drawing on the terms of the writer’s, and the reader’s present context, the accounts of the astronomers’ cultural, geographical and political contexts invite us to question and re‐ examine those terms, especially with regard to the notions of ‘home’ and ‘nationality.’ Banville’s Copernicus and Kepler are figures who, unlike others in their respective scientific communities, are inclined to question the validity of existing systems. During a conversation with Professor Brudzewski, for example, the young Copernicus boldly utters his scientific aims and ambitions in manifest revisionist terms: It seems to me, magister, that we must revise our notions of the nature of things. For thirteen hundred years astronomers have been content to follow Ptolemy without question, like credulous
1 John Banville, “Portrait of the Critic as a Young Man,” review of Warrenpoint by Denis Donoghue, The New York Review of Books, 25 October 1990: 50.
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women, as Regiomontanus says, but in all that time they have not been able to discern or deduce the principal thing, namely the shape of the universe and the unchanging symmetry of its parts.2
Kepler is “a Copernican,” whose scientific career starts with the realisation of “a defect” in his master’s cosmological system, as we read: “[…] Copernicus had erected his great monument to the sun, in which there was embedded the flaw, the pearl, for Johannes Kepler to find.”3 A brief comparison between Banville’s fictional Copernicus and Arthur Koestler’s account of the astronomer in Sleepwalkers4 shows that Banville is not interested in a factual representation of the scientist. The writer rearranges and inverts facts of Copernicus’s personal and professional life as well as misattributes quotations. Koestler’s Copernicus is a “timid” and conservative man, whom the biographer calls “The Last of the Aristotelians.”5 Contrary to Regiomontanus’s more progressive view of astronomy, Copernicus’s programme is, Koestler quotes, “‘to follow the methods of the ancients strictly and to hold fast to their observations which have been handed down to us like a Testament.’”6 Banville’s Copernicus, instead, aligns himself with Regiomontanus and quotes from him—”like credulous women, as Regiomontanus says.”7 Banville attributes a more conservative stance to Brudzewksi and Copernicus’s brother, Andreas. In the novel, when he is asked by Brudzewski about his position in the matter of contemporary astronomy,
2 John Banville, Doctor Copernicus (1976; London: Picador, 1999) 34. 3 John Banville, Kepler (1981; London: Picador, 1999) 25. 4 At the end of both novels Banville acknowledges his indebtedness to and admiration for Arthur Koestler’s Sleepwalkers: A History of Man’s Changing Vision of the Universe (1959), among other sources. 5 Arthur Koestler, Sleepwalkers: A History of Man’s Changing Vision of the Universe (London: Hutchinson, 1959) 197. 6 Koestler, Sleepwalkers 208‐9. 7 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 34.
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Andreas replies: “I say, magister, that we must hold fast to sanity and Aristotle.”8 Brudzewski approves of Andreas’s reply and, addressing Copernicus, reiterates: “[…] take this young man’s sound advice, and hold fast to sanity.”9 The repetition of the expression “hold fast” from Koestler’s Copernicus shows Banville’s intentional inversion of the characters’ professional inclinations. Banville replaces Koestler’s “conservative minded” Copernicus with a progressive figure, in the likes of Regiomontanus, more inclined to allow for change. In an interview in 1979, Banville referred to Copernicus as the conservative scientist we encounter in Koestler’s account, thus confirming that the inversion of roles in the novel was deliberate.10 Certainly, to start with a conservative figure would have been of little use in regard to the ideas he set out to voice in the two novels.11 In their attempts to find the solution of the cosmic mystery, Banville’s Copernicus and Kepler are equally spurred on by a desire for the real. They repeatedly refer to the real as “the principal thing,” “the vivid thing,” which their predecessors had conveniently forsaken. The expression, “save the phenomena,” applied to pre‐Copernican cosmography, indicates its resignation to, as Copernicus puts it, “explain[ing] the inexistent.”12 From Aristotle until Copernicus—not
8 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 37. 9 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 37. 10 John Banville, “Novelists on the Novel,” interview with Ronan Sheehan and Francis Stuart, The Crane Bag, 3.1 (1979): 79. 11 Banville’s account of the astronomer, though, does not conform to the tradition of science‐mythography either, which, as Hubert Butterfield observed, “had always read too much modernity into a man like Copernicus” (Foreword, Sleepwalkers 11). As differentiating narrative perspectives in Doctor Copernicus and Kepler show, Banville depicts Copernicus as at once a conservative and a modern man (cf. Doctor Copernicus 184 and Kepler 30‐31). 12 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 83. Here Banville has his Copernicus speak the words of one of the earliest dissenters of the Ptolemaic system. Koestler quotes from the Arab philosopher, Averroes (1126‐1198) to the effect that ‘“The
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Banville’s but the historical figure—the impossibility of knowing the truth about the physics of the skies had led astronomers to abandon the investigation of their real nature. Rather, as Koestler writes, The astronomer “saved” the phenomena if he succeeded in inventing a hypothesis which resolved the irregular motions of the planets along irregularly shaped orbits into regular motions along circular orbits—regardless whether the hypothesis was true or not, i.e. whether it was physically possible or not.13
Copernicus’s aim, we read, is to start “a new science, one that would be objective, above all honest, a beam of stark cold light trained unflinchingly upon the world as it is and not as men, out of a desire for reassurance or mathematical elegance or whatever, wished it to be.”14 Kepler pursues an analogous aim, as his critical remark about his predecessor’s failure reads: “[…] Copernicus had devised a better, a more elegant system, which yet, for all its seeming radicalism, was intended only, in the schoolmen’s phrase, to save the phenomena, to set up a model which need not be empirically true, but only plausible according to the observations.”15 Banville’s astronomers are in search for a system that conveys a truthful picture of reality, one that “explains the phenomena.”16 What they unsuccessfully aspire to is to devise a scientific system, that is to say an ordering principle with which to combine what Brudzewski calls “immutable standards” and the real. Although Copernicus cannot distinguish between the “original theory” and “the working out of his theory,” the
Ptolemaic astronomy is nothing so far as existence is concerned; but it is convenient for computing the non‐existent.”’ Koestler, Sleepwalkers 206. 13 Koestler, Sleepwalkers 74. 14 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 83. Emphasis added. 15 Banville, Kepler 25. 16 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 36.
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emphasis is always on the “marshal[ling] into some semblance of order the amorphous and apparently irreconcilable fragments of fact and speculation and fantastic dreaming.”17 Kepler refers to his system as a “sustained music” which Copernicus’s theory lacks, a way to draw the “fragments, broken harmonies, scribbled cadences” of the existing system together.18 Copernicus is unable to find these “immutable standards” on which to found his system, hence his confusion and his unwillingness to see his book in print, as on his deathbed he says: “A hundred thousand words I used, charts, star tables, formulae, and yet I said nothing….”19 Despite his doubts, Kepler has to resolve and hold onto his resolution that “his God was above all a god of order [and that] [t]he world works by geometry, for geometry is the earthly paradigm of divine thought.”20 Thus presented, the cosmological solutions appear very similar to narratives and, particularly, historical narratives, which also deal with representations of reality, albeit of the past. Like the astronomers’ systems, historical narratives impose order and coherence on scattered facts. As Hayden White has argued, they “put an image of continuity, coherency and meaning in place of the fantasies of emptiness, need and frustrated desire that inhabit our nightmares about the destructive power of time.”21 Furthermore, historical narratives require, as White goes on to say, “a metaphysical principle by which to translate difference into similarity.”22 The “metaphysical principle,” visible in “the plot structure” which distinguishes historical narratives from chronicles, responds to
17 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 84. 18 Banville, Kepler 25. 19 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 235. 20 Banville, Kepler 26. Emphasis added. 21 Hayden White, “The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality,” Critical Inquiry, 7.1 (Autumn 1980): 15. 22 White, “The Value of Narrativity” 19.
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a “demand for closure.” In history, the “demand for closure,” which White suggests to be a “demand for moral meaning,”23 leads to a lack of objectivity, and, for the historical account which meant to be purely objective, to failure. Like historical narratives, the cosmological systems of Banville’s astronomers fail to represent the real. They are “mind’s world[s]” that fail to connect with the real sky;24 in other words, they are fictions, or, as we are told later in the novel, “supreme fictions,”25 a formulation among others in Doctor Copernicus that shows Banville’s indebtedness to Wallace Stevens.26 In what way, then, does Copernicus’s and Kepler’s commitment to investigation of the real elevate their scientific pursuits and achievements over their predecessors’? The answer to this question is better obtained by resuming the parallelism between scientific systems and historical narratives. Post‐Aristotelian astronomy favoured mathematical reassurance to reality; their systems were successful, but had no bearings on reality. Similarly, nineteenth‐century heroic historiography of scientific discovery and of national liberation alike favoured intended outcomes (such as the promotion of an independent nation) over accuracy in their historical accounts. The mythic image of the scientist as a “reasoning machine” or as emblem of a nation, for example, is what Koestler intended to transform in his innovative accounts of the astronomers which aimed to draw as accurate a psychological picture of the subject as possible.27 ‘Revisionism’ in Ireland, which had its take‐off in the late 1960s and 1970s, also promoted objectivity and accuracy in history writing opposed to nationalist monoculture’s mythology. However, Banville’s novels point to
23 White, “The Value of Narrativity” 24. 24 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 120. 25 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 136. 26 Joseph McMinn, The Supreme Fictions of John Banville (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999) 3. 27 Koestler, Sleepwalkers 14‐15, 129.
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the impossibility of knowledge of any reality, of the skies as of the earth. They suggest that inevitable failure should not drive towards the abandonment of the recalcitrant complexity of reality, like post‐Aristotelian astronomy and traditional historiography did and, to some extent, ‘revisionist’ historiography allegedly does. Failure rather perpetuates the necessity for constant re‐examination and re‐evaluation of the present and past alike. In their re‐fashioning of the past the novels not only foreground the author’s present inclination to constant revision. In dwelling on the cultural, geographical and political contexts, both novels also invite the reader to question the narrative and constantly re‐examine consolidated notions of the present, in particular the notions of ‘home’ and ‘exile,’ ‘nation’ and ‘nationality.’ The Renaissance Scientific Revolution associated with both scientists radically transformed the way in which man was at home in the universe, dislodging, among other things, the central position of the Earth in the cosmos. This was a drastic intellectual departure from the stable home, effecting a kind of exile of humanity from the centre of things. Moreover, the new vision of human habitation of the universe is one among the “historical forces” (such as the demise of the religiously imagined community, new political boundaries in the place of “dynastic realms,” and print‐capitalism) which contributed to what Benedict Anderson defines as a “fundamental change […] in modes of apprehending the world” and which “made it possible to “think” the nation.”28 In both novels, departure from home in every sense initiates the story. Still a child, Copernicus is forced to leave the native house in Torun for Włocławek, in Poland. Kepler opens with the astronomer’s arrival with his family in Prague, exiled, for the second time, from Catholic Graz. “Home” is one among other words which repeatedly and ambiguously return in both texts.
28 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1991) 22.
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As with all of Banville’s protagonists, the place of origin appears as repository of an essential portion of individual identity. Copernicus’s sorrowful homesickness, for example, is conveyed through his perception of a sundered self: “[…] still he felt that he was living only half his life here at Włocławek, and that the other better half was elsewhere, mysteriously.”29 A “far finer place” of reunification is curiously intimated to the young Copernicus by images, such as “[the] green April weather, […] the enormous wreckage of clouds, or […] the aetherial splendour of High Mass,” which are profoundly resonant with Banville’s Ireland.30 Once lost, ‘home’ is preserved through memory. Like the scientific systems, memory imposes completeness and fixity on reality; therefore, the image thus obtained is inevitably different from the real ‘home.’ Copernicus, his disciple Rheticus, and Kepler, who equally leave home in their youth, encounter, on their temporary returns, homes which are the same and yet inexplicably different. Revisiting his native house in St. Anne’s Lane, Copernicus found it “changed beyond all recognition. It looked the same as it had always done, yet everything he rapped upon with his questioning presence gave back only a dull sullen silence […].”31 Back in Wittenberg, Rheticus realised “to [his] dismay that it was no longer home.”32 On his return to Weilderstadt, Kepler noticed “that his memory had long ago reduced it all to a waxwork model.”33 While departure from home triggers the need to recover an image of ‘home,’ the return to the actual place reveals the inability of memory, like all representational schemes of reason, to produce a determinate image of the native ‘home.’ The texts do not question the identification of the birth‐place, in the sense that
29 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 16. 30 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 17. 31 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 117. 32 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 200. 33 Banville, Kepler 89.
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there is only one house the astronomers either physically or imaginatively return to. The texts invite the reader to rework the terms which identify the native ‘home’ as such. Similarly, the novels question the idea of the country of origin as ‘home.’ By exploiting the astronomers’ frequent movements and the rapid changes of political borders in sixteenth‐ and seventeenth‐century Europe, Banville renders the definition of ‘home’ strategically ambiguous. At Copernicus’s arrival in Heilsberg, after his time in Italy, we read that “Heilsberg was intended to be his home now; not even Prussia itself was that, any longer.”34 In Kepler, each of the astronomer’s new places of dwelling becomes sooner or later ‘home.’ Graz, which at first is “a long way from home,”35 is later referred to as the ‘home’ Kepler returns to after his first exile in Linz.36 If Prague initially appears as the frightening image of “[a] world away!” later it becomes one among other places that “[hold] him back” at the prospect of moving to England: “How could he leave his homelands, however bad the convulsions of the war? There was nothing for him but to go to Prague.”37 Doctor Copernicus and Kepler similarly invite the reader to ponder the term ‘exile.’ By pointing to the three protagonists’ dissimilar instances of exile, Banville explores the word from different perspectives. Although Copernicus is often ordered to leave by the dominant figure of his uncle Lucas or changing circumstances, the astronomer is never really ‘exiled.’ As if to contrast with what the novel largely portrays as a withdrawn character, Copernicus is described ready to “embrace exile” as a way to express fraternal affection: “He […] would give it all up, for Andreas. It would be the final irrefutable proof of his regard for his brother. And there would be no need for words.”38 In
34 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 91. 35 Banville, Kepler 21. 36 Banville, Kepler 49. 37 Banville, Kepler 187. 38 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 108.
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Rheticus’s case, exile is inflicted immediately after he has finished his painstaking work of editing the Book of Revolutions and before its preface is written. Rheticus is prohibited from returning to Wittenberg and sent away from Nuremberg, where he is dealing with the printing process, to Leipzig. The novel stresses that Rheticus’s exile entails dislocation from a place but not a country: “Had I my way,” Osiander utters, “you would be driven out of Germany.”39 Finally, Kepler is forced twice to leave Graz on religious grounds. During his first temporary exile in Linz, as the narrator points out, Kepler is, in fact, “still in Austria,” a territory in which, as a Protestant, his presence is not tolerated. In Kepler, ‘exile’ is not only a physical dislocation, but also a displacement of the mind. At Winckelmann’s house in Linz, Kepler recalls a fanciful feeling of something “being slowly, lovingly drained from him, a precious impalpable fluid,” a feeling of confusion and embarrassment, as if he were under a magic spell, which he identifies as the experience of exile: “Yes this, this was exile.”40 By further exploiting the instability of political borders in sixteenth‐ and seventeenth‐century Europe, the novelist invites to re‐examine notions of ‘nation’ and ‘nationality.’ Banville’s Kepler, to a larger extent than Copernicus, is portrayed as an anxious member of the imaginary community of readers of scientific books. In a letter to Magini in Bologna, Kepler remarks on the delayed arrival of the news of Galileo’s latest discovery in Padua to the astronomers in Prague: Doubtless you in Italy are already familiar with it, and I know that even the most amazing things can come to seem commonplace in only a little time; for us, however, it is still new & wonderful & somewhat frightening.41
39 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 215. 40 Banville, Kepler 48. 41 Banville, Kepler 121.
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The late appearance of the book marks a wider territorial difference between the recipient Magini and Kepler, than between Magini and Galileo. In the opposition in the narrative between “you in Italy” and “us” there is more at stake than simple territorial difference. Kepler’s expression “you in Italy” instead of “you in Bologna” suggests the image of a community of all astronomers in Italy. The geographical distance is turned into a national territorial unit, one which includes Magini and Galileo but excludes Kepler. Similarly, in Doctor Copernicus, at their arrival in Bologna, the astronomer and his brother are “welcome[d] to Italy.”42 As the map of 1500 Europe in the opening pages of Doctor Copernicus shows, the perimeter of Italy at the time of Copernicus is considerably different from the present‐day geographical map of the country. The same can be said of the innumerous references in both novels to contemporary countries such as “Germany,” “Austria” and “Poland.” By not reminding the reader in the narrative of the fact that the mentioned countries in the sixteenth and seventeenth century were different from the present ones, as historical texts often do, Banville’s novels are intentionally ambiguous. The reader is most likely to impose on the words “Italy,” “Germany” and “Poland” his or her contemporary image of the countries. And it is by misconceiving them that the reader is led to revise and by revising to question the meaning and validity of the concepts of country and nation. Both Banville’s novels refer ambiguously to nationality. In Doctor Copernicus, for example, we are told that during a visit in his native Torun, the young astronomer refuses to declare himself “a true German,” something that if he ever did before, the narrator points out, it was not “strictly by birth” but “by inclination.”43 The refusal leads Copernicus to further questioning:
42 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 44. 43 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 94.
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Suddenly, he was being called upon to question his very nationality! And he discovered that he did not know what it was. Bishop Lucas, however, resolved that difficulty straight away. “You are not German, nephew, no, nor are you a Pole, nor even a Prussian. You are an Ermlander, simple. Remember it.” And so meekly, he became what he was told to be. But it was only one more mask. Behind it he was that which no name nor nation could claim. He was Doctor Copernicus.44
In Sleepwalkers, Koestler underlines that although Copernicus attended university in “Polish Cracow,” when he enrolled at university in Bologna, between the German and the Polish natio, Copernicus joined the “natio Germanorum.” Koestler explains that “natio,” which is not an index of present‐day nationality, indicates the “student fraternity” that university students normally joined at the time of Copernicus.45 Banville replaces “natio” with “nationality.” The fact that Copernicus does not know what his nationality is, stresses that at the time of Copernicus the contemporary notion of nationality did not yet exist.46 By “becom[ing] what he was told to be,” Banville’s Copernicus reflects less on the historical figure than on the contemporary definition and issue of nationality. As Benedict Anderson argues, “nation” and “nationality” are invented images,47 no less fictional than historical or scientific narratives are. Furthermore, Bishop Lucas’s reply is strongly reminiscent of the book by Ian Adamson from Queen’s University, Belfast, The Cruthin (1974). As Peter Ellis points out, Adamson gave Ulster Protestants who refused to be called either ‘Irish’ or
44 Banville, Doctor Copernicus 94. 45 Koestler, Sleepwalkers 129. 46 Banville’s expression, “true German,” seems to allude to the fierce debate during the last four centuries “between Polish and German scholars, both claiming Copernicus as a true son of their nation“ (Sleepwalkers 129). 47 Anderson, Imagined Communities 6.
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‘British’ “a new nationality.”48 Scepticism with regard to the representation of reality in the present and of the past is, the novels suggest, the starting point in a process of re‐examination of consolidated narratives and definitions, particularly of those terms, such as ‘home’ and ‘nationality’ which played a central role in the outburst in 1969 of a decade of violence in Northern Ireland and the island as a whole. By arguing for a reading that traces the development from the challenge of all‐embracing systems of knowledge to the consequent sense of loss, disillusionment and despair as the central theme in Banville’s novels, criticism overlooks the other, less deadening side of failure especially in these two displaced novels and against the writer’s Irish context at the time of their genesis. Failure, which derives from and depends on the inability to represent the truth, also paves the way to re‐ examination. Although Doctor Copernicus and Kepler seem to harmonise with the writer’s contemporary Irish context, and particularly the growing debate over ‘revisionism,’ it is never the writer’s intension to take sides in the controversy. On the contrary, the novels’ celebration of uncertainty over ‘truth’ and their past central‐European settings foreground scepticism and a global dimension over the need for truth in historical narrative and the insularity of Irish historiography.
48 Peter Berresford Ellis, “Revisionism in Irish Historical Writing: The New Anti‐ nationalist School of Historians,” C. Desmond Greaves Memorial Lecture (31 October 1989), 28 August 2005, .
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Harvey O’Brien
Local Man, Global Man: Masculinity in Transformation in the Horror/Fantasy of Neil Jordan In Neil Jordan’s works of fantasy, the transgression of social or moral boundaries triggers physical transformations, bringing characters into contact with new worlds beyond their immediate experience. It is quite literally a case of the collision between the local and the global, a movement between contexts representing a crisis in social order. One of the primary arenas wherein which such crisis occurs is the concept of masculinity itself in Jordan’s work, an unstable, shifting boundary between the personal and the political which also echoes the theme of movement from the local to the global. The traditional conception of masculinity is inextricably tied to the Cartesian argument that reason is the (masculine) value which sets mankind above beasts. Under the weight of such essentialist philosophies, men have traditionally found themselves placed within an engendered hierarchical social order in which their ability to abide by the principles of reasonable society and repress their irrational impulses has determined their standing. In a post‐feminist environment, the assumption that the social order functions based on such principles is false. In an era of increasing crisis in the gender order, men must question the very basis of reason itself in order to find their place. Such epistemological paradigm shifts are the stock‐in‐trade of the horror‐fantasy of Neil Jordan. On film and in print, he crafts a volatile world in which human and non‐human forms and values are in flux. His man‐monster characters live in a state of cerebral hesitation which defines the measure of their manhood. They are confronted by crises in the infrastructure of their social and physical environment which they can only resolve through transformation both of themselves and the 122
world around them: literally the global and the local. The gradual disintegration of the world of reason for an ordinary Dublin man is the premise upon which the novella The Dream of a Beast is based. And despite both the source material and the direct contributions of the original authors,1 his films of The Company of Wolves (1984) and Interview With the Vampire (1994) explore precisely the same terrain: they deal with the crisis in male conceptions of the world from a male perspective. In Interview with the Vampire a mimetic social order based upon hierarchy and succession is brought down by the existential angst of a vampire who cannot find his place in that order because he remains, at heart, a man. In The Company of Wolves an egalitarian (feral) sexuality is precipitated by the transforming wolf‐man, then consummated by the accession of feminine propriety to animal desire. In The Dream of a Beast the protagonist’s infidelity leads to the breakdown of social and physical boundaries and transforms him into a monster. The unifying concept is transformation. Characters trapped between the axes of desire and the demands of the social order find themselves facing an inner other who eventually emerges, bringing physical and conceptual change. Each work employs the body as a medium of self‐definition and portrays the transformation of their protagonists from one state of being to another: a physical and psychological awakening in which they enter a world beyond their experience and discover they no longer control their own destinies. Jordan defines his fantastic universe within an engendered (masculine) framework. The social and psychological changes inherent in post‐feminist masculinity underlie the metamorphosis of the characters. The characters’ desire to dominate, possess, and control their environment and their
1 Jordan collaborated with Angela Carter on the screenplay of The Company of Wolves, and received a credit for it. Though only Anne Rice is credited with the screenplay of Interview with the Vampire, Jordan is known to have re‐written her original draft.
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bodies brings them into conflict with a transitional rule system in which classical reason no longer functions because the world itself has changed. As their phallocentric positions change, their impulses towards society become uncertain and irrational. Their bodies alter, reflecting their state of patriarchal anxiety. They transform into wolves, vampires, beasts, and can only restore equilibrium when they acknowledge and accept the changes taking place within themselves. They are no longer merely men, so they must question what a man is in order to understand what they have become. Very often this latter stage is a realisation that they have been disempowered by the collapse of the old order and their insistence on pursuing traditional roles within the new (unknown) one. Though a similar pattern can be traced through all of Jordan’s work, his focus on the collapse of rationality is best exemplified in the horror/fantasy works, where he explores masculinity in transition through the framework of the fantastic, just as the Gothic writers had done. The Dream of a Beast is his only specifically Irish‐set horror/fantasy story to date (omitting the interesting but time consuming Hollywood‐ produced High Spirits [1988] for the moment). It is also set, initially at least, very specifically in Dublin. It is the story of a designer; a husband and father who, at a point before the narrative begins, has been peripherally attracted to a female client. As his attraction to her and alienation from his wife and child increases, he begins to mutate into a beast. Despite this literal summation, the key to the novella is its refusal to define the parameters of its universe. It is entirely predicated upon almost imperceptible shifts in mood or tone which suggest what has occurred. Though it is centrally occupied with transformation, its descriptions even of the beast are not graphic. The creature is characterised by thoughts and sensations, and by the effects of its presence and its appearance on those around it rather than the appearance itself. Even location becomes relative. Though the beast initially roams an identifiable Dublin, the local cityscape eventually gives way to 124
an imagined space where transgression of physical boundaries seem to require the loss of locality. It is only in growing beyond the local, the specific, that the beast touches on the universal, the eternal, the natural: a world bigger and beyond that which he has known, as this short extract illustrates: I had ceased to think of thoughts as thoughts, for the effort to separate them from the clouds of sensation that germinated them was mostly beyond me […]. I remembered dimly a tale of a beast who cried to the world to reveal him his destiny, to send him a mate. If there was a law for the bat, for the moth, for the woman, there must be a law for me, a law as succinct and precise as those laws I obeyed when walking past the whispering gardens each day to work. But how to find out this law, and the destiny it implied?2
As we can see, the beast is desperate to find some order to reality, to find, as he puts it “the law” for himself which will explain everything. What he discovers is that he has been subsumed by a powerful, feral world which has always existed but he has never known. It is only by transgressing the social order which is perceived as natural law that he discovers nature itself, a global space: not specific, but imagined and shared in a Jungian sense, because it is here that he finally meets his wife, also a beast, and recognises her reflection in water when he thinks he is seeing himself. For the men of The Company of Wolves, the situation is entirely different. As Angela Carter observes: “Of all the teeming perils of the night and the forest, ghosts, hobgoblins, ogres that grill babies upon gridirons, witches that fatten their captives in cages for cannibal tables, the wolf is worst, for he cannot listen to reason.”3 In the film of The Company of Wolves,
2 Neil Jordan, The Dream of a Beast, A Neil Jordan Reader (New York: Vintage, 1993) 154. 3 Angela Carter, “The Company of Wolves,” The Bloody Chamber (London: Vintage, 1995) 110‐11.
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we encounter Jordan’s most unreasonable men, whose rigidity and resistance to social norms leave them definitively outcast. The Company of Wolves is considerably closer to The Dream of a Beast in style and texture than the later Interview with the Vampire. Its use of form and structure represents a convergence of Carter and Jordan, whose basic approaches are remarkably similar though distinctly different in terms of their engendered expression and realisation. In her consideration of the work of Angela Carter,4 Gerardine Meaney observes that the fantasy genre liberates (female) writers from the linguistic and structural constraints of patriarchal literature, thus allowing them to explore alternative sensibilities and celebrate difference. In The Bloody Chamber (1979) Carter reconstitutes a series of folk and fairy tales within her own (female) symbolic terms by using a combination of narrative variations and images of female sexuality and female power organised around the metaphor of menstruation and sexual maturity—an exclusively female transformation. Carter’s Red Riding Hood gives up her virginity when it suits her, not because it is appropriate or inappropriate in social terms, but because it is her choice of response to the situation in which she finds herself. She becomes a beast too by allowing her own desire to run free. Carter’s men are less empowered, as are Jordan’s. They are the lurking beast; driven rather than motivated—feral, untamed, and unreasoning. They are not lacking in sympathy, nor are they totally villainous. Their lusts are a necessary part of the realisation of female desire—Red Riding Hood acts out of her own wishes, but in response to the wolf’s (assuming we take it as given that his wish to eat her is a metaphor for sexual desire). And of course they are always men, until the climax of the film, when Rosaleen herself becomes a wolf in sympathy
4 Gerardine Meaney, (Un)Like Subjects: Women, Theory, Fiction (London and New York: Routledge, 1993). This book is a study of the work of several female artists and theorists including Angela Carter rather than an exclusive consideration of Carter herself.
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with the man‐beast she has just shot—a resolution which echoes that of The Dream of a Beast. For Carter, man to wolf transformation has no particular in‐ depth significance, nor does she dwell on its details. But for Jordan, as argued throughout, transformation is an idiomatic preoccupation. It demonstrates the desperate response of anxious males to particular social pressures, and is inextricable from Jordan’s problematisation of masculine identity in a post‐ feminist environment. It is also particularly physical, emphasised on one hand by then state‐of‐the‐art special effects (including the unmistakably phallic image of a wolf’s snout emerging from a man’s mouth as he transforms), but also Jordan’s particular interest in the textures of the physical world. In the climactic transformation scene, Jordan’s camera lingers over the writhing back of the man about to transform into a wolf, the undulating, gyrating flesh giving a strong, visceral sense of the male body and its power. It is here that a sense of Jordan’s own writing emerges, concerned as he often is with sense and texture over rational process or verbal discourse. Film was perhaps always a more ideal medium for Jordan, and his affinity with charged visual imagery also draws him closer to the surrealists. The question of location is also vital in The Company of Wolves. The film is set in a small village surrounded by a scary forest, a literal fairytale representation of the tensions between the local and the global. In an ultimately masculine conception of the forest as threat and disorder, Jordan allies his man‐ monsters with the forces of masculine sexual aggression, and embodies their (un)natural state in the characteristic transformation. Even though they live in the forest and are thus part of nature, the werewolves are also aligned with the signifiers of progress and technology; at one point the devil appears in a big car, the Big Bad Wolf appears first as a huntsman with a compass. This suggests that the untamed feral world inhabited by the wolf man is not his sole or natural habitat. Unlike in Interview with the Vampire, where the 127
transformation was at least partly an act of free will, and in The Dream of a Beast where the character’s process of comprehension determines the form of the narrative, the transformations of the werewolves of The Company of Wolves are invariably a violent and desperate response to irrepressible anti‐social desire, and are usually punished by death or injury. It is precisely because the werewolves are unable to constrain and control their bodies (as civilised men) that they are ultimately outcasts. Because their inner relationship with their bodies is obvious in their transformation whenever inflamed by desire (or the moon as its signifier: the domain of darkness, romance—read: sexuality—, and the controller of tides), their weaknesses are visible, thus they are not men enough to remain human beings. Werewolves have almost always been seen in this manner, and have always been portrayed as vulgar and feral in contrast to the aristocratic and often urban vampire.5 In Interview with the Vampire, the central character’s attempt to define the world around him in accordance with a set of outmoded perceptions is dramatised by the transformation of a disaffected man into an aggressive vampire. Again the local and the global are in play, along with, now explicitly, the colonial and the post‐ colonial, where images of plantations and slavery serve as universal symbols of globalisation and again trigger conflict and transformation. It is the story of Louis, a young plantation owner in eighteenth century New Orleans who is made into a vampire by an amoral undead called Lestat. Louis spends the film searching for meaning in his vampire life, and when he finds none, he eventually takes out his anger on a group of vampires living in Paris. With its movements from the New World to the Old, then from the Old to the New and back again,
5 Though there is some evidence that in their original folkloric forms, vampires and werewolves were virtually indistinguishable. The largely political interpretation of the vampire as aristocrat began with Polidori’s The Vampyre (1819)—modelled on his friend Lord Byron –, and was popularised by Stoker in Dracula (1897).
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the story constantly involves encounters between rigorous, formal social, racial, and class boundaries defined by a localised sense of self where “men know their place,” and the seemingly infinite possibility of the other. The irony is that in searching for new worlds, the characters find themselves up against old barriers as the global inevitably collapses into the local once again. The disjuncture which characterises the disequilibrium in Interview with the Vampire is, as with all horror films, between definitions of human and non‐human. But ‘humanity’ in this case is inextricably tied up with specific notions of masculinity which are less resolvable. The ‘monster’ of the piece is, at heart, a man (“a vampire with a human soul. An immortal with a mortal’s passion,” as he is described at one point). And more specifically, a man concerned with matters of self‐definition in relation to a society whose expectations of his behaviour are determined by dysfunctional, rationalist norms. Louis’ journey from human to non‐human clearly follows the pattern of The Dream of a Beast. The man‐monster flounders in an effort to learn the rules of an unfamiliar world. And though the word ‘man’ comes to signify ‘human’ in this case, Louis’ apparent disempowerment and emasculation becomes the true arena of disjuncture. For Louis, becoming a vampire represents an escape from the untenable position he is forced to occupy in human society. He is less than a man because his sense of masculinity is defined by his position as a husband and father. The loss of his wife and child before the narrative even begins is the loss of his identity, and his quest to lose “my wealth, my estate, my sanity,” with which his tale begins is a response to that personal loss rather than a materialist compulsion. As a failed planter, Louis represents the failure of rational globalisation. And yet when he becomes a vampire, he learns that there is a different ‘globe,’ an eternal, vampire world he knew nothing about but which has always existed alongside his own, smaller world. When he surrenders to Lestat and lets him make him into a vampire, it is at once a passive and aggressive 129
act, an act of submission in the hope of colonising new ground. In her analysis of masculinity in the horror film, Barbara Creed argues that the monster must be feminised in order to establish the necessary abjection for the male viewer. She argues that the transformations which affect the male monster—”they experience a blood cycle, change shape, bleed, give birth, become penetrable, are castrated”6—effectively make him female. She argues that in the vampire film, the blood‐lust is a fetishised representation of the menstrual cycle. But in Interview with the Vampire there is a constant shifting of focus from abjection to identification, as there is from passive to aggressive, and victim to predator. From Creed’s point of view, Louis’ refusal to partake of the blood‐flow would represent his inability to accept feminisation through supernatural menstruation. This would presumably increase masculine identification with him. But from a more traditional perspective of the monster as active/male and the victim as passive/female, it indicates his inability to accept the masculine/aggressive role of the vampire killer, which would presumably decrease male identification. In Jordan’s film this represents the state of hesitation which defines Louis’ character, and the mindset of the post‐feminist man. Like the protagonist of The Dream of a Beast he is searching for the laws which govern his behaviour. But he is searching within a rational paradigm which does not apply to a supernatural vampire. And lacking rational certainty to prove this is how he ought to behave, he is paralysed; shifting from one role to another; unable to acknowledge or deny his place and practices within the social order. Throughout the film, the focus is on the character’s perceptions of himself in relation to this physical and psychological transformation. Jordan emphasises this by the use of mirrors and reflections. On the night he is “born into darkness,” Louis gazes at his reflection in
6 Barbara Creed, The Monstrous Feminine: Film, Feminism, Psychoanalysis (New York: Routledge, 1993) 118.
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a pond with the eyes of “a newborn vampire weeping at the beauty of the night.” When he destroys his house, he deliberately hurls a candlestick at a large mirror showing his own reflection, shattering his image as the trappings of his patriarchal status come tumbling down around him. This visual metaphor is, of course, a reversal of one of the traditional canons of vampire fiction, that the creatures cast no reflection. For Jordan, the idea of representation and false representation is central to his characters’ sense of self. It recurs in The Dream of a Beast where the central character considers his altered reflection in the bathroom mirror and where he drinks from a pond at which he rediscovers his wife via her reflection in the water. It is also featured in The Company of Wolves both when Rosaleen finds a hand mirror which she uses to put on red lipstick and in the cracking of the large mirror in the party scene which reveals the aristocratic guests have transformed into wolves. Particularly for Louis in Interview with the Vampire, it is in seeking the Lacanian identification with an image outside himself that his sense of isolation is increased. Paradoxically, in seeking a sense of the larger world beyond himself, he becomes more introverted, until finally he realises that his sense of morality must come from within rather than without, the local rather than the global, in direct contravention of the traditional rational paradigm of social relations, but which, by no small co‐incidence, is precisely the socially self‐ conscious argument put forward by the surrealists. The alternative presented by Jordan for post‐feminist masculinity is in the character of Lestat, who consistently resurfaces under new definitive parameters at regular intervals, concluding with the film’s coda. His ability to adapt and change to meet the demands of his situation is his answer to uncertainty in the face of social change—he cannot be repressed because he cannot be fixed. This is signified first in his uncertainty in gender positioning, then it is revealed that he is a European immigrant who has prospered in America (fulfilling the colonial dream by conquering the new world as a vampire), 131
and finally we see him escape death twice; breaking even the rules meant for his kind. Lestat survives; and his identity is determined by free‐willed transformation. In this, he is the embodiment of the postmodern nomad—without fixity, adaptable, in constant cultural refiguration. All the while he retains his sense of himself, embodied in his concern with his physical appearance (even in the final scenes, he is seen to fastidiously rearrange his dirty but still frilly cuffs). This concretises his identity—he is still Lestat, be he man or monster, angel or devil; and our sense of who or what he is depends on our perception of him rather than his perception of our world. Throughout his work, Jordan demonstrates a particular concern with the nature of a state of ambiguity. The Dream of a Beast, The Company of Wolves and Interview with the Vampire all share a concern with transgressive identities and the opposition between a rigid, dominant orthodoxy and characters who live outside of it but are unsure what this means. It seems to me that in dramatising transgression via transformation in the gender order, Jordan provides an apt template for considering the roles of the global and the local in the formation of identity. The universal does not exist without the self, the local is part of the global, which is in turn composed of multiple localities. In his turbulent, shifting worlds of man‐beasts and monsters, Jordan finds a mode of expression which dramatises concerns with our concept of ourselves relative to the world around us, a world in perpetual crisis and yet also in a state of eternal evolution.
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Susan Cahill
Doubles & Dislocations: The Body & Place in Anne Enright’s What Are You Like? What Are You Like? Enright’s second novel, tells the story of identical twin girls separated at birth following the death of their mother in childbirth and their father, Berts’, insistence that he can only cope with one child.1 Thus, Maria is raised in Ireland with Berts and his second wife Evelyn, while Rose is adopted by a couple in England who also share their house with stray cats and abandoned boys. The novel, which has been called “one of the more structurally complex Irish novels of recent years,” operates by means of multiple viewpoints.2 The narrative alternates between Berts’ life, Maria’s childhood and twenties in New York, Rose’s childhood and twenties in England, the nun who supervised Rose’s adoption, Evelyn’s life with Berts, as well as the voice of the twins’ dead mother, Anna. The girls finally meet towards the end of the novel when Rose accidentally walks into the changing room of the shop that Maria works in. The novel traces a general sentiment of dislocation among its many characters. Their relation to the environment in which they find themselves varies from feelings of confusion and being lost, to a more complicated interrelation between corporeality and architecture. The novel’s motif of twins and doubles explores displacements of self and inconsistencies in subjectivity. The lack of coherent identities, particularly in relation to the protagonist, Maria, is played out through bodily representations. Enright’s configurations of the corporeal trouble a dualism between mind and body, and challenge
1 Anne Enright, What Are You Like? (London: Vintage, 2001). All subsequent references to this edition appear in the text. 2 John Kenny, “Ferociously‐Paced Magical Surrealism,” Irish Times, 4 March 2000.
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conceptions of the body as a bounded and unified entity. The critic Dorothea Olkowski notes that the concept “‘Body’ is too easily taken to be a thing, final, finished and fully formed.”3 Representations of embodied subjectivity in What Are You Like? engage with ideas of movement and openness, as well as staging a complex interaction with ideas of location. Mapping What Are You Like? is a novel about the lost, among others: lost siblings, lost children, and lost mothers. A general sentiment of misplacement pervades the narrative. The novel contains continued references to maps, which are posited as a means of locating oneself. It comforts Berts to translate his complicated emotions into the metaphor of cartography: “He thought, once about how he had made her [Maria]—the map on the sheet when he was done. She was another country, that was all. She was something else again” (4). However, his feelings regarding the adoption become “a place with no proper map and no way home” (7). Claire Connolly, in her article “The Turn to the Map,” focuses on Berts’ imagining of a journey around Ireland’s coastline which he undertakes every night following the death of his wife.4 Berts’ anxiety concerning the potential accuracy of the cartographic process expresses, for Connolly, a “sharp contrast to the unmapped emotional spaces that the novel charts: adoption, childlessness, sexual loneliness.”5 Connolly contends that the novel employs the cartographic metaphor as a means to articulate unexpressed emotions and to “renegotiate
3
Dorothea Olkowski, “Nietzsche’s Dice Throw: Tragedy, Nihilism, and the Body without Organs,” Gilles Deleuze and the Theater of Philosophy, eds. Constantin V. Boundas and Dorothea Olkowski (London and New York: Routledge, 1994) 120. 4 Claire Connolly, “The Turn to the Map: Cartographic Fictions in Irish Culture,” Éire/Land, ed. Vera Kreilkamp (Chestnut Hill, Mass.: McMullen Museum of Art and University of Chicago Press, 2003). 5 Connolly, “The Turn to the Map” 32‐3.
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the relationship between an embodied subjectivity and the social space it inhabits.”6 What Are You Like? then, explores the body as dynamically connected to its environment. The journey for Berts becomes a means of dealing with the grief of his wife’s death as well as the adoption of one half of the twins. Adding to Connolly’s reading of the cartographic image, the imaginary journey also functions as Berts’ means of controlling the memory of his wife. The anxiety expressed about the boundaries of Ireland also translates into a concomitant concern about his dead wife’s presence in his life: The house would be the same when he got back, but it would be better the second time around, or at least different. His wife would be dead, but he would be alive, with a circle inscribed around that life. She would leave him alone. (11)
His imagined cartographies attempt to circumscribe the death of his wife and her absence. His only option is to expel his wife beyond the boundaries of his map and of Ireland (much like he has with Rose). The borders however, remain too complicated to trace for him and neither his wife’s nor Rose’s exorcism are secured. Domestic Spaces and the Body While the novel charts a mapping impulse as a desire to secure, contain, situate the body, and inscribe location, the relationship between embodied subjectivity and place on a more local level is also engaged with. The novel explores the connections between architecture and the body, particularly the domestic house and the pregnant body. Berts’ wife, Anna’s reactions to her pregnancy are expressed in relation to the house; she spends time in the bath, pushes the furniture against the walls, cooks the wrong things, lies on the carpet. His wife is explicitly connected with the domestic space. Berts notes that he has not
6 Connolly, “The Turn to the Map” 33.
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seen her outside the house since they got married. When she is taken to the hospital Berts’ distress at her departure is displaced onto the house: “The carpets seemed emptied of pattern, the cushions made no sense” (8). His wife and the domestic space become so inextricably connected that he dreams of “upholstered breasts” (8) Domestic spaces are again linked to the pregnant body when his second wife, Evelyn, conceives. Her pregnancy manifests itself in an obsession with the redecoration of the house, although Berts refuses to change the carpets, associated as they are with his dead wife. In an Irigarayan moment, Berts’ first wife, Anna, is relegated to the space of the ground. Later, when we encounter her voice for the first time from beyond the grave, she articulates her anger with this positioning: “I am not dead. I am in hell. And I blame the feet that walk over me” (248). Domestic spaces are used by Anna’s mother as a writable surface upon which she can inscribe reminders by rearranging objects in the kitchen: “The whole room was a reminder to her. There was no telling, when you touched something, what it might mean. ‘Who moved the sweeping brush?’ she would say. ‘When we haven’t a sausage in the house?” (234) In Anna’s narrative she articulates her desire for this kind of inscription; words trouble her. Language and writing, for her, are a source of particular anxiety: There is no story to living, and having a child, and dying. Not for me […]. So I put vegetables in the wardrobe and buried my clothes. I turned the hoover on itself, all the way up the flex. I rolled along the wallpaper, like Cleopatra coming out of a carpet, and I wrote lists on the floor […]. I am terrified, here in my grave, by words and what they might want. (235)
Anna’s anxiety with language also translates to her relationship with her own body. Looking at her naked self for the first time in a cracked eighteenth‐century mirror she “could not find the words for it. Pink. White. Hill. Cunt. Move. You move the tea cosy from the pot to the table, you move it to the side of the 136
range, you turn the cosy inside out” (247). The inability to attach language to the body is deflected onto the house, onto a rearrangement of space that becomes the only means of communication, though unintelligible to everyone else. Anna’s hell is the incessant re‐emergence of the repressed body as furniture to be moved around a room: I am in hell. This is what I see, this is what I see, I see the turd, I see the rope, I see my own private parts that I never saw and Berts’ private parts that I never saw, I see them clearly. I shift them around the room. I give my husband breasts. I am not ashamed. I shit through the noose and I cry through my backside. I am in hell. (247)
Berts’ final exorcism of his wife, following his first sight of the reunited twins, is configured in terms of the house: The doorbell rang. And the hoover of his wife turned around and sucked itself up. The house of his wife turned itself inside out for him. The house of his wife flipped over in space; with the wallpaper showing on the outside and the furniture drifting into the garden, and the lampshades floating off the roof; vomiting Berts out on to the road. (252)
The house and Anna here, have exacted their revenge ejecting Berts in order that he confront the embodied return of his actions in the form of the reunited twins. The house turns itself inside out, deconstructs itself. Berts reacts to the arrival of the twins by imagining a second exorcism of his wife, closing the “gap in his head” in which he realises he has kept her for twenty‐five years. He pronounces her dead, yet as Anna’s voice has directly preceded this, insisting that she is not dead, she is in hell, Berts’ erasure remains troubling. What Enright explicitly draws attention to here is the degree to which the female body forms an unacknowledged basis of spatial relations to the detriment of the lived experience of women. This is a question that has been the focus of much of Luce 137
Irigaray’s work. She claims that all knowledge production is underpinned and inherently influenced and produced by corporeality and material positioning and that in Western culture and philosophy this has been a masculine phallocentric one, which effaces the importance of the maternal body. Grosz claims, in her analysis of Irigaray, that “this appropriation of the right to a place or a space correlates with men’s seizure of the right to define and utilise a spatiality that reflects their own self‐representations.”7 Irigaray explicitly connects the female body to the domestic space: “I was your house. And, when you leave, abandoning this dwelling place, I do not know what to do with these walls of mine.”8 Enright is passionate about engaging with the traditional silencing and erasure of the mother figure in much of Irish literature. In an interview Enright noted that she had “split that big iconic mother presence” into two, Anna and Evelyn.9 Thus, at the heart of the text, then, there is a doubleness to the maternal. The mother is both the living person, epitomised in Evelyn, “a perfectly likable person who is friends with her children,” as well as “the omnipresent dead mother in Irish fiction, never explained, never made manifest or real,” with whom the living mother must contend.10 Anna’s narrative reveals her as a locus for the dislocations at work in the novel. As a child she displays confusion concerning place and language, believing that her father’s words “Kill a pig” denote a town “a mile west of Gweedore” and subsequently imagining “the map on the wall at school, with
7 Elizabeth Grosz, Space, Time, and Perversion: Essays on the Politics of Bodies (London and New York: Routledge, 1995) 121. 8 Luce Irigaray, Elemental Passions, trans. Joanne Collie and Judith Still (New York: Routledge, 1992) 49. 9 Anne Enright, Interview with Caitriona Moloney, Irish Women Writers Speak Out: Voices From the Field, eds. Caitriona Moloney and Helen Thompson (New York: Syracuse University Press, 2003) 61. 10 Enright, Interview with Caitriona Moloney 61.
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blue sea stretching west of Gweedore—as if ‘Kilapig’ could be drowned somewhere under the waves, or hidden under the block of blue that said ‘sea.’” (233) It is on the side of the sea that Berts places Anna in his imaginary map of Ireland. She becomes the place from which subsequent confusions concerning location issue. Anna’s voice from beyond the grave represents the attempt for the repressed and effaced female body to speak from what Irigaray terms “that decorative sepulchre, where even her breath is lost.”11 Enright’s novel illustrates that women’s relationship to space has been configured in a way that makes their engagement with it seem pathological. Maria and Rose’s depressions and attempted suicides exacerbate an already troubled experience of spatial relations: “Space had flattened for her, she does not so much cross the room as crawl up the face of the floor” (155). Enright’s configurations of the body and its material condition in What Are You Like? consistently disavow conceptions of the corporeal that imagine it as a unified, organised, and coherent entity. Maria’s body as a child displays this level of incoherency: Maria tries to imagine being inside it [her communion dress]. She lies in bed and tries to tell what size she is. When she closes her eyes her tongue is huge and her hands are big, but the bits in between are any size at all. When she opens her eyes she is the size of the dress. Or she might be. (28)
Enright’s fictional bodies then, can be seen to operate on a similar level to the type of corporeality imagined by Deleuze and Guattari, whose conception of the body is, in Grosz’s words, “a discontinuous, nontotalised series of processes, organs, flows, energies, corporeal substances and incorporeal
11 Luce Irigaray, Speculum of the Other Woman, trans. Gillian C. Gill (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1985) 143.
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events, intensities, and durations.”12 Deleuze and Guattari stress that the body must be thought of in terms of its connections to other bodies, both human and nonhuman; the body is conceptualised in terms of links between “organs and biological processed to material objects and social practices.”13 The body is never a singular entity but is engaged in constant linkages, and is thus constantly transforming. Deleuze and Guattari do not ask ontological questions of the body, but focus instead on its capabilities, what it can do rather than what it is. In this regard, Enright occupies a similar stance—”I have always paid close attention to what the body is and what it actually does”—combining an ontological curiosity as well as an approach that is oriented around potentiality.14 Bodies conceptualised in terms of links and connections are most clearly figured through Enright’s representation of the separated twins. Doubles and Twins Enright reveals halfway through the novel that Maria is in fact one half of twins. In a vain attempt to erase the presence of two children, Berts only proffers one name: Maria. When registering the abandoned twin, the nun, Sr Misericordia, alters the last letter to e in remembrance for the loss of the letter from her own adopted name Misericordiæ as it was not grammatically correct. Thus, the twins’ registered names signal their similarity but difference and the conjoined ‘æ’ in the Latin term for misery highlights their connectivity. The girls’ doubleness is continuously hinted at throughout the novel. Maria’s first words are a repetition of her own name. She is continually
12 Elizabeth Grosz, “A Thousand Tiny Sexes: Feminism and Rhizomatics,” Gilles Deleuze and the Theater of Philosophy, eds. Constantin V. Boundas and Dorothea Olkowski (London and New York: Routledge, 1994) 193‐4. 13 Grosz, “Thousand Tiny Sexes” 194. 14 Anne Enright, Making Babies: Stumbling into Motherhood (London: Jonathan Cape, 2004) 2.
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confused about her own identity. Finding Berts at the zoo after getting lost, she is unsure whether the girl accompanying him is actually herself. Catherine Spooner, in her article concerning the relationship between femininity and the Doppelgänger, notes that the phenomenon of the female double has become more prevalent in texts from the twentieth century onwards following their relative invisibility in eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century literature.15 The double itself, she argues, emerged in tandem with modern conceptions of the individual: “It is only when value is invested in a unique, coherent subjecthood that fear can be generated through its duplication or disintegration.”16 Thus, she reasons that the growth in appearance of the female Doppelgänger coincides with a more stable notion of “woman as unified speaking subject.”17 Spooner also insists that the double is, and has been, always connected to appearance and surfaces and thus, by implication with the act of looking.18 The Doppelgänger is always experienced on the level of the gaze. It is based in the visual, but it is not merely a reflection—it is the ultimate experience of one’s self as Other. Enright’s figuration of the double does not originate from a sense of coherent identity. Rather, the motifs of the double or the twin, for she uses both, serve to both signal an engagement with Otherness as autonomously different and not reducible to a paradigm of sameness. This is figured corporeally and through the gaze in the novel.
15 Catherine Spooner, “Cosmo‐Gothic: The Double and the Single Woman,” Women: A Cultural Review, 12.3 (2001): 292. 16 Spooner, “Cosmo‐Gothic” 293. 17 Spooner, “Cosmo‐Gothic” 293. 18 Margaret Atwood notes the prevalence throughout both mythology and literature of sets of twins, usually male. Atwood connects doubles explicitly with the lived experience of authorship and writing. See Margaret Atwood, Negotiating with the Dead: A Writer on Writing (London: Virago, 2003) 35. See especially the chapter entitled “Duplicity: The Jekyll Hand, the Hyde Hand, and the Slippery Double.”
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Maria’s first encounter with Rose’s existence is her discovery of a photograph of ‘herself,’ twelve years of age, though in fact it is a photograph of Rose. The first thing she notices are “her own eyes” (25). Significantly, it is in the visual representation of a photograph that Maria confronts her own double and her own self. Barthes claims photography as “the advent of myself as other” which accounts for “that faint uneasiness which seizes me when I look at ‘myself’ on a piece of paper.”19 In What Are You Like? this disquiet is amplified to the extent that Maria feels unsure about her own existence: “She saw her own smile. She went over to the mirror to check if it was still there. She had been completely robbed” (25). She feels bereft of her own subjectivity and needs visual reassurance, yet she also feels that she “had never seen herself so clearly” when she looks at the photograph (36). She sees herself as other, as a stranger. The experience is uncanny in the terms that Nicholas Royle uses. The uncanny, for him, is “a crisis of the proper: it entails a critical disturbance of what is proper (from the Latin proprius, ‘own’), a disturbance of the very idea of personal or private property.”20 It is a merging of familiar and unfamiliar, an unsettling of interior and exterior. Thus, for Maria: there was the fact that she looked different, even though she was the same. It was hard to put your finger on it. She had the right mouth, but the wrong voice might come out of it. She had the same eyes, but they had seen other things. Her hair was the same, but the parting was on the other side. (37)
Royle explicitly links the uncanny with notions of the double: “It is the experience of something duplicitous, diplopic, being
19 Roland Barthes, Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography, trans. Richard Howard (London: Vintage, 1993) 12, 13. 20 Nicholas Royle, The Uncanny (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2003) 1.
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double”21 and also signals its powerful association with the optical.22 What could be more uncanny then than a disturbance at the level of one’s own body image? Maria’s subconscious experience of her lost double is often configured in terms of an incomprehensible yearning or waiting, and is located somatically. Maria’s first period both unsettles her body and initiates this anticipation: “Her chest starts to go all stupid and so do her eyes. She has a feeling like there is someone always coming around the corner, who never arrives” (54). Her experience of her body is troubled on two levels—an inability to form adequate connections to location as well as a longing for an engagement with someone other than herself. The reconciliation between the girls, their connection following dislocation initiates a sense of potentiality: “Anything was possible, even then” (253). Despite the sense of potentiality that the twins’ encounter with each other produces, the narrative remains troubling about the place of the mother and the relation between the female/maternal body and space. Rose expresses her wish to visit her mother’s grave, yet Berts’ response is to merely mention a tree that Rose’s mother had liked. Anna remains markedly absent and dislocated. Enright explains her approach to constructing a narrative for a novel in her interview with Caitriona Moloney: Novel narrative is involved in revelation; it’s the gap, the awful hole in the text, through which the characters fall. I do think that there is an unsayable thing in the centre of a book, and that if you fill it with something too obvious, then you are lost. You have to fill it with something archetypal that has the possibility of being at least two things at once—that energy has to be maintained.23
21 Royle, The Uncanny 16. 22 Royle, The Uncanny 45. 23 Enright, Interview with Caitriona Moloney 63.
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In What Are You Like? the “unsayable thing” is the erasure of the maternal body, her disconnection from place. Thus, although Enright’s novel stages a productive dialogue between the two sisters which engages with questions of difference, sameness, and otherness, the novel does not quite succeed in addressing Anna’s position. Although the reader encounters her voice she is effectively reburied at the end of the novel in Bert’s deferral of Rose’s question concerning her grave. In her attempt to maintain the unsayable, Enright unwittingly re‐engenders the silent space of the maternal body. Anna remains dislocated.
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IV CANONICAL WRITERS & INTERCULTURAL LINKS
Richard Kearney
Epiphanies in Joyce Epiphany Revisited Epiphany was one of the most formative terms of Joyce’s aesthetic. It originally derives from the Christian account of the divine manifesting itself to three Magi. What seems to have especially appealed to the young Joyce was the idea that it is through a singular and simple event—the birth of a child—that the sacred claimed to reveal itself to the world. Epiphany signals the traversal of the finite by the infinite, of the particular by the universal, of the mundane by the mystical, of time by eternity. It also signals the fact that truth is witnessed by strangers from afar (as the Gentile Magi were) and that this witness involves at least three perspectives or personas. For Joyce epiphany was to become an operative term in his aesthetics of everyday incarnation. Indeed one of his most moving lyrics went by the epiphanic title of “Ecce Puer” and ended with the lines: “Young life is breathed / On the glass; / The world that was not / Comes to pass. / A child is sleeping: / An old man gone. / O, father forsaken, / Forgive your son!”1 Given the pivotal role played by the father/son idea in Ulysses this is, as we shall see, no insignificant sentiment. It seems to be in the Pola and Paris Notebooks of 1903 and 1904 that Joyce outlined his early understanding of epiphany. Although it is rumoured that Joyce first heard the term from one of his Jesuit teachers, Father Darlington, it is probable that he really only developed his own interpretation of this idea as he worked through theories of Aquinas and Scotus during his sojourns in Paris. From Aquinas he seems to have gleaned an understanding of epiphany as ‘whatness’ (quidditas), meaning
1 James Joyce, Collected Poems (1936), The Essential James Joyce (London: Grafton Books, 1977) 463.
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an experience of luminous radiance (claritas) wherein a particular thing serves to illuminate a universal and transcendental Form. (This is the version offered by Stephen in both Stephen Hero and A Portrait). From Scotus, another medieval metaphysician, Joyce learned of a somewhat different notion of epiphany as ‘thisness’ (haecceitas), namely the revelation of the universal in and through the particular. The distinction is subtle but by no means irrelevant. And this second reading—where the divine descends into the world rather than the world ascend towards it—is, I submit, the one which the later Joyce of Ulysses and Finnegans Wake favoured. The Scottist version lays more stress on the sacramentality of the singular event in its carnal and quotidian uniqueness. It is this thing, person, phrase or action itself which serves as an incarnation of the divine, rather than as a mere pretext for something transcendent which happens to be passing through. It is its very thisness here and now that matters. In short, if ‘whatness’ tends to see the particular as the divine in drag, ‘thisness’ sees it as divinity in person, that is, in flesh and blood. I suspect it is this radically in‐carnational view that Joyce has in mind in Ulysses when he has Stephen reply to Deasy, “That is God. […] A shout in the street.” And this initial shout in the street anticipates, I suspect, Molly’s ultimate cry of “yes” in the final chapter. One of the earliest references to the term epiphany is to be found in chapter 15 of the seminal novel, Stephen Hero. Here we find the following definition of Joyce’s style of writing around 1904: “Its soul, its whatness, leaps to us from the vestment of its appearance. The soul of the commonest object, the structure of which is so adjusted, seems to us radiant. The object achieves its epiphany.”2 Elsewhere in Stephen Hero we find epiphany
2 I wish to thank Amanda Gibeault for bringing this and other such passages to my attention. The full extract from Stephen Hero reads: “First we see that the object is one thing, then we see that it is an organised composite structure, a thing in fact: finally, when the relation of the parts is exquisite, when the parts
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described as a “sudden spiritual manifestation, whether in the vulgarity of speech or of gesture or in a memorable phase of the mind itself.” Stephen even tells his friend Cranly that “the clock of the Ballast Office was capable of an epiphany.” And we read here that it is for “the man of letters to record these epiphanies with extreme care, seeing that they themselves are the most delicate and evanescent of moments.”3 This telling description relates in turn to another formative account of aesthetic epiphany in A Portrait of the Artist. Here Stephen defines beauty as radiance or claritas, which combines with two other Thomistic aesthetic properties—integritas and consonantia—to constitute the power of epiphanic revelation, especially as it refers (once again) to ordinary or inconsequential events. And yet in Ulysses, where we might expect this aesthetic to reach its crowning expression, we find only a single usage of the term
are adjusted to the special point, we recognise that it is that thing which it is. Its soul, its whatness, leaps to us from the vestment of its appearance […],” etc. Stephen Hero (New York: New Directions, 1963) 213. Stephen speaks these words to his friend, Cranly, to explain how even the most demotic of objects— in this case the clock of the Ballast Office—can achieve an epiphany. So from this earliest consideration of epiphany in Joyce’s work we realise that it involves 1) a sensible response to an external stimulus in the world (rather than a merely intra‐mental insight) and 2) a certain interpretative response on the part of the viewer (or by extension, reader). In Stephen Hero, as later in A Portrait, this discussion is followed by a Thomistic account of the properties of aesthetic beauty. Though already in A Portrait Joyce appears to be taking a certain ironic distance from his early ‘theory’ of epiphany, though not, I would contend, of the phenomenon of epiphany itself which remains central to Joyce’s developing aesthetic—in practice if not in name—in both A Portrait and Ulysses. I shall use the terms epiphany and epiphany 2 below to mark this important distinction between the early and later Joyce. While the former seeks to force essences out of their everyday vestments, the later Joyce seems to acknowledge that the essences are to be found within the everyday events themselves, no matter how trivial or insignificant. In what follows, I am grateful to my colleagues in the “Joyce‐Proust Reading Seminar” and “Phenomenology of Fiction” seminar at Boston College, and especially Andy Van Hendy and Kevin Newmark, who introduced me to so many intriguing aspects of Joyce which I would otherwise have ignored. 3 Joyce, Stephen Hero 211.
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‘epiphany,’ and that in the context of an ironic allusion to the vainglorious ambitions of the romantic artist. The reference occurs in the “Proteus” chapter where Stephen is unable to seize the moment of mystical insight—the “secret signature of things”—unlike the hero Menelaus in the original Homeric myth who grasped the slippery figure of Proteus in water. As Stephen negotiates his way over the damp mud of Sandymount strand in Dublin Bay he recalls how, when younger and more narcissistic still, he would bow to himself in the mirror and step forward “to applaud earnestly, striking face,” announcing all the wonderful masterpieces he would write to make himself famous for posterity. At which point, we read this telling sentence: “Remember your epiphanies written on green oval leaves, deeply deep, copies to be sent if you died to all the great libraries of the world, including Alexandria.” And Stephen adds, extending mock‐heroic memory into a future anterior—”Someone was to read them there after a few thousand years […].” The self‐irony could not be more pronounced. Then, immediately, in one quick deflationary instant, we are brought back to the banal nature of Stephen’s immediate material environment. The ground is giving way. Our hero is beginning to slide and sink. And as he does so, Stephen thinks of the terrible shipwreck of the grandiose Armada sent to rescue the Irish from British tyranny hundreds of years back: “The grainy sand had gone from under his feet […] lost Armada. Unwholesome sandflats waited to suck his treading soles, breathing upward sewage breath.”4 The hubristic artist rejoins the disenchanted everyday universe of living and dying. Grand illusions are followed by failure and defeat. Epiphany by anti‐epiphany. But this, as it transpires, is not the final conversion for Stephen. It is more like a prelude to the ultimate deflation of Stephen’s Promethean ambitions in the National Library
4 James Joyce, Ulysses, Annotated Student Edition, ed. Declan Kiberd (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1992) 50.
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sequence which takes place at the very centre of the novel, signalled by the motto: “the truth is midway.” Here the process of aesthetic demystification will open up a path leading towards a new kind of authorship, and a new kind of epiphany. This second epiphany (epiphany 2), I shall argue, is performative rather than nominative. Between ‘Whatness’ and ‘Thisness’ But before proceeding to a detailed reading of Joycean epiphany in the National Library scene let us take a closer look at what Joyce actually understood by the operative metaphysical terms ‘whatness’ (quidditas) and ‘thisness’ (haecceitas). While much has been written about the Thomistic sources of epiphany, insufficient attention has been paid, in my view, to the Scottist sources. Like his predecessor at the National University at Newman House on Stephen’s Green— Gerard Manley Hopkins—Joyce was very taken by Duns Scotus’ teaching about the sacred ‘thisness’ of things. Scotus understood haecceity to be a concrete and unique property of a thing which characterises one, and only one, subject. As such, it is the “last formal determination which makes an individual to be precisely this individual and not anything else.”5 The haecceity of a thing is that radiance of its internal being as created and apprehended by God. It discloses itself— mystically, poetically, spiritually—in terms of a certain sacred perception. As Hopkins wrote: “I thought how sadly beauty of inscape was unknown and buried away from simple people and yet how near at hand it was if they had eyes to see it.”6 For Joyce’s ‘epiphany,’ as for Hopkins’ ‘inscape,’ haecceity is a way
5 Gerard Casey, “Hopkins,” Studies, 84.334: 163. 6 Cited in William Noon, “How Culious an Epiphany,” Joyce and Aquinas (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1927) 61. See also Hans Urs Von Balthazar’s revealing chapter “Hopkins: Oxford, Ignatius and Scotus” in The Glory of the Lord: A Theological Aesthetics, eds. Joseph Fessio and John Riches (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1986).
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of “seeing the pattern, air or melody in things from, as it were, God’s side.”7 But the young Joyce was also reading Aquinas and neo‐ scholastic journals during his time in Paris. Thus we find Stephen in the Portrait, for example, explicitly linking Aquinas’ notion of quidditas (whatness) with his own aesthetic account of claritas (radiance), suggesting that the notion of epiphany is linked to the causa formalis or ‘essence’ of something. But in his book Joyce and Aquinas, William Noon concedes that what Stephen seems to mean by claritas may have been expressed better by the haecceitas of Duns Scotus than by the quidditas of Aquinas. Etienne Gilson, an expert on both Aquinas and Scotus, has described the haecceitas of Scotus as “l’extrême point d’actualité qui détermine chaque être réel à la singularité.”8 Haecceity is, in other words, the noumenal become phenomenal, the sacred perception of things translated into profane perception, in a manner so luminous and unexpected that it appears like an “explosion out of darkness.”9 This transfiguration of word into flesh can occur in the most ordinary and demotic of events. And Noon argues that the reason that Joyce later parodies Stephen’s “epiphanies on green oval leaves” in Ulysses is because his various books “with letters for titles,” never achieved any existence outside of his own literary mind—they were still figments of his solipsistic fantasy.10 By the time Joyce writes Ulysses and Finnegans Wake, he has matured beyond his early view that epiphanies depend
7 Cited in Casey 164. See also the more developed analysis of this subject in Philip Ballinger, The Poem as Sacrament: The Theological Aesthetic of Gerard Manley Hopkins (Leuven: Peeters Press, 2000) Chapter 3, especially 193‐98. Cf. also Fran O’Rourke’s analysis of Joyce’s debt to the related scholastic notion of quidditas as derived from his studies of Aristotle and Aquinas in his Paris and Pola Notebooks of 1903‐1904. F. O’Rourke, “Allwisest Stagyrite: Joyce’s Quotations from Aristotle,” Diss., National University of Ireland, 2006. 8 Noon, “How Culious” 51. 9 Noon, “How Culious” 61. 10 Noon, “How Culious” 61‐2.
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on some light within the viewer’s mind, to a more ontological or eschatological understanding. He now sees epiphany as coming from the otherness and transcendence of the worldly object—disclosing, as the druid in Finnegans Wake puts it, “the Ding hvad in itself id est,” “the Entis‐Onton,” the “sextuple Gloria of light.”11 But this transition from an idealist to a more ontological comprehension of epiphany presupposes the traversal of language—the “sound sense symbol” of literature which allows the inner radiance of a thing’s claritas to find expression within the “world of words.”12 Central to this process of textual traversal is what Joyce, in one of his unpublished Zurich notebooks, calls “metaphor,” by which he understands not “comparison” (which only tells you “what something is like”) but the expression of what something “is.” Noon relates this to the scholastic claim that “metaphors are poetic vestments of the truth” of things (“metaphorae […] sunt quasi quaedam veramina veritatis”), adding that he believes this was not yet fully realised in Stephen Hero but would have to await Joyce’s mature works.13 It was, tellingly, during his Paris sojourn in early 1903, when Joyce was steeped in medieval metaphysics, that Joyce penned fifteen short prose snatches which he entitled “epiphanies.” These served as “tiny literary seeds” from which whole narratives might issue;14 they testified to the power of the
11 Noon, “How Culious” 62‐3. 12 Noon, “How Culious” 63. 13 Noon demonstrates how Aquinas, whom Joyce studied in some depth along with his reading of Aristotle in the Paris Notebooks (1903) and Pola Notebooks (1904), gave a prominent role to the symbolic and sacramental power of language. As he wrote in the Summa Theologica: “The illumination of the divine ray of light in this present life is not had without the veils of imaginative symbols, since it is connatural to man in this present state of life that he should not understand without an imaginative sign […]. The signs which are in the highest degree expressive of intelligible truth are the words of language” (ST, II‐II, q 174, a 2‐4). 14 Noon“How Culious” 75.
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“single word that tells the whole story,” to “the simple gesture that reveals a complex state of relationships.”15 The first of these numbered “epiphanies” has particular interest for our reading of the National Library episode in Ulysses. It reads as follows: (Dublin: in the National Library). Skeffington—I was sorry to hear of the death of your brother…sorry we didn’t know in time…to have been at the funeral…Joyce—O, he was very young….a boy….Skeffington—Still….it hurts….16
It is not clear to what extent Joyce’s notion of epiphany ultimately conflates the Thomistic whatness/quidditas of radiance with the more Scottist thisness/haecceitas. For if radiance/claritas is properly speaking a feature of art, epiphany—like haecceity—is also available, it seems, to non‐ aesthetic sensible experience. This latter and more generic sense of epiphany is likely to have its source in what Oliver St John Gogarty surmises to be an insight imparted by Joyce’s teacher, the Jesuit Father Darlington, to the effect that epiphany refers to “any shining forth of the mind” by which one “gives oneself away.”17 But it also appears to derive from a more ontological use of the term in Joyce’s early Notebooks to refer, not only to art or literature, but also to non‐literary “moments of spiritual life” when the soul of the commonest object reveals itself by some trivial attitude or gesture, discloses its secret, “gives itself away.”18 It may even be the case that Joyce translates the more
15 Harry Levin, James Joyce 28. 16 James Joyce, Epiphanies, ed. O.A. Silverman (Buffalo: Lockwood Memorial Library, 1956) #22. 17 Oliver St John Gogarty, As I Was Going Down Sackville Street (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1937) 293f. 18 Joseph Prescott notes this in “James Joyce’s Epiphanies,” Modern Language Notes, 64 (May 1949): 436; cited and commented by Noon 70. I think that the French philosopher, Maurice Merleau‐Ponty, offers a suggestive gloss on this phenomenon of epiphanic perception in the Phenomenology of Perception (London: Routledge, 2002) 246‐48. He writes: “Just as the sacrament not only
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Thomist interpretation of claritas in Stephen Hero and the Portrait (qua universal form) into a more Scottist interpretation in Ulysses (qua individual form). For Stephen in the early works— Stephen Hero and A Portrait—it could be said that “not Being but the Beautiful had been the Absolute.”19 But as we move into Ulysses and Finnegans Wake, it appears that Stephen is leaving the aestheticism of Mallarmé, Pater and the French symbolists behind him in favour of a more ontological experience of art as inextricably connected to the sensible phenomena of the everyday, that is, radiance in contact with the ‘thisness’ of things.
symbolises, in sensible species, an operation of Grace, but is also the real presence of God, which it causes to occupy a fragment of space and communicates to those who eat of the consecrated bread, provided that they are inwardly prepared, in the same way the sensible has not only a motor and vital significance, but is nothing other than a certain way of being in the world suggested to us from some point in space, and seized and acted upon by our body, provided that it is capable of doing so, so that sensation is literally a form of communion” (246). Merleau‐Ponty goes on to elaborate on this Eucharistic power of the sensible as follows: “I am brought into relation with an external being, whether it be in order to open myself to it or to shut myself off from it. If the qualities radiate around them a certain mode of existence, if they have the power to cast a spell and what we called just now a sacramental value, this is because the sentient subject does not posit them as objects, but enters into a sympathetic relation with them, makes them his own and finds in them his momentary law” (248). It is difficult to read these passages without thinking of how Joyce performs literary transubstantions between the sensible and the sacramental, and vice versa. Indeed Joyce explicitly invokes idioms of transubstantional mutation at several key points in his texts as noted above. 19 Noon 68. Noon elaborates as follows: “The poet, the literary artist, is the manipulator par excellence of the symbol, or metaphorical signs; he is the craftsman of the phantasmata, the contriver of the meditative verbal image that suggests, reveals, ‘epiphanises’ […]. The Joycean epiphany in literature may be described as a formulation through metaphor or symbol of some luminous aspect of individual human experience, some highly significant facet of most intimate and personal reality, some particularly radiant point to the meaning of existence.” We may thus see Joyce’s work as a series of efforts to find “vital symbols at the verbal level, capable of interpreting the ineffable epiphanies of experience, and of making these ‘sudden spiritual manifestations’ permanently available through words for the apprehension of other minds” (70).
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If we may say, therefore, that the early Joyce’s understanding of epiphany seems to change back and forth between art and experience, the mature Joyce seems to locate it firmly in the ‘relation’ between the two, a relation which he increasingly understands in terms of the transfigurative power of language. The basic genesis of Joyce’s notion of epiphany can be construed accordingly in terms of a “shift as to the location of radiance (claritas), from the actual experience of the spectator in life to the verbal act or construct that imaginatively re‐ presents this experience in the symbols of language, re‐enacts it through illuminating images for the contemplation of the imaginative mind.”20 One might rephrase this in more hermeneutic terms to say that the prefigurative epiphany of lived experience passes through the configurative epiphany of the text before reaching the refigurative epiphany of the reader. In short, epiphany is a triadic movement from life to text and from text back to life again—a movement amplified and enriched by the full arc of hermeneutic transfiguration. Epiphany in the Library The National Library chapter opens with Stephen proclaiming his grand theory about Shakespeare before a band of fellow literary aesthetes. From the word go, the tone is set. This is about a “ghoststory.” Ostensibly Shakespeare’s Hamlet. But more than that too. When Stephen asks, at the outset, “What is a ghost?” the answer is telling. “One who has faded into impalpability through death, through absence, through change of manners.”21 From the beginning of the novel, Stephen has been haunted by the ghost of his own mother, at whose deathbed he notoriously refused to kneel and pray. She returns to him in the form of a recurring guilt—”agenbite of inwit”—
20 Noon, “How Culious” 77. 21 Joyce, Ulysses 240.
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which he tries to dispose of by banishing from his mind the “mothers of memory.” But these mothers are also of a more collective and cultural nature, constituting that “nightmare of history“ from which Stephen is trying to awake. Motherland (Ireland as Caitlin ni Houlihan), Mother Church (mariolatrous Catholicism), Mother Tongue (Gaelic). Stephen wants to trade in these unholy ghosts of history for a holy ghost of pure aesthetic mediation. He will seek to reconcile a lost son (himself) with a spiritual father through the medium of Art. And he will look for metaphysical confirmation of this in a certain reading of the Christian Trinity whereby Father and Son are united, “middler the Holy Ghost.” No women need apply. But Stephen is not talking in this episode about himself or about Ireland. At least not explicitly. He is talking about Shakespeare who lived through his own crisis of filiality and fiction. According to Stephen, Shakespeare wrote his famous “ghoststory,” Hamlet, at the very time he was grieving the loss of his son, Hamnet, and his deceased father, John Shakespeare. The play was composed as some sort of aesthetic compensation for Shakespeare’s unbearable confusion as he hovered in the in‐ between space of fatherless sonhood and sonless fatherhood. The suggestion is that the playwright sought reconciliation through the agency of the ghost (which role Shakespeare actually played in the first London production in the Globe theatre). What is more, Stephen proffers the hypothesis that the incestuous Gertrude is a stand‐in for Shakespeare’s own wife, Anne Hathaway, who betrayed her husband by having an affair with his brother(s) in Stratford. This is how Stephen enunciates his Theory: The play begins. A player comes on under the shadow, made up in the castoff mail of a court buck, a wellset man with a bass voice. It is the ghost, the king, a king and no king, and the player is Shakespeare who has studied Hamlet all the years of his life which were not vanity in order to play the part of the spectre. He speaks the words […] Hamlet, I am thy father’s spirit bidding him list. To a son he speaks, the son of his soul, the 157
prince, young Hamlet and to the son of his body, Hamnet Shakespeare, who has died in Stratford that his namesake may live for ever.22
Stephen proceeds to suggest that William Shakespeare, in his theatrical performance as King Hamlet’s phantom, must surely have been aware that he was playing out his own grief at the loss of his son, Hamnet. “Is it possible,” Stephen asks rhetorically, “that that player Shakespeare, a ghost by absence, and in the vesture of buried Denmark, a ghost by death, speaking his own words to his own son’s name (had Hamnet Shakespeare lived he would have been prince Hamlet’s twin) is it possible, I want to know, or probable that he did not draw or foresee the logical conclusion of those premises: you are the disposed son: I am the murdered father: your mother is the guilty queen. Ann Shakespeare, born Hathaway?”23 The ghost thus serves to link father (King Hamlet) with son (Prince Hamlet) by displacing the guilty queen Gertrude and replacing her with the “word of memory“—the story which Hamlet the Prince will eventually release to the world in the final Act of the play as he bids Horatio, “absent thee from felicity awhile to tell my story.” By means of such narrative remembrance, the son shall ultimately fulfil the command of the father (Remember me!) through the spiritual‐aesthetic agency of the play itself. Shakespeare will be reunited— poetically if not empirically, phantasmatically if not historically—with his lost son (and indeed with his lost father, John Shakespeare). Thus also, we might infer, the ghost may rid Shakespeare of his own ‘guilt’ by having his story told in this cathartic way. Melancholy gives way to morning as it is ‘worked through’ in the telling of the “ghoststory.” So the Theory seems to go. But if Stephen is right, are we not witnessing a curious
22 Joyce, Ulysses 241. 23 Joyce, Ulysses 241.
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reversal of Stephen’s own history here? Is not the very guilt— ”agenbite of inwit”—that Stephen is seeking to absolve by “awaking from the nightmare of history” not occasioned by his own lack of proper mourning? In the transposition of his own history to the story of Hamlet, we find a strange transfer of Stephen’s guilt about his unmourned mother (Mrs Dedalus in Ulysses) to the opposite guilt of the unmourning mother. Gertrude serves in a perverse sense as the “guilty queen” (like Ann Hathaway on whom she is based, or Mrs Dedalus and Mrs Bloom whom she represents) whose sexual and spiritual betrayal of her spouse qualify her as a suitable “sacrificial scapegoat” whose exclusion from the new Trinity of Father‐ Son‐Ghost will, the theory suggests, lead to a perfect artistic purgation and atonement. As Pater et Filius are mutually absolved through the medium of the spirit, woman (mother, spouse) is dissolved. But let’s have Stephen speak for himself again. After a few rounds of literary jousting with the librarians Eglinton and Best, Stephen returns to his basic thesis that an artist can recompose the different aspects of his being—including that of father and son—through a work of art. Just as the “artist weave[s] and unweave[s] his image” in such a way that “through the ghost of the unquiet father the image of the unliving son looks forth,” so too in an “intense instant of imagination” our past and future can somehow, miraculously, be united into a present moment. This is how Stephen, sitting in the National Library surrounded by his literary peers, looks forward to a time when he will be able to look back at himself as he was in the past and in this very instant: “that which I was is that which I am and that which in possibility I may come to be. So in the future, the sister of the past, I may see myself as I sit here now but by reflection from that which then I shall be.”24 In other words, the genius of the artist is to be able to transcend the divisions of existence by
24 Joyce, Ulysses 249.
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means of a spiritual imagination which can subsume the ruptures of our temporality into an aesthetic of eternal redemption. Stephen quotes the poet, Shelley, in this passage, confirming a romantic sentiment which harks back to Mallarmé’s description of Hamlet with which the chapter opens—”il se promène, lisant au livre de lui‐même, don’t you know, reading the book of himself.” The fact that this phrase is repeated—in French then in English—in addition to its crucial role of leading off the whole discussion of Hamlet which dominates the chapter, suggests that it is central to the author’s meaning.25 Here is the exemplary paradigm of the Great Book where the contingencies and contradictions of ordinary life may be ultimately transformed. After several more bouts of repartee about how Shakespeare’s dramatic corpus relates to his biography, Stephen returns once more to the theme of father and son in Hamlet. We are back with the “ghost” of King Hamlet on the
25 Joyce, Ulysses 239. This citation from Mallarmé comes from a passage on Hamlet in Mallarmé’s Divagations which reads as follows: “The play, a pinnacle of the theatre, is, in the work of Shakespeare, transitional between the old multiple plots and the future Monologue, or drama of Self (avec Soi). The hero […] he walks, no more than that, reading in the book of himself, high and living Sign; he denies the others attention.” The fact that another line from this same Mallarmé passage—”sumptuous and stagnant exaggeration of murder”—turns up a few sentences later as part of Stephen’s own interior monologue, unattributed to Mallarmé, that is, without inverted commas or quotes, suggests that the Mallarmé take on Hamlet as a solipsistic self‐reading Self is close to Stephen’s own stance at this point in the scene. The various references, later in the chapter, to the library as a place of death and ghostliness (e.g. “Coffined thoughts around me, in mummycases, embalmed in spice of words.” 248) adds to the suspicion that Stephen needs to move beyond this enclosed world of mummification if he is to live and write as a real author, free from the deadening hold of a reified literary and intellectual tradition. The fact that Bloom leads Stephen beyond the National library—as does Mlle de Saint Loup lead Marcel beyond the Guermantes library—towards a life and literature still to come, is a curious parallel between Ulysses and À la recherche du temps perdu. The solipsistic Selves they leave behind them in the library are, arguably, Stephen Hero (for Joyce) and Jean Santeuil (for Proust) respectively—the romantic narrators whom they have to shed in order to find their own voice.
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battlements of Elsinore addressing “the son consubstantial with the father.” Now the theological idioms of the Trinitarian mystery are explicitly invoked: “He Who Himself begot, middler the Holy Ghost, and Himself sent himself, Agenbuyer, between Himself and others […].”26 This passage, beginning with four uses of the term “himself” and ending with the return of God, now in the person of the crucified and resurrected Son, to sit at the “right hand of His Own Self” in Heaven, is mock‐ heroic in the extreme. And, if the reader was in any doubt, the graphic invocation of “Glo‐o‐ri‐a in ex‐cel‐sis De‐o” to round off the theological parody adds a defining touch of mischievous melodrama. But this is not all. Stephen comes back to his Trinitarian theory—like a kitten playing with a ball of wool—later in the chapter when raising the question of physical versus spiritual paternity. “A father,” Stephen now opines, is at best a “legal fiction,” at worst a “necessary evil.” He means of course a biological father who has no real relation to a son apart from the physiological “instant of blind rut,” which engendered him. Paternal and filial affection are therefore, so the theory goes, unnatural, and no son can ever be certain who is father really is (unlike the mother). Whence Stephen’s rather cynical quip: “Who is the father of any son that any son should love him or he any son?”27 Trinities and Triangles So Stephen’s overall hypothesis seems to be that in Hamlet Shakespeare is replacing the experience of actual fatherhood (his dead father, John Shakespeare) with a spiritual fatherhood that will compensate for all the doubts, uncertainties and rivalries that exist between real fathers and sons (for the male child’s “growth is his father’s decline, his youth his father’s
26 Joyce, Ulysses 253. 27 Joyce, Ulysses 265‐6.
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envy, his friend his father’s enemy”).28 According to Stephen, this “mystery” of spiritual paternity—represented by the Ghost in Hamlet and the Holy Ghost of the Christian Trinity—lies at the very root of the Western church and culture. Here “fatherhood […] is a mystical estate, an apostolic succession, from only begetter to only begotten.”29 And it is precisely this ingenious fantasy of mystical fatherhood which meant that when Shakespeare wrote Hamlet “he was not the father of his own son merely but, being no more a son, he was and felt himself the father of all his race, the father of his own grandfather, the father of his unborn grandson,” etc.30 In this manner, Shakespeare contrived to resolve the tragic ruptures of his own life‐history (death of his father and son, betrayal by his wife and brothers) by transmuting this history into a mystical story. John Eglinton sums up Stephen’s metaphysical theory thus: “The truth is midway […] He is the ghost and the prince. He is all in all.” And Stephen readily agrees: “He is. […] The boy of act one is the mature man of act five.”31 The implications of this are extensive. Just as Pater and Filius are miraculously reconciled, so too are a host of other human antinomies—”bawd and cuckold” (being now “a wife unto himself”), male and female, (united as “androgynous angel”), possible and actual (“He found in the world without as actual what was in his world within as possible”), and so on. All of which suggests that the solution to life’s tragic contradictions and divisions is to be found in the great Trinitarian fantasy—forged by Christian theologians like Sabellius and writers like Shakespeare—in which father and son are reunited through the mediating agency of Geist. Is this not what is meant by the summary statement that “truth is midway”—echoing the earlier allusion, “middler the Holy
28 Joyce, Ulysses 267. 29 Joyce, Ulysses 266. 30 Joyce, Ulysses 267. 31 Joyce, Ulysses 272.
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Ghost?” This surmise would certainly seem to be born out by Stephen’s citation of Maeterlinck’s mot about Socrates and Judas going forth only to find themselves again. Or as Stephen puts it in his own words: “We walk through ourselves, meeting robbers, ghosts, giants, old men, young men, wives, widows, brothers‐in‐love. But always meeting ourselves.”32 Meaning that if God was the “playwright who wrote the folio of this world,” Shakespeare rewrites the folio of his own world in a play called Hamlet. And we might presume, Stephen Dedalus will do likewise when he finally comes to realise his vocation as romantic Artist par excellence. In other words, if Stephen’s theory is correct, art would be the greatest feat of mystical solipsism—Self‐Thinking‐Thought, Self‐Loving‐Love, Self‐ Causing‐Cause, Self‐Creating‐Creation. But is that the end of the story? Is it simply a matter of converting the mimetic conflicts and sunderings of French “triangles” into the spiritual sublimity of mystical “Trinities?” When, at the end of all the brilliant and grandiloquent discoursing, John Eglinton puts the hard question to Stephen: “You have brought us all this way to show us a French triangle. Do you believe your own theory?” Stephen replies “no.” And replies, we are told, “promptly.”33 So what are we to make of this sudden recantation? Why such a labyrinthine detour in this august national library, conducted by some of the smartest minds of the young Dublin literati, if we are to end up in a cul de sac? And why does Stephen go on to claim that the one who helps him to “believe” in the very theory which he now disowns, is “Egomen?” (Egomism is defined in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary as “the belief of one who believes he is the only one in existence”).
32 Joyce, Ulysses 273‐4. 33 Joyce, Ulysses 274. See also here René Girard’s intriguing reading of this passage in “French Triangles in the Shakespeare of James Joyce: Do You Believe in Your Own Theory?” in A Theater of Envy: William Shakespeare (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
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Let us reflect a little more on what exactly might be meant here by the notion of “French triangle.” A motif running throughout the Library episode, as noted above, is that of Ann Hathaway’s betrayal of her husband William. This is very much a subtext compared to the central paternity theme but it serves a significant role nonetheless. The terms used to describe Shakespeare’s unfaithful spouse are invariably disparaging. She is portrayed as a seductress who tumbles young William in the hay, before going on to do likewise with Shakespeare’s brothers (Richard, Edmund and Gilbert), once her husband had left Stratford for London. “Sweet Ann I take it, was hot in the blood. Once a wooer twice a wooer.”34 Which is why, according to Stephen, Shakespeare brands Queen Gertrude with “infamy” in the fifth scene of Hamlet. And when Stephen and Eglinton rejoin the discussion of Ann later in the chapter it is in the disparaging context of “an age of exhausted whoredom groping for its god.”35 The theological discussion of mystical paternity which immediately follows (discussed above) adds a further nail to the coffin of the banished woman. It was on the mystery of the Christian Trinity—and not on the “madonna which the cunning Italian intellect flung to the mob of Europe”36—that the true Church was founded. And this theme resurfaces one last and very telling time as a terminal salvo of Stephen’s Grand Theory, accounting for that singular note of banishment— ”banishment of the heart, banishment from home”—which we are told “sounds uninterruptedly” from one end of Shakespeare’s corpus to the other. The theme of betrayal is not some isolated matter. “It is in infinite variety everywhere in the world he has created,” concludes Stephen. And is further born out by the fact that Ann Hathaway’s betrayal repeats itself again in the next generation (“his married daughter, Susan […] is accused of adultery”); while Ann herself is refused burial in
34 Joyce, Ulysses 259. 35 Joyce, Ulysses 265. 36 Joyce, Ulysses 266.
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the same grave as Shakespeare. “It is between the lines of his last written words,” claims Stephen, “it is petrified on his tombstone under which her four bones are not to be laid.”37 Otherwise put, the theme of the infidel woman (wife‐ mother‐daughter) ghosts the entire thesis of spiritual paternity and, Stephen argues, is the real hidden motivation for Shakespeare’s invention of a literary “ghoststory”—a drama where the “guilty queen” could be sacrificially purged and “Hamlet père” and “Hamlet fils” find themselves ultimately atoned “middler the Holy Ghost.” In other words, if the Artist‐ Author‐Creator can become a mystical Father who is “Himself his own Son” and thereby dispense with the profane mediation of woman (“being a wife unto himself”), then we would seem to have finally hit upon a solution to the cruel sunderings of existence. In this grand finale, Stephen’s theory would end where it began—returning to itself in triumphal self‐ congratulation—that is, with the romantic vision of the great poet writing and reading the book of himself. The “playwright who wrote the folio of this world” echoing the Mallarméan poet “lisant au livre de lui‐même.” But, once again, the matter is not so simple. Not only does Stephen revoke his own theory of triangles‐supplanted‐by‐ trinities, but he goes on to confront the radical consequences of this disavowal. First, he undermines the metaphysical model of self‐thinking‐thought as the ultimate guarantor of truth. The mystical paradigm of a self‐sufficient‐paternity (Trinitarian or other) is now parodied as solipsistic and masturbatory. Mulligan’s Dublin ditty about onanistic litterateurs—”afraid to marry on earth / They masturbated for all they were worth”— leads to a send‐up of Socratic self‐knowledge: “Jest on. Know thyself.” And this point is further reinforced by Mulligan’s proposal of a mock‐heroic drama (recalling the earlier theological conceits of self‐engendering Trinities and
37 Joyce, Ulysses 272.
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androgynous angels) entitled: Everyman His own Wife or A Honeymoon in the Hand (a national immorality in three orgasms).38
This is Mulligan’s way of trying to outdo the Irish revivalist movement of Synge, Lady Gregory and Yeats—as well as AE Russell who actually participates in the National Library discussion. But Stephen, it now seems, will have none of it. He parts company here with Buck Mulligan and his literary peers. He alone of the Library company is not party to the subsequent reunion in the literary soiree. And this decision to pass beyond the pretentious antics of Dublin’s aesthetic coterie—which has preoccupied him up to now—on foot of his renunciation of his Grand Literary Theory, prepares Stephen to meet Bloom. The “jesuit jew,” as Mulligan labels Stephen, is now ready to behold the “wandering jew,” Bloom. “Jewgreek” crosses paths for the first time with “Greekjew.” Stephen now definitely renounces his proud presumption to become the great Irish writer to succeed Synge, Shaw and Yeats (all mentioned in the episode). “Cease to strive,” he resolves.39 And in so doing, Stephen begins the second half of his odyssey. He follows Bloom out of the National Library onto the street of Dublin, a journey which will lead through nighttown and the cabman’s shelter to Bloom’s own home in Eccles Street, and eventually to Molly. The motto that “the truth is midway” now takes on another meaning, retrospectively, in so far as Stephen finds a way through the extremes of Scylla and Charybdis to embrace a new aesthetic insight—what I will call the “epiphany of the everyday.” This is how Joyce describes this crucial traversal of paths:
38 Joyce, Ulysses 278. 39 Joyce, Ulysses 280.
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About to pass through the doorway, feeling one behind, he [Stephen] stood aside. Part. The moment is now. Where then? If Socrates leave his house today, if Judas go forth tonight. Why? That lies in space which I in time must come to, ineluctably. […] The wandering jew. […] A dark back went before them. Step of a pard, down, out by the gateway.40
The fact that Stephen will take his departure here from both Mulligan—and Mallarmé—and choose to follow Bloom instead is decisive. He trades in a popular, anti‐Semitic litterateur for a vagrant, cuckolded ad‐man. This is the real turning point in the novel and marks the threshold separating the narcissistic romantic Stephen from the later author of the everyday. And the epiphany that marks this turn? I would suggest it is that instant of recognition wherein Stephen suddenly ‘sees’ what he had previously been blind to—the Other. The will of another— Bloom the despised and humiliated Semite—that fronts and confronts him humbly and unpretentiously (“bowing, greeting”). The “other chap,” who Stephen confesses presciently helps him to “unbelieve” his Grand Theory. In short, that other who will lead him out of the self‐enclosed, self‐ regarding circle of literary solipsism away, back, down, out onto the streets of the ordinary universe. Into a world where the self leads not back to itself—as with Socrates, Judas, Sabellius— but beyond itself towards otherness. A world where time does not subsume space into itself but comes to heed and serve it: “That lies in space which I must come to…” And as soon as Stephen accepts this, he sees not only his wayward past illuminated in the instant—”cease to strive”—but also his imminent adventures with Bloom: traversing the roads of Dublin city (“men wandered”), nighttown (“street of harlots after”) and, finally, Molly (“a creamfruit melon he held to
40 Joyce, Ulysses 279.
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me”).41 “You will see,” Stephen realises. This moment of traversal is the epiphany that will change his life. Moreover, the last lines where the plumes ascending from the chimneys of Kildare Street are compared to the smoke rising from altars in Shakespeare’s Cymbeline, may well allude to the return and resurrection of the sacrificed woman (Imogen‐Ann Hathaway‐Gertrude‐Penelope?)—another pointer to the return of Molly in the last chapter of the book? If this reading is sound, then the throwaway line in the very middle of Stephen’s peroration on mystical paternity takes on—retrospectively— another complexion: “Amor matris, subjective and objective genitive, may be the only true thing in life.”42 If so, then Stephen’s “agenbite of inwit” regarding his dead and unmourned mother may itself, at last, be subsiding, the repudiated “mothers of memory“ assuming a more benign visage, the nightmare of history returning as that epiphany of
41 Joyce, Ulysses 279. It is telling that these allusions hark back to Stephen’s anticipatory dream in the Proteus chapter where he speaks of a “street of harlots” and a certain Haroun al Raschid, an 8th century Caliph of Baghdad who disguised himself as a commoner and wandered among his people to find out who they really were and what they really needed. In his dream, Stephen follows the man who offers him a melon (“creamfruit smell”) just as in the Library chapter Stephen will follow Bloom who holds out a “creamfruit melon” to him, a reference which anticipates the final fruits of the “melonsmellonous” Molly in the Penelope episode. This convoluted temporality of forward reprise or anticipatory memory typifies the experience of epiphany which is never just a “once off” isolated moment, but a multivalent present (kairos/Augenblick) traversed by both past and future. Commenting on this phenomenon, Amanda Gibeault writes: “Stephen’s enjoinders to remember the scenes leading up to the epiphany take on accrued importance: without the memories, the epiphany will cease to have an anchor in the world of the text and will appear an ad hoc combination of words. The conclusion we can draw from this is that an epiphany is only genuinely a revelation if it includes the context of description of the revelation—that is, if it is actually embedded in a narrative with a temporal unfolding […]. This means that the reader must do the work of reconstruction to reach a full understanding of Stephen’s epiphany” (“Epiphany in Joyce and Narrative Identity,” presented at Boston College “Phenomenology of Fiction” Seminar, November, 2004). 42 Joyce, Ulysses 266.
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the mundane so faithfully and jubilantly recorded in Molly’s polymorphous poem (itself one sustained coming back of time to space). There is still a way to go, of course, from here to there, from the middle of the book to the end. But the tide has turned, and there is no going back. Stephen, it seems, has undergone a profound conversion from belief to unbelief in his own Theory. He has died a death and shed his most fundamental delusions. No longer striving to fulfil the Great Expectations of Immortal Art—fostered by his confreres in the Irish literary revival as well as by Mallarmé and the symbolists (in a different key)— Stephen is ready to take his lead from a simple ad‐man, Bloom. Renouncing all forms of literary solipsism, Stephen chooses someone who will guide him towards another way of ‘seeing’ and ‘hearing,’ another kind of art (in the lower case) where father and son do not sacrifice procreation for creation, otherness for selfhood, space for time, female for male, history for mystique, the world of flesh‐and‐blood for a world of Ghosts and Geists. Leaving his Grand Theory behind him on the shelves of the National Library, Stephen follows Bloom out into a profane universe where divinity is witnessed in a “shout in the street,” in the “yes” of a woman’s desire. “God: noise in the street: very peripatetic.” This is the truth of epiphany to which Stephen finally comes. Epiphanies—Intra‐Textual, Extra‐Textual, Trans‐Textual Our account above suggests how we might identify the role of ‘epiphany’ within the Joycean text. But if Joyce is correct when he claims that “it would be a brave man would invent something that never happened,”43 is it not legitimate to wonder if Joyce’s intra‐textual epiphanies might not repeat certain extra‐textual experiences in Joyce’s own life? Any attempt nowadays—after formalism and structuralism—to
43 Richard Ellmann, Appendix to the 1968 Penguin Edition of Ulysses 705.
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relate an author’s work to his/her biography is contentious at least. But it is not always unprofitable. Indeed, if we are to give any credence to Stephen’s own procedure in correlating Shakespeare’s oeuvre with his life—while accepting his disavowal of his own “theory” about this correlation—we may assume there is more than madness in the method. I would like to suggest that there are three possible episodes in Joyce’s own life which might be said to prefigure crucial epiphanies in the novel. First, and most obviously, we know from Joyce himself that his first ‘going out’ with Nora Barnacle on 16 June 1904, lies at the core of the book. This is the very day and date for the setting of the whole story, subsequently commemorated as “Bloomsday.” If this is so, by the author’s own admission, then it is probably fair to conjecture that Molly’s climactic phantasia is, in some respects, an epiphanic ‘repetition’ of this moment— the existential past being given an open future through the kairos of the literary moment. Here the human eros of space and time is celebrated in an epiphany of sacredness. “What else were we given all those desires for Id like to know,” Molly reminds us.44 And as Joyce suggests in a letter to his Paris friend, Valéry Larbaud, we can take Molly at her word: “Pénélope, le dernier cri.” Second, it is possible that a particular experience that Joyce had of being rescued after a mugging in Dublin was at the root of his motivation to invent Leopold Bloom. As he relates in a letter from Rome to his brother, Stanislaus, dated 13 November 1906, a brutal mugging in Rome in 1906 which left him robbed and destitute, recalled the earlier mugging in Dublin when he found himself rescued by a Dublin Jew called Hunter who took him back to his home and gave him cocoa. The Hunter in question, as Joyce’s biographer Richard Ellmann explains, refers to a “dark complexioned Dublin Jew […] rumoured to be
44 Joyce, Ulysses 925.
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a cuckold whom Joyce had met twice in Dublin.” In his letter to Stanislaus, Joyce reveals that this same Hunter is to be the central character of a planned new story called “Ulysses.” Ellmann comments: On the night of 22 June 1904 Joyce (not yet committed either to Nora or to monogamy) made overtures to a girl on the street without realising, perhaps, that she had another companion. The official escort came forward and left him, after a skirmish, with ‘black eye, sprained wrist, sprained ankle, cut chin, cut hand’ […] He was dusted off and taken home by a man called Alfred Hunter in what he was to call ‘orthodox Samaritan fashion.’ This was the Hunter about whom the short story ‘Ulysses’ was to be projected.45
Curiously, however, it was not until the second mugging triggered the forgotten memory of the first that Joyce resolved to create Bloom. Epiphanies seem to have something to do with a certain anagnoresis which coincides with a creative repetition or retrieval of some “inexperienced experience”—a sort of ana‐ mnesis which in turn calls for a particular ana‐aesthesis of literary epiphany. We might even propose the neologism, ana‐phany, to capture this curious phenomenon of doubling.46 And Stephen? I would hazard a guess that the existential epiphany which lies at the root of the invention of Stephen—if there is one—relates to some pivotal event of awareness‐ through‐sundering which the young Joyce experienced in a Dublin library. Such a moment would most likely have entailed a break with his Dublin literary rivals (for example, Oliver St John Gogarty and Vincent Cosgrove, who falsely claimed to have slept with Nora)—a break which finally prompted Joyce to take the route of exodus and exile. At least, that is what
45 Ellmann, Appendix 705. 46 For more on our theory of ana‐aesthetics see Richard Kearney, “Epiphanies of the Everyday: Towards a Micro‐Eschatology,” After God: The Religious Turn in Continental Philosophy (New York: Fordham University Press, 2005).
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might be inferred from the National Library exchange which we have analysed above. As Declan Kiberd suggestively remarks about this decisive mid‐way chapter: “Written in 1918, but dealing with a day fourteen years earlier, this section includes lines which predict its future composition, implicitly uniting the young graduate of 1904 with the mature father and artist of 1918. […] Already, Stephen sets himself at an aesthetic distance from events.”47 The recurring phrases which young Stephen addresses here in 1904 to his future authorial self—”see this. Remember” and “You will see,” etc.—indicate the criss‐ crossing of past and future which epitomises the singular temporality of epiphany (identified by Paul as kairos and by Kierkegaard and Heidegger as Augenblick). Moreover, the fact that a key epiphanic moment in A Portrait also takes place in a library—Stephen’s revelation of the power of words in the famous ‘tundish’ exchange with the Jesuit Dean of Studies— might further point in this direction. As indeed might the National Library incident in 1903‐1904 concerning Joyce’s exchange with a literary companion (Skeffington) about the untimely demise of his young brother: an incident, let us not forget which Joyce entered as the first of his fifteen numbered “epiphanies” recorded in his Paris Notebooks. The place of this epiphany is explicitly stated: “Dublin: in the National Library.” In this respect, might not young Hamnet’s demise, as interpreted by Stephen, be a literary transposition of Joyce’s own brother’s demise? “O he was very young .… a boy,” writes the author. “Still it hurts,” replies Skeffington. The traumatic loss of a young child whose ‘hurt’ and ‘sundering’ could only find healing in literature. All such attempts to link literature to life remain, of course, a matter of conjecture and surmise. Though the fact that pivotal experiences in Joyce’s life around the time of 1903‐1904—being rescued by Hunter, being separated from his friends in the
47 See Declan Kiberd’s very informative note to the Penguin Annotated Student Edition of Ulysses 1013.
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National Library, being embraced by Nora Barnacle—were later revisited in the text in the form of three epiphanic Magi (Bloom, Stephen, Molly) cannot be dismissed as irrelevant. In any case, if one is looking for some kind of historical genesis for Joyce’s epiphanies in his own life experience, 1904 would be the year to begin. Let me conclude with a few supplementary remarks on the intra‐textual epiphanies of Ulysses. Concerning Stephen, the actual proponent of the notion of epiphany in the first instance, we might say that the ‘epiphany’ of the Library scene is one which mutates and migrates through the book, until it reaches its culmination in the “Part. […] You will see” intuition. Previous prefigurations of this epiphany are to be found, arguably, not only in the Sandymount Strand scene analysed above (“Wait. […] Remember”), but already in the opening exchange with Mr Deasy where Stephen expresses his insight that God is “a shout in the street.” Such a developmental reading of epiphany—that it emerges within a process of genesis and gestation—would seem to find some support in Stephen Hero’s initial description of an object or event “achieving its epiphany.” The “radiance” of the “commonest object”—be it apprehending divinity in a “street cry” or in the unprepossessing figure of a wandering ad‐man—attests to the traversal of eternity through time. But the eternity incarnate in the instant equally refers back to a past and forward to a future which overspills the moment. In this sense, we might say that epiphany manifests a paradoxical structure of time which Paul called “eschatological.” It is exemplified, for instance, in the Palestinian formula for “remembering the one who is still to come”—a phenomenon which numerous contemporary thinkers have called “messianic” time (Levinas, Benjamin, Derrida). We are referring here to a singular form of “anticipatory memory“ which recalls the past into the future through the present. A temporal anomaly which Levinas calls the “paradox of posterior anteriority.” And which the poet 173
Hopkins—who studied theology and literature in the same Dublin libraries as the young Joyce—called “aftering” or “over‐ and‐overing,” an ana‐esthetic process which enables us to bear witness to the manner in which each simple mortal thing “[d]eals out that being indoors each one dwells; Selves […c]rying What I do is me: for that I came […] for Christ plays in ten thousand places.”48 And yet how do we explain that in Ulysses Stephen does not invoke the term epiphany except in the ostensibly derogatory sense identified above in the Proteus/Sandymount episode? I think that what we have in Ulysses is the mature Joyce translating his—and Stephen’s—youthful notion of epiphany into a post‐romantic literary praxis. So that what we witness is not a doctrinal exegesis of epiphany—derived from some grand metaphysical theory—but the performance of epiphany in the text itself. It does not have to be named. It is the very process of naming and writing itself. A process which retrieves life through the text and prefigures a return to the life‐of‐action after the text. Epi‐phany as epi‐phora and ana‐phora: a transferring back and forth between literature and life.
48 Gerard Manley Hopkins, “As kingfishers catch fire, dragonflies draw flame,” Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins, 3rd ed., ed. W.H. Gardner (London: Oxford University Press, 1948) 95. The analogies with Hopkins, also a Jesuit priest, are not meant to suggest that Joyce’s reading of epiphany was in any way exclusively Christian. He no doubt first learnt of the Christian feast in his own early Catholic upbringing and education, and certainly seems to have refined it in his readings of two major Christian philosophers, Scotus and Aquinas. But the way Joyce reworks the notion of epiphany in his own aesthetic clearly extends the notion to other religions, in particular Bloom’s Judaism, but also (in Finnegans Wake) to Eastern and Vedic wisdom traditions (e.g. the reference to the “Ding hvad in itself id est” in note 9 above). If anything I would suggest that Joyce’s aesthetics of epiphany is trans‐religious, though some might argue that it is a thoroughly secularised version of an originally religious notion. I have attempted to develop the philosophical and theological connotations of the Joyce‐Hopkins notion of epiphany in “Epiphanies of the Everyday: Towards a Micro‐Eschatology” and “Epiphanies in Joyce and Proust” in Traversing the Imaginary: Encountering the Thought of Richard Kearney, eds. Peter Gratton and John Manoussakis (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2006).
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Transversality, moving in both directions. If this is so, then the return of epiphany by performance rather than by name in the Library chapter, might be termed epiphany 2. Such a second epiphany, which dares not speak its name—out of modesty as much as discretion—would be post‐ romantic and post‐metaphysical, democratic rather than elitist, and deeply demotic in its fidelity to the ordinary universe. Such epiphany is what we might call posthumous to the extent that it resurfaces after the experience of radical parting, powerlessness and loss. For “[t]here can be no reconciliation,” as Stephen learns, “if there has not been a sundering.”49 And what, finally, of the intra‐textual epiphanies of Leopold and Molly? For Leopold, as for Stephen, one could say that they are multiple, recurring at various key moments in the text (e.g. in Davy Byrne’s pub, in the Hollis Street Hospital, in the cabman’s shelter, in nighttown, when he chooses compassion over violence and hate)—recurrences which seem to ‘achieve’ their ultimate epiphany in the culminating passage of Ithaca where Bloom, curled up at Molly’s feet, embraces a condition of quiet equipoise: “less envy than equanimity […] the childman weary, the manchild in the womb.”50 Resisting the path of mimetic rivalry (with Blazes Boylan), jealousy (with Molly), competition (with Stephen) and hatred (with the Citizen and other anti‐semitic persecutors), Bloom chooses rebirth. And Molly’s epiphany? The final sequence speaks for itself. Joyce’s own verdict, cited above, is not impertinent: “Pénélope, le dernier cri!” So that the only remaining question might be: is this one more epiphany amongst a plurality of epiphanies or the ultimate epiphany of epiphanies? Or might we conclude that the entire novel itself is an epiphany from beginning to end, with Stephen, Bloom and Molly serving as three mundane Magi—offering us different aspects of a single seed‐moment in
49 Joyce, Ulysses 249. 50 Joyce, Ulysses 865, 870.
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Joyce’s own life: 16 June 1904? Or a trinity of such moments (Hunter’s rescue, Nora’s kiss, Skeffington’s phrase) combined into one? One epiphanic time in one epiphanic space? A day in the life of three Dubliners, retrieved, rewritten and resurrected as literature? Not a triumphal literature of closure to be sure, but a textuality of endless receptivity to the events of life as serendipity, surprise, accident, grace? Joyce leaves it to his readers to decide. Epilogue: Between Molly and the Song of Songs The three Magi who witness the event of meaning, which epitomises the epiphanic paradigm, may also be interpreted more textually—or more hermeneutically—as author, actor and reader. Thus we might say that while a) the lived action of Joyce’s world (le vécu) ‘prefigures’ the text, and b) the voice of the narrator‐actors (Stephen‐Bloom‐Molly) ‘configure’ the meaning in the text, it is we readers who c) complete the function of third witness by ‘refiguring’ the text once again in our own lived experience, that is, as a world enlarged and epiphanised by the new meanings proposed by the text. This triangular model of epiphany always implies a certain birth or re‐birth which constitutes something of a miracle of meaning: the impossible being transfigured into the newly possible. One thinks of the three angels that appear to Abraham (Gen XVII, 6.8) announcing Sarah’s conception of an ‘impossible’ child (Jacob); the three Magi who bear witness to the ‘impossible’ child Jesus; or the three persons of the Christian Trinity who bear witness to the birth of a new and ‘impossible’ kingdom (viz Andrei Rublev’s icon of the Blessed Trinity). This third example, as illustrated by Rublev, brings together the first two and foregrounds the pivotal role of the empty chalice or space (chora) at the centre of the triadic epiphany. The movement of the three persons/angels/Magi around the still vacant centre—which the Church fathers named peri‐choresis or the dance around the open space—may be read, hermeneutically, as the creative encounter of author / narrator / 176
reader in and around the locus of language. Moreover this suggests, further, that the triadic model of epiphany always implies a fourth dimension—chora understood as the space of advent for the new (Jacob, Jesus, mustard seed, etc.), the miracle of semantic innovation as an event of language, the transfiguration of the impossible into the possible. That the witness of the three personas is usually met with a celebratory ‘yes’ (Sarah’s ‘laugh’ in Gen XVII, Mary’s ‘amen’ in the Gospels, Molly Bloom’s final “yes I will yes”) is itself significant as an illustration of a kairological time which breaks into our conventional chronological time and opens up a surplus of possible meaning hitherto unsuspected and unknown. Epiphany may thus be seen as testifying simultaneously to an event of meaning (it is already here) as well as to an advent still to come (it is not‐yet). In this wise, it re‐enacts the Palestinian formula of the Passover/Eucharist which remembers a moment of saving while at the same time anticipating a future (“until he comes”).51 Indeed, Molly’s final cry blends past and future tenses in a typically kairological way—”I said yes I will yes.” Her scatological memories are repeated forward to the rhythm of eschatological time. Ulysses may be read as a series of anti‐Eucharists or pseudo‐ Eucharists (Mulligan’s black Mass, Stephen’s parodic Mass in nighttown, Bloom and Stephen’s failed Mass over a cup of cocoa in Ithaca) which ultimately—after a long deconstructive via negativa—open up a space where the “kiss” of the seed cake on Howth Head, as recalled/anticipated by Molly in Penelope, reprises not only the “kisses of the mouth” celebrated by the Shulamite woman in the opening verse of the Song of Songs but also the Eucharistic Passover of Judeo‐Christian promise. Molly’s remembrance of the “long kiss” where she gave Bloom
51 See my discussion of the eschatological temporality of the Palestinian formula in both Judaic and Christian messianism in “Hermeneutics of the Possible God,” Giveness and God: Questions of Jean‐Luc Marion, eds. Ian Leask and Eoin Cassidy (New York: Fordham University Press, 2005).
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the “seedcake out of [her] mouth” might be thought of as a retrieval of the genuine Eucharistic gift of love after the various deconstructions of failed or inflated Eucharists recurring throughout the novel. In this sense, we might say that Molly’s “yes” epitomises Walter Benjamin’s intriguing notion of messianic time as an openness to each moment of the future as “the strait gate through which the Messiah might enter.”52 This is, in short, epiphany understood as a transfiguring of each ordinary moment of secular, profane time (chronos) in terms of sacred time (kairos). It is also worth reiterating here that epiphany implies witnesses that come as strangers from afar—the three angels to Abraham, the three Magi from the East, etc. This may be read, hermeneutically, as the event of textual openness to new, alien and unprecedented meanings through the perichoretic textual encounter between author, narrator and, above all, reader. Reading Ulysses as just such an “open text,” Rudolphe Gasché writes of the “desire to open writing to unforeseeable effects, in other words, to the Other. It is a function of a responsibility for the Other—for managing in writing a place for the Other, saying yes to the call or demand of the Other, inviting a response.”53 In his commentary on Joyce, Derrida invokes Elijah
52 Walter Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History,” Illuminations. Essays and Reflections, ed. Hannah Arendt, trans. Harry Zohn (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1968) 264. 53 Rudolphe Gasché, Inventions of Difference: On Jacques Derrida (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994) 230. Gasché is here elaborating on Derrida’s reading of Joyce in “Ulysses Gramophone” in Acts of Literature, ed. Derek Attridge, (New York: Routledge, 1992). Derrida offers a useful gloss on the language of Molly/Penelope in an intriguing footnote to his commentary on the relationship between Greek and Jew in Emmanuel Levinas, “Violence and Metaphysics: An Essay on the Thought of Emmanuel Levinas,” Writing and Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978) 320‐21. Commenting on a phrase in Ulysses—”Jewgreek is greekjew. Extremes meet”—Derrida attributes this not only to “woman’s reason,” as in Joyce’s text, but he also identifies Joyce here as “perhaps the most Hegelian of modern novelists” (153). The implication here seems to be that the discourse of “feminine logic,”
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associated with Molly/Penelope, is one which, for Levinas at least, suggests an “ontological category” of return and closure: namely, Odysseus returning to Penelope in Ithaca, Stephen and Bloom returning to Molly in Eccles Street where they may find themselves “atoned” as father‐son, jew‐greek, greek‐jew, etc. It is not quite clear where Derrida himself stands towards Joyce in this early 1964 text, though it is evident that he thinks Levinas would repudiate the Joycean formula as overly Hegelian and Greek (that is, not sufficiently respectful of the strictly Jewish/Messianic/eschatological need for a radically dissymetrical relation of self and other). In his later essay, “Ulysses Gramophone,” first delivered as a lecture to the International Joyce Symposium in Frankfurt, 1984, he makes it clear that the “yes” of Molly/Penelope marks an opening of the text beyond totality and closure to an infinite and infinitely recurring ‘other.’ Even if it is a response to oneself, in interior dialogue, “yes” always involves a relay through an other. Or as Derrida cleverly puts it, oui‐dire, saying yes, always involves some form of oui‐dire or hearsay. “A yes never comes along, and we never say this word alone” (300). With this relay of self through the other, this willing of yes to say yes again, “this differing and deferring, this necessary failure of total self‐identity, comes spacing (space and time), gramophoning (writing and speech), memory […]” (254). And this ‘other’ clearly implies a reaching beyond the text of Ulysses itself to the listener, the reader, an open call for our response. I think Derrida makes a similar point in “Two Words for Joyce” when commenting on the last lines of Book 2, Chapter 2, of Finnegans Wake: “The final ‘Mummum,’ maternal syllable right near the end, could, if one so wished, be made to resound with the feminine ‘yes’ in the last line of Ulyssses, the ‘yes’ of Mrs Bloom, of ALP, or of any ‘wee’ girl, as has been noted, Eve, Mary, Isis, etc…” Post‐Structuralist Joyce, eds. Derek Attridge and Daniel Ferrer, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). Derrida’s point seems to be that the feminine yes in both of Joyce’s masterpieces defies the “phallogocentric” system and opens onto new beginnings and birthings of meaning. In this sense we would say that Ulysses is a deeply anti‐Hegelian book. Molly’s finale does not represent some great teleological reconciliation of contradictions in some absolute synthesis of Spirit, but an on‐going affirmation of paradoxes, struggles, contraries, contingencies in a spirit of humour and desire. “What else were we given all those desires for […]?” asks the polymorphously perverse Molly, a far cry from the Hegelian triumph of Identity. We may conclude therefore that the story of struggle and trouble does not end when Stephen follows Bloom out of the library, it only begins… And by the same token, Molly, when she finally arrives, does not put paid to Trinities as such, she simply reintroduces us—along with Stephen and Bloom—to another kind of trinity, one without a capital T and more inclusive of time, movement, natality and desire (all those things banned from the Sabellian Trinity of self‐
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as a sort of messianic model of the reader—as unpredictable Other—who calls the text forth and is called forth by the text. This notion of Ulysses as an open textual invitation to ‘refiguration’ finds confirmation in Joyce’s own repeated appeal to the ‘ideal reader:’ a gesture akin to Proust’s appeal to his future readers to discover in his novel the book of their own life. One of Joyce’s most telling refrains in letters is—”is there one who understands me?” The metaphor of Eucharistic transubstantiation to convey the miracle of textual composition and reception is also present in Proust, of course, in the epiphany of the Madeleine.54 But how are we to read these novelistic repetitions (in Kierkegaard’s sense of repeating forward rather than merely recollecting backward) of Eucharistic transformation in Joyce? What is the particular genre, idiom or style which performs such gestures? In Joyce we encounter a certain comic—or as he put it “jokoserious”—tone. It is clear that Molly is a mock‐ heroic parody of the elevated and aristocratic Penelope. One only needs to compare Molly’s marvellously mundane musings with the following description of Penelope in the last scene of Homer’s Odyssey: “So upright in disposition was Penelope the daughter of Icarus that she never forgot Odysseus the husband of her youth; and therefore shall the fame of her goodness be conserved in the splendid poem wherewith the Immortals shall celebrate the constancy of Penelope for all the dwellers upon earth.”55 This is a far cry from Molly’s final cry. Penelope could never say of her spouse what Molly says of hers—”as well him as another!” And yet it is typical of Joyce’s irony that in turning the principle of Homeric epic heroism on its head, his characters curiously maintain the truth of the situation in a kind
enclosed Identity). And one might add, more inclusive of the reader. For like any epiphany, Molly’s too calls out to an open future of readers. 54 On this later point see Julia Kristeva, Time and Sense: Proust and the Experience of Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996) 3‐22. 55 The Odyssey, XXIV, 219‐23.
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of creative repetition (not to be confused with Hegelian sublation). Bloom is strangely blessed with his wife (however unfaithful) and does manage to defy her suitors (however indirectly and passively). Molly does not forget Bloom and her ultimate affirmation is ‘celebrated’ by many “dwellers upon earth.” In the transliteration of Penelope and Odysseus into Molly and Bloom, Joyce performs an extraordinary act of Eucharistic humour and humility. Molly’s rewriting of Penelope conforms to the basic features of comedy outlined by Aristotle and Bergson, namely: the combining of more with less, of the metaphysical with the physical, of the heroic with the demotic, of death with love. (Recall that Ulysses begins with a series of death and burial themes, Stephen’s mother, Bloom’s son, Dignam’s funeral, etc. and ends with a call to love: eros defying the sting of thanatos). Molly’s ultimate passing from thanatos to eros is prefigured several times during her own soliloquy, from fantasies of being buried (e.g. “well when Im stretched out dead in my grave then I suppose Ill have some peace I want to get up a minute if Im let wait O Jesus […] O Jamsey let me up out of this pooh sweets of sin […]”)56 to the climatic cry of eschatological bliss. Here, finally, echoing the Shulamite woman’s celebration of wild flora and nature in the Song of Songs, Molly affirms that “we are all flowers all a womans body.”57 Indeed the culminating Moorish and Mediterranean idioms of sensory ecstasy and excess are deeply redolent of the Shulamite’s Canticle—itself styled after the Jewish‐Babylonian nuptial poem or epithalamium. As are the multiple allusions to seeds and trees and waters and mountains and irresistible passions between men and women. If there is something irreducibly humorous in this replay of the Song of Songs, there is something deeply serious too. As always in Joyce, the scatological and the eschatological rub shoulders—
56 Joyce, Ulysses 913‐14. 57 Joyce, Ulysses 932.
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as do Greek and Jew, Molly and Bloom, life and death— without succumbing to some final synthesis or solution. Joyce’s comic transliteration is not the same as Hegelian sublation (Aufhebung). He keeps the dialectic open to the end, and beyond.
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Karl Chircop
Eveline & Mommina by the Window at Twilight: On the Window Motif in James Joyce’s “Eveline” & Luigi Pirandello’s “Leonora Addio!” In comparative literature one can frequently find James Joyce and Luigi Pirandello listed in a nomenclature of writers who represented the advent of the intriguing era of modernism. However, the majority of comparatists have never ventured further than the generic, the introductory or the concluding remarks when commenting exclusively on the Joyce‐Pirandello relationship in modern literature. In fact, browsing the bibliographies of both authors one finds a myriad of comparative studies vis‐a‐vis Dante, Ibsen, Beckett, Eliot, Pound, Proust, Svevo, but in my research I have found only five scholars that have ever significantly contributed to the study of affinities between Joyce and Pirandello: one article by Mary Reynolds,1 three unpublished PhDs,2 two of which discuss Joyce and Pirandello in a wider context, and a brief mention by W.B. Yeats in the 1925 edition of A Vision. This awareness of Yeats was also tackled by Richard Ellmann.3
1 Mary Reynolds, “Joyce and Pirandello,” Review of National Literatures, 14 (1987): 58‐78. 2 Betsy Emerick Kruizenga, Voices in the City: Joyce’s Dublin and Pirandello’s Rome, PhD diss., University of California, 1990. Gian Balsamo, Legitimate Filiation and Gender Segregation: Law and Fiction in Texts by Derrida, Hegel, Joyce, Pirandello, Vico, PhD diss., Vanderbilt University, 1994. John Charles King, The Difficult Character Trope in Literary Modernism, 1881‐1932: Stephen in Ulysses, Luigi Pirandello’s Six Characters in Search of an Author, Samuel Beckett’s Dream of Fair to Middling Women, PhD diss., Purdue University, 2003. 3 Richard Ellmann, James Joyce, rev. ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982) 596.
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Yeats treated Joyce, along with Eliot, Pound and Pirandello, as examples of the disintegration of the unified consciousness of earlier artists. In them, he said, “There is hatred of the abstract […] The intellect turns upon itself.” He had in mind Joyce’s hatred of generalisations, as expressed to him in 1902. Then, he went on, they either eliminate from metaphor the poet’s phantasy [sic] and substitute a strangeness discovered by historical or contemporary research or […] break up the logical processes of thought by flooding them with associated ideas or words that seem to drift into the mind by chance; or […] set side by side as in Henry IV, The Waste Land, Ulysses […] a lunatic among his keepers, a man fishing behind the gas works, the vulgarity of a single Dublin Day prolonged through 700 pages—and […] delirium, the Fisher King, Ulysses’ wandering. It is as though myth and fact, united until the exhaustion of the Renaissance, have now fallen so far apart that man understands for the first time the rigidity of fact, and calls up, by that very recognition, myth.4
The lack of research on the Joyce‐Pirandello relationship is remarkable but not surprising: the mutual awareness of both writers has always been considered minimal since there exists only one recorded meeting, and I have not found direct evidence of any exchange of ideas between them.5 Therefore,
4 W.B. Yeats, A Vision (London: T. Werner Laurie, 1925) 211‐12. 5 The possible contacts and mutual references discovered are the following: i) Both Joyce and Pirandello had been presiding writers over a table at an English PEN club meeting in Paris, 21‐23 May 1926. Ellmann, James Joyce 596. ii) Pirandello’s name appears on the “International Protest,” 2 February 1927, against the American pirating of Ulysses by Samuel Roth. There were 167 signatures to the protest letter; among them those of Croce, Einstein, and Gentile especially pleased Joyce. Ellmann, James Joyce 586. iii) A letter by Pirandello to the actress Marta Abba dated 8 August 1930, referring to Exiles: “I am extremely glad that you have enjoyed reading a work of Joyce. I do not know him personally, but Joyce is a great and very interesting author. I
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whilst respecting their obvious differences in cultural humus and style of writing, I believe a sustainable comparative research should focus less on the direct biographical contact and more on the texts. This would help uncover their similar interest in the representation of interior reality, and the notable likeness of method and theme by which they approached such problems; their remarkable agreement on the dimensions of the creative imagination and its emergence in art; and the demonstrable unity that exists in the whole body of writings of each, especially in regard to certain biographical parallels and to their common ground as strongly autobiographical writers.6
The window motif is just one simple and practical example of Joyce’s and Pirandello’s notable likeness of method. In fact, in their works the presence of a window is rarely just a matter of coincidence (Pirandello alone used the word “finestra” and its
have read his Ulysses and Dedalus, two novels which have become a landmark of the new English literature. You will like Joyce.” Luigi Pirandello, Lettere a Marta Abba, ed. Benito Ortolani (Milano: Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, 1995) 537. My translation. iv) An interview with Luigi Pirandello by Enrico Rocca in the periodical La fiera letteraria, 27 December 1931: “Pir.: […] Certainly, after War and Peace we have not had a novel that is so well structured. It seems to me that there is Dostoevskij’s influence in the problematical figure of The Maurizius Case, a novel by Wassermann which I have read recently. Just an echo, though. In fact, the greatness of this novel is only external. There’s nothing new. Amongst the truly new authors I admire Joyce: his Ulysses is the novel of a poet whose continually changing vision is indeed polyphonic.” Luigi Pirandello, Interviste a Luigi Pirandello, ed. Ivan Pupo (Catanzaro: Rubbettino, 2002) 478. My translation. v) Reynolds’ research reveals that there is one particular book in Joyce’s Paris library, Aspects of Modernism from Wilde to Pirandello, by Janko Larvin (London: Stanley Nott, 1935). Most of the pages are uncut, but two chapters were obviously read by Joyce: the one on D’Annunzio and the other on Pirandello. Reynolds, “Joyce and Pirandello“ 65. 6 Reynolds, “Joyce and Pirandello“ 59.
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derivatives 834 times in his corpus of works).7 Windows in literature are the true eyes of the soul, since they frequently appear within threshold situations. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein depicts the monster peeping on the peasant family whereby the monster reflects on his ugliness. In Kafka’s Der Prozess, the window, observed by Josef K. before being executed, is a place of judgement, the place where to pose the metaphysical question to which there is no answer. The windows overlooking the Cherry Orchard of Anton Chekhov offer an inspiration on the past innocent childhood memories, with Andryeevna hallucinating on her late mother’s stroll in the garden. To Helene Alving, in Ibsen’s Ghosts, the window is an opening towards her scandalous and unacceptable past. The window in the two stories in question is a thin separating membrane between the internal domestic world, characterised by serfdom to familial ties, and the external one which is unknown, uncanny and alienating. I am particularly fond of Gillian Beer’s distinction on the window in literature: it might be the chosen spot for casting a glance ‘from within,’ that is the view out of the window, but it can also portray the view ‘from without,’ what is seen inside the room, or inside the character himself.8 This optical distinction will help uncover the symbolic meaning of windows and capture the unframed images which these two short stories of Joyce and Pirandello present. In this essay I shall also try to demonstrate that the window is a fundamental catalyst to the following themes: memory, epiphany, paralysis, and the landscape. When confronting the vicissitudes which the female
7 The research was carried out with the Letteratura Italiana Zanichelli 3.0 CD‐ROM (Bologna: Zanichelli, 1997). 8 The choice of the theme of windows was motivated by my participation at the Synapsis European Comparative Literature workshop seminar, held in September 2004 at Pontignano, and organised by the University of Siena. This international school for doctoral students tackled the theme of ‘windows’ in literature as a technique of representation. Prof. Gillian Beer delivered the inaugural lecture at Synapsis 2004.
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protagonists undergo we must highlight the similarities. The view of the window ‘from without’ reveals that Eveline and Mommina are female characters enslaved in a frightening existence; they are shut indoors beneath the yoke of a violent and male authority figure: Eveline’s father and Mommina’s husband, Rico Verri. Both Eveline and Mommina have to carry the unbearable burden of the family. The male dominance is prohibitive for both women: Eveline hands over to her father all her earnings and he demands that she end the relationship with Frank; Mommina, who is married and locked indoors with her two children, is persecuted and physically abused by her pathologically obsessive and jealous husband. Both characters suffer psychosomatic effects of their abuse: Mommina is obese and suffers from a weak heart, Eveline suffers from nausea and anxiety palpitations. What is typical of both characters is the inability to escape or rebel against their stifling existence. Eveline and Mommina both have lives that were not lived and which they really wanted to live. In these two stories, one can also find the painful portraits of two communities: the Sicilian one, of Rico Verri and of Mommina’s family, dominated by the pathological obsession of jealousy (it is worth recalling Pirandello’s personal ordeal with his wife’s jealous lunacy), by the male violence and abuse, by a grotesque image of art (Mommina enacts operas from her position as a slave; she tells her daughters: “ve lo faccio io il teatro”—”Let me enact the theatre for you!”—hence the title “Leonora Addio!” borrowed from Verdi’s Il Trovatore), by the zolfara (the sulphur mine) in which Mommina’s father works, by the rural nicknames (Sampognetta, la Generala); and, the Irish community and family cell units, marked by drink, by male violence, by an alienating religion, by emigration, by her mother’s lunacy on her deathbed uttering “Derevaun Seraun” and by a religious sense of slave‐bound duty to the family. The texts present us with three central moments around a window. In “Eveline,” Joyce illustrates the single window which will accompany the character for nearly all the narration. 187
A view from Eveline’s window ‘from within’ displays the colours of twilight, blended with the odour of the dusty curtains she leans against, and with the sounds of footsteps along the pavement. Later on in the narration, while she is looking out passively as the world goes by, amidst her intermezzos of memories and dreams, Joyce indicates twice more that she is still beside that window: 1. She sat at the window watching the evening invade the avenue. Her head was leaned against the window curtains and in her nostrils was the odour of dusty cretonne. She was tired. Few people passed. The man out of the last house passed on his way home; she heard his footsteps clacking along the concrete pavement and afterwards crunching on the cinder path before the new red houses. One time there used to be a field there in which they used to play every evening with other people’s children. Then a man from Belfast bought the field and built houses in it not like their little brown houses but bright brick houses with shining roofs. 2. One day he had quarrelled with Frank and after that she had to meet her lover secretly. The evening deepened in the avenue. The white of two letters in her lap grew indistinct. 3. Her time was running out but she continued to sit by the window, leaning her head against the window curtain, inhaling the odour of dusty cretonne. Down far in the avenue she could hear a street organ playing; she knew the air. Strange that it should come that very night to remind her of the promise to her mother, her promise to keep the home together as long as she could.9
In “Leonora Addio!” Pirandello highlights three different time frames by the window: the first depicts Mommina being locked
9 James Joyce, Dubliners: Text, Criticism and Notes, eds. Robert Scholes and A. Walton Litz (New York: Viking Press, 1969) 36‐40.
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indoors with only one window overlooking the derelict Sicilian landscape; the second has her contemplate the landscape by the window, which hints towards an approaching death as she sighs on the uselessness of the passing of time amidst an unfulfilled existence; the third shows her daughters by the window gazing at a distant and unknown world, since they have never been allowed outdoors, and with great imagination nurturing a deep desire to discover it: 1. Fu imprigionata nella più alta casa del paese, sul colle isolato e ventoso, in faccia al mare africano. Tutte le finestre ermeticamente chiuse, vetrate e persiane; una sola, piccola, aperta alla vista della lontana campagna, del mare lontano. Della cittaduzza non si scorgevano altro che i tetti delle case, i campanili delle chiese: solo tegole gialligne, più alte, più basse, spioventi per ogni verso. She was confined indoors in the highest house of the village, perched on a solitary and windy hill, with a view of the African sea. All the windows were shut, glass doors and shutters; only a small one was left open to the view of the distant countryside and the faraway sea. Only the roofs of houses and the church steeples could be seen of the tiny town: just the yellowish roof tiles, some higher, some lower, sloping on all sides. 2. Messe a letto le figliuole, ogni sera stava ad aspettarlo affacciata a quella finestretta. Guardava le stelle; aveva sotto gli occhi tutto il paese; una strana vista: tra il chiarore che sfumava dai lumi delle strade anguste, brevi o lunghe, tortuose, in pendio, la moltitudine dei tetti delle case, come tanti dadi neri vaneggianti in quel chiarore; udiva nel silenzio profondo dalle viuzze più prossime qualche suono di passi; la voce di qualche donna che forse aspettava come lei; l’abbajare d’un cane e, con più angoscia, il suono dell’ora dal campanile della chiesa più vicina. Perché misurava il tempo quell’orologio? a chi segnava le ore? Tutto era morto e vano. Every evening, after having tucked up her daughters in bed, she would wait for him, gazing out of the little window. She would look at the stars; beneath her she could see all the village; quite a strange view: amidst the fading light of the lamps in the narrow streets, some 189
short some long, others sloping or winding, the many roofs of the houses seemed like delirious black dice in that dim light; she would listen to the sound of somebody’s footsteps out of the deep silence of the nearest alleys; the voice of some woman waiting like her; the barking of a dog and, with increasing anguish, the tolling of the nearest bell tower ringing. Why was that clock measuring time? For whom was it showing the time? Everything was dead and useless. 3. Gracili, pallide, mute, andavano dietro alla mamma nell’ombra di quella carcere, aspettando ch’egli uscisse di casa, per affacciarsi con lei a quell’unica finestretta aperta, a bere un po’ d’aria, a guardare il mare lontano e a contarvi nelle giornate serene le vele delle paranze; a guardare la campagna e a contare anche qua le bianche villette sparse tra il vario verde dei vigneti, dei mandorli e degli olivi. Frail, pale, speechless, they would follow their mother in the dullness of that prison, awaiting his exit from the house, to stand with her at that small window, the only one open, to breathe in some fresh air, to gaze at the distant sea and to count the sails of the fishing boats on bright days; to look at the countryside and count the little white villas scattered amongst the different green hues of the vines, and the almond and olive trees.10
A window is frequently a connection, an opening to the landscape; but in these cases it asserts the exclusion of Eveline, of Mommina and also of the latter’s daughters, not only from the outside world (‘the view from within’) but also from the inside world of the household (‘the view from without’). It is striking to note that the description which Pirandello gives of his landscapes in “Leonora Addio!” is traceable to his own landscape paintings.11 In these short stories, the characters and the landscape
10 Luigi Pirandello, Novelle per un Anno, eds. Italo Borzi and Maria Argenziano (Roma: Newton Compton Editori, 1993) 1078‐9. My translations. 11 Cf. Antonio Alessio, Pirandello Pittore (Agrigento: Edizioni del Centro Nazionale di Studi Pirandelliani, 1984).
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develop simultaneously.12 Pirandello and Joyce illustrate ‘the view from within,’ the landscape out of the window, not only as twentieth‐century writers but also through uses and understandings of umorismo that I hope to show are truly singular. The landscapes represented are multifaceted: they are realistic but also symbolic, they are local but also universal, they are silent but at the same time turbulent: they create a sort of mise‐en‐abyme by placing in the spatial structure of the scene other particular abstract spaces. Therefore, Pirandello’s and Joyce’s landscapes fulfil various tasks in the one story: they illustrate the silence and the failure of language in the community, and even the cities’ failure as communities.13 The landscape outside the window is usually tragic, like any one of the characters, and it tries to convey a moral meaning perfectly congruent to that of the characters in the process of narration.14 Agrigento and Dublin (but also Rome for Pirandello) have been a rich source of landscapes and cityscapes to these two writers, and indeed have become a part of the structure of narration and also a technique of representation. Both writers in this case use the window to portray a landscape which reflects the doomed internal realm of the character, a sort of mirror of the soul. In fact, when the female character tries to discover herself by the window in view of the landscape, no epiphany occurs and the result is alienation and paralysis. The character by the window waits for something and at the same time waits for nothing. Eveline is stuck by the window even though “her time [i]s running out.” Therefore, the specifically chosen spot of the window becomes a place to recall the lost past, a generator of dreams of escape, offering false consolation, but above all a place where these
12 Franco Zangrilli, “La funzione del paesaggio nella novellistica pirandelliana,” Le Novelle di Pirandello, ed. Stefano Milioto (Agrigento: Edizioni Centro Nazionale di Studi Pirandelliani, 1980) 156. 13 Kruizenga, Voices in the City 22. 14 Zangrilli, “La funzione” 145.
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women may deny themselves any illumination. Even the view of the sea is for Mommina and her daughters the attempt to retrieve an unreachable reality. From both windows enter also the sounds and the smells from the external world but the character realises she is too distant, not only from that alienating reality, but also from the other characters in the story. Francesca Valente has studied the influence of the senses in the process of epiphany in Dubliners, whereby the disparity in the use of the senses inhibits epiphany.15 She highlighted that in “Eveline,” the visual world of the character—her stifling space of living within the family, the Church, represented by the picture of the priest—triumphs over the hearing domain— Frank as a singer, the broken harmonium at home, the organ player being ordered to go away.16 Therefore, Eveline’s failed epiphany is the result of this loss of sensory equilibrium in the clash between the visual and the acoustic. Similarly, in the case of “Leonora Addio!” there is also a failing sensory process for Mommina, whereby, contrary to Eveline, it is the hearing that triumphs over all the other senses (Mommina dies singing the famous aria from Il Trovatore). The windows of Mommina and Eveline tear down the obstructions of their non‐materialised wishes and dreams which plunge them into memory. Raffaella Baccolini correctly observed that memory is functional only to male characters in Dubliners;17 as an example, consider the window scene of Gabriel’s epiphany in “The Dead,” where the window is instrumental to his epiphany. In the case of female characters, they are incapable of reaching an epiphany of their own life, which results in paralysis. Eveline, but I would postulate even
15 Francesca Valente, “Joyce’s Dubliners: From the Visual to the Acoustic,” Joyce Studies in Italy, 5 (1998): 282. 16 Valente, “Joyce’s Dubliners” 285. 17 Raffaella Baccolini, “She Had Become a Memory,” ReJoycing, eds. Rosa M. Bollettieri Bosinelli and Harold F. Mosher (Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky, 1998) 147.
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Mommina, is not important for what she does but for what she stands for, and these two characters are themselves ‘memories’ without any subjectivity.18 Eveline is subdued after looking at the window ‘from within’ (the view of a gloomy Dublin landscape) and ‘from without’ (the view inside the room) by a flashback of memories on her tyrannical father, her overbearing dead mother, her material conditions and her social conventions. In Mommina’s case, the window is a symbolic space where she became alienated from society, and when breaking the surface of the window to the outside world became impossible, memories were created. After haunting Mommina with a forgotten youthful passion for theatre, memory, in a dramatic contrast to Eveline, does not only enslave the character, but literally condemns her to death. By locking onto the blinding memories of her family’s operatic evenings, she enacts and sings to death entire operas in front of her stupefied daughters from whom she is completely alienated. With a melodramatic escalation of tension, the external world of memories of these female characters collides violently with their prison‐like existence and provokes a drastic cleavage between reality and appearance: Mommina dies whilst acting and singing a death scene from an opera, and her daughters are quite unsure whether she is only acting or truly dead; Eveline, overwhelmed by the paralysis of the city, fails in her exodus by wrongly discerning between the reality of the fatal bond to her father and the deceiving appearance of the liberating escape with Frank. Eveline’s overwhelming paralysis in the face of her new and promising future with Frank reminds me of what Leonardo Sciascia would later call “Sicily as a metaphor of the world,” in other words, the historical and staunch stereotypes of Sicilian belief and customs: that the world will never be different from
18 Baccolini, “She Had Become a Memory” 148.
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what it was (“non potrà mai essere diverso da come è stato”); that it is useless to accept any innovations, particularly if they consist of ideas (political and moral), since according to Sciascia, no one in Sicily has ever believed that ideas could bring any progress in material life.19 Sicily, like Ireland thus becomes a global village, an intercultural metaphor which becomes an eloquent apotheosis of the modernist opposition between existence and meaning. Most critics might eventually ask whether Pirandello’s technique of epiphany might be less elaborate than Joyce’s, especially when considering the mastery and innovation by which the latter developed it in the later works. Nino Borsellino declares that Pirandello was always convinced of maintaining a deconstructing umorismo, but was sometimes “unsure” on the revelation process of epiphany.20 Further questions have been asked by psychoanalytic criticism which highlights the seeming repetitiveness of the narrative, the thematic and the linguistic forms in Luigi Pirandello’s works. Primus inter pares is the repetitive motif on the failed epiphany of the character: Giacomo Debenedetti, for instance, has highlighted at length the failed epiphany of the protagonist in The Late Mattia Pascal (Il Fu Mattia Pascal)—after treating at length the epiphany in Proust and Joyce,21 and G.P. Biasin has carried out a similar
19 “Sicily nowadays is something that is not physically tangible. Not everything that one finds in Sicily is Sicilian. On the other hand, one might argue that many things in the world are Sicilian or ‘sicilianised.’ Sicily has in fact become a metaphor. […] Sicily’s most serious flaw has been, and always shall be, the refusal to believe in ideas. Nobody has ever believed here that ideas inspire the world. This is obviously a result of history and experience, but this trait has inhibited Sicily’s progress: the belief that the world can never change. Therefore, since this mistrust of ideas, or rather this lack of ideas, is nowadays widespread all over the world, Sicily has thus become, in my opinion, a metaphor of the world.” Cf. Sciascia racconta Sciascia, prod. Rai Educational, dir. Pasquale Misuraca and Massimo Onofri, 2002, VHS, 45mins. My translation. 20 Nino Borsellino, Ritratto e immagini di Pirandello (Roma: Editori Laterza, 1991) 126. 21 Giacomo Debenedetti, Il Romanzo del Novecento (Milano: Garzanti, 1971) 305‐414.
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study, but this time on Vitangelo Moscarda in One, None and a Hundred Thousand (Uno, nessuno e centomila).22 Further criticism to Pirandello’s epiphanies comes from Renato Barilli, in his renowned classic text La linea Svevo‐ Pirandello. At one point he states that Pirandello’s epiphanies are simplistic, repetitive and mass‐produced and that they are undoubtedly inferior to the epiphanies of Joyce. He insists that studying individual examples of epiphanies is useless, and it is erroneous to consider them as unique epiphanic moments. Barilli suggests that the best way to evaluate Pirandello’s epiphanies is to analyse them collectively, even though later on in the text, he states that Pirandello’s epiphanies are “perfectly” homologous to the ones of Joyce, Proust and Montale.23 This tendency of denouncing repetitiveness is strongly contrasted by other scholars, such as Franco Zangrilli, when considering the uniqueness of the various catalysts of epiphany in Pirandello, such as the moon, in the novellas Male di luna, Ciàula scopre la luna, La mosca.24 However, even if one admits that in some instances Pirandello’s epiphanies are unique in form and content, I believe they will nonetheless remain less elaborate than the ones Joyce created. This happens because Pirandello’s personal notion of epiphany is itself ambivalent: it could be an illumination but also an unachievable state of being due to the dualism of the mask. My position is supported by Giulio Ferroni, when he declares that Pirandello must not be considered as being incapable of reaching the epiphanic moment. On the contrary, Pirandello breaches the limits of literary definition, thus creating a dualistic theme: epiphany and the disintegration of it (i.e. the act of wearing the mask). Pirandello has not actually failed in rendering original and
22 G.P. Biasin, Malattie Letterarie (Milano: Bompiani, 1976) 125‐55. 23 Renato Barilli, La Linea Svevo‐Pirandello, rev. ed. (Milano: Oscar Mondadori, 2003) 167‐8, 242. 24 Franco Zangrilli, L’ arte novellistica di Pirandello (Ravenna: Longo Editore, 1983) 210‐11.
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unique epiphanic moments to his characters like the ones Joyce has created;25 maybe he willingly denied them the privileged ‘real’ view of the epiphany beyond the ‘appearances.’ Unlike Joyce, Pirandello continually highlighted that every absolute epiphany is always hindered by the mask and by the multi‐ faceted game between appearance and reality in his poetica dell’ umorismo.
25 Giulio Ferroni, “La critica psicanalitica e Pirandello,” J.M. Gardair, ed., Pirandello e il suo doppio (Roma: Abete, 1977) 33‐4.
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Máirín Nic Eoin
“Kafkachas”: Kafka & Irish‐language Literature When one mentions Kafka in the context of Irish‐language literature, one thinks immediately of Máirtín Ó Cadhain’s late stories and of the comparative analyses of a number of critics. The purpose of this paper, however, is to move beyond the question of thematic or stylistic influence and to look at some broader issues relating to the theme of Ireland as a global village and its relevance to Irish‐language writing. Though poet Seán Ó Ríordáin entitled an influential 1971 essay “Kafkachas“ (“Kafkaesqueness”), the essay is not about Kafka at all, but rather is an exploration of Ó Ríordáin’s particular experience of post‐colonial bilingualism. In alluding to his relationship with the English language, Ó Ríordáin invokes Kafka’s famous short story “Metamorphosis“ in an attempt to explain the kind of psychic transformation he experiences when he moves from Irish to English. Despite his inaccurate recollection of the details of the story (Kafka’s insect becomes a lobster in Ó Ríordáin’s account of it), the fact that Ó Ríordáin could harness this powerful iconic image of the modern subject’s self‐ alienation to refer to his own particular linguistic experience is itself remarkable: Bhí scéal scanrúil ag Kafka […] ar fhear a iompaigh ina ainmhí aingiallta, ina fhrog nó ina ghliomach, ní cuimhin liom i gceart. Diaidh ar ndiaidh mhothaigh sé an claochló ag dul air. Diaidh ar ndiaidh chaill sé a mhothú agus a aithint duine agus thuit sé i gcoimpleásc na péiste nó an arrachtaigh sin […M]othaím an béarlú a la Kafka im chnámha […]. Am fhaire féin a bhímse agus mé ag sasanú liom go dtí go mbead im ghliomach sasanach. Ach is fadó tárlaithe é. Sasanach is ea mé de bharr a bhfuil chloiste, labhartha, léite agam de Bhéarla. Nuair a deir an Sasanach “I” deirimse “I” im aigne agus bímid ar aon choiscéim, ar aon fhorainm. Bím ina aigne. A imníomh súd 197
m’imníomhsa. Aon ghliomach amháin is ea sinn nuair a bhím fé chlúid an Bhéarla. Ach ní fhanaim im ghliomach fé mar a dhein gliomach Kafka. Fillim ar mo chló féin—más í an Ghaeilge mo chló féin. Nuair a fhillim is fuath liom an Béarla. Is fuath liom mé féin. Tuigtear dom go bhfuilim ciontach i dtréas—gur fuadaíodh mé—gur fhágas m’aigne aige—go rabhas as mo mheabhair, as mo chló. Dheineas mé féin a ró‐ionannú leis. Thruaillíos mé féin. Sórt adhaltranais ab ea é.
Kafka related a frightening story about a man who turned into a wild animal, into a frog or a lobster, I can’t remember correctly. Little by little he noticed the transformation coming over him. Little by little he lost his human feeling and recognition and he fell into the complex that was that beast or monster […]. I feel the Anglicisation à la Kafka in my bones […] I observe myself being Anglicised until I have become an English lobster. But it has already happened. I am an Englishman on account of all the English I have heard, spoken, read. When the Englishman says “I,” I say “I” in my mind and we are on the same step, on the same pronoun. I exist in his mind. His anxiety is my anxiety. We are the one lobster as long as we are blanketed by English. But I don’t remain a lobster as Kafka’s lobster does. I return to my own shape—if the Irish language is my own shape. When I return I hate the English language. I hate myself. I believe I am guilty of treason—that I was abducted—that I left my mind with it—that I was out of my mind, out of my shape. I over‐identified with it. I corrupted myself. It was a kind of adultery.1
The essay throughout is full of self‐doubt and self‐hate, the self‐ doubt and self‐hate of the non‐native speaker whose own sense of belonging to a particular linguistic community is seriously in question.
1 Seán Ó Ríordáin, “Kafkachas,” Irish Times, 22 February 1971. The translation of this and all subsequent quotations from Irish‐language sources is mine.
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The most sustained discussion of Kafka’s influence on modern Irish‐language literature has undoubtedly been the discussion of his influence on the later stories of prose master Máirtín Ó Cadhain. Gearóid Denvir’s identification of a Kafkaesque dimension in stories such as “An Eochair” (“The Key”), “Fuíoll Fuine” (“Survivor”) and “Ag Déanamh Páipéir” (“Becoming Paper”)2 for example, is a convincing one.3 “An Eochair” and “Fuíoll Fuine” are interpreted as Kafkaesque allegories, comparable to the novels Der Prozess (The Trial) and Das Schloss (The Castle) in their exposure of the labyrinthine machinations of state bureaucracy, or the empty rituality of an urban landscape devoid of community, of supportive structures or belief systems. In “An Eochair” the central character J. is a junior civil servant (a paper keeper) who, accidentally locked into his civil service office, is both physically and psychologically entrapped in an impersonal world from which there is no escape. The ritualisation of work practices and the significance of precedent result in a situation where response to J.’s call for assistance is impossible as all functionaries are constrained by the roles and responsibilities allotted them, leading to claustrophobia, panic and ultimately to J.’s death. The main character of “Fuíoll Fuine” N. is a bereaved senior civil servant whose lack of any clear sense of purpose apart from the maintenance of his own social position is made manifest in the period immediately after his wife’s death. Totally devoid of conventional emotion, he also displays an inability to play even the formal role expected of a spouse in such circumstances. Instead, with the disturbance of his established routine he becomes adrift in the city and prey to the
2 Máirtín Ó Cadhain, An tSraith ar Lár (Dublin: Sáirséal agus Dill, 1967) 203‐60; An tSraith dhá Tógáil (Dublin: Sáirséal agus Dill, 1970) 144‐260; An tSraith Tógtha (Dublin: Sáirséal agus Dill, 1977) 131‐58. 3 Gearóid Denvir, Cadhan Aonair: Saothar Liteartha Mháirtín Uí Chadhain (Dublin: An Clóchomhar, 1987) 113‐70; “Ó Chill go Cré,” Litríocht agus Pobal (Indreabhán: Cló Iar‐Chonnachta, 1997) 91‐4.
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anxieties of one whose sense of agency is under threat. While these two stories are the most striking examples of a Kafka’s influence on Ó Cadhain, other stories deal with similar social and political themes. Images of physical and psychological stasis abound in certain later works, whether the central character is yet another civil servant incapable of social interaction or emotional response, as in “Idir Dhá Chomhairle” (“Between Two Minds”), or a patient waiting for the release of death, as in “Othar” (“Patient”).4 The theme of “metamorphosis” is evoked in the story “Ag Déanamh Marmair” (“Becoming Marble”) where highly formalised work practices are likened to religious rituals; and themes of bureaucratisation, ritualisation and transformation are linked in the story “Ag Déanamh Páipéir” (“Becoming Paper”) where Ó Cadhain presents the total reification of a central character who literally becomes the paper which is his raison d’être as an office worker.5 While much more could be said about these stories, let it suffice to remark here that Gearóid Denvir’s comparisons are based on a particular socio‐political reading of Kafka’s work which is at one point presented in its entirety as an allegorical critique of twentieth‐ century bureaucracy, akin to Orwell’s Animal Farm and 1984 and Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World.6 It is true, however, that Ó Cadhain’s stories are more unambiguously satirical than Kafka’s allegories. Also Ó Cadhain’s earthiness, his lavish use of language and his Rabelaisian humour stand in sharp contrast to the starkness of Kafka’s prose and the more enigmatic and prophetic nature of his political message. In dealing with the themes of guilt and responsibility, Denvir’s comparison of N. in “Fuíoll Fuine” with Joseph K. in The Trial does have validity, but arguably less so than the similarities identified between Ó Cadhain’s story and aspects of the novels of Camus. It is
4 Ó Cadhain, An tSraith Tógtha 86‐98; 10‐15 5 Ó Cadhain, An tSraith Tógtha 22‐6; 131‐58. 6 Denvir, Cadhan Aonair 115.
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interesting that Alan Titley, while accepting the grounds for comparison and building on Denvir’s analyses of narrative themes and devices,7 focuses from the outset on the biographical sources of Ó Cadhain’s frustration with bureaucracy. Titley traces the story “An Eochair” to Ó Cadhain’s experience as an employee in Rannóg an Aistriúcháin (the Translation Department of Dáil Éireann) and to his regular dealings as an Irish‐language activist with the Irish civil service.8 In discussing “Fuíoll Fuine,” Titley also quite rightly points out that it is the tenor, rather than the finer details of Kafka’s fiction, that Ó Cadhain has successfully reproduced in his own story. Which brings me to the general question I would like to pose at this juncture: is there any direct relationship between Kafka’s writing and what has come to be deemed the ‘Kafkaesque’ element in Irish‐language writing? The more enigmatic work of Inis Oírr writer Dara Ó Conaola, as exemplified in his 1981 collection of surrealist short stories Mo Chathair Ghríobháin (My Labyrinth),9 is arguably more akin to Kafka than the more explicit and politically charged work of Ó Cadhain. Evocation of Kafka, in the case of Ó Conaola, is certainly justified if we accept Milan Kundera’s explication of the term “Kafkan”: “This term, drawn from an artist’s work, determined solely by a novelist’s images, stands as the only common denominator in situations (literary or real) that no other word allows us to grasp and to which neither political nor social nor psychological theory gives us any key.”10 However, I think one should question a tendency in Irish‐ language criticism to attribute certain forms of non‐realist or surrealist fiction too easily to the influence of Kafka. Kafka is scarcely relevant to an understanding of Pádraig Standún’s
7 Alan Titley, An tÚrscéal Gaeilge (Dublin: An Clóchomhar, 1991) 546‐50. 8 Titley, An tÚrscéal Gaeilge 57. 9 Dara Ó Conaola, Mo Chathair Ghríobháin (Dublin: An Gúm, 1981). 10 Milan Kundera, “Somewhere Behind,” The Art of the Novel (1979; London and Boston: Faber, 1986) 100.
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futuristic novel A.D. 2016,11 for example, as is clear from Gearóid Denvir’s discussion of the novel, where Kafka is evoked.12 Similarly, while critic Dónall Ó Braonáin has suggested that the central character Beartla B in Tomás Mac Síomóin’s first novel13 is a humorous development of Kafka and Ó Cadhain’s use of characterisation,14 Mac Síomóin’s novel is unambiguously a work of social and political satire, a critique of consumerism based on the author’s knowledge of developments in cybernetics and robotics. Evocation of Kafka in Irish‐language criticism may be looked upon in the context of a broader thesis about the evolution of a modern literature in Irish. A recurring theme in much twentieth‐century Irish‐language criticism has been the tension between the modern(ist) international(ist) cosmopolitan impulse in twentieth‐century art and literature and the pre‐ modern traditional rural community contexts in which the language had survived as a living medium. The natural progression of individual writers was often seen as a movement from rural to urban themes and subject matter, from oral to literary narrative conventions, from colloquial speech registers to more developed literary styles, from the particular and the regional viewpoint to the more general and universal worldview. It is in this context that we most commonly come across references to Kafka in Irish‐language criticism where he is presented most often as a central co‐ordinate on the modernist map. As we’ve already seen, however, Gearóid Denvir specifically aligns him with political allegorists Orwell and Huxley in his discussion of particular Ó Cadhain stories.
11 Pádraig Standún, A.D. 2016 (Indreabhán: Cló Iar‐Chonnachta, 1988). 12 Gearóid Denvir, “Úrscéalta Luatha Phádraig Standún,” Litríocht agus Pobal 210, 213. 13 Tomás Mac Síomóin, Ag Altóir an Diabhail: Striptease Spioradálta Bheartla B (Dublin: Coiscéim, 2003). 14 Dónall Ó Braonáin, “Slánú na Scéalaíochta,” Comhar (Deireadh Fómhair 2003): 10.
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He is evoked for other comparative purposes elsewhere. Denvir lists him among those modern European writers who drew on mythical sources, for example.15 Stiofán Ó Cadhla, in his discussion of Seán Ó Ríordáin, places Kafka alongside Beckett as writers who were responding to the political and ideological uncertainties of a Europe living in the shadow of a world war.16 Ó Cadhla later cites Kafka, alongside Malraux, Sartre, Breton and Baudelaire, as writers who, like Seán Ó Ríordáin, were critical of modern liberalism and capitalism.17 Fionntán de Brún, in his study of Seosamh Mac Grianna, cites Kafka alongside Beckett, Nietzsche, Alfred Jarry and Antonin Artaud as one of those modernist authors whose work explored the realms of psychological unease and madness.18 It is interesting also how George Steiner’s influential reading of Kafka has informed Irish critics’ readings of Irish‐language texts.19 As well as acknowledging the presence of Kafka as a critical touchstone, we may also bear witness to the continued presence of Kafka in contemporary Irish‐language fiction. Prose‐writer Séamus Mac Annaidh, for example, refers to Kafka in Rubble na Mickies, the third book of his metafictional trilogy, where he is mentioned alongside Seosamh Mac Grianna whose writing career ground to a halt due to mental ill health in 1935.20 Should a writer be worried about the end of a work or does the mystique of the unfinished work add somehow to its value? Later on in the novel, the fictional author Merle Mobius Page
15 Denvir, Cadhan Aonair 262. 16 Stiofán Ó Cadhla, Cá bhFuil Éire? Guth an Ghaisce i bPrós Sheáin Uí Ríordáin (Dublin: An Clóchomhar, 1998) 18. 17 Ó Cadhla, Cá bhFuil Éire? 50. 18 Fionntán de Brún, Seosamh Mac Grianna (Dublin: An Clóchomhar, 2002) 180. 19 Ó Cadhla, Cá bhFuil Éire? 28; Caoimhín Mac Giolla Léith, “Metaphor and Metamorphosis in the Poetry of Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill,” Éire‐Ireland, 35.1&2 (2000) 165‐6, 172; Titley, An tÚrscéal Gaeilge 548. See, in particular, Steiner’s “Silence and the Poet” and “K [1963]” in Language and Silence (London: Penguin, 1967) 57‐76; 160‐68. 20 Séamus Mac Annaidh, Rubble na Mickies (Dublin: Coiscéim, 1990) 52.
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compares the character he in turn has created, the musician Peppiatt, with other losers of literary renown: “Icarus. Kafka. Suibhne.”21 Kafka appears in the story “An tSáinn ina bhFuil Mé” (“The Predicament in Which I Find Myself”) in Daithí Ó Muirí’s collection of short stories Cogaí (Wars),22 a bizarre tale about a young man’s relationship with his lover’s mother. The mother, a native speaker of Irish who married a German, is translating Kafka’s short stories into Irish when she has her first encounter with the young man. Running through Ó Muirí’s story are the young man’s attempts to pronounce the opening sentence of Kafka’s short story “Ein Landarzt” (“A Country Doctor”), which refer to the doctor’s “great perplexity” and to the “urgent journey” on which he is about to embark. The implication is that the young man is also embarking on a perplexing journey—that he is somehow driven to do what he does, despite the strange outcome. The attraction of Kafka for Irish‐language writers may be linked (consciously or unconsciously) to certain similarities in the linguistic circumstances in which the writing emerged. Certainly Ó Cadhain was aware of such a similarity when he alluded to Kafka in his famous 1969 lecture Páipéir Bhána agus Páipéir Bhreaca. Here he draws attention to the fact that his later non‐realist stories (so different from his early work) are different because they are set outside of his own native Irish‐ speaking region. He reminds us that, while he did get to know Dublin city intimately (due to his involvement with the IRA), the position of the displaced Gaeltacht community in Dublin was akin to that of a ghetto: Is mó de mo dhlúthmhuintir i mBaile Átha Cliath ná sa mbaile. Tá go leor de mo chomharsanaí agus as mo thaobh tíre in a gcónaí gar go leor dhom. Is cineál ghetto muid b’fhéidir. B’as an
21 Mac Annaidh, Rubble na Mickies 88. 22 Daithí Ó Muirí, Cogaí (Indreabhán: Cló Iar‐Chonnachta, 2002) 90‐137.
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nghetto Kafka agus Heine gan ach beirt a bhfuil eolas agam ar a saothar a lua. Cho fada is is léar dom is ghettos ar fad é Baile Átha Cliath.23 There are more of my close relations in Dublin than at home. Many of my neighbors and people from my home area live near me. Perhaps we’re a kind of ghetto. Kafka and Heine—to mention only two writers whose work I know—were from the ghetto. As far as I can see Dublin is made up of ghettos.
Alan Titley takes up this theme in his discussion of Ó Cadhain’s Kafkaesque stories, which he sees as a logical literary response of a native speaker of Irish to a non‐Irish‐speaking urban environment: Thug Franz Kafka “testimonials (Zeugnisse) of my solitude” ar a shaothar féin, agus mura bhféadfaí an chráiteacht chéanna a chur i leith Mháirtín Uí Chadhain an uair ba mheasa dá raibh sé, is léir go bhféadfaí cosúlachtaí go leor a bhunú idir an scríbhneoir Gearmáinise ag breacadh leis i gcathair a raibh an tSeicis in uachtar ann agus an scríbhneoir Gaeilge i lár na cathrach Béarla.24 Franz Kafka called his work “testimonials (Zeugnisse) of my solitude” and even if one could not associate the same torment with Máirtín Ó Cadhain even at his worst, one could still clearly see many similarities between the writer of German writing in a city where Czech was dominant and the Irish‐language writer in the centre of the English‐ speaking city.
Titley also came to the defence of non‐native speaker Diarmaid Ó Súilleabháin whose work was often criticised for the strangeness of his language use, by pointing out “that Conrad’s and Nabokov’s English was far from professor‐perfect, that Kafka’s German was a bit strange, that Svevo’s Italian was awkward and that Ionesco’s French sometimes faltered. It does
23 Máirtín Ó Cadhain, Páipéir Bhána agus Páipéir Bhreaca (Dublin: An Clóchomhar, 1969) 22. 24 Titley, An tÚrscéal Gaeilge 548.
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not seem to have inhibited them or prevented them from contributing to the great discoveries of modern sensibility.”25 Diarmaid Ó Súilleabháin, in his exhortatory essay “Bí tú féin, a úrscéalaí,” had paraphrased Kafka’s famous letter to Max Brod (about the impossibility of writing and the impossibility of not writing in German in Prague) in a manner which establishes a direct link between Kafka’s linguistic choice as a Jewish writer in Prague and the dilemma of the Irish‐language writer unsure of whether he should turn to English as creative medium: Féach chomh cráite is a bhí Franz Kafka ag an dátheangachas nuair labhair sé mar seo:—chomh dodhéanta is tá sé gan scríobh; a do‐dhéanta is tá sé scríobh sa Ghearmáinis, a do‐ dhéanta is atá a mhalairt a dhéanamh—d’fhéadfá a chur le seo—a dodhéanta is atá sé scríobh in aon chor……B’shin an tsáinn pholaitiúil ina raibh Kafka bocht sáite.26 Look at how tormented Franz Kafka was by his bilingualism when he spoke like this:—how impossible it is not to write; how impossible it is to write in German, how impossible it is to do otherwise—you could add to this—how impossible it is to write at all……That was the political dilemma facing the unfortunate Kafka.
The question of readership was raised by Gearóid Denvir who compares Kafka’s situation, with his single reader, his soulfriend Max Brod, to the Irish‐language writer bereft of a reading public.27 Which brings me to my final point: that part of the allure of Kafka for the Irish‐language writer (and reader/critic) may lie in this curiosity about an author who chose as literary medium a language which was not the dominant language of his environment. Deleuze and Guattari, in their well‐known essay on minor literature, base a theory of literary production on the example of Kafka writing in German
25 Alan Titley, “Contemporary Irish Literature,” The Crane Bag, 5.2 (1981): 61. 26 Diarmaid Ó Súilleabháin, “Bí tú féin, a úrscéalaí,” Comhar (Iúil 1965): 22. 27 Denvir, “Litríocht agus Pobal: Nualitríocht na Gaeilge agus an Traidisiún,” Litríocht agus Pobal 58.
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in Prague. Their definition of “minor literature” excludes the literature of a “minor language”: “A minor literature is not the literature of a minor language but the literature a minority makes in a major language.”28 What I wish to postulate, however, is that certain characteristics of “minor literature” as defined by Deleuze and Guattari could also be applied to literature produced in a minoritised national language. According to Deleuze and Guattari, “the primary characteristic of a minor literature involves all the ways in which the language is effected by a strong coefficient of deterritorialisation.”29 This characteristic deterritorialisation can also be identified in the work of Irish‐language writers, be they native speakers seeking to represent experiences and environments other than those of their native region and community (the late Ó Cadhain); or be they non‐native speakers (such as Diarmuid Ó Súilleabháin) seeking to conjure up a community of the imagination through literature. For the Irish‐language writer the linguistic community is constantly under threat, lacking firm roots, nomadic. Writing in a minoritised language both reflects and resists the threat of a final uprooting, a final silencing. Attempts at reterritorialisation—re‐establishment of linguistic roots in a new context—are always partial, tentative, incomplete and uncertain. But writing from such a tenuous position can unleash its own kinds of linguistic freedom. To write in Irish in a non‐Irish‐language environment, for example, calls forth the kinds of linguistic creativity where fidelity to colloquial speech is replaced by various forms of literary experimentation and textual performance. Whether it is a process of paring back the spoken language to a simple and pure literary idiom, or a process of accretion and ornamentation, the writing will more
28 Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, “What is a Minor Literature?” from Kafka: Pour une Littérature Mineure (Paris: Les Editions de Minuit, 1975), trans. Richard Brinkley, Mississippi Review, 22.3 (Spring 1983): 16. 29 Deleuze, “What is a Minor Literature?” 16.
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often than not take on the marks of linguistic experimentation. The concept of deterritorialisation can also be extended to the form and content of writing in a minoritised language. The limits of realist representation are more obvious, making more urgent the harnessing of the potential of non‐realist narrative modes. Which leads us to the second and third characteristic of “minor literature” as outlined by Deleuze and Guattari: “The second characteristic of minor literatures is that everything in them is political” and “The third characteristic is that everything has a collective value.”30 To write in a minoritised language like Irish is a political act, no matter what the overt subject matter of the piece of writing may be. To write from a position of minority is to express a political desire or to make a statement of political intent. One of the most striking features of contemporary Irish‐language writing at its best is its audacity, its lack of concern for conventional audience response, the fact that logically or economically speaking its very existence doesn’t make sense. And this is where I see parallels with Kafka. I think most of the similarities between the work of Kafka and the work of modern and contemporary writers in Irish are coincidental but they are no less interesting for that. This has recently been illustrated in an essay on Pádraic Ó Conaire’s 1910 novel Deoraíocht31 by Angela Bourke where she alludes to the similarities between Ó Conaire’s central character Micil and “The Hunger Artist” in Kafka’s 1922 story of that name. The novel is set in London and tells the tale of an exiled native Irish speaker who, disabled in a street accident, joins a freak show where his disability becomes the focus of the spectacle: In its representation of the maimed Micil being exhibited in a freak show, but acquiring agency, becoming in some sense an
30 Deleuze, “What is a Minor Literature?” 16, 17. 31 Pádraic Ó Conaire, Deoraíocht (1910; Dublin: Cló Talbot, 1973). Translated into Czech by Daniela Furthnerová as Vyhnanství (Praha: Fraktály, 2004).
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artist of his disability as he roars and shakes his heavy brass chains, Ó Conaire anticipated Franz Kafka’s “The Hunger Artist” (“Ein Hungerkünstler,” 1922) by twelve years. The hero recovers his lost self, however, when he refuses to utter the inarticulate roars that have been assigned to him and finds his voice in his native language.32
Writers in minoritised languages might themselves be seen as ‘hunger artists’ making virtues of their disabilities when they can and, like Ó Conaire’s Micil, refusing as far as possible to accept the role assigned to them by history. It may well be the case that an examination of the kinds of writing to be produced in minoritised languages may further extend the idea expounded by Deleuze and Guattari that the German language in Czechoslovakia allowed Kafka, in their words “the possibility of invention.”
32 Angela Bourke, “Legless in London: Pádraic Ó Conaire and Éamon a Búrc,” Éire‐Ireland, 38.3&4 (2003): 60‐61.
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Jeremy Parrott
From Samsa to Sam: The Metamorphoses of Beckett’s Ms Speaking at the Beckett in Berlin Symposium of 2000, Jim Knowlson acknowledged that perhaps the most significant omission from his biography was any consideration of Kafka’s impact on Beckett, implying that there was a lot more which could have been said. The index of Damned to Fame1 reveals that Kafka is only mentioned three times in nearly 900 pages, and not at all until p. 681, when we find Beckett reading Kafka (no title specified) in the early 1980s. The other major Beckett biographies give Kafka equally short shrift, with just two references to him in Bair and three in Cronin, none of which addresses the issue of how or when Beckett became aware of Kafka or what his influence on Beckett might have been. This literary historical legerdemain is somewhat surprising, since by the early 1960s it was already a critical commonplace to link the two writers’ names together, labelling them both as existentialists, modernists, absurdists or expressionists—even if Beckett expressly had nothing to express. This paper aims to address the questions how and when—in terms of awareness— and then to look at the broader and more interesting area of impact, focussing on the homologous naming practices of the two writers. In the absence of a fully‐documented reading diary, it is hard to pin down exactly when Beckett first read any Kafka, nor precisely what he read, but I hope to show that the balance of probability points to a first awareness at the end of the 1920s, followed by a gradually increasing knowledge of the author’s work throughout the 1930s. In the oft quoted ‘interview’ with
1 James Knowlson, Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett (London: Bloomsbury, 1996).
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Israel Shenker first published in 1956, Beckett allegedly had this to say about his reading of Kafka: “I’ve only read Kafka in German—serious reading—except for a few things in French and English—only The Castle in German.”2 Assuming this to be a relatively truthful statement, let us start by considering when he might have read Das Schloss. Although that work was the second of Kafka’s three great novels to appear in print, posthumously published by Kurt Wolff in 1926, it seems highly unlikely that Beckett would have read it during any of his visits to the Sinclairs in Kassel in the late 1920s and early 1930s. His German was not yet perfected and he was certainly more interested at that time in familiarising himself with the classics of German literature. Kafka did not yet figure in any of the literary histories which Beckett was busy working through, and was perceived as no more than a literary curiosity, an obscure Czech‐German Jewish writer whose manuscripts had been rescued from the flames by his literary executor, Max Brod. By late 1936 or early 1937, however, when Beckett made his most extended stay in Germany, his own German was fluent, his familiarity with contemporary German art and literature was greatly improved and Kafka had already started to acquire an international reputation, with the first collected edition of his works appearing in German between 1935 and 1937. It is certainly possible therefore, that Beckett read Das Schloss during the long, cold winter that he spent travelling round the country in search of art and inspiration. However, Kafka was not one of the contemporary writers recommended to him by his German bookseller friends Axel Kaun and Günter Albrecht, and the absence of any mention of Kafka would be a surprising omission from his otherwise meticulously kept German diaries. The most probable date for Beckett’s reading of Das Schloss is therefore slightly later, some time between 1937 and 1940. In
2 Israel Shenker, “An Interview with Beckett,” Samuel Beckett: The Critical Heritage, eds. Lawrence Graver and Raymond Federman (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979) 148.
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terms of his own development as a novelist, one feels that such a dating is likely to be accurate, as Murphy (completed in 1936) shows no significant influence from Kafka, whereas the wartime novel Watt (1940‐44) and the post‐war “Trilogy” are redolent with situations, characters and a climate of radical uncertainty that seem to grow out of a familiarity with Kafka’s fictional world. It was, however, almost certainly not through German but rather via English translations that Beckett had his first taste of Kafka’s genius. Edwin Muir is generally credited with introducing Kafka to the English‐speaking world, with the publication of The Castle in 1930, but the honour actually belongs to Eugene Jolas, the driving force behind transition. As early as February 1928, a Kafka short story appeared in issue #11 of transition, preceded by the following misleading description of the author: “Franz Kafka, who died several years ago before reaching the age of thirty, was a native of Prague.”3 In issue #25 (Fall 1936) we discover that Kafka lived for at least another ten years without getting significantly older, since the notes on contributors inform us that “Franz Kafka died in 1936 at the age of 30.”4 Let me add, for good measure, that the normally reliable Edwin Muir, in his famous introductory note to The Castle, records that “Kafka died in 1925 of consumption at the early age of forty‐two.”5 Such temporal elasticity is truly kafkaesque, but the truth of the matter is that Franz Kafka died on 3 June 1924 at the age of forty and precisely one month before reaching his forty‐first birthday. The publication in 1928 of “The Sentence” in Eugene Jolas’s own translation (a story now more commonly known in English as “The Judgement”) was the start of the publisher’s one‐man campaign to bring Kafka to the attention of an English
3 Dougald McMillan, Transition: The History of a Literary Era (London: Calder and Boyars, 1975) 97. 4 Eugene Jolas, ed., Transition 25 (New York: Transition, 1936) 5. 5 Franz Kafka, The Castle, trans. Willa and Edwin Muir (London: Secker, 1930) v.
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readership. Jolas is, of course, most closely associated with James Joyce, since it was through the pages of transition that seventeen instalments of the “Work in Progress,” later to be named Finnegans Wake, were first published between 1927 and 1938. The intimacy between Beckett and Joyce for much of this period would alone have ensured that Beckett paid careful attention to the contents of transition, but the fact that the first fruits of his own literary labours found their way into print alongside the works of both Joyce and Kafka surely settles any question as to when and where he first encountered Kafka in English. It is therefore worth taking a closer look at precisely which of Kafka’s works appeared in transition, and to place them in relation to Beckett’s various pieces in the same publication. Fig. 1: Kafka & Beckett in transition KAFKA BECKETT #11 1928 “The Sentence” #16/17 1929 “Dante…Bruno. Vico.. Joyce“ “Assumption” #19/20 1930 “For Future Reference” #21 1932 “The Married Couple” “Sedendo et Quiesc(i)endo” “An Everyday Confusion” “Poetry is Vertical” (signed) “A Knock at the Farm Gate” #23 1935 “Fragment” #24 1936 “Malacoda” “Enueg II” “Dortmunder” #25 1936 “Metamorphosis“ (1) #26 1937 “Metamorphosis“ (2) #27 1938 “Metamorphosis“ (3) “Ooftish” “The Housefather’s Care” “Denis Devlin” “Letter to his Father” (extracts)
The most substantial, and the richest of the Kafka texts onomastically, are the two stories, “The Sentence” and 213
“Metamorphosis,” and it is on these that I intend to concentrate, first exploring Kafka’s own naming techniques and then considering what Beckett may have derived from them in his own practice. Kafka wrote the following to his fiancée Felice Bauer on 2 June 1913 on the subject of “The Judgement” (i.e. “The Sentence”), specifically analysing the names of the hero and heroine, Georg Bendemann and Frieda Brandenfeld: Now note this. Georg has the same number of letters as Franz, “Bendemann” is made up of Bende and Mann, Bende has the same number of letters as Kafka, and the two vowels are also in the same place; out of pity for poor “Bende,” “Mann” is probably meant to fortify him for his struggles. “Frieda” has the same number of letters as Felice; it also starts with the same letter; “Friede” and “Glück” are also closely related; “Brandenfeld,” owing to “feld” has some connection with “Bauer,” and also starts with the same letter. And there are other similar things—all of which, needless to say, I only discovered afterwards.6
Kafka’s auto‐exegesis is highly revealing, as far as it goes (and I will return to some of his points), but what of those “other similar things” which he allegedly only discovered— consciously—afterwards? The story concerns Georg Bendemann’s disclosure by letter to an absent friend of his proposed marriage to Frieda Brandenfeld (closely mirroring Kafka’s own situation), and also involves a problematic relationship between the protagonist and his father, for whom he works. The name Georg derives from the Greek georgos and means ‘a farmer.’7 This is a transposition of Kafka’s own fiancée’s surname into the first name of his hero, since Bauer means ‘farmer’ in German. Within the naming pattern of “The
6 Franz Kafka, Letters to Felice, trans. James Stern and Elisabeth Duckworth (London: Secker and Warburg, 1974) 265. 7 Patrick Hanks and Flavia Hodges, A Dictionary of First Names (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990) 131.
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Judgement” though, it is farmer Georg who will go on to plough the fertile land of Brandenfeld, whose hidden passion (concealed behind the peaceful name Frieda) is revealed through the dual readings of the surname as ‘surging’ or ‘flaming field.’ And what of Kafka’s “poor Bende?” There may well be a suggestion of the English ‘bend’ here, suggesting the hero’s vacillation and lack of firmness, although the etymology of bende from Middle High German gives the meaning of ‘join’ or ‘unite,’ as in Bendemann’s impending marriage.8 However, as a surname, Benda is a Czech form of Benedict, from the Latin benedictus, meaning ‘blessed.’9 The most famous bearer of this name, St Benedict, the founder of the Benedictine order, is often depicted holding either the Rule or a punishment rod and is represented iconographically by a raven.10 The surname Kafka, as the author was well aware, derives from the Czech kavka—‘a jackdaw.’ Birds of the crow family feature prominently in the author’s writings and his father’s store even had a guild sign hanging outside simply depicting a black bird.11 As Kafka frankly admitted in another letter to Felice: “My stories are me.”12 The consonant‐vowel pattern CVCCV, shared by Bende and Kafka, provides an important insight into the author’s onomastic technique, for not only is it applicable to this story, but right across his oeuvre:
8 Elizabeth M. Rajec, “Onomastics in the Works of Franz Kafka,” Names in Literature: Essays from ‘Literary Onomastics Studies,’ eds. Grace Alvarez‐Altman and Frederick Burelbach (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1987) 194. 9 Patrick Hanks and Flavia Hodges, A Dictionary of Surnames (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996) 45. 10 David Hugh Farmer, The Oxford Dictionary of Saints (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987) 39. 11 Rajec, “Onomastics” 197. 12 Rajec, “Onomastics” 193.
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Fig. 2: CVCCV‐patterned character names in Kafka’s works KAFKA = CVCCV HALKA KALDA SALVA (‐tore)
SAMSA
HARRA (‐s)
KALLA
PALLA (‐s)
MENDE (‐l)
BENDE (‐mann)
BENDE (‐lmayer)
RENSE
NEGRO
Such quasi‐algebraic name fetishism is certainly unusual, but by no means unique to Kafka. Indeed, the closest parallel with any other modern writer is to be found in Beckett, whose Bim and Bom, first encountered in Murphy in the 1930s, recur in the late play What Where (1983) alongside a Bam and a Bem. We even find the narrator of How It Is explicitly pointing out the onomastic rules which govern all ten named entities in that novel: “Bom Bem one syllable m at the end all that matters.”13 From the list of CVCCV names in Kafka’s works, one stands out as being universally recognised—Samsa, the surname of Kafka’s metamorphic hero. The celebrated transformation is recorded in this famous opening line: “When Gregor Samsa awoke one morning from troubled dreams, he found himself changed into an enormous bug.”14 Exactly what Samsa has become is by no means clear to English readers, as evidenced by the proliferation of translations. A.L. Lloyd’s 1937 version has the inelegant, but suitably vague “some monstrous kind of vermin,”15 whilst Muir errs on the side of specificity with “a gigantic insect.”16 Underwood’s sci‐fi pulp “giant bug”17 is
13 Samuel Beckett, How It Is (London: Calder, 1964) 118. 14 Jolas, Transition 27. 15 Franz Kafka, The Metamorphosis, trans. A.L. Lloyd (London: Parton Press, 1937) 1. 16 Franz Kafka, Metamorphosis and Other Stories, trans. Willa and Edwin Muir (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972) 9.
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perhaps as evocative a translation as any, but the rhythmic, polysyllabic German original, “ungeheueren Ungeziefer,”18 with its suggestions of size, shock, disgust and negation, together with a total non‐specificity as to the class or genus of the creature, is ultimately unrenderable in another language. The protagonist’s name, at least, remains stable, which is both ironic and disconcerting, since a metamorphic change is usually accompanied by a renaming—e.g. from tadpole to frog, caterpillar to butterfly. ‘Gregor’ is the German form of a pan‐ European forename, derived from the post‐classical Greek Gregorios, with the meaning ‘watchful or vigilant.’19 This is an entirely appropriate name for the character, who is reduced to the role of observer and listener in the family apartment. ‘Samsa,’ on the other hand, appears to be Kafka’s own coinage, based on Czech vocabulary. The name includes the Czech word ‘sám,’ meaning ‘alone,’ with an echo of sorts, thus almost doubly reflecting the fate of the hunger‐artist Kafka/Samsa, in life and in death. Assuming that he began reading this story in 1936, what could Sam Beckett have made of this key name Samsa, his own name almost reduplicated? I do not propose that Beckett had any working knowledge of Czech, but he certainly ran into Czech speakers from time to time. Knowlson informs us, for example, that at the end of September 1936 he lost two games of chess to a Czech fellow passenger (a Czech mate?) on a ferry from Le Havre to Cuxhaven.20 A casual inquiry between moves or over drinks, about the meaning of the name Samsa, would seem eminently plausible. Incidentally, there is one name in the Beckett onomasticon which definitely derives from Czech, the improbably named jossy in Murphy, Ramaswami Krishnaswami Narayanaswami Suk. Clearing
17 Franz Kafka, Stories 1904‐1924, trans. J.A. Underwood (London: Futura, 1983) 91. 18 Franz Kafka, Sämtliche Erzählungen (Frankfurt: Fischer, 1972) 56. 19 Hanks, First Names 141. 20 Knowlson, Damned to Fame 231.
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aside the polysyllabic Indian forenames we are left with the monosyllabic Suk, a common Czech surname meaning ‘knot.’21 Given that the swami’s horoscope constitutes the nodal point of the novel, and that we will famously encounter (or fail to encounter) a character called Knott in Watt, there can be little room for doubt that Beckett knew the meaning of this name. Knowing that the name Samsa resonates with ‘alone’ in Czech would have added one further layer of meaning to Beckett’s understanding of his own given name. As well as the root meaning of Sam as ‘name’ in Hebrew, he was also undoubtedly aware of the German Same (‘seed or sperm’) and the Spenserian ‘sam’ (‘together’), which combined with the Czech meaning gives a perfect identified contrary—‘alone‐together.’ I need hardly add that two characters by the name of Sam are featured in Watt, one being the unreliable partial narrator, who has privileged access (‘pubis to pubis’), alone‐together with the otherwise distant Watt, and the procreative prodigy, Sam Lynch, whose blighted existence is somewhat attenuated by the liberal distribution of his seed or sperm through frequent couplings with any available female in the locality. Unlike Gregor Samsa, the metamorphic hero of Beckett’s “Trilogy” undergoes a complex series of name changes, both starting and ending with namelessness. The first emblematically named characters in Molloy are the two wayfarers, A and B, spied on by the as yet unnamed protagonist. It is worth noting that the geometric appellations A and B, applied to two walkers who cross, bound in different directions, almost certainly have their origin in another of the short Kafka pieces which appeared in transition, “An Everyday Confusion,” which was published in #21 alongside Beckett’s “Sedendo et Quiesc(i)endo.” Molloy only remembers his name after naming his mother as Mag and rejecting her name for him, Dan, as not his real name. In terms of Beckett’s onomastic
21 Jeremy Parrott, Change All the Names: A Samuel Beckett Onomasticon (Szeged: Kakapo, 2004) 98‐99.
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practice, both of these monosyllabic names conform to a CVC pattern similar to that identified in How It Is. With reference to the biodata, Mag is just one letter away from May (Beckett) and the short form Dan is to Daniel as Sam is to Samuel. In Part 2 Molloy gets changed by Moran into Mollose, Mollote, Molloc and Mollone (all of which reworkings repay careful scrutiny), before his avatar appears under the name of Malone in the title of the second volume. Even the most casual reader of Beckett will have been struck by the proliferation of Ms in his named characters, and this grapheme is for him no ordinary letter but a polyvalent symbol representing a fundamental shape and sound. Like the golden M of McDonald’s it is Beckett’s logo or trademark, and the shape of the idea can be traced back to the sigla used by Joyce in composing the “Work in Progress” as well as to Kafka’s own trademark letter K. Each of the heroes of Kafka’s three novels is a K‐man. In America we find Karl Rossmann, with ‘Karl’ being an Everyman‐type name, like Beckett’s Murphy. In The Trial the hapless protagonist is Josef K., whilst in The Castle the Land Surveyor’s name is reduced to the single letter K. The relation of this letter to the author’s own name is perfectly transparent, but it can also be read as a symbol for Christ (in New Testiment Greek Kristos). Kafka was, of course, well aware of the letter’s special place in his work, and even seemed compelled to use it. As he wrote in his Diaries: “I find the Ks ugly, they are repugnant to me and yet I write them; they must be very characteristic of me.”22 The relation of M to Samuel Beckett is less obvious, but it is symbolically much richer than Kafka’s K. The first letter of Samuel in Hebrew is shin, a three‐pronged grapheme which lies at the root of Beckett’s personal siglum. By rotating it we arrive at the Greek sigma (Σ) for Sam, the Ws of Watt, Worm, Willie and Winnie and the Ms of Murphy, Mercier, Molloy, Mahood, Macmann et al. Its most common
22 Rajec, “Onomastics” 200.
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orientation, as the letter M, leads us back to that letter’s earliest meaning as a pictogram, i.e. water, with its connotations of flow and flux. M also stands for mother, man and me, a baby’s first mumblings and the wordlessness of music. In mathematics M is both the millennial Latin 1000 (as in the name Miller in Watt) and the Ancient Greek symbol for forty, which is given as the precise age of Sam Lynch in the same novel. Returning now to “The Trilogy,” Malone can be read as ‘man,’ or simply ‘M alone,’ like the alienated figure of Samsa. Before being given birth to into death, the reduced form of what was once Molloy and Malone undergoes a reverse metamorphosis, at least in imagination, into the chrysalis‐like, limbless creature known as Worm. This is the last stage before namelessness and annihilation, with the character reduced, like Samsa, to the state of a vermin, and his name reduced to the quintessential, reversible siglum of W‐or‐M. Beckett was already concerned with play on his own name—another aspect of Belacqua’s narcissism—in his first novel Dream of Fair to Middling Women. Although the letter B and namings of God constituted the earliest fetishes, there are hints even in Dream that he was beginning to toy with the tridentine form of M, W and Σ. Kafka’s obsessive self‐ designation and solipsistic vision must surely have struck a chord with Beckett in the mid 1930s and spurred him on to create still more powerful images of the isolated, alienated individual who is at once Everyman, Christ and himself. Beckett distinguished his own work from Kafka’s in terms of the locus of consternation; he found terror and amazement within Kafka’s classical form, whereas the consternation in his own work lies behind the form.23 Thus Samsa and K. struggle heroically to extricate themselves from their mad predicaments, clinging to their names and identities even without external corroboration. Beckett’s crumbling entities in “The Trilogy” and
23 Shenker, “An Interview with Beckett“ 148.
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How It Is have gone a stage further, trusting neither senses nor memory and freely changing (and ultimately discarding) their names as merely provisional and approximate titles for their ongoing ontological works in regress.
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Emilie Morin
“But to Hell with all this Fucking Scenery”: Ireland in Translation in Samuel Beckett’s Molloy & Malone Meurt/Malone Dies “Absurdist” was one of the first critical labels affixed to Samuel Beckett. However, he vigorously declined any associations with the pessimistic or existentialist traditions.1 Interestingly, he regarded Camus and Ionesco as “depressing”—an adjective frequently applied to his own work.2 In general, readings of Beckett’s work as absurdist fail to highlight its cultural specificity and, more precisely, the manner in which Beckett weighs himself against a series of normative rules, in relation to two languages and two cultures, through self‐translation. Discussing his handling of the absurd in relation to his translation practices enables us to argue for a form of absurdity that is not necessarily kept in solidarity with metaphysical meaning but instead, designed through specific cultural and linguistic processes. In Molloy and Malone Meurt, the characters are clearly the product of an Irish cultural background, as their names testify. Yet, while Ireland operates as a point of origin, it is also linked to a form of exoticism, a paradox that leads to the construction of an absurdist universe, based on the displacement of Irish allusions and on the exploitation of their otherness. This quality of absurdity is retained in the English translation, in which the familiar is as alienating as the foreign. From French to English, references to Ireland mutate, not only
1 Clas Zilliacus, “Three Times Godot: Beckett, Brecht, Bulatovic,” Comparative Drama, 4 (1970): 4. I thank Research and Regional Services, Queen’s University Belfast, for the award of a University Studentship for the period 2003‐6, during which I researched this paper. 2 Samuel Beckett, letter to Alan Schneider, 3 March 1959, No Author Better Served: The Correspondence of Samuel Beckett and Alan Schneider, ed. Maurice Harmon (Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard University Press, 1998) 55.
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linguistically, but also in terms of their meaning, their nature and their scope. The use of names such as Molloy and Malone, for instance, which signal otherness and exoticism in French, also reads as an attack on the idea of “authenticity” in an Irish context. The Ireland depicted in Molloy and Malone Meurt/Malone Dies relies on a form of reductionism, which suggests that Beckett saw a number of stereotypes as obligatory passages when asserting his kinship with an Irish cultural and historical landscape. The weather, for instance, is extensively discussed. So is the pastoral quality of the island chosen as setting: “What a pastoral land, my God,” Moran laments in Molloy.3 Molloy emphasises the fact that he has become immune to climatic fluctuations, the continuous rain and the brief sunny spells.4 As is well known, the scenery, of hills, sea, and changing skies that recurs in both novels has been linked to the South Dublin‐ Wicklow area.5 But the narrator in Malone Dies refuses to yield to lyricism and nostalgia: “[…] but to hell with all this fucking scenery,” he says.6 As for Molloy’s town, “Bally,” it is little more than a seaside swamp, characterised by industrial underdevelopment. Beckett’s use of the name “Bally” has been read as a reference to Ballybrack, a Dublin suburb near Foxrock.7 However, this is also a phonetic pun on Baile Átha Cliath and a jibe at the fact that a great number of villages and towns in Ireland are prefixed as “Bally.” In the English version, a reference to “Blackpool,” the translation of the name bestowed to Dublin by its Danish founders, confirms the
3 Samuel Beckett, Molloy, in: Molloy, Malone Dies, The Unnamable (London: Calder, 1994) 159. This version will be referred to as Molloy (Calder). 4 Beckett, Molloy 30. 5 See Eoin O’Brien, The Beckett Country: Samuel Beckett’s Ireland (Monkstown: Black Cat; London: Faber, 1986) 55, 57, 89, 91, 93, 187‐8. 6 Samuel Beckett, Malone Dies, in: Molloy, Malone Dies, The Unnamable (London: Calder, 1994) 279. 7 Ludovic Janvier, Samuel Beckett par Lui‐Même (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1969) 137.
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correspondence existing between Molloy’s “part of the world” and Beckett’s city of birth.8 Transposed into French, the exoticism of Irish allusions is pushed to the point of absurdity. As they are displaced, these elements lose their original meaning, since they were so utterly specific within Irish culture that they were only defined in terms of their link with this culture. Once this link is eroded, these references become bound to French culture, thus are solely defined in terms of their otherness. The English Molloy alludes to the “genuine Irish” movement: the handle of the vegetable knife that Lousse’s servant gives to Molloy is made of “so‐called genuine Irish horn.”9 In the French original the allusion appears as “le manche en vraie corne d’Irlande, soi‐ disant,” thus indicating the monetary value of the knife, which subsequently turns out to be of poor quality.10 In Malone Meurt, Glasnevin cemetery in Dublin is mentioned, in a mock‐version of a popular ballad, whose final lines read: “La main dans la main vers Glasnevin/ C’est le meilleur du chemin.”11 This reference is absent from the English translation. In the French version, Glasnevin is pronounced as a French word, made to rhyme with “chemin.” An explanatory note states: “Nom d’un cimetière local très estimé.” In this instance, all the avenues that might have given coherence and meaning to the Irish dimension of the text have been eliminated. For the French reader, the adequate network to interpret the Irish dimension of the text is missing. Various critical debates have surrounded the possible existence of a hierarchy between Beckett’s writings in English and French and their level of interpenetration. Critics have been particularly divided over the issue of humour and over the
8 Beckett, Molloy 135 and 17. 9 Beckett, Molloy 45. 10 Samuel Beckett, Molloy (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1951) 67. This version will be referred to as Molloy (Minuit). 11 Samuel Beckett, Malone Meurt (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1951) 168.
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conscious or unconscious character of Beckett’s borrowings from English and French.12 In Molloy and Malone Meurt, Beckett’s extensive use of the subjunctive, of numerous mannerisms, and of a strained syntax confirms his acute linguistic sensitivity, while conveying his fascination with the relationship between language and the imagination. His tendency to associate French and English with a series of thought processes and particular cultural mechanisms is reflected in his declarations regarding his turn to French, which are provocative, tongue‐in‐cheek, and often nebulous. He declared that he found it easier to “write without style” in French and linked the French language with certain stylistic effects—a form of authorial detachment, control, and impoverishment.13 His longing for stylelessness has been read as the expression of a desire to free himself from his relationship with his mother (often depicted as traumatic) and, by extension, from the pressures of his Protestant background.14 However, Beckett’s choice was also the result of a natural evolution, as James Knowlson has shown.15 Yet, although his decision to experiment with French goes back to the late 1930s,16 he equated his turn to French with the end of the Second World War, in a rather incongruous manner. He said: “A la libération,
12 Illustrations of these debates can be found in John Fletcher, “Ecrivain Bilingue,” Samuel Beckett: L’Herne 31, ed. Tom Bishop and Raymond Federman (Paris: Editions de l’Herne, 1976) 212‐8; Raymond Federman, “The Writer as Self‐ Translator,” Beckett Translating/ Translating Beckett, ed. Alan Warren Friedman, Charles Rossman and Dina Scherzer (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1987) 9; Christopher Ricks, Beckett’s Dying Words (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993) 4‐5. 13 Quoted in James Knowlson, Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett (London: Bloomsbury, 1996) 357. 14 Patrick Casement, “Samuel Beckett’s Relationship to his Mother Tongue,” International Review of Psycho‐Analysis, 9 (1982): 35‐44; Brian Fitch, Beckett and Babel: An Investigation into the Status of Bilingual Work (London and Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988) 37. 15 See Knowlson, Damned to Fame 355‐62. 16 Knowlson, Damned to Fame 293‐4.
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je pus conserver mon appartement, j’y revins, et me remis à écrire—en français—avec le désir de m’appauvrir encore davantage. C’était ça, le vrai mobile.”17 Although biographical factors play an important role in shaping Beckett’s linguistic choice, another set of forces is also at play. Beckett’s formative years were spent in a country in which language was seen as a form of cultural practice, a political battleground, and a determiner for definitions of culture and national identity. As he concentrated on the demands of self‐translation, his approach to the notions of culture, identity, and language became comparative, triggering off a change in his vision of Irish subject matter. In French, he could “cut away the excess” and “strip away the colour.”18 This excess and colour were, undoubtedly, stylistic flaws Beckett associated with the Irish Literary Revival and what he called “Anglo‐Irish exuberance and automatisms.”19 Thus, the ornate language used by Yeats, Synge, and Lady Gregory may have been precisely what Beckett was trying to counter when he chose to write in another language. Although he denounced the parochialism of the Revival and described the exploitation of Irish subject matter as a strain on the freedom of imagination in his article of 1934, “Recent Irish Poetry,” the baggage of the Revival, its exoticism in particular, remained deeply ingrained in his approach to Irish material and subsequently became the basis for his absurdist vision.20 In French, Beckett could redefine images of Ireland that had been perceived, in the context of the Revival, as a potential source for the assertion of cultural specificity. He could experiment with what was, to him, a virgin idiom, in which the insertion of Irish elements could become a point of departure for the exotic and the absurd. In so
17 Quoted in Janvier, Samuel Beckett par Lui‐Même 18. 18 Quoted in Knowlson, Damned to Fame 357. 19 Knowlson, Damned to Fame 357. 20 Samuel Beckett, “Recent Irish Poetry,” Disjecta: Miscellaneous Writings and a Dramatic Fragment, ed. Ruby Cohn (London: Calder, 2001) 70‐76.
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doing, he could share in the exoticism of the Revival without suffering its parochialism. Molloy and Malone Meurt, both published in 1951, were originally conceived to accompany Murphy, published in 1938.21 Beckett wrote most of Molloy in 1947, during one of his last long‐term stays in Ireland.22 In the first drafts of the novel, he gave free rein to his hostility towards Irish isolationist policies, putting emphasis on sectarianism, parochialism, and underdevelopment.23 In subsequent drafts, he radically toned down his harsh portrayal of Ireland, following the suggestions of his friend Mania Péron.24 As for Malone Meurt, its genesis seems to have taken place over a number of years, and its handling of Ireland is more oblique. Beckett began to work on the novel in November 1947, in the same notebooks as Watt. The novel was then entitled L’Absent.25 This period, pivotal in terms of Beckett’s approach to language, was followed by a change in his attitude to translation. This change is noticeable in his writing, which becomes heavily marked by questions of translation. In the first few years of his career as a bilingual author Beckett often collaborated with other writers to translate his work. He had hoped to save time by letting others do it, he said, but later decided he might as well do it himself.26 Molloy was translated with the South African writer Paul Bowles, who found the
21 Samuel Beckett, letter to Thomas MacGreevy, 4 January 1948, TCD MS 10402/175, Trinity College Dublin. I thank the Beckett Estate for granting me permission to quote from Beckett’s correspondence and manuscripts. 22 Knowlson, Damned to Fame 367. 23 Samuel Beckett, Molloy, holograph manuscript, HRC MS 4.5, Samuel Beckett Collection, Harry Ransom Centre, University of Texas at Austin. 24 Samuel Beckett, Molloy, typescript, HRC MS 17.6, Samuel Beckett Collection (Carlton Lake), Harry Ransom Centre, University of Texas at Austin. 25 Watt, Holograph notebook 5, HRC MS 7.2, Samuel Beckett Collection, Harry Ransom Centre, University of Texas at Austin, front cover. 26 Samuel Beckett to John Fletcher, Papers of John Fletcher, Notebook 11, HRC MS 18.1, Samuel Beckett Collection (Carlton Lake), Harry Ransom Centre, f. 3.
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project daunting.27 Beckett retained close control over the translation of the novel.28 Indeed, its cultural references require choices of translation that cannot possibly have been made by Bowles himself. Beckett thought the translation of Molloy was “affreuse” (dreadful).29 When revising it in August 1954, he decided to start translating Malone Meurt on his own.30 But self‐ translation was far from liberating. “Great mistake giving such work to another and a great bore having to do it oneself,” he wrote later to Thomas MacGreevy.31 In Molloy and Malone Meurt, contrary to the series of novellas published in French after the war, bilingualism does not only structure Beckett’s approach to the notions of culture and identity, but also determines the very substance of the narrative. Even though the cultural universe of both novels appears to be relatively homogeneous in terms of themes and aesthetics, the manner in which the characters relate to an Irish cultural universe is far from coherent. The distinctions between target culture and source culture are constantly upset— sometimes blurred, sometimes playfully reversed. The French and Irish contexts overlap repeatedly, at the level of the everyday and the ordinary. In French, distances are not expressed in the metric system, but in “pouces” or inches and in “milles” or miles.32 This strong degree of cultural instability, manifest at the level of names and placenames, also reaches a metaphysical level. The characters are estranged from the world they live in and the language spoken in it, a quality of strangeness that may seem akin, at first sight, to the definition
27 John Montague, Company (London: Duckworth, 2001) 129. 28 Beckett to John Fletcher, Papers of John Fletcher, Notebook 1, HRC MS 18.1, f.3. 29 Samuel Beckett, letter to Jacoba Van Velde, 20 August 1954, BNF MS 19794/29, Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris. 30 Samuel Beckett, letter to Jacoba Van Velde, 20 August 1954, BNF MS 19794/29, Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris. 31 Beckett, letter to MacGreevy, 1 October 1958, TCD MS 10402/217. 32 Beckett, Malone Meurt 126; Molloy (Minuit) 218.
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of absurdity offered by Albert Camus in The Myth of Sisyphus.33 However, the alienating properties of Beckett’s absurdist mode are also grounded in a series of linguistic and stylistic devices— in the exoticism of the narrative, more precisely, and in the manner in which Beckett’s vision of material and intellectual scarcity remains conditioned by a deep awareness of cultural customs. In Molloy, a cultural reversal develops around the use of culinary allusions. Food and cooking have been identified by Pierre Nora as one of the primary lieux de mémoire of French culture.34 Yet, in Molloy, Moran’s obsession with the quality and taste of food is depicted as absurd. Irish stew is staple food: Je regardai un peu dans les casseroles. De l’Irish Stew. Plat nourissant et économe, un peu indigeste. Honneur au pays dont il a popularisé le nom.35 I peered into the pots. Irish stew. A nourishing and economical dish, if a little indigestible. All honour to the land it has brought before the world.36
Unfortunately, the culinary talents of Moran’s maid, Marthe/Martha, are very limited. Her Irish stew, her soup, and her shepherd’s pie (called “le plat du berger” in the French version) are indigestible.37 Moran continually criticises her cooking: Je posai ma cuiller. Dites‐moi, Marthe, dis‐je, quelle est cette
33 Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus, trans. Justin O’Brien (London: Penguin, 2000) 13. 34 Pascal Ory, “Gastronomy,” Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past, Vol. 2: Traditions, under the direction of Pierre Nora, trans. Arthur Goldhammer, ed. Lawrence D. Kritzman (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997) 443‐67. 35 Beckett, Molloy (Minuit) 151. 36 Beckett, Molloy (Calder) 98. 37 Beckett, Molloy (Minuit) 180.
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préparation? Elle me la nomma. J’en ai déjà mangé? dis‐je. Elle m’assura que oui. C’est donc moi qui ne suis pas dans mon assiette, dis‐je. Ce trait d’esprit me plut énormément, j’en ris tellement que je me mis à hoqueter. Il fut perdu pour Marthe, qui me regardait avec hébètement.38 I laid down my spoon. Tell me, Martha, I said, what is this preparation? She named it. Have I had it before? I said. She assured me I had. I then made a joke which pleased me enormously. I laughed so much I began to hiccup. It was lost on Martha who stared at me dazedly.39
In the English translation, the pun disappears. The focus is deflected away from food to Moran’s sudden outburst of laughter, turning Martha’s bewilderment into a legitimate reaction. In Malone Dies, the dying narrator is haunted by the possibility of starvation. In a provocative manner, he compares himself to the republican Lord Mayor of Cork, Terence MacSwiney, who died in 1920 in a hunger strike, one of the longest in Irish political history: That reminds me, how long can one fast with impunity? The Lord Mayor of Cork lasted for ages, but he was young, and then he had political convictions, human ones too probably, just plain human convictions. And he allowed himself a sip of water from time to time, sweetened probably. Water, for pity’s sake! How is it I am not thirsty?40
The tone of the French original is slightly harsher: En fait, combien de temps peut‐on jeûner impunément? Le maire de Cork a duré un temps infini, mais il était jeune, et puis
38 Beckett, Molloy (Minuit) 179. 39 Beckett, Molloy (Calder) 116. 40 Beckett, Malone Dies 275.
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il avait des convictions politiques et même tout simplement humaines probablement. Et il se permettait une larme d’eau de temps en temps; sucrée probablement. A boire par pitié. Comment ça se fait‐il que je n’aie pas soif?41
MacSwiney was a key‐figure in the nationalist iconography of 1920s Ireland, where the sacrificial heritage of the nation was hailed as one of the foundational values of political nationalism.42 His maxim was: “It is not those who can inflict the most, but those who will suffer the most who will conquer.”43 In this passage, he does not stand as a symbol able to rally the national imagination, but as an image of isolation and suffering without cause. In English, this allusion reads as a critique of the political and ideological conformism that Beckett denounced in articles of the 1930s such as “Censorship in the Saorstat.”44 In French, the strained and overemphatic quality of the syntax suggests a self‐conscious foreignness, exacerbated by the exotic character of the reference to MacSwiney, which stands as nothing more than a narrative digression on the theme of scarcity. In this instance, exoticism operates as a licence to justify Moran’s harsh tone, suggesting that foreignness loosens the tongue and allows one to step outside what is deemed proper or improper. In French, Beckett often uses a form of emphasis reminiscent of the syntax of Hiberno‐English. In the following passages from Malone Meurt and Malone Dies, this results in a gentleness that contrasts strongly with the harshness of the English translation: Oui, c’est ce que j’aime en moi, enfin une des choses que j’aime,
41 Beckett, Malone Meurt 189. 42 Richard Kearney, Postnationalist Ireland: Politics, Culture, Philosophy (London: Routledge, 1997) 209‐23. 43 Quoted in Kearney, Postnationalist Ireland 111. 44 Beckett, “Censorship in the Saorstat,” Disjecta 84‐8.
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le don de pouvoir dire Up the Republic! par exemple, ou Chérie! sans avoir à me demander si je n’aurais pas mieux fait de me taire ou de dire autre chose, oui, je n’ai pas à réfléchir, ni avant ni après, je n’ai qu’à ouvrir la bouche pour qu’elle témoigne de ma vieille histoire et du long silence qui m’a rendu muet, de sorte que tout se passe dans un grand silence.45 Yes, that’s what I like about me, at least one of the things, that I can say, Up the Republic!, for example, or, Sweetheart!, for example, without having to wonder if I should not rather have cut my tongue out, or said something else. Yes, no reflection is needed, before or after, I have only to open my mouth for it to testify to the old story, my old story, and to the long silence that has silenced me, so that all is silent.46
This statement can be read in an autobiographical manner, signifying Beckett’s detachment from a nationalist literary programme. In the French original, a certain ideology of Irish nationalism, which Beckett saw as clichéd, conformist and self‐ congratulatory, is turned into a determiner for Ireland as a whole. A complex linguistic movement is also taking place. In French, the emphasis on the subject, “c’est ce que j’aime en moi” (literally, “it is what I like about myself”) reads as an almost direct translation from Hiberno‐English. This quality of emphasis is lost in the English version, which compensates for this loss through the use of an image harsher than that of the mellifluous original. Yet, the translation into English, it seems, is also a gendered process. It corresponds to a playful passage from the feminine to the masculine. The feminine “la bouche” is neutered in English. The passive connotations of “me taire” are translated into the active, by a harsh image, “cut my tongue out,” suggesting a degree of foreignness and of masculinity, however mutilated. On a literal level, this image of linguistic emasculation links the eradication of one’s origins with the
45 Beckett, Malone Meurt 115. 46 Beckett, Malone Dies 236.
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desire to suppress the mother tongue. However, another process is also in operation. Language is stretched so far that another set of discursive formations is actually coming through, on a subconscious level. A spectre appears, that of the gender politics surrounding representations of Irish ethnicity. This phenomenon also takes place in Molloy, in a more explicit manner. Molloy declares, when burying Lousse’s dog: I thought she was going to cry, it was the thing to do, but on the contrary she laughed. It was perhaps her way of crying. Or perhaps I was mistaken and she was really crying, with the noise of laughter. Tears and laughter, they are so much Gaelic to me.47
Ignorance and the inability to feel are amalgamated with emotional excess and a residual knowledge of social customs. Molloy’s absurd speculations on the nature of Lousse’s emotions can also be read as a subversion of the racialist discourses that surrounded representations of the Irish in the Victorian period. Matthew Arnold, for instance, saw the Celt as unable to control his emotions, in a manner akin to a form of emotional hysteria.48 Interestingly, this remark is absent from the original French, in which the evocation of an incoherent self is disconnected from a specific context.49 Beckett’s turn towards self‐translation has been seen as a form of betrayal or of “abandonment.”50 The terms used to qualify his linguistic choices are generally strong in tone, implying that, by writing in another language, Beckett loses all interest in his origins. However, his translation of Irish
47 Beckett, Molloy (Calder) 37. 48 Matthew Arnold, On the Study of Celtic Literature (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1867) 100‐102, 108. 49 Beckett, Molloy (Minuit) 54. 50 See Janvier, Samuel Beckett par Lui‐Même 46; Lois Chamberlain, “‘The Same Old Stories:’ Beckett’s Poetics of Translation,” Beckett Translating/ Translating Beckett, 17.
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references suggests that, while he never managed to sever ties with an ideological and political apparatus he saw as cumbersome, he also retained a strange fascination for it. In Molloy and Malone Meurt, his emphasis on social bonds such as language and religion, which are depicted as purely perceived, continually re‐imagined, and empty in nature, shows that he never ceased to think about the manner in which the concepts of nation, culture, and identity are articulated in relation to language. Molloy and Malone Meurt can be read as an attempt, on his part, to re‐position modes of representation of Irishness through displacement, exoticism and absurdity. Yet, contrary to what Beckett’s declarations suggest, self‐translation is never entirely emancipatory, but operates as a form of reductionism, used to push against the memory of a homogeneous historical and social legacy. This results in the erasure of certain social, linguistic and cultural codes, and in the reinforcement of others, which crystallise a multiplicity of meanings. Thus, bilingualism becomes a battleground, a means for Beckett to experiment with the canon of representation of Irishness that emerged with the Revival and to reject its parochialism, while pushing its exoticism to the point of absurdity. The hybrid cultural space that emerges is not open to compromise, but to conflict—a conflict expressed in the form of language itself.
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Notes on Contributors Susan Cahill is completing a PhD in Contemporary Irish Fiction in University College Dublin. Her work focuses on theories and discourses of the body in the work of Anne Enright, Colum McCann, and Éilís Ní Dhuibhne. She is the recipient of an IRCHSS scholarship. Karl Chircop teaches Italian in a secondary school and at the Società Dante Alighieri in Malta. He is currently engaged in research on affinities between James Joyce and Luigi Pirandello at the Universities of Malta and Tor Vergata (Rome) for a PhD on co‐tutelle. Thomas Docherty is Professor of English and of Comparative Literature in the University of Warwick. He is the author of Reading (Absent) Character (1983), John Donne, Undone (1986), On Modern Authority (1987), After Theory (1990; revised and expanded 2nd ed., 1996), Postmodernism (1993), Alterities (1996), Criticism and Modernity (1999), and Aesthetic Democracy (2006). Monica Facchinello studied at the University of Venice “Ca Foscari” and the University of Durham. Currently she is a research student at the University of York, working on a PhD thesis dedicated to the writing of John Banville. Richard Kearney holds the Charles B. Seelig Chair of Philosophy at Boston College and has served as a Visiting Professor at University College Dublin, the University of Paris (Sorbonne) and the University of Nice. His most recent work in philosophy comprises a trilogy entitled “Philosophy at the Limit”: On Stories (2002), The God Who May Be (2001) and Strangers, Gods and Monsters (2003). Jason King is a lecturer in the English Department at the National University of Ireland, Maynooth. His recent publications focus on the areas of immigration, interculturalism, Irish theatre, Irish‐Canadian literature, and the Irish novel. José Lanters is Professor of English at the University of Wisconsin‐ Milwaukee, serving on the advisory board of the Center for Celtic Studies, and on the board of e‐Keltoi: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Celtic Studies (www.uwm.edu/dept/celtic/ekeltoi). She is the author of Missed 235
Understandings: A Study of Stage Adaptations of the Works of James Joyce (1988) and Unauthorised Versions: Irish Menippean Satire, 1919‐1952 (2000), and co‐editor, with Theo D’haen, of Troubled Histories, Troubled Fictions: Twentieth‐Century Anglo‐Irish Prose (1995). Emilie Morin is completing a PhD in the School of English at Queen’s University Belfast, on Samuel Beckett and Irishness, under the supervision of Michael McAteer. Máirín Nic Eoin lectures in the Irish Department in St Patrick’s College, Drumcondra, Dublin City University. Her books include a biography of bilingual writer Eoghan Ó Tuairisc / Eugene Watters Eoghan Ó Tuairisc: Beatha agus Saothar (1988), a study of gender ideology in the Irish literary tradition B’ait Leo Bean: Gnéithe den Idé‐ eolaíocht Inscne i dTraidisiún Liteartha na Gaeilge (1998), and a reinterpretation of modern and contemporary literature in Irish as a response to cultural displacement and linguistic minoritisation, Trén bhFearann Breac: An Díláithriú Cultúir agus Nualitríocht na Gaeilge (2005). Harvey O’Brien is the author of The Real Ireland: The Evolution of Ireland in Documentary Film (2004) and co‐editor of Keeping it Real: Irish Film and Television (2004) and of the journal Film and Film Culture. His articles have appeared in numerous publications including Cineaste, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Éire‐Ireland, Irish Studies Review and Film Ireland. He teaches Film Studies at University College Dublin. Honor O’Connor teaches in the School of English and Drama, University College Dublin. Her main interest is in contemporary Irish poetry, and her publications in this field include “Forms of Exile: Poems and Satires, 1946‐58” in Well Dreams: Essays on John Montague, ed. T.D. Redshaw (2004). Kinga Olszewska teaches in the English Department of the National University of Ireland, Galway. She is currently investigating the emergence of European identity in Ireland and Poland and its cultural manifestations in literary correspondences. Jeremy Parrott lives in Hungary where he works as an antiquarian bookseller and independent scholar. His research interests include 236
teacher development, 19th‐century literary bibliography, literary onomastics and Samuel Beckett. He is the author of Change All the Names: A Critical Onomasticon of Characternyms in the Works of Samuel Beckett (2004). Rajeev S. Patke teaches at the National University of Singapore. He has authored The Long Poems of Wallace Stevens (1985), co‐edited Complicities: Literatures and Cultures of the Asia‐Pacific Region (2003) and Institutions in Cultures: Theory & Practice (1995), and guest‐edited The European Legacy: “Europe in Post‐colonial Narratives” (2002). Ondřej Pilný is Director of the Centre for Irish Studies at Charles University, Prague. He is editor of From Brooke to Black Pastoral: Six Studies in Irish Literature and Culture (2001) and co‐editor of Time Refigured: Myths, Foundation Texts and Imagined Communities (with Martin Procházka, 2005), and Night Joyce of a Thousand Tiers. Petr Škrabánek: Studies in Finnegans Wake (with Louis Armand, 2002). Gerold Sedlmayr teaches at the University of Passau, Germany. He is the author of Brendan Kennelly’s Literary Works: The Developing Art of an Irish Writer, 1959‐2000 (2005). His current project deals with the interrelation of madness and gender in Romanticism. Clare Wallace is a lecturer in the Department of English and American Studies at Charles University in Prague. Her work has appeared in Irish Studies Review, Litteraria Pragensia, Irish University Review and Modern Drama. She is co‐editor, with Louis Armand, of Giacomo Joyce: Envoys of the Other (2002).
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Index abjection, 130 Adigun, Bisi, 35, 54 Adorno, Theodor, 69, 71 Albrecht, Günter, 211 allegory, 38‐9, 68, 71, 199‐200 Americanisation, 25 anamnesis, 63 Anderson, Benedict, 3, 115, 120 Antigone, 37‐9 Appadurai, Arjun, 2‐3 Aristotle, 111, 152‐3, 181 Arnold, Matthew, 233 Artaud, Antonin, 203 asylum‐seekers, 5, 45, 47‐8, 53‐5 Attridge, Derek, 178 Atwood, Margaret, 141 Auden, W.H., 67 Baccolini, Raffaella, 192‐3 Banville, John, 4, 7, 109‐21, 235 barbarism, 26, 28 Barry, Sebastian, 34 Barthes, Roland, 142 Bauman, Zygmunt, 68 Beckett, Samuel, 4, 6, 10, 21, 68‐71, 73, 87, 183, 203, 210‐14, 216‐37 Beer, Gillian, 186 Benjamin, Walter, 6, 9, 26, 71, 173, 178 Bennett, David, 56 Berresford Ellis, Peter, 121 Bhabha, Homi, 13, 87, 93‐4 Bharucha, Rustom, 48, 50 bilingualism, 10, 197, 206, 228, 234 Billington, Michael, 36 Bloomsday, 49, 53, 55, 57, 170 Bolger, Dermot, 40‐1 border, 6, 22, 26, 29, 71, 75, 84, 117‐ 18, 135 boundary, 1, 8, 23‐4, 115, 122‐3, 125, 129, 135 Bourke, Angela, 208‐9 Bowles, Paul, 227
Brod, Max, 206, 211 Brown, Terence, 14, 89‐90 Burke, Edmund, 19‐21 Cahill, Susan, 4, 8, 133, 235 Calypso theatre, 5, 39, 45‐6, 49, 57 Campbell, Matt, 14 Camus, Albert, 200, 222, 229 capitalism, 24, 115, 203 Carr, Marina, 39, 237 Carter, Angela, 123, 125‐7 Celtic Tiger, 2, 6, 49, 75, 79, 81, 85, 98 censorship, 87, 88 Chekhov, Anton, 42, 186 Chircop, Karl, 4, 9, 183, 235 claritas, 148‐9, 152‐4, 156 Cleary, Joe, 1‐2 coloniality, 4, 13, 25, 56, 72, 93‐4, 128, 131, 197, 237 Connolly, Claire, 2‐3, 134‐5 consumerism, 99, 202 corporeality, 8, 133, 138‐9 cosmography, 111, 114 Creed, Barbara, 130 Croagh Patrick, 76, 82 Cronin, Michael, 78‐9, 105, 210 Dante, 30, 183, 213, 235 de Brún, Fionntán, 203 de Gobineau, Joseph Arthur, 92 Deane, Seamus, 15‐6, 19‐21, 26, 51 Delanty, Gerard, 50‐1 Deleuze, Gilles, 134, 139‐40, 206‐9 democracy, 24 Denvir, Gearóid, 199‐200, 202‐3, 206 Derrida, Jacques, 9, 173, 178, 183 deterritorialisation, 3, 207‐8 differend, 72‐3 dislocation, 8, 118, 133, 143 dispossession, 29, 36, 86 Dobson, Michael, 20
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Docherty, Thomas, 3‐4, 13, 20, 23, 235 Donoghue, Denis, 20, 104, 109 Doppelgänger, 141 doubles, 133, 141 Dromgoole, Dominic, 42 Duns Scotus, 8, 151‐2 Durcan, Paul, 3, 6‐7, 25‐8, 74‐85 Eagleton, Terry, 63, 65 Eastern Europe, 88‐90, 100 elegy, 63, 65, 67, 70 Ellmann, Richard, 169‐71, 183‐4 Enlightenment, 19, 61 Enright, Anne, 4, 8, 133, 137‐41, 143‐4, 235 epiphany, 8‐9, 147‐56, 166‐71, 173, 174‐76, 178, 180, 186, 191‐2, 194‐5 etymology, 215 exile, 3, 6, 15, 86‐90, 93‐5, 97, 115, 117, 171 Facchinello, Monica, 4, 7, 109, 235 Fanon, Frantz, 93‐4, 96 femininity, 122‐3, 127, 130‐1, 141, 178, 232 Ferrer, Daniel, 179 Field Day, 19‐21, 26, 37, 39, 49, 51 French triangle, 163‐4 Fricker, Karen, 38, 40‐1 Friel, Brian, 15‐6, 21, 42, 237 Furthnerová, Daniela, 208 Garner, Steve, 56 Garvey, Michael, 102 Gasché, Rudolphe, 178 gaze, 7, 96, 141, 190 geopolitical divide, 46, 48 Gibbons, Luke, 51, 78, 81, 105 Gilson, Etienne, 152 global village, 1, 7, 33, 98, 104, 194, 197 globalisation, 1‐8, 13‐4, 17‐9, 23‐4, 28, 30, 33‐4, 39, 41‐2, 44, 46, 49, 57, 74, 78‐9, 81, 83‐4, 98, 104‐5, 121‐3, 125, 127‐9, 131‐2, 194, 197
Graham, Colin, 3 Gregor Samsa, 4, 10, 210, 216‐8, 220 Gregson, Ian, 64‐5 Grennan, Eamonn, 76 Grosz, Elizabeth, 138‐40 Guattari, Félix, 139, 206‐9 haecceitas, 8, 148, 151‐2, 154 Harvey, David, 4, 7, 15, 56, 122, 236 Havel, Václav, 97 Heaney, Seamus, 18‐9, 28, 30, 38, 88, 90, 94 historiography, history, 3, 7, 9, 13, 16, 21, 26, 29, 37, 41, 47, 50, 63, 73, 86, 89, 96‐7, 109, 113‐4, 121, 157, 159, 162, 168‐9, 194, 209, 230 Hobsbaum, Philip, 17 Holub, Miroslav, 88 Hughes, Declan, 43 Hutcheon, Linda, 72 Hutcheson, Frances, 31 Huxley, Aldous, 200, 202 hybridity, 86, 90, 93 Icarus, 180, 203 identity, 2, 4, 7, 21‐2, 28, 30‐1, 41, 43, 48, 50, 52, 54, 81, 86‐8, 90, 93‐4, 96, 116, 127, 129, 132, 141, 179, 226, 228, 234, 236 imperialism, 14, 33 interculturalism, 4‐5, 47‐50, 56, 235 Irigaray, Luce, 138‐39 Irish Literary Revival, 10, 226 Janvier, Ludovic, 223, 226, 233 Jarry, Alfred, 203 Jolas, Eugene, 212, 216 Jordan, Eamonn, 41, 46 Jordan, Neil, 4, 7, 122, 125 Joyce, James, 4, 8, 9, 21, 25, 28, 54, 81, 87, 147‐72, 174‐6, 178, 180‐1, 183‐8, 191‐2, 194‐5, 213, 219, 235‐7 Kafka, Franz, 4, 9‐10, 186, 197‐8, 200‐10, 212‐20 Kafkachas, 4, 197‐8
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kairos, 168, 170‐2, 178 Kaun, Axel, 211 Kearney, Richard, 4, 8‐9, 147, 171, 174, 231, 235 Ketman, 92 Kiberd, Declan, 5, 50, 52, 96, 150, 172 King, Jason, 3, 5, 45‐6, 158, 160, 183‐4, 235 Kinsella, Thomas, 90‐2 Kirby, Peadar, 78, 105 Knowlson, James, 210, 217, 225‐7 Koestler, Arthur, 110‐2, 114, 120 Kołakowski, Leszek, 86, 95‐6 Kristeva, Julia, 53, 180 Kundera, Milan, 201 Lanters, José, 3, 5, 33, 235 Late Late Show, 45, 55 Lentin, Ronit, 50‐2 Levinas, Emmanuel, 9, 173, 178 lieux de mémoire, 229 locatedness, 1‐3, 6, 8, 13, 14, 16‐9, 23‐5, 27‐8, 30, 33, 40‐1, 89, 122‐ 4, 127‐8, 131‐2, 134‐5, 139, 143, 156, 191, 224 Lonergan, Patrick, 33, 36, 41, 43‐4, 49 Lyotard, Jean François, 23, 62‐3, 72 Mac Annaidh, Séamus, 203‐4 Mac Grianna, Seosamh, 203 Mac Síomóin, Tomás, 202 MacGreevy, Thomas, 227‐8 MacNeice, Louis, 67 MacSwiney, Terence, 230‐1 Mahon, Derek, 4, 13, 14‐6, 21‐2, 35, 84‐5 Máirín Nic Eoin, 4, 9, 197, 236 mapping, 74, 119, 134‐5, 138, 202 Marx, Karl, 19, 21 master‐slave dialectic, 47, 49, 53, 55 Mathews, Aidan, 37 McDonagh, Martin, 33, 36, 39, 237 McDonald, Peter, 63‐4, 66 McDonald, Ronan, 40 McGuckian, Medbh, 30
McGuinness, Frank, 34 McLuhan, Marshall, 1 McMinn, Joseph, 114 McPherson, Conor, 40 Meaney, Gerardine, 126 memory, 22, 49, 50, 52, 63, 70, 99, 116, 135, 150, 157‐8, 168, 171, 173, 179, 186, 192, 221, 234 Merriman, Victor, 39‐40, 46 metamorphosis, 4, 197, 203, 210, 213‐ 4, 216 metaphor, 36, 126, 131, 134, 153, 155, 180, 184, 193‐4 migration, 2‐3, 34, 53 Miłosz, Czesław, 87‐88, 91‐2, 95 minoritisation, 9, 207‐9 mise‐en‐abyme, 191 modernity, 1‐3, 6, 9, 14‐5, 19, 21, 24, 38, 49, 51, 55, 61‐2, 72, 74, 90, 111, 141, 178, 183, 197‐8, 202, 206, 208, 216, 236 Moore, Brian, 45, 88 Morin, Emilie, 4, 10, 222, 236 Morrison, Conall, 37 Muir, Edwin, 212, 216 Muldoon, Paul, 3, 6, 29, 30, 61‐3, 65‐9, 71‐72 multicultural, 33, 35 multiracial, 33 Munck, Ronaldo, 34‐5 Murphy, Tom, 36, 83 National Library, 150‐1, 154, 156, 159, 166, 169, 172‐3 nationalism, 1‐2, 4, 7, 14, 17, 19, 22, 24, 31, 35, 40, 50‐1, 53, 55, 63, 89‐90, 93, 96, 109, 114‐5, 118‐21, 231‐2, 234 Ní Chaoimh, Bairbre, 45 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 134, 203 nomadism, 79, 132 Noon, William, 151‐6 Nora, Pierre, 229 Ó Braonáin, Dónall, 202 Ó Cadhain, Máirtín, 197, 199‐202, 204‐5, 207
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Ó Cadhla, Stiofán, 203 Ó Conaire, Pádraic, 208‐9 Ó Conaola, Dara, 201 Ó Muirí, Daithí, 204 Ó Ríordáin, Seán, 197‐8, 203 Ó Súilleabháin, Diarmaid, 205‐7 O’Brien, Eoin, 223 O’Brien, Harvey, 4, 8, 122, 236 Olkowski, Dorothea, 134, 140 Olszewska, Kinga, 3, 6, 86, 236 onomastics, 215‐6, 218 Orwell, George, 200, 202 Other, 53, 63, 83, 86, 139, 141, 144, 153, 167, 169, 178, 216, 222, 224, 237 parochialism, 10, 76, 106, 226‐7, 234 Parrott, Jeremy, 4, 10, 210, 218, 237 Patke, Rajeev S., 3, 6, 61, 237 Paulin, Tom, 16, 29‐31, 37, 39, 88 Pavis, Patrice, 50 Peillon, Michel, 105 performative, 46, 151 Péron, Mania, 227 Pilný, Ondřej, 1‐2, 10, 237 Pirandello, Luigi, 4, 9, 183‐8, 190‐1, 194‐6, 235 Poland, 3, 6, 86‐8, 94, 115, 119, 236 postcoloniality, 6, 13‐4, 19, 49, 71, 90, 96 post‐feminism, 122‐3, 127, 130‐1 postmodernity, 3, 6, 61‐2, 71, 73, 132 Py, Olivier, 38‐9 quidditas, 8, 147‐9, 151‐2, 154 Rajec, Elizabeth M., 215, 219 Readings, Bill, 24‐5 reductionism, 223, 234 representation, 31, 36, 54, 62, 110, 121, 127, 130‐1, 140, 142, 185‐6, 191, 208, 234 return of the repressed, 50, 52 Reynolds, Mary, 36, 183, 185 Rice, Anne, 123 Robinson, Mary, 49, 55, 57, 86 Royle, Nicholas, 142‐3 Sacks, Peter, 64
Said, Edward W., 86 Saint Patrick, 3, 45, 47, 49, 53, 76 Schneider, Alan, 222 science, 109‐10, 112, 114, 116, 118, 120 Sedlmayr, Gerold, 3, 6, 7, 74, 237 Shakespeare, William, 18, 20, 23, 42, 156‐8, 160‐5, 168, 170 Shanley, John Patrick, 37 Shenker, Israel, 211, 220 socialist realism, 91 Soros, George, 24 Spooner, Catherine, 141 Standún, Pádraig, 201‐2 Steiner, George, 203 stereotypes, 193, 223 subjectivity, 93, 133, 135, 142, 193 Taylor, Charles, 47 Taylor, Gary, 42 Titley, Alan, 200‐1, 203, 205‐6 totalitarianism, 88‐9, 96 transcendence, 153 translation, 10, 38, 41, 91, 94‐5, 97, 99, 185, 194, 198, 212, 217, 222‐ 4, 226‐7, 230‐3 umorismo, 9, 191, 194, 196 uncanny, 142, 186 Valdez Moses, Michael, 47 Valente, Francesca, 192 violence, 16, 19, 36, 44, 47, 65, 67, 69, 121, 128, 175, 187 Wallace, Clare, 1‐2, 10, 41, 237 Webster, Noah, 30 West, Michael, 35‐6, 43, 54 White, Hayden, 34, 95, 113‐4, 136 Wills, Clair, 29 Woods, Vincent, 38‐9 Yeats, W.B., 16, 21, 25, 35‐6, 38, 40, 63‐5, 67, 166, 183‐4, 226 Zagajewski, Adam, 94‐5 Zilliacus, Clas, 222
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