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Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Book Series
Table of Contents
Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgment
Chapter 1: Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination
Chapter 2: Pricing Within the Sharing Economy
Chapter 3: Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry
Chapter 4: Unvailing the Symbolic Meaning of Terracotta Plaques From Pilak Monastery, Tripura, India
Chapter 5: Ecotourism Emergence in Tasmania Through Social Entrepreneurs and Authentic Leaders
Chapter 6: Tourist Satisfaction Analysis Through Structural Equation Models
Chapter 7: Cultivating Magic and Nostalgia
Chapter 8: Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs in Tourism
Chapter 9: The Factors Leading to Entrepreneurship Trends Among Young Graduates of Hospitality
Chapter 10: Tourism Happiness Index
Chapter 11: Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference to Arunachal Pradesh, India
Chapter 12: Cultural Tourism Entrepreneurship in India
Chapter 13: The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage
Chapter 14: The Eco-Touristic Attraction for the Brand Guadalajara, Mexico
Compilation of References
About the Contributors
Index
Recommend Papers

Global Entrepreneurial Trends in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry
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Global Entrepreneurial Trends in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry Debasish Batabyal Amity University, Kolkata, India

A volume in the Advances in Hospitality, Tourism, and the Services Industry (AHTSI) Book Series

Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Business Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2020 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Batabyal, Debasish, 1978- editor. Title: Global entrepreneurial trends in the tourism and hospitality industry / Debasish Batabyal, editor. Description: Hershey, PA : Business Science Reference, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book explores the scope, prospects, and challenges of tourism and hospitality entrepreneurship”-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2019042261 (print) | LCCN 2019042262 (ebook) | ISBN 9781799826033 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799826040 (paperback) | ISBN 9781799826057 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Tourism--Management--Case studies. | Tourism--Planning--Case studies. | Hospitality industry--Management--Case studies. | Hospitality industry--Planning--Case studies. Classification: LCC G155.A1 G48765 2020 (print) | LCC G155.A1 (ebook) | DDC 338.4/791--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019042261 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019042262 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Hospitality, Tourism, and the Services Industry (AHTSI) (ISSN: 2475-6547; eISSN: 2475-6555) British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

Advances in Hospitality, Tourism, and the Services Industry (AHTSI) Book Series ISSN:2475-6547 EISSN:2475-6555 Editor-in-Chief: Maximiliano Korstanje, University of Palermo, Argentina Mission Globally, the hospitality, travel, tourism, and services industries generate a significant percentage of revenue and represent a large portion of the business world. Even in tough economic times, these industries thrive as individuals continue to spend on leisure and recreation activities as well as services. The Advances in Hospitality, Tourism, and the Services Industry (AHTSI) book series offers diverse publications relating to the management, promotion, and profitability of the leisure, recreation, and services industries. Highlighting current research pertaining to various topics within the realm of hospitality, travel, tourism, and services management, the titles found within the AHTSI book series are pertinent to the research and professional needs of managers, business practitioners, researchers, and upper-level students studying in the field. Coverage • Customer Service Issues • Food and Beverage Management • Service Management • Leisure & Business Travel • Sustainable Tourism • Travel Agency Management • Service Training • Cruise Marketing and Sales • Health and Wellness Tourism • Service Design

IGI Global is currently accepting manuscripts for publication within this series. To submit a proposal for a volume in this series, please contact our Acquisition Editors at [email protected] or visit: http://www.igi-global.com/publish/.

The Advances in Hospitality, Tourism, and the Services Industry (AHTSI) Book Series (ISSN 2475-6547) is published by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the series. For pricing and ordering information please visit http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advanceshospitality-tourism-services-industry/121014. Postmaster: Send all address changes to above address. Copyright © 2020 IGI Global. All rights, including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this series may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.

Titles in this Series

For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit:

http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-hospitality-tourism-services-industry/121014

Strategies for Promoting Sustainable Hospitality and Tourism Services Maximiliano Emanuel Korstanje (University of Palermo, Argentina) Babu George (Fort Hays State University, USA) and Alexandru-Mircea Nedelea (Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania) Business Science Reference • © 2020 • 243pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799843306) • US $195.00 Handbook of Research on Resident and Tourist Perspectives on Travel Destinations Patrícia Pinto (Faculty of Economics and Research Centre for Tourism, Sustainability, and Well-Being (CinTurs), University of Algarve, Portugal) and Manuela Guerreiro (Faculty of Economics and Research Centre for Tourism, Sustainability, and Well-Being (CinTurs), University of Algarve, Portugal) Business Science Reference • © 2020 • 400pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799831563) • US $285.00 Global Niche Tourism and Opportunities for the Medical Tourism Industry Manjeet Singh (Central University of Jammu, India) and Subbaraman Kumaran (Alliance University Bangalore, India) Business Science Reference • © 2020 • 300pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799834274) • US $215.00 Cases on Tour Guide Practices for Alternative Tourism Gulsun Yildirim (Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Turkey) Ozlem Ozbek (Bandırma Onyedi Eylül University, Turkey) Ceyhun Caglar Kilinc (Akdeniz University, Turkey) and Abdullah Tarinc (Akdeniz University, Turkey) Business Science Reference • © 2020 • 350pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799837251) • US $245.00 Accelerating Knowledge Sharing, Creativity, and Innovation Through Business Tourism Muhammad Waseem Bari (Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan) Sadia Shaheen (Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan) and Meng Fanchen (Beijing Institute of Technology, China) Business Science Reference • © 2020 • 351pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799831426) • US $225.00

For an entire list of titles in this series, please visit:

http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-hospitality-tourism-services-industry/121014

701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA Tel: 717-533-8845 x100 • Fax: 717-533-8661 E-Mail: [email protected] • www.igi-global.com

Table of Contents

Foreword.............................................................................................................. xv Preface................................................................................................................ xvii Acknowledgment................................................................................................ xxi Chapter 1 Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination....................................1 Vincenzo Asero, University of Catania, Italy Venera Tomaselli, University of Catania, Italy Chapter 2 Pricing Within the Sharing Economy: The Case of Uber.....................................18 Unathi Sonwabile Henama, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa Pfarelo Manavhela, Department of Tourism Management,Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa Chapter 3 Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry: An Assessment........................................................................33 Nadeem Ahmed Bashir, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia Premkumar Balaraman, Department of Management, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, India Aroop Mukherjee, Department of Aviation and Management, Prince Sultan University, Saudi Arabia Chapter 4 Unvailing the Symbolic Meaning of Terracotta Plaques From Pilak Monastery, Tripura, India.....................................................................................61 Ruma Karmakar, College of Art and Design, Kolkata, India



Chapter 5 Ecotourism Emergence in Tasmania Through Social Entrepreneurs and Authentic Leaders.................................................................................................84 Matthew Knox, University of Tasmania, Australia Joseph Crawford, University of Tasmania, Australia Sarah Young, University of Tasmania, Australia Chapter 6 Tourist Satisfaction Analysis Through Structural Equation Models..................112 José Carlos Casas-Rosal, University of Cordoba, Spain Juan Antonio Jimber del Río, University of Cordoba, Spain Ricardo David Hernández Rojas, University of Cordoba, Spain Amalia Hidalgo-Fernández, University of Cordoba, Spain Chapter 7 Cultivating Magic and Nostalgia: Walt Disney World and Trends in Global Theme Park Tourism...........................................................................................131 Erika Cornelius Smith, Nichols College, USA Maryann Conrad, Nichols College, USA Chapter 8 Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs in Tourism................................................159 Soumyadeep Roy, Amity University, Kolkata, India Chapter 9 The Factors Leading to Entrepreneurship Trends Among Young Graduates of Hospitality...........................................................................................................169 Partho Pratim Seal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, India Chapter 10 Tourism Happiness Index: An Upcoming Global Trend With Special Emphasis on Eastern India..................................................................................183 Abhijit Pandit, Amity University, Kolkata, India Chapter 11 Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference to Arunachal Pradesh, India..................................................194 Debasish Batabyal, Amity University, Kolkata, India Bani Ratna Padhi, Amity University, Kolkata, India



Chapter 12 Cultural Tourism Entrepreneurship in India.......................................................208 Vandita Hajra, Amity Institute of Travel and Tourism, Amity University, Kolkata, India Chapter 13 The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage: A Case Study of Sherhal Sweets Organization................................217 Mohammed El Amine Abdelli, University of Zaragoza, Spain Aied Malika, University of Lounici Ali de Blida 2, Algeria Chapter 14 The Eco-Touristic Attraction for the Brand Guadalajara, Mexico: The Case of Barranca del Rio Santiago..................................................................................237 José G. Vargas-Hernández, University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara, Mexico Jovanna Nathalie Cervantes-Guzman, University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara, Mexico Elba Lizbeth García Guerra, University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara, Mexico Compilation of References............................................................................... 264 About the Contributors.................................................................................... 303 Index................................................................................................................... 307

Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword.............................................................................................................. xv Preface................................................................................................................ xvii Acknowledgment................................................................................................ xxi Chapter 1 Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination....................................1 Vincenzo Asero, University of Catania, Italy Venera Tomaselli, University of Catania, Italy Events create different types of impact on the local economy and host communities. They can trigger a variety of short- or long-term, positive or negative impacts. Literature distinguishes the term ‘impact’ from ‘legacy.’ While impacts affect the economy of the host place in the short-term, legacy remains longer than the event itself. Thus, if residents perceive benefits from the event, they will be supportive of hosting in the future. This chapter focuses on events as entrepreneurial opportunities of tourism and hospitality for a hosting place. It is based on the perceptions expressed by the different categories of local stakeholders involved in an international literary festival hosted in Italy. The study shows that evaluating and understanding the legacy effects for a place hosting an event, as perceived by the different local stakeholders involved, can provide managerial insights for planning over time events in the same place. Chapter 2 Pricing Within the Sharing Economy: The Case of Uber.....................................18 Unathi Sonwabile Henama, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa Pfarelo Manavhela, Department of Tourism Management,Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa



South Africa has a poor public transport system, which is dominated by the minibus taxis that transport more than 60% of the population, characterised by abysmal service and bad driving. The emergence of Uber in South Africa has created a new transport avenue for South Africans. Uber became a hit amongst locals and tourists, overtaking the metered taxis as direct competition. The night time economy has been one of the major beneficiaries, as Uber provided a 24 hour transport system. The entry of Uber has been associated with disruptive technology, which has disrupted the metered taxi industry specifically and the transport industry generally. The emergence of Uber has brought about a new pricing strategy called surge pricing, which has not been captured by the academic gaze in a Southern African context. The chapter seeks to add to the body of knowledge on Uber and surge pricing. Chapter 3 Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry: An Assessment........................................................................33 Nadeem Ahmed Bashir, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia Premkumar Balaraman, Department of Management, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, India Aroop Mukherjee, Department of Aviation and Management, Prince Sultan University, Saudi Arabia The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is currently facing economic and sectoral promotion challenges. A number of market-supporting aspects of government support, the tourism industry, transport and accommodation access, connectivity infrastructure, and financial services have been monitored to ensure progress in transparency. The aim of this chapter is to assess and gain insight into the strategic importance of the tourism ecosystem, infrastructure, and allied services for the sustainability of the business. The chapter also seeks to identify potential areas of the Saudi Arabian tourism industry and benchmarks for world-class tourist destinations and to identify the scope for improvement in the various areas of strategic business enablers. Chapter 4 Unvailing the Symbolic Meaning of Terracotta Plaques From Pilak Monastery, Tripura, India.....................................................................................61 Ruma Karmakar, College of Art and Design, Kolkata, India Tripura, one of the smallest states of India, is very famous to the people of India because of its own hidden treasures and the atmospheric beauty of nature. Various temple architecture, stone and metal sculptures which have been scattered all over the state made her historically significant, but due to proper expose it still remains in darkness. Globalization and emergence of technology nowadays vastly helps tour lovers to choose their destinations. Observing the present scenario, in this chapter



the researcher explores and introduces the richness and the hidden wealth of history of Tripura through a bird’s eye view of the Pilak Monastery to the outer world. Chapter 5 Ecotourism Emergence in Tasmania Through Social Entrepreneurs and Authentic Leaders.................................................................................................84 Matthew Knox, University of Tasmania, Australia Joseph Crawford, University of Tasmania, Australia Sarah Young, University of Tasmania, Australia Ecotourism is one of the fastest growing sectors within the tourism industry in Australia. The southern island state of Tasmania is one of the pioneers in creating sustainable ecotourist ventures. We explore, with a leadership behavioral lens, the role that the embodiment of authentic leader behaviors in social entrepreneurs has on ecotourism emergence. Authentic leader behaviors offer a response to some arguments that numerous ecotourist ventures are only sustainable and environmentally responsive in name only. Entrepreneurial leadership is critical in creating a culture conducive to social entrepreneurial growth and sustainability. This chapter concludes with recognition of the importance of future research into developing authentic leader behaviors in social entrepreneurs. Chapter 6 Tourist Satisfaction Analysis Through Structural Equation Models..................112 José Carlos Casas-Rosal, University of Cordoba, Spain Juan Antonio Jimber del Río, University of Cordoba, Spain Ricardo David Hernández Rojas, University of Cordoba, Spain Amalia Hidalgo-Fernández, University of Cordoba, Spain This chapter analyses the tourist behaviour through the estimation of a statistical model of structural equations, observing to what extent the motivation, interest, and value given to the destination of the trip are determining factors. A study of the socio-demographic profiles, the level of satisfaction, and the loyalty of the tourist with the destination is carried out in this context and in response to the need to analyse and understand the reasons why tourists have a greater or lesser degree of satisfaction with the destination, which is truly necessary to improve the public administrations and private entrepreneur management in this sector. This has been applied to a case study: tourists visiting the city of Cordoba, designing a survey for those who visit the city for cultural reasons.



Chapter 7 Cultivating Magic and Nostalgia: Walt Disney World and Trends in Global Theme Park Tourism...........................................................................................131 Erika Cornelius Smith, Nichols College, USA Maryann Conrad, Nichols College, USA In 2018, the Magic Kingdom at Disney World in Florida was the world’s mostvisited theme park, with nearly 20.8 million visitors. The influence of Disney is only growing, as Disneyland attendance was up 2% in 2018, drawing an average of more than 51,000 people a day. This study will argue that Disney’s success, in part, draws on the ability to create authentic nostalgia tourism experiences for its guests. After situating the Walt Disney Company and its experiences in the literature on cultural tourism and memorable tourism experiences (MTEs), this study will explain the significance of nostalgia tourism and offer specific examples from the Walt Disney World theme park model. This includes examples from the six Disney resorts and 12 Disney parks globally. Chapter 8 Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs in Tourism................................................159 Soumyadeep Roy, Amity University, Kolkata, India The point of this chapter is to talk about and feature the significance of enterprise and business visionaries in the travel industry. A writing audit was directed on reasonable issues and down to earth parts of business visionaries and enterprise. This chapter features (1) handy meanings of the terms business visionaries and enterprise; (2) principle highlights of the travel industry business visionaries; and (3) the job of businesspeople in the travel industry exercises and their commitment to the advancement of a travel industry goal. This chapter is explorative in nature, because the discourse is, for the most part, dependent on a writing audit. Hence, more research-based learning and increasingly observational examinations are required in this field. Chapter 9 The Factors Leading to Entrepreneurship Trends Among Young Graduates of Hospitality...........................................................................................................169 Partho Pratim Seal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, India Entrepreneurship in hospitality is a major contributor to the growth and development of the economy of a country. A large proportion of the hospitality businesses are small owner-operated restaurants as compared to big chains of hotels and restaurants who also have their own market share. Considering the nature and challenges faced by the



hospitality entrepreneurs becomes an important issue for the researchers. Hospitality education has evolved considering the needs and thoughts of the millennials. The millennials do understand the needs and desires of the contemporary guests and have come up with strategies to present their food products and enhance service standards to stay competitive in the market. The millennial guest has, with rapid advance of technology, an enormous amount of preferences to choose from. The aim is to investigate the motivational factors which leads the young graduates to opt for entrepreneurship and the role of hospitality education to guide the students towards it. Chapter 10 Tourism Happiness Index: An Upcoming Global Trend With Special Emphasis on Eastern India..................................................................................183 Abhijit Pandit, Amity University, Kolkata, India Research on the happiness of tourists is becoming popular recently. The study thrives to start this work and develop a scale to measure tourism happiness in Eastern India. Two studies need to be conducted, following a cross validation approach. The first study is qualitative using content analyses, aiming to identify the factors and variables considered essential for making tourists happy. The sample in study 1 consists of 300 tourists of Eastern India selected by stratified random sampling method. Based on the content analyses, a questionnaire will be developed. Study 2 aims to initiate the scale validation. The questionnaire developed in study 1 will be answered by a second sample of 400 tourists visiting Eastern India. The exploratory analysis will identify some first order factors. The next step is to proceed with confirmatory factor analysis to validate the model and propose a final scale. A structural equation modelling approach is used with the help of current versions of SPSS and AMOS packages. Chapter 11 Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference to Arunachal Pradesh, India..................................................194 Debasish Batabyal, Amity University, Kolkata, India Bani Ratna Padhi, Amity University, Kolkata, India The global economy has been witnessing phenomenal change over a long period. The service sector has been dominating the manufacturing industries. That shows the mammoth contribution of the tourism industry in terms of Rupee value. The report has revealed that in 2016 the sector generated INR14.1 trillion (USD208.9 billion) that represents 9.6% of India’s GDP. Tourism industry has been creating around 10% jobs in the country that offered 40.3 million jobs in 2016 which promoted India’s ranking in 2nd position across the globe in terms of total employment supported by



travel and tourism trade. India’s travel and tourism sector has been one of the fastest growing amongst the G20. Therefore, the tourism and hospitality sector may poise as an emerging area for the rural economic development. With its multiplier effects, tourism can energize the rural economy. This chapter has attempted to explore the opportunities and challenges of tourism entrepreneurship in rural India with special reference to Arunachal Pradesh. Chapter 12 Cultural Tourism Entrepreneurship in India.......................................................208 Vandita Hajra, Amity Institute of Travel and Tourism, Amity University, Kolkata, India Cultural entrepreneurs are rightly called the heartbeat of the global economy as they are the ones who step in where governments fail to tread. Cultural entrepreneurs can instigate safeguarding of the timeless heritage of people with a pro-poor mission of generating collective awareness and encouraging community skill development. Cultural entrepreneurship is a significant requirement for the sustainability of the tourism sector of a country like India, as the ‘culture’ component has been the game changer in the Indian tourism scenario and has truly endowed the industry with its unique brand identity. The following chapter draws important examples from the industry and analyzes the business prospects based on heritage and pilgrimage tourism, thematic routes, events and festivals, as well as creative tourism for the budding entrepreneurs to present India in a never experienced before avatar as the challenges that are an irreplaceable part of such a sensitive endeavour. Chapter 13 The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage: A Case Study of Sherhal Sweets Organization................................217 Mohammed El Amine Abdelli, University of Zaragoza, Spain Aied Malika, University of Lounici Ali de Blida 2, Algeria The aim of this study was to research the contribution of social responsibility to the establishment of an ethical competitive advantage in the Sherhal Sweets Organization, which reached the contribution of the social responsibility of the actors to the creation of an ethical competitive advantage. This study yielded a number of suggestions. In order to strengthen the contribution of social responsibility for the operationalization of the ethical competitive advantage, recommendations are addressed to four parties: the economic foundation, universities and research centres, the media, and the state.



Chapter 14 The Eco-Touristic Attraction for the Brand Guadalajara, Mexico: The Case of Barranca del Rio Santiago..................................................................................237 José G. Vargas-Hernández, University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara, Mexico Jovanna Nathalie Cervantes-Guzman, University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara, Mexico Elba Lizbeth García Guerra, University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara, Mexico The main purpose of this research is to show if the Barranca del Rio Santiago is a tourist attraction and ecotourism to be included in the Guadalajara brand, focused on national tourism. In the research, only the national indicators of the Metropolitan Area of Guadalajara were taken in reference to motivation, what they like most, means by which they arrive at the destination, etc. SECTUR establishes in the latest competitiveness agenda of tourist destinations in Mexico that Guadalajara has a large number of natural destinations, including the Barranca del Río Santiago. This destination has a high ecological, recreational, and landscaping value, which is very little known by the local population, and consequently, it can become a new product for the ecotourism sector. Compilation of References............................................................................... 264 About the Contributors.................................................................................... 303 Index................................................................................................................... 307

xv

Foreword

This book is an articulation of trends and practices of entrepreneurship in the tourism and hospitality industry in global perspective. There are sixteen chapters in this collection and all the authors share responsibility of exploring and explaining their subjects in a remarkable manner. I’m happy to introduce this collection to the series of books on Advances in Hospitality & Service Industry, IGI Global, USA. Through the book, readers will have chance to find crucial and different insights for assessment and management of tourism and hospitality entrepreneurship around the globe. In this work, all the authors have investigated on global trends and practices of entrepreneurship in tourism and hospitality sectors with new opportunities and orientations. This book is composed of 15 chapters with a wide range of diversified trends and practices of entrepreneurship in tourism and hospitality with managerial, strategic and environmental implications. The first chapter of this book deals with the impacts of events on the local economy and host communities. Here, the authors have explained how socio-cultural events can trigger a variety of short- or long-term, positive or negative impacts through which entrepreneurial scope and opportunities can be introduced and nurtured. The second chapter is on how Uber has been operating and meeting expectation in South Africa with the concept of night time economy, disruptive technology for metered vehicular transportations and surge pricing in the area. The authors in the third chapter have assessed an insight into the strategic importance of the tourism-ecosystem, infrastructure, and allied services in Saudi Arabia. This chapter also seeks to identify potential areas of the Saudi Arabian tourism industry and benchmarks for world-class tourist destinations and to identify the scope for improvement in the various areas of strategic business enablers. While the fourth chapter is dealing with cultural sites and archeological edifice with marketing orientation for tourism, the fifth one is discussing the emergence of ecotourism through social entrepreneurship and authentic leaders. In the sixth chapter the authors have analyzed the tourist behavior through the estimation of a statistical model of structural equations, observing to what extent the motivation, interest and value given to the destination of the trip are determining factors. The

Foreword

authors in the seventh chapter argue how Disney’s success, in part, draws on the ability to create authentic nostalgia tourism experiences for its guests in future. Eighth chapter is a conceptual study describing the feature the significance of enterprise and business visionaries in the travel industry with diverse orientation. The ninth chapter is addressing millennial guests and modern hospitality education and contribution to tourism and hospitality entrepreneurship. Another unique attempt is made in the tenth chapter with a new study thrives to develop a scale to measure tourism happiness in Eastern India. Eleventh chapter has explored the opportunities and challenges of tourism entrepreneurship in rural India with special reference to Arunachal Pradesh. The twelfth chapter is dealing with the recent recommendation system of ICT in tourism and entrepreneurship as it is of immense importance in the modern scenario. Thirteenth chapter has drawn important examples from the industry and analyzes the business prospects based on heritage and pilgrimage tourism, thematic routes, events and festivals, as well as creative tourism for the budding entrepreneurs to present India. Fourteenth chapter has outlined the contribution of social responsibility to the establishment of an ethical competitive advantage in the Sherhal sweets organization, which reached the contribution of the social responsibility of the actors to the creation of an ethical competitive advantage in the study area. The fifteenth chapter has elucidated how entrepreneurship is considered as the propensity of mind to take calculated risk with confidence to achieve predetermined business objectives. The last sixteenth chapter discusses how the Barranca del Rio Santiago is a tourist attraction and ecotourism to be incorporated in the Guadalajara brand, focused on national tourism through the national indicators of the Metropolitan Area of Guadalajara. Therefore, I congratulate the editor and the contributors who had put in a lot of effort and time in bringing out this book to address many vital concerns for a better understanding of the issues of tourism industry and environment in larger perspectives. Sarat Kumar Lenka Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management, Bhubneswar, India

xvi

xvii

Preface

As tourism is one of the largest service industries serving millions of international and domestic tourists yearly, it is important to understand the nature, scope, challenges and dimensions of entrepreneurship. Advent of new types and forms of tourism, changes in existing tourism practices, challenging competitions and market trends, influence and use of technology are the focusing areas for new entrepreneurial scope in tourism and hospitality around the world. This book is a unique set of modern entrepreneurial trends, issues and challenges with regard to tourism and hospitality entrepreneurship and practices. There are fourteen selected chapters in this collection and all the authors claim responsibility of handling their subjects in a conceptualized and scholarly manner. I am happy to introduce this collection to the series of books on Advances in Hospitality and Service Industry, IGI Global, USA. Through the book, readers will have chance to find crucial and different insights for a better understanding on tourism and hospitality entrepreneurship around the world with contemporary issues, trends and management practices. The first chapter of this book, ‘Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination’, presented by Asero V. and Tomaselli V. from the University of Catania discuss how events create different types of impact on the local economy and host communities. They distinguish the term ‘impact’ from ‘legacy’. This chapter focuses on events as entrepreneurial opportunities of tourism and hospitality for a hosting place. It is based on the perceptions expressed by the different categories of local stakeholders involved in an international literary festival hosted in Italy. The study shows that evaluating and understanding the legacy effects for a place hosting an event, as perceived by the different local stakeholders involved, can provide managerial insights for planning, over time, events in the same place. In the second chapter, ‘Pricing within the Sharing Economy: The Case of Uber’, Henama U.S. and Manavhela P. of Tshwane University of Technology address the emergence of Uber in South Africa that has became a hit amongst locals and tourists, overtaking the meteted taxis as direct competition. They described how the entry of Uber has been associated with disruptive technology, which has disrupted the metered taxi industry specifically and the transport industry generally. The emergence of

Preface

Uber has brought about a new pricing strategy called surge pricing, which has not been captured by academic gaze in a Southern African context. The paper seeks to add to the body of knowledge on Uber and surge pricing. In the third chapter, ‘Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry: An Assessment’, Bashir N.A., Balaraman P. and Mukherjee A. have The aim of this chapter is to assess and gain insight into the strategic importance of the tourism ecosystem, infrastructure, and allied services for the sustainability of the business. This chapter also seeks to identify potential areas of the Saudi Arabian tourism industry and benchmarks for world-class tourist destinations and to identify the scope for improvement in the various areas of strategic business enablers. In the fourth chapter, ‘Unveiling the Symbolical Meaning of Terracotta Plaques from Pilak Monastery, Tripura, India’, Karmakar R. has tried to explore and introduce the richness and the hidden wealth of history of Tripura through bird’s eye view of the Pilak Monastery to the outer world for tourism entrepreneurship. In the fifth chapter, ‘Ecotourism Emergence in Tasmania Through Social Entrepreneurs and Authentic Leaders’, Knox M., Crawford, J. and Young, S. from the University of Tasmania have put forward an attempt to explore, with a leadership behavioral lens, the role that the embodiment of authentic leader behaviors in social entrepreneurs has on ecotourism emergence. According to them, authentic leader behaviors offer a response to some arguments that numerous ecotourist ventures are only sustainable and environmentally responsive in name only. Entrepreneurial leadership is critical in creating a culture conducive to social entrepreneurial growth and sustainability. This chapter concludes with recognition of the importance of future research into developing authentic leader behaviors in social entrepreneurs. Another chapter is on ‘Tourist Satisfaction Analysis through Structural Equation Models’. Here the authors Rosal J.C.C., Rio J.A.J., Rojas R.D.H. Fernández, A.H. of the university of Cordoba focus on the tourist behaviour through the estimation of a statistical model of structural equations, observing to what extent the motivation, interest and value given to the destination of the trip are determining factors. This study of the socio-demographic profile, the level of satisfaction and the loyalty of the tourist with the destination is exhibiting a modern practice prevailed over modern travel trade houses around the world. This has been applied to a case study of tourists visiting the city of Cordoba, designing a survey for those who visit the city for cultural reasons. The seventh chapter of this book, ‘Cultivating Magic and Nostalgia: Walt Disney World and Trends in Global Theme Park Tourism’, contributed by Smith E.C. and Conrad M. have provided an exhaustive overview of the importance of theme park in tourism entrepreneurship in Disney incorporating six Disney resorts and 12 Disney parks globally and drew on the ability to create authentic nostalgia xviii

Preface

tourism experiences for its guests. After situating the Walt Disney Company and its experiences in the literature on cultural tourism and memorable tourism experiences (MTEs), this study explained the significance of nostalgia tourism and offer specific examples from the Walt Disney World theme park model. In the eighth chapter, Roy S. attempts to describe the feature the significance of enterprise and business visionaries in the travel industry so as to draw in there adder in the focal theme of this handbook. The author directed on reasonable issues and down to earth parts of business visionaries and enterprise through exploratory studies. In the ninth chapter, ‘The Factors Leading to Entrepreneurship Trends Among Young Graduates of Hospitality’, Seal P.P. has explained how hospitality education has evolved considering the needs and thoughts of the millennials. According to him, the millennials do understand the needs and desires of the contemporary guests and have come up with strategies to present their food products and enhance service standards to stay competitive in the market. The millennial guest also with rapid advance of technology have an enormous amount of preference to choose from. The aim is to investigate the motivational factors which leads the young graduates to opt for entrepreneurship and the role of hospitality education to guide the students towards it. In his contributed tenth chapter, ‘Tourism Happiness Index: An Upcoming Global Trend With Special Emphasis on Eastern India’, Pandit A. has introduced a work and develop a scale to measure tourism happiness in Eastern India. The author conducted two studies, following a cross validation approach. The first study was qualitative using content analyses, aiming to identify the factors and variables considered essential for making tourists happy. His sample in study 1 consisted of 300 tourists of Eastern India selected by stratified random sampling method. Based on the content analyses, a first questionnaire is developed. Study 2 has aimed to initiate the scale validation. The questionnaire has developed in study 1 will be answered by a second sample of 400 tourists visiting Eastern India. The exploratory analysis has identified some first order factors. Next step has been to proceed with confirmatory factor analysis to validate the model and propose a final scale. Structural Equation Modeling Approach is being adopted with the help of current versions of SPSS and AMOS packages. The eleventh chapter, ‘Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference to Arunachal Pradesh, India’, Batabyal D. and Padhi B. have outlined how tourism has become one of the emerging areas for the rural economic development and entrepreneurship in the backward economy of Arunachal Pradesh. They have opined how tourism can energize the rural economy with more effects and influence in future. This twelfth chapter, ‘Cultural Tourism Entrepreneurship in India’, authored by Hajra V. of Amity University Kolkata, aims to present important examples from xix

Preface

the industry and analyzes the business prospects based on heritage and pilgrimage tourism, thematic routes, events and festivals, as well as creative tourism for the budding entrepreneurs to present India in a never experienced before avatar as well as the challenges that are an irreplaceable part of such a sensitive endeavor. The next chapter, ‘The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage: A Case Study of Sherhal Sweets Organization’, authored by Abdelli and Malika, aim research the contribution of social responsibility to the establishment of an ethical competitive advantage in the Sherhal sweets organization, which reached the contribution of the social responsibility of the actors to the creation of an ethical competitive advantage. Their study yielded a number of suggestions In order to strengthen the contribution of social responsibility for the operationalization of the ethical competitive advantage, recommendations are addressed to four parties: the economic Foundation, universities and research centres, the media, and the state as a whole The fourteenth and last chapter, ‘The Eco-Touristic Attraction for the Brand Guadalajara Guadalajara: The Case La Barranca del Rio Santiago’, authored by Hernández J.G.V., Cervantes-Guzman J.N. and Guerra E.L.G., is a study showing how Barranca del Rio Santiago is a tourist attraction with a new potentiality for in the Guadalajara brand, focused on national tourism. In this chapter, only the national indicators of the Metropolitan Area of Guadalajara are taken with reference to motivation, means by which they arrive at the destination, etc. He described how SECTUR establishes in the latest competitiveness agenda of tourist destinations in Mexico as well as in Guadalajara has a large number of natural destinations, including the Barranca del Río Santiago. I sincerely believe that these issues are of paramount importance and have been pretty well researched and commented in the form of research papers in the book. At the same time, I place on record for a greater analysis and further study in all these areas of diverse scope and opportunities through tourism and hospitality entrepreneurship in different countries. I hope you’ll like this book as much as I do. Debasish Batabyal Amity University, Kolkata, India

xx

xxi

Acknowledgment

First and foremost, we would like to thank my parents for their unending inspiration and for standing beside us throughout our career and particularly while we were editing this book. It would not have been possible to achieve the objectives of the project without the encouraging response from the distinguished contributors in the beginning and subsequently contributing scholarly chapters in their respective domain of scholarship. Their timely cooperation at every stage in the progress of the project has immensely contributed in making this volume worth reading for the targeted audience. We do hereby acknowledge all the experts and staff at IGI Global USA. In particular, I wish to put on record the timely guidance and cooperation I received from my development editor. I, finally, acknowledge the role my family members because they have shared a large part of my responsibility, even if it was indirect in nature. In fact, I have taken a more than fair share of my time due to them, especially of the children. Debasish Batabyal Amity University, Kolkata, India

1

Chapter 1

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination Vincenzo Asero https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6933-5461 University of Catania, Italy Venera Tomaselli https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2287-7343 University of Catania, Italy

ABSTRACT Events create different types of impact on the local economy and host communities. They can trigger a variety of short- or long-term, positive or negative impacts. Literature distinguishes the term ‘impact’ from ‘legacy.’ While impacts affect the economy of the host place in the short-term, legacy remains longer than the event itself. Thus, if residents perceive benefits from the event, they will be supportive of hosting in the future. This chapter focuses on events as entrepreneurial opportunities of tourism and hospitality for a hosting place. It is based on the perceptions expressed by the different categories of local stakeholders involved in an international literary festival hosted in Italy. The study shows that evaluating and understanding the legacy effects for a place hosting an event, as perceived by the different local stakeholders involved, can provide managerial insights for planning over time events in the same place.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch001 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

INTRODUCTION Tourism is considered a substantial contributor to the development of different places. In recent years, an ever increasing number of destinations worldwide have invested in tourism, given the remarkable growth of the tourism phenomenon. Recent UNWTO reports based on current trends estimated that 1403 million international tourist arrivals were received by destinations around the world in 2018, with an increase of 6% compared to the previous year (UNWTO, 2019). While there is a general consensus regarding the social and economic benefits that tourism development potentially provides, it is recognized that these benefits can be realized only if tourism is managed in order to maximise positive impacts, while negative impacts are kept to a minimum. The issue of impacts, therefore, remains at the forefront of the sector and arises in different occasions, as in the case of the effects generated by a tourist event attracting a large number of participants, spectators and sponsorships to a destination. Events are considered an important motivator of tourism as well as representing a key element in the development and marketing plans of many destinations. Many studies have found that events can have an influence on the level of economic activity of the host territory. Although the attraction of many tourists is usually at the centre of analysis, the attempt to measure the economic benefits provides some difficulties, most significantly because of the problems of isolating the impacts of one event within a complex economy. However, exploring social impacts may have an even more substantial influence on the community (Gibson, 2007). Hence, residents’ perception of social impacts has become an important factor for obtaining community-wide event support: if residents perceive benefits from the event, they will be supportive of hosting for future events (Kim & Petrick, 2005). Furthermore, social impacts are increasingly used as one of the main justifications for staging and funding events (Richards, de Brito, & Wilks, 2013). Therefore, organizers are more and more focused on the promotion of positive attitudes among local residents of the place where the event is held. Hosting special events has become a strategic element in the tourism development of destinations to attract visitors and encourage investment, improve the image and boost the local economy. Events may be a form of tourism offer of a destination in which the content of the events is associated with the resources of the place where it is held. They contain a number of activities, and are planned and organized by different public institutions and private organizations (Getz, 1997). In this perspective, the organization of an event is associated with the concept of tourism networks, which refers to a wide range of cooperative behaviours among organisations linked through economic and social relationships and provides benefits for the local community involved (Novelli, Schmitz, & Spencer, 2006). Therefore, cooperation among local 2

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

actors represents a way to be more competitive within the tourism market, where entrepreneurs play a central role in the evolution of a destination (Koh & Hatten, 2002). Studies in tourism and hospitality management have examined stakeholders’ perceived impacts from hosting an event, and revealed a variety of factors that influence evaluations of the possible benefits for a host destination. In many cases, the benefits lead to the repetition of the event, over the years, in the same place. Most of the research literature on impacts is related to sporting events rather than to festivals (McCool & Lime, 2001). In addition, a great deal of interest has centred on economic and tourism benefits, with little attention paid to legacy and longterm effects of events, which is still a neglected area of research. The concept of legacy emphasizes the importance of the creation of tighter social networks, the involvement of the local population with the event, the core values of residents, the role of community groups and local associations (Kim, Jun, Walker, & Drane, 2015) This chapter focuses on events as entrepreneurial opportunities for tourism and hospitality for a hosting place. The study is based on the perceptions expressed by the different categories of local stakeholders involved in Taobuk-Taormina Book Festival, an international literary festival hosted in the city of Taormina, one of the most famous tourist destinations in Sicily, the biggest island in the Mediterranean Sea and the largest region of Italy. It supports the argument that, apart from economic impacts, there are long-term benefits from hosting an event for the place where it takes place. The legacy effects for the hosting destination were investigated through specific variables such as reinforced community spirit and social cohesion, benefits for local businesses, opportunities for partnerships among local firms, for promoting event-related activities and for the involvement of local associations. In a more general perspective, this chapter highlights the fact that the cooperative behaviour of organisations, firms and public institutions plays a key role in achieving competitive advantages in the tourism market of a destination. Therefore, evaluating and understanding the legacy effects for a place hosting an event as perceived by the different local stakeholders involved can provide managerial insights for planning, over time, events in the same place. This chapter is set out as follows: first of all, an extended literature review on event tourism and the impacts of hosting an event. The next section focuses on the impacts evaluation of Taobuk-Taormina Book Festival and the analysis of the impacts through a multivariate indicator. In the last section, the conclusions are presented.

3

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

BACKGROUND: THE IMPACT OF HOSTING TOURISM EVENTS Events are big business, attracting a large number of participants, spectators and sponsorships, but also creating different types of impact on the local economy and host communities. They are emerging worldwide as a growing sector of the tourism and leisure industries and are seen to have significant impact on the host places. It has therefore been argued that strategies need to be adopted in order to take control of the territorial, economic and social impacts of events, and analysis is required when looking at the impacts of each individual event. The organization of an event requires the active involvement and cooperation of diverse stakeholders. In the tourism sector, indeed, the linkages among various firms and public organizations play a crucial role in achieving competitive advantages in the tourism market of a destination (Pavlovich, 2003). In this regard, many scholars underline how collaborative relationships have increased in importance, becoming crucial in the coordination of tourism market strategies. Some authors (e.g. Crouch & Ritchie, 1999; Dollinger, 1990) noted that collective actions have a great impact on tourism development. Similarly, Jamal and Jamrozy (2006) highlighted the fact that various stakeholders take part in tourism destination management, although no one individual has entire control over the decisional processes. On the same topic, Merinero-Rodríguez and Pulido-Fernández (2016) emphasized that relationships are the core element of a tourism destination system. Hence, networks provide a wide range of positive externalities stimulating partnerships and cooperation (Gibson, Lynch, & Morrison, 2005). However, although the importance of the connections among different stakeholders, entrepreneurs play a crucial role in the development of a destination. Within the literature, different studies have considered resident perceptions and host community reactions (e.g. Fredline & Faulkner, 2000). In this perspective, research has revealed a variety of factors that influence resident evaluations of possible benefits and costs of event hosting. For instance, Baloglu and McClearly (1999) found that residents generally form their perceptions of hosting based on prior experiences, whereas Delamere et al. (2001) explored a wide range of noneconomic benefits and costs of hosting festivals by measuring local community attitudes toward social impacts. Events generate a variety of short- or long-term, positive or negative impacts, on the local economy and host communities. In this regard, literature distinguishes the term ‘impact’ from ‘legacy’. The key difference relates to time as impacts are short-term while legacies are long-term effects of the event (Masterman 2009). The concept of legacy can be seen as positive or negative, tangible or intangible, territorial or personal, intentional or unintentional, global or local and can be perceived from the various event stakeholders’ perspectives (Chappelet, 2012). Li & McCabe 4

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

(2012) defined legacy as “tangible and intangible elements of large-scale events left to the future generations of a host country where these elements influence the economic and psychological well-being at both community and individual levels in the long-term” (p. 390). In short, legacy is all that remains longer than the event itself (Preuss, 2007). Therefore, legacy focuses on the event and the outcomes it might produce for the community (Taksa, Chalipb, & Greenb, 2015). According to some authors (e.g. Thomson, Schlenker, & Schulenkorf, 2013), legacy is conceptualized in different ways in the academic literature as well as in the industry’s practice, due to the complexities that exist around the concept in the event management context. Despite the differences, legacy is a multifaceted concept that encompasses tangible and intangible outcomes (Kaplanidou & Karadakis, 2010). The concept of legacy emphasizes the importance of the creation of tighter social networks, the involvement of the local stakeholders with the event, the core values of residents, enhanced destination image, increase in tourism numbers, the role of community groups and local associations. Recently, Allen et al. (2008) highlighted the increased importance of legacy within the event management context, noting that the issue has become central to the decision to host or create an event. While impacts may result from strategic planning, legacy focuses on the benefits brought about by an event. These include potential economic, tourism, social, and/or environmental factors. Therefore, the measurement of legacy must consider all outcomes of hosting an event over time, even if the most difficult part of the evaluation is the timescale over which the legacy occurs.

EVALUATING THE IMPACT THROUGH STAKEHOLDERS’ PERCEPTION For the purpose of this study, different categories of stakeholders directly involved in the event by the organising committee of Taobuk were interviewed, through semi-structured questionnaires (Table 1). The respondents were public and private subjects identified according to the role they played in Taormina, such as the Mayor, hotel and trade associations, hotel managers, publishing companies, local businesses and local institutions connected with the event. The questionnaire proposed specific items for each category of stakeholder, to explore their opinions; and a set of common questions for all stakeholders aimed at assessing their manifest and latent perceptions of the long-term benefits derived from the events. Specifically, the data collected concerned: 5

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

Table 1. Subjects involved in data collection Categories of stakeholders

No.

Accommodation facilities:     5* hotels

3

    4* hotels

11

    3* hotels

1

Local businesses:     Shops

7

    Restaurants

3

    Publishing company

2

Local institutions

10

Total

37

• • • • •

effectiveness of cultural events, such as Taobuk, for enhancing the image of a territory attractiveness of Taobuk as an opportunity for the promotion of tourism as well as local goods involvement in the event and perceptions of the actual and future benefits for the territory economic effects for hotels, tourism facilities and trade strengths and weaknesses of the event and elements to be improved for future organization.

The above dimensions were measured by means of a set of variables based on the literature review cited in section 2. The answers to the questions were expressed either in closed and/or multiple-choice form or by a 10-score scale for the purpose of uniform and balanced measurement of the evaluation of each item. In a first step of the data analysis, it was observed that a few recurrent scores of the continuum scale featured in the answers. They were then classified into three ordered categories: • • •

6

low level, aggregating the scores from 1 to 5 medium level for scores 6 and 7 high level from scores of 8 to 10.

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

The variables in table 2 are those considered, by the literature, as relevant for the evaluation of legacy effect. The distribution shows the levels of perception expressed by different categories of local stakeholders involved in the events, in relation to the items considered in evaluating the different impacts of Taobuk. The different perception of the impacts is affected by the respondents’ evaluations, confirming what has been observed in other studies. Table 2. Distribution of variables selected to evaluate the impact (%) Items

Low level

Medium level

High level

Increased reputation for local businesses

11.1

48.1

40.7

New customers

33.3

45.8

20.8

Increased trade for local businesses

15.6

56.3

28.1

Increased trade for restaurants and food services

12.5

53.1

34.4

Increased place image and tourism activities

5.7

17.1

77.1

Promotion of local goods

12.5

43.8

43.8

Involvement of local institutions

8.8

35.3

55.9

Collaboration among institutions and entrepreneurship

8.8

38.2

52.9

Enhanced media visibility

11.1

77.8

11.1

Promotion of socio-cultural activities

16.7

16.7

66.7

Increased opportunities to enhance the image of the territory

2.9

11.4

85.7

Improved the image of Taormina as tourism destination

2.9

8.6

88.6

The results highlight that the local stakeholders perceive the impacts mainly as medium and high. More than 85% of respondents believe that the contribution offered by the event is high for the enhancement of the image of the territory and the promotion of the destination, with a maximum percentage expressed for position 9 and 10 of the continuum. Specific items for the assessment of event impacts were also the promotion of cultural and social activities (66.7% for high level), new customers (45.8% for medium level), media coverage (77.8% for medium level), and the increase of local business reputation (48.1% for medium and 40.7% for high level). In terms of possible entrepreneurial opportunities offered by the event, it should be noted that the medium is the most selected for the increased trade of both restaurants and food services (53.1%), and local business (56.3%). More specifically, in relation to the scale from 1 to 10, for the increase in the trade of restaurants and food services, the percentage expressed for position 7 clearly prevails (37.5%). This constitutes the 7

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

maximum limit of the medium level, while for the high level the highest percentage is expressed for position 8 (15.6%). In addition, the increase in trade is more perceived as high by the two economic categories of hotels and local businesses. Finally, data seem to confirm the perception that the event may constitute an opportunity for enhancing the relationship among the local stakeholders for the tourism development of the host destination. Hence, the impact is perceived as medium and high for the variables related to collaboration between institutions and entrepreneurship (52.9% for high level), involvement of local institutions (55.9% for high level), promotion of local goods (43.8% both for medium and high level) and tourism increase (77.1% for high level).

BUILDING AN IMPACT INDICATOR BY MULTIVARIATE DATA ANALYSIS With the aim of analysing territorial impacts through a multivariate indicator (Sánchez-González & García-Fernández, 2019), the items of the questionnaire were processed by means of a procedure of multivariate data analysis to account for patterns of variation in the single set of variables ordered through mixed optimal scaling levels. Specifically, attempting to reduce high data dimensionality, the relationships between variables are analysed in a few dimensions as often as possible. This allows us to describe structures or patterns in the relationships, which are too difficult to fathom in their original richness and complexity. Since the categories of selected variables in the present study, after the aggregation of the scores of the original continuum (see section 3), possess ordinal properties with 3 mixed optimal scaling levels, and the relationships among observed variables are not assumed to be linear, Categorical Principal Components Analysis (CATPCA) was used (Greyling & Tregenna, 2017)1, attempting to reduce the dimensionality of variables while accounting for as much of the variation as possible. By means of CATPCA, scale values are assigned to each category of every variable so that these values are optimal with respect to the principal components solution. Objects in the analysis receive component scores based on the quantified data. The solution of a CATPCA maximizes the correlations of the object scores with each of the quantified variables for the number of components (dimensions) specified (Meulman, Van der Kooij, & Heiser, 2004). An important application of CATPCA is to examine preference data, in which respondents rank or rate a number of items with respect to preference. As in a usual preference data configuration, in the dataset of the present study, the rows are the units, the columns are measurements for the items, and the scores across rows are preference scores (on a 0 to 3 scale), making the data row-conditional. 8

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

The following outcomes of the data analysis have been reached after many repeated attempts to find the best factorial solution. Reducing the multidimensionality of the original observed variables in a synthetic factor, the set of variables best related to the concept of impact was obtained. A first relevant result is the very high value of Cronbach’s Alpha2 (α=0.941) measuring the reliability or strength of internal consistency, of the set of scale items referred to the concept of territorial impact. In addition the eigenvalue, used to count how many dimensions are needed, is larger than 1 (7.290). Since all variables are ordinal, then, this value is extremely noteworthy. Figure 1. Explained variance 1-dimension solution

As shown in figure 1, the proportion of explained variance measures the contributions of the single items to the extraction of the latent factor evaluating

9

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

the benefits in terms of legacy perceived by the local stakeholders involved in the Taobuk event. The best regard opportunities for the enhancement of the image of territory (1.136% of total variance) and for the improvement of Taormina’s image as a tourism destination (1.090%), benefits for media visibility (1.073%), and for increase of place image and tourism activities, than for the other items. In order to describe the extracted factor, the analysis of the position of each item on the 1-component solution is shown in table 3 through the coordinates on the 1-dimension space. Table 3. Position of items on 1-factor solution: coordinates on the space Items

Low level

Medium level

High level

Increased reputation for local businesses

-0.483

0.257

0.257

New customers

-0.082

0.253

0.253

Increased trade for local businesses

-1.735

0.269

0.269

Increased trade for restaurants and food services

-2.133

0.254

0.254

Increased place image and tourism activities

-4.042

-0.056

0.305

Promotion of local goods

-2.451

0.273

0.327

Involvement of local institutions

-2.657

0.041

0.373

Collaboration among institutions and entrepreneurship

-2.414

0.024

0.363

Enhanced media visibility

-6.252

0.204

0.558

Promotion of socio-cultural activities

-0.778

0.361

0.525

Increased opportunities to enhance the image of the territory

-6.252

-0.460

0.264

Improved the image of Taormina as tourism destination

-6.252

-0.048

0.201

The findings presented in table 2 and figure 2 identify a framework of variables that can be considered as attributes associated with legacy, confirming the multifaceted character of this concept which includes, as stated in the literature, economic, tourism, and social outcomes. The evaluation that local stakeholders involved in the organization of Taobuk expressed for the medium and high levels reveals their positive perceptions of the benefits derived for Taormina in hosting the event and the consistency of the variables in identifying legacy effects. Differences in the perception of legacy benefits can be affected by the various categories of local stakeholders, which were involved in the event in different ways, according to their role.

10

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

Despite the differences in the evaluations, it seems that respondents perceived as higher the benefits derived for media coverage and promotion of socio-cultural activities. In this regard, it should be noted that Taobuk is an international literary festival involving, every year, authoritative international writers, thinkers and artists. At the same time, there is a relationship between the host place of Taormina and the festival. It has a particular value since Taormina plays the role of providing place identity, and is symbolic for Taobuk on many levels, from the name of the book festival to the scenic views on offer. This has an important implication for tourism and the perception of benefits for the local stakeholders. Hence, the findings suggest that a beneficial relationship may exist between the event and the destination where the event is held, enhancing the role of an event in the development of tourism.

Figure 2. Combined graph of 1-dimension solution

11

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

CONCLUSION Until recently, events have been seen as part of hospitality, tourism, leisure and recreation industries. However, the environment is changing and the events industry is rapidly emerging in its complexity as a sub-set of the tourism industry incorporating many different sectors. This suggests that events make a significant contribution to business and leisure-related tourism, producing a range of positive and negative impacts on the host communities and stakeholders involved (Bowdin, Allen, O´Toole, Harris, & McDonnell, 2006; Getz, 2000). Events have become of interest in tourism due to the potential they offer to generate different types of impacts, among which most analysis has been devoted to economic ones (Hall, 2004; Kasimati, 2003; Richards & Wilson, 2004). However, exploring social impacts may have an even more substantial importance since they are considered as key factors that underpin a rationale for investment in hosting (Fredline, Jago, & Deery, 2003) Currently, each event organiser uses a different methodology and formula to evaluate the outcomes of the event and therefore it is difficult to compare the impacts against others. Although the majority of event stakeholders select economic performance as the leading indicator of event success, additional impact factors should be evaluated in addition to short term economic performance, such as capital, ecological, media, political and stakeholder benefits (Goldblatt, 2000). This study showed that the impacts and outcomes of events have practical value for event management and strategy. Hence, the impacts of events can greatly affect the quality of life of the local community and stakeholders directly involved. In line with this, strategies need to be adopted to identify the territorial, economic and social impacts of events in order to balance them. To achieve this, all foreseeable positive impacts must be developed and maximized, and negative impacts countered. Therefore, it is important for event managers to address the concerns of the local people and consider the perceptions of the local stakeholders to evaluate how events benefit the host places. Events attract media attention around the world, and this could provide an opportunity for local people to develop and share their culture. In this regard, numerous authors agree on the important role of events as a useful way to improve or change the hosting places’ image (Chalip, Green, & Hill, 2003; Gursoy & Kendall, 2006). The spectrum of events ranges from small local festivals to large-scale international mega events. In spite of this heterogeneity in the typology of events, the success of an event depends on coordination activities of the different stakeholders in the host place. Hence, collaborative destination actions involve a number of public and private stakeholders working interactively on a common issue through a process of exchange of ideas and expertise, and pooling of financial and human resources 12

Evaluating the Impact of a Tourist Event on a Destination

(Vernon, Essex, Pinder, & Curry, 2005). Successful cooperation is determined by some crucial factors, such as the perception that benefits will affect all partnership members, the recognition of interdependence, the coordination of skills, and the sharing of a strategic plan (Jamal & Getz, 1995). Therefore, fruitful relationships require a high level of cohesion among diverse stakeholders while collaborations improve tourism strategies and the related actions (Asero & Skonieczny, 2017) This chapter highlights the fact that the event’s success requires support from the local stakeholders. This is in line with literature suggesting that enhanced performance may be achieved when experienced members work together (Littunen & Tohmo, 2003). Consequently, as Crouch and Ritchie (1999) pointed out, competitive advantage depends on tourism actors having a common vision. Therefore, local stakeholders’ perception of benefits is a critical factor for event organizers, because the legacies contribute to the success of hosting events, with effects that continue into the future. However, the most difficult part of the evaluation of legacies is the timescale when the legacies occur. Finally, results suggest that legacy from hosting events can depend on key stakeholders’ roles in the organization as well as in their perceptions of benefits. Therefore, it seems to be confirmed that legacies can increase stakeholders’ participation and enhance community cohesion in the long-term.

REFERENCES Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R., & Mcdonnell, I. (2008). Festival and special event management (4th ed). Milton: John Wiley & Sons. Asero, V., & Skonieczny, S. (2017). Formal Networks among Tourism Enterprises: Peculiarities of the Italian Solution. Eastern European Business and Economics Journal, 3(1), 48–66. Baloglu, S., & McCleary, K. W. (1999). A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4), 868–897. doi:10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00030-4 Bowdin, G., Allen, J., O’Toole, W., Harris, R., & McDonnell, I. (2006). Events management (2nd ed.). Abingdon, New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780080457154 Chalip, L., Green, B., & Hill, B. (2003). Effects of sport event media on destination image and intention to visit. Journal of Sport Management, 17(3), 214–234. doi:10.1123/jsm.17.3.214 Chappelet, J. (2012). Mega sporting event legacies: A multifaceted concept. Papeles de Europa, 25, 76–86. 13

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Crouch, G. I., & Ritchie, J. R. B. (1999). Tourism, competitiveness, and societal prosperity. Journal of Business Research, 44(3), 137–152. doi:10.1016/S01482963(97)00196-3 Delamere, T. A., Wankel, L. M., & Hinch, T. D. (2001). Development of a scale to measure resident attitudes toward the social impacts of community festivals, Part I: Item generation and purification of the measure. Event Management, 7(1), 11–24. doi:10.3727/152599501108751443 Dollinger, M. J. (1990). The evolution of collective strategies in fragmented industries. Academy of Management Review, 15(2), 266–285. doi:10.5465/amr.1990.4308157 Fredline, E., & Faulkner, B. (2000). Host community reactions: A cluster analysis. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(3), 763–784. doi:10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00103-6 Fredline, L., Jago, L., & Deery, M. (2003). The development of a generic scale to measure the social impacts of events. Event Management, 8(1), 23–37. doi:10.3727/152599503108751676 Getz, D. (1997). Event Management and Event Tourism. New York: Cognizant Communications. Getz, D. (2000). Developing a Research Agenda for the Event Management Field. In J. Allen, R. Harris, L. K. Jago, & A. J. Veal (Eds.), Events Beyond 2000: Setting the Agenda (pp. 10–21). Australian Centre for Event Management. Gibson, H. J. (2007). Sport tourism. In J. B. Parks, J. Quarterman, & L. Thibault (Eds.), Contemporary sport management (pp. 141–162). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Gibson, L., Lynch, P. A., & Morrison, A. (2005). The local destination tourism network: Development issues. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 2(2), 87–99. doi:10.1080/14790530500171708 Goldblatt, J. J. (2000). A Future for Event Management: The Analysis of Major Trends Impacting the Emerging Profession. In J. Allen, R. Harris, L. K. Jago, & A. J. Veal (Eds.), Events Beyond 2000: Setting the Agenda (pp. 2–9). Australian Centre for Event Management. Greyling, C. T., & Tregenna, F. (2017). Construction and Analysis of a Composite Quality of Life Index for a Region of South Africa. Social Indicators Research, 131(3), 887–930.

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Gursoy, D., & Kendall, K. (2006). Hosting mega events modelling locals‟ support. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(3), 603–623. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2006.01.005 Hall, C. (2004). The definition and analysis of hallmark tourist events. GeoJournal, 19(3), 263–268. doi:10.1007/BF00454570 Jamal, T., & Jamrozy, U. (2006). Collaborative networks and partnerships for integrated destination management. In D. Buhalis, & C. Costa (Eds.), Tourism management dynamics: Trends, management and tools (pp. 164-172). Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. doi:10.1016/B978-0-7506-6378-6.50028-7 Jamal, T. B., & Getz, D. (1995). Collaboration theory and community tourism planning. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(1), 186–204. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(94)00067-3 Kaplanidou, K., & Karadakis, K. (2010). Understanding the legacies of host Olympic city: The case of the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 19(2), 110–117. Kasimati, E. (2003). Economic aspects of the summer Olympics: A review of related research. International Journal of Tourism Research, 5(6), 433–444. doi:10.1002/ jtr.449 Kim, S., & Petrick, J. F. (2005). Residents’ perception on impacts of the FIFA 2002 World Cup: The case of Seoul as a host city. Tourism Management, 26(1), 25–38. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2003.09.013 Kim, W., Jun, H. M., Walker, M., & Drane, D. (2015). Evaluating the perceived social impacts of hosting large-scale sport tourism events: Scale development and validation. Tourism Management, 48, 21–32. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2014.10.015 Koh, K. Y., & Hatten, T. S. (2002). The tourism entrepreneur. The overlooked player in tourism development studies. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 3(1), 21–48. doi:10.1300/J149v03n01_02 Li, S., & McCabe, S. (2013). Measuring the socio-economic legacies of mega-events: Concepts, propositions and indicators. International Journal of Tourism Research, 15(4), 388–402. doi:10.1002/jtr.1885 Littunen, H., & Tohmo, T. (2003). The high growth in new metal-based manufacturing and business service firms in Finland. Small Business Economics, 21(2), 187–200. doi:10.1023/A:1025014427294 Masterman, G. (2009). Strategic Sports Event Management: Olympic Edition (2nd ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

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McCool, S. F., & Lime, D. W. (2001). Tourism carrying capacity: Tempting fantasy or useful reality? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 9(5), 372–388. doi:10.1080/09669580108667409 Merinero-Rodríguez, R., & Pulido-Fernández, J. I. (2016). Analysing relationships in tourism: A review. Tourism Management, 54, 122–135. doi:10.1016/j. tourman.2015.10.010 Meulman, J. J., Van der Kooij, A. J., & Heiser, W. J. (2004). Principal components analysis with nonlinear optimal scaling transformations for ordinal and nominal data. In D. Kaplan (Ed.), Handbook of Quantitative Methodology for the Social Sciences (pp. 49–72). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. doi:10.4135/9781412986311.n3 Novelli, M., Schmitz, B., & Spencer, T. (2006). Networks, clusters and innovation in tourism: A UK experience. Tourism Management, 27(6), 1141–1152. doi:10.1016/j. tourman.2005.11.011 Pavlovich, K. (2003). The evolution and transformation of a tourism destination network: The Waitomo Caves, New Zealand. Tourism Management, 24(2), 203–216. doi:10.1016/S0261-5177(02)00056-0 Preuss, H. (2007). The conceptualisation and measurement of mega sport event legacies. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12(3-4), 207–228. doi:10.1080/14775080701736957 Richards, G., de Brito, M., & Wilks, L. (Eds.). (2013). Routledge Advances in Event Research Series Exploring the Social Impacts of Events. Abingdon: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203108123 Richards, G., & Wilson, J. (2004). The impact of cultural events on city image: Rotterdam, cultural capital of Europe 2001. Urban Studies (Edinburgh, Scotland), 41(10), 1931–1951. doi:10.1080/0042098042000256323 Sánchez-González, C., & García-Fernández, R. M. (2019). A Multivariate Indicator to Compute Middle Class Population. Social Indicators Research. doi:10.100711205019-02144-6 Taksa, M., Chalipb, L., & Greenb, B. C. (2015). Impacts and strategic outcomes from non-mega sport events for local communities. European Sport Management Quarterly, 15(1), 1–6. doi:10.1080/16184742.2014.995116 Thomson, A., Schlenker, K., & Schulenkorf, N. (2013). Conceptualizing sport event legacy. Event Management, 17(2), 111–122. doi:10.3727/15259951 3X13668224082260

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UNWTO. (2019). World Tourism Barometer, 17(1) - Excerpt. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. Vernon, J., Essex, S., Pinder, D., & Curry, K. (2005). Collaborative policymaking: Local sustainable projects. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(2), 325–345. doi:10.1016/j. annals.2004.06.005

ENDNOTES 1



2



If all variables are declared multiple nominal, CPCA produces an analysis equivalent to a multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) run on the same variables. Thus, CPCA can be seen as a type of MCA in which some of the variables are declared ordinal or numerical (Meulman et al., 2004). Cronbach’s Alpha is computed correlating the score for each scale item with the total score for each observation (usually individual survey respondents or test takers) and then comparing that one to the variance for all individual item scores. This measure ranges from 0 to 1: the higher the Alpha coefficient, the more the items have shared covariance and probably measure the same underlying concept.

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Chapter 2

Pricing Within the Sharing Economy: The Case of Uber

Unathi Sonwabile Henama https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1111-0729 Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa Pfarelo Manavhela Department of Tourism Management,Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa

ABSTRACT South Africa has a poor public transport system, which is dominated by the minibus taxis that transport more than 60% of the population, characterised by abysmal service and bad driving. The emergence of Uber in South Africa has created a new transport avenue for South Africans. Uber became a hit amongst locals and tourists, overtaking the metered taxis as direct competition. The night time economy has been one of the major beneficiaries, as Uber provided a 24 hour transport system. The entry of Uber has been associated with disruptive technology, which has disrupted the metered taxi industry specifically and the transport industry generally. The emergence of Uber has brought about a new pricing strategy called surge pricing, which has not been captured by the academic gaze in a Southern African context. The chapter seeks to add to the body of knowledge on Uber and surge pricing.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch002 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Pricing Within the Sharing Economy

INTRODUCTION “Technology plays a crucial role in tourism and has enhanced the way of doing business in the industry. Tourism is defined as the movement of people, a sector of the economy and lastly a broad system of interacting relationships of people. Technology has changed how people communicate and the way of conducting business globally” Sifolo and Henama (2013, p. 1). The impact of technology has been more profound in the tourism industry. The cost of doing business has been reduced, lowering barriers of entry and increasing the competition for customers. Technology has led to disintermediation especially for travel agencies, which were the traditional distribution networks in the tourism industry. Technology provided an avenue for airlines to sell their tickets directly to the customers, and this led to the proliferation of low-cost carriers. “The changes brought by the Internet revolution had altered the distribution of tourism products forever. Airline carriers have been steadily decreasing the amount of commission paid to travel agencies as payment for selling their tickets and this has threatened the existence of travel agencies” Henama (2013, p. 62). According to Henama (2014) the emergence of low-cost carriers (LCCs) has been able to open up new airline markets, use cheaper secondary airports that offer lower costs that are transferred to lower fares for customers. “Business benefit from the tourism industry. There are three different types of commerce namely: business to consumer (B2C); business to business (B2B) and consumer to consumer (C2C)” Sifolo, Maimela, and Tladi (2014, p. 58). The major structural problem facing South Africa is the high rate of unemployment. “The high rate of unemployment should have ignited entrepreneurship in South Africa; however, this has not been the case. Policy makers often view entrepreneurship as a panacea for inclusive growth” Henama (2018, p. 2). Uber has emerged as a form of disruptive entrepreneurship, which has been able to create thousands of jobs. The entry of Uber has not been without challenges, as the metered taxi drivers have launched attacks against Uber drivers. The extent of crime against Uber drivers has captured national news, and the police has increased policing around Uber frequented areas. The emergence of Uber and e-hailing operators has become a form of direct competition to the metered taxis in South Africa who had used premium pricing because of having a monopoly. Uber disrupted that monopoly and become the preferred transport provider. Instead of the metered taxi drivers responding to the competition by means of adapting their business processes, violence was metered out to the Uber partner drivers and their customers. Uber is a transport system that is instititionalised amongst the independent tourists that arrive in South Africa. As a result, acts of crime associated with Uber, are regarded as an attack on the tourism industry. The tourism industry in South Africa is regarded as the new gold, as it has 19

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shown sustained economic growth, just like gold mining had done in the 60s and 70s. The public transportation system in South Africa is dominated by the minibus taxi industry. According to Van Zyl and Labuschagne (2008) the minibus taxi industry carries currently 65% of all public transport passengers. The taxi industry is divided into the minibus taxi industry on the one hand, and the metered taxi industry on the other hand. The taxi industry operates without the subsidies that are granted to other sectors such as rail and bus.

Methodology The literature review is a review of literature or a synthesis, which is a metaanalysis. A literature review is associated with information gathering, and critical analysis. Johnston (2014) noted that secondary data analysis is analysis of data that was collected by someone else for another primary purpose. According to Van Wee and Banister (2015) literature reviews are very helpful as the reader gets an up to date and well-structured overview of the literature in a specific area and the review adds value. “Conducting a literature review is a means of demonstrating an author’s knowledge about a particular field of study, including vocabulary, theories, key variables and phenomena, and its methods and history” Randolph (2009, p. 2). The literature review will add to the paucity of academic gaze on the surge pricing associated with Uber.

The Impact of Technology on the Tourism Industry “Tourism destinations attract tourism business because of the positive economic impacts such as labour intensive jobs, tourism acting as a catalyst for other industries, the attraction of foreign exchange, and foreign direct investment that comes with tourism.” Henama, Acha-Anyi, and Sifolo (2016, p. 1). “We live in a fast-changing world where the Internet and new technologies are able to disrupt the traditional business models and fundamentally change an industry” De Waal (2015, p. 1). Technology has allowed businesses to run businesses more efficiently, compete globally across national borders, provide clients with better services, and technology has provided an additional distribution system for companies. This has also meant the lowering of the barriers of entry and the increase the competition for consumers. Technology has given customers more power, and the deep penetration of mobile phones, especially the smartphones has changed how companies interact with customers. The smartphone with its functionality, has become a business tool. This has led to the explosion of social media. “The 21st century is witnessing an exposition of Internet-based messages transmitted through these media. They have become a major factor in influencing 20

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various aspects of consumer behaviour including awareness, information acquisition, opinions, attitudes, purchase behaviour and post-purchase communication and evaluation” Mangold & Faulds (2009, p. 358). “Technology is being introduced into our lives by changing our habits, our ways of relating to and modifying our commercial and leisure behaviours” Coy (2013, p. 76). “Tourists enjoy the advantages of “self-services”: comfort, the possibility to compare prices, make a reservation and receive conformation” Agheorghiesei and Ineson (2010, p. 45). Mobile devices are a reality in the relationships between consumers and companies according to Coy (2013). According to Forno and Garibaldi (2015) the rapid expansion of information technology, nowadays tourists can also find what they want and choose between different options without the intermediation of conventional operators.

Sharing Economy Also known as the collaborative consumption or peer-to-peer (P2P), the sharing economy challenges traditional notions of private ownership and is instead based on the shared production or consumption of good and services according to Penn and Wihbey (2017). Sharing economy or access economy is about using digital platforms to allow customers to have access to, rather than ownership of, tangible and intangible assets. The shared economy economises on scarce resources and often involves deeper social interactions than traditional market transactions. The sharing economy has the potential for global revenues of USD 335bn by 2025. The growing number of connected digital devices makes matching supply and demand easier than ever before and peer-review systems on these digital platforms are the means of regulating quality. Many African countries already have large informal economies where collaborative, peer-to-peer businesses thrive. African Business Magazine explains that Africans have often had a second job, or rented out a spare room, or shared their cars, making bargains here and there. What is new in the “shared economy” is that companies like Uber and Airbnb have formalised the sector. Sharing economy increased access to tools and other useful physical resources, and creation of secondary economies (e.g. Uber drivers delivering food or goods). Sharing economy promote online staffing which includes digital platforms for connecting clients and jobs. Many freelancers use these platforms full-time and sharing economy also encompasses the rental of offices, board rooms and hot desks including co-working spaces. Car sharing is part of a larger trend of shared mobility in South Africa, and this shared mobility includes all modes of travel that offer short-term access to transportation on an on-needed basis either for personal transportation or goods delivery. Millions of people all over the world shifted their loyalty from traditional companies to the global businesses that made the concept 21

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of the Sharing Economy more popular, such as Fon, Uber, and AirBnB. And even more fundamentally, these companies and many other new thinkers like them started to re-lay the basic building blocks of commerce according to a new standard. Social media has allowed the growth of collaborative consumption located in the sharing economy. “The sharing economy has emerged as new socioeconomic system that allows for shared creation, production, distribution and consumption of goods and resources among individuals” Tussyadiah and Pesonen (2016, p. 1022). “Sharing economy marketplaces have flourished particularly with the field of travel and tourism, in which locals supply services to tourists” Ert, Fleischer, and Magen (2016, p. 62). Companies such as Airbnb and Uber are part of the sharing and collaborative economy which experiences an upward trajectory in growth. In the recent past, tourism companies were the exclusive providers of tourism products and services, and online platforms has allowed individuals to provide services. This involves an individual using a resource such as accommodation (Airbnb) and an automobile (Uber) to provide tourism services in the marketplace against established businesses, thereby creating disruption. The disruption is caused by using technology as a platform to match supply and demand, at a lower cost, as the providers of these services already own the resources, which leads to lower costs for operation. The collaborative lifestyles are increasingly a character that is associated with the growth of the millennials, who are all about experiences. Oskam and Boswijk (2016) noted that everyone can become a supplier of all sorts of products and services at a click of a button. Collaborative consumption has been able to induce changes in the travel behaviour of tourists, as it has reduced the cost of travelling. Collaborative consumption firms introduce an offering that creates disruption, giving economic value to the assets owned by individuals, whilst the technology company will provide a platform, which matches supply and demand. Within the tourism industry, Uber has emerged as an example of disruptive technology. With Uber, those need rides connect with registered drivers using a smartphone application. According to Naik (2015) the Uber trip is booked, paid for, and the details of the driver are sent to pick you up, whilst being able to track the car, and the transport service prides itself on providing a world-class customer service. Laurell and Sandstrom (2016) noted that Uber’s entry into the taxi industry can therefore be analysed and understood as a new technological solution, competing with an established solutions.

What is Uber? Technology enabled Uber to create a very simple, clever app that empowers both the user and driver-it changed the taxi industry and there is no going back according to De Waal (2015). “Uber is a service that uses technology to empower any owner of a vehicle to take part in commercial ride-sharing ventures. It has revolutionised the 22

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transport industry in many European and US cities and created jobs, as one simply needs a car and a smartphone to register. Customers can easily order the service via a smartphone app. Therefore, in many places, it has provided cheaper and more reliable transport than the traditional taxis” Hass (2016: 1). “Uber is hitting headlines daily. Whether you love it (as most customers do) or hate it (as most competitors do), you can’t argue with its success. The rideshare company is valued at more than Avis, United Airlines and Fiat combined. Few people regarding the taxi business as one that was ripe for disruption, and yet that is exactly what is happening in hundreds of cities across 50 countries” Wade (2015, p. 1). “In most cities, the taxi industry is highly regulated and utilizes technology developed in the 1940s. Ride sharing services such as Uber and Lyft, which use modern internet-based mobile technology to connect passengers and drives, have begun to compete with traditional taxis” Cramer and Krueger (2016, p. 1). “Taxi industries across the wold have been highly regulated with minimal innovation over the past century. Many American cites operate under a taxi medallion system. A taxi medallion is a permit for a vehicle to be used as a taxi. Cities that operate under this system limit the number of taxi medallions available. The goal of the medallion system is to control the supply of taxis in the market and to maintain an efficient number of taxis” Kelly (2016, p. 2). According to World Economic Forum (2015) the taxi drivers are being asked to adjust in a matter of days, rather than years. The pressure to change is made worse by the change in customer preference to use the on-demand service provided by Uber. Wade (2015) noted that Uber has a winning formula: a clear value proposition, ease of use, high service levels, price transparency, choice and attractive rates. Gabel (2016) noted that Uber is able to provide service at a lower price, in part, because its drivers are subject to less regulations. Uber has reduced the barriers of entry for people in the metered taxi industry. “Uber lowers entry barriers for operators by allowing them to function in a similar manner to taxis, but without the substantial costs of buying or hiring a taxi permit or medallion. This significantly decrease entry barriers to supply. The ease and speed with which the app can be downloaded, coupled with cashless payment systems and high rates of smartphone ownership, reduces transaction costs for the passenger” Harding, Kandlikar, and Gulati (2016, p. 20). “The beauty about Uber is that it places the customer at the centre of the taxi service, which allows the customer to review the experience that they get in the taxi service. This ensures that the Uber taxis consistently arrive on time, give exceptional service and a ‘wow’ service is guaranteed for the customer. When an Uber driver’s performance is below the city’s average that diver has their service terminated. With Uber, the customer is king. The system also allows the driver to rate the conduct of the Uber customers, which means that Uber encourages the customers to display the best possible behaviour. This is based on the understanding 23

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that the customer and the driver are both co-producers of their experience as Uber has been able to achieve synergy between the ensuring that Uber drivers give ‘wow’ service and the Uber customers are the best possible customers” Henama (2016, p. 2). The institutionalisation of exceptional service and built-in safety features have increased the uptake of Uber by South African, allowing for mode switching. There are reported cases where Uber is now used a form of scholar transportation in many urban centres amongst discerning parts of the population in South Africa.

Price as an Element of the Marketing Mix Price is an element of the marketing mix that brings in revenue into the business or organisation. When customers purchase a product for consumption, they pay a price to access the product or service. Price is therefore, the only component of the marketing mix that brings in revenue into the business, whilst the others are costs. This means that price is imperative for business sustainability. “Price is what is given up in an exchange to acquire a product or service. Normally, price is the money exchanged for the product or service” Lamb Jr. (2013, p. 406). Price is vital for profitability, and the long-term sustainability of a company, as profits contribute towards sustainability. According to McCarthy (1964) the marketing mix is a pack of four sets of variables, namely product variable, price variable, promotion variable, and place variable. In simple words marketing mix means a marketing programme that is offered by a firm to its target consumers to earn profits through satisfaction of their wants. Such a marketing programme is a mixture of four ingredients, namely product mix, price mix, place (distribution) mix and promotion mix. The marketing mix are called the P’s. According to Kotler and Zaltman (1971, p. 17) “marketing as the science and art of exploring, creating, and delivering value to satisfy the needs of a target market at a profit. Marketing identifies unfulfilled needs and desires. It defines, measures and quantifies the size of the identified market and the profit potential. It pinpoints which segments the company is capable of serving best and it designs and promotes the appropriate products and services”. “The marketing concept is the ethical code according to which the marketing task is performed. Four principles are contained in the marketing concept. All four principles are equally important and each one invariably influences the applications of the other principles. The marketing concept directs all marketing decisions about products, distribution methods, marketing communication and price determination” Erasmus, Strydom, and Rudansky-Kloppers (2016, p. 408). “Price is the only component of the marketing mix that produces revenue. All of the other components are expenditures” George (2014, p. 303). Customers that are convinced that they will be satisfied by a product, will pay the require price and access the product to satisfy their needs and wants. The act of paying price, is to ensure that the customer, 24

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get to access the product, therefore price payment is about getting access to use or consume a product. According to Erasmus, Strydom, and Rudansky-Kloppers (2016) the price determination process has the following four steps: • • • •

Determination of the cost price: The unit costs to manufacture and market the product are calculated. Determination of the market price: The market price is the price the consumer is prepared to pay or the current market price at which competing products are sold. Determination of the target price: The target price is the price that will realise the target rate of return, taking into consideration the cost structure. Determination of the final price: This price is the price at which the product is a reconciliation of the market price and the target price.

The final price is the case of Uber is influenced by demand, and demand-based pricing strategies will then apply as an entry into surge pricing. According to George (2014) demand-based pricing allows the marketer to charge higher prices when demand is up and lower prices when demand is down, regardless of the costs of producing the offering. The pricing strategy used by Uber has been of interest to researchers, tourism stakeholders, policy makers and customers and this literature review investigates it further.

Surge Pricing by Uber According to Hass (2016) Uber pricing is becoming standardised and increasingly transparent with the introduction of meters. “Uber charges passengers according to a predetermined pricing structure which allows the fare to move between a fixed price floor and ceiling. Prices are set according to an algorithm based on the service levels and the relationship between supply and demand in the local market and is calibrated to reflect price sensitivity. The passenger must agree to the cost of the journey before its commencement. The cost of the trip is known upfront and is consistent and no arbitrary” Harding, Kandlikar, and Gulati (2016, p. 20). Transparent pricing before trip commencement has been one of the hallmarks of Uber pricing, pioneering such transparency in a market that was dominated by metered taxis using their meters. Because demand would not be same throughout the day, there are times of peak demand and times of low demand. The airline industry is known for using yield management, charging various prices for the same airline seat, depending on demand. The airline industry uses yield management to reduce supply, whilst Uber adds supply into the market to meet the demand. There would be a shortage of drivers on weekends and during the evenings, and the surge pricing 25

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ensures that customers are secured of a trip, whilst it drives up supply during these periods of limited supply. According to George (2014) yield management is a form of discriminatory pricing that predicts consumer behaviour and adjusts its pricing strategies accordingly to maximise profits. According to Uber (2017) the fees are calculated as follows: • • • • •

Base fare: the price of pickup Time: from the start to end of a trip Distance: miles or kilometres of route Surge pricing (if applicable) Tolls and other fees (if applicable).

Matching of demand and supply is difficult and Uber was able to mitigate this challenge by charging higher fares during periods of high demand for trips, and lower trip availability, to ensure that more trip availability becomes a reality. This has come at the expense of higher fare prices for customers, and improved trip availability. “During periods of excessive demand or scarce supply, when there are far more rides than drivers, Uber increases its normal fares with multiplier whose value depends on scarcity of available drivers. This so-called surge pricing uses microeconomics to calculate a market price for riders and drivers alike. The goal of surge pricing is to find the “equilibrium price”, at which driver supply matches rider demand and rider’s wait time is minimized. Studies show that surge pricing achieves what it was designed to do: it brings more drivers online, and it allocates available rides to those who value them more” Dholakai (2015, p. 2). Uber seems to use the term dynamic pricing as a synonym for surge pricing. According to Uber (2017) Uber’s fares are dynamically prices, which means that the fare is a rider sees is based on variables subject to change over time, these variables include (but are not limited to) the estimated time and distance of the predicted route, estimated traffic and the number of riders and drivers using Uber at a given moment. According to Dholakai (2015), Uber can take four actions to solve problems associated with surge pricing: •



26

Cap the surge multiplier at a reasonable number and communicate the cap clearly. The surge multiplier at the heart of Uber’s pricing is a black box. No one (outside of Uber) knows how it is calculated or how high it can go. Riders have expressed outrage at having to pay inflated prices when the multiplier starts rising beyond 5x. Reduce the volatility of price fluctuations. Uber rides have vociferously complained that surge prices fluctuate wildly from one moment to the next. Delaying a ride by only five minutes could result in paying either twice as

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much or a fraction of the amount. Fewer and more predictable price changes, such as higher prices during rush hour or on weekend nights and normal prices in late morning and early afternoons, will make the experience more predictable and comforting for riders. Market the beneficial consequences of surge pricing to riders. Many riders only see the high prices they are paying, failing to account for the significant benefits received in exchange. To deal with customers’ price-focused decision calculus, savvy marketers clearly explain the benefits customers are getting for the price they pay. Rebrand the surge pricing concept. The phrase “surge pricing” is descriptive and accurate, but it originates from economic thinking rather than a marketer’s imagination. A potential solution here is to move away from this name. Surge pricing needs to be replaced with a term that describes the method’s benefits to riders rather than the velocity with which prices increase. Labels such as convenient pricing (after all, it reduces wait time), certainty pricing (it provides certainty about getting the service and what the rider will pay, or even priority pricing (it gives priority to rides who really need the service) are all more accurate and customer-focused names for this pricing method.

According to Mokgothu (2017) in case you are worried about being overpriced, here are a few measures you can take: • • • •

Screenshot the route the app shows you where you agree to upfront pricing, and then screenshot the final route they send you once the trip has concluded: the route you actually took. If the route taken was different, you might be able to negotiate a fare adjustment through Uber’s refund policy, which has an option for inefficient routes. Also remember that you can suggest a route you prefer to the driver. You can then complain directly to Uber. Whether you’ll be refunded is another question, but you’d join the ranks of those pushing for fairer policies. Remember that you can also compare prices on other transport services such as Taxify then choose the one that is most suitable for you.

CONCLUSIONS According to Henama (2017) the emergence of Uber has practically challenged regulators, as the market disruptor has actually developed far before legislative processes to respond to change brought about by Uber. The emergence of Uber as taxi drivers, has revolutionarised the transport experience of thousands of South 27

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Africa. The structural challenges that impact on South Africa include an inefficient public transport system, which is not well integrated, which is notorious for abysmal service and low levels of personal safety and security. “Taxi industry across the world have been affected by a new trend in transportation; ridesharing services. It is suggested that this effect has been demonstrated through falling medallion prices. This recent decline in taxi medallion prices has been coined the term, The Uber Effect” Kelly (2016, p. 1). “One fundamental reason that Uber can provide service at a lower rate is because the price of medallion ride has been regulated to exceed the economic cost of production. Cities set supra-competitive prices in order to increase the revenue from the sale of medallions, If barriers to entry are low, or non-existent, the price of service should drop to the economic cost of production” Gabel (2016, p. 529). As noted by Wallsten (2015), the so called “sharing economy” has turned traditionally underused assets into competitors to established industries. It is therefore an opportunity to give underused an economic value, and an appropriate platform to introduce millions of people to entrepreneurship. “Thanks also to the rapid expansion of information technology, nowadays tourists can also find what they want and choose between different options without the intermediation of conventional operators. References to the empowered tourists, a traveller capable of searching independently to meet his/her own specific needs or expectations, have become even more frequent in the literature” Forno & Garibaldi (2015, p. 203). According to Paronda, Regidor & Gaabucayan-Napalang (2017) in research associated with Uber in Manila, the poor public transport systems had led a plethora of women opt to ride Uber. “In terms of work, Uber creates more jobs than it destroys This leads to a clear increase in efficiency and provides overall income gains. Even if losers were fully compensated, the sum of the gains-shared by the firm, its mostly part-time workers and its customers-would far outweigh the losses” World Economic Forum (2015, p. 2). “In the new world of taxi competition, consumers can switch providers at low cost. As a result, traditional taxis may face a new incentive to compete. Competing on price in the short run is difficult, prices are typically regulated and change infrequently. They might also compete on quality-making sure their cars are clean and features like credit card readers, running the air conditioner in the summer, not talking on the cell phones, and so on” Wallsten (2015, p. 6). “Uber has improved intra-city mobility by providing a cheaper transportation option which has been supported by customers. The Night Time Economy, which is entertainment and food-and-beverage led, has been a net beneficiary, as people can enjoy themselves with the knowledge that there is Uber to take them home if they do not wish to drive themselves or if they are inebriated, The Night Time Economy has responded by increasing the number of job opportunities available in a country that has an unemployment rate around 27%. Uber has been able to create more jobs 28

Pricing Within the Sharing Economy

than it has destroyed” Henama and Sifolo (2017, p. 8). Uber is disproportionally consumed by tourists. “An attack on Uber is an attack on tourism growth in South Africa, and an attack on tourism is an attack on the economy, that is the gaze hat we as South African must have. The majority of independent tourists that visit South Africa use Uber which is now a global brand and accepted as an essential service if you seek to promote tourism at a destination” Henama (2016, p. 1). Uber has improved tourist mobility and has become popular amongst independent travellers who are increasingly millennials, who are changing the face of tourism consumption.

REFERENCES Agheorghiesei, D. T., & Ineson, E. (2010). The impact of online booking systems on customer loyalty in Romania. Journal of Tourism, 11, 45–54. BusinessTech. (2017). Uber cars must be clearly marked-SA transport minister. Retrieved from https://businesstech.co.za/news/monitoring/ Coy, D. R. (2013). How technology and mobile devices are changing the way we shop. Obra Digital, 4(1), 75–95. Cramer, J., & Krueger, A. B. (2016). Disruptive change in the taxi industry: The case of Uber. NBER. De Waal, P. (2015). Technology is reshaping the travel industry. Tourism Update. Retrieved from http://www.tourismupdate.co.za/article/ Dholakai, U. M. (2015). Everyone hates Uber’s surge pricing-here’s how to fix it. Harvard Business Review, 21(December). Retrieved from https://hbr.org Elliott, R., & Boshoff, C. (2005). The utilisation of the Internet to market small tourism businesses. South African Journal of Business Management, 36(4), 91–103. doi:10.4102ajbm.v36i4.646 Erasmus, B., Strydom, J., & Rudansky-Kloppers, S. (2016). Introduction to Business Management (10th ed.). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Ert, E., Fleischer, A., & Magen, N. (2016). Trust and reputation in the sharing economy. The role of personal photos in Airbnb. Tourism Management, 55, 62–73. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2016.01.013 Forno, F., & Garibaldi, R. (2015). Sharing economy in travel and tourism: The case of home-swapping in Italy. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 16(2), 202–220. doi:10.1080/1528008X.2015.1013409 29

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Gabel, D. (2016). Uber and the Persistence of Market Power. Journal of Economic Issues, 50(2), 527–534. doi:10.1080/00213624.2016.1179060 George, R. (2014). Marketing tourism in South Africa (5th ed.). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Harding, S., Kandlikar, M., & Gulati, S. (2016). Taxi apps, regulation, and the market for taxi journeys. Transportation Research Part A, Policy and Practice, 88, 15–15. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2016.03.009 Hass, A. (2016). Uber is arriving now: Driving urban mobility in Africa. Retrieved from https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ Henama, U. S. (2013). A dream deferred? SANTACO Airways, a low cost carrier that never launched in South Africa. International Journal of Business. Economic and Law, 2(2), 60–67. Henama, U. S. (2014). The demise of 1Time Airline and the reasons of various interest groups. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 3(2), 1–11. Henama, U. S. (2016). Attacking Uber is like attacking the SA economy. FIN 24. Retrieved from https://www.fin24.com/Tech/Opinion Henama, U. S. (2018). Disruptive entrepreneurship using Airbnb: The South African Experience. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 7(1), 1–16. Henama, U. S., Acha-Anyi, P. N., & Sifolo, P. P. S. (2016). The low cost carrier bandwagon: Lessons for Skywise Airline. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 5(2), 1–23. Henama, U. S., & Sifolo, P. P. S. (2017). Uber: The South Africa Experience. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 6(2), 1–10. Inrix Research. (2016). Europe’s traffic hotspots: Making the impact of congestion in Europe. Retrieved from http:www.inrix.com Johnston, M. P. (2014). Secondary data analysis: A method of which time has come. Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Libraries, 3, 619–626. Kelly, R.W. (2016). The Uber Effect. 2016 Undergraduate Awards. Kingma, R. (2004). Public transport: A new planning paradigm is required to succeed. In Proceedings of the 23rd Southern African Transport Conference. Academic Press. Kotler, P., & Armstrong, G. (2008). Principles of Marketing (12th ed.). Prentice Hall.

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Lamb, C. W. Jr, Hair, J. F. Jr, McDaniel, C., Boshoff, C., Terblanche, N., Elliott, R., & Klopper, H. B. (2013). Marketing (4th ed.). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Laurell, C., & Sandstrom, C. (2016). Analysing Uber in social media-disruptive technology or institutional disruption? International Journal of Innovation Management, 20(5), 1–19. doi:10.1142/S1363919616400132 Mangold, W. G., & Faulds, D. J. (2009). Social medial: The new hybrid element of the promotion mix. Business Horizons, 52(4), 357–365. doi:10.1016/j. bushor.2009.03.002 Mokgothu, B. (2017). Tips on how not be ‘overcharged’ by Uber. Travellers 24. Retrieved from http://travellers24.news24.com/TravelPlanning/ Naik, S. (2015). We compare: Uber vs metered taxi. IOL. Retrieved from https:// www.iol.co.za/motoring/industry-news/ Oskam, J., & Boswijk, A. (2016). Airbnb: The future of networked hospitality businesses. Journal of Tourism Futures, 2(1), 22–42. doi:10.1108/JTF-11-2015-0048 Paronda, A. G. A., Regidor, J. R. F., & Gaabucayan-Napalang, S. (2017). An exploratory study on Uber, GrabCar and Conventional Taxis in Metro Manila. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publications/318959598 Penn, J., & Wihbey, J. (2017). Uber, Airbnb and consequences of the sharing economy: Research roundup. Journalist Resources. Retrieved from https://journalistresources. org/studies/economics/business/ Randolph, J. J. (2009). A guide to writing the dissertation literature review. Practical Assessment Research & Evaluation, 14(13), 1-16. Sifolo, P. P. S., & Henama, U. S. (2013). Technology use by Tshwane residents for tourism purposes: The case of patrons at the South African National Park, Muckleneuk Office. Tourism & Hospitality, 2(3), 1–6. Sifolo, P. P. S., Maimela, M. J., & Tladi, M. P. (2014). Exploitation of technology by Tshwane residents for tourism development purposes. International Journal of Social. Human Science and Technology, 8(2), 57–60. Tussyadiah, I. P., & Pesonen, J. (2016). Impacts of peer-to-peer accommodation use on travel patterns. Journal of Travel Research, 55(8), 1022–1040. doi:10.1177/0047287515608505 Uber. (2017). What is Dynamic Pricing? Retrieved from https://help.uber.com

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Van Wee, G. P., & Banister, D. (2015). How to write a literature review paper? Transport Reviews: A Transnational. Transdisciplinary Journal, 36(2), 1–13. Van Wee, G. P., & Banister, D. (2015). How to write a literature review paper? Transport Reviews: A Transnational. Transdisciplinary Journal, 26(2), 1–13. Van Zyl, G. (2015). Uber, WesBank in R200m car rental deal. FIN 24. Retrieved from https://www.fin24.com/Tech/News/ Van Zyl, J. E., & Labuschagne, J. J. (2008). Attractive methods for tracking minibus taxis for public transport regulation purposes. In Proceedings of the 27th Southern African Transport Conference. Academic Press. Wade, M. (2015). How to avoid being ‘Uberized’. International Institute for Management Development. Lausanne: IMD. Wallsten, S. (2015). The competitive effects of the sharing economy: How is Uber changing taxis? Technology Policy Institute. Retrieved from http://www. techpolicyinstitute.org World Economic Forum. (2015). The regulatory challenges of disruptive companies. Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org

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Chapter 3

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry: An Assessment

Nadeem Ahmed Bashir https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5741-6291 King Saud University, Saudi Arabia Premkumar Balaraman Department of Management, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology, India Aroop Mukherjee https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2991-8686 Department of Aviation and Management, Prince Sultan University, Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is currently facing economic and sectoral promotion challenges. A number of market-supporting aspects of government support, the tourism industry, transport and accommodation access, connectivity infrastructure, and financial services have been monitored to ensure progress in transparency. The aim of this chapter is to assess and gain insight into the strategic importance of the tourism ecosystem, infrastructure, and allied services for the sustainability of the business. The chapter also seeks to identify potential areas of the Saudi Arabian tourism industry and benchmarks for world-class tourist destinations and to identify the scope for improvement in the various areas of strategic business enablers. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch003 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

INTRODUCTION Due to the dwindling oil supplies in the West Asian countries, the respective governments have focused on alternate modes of economic sustainability and income generation especially the United Arab Emirates, which is the forerunner in this trend, followed by other peers’ countries like Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Bahrain. The main considerations that guide the potential for tourism is attributable to Saudi Arabia’s strategic area in the Middle East, Religious, chronicled and social enrichment and the Government’s arrangements to put resources into advancing the countries emerging destinations and places of interest to tourists is viewed as a changing pattern from religious tourism (Dudley, 2013). The sudden increase in the number of tourists can be attributed to the growing popularity due to short breaks of three nights or less. The potential for the growth of tourism industry in Saudi Arabia is very promising especially in leisure tourism, event/business tourism, medical tourism, and youth tourism in addition to the existing strength of Religious Tourism with some of the significant benefits in the form of employment generation, income potential, and related exchanges. The tourism industry in Saudi Arabia is distinguished as a source for generating government income with the requirement for new marketing and promotion strategies (Sherbini, Aziz, Sidin, & Nerina, 2016). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is currently facing economic challenges and problems in the sectorial promotion (Johnson, 2010). However, emphasize in training and education on tourism will provide the skills needed to address these challenges and ensure success in implementing and maintaining sustainable tourism practices. According to a survey from the World Travel and Tourism Board (2015), the overall contribution of travel work and the tourism sector is 1,077,000 jobs in 2014 (11,1% of total employment, with wider development implications, supply chain, and profit impacts). This will rise by 7.7% to 1,159,500 employees in 2015 (11.6% of total jobs). In 2025, the number of Travel and Tourism workforce projections is 1691,000 (12.8%), and the year to date is 3.8%. From the perspective of these factors, the chapter seeks to explore the business enablers and challenges of Saudi Arabia’s tourism industry from a strategic and benchmarking perspective. Different market supporting facets of government support, tourism infrastructure, transport access and accommodation, connectivity resources, and financial services were checked for clarification on development using primary (quality) data, and secondary data. The chapter also attempts to benchmark the gaps between the Saudi Arabian Tourism industry and some of the World-class Tourist destinations. The chapter discussed is descriptive and qualitative in nature, which addresses the operational enablers of tourism fundamentals and associated infrastructure. However, Saudi Arabia’s tourism capacity offers insights, and related criteria are extracted 34

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

from primary data sources by holding three-member, focused group discussions and face-to-face interviews with tourism experts on open-ended questions (Appendix 1). Six such focus group interviews and 15 face-to-face interviews were performed over a period of six weeks. Appropriate themes have been established by summarizing the interviews and triangulation of different methods, including secondary tourism data, verifying the different facts and gaps of the industry from a business sustainability perspective. The forthcoming section highlights the basics of tourism fundamentals, which are later utilized in-depth in the strategic analysis section of the chapter. Strategic planning and analysis remain one of the most popular management tools (Phillips & Moutinho, 2014), and the chapter utilizes such an approach to assess and understand the key business enablers of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Sector. Further sections of the chapter explore the potential areas of Saudi Arabia’s tourism, benchmarking major tourist destinations, as well as identifying the potential areas of Saudi Arabia’s tourism sector and identify the gaps with some of the world’s top tourist destinations.

Models on Tourism Development Gravity models are commonly used among the various tourism business models to study tourism flows (Massidda, Etzo, & Piras, 2015), although recent advances in econometric models have extended the range of outcomes that can be obtained through gravity analysis (Hall, 2012). In the humanities, the gravity model is used primarily for trade, the so-called Trade Gravity Model. The following is the basic trade gravity model that Bergstrand presented in 1989: Mij = a0 Yia1 Yja2 Dija3 Aija4 Here Mij refers to the quantity of imports from the country i from country j; Yi is the GDP of the importing country, and Yj is the GDP of the exporting country; Dij is the distance between the two countries; Aij refers to other factors that promote or hinder the flow of trade between the two countries. As regards independent variables, some of the major variables of the Gravity model focus on income, tourism price, exchange rate, and population. The basic Gravity model can be specified as follows: TRt = a + b1 Income level of Destination Country + b2 Income level of Source Country + b3 Tourism Price + b4 Exchange Rate + b5 Population + ……+ bn Xn. TRt = inbound tourist receipts/tourist arrivals at time t

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Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Tourism Ecosystem Tourism Ecosystem is a wholesome view of the various factors that aid the tourism potential right from Government Policy, Infrastructure, Business Environment, Cultural, and other basic factors. Starting from 2007, the World Economic Forum (WEF) produced the tourism and travel competitiveness index (TTCI). TTCI measures the factors and policies that enable travel and tourism sector development in many different countries (WEF, 2013). The structure of travel and tourism competitiveness index was revised in 2015 and is shown in Figure 1

Figure 1. The T&T Competitiveness Index 2015 Framework Source: WEF (2015)

Competitiveness and Sustainability of Tourist Destinations Cracolici and Nijkamp (2008) used a six-variable system to determine the competitiveness of Southern Italy as a tourist destination: natural and cultural resources, quantity and quality of housing and restaurants, access to the transport system, all available destination activities, tourist security. and behavior of the local resident. Enright and Newton (2005) recognized two types of variables that listed some auxiliary parts of the Competitiveness and Sustainable Development (CDS) model of the Dwyer and Kim tourist destinations (2003) shown in Fig. 2. These structural

36

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Figure 2. The model of Competitiveness and Sustainable Development (CSD) of Tourist Destinations Source: Dwyer and Kim (2003)

parts are linked to the concerned factors of the tourist destination and the factors related to prosperity (or well-being). The competitiveness of tourist destinations generally depends on specific factors (related to the tourism market) and general factors (compared to the business environment), according to Enright and Newton (2005) in Table 1. Table 1. The Features of Competitiveness of Tourist Destinations S. No.

Tourism market related/ specific factors

Business environment-related/ general factors

1

Architecture

Costs of jobs and expertise

2

History

The rate of growth in the retail sector

3

Locals

The degree of technological progress

4

Cultural peculiarities

Local Business Plan

5

Events (festivals, concerts, etc.)

Stability in politics

6

Museums and galleries

Position on anti-corruption

7

Concert halls and theatres

Grade of the education system

8

City nightlife

A strong currency and stable markets

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Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Major Tourist Heritage Sites and Events in Saudi Arabia Although often considered marginal, pilgrimage tourism is one of the most common forms of tourism (Štefko, Kiráľová, & Mudrík, 2015), and Saudi Arabia is no exception to the list. Saudi Arabia’s lifestyle is characterized by its Islamic heritage, its proper role as an ancient exchange center, and it is Bedouin conventions. Saudi Arabia has a very distinct cultural and religious heritage with more emphasis on Haj pilgrimage-based tourism to the holy destinations of Makkah and Al Madina. Moreover, its cultural and historical heritage sites & events are no exception from the tourism circuit and discussed in detail in forthcoming sections table 2. According to SACM (2016), the yearly Jenadriyah Heritage and Cultural Festival held from the 12th to 26th February is sorted out by the National Guard under the charge of the Crown Prince, additionally assumes an essential part in saving Saudi national legacy. The celebration starts with a customary camel race and is planned to grasp all parts of Saudi Arabian conventions and culture. Riyadh Festival for Shopping and Leisure is held each year in the time of July. Guests can shop a wide range of things appropriate from pieces of clothing, frill, and electronic products. The Saudi Food Festival is among the most famous among the Riyadh celebrations and occasions, and it is the longest settled nourishment display in Saudi Arabia. It is a two-year opportunity and has a great opportunity to bring food generation organizations to show off their new objects, innovations, and the equipment they use. Saturday 21 June 2014, His Royal Highness Prince Sultan receptacle Abdul Aziz, president of the SCTA, declared the consideration of “Verifiable Jeddah” “in the UNESCO World Heritage List.” The historic Jeddah Festival plans to advance the Kingdom as the House of Arabic and Islamic culture and writing, history, and preservation of heritage and social fortunes (Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage, 2014b). The Festival was suspended on an annual basis in the center of Rabi Al Awwal due to coinciding with the mid-year school holidays. The various focus group discussion conducted with tourism industry experts and stakeholders concur with most of the tourist sites and events mentioned. Besides, there is an emergence of new secondary tourist spots focused on leisure and entertainment, suiting the domestic travelers of Saudi Arabia.

Changing Trends in Saudi Arabian Tourism Destinations With strong government support and focus to promote Saudi Arabian Tourism, there are numerous emerging destinations around the major cities and even in remote locations. The current section summarizes from secondary data some of these emerging destinations (Table 3) and reflects the changing trends in Saudi Arabia 38

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Table 2. Major Heritage Sites in Saudi Arabia S. No.

Heritage Site

Significance

1

Dir’iyah

Hijri (18th century), Imam Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab, born in the Al-Saud family, came to Dir’aiyah in the mid-12th century when he found him in the person of Imam Mohammed Ibn Saud, an excellent professional synergist to reform the call and recovery if the Sunnah (lifestyle of the Prophet Muhammad). The most exciting part of the old Dir’aiyah is the district of Turaif, which is preserved in a remarkable way. It was the home of the Saudi ruling family.

2

Masmak Palace (the old quarter of the Riyadh City Centre)

At the end of 1319, when the rulers of Saudi Arabia, King Abdul Aziz AlSaud, defied the Turkish government, the castle held a major battle at the turn of the 20th century (1802).

3

Al-Muraba Palace (Riyadh)

The late King Abdulaziz built it following the settlement of the affairs of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia during the unification of the country in 1351 H (1932 G).

4

Shoubra Palace (Taif city)

The palace was built as the first historical palace in the beautiful city of Taif in 1325 H (1907 G), which represents distinctive architectural elements.

5

Saggaf Palace (Mecca)

It is one of the oldest buildings in Mecca, with many decorative architectural elements and Islamic technicians distinguished by its Islamic architecture. This palace is an enormous two-story building with the main entrance as the door to the north façade center.

6

Khuzam Palace (Jeddah)

Khuzam is recognized as a large area of the Al-Nuzlah Alyamaniah Jeddah district. In this sector, the name of the late King Abdulaziz ‘ palace is given to many ancient palaces. The building of the castle started in 1347H (1928 G) and ended in 1351H (1932 G).

7

Nassif House (Jeddah)

Omar Afandi Nassif built this house at the end of the 13th Hejiri (1289 H / 1872 G). It has four floors and is built of stone. It has an external decoration with colored tiles, doors, and windows in a trellis, as well as fresh and decorated elements.

8

Al-Ula

The town of Al-Ula is situated between Al-Madina and Tabuk in the northwestern part of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, formerly known as Al-Ulah (Dydan). Al-Ula was a crossroads between the southern cultures of the Indian and Arab Peninsulas and the Sham (Syria) and Egypt and the northern civilizations of Iraq.

9

Old Eimarah Palace (Al-Ras)

It is located in the middle of the province of Al-RAS and has been under construction for more than 100 years. Mud and adobe are made from Othel palms and stone.

10

Al-A’asda Village

Al-A’asda City is located at a low altitude, on the mountainside with a height of 250x500 meters. It ranges from north to south, and from Mokhwaha Road to Mecca, it can be accessed.

11

Eimarah Palace in Najran

The Najran region’s traditional architecture is characterized by its houses and mud palaces, considered to be the best example of traditional architecture.

12

Eieiraif Fortress

It is Hail’s oldest archeological building. Its strategic location at the top of a hill is represented as the oldest traditional buildings of Hail, making it a major landmark for the city.

13

Souk Al Majlis (Divan Heritage Souk)

His Royal Highness Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin Abdul Aziz conferred on Souk Al Majlis, a former heritage market. One of the components of the historic center of Al Maznab is Souk Al Majlis or Divan Heritage Souk.

14

Kaf in Al-Jouf

Kaff is a castle on the Syrian coast near Yagut Caf, near the Al-Jaballah region. At the time of Firinja, it belonged to an Ibn Omar.

15

Al-Sa’airi Hill

At the top of this hill are the remains of a water pond surrounded by a wall that was repaired at the time of Al-Sha’allan and had a black stone portal. In the village (Al-Eiqaillah) in the north, a small copper statue representing a sheep was found. There are underground passages in Al-Eiqaillah that carry water from unknown sources.

16

Um Al-Ajras Village

It is situated to the west of Al-Eiqaillah, next to the Al-Achra hill. The name Um Al-Jaras was caused by the sound of bells at the top of the mountain. Warnings will ring in case of danger.

17

Al-Hadeetha

It is an ancient city on the east side of a port. Stone walls and underpasses remain.

Source: Saudi Commission for Tourism & National Heritage, 2014a

39

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Table 3. Summary of Saudi Arabian Tourist Destinations S. No

Source

List of Destinations and Significance

1.

http://travellingaround-the-earth. blogspot.com/2011/01/ top-tourist-attractionplaces-in-saudi.htm

Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (located in Madina is considered the second holiest mosque in the world), Jabal al-Lawz (A bird watcher’s paradise), Jamarat Bridge, Jannat al-Baqi (is burial ground includes prophets mother, wife, and grandfather), Quba Mosque - Madina (oldest mosque in the world), Shuwaymus (Rock Carving Site), Tayma (Old Jewish settlement, and mentioned in the Old Testament)

2.

https://www. blueabaya. com/2012/01/tenamazing-places-tovisit-in-saudi.html

Madain Saleh (nature, and rich history), Najran (architecture), Farasan Islands (Beaches, Bird / Gazelle Watching), Al Soudah & The Asir National Park (trekking, camping sites, cable cars, outdoor activities), Wahba Volcanic Crater (700km from Riyadh), Al Lith (275 km south of Jeddah – diving), Taif (roses and rosewater, Mountain Trekking), Riyadh Secret Lake

3.

http://www. wefindyougo.com/ saudi-arabiabestplaces-in-saudi-arabia/

Jubbah and Shuwaymus (Rock Carvings),albatoul-marine (blue water and beautiful panorama),Dumat al Jundal (architecture), King’s Fountain, Jeddah, Al Tayebat International city, Kingdom-TowerJeddah (3280 ft.), Royal Saudi Air Force Museum, Riyadh, Al Masjid Al Nabawi (Medina), Masjid Al Haram, Mecca (largest mosque in the world, also known as Kaaba, Well of Zamzam)

4.

https://stepfeed. com/14-places-tovisit-in-saudi-arabiathat-aren-t-meccajeddah-or-riyadh-6172

Yanbu Lakes, The Yellow Lake in Al-Ahsa, Scitech Technology Center in Al-Khobar, Othaim mall in Dammam, Al Fanateer beach in Al-Jubail, Medina’s media museum in Medina, Dar Al Madinah Museum in Medina, Park Inn in Radisson in Dammam, Astralis Spa in Al-Khobar, Hilton Garden Inn Tabouk, the Desert Designs in Alkhobar, Mount Uhud in Medina

https://www. lonelyplanet.com/ saudi-arabia/topthings-to-do/a/ poi/3611264

Tabuk Castle, Souq in Jeddah, Fakieh Aquarium in Jeddah Aquarium (offers a wide range of fish species, including sharks, turtles and other marine species), Hejaz Train Station (Tabuk), Najd Village (serving Saudi food in a Saudi environment). Jebel Khuraibah, The fortress and three peaks (Al Ula), Al Tayibat City Museum (Jeddah), Yildizlar (Jeddah - Turkish and Lebanese food), Ata bin Ali Restaurant (Riyadh), Globe - One of five restaurants (Riyadh), Ruins in Madain Saleh, Madain Saleh, (Riyadh includes Masmak Fortress, Al Diwan), Al Faisaliah Tower (Riyadh), Kingdom Centre (Riyadh - modern architecture 302m), Museum in Riyadh, Tabuk Zaman Restaurant & Coffee Shop, Riyadh Zoo, Library in Mecca, Birthplace of Mohammed, Grand Mosque, Mecca (Hajj), Jada Mall, Seafood in Jeddah - Green Island, Museum in Mecca - Museum of the Prophet, Jenadriyah National Festival, Naseef House (Jeddah), Fish Market (Jeddah), Reem Al Bawadi (Jeddah - Lebanese Eatery), Souq Okaz Festival (Taif), Spazio 77 (brasserie, coffeehouse, sushi bar, cigar bar), Al Haramain Museum, Souq Market in Jeddah, Abraj Al Beit Towers (Mecca), Beit Al Balad (Jeddah Musuem), Souq Al Jamal (Riyadh Market), Khayyam Al Rabie Est (Jeddah - For dates, nuts and nibbles), Shubra Palace & Mountain in Taif, Al Gadhi Rose Factory (Taif), Seafood in Yanbu, Green Island Café (Jeddah), Sky Bridge (RiuadhView Point), Kholood Restaurant & Café (Mecca), Red Sands - dunes between Riyadh and Mecca, Mirage Indian Restaurant (biryani rice dish), Lebanese House Restaurant (Jubba), Beit Kaki (Taif), Prophet’s Mosque (Tabuk).

5.

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Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Tourism destinations from primarily as heritage and religious destinations towards other potential areas.

Potential Areas of Tourism in Saudi Arabia The geographical position of Saudi Arabia is a key factor for the multiplicity of tourism, and potential options and areas include summer, sport, coastal tourism, and the development of desert resorts and inns, as well as investment options in health care and hospitalization, conferences, exhibitions, ecotourism and shopping tourism, etc. The article by Mirza (2009), reports that Saudi Arabia has apportioned $102 million to the tourism business in its 2009 spending plan and the present tourism drive is equipped towards residential instead of religious tourism and the Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities (SCTA) marked 38 contracts for Red Sea tourism master plan. The forthcoming section identifies the emerging and potential areas of the Saudi Arabian Tourism industry by triangulation of the various facts from primary and secondary data.

Eco-Tourism In addition to the existing religious tourism focus of Saudi Arabia, the emerging area also includes Eco-Tourism. There are a handful of national parks in Saudi Arabia, and the domestic tourists are promising customers for such kind of destinations. In a review that led to the tourism capability of Asir National Park in Saudi Arabia, the outcomes demonstrate that most of the guests originated from neighboring territories. What’s more, the discoveries recommend that there is a large residential tourism showcase, and furthermore, there is a need to advance tourism (Paul & Rimmawi, 1992) concentrated on National Parks profiting the household explorers.

Medical Tourism The administration of Saudi Arabia has given a high need for the improvement of medicinal services benefits at all levels: essential, auxiliary, and tertiary. As an outcome, the strength of the Saudi populace has incredibly enhanced in the late decade (Alkhamis, 2012). Therapeutic tourism could open the entryway for a salary era upset in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia when contrasted with UAE, which profits by its framework like Dubai Health Care City and its goal advancement draws in customers from western, Gulf Cooperation Council, Middle Eastern and North African nations. According to Khan and Alam, (2014), the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has all the essential characteristics for a profitable restorative tourism industry, which includes highly prepared clinics, a segment of private medical services, specialists, 41

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

and remote-trained authorities and a constant, serene condition. Accreditation of numerous Saudi medical centers by the Joint Commission International in the United States demonstrates their responsibility regarding advancing medical tourism. The face-face interviews conducted with tourism industry stakeholders highlight the strong potential for medical tourism in Saudi Arabia, owing to its excellent facilities.

Leisure Tourism In a review by Mumuni and Mansour (2014) in the leisure market outgoing in Saudi Arabia, search engines (young, single, and women) are prone to shopping and relaxation exercises and assortment searchers (moderately aged, single, and female) like all excursion exercises. The Implications for tourism promotion of Saudi Arabia is that it looks encouraging with household client’s needs. Relaxation Tourism is an undiscovered market as per the Saudi Hospitality Sector report (2015), and starting in 2011, 54mn guests went by KSA, home to 245 amusement focuses (enrolled at SCTA), including FECs, open-air parks, water parks, and zoos. Most stops are inside because of hot climate conditions in the nation. The youthful populace of KSA (69% of its tenants less than 35 years old) and higher extra cash has prompted the expanded interest for amusement offerings. Riyadh is home to an extensive number of amusements focuses, with the majority of the focuses being inside, i.e., inside shopping centers. There are around 50 open stops in Riyadh. Besides, Riyadh brags of recorded places, for example, the wonderful nineteenth-century Masmak Castle and what’s more, Al Faisaliyah Center, the primary high rise, and the second tallest working in Saudi Arabia. Jeddah is home to Corniche, and promenades by the Red Sea sprinkled with wellsprings, parks, lakes, and booths. The beachfront area makes it a prominent goal for water games, for example, jumping, surfing, and cruising. Al-Khobar offers an adjust of indoor and outside exercises. Indoor stimulation incorporates numerous innovative shopping centers, eateries, and avenues with different shops worked by global establishments With so much promising potential for leisure tourism, the face-to-face interviews reveal the need for openness in the cultural dimension and lacunae in the promotion of emerging leisure destinations. In the view of leisure tourists, as expressed in an interview, it is found that some of the significant challenges include the prevention of alcoholic beverages, strict dress codes, nudity ban on beaches, etc.

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Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Sports Tourism Saudi Arabia can pull in more sightseers by facilitating universal amusements like F1 race or soccer World Cup. For instance, GCC nations like Bahrain and UAE facilitated an F1 race, while Qatar is likely to host the FIFA World Cup in 2022. Aside from pulling in worldwide sightseers, such occasions post-high incomes and benefit to the financial specialists (Saudi Hospitality Sector report et al.). The FGD’s reveal that this area of Tourism Avenue is yet to be explored in-depth, on pricing competitiveness and promotion perspective.

Heritage Tourism The Saudi Tourism strategy is centered on Religious tourism streamed by the safeguarding of legacy and artifacts. This is reflected in the review done by Bay (2014) in the requirement for legacy conservation, particularly the authentic mudbrick areas that are broadly spread in the nation. The Government of Saudi Arabia emphasizes the importance of protecting and caring for archaeological treasures and national legacies, highlighting and pleasing them. In this sense, various resolutions were issued, including the support of the Custody of the Two Holy Mosques for the exhibition of “Saudi Archaeological Masterpieces through the Ages”; Issue of the Royal Approval with respect to posting and safeguarding Islamic relics in the sacred urban areas Makkah and Al Madina. The FGD’s with business experts indicate the strong need for extending the visit of heritage and religious tourists to nearby destinations, which are competitively priced at par with global destinations. Besides, change is VISA guidelines are indicated for clubbing the Haj Visa with special provisions.

Benchmarking Tourism Infrastructure and Allied Services of Major Tourist Destinations According to the Report on the competitiveness of tourism and travel in 2015 (WEF, 2015), Europe continues to dominate the ranking with six economies in the top 10; Thanks to its infrastructure of world-class tourism services, excellent health conditions and, above all, thanks to the Schengen area, its high degree of

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Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

openness and international integration. Table 4 below summarizes the main areas of improvement, strengths, and weaknesses of the respective continents focused on the most successful tourist destinations in the region. Table 4. Continent wise Rankings of Major Tourist Destinations, Priorities, and Challenges S. No.

Continent / Region

Top 5 Countries / Performers

Strengths, Priorities and Challenges

Europe

Schengen Area

The infrastructure of tourist services, excellent sanitary conditions, the high degree of openness, and international integration.

Americas

Brazil (28th), Mexico (30th), and Panama (34th) followed the United States (4th) and Canada (10th).

Travel, price competitiveness, and infrastructure are the top priorities in North America. The main obstacles in Central and South America are infrastructure, safety, and protection of the environment.

3

Asia-Pacific

Australia (7th), Japan (9th), Singapore (11th), Hong Kong (13th) and New Zealand (16th)

Southeast Asia has seen the most significant growth in international arrivals (due to price competitiveness, rapid middle-class expansion)

4

N. Africa / Middle East

UAE (24th), Qatar (43rd), Bahrain (60th), Saudi Arabia (64th), Morocco (62nd)

Most economies are competitive destinations in terms of price. However, security issues have limited international arrivals.

5

Africa SubSaharan

Seychelles (54th), Mauritius (56th), Namibia (70th) and Kenya (78th)

Many countries are working on their opening and visa policies, although it is necessary to address the long-standing challenges of infrastructure and sanitation standards.

1

2

According to Business Insider (2015), the World’s Best Tourism Destination Countries and ranking high with respect to Tourism Infrastructure are summarized in Table 5. A Bird’s eye view of the data throws rich insights, and it is inferred that some of the major tourist destinations require Airport Infrastructure, followed by Road Infrastructure, Communication, Electricity, and other amenities.

Benchmarking with Australia and UAE Tourism Industry From the Benchmarking Table 6, it is inferred that some of the key Travel and Tourism enablers are Airport Infrastructure, Tourist Service Infrastructure, Business Environment, Safety, Health and Hygiene, and ICT readiness. Saudi Arabia seems to score well on two main aspects of Tourism Especially on Price Competitiveness and 44

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Table 5. Top 10 Tourism Infrastructure Countries S. No.

County

Particulars

1

Hong Kong

1st place in mobile subscriptions and 2nd place in electricity quality

2

Singapore

1st for air transport infrastructure quality and 2nd for port infrastructure quality, 29th for fixed telephone lines, and 14th for mobile telephone subscriptions.

3

Netherlands

Port infrastructure 1st place, road quality 2nd place and. 23rd for air seats available

4

UAE

1st place for road quality, 2nd place for air transport infrastructure quality, and 10th place for electricity.

5

Japan

The Japanese railway infrastructure ranked first in the general classification and ranked fourth in terms of available air seats. The port infrastructure arrived on the 22nd and the air transport infrastructure on the 25th.

Table 6. Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index Comparison Country Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index & Components - (Rank out of 141, Score 1-7)

Australia

UAE

Saudi Arabia

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index

7

4.98

24

4.43

64

3.80

Enabling Environment

22

5.57

16

5.74

41

5.21

Business Environment

28

5.04

4

5.90

23

5.21

Safety and Security

13

6.24

3

6.60

29

5.99

Health and Hygiene

29

6.14

69

5.28

78

5.10

Human Resources and Labour Market

49

4.72

22

5.15

74

4.46

ICT Readiness

17

5.73

16

5.76

28

5.29

T&T Policy and Enabling Conditions

70

4.14

52

4.27

111

3.72

Prioritization of Travel & Tourism

52

4.81

39

4.97

76

4.50

International Openness

31

4.04

85

2.77

138

1.49

Price Competitiveness

138

3.06

45

4.95

11

5.49

Environmental Sustainability

25

4.64

41

4.39

121

3.41

Infrastructure

20

4.98

8

5.48

51

3.96

Air Transport Infrastructure

4

5.80

3

5.91

40

3.79

Ground and Port Infrastructure

57

3.69

20

5.06

60

3.66

Tourist Service Infrastructure

29

5.44

26

5.46

67

4.44

Natural and Cultural Resources

7

5.22

75

2.24

69

2.30

Natural Resources

2

5.31

95

2.51

83

2.68

Cultural Resources and Business Travel

9

5.13

53

1.97

55

1.91

Source: (WEF, 2015)

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Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

to some extent on Safety and security (WEF, 2015(a), (b), (c)). Moreover, amongst the main enablers of Tourism Namely International Openness, Environmental Sustainability, Natural Resources, Health & Hygiene, and Human Resources the rank of Saudi Arabia is very far in the list (138, 121, 83, 78, and 74 respectively) and the gap needs to be filled to gain advantages of its Business-enabling environment and specifically its airport infrastructure. The vision 2020 document of the Australian Tourism Department clearly envisages a strategic plan aimed towards meeting the growing demand for Tourism, especially from Asia, increase accommodation capacity, increase in air transport capacity, improvement of the quality of the industry, and productivity (Tourism Australia, 2011). The role of the Australian Government (Right from the Ministerial level to State) is highly commendable, with focus on the quality of Tourism services (T-QUAL), enabling Enterprise Business Environment, Grants for ICT Infrastructure, Development of Tourism Products (Landscapes, Parks, Cities) for a high-quality experience, etc. From the face-face interviews conducted with tourism experts, it is inferred that the main hurdle as lack of proper vision from the Government and targeted promotion of Tourism suiting International standards. According to Australia’s Tourism and Transport Forum’s (TTF, 2008), Tourism Infrastructure Policy & Priorities document, it provides a blueprint for tourism investment. In Australia, public spending on tourism infrastructure, facilities, and landscapes is very high and is seen as a driver and motivator for private investment and tourism promotion. The Focus group discussions also reveal that such initiative by the Saudi Arabian Government is the need of the hour to capitalize on in its already existing religious legacies, heritage sites, and cultural beauties. In the gaining from the Tourism industry of UAE, it is a reasonable example of overcoming adversity principally determined by the vision of UAE’s Tourism Policy, Events Promotion, Destination Promotion, Business Culture, and Infrastructure. As per the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC, 2015) report, the immediate commitment of UAE’s Travel and Tourism to GDP was AED61.6bn (4.1% of aggregate GDP) in 2014, and is conjecturing to ascend by 4.1% dad, from 2015-2025, to AED 96.9bn (4.5% of aggregate GDP) in 2025. UAE is at present, contributing $58 billion (Dh213 Billion) on streets and scaffolds alone (Emirates day in and day out, 2017). The emirates additionally got the qualification of being the best on the planet in the viability of advertising to pull in travelers. Strikingly the face-face interviews show the absence of natural resources, cultural openness, advertising, and other media activities by Saudi Arabia to seek the awareness of people at the Global level.

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Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Key Business Enablers of Saudi Arabian Tourism Sector From a strategic perspective, it is an ideal case to capitalize on the strengths of an organization (a country in this context) and grab the opportunities in the industry or business environment. The strategic planning and assessment, according to Lisa (2010) is a well-known indicator of the sustainable approach to tourism planning and deemed critical to ensuring that the resources of a destination are maintained and preserved in the future while inevitably reacting to facets of climate, economy, culture, and tourism. Moreover, in line with this approach of strategic perspective, the chapter has addressed the key objectives of assessing the key enablers of the Saudi Arabian Tourism sector, focused on Infrastructure and allied services. The Key Business enablers and their significance are highlighted in order of relevance to the Saudi Arabian tourism sector, based on data collected from secondary and primary sources.

Accommodation Saudi Arabia has reported most of the rooms under construction, with 37,864 rooms in 83 hotels among the countries of the Middle East and Africa. With 26,889 rooms in 97 hotels, the United Arab Emirates are being followed. More than 5,000 rooms under construction were reported by two other countries: Qatar (8,748 rooms in 36 hotels) and Egypt (5,645 rooms in 16 hotels) (Devina Divecha, 2017). At the end of 2015, Hotelier Middle East quizzed industry stalwarts about the trend and developments in the hospitality sector and found that most were looking at Saudi Arabia as a big source market, many predicted drop-in room rates and others pointed to the growing trend of mid-market and family travel. As indicated in the article title 30,000 new hotel rooms for Saudi Arabia in 2017, Saudi Arabia opened a record total of 68 new rooms and a total of 29,033 rooms in 2017. Riyadh, Jeddah, Al Khobar, and Mecca should be the busiest area of the kingdom to improve the neighborhood as indicated by the Saudi Arabia Hotel Construction Overview done by the TOP HOTEL PROJECTS, arranged solely for The Hotel Show Saudi Arabia 2017. This year, Assila Rocco Forte Hotel (first quarter of 2017), TIME Qurayyat Hotel (second quarter of 2017), Nobu Hotel Riyadh (second quarter of 2017), SwissBelhotel are the main new accommodations that will be inaugurated throughout the Kingdom. Al Khobar (Q4 2017) and Abraj d Kudai Towers, which in the fourth quarter of 2017 will become the largest in the world when it opens its 10,000 rooms. The face-face interviews with hoteliers reveal the need for a greater number of budget accommodations in the holy and heritage sites as most of the visitors are from the middle and low-income backgrounds. 47

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Road & Rail Network Transport is one of the fundamentals of tourism, and the right to movement is enshrined in United Nations statutes. Ways in which rail, sea, and air transport operators could work together shall encourage tourists. Balan, Balaure, and Veghes (2009) define the pillars of Tourism infrastructure as consisting of air & ground transportation, tourism services, and ICT. Long-distance transport availability is accessible among significant urban communities. Intercity transports are worked out by Saudi Arabia’s public transport company, which involves 2,000 transports linking the real urban communities of Saudi Arabia: Riyadh, Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, Taif, Dammam, Abha, Gaseem, Tabuk and Hael. There may be prohibitions on traveling to the border of Yemen, where the terrorists are fearful of violence. The Saudi Arabian Railways Organization works traveler prepares along the 449 km course associating Dammam, Abqaiq, Hofuf, and Riyadh. The 4-hour adventure is extremely pleased with the prepare winding its way through abandon hills. You ought to hope to pay around $45 for arrival travel. None of the trains goes to any of the nations that fringe Saudi Arabia. Transports do rush to a few towns and towns directly over the fringe in Bahrain. The main mode for universal travel in Saudi Arabia is by means of the plane. Different methods of transport (street or air) are accessible to finish the journey to Makkah and Madinah. The usually accessible Public transport is transport, given by Saudi Arabia Public Transport Company (SAPTCO). What’s more, the Saudi government arranges (Saudi Hospitality Sector report et al.) to run a fast Haramain prepare line with a limit of seven prepares amongst Makkah and Jeddah; the prepare will finish the adventure in 60 minutes. The Haramain prepare will interface the heavenly urban communities of Makkah and Madinah by means of Jeddah and Rabigh. There will be two prepares amongst Makkah and Madinah, and four prepares amongst Makkah and Rabigh in a day with a limit of 19,600 travelers in 60 minutes.

Air Travel Facilities Saudi Arabia’s global airplane terminals incorporates, Dammam: King Fahd International Airport, Jeddah: King: Abdulaziz International Airport, Riyadh: King Khalid International Airport, Medina: Prince Mohammad Bin Abdulaziz International Airport, Al-Hofuf: Al-Ahsa International Airport, Yanbu: Prince Abdul Mohsin receptacle Abdulaziz International Airport (Public Transport in Saudi Arabia, 2016). Jeddah’s King Abdulaziz International Airport in Saudi Arabia is the busiest airplane terminal served by most significant carriers of the world.

48

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Additionally, Saudi Arabian Airlines is the real national aircraft, traveling to 81 urban areas in Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America. Saudia flies from airplane terminals in Riyadh, Dammam, Medina, Abha, and Jeddah, where it is based. Flynas is a spending carrier that flies to 24 urban communities crosswise over seven nations including Sharm El Sheik, Seychelles, and Dubai. The aircraft runs benefits between the real Saudi urban areas. Some of the Tour operators confirmed the easiness of booking Air Tickets and itineraries due to the strong airport infrastructure and allied services.

Communication Infrastructure and ITEnabled Tourism Services The Saudi government has as of late taken activities to advance the utilization of Information Systems (IS) in the religious tourism industry, urging firms to receive information systems developments like internet business and authorizing the utilization of the Makha’a data framework in Umrah for outer travelers and the Your data framework in Hajj for inner explorers. According to Brdesee, Corbitt and Pittayachawan, (2013), the absence of support from the IT business and access to IT assets and besides the absence of expert IT aptitude are observed to be significant obstructions in the use of IT as empowering agent for Tourism advancement. Other factors as hierarchical culture assumes a noteworthy hindrance in the implementation of Internet-enabled business promotion of the Tourism business. The FGD’s also reveal the absence of skilled personnel in providing IT Services, Organizational issues in the implementation of IT-enabled tourism promotion, language barriers of websites, etc.

Financial Services Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency (SAMA) is the central authority that controls the banks and presents new laws. As indicated by the SAMA site, every single Saudi bank has sites, and every one of them gives e-administrations to their customers (SAMA, 2015). The quantity of POS in Saudi Arabia in the principal half of 2011 was 84,473, a huge ascent from 1,274 in 1993. Moreover, the quantities of ATMs have expanded to 11,300 in a similar period (SAMA Annual Report, 2011). SAMA underpins the web-based business saving money situations, the motivation behind which is to advance the utilization of e-banking by all clients. SAMA helps internet business through three frameworks: The Saudi system for fast money transfers (SARIE), the Saudi Arabian payments network (SPAN), and the Saudi payment system (SADAD). In contrast, without restriction, economic reforms can be adopted in and outside Saudi Arabia to facilitate the free movement of private capital and profits. 49

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

The Saudi Arabian Capital Markets Authority, through exchange funds and trade exchanges, allows foreign investors who do not belong to the GCC to invest in the stock market. There is no limit to the entry or exit of profits, debt service, capital, capital gains, and returns of intellectual property or imported items, except that the money is declared at the point of entry or exit that exceeds 60,000 riyals in any time.

Business Environment and Investment climate According to the U.S. Embassy Report (2015), the investment climate in Saudi Arabia is very promising, but there are initial obstacles for foreign investors to address. Investment opportunities across the economy, especially in the energy, transport, education, life sciences, and information sectors, are being encouraged and supported and financed by the Saudi General Investment Authority (SAGIA). SAGIA manages and updates periodically the list of activities exempted from foreign investment. An independent entity within the Ministry of Trade and Industry, the Industrial Development Fund of Saudi Arabia (SIDF) is a vital source of financing for investors. The law of remote direct speculation in Saudi Arabia grants licenses to non-natives to put resources in all divisions of the economy. Aside from particular exercises contained in a “negative rundown” that as of now bar two modern areas and 13 benefit segments, among them a land interest in Mecca and Medina, some sub-sectors of printing and distribution, the various media administrations, arrive at transport administrations, excluding upstream rail and urban oil transport. The total “negative summary” can be found at www.sagia.gov.sa. Saudi Arabia is a member of the Middle East and North Africa Financial Action Task Force (MENA-FATF). Saudi Arabia is also a member of the International Center for Investment Disputes (ICSID), but there is no need to express disputes regarding investments in this field in terms of their membership. The system requires basic accommodation without specific consent. Foreign companies have identified corruption as a barrier to investment in Saudi Arabia, but the authorities have only taken modest measures to combat it. Taking into account the evaluation of the speculative atmosphere of Saudi Arabia, it was found that Saudi Arabia ranked 49th out of 189 economies in terms of collaborative simplicity, a significant decrease compared to 2012, the year in which it was classified in 22nd place. Transparency International ranked Saudi Arabia in 55th place among the cleanest regions of 175 countries in its “2014 decreasing percentage index” report. The Heritage Foundation awarded the Kingdom a score of 62.1 out of 100 on its “Monetary Freedom Index” in 2015, down 0.1% compared to 2014, ranking 77th out of 178 countries assessed. The emerging Tourism Entrepreneurs in Saudi Arabia expressed concern over the initial lag in starting up a business in Saudi Arabia due to lengthy procedures and the impact of Islamic laws on Trade and investment. In addition, the socio-cultural 50

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

climate is not that as promising as compared to excellent tourism destinations, and KSA is more likely to be a promising place for the event and business tourism in the views expressed during the FGDs and interviews conducted.

Hospitality and Tourism Industry Skills According to Sadi (2005), developing unemployment among Saudi nationals, notwithstanding, has made the administration actualize an arrangement of Saudization, which commands that ostracizes are to be supplanted by neighborhood specialists. The suggestions for the inn and tourism industry are twofold. To start with, migrant specialists have been approached to fill many occupations for which the compensation is too low for nearby occupants or employments that nationals would lean toward not to do. Second, the lodging business has since quite a while ago depended on expatriates for specialized skill, which now should be exchanged to Saudi workers. In many of the face-face interviews with the managers of hotel and hospitality industry service providers, it is indicated that lacunae of a shortage of skilled personnel from the domestic segment will hinder the growth of the industry unless addressed with the right training policies and strategic action.

VISA Regulations The article “Saudi Arabia VISA Regulations” (2016), states that all those attempting to visit the Kingdom must acquire relevant visas from the nearest Saudi Royal Embassy or Consulate. In addition to visa UMRAH or Hajj (a visit to Holy Mecca), the three types of accompanying visas are issued by the embassy or the Royal Saudi Embassy, in the form of work visas, work visas and family visas or residence. Work visas are important for a single section and for a maximum of three months. In some cases, the Saudi embassy or consulates will grant a substantial business visa for two passes, with the utmost caution. Anyone applying for a business square visa must be over the age of 22, and the list of Sentences for Visa Offenses, Iqama Violations, and Penalties in Saudi Arabia, provides actual monetary and non-financial results for the travelers.

Tourism Initiatives According to the report by the Jeddah Chamber of Commerce (2016), the various initiatives of the Saudi Government to promote tourism are very promising and include:

51

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

• • • • • • •

As part of the “Takamul” program, the Saudi Commission on Tourism and Antiquities (SCTA) has trained 31,000 local citizens to provide the necessary skills in the tourism sector. During the Haj pilgrimage, the kingdom employed 17,600 Civil Defense personnel and 3,800 teams to increase security. The government spends $ 13.33 million a year on preserving heritage sites to develop its tourism heritage. An annual event to promote incoming and outgoing tourism in the Arabian Travel Market (ATM). In 2016, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) will present a Schengen-style visa to enter all countries, offering tourists the opportunity to explore other GCC nations as well. “Experience in Saudi Arabia” is a program designed to educate young people in Saudi Arabia about the country’s heritage and culture. The Saudi Travel and Tourism Investment Market (STTIM) is the annual government fair that brings together the tourism industry’s main players.

Strategic PEST Analysis of Saudi Arabia’s Tourism Business Environment To have a nutshell view of the industry position of Saudi Arabia, we adopt a strategic analysis of the various business enablers of the Saudi Arabian Tourism industry. Similar approaches to focusing on the key business enablers of the industry have also been tried out in recent instances of promoting tourism (Lin & Yeh, 2013). The chapter adopts the general political, environmental, socio-cultural, economic, and legal framework (PESTEL) in a modified form to discuss the main challenges and opportunities of the Saudi tourism sector from a strategic perspective. Such PEST analytical approaches enable us to focus strategically on the competitiveness of destinations. Figure 3 gives a bird’s eye view of the PEST analysis of Saudi Arabian Tourism industry, and each of the factors of this analysis are given a score on a scale of 1 (Low) to 5 (High), subjectively from the understanding and analysis of the various sources of primary secondary data of the study. This rating of the business environment factors from a strategic perspective can be further extended in the future for devising destination promotion strategies, strategic choice, and SWOT analysis of Saudi Arabia’s emerging leisure and event locations. A strong rating of 4.5 is given to the Political environment, business enabler, due to the strong commitment of the Saudi Government to promote tourism and especially its emerging leisure destinations in addition to religious sites. In addition, the Saudi government has realized the importance of revenue generation from alternate sources, as the global oil industry looks weak and its dwindling oil supplies. 52

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

Figure 3. PEST Strategic Framework analysis of Saudi Arabia’s Tourism Environment

Similarly, the Business environment enabler also scores strongly with a score of 4.5, with Saudi’s well-established economy fundamentals, the role of its investment agencies, and a central bank that enables technology-based financial services to enable ease of doing business and investments. On the contrary, the Socio-cultural and Technology enablers were (2.5) due to lacunae in skill gaps (IT, hospitality, and Media promotion skills) as well as due to

53

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

low cultural tolerance, International openness and impact, and perception of strict sharia laws in the eyes of International Tourists.

CONCLUSION The discussion on various models of tourism drivers and the prediction of demand gives valuable insight into the dimensions of value and promotion of the tourism industry. Various sources of research, interviews, and focused group discussions have shown that there is still a long way to go in supporting tourism in Saudi Arabia. The status quo of the Saudi Arabian tourism sector enablers and infrastructure, specifically on access to and accommodation for transport, communication facilities, financial services, and other aspects, are being reassessed for clarification on development. The comparison differences between the Saudi Arabian tourism industry and some of the world-class tourist destinations were listed for tourism facilities and related services. The final strategic analysis of tourism industry enablers using the PEST model ends the report with strong indications of the need to strengthen the sociocultural and technological aspects of the business environment. The findings throw light on the dynamics of the various tourism markets, in particular, the criteria of value such as the estimate of demand and the drivers of tourism. Interviews and focused group discussions explain the status quo of the sector and recognize deficiencies in the tourism industry in Saudi Arabia. In addition, the benchmarking exercise is very novel to recognize areas of improvement in the Saudi Arabian tourism industry, especially in the promotion of potential areas such as medical tourism, youth tourism, and religious tourism. Saudi Arabia ranks fifth territorially (WEF, 2015b) and 64th among all nations in the Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), separating its favorable economic environment (23rd) and price competitiveness (11th). The size of its customers worldwide, who travel mainly for business or religious tourism, remains, above all, the objective for leisure activities, as demonstrated by the lack of government pressure on the priorities of T&T (100th) and international openness (138th). The size of its customers worldwide who travel primarily for business or religious tourism; however, it remains a goal of recreational tourism primarily, as evidenced by the government’s lack of emphasis on Travel & Tourism priority (100th) and international openness (138th). Seriously restricted visa requirements (140th) also extend to Hajj pilgrimages, while recent political changes have been made to allow international tourists to visit historic sites (a relatively good score of 55 cultural resources). Saudi Arabia has good air transport infrastructure (40th), but it is possible to invest more inland and tourism infrastructure (67th) and in environmental policies that support the long-term development of industry (121st). 54

Strategic Business Enablers and Infrastructure Insights of the Saudi Arabian Tourism Industry

The major Saudi Arabian tourist destinations, heritage sites, natural parks, and events are described for focused promotion of tourism and allied service and infrastructure requirements. The UNESCO heritage sites of Saudi Arabia and is religious tourism potential are a significant strength of the Saudi Arabian tourist attraction. The face-to-face discussion and interviews conducted by industry experts, Government officials, Tourist Operators, Hoteliers, and secondary data were agreed with the proposition of the various benefits of the Tourism industry, resulting in increased employment opportunities, trade, FOREX earnings, and contribution towards GDP. The benchmarking exercise of the major tourist destinations of the world paves the way to identify the gaps in the Saudi Arabian tourism industry, primarily focused on infrastructure requirements, Governmental Policy and Support, Tourism Eco System and Sustainability. In the strategic PEST analysis conducted on the tourism business enablers of Saudi Arabia’s business environment, the Sociocultural and Technology enablers value was (2.5) on the subjective rating, due to lacunae in skill gaps as well as due to low cultural tolerance, international openness and impact and perception of strict sharia laws in the eyes of International Tourists.

REFERENCES 30. 000 New Hotel Rooms for Saudi Arabia in 2017 (2017). The Hotel Show. Retrieved from https://www.thehotelshow.com/media-hub/press-releases/2017/ february/30-000-new-hotel-rooms-for-saudi-arabia-in-2017/ Alkhamis, A. (2012). Health care system in Saudi Arabia: An overview. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 18(10), 1078–1079. doi:10.26719/2012.18.10.1078 PMID:23301365 SAMA Annual Report. (2011). The Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency (SAMA). Retrieved from http://www.sama.gov.sa/ Tourism Australia. (2011). Tourism 2020. Australian Government. Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism. Retrieved from https://www.tourism.australia.com/ documents/Tourism_2020_overview.pdf Balan, D., Balaure, V., & Veghes, C. (2009). Travel and tourism competitiveness of the world Stop tourism destinations: an exploratory assessment. Annales Universitatis apulensis series oeconomica, 2(11), pp.981-982. Retrieved from http://oeconomica. uab.ro/upload/lucrari/1120092/43.pdf

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Bay, M. A. (2014). Adobe Fabric and the Future of Heritage Tourism: A Case Study Analysis of the Old Historical City Of Alula. Saudi Arabia: University of Colorado at Denver. Bergstrand, J. H. (1989). The Generalized Gravity Equation, Monopolistic Competition, and the Factor-Proportions Theory in International Trade. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 71(1), 143–153. doi:10.2307/1928061 Brdesee, H., Corbitt, B., & Pittayachawan, S. (2013). Barriers and motivations affecting information systems usage by Hajj-Umrah religious tourism operators in Saudi Arabia. AJIS. Australasian Journal of Information Systems, 18(1), 5–23. doi:10.3127/ajis.v18i1.809 Cracolici, M. F., & Nijkamp, P. (2008). The attractiveness and competitiveness of tourist destinations: A study of Southern Italian regions. Tourism Management, (30): 336–344. Divecha, D. (Jan 4, 2017). Outlook for the region’s hospitality sector. Hotelier Middle East. Retrieved from https://www.hoteliermiddleeast.com/29139-2017-outlook-forthe-regions-hospitality-sector/ Dudley, D. (2013). Riyadh looks beyond religious tourism. MEED: Middle East Economic Digest, 57(13), 40–41. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=87001113&lang=it&site=ehost-live Dwyer, L., & Kim, C. W. (2003). Destination Competitiveness: A model and Indicators. Current Issues in Tourism, 6(5), 369–414. doi:10.1080/13683500308667962 Emirates 24/7, (2017). UAE’s road, aviation infrastructure rated world’s 2nd and 3rd best. Retrieved from https://www.emirates247.com/news/emirates/uae-s-roadaviation-infrastructure-rated-world-s-2nd-and-3rd-best-2013-03-18-1.498960 Enright, M., & Newton, J. (2005). Determinants of tourism destination competitiveness in Asia Pacific: Comprehensiveness and universality. Journal of Travel Research, 43(4), 339–350. doi:10.1177/0047287505274647 Hall, C. M. (2012). Spatial analysis: A critical tool for tourism geographies. In Wilson (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Tourism Geographies (pp.163-173). London: Routledge. Insider, B. (2015). The 11 countries with the best infrastructure around the world. Business Insider. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/wef-countriesbest-infrastructure-world-2015-9/#9-united-kingdom-3

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Jeddah Chamber of Commerce. (2016). Tourism in Saudi Arabia April 2016. Retrieved from www.jeg.org.sa/data/modules/contents/uploads/infopdf/2867.pdf Johnson, D. J. (2010). Tourism in Saudi Arabia. In Tourism in the Muslim World: Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice (Vol. 2, Ch. 7, pp. 91-106). Academic Press. doi:10.1108/S2042-1443(2010)0000002010 Khan, S., & Alam, M. S. (2014). Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: A potential destination for medical tourism. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, 9(4), 257–262. doi:10.1016/j.jtumed.2014.01.007 Lin, L. Z., & Yeh, H. R. (2013). Analysis of tour values to develop enablers using an interpretive hierarchy-based model in Taiwan. Tourism Management, 34, 133–144. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.04.004 Lisa, R. (2010). Where’s the Strategy in Tourism Strategic Planning? Implications for Sustainable Tourism Destination Planning. Journal of Travel and Tourism Research, 58. Massidda, C., Etzo, I., & Piras, R. (2015). Migration and inbound tourism: An Italian perspective. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(12), 1–20. doi:10.1080/136835 00.2014.912206 Mirza, A. (2009). Kingdom targets domestic tourism. MEED: Middle East Economic Digest, 24. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db =bth&AN=37200259&lang=it&site=ehost-live Mumuni, A. G., & Mansour, M. (2014). Activity-based segmentation of the outbound leisure tourism market of Saudi Arabia. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 20(3), 239–252. doi:10.1177/1356766714522258 Paul, B. K., & Rimmawi, H. S. (1992). Tourism in Saudi Arabia. Asir National Park. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(3), 501–515. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(92)90133-A Phillips, P., & Moutinho, L. (2014). Critical review of strategic planning research in hospitality and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 48, 96–120. doi:10.1016/j. annals.2014.05.013 Public transport in Saudi Arabia. (2016). Just Landed. Retrieved from https://www. justlanded.com/english/Saudi-Arabia/Saudi-Arabia-Guide/Travel-Leisure/Publictransport-in-Saudi-Arabia SACM. (2016). Culture, Traditions, and Art. Retrieved from https://sacm.org.au/ culture-traditions-and-art/?refreshed

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Sadi, M. A., & Henderson, J. C. (2005). Local versus Foreign Workers in the Hospitality and Tourism Industry: A Saudi Arabian Perspective. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 46(2), 247–257. doi:10.1177/0010880404273889 Saudi Arabia VISA Regulations. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.the-saudi.net/ business-center/regulation-visa.htm Saudi Commission for Tourism & National Heritage. (2014a). Heritage Sites. Retrieved from https://scth.gov.sa/en/Heritage/Pages/HeritageSites.aspx Saudi Commission for Tourism & National Heritage. (2014b). Historical Jeddah Festival. Retrieved from https://www.scta.gov.sa/en/Programs-Activities/Pages/ HitoricalJeddahFestival.aspx Saudi Hospitality sector report (2015). Aljazira Capital. Retrieved from https:// www.aljaziracapital.com.sa/report_file/ess/SEC-196.pdf Sherbini, A., Abdul Aziz, Y., Md Sidin, S., & Nerina, R. (2016). Income Diversification for Future Stable Economy in Saudi Arabia: an Overview of the Tourism Industry. International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, 4(11), 173–189. Retrieved from http://ijecm.co.uk/ Štefko, R., Kiráľová, A., & Mudrík, M. (2015). Strategic Marketing Communication in Pilgrimage Tourism. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 175, 423–430. Retrieved May202017. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.1219 TTF. (2008). Tourism and Transport Forum – Australia. Tourism infrastructure policy and priorities document. Retrieved from http://www.ttf.org.au/wp-content/ uploads/2016/06/TTF-Tourism-Infrastructure-Priorities-2012.pdf United States Embassy Report. (2015). 2015 Investment Climate Statement. Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs. Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/ othr/ics/2015/241728.htm WEF. (2013). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2013. Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/issues/travel-and-tourism-competitiveness WEF. (2015). World Economic Forum - The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015. Geneva. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/TT15/ WEF_Global_Travel&Tourism_Report_2015.pdf WEF. (2015). World Economic Forum - The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015. Geneva. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/TT15/ WEF_Global_Travel&Tourism_Report_2015.pdf

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WEF. (2015a). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015. Country / Economy. Australia. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/TT15/ WEF_Australia.pdf WEF. (2015b). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015. Country / Economy. Saudi Arabia. Accessed (7th Jan 2017) from: http://www3.weforum.org/ docs/TT15/WEF_SaudiArabia.pdf WEF. (2015c). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015. Country / Economy. UAE. Retrieved from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/TT15/WEF_ UnitedArabEmirates.pdf World Travel and Tourism Council. (2015). Travel & Tourism - Economic Impact, 2015, Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/ economic%20impact%20research/countries%202015/saudiarabia2015.pdf WTTC. (2015). Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2015 - United Arab Emirates. The World Travel & Tourism Council Report. Retrieved from https://www.wttc. org/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/countries%202015/ unitedarabemirates2015.pdf

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APPENDIX

Open-Ended Questionnaire 1. Mention some of the major Saudi Arabia’s initiatives in tourism infrastructure development from your experience in the sector. 2. Mention some of the major Saudi Arabia’s emerging destinations of Tourism and touristic events from your experience. 3. How do you view the importance of strategic business enablers and touristfriendly financial services, ICT / IT initiatives, public transport, aviation, etc., in Saudi Arabia and mention a few basic infrastructure requirements? 4. What are your views on international openness and visa norms in Saudi Arabia? 5. Express your views on the potentiality of new avenues of tourism in Saudi Arabia like eco-tourism, shopping and event tourism, leisure tourism, etc.? 6. How important is the effect of religious tourism and its extendibility to other tourism-related avenues? 7. Are there issues with respect to safety, security of tourists, etc.? Mention a few critical incidents. 8. How important are the tourism issues related to languages, heritage interpretation, etc.? 9. How are the political climate, business climate, and government support for tourism related initiatives and stakeholder services? 10. Give some suggestions for improving the Saudi Arabian tourism initiatives, and promotional activities focused on Infrastructure and others.

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Chapter 4

Unvailing the Symbolic Meaning of Terracotta Plaques From Pilak Monastery, Tripura, India Ruma Karmakar College of Art and Design, Kolkata, India

ABSTRACT Tripura, one of the smallest states of India, is very famous to the people of India because of its own hidden treasures and the atmospheric beauty of nature. Various temple architecture, stone and metal sculptures which have been scattered all over the state made her historically significant, but due to proper expose it still remains in darkness. Globalization and emergence of technology nowadays vastly helps tour lovers to choose their destinations. Observing the present scenario, in this chapter the researcher explores and introduces the richness and the hidden wealth of history of Tripura through a bird’s eye view of the Pilak Monastery to the outer world.

INTRODUCTION ‘Tripura’ is a very small state of north east India, crowned with the capital Agartala. Geographically from three sides she is bordered by Bangladesh, mainly the districts of Sylhet, Comilla, Noakhali & Chittagong hills tracts share the same boundary with Tripura on north, west, south, and south east direction. Hence, at the east she is surrounded respectively by the Cacher district of Assam and state Mizoram hill tracts. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch004 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Unvailing the Symbolic Meaning of Terracotta Plaques From Pilak Monastery, Tripura, India

Figure 1. Map of Tripura

Though Tripura is denotes as a very small state, but still she is being bestowed with the virgin beauty of nature, bamboo works, very unique and elegant loom textiles and extremely indigenous rock cuts and stone images that made her very special at the history of Indian art. Apart that, the orange garden of Jampui hills, dry fish, tea and coffee garden of various parts of Tripura are also in domain. Again, the current study that denotes ‘Pilak’ is a very small village from south Tripura, Jolaibari, Belonia district. The approximate distance of Pilak from Agartala is 110 km. This village came to light few years back due to the excavated bronze 62

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and stone sculptures, half ruined architectures and the other essential practicable objects which just about belongs to the civilisation of 6th to 12th c ad. Figure 2. Symbol of wheel

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Geographically Pilak is bordered by the vast forest cover, picturesque hillocks of Muhuripur and Tekka tulsi in one side, on the other she is surrounded by water of stream Silachari and the river Muhuri, which flow down towards the hill tracts of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Apart that, a small stream named ‘Pilakchara’ too flows down across the plain land of Pilak. The whole land of Pilak has been distributed into three major localities. As for east, west, and central Pilak. They again have been divided into some major sub places depending on the site of excavation. These are Shyam sundar asram tilla (Here it is noteworthy that ‘tilla’ is basically small mound 63

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area of rural hilly area. This area is completely a greenly area covered with paddy field at west Pilak.), Thakurani tilla (A place again at west Pilak, known as ancient Pilak market area. Now the Navagraha temple has been excavated here.), Club tilla (A place from east Pilak which is another important excavated site from where the sculpture of Ganesha has been excavated), Balir pather, Basudebbari, Sagar dheba Though the modern geographical location of ‘Pilak’ is under the state of Tripura, but according to historical evidences she was denoted as the major indifferent part of ‘Samatata’ provinces of ancient Bengal. Its exact boundaries are not well defined yet, but it is assumed that Vanga, Harikela, Pundravardhana, were the contemporary major provinces of ‘Samatata’ of that period. According to historians ‘Samatata’ was form, at the trans Meghna tract of the eastern part of Tripura hills and the Comilla Noakhalli plains which stretches towards Sylhet border in the north & to the bay of Bengal in the south. The place ‘Samatata’ was under the ruling power of different rulers of various dynasties like ‘Chandra’, ‘Khadga’, ‘Deva’ and ‘Pala”, with the five successive capitals or ‘jayaskandavara’ from the 6th to 13th c ad. They are respectively Kripura, Karmantovasaka, Devaparvata, Vasantapura, and Pattikera. Though, two other rulers’ names also have been found from here. They are respectively Sasanko & Vainogupto. Here it is noteworthy that the major sources of information regarding digging at the history of ancient ‘Pilak’ are the inscriptions found from modern Bangladesh and coins found from Bangladesh and ‘Pilak’. Among the epigraphically record Asrafpur copper plate from Rajaraja (Dacca district Bengal), The Asrafpur copper plate of Deva khadga, the Deolbadi sarvani image inscription of Tippera district, ‘paschim bhag copper plate of Srchandra, Betka Paikpada vasudeva image inscription of Govindachandra, Rampal copper plate inscription of Srichandra, Moinamoti copperplate inscription of Anandadeva, the Calcutta Asiatic society plate of BahavadevaI are worth mentioning here.

DISCUSSIONS OF THE STUDY The major architectures that have been excavated from Pilak are a Navagraha temple at Thakurani Tilla, at pilak and a Tantric monastery from Shyam sundar asram Tilla, pilak. According to archeologist and the other found objects from the monastery it is clear that this is belong to Vajrayana Buddhism and dated back to 7th c ad. Though the elevation of the monastery is missing, but through the ground floor design one can assume how was its elevation look like. The centre room of the monastery is round in nature while four rectangular rooms are adjoined with the central one in manner of Mandala. Every rectangular room has a six column base. Made of sun brick, the entire architecture is being assumed as a small part of a huge monastery 64

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architecture format which had been evolved at the Gangetic plain where along with the monastery other miscellaneous buildings added time to time according to needs. It is similar to the excavated sites of Moinamoti, and Paharpur monastery of Bangladesh and Jagajibanpur monastery of Malda Jagajibanpur, India. At the visible part of the entire monasteries outer world of Pilak, decorated with various terracotta plaques which are flanked by different contents from everyday life scene, fairytales, Ramayana, Gods and goddesses, diverse birds and animal figures, and some composite forms which bear a symbolical meaning as well. These plaques are fundamentally small flat piece of metal, stone or mud which were being fired after completing the relief work and commonly used as a part of decoration on the surface of monasteries external wall. They denote a sense of rhythm manifested through the arrangement of the figure, beast, nature, or floral motifs which sometimes may also depends on the compositional format of the plaques . A visual observation through the plaques render a concept that the artists wherever the opportunity so offered either through dancing movements or similar other actions. Hence, the plaques are also very essential evidences of the keen observation, and rooted cogitation an artists who did these. They also get their feet as a substantiation of the technical ability and handling of an artist. A similar kind of plaques are also visible at Moinamoti and Paharpur monasteries of Bangladesh, Mughalmari, Jagajibanpur monastery of India, west Bengal, Nalanda from Bihar, Vikrampura monastery from Bhagalpur, India. Figure 3. Paharpur monastery of Bangladesh

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Figure 4. Plaques from Moinamoti, Bangladesh

Regarding this “The facility with which terracotta work would manufactured locally at short notice while stone had to be obtained from a distance with considerable difficulty, probably explains why in Bengal they (artist) were not particular about the material they used as the medium of plastic art from that the other reason behind using terracotta as a medium might be the fact that the details of the composition of a stone relief are frequently finished in terracotta .artist may use some kind of particular mould for manufacture these plaques in a very short period” (Dixit, 1991). Dixit further added “The general idea of what were to be the themes of the plaques was given to the artists and latter were free to exercise their fancy as best as they could, the material fresh from the kiln was brought to the site and fixed in the wall by the builder. Even when a particular motif is repeated, it is comprehensible that an identical mould was not used for producing what appear like identical subject.” But at Pilak the general visual observation may differ from the observation of Dixit regarding plaques and its stylisation. At Pilak though the plaques are chronologically not related to each other still it would not disconcerted the whole row of plaques The size of these plaques is foremost 25x7 cm. But it may differ in the context of different subject and paradigm. Majorly they are square and horizontal in format but in some of the special context they also seem to be vertical by format, for instance; flower Vass. The plaques which occupy the corner portion of the walls are larger in dimension than the other plaques of the walls.

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Figure 5. Plaques from Jagajivanpur monastery, West Bengal

The Size of the Plaques At Paharpur Monastery it seems that the plaques fixed in the upper rows on the first terrace were measuring 6” × 5 ¼” in scale while the ground floor of the main temple were a height of 1’2”.Here some the plaques also bear a measuring of 16” × 12” × 2 ½” or 15 ½” × 14” × 2 ¾”. Unearthed plaques from Jagajibanpur and Moinamoti are seems to be same in the context of size and design. And it continued to Pilak as well.

Major Subjects of the Plaques (a) Divine figure (b) Semi divine figure (c) Composite figure 67

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(d) Warrior figure (e) Birds (f) Animals (h) Peoples on their daily life and different moving postures Frequent plaques from Pilak monastery reflected the presence of semi divine figure like gandharvas, kinnaras, vidyadharas either flying with apsaras, (their female counterpart) or single. They generally showed in braided hair, legs covered with lotus shaped boot, and as if floating in a space. Commonly they are depicted here as holding a garland in seated, standing or flying postures, moving right or left. Some of the figures are also rendered as playing flute, dholaka or mridanga as well. These subjects of Gandharvas are mostly common at monasteries of Paharpur, Moinamoti of (Bangladesh), Jagajibanpur, Malda, and Mugalmari Monastery of West Bengal, India as well. The subject of Paharpur Monastery in some plaques are slightly differ as gandharvas also shown holding a sword or a lotus as well. Terracotta plaques which are visible further are semidevine figure. The term ‘semidevine figure’ is concludes the subjects like kirtimukhas, lionfaces, and nagas as well. In Indian architecture these figure perhaps denotes the gardener or protector of the temple from blast or ominous power. In numerous plaques of Paharpur, Moinamoti, Pilak, Mugalmari architecture the auspicious symbol of kirtimukha became popular. At Jagajibanpur this image is shown in a cross armed posture at a frontal manner. While some of plaques from Moinamoti, Paharpur monasteries corresponded to the subject where Gandharvas are shown as riding on Rhinoceras, which certainly not visible at Pilak till now. Another interesting visual representation of semi divine figure is ‘Garuda’ at the terracotta plaques of different places.

Composite Figure The identification of a composite figure shows the incorporation of two, or three different bodies in one figure, which are mostly common and acquainted through mythological characters of Vishnu as an incarnation of Varaha or Nrisimha as well. The plaques depicting kinnara, kinnari and the mythological bird suparna are the most common content at the Pilak monastery in the context of composite figure. All of these figures featured the different composite forms put on view the amalgamation of human body with animal head, or vice versa, or the birds head with human body .Sometime they are also characterized with the extended wings, pointed lips, foots and hand of animals or birds too. The composite figure discernible at Pilak monastery generally are the amalgamation of human body and animal form with decorative hands. Probably they are the representation of ‘Garuda’ image with pointed lips. At Paharpur one of 68

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the plaques portraying composite form of goats head and leopard body with spots is very attention-grabbing. Another plaque bears a couple with a human upper part and bovine legs and tails standing side by side with armed round each other neck. At Jagjibanpur this content of composite forms are significantly the same, though a figure with a goat head and a human body is remarkable. Here, the kinnari forms are major rather than the male counterpart as their representations are majorly a female body and a lion head holding a garland or a piece of cloth on a baton. Two interesting contents of these plaques are human heads and a crab body or human head and a crocodile body as well. Terracotta plaques containing composite form, visible at Mughalmari monastery are quite interesting by nature as it is an incorporation of human body and lion head adjoining with a lion belly. Another plaque representing human body and goat is quite similar to Jagjibanpur as well.

The Animal Figure Animals are a further foremost and fascinating theme of Pilak decorative terracotta plaques which comprises all the well-known creatures of the period that monastery belong to. As for example: horse, goat, bull, buffalo, pig, cow, lion, tortoise, elephant, dear, snake, monkey, wild bear etc. Most of these figures represented either single in a plaque or in postures of different actions observed by the artists from their daily life. The representation of duck or royal swan may also very popular content for the artists. Elephant are shown in different plaques in different attitude, Positions and posture. Sometime it is shown in the stance of uplifting trunk in a welcoming attitude or sometime they are just depicted in a normal standing posture in a profile manner. While at Paharpur and Moinamoti some of the plaques are also represented as picking up a shoot of a tree by the end of a trunk before throwing it in a mouth. The representation of dear in most of the plaques is also very significant. The snakes are majorly represented either entwined each other or in fighting mode with peacock. (Most probably cobra). At Paharpur most of the plaques are also represent the reliefs of camel. Monkeys are another most significant and represented favourite subjects for the artists of Pilak. They are represented with various activities and postures. Walking alone, sitting, on haunches with their bodies bent or sometimes in pairs with their bodies entwined round each other, monkeys carrying loads on poles, holding bunches of fruit (probably as offering) are reminiscent of the many stories of the Jatakas and Buddhas life. Most of the stories are also related to the characters of Ramayana or Mahabharata.

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Figure 6. Figure of Bull

Figure 7. Figure of Elephant

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Figure 8. Figure of Goat

At Paharpur the theme related to monkey rendered with the topics like a monkey carrying a casket on a box supported on a long rod tied with a tape around the abdomen. Sometime these contents are also made some satire regarding human and monkey. Wild animal like Lion, bear are another important beasts which majorly introduced at plaques of PILAK with their various movement and activity as roaming in the forest or attacking etc. Plaques that used at the corner edges of monastery of Pilak depicting Lion roaring as seated in a cross-leg posture. At some of the plaques he is depicted as running with his awry tail, flying mane or his right leg in an upward manner. Sometimes bunches of small incisions are standing for the hair. According to Dixit (1991) the representation of cow and calf in a single plaque perhaps indicate that the cow had already been regarded with sanctity which has been a characteristic feature of modern Hinduism. But it is very strange there have not even seen any terracotta plaque at Pilak or any other monasteries who portrays Dog at all. Some of the plaques at Paharpur are also being relief with the content that ‘lion rampant looking like heraldic figures’ but very rare. Here most of the plaques are also depicted the combat between man and lion. In this respect it has already been stated that the corner plaques of monasteries decorated with lion images. In most of the images this is as lion on elephant or two 71

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lion figures adjoining at the corner edge line. The previous motif is a very common and known from the other provinces of India and Bangladesh. When it is come across about the representation of living beasts of water than the first animal is definitely the tortoise. Other is fish, mongoose, otter, lizard, and porcupine as well. The representation of Tortoise in many of the plaques is generally being single and frontal as well. Here it is not only demonstrated the existence of itself at that period but confer a dreadfully symbolical meaning too. According to the ancient literature Tortoise is conveys the symbol of happiness. Again, fish are one more imperative element of reliefs for the artists here as their attendances in various plaques in Pilak are in a very stylistic and symbolic manner. Here fish are generally appeared in a single or two fishes are crossing together. The later one is denote a very strong symbolical connotation. This symbol of crossed fish is not present in Pilak monastery, but it can also be witnessed at Paharpur, Moinamoti (Bangladesh), and Jagajibanpur, Mughalmari monastery of west Bengal. Fish itself is a symbol of fertility. But here the appearance of cross fish is probably symbolised the eroticism or sexuality.

Birds A keen observation through the plaques denotes the fact about artists taste regarding choosing composition or subjects is noteworthy. Birds which are mainly dominating

Figure 9. The peacock at terracotta plaque

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the major plaques of Pilak are duck, parrot, peacock, goose, which supplementary for the ornamentation of the monastery decoration .Artist engulf everything from their surroundings, their everyday observation of life on the surface of plaques with the interblending of their imagination and tried to compose a folk lore motive with a less rigid but lively manner. The assortment of movements and postures in which the birds are observed and delineated are more like a parts of one sequence. As for example:` the goose at the rest’, `cleaning different parts of its body,’` holding a string of beads in the mouth’, fighting with snake’, in a flying movement, goose eating a lotus bud, etc. A plaque depicting bird at Pilak monastery is incredibly attention-grabbing as it shown is seated in a branch of tree. This kind of subject is considerably rare and not discernible to the other Monasteries approximately go to the same period. At the Paharpur monastery another interesting theme of relief is two birds feeding their own young’s. Figure 10. The Swans

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Warriors Several plaques of Pilak are yet again reliefs with both male and female figure belong to the warrior class. They are generally shown either foot soldiers with sword and shield or with a heavy sword or dagger if not riding on an animal. Their cadaver movements are revealing their running and aggressive posture with their demonstrative facial expression strongly. At Paharpur monastery some of the plaques are depicted archers mounted on four wheeled chariots, facing each other in two adjacent plaques as engaged in battle. Similar kind of composition is also common at ‘Ashramtilla’, pilak, Moinamoti, Jagajibanpur (Malda), and Tamralipta monastery of Mugalmari. The representation of brawny male physic of a warriors comprehending the whole shrug. The lesser part of the figures are draped with a dhoti up to knee. After the keen observation of the plaques this may be understood that this kind of male garments was common and familiar and the ravens at that time. Except karnakundala and the bengel there do not have any other ornaments on their body. Unlike the other plaques here also the figure is carved beyond the frame. In one sense where the frame is essential for confine the images in a particular place while on the other the images beyond the frame illuminate an illusion of three dimensional quality on a two dimensional frame.

Men and Women Further, a large number of plaques from Pilak are depicting men and women in a dynamic movements affianced in their daily works .Among these representation men and women walking left or right, women with a baby in her laps, Women dancing in different posture with slightly tilted head and other assorted interesting stance of legs. As for instance-man are in a seated posture resting their hand on the lap, farmer going to field, lovers wooing etc, Brahmins worshiping. Some other very uncommon contents regarding man and woman in their daily life are present at the Paharpur monastery which is not visible at Pilak or other relevant monasteries of Jagajibanpur or Mugalmari as well. They are show acrobats balancing their bodies on the hands or attempting seemingly impossible feats such as balancing the legs on either shoulder with hands joined near the chest, drawing water from a well or carrying pitches of water entering through a door or holding a garland, or couple standing with arms around each other necks.

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Mythological Topics According to historical evidences some of the plaques are also depicting the stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata. For instance: i)

Marichi as a golden dear in a running posture and his face moved back towards Rama. ii) The fighting scene between Bali and sugriva at kiskinda. iii) Hanuman depicted as if crossing the ocean at the lower portion, while the waves depicted in a zigzag form with a crocodiles and fishes moving underneath of sea. iv) Ravana hovering in the sky holding dagger, vajra, bow and other weapons. Some of the stories may also belong to panchatantra. Hindu God and goddesses are also depicted in the terracotta plaques .The with his noteworthy images are-Ganesha seated in a maharaja posture, Kartikeya seated on his Vahana peacock completely ornamented posture, Goddesses Sakti is shown through her face having graceful, ornamented with kundala in her ears, Siva with a Jatamukuta and third eye on his forehead, Narshima killing Hiranna kassipu other un recognised forearmed female deity. Not only Hindu god and goddesses but contents containing Buddhist themes are also obtain their place on the plaques of Pilak. As for example: Meditating Buddha, Mahaparinirvana (shows in a reclining pose), Goddess Tara with a lily flower holding in her left hand, Bodhisattva seated in a manner of king flanked by jewelleries. Buddha in a bhumisparsa mudra, dream of Maya with the present of fore part of elephant, double edged Vajra which is the symbol of Vajarayana Buddhism are also visible here. Jataka stories of buddhas life are also exceptionally imperative content again. Here it is worth mentioning that, though the entire monastery has been made of burned brick but the plaques that are being used for the decoration purpose of the architecture are made of terracotta. The able ability, the flexibility and the plastic quality of mud provide the facility to an artist that he can create any image or object in a very simple manner. After seeing these monasteries and their decorative plaques, it may assume that there might be an enormous tradition of architecture decoration, had been evolved at 6th to 13 c.ad undivided Bengal and its adjacent area and gradually became a style of that particular period.

Symbolical Aspects of the Plaques Among the terracotta plaques, major animals motifs like tigers, lions, pigs, deer, monkeys, horses, dogs, buffalos, cows, elephants, etc., while snakes, fish, tortoises, 75

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ducks, and peacocks contain symbolic meaning. Composite forms like the Garuda, Kinnara, and Ghandharva with musical instruments are also visible here and might have some symbolical aspects. Apart that, the sacred eight auspicious symbols of Vajrayana Buddhism are visible here who also contain some symbolical meaning. They are the lotus, the endless knot, the golden cross fish, the parasol, the victory banner, the golden treasure vase, the white conch shell and the wheel. Elephants are shown in a manner of walking or running, while monkeys and peacocks are sometime conquering the whole plaques or sometime represented as a part of particular fairytale’s story. Peacock is also shown with a garland of pearl at its beak. Scenes from Ramayana and warrior scenes are also visible here. Again, 9 the 13th c ad is also a time period when Charjapada had been written and practiced at the lower class society of the ancient undivided Bengal. Mainly the cast ‘Sabara’ and ‘sabari’ are the major who live at this area. The representation of this figures is also visible here. According to the general observation through the plaques it seems that beside the representation of epics, mythology, and folk tales, these plaques are also being decorated with the subjects that have been taken from daily life. The representation of various Flora and fauna at plaques are, as if the keen observation of an artist’s every quarter and the private life of various biotas. Hence, it is already mentioned earlier that these monasteries belong the Vajrayana sects. So, here the question may arise, that, is it truly only the visual imitation of the visible world or any symbolical meaning is also veiling here! In Vajrayana Buddhism the representation of various creatures are in one hand sacred, on the other, they also abide by some symbolical meaning. Every creature has some particular and indigenous character. These creatures form have been adopted at Vajrayana Buddhism for various symbolical representation of Tantric Buddhism. Through the history of art the representation of ‘snake’ in one hand is the symbol of fertility and alertness, on the other according to Vajrayana Buddhism it is also the representation of one of the 6 poisons of human life, and that is pride. Again, the representation of cross fish, according to Indian philosophy symbolises two sacred rivers of India. They are Ganga and Jamuna. But according to Buddhism they are the symbol of happiness and fertility. The figure of tortoise comprises the symbol of good luck, while the representation of Tiger and Lion at Vajrayana Buddhism stands respectively for fearlessness or the deity of fearlessness and for Sakyamani buddha. The representation of Buffalo at Vajrayana Buddhism symbolises the vehicle of ‘Dharmaraja Yama’, who is the ‘lord of death’ both for Buddhist and Hindu. Apart, the representations of various birds are also containing some symbolical meaning - mostly Peacock and Swan. At ‘Vajrayana’ Buddhism the representation of peacock is very sacred, as it is assumed, that peacock symbolises the transmutation of evil or poison into amrita. 76

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And the swan has the capacity to separate the milk and water very profoundly. Again, the composite forms like ‘Kinnara’ and the ‘Ghandharvas’ are stand as the symbolical aspects of music according to Vajrayana Buddhism, while the presence of ‘Garuda’ is as the vehicle of lord Budhha ‘Amoghasiddhi’. The representation of lotus flower is completely the symbol of purity here. Lastly the representation of Dog, Pig, Ox, Snake in one row might be the symbolical representation of ‘Vajrayana’ or ‘Tibetan’ astrology, Where the representation of eleven particular animals stands for eleven years.

Found Stone and Metal Sculptures from Pilak Apart the monastery and the terracotta plaques some other major excavated objects are the stone sculptures. The found sculptures are majorly made of black sedimentary rock. Design and engraved in a very simplified manner. The sculptures that are excavated are mainly belong to Buddhist, Saurya, Sakya, Ganapatya, and jain. Figure 11. The mandala of Tibetan astrology

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Figure 12. One Inner corner of the monastery

It is one of the biggest sun images from north east India. The approximate height of the sculpture is 11.

CONCLUSIONS Through the study of unveiling the symbolical meaning of terracotta plaques from Pilak Monastery, it may be assume that the plaques that have been visible at the entire lower base of the Pilak monastery, not only the visual representation of the visible world but also might be the sculptural representation of Vajrayana Buddhism’s world and a way to show the sacred and astronomical sign and symbol too and an unique way for visual reading and knowing regarding the philosophy of Vajrayana Buddhism. This study also revealed that many historic places which are not coming out to the limelight, these places may become very attractive tourist spots to the travelers also through proper initiative and promotional activities of the government. As this study established the significant symbolical meaning of terracotta plaques so it needs to prevent as a valuable asset of our country. Tourism has a crucial role 78

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Figure 13. The sun God

to play for its awareness and destination development. Through tourism activity, funds can be generated for the conservation and preservation of the heritage and associated community development.

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Figure 14. Lingashrine

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Figure 15. The Cross Fish

Figure 16. The Snake

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Figure 17. The Dog

REFERENCES Banerjee, J.N. (2002). The development of Hindu Iconography. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal publishers. Beer, R. (1999). The Encyclopedia of Tibetan sign and Symbol. Boulder: Shambhala. Beer, R. (2015). The Hand book of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols. Boulder: Shambhala. Bhattachariya, B. (1958). The Indian Buddhist iconography, Calcutta firma. Bhattachariya, D. (1991). Pilak katha’ Tripura. Akshar publication. Dixit, K. N. (1991). Excavation at Paharpur’ archeological survey of India. Government of India.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Monastery: a house or a residential complex where a special section of religious people pass their daily life as well as carry out their several communal activities in their own way. Plaque: a small rectangular or square-shaped slab generally used to decorate the outer surface of architecture. Terracotta: Terracotta is a very ancient but popular technique of art.

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Chapter 5

Ecotourism Emergence in Tasmania Through Social Entrepreneurs and Authentic Leaders Matthew Knox https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6092-071X University of Tasmania, Australia Joseph Crawford https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2191-6216 University of Tasmania, Australia Sarah Young https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3384-670X University of Tasmania, Australia

ABSTRACT Ecotourism is one of the fastest growing sectors within the tourism industry in Australia. The southern island state of Tasmania is one of the pioneers in creating sustainable ecotourist ventures. We explore, with a leadership behavioral lens, the role that the embodiment of authentic leader behaviors in social entrepreneurs has on ecotourism emergence. Authentic leader behaviors offer a response to some arguments that numerous ecotourist ventures are only sustainable and environmentally responsive in name only. Entrepreneurial leadership is critical in creating a culture conducive to social entrepreneurial growth and sustainability. This chapter concludes with recognition of the importance of future research into developing authentic leader behaviors in social entrepreneurs. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch005 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Ecotourism Emergence in Tasmania Through Social Entrepreneurs and Authentic Leaders

INTRODUCTION In an era defined by debates surrounding the relationship between society and the environment, ecotourism has rose to the forefront in many jurisdictions. For many scholars, considering the environmental implications of economic activities (such as tourism) has become crucial to sustainable futures (Brock & Taylor, 2005). In the first year university economics courses, conversations about negative externalities of production often include modelling carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions as a result of an organization’s production. Tourism is no exception (Holden, 2009). While the lexicon of emergent responses and acknowledgments of the environment exist (e.g. climate change, ozone depletion, ecosystem degradation, and global warming), a strong understanding between engagement with tourism and the environment is still limited. The World Travel and Tourism Council (2019) articulates that global tourism grew 3.9 percent in 2018 and contributed 8.8 trillion US dollars to the world economy. In Australia, the tourism industry houses the second largest number of businesses after construction (Tourism Research Australia, 2016). Hall (1994, p. 137) argues that “in few regions around the world has interest in ecotourism been as pronounced as it has been in Australia, New Zealand, and the countries of the South Pacific”. Ecotourism is considered one of the fastest growing tourism subsectors (Matthews, 1993), despite its lack of conceptual clarity (Buckley, 1994). In 1996, the industry represented a turnover of AU$250 million over 600 operators (Cotterill, 1996). In the 2017/18 fiscal year, the ~500 certified members of Ecotourism Australia had a combined turnover of AU$1.4 billion (Ecotourism Australia, 2018). However, the certified members of that organization are not likely to represent a significant percentage of the industry, given overnight tourist visitor expenditure in Australia was AU$110 billion in the same year (Tourism Australia, 2018). Tasmania, the southernmost island state of Australia, is one of the world leaders in promoting sustainability and environmental preservation. In a review of Oceanic ecotourism, the Tasmanian wilderness was named one of the three ‘natural tourist icons’ in Australia, alongside the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru (Dowling, 2001). The Tasmanian tourism industry, while only a small part of the national tourism revenue (AU$2.4 billion in 2017/18: Tourism Tasmania, 2018), has unique value in its variety of ecotourism options, from carbon-neutral wilderness cruises, to a 6-star luxury hotel tucked away in a national park. To contextualize, in 2018 Tasmania represented 2.11 percent (531,500) of the total population of Australia (25.18 million: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2019). The emergence of ecotourism, while offering a largely sustainable and positive approach to environmental engagement in the tourism industry is not, however, without its flaws. Some entrepreneurs operate under the guise of ecotourism without regard 85

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for the environment within which they situate their enterprise (Fries, 1998; Siddique & Ghosh, 2017). In this regard, while the face of the organization is ecofriendly, it would and likely does sacrifice environmental health for economic gain. In Tasmania, some research has considered cruise ship effect on water ecologies (Ellis & Kriwoken, 2006), and the effect of tourism on orchid populations (Ballantyne & Pickering, 2011). Within the Tasmanian context, we consider the role of individual entrepreneurs in the emergence of sustainable and authentic ecotourism. That is, ecotourism designed to create better environmental and social outcomes while generating financial profits (i.e. a triple bottom line). Previous research has identified the importance of social entrepreneurs in enabling ecotourism emergence (Cho, 2006; Situmorang & Mirzanti, 2012). Tasmania offers an opportunity to explore the emergence of ecotourism through a social entrepreneur behavioral lens. In the emergence of community-based ecotourism, to which the small state of Tasmania is accustomed, there can be significant political challenges that affect ecotourism emergence success. These may include the capacity for leadership, goal setting, empowerment, organizational fragmentation, and benefit sharing (Wang et al., 2016). As goal setting and empowerment are key elements of leadership (Johnson et al., 2012; Laschinger et al., 2013), we see an opportunity to explore how the enactment of leader behaviors influence ecotourism emergence. The purpose of this chapter is to explore how the enactment of authentic leader behaviors by a social entrepreneur influences authentic ecotourism emergence. This chapter considers the potential symbiotic and reinforcing effects that social entrepreneurs embodying authentic leader behaviors have on ecotourism emergence and sustainability. To this end, we begin with an exploration of the current perceptions in sustainability and continue to provide the context for the Australian and Tasmanian ecotourism sector. We follow this with brief documentation on the growth of entrepreneurship in Tasmania. The next section of this chapter provides a critical review of ecotourism and offers a working definition that this chapter builds on. A critical review of the literature on social entrepreneurs and authentic leader behaviors is presented. In the discussion, we draw on these separate bodies of literature (ecotourism, social entrepreneurship, and authentic leader behaviors) to synthesize and postulate a potential moderation model for ecotourism emergence. We draw on the Tasmanian context in our review, but also continue to explore the implications for policy developers, the tourism industry, and educators internationally.

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BACKGROUND Ecotourism emergence is a field of research in its infancy. Prior to exploring further, the emergence in the context of the social entrepreneur and authentic leaders, we first provide a background of ecotourism in Tasmania and Australia. Subsequently, we provide an overview of the growth of the Tasmanian entrepreneurship and startup sector in recent years. These sections are designed to provide key background information for the reader to understand the Tasmanian context.

Australian and Tasmanian Ecotourism In Australia, ecotourism has been touted as the fastest growing sector of tourism. For many Australians, there is a growing desire to engage in holidays that include an ecotourism experience (Roy Morgan, 2015). In 2015, 21.6 percent of Australians wanted to an ecotourism experience for their next holiday compared to 19.3 percent in 2011. Consumers are beginning to recognize the value of engaging with true wilderness, particularly those visiting Tasmania. Tasmania’s predisposition for this style of tourism can be traced to the high value placed on the preservation of its relatively untouched natural environment. The values of the Tasmanian population generally reflect endorsement of environmental preservation (Ford et al., 2009). This endorsement is so significant that social license for modification, whether resulting in economic benefit or improvements to ease of living is often withdrawn by the populous in favor of conserving the state’s natural assets (Cullen‐Knox et al., 2017). The preservation of Tasmania’s appreciation for its environment is also ingrained in its political culture, and the origins of green political movements can be attributed to the small state (Rainbow, 1992). These values are reflected by Tasmanians welcoming low impact ecotourism (Chui & Kriwoken, 2003; Russell & Jambrecina, 2002). Given that community is a key stakeholder in considerations of tourism, this acceptance is crucial (Leith et al., 2014), especially when Tasmania attracts twice the amount of ecotourists than the rest of Australia (Matysek & Kriwoken, 2008). The notion of understanding, exemplifying, and adhering to social values is important in ecotourism, especially in Tasmania. Located south of the Australian mainland, boasting untouched landscapes and impressive contrast between snow and surf, Tasmania is the ultimate contemporary tourist destination. Tasmania’s tourism industry is unique with mutually beneficial collaborations between the government, non-Government organizations (NGOs), and corporations fueling economic growth. For example, the partnership between the Hawthorn Football Club and the Tasmanian Government benefits both parties involved. This reciprocal relationship is exemplary of successful tourism in Tasmania, by providing a service to the community without 87

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sacrificing stakeholder interests (Eversole, 2013). However, ethics in Australian Football League is not without question (Crawford et al., 2017). A good example of the Tasmanian ecotourist experience is the Tasmanian Walking Company who has won three Gold Awards at the annual Australian Tourism Awards in the ecotourism category. This company takes guided walking tours across Tasmanian wilderness with unique food, wine, and accommodation experiences offered. In understanding their ethos, their General Manager, Heath Garratt highlights, “For us, it’s about having a respect and passion for the places we’re operating in as well as an awareness that we’re actually reliant on these wilderness areas” (Tasmanian Walking Company, 2019, n.p.).

Tasmanian Entrepreneurship In Tasmania, the emergence of the entrepreneur has paralleled and outflanked the emergence of ecotourist ventures. In 2019, the time of writing, the state has a series of entrepreneurial incubators (e.g. Van Diemen Project, 2019), accelerators (e.g. EnergyLab Energy-IoT Accelerator: Ferguson, 2019), informal meet ups (e.g. Hobart Entrepreneurs: Meetup, 2019), startup non-profits (e.g. Start Up Tasmania, 2019), innovation hubs (e.g. Enterprize, 2019), and coworking spaces (e.g. CoWork, 2019). This sector, however, has not existed for a significant period. One of the first instances of support networks for entrepreneurs was the Enterprize spaces being launched in 2016, with a seed grant of $500,000 from the state government and support from the University of Tasmania, to focus on tech-based startups. The key points of emergence in Tasmania are not entirely clear, but a strong community of authentic people with a passion for creating. Underneath the emergence, are both traditional and social entrepreneurs seeking to create a better future for themselves or their world. This chapter seeks to understand the specific emergence of ecotourist entrepreneurs within Tasmania. Entrepreneurs aim to leverage their environment to create and innovate. Tasmania has the cleanest air in the world: a symbol of the natural environmental advantage maintained by this small island state.

CRITICAL REVIEW This chapter adopts a critical review method to critically examine the key foundations of our proposed model (presented in the discussion). Early calls for research in the literature argue the need to integrate organizational behavior, leadership, and entrepreneurship knowledge (Gartner, 1988). Our review includes conducting an independent critical review of ecotourism, authentic leaders, and social entrepreneurs. In the ecotourism section, the emphasis is on understanding the global trends that 88

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have enabled rapid growth in the ecotourism sector. Next, we consider the authentic leader and their behaviors in the context of being ethical, enabling innovation, and facilitating social value creation. The final section highlights the social entrepreneur and their role in enabling tourism business emergence. After the critical review of the key components, we present a moderation model in the discussion that synthesizes some of the complex nature of ecotourism emergence and its relationship to organizational behavior.

DEFINING ECOTOURISM Ecotourism is a clear and distinct form of tourism that suffers from conceptual dissonance and perceptual bias. This is unsurprising, given tourism’s prominence as one of the largest and most ill-defined industries in the globalized world. In 2014 alone, the sector earned over US$7.6 trillion, boasting 10% of global Domestic Product and one in 11 jobs in the global economy (Approx. 277 million; Turner & Freiermuth, 2016). Its growth is seen to be stronger than the world’s combined economy and has consistently proven itself resilient through numerous financial crises and changes (Dupeyras & MacCallum, 2013). Tourism’s constant growth and widespread impact brings issues for both academia and government, with questions of environmental, financial, and developmental sustainability at the forefront. These concerns produce the notion of ecotourism itself: its emergence can be seen through its development in international law and scholarly considerations of sustainability and the impact of tourism.

Definitions and Perceptions During the 1980s, the United Nations’ World Commission on Environment and Development (UNWCED) bought sustainable development to the forefront of global concerns (Dangi & Jamal, 2016). Positing its social prominence, the commission presented sustainable development as encapsulating both global financial issues, and maintenance of the environment to meet “the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED,1987, p. 8). In relation to ecotourism, the commission presented sustainable development to continue the economic prosperity of tourism, while maintaining cultural integrity, ecological processes, and biological diversity (Dangi & Jamal, 2016). Ten years later, 182 countries adopted the commission’s efforts to codify sustainable tourism in the international realm. Tourism was identified as a key industry for sustainable development due to those accepted cultural and social impacts (Dodds & Graci, 2012; Dangi & Jamal, 2016). This distinction is crucial to ecotourism’s emergence, 89

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highlighting tourism’s impact on both the social and ecological worlds (Weaver & Lawton, 2007). Fast-forward to today, and tourism is perceived as a tool for tolerance in the international realm, with ecotourism acting as a facilitator of understanding through cross-cultural interactions and authentic experiences (Crotti & Misrahi, 2017). The need for self-regulation, however, remains a prominent concern (Blanke & Chiesa, 2011). Due to the heightened impact of contemporary tourism, ecotourism requires clear conceptualization to counter its impact on the environment, while continuing its efforts in social value change (Blanke & Chiesa, 2011; Fennell, 2015). As such, the following shall explore the various understandings of ecotourism to demonstrate the impact social entrepreneurs with authentic leader behaviors have on ecotourism’s potential for sustainability and change. While many attempts have been made, theoretical understandings of ecotourism lack clear and distinct consensus. Ceballos-Lascuráin (1987) is understood to be the first to attempt a definition (Blamey, 2001) describing ecotourism as: Travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas 20 years following the publication of the Encyclopedia of Ecotourism, depicting the various attempts to define ecotourism such as Ceballos-Lascuráin’s, Weaver, and Lawton (2007) suggested the field remained in a state of conceptual adolescence. While some definitions are adopted in policy and practice, ecotourism’s conceptual perpetuation creates an over-saturation of theory that cannot mature (Blamey, 2001; Weaver & Lawton, 2007). Consequently, various styles of interpretation have stemmed from the on-going debate. For example, an analysis of ecotourism in practice suggests two ideal types for the purpose of sustainability (Weaver, 2005). Minimalist ecotourism describes superficial and ‘local’ experiences with little thought given to sustainability, echoing the notion that ecotourism is not always ethical (Weaver, 2005). On the other side, comprehensive ecotourism depicts ecotourists as observers of nature who strive to have a deeper understanding of the environment (Weaver, 2005). This understanding furthers Ceballos-Lascuráin’s definition, providing operational criteria through considering sustainable practice, observation, and the tourist factor. Likewise, Fennell’s (2015) definition describes ecotourists, positing them as students of natural history motivated to understand organisms in their environments through patient observation. In an assessment of 85 different definitions, specific distinctions were found to be prevalent in all understandings of ecotourism, despite variances in country of origin, contextual purpose, and policy implications (Fennell, 2001). These common 90

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themes depict perceptions of conservation, cultural benefit, biodiversity, and education as crucial to ecotourism’s successful emergence (Fennel, 2001). Such theoretical distinctions, however, negate the practical implications of ethical ecotourism. As such, some scholars have described various practical criteria in favor of a direct definition (Blamey 1997; Fennell, 2015; Stronza et al., 2019). The numerosity of thematical overlap has positioned ecotourism’s core as a driver for social change, especially when in accordance with practical criteria of success (Cobbinah 2015). Practical implications of definitions with the above themes incentivize environmental protection, biodiversity, and cultural heritage, all while providing benefit to the local population (Blamey 1997; Crotti & Misrahi 2017; Stonza et al., 2019). These distinctions continue to rely on ecotourism’s multitude of definitions, but also posit ecotourism as a tool for sustainability. As such, we suggest the consideration of both definition and implications when considering how social entrepreneurship through authentic leader behaviors enables the emergence of ecotourism. In relation to the social entrepreneur creating social value through ecotourism, we highlight the importance of this interaction between perceptions of ecotourism and its practical implications. To maintain its status as a proponent of sustainability, social change, and economic success, Fennell (2001; 2015) argues that the notion of an authentic experience must act foundationally, a notion echoed across the literature (Donohue & Needham, 2006; Lu et al., 2016’ Stonza et al., 2019). There is a market expectation of an experience, reflective of ecotourism’s common themes and moderated by the cultural background of the ecotourist. Cultural bias is represented in ecotourism as the market expectation of the ecotourist and shares ecotourism emergence with ensuring tourism’s sustainability (Cobbinah, 2015). It is this factor however, that creates risk to the principles of ecotourism and its implications, specifically in the form of staged authenticity.

Expectations and Sustainability At its core, ecotourism is a multibillion-dollar industry. China’s industry alone has seen a growth rate three times faster than the tourism industry (Li et al., 2018). While ecotourism enterprises have the capacity to enact change, they are first and foremost a business, and as such must consider the expectations of their consumers. It is in this expectation that tour guides and business owners weigh considerations of sustainability and social value creation with economic prosperity. Such expectations are representative of the notion of staged authenticity, in which the perception of authenticity is fueled by one’s expected experience, rather than an authentic representation (MacCannell, 1973). A study conducted on the effect expectations have on the willingness to pay suggests the latter is reduced by one’s perception of ecotourism’s premium value and expected authenticity, over the need 91

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for sustainability (Lu et al., 2016). This posits ecotourism as a luxury experience that potentially encourages activities contrary to its adopted values of sustainability (Cobbinah et al., 2015; Lu et al., 2016). In Australia, the tourism industry boasts a $44.3 billion spend per annum as of March 2019, with a majority of this being attributed to visitors from China (Tourism Research Australia, 2019a). Tasmania’s tourism industry likewise demonstrates the highest growth and consumption rates, with its ecotourism attractions dominating the industry (Tourism Research Australia, 2019b). We posit the need for careful consideration of the expectations of ecotourism in Australia and Tasmania in order to ensure both economic and environmental sustainability. This is exemplified in the prominence of tourists from China and the impact their expectations have on ecotourism ventures staging their authenticity and forgoing their sustainable values. Tasmania’s tourism industry is currently booming. It’s growth rate for 2019 is higher than any other state, and is expected to continue increasing (Tourism Research Australia, 2019b). Tourists from China provide a significant contribution to this boom and the appeal of ecotourism attractions are at the forefront of explanations (Tourism Tasmania, 2018; Tourism Research Australia, 2019a). The major incentive for Chinese tourists to travel abroad is a desire to experience nature-based attractions, such as those provided by ecotourism (Kim et al., 2005). This desire has continued to grow over the last decade (Sparks & Pan, 2009; Cheng et al., 2015), and can be attributed to the importance of aesthetic sentiment within the demographic (Liu et al., 2019). An assessment of over 35 thousand reviews by Chinese tourists suggests intention to travel, and willingness to pay, are linked to the fulfillment of expectations of natural beauty (Liu et al., 2019). It is the fulfillment of these expectations, and a strong social-media presence, that perpetuates incentives to travel abroad (Cheng et al., 2015). The demonstration and maintenance of natural attractions is therefore key in maintaining the growth and success of ecotourism in places like Tasmania. These expectations are not however realistic, and are representative of sentiments (Cheng et al., 2015). This reliance on fulfilling potentially inauthentic expectations fosters staged authenticity (Reisinger & Steiner, 2006), and the abandonment of sustainable practice. Resultingly, this places risks on the ecotourism industry by failing to consider industrial impacts on the environment. While ecotourism is an economic business, its existence is reliant on the product it provides: the natural world. Sustainable practice is indeed a potential virtue of ecotourism, though not all practices are sustainable. In a study reviewing the practices of ecotourists from 2000-2013, findings suggest that a lack of sensitivity to, and education about, sustainable practice leads to detrimental effects, as well as effecting the overall enjoyment of experiences (Das & Chatterjee, 2015). However, experiences that would seemingly have little to no impact on the environment can have hidden repercussions. Common to ecotourism attractions is the observation 92

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of wildlife, and the human impact of this activity is a topic of much research. This is due to its socially misunderstood, and rather significant impact on biodiversity and ecological processes (Buckley, 2004). Even the seemingly non-intrusive acts of whale and dolphin watching have been shown to manipulate the environment (New et al., 2015). A study conducted on tour boats and the impact of their presence on short-beaked common dolphins found the dolphins were adapting their feeding times based on the circulation of the tour boats, thereby directly impacting the dolphins’ energy expenditures and feeding habits (Cecchetti et al., 2018). Such impacts are noted in areas of oversaturation of tourism and demonstrate the need for considered approaches. This sentiment is likewise reflected in Scandinavia, with the impact of human activity directly affecting the sleep cycle of brown bears, resulting in wide-spread ramifications to the biodiversity of the local ecosphere (Orditz et al., 2014). In support of these findings, female brown bears in British Columbia were found to benefit from a controlled human interaction from ecotourism, resulting in a healthy increase to population (Nevin & Gilbert, 2005). So, while the fulfillment of unrealistic expectations and unregulated attractions may cause harmful impact, it is the position of this chapter that ecotourism may act as a provider for sustainable value creation and positive ecotourism ventures. We posit that this can be enabled by social entrepreneurs exhibiting authentic leader behaviors.

AUTHENTIC LEADERS Authentic leadership theory was initially conceptualized in the face of ethical concerns in the contemporary business environment (Luthans & Avolio, 2003). The authentic leader, in its initial conceptualization was posited as a direct response to prevailing societal challenges from the dotcom bust and 9/11 in 2001. Almost two decades on, and the field of authentic leadership development has grown to offer a strategic response to a wide range of organizational problems. For example, recent empirical studies demonstrate negative relationships between authentic leadership and a series of negative organizational attributes including job turnover intentions (Smith et al., 2019), workplace incivility (Qureshi & Hassan, 2019), and creativity (Sarfraz et al., 2019). Authentic leader behavior theory conceptualizes the notions of an authentic leader (see Crawford et al., 2020) and explicates behaviors of a leader who understands both them self and those around them. Likewise, authentic leaders have a strong sense of positive ethics (Avolio & Gardner, 2005) and they can enhance employee wellbeing (Adil & Kamar, 2016; Laschinger & Fida, 2014). By being sincere and seeking to understand and maintain awareness of others, authentic leaders can support those

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around them and foster a culture of positive organizational engagement and adhere to the contextual social values (see Table 1).

Table 1. Defining authentic leaders and their dimensions

The authentic leader has not been adequately considered from a tourism perspective. While there are some instances of the application of leadership behaviors in the tourism sector, these instances are rare. For example, authentic leaders have a positive role in enabling collective mindfulness and collective thriving in employees (Wu & Chen, 2019). Customer-centric organizational citizenship behaviors were influenced by authentic leadership (Luu, 2019), and trust in leaders moderated that relationship (Qui et al., 2019). There is an opportunity to explore the authentic leader in the context of tourist vendors who demonstrate leadership, and as the next

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section highlights, social entrepreneurs who demonstrate leadership in achieving social outcomes. For the ecotourism sector, authentic leadership has an important role. Authentic leadership creates the foundations for positive social outcomes. An authentic leader is aware of their environment (Avolio & Wernsing, 2008) and has critical thinking skills (Waite et al., 2014). These two attributes of authentic leaders have direct application in the context of ecotourism, and tourism more broadly. Awareness of self is important in recognizing one’s own strengths and weaknesses, but the skills associated with awareness are also applicable to gaining an understanding of the perspectives and cognitions of others. This supports the ability of a tourist vendor to understand the needs of potential customers and to construct an environment which remains authentic with objects and artifacts that are as true to the original experience as possible. Critical thinking skills, and the ability to be innovative, are crucial for those starting any business venture (i.e. entrepreneurs). Authentic leaders have the capacity and ability to be innovative (Crawford et al., 2019), and to be critical in their thinking. As a result, those with higher authentic leader behaviors are more likely to create businesses that respond to a genuine market need and be subsequently more successful. Jensen and Luthans (2006) present a model of the authentic entrepreneurial leaders that emphasizes three extensions to the authentic leader: associate building, transparent, and future oriented. This model provided initial theorizing of the role that authentic leadership and psychological capital had on supporting entrepreneurs in their ventures.

SOCIAL ENTREPRENEUR Climate change presides as one of the most dominant contemporary wicked problems. On one side, societal values stress its need for assuring future economic prosperity alongside protection of the environment. Opposingly, the other side dismisses either environmental or economic foundations altogether. The social entrepreneur is an individual who “leads social innovation in pursuit of solving wicked problems” (Crawford et al., 2019). We posit that the social entrepreneur can challenge and respond to wicked problems through the embodiment of authentic leader behaviors. In contrast to traditional profit-centric models of entrepreneurship, the social entrepreneur incorporates social values into their business structure, which often includes an emphasized adherence to notions of environmental sustainability (Dees, 2017). In fact, the social entrepreneur sees the contemporary business’ goal of profit as a means by which they can fuel social discourse and facilitate social change. The consequence of such an orientation is to stimulate sustainable business 95

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through adhering to social values (Seelos & Mair, 2005), and actively challenging them when necessary. Direct definition of social entrepreneurship suffers from conceptual ambiguity and oversaturation. Social entrepreneurs emerged with their emphasis on socializes values, and the creation of social innovations (Knox et al., 2019). These individuals seek to deploy the business acumen and innovation of the traditional entrepreneur, with a key variation: a desire for social innovation rather than innovation and wealth creation. Dees’ (1998) initial conceptualization paved the way for extensive research attempting to clarify the notion of the social entrepreneur. Not unlike ecotourism, convolution of the topic due to a lack of consensus became prominent (Bruyat and Julien, 2000). After a review of existing definitions, a synthesis led to the definition of this type of entrepreneur as an individual who “leads social innovation in pursuit of solving wicked problems” (Crawford et al., 2019). The values of the social entrepreneur are often implemented ineffectively. An innovative idea for a new business built on foundations of social values does not equate to business success. In fact, the focus on creating social value typically means less profit retained and the potential for a slower growth cycle, assuming the social entrepreneur progresses that far. The social entrepreneur’s idea requires effective implementation through continuous consideration, accountability, awareness, influence, and critical thinking (Alvord et al., 2004; Dee, 2017; Driver, 2012). This chapter explores how the encapsulation of social values through effective leadership is more achievable through cultivating authentic leader behaviors, for the purposes of promoting ecotourism in Tasmania. We posit, further, the need for the social entrepreneur, over the traditional entrepreneur in considerations of ecotourism, due to their motivation being determined by the social values that are key to ecotourism itself. Indeed, social entrepreneurs offer a direct response that some ecotourism enterprises are only apparent in their attempts to be sincere about their connection and care for the environment they operate within (e.g. Fries, 1998; Siddique & Ghosh, 2017).

DISCUSSION AND SYNTHESIS Leadership within the tourism sector is a critical success factor (Wilson et al., 2001). The tourism sector is built on radical innovation and an evolving landscape controlled by consumer expectations and behaviors (Hirudayaraj & Sparkman, 2019). While social entrepreneurs and their enterprises significantly aid notions of environmental sustainability and ecotourism in Tasmania, clear consensus in how exactly this is done is lacking (Eversole, 2013). This is not to say that social entrepreneurs do not effectively perpetuate ecotourism, rather it is only their values 96

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that remain consistent. As such, there is a gap in the conceptualizations of how social entrepreneurs perpetuate ecotourism. Thus, we present a model (see Figure 1) that discusses the theorized relationship between the social entrepreneur and ecotourism emergence, moderated by authentic leader behaviors. Figure 1. Moderation model of social entrepreneurs and ecotourism emergence

Social Entrepreneurs and Ecotourism Emergence Through our critical reviews, we have identified the role of the social entrepreneur in the emergence of ecotourism vendors. Social entrepreneurs lead social innovation and seek to enable social value creation. In an era where climate change is a prominent challenge for contemporary society, individuals with a strong cognitive awareness of their physical environment may be drawn towards making change. In addition, social entrepreneurs are likely to recognize those consumer needs that are emergent and seek to embed social values into this process. Indeed, the use of authentic tourism experiences are likely to be a vehicle by which social entrepreneurs distil social values into palatable chunks for the contemporary tourist. We have made mention of the issue expectations pose for ecotourism vendors. Staged authenticity is a by-product of unrealistic expectations of ecotourism experiences, risking the sustainable practices and values of the industry. In response, we posit that social entrepreneurs respond to both consumer needs, and emergent social values, using authentic experiences as a vehicle to do so. Authentic leadership theory demonstrates the importance of modifying action based on the potential best outcome for the surrounding collective. A study conducted by Swan and Morgan (2016) addressed this consideration and how the social entrepreneur acts in the ecotourism sector. This qualitative study likewise assessed the modifying factors of success and sustainable practices in the industry. Findings suggest that personal goal pursuit hastens success in ecotourism, negating 97

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the sustainability of the enterprise (Swan & Morgan, 2016). Likewise, the pursuit of financial success without social considerations suggests in a lower rate of interaction with the vendor (Swan & Morgan 2016). Balanced processing enables entrepreneurs to consider information relevant to the collective and act accordingly (Jensen & Luthans, 2006). As such, we posit that the social entrepreneur can apply the authentic leadership behaviour of balanced processing to encourage the success of ecotourism ventures and continue to maintain sustainable practices. With success comes expectations, and vendors of ecotourism are no exception. We have mentioned the issue of staged authenticity and therein lies another area social entrepreneurship provides for sustainable ecotourism. The authentic leadership behavior of sincerity encapsulates the sincere representation of one’s true self as presented to others (Trilling, 2009). In ecotourism, consumer expectations exist for an authentic experience. To provide, vendors stage their authenticity by providing for expectations, rather than a sincere demonstration of the attraction. Through displaying authenticity, social entrepreneurs provide influence on followers in the form of social value creation (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). To do so, social entrepreneurs must present and run enterprises with goal transparency (Knox et al., 2019). We suggest that establishing this influence in ecotourism ventures enables social entrepreneurs to manage expectations while maintaining authenticity. As such the social entrepreneur enables sustainable practices through the demonstration of their venture’s goals. The values demonstrated by social entrepreneurs in promoting social value is analogous to ecotourism’s pursuit of sustainable practice and social demonstration of the natural world. Social entrepreneurs address the ambiguity of authentic experiences in ecotourism (Siddique & Ghosh, 2017) and promote sustainable practice through upholding the goals of their enterprise. Social entrepreneurs also assess, and act based upon the information and desires of those around them, providing authentic experiences while meeting business expectations. We suggest that social entrepreneurship through authentic leader behaviors increases the emergence of successful ecotourism. Hypothesis 1. Growth in social entrepreneurship will have a direct effect on ecotourism emergence.

The Moderating Effect of Authentic Leader Behaviors Beyond Hypothesis 1, we posit that authentic leader behaviors may also serve as a moderator to strengthen this relationship. Social entrepreneurs engage in the process of creating businesses that enable social value creation, and we have already suggested that this leads to higher ecotourism emergence. Authentic leader behaviors, however, can offer additional insights to this relationship. Embedded within the authentic leader is psychological capital (PsyCap) (Clapp-Smith et al., 98

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2009). PsyCap is a set of state-like constructs (hope, efficacy, resilience, optimism) that enable an individual to overcome adversity and bounce back and sustain success (Dawkins et al., 2013). Failure is a normal element of entrepreneurship (Olaison & Sørensen, 2014), with an ability to deal with such failure as a critical success factor. Authentic leaders can understand their own strengths and weaknesses (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), have practical reflexivity (Eriksen, 2009), and develop strategies to respond to the grief associated with business failure. There is existing literature documenting the success of authentic leaders in creating and sustaining businesses (Gardner et al., 2011). While entrepreneurial business failure is common, some predictors of success among low-experience entrepreneurs included: start-up capital, risk of the market, and experience in establishing businesses (van Gelderen et al., 2005). In a meta-analytic study, the rates of success in new technology ventures were moderated by a series of environmental conditions (e.g. competition intensity and environmental dynamism), individual attributes (e.g. prior experience, R&D experience, and marketing experience), and organizational-level attributes (e.g. marketing intensity, firm size, and financial resources: Song et al., 2007). The challenge with the existing literature surrounds the lack of research into the actual behaviors that an entrepreneur needs to maximize the likelihood of being successful. Hypothesis 2. Authentic leader behaviors have a moderation effect on the relationship between social entrepreneurship and ecotourism emergence.

Practical Implications Our model provides practical implications for those seeking to create the conditions of successful ecotourist startup networks. The development of authentic leader behaviors, in conjunction with established success factors of startups (e.g. nongovernmental financial support, University partnerships, and R&D alliances: Song et al., 2007), creates the foundations for social entrepreneurs to activate environmentally responsive businesses in the tourism sector. We also identify the role of the authentic leader in responding to concerns that some ecotourist ventures exist on false premises alone. That is, some ecotourism vendors appeal to the growing sustainability-preferencing market without any desire to engage in environmentally sustainable activities beyond public perception. The creation of authentic ecotourism activities stems from individuals with strong morals (e.g. an authentic leader), and a genuine desire to facilitate social innovation (e.g. a social entrepreneur). Through critical exploration of authentic leaders and authentic followers, this chapter proposes the social entrepreneurs’ goal of instigating wide-spread social change through innovation and an adherence to the understood social values of 99

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the community. This chapter proposes that this can be done to aid in maintaining Tasmania’s pro-environment values, as well as ensuring innovation and growth.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Our research is limited by its scope and theoretical nature. The scope we operated within is likely to be transferable to other contexts, but first needs consideration from other researchers. We encourage future researchers to consider other jurisdictions globally, and how these compare to the Tasmanian climate we present. Importantly, we believe the greatest next step is to take the theory-driven hypotheses of this chapter and establish whether such assumptions stand to rigorous empirical tests. This begins with a theory-driven and best practice scale development (see Crawford & Kelder, 2019) process for social entrepreneurship in the first instance. We also encourage scholars to consider whether there are other behavioral components that facilitate ecotourism and social entrepreneurial emergence. We focused on a theory of leadership which has natural parallels with the social entrepreneur, and of the entrepreneurs within Tasmania. However, researchers should not limit their exploration to this setting alone. The empirical literature on ecotourism is still limited, and significantly more research is required, particularly in relation to methods by which governments can respond to the potential face-valid only ecotourism activities that cause significant environmental harm behind the scenes.

CONCLUSION This chapter provided a critical review of the emergence of ecotourism within Tasmania, Australia. We began with a conversation on the emergence of ecotourism and entrepreneurship in Tasmania and Australia. Our critical review focused on ecotourism, authentic leaders, and social entrepreneurs. We proposed a moderation model comprising social entrepreneurs as a predictor of ecotourism emergence, moderated by authentic leader behaviors in those social entrepreneurs. The island state provided unique insights that translate to global impact, with recognition that more work is needed to develop the authentic leader behaviors of entrepreneurs. We encourage future researchers to take our theoretical work and extend it both theoretically and empirically.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Authentic: True to self. Authentic Experience: engagement in activities that are perceived to be ‘real’ and ‘genuine’ by the tourist. Authentic Leader: an individual who “influences and motivates followers to achieve goals through their sincerity and positive moral perspective, enabled through heightened awareness and balanced processing.” (Crawford et al., 2019a). R&D: Research and development. Social Entrepreneur: an individual who “leads social innovation in pursuit of solving wicked problem” (Crawford et al., 2019b) Social Innovation: the process of applying creative and original ideas to solve social problems.

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Chapter 6

Tourist Satisfaction Analysis Through Structural Equation Models José Carlos Casas-Rosal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6954-6517 University of Cordoba, Spain Juan Antonio Jimber del Río https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6886-7434 University of Cordoba, Spain Ricardo David Hernández Rojas https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3055-2151 University of Cordoba, Spain Amalia Hidalgo-Fernández https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2764-6624 University of Cordoba, Spain

ABSTRACT This chapter analyses the tourist behaviour through the estimation of a statistical model of structural equations, observing to what extent the motivation, interest, and value given to the destination of the trip are determining factors. A study of the socio-demographic profiles, the level of satisfaction, and the loyalty of the tourist with the destination is carried out in this context and in response to the need to analyse and understand the reasons why tourists have a greater or lesser degree of satisfaction with the destination, which is truly necessary to improve the public administrations and private entrepreneur management in this sector. This has been applied to a case study: tourists visiting the city of Cordoba, designing a survey for those who visit the city for cultural reasons. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch006 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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INTRODUCTION To foster a favourable decision-making environment in the tourism sector of a region, knowing the degree of satisfaction of visiting tourists is vitally important since their perceived satisfaction determines, in large part, the memory they have of the visited place and the products and services they consumed there. A high degree of satisfaction boosts tourists’ loyalty toward a destination, and in turn, makes them spokespeople for the area’s brand image, thereby increasing the portfolio of potential customers within the sector. On the other hand, a lower degree of satisfaction allows one to detect weaknesses in different observed services and products, which can lead business owners in the sector to modify their strategies and behaviours aimed at improving customer satisfaction. However, studying tourist satisfaction is hugely complex, as the degree of satisfaction perceived toward a tourist destination is a multi-dimensional construct, which is difficult to define accurately and which encompasses different factors that wield influence over it, such as interest, motivation and perceived value. Beyond that, as each destination is composed of different tourist attractions, the value and satisfaction of a particular attraction may significantly affect perceived satisfaction of the entire destination. This relationship is also reciprocal, meaning that the satisfaction and perceived value attached to a destination may also significantly influence how tourists’ experience a particular attraction. In this chapter, we apply a methodology to study the degree of satisfaction that tourists feel toward a destination based on answers to a questionnaire that gathers information related to interest in a particular visit, previous motivations and the perceived value of the destination. It also includes information related to one of the most important attractions at the destination, in order to analyse the influence that attraction has on the tourists’ general assessment of the destination. This is carried out using a robust and proven methodology, which includes structural equation models that consider as constructs the dimensional factors discussed above: interest, motivation, perceived value of the destination and the attraction, and satisfaction with the destination and the attraction. In the following section, we present a brief bibliographical review of the subject in question, and below, we present the main focus of the chapter. The methodology above is applied to a sample group of 375 tourists that visited Cordoba and one of the city’s main attractions, Madinat Al-Zahra, and indexes for each of the constructs mentioned above are calculated.

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BACKGROUND The economic impact of tourism on the world economy is an established fact. On the one hand, the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2016) reports that tourism creates 1.1% of worldwide employment and, on the other hand, that the related aspects of cultural offerings, nature and gastronomy are – in that order – the main motives that lead tourists to visit a destination. (Rosales, Salas, & Palacios-Rangel, 2019). However, in certain countries the sector’s economic impact is of much greater relevance. One example of this is Spain, where according to annual studies by Figuerola (2018), business activity related to tourism accounted for an estimated 11.8% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018, making tourism a strategic sector for the national economy. As a consequence, it is useful for both public and private entities to study and measure those factors linked to improving the tourist experience in general, so that measures can be taken to create loyalty and reinforce a brand image. In this way, measuring tourist satisfaction is a key factor in helping improve tourism management. This improvement is reflected in both quality and quantity, as decisions can be made according to concrete opinions voiced by tourists visiting a place, and because those decisions are applicable to future visits, they will influence the satisfaction of future tourists and directly affect the destination in terms of repeated visits and recommendations that people visit the destination. (Yuksel, 2001; Broncano & Andrés, 2009; Yuksel, Yuksel, & Bilim, 2010; Dodds & Holmes, 2019; Kim & Nurhidayati, 2019). In a globalized context, differentiating between territories and creating a unique brand for a destination that projects a consolidated image of the attractions and the satisfaction of tourists and visitors is extremely important (Chen & Jiang, 2019), given that one of the factors in question is the uniqueness of the territory. Due to all this, it is necessary to first clearly define the concept of satisfaction, and separately, satisfaction in world heritage sites. Similarly, it is necessary to explore the factors that influence satisfaction, such as motivation, an assessment of the destination, interest and perceived quality. The concept of satisfaction has been studied extensively in academia for some time. As such, there are numerous classifications or viewpoints through which the concept of perceived satisfaction may be studied (Seto, 2004). This work deals with satisfaction, viewing it as a continuum. In this sense, the work of Oliver (1980) and Bearden and Teel (1983) stands out in terms of analysing the concept of satisfaction as a process that develops over time and is influenced by various cognitive and emotional constructs. In this work, satisfaction is identified as a multiple construct as conceived by Seto (2004) and the theories of Babin, Griffin, and Darden (1994). Here, satisfaction is defined as the final consequence of the tourist experience, as numerous studies have shown (Chi & Qu, 2008; Yuksel, Yuksel, & Bilim, 2010). 114

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All existing literature supports the decision to study tourist satisfaction, not only by examining visits to a specific site, but also examining the area that houses a destination. The case of World Heritage Sites and one’s satisfaction when visiting them has been studied before. Within that body of work, the aspects that justify the naming of a location as a World Heritage Site deserve examination, among which its exceptional nature, uniqueness, universality and authenticity. These factors are determinants of satisfaction and perspective in the visit, as well as in the experience of the cultural destination (Matovelle & Mejía, 2016). Previous authors – Hiriart and Alvarado, (2010), Troitiño and Troitiño (2010) – have also discussed these aspects and concluded that they contribute to a destination becoming a tourist attraction. Other studies show a direct relation between tourist satisfaction with the particular heritage of a destination and general tourist satisfaction with the destination (Su, Hsu, & Swanson, 2014; Wu & Li, 2017; Danaher & Arweiler, 1996; Hsu, 2003). As a result of these authors’ studies, one can analyse, among other examples, general tourist satisfaction after visiting a World Heritage Site such as Madinat al-Zahra in relation to tourist satisfaction with Cordoba, the Spanish city in which said architectural complex is located. On the other hand, a tourist’s motivation may be seen as the set of reasons that constitute the main reason behind one leaving one’s home to visit another location and stay at least one night (Fodness, 1994; Hafermann & Lankford, 2019). The motives of tourists to visit open spaces are conditioned by a region’s climate, as well as the availability of leisure time and its seasonal variance, which are reflected in the number of tourists at a destination. According to research by De la Calle and García (2008), among the main conclusions regarding motivation, the direct relationship between increased motivation toward a destination and the length of stay stands out. Therefore, it is reasonable to think about tourist motivation when studying how to improve tourism management, with a view to prolonging stays or achieving repeated visits. In the case of cultural tourism, it is of great importance to analyse the motivations tourists have to travel, scheduled or not, so that the historical legacy of a place be among tourists’ principal motivations (Correia, Kozak, & Ferradeira, 2013), given that cultural tourism is a type of tourism that emphasises the cultural aspects offered by a particular destination, whether a small town, a city, a region or a country (Breakey, 2012). Different academic studies show that satisfaction is a consequence of perceived quality, and vice versa (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1994; Rust & Oliver, 1994). For example, the work of these authors states that, first, quality is perceived by the tourist and, second, satisfaction appears. Therefore, it may be said that satisfaction

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is a consequence, in a given moment, determined by, among other factors, the perceived quality of an individual product or service. On the other hand, from the perspective of a tourist, quality is one’s perception of the intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics of a product or service, along with a price assessment. In this way, tourists qualify service to be of higher or lower quality. Due to the subjective nature of quality, many of the definitions used today regarding the idea of perceived quality define it as a general experience, not a particular service (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985). In other words, perceived quality is the result of comparing a tourist’s expectations with his or her perceptions obtained during a visit (Grónroos, 1990; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985). Generally during the visit, these perceptions can be broken down into opinions related to the quality of: benefits received, an assessment of catering and accommodation, leisure, and entertainment. A concept highly correlated to quality is the assessment of a destination, meaning the collection of general perceptions that tourists have of a specific place that can lead towards a positive or negative evaluation (Fakeye & Crompton, 1991). However, other authors consider the assessment of a tourist as a mental representation of a general area not linked to any specific place or heritage, but rather to an overall collection of perceptions about a given destination (Alhemoud & Armstrong, 1996; Gallarza, Saura, & García, 2002; Prayag & Lee, 2019) Therefore, perceived value can be defined as the judgment of tourists in relation to the advantages offered by a product or service (Nilson, 1992). Or according to Goyhenetche (1999), how a tourist experience responds to what a tourist had expected. Once a trip has started, the tourist has certain expectations that he or she hopes will materialise, which would lead to a high level of satisfaction if achieved. The study conducted by Hidalgo-Fernández, Hernández-Rojas, Jimber, and CasasRosal (2019) confirms this direct relation between expectations and satisfaction. Structural equation models are statistical tools that make it possible to analyse complex systems of variables related to each other in very different ways. This system includes different types of variables: on the one hand, endogenous and exogenous – depending on whether a variable can be explained by other variables in the model or variables outside it; and on the other hand, directly observable variables and latent variables or factors, which are complex constructs that cannot be measured directly using a questionnaire due to the difficulty of their definition, as with satisfaction or perceived value. The possibility of building complex relational models between measurable and latent variables, allows one to use empirical data like an opinion questionnaire to contrast the existence of relationships defined by an underlying theory. For that reason, the starting point for a structural equation model (SEM) to create an estimate is the theoretical model that the researcher wishes to analyse. According to that, a path 116

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diagram is designed in which nodes are variables and paths are different possible causal relationships. Next, information about the variables in the model is collected and the reliability and validity of the model is analysed. If the result is positive, the different relationships one had hoped to analyse from the beginning can be contrasted. This allows the researcher to confirm or reject the original theoretical model.

  B    

(1)

Above η and ξ represent the latent (endogenous) and measurable variables, respectively, while ζ represents the prediction error of η. B and Γ are coefficient matrices, the first composed of the coefficients between different latent variables and the second composed of the coefficients between measurable and latent variables. For the type of tourism research presented in this work, we analyse variables such as motivation, the interest and value of a tourist destination, and how different perceptions of those factors influence tourist satisfaction. In addition, estimating the coefficients Γ in the previous model allows one to measure how relevant each measurable variable is to the latent variable that it estimates, and in turn, to estimate the value of latent variables based on a weighted average of responses to the questionnaire. Using the material above, and definitions and results obtained from the bibliography, and through the estimation of the model of associated structural equations, the case study analysis carried out below on a particular heritage monument is justified and supported. In concrete terms, satisfaction will be analysed based on the following variables: motivation, the interest in and value of the destination and an architectural complex, Madinat Al-Zahra, which was recently named a World Heritage Site.

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER After analysing the importance of studying the degree of satisfaction reported by tourists visiting a certain place and the various factors that can influence it, an example application based on an equation model for estimating satisfaction is presented. In the example, a profile was selected of a tourist that visits a destination, motivated by the heritage that it represents. The chosen destination for this example is Cordoba, Spain, a city of great architectural and historical wealth, where different variables were analysed in relation to the general destination and an architectural World Heritage Site, Madinat Al-Zahra. First, after being analysed by a pilot sample and undergoing consultation with a panel of experts, a questionnaire was created that contained 38 closed-ended 117

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questions, most of which ordinal variables on a Likert-type scale. 375 people chosen at random according to quotas for nationality and gender were surveyed, and each voluntarily participated in a personal interview at different times of the day and week. The individuals studied were made up of tourists who were visiting the city and had visited at least a large portion of it – in particular, Madinat Al-Zahra. Once data were collected and tabulated, the internal consistency of the responses was measured using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient calculation, which was first applied generally to the questionnaire and then later to each latent variable. Values obtained for each latent variable and the questionnaire in general were above 0.75, which ensures the consistency of answers given to the questionnaire. To contextualise the profile of surveyed tourists, it is worth mentioning that a small majority had some form of higher education degree (53.4%) and that most (85.3%) were under 45 years old. Somewhat more than a third of the tourists surveyed were visiting Cordoba for the first time and their visits averaged 4.8 days in length. Based on information from the questionnaire and the theory analysed in relation to tourist satisfaction, the model in Figure 1 was designed. Figure 1. Theoretical model related to analysed latent variables

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As shown, six latent variables were defined. Two were intended to analyse previous conceptions that tourists had before visiting the city, that is to say: interest and motivation. Two others sought to measure the perceived value and satisfaction of tourists in relation to the destination in general, and the remaining two aimed to measure those same perceptions in relation to a particular tourist attraction in the city, Madinat Al-Zahra. As mentioned above, that site being a particular attraction, the perceived value of and satisfaction in it may influence a person’s overall perception of a destination and vice versa. Using this theoretical model, a path diagram was constructed that confirms the existence of the relationships mentioned earlier in this report. Figure 2 below shows the diagram obtained with the Amos software (Arbuckle, 2014). Figure 2. Path diagram based on theoretical model

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Latent variables are represented by ovals, while measurable variables are represented by rectangles. As the latent variables explain the values of the measurable variables, the latter have a residual term associated that measures the part not explained by the relevant latent variable. Relationships between latent variables are also included using directed arrows. Once the model was designed and the path diagram implemented, the underlying model of structural equations was estimated. From different estimation methods available, the Generalized Least Squares (GLS) method was selected, as did not demand too much in terms of distribution of variables involved in the project. After estimating the model, it must be validated. This involves, on the one hand, studying the significance of coefficients in the model, and on the other, calculating different measures how accurately the estimated model explains reality. Of these, a multitude of indicators exist that can measure the validity of the model. Below are some of the most commonly-used indicators, along with the value required to consider the model valid: • • • •

CMIN / DF: Ratio between chi-squared statistic and the degrees of freedom (Value less than 3) CFI: Comparative adjustment index (Value greater than 0.9) GFI: Goodness of Fit index (Value greater than 0.9) RMSEA: Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (Value less than 0.05)

Once that step is completed, the values of latent variables can be estimated in order to produce information on tourists’ assessment of and satisfaction with the destination and services being analysed. The intensity of relation between different latent variables can also be measured. The table below presents standardised coefficients between measurable variables from the questionnaire and latent variables used in the proposed model, as well as results from the relevance tests. As shown, all the variables included in the final model significantly explain the latent variables built from them. On the other hand, as demonstrated in Table 2, the standardised coefficients between different latent variables identify the significance of relationships in the study by using a corresponding relevance test. The data above confirm that most relationships between latent variables in the model are significant, which reinforces – in large part – the associations defined in the study. Two relationships appeared particularly meaningful: that between motivation and the perceived value of Madinat Al-Zahra; and that between the perceived value of Madinat Al-Zahra and the perceived value of the general destination. The remaining relationships are significant, at least, at 10%.

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Table 1. Standardized estimations of model Observed Variable

Latent Variable

Estimate standardized

S.E.

C.R.

Item 11.1

0,750

-

-

Item 11.2

0,584

0,14

7,973

Item 11.3

Interest

P-value -

0,779

0,15

9,701

< 0,001

Item 11.4

0,679

0,16

8,542

< 0,001

Item 7.1

0,622

Item 7.2

0,725

0,11

10,68

< 0,001

Item 7.3

0,739

0,09

10,82

< 0,001

Item 7.4

0,689

0,12

10,43

< 0,001

0,647

0,12

9,772

< 0,001

Item 7.6

0,624

0,12

9,199

< 0,001

Item 7.7

0,755

0,1

10,58

< 0,001

Item 7.8

0,387

0,16

5,567

< 0,001

Item 12.1

0,681

0,12

10,01

< 0,001

Item 12.2

0,594

-

-

-

Item 12.3

0,746

0,13

9,041

< 0,001

0,733

0,15

9,214

< 0,001

Item 12.5

0,732

0,13

9,098

< 0,001

Item 13

0,694

0,1

8,609

< 0,001

0,721

-

-

-

Item 9.1

0,688

-

-

-

Item 9.3

0,738

0,11

9,871

< 0,001

Item 9.4

0,736

0,1

10,19

< 0,001

0,660

0,11

8,93

< 0,001

0,629

0,11

8,473

< 0,001

Item 9.7

0,638

0,11

8,151

< 0,001

Item 9.8

0,608

0,12

7,477

< 0,001

Item 8.1

0,608

-

-

-

Item 8.10

0,701

0,16

8,848

< 0,001

Item 8.12

0,733

0,16

8,31

< 0,001

Item 8.13

0,703

0,16

8,491

< 0,001

Item 8.14

0,566

0,13

7,836

< 0,001

Item 8.2

0,700

0,08

11,72

< 0,001

0,671

0,12

10,19

< 0,001

Item 8.5

0,729

0,14

9,99

< 0,001

Item 8.6

0,712

0,15

8,716

< 0,001

Item 8.7

0,711

0,13

9,335

< 0,001

Item 8.8

0,691

0,13

8,6

< 0,001

Item 8.9

0,690

0,14

9,039

< 0,001

Item 7.5

Item 12.4

Item 10

Item 9.5 Item 9.6

Item 8.4

Motivation

Destin. Satisfaction

M. Al-Zahra Satisfact.

Madinat Al-Zahra Value

Destin Value

Source: Authors

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Table 2. Standardised coefficients between latent variables Latent variable

Interest

Motivation Destination Value Mad. Al-Zahra Value

Latent Variable

Standardized coefficient

P-value

Destination Value

0,809

0,01

Motivation

0,629

-

Madinat Al-Zahra Satisf.

0,458

0,04

Madinat Al-Zahra Value

-0,474

< 0,001

Destination Value

1,521

0,01

Madinat Al-Zahra Value

-0,048

0,7

Madinat Al-Zahra Value

0,808

< 0,001

Destination Satisfaction

1,137

-

Destination Value

-0,237

0,62

Madinat Al-Zahra Satisf.

-0,831

0,01

Destination Satisfaction

Destination Value

-1,499

0,05

Madinat Al-Zahra Satisf.

0,964

-

Madinat Al-Zahra Satisf.

Valor_Medina_Azahara

0,76

-

Destination Satisfaction

-0,171

0,08

Source: Authors

To finalise the validation process for the estimated model, incremental and absolute parsimony adjustment measures were calculated (see Table 3), with a view to confirming the goodness of fit of the proposed model and support the hypotheses of the study. All values obtained in relation to model adjustment measures validate the model, are either optimal or acceptable, according to recommendations set forth by Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black (2001). After validating the model, as explained above, the standardised coefficients between measured and latent variables in Table 1 can be used to estimate value indices for each latent variable, which then allowed us obtain a value for each individual surveyed. Table 4 shows the means and standard deviations of the six latent variables. Once calculated, to facilitate easier interpretation, the figures were standardized to a scale between 1 to 100. This index offers the possibility to compare the satisfaction of tourists that visited the destination with satisfaction reported at similar destinations, such as other places rich in World Heritage. Of particular relevance, the results show elevated values for interest and satisfaction, with values of 82.65 and 83.45, respectively. In addition, the index value of the destination was 78.50, lower than the 83.45 satisfaction that Cordoba achieved, which suggests that the value perceived by visiting tourists is 122

Tourist Satisfaction Analysis Through Structural Equation Models

Table 3. Goodness of fit Measures of adjustment of parsimony PNFI

0,332

PGFI

0,711

Incremental adjustment measures AGFI

0,803

Absolute adjustment measures Chi-square/DF

1,779

GFI

0,832

RMSEA

0,047

RMR

0,416

Source: Authors

Table 4. Mean and estimated standard deviations in latent variable indices Latent variable

Mean

Standard deviation

Interest

82,65

11,9802

Motivation

72,633

14,9168

Destination satisfaction

83,455

12,2842

Madinat Al-Zahra satisfaction

76,186

16,1747

Destination value

78,5

13,1287

Madinat Al-Zahra value

77,923

14,0389

Source: Authors

greater than they had expected. This may indicate that expectation levels before to the visit were exceeded by the satisfaction perceived by tourists that visited the city. Therefore, we might deduce that the work of institutions and administrations responsible for tourism is following the correct path.

Issues, Controversies, Problems Using structural equation models has become widespread in recent times in a multitude of fields within the social sciences. This is due to the great strength that this statistical technique has to explain complex systems that feature both measurable variables and interrelated latent variables. The satisfaction experienced by a tourist visiting a chosen destination is very important in terms of his or her desire to repeat the visit in the future, as well as at the 123

Tourist Satisfaction Analysis Through Structural Equation Models

time of sharing his or her feeling about the trip to friends and family. A high level of satisfaction can create loyal tourists, who in turn, may encourage friends and family to visit a place. Understanding that in depth can help the involved administrative bodies, both public and private, make decisions regarding improvements to service provision. It can also identify business opportunities that may help foment entrepreneurship within the sector. However, the application of structural equation models is a statistical technique that, on the one hand, requires correct application, meaning that one must previously verify a set of necessary hypotheses, such as the normality of the variables at play. On the other hand, it is important to remember that the technique is confirmatory in nature, which is to say, it is used to confirm whether the empirical data fit a particular theoretical model. This makes it necessary for the model in question to have and be justified by theoretical support.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS As shown earlier, studying the satisfaction of clients in general, and of tourists in particular, may be done by a quantitative analysis of all the factors that might influence it, in order to obtain estimates of the level of satisfaction and the different factors involved. Carrying out this study in a way that generates reliable results requires a high level of theoretical knowledge of the factors that can influence satisfaction, as well as the way in which those factors relate with each other and with satisfaction. A high degree of knowledge allows one to establish a model that represents the situation in the most accurate way possible. Knowledge of the theories that underpin satisfaction must be coupled with a strong knowledge of the statistical techniques that one wishes to apply. This involves knowing the exact information the model needs to produce estimates, as well as knowing how to build the most productive possible instrument for collecting data. Determining whether a given statistical framework fits, validating the model using on research results, and interpreting the results are as important as other necessary skills. Correctly estimating the factors involved in satisfaction grants access to valuable information for an area’s local tourism industry and encourages entrepreneurship by identifying supply gaps and business opportunities that might improve different indices associated with satisfaction.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS There are several movements within science to analyse satisfaction and the factors influence it using moderately different models, such as the American Customer Satisfaction Index or the European Customer Satisfaction Index. One future line of work that could generate great interest is analysing how the differences between the different theories can affect the estimates within the satisfaction index. This would require development of an instrument that could collect all the data used by the different models and their structural equations. On the other hand, it could be of great interest to analyse tourist satisfaction based on each individual product or service consumed, in order to improve satisfaction by carefully identifying the products or services that require some type of review.

CONCLUSION Structural equation models can successfully measure how satisfied tourists are with the destinations they have visited based on their previous interests and motives, the perceived value of the destinations and tourist attractions, and the satisfaction experienced in relation to those places. One example of this comes from Cordoba, Spain, where researchers studied the satisfaction of tourists related to the value and satisfaction shown after visiting the Madinat Al-Zahra architectural complex, which had attracted growing interest since being declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The obtained result was a higher value on the satisfaction index than in perceived value, which could be interpreted to mean that the services received at the destination exceeded tourists’ expectations. The opposite occurs when analysing perceived value of and satisfaction with Madinat Al-Zahra. Those values are considerably lower than those of the destination, which suggests potential to improve the services provided. In addition, perceived value attained higher ratings than satisfaction, indicating that not all tourist expectations were met. Structural equation models (SEMs) are powerful tools that use sample data to confirm complex theoretical systems and allow analysis of variables that cannot be measured directly. Nevertheless, application of these models must be based on knowledge of theories that explain client satisfaction in the tourism sector and any applied statistical techniques.

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Dodds, R., & Holmes, M. R. (2019). Beach tourists; what factors satisfy them and drive them to return. Ocean and Coastal Management, 168, 158–166. doi:10.1016/j. ocecoaman.2018.10.034 Fakeye, P. C., & Crompton, J. L. (1991). Image differences between prospective, first-time and repeat visitors to Lower Rio Grande Valley. Journal of Travel Research, 30(2), 10–16. doi:10.1177/004728759103000202 Figuerola, M. P. (2018). Futuro del turismo, ordenación o masificación. Estudios Turísticos, 215, 9–38. Fodness, D. (1994). Measuring tourist motivation. Annals of Tourism Research, 21(3), 555–581. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(94)90120-1 Gallarza, M. G., Saura, I. G., & García, H. C. (2002). Destination image: Toward a conceptual framework. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(1), 56–78. doi:10.1016/ S0160-7383(01)00031-7 Goyhenetche, M. (1999). Historia General del País Vasco. San Sebastián: Ttarttalo. Grónroos, C. (1990). Service management and marketing: Managing the moments of truth in service competition. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Hafermann, O. G., & Lankford, S. V. (2019). Motivations of Wine Travellers in Rural Northeast Iowa. In M. Sigala & R. Robinson (Eds.), Wine Tourism Destination Management and Marketing. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-3-03000437-8_5 Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. (2001). Análisis multivariante. Madrid, Spain: Prentice Hall. Hidalgo-Fernández, A., Hernández-Rojas, R., Jimber, J. A., & Casas-Rosal, J. C. (2019). Tourist Motivations and Satisfaction in the Archaeological Ensemble of Madinat Al-Zahra. Sustainability, 11(5), 1380. doi:10.3390u11051380 Hiriart Pardo, C. A., & Alvarado Sizzo, I. (2010). Ciudad histórica y turismo: El patrimonio como espectáculo en el devenir turístico (2000-2014) de Morelia. Historia (Wiesbaden, Germany), 11, 249–263. Hsu, C. H. (2003). Mature Motor-Coach Traveler’s Satisfaction: A Preliminary Step To- ward Measurement Development. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research (Washington, D.C.), 20(10), 1–19.

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Kim, O. Y. S., & Nurhidayati, V. A. (2019). Scale to measure tourist value of destination restaurant service. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 31(7), 2827–2844. doi:10.1108/IJCHM-05-2018-0443 Matovelle, P. A. T., & Mejía, M. C. V. (2016). The World Heritage Cities as highly positioned tourist destinations. Retos Turísticos, 15(2), 1–13. Nilson, T. H. (1992). La comercialización de valor añadido: gestión de marketing para obtener resultados superiores. Berkshire, Reino Unido: McGraw Hill. Oliver, R. (1980). A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decision. JMR, Journal of Marketing Research, 17(4), 460–469. doi:10.1177/002224378001700405 Organización Mundial del Turismo (OMT). (2016). Panorama del Turismo Internacional. World Tourism Organization (OMT-UNWTO). Retrieved from https:// www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284418152 Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V., & Berry, L. (1994). Alternative Scales for Measuring Service Quality: A comparative Assessment Based on Psychometric and Diagnostic Criteria. Journal of Retailing, 70(3), 201–230. doi:10.1016/0022-4359(94)90033-7 Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1985). A conceptual model of service quality and its implications for future research. Journal of Marketing, 49(4), 41–50. doi:10.1177/002224298504900403 Prayag, G., & Lee, C. (2019). Tourist motivation and place attachment: The mediating effects of service interactions with hotel employees. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 36(1), 90–106. doi:10.1080/10548408.2018.1494087 Rosales, J. C. P., Salas, J. M. G., & Palacios-Rangel, M. I. (2019). Trends of tourism in four magic villages of Puebla, Mexico. Journal of Tourism and Heritage Research, 2(1), 235–259. Rust, R. T., & Oliver, R. L. (1994). Service Quality Insights and Managerial Implications from the Frontier. Service Quality New Directions in Theory and Practice. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Seto, D. (2004). De la calidad de Servicio a la Fidelización del Cliente. Madrid, España: ESIC. Su, L., Hsu, M. K., & Swanson, S. (2014). The Effect of Tourist Relationship Perception on Destination Loyalty at a World Heritage Site in China: The Mediating Role of Overall Destination Satisfaction and Trust. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research (Washington, D.C.), 41(2), 180–210. doi:10.1177/1096348014525630 128

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Troitiño, M. Á. & Troitiño, L. (2010). Patrimonio y turismo: una complementariedad necesaria en un contexto de uso responsable del patrimonio y cualificación de la visita. Patrimonio cultural de España, 3, 89-108. Wu, H. C., & Li, T. (2017). A study of experiential quality, perceived value, heritage image, experiential satisfaction, and behavioral intentions for heritage tourists. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 41(8), 904–944. doi:10.1177/1096348014525638 Yuksel, A. (2001). Managing customer satisfaction and retention: A case of tourist destinations, Turkey. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 7(2), 153–168. doi:10.1177/135676670100700205 Yuksel, A., Yuksel, F., & Bilim, Y. (2010). Destination attachment: Effects on customer satisfaction and cognitive, affective and conative loyalty. Tourism Management, 31(2), 274–284. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2009.03.007

ADDITIONAL READING Abubakar, B., & Mavondo, F. (2014). Tourism Destinations: Antecedents to Customer Satisfaction and Positive Word-of-mouth. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 23(8), 833–864. doi:10.1080/19368623.2013.796865 Alegre, J., & Garau, J. (2010). Tourist satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Annals of Tourism Research, 37(1), 52–73. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2009.07.001 Confente, I. (2015). Twenty-five years of word-of-mouth studies: A critical review of tourism research. International Journal of Tourism Research, 17(6), 613–624. doi:10.1002/jtr.2029 Johnson, M. D., Anderson, E. W., & Fornell, C. (1995). Rational and Adaptive performance expectations in a customer satisfaction framework. The Journal of Consumer Research, 21(4), 695–707. doi:10.1086/209428 Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modelling. Guilford publications. Kozak, M., & Rimmington, M. (2000). Tourist satisfaction with Mallorca, Spain, as an off-season holiday destination. Journal of Travel Research, 38(3), 260–269. doi:10.1177/004728750003800308 Lomax, R. G., & Schumacker, R. E. (2004). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modelling. Psychology Press.

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Sharma, G., & Baoku, L. (2013). Customer satisfaction in Web 2.0 and information technology development. Information Technology & People, 26(4), 347–367. doi:10.1108/ITP-12-2012-0157

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Interest: Attitude of a person – in this case, a future tourist – that demonstrates a desire to direct his/her attention to a set of products or services that attract him/ her and inspire curiosity. Latent variable: Complex variable that cannot be directly measured, either because the respondent lacks in-depth knowledge of the concept due to its complexity, or because the variable is impossible to assess without considering its determining factors. Motivation: Emotional response of tourists to receiving a product or service that determines future actions. Perceived Value: Measure by which tourists evaluate the characteristics of a product or service and its ability to satisfy their needs and expectations, especially when compared to other similar products or services. Satisfaction: Emotional response of tourists to a received product or service, which also involves the degree to which the prior expectations have been met. Structural equation model: Parametric statistical technique that allows one to test, within a given collection of data, whether a theoretical model related to a complex set of measurable and latent can be verified at the population level. Tourist Destination: Place a tourist chooses to visit, for which he/she feels some degree of interest and motivation.

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Chapter 7

Cultivating Magic and Nostalgia:

Walt Disney World and Trends in Global Theme Park Tourism Erika Cornelius Smith Nichols College, USA Maryann Conrad Nichols College, USA

ABSTRACT In 2018, the Magic Kingdom at Disney World in Florida was the world’s mostvisited theme park, with nearly 20.8 million visitors. The influence of Disney is only growing, as Disneyland attendance was up 2% in 2018, drawing an average of more than 51,000 people a day. This study will argue that Disney’s success, in part, draws on the ability to create authentic nostalgia tourism experiences for its guests. After situating the Walt Disney Company and its experiences in the literature on cultural tourism and memorable tourism experiences (MTEs), this study will explain the significance of nostalgia tourism and offer specific examples from the Walt Disney World theme park model. This includes examples from the six Disney resorts and 12 Disney parks globally.

INTRODUCTION We keep moving forward, opening up new doors and doing new things because we’re curious, and curiosity keeps leading us down new paths. – Walt Disney. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch007 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Cultivating Magic and Nostalgia

According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, the travel and tourism industry is one of the world’s largest economic sectors, supporting one in 10 jobs (319 million) worldwide and generating 10.4% (US$8.8 trillion) of world GDP in 2018. In 2018, travel and tourism experienced 3.9% growth, compared to the global economy (3.2%) and one in five new jobs were created by the industry over the last five years. Within the broader industry, cultural tourism has been deemed one of the fastest growing segments within the tourism industry and has become a focus of interest for national governments as well as international organizations such as the World Tourism Organization and UNESCO (du Cros, 2001; World Tourism Organization, 2005). Scholars who examine the tourism and hospitality industry argue that there is a segment of cultural tourists that has not been properly accounted for as many of today’s cultural tourists are not seeking other cultures, but rather insights into their own ancestral culture. This practice is now often referred to as “nostalgic tourism” (Russell 2008). While the majority of studies on nostalgia tourism have focused on ethnic or identity-based connections, this research expands the body of literature by suggesting that other travel experiences and forms of tourism are able to generate similar personal, emotional connections for guests. This chapter will discuss the approach of theme parks in creating nostalgic tourism experiences with specific attention to the model created by Walt Disney World Resorts and Theme Parks. In 2018, Magic Kingdom at Disney World in Florida was the world’s mostvisited theme park, with nearly 20.8 million visitors, according to an annual report released by Themed Entertainment Association and AECOM, which tracks and ranks attendance at theme parks around the world. In the same year, over 157 million people visited a Disney theme park somewhere in the world and Disney owned the four busiest theme parks in the world. And the influence of Disney is only growing, as Disneyland attendance was up 2% in 2018, drawing 18.6 million visitors. That’s an average of more than 51,000 people a day. This study will argue that Disney’s success, in part, draws on the ability to create authentic nostalgia tourism experiences for its guests. After situating the Walt Disney Company and its experiences in the literature on cultural tourism and memorable tourism experiences (MTEs), this study will explain the significance of nostalgia tourism and offer specific examples from the Walt Disney World theme park model. This includes examples from the six Disney resorts and 12 Disney parks globally.

Cultural Tourism According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), international tourist arrivals grew 7.0% in 2017, the highest increase since the 2009 global economic crisis and well above UNWTO’s long-term forecast of 3.8% per year for the period 2010 132

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to 2020 (4). A total of 1,326 million international tourist arrivals were recorded in destinations around the world, some 86 million more than in 2016 (UNWTO 2018, 4). In the midst of this industry growth, cultural tourism forms an ever-expanding market. The literature defining and describing cultural tourism is diverse, as are the meanings of “cultural” when invoked in reference to cultural tourism (Chen and Rahman 2018; Richards 1996). Often, scholars use “cultural” to invoke a specific ethnic, religious, linguistic, geographic identity similar to heritage tourism (Gnoth and Zins 2013; Nyaupane, Timothy, and Poudel 2015; Kivela and Crotts 2006). Following the typology of cultural tourism used by Hughes (2002), this study views cultural tourism as an activity and visitation by the tourist to cultural destinations (e.g. Silberberg 1995; Reisinger, 1994). Defining cultural tourism is a topic of debate in the literature, because the notions of “culture” and “tourism” themselves are diverse and open to differing interpretations. For the purposes of this research, the authors will rely on the new operational definition of cultural tourism identified at the UNWTO 22nd Session of the General Assembly held in Chengdu, China (UNWTO 2017, 18): Cultural tourism is a type of tourism activity in which the visitor’s essential motivation is to learn, discover, experience and consume the tangible and intangible cultural attractions/products in a tourism destination. These attractions/products relate to a set of distinctive material, intellectual, spiritual and emotional features of a society that encompasses arts and architecture, historical and cultural heritage, culinary heritage, literature, music, creative industries and the living cultures with their lifestyles, value systems, beliefs and traditions. As Richards (2018) notes, this new definition confirms the much broader nature of contemporary cultural tourism, which relates not just to sites and monuments, but to ways of life, creativity and “everyday culture.” At its core, cultural tourism aims to unite economic profit and the conservation of values. Cultural tourism represents an independent tourism product, that aims to raise awareness of how important it is to preserve the values of the past, and how cultural heritage, and respect towards built and natural environment can strengthen the identity (Rátz and Puczkó, 1999). World Tourism Organisation defines cultural tourism as the movement of persons to cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with the intention to gather new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs” (WTO, 1985). In a broader sense, it encompasses all free movements of persons away from their places of residence and work, as well as the service industries created to satisfy the needs resulting from these movements. (WTO, 1989). A later published definition of WTO defines cultural tourism with a similar approach: “the movement of persons to cultural attractions in cities in 133

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countries other than their normal place of residence, with the intention to gather new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs.” (WTO-ETC, 2005). In this sense, cultural tourism means all types of travelling, where the main motivation is to get to know cultural values (Bujdoso et al. 2015, p. 313). Building on the discussion of cultural tourism above, this chapter situates The Walt Disney Company in a cultural tourism framework, recognizing Disney as a brand that constructs, promotes, and disseminates distinct cultural values. According to the company’s website, the mission of Disney is to entertain, inform and inspire people around the globe through the power of unparalleled storytelling, reflecting the iconic brands, creative minds and innovative technologies that make ours the world’s premier entertainment company. (Walt Disney Company, 2019) Scholars identify the elements of culture as symbols, language, norms, values, and artifacts (Jahoda 2012). Guests of Disney parks, particular Walt Disney World, instantly recognize the silhouette of mouse ears or the iconic landscape created by Cinderella’s castle. The company invokes its own language in referring to employees as “Cast Members” and trains them through Disney University to use alternative language in the park that will not disturb the guest experience (Newell 2012). As the mission statement above notes, the company emphasizes the values of storytelling and innovation. Taken together, these and other elements represent a distinct Disney culture and it is one that consumers have sought to experience since the first Disneyland Park opened in July of 1955.

Memorable Tourism Experiences (MTEs) Continued growth in tourism has changed the position of cultural tourism from a niche market consisting of relatively well-educated and high-income visitors, towards a mass market open to a much wider range of people. Studies in tourism, hospitality, and related fields seek to understand why people engage in cultural tourism by examining motivation and related factors such as satisfaction and loyalty. Many of these studies are undertaken from a marketing perspective, but there are also close links with psychology and consumer behavior. The components of a tourism experience are complicated and vary widely in the hospitality research. Gomez-Jacinto, Martin-Garcia, and Bertiche-Haud’Huyze (1999) demonstrated that tourist experiences include cultural interaction, activities, service quality, and satisfaction. Stamboulis and Skayannis (2003) and Pine and Gilmore (2011) indicated that tourism experiences have four realms, including entertainment, education, escapism, and esthetics. Also known as the “4E’s,” these four realms of experiences are positioned along a horizontal axis reflecting the level of guest participation, ranging from passive to active, and a vertical axis reflective

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of absorption or immersion in the experience (Pine and Gilmore, 2011; QuadriFelitti and Fiore, 2012). Pine and Gilmore (2011) express that staging experiences are not just about entertaining guests, but rather, engaging them. In passive entertainment encounters, such as watching a performance, the experience goes into or is absorbed by the guest. When the guest instead goes into an experience; however, as when playing a video game, they are then immersed in the experience. Guests motivated by entertainment experiences are looking to enjoy the experience. Different from the entertainment experience, the educational realm reflects the active/absorption dimension of the experience model. Guests absorb and actively participate in the educational experience shifting the focus from the experience supplier to the guest-user, as the educational experience resides in the active learning process. Guests who are motivated by educational experiences have a desire to learn. Escapism experiences are the opposite of entertainment experiences. Rather than reflecting a passive/ absorption of the experience, escapism experiences are highly immersive, with the guest transported to a different time or place. Motivated by a preference to go and do, guests actively participate and shape their experiences. The final realm in Pine and Gilmore’s model, the esthetic experience, reflects a passive/immersion dimension. Although guests are immersed in the esthetic experience, they have passive or no effect on it. Esthetic experiences can be natural, fake, or a combination of the two. Regardless, both are considered authentic as the individual creates the experience within themselves. Guests that are motivated by esthetic experiences prefer just to be. These four realms often “co-mingle” to form uniquely personal encounters that drive the MTE. The goal is to immerse the guest into the experience; immersion is not passive absorption, but a stronger relationship involving meaningful connection, action, and engagement. In the nearly seven decades of park and resort operations, The Walt Disney Company has evolved it’s model of the guest experience and successfully leveraged the four realms to create magical, memorable moments for its guests.

4E’s and Disney “The idea of Disneyland is a simple one. It will be a place for people to find happiness and knowledge… to discover greater ways of understanding and education” - Walt Disney, as he defined his vision for his first theme park (Thomas, 1994). The concept of edutainment, was first discussed by Walt Disney in 1954 with his “True Life Adventure” entertainment films that were used as a teaching tool in the classroom. Underscoring his belief in the integration of education and entertainment, Disney stated “the motion picture theatre and the academic classroom can have much in common in material and methods of presentation” with an “implicit overlap.” 135

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(Disney, 1954). The term edutainment, coined to convey a blend of education and entertainment, the first two dimensions of the 4E’s, embodies the entertainment and educational dimensions of Walt Disney World. Walt Disney first envisioned Epcot - Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow - as “a showcase for American industry and research, schools, cultural and educational opportunities” (Thomas, 349). Although Walt Disney died fourteen years before Epcot was built in 1980 his vision of cultural and educational opportunities remain and are an integral part of both Epcot’s World Showcase and its Future World. At World Showcase, guests explore eleven countries from around the world through educational films, attractions, authentic food and beverage, and interact with the international cast members that staff their respective countries. Epcot’s Future World similarly infuses education into many of the attractions, such as Spaceship Earth, Epcot’s flagship symbol of the park. In this signature geosphere, guests “travel through time and explore the remarkable history of human communication from the Stone Age to the computer age” (Disney World, 2019). Elaborate sets, advanced audio-animatronics, and music contemporary to each time period enhance the environment while guests become co-creators of their own experience, designing their future at the prompt, “Let’s have some fun creating the future, shall we? On your computer screen, answer a few questions for us. Then, we’ll show you a new world, custom made just for you. Ready?” In 2018 alone, 12,444,000 guests were edutained at Epcot’s countries and various attractions (TEA/AECOM, 2019). The magic of Disney education/entertainment is further demonstrated in several attractions at the Magic Kingdom. These include classics such as “Hall of Presidents,” the first attraction to use Audio-Animatronics figures in human form, and “It’s a Small World” with its Audio-Animatronic children from cultures around the world singing the iconic song of the same name. Walt Disney World’s Animal Kingdom park has Kilimanjaro Safari, where guests learn wildlife facts on a guided safari tour through the Harambe Wildlife Reserve, home to 34 species and several nature themed attractions. The synergies achieved by blending these learning experiences through storytelling, entertainment, and engaging the guest is a key component in memorable experiences staged by Disney. Escapist environments, typically staged in artificial settings such as theme parks, casinos, or themed “escape room” games, assume an active level of guest participation in an immersive environment. Customized rich and deep experiences that involve guests to make decisions directing the outcome, as opposed to being led along a predetermined path, are particularly compelling and have become increasingly a guest expectation. Disney, a forerunner in escapism experience, immerses guests enabling them to become actors affecting their environment, a key component in the escapist dimension, (Pine and Gilmore, 2011). An example of this is Disney’s Toy Story Mania, a 4-D attraction that has guests aboard spinning ride vehicles taking 136

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part in a series of fast-paced mini carnival inspired adventure games. Similar to a video game, each experience is individual as guests assess their scores and compete against one another for the highest score (Lukas, 2013). Guests are also able to “turn wait time into play time” via Play Disney Parks mobile application that connects guests to themed activities, in-queue games, trivia, and themed playlists that “brings surrounding environments to life.” A highly immersive space is one that is living and dynamic in multiple ways. Storytelling, a key component in linking the elements, works to establish the mood and involve guests in the story (Lukas (2013). Multiple connecting touch points must be present to bring the theme to a three-dimensional level that the guest can interact with for optimum immersion. At Disney’s Star Wars: Galaxy Edge, for example, a number of cues are evident as guests enter the land that signify the story that is about to begin. Cast members greet guests using theme-specific vocabulary and costuming is unique to each area throughout. Cast member’s name tags display not only the cast member’s real name, but also their name in “Aurebesh,” the in-world written language of Star Wars. For even deeper immersion, guests can hydrate with blue milk and engage with the Star Wars: Datapad on their mobile device that allows them to play games, earn credits, translate languages from the Star Wars galaxy. Disney uses these detailed elements to connect the guest with the story making for a cohesive, deep, and active experience, alongside the land’s attractions. Many escapist experiences are motion simulator rides based on adventure or fiction movies (Pine and Gilmore, 2011). Virtual reality and motion simulator attractions based on Disney’s intellectual properties highlight the shift to fully immersive experiences where the lines between fantasy and reality become increasingly blurred. Flight of Passage, a 3D motion simulator ride at Disney’s Pandora - The World of Avatar, creates this experience for guests by simulating flight on one of the planet’s wild Banshees, taking the role of a Na’vi - the inhabitants of Pandora. As the guest seemingly hurtles through valleys and mountains they are able to physically feel and hear their Banshee’s deep breathing beneath them, making their experience come alive in a unique and memorable way. Disney’s ability to put the guest inside the experience as an active participant, or main character in the story, through storytelling, carefully placed props, and physical stimuli is the essence of the escapist dimension. Disney use of esthetics, the fourth of the experience realms, seamlessly combines both real and simulated environments in a multisensory guest experience, reflecting the “show” aspect of Disney’s Four Keys (Disney Institute, 2011). Disney engages their guest’s senses in conscious and unconscious ways though pleasing scents, special effects, color, and music. As guests pass through the gates at Magic Kingdom, they are greeted almost immediately by the smell of fresh buttery popcorn from one of the many popcorn carts throughout the park. Wafting down Main Street USA, the 137

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first theme land guests encounter when entering the Magic Kingdom, the saccharine smells of freshly baked cookies, waffle cones, and sweet vanilla engage and delight the guests’ olfactory senses. Guests’ passive immersion with mood enhancing sensations is evident in the resorts and attractions as well, each distinctive and memorable, such as the tropical fruity smell upon entering the Polynesian Resort, the woodsy fragrance at Wilderness Lodge, or the open breeze sensations, sounds, and scents in Epcot’s Soarin’ attraction as guests glide over Fiji. Color and music play a central part of the sensory experience and esthetics at Disney. Disney makes liberal use of yellow, orange, and green, frequently associated with positive connotations, while muted green and grey paints are used to diminish visibility of trash cans, backstage areas or background buildings unrelated to the theme. Atmospheric music throughout the parks, upbeat music as guests enter the gates of the Magic Kingdom in the morning, and mellow music in the evening, coordinated with the timing of guests’ arrival and departure (Newell) all foster an immersive ambiance. The building facades on Main Street also promote the esthetic realm of the guest experience. Disney Immagineers used forced perspective in the design, making the buildings appear much larger than they actually are. The windows of the fictitious businesses in the building are named after individuals who contributed to the development and building of the Disney parks, such as “Elias Disney, Contractor, Est. 1895,” paying homage to Walt Disney’s father. These small but rich details enhance the guest’s experience as they make the historical connections and by being an “insider” to Disney secrets, much like with the “hidden Mickeys” spread throughout the parks and resorts. The esthetic of many Disney experiences strive to conceal anything fake (Pine and Gilmore, 2011), so as not to detract from the experience. One way Disney accomplishes this is through their use of their utilidor system - below level utility tunnels that lead to sections of the Magic Kingdom. Spread over a nine acre span, this labyrinth of tunnels allows park operations to perform waste removal, travel of cast members, and character shuttling - all without disturbing the guest experience that could occur if a cast member from one themed land walked through another. “You’re able to do all the back-of-the-house without your guests ever having to see. You don’t want anything to interrupt the story” (Dreyer J., Windahl, 2017). Chen and Rahman (2018) found that higher levels of visitor engagement in cultural tourism create stronger experiences. Cultural tourists who effectively use resources, such as guided tours, guidebooks, panels, literature, media and materials, onsite facilities, or help from staff are likely to seek more interaction with and a better understanding of the experience and destination culture. This raises the level of engagement for tourists’ in the MTE. Walt Disney Company parks, resorts, and experiences do this effectively through their cast member engagement, use of the “My Disney Experience” application and “FastPass+” for planning park activities, 138

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and the numerous blogs/online resources available for planning before traveling. The My Disney Experience app allows guests to get attraction wait times as well as showtimes for fireworks and parades, find character greeting locations and times, browse restaurant menus, make dining reservations and place mobile orders at select quick-service restaurants. It includes interactive, GPS-enabled maps to allow guests to uncover fun things to do and see at Magic Kingdom park, Epcot, Disney’s Hollywood Studios and Disney’s Animal Kingdom theme park. Similarly, Disney’s FastPass+ is a system for reserving attraction times in the Walt Disney World theme parks. With a FP+ reservation, instead of waiting in the regular line for a ride, guests are directed to a special line with a shorter wait time. These resources allow guests to customize their experiences and learn more about Disney attractions. Taken together, these components create a memorable tourism experience, a “tourism experience remembered and recalled after the event has occurred” (Kim et al., 2010, p. 2). The significance of MTE theory originates from the power of past memory on consumer decision-making (Chandralal and Valenzuela, 2013). According to some scholars, past memory is considered to be the most valuable source of information when a tourist makes a decision to a particular destination (Chandralal and Valenzuela, 2013). As Pizam (2010) states, “creating memorable experiences is the essence and the raison d’etre of the hospitality industry” (p. 343). Despite greater focus in the hospitality literature on the importance and creation of MTEs, scholars still argue that more research must be done to uncover the specific elements--that is, the essence--of what exactly makes certain experiences special, spectacular, and memorable (Tung and Ritchie 2011, p. 1368). Recently, studies have also emphasized the role of emotional (Otto and Ritchie, 1996), social (Morgan and Xu, 2009), and sensecape (Dann and Jacobsen, 2003) as relevant dimensions of the tourist experience to consider. One answer to this question might lie in the psychological standpoint on MTEs, specifically with respect to a renewed interest in “nostalgia” tourism.

Nostalgia Tourism Contributing to the growth of cultural tourism is a growing interest in nostalgia and tourists seeking insights into their own ancestral culture. This practice is now often referred to as “nostalgic tourism” (Russell, 2008). Although the majority of studies on nostalgia tourism have focused on historical, ethnic or identity-based connections, other travel experiences and forms of tourism are able to generate similar personal, emotional connections spanning generational cohorts. Nostalgia can be defined as “a sentimental or bittersweet yearning for an experience, product, or service from the past” and though nostalgia may have a bittersweet quality, there is also happiness in the emotion (Baker & Kennedy, 1994). Hepper el al. (2012) 139

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state that viewing nostalgia as either positive or negative is over-simplistic, however positive emotions may be more representative of nostalgic experiences than negative emotions, while some experiences more are representative of nostalgia than others. (Hepper et al., 2012 p. 9). The nostalgia emotion can differ depending on the context and the individual. Baker and Kennedy (1994) classify nostalgia in three levels - real, simulated, and collective. Real nostalgia is based on direct personal experience, also known as “true nostalgia” (Davis, 1979). This differs from “simulated nostalgia,” evoked by indirectly experiencing the past as in historical events, hearing a loved one relive a memory, or the nostalgic feelings that may be elicited from holding or viewing an antique object or a museum visit. Lastly, “collective nostalgia” can be evoked based on a culture, generation, or a nation and, given its collective nature, resulting in a more consistent emotion amongst individuals of a similar background. For example, collective nostalgia may be felt by the Millennial generation toward certain Disney movies such as The Lion King or The Little Mermaid, while Peter Pan or Mary Poppins may evoke those feelings with Baby Boomers. Symbols of a culture or a country can similarly evoke collective emotion, such as baseball and hot dogs, or amusement and theme parks, in the United States. (Baker, Kennedy, 1994). Nostalgia, recognized as an intrinsic motivator (Yeh, Chen, and Liu, 2012), has been identified as a factor as a “push” motive in destination choice and a “pull” motive to a destination’s specific attributes, both considered important factors in driving behavior intentions and loyalty. Pull motives can be generally characterized into four types; historical and heritage attractions, cultural and cuisine experiences, rest and relaxation places, and family and friend bonding opportunities. Leong et al. (2015) examined the interaction of push and pull motives with nostalgia as a travel motivation to Macau, a cultural tourism destination possessing attributes that meet tourists’ need for nostalgia. Their findings suggest, though nostalgia alone will not increase loyalty to a destination, it will if the destination also provides a place for families and friends to share time together. These nostalgic push and pull factors interact with experience value, destination image, and place attachment to construct powerful memorable tourism experiences. Pine and Gilmore (2011) define experiences as the fourth economic offering, after commodities, goods, and services, contending that experiences are memorable, as compared to intangible services, tangible goods, and fungible commodities. Within this experience economy model, the seller is a stager offering, or staging, experiences with the experience being revealed over time, differing from being stored with commodities, inventoried with goods, or services delivered on demand. The key attribute of the experience is its inherent personal nature, be it on an emotional, physical, intellectual, or spiritual level, with no two people having the same experience.

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Although not every experience may evoke a strong memory, the greater the positive memory of the experience, whether recalled or not, the more value that is created for the guest. Memorable experiences will consist of multisensory dimensions, personal meaningfulness, and the intensity of the experience elements. And while all experience formations are co-created by the stager and guests, some guests will seek a more participatory role than others (Pine & Gilmore, 2011). Walt Disney was one of the first to recognize and intentionally use experiences to create value, by layering experiential effects in his cartoons and later in his theme parks through storytelling and immersive experiences. Disneyland, the first of Disney’s theme parks opened in California in 1955, and according to Walt Disney conceived as “a cartoon that immerses the audience,” with its first brochure touting it as “a new experience in entertainment” (Thomas, 1994). Destination image, the second quality and a frequently discussed topic in tourism for decades, is defined as the detailed impression or perception an individual or target audience has of a specific destination. According to Cook et al. (2010) destination image is comprised of three components: cognition - what the traveler knows or believes about a destination; affect—the positive, negative or neutral feelings one has about a destination; and conation—the likelihood a traveler will visit the destination in the future. Page and Connell (2001) describe destination image as a combination of many perspectives suggesting that it is multi-faceted, while Trauer (2001) states that tourists process sources and information on a destination and then reconstruct its’ image by their own inners thoughts, ultimately affecting their decision. A sense of place, the third quality, has been used to describe the emotional, cognitive, and functional bond people have with a specific destination (Yeh et al., 2012). Emotional attachments and nostalgia for places we visit for tourism is well documented in tourism literature (Bricker and Kerstetter, 2000). McClinchey (2016) describes it as the feeling of belonging to a place and the ability to identify with it, whether it be home, a cultural community, or even a place of employment. McClinchey further asserts that the deep emotional feelings associated with a sense of place are the binding components between the destination (the place) and the visitor experience. These deep emotional feelings are particularly important in our youth and adolescence. As people construct a life narrative, researchers in psychology have found, they tend to remember more events from their youth and twenties than from any other time. It’s called the “reminiscence bump.” According to psychologist Dan McAdams of Northwestern University, events from this period loom so large because it’s when people are most preoccupied with forming an identity. “Identity is an internalized life story,” McAdams wrote in a 2001 article called “The Psychology of Life Stories.” This internalized life story helps make sense of one’s own life. Self-

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stories keep evolving as people grow older. But the reminiscence bump persists, with events from the twenties remaining front and center. (McAdams, 2001) With respect to creating MTEs, scholars who study the reminiscence bump factor argue that youth experiences are formative and consequential. When these youth experiences are part of multi-generational travel (including children, parents, aunts and uncles, grandparents, etc.), as Disney experiences often are, nostalgia tourism becomes an important part of experience creation. It is worth considering how nostalgia tourism broadens scholarly understanding of “experience creation” and whether or not multi-generational travel and kinship should be included as a fourth quality for building MTEs.

Kinship and Multi-Generational Travel The family travel market is the largest market segment in the travel industry, representing 30% of all leisure travel. The global focus on family travel is increasing, growing 26% faster than the travel industry as a whole, with more products and services being created to become more relevant and appealing to families. This growth can be seen in family vacation travel that was previously not considered mainstream - such as Club Med, now with over 70% of its business from families, multi-generational ocean cruises, and even family-style river cruising - something previously uncommon in vacation travel. According to the AARP Travel Research on multi-generational travel, all three generational cohorts of Baby Boomers (born between 1946-1964), GenXers (born between 1965- 1980) and Millennials (born 1981-1996) cite “spend time with family/ friends” as a top travel motivator with nearly 40% of travelers choosing nostalgic destinations to share childhood memories. Although nostalgia related travel pursuits were traditionally thought to be key motivators for older consumers, such as the baby-boomer cohort, the younger GenXer and Millennial demographic cohort is also recognized as nostalgia motivated in their travel planning. Amusement parks are one of the top preferred destinations by multi-generational travelers. Not surprisingly, nostalgia has been purposefully embedded in the Disney parks, with classic attractions, such as Peter Pan’s Flight and Swiss Family Robinson appealing to the baby boomer cohort, while GenXers and Millennials are nostalgically drawn to meeting characters from Disney movies and television shows they grew up with. Theme parks, as a segment of amusement park tourism, play a key role in the tourism industry by creating a destination in themselves where visitors can escape reality and spend time with family and friends and building shared memories. By creating an atmosphere of another place and time, themes range from historical, 142

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cultural, and educational, to fantasy, entertainment or movie based. The architecture, attractions, food offerings, cast members and merchandise are designed to fully immerse the guest in the theme. Attendance at the ten worldwide major theme park operators exceeded half a billion visits for the first time in history in 2018, with Walt Disney Attractions, Merlin Entertainment, and Universal Parks and Resorts as the top three players in the industry. Strong growth of themed attractions has been driven by the demand for unique experiences reflecting the growing preference among consumers to spend on experiences rather than products, in addition to major park expansions and building of resort hotels at park properties. The leveraging of culturally popular intellectual property further drives attendance as Disney brings to life familiar fantasy worlds, such as Disney’s Pandora: The World of Avatar, Toy Story Land, and Star Wars Galaxy Edge. These immersive environments provide a nostalgic lens for older fans, while also capturing new generations.

Walt Disney Resorts, Parks, and Experiences A Walt Disney Imagineering executive once asserted that “We are dedicated to storytelling” (quoted in Schoener, 1988). Through the techniques described earlier in this chapter, The Walt Disney Company has not only created ultimate theme park experiences, but also mastered the art of nostalgia tourism. The Walt Disney Company (Walt Disney) is a diversified international family entertainment and media enterprise based in the US. The company primarily operates a portfolio of broadcast, cable, radio, publishing and digital businesses. In addition, Walt Disney is engaged in the operation of theme parks and resorts; film production; consumer entertainment products; and interactive entertainment business. The company has operations in the US and Canada, Europe, Asia Pacific, Latin America and Other. In FY2016, the US and Canada segment accounted for 76.6% of the company’s total revenues, followed by Europe with 12.1%; Asia Pacific with 8.2%; Latin America and Other with 3.1%. (The Walt Disney Company, 2019, p. 6) Walt Disney’s Parks and Resorts business segment owns and operates the Walt Disney World Resort in Florida; the Disneyland Resort in California; Aulani, a Disney Resort and Spa in Hawaii; the Disney Vacation Club; the Disney Cruise Line; and Adventures by Disney. In addition, the company manages and has ownership interests of 81% in Disneyland Paris, 47% in Hong Kong Disneyland Resort and 43% in Shanghai Disney Resort. The company also licenses the operations of the Tokyo Disney Resort in Japan. The company sells admissions to theme parks; offers food, beverage and merchandise; provides rooms at hotels; sales of cruise and other vacation packages and sales and rentals of vacation club properties. The Walt Disney Imagineering unit provides master planning, real estate development, attraction, 143

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entertainment and show design, engineering support, production support, project management and other development services, including research and development for the company’s Parks and Resorts operations. In FY2016, the Parks and Resorts segment reported revenues of $16,974 million, which accounted for 30.5% of the company’s total revenue. (The Walt Disney Company, 2019, p. 4-5). Through the various generations of its parks, Disney has developed--and continues to develop, as new tourist needs become apparent--a formula for success, whose elements are described by scholars from a variety of disciplines (MacDonald, 1988; MacDonald and Alsford, 1989, p. 53; MacDonald and Alsford, 1995, pp. 81-82). Previous research exploring the Disney model found: • • • • •

Excellence in visitor services; Multi-sensory experiences involving simulated environments (historical, natural, cultural, or technological), state-of-the-art films; and gustatory and olfactory engagement (both in exhibits and in themed restaurants); Combatting the risk of information overload, while at the same time ensuring quality of access to information, through highly structured programming of experiences; Counterbalancing of highly programmed experiences with those more like a conventional museum; displays of authentic artifacts, often from among the world’s cultural treasures; Opportunities for audience participation, including learning experiences, through the newer movie studio theme parks. (MacDonal and Alsford, 1995, p. 133)

A recent SWOT analysis provided by MarketLine research also optimistically cited opportunities for Walt Disney’s growth in global entertainment and leisure attractions. The global leisure attractions sector has been growing strongly in recent years and the market is expected to record double digit growth within the forecast period. The company is well positioned to benefit from the robust outlook for the end markets. Walt Disney is on the leading providers of leisure attractions. (The Walt Disney Company, 2019, p. 36) Thus, MarketLine and other analysts believe the strong outlook for the global leisure attractions market provides incremental growth opportunities for Walt Disney in the medium to long term. As noted previously in the section regarding “cultural” tourism, the messages conveyed through these experiences are message associated with the Disney image 144

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and “Disney’s cultural values” (MacDonald and Alsford, 1995, p. 133). They are carefully reinforced through product marketing, whether it be in items linked to the themes of particular areas of the Disney parks or of those reminding purchasers of the larger Disney mythology. The system of marketing and value cues is further reinforced through media such as movies, television, home videos, and publications. Buckingham (1997) argues that Disney’s success rests in its “dual address... Disney both constructs and speaks to elements of children’s lived experiences, while providing adults with opportunities for nostalgic fantasies about their own past” (p. 286). Charles Carson (2004), critically, adds that the “nostalgic fantasies” referenced by Buckingham (1997) were, in fact, originally constructed by Disney (p. 229). He continues, “Instead of simply referencing abstract images of princesses, fairy tales and fantastic animals, the ‘Disney Experience’ now references its own versions of these tales, versions that have been seamlessly integrated into the consumers’ own constructed nostalgic narratives” (p. 229).

Creating Magical Experiences - Storytelling and Park Design I love the nostalgic myself. I hope we never lose some of the things of the past. – Walt Disney For over six decades in their theme parks, Disney has been creating magic for guests with memorable and immersive experiences. Walt Disney’s unique perspective as an experienced creator of animated films for nearly 30 years influenced his vision for his first theme park, Disneyland. Similar to the continuity of a movie, he believed a theme park should also flow with gentle transitions and complementary architecture and color in the areas of change, an element not found in the world’s fair or museums at that time. As Thomas (1994) explains, “the visitor would be led from one attraction to the next without the jolt of adjustment, and he would remember everything he saw.” The use of nostalgia as a push and pull motive for visitation has been a powerful core strategy for Disney seen in their storytelling and park design. An integral part of the “show” aspect of Disney, each park is based on multiple stories, all working in harmony to support an underlying theme, echoing the stories being told. Each of the Disney resorts is also built around a story, with design details reflective of their theme while supporting and enhancing the stories of the lands in the parks. (Disney Institute, Kinni (2011). Both Disneyland and The Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World, by design, have one entrance leading guests directly to Main Street and a central hub with spokes to each of the park’s lands, with Cinderella’s Castle, the most important of the visual magnets positioned at the top of the hub. As guests transition from the 145

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central hub to one of the lands there is a “gradual blending of themed foliage, color, sound, music, and architecture” (Walt Disney Imagineering, 1996 in Disney Institute, 2001). Walt Disney World is divided into six themed areas or “lands.” Main Street U.S.A., Adventure Land, Frontierland, Liberty Square are themed on a nostalgic versions of the past, while Tomorrowland’s design is based on an imagined spaceage future as projected in the 1950’s and 1960’s (Keller, 2011). Keller (2011) asserts the effectiveness of these themes is more related to the memory of the past, rather than their ability to reproduce it. As such, Disney’s historically nostalgic themed lands are not necessarily intended to be historically accurate representations, but, rather, are the “stage” for the narratives of the attractions and shows, evoking a sense of ambience. The architectural styles of the buildings and detailed elements play a key role in staging the Disney nostalgic experience. In designing the entrance land of the park, Main Street, U.S.A., Walt Disney wanted to create a sense of nostalgia describing it as “America at the turn of the [20th] century – the crossroads of an era, the gas lamps and the electric lamp – the horse-drawn car and the auto car. Main Street is everyone’s hometown… the heart line of America.” The design was inspired by both his own hometown of Marceline, Missouri and Imagineer Harper Goff’s town of Fort Collins, Colorado, where Goff grew up. The memories in the park’s original design reflect the popular western narratives of the mid-20th century framed by Walt Disney’s and the Imagineers own sense of nostalgia for an imagined past and the stories Walt enjoyed as a youngster (Keller, 2011). Frontierland’s architecture evokes an idealized version of the expansion of the west throughout the 19th century. Its’ Diamond Horseshoe Saloon, patterned after the dance halls of St. Louis from the same era, is positioned at the edge of the Frontierland - symbolic of the way St. Louis was considered the gateway for the west (Jex, 2018). The architectural elements throughout Fantasyland, on the other hand, change from the real world to whimsical fairytales with light-hearted facades and entrances, as seen in the entrance to a Little Mermaid attraction with its rock walls, waterfalls, and the bow of a wooden ship (Jex, 2018).

Disney and Glocalization The Disney brand has globalized by adapting to local traditions and cultures through a process known as “glocalization,” the concept of intentionally adjusting to the particularities of local markets, and by implementing lessons learned along the way. Disney’s international ventures include globalization missteps and successful adaptations of glocalization, and parts or all of these adaptations are evident in four of their international ventures - Tokyo Disney, Disneyland Park in Paris, Hong Kong Disneyland, and its most recent, Shanghai Disney. 146

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Tokyo Disneyland opened in 1983, planned originally within the framework of a glocalization model. This approach, however, was rejected by the Japanese government, who felt that the Disney authenticity would be compromised. Rather, western values, the Disney business model, and the nostalgia of “Walt Disney’s Dream” were all utilized in the Tokyo park brand. Thus, Tokyo Disneyland was modeled identically after Disneyland in California. All signs, logos, and cast member badges were written in English, and live shows and attractions were narrated in English despite the majority of cast members speaking Japanese. Out of 30 restaurants, only one sold Japanese food. It’s “authentically American” (Maanen, 1992; Raz, 2000, as cited in Galvez, 2014) approach worked well for the Japanese market, despite differences between the Disney and the Japanese way of life. Tokyo Disneyland was considered a “special cultural haven in Japan” benefiting from an appetite of American styled popular entertainment (Harvard Business School, 1993) and strong appeal for the Disney brand. The results were the continuing success of the Disney theme park endeavours; in 2018 Tokyo Disneyland ranked third in worldwide theme park attendance, following only the original American parks of Walt Disney World’s Magic Kingdom in Florida and Disneyland Park in California (AECOM-TEA, 2019). Euro Disney opened in Paris in1992, with a single theme park and six hotels. Given the success of its Tokyo enterprise, Disney had adopted a comparable globalized branding approach to its first continental European venture. The assumption was that its Western European guests would similarly connect with the traditional Americanized design and Disney authenticity of the park; however, this was far from the case. French activists were leery of the invasion of American culture, the French government voiced concerns for upholding European traditions and norms, and France’s intellectual community felt Euro Disney would promote American consumerism (Harvard Business School, 1992). Responding to these concerns, and to the ultimately disappointing attendance figures and financial performance, Disney assimilated European elements into the park. In Fantasyland, for example, emphasis was changed to Disney characters being based in European mythology - Cinderella now lived in a French Inn, while Snow White’s home was a Bavarian Village. Disney characters with French origins would be reverted to their original names, and Adventureland would now be themed with European adventure tales (HBS, 1992). Additionally, following much criticism and in the spirit of keeping with French tradition and the “French experience”, Disney lifted their no alcohol ban in the park after the first year of operation (New York Times, 1993). Symbolically, the “Euro” name was phased out by 1995. Michael Eisner noted, “As Americans, the word ‘Euro’ is believed to mean glamorous or exciting. For Europeans it turned out to be a term they associated with business, currency, and commerce. Renaming the park ‘Disneyland Paris’ was a way of identifying it with one of the most romantic and exciting cities in the world” (Kerzner, 2017). 147

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Thus, following the disappointment of its globalization branding and a revitalization through glocalization, Disneyland Paris saw a strong attendance in excess of 9.8 million visitors in 2018 (AECOM-TEA, 2018). Hong Kong Disneyland opened in 2005 as a joint venture with the Hong Kong government. After the Disneyland Paris experience, deliberate steps of glocalization were taken to incorporate cultural norms and traditions in the park design by collaborating with the Hong Kong government. Feng shui experts were consulted to pick the date’s opening to improve the park’s chi, or positive energy (Martin, Mekinen, 2016). It was also determined that cultural dress and environmental awareness were concerns of the Chinese (Galvez, 2018). As a result, alterations were made to the original park designs to include Chinese gardens, cultural events and an advanced environmental management system (Fung & Less, 2009; Lau & Yim, 2017, in Galvez, 2018). Despite the collaboration and integration of cultural elements, however, Hong Kong Disney suffered a bumpy first year, falling short of its 5.6 million visitor expectations target. A combination of the Disney brand not being as deeply ingrained in China (Barboza, Barnes, 2011) and a conservatively small size (only 16 attractions) were attributed to the lower numbers (Shuman, 2006). While it continues to expand, Hong Kong Disneyland is the smallest of the Disney parks, with a most recent attendance of 6.7 million guests in 2018. Drawing on the lessons of its previous international park openings, Disney launched its first mainland China park in 2016 with a fully glocalized approach. Shanghai Disney, referred to as “Authentically Disney and distinctly Chinese,” by CEO Bob Iger, worked alongside the Chinese government, engineers, artists, designers and cultural advisors to facilitate a harmonious relationship between the people of China, its government, and Disney. Disney tapped into the core Chinese cultural values of harmonic balance and collective identity (Galvez, 2018) intentionally incorporating valued elements of peaceful surroundings and family bonding. Examples of this can be seen in the design of the Gardens of Imaginations, created especially for Shanghai Disneyland “tailored to the Chinese people’s love of gardens,” (Glover, 2016), while the Wishing Star Park evokes the native landscape and historic legacy of China’s Yangtze River Delta. Moreover, attraction narratives, songs and stories are presented in Mandarin; art and architecture in the park were designed to reflect the “distinctively Chinese” experience, including a castle constructed with symbolic Chinese elements to illustrate the blending of the Disney and Chinese cultures; and park promotions have been designed to emphasize collective identity depicting togetherness (Galvez, 2018) and the shared experiences of the young and old. Using a fully glocalized marketing, branding and design approach, Shanghai Disneyland ranked 8th in worldwide theme park attendance, successfully welcoming 11.8 million guests in 2018.

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Epcot - Cultural and Nostalgic Tourism Inspired by Walt Disney’s original vision of a city of the future, Epcot (originally named Epcot Center) opened at Walt Disney World in 1982. When Imagineers considered revising Walt’s original plan for Epcot to a theme park, some Imagineers wanted the park to focus on technological innovation and advancement, while others wanted to showcase international culture. Eventually, Epcot was designed with both - Future World and World Showcase, recognizing and honoring the past, while anticipating the future (Carpenter, 2018). Both cultural and nostalgic tourism are represented in World Showcase and Future World at Epcot. World Showcase provides guests insight to the cultural heritage, arts and entertainment, and lifestyles of eleven different countries, with architecturally authentic buildings and backdrops and hosted by international cast members. Visitors motivated by getting to know the cultural values, traditions, and cuisine experiences the various countries offer are particularly interested in World Showcase, as it provides an opportunity to acquire new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs. Moreover, guests motivated by nostalgia, either through direct or ancestral ties, a previous trip or association with the country, or a former shared experience with friends and family will also benefit from a positive memorable experience at World Showcase. In Future World, classic attractions such as “Living with the Land” debuting with the opening of Epcot in 1982 and “Figment Journey into Imagination” in 1983 also evoke nostalgic emotion in guests. Those who have memories of previous visits as children, baby boomers who experience nostalgia for legacy Disney rides or shared experiences when their family was younger may be particularly pulled to these attractions.

Technology Spanning over sixty decades, Disney has been a leader in theme park technology. With patents in ride systems, special effects, interactive technology, fiber optics, and advanced audio systems, Disney has created experiential experiences though Audio-Animatronics, virtual hang-gliding experiences with accompanying scents, and first-of-its-kind ride systems, such as 3-D motion simulator rides. Enhancing the guest experience beyond attractions, projection mapping, first used by Disney in 2010 with guest submitted photos over Cinderella’s Castle, has become a popular night-time fireworks show tool. Since its introduction, projection mapping has evolved with new technologies including transforming the castle into a Frozen ice castle, favorite characters dancing on balconies, and spinning turrets (Niles, R. 2017). Infrared technology further provides guests an active participation

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experience, as they are able to synchronize their Mickey or Minnie ears with the beat of the fireworks (Jex, 2018). Pre-planning the visit to the parks has become an integral part of the Disney experience. “My Disney Experience,” a combination website, mobile application and wristband allows guests to customize their park and resort experience. Guests are able to use FastPass+ to secure specific attraction times and receive a wristband called a “MagicBand,” embedded with radio frequency identification chips. Aptly named, the band provides guests a personalized and seamless experience serving multiple functions: hotel room key, park and attraction entrance, FastPass entrance, quickservice food and beverage mobile ordering, and on-property purchase capabilities (Capgemini Consulting Analytics). Data real-time analytics are used to enhance the guest experience with predicting wait times for attractions, while Disney’s FastPass+ system provides a scheduled attraction hour avoiding long wait times in queues. Disney recently launched the mobile Play Disney app that provides guests with a variety of experiences including playlists that match attractions, characters, and lands and interactive elements that support the backstory of an attraction making queues more enjoyable for guests (Jex, S., 2018). Through their continual investment in digital initiatives, Disney has successfully leveraged technology to engage, interact, and personalize their guest’s experience in the parks and resorts. With an upcoming Star Wars interactive themed hotel, an extension of the Star Wars: Galaxy’s Edge land, Disney’s technological advancements continue to push the boundaries and play a central role in creating magic in guest experiences, memories, and storytelling.

Product Development and Marketing Disney Parks and Resorts exist to make magical experiences come alive. A good part of doing this is knowing your guest well enough to be relevant to them. We set the goal to be relevant to every guest, every day, every time they interacted with our brand. We wanted to stay the most trusted provider in the space. - Tom Boyles, Senior VP, Global Customer Managed Relationships, Disney Parks and Resorts Disney’s guests become familiar with the brand through their stories and characters, movies, music, television channel, and merchandise, developing deep connections at an early age. Before a first-time guest arrives at the gates of the Magic Kingdom, they are already familiar and affiliated with the brand, having formed early positive attachments to the characters and stories. Disney also excels at deepening emotional connections and long-term relationships with their multi-generational and crosscultural audiences, through their multiple interaction points with the brand. Unique 150

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to Disney, guests also share a common bond with each other, strengthening their affinity and fostering a sense of kinship. This is explicitly displayed through a variety of Disney merchandise and attire that guests dress in - the iconic Mickey and Minnie ears, themed shirts and apparel, trading pins and gear - allowing them to be active participants in the “show” and their own Disney experience. D23, the official Disney fan club, along with numerous independent fan sites and blogs, similarly foster guest-to-guest kinship and affiliation and loyalty to the Disney brand. Disney’s Parks and Resorts brand promise of making “magical experiences come alive,” uses nostalgia marketing as a catalyst for guest visitation. The Baby Boomer generation, for example, has taken to nostalgia travel as a way to help them recapture their own childhood, a world they picture as simpler, safer and less complex than today’s, and one which they look to share with their own children (Marcus, 2016). Nostalgia also strongly resonates with Millennials. Having grown up in the Disney Renaissance movie era of the late 1980’s and 1990’s, live-action nostalgia-based adaptations of the hit movies this generation grew up with has them reliving their childhood memories, often alongside their own children, cultivating deeper personal connections to the Disney brand. Although Disney is continually rolling out new experiences for their guests, Main Street USA and many of the classic attractions have changed little over the years. “There is an element of nostalgia that is actually part of the design of the parks” says Disney spokesman John McClintock, appealing to parents and grandparents who enjoy reliving fond memories while creating new ones with their young children. Reinforcing the power of nostalgia in guest attachment, Disney’s promotional planning videos selectively use language evoking past and future happy times with phrases such as “unforgettable memories are made each and every day,” while Disney’s Vacation Club timeshare marketing invites guests to “ stay close to the magic for decades to come—and make vacation memories to last a lifetime.” (Walt Disney Company, “Disney Vacation Club” 2019). When guests are on property, Disney’s professional PhotoPass photographers are strategically positioned in iconic locations to “capture all the memories” through “Memory Maker,” a photo and video download capability guests can purchase (Walt Disney Company, “Photo Pass,” 2019). Complementing this landscape of memories and nostalgia, Disney’s Parks and Resorts are continually reimagining their experiences, expanding with new immersive themed lands, events, and attractions providing unique experiences for returning visitors - and branding opportunities for future nostalgic remembrances. Reflective of the vision of Walt Disney, “Disneyland will never be completed. It will continue to grow as long as there is imagination left in the world.”

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CONCLUSION Disney will continue to evolve it’s model and employ new techniques to create memorable tourism experiences for future generations. It will respond to the changing demographics of its consumer base (multi-generational, more diverse, changing priorities for sustainability, etc.) while balancing the older traditions and images of Disney with the needs of newer generations. Further, with its television business facing significant challenges in the streaming age, and lots of popular movie franchises to put to use, Disney will continue to invest billions to supercharge its theme park division, which has emerged as a surprisingly strong moneymaker. Still, theme parks will always be subject to risk. This includes sensitivities to swings in the economy which could put the company’s billions of dollars of investment in theme parks and memorable tourism experiences at risk. This study argued that Disney’s success, in part, draws on the ability to create authentic nostalgia tourism experiences for its guests. By situating the Walt Disney Company and its experiences in the literature on cultural tourism and memorable tourism experiences (MTEs), this interdisciplinary study elucidated the significance of nostalgia tourism and offered specific examples from the Walt Disney World global theme parks. As scholars study the ongoing evolution of the travel and tourism experience, the work will be to analyze the core elements of the memorable tourism experience using interdisciplinary frameworks. The study of nostalgia tourism, which draws on research across fields in the behavioral sciences and business, is just one avenue to increase scholarly understanding of the guest experience and how to “cultivate magic.”

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United Nations Environment Programme. (2005). Making tourism more sustainable: A guide for policy makers. World Tourism Organization Publications. Retrieved from http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx0592xPA-TourismPolicyEN.pdf UNWTO. (2017). Definitions Committee on Tourism and Competitiveness. Madrid, Spain: UNWTO. Retrieved from https://publications.unwto.org/publication/ UNWTO-Tourism-definitions UNWTO. (2018). Tourism Highlights. Madrid, Spain: UNWTO. Retrieved from http://www2.unwto.org/publication/unwto-tourism-highlights-2018-edition World Travel & Tourism Council. (2019). Travel & Tourism: Economic Impact 2018 World. World Travel & Tourism Council. WTO. (1985). The Role of Recreation. Management in the Development of Active Holidays and Special Interest Tourism and the Consequent Enrichment of the Holiday Experience. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. WTO. (1989). The Hague Declaration on Tourism. In Proceedings of the Interparliamentary Conference on Tourism. Academic Press. WTO – ETC. (2005). City tourism and culture. The European Experience. Xu, F., Morgan, M., & Song, P. (2009). Students’ travel behaviour: A cross‐cultural comparison of UK and china. International Journal of Tourism Research, 11(3), 255–268. doi:10.1002/jtr.686 Yeh, S. S., Chen, C., & Liu, Y. C. (2012). Nostalgic emotion, experiential value, destination image, and place attachment of cultural tourists. In Advances in hospitality and leisure (pp. 167–187). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi:10.1108/S1745-3542(2012)0000008013 Zhou, X., Wildschut, T., Sedikides, C., Chen, X., & Vingerhoets, A. J. (2012). Heartwarming memories: Nostalgia maintains physiological comfort. Emotion, 12(4), 678–684. doi:10.1037/a0027236 PMID:22390713

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Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurs in Tourism Soumyadeep Roy https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9871-9501 Amity University, Kolkata, India

ABSTRACT The point of this chapter is to talk about and feature the significance of enterprise and business visionaries in the travel industry. A writing audit was directed on reasonable issues and down to earth parts of business visionaries and enterprise. This chapter features (1) handy meanings of the terms business visionaries and enterprise; (2) principle highlights of the travel industry business visionaries; and (3) the job of businesspeople in the travel industry exercises and their commitment to the advancement of a travel industry goal. This chapter is explorative in nature, because the discourse is, for the most part, dependent on a writing audit. Hence, more research-based learning and increasingly observational examinations are required in this field.

INTRODUCTION The primary thought of this volume is to feature that ‘travel industry enterprise’ is the foundation of the travel industry related businesses. In this way, this theme merits the present and forefront volume that is applicable to professionals, also, scholastics in the same. The travel industry and related organizations are one of a kind as in, from an administration point of view, the item is the experience that is co-made by the travelers. Accordingly, business people entering the travel industry field are needing a devoted handbook on the travel industry business enterprise that goes past DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch008 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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the more nonexclusive business enterprise writing. This section manages the subject of why the travel industry enterprise is so significant in the contemporary setting and in the business condition of the travel industry. The part at that point talks about the system of the travel industry and the business and market conditions in which enterprising endeavors are structured, overseen and created. The primary point of this part is, along these lines, to talk about and feature the significance of business and business people in the travel industry so as to draw in the peruser in the focal point of the handbook. To begin with, the significance of the travel industry related businesses is featured. Second, the ideas of enterprise (the business exercises) and business people (the people included) are examined and obviously characterized. At that point, the commitment of business in the travel industry is laid out.

THE IMPORTANCE OF TOURISM AND ITS RELATED INDUSTRIES The travel industry and travel are significant financial exercises in many nations around the globe. In 2015, worldwide the travel industry denoted an amazing better than expected development for six back to back a very long time as far as worldwide traveler entries, with a record aggregate of 1.2 billion sightseers venturing to the far corners of the planet. Somewhere in the range of 50 million additional vacationers (medium-term guests) made a trip to global goals around the globe in 2015 than in 2014 (World Tourist Association (WTO), 2016). This mirrors a 4 percent development, or an expansion of 50 million voyagers who voyaged to any global goal during the year. The most recent report by World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC, 2016) showed that, for the fifth progressive year, the development of the travel industry related businesses in 2015 (2.8 percent) outpaced that of the worldwide economy (2.3 percent). Altogether, the travel industry created US$7.2 trillion (9.8 percent of worldwide total national output (GDP)) and upheld 284 million occupations, proportional to one of every 11 employments in the worldwide economy. The travel industry related enterprises are a key power for good, and it has demonstrated, previously, that they are solid and versatile enough to confront any difficulties. Prospects 2017 stay positive, with universal traveler entries expected to develop by 4 percent around the world (WTO, 2016). The travel industry will proceed to develop, making more occupations and getting increasingly financial and social benefits Further, World Tourism Day 2015 was praised around the topic ‘One billion visitors, one billion chances’, which featured the transformative capability of one billion visitors. With more than one billion vacationers venturing out to any worldwide goal consistently, the travel industry has turned into a main monetary action (WTO, 2016). Speaking to more than simply monetary strength, these accomplishments 160

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mirror the travel industry’s tremendous potential and expanding ability to address a portion of the world’s most squeezing difficulties, including financial development, occupations creation, comprehensive advancement and natural preservation .As a monetary movement that adds to the same number of as one out of 11 employments around the world, the travel industry is an important wellspring of vocation for many people. Built around a large number of culturally diverse experiences happening each day in various corners of the world, the travel industry is likewise a entryway to more noteworthy comprehension of the world past our borders. Nevertheless, a filtering of the WTO’s most recent report uncovered that the terms ‘work creation’, ‘ability improvement’, ‘business’ and ‘incomes’ appear to be utilized as often as possible in the travel industry, which isn’t astonishing in any way. Actually, is astonishing that the ideas ‘business enterprise’ and ‘innovative action’ don’t seem a solitary time and are, truth be told, completely missing! There is no uncertainty that the results and accomplishments of the travel industry, at worldwide level, are inferable from smaller scale, little and medium-sized endeavors just as large organizations. Further, it is assessed that the abovementioned referenced points, set by the WTO, won’t be tended to appropriately without improving and advancing business enterprise in the travel industry. The creation of tourism enterprises _ for that provide products and services in facilitation, transportation, attractions, accommodation, catering and travel-related retail businesses _ is behind the such impressive achievements and performance. The creation and operation of tourism enterprises offer new employment opportunities, earning of real income, generation of tax revenues and stimulation of other industries and productive activities in the local/regional economic system. However, this business activity ‘is not anact of nature, but an act of the tourism entrepreneur’ (Koh & Hatten, 2002, p. 22). The topic of this handbook isn’t to break down the financial, social or other commitment of the travel industry to a district’s or then again nation’s financial and social advancements and prosperity; rather, the subject is to give handy direction and help for the creation and activity of new pursuits in tourism. In this respect, it would be useful to explain the ideas of business enterprise and businesspeople, as there are a large number of definitions of business enterprise and businessperson. Give us a chance to begin by thinking about the business action and after that the person.

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ENTREPRENEURSHIP Many definitions of entrepreneurship are offered by scholars. Some of these are cited below in chronological order. Entrepreneurship is: •

“the creation of an innovative economic organisation (or network of organisations) for the purpose of gain under conditions of risk and uncertainty” (Dollinger, 1995, p. 7). “the process of creating something new with value by devoting the necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychic and social risks, and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction and independence” (Hisrich & Peters, 1998, p. 9). “an activity that involves the discovery, evaluation and exploitation of opportunities to introduce new goods and services, ways of organising, markets, processes and raw materials through organising efforts that previously had not existed” (Shane, 2003, p. 4; Shane & Venkataraman, 2000, p. 218). “a way of thinking, reasoning, and acting that is opportunity obsessed, holistic in approach, and leadership balanced” (Timmons & Spinelli, 2007, p. 79). “the result of a systematic and disciplined process of applying innovation and creativity to opportunities and needs in the market” (Zimmerer & Scarborough, 2008, p. 5).





• •

It is clear that two thoughts/standards are integral to the business enterprise idea: (1) the creation and acknowledgment of chances, comprehensive of the will and activity to take advantage of those lucky breaks and (2) the creation of new businesses in conditions of risk and uncertainty in order to make a profit (Timmons & Spinelli, 2007; Zimmerer & Scarborough, 2008). As per the last creators, business includes the utilization of centered methodologies to investigate new thoughts and new bits of knowledge to make an item or an administration that can either fulfill people’s needs or take care of their issues. A portion of these similitudes in the definitions incorporate the accompanying terms, used to portray enterprise, and establish the key highlights of business enterprise: business opportunity acknowledgment, advancement, hazard taking, thought creation, imagination, accomplishment direction and creativity. Shane (2003) suggests that the notion of innovation constitutes a key attribute of entrepreneurship. Zimmerer and Scarborough (2008, p. 43) characterize development as ‘the capacity to apply innovative answers for issues and chances to improve the lives of individuals’. For this situation, imagination is portrayed as the capacity to 162

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grow new thoughts and to find better approaches for taking a gander at circumstances and issues. As indicated by Drucker (1985), advancement is the apparatus utilized by businesspeople to endeavor change as a chance. Pioneering adventures blossom with development. There are three principle sorts of development: process, hierarchical and advertising (Oberg, 2010). Advancement yields can be either better approaches for getting things done, or the improvement of new items, administrations or then again procedures (Porter, 1990). These two concepts and their implications, in terms of tourism entrepreneurship, are discussed. It is worth pointing out that (1) successful entrepreneurship is a constant process that relies on creativity, innovation and application in the marketplace and (2) the individual is the main force behind, and at the beginning of, this entrepreneurship process (Zimmerer & Scarborough, 2008).

ENTREPRENEURS An entrepreneur can be defined as a person who sees an opportunity in the marketplace and establishes a business with the aim of meeting the market’s needs. There is a plethora of definitions of the term ‘entrepreneur’; some of these are cited below in chronological order. An entrepreneur is: •





“a person who carries out commercial innovation: modification of existing knowledge and/or practices. If innovation is successful, it leads to a state of creative destruction. Innovation could occur in five forms: offering of new goods/services; new production methods, new sources of supplies; new markets/ distribution systems; and/or new management techniques” (Schumpeter [1949], cited in Koh and Hatten [2002, p. 27]). “a person who sees an opportunity and assumes the risk (financial, material, and psychological) of starting a business to an individual who is alert to opportunities for trade … is capable of identifying suppliers and customers and acting as an intermediary where profit arises out of the intermediary function” (Deakins & Freel, 2009, p. 7). “a person who creates a new business in the face of risk and uncertainty for the purpose of achieving growth and profit by identifying significant opportunities and assembling the necessary resources to capitalise on them” (Zimmerer & Scarborough, 2008, p. 5).

Ahmad and Seymour (2008, p. 9) proposed the following formal definitions for the purpose of supporting the development of related indicators, mainly statistical data at national level, as recommended by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): 163

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• • •

Entrepreneurs are those people (entrepreneurs), who try to create esteem, through the creation or extension of financial movement, by recognizing and misusing new items, procedures or markets. Entrepreneurial movement is the venturesome human activity in quest for the age of significant worth, through the creation or development of financial action, by distinguishing and abusing new items, procedures or markets. Entrepreneurship is the wonder related with innovative movement. It ought to be brought up that business visionaries don’t just think of new thoughts, however they likewise follow up on them. In view of the above definitions, it looks clear that businesspeople recognize openings and afterward embrace different intends to misuse or build up these open doors so as to get a wide scope of results.

Literature suggests that entrepreneurs also possess specific characteristics, namely: creativity and innovation, determination and persistence, need for independence, need for achievement and risk-taking, commitment and determination, leadership, opportunity obsession, tolerance of risk, creativity, self-reliance and adaptability and motivation to excel (Longenecker, Moore, Petty, & Palich, 2006, p. 16). The elements that separate business visionaries most firmly from others in a business/vital administration are advancement, opportunity acknowledgment, procedure and development. These attributes and abilities are genuinely necessary in the travel industry related enterprises.

ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN TOURISM As indicated by the WTTC (2016), the complete commitment of the travel industry related businesses to GDP (counting more extensive impacts from venture, the inventory network and instigated pay impacts) was US$7,170.3 billion out of 2015 (9.8 percent of GDP) and is required to develop by 3.5 percent to US$7,420.5 billion (9.8 percent of Gross domestic product) in 2016. It is determined to ascend by 4.0 percent, per annum, to US $10,986.5 billion by 2026 (10.8 percent of GDP). The travel industry is required to become quicker than the more extensive economy and numerous different businesses throughout the following decade. It is additionally foreseen that the business will bolster more than 370 million employments by 2026. With respect to the work, the travel industry related businesses produced 107,833,000 occupations, legitimately, in 2015 (3.6 percent of all out work), and this is estimated to develop by 1.9 percent in 2016 to 109,864,000 (3.6 percent of absolute business). By 2026, the travel industry related ventures will

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represent 135,884,000 occupations, legitimately, an expansion of 2.1 percent per annum throughout the following 10 years. Clearly, the travel industry keeps on developing, which opens up numerous roads for business visionaries who are keen on propelling a business adventure. The travel industry and travel incorporate the accompanying enterprises: convenience administrations, sustenance and refreshment administrations, retail exchange, transportation administrations and social, sports and amusement administrations. It is evaluated that more than 90 percent of the business in the travel industry related ventures are little and medium-sized endeavors (SMEs) (European Union (EU), 2015). The job of SMEs in the travel industry is extremely applicable (Getz, Carlsen, and Morrison, 2004; Williams and Shaw, 2011) and particularly significant when reacting to clients’ particular requests and giving them the travel industry administrations mentioned in a tweaked manner (Novelli, Schmitz, and Spencer, 2006). There is no uncertainty that SMEs in the travel industry assume a fundamental job in a wide range of economies created, rising, and creating. SMEs can likewise be credited for being a key driver in the improvement and aggressiveness of a travel industry goal/territory. Albeit huge organizations affect the idea of what is provided to specific markets, for instance, visit administrators in connection to mass the travel industry, the most noteworthy units of offering in many goals and areas are SMEs and, frequently, miniaturized scale ventures (Getz et al., 2004; Thomas, 2007). The European Union (EU) perceives that Europe’s financial development and employments rely upon its capacity to help the development of ventures (EU, 2015). In the EU, the most significant wellsprings of business are SMEs, and the European Commission (EC) focuses on that business enterprise makes new companies, opens up new markets and sustains new abilities. The EC intends to reignite Europe’s pioneering soul, to urge individuals to move toward becoming business visionaries and to inspire more individuals to set up and develop their own organizations. Its drives to advance business are abridged in an Entrepreneurship Action Plan, embraced in January 2013. Inside this system, the EU has executed a particular help program “Aggressiveness of Enterprises and Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (COSME)” running from 2014 to 2020 (EU, 2016). The EC expects to advance enterprise and improve the business condition for SMEs, to enable them to understand their maximum capacity in the present worldwide economy. This program has specifically centered around the travel industry, when all is said in done, and in business, OK work and limit working in the travel industry just as exchange, venture and intensity in the travel industry. The COSME structure program expects to upgrade SME aggressiveness, increment the travel industry request, enhance contributions and items and improve quality, maintainability, availability, aptitudes and advancement. 165

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Koh and Hatten (2002, p. 23) stress that the discernment, choices and activities of the travel industry business people “on a very basic level figure out what, where, and when touristic undertakings will be made in a network, touristic business people are the stone carvers of a network’s touristscape” at the end of the day, they are the main thrust behind a goal’s offering/supply. The accompanying contextual investigation delineates this issue.

SUMMARY The pretended by business enterprise and business visionaries in the field of the travel industry is unquestionable and for the most part perceived. The primary reason for this part was to draw in the perusers with the focal point of this handbook. Right off the bat, displayed and featured the significance and the commitment of the travel industry to the worldwide economy. At that point, the two ideas of business enterprise and businesspeople were obviously characterized. The fundamental highlights and qualities of people associated with business adventures were additionally laid out. This was pursued by a blueprint of the commitment of enterprise and SMEs in tourism related ventures. The section was finished by introducing and explaining the fundamental components of the book, explicitly, the point, targets, approach and viewpoint/center. The accompanying sections will give nitty gritty introductions and scientific exchanges on key issues and parts of business enterprise in the travel industry related ventures.

REFERENCES Ahmad, N., & Seymour, R. G. (2008). Defining entrepreneurial activity: Definitions supporting frameworks for data collection. Paris: OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/243164686763 Deakins, D., & Freel, M. (2009). Entrepreneurship and small firms. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Dollinger, M. J. (1995). Entrepreneurship: Strategies and resources. Boston, MA: Austen Press. Drucker, P. (1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship. New York, NY: Harper & Row. European Union. (2015). Promoting entrepreneurship. Retrieved from https:// ec.europa.eu/growth/smes/promoting-entrepreneurship_en 166

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European Union. (2016). COSME: Europe’s programme for small and mediumsized enterprises. Official website. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/growth/ smes/cosme/index_en.htm Getz, D., Carlsen, J., & Morrison, A. (2004). The family business in tourism and hospitality. Oxfordshire: CABI Publishing. doi:10.1079/9780851998084.0000 Hatten, T. S. (1997). Small business: Entrepreneurship and beyond. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hisrich, R. D., & Peters, M. P. (1998). Entrepreneurship. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Koh, K. Y. & Hatten, T. S. (2002). The tourism entrepreneur: The overlooked player in tourism development studies. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 3(1), 21-48. Longenecker, J. D., Moore, C. W., Petty, J. W., & Palich, L. E. (2006). Small business management. An entrepreneurial emphasis (International edition). London: Cengage Learning. Novelli, M., Schmitz, B., & Spencer, T. (2006). Networks, clusters and innovation in tourism: A UK experience. Tourism Management, 27(6), 1141-1152. Oberg, C. (2010). Customer roles in innovations. International Journal of Innovation Management, 14(6), 989-1012. Porter, M. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. London: Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-11336-1 Schumpeter, J. A. (1949). Economic theory and entrepreneurial history. In R. V. Clemence (Ed.), Change and the entrepreneur (pp. 253-271). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Shane, S. (2003). A general theory of entrepreneurship: The individual-opportunity nexus. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. doi:10.4337/9781781007990 Shane, S., & Venkataraman, S. (2000). The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 217-226. doi:10.5465/ amr.2000.2791611 Thomas, R. (2007). Tourism partnerships and small firms: Power, participation and partition. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 8(1), 37-43. Timmons, J. A., & Spinelli, S. (2007). New venture creation: Entrepreneurship for the 21st century. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill Education.

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Williams, A. M., & Shaw, G. (2011). Internationalization and innovation in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(1), 27-51. Zimmerer, T. W., & Scarborough, N. M. (2008). Essentials of entrepreneurship and small business management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

FURTHER READING Brookes, M., & Altinay, L. (2015). Entrepreneurship in hospitality and tourism: A global perspective. Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers Ltd. Mullins, J. (2013). The new business road test: What entrepreneurs and executives should do before launching a lean start-up. London: FT Press. Riddle, D. I. (2004). Best practice case studies in tourism. In Small states in transition - From vulnerability to competitiveness. Port of Spain, Trinidad & Tobago. Vancouver, Canada: CMCService-Growth Consultants Inc., Ministry of Trade and Industry, Republic of Trinidad andTobago & Commonwealth Secretariat. The Case Centre. (2017). The case: NakedWines.com. Retrieved from https://www. thecasecentre.org/ educators/ordering/selecting/featuredcases/NakedWines World Tourism Organization. (2016). UNWTO annual report 2015. Madrid: UNWTO. World Travel & Tourism Council. (2016). Travel & tourism: Economic impact 2016. London: WTTC. World Travel Market. (2015). The WTM global trends report 2015. London: WTM & Euromonitor International.

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The Factors Leading to Entrepreneurship Trends Among Young Graduates of Hospitality Partho Pratim Seal Manipal Academy of Higher Education, India

ABSTRACT Entrepreneurship in hospitality is a major contributor to the growth and development of the economy of a country. A large proportion of the hospitality businesses are small owner-operated restaurants as compared to big chains of hotels and restaurants who also have their own market share. Considering the nature and challenges faced by the hospitality entrepreneurs becomes an important issue for the researchers. Hospitality education has evolved considering the needs and thoughts of the millennials. The millennials do understand the needs and desires of the contemporary guests and have come up with strategies to present their food products and enhance service standards to stay competitive in the market. The millennial guest has, with rapid advance of technology, an enormous amount of preferences to choose from. The aim is to investigate the motivational factors which leads the young graduates to opt for entrepreneurship and the role of hospitality education to guide the students towards it.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch009 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

The Factors Leading to Entrepreneurship Trends Among Young Graduates of Hospitality

INTRODUCTION Tourism has an important role towards the economy of a country. Tourism leads to a combination of activities such as transport, food and beverage, accommodation, travel itinerary and event management for the tourist. The role of tourism and hospitality industry is quite high considering the role played by it in creating employment and as a global industry create significant profit to many related sector. It is being considered as an important and one of the fastest growing industry. To the world’s GDP the contribution of tourism is about 10 percent and is also a major source of foreign exchange earnings. The travel and tourism of India has been ranked 7th in the world for its contribution towards the GDP and has a great role of providing employment. The entrepreneur is an individual who implements a new combination means of production which plays a crucial role through innovation thereby bringing in an agent of change. An innovating entrepreneur creates a dynamic equilibrium which generates suitable conditions for creating opportunities for employment, wealth creation, creation of new methods and technology. Entrepreneurship is built upon a collection of factors at individual, societal and at national level. Entrepreneurship is depended upon motivation of individual, individual experience, the role of sociocultural traditions as well as educational opportunities to obtain necessary skills and adequate support from financial institutions. Studies have also concluded that innovation and entrepreneurship do flourish in an environment where the individuals are being empowered to explore new ideas. Contributing towards national economy entrepreneur play a pivotal role as they help in creating employment, raise productivity, diversify and restructure the economy and reduce market inefficiency. (Echtner, 1995; Ray, 1988). An entrepreneur has a major role to play as it creates business and provide employment. Entrepreneurship is a major factor which provides us with the transition from the industrial to information society. With the increase in importance of entrepreneurship, has led to increase in number of entrepreneur and also fast growth of economy of the country. Education institutions also have a major role in providing entrepreneurship education by inculcating the knowledge and skill amongst its students (Balaban & Ozdemir, 2008; Yilamz & Sunbul, 2009; Solmaz, Aksoy, Sengul, & Sarusik, 2014).

Concept of Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship is defined as the motivation, desire and skill necessary for an individual to successfully manage a business (Sewell & Lorraine, 2010). The definition of entrepreneurship varies based upon the opportunity it is defined upon

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an emphasize upon the identification of entrepreneurship as innovation (Kobia & Sikalieh, 2010). The literature on entrepreneurship specifies a certain number of common characteristics which are necessary or an individual to be an entrepreneur which are 1. Need for achievement: As per the theory of need for achievement is what influences human actions which is mostly psychological driven (McClelland, 1961). The individuals with the high need towards achievement are more like an entrepreneur and have ambition to be successful. 2. Locus of control: It is the perception of person’s ability towards specific events in an individual’s life. The locus of control is of two types internal (who believe that they can control their own life) and external who believe that incidents of life are caused by external sources (Lee & Tsang, 2001). 3. Propensity to take risk: As per the classic economic theory the risk takers are entrepreneurs, due to their nature and job roles and have less probability to avoid risk. Entrepreneurs are said to take calculated risks (Kirby, 2004) 4. Tolerance of ambiguity: It is a process which perceives the ambiguous situation to be neutral or even desirable, and intolerance of uncertainty to understand about the situation as threatening (Budner, 1962; Wagener, Gorgievski, & Rijsdijik, 2010)

Support for Entrepreneurship in India For development of entrepreneurship proper planning and regulatory mechanism have to be followed. The growth of a nation economically is at stake if due importance is not given to entrepreneurship which is been supported by the policies of the government and the institutions supporting the same. The developed countries like USA and Japan have economically developed through entrepreneurial activities. The role of government is not only to set up institutions for the entrepreneurs to start but also to facilitate so that they do not face any hurdles during long run. The Central government has also taken the initiative and has established institutions to cover various aspects which includes finance, training, and marketing so that the entrepreneurs can organize the business as per the legal framework of the country.

Entrepreneurship in Hospitality Studies have found that entrepreneurship in hospitality has become most popular career choice with about 3/4th of the culinary students studying in USA showing keen interest to opt for their own business which shows the generation preferring to be independent and self-reliant (Martin, 2005).The cue has also been obtained 171

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from hospitality employees whose business have been running attractively and have reached the pinnacle of success in the hospitality career. The emerging entrepreneurs have been in the business considering the good economic climate and the perception of opportunity for personal gains and perceived employment instability. Guaranteed employment may lead to a detrimental impact of forming new business, but career set back and job dissatisfaction may promote forming new business. An individual’s career in entrepreneurship requires resilience (Hedner, Abouzeedan, & Klofsten, 2011) though the long hours of stress along with the responsibilities and risks of business are said to be the shortcomings for an entrepreneur. While discovering entrepreneurship in tourism it has been observed that an individual opting for entrepreneurship (Williams, Shaw, & Greenwood, 1989) which became permanent in hotels and tourism (Lashley & Rowson, 2010; Mottiar, 2007) included certain factors which led to the phenomenon that entrepreneurship will have a control on an individual’s work life and will lead to a clear demarcation between work and personal life, desire to become a proprietor (Lashley & Rowson, 2010), move out from the corporate employment (Morrison, Rimmington, & Williams, 1999) and also to keep the family together (Hall & Rusher, 2004). The supremacy of owner operated hospitality and tourism business in countries across the world (Morrison, Rimmington, & Williams, 1999; Tinsley & Lynch, 2007; Thomas, 2004) has been recognized for the role played by entrepreneurship (Shaw & Williams, 2004). Research studies have also found that entrepreneurship is been dominated by developing economies with less studies on less developed or on transition economies. Though there has been some similarity with the economies with a rareness on focusing upon economies which are lesser developed (Morrison & Teixeira, 2004) The researchers have suggested two different replicas of entrepreneurship (Shaw & Williams, 2004) for the hospitality and tourism business which are related to the lifestyle of an entrepreneur. The first includes those who have moved into tourism for non- economic reasons or having lack of business experience who are said to be as non- entrepreneurs. The second group are the ‘constrained entrepreneurs’ who are mostly young people who have a great level of economic motives who are professional but do not belong to business background. Some researchers have also added upon two motivational types of entrepreneurs, ‘family first’ and ‘business first’ (Getz & Carlsen, 2000). As compared to other industries the entrepreneurship in tourism industry is quite challenging as in tourism industry and employer has to be trained, educated, skilled and committed (Kusluvan & Kusluvan, 2000; Pirnar & Bulut, 2012). A tourism entrepreneur should also have characteristics such as innovativeness, customer focussed, risk taking, and financially independent (Marchant & Mottiar, 2011).

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Researchers (Bozkurt & Erdurur, 2013) studied on the entrepreneurial characteristics and the entrepreneurial tendency of the undergraduate students and found a strong positive correlation between locus of control, tolerance towards uncertainty, need for achievement, and propensity to take risk among students opting for entrepreneurship just after completing their education in the institution. Studies had been conducted, earlier on the influence of education on cultural values and their level of entrepreneurship (Hayton, Zahra, & Zahra, 2002). There is a significant difference created by the education of an individual from an early age which develops the characteristics of entrepreneurial behavior (Casson, 1991)

Hospitality Education & Entrepreneurship (Echtner, 1995) stated that both professional and vocational education is related with creating human resource which will work for others but developing entrepreneurs will lead to country having skilled workforce who will work for oneself. The tourism education will help in creating budding human workforce which is essential for the nations development and could be used for encouraging and supporting the local entrepreneurship. Considering it the teachers and researchers in hospitality and tourism should inculcate the challenges faced by the hospitality entrepreneurs so that the same is been benefitted by the current and the future entrepreneurs. The role of the stakeholders such as financial institutions, government and local authorities should be defined categorically so that the maximum benefit could be passed on to the young entrepreneur. The hospitality and tourism education is considered still to be vocational, and action oriented which prepares students to think critically working outside the paradigms (Airey & Tribe, 2000), and the essential features of fostering entrepreneurship (Kirby, 2005). Though tourism and hospitality have a come a long way but still it is being considered mostly as a vocational education. The researcher and scholar in the field have argued regarding the traditional hospitality and tourism management education which allows the students to think outside the existing practices (Ayikoru, Tribe, & Airey, 2009). Researchers in Scotland who studied about small hotel proprietors concluded that about 52% of their business had been in growth stage while about 59% had plans for expansion (Buick, Halcro, & Lynch, 2000). Though the studies were quite small in nature and the research approach taken had not elaborated on the responses but about the lack of growth orientation among the responses Researcher (Echtner, 1995) for developing countries have thought and proposed a three point approach towards tourism education which considers all the types of skills: professional, vocational and entrepreneurial into consideration and emphasized

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that only professional and vocational are been stressed upon while entrepreneurial development is overlooked. Professional education allows a student to interpret, evaluate and analyse the theoretical concept while the vocational education is mostly practical oriented and teaches skills. Entrepreneurial development allows an individual to create human resource which work for oneself and assist in creating human resource potential in the developing world where there is need for entrepreneurship as well as entrepreneurs (Echtner, 1995) Family business traditions motivates and influences individuals towards entrepreneurial behaviour (Basu & Goswami, 1999; Duchesneau & Gartner, 1990). Individuals who are working in the family business acquire skills and business ideas to either continue or start their own family business. Researchers have also found a significant relationship between innovativeness, the risk taking tendency of an individuals, the entrepreneurial intention and the entrepreneurial family (Gurel, Altinay, & Daniele, 2010) There is a dominance of family business in tourism (Getz & Carlsen, 2000) and parents have been found to be quite influential by pursuing the child to continue with the business or start a new business (Altinay & Altinay, 2006). Various researchers have concluded that the students of family with a business have a greater intention to have their own business with an increasing factor of 2.315 and have more propensity to have their own business (Basu & Virick, 2008; Hisrich, 1986). The restaurant industry is in an advantage position as an investment target considering its fragmented nature, the growth potential it demands, low risk of things being wasted, and the potential of it being used for mass distribution. Funding is a major source of revenue generation and entrepreneurs can obtain financing either from the corporations or from the venture capitalist, commercial banks, personal contacts and corporate partnership. Other than the funding source mentioned capital could also be obtained from the business angels who may also provide start- up capital to the entrepreneurs (Enz & Harrison, 2008). The tourism entrepreneur motive studies are quite limited though there is a growing need towards responding towards crucial tourism agenda such as sustainability and ethics as well as global crisis and climate change (Hjalager, 2007; Getz & Carlsen, 2000). So, understanding the nature of challenges faced by the hospitality entrepreneurs is an important issue for the researchers both present and the future entrepreneurs, financing institutions, and government. Considering the factors, the study aims to investigate the entrepreneurial intention of higher education hospitality students in India. The study wants to find the effect of socio- cultural background such as family background, education on the intention to start and operate a business.

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Methodology The study tries to examine the characteristics of the entrepreneur who have completed the undergraduate course in hospitality field. The students selected were mainly those who have already started their hospitality business or are continuing the business in hospitality of their parents. A qualitative approach was used which was more suitable for the research as the variables are not known and the goal was to explore (Creswell, 2012). In depth approach was taken so that the participants answer, rather than constituting a fixed framework. A narrative analysis was used to understand and examine each student entrepreneur story who have passed from a hospitality college in last four years. The narratives usually have a linear structure which makes it possible for the interviewees to tell their story in a chronological order, stressing on some significant points and reflecting upon the same. The focus of the study was what are the factors that led to choose entrepreneurship and the reasons for self-employment and their ownership business experience. The convenience sampling was been followed as all the students entrepreneur who are in touch with the institution as an alumnus and could be contacted on phone have been considered. The interview of the students was stopped after 12 students as at that stage enough data was substantiated to understand why the students have opted for entrepreneurship. All the students interviewed were running their business by themselves, some of them had inherited the business of the parents while some have started the business by themselves while some have diversified and broadened their horizon of products been sold.

Findings The results obtained from the discussion could be made into five themes regarding their intention to establish business, innovativeness associated with intention in establishing a business, readiness to take risk with intention in establishing business, family entrepreneurship and its relation to establish business, education and its relationship with entrepreneurial traits and intention.

Intention to establish business An individual after a basic skill or knowledge or by the exposure to a particular field or business may wish to have their own business. The intention of owning business was quite exciting, seeing people coming up with their own restaurant made me feel exciting. Always wanted to open business. Motivated by chefs in the field, seniors of the college. 175

The Factors Leading to Entrepreneurship Trends Among Young Graduates of Hospitality

All the students had an anticipation that they will open their own business just after their education is been completed and had discussed about the same with concerned person and their peers.

Innovativeness with intention to establish business It was estimated that as an individual when operates or starts a business, has an impression of doing it in a new and a unique method. Having an own restaurant or bakery was to show to the world my creativity which is not permitted when a fresher is been recruited to an organisation. Always wanted to show case my concept of dining to people. Wanted to contribute towards a great dining experience to my clientele by providing customized food and ambience. The main concept for the business was to create something new which was mostly in food preparation, process, ambience and in overall guest experience.

Readiness to take risk with intention in establish business Initially when an individual starts a business the individual risks financially, and lack of experience after education deters them to opt for business. Was confident about being an entrepreneur, was confident with skills that I would get support for initial investment. Parents had supported financially to establish the business. Had taken loans from bank and was aware of the risk. Had thought that taking risk in early stage of career was more prudent than waiting for few more years and gaining experience. The students who are in entrepreneurship have known about the issues while starting a business. Some had knowledge from their parents who had guided them while some first generation entrepreneurs had a only a brief knowledge about risks but were carried away with the intention to have something new of themselves.

Family entrepreneurship and its relation to establish business Students whose parents are already in the business or in the food business, from their childhood days observe how the work is been done and managed. Seeing the business very closely make them understand the nuances of the business setting better.

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Seeing father have his own business motivated me to think some thing of my own. Seeing parents having successfully run food business I wanted to assist the business rather than look for employment. Parents motivated to choose the same career option and advised to have education from college so that the business could be broadened with better inputs. Only three students out of total twelve students had started their business who did not have any of their parents having their own business. Entrepreneurship was mostly been passed on and promoted by one generation to the next.

Education and its relationship with entrepreneurial traits and intention Education has a major role to motivate the young students to opt for their own venture. The process of establishing the business, fund generation and the process of running a business venture to be financially viable is necessitated by the education. Had been taught entrepreneurship in college but was mostly theoretical in nature, Case studies helped us to have a vivid idea about the situations an entrepreneur accustoms with, Guest talks and interaction with the entrepreneurs had boosted the morale and I could relate them with us, Preparing business plan during class had also helped us to know about the steps for starting a business. The education in entrepreneurship though facilitates the students to be an entrepreneur but the scope is very limited as it does not adequately provide input for a student to complete the education and become an entrepreneur.

CONCLUSION The aim of the study was to observe how the entrepreneurship and social cultural traits have an impact upon the students in hospitality education in India. Additionally, it could be stated that socio-cultural factors along with being entrepreneurial family seems to be an important predictor of entrepreneurial intention among the hospitality students. Researchers should also take a holistic approach to find the entrepreneurial intention of an individual. The role of education is not the prime motivator for an individual to opt for entrepreneurship. As entrepreneurship is mostly creative in nature there are various argument which add to state about entrepreneurship been taught. The education in current scenario have to move on from the traditional education mode as it 177

The Factors Leading to Entrepreneurship Trends Among Young Graduates of Hospitality

only emphasis on young people to obey, reproduce facts and look for work as an employee. Entrepreneurs on the other hand should learn by doing, trust their own judgement and create jobs for them and others. Researchers in the area agree that creativity could be taught by teaching the entrepreneurial qualities which include independence, need of achievement and creativity. The current education system is not ready yet for the development of entrepreneurship and self-employment as the present education system is to make employees work in big company or in a public organization. The research in entrepreneurship in tourism and hospitality is limited and presently it is in the starting phase. This study finding also state that the students of hospitality do poses two characteristics which are innovativeness and inclination to take risk which is most important for starting a new business. The same is very important for developing country with growing economy like India where entrepreneurship could be the route to empower the citizen to start innovation thereby change the mind set and move the country towards global economy (Hisrich & Drnovsek, 2002; UNCTAD, 2008).

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McClelland, D. (1961). The Achieving Society. New Jersey: Princeton. doi:10.1037/14359-000 Morrison, A., Carlesen, J., & Weber, P. (2009). Lifestyle oriented small tourism (LOST) firms and tourism destination development. In CAUTHE conference proceedings. Academic Press. Morrison, A., Rimmington, M., & Williams, C. (1999). Entrepreneurship in the Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure Industries. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Morrison, A., & Teixeira, R. (2004). Small business performance: A tourism sector focus. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 11(2), 166–173. doi:10.1108/14626000410537100 Mottiar, Z. (2007). Lifestyle entrepreneurs and spheres of inter-firm relations. Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 8(1), 67–74. doi:10.5367/000000007780007326 Pirnar, I. (2015). The specific characteristics of entrepreneurship process in tourism industry. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 34, 75–86. Pirnar, I., & Bulut, C. (2012). Turizm sektorunde girisimcilik ve girisimci ozellikleri. Girisimcilik Iklimi, 1(2), 32–34. Ray, D. (1988). The Role of Entrepreneurship in Economic Development. Journal of Development Planning, 18(3), 1–18. Sewell, P., & Lorraine, D. (2010). Moving from conceptual ambiguity to operational clarity; employability, enterprise and entrepreneurship in higher education. Education + Training, 52(1), 89–94. doi:10.1108/00400911011017708 Shaw, G., & Williams, A. (2004). From lifestyle consumption to lifestyle production: changing patterns of tourism entrepreneurship. In R. Thomas (Ed.), Small Firms in Tourism: International perspective (pp. 99–113). Oxford: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/ B978-0-08-044132-0.50010-1 Solmaz, S., Aksoy, O., Sengul, S., & Sarusik, M. (2014). Universite Ogrencilerinin Girisimci Kisilik Ozelliklerinin Belierlenmesi: Turizm LisansVe On Lisans Ogrencileri Uzerine Bir Alan Arastirmasi. KMU Sosyal ve Ekonomik Arastirmalar Dergisi, 41-55. Thomas, R. (2004). International perspectives on small firms in tourism: A synthesis. In R. Thomas (Ed.), Small Firms in Tourism: International Perspective (pp. 1–12). Oxford: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-044132-0.50004-6

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Tinsley, R., & Lynch, P. (2007). Small business networking and tourism destination development: A comparative perspective. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 8(1), 15–27. doi:10.5367/000000007780007380 UNCTAD. (2008). The importance of entrepreneurship. Retrieved from www. unctad.org/Templates/Page.asp?intItemID=4320&lang=1 Wagener, S., Gorgievski, M., & Rijsdijik, S. (2010). Businessman or host? Individual differences between entrepreneurs and small business owners in the hospitality industry. Service Industries Journal, 30(9), 1513–1527. doi:10.1080/02642060802624324 Williams, A., Shaw, G., & Greenwood, J. (1989). From tourist to tourism entrepreneur, from consumption to production: Evidence from Cornwall. Environment & Planning, 21(12), 1639–1653. doi:10.1068/a211639 Yilamz, E., & Sunbul, A. (2009). Universite Ogrencilerine Yonelik Girisimcilik Olceginin Gelistirillmesi. Selcuk Universitesi Sosyal Bilimer Enstitilsil Dergisi, 195-203.

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Chapter 10

Tourism Happiness Index: An Upcoming Global Trend With Special Emphasis on Eastern India Abhijit Pandit https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2122-3468 Amity University, Kolkata, India

ABSTRACT Research on the happiness of tourists is becoming popular recently. The study thrives to start this work and develop a scale to measure tourism happiness in Eastern India. Two studies need to be conducted, following a cross validation approach. The first study is qualitative using content analyses, aiming to identify the factors and variables considered essential for making tourists happy. The sample in study 1 consists of 300 tourists of Eastern India selected by stratified random sampling method. Based on the content analyses, a questionnaire will be developed. Study 2 aims to initiate the scale validation. The questionnaire developed in study 1 will be answered by a second sample of 400 tourists visiting Eastern India. The exploratory analysis will identify some first order factors. The next step is to proceed with confirmatory factor analysis to validate the model and propose a final scale. A structural equation modelling approach is used with the help of current versions of SPSS and AMOS packages.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch010 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Tourism Happiness Index

INTRODUCTION Increased competitions and complexities in the marketplace have introduced changes in the marketing strategy especially in the tourism sector where tour operators need to be alert physically as well as psychologically to provide quality tourism service to their customers in order to ensure organizational success and tourism happiness. There is need to investigate the relationship between consumer happiness and consumer engagement of firms in tourism sector. Keeping in mind the relevance of consumer happiness, the present research aims to determine the following: a) To identify the general factors which lead to consumer happiness in tourism sector b) To identify the specific factors or categories which lead to consumer happiness in tourism sector. c) To frame a questionnaire on consumer happiness in tourism sector. d) To validate a questionnaire on consumer happiness in tourism sector. Research on consumer happiness has been increasing in recent years but there is still a need to develop instruments to measure happiness of consumers, considering intrinsic and extrinsic factors. This survey aims to start this work, proposing a device to measure consumer happiness. Two studies were conducted, following a cross validation approach. The first study, qualitative, by applying content analyses, aimed to identify the factors and variables considered essential to make consumers happy. The sample in study 1 consisted of 100 active consumers in tourism sector from Kolkata, India selected by stratified random sampling technique. Based on the content analyses a first questionnaire was developed. Study 2 aimed to initiate the scale validation. The questionnaire developed in study 1 was answered by a second sample of 150 active tourists visiting Kolkata. The exploratory analysis identified four first order factors. Next step was to proceed with confirmatory factorial analysis to validate the model and propose a final device for measuring Tourism Happiness.

Literature Review Since the World Health Organization defined health as “a state of complete physical, psychological and social well-being”, the concepts of happiness and well-being have been gaining interdisciplinary importance. These terms have been used interchangeably (Blanch, Sahagún, & Cervantes, 2010; Warr, 2013) or linked to other terms according the association to a use or a theory. Examples are the terms of subjective well-being (Diener, 2000; Strack, Argile, & Schwarz, 1991) 184

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or psychological well-being (Bryce & Haworth, 2003; Ryff & Keyes, 1995; Warr, 1987, 1990). A review of different definitions reveals that they always reflect the theory within which they have been built (Veenhoven, 2012). Like most happiness definitions, subjective well-being mostly refers to positive feelings associated to positive subjective assessments that individuals made of their life (Diener, Sandvik, & Pavot, 1991). If, in his widest sense, ‘happiness’ is an umbrella term for all that is good, ‘happiness of consumers’ is an umbrella concept that includes a great number of factors ranging from transient moods and emotions, to relatively stable attitudes and highly stable individual dispositions aggregated at an individual level (Fisher, 2010).

Research Methodology To the best of researchers’ knowledge, there is serious dearth of research regarding field of consumer happiness mainly in Indian context. The research questions that guide this study are: RQ1: What are various factors and variables considered essential in making tourists happy? RQ2: What are various broad first order factors obtained by exploratory analysis that are considered essential to make tourists happy? RQ3: Is confirmatory factorial analysis a useful technique to validate a research model and propose a final device for measuring Tourism Happiness Index? A first study developed during 2012 (Dutschke, 2013; Dutschke, Gomes, & Combadão Jacobsohn, 2015) consisting on 969 individual interviews. In the present study, open question would be made: As a consumer of FMCG product, what do you need to be happy? Methodology used to analyze the open questions will be: (1) Data collection, (2) Data storage, (3) Coding, (4) Indexing system refinement, (5) Code relationship and (6) Identify Categories. For stages 3, 4, 5 and 6 was applied a content analysis, which according to Berelson (1952) “is a research technique applied with the objective to systemize, on a quantitative way, the content of communication”. In this research the content analysis developed is: (1) Analyze and identify variables, (2) Determine the encoding rules, (3) Determine category system, (4) Check the reliability of coding system - categorization and (5) Inferences. To develop the content analysis Atlas Ti V6.0 software or any other suitable software will be used that combines a friendly use and a major ability to encoding and draws conclusions (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The process proposed by Miles and Huberman (1994): citations evaluation, highlight the words of each response, encoding, code interpretation and category codification will be considered. For the 185

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encoding process a list would be created first with the initial based code (Miles & Huberman, 1994) which would be used in the interactive process of analysis. The code would facilitate the identification of occurrence patterns, bias control, and alternative or opposite directions and the level of consistency. After identifying the codes progress would be to evaluate their interrelation, the frequency of occurrence and the number of relations with other codes. This would allow establishing the importance and strength of each code. In total 1710 references would be categorized. After analyzing each and all components, 38 variables would be identified. Based on these items, a first questionnaire would be developed. The first questionnaire developed would be answered by 150 active tourists of Kolkata, India selected by Stratified Random Sampling Method. At the end, completed and validated answers would be received. The main statistical tools used in this work would be exploratory factor analysis (EFA), using the software IBM SPSS Statistics (version 22). In EFA all items would be allowed to have loadings with the factors in the model and all factors will be allowed to be correlated. For the goodness-of-fit researchers have to use the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), using the limit of 0.9 as indicative of good/adequate fit, the Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI), and the Root mean Square Residual (RMSR), using the limit of 0.1 or lower as indicative of good/adequate fit several fit indices.

Analysis of Data The means, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis of the responses in each item (table 1) were calculated. Inspection of these values indicates that, in general, the values were not high in absolute value. Next, we assessed the internal consistency of the entire questionnaire, measured by Cronbach’s α, which resulted in the very good result of 0.884. By the observation of the Pearson’s correlation coefficient histogram (figure 1), we can observe that a large degree of correlation between the 38 items exists. Consequently, the minimal correlation between items was 0.37. The relational structure of the items on happiness in the tourists was assessed by an Exploratory Factorial Analysis (EFA) over the correlation matrix, with the extraction of factors by the principal components method with a Varimax rotation. The common factors retained were those with eigenvalues higher 1 and in consonance with the scree plot l and the amount of variance retained, since the use of a single criterion can lead to retention of plus / minus factors than those relevant to describe the underlying data structure. To assess the overall validity of the EFA, the KMO criterion indicates a value superior to 0.7 (of 0.981) which represents an excellent factorial adjustment of the data on the correlation matrix. In addition, the Measure of Sampling Adequacy 186

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Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of identified 38 items in questionnaire Item

Mean

Std. Deviation

Skewness

Kurtosis

I_01

3.93

0.989

-0.871

0.419

I_02

3.76

0.971

-0.659

0.128

I_03

3.63

1.076

-0.546

-0.234

I_04

3.88

1.014

-0.755

0.178

I_05

3.53

1.134

-0.414

-0.599

I_06

3.68

1.105

-0.577

-0.407

I_07

3.34

1.087

-0.305

-0.508

I_08

3.52

1.158

-0.476

-0.592

I_09

3.77

1.065

-0.711

-0.055

I_10

3.90

1.007

-0.804

0.213

I_11

3.45

1.228

-0.467

-0.720

I_12

3.66

1.179

-0.645

-0.396

I_13

3.74

1.189

-0.793

-0.076

I_14

3.58

1.212

-0.514

-0.672

I_15

4.05

0.983

-1.062

0.836

I_16

3.41

1.207

-0.401

-0.726

I_17

3.68

1.177

-0.579

-0.613

I_18

3.33

1.179

-0.314

-0.744

I_19

3.01

1.250

-0.089

-1.001

I_20

2.89

1.292

0.043

-1.073

I_21

3.55

1.160

-0.458

-0.644

I_22

3.54

1.192

-0.439

-0.723

I_23

3.76

1.047

-0.581

-0.378

I_24

3.45

1.151

-0.395

-0.606

I_25

3.48

1.158

-0.436

-0.610

I_26

3.48

1.198

-0.401

-0.729

I_27

3.25

1.182

-0.206

-0.794

I_28

3.53

1.270

-0.548

-0.739

I_29

3.48

1.234

-0.482

-0.719

I_30

3.56

1.196

-0.524

-0.602

I_31

3.34

1.351

-0.352

-1.062

I_32

3.49

1.255

-0.454

-0.805

I_33

4.13

0.871

-0.929

0.696

I_34

4.20

0.861

-1.016

0.802

I_35

3.72

1.176

-0.704

-0.277

I_36

3.54

1.122

-0.491

-0.499

I_37

3.56

1.087

-0.419

-0.504

I_38

3.58

1.148

-0.519

-0.499

187

Tourism Happiness Index

Figure 1. Pearson’s correlation coefficient and corresponding frequency

(MSA), obtained by the main diagonal analysis of the Anti-image Matrix, showed that all diagonal values are greater than 0.5, thus it can be concluded that the use of all variables in the analysis is appropriate. According to the rule of an eigenvalue greater than 1 and the analysis of the slope of the scree plot, the relational structure of the various items of the happiness scale is explained by four factors, which explains 73% of the total variance. Table 2 summarizes for each item the weight factor in each of the factors, their eigenvalues, communalities and the amount of variance explained by each of the extracted factors. Subsequently the factors were nominated, as follows: F1 = Accessibility; F2 = Deliverability; F3 = Convenience; F4 = Social responsibility.

CONCLUSION Proposed research takes into account Content Analysis for preparation of Questionnaire which was cross-validated by Structural Equation Modeling Concept. Final Model was a unique contribution for measuring level of Happiness of Tourists mostly relevant in Indian context. Consumer unhappiness in tourism sector is a problem that causes damage to the individual, organization and consequently society at large. Eliminating its negative effects is therefore an essential step for developed society. If the tourism industries create quality tourism services where there is open communication and trust among 188

Tourism Happiness Index

Table 2. Factorial Structure Item

F1

F2

F3

F4

Communalities

I_01

0.285

0.264

0.769

0.207

0.785

I_02

0.269

0.214

0.792

0.194

0.782

I_03

0.364

0.220

0.779

0.232

0.841

I_04

0.300

0.208

0.753

0.215

0.746

I_05

0.537

0.282

0.513

0.286

0.713

I_06

0.581

0.233

0.196

0.400

0.590

I_07

0.257

0.237

0.649

0.330

0.652

I_08

0.485

0.604

0.287

0.220

0.731

I_09

0.423

0.655

0.335

0.230

0.772

I_10

0.450

0.670

0.277

0.204

0.770

I_11

0.657

0.387

0.337

0.256

0.760

I_12

0.703

0.387

0.348

0.178

0.797

I_13

0.710

0.339

0.334

0.191

0.767

I_14

0.757

0.319

0.307

0.165

0.796

I_15

0.52

0.607

0.219

0.044

0.688

I_16

0.621

0.409

0.294

0.131

0.657

I_17

0.726

0.42

0.3

0.074

0.8

I_18

0.662

0.279

0.341

0.314

0.731

I_19

0.523

0.169

0.244

0.406

0.527

I_20

0.614

0.22

0.134

0.447

0.642

I_21

0.522

0.506

0.226

0.316

0.679

I_22

0.553

0.525

0.266

0.353

0.776

I_23

0.5

0.428

0.232

0.399

0.646

I_24

0.691

0.235

0.266

0.406

0.769

I_25

0.361

0.237

0.221

0.635

0.639

I_26

0.684

0.242

0.242

0.419

0.762

I_27

0.598

0.231

0.362

0.437

0.734

I_28

0.683

0.244

0.282

0.352

0.73

I_29

0.657

0.284

0.376

0.343

0.771

I_30

0.664

0.357

0.294

0.398

0.813

I_31

0.738

0.253

0.297

0.299

0.786

I_32

0.657

0.406

0.275

0.335

0.784

I_33

0.197

0.761

0.211

0.284

0.743

I_34

0.239

0.721

0.204

0.352

0.743

I_35

0.589

0.311

0.325

0.3

0.639

I_36

0.167

0.237

0.28

0.708

0.663

I_37

0.337

0.296

0.289

0.689

0.76

I_38

0.474

0.203

0.308

0.572

0.688

Eigenvalue

23.8580

1.5070

1.2330

1.0760

Explained variance

29.90%

15.40%

14.90%

12.70%

189

Tourism Happiness Index

Figure 2. Structural Equation Modelling

organization and tourists, the stakeholders will be physically and mentally engaged and make the tourists happy. Proposed research will try to find out root-causes of tourism unhappiness and formulate proper strategies in enhancing morale and happiness-level of tourists by periodically monitoring level of tourism happiness index.

190

Tourism Happiness Index

REFERENCE Andrews, F. M., & Withey, S. B. (1976). Social indicators of well-being: American perception of life quality. New York, NY: Plenum. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-2253-5 Bakker, A. B. (2008). The work-related flow inventory: Construction and initial validation of the WOLF. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72(3), 400–414. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2007.11.007 Bakker, A. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2010). Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research. New York, NY: Psychology Press. Bakker, A. B., & Oerlemans, W. G. (2011). Subjective well-being in organizations. In K. S. Cameron & G. M. Spreizer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship (pp. 178–189). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Bakker, A. B., Rodríguez-Muñoz, A., & Derks, D. (2012). La emergencia de la Psicología de la Salud Ocupacional Positiva. Psicothema, 24, 66–72. PMID:22269366 Berelson, B. (1952). Contents analysis in communication research. Free press, Glencoe. Bryce, J., & Haworth, J. (2003). Psychological well-being in a sample of male and female office workers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33(3), 565–585. Blanch, J. M., Sahagún, M., & Cervantes, G. (2010). Factor structure of working conditions questionnaire. Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones, 26(3), 175–189. doi:10.5093/tr2010v26n3a2 Clark, A. E., Diener, E., Georgellis, Y., & Lucas, R. E. (2008). Lags and leads in life satisfaction: A test of the baseline hypothesis. Economic Journal (London), 118(529), 222–243. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2008.02150.x Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row. De Leersnyder, J., Mesqwuita, B., Kim, H., Eom, K., & Choi, H. (2014). Emotional fit with culture: A predictor of individual differences in relational well-being. Emotion, 14(2), 241–245. doi:10.1037/a0035296 PMID:24364853 Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. The American Psychologist, 55(1), 34–43. doi:10.1037/0003066X.55.1.34 PMID:11392863

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Diener, E., Sandvik, E., & Pavot, W. (1991). Happiness is the frequency, not the intensity, of positive versus negative affect. In F. Strack, M. Argyle, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Subjective well-being: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 119-139). Oxford, UK: Pergamon. Dutschke, G. (2013). Factores condicionantes de felicidad organizacional. Estudio exploratorio de la realidad en Portugal. Revista Estudios Empresariales. Dutschke, G., Gomes, J. C., Combadão, J., & Jacobsohn, L. (2015). Developing a scale measuring Organizational Happiness: content analysis and exploratory factorial analysis. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference Positive Organizational Communication: Empresa, liderazgo y comunicación interna positive. Sevilla: Univer-sidad Loyola. Fisher, C. (2010). Happiness at Work. International Journal of Management Reviews, 12, 384–412. Hofstede, G. (1991). Culture and Organizations: Software of the mind. Nova York. McGraw-Hill. Judge, T. A., Thorensen, C. J., Bono, J. E., & Patton, G. K. (2001). The job satisfactionjob performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127(3), 376–407. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.3.376 PMID:11393302 Keyes, C. L., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 1007–1022. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007 PMID:12051575 Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rodrígues-Muñoz, A., & Sanz-Vergel, A. I. (2013). Happiness and well-being at work: A special issue introduction. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 29(3), 95–97. doi:10.5093/tr2013a14 Ryff, C. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069 Ryff, C., & Keyes, C. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719–727. doi:10.1037/00223514.69.4.719 PMID:7473027 Strack, F., Argyle, M., & Schwarz, N. (1991). Subjective well-being: An interdisciplinary perspective. Oxford: Pergamon. 192

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Uchida, Y., Norasakkunkit, V., & Kitayama, S. (2004). Cultural constructions of happiness: Theory and empirical evidence. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5, 223–239. Vacharkulksemsuk, T., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). One decade later: An update of the broaden-and build theory of positive emotions in organizations. UK: Emerald. Van Katwyk, P. T., Spector, P. E., & Kelloway, E. K. (2000). Using the job-Related affective well-being scale (JAWS) to investigate affective responses to work stressors. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(2), 219–230. doi:10.1037/10768998.5.2.219 PMID:10784286 Veenhoven, R. (2012). Cross-national differences in happiness: Cultural measurement bias or effect of culture? International Journal of Wellbeing, 2(4), 333–353. doi:10.5502/ijw.v2.i4.4 Warr, P. B. (1987). Work, unemployment, and mental health. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Warr, P. B. (2007). Work, happiness, and unhappiness. New York: Routledge. Warr, P. B. (2013). Fuentes de felicidad e infelicidad en el trabajo: Una perspectiva combinada. Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones, 29(3), 99–106. doi:10.5093/tr2013a15 Warr, P. (1990). The measurement of well-being and other aspects of mental health. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63(3), 193–210. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.1990. tb00521.x Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., & Ilies, R. (2012). Everyday working life: Explaining within-person fluctuations in employee well-being. Human Relations, 65(9), 1051–1069. doi:10.1177/0018726712451283

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Chapter 11

Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference to Arunachal Pradesh, India Debasish Batabyal https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0191-9804 Amity University, Kolkata, India Bani Ratna Padhi Amity University, Kolkata, India

ABSTRACT The global economy has been witnessing phenomenal change over a long period. The service sector has been dominating the manufacturing industries. That shows the mammoth contribution of the tourism industry in terms of Rupee value. The report has revealed that in 2016 the sector generated INR14.1 trillion (USD208.9 billion) that represents 9.6% of India’s GDP. Tourism industry has been creating around 10% jobs in the country that offered 40.3 million jobs in 2016 which promoted India’s ranking in 2nd position across the globe in terms of total employment supported by travel and tourism trade. India’s travel and tourism sector has been one of the fastest growing amongst the G20. Therefore, the tourism and hospitality sector may poise as an emerging area for the rural economic development. With its multiplier effects, tourism can energize the rural economy. This chapter has attempted to explore the opportunities and challenges of tourism entrepreneurship in rural India with special reference to Arunachal Pradesh. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch011 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference

INTRODUCTION The global economy has been witnessing phenomenal change over a long period. The services sector has been dominating the manufacturing industries. This is simply because of the service sector can easily accommodate the increasing population influx to fulfill their livelihoods. Barring a few high-end services or some components it is mostly low involvement sector. The impact of technological development does not make the sector completely obsolete instantly. The similar trend is replicated in Indian sub-continent. The contribution of services sector tends to 55% to the GDP of the country. Tourism and hospitality sector are indeed one of the most potential contributors for the economy. According to the latest report of World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), India ranks 7th position in the world in tourism & travel sector in terms of the contributions of the sector towards the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the respective nation. The fascinating part of this report is India holds the 5th largest economy having representation of 3.65% of the world economy. That shows the mammoth contribution of the tourism industry in terms of Rupee value. The report has revealed that in 2016 the sector generated INR14.1 trillion (USD208.9 billion) that represents 9.6% of India’s GDP. Tourism industry has been creating around 10% jobs in the country that offered 40.3 million jobs in 2016 which promoted India’s ranking in 2nd position across the globe in terms of total employment supported by Travel & Tourism trade. India’s Travel & Tourism sector has been one of the fastest growing amongst the G20 countries, growing by 8.5% in 2016 (WTTC, 2017). All these indications highlight the impetus of tourism across the globe. The rural India primarily survives on agriculture where around 50% populations are engaged in this primary sector. The manufacturing sector whether it is small or large, it essentially requires a substantial amount of initial investment, raw materials, technology and strong backups of research & development activities. As a result, creating new startups in manufacturing sector is not always easy particularly in rural & remote areas. The services encounters which are ancillary to the main frame manufacturing work cannot grow in the region since the growth of manufacturing is limited or notional in these far-flung regions. So, tourism and hospitality sector may poise as emerging areas for the rural economic development. With its multiplier effects, tourism can energize the rural economy This chapter has attempted to explore the opportunities & challenges of tourism entrepreneurship in rural India with special reference to Arunachal Pradesh.

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Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference

Objectives of the Study 1. To study India’s Comparative positioning on global entrepreneurial dimensions. 2. To study the present status of key actors of tourism & hospitality business in Arunachal Pradesh, India. 3. To recommend strategies for the development of tourism entrepreneurship in the region.

Review of Literature The concept of Entrepreneurship is derived from a French verb ‘entreprendre’, which means ‘to undertake’ (Richard Cantillon, 1970). The characteristics of entrepreneurs, according to Cantillon, were mainly ‘self-employed’ and ‘risk takers’. Jean Baptiste Say was the first person to coin the word ‘entrepreneur’. In his opinion entrepreneur is a person with managerial skills. “Entrepreneurship is defined as New Venture Creation” excellently has chronicled the growth of USA (David H. Holt, 2003). In his book Holt explains that America was discovered by entrepreneurs and nourished by entrepreneurs, and the United States become a world economic power through entrepreneurial activity. Holt emphases that in all the service categories there are critical factors that helped entrepreneurs succeed. The nature of a service venture is different from a product-based company in that services require exceptional human resource skills. In the journal ‘Atlantic Monthly’ titled “Beyond the Information revolution” committed “truly revolutionary impact of ‘the Information Revolution is just beginning to be felt… the explosive emergence of the Internet as a major, perhaps eventually the major, worldwide distribution channel for goods, for services, and surprisingly, for managerial and professional jobs is profoundly changing economics, market, and industry structures; products and services and their flow; consumer segmentation, consumer values and consumer behavior; jobs and labour markets.” (Drucker, 1999) Further, he emphasis in his book “Innovation and Entrepreneurship” (Drucker, 1993) expresses the seven sources for innovative opportunity, which according to him initiates innovation, the main instrument for entrepreneurship ventures. These are: • • • • • 196

Unexpected whether it is success, failure or unexpected outside event. Incongruity between reality as it actually is and reality as it is assumed to be or as it ‘ought to be’. Innovation based on process need. Changes in industry structure or market structure – that catches everyone unawares. Demographics in terms of Population changes.

Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference

• •

Changes in perception, mood, meaning, etc. New knowledge of both scientific and non-scientific.

Government of India initiates entrepreneurship development initiatives through the department of small industry (Government of India Economic Survey 199596, 8th Plan Period.) Separate policy measures for the growth and development of village and small-scale industries was announced during August 1991. The researcher was keen to find out certain facts about entrepreneurship development programmes extended to the aspiring entrepreneurs by the government and whether the tourism entrepreneurs of Bangalore had the scope of utilizing the same. Northeast India shares above 90% of its border with its neighboring nations like Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, and Myanmar, should be seen a trade and commerce opportunity than a political issue (www.indianchamber.org). Tourist numbers to the region have been dramatically increasing in recent years. Northeast India is the eastern-most region of India connected to East India via a narrow passage popularly known as ‘chicken neck’ which is situated at the tri-junction between Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. The Northeast region comprises the contiguous eight Sister States (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura), plus the Himalayan state of Sikkim. These states are grouped under the Ministry of Development of North eastern Region (DoNER) ministry of the Government of India. Except for the Goalpara region of Assam, the rest were late entrants to the British India, the Brahmaputra valley area of Assam became a part of British India in year 1824, and the hill regions were incorporated in the later part. The state of Sikkim joined the Indian union through a referendum in 1975 and was recognized as part of Northeast India in the 1990s. Geographically, the area of Northeast India constitutes about 8% of the total India’s size, and is roughly 3/4th the size of the state of Maharashtra. Northeast India’s population (all 8 states combined) is approximately 40 million (2011 census), which represents 3.1% of the total Indian population (1,210 million). Northeast India’s population size is roughly equal to the state of Odisha. (www.indianchamber.org)

Methodology The study was in the least density state of India named ‘Arunachal Pradesh’, is popularly known as ‘Land of Rising Sun’ and ‘Land of Dawn lit Mountains.’ The study is basically empirical in nature which is based on secondary data collected from various reliable sources. However, the opinions & observations from experts & experiences shared by dominated entrepreneurs have been captured to develop and modify certain tables and constructs to understand tourism activities in the state.

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Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference

Analysis & Interpretation of the Study Analysis I It is important to know where India stands in global platform with reference to entrepreneurial initiatives like how Indian entrepreneurs perceives the emerging opportunities in comparison to the global communities or the extent of absorption of technology from laboratory to product/service encounter – Market implementation. On the basis of these strategic dimensions, Global Entrepreneurship Index 2017 was developed to understand the comparative positioning of each country on global platform. This shows a mixed experienced about India on some dimensions, India has performed at par and some other dimensions, India’s ranking was indeed discouraging as per as entrepreneurship is concerned. The following table is depicting some of the indicative performance with comparative positioning of India in entrepreneurial practices. Table 1. India’s Positioning as per Global Entrepreneurship Index -2017 India’s Rank out of 137 countries

Key Dimensions

GEI Score

Opportunity Perception

0.294

Rank 83

Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Norway have achieved top position with GEI score of 1. Countries like Sri-Lanka, Nigeria, Ethiopia above India.

Technology Absorption

0.026

Rank 132

Just above five countries of the world i.e. Indonesia, Guyana, Suriname, Philippines, Malaysia.

Human Capital

0.233

Rank 94

Countries like Myanmar, Nigeria, Cambodia, Vietnam etc. are above India.

Startup Skill

0.160

Rank 92

Above Kenya, Ethiopia, Pakistan, Myanmar, Nigeria. However, Japan & China are just below India.

Risk Acceptance

0.388

Rank 47

Quite Impressive. Above the countries like Italy, Philippines, Brazil etc.

Product Innovation

0.735

Rank 22

Above Singapore, France, UK, Australia

Competition

0.652

Rank 17

Above Singapore, South Africa, Japan, Spain etc.

Remarks

Adapted from Global Entrepreneurship Index -2017

Analysis II Tourism has been earmarked as the key agent for the economic transformation particularly for the regions which lack adequate resources, minerals, manufacturing 198

Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference

etc. The examples are the countries like Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore in South East Asian region. In India the state like Goa, Sikkim even the deserts of Rajasthan can be the befitting examples. In India Arunachal Pradesh is a state in North-Eastern region which is landlocked and around 80% area are occupied by forestry. The state has its bundle of unique tourist attractions which are highly rated by the domestic and global tourists. The state is gifted as picturesque and scenic beauty, flora and fauna, biodiversity hotspot. The state is inhabited by 26 major and many other minor and endangered tribal communities. The following table is depicting tourist arrivals (both domestic and inbound tourists) in the State on a longitudinal time frame to understand the pattern of tourist inflows yearly basis.

Table 2. Tourist Inflows in Arunachal Pradesh Year

Inbound Tourists Arrival

Deviation in Inbound Tourists Arrival

Domestic Tourist Arrival

Deviation in Domestic Tourist Arrival

Total Tourist Arrival

Total Deviation in Tourist Arrivals

2000-2001

129

NA

3126

NA

3255

NA

2001-2002

78

(-) 51

4644

1518

4722

1467

2002-2003

137

59

6878

2234

7015

2293

2003-2004

438

301

3632

(-) 3246

4070

(-) 2945

2004-2005

354

(-) 84

39767

36135

40088

36018

2005-2006

292

(-) 62

3025

(-) 36742

3317

(-) 36771

2006-2007

1143

851

50612

47587

51755

48438

2007-2008

1939

796

31100

(-) 19512

33039

(-) 18716

2008-2009

3020

1081

149292

118192

152312

119273

2009-2010

3945

925

195147

45855

199092

46780

2010-2011

3534

(-) 411

139829

(-) 55318

143363

(-) 55729

2011-2012

4753

1219

237980

98151

242733

99370

2012-2013

5135

382

317243

79263

322378

79645

2013-2014

10846

5711

125461

(-) 191782

136307

(-) 186071

2014-2015

5204

(-) 5642

180964

55503

186168

49861

2015-2016

5283

79

326362

145398

331645

145477

Adapted and modified from Statistical Abstract of Arunachal Pradesh – 2016/2015/2013, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh

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Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference

Table 3. Indicative list of popular events embedded with tourism activities Name of the Event

Probable Month of Celebration each year

Nature of Tourism

Venue of the Event

Arunachal Festival / Panaroma

February

Cultural Tourism

Itanagar (Capital Complex)

Ziro Music Festival

September

Agro cum Adventure Tourism

Ziro – I, Lower Subansiri districts of Arunachal Pradesh

Adventure Mechuka

November – December

Adventure

Mechuka, West Siang districts of Arunachal Pradesh

Panyor River Festival

December

Eco-Tourism cum Adventure Tourism

Yazali, Lower Subansiri districts of Arunachal Pradesh

Dambuk Orange Festival

December

Horticulture cum Adventure

Dambuk circle, East Siang districts of Arunachal Pradesh

Prepared from web pages and Expert view

The state has recognized 12 tourist circuits for enhancing efficiency and effectiveness of tourism activities. The concept of tourist circuits is strategic that essentially attempts to group a set of destination which can be visited by a tourist with optimality of exploitation of time and minimization of transportation cost. The number of registered tour operators is 34 in the state which is somehow lesser than the size of the sector. Glimpse of tourist potential, its attraction points and presence of stake-holder service providers for tourism and hospitality activities are canvassed below: The state has been witnessing the growing popularity of home stays which has been practicing in the state in significant manners. Home-stay services provided at some select destinations are canvassed below:

Connectivity to Arunachal Pradesh: The state of Arunachal Pradesh has been witnessing a phenomenal development in transportation and connectivity particularly roadways, railways. There are upcoming projects like airport, four lane highway, are in the pipeline. Glimpse of exposure of Arunachal Pradesh tourism infrastructure are given below: ¬ However, the society has adopted the culture of home stays across Arunachal Pradesh even though the intensity or magnitude may differ. With the growing influx of tourist across the state the home stay service would definitely bring forth. 200

Rural Entrepreneurship Through Tourism in the Himalayan Region With Special Reference

Table 4. Tourist Circuits, Tourism Activities, Important Destinations and Accommodations Names of 12 Tourist Circuits in Arunachal Pradesh

Tourism Activities & Prospects**

Accommodations (No. of Hotels / Resorts)

Important Destination of Tourist Interests

Tezpur-BhalukpongBomdila-Tawang

Pilgrimage tourism, adventure tourism (Mountaineering)

16

Tippi Orchid Research Centre, Craft Center, Jaswant Garh, Sela Pass, Nuranang Waterfall, Tawang War Memorial, Urgyelling Monastery, Sangetsar Lake, etc.

Itanagar-Ziro-DaporijoAalo-Pasighat

MICE, Green tourism, Village tourism, culture tourism

19

High Altitude Fish farm (Ziro), Talley Valley, Menga Cave, Malinithan, etc.

Pasighat-JenggingYingkiong-Tuting

Wildlife tourism, Adventure tourism

Data Not Available**

D. Ering Wildlife Sanctuary, Siang River, Sirki Waterfall, etc.

Tinsukia-TezuHayuliang

Pilgrimage tourism, Heritage tourism

04

Parasuram Kund, Dong (First sunrise of millennium in India), Bhishmak Nagar, etc.

Margherita-MiaoNamdhapa-Vijoynagar

Heritage tourism, Adventure tourism

03

Miao, Lake of No Return, World War II Cemetery, Still-well Road, Tibetan Refugee Settlement Camp, MIAO, etc.

Roing-Mayudia-Anini

Eco-tourism

05

Chimri Fort and Rukmininati, Nizamghat, stone rampart historical site, Dambuk, Hotspring at Jia, Festivals, etc.

Tezpur-SeijosaBhlukpong

Wildlife tourism, Eco-tourism

04

Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Pakke Tiger Reserve, Ancient archeological ruins at Bhalukpung

Ziro-Palin-NyapinSangram-Koloriang

Culture tourism

Data Not Available**

Nyishi Culture, Parsi-parlo, etc.

Doimukh-SagaleePakekessang-Seppa

Culture tourism

Data Not Available**

Doimukh, Pakke Wildlife Century, Papum Reserve Forest, etc.

Aalo-Mechuka

Adventure tourism, Village tourism, Horticulture tourism

09

Orange orchards, Mechuka valley, snow-capped mountains, Patum Bridge, etc.

Daporijo-Taliah-SiyumNacho

Adventure tourism

Data Not Available**

White water rafting, hilly locations by the river, etc.

Jairampur-ManmaoNampong-Pangsaupass

Heritage tourism, Adventure tourism

Data Not Available**

Pangsau Pass Winter Festival, World War cemetery II, Historic Stilwell Road, Hell Pass, etc.

Adapted and modified from the web-page http://www.arunachaltourism.com/accommodation.php retrieved on 17.12.2017 ** In accordance with the Directorate of Tourism, Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh – Some properties are existing and upcoming in the region.

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Table 5. Home-Stay services in Arunachal Pradesh** Name of Districts where Home stay services are available

No. of Service Providers for Home stay service

No. of Rooms offered for home stays service

Tawang

17

30

Lower Subansiri

24

67

East Siang

10

31

East Kameng

02

09

West Kameng

11

Data Not available

Types / Nature of Rooms

Single, Double, Deluxe, Swiss Tent, Dormitory etc.

**Adapted from the web-page http://www.arunachaltourism.com/homestay.php retrieved on 17.12.2017

Of late Govt. of India has identified Pasighat as a Smart City which is well connected by roadways NH – 52, nearby Airways i.e. Mohanbari Airport Dibrugarh and Dibrugarh railway station. ¬ The capital complex of the state is connected by broad gauge railways and operating regular train from Guwahati & weekly from Delhi. A proposal of construction of state’s own airport is on utmost priority. ¬ All these are the achievements of the state of Arunachal Pradesh in building infrastructure and tourism ecosystem with the collaborative support from all stake holder service providers. This developmental story has been attracting more numbers of budding entrepreneurs to come forward with their new startups and entrepreneurial acumen.

Analysis – III The population of the state has been increasing at around 26% in the last decade with an average of 2.6% per annum. So the state has to generate equitable opportunities either in direct or indirect employment in order to absorb this growing workforce in the economy. The days are over that the state would take the responsibility for providing jobs in fact there is a paradigm shift i.e. the state would act as change agent to facilitate the employment generation process. There lies the importance of promoting entrepreneurship in the region. The Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of Arunachal Pradesh is overshadowed by agriculture and allied sector followed by service sector and secondary/ manufacturing sector. As of 2014-15 the GSDP at current price is contributed by agriculture sector with the share of 45.44% followed by the service sector with the share of 30.18% and manufacturing sector with the share of 24.37%. This depicts that the contribution of service sector to GSDP (30.18%) is much lower than the 202

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national average (53%-55%). The tourism trade, hotel and restaurant sector contributed 54621 lacs towards GSDP (at current price) from a substantial growth from 200405 where the total value of the sectors contributions was meager Rs 12446 lacs. Amongst the services, the sector contributes around 11.61% to GSDP of the state as on 2014-15, (SDP report, Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh, 2014-15). All this data reflects that the tourism industry is growing, and it has potential for higher growth. The data set shows that the tourism sector has got high potential to grow which can absorb the growing workforce both in letters and spirits. But at the same time, the burning issue of today’s workforce is a syndrome of un-employability of the certified professionals. This means there is huge difference in the level of knowledge and skills desired by the industry compared to the skill set provided by academia. The growth trajectory for the tourism sector must be supported by the institution and universities in the region by creating adequate manpower with desired skilled and knowledge, imparting shorter capacity building, training programmes for regular updates. The following table projects the role of academia in manpower development.

Table 6. Academic Institutes / Universities Imparting Full-time Tourism & Hospitality Programmes in Arunachal Pradesh Name of the University/Institute in the state offering Tourism & Hospitality Programmme

Name of the Programmme Offered with Intake capacity

Total Strength

Rajiv Gandhi University (Central University), Itanagar

Post-Graduate Diploma in Tourism Management. (Intake 21)

21

Rajiv Gandhi Govt. Polytechnique, Itanagar

Diploma in Hotel Management & Catering Technology (20)

20

Rajiv Gandhi Govt. Polytechnique, Itanagar

Diploma in Travel & Tourism Management (20)

20

Based on the discussion the following strategy may be formulated by all the state and non-state actors in a coherent and collaborative manner.

¬ State should concentrate on massive infrastructure development so that tourism can be promoted. ¬ The government and academic institution should work together for the generation of qualified manpower to contribute in the trade and also to provide training, capacity building programmed for career development. ¬ State should play the pivotal role to convince the banks and financial institution for providing loans to the budding entrepreneurs in the sector.

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¬ The state and academia should join hands for offering outreach programmes, workshops even in the remote locations of the state. The state DIC could be utilized to provide consultancy, counseling and guidance activities with individual care so as to develop a concrete and pragmatic business model for individual specific. ¬ The state (the union as well as the federal government) should take a constructive and holistic strategy for branding and promotions of TPI (Tourist Products of India) which essentially shall include the destinations of the state of Arunachal Pradesh. The branding campaign like ‘Incredible India’ or ‘Incredible Arunachal’ may be energizing with new thoughts, aspirations, in an integrated manner. ¬ The tourism at smaller states may be incentivized by formulating and administering special schemes for the tourists as well as for the stake holders. This would revitalize and boosted economy of the low-income states.

Scope for Further Study This study would motivate the future researchers and academicians to compare tourism entrepreneurship among different states in India. The study may trigger the innovative minds to formulate new plans, strategies which will manifest in the economy of the region. Government and other stake holders may concentrate on these research outcomes as an exploratory manner and for which further detail study may be conducted on a particular area. The state essentially requires a dedicated and comprehensive tourism statistics so that the stake holders, business and the sector can improve.

Limitations of the Study The study is conducted mostly based on secondary data apart form that a miniscule of information was collected as expert opinion. The study could be modified with the assimilation of primary data to reveal the latest trend in the sector. The study suffers from the limitation if the source database has not been adequately updated on regular basis.

CONCLUSIONS India’s travel & tourism sectors are primarily enriched by the contribution of the domestic travel. In 2016, domestic tourism earned 88% of the sector’s contribution to GDP. Visitor exports and money spent by inbound tourists in India generated 12% revenues for tourism. This has been evidenced by the recent data from the 204

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UN World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) which exhibited that India received only 9 million international tourist arrivals in 2016 with 40th rank as the global position. This is not welcoming at all. There are many hazards, threats, insecurity, insurgency, etc., which essentially discourage the foreign tourists to visit India. In principle, Indians are committed to treat the tourist as ‘God.’ ‘Athithi Deva Bhavo’ is the spirit and strong conviction in Indian society. In spite of that, the action does not match with the words. The outcomes of the research chapter are many folds in nature. This is indeed a resourceful material and inputs for the students or budding professionals who would be eager to start new business in hospitality and tourism services. The book chapter could be an important document to formulate innovative policies to achieve inclusive economic development, entrepreneurship development, and woman empowerment primarily through tourism activities in the rural areas. This chapter shall reinforce a line of confidence among the rural youths that they can go for entrepreneurial attempts without being confined by Govt. jobs or low earning assignments. The study shall definitely boost up the self-esteem of the young brigades of rural India. There is no denial that the state should have a comprehensive strategy for tourism development in the region. It needs basic infrastructure, accessibility, amenities to augment the point of tourist attractions. On the contrary, the equitable roles have to be played by private players, investors and entrepreneurs to boost up tourism in the rural India. In fact tourism is the natural phenomenon of human life which needs to be channelized as the means of economic value creation through the entrepreneurial efforts of the rural youths. The study has showcased the commitments of the state & non-state actors to promote tourism as the catalyst of developments in the emerging rural economies of India. The chapter shall essentially be useful for the entrepreneurs to develop real life projects or new startups in the tourism & Hospitality business in the region.

REFERENCES Chauhan, V., & Khanna, S. (2008). Tourism: a tool for crafting peace process in Kashmir, J&K, India. Drucker, P. F. (1999). Beyond the Information Revolution. Atlantic Monthly, 47–57. Ekinsmyth, C. (2012). Family-friendly entrepreneurship: New business formation in family spaces. Urbani, 23(4 Supp. 1), S115–S125. doi:10.5379/urbani-izziv-en2012-23-supplement-1-011

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Estimates of SDP of Arunachal Pradesh – 2014-15. (2015). Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh. Ghosh, J. (2012). Entrepreneurship in tourism and allied activities (a study of Bangalore city in the post liberalization period) [Doctoral dissertation]. School of Management, Dept. of Management Studies, Pondicherry University. Government of India Economic Survey 1995-96. (1996). Holt, D. H. (2003). Entrepreneurship – New Venture Creation. Prentice Hall Indian Reprint. Jaafar, M. (2012). Entrepreneurial marketing and accommodation businesses in East Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepreneurship, 14(2), 164–183. doi:10.1108/14715201211271393 Jaafar, M., Abdul-Aziz, A. R., Maideen, S. A., & Mohd, S. Z. (2011). Entrepreneurship in the tourism industry: Issues in developing countries. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(4), 827–835. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.01.003 Mshenga, P. M., & Richardson, R. B. (2013). Micro and small enterprise participation in tourism in coastal Kenya. Small Business Economics, 41(3), 667–681. doi:10.100711187-012-9449-5 Rogerson, C. M. (2004). Urban tourism and small tourism enterprise development in Johannesburg: The case of township tourism. GeoJournal, 60(3), 249–257. doi:10.1023/B:GEJO.0000034732.58327.b6 Rogerson, C. M. (2008). Developing small tourism businesses in Southern Africa. Botswana Notes and Records, 23–34. Shinde, K. A. (2010). Entrepreneurship and indigenous entrepreneurs in religious tourism in India. International Journal of Tourism Research, 12(5), 523–535. doi:10.1002/jtr.771 Skokic, V., & Morrison, A. (2011). Tourism and hospitality entrepreneurship, social setting and research methodology: moving ‘into the beyond.’ Smith, V. L., & Eadington, W. R. (Eds.). (1992). Tourism alternatives: Potentials and problems in the development of tourism. University of Pennsylvania Press. doi:10.9783/9781512807462 Statistical Abstract of Arunachal Pradesh – 2014. (2014). Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh.

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Statistical Abstract of Arunachal Pradesh – 2015. (2015). Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh. Statistical Abstract of Arunachal Pradesh – 2016. (2016). Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Arunachal Pradesh. Szivas, E. (2001). Entrance into tourism entrepreneurship: A UK case study. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3(2), 163–172. doi:10.1177/146735840100300207 Taskov, N., Boskov, T., Metodijeski, D., & Filiposki, O. (2011). Entrepreneurship in tourism industry lead to business benefits. Tyson, L. D. A., Petrin, T., & Rogers, H. (1994). Promoting entrepreneurship in eastern Europe. Small Business Economics, 6(3), 165–184. doi:10.1007/BF01108286

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Chapter 12

Cultural Tourism Entrepreneurship in India Vandita Hajra Amity Institute of Travel and Tourism, Amity University, Kolkata, India

ABSTRACT Cultural entrepreneurs are rightly called the heartbeat of the global economy as they are the ones who step in where governments fail to tread. Cultural entrepreneurs can instigate safeguarding of the timeless heritage of people with a pro-poor mission of generating collective awareness and encouraging community skill development. Cultural entrepreneurship is a significant requirement for the sustainability of the tourism sector of a country like India, as the ‘culture’ component has been the game changer in the Indian tourism scenario and has truly endowed the industry with its unique brand identity. The following chapter draws important examples from the industry and analyzes the business prospects based on heritage and pilgrimage tourism, thematic routes, events and festivals, as well as creative tourism for the budding entrepreneurs to present India in a never experienced before avatar as the challenges that are an irreplaceable part of such a sensitive endeavour.

INTRODUCTION Culture, which represents a set of shared attitudes, values, goals and practices and which manifests itself in almost all economic, social and other activities is the predominant factor behind India’s meteoric rise in the tourism segment in recent years. Cultural tourism is one of the significant branches of tourism. The United Nations World Tourism Organization suggests that more than 40 percent of all international tourists are “cultural tourists” (Isaac, 2008). Cultural tourism has been DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch012 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Cultural Tourism Entrepreneurship in India

defined as ‘the movement of persons to cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with the intention to gather new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs’ .The “Incredible India” campaign with its philosophy – “Atithi Devo Bhavah” (meaning: Guest is God) launched by the Ministry of Tourism, Government of India leveraged heavily on the cultural aspects of India to attract tourists from all over the world. However, in most of the states there is a need to package these offerings in a way so that they create a more accessibility-laden appeal to the prospective tourist. The need of the hour is accentuating the tangible components of a local culture, recentering and packaging cultural products, reimagining social roles and motivating new behaviours therefore reaching the widest possible audience. And this is where the cultural entrepreneur could help bridging the gap between the readymade offerings and tourists’ dormant motivations. With rapidly changing and evolving demands and expectations of consumers, constant innovation by hospitality, leisure, sports and tourism businesses are definitely the need of the hour and therein lies the critical role of entrepreneurship. Cultural entrepreneurship calls for proper understanding of a region’s culture and to harness it to drive trade and corporate activities through innovation, risk taking and maximizing opportunities. It is not only an economic activity but also a sociocultural activity aimed towards community skill development at the very basic level and thereby fostering pro-poor growth. Cultural Entrepreneurs are cultural change agents and resourceful visionaries who organize cultural, financial, social and human capital, to generate revenue from a cultural activity. Their innovative solutions result in economically sustainable cultural enterprises that enhance livelihoods and create cultural value and wealth for both creative producers and consumers of cultural services and products.

Objectives of the Study 1. To explore the prospects of cultural entrepreneurship in the tourism sector of India 2. To identify the social problems associated with packaging culture and selling it as a product by cultural entrepreneurs

Research Methodology Qualitative research method was followed in this study, including content analysis of secondary data collected from books, research papers, articles and websites. The following paper is exploratory in nature.

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Cultural Tourism – Definition and Types Cultural Tourism embraces the full range of experiences visitors can undertake to learn what makes a destination distinctive – its lifestyle, its heritage, its arts, its people – and the business of providing and interpreting that culture to visitors. (Commonwealth of Australia Creative Nation, 1994). Cultural tourism involves the tourist experiencing and having contact with the host population and its culture while experiencing its uniqueness and the characteristics of the place and people (Boyd, 2002, (Hager, 2003) and (Richards, 2007). Cultural tourists are motivated by an interest in observing or becoming involved in a particular society and its quirks and charms, through travel and observation. Cultural tourists could be broadly classified as (i) motivated cultural tourists (whose entire holiday itinerary is motivated by the cultural elements of the destination – which could be either permanent fixtures like art and architecture or else, transient opportunities like fairs and festivals) (ii) inspired cultural tourists (the ones who have a strong interest in culture and sightseeing and a large part of their travels are inspired by cultural opportunities associated with a destination) and (iii) incidental cultural tourists (the ones who do not typically travel for cultural reasons, but anyhow participates in some activities and have shallow experiences). Cultural tourism can be classified into different forms, based on the different elements of culture as follows:

Cultural Entrepreneurship – Definition and Types Rob Bailey (Senior Manager, KPMG - Tourism and Leisure Advisory Services, March 2005) states that: ‘Entrepreneurship is critical to the hospitality, leisure, sports and tourism sectors, as with rapidly changing consumer demands and expectations, constant innovation by businesses is vital to meet and, hopefully, exceed these evolving demands and expectations.’ Entrepreneurial activities generally develop newly combined means of production, new products, new markets, new methods of manufacturing or distribution, new sources of material, or new forms of organisation (Schumpeter, 1934). Hence, entrepreneurship is necessary for overcoming these challenges in these industries and in achieving this; the outcomes are the various forms of innovation. For businesses innovation has the potential to boost productivity and increase the ability to price discriminate and enhance profits. Entrepreneurship then, is key to gaining competitive advantage and, as a result, greater financial rewards. Cultural entrepreneurship is mainly concerned with the proper understanding of a region’s culture and to harness it to drive trade and corporate activities through innovation, risk taking and maximizing opportunities. It is not only an economic activity but also a socio-cultural activity aimed towards community skill development 210

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Table 1. Classification of major cultural tourism forms Types of cultural tourism

Tourism products, activities

i. Heritage tourism

•Natural and cultural heritage (very much connected to nature-based or ecotourism); • Material - built heritage e.g. Swaminarayan Mandir in Gondal, Akshardham Mandir in Delhi - architectural sites e.g. Coochbehar Palace in West Bengal, Padmanabhapuram Palace in Tamil Nadu, City Palace Udaipur, Mysore palace, fortresses of Rajasthan, Maharashtra etc. - World heritage sites e.g. Taj Mahal, Ajanta-Ellora caves, Khajuraho group of monuments, Group of Monuments Mahabalipuram, Great Living Chola Temples, Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, etc. - National and historical memorials e.g. India Gate, Veer Bhumi in New Delhi etc. • Non-material - literature e.g. folktales of India (e.g. Akbar Birbal, Tenali Rama etc.) - arts e.g. handicrafts (e.g. conch shell crafts from West Bengal, blue pottery from Uttar Pradesh, stone and woodwork from Rajasthan) and textiles (e.g. mirror work from Rajasthan, tie and dye from Gujarat, etc.) - folklore e.g. rituals connected to folk deities of India (e.g. the Vratkathas from India) • Cultural heritage sites - museums, collections (e.g. National Museum, New Delhi; Kite Museum, Ahmedabad; Seashell museum, Diu) - libraries (e.g. The National Library, Kolkata) - theatres (e.g. Ramleela during Diwali) - event locations (e.g. Wagah Border in Amritsar) - memories connected to historical persons (e.g. Netaji Bhawan, Jorashanko Thakurbari – Rabindranath Tagore’s ancestral home, Swami Vivekananda’s home in Kolkata, Gandhi Ashram in Sabarmati, etc.)

ii. Cultural thematic routes

• wide range of themes and types: - spiritual e.g. a tour package with places of interest connected to Ramakrishna Mission e.g. a day trip to Kamarpukur (birthplace of Ramakrishna Paramhansa) and Jairambati (birthplace of Sarada Devi, the spiritual consort of Ramakrishna) in West Bengal; Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry, etc.; Nizamuddin Dargah, Nanded - industrial e.g. Sualkuchi in Assam (producing Muga – the golden Assam silk), Patan in Gujarat (known for the production of Patola saree) - artistic e.g. clay doll factories of Krishnanagar, West Bengal, sandalwood oil factory in Mysore, the silk brocade producing centres of Varanasi, leather craft producing centres of Shantiniketan, West Bengal, Paithan near Aurangabad, Maharashtra known for Paithani sarees, jute colouring and weaving industries from West Dinajpur in West Bengal, etc. - gastronomic e.g. culinary tourism involving Parsi restaurants in Mumbai/Parathe-wali gali in Chandni Chowk, Delhi/street food of Kolkata/Wazwan cuisine of Srinagar, Kashmir/sweetmeats of Amritsar, Punjab etc. - architectural e.g. visiting old tombs of Hyderabad on a walking tour - linguistic e.g. attending indigenous language classes like Sanskrit - minority e.g. visit to Vishnoi village in Jodhpur, Rajasthan or a tribal village in Orissa

iii. Cultural city tourism, cultural tours

• “classic” city tourism, sightseeing

iv. Traditions, ethnic tourism

• Local cultures’ traditions – pottery and Rajasthani miniature painting classes, yoga and Ayurveda centres • Ethnic diversity – through homestays in Kerala or agro tourism in Punjab

v. Event and festival tourism

• Cultural festivals and events - Music festivals and events (classic and light or pop music) e.g. Rajasthan International Folk Festival in Jodhpur, ITC Sangeet Sammelan in Gwalior, Doverlane Music Festival in Kolkata, etc. - Dance festivals and events – e.g. Khajuraho Dance Festival, Konark dance festival, etc.

vi. Religious tourism, pilgrimage routes

• Visiting religious sites and locations with religious motivation e.g. Vaishno Devi in Jammu, Golden Temple in Amritsar, Tirupati Balaji in Andhra Pradesh, etc. • Visiting religious sites and locations without religious motivation (desired by the architectural and cultural importance of the sight) e.g. the Rathas of Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu • Pilgrimage routes e.g. Ashtavinayak circuit from Maharashtra, the Chhota Chardham yatra from Uttarakhand, etc.

vii. Creative culture, creative tourism

• traditional cultural and artistic activities - performing arts e.g. music and dance workshops - visual arts e.g. Kumortuli in West Bengal, Madhubani in Bihar, Raghurajpur in Orissa - cultural heritage and literature e.g. Vishwa Bharati, Shantiniketan in West Bengal • as well as cultural industries - printed work e.g. New Delhi World Book Fair - multimedia - the press - cinema e.g. Kolkata International Film Festival - audiovisual and phonographic productions, - craft - design and cultural tourism e.g. Ramoji film city in Hyderabad

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at the very basic level and thereby fostering pro-poor growth. “Cultural Entrepreneurs are cultural change agents and resourceful visionaries who organize cultural, financial, social and human capital, to generate revenue from a cultural activity. Their innovative solutions result in economically sustainable cultural enterprises that enhance livelihoods and create cultural value and wealth for both creative producers and consumers of cultural services and products.” 1 Table 2. Koh and Hatten’s (2002) typology of tourism entrepreneurs, edited by author I. Product based typology

Definition

Example

i. Inventive tourism entrepreneur

One whose commercialized product is truly new to the tourism industry

a) Audio Compass b) Chokhi Dhani in Jaipur c) Ajit Bhawan Palace, Jodhpur

ii. Innovative tourism entrepreneur

One whose commercialized product is not new but is an adaptation of an existing product or the discovery of a previously untapped market

SeekSherpa

iii. Imitative tourism entrepreneur

One whose product is not significantly different from existing products

Pride Amber Vatika in Jaipur

II. Behaviour- or motivation-based typology

Definition

Example

i. Social tourism entrepreneur

One who starts a non-profit touristic enterprise

banglanatak dot com

ii. Lifestyle tourism entrepreneur

One who starts an enterprise in order to support a desired lifestyle

Bharat Travels, Detours India

iii. Marginal tourism entrepreneur

One who starts and operates a tourism enterprise within the informal and peripheral sector of the tourism industry

Unlicensed roadside souvenir and trinket shop

iv. Closet tourism entrepreneur

One who operates a tourism enterprise while maintaining a full-time job as an employee elsewhere

A college professor who also works as a freelance guide for heritage sites during off-days

v. Nascent tourism entrepreneur

One who is in the process of developing a tourism enterprise

An individual developing a business plan or in the process of attracting capital investment

Opportunities for Cultural Tourism Entrepreneurs in India: India, with its vast array of cultural offerings presents the following opportunities to the budding cultural tourism entrepreneurs:

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1. Promoting heritage walk trails / thematic routes and developing packages especially for the cultural tourists - emphasising art and architecture/handicrafts/ food/dance and music etc. of a region and that what is tad different from run of the mill tourist traps and sightseeing trips: Examples from the industry could include the companies like Bharat Travels (famous for its tours led by art curators, archaeologists and mythologists), Detours India (famous for its “The Biriyani Detour” – exploring the history of the much celebrated dish Biriyani and savouring the delicacy, “The Jewellery Detour” – a trip to Choodi bazaar, “The Necropolis Detour” – exploring the old tombs of the city of Hyderabad, “The Wedding Detour” – where the tourist slips into the shoes of a wedding planner for three hours etc.), the Raconteur Walks Tourism Company Pvt. Limited which promotes walking tours in Mumbai and aims to take tourists beyond the regular guidebooks by offering stupendous exploring options from history to culture, sports to entertainment, the Calcutta Walks company based in Kolkata offering genealogical and dark tourism opportunities in the city of colonial heritage etc. A very innovative enterprise - SeekSherpa is a mobile marketplace connecting sherpas (locals) and travellers where the later book experiences of exploring a destination with a local. 2. Developing an old fort/palace/house in need for maintenance into a heritage hotel or resort or a homestay: The Ajit Bhavan Palace in Jodhpur was the first heritage hotel in India. Heritage hotels are unique tourism product in India where the tourist can either live the life of the maharajas whilst enjoying the modern comforts. Homestay tourism is being widely promoted in the state of Kerala, as a part of the Responsible Tourism Initiative of Kerala as well as in Punjab, which is mainly based on agro-tourism. Even the states like Himachal Pradesh, Goa, Rajasthan, West Bengal etc. are not far behind in promotion of home stay tourism. 3. Promoting culture through providing a platform for artists and artisans to showcase their talent and art – through organization of festivals, cultural workshops and by acting as a mediator between rural craftsmen/artists and the patrons: For example Fabindia - founded in 1960 by John Bissell to market the diverse craft traditions of India, today links over 55,000 craft based rural producers to modern urban markets, thereby creating a base for skilled, sustainable rural employment, and preserving India’s traditional handicrafts in the process. Similar to Fabindia is another enterprise named Mother Earth. Banglanatak dot com is a social enterprise operating across India with a vision of fostering pro-poor growth and protection of rights of children, women and indigenous communities. Through organization of fairs and festivals, workshops and projects, the enterprise provides livelihood opportunities to rural and tribal communities that are rich in performing arts and traditional craftsmanship. 213

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Banglanatak dot com promotes community led heritage tourism and tourists can visit the artists’ homes and stay with them at any time of the year. Some festivals organized by them in West Bengal are Chhau mask Purulia village festival, Fakiri Utsav in Gorbhanga, Nadia district; Basanta Utsav in Nimdih; Paschim Medinipur Village Festival: Pot Maya etc. 4. Developing a cultural theme-based attraction for e.g. Chokhi Dhani Village Fair and Restaurant in Jaipur which has been awarded the most innovative tourism project by the Ministry of Tourism, Government of India. It is a Rajasthani themed heritage village that boasts of authentic Rajasthani hospitality and cultural experiences e.g. traditional welcome with Teeka and Aarti, Manganiyar folk music and Kalbeliya dance, joyrides on elephants and bull carts, Rajasthani cuisine served as a part of a traditional sit-down meal, head massage parlour, traditional healers and fortune tellers’ chambers, handicraft shops, folk game parlours etc. A similar heritage village has come up in the vicinity named Pride Amber Vatika. 5. The meeting point of culture, technology and entrepreneurship is definitely where the world’s best ideas are emerging. Audio compass, the official audio tour partner of the Government of India, Ministry of tourism is shaking up India’s travel scene ever since its inception. AudioCompass, the official audio tour partner of the Government of India, Ministry of Tourism was founded by Gautam Shewakramani, an MIT Sloan alumnus back in 2011. The AudioCompass software application turns smartphones into personal audio tour guides and aids tourists explore the cultural and historical sites, museums and monuments of India.

Some Challenges Faced Cultural Tourism by Entrepreneurs: The world’s cultural heritage is like a big puzzle. Each monument, each object is an irreplaceable part of the overall picture which gives us insight into our origins, our development and our lives today. It helps us understand and appreciate other cultures. Each discovery, each new interpretation adds to the puzzle and makes the picture clearer. We must ensure the protection of every single piece today, so that future generations may have the opportunities to enjoy the puzzle.” – International Organization for Conservation of Cultural Heritage (ICCROM). It is appropriate to stress that tourism development can bring with it beneficial socio-cultural impacts. The interchange of ideas, cultures and perceptions can do much to dispel ignorance and misunderstandings. Some of the impacts of cultural tourism are discussed as follows:

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The positive impacts of cultural tourism may include: 1. Enhancement of cultural heritage: Cultural tourism provides employment for artists, musicians and other performing artists due to visitor interest in local culture thereby enhancing cultural heritage. 2. Protection of cultural heritage: Cultural tourism paves the way for maintenance of certain original traditions which attract the tourists. It is important to maintain and protect the cultural heritage and to solve the allied issues: the illegal trade in historical objects, erosion of aesthetic values etc. 3. Promotion of cultural contacts: Well-organized cultural tourism aids in promotion of contacts between holidaymakers and the local people – leading to cultural exchanges which ultimately result in friendly and responsible enjoyment and therefore, strengthen link between different countries. The negative impacts of cultural tourism may include: 1. Commoditization of culture: Culture as a commoditized object or commodity is a by-product of the globalization era and is viewed as an attempt to respond to the holidaymakers’ demands for cultural experiences. It is done by clubbing together of inauthentic cultural artefacts which have been designed specifically the purpose of tourist consumption only, and adapting them to the needs of tourists. They are accepted by many tourists as being traditional cultural products though they are actually stripped off their original quality and meanings and they have nothing to do with the genuine ways of their production and are far from the indigenous way of life that produced them. 2. Creation of pseudo-culture: The commercialization of traditional cultural events may lead to the creation of pseudo-culture, ersatz folklore for the tourist, with no cultural value for the local population or visitors. It leads to culture being sacrificed for reasons of promoting tourism. 3. Destruction of cultural heritage: Many people are not aware that our cultural heritage is under stress from natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods, and from slower acting processes such as pollution or human actions. Even the most innocent gestures such as collecting ancient pieces of pottery or mosaics as souvenirs have a destructive impact if repeated by thousands. Touching an object of stone, metal or textile leaves traces of grease, acid or sweat on its surface. Climbing a monument wears down the structure underneath and can dismantle it. Writing or engraving names inflicts permanent damage. Strolling around narrow crowded places with bulky bags or backpacks might knock over an object or scratch a

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Cultural Tourism Entrepreneurship in India

mural painting and ruin it. There are countless ways in which one can unknowingly contribute to the destruction of cultural heritage. 4. Overall degradation of the cultural environment: This happens through commercialization of culture, religion etc. and trinketization of arts and crafts.

CONCLUSION Cultural and heritage products are increasingly having an important effect on the growth of local, national and regional economies. Cultural entrepreneurship is for individuals who are innately driven by a curiosity about arts, heritage and cultural industries and are interested in producing, sustaining and disseminating culture. Cultural tourism entrepreneurship is definitely a win-win scenario, encouraging new generation of tourists as well as the opportunity for creating revenue for sustenance of cultural components. Promotion of cultural tourism comes with certain responsibilities and it should aid in building of positive self-esteem and identity within communities, unblocking of perceptions implying that indigenous culture is outdated and in promoting value of traditional knowledge. Lastly, cultural tourism entrepreneurs must be geared towards developing new strategies for enhancing local livelihoods by creative, new, sustainable and socially responsible tourism.

REFERENCES Anheier, H. K., & Isar, Y. R. (2010). Cultures and Globalization: Cultural Expression, Creativity and Innovation. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Ball, S. (2005). The importance of entrepreneurship to hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism. Hospitality, Leisure. Sport and Tourism Network, 1(1), 1–14. Csapo, J. (2012). The role and importance of cultural tourism in modern tourism industry. In Strategies for tourism industry-micro and macro perspectives (pp. 201–232). IntechOpen. Fáilte Ireland. (2007). Cultural Tourism Making it Work for You–A New Strategy for Cultural Tourism in Ireland. Moscardo, G. (2008). Building Community Capacity for Tourism Development. CABI. doi:10.1079/9781845934477.0000

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Chapter 13

The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage: A Case Study of Sherhal Sweets Organization Mohammed El Amine Abdelli https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5784-4306 University of Zaragoza, Spain Aied Malika University of Lounici Ali de Blida 2, Algeria

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to research the contribution of social responsibility to the establishment of an ethical competitive advantage in the Sherhal Sweets Organization, which reached the contribution of the social responsibility of the actors to the creation of an ethical competitive advantage. This study yielded a number of suggestions. In order to strengthen the contribution of social responsibility for the operationalization of the ethical competitive advantage, recommendations are addressed to four parties: the economic foundation, universities and research centres, the media, and the state.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch013 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage

INTRODUCTION In a business environment where competition has intensified as a result of the growing interest of organizations inefficiency and material gain, the circle of corruption, bribery, and exploitation has widened to the influence and moral breaches, under these conditions, have seen public opinion at the instigation of civil society institutions and other lobbies. A decisive turn towards obliging business organizations to embrace the values of transparency, fairness, and integrity in their internal and external dealings, the moral values of the direction society came to a social role later, and here the term “meeting responsibility” appeared, but it was actually announced by Adam Smith when he said “The needs and desires of the community are best-achieved thanks to the cooperation between organizations and society,” and business organizations today are in dire need of those programmes that would bring a free and ethical competitive advantage to the organization. Problematic Study: The problem is addressed in the following fundamental question: Does social responsibility create an ethical competitive advantage for the institution in question? This fundamental problem is related to the following sub-questions: Is social responsibility a feature of the needs that accrue to society through the institution in question? Does social responsibility achieve the advantage of environmentally safe products through the institution of the study? Does social responsibility satisfy the moral excellence of customers through the institution in question? Study Hypotheses: To address the problematic issues, we cite the following hypotheses as tentative answers to be tested later: The first hypothesis: social responsibility achieves the benefit of the needs of society Through the institution of study second hypothesis: Social responsibility achieves the advantage of environmentally safe products through the institution of study Third hypothesis: Social responsibility achieves the advantage of ethical excellence for customers through the institution of the study. Importance of the Study: building an authentic academic theme on social responsibility and ethical competitive advantage. Understanding the differences that exist between Algerian economic institutions and the leading institutions in this area of understanding the characteristics of the economic institutions and the business environment in Algeria through the studied sample

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The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage

Objectives of the study: The objective of the research is to achieve scientific results by knowing the contribution of social responsibility to the ethical competitive advantages of the organization Access to recommendations that contribute to the further adoption of the two concepts by Algerian institutions . Previous studies and the most important thing that distinguishes them from this study: I have been guided by some of the previous studies on this subject, which we cite as follows: a study by Dr. Khalid Attallah al-Tarrouan and others entitled “The Impact of business ethics and social responsibility In achieving the competitive advantage ” research presented to the Second International conference at Mu’tah University, Jordan, on 23_25 April 2013. The study found a statistically significant influence on business ethics, and social responsibility (probity, objectivity, honesty, probity, integrity, and transparency ((towards the environment, consumers, community) to achieve a competitive advantage (cost reduction, innovation and regeneration) A study by Dr. Abdulkadir Plumch and others entitled “Intellectual capital The new competitive advantage in contemporary business organizations under the heading towards learning organizations” research presented to the International Forum on the head of the Intellectual property on 13 and 14 December 2011. The study found the importance of knowledge ethics in contemporary business organizations as a new competitive advantage. Marianne Rubins Tein, Strategic Approach to corporate social responsibility, the subject of a presentation at the colloquium organized by the Cnam and the Fnec with the contest of Eaepe, France,2008. This study examines the genesis of social responsibility and the stages that have passed, which address environmental responsibility and its role in improving the image of the organization, in addition to the Organization’s relationship with stakeholders. Hisrich Robert, business ethics and social responsibility in transition economics, journal of management development, n°1,2004 . The study examines both business ethics and social responsibility and their role in leading the highly competitive contemporary business environment, as the organization that adopts these concepts will be positive. Jose Milton De Sousa Filho ;strategy corporate social responsibility management for competitive advantage »(b a r) Brazilain adminitration review july *sept 2010 This study considers the application of the social responsibility strategy to create a competitive advantage for the institution, since the classification puts the generations of organizations that apply social responsibility. The most important feature of this study is the previous studies: It proposes social responsibility as an independent variable and ethical competitive advantages 219

The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage

as a dependent variable and introduces an addition by giving a moral dimension to competitive advantages. The study has undergone conceptual reality in the Algerian economic institution through the sample institution.

1- Conceptual Framework of Social Responsibility 1.1 The concept of CSR Defined by the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development “the commitment of economic operators to contribute to sustainable development to improve the standard of living of the population in a manner that serves the economy and development” Defined by the United Nations Economic and Social Council, “the continued commitment of the company to act ethically by contributing to economic development and improving the quality of life of workers, their families and the community” The World Chamber of Commerce: “All the attempts that make institutions volunteer to develop because of ethical and social considerations, so social responsibility verifies the persuasion of social responsibility Social and environmental concerns in its work and in its interaction with stakeholders on a voluntary basis and not mandatory by law “

1.2 Evolution of social responsibility The stage of the Industrial revolution and scientific management: started Use of scientific inventions in the institution to improve the performance of the economy in order to achieve four in this period exploitation the efforts of workers and the employment of children and women. The stage of the emergence of production lines: Henry Ford has reached out to the producer lines to try to study the impact of attention and production by improving their working conditions, and here the interest in social responsibility and working and profit circumstances has begun. The great economic and theoretical stage of the economy: product adjustment without caring for the desires of the two groups has led to a global recession, the introduction of companies and the application of thousands of staff. At the appearance of Keynes, which called for state intervention in economic activity to restore economic balance, a social responsibility floor was built and the role of trade unions was strengthened The stage of wide-ranging confrontations between the administration and the unions: This stage has been marked by the Azm of the Union force and public 220

The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage

awareness of environmental risks and court cases for August related to environmental violations as well as The moral of the people through the adoption of the social responsibility Accounting and the National Society of Accountants and the American Society of Accountants Law and ethical codes phase: Appeals and protests at earlier stages have shaped the formation of laws and moral constitutions that States have begun to formulate and adopt, and to commit to the commitment of the brother to find a manifestation in The logos of the institutions are clear, and this is what the Global Compact seeks. Figure 1. Stages in which social responsibility has passed

source: Jean Jacques Rose, Corporate social Responsibility, edition of the University of Oxford, 1st edition, Belgium,2006, p78

The figure shows that social responsibility has undergone qualitative stages in the midst of the development ;The breakthrough was through the campaign of the initiators to reach the Millennium Marketing social responsibility that has become the business organization Excellence ,

1.3 Dimensions of social responsibility: Carroll distinguishes between 4 dimensions we mention as follows: • • •

Economic activities are well resourced for the production of quality goods and services. The legal dimension is determined by the Governments by laws and regulations and must not be broken by business organizations with employment opportunities. The ethical dimension of the behavior in the organization and the values and the accepted norms and social traditions we expect that the concepts of justice and integrity will prevail, leading to the prevalence of virtue in work and society.

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The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage

Figure 2. Generations of social responsibility

source: Cedomir Ljubojevic,social responsibility and competitive advantage of the companies in serbia,proceeding of the 13th management international conference, hungary,22_24 november2012, p 16



 The good dimension the contribution of business in improving the quality of life and constructing the advanced standards of living and promoting moral values.

2. Social Responsibility and Ethical Competitive Advantage 2.1 The concept of competitive advantage: Michel porter”originates primarily from the value that an institution would want to create for its customers so that at lower prices for the prices of the Afsen in an equal manner or to offer unique benefits in the product would broadly expose the price increase imposed. Tampose “The means by which an organization can win over competitors.” Pitts & Lei “exploitation the business organization for its internal strengths in the performance of private activities generates value that competitors cannot achieve in the performance of their activities.

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The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage

2.1.1 Concept of ethical competitive advantage oughtan”produce the right goods and the services of high-speed and appropriatepaler Jean “These are the characteristics or qualities of the product or the mark and give the organization the superiority of the poison and the competitor as a result of lucrative work within the ethical foundations and the needs of members of society that are ethically satisfied” A competitive strategy within ethical standards to ensure that the organization stays in the field ethical programs leading to expected changes in the behaviors of the individuals who work for the organization that provide them with the means to cooperate with the various crises and pressures that are offset to the organization as part of its work.

2.2 The Types of Ethical Competitive Advantages in The Following Include the Types of Ethical Competitive Advantages: •









Advantage of ethical Excellence: the efficiency of the Director and the quality of his relations with the subordinates which are distinguished by the great cooperation and the spirit of a thousand people is doing this Alan and the ethical values of the managers of the labor organizations that they work to disseminate among the workers That they are the founders of ethical values in the organization the feature of cost control and product management gives the client value from the customer’s point of view through the reduction of the cost of use or the lifting of the efficiency by using products of moral probity and the competitive strategy. Adopted by the Organization will ensure ethical standards and ethical competitive advantages. advantage of accrued needs: business organizations have difficulty in justifying their experiences within the ethical framework, and as a result, the administration is unable to distinguish accurately between the needs of client that have been met in a way that is which has been morally unsuccessful, and here, the administration must evoke the situation of the very conscious and use of ethical standards in the realization of the needs of customers and their desires embodied in the product . Safe Product Feature: The obligation is the basis for all organizations to equip customers with safe products, as organizations that fail to achieve this the dimension will usually be faced with a series of consecutive negative results, judicial follow-up and community outrage and their fate. The demise Knowledge Ethics: The new ethical competitive advantage in business organizations by looking for ways to achieve faster learning and the most 223

The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage

valuable in its work and the transfer of what it has learned to services and products with ethical standards to Better market than competitors, business, and knowledge ethics become an inexhaustible source of ethical competitive advantages. 2.3 Ethical Institutionalization of the Organization Thanks to Social Responsibility •

Accounting and accountability specifications aa00013 the organization achieves moral superiority over competitors, especially creative and renewable power based on ethical research and development functions;

Social performance is an investment with future returns to the organization that achieves the satisfaction of the society and the formation of a positive mental image of the Organization, ensuring that all members of society support its goals, mission and recognition • •

making the decision-making process based on an evolving understanding of societal aspirations and opportunities associated with social responsibility enhances the competitiveness of the ethical organization. The social performance of the organizations in the field of education, such as the establishment of educational institutes, financing exhibitions and the production of practical and cultural studies and in the field of postgraduate contribution to the establishment of scientific laboratories, Community assistance in the event of natural disasters donate to charitable organizations and associations it’s a good thing. That achieves moral competitiveness;.

achievement of the state’s development goals to provide equal employment opportunities for members of society to alleviate the problem of unemployment enhances the moral superiority of competitors ; The foundation is morally characterized by the social performance of this segment by conducting marketing research to determine the needs of customers while adhering to the price that is compatible with their purchasing power, thereby enhancing their loyalty ;.adopts the concept of green marketing and its green Marketing mix (advertising and sincere promotion, which Reflecting the reality of the products and services of the organization, enables the attraction of new customers;provide the necessary data on the characteristics of the product, the way it is used, the duration of its consumption, and the non-use of unhealthy materials in the packaging and gasification processes, and guarantee his loyalty and then his fulfillment

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provide a post-sales service, adhere to the date of warranty, and respond to customer complaints, thereby achieving an ethical lead for the organization, through which it excels competitors by relying on the ethics of knowledge ; Inform customers about the goals of the Organization and its achievements and future plans and its circumstances and problems and work to remove their ideas and wrong information about the organization and work to correct it ;Environmental effectiveness is achieved by taking into account several aspects, including: _ Substitution of materials with other less damaging to the environment or easy to define as alternative technology. _ Reduce the use of natural resources (water, energy, raw materials), which is known as effective technology. _ Technological knowledge to control pollution and control the production process which is known as the added technology. _ Technological knowledge alternative of recycling with recovery to modify in a broad way the production process, or the materials used is related to the integrated technology

3. The Contribution of Social Responsibility to the Ethical Competitive Advantage of the Charchell Sweets Foundation. 3.1 The description of the study tool (questionnaire) is divided into two parts: I _ Part I: Includes information on customers (geographical area, sex, educational level) II. PART II: 26 Words concerning the contribution of social responsibility to the creation of a competitive moral advantage centered around society, customers, Environment and ethical competitive advantages (outstanding needs, safe products, ethical excellence). 3.2 Analysis Scale We have used the Lecart five-gauge, to measure the contribution of social responsibility to the creation of a moral competitive advantage in the studied institution, where the respondent chooses one of five alternatives. The table shows that the total persistence factor of the Data Collector tool is 0.886, which indicates that the questionnaire is highly consistent and reliable in the field application of the study.

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Table. Introduction to the Organization sample study Organization Name

charchell Sweets is one of the branches of the public organization for the food industries of grain and its derivatives

The DirectorGeneral

Boumaaf Hassan

Date of establishment

Established under a contract entered into by the Ministry of Industry dated December 15, 1976 with an English company called Baket Parking to finance the project with the necessary machinery for production and may ensure the National Institute for Industrial Studies and achievements (Sneri) has completed the project structure and has been supplemented by the DNC Foundation and Sonelec Foundation and that This work was lost at the end of 1982 and 1983, the unit was launched in the production and marketing of biscuits.

Site

It is located 3 km from the headquarters of Sharhal District in the industrial zone called Oued Balaa

Area

The area is 22, 5 hectares, which is 7.5 hectares covered in the factory.

Activity

Industrial

Production

9 production lines for biscuits, the Turtles and desserts: forms of dry biscuits, sandwich biscuit Sandwich, Butter biscuits gaufrette, industrial sweets Patisserie Industrielle, Biscuit forms Balshkolath Biscuit, Enrabe, the Turtles au lait and Noir, production Military sweets and military bread Paine De Guerre Saleh for 10 years produces 3300 cans and soft drinks produced daily

Property

Mixed

Legal structure

Stock company (SPA) by rule 49/51

Size

Medium

Number of employees

247 workers

Source: Prepared by the students based on information provided by the institution

Table 2. Standard of analysis Evaluation Domain

Very unagreed. 1-1.79

Not agreed 1.80-2.59

Neutral 2.60-3.39

Agreed

Very agreed

3.40-4.19

4.20-5

SOURCE Https://issuu.com.alzahi937.does (08/05/2016)

Table 3. Total persistence factor of the questionnaire Number of statements CRONBACH ALPHA Source: Students Numbers

226

26 0.886

The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage

1-2-3 Description of the community and study sample The study community consists of the customers of the charchell Sweets Foundation and we relied on the non-random sampling method in its selection, to fill out the questionnaire form and the process direct method distribution (hand), we managed to retrieve 90 of the 94 resolution distributed with a recovery rate of 91.42%, after review 04 is excluded because it is not valid for analysis

Study Sample Characteristics Distribution of clients (sample study) by geographical region Table 4. Distribution of clients by geographical region Percentage

Number

Place

%47

42

City

%37.5

34

Village

%15.5

14

Farm

%100

90

Total

Source: Students Numbers

The table above shows that customers are divided into 3 geographical regions, 47% of whom are in the city, 37.5% in the village and 15.5% in the farm. Distribution of clients (sample study) by sex: Table 5. Distribution of clients by sex Percentage

Number

Type

%92.2

83

Male

%7.8

07

Female

%100

90

Total

Source: Students Numbers

The table above shows that 92.2% of the clients examined are male, while females 7.8% Distribution of the sample study by academic level.

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The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage

Table 6. Distribution of customers by academic level Percentage

Number

Type

-

-

Primary

%12.2

11

Average

%28.9

22

Secondary

%53.3

48

Collectors

%5.6

05

Graduate

%100

90

Total

Source: Students Numbers

The table above shows that 53.5% of customers with a university level and 28% have a secondary qualification, 12.2% average and 5.6% have postgraduate studies

3.3 Examination of study hypotheses 3.3.1 First hypothesis Test: Social responsibility achieves the advantage of societal needs through the institution in question Table 7. Social Responsibility towards society Duplicate Gateway Number

Very unagreed

Not agreed

Neutral

Agreed

Very agreed

Arithmetic mean

Standard deviation

01Product design with respect to safety and public health conditions

02

16

10

49

13

3.61

1.01

02Assistance in the event of natural disasters and disadvantaged groups

7

0

5

66

12

3.92

0.70

Commitment to achieve development projects for the benefit of members of the community

1

10

11

53

15

3.78

0.89

04Making a decision based on an evolving understanding of community desires

10

22

25

31

2

2,92

1.06

Total arithmetic average3.55

Source: Students Numbers

The results show that the total arithmetic mean value (3.55) reflects the corresponding degree, either at the statement level, the first statement averaged 3.61 arithmetic corresponding to the standard deviation of 1.01 reflects a dispersion in the responses of the respondents to the phrase, but the second term averaged 3.92 Reflecting the 228

The Contribution of Social Responsibility to Achieving a Competitive Moral Advantage

degree of approval of a standard deviation of 0.70 and indicating uniformity in the answers of the respondents around the phrase, the sample agreed on the third term an arithmetic average of 3.78, with a standard deviation of 0.89, showing the consistency of the respondents ‘ responses, the trends of the sample individuals were neutral for the term a For the fourth, the arithmetic mean 2.92 with a standard deviation of 1.06 reflects a dispersion in the respondents ‘ answers. Table 8. Competitive advantage in relation to societal needs Duplicate Gateway Number

Very unagreed

Not agreed

Neutral

Agreed

Very agreed

Arithmetic mean

Standard deviation

05 Ensuring community needs

1

0

5

28

8

4

0.73

06 Ensuring the welfare and development of members of the community

1

4

5

24

8

3.80

0.94

07 Sound Ethical Products

5

8

15

8

6

3.04

1.2

08 Take responsibility in case of damage to public health

5

13

15

7

2

2,71

1.04

Total arithmetic average3.38

Source: Students Numbers

The results show that the total arithmetic mean value (3.38) reflects a neutral score, either at the ferry level, we find the fifth term averaging the arithmetic 4 reflects the degree of approval of the standard deviation of 0.73 reflecting the homogeneity in the answers of the respondents to the phrase, the sixth term averaging the arithmetic 3.80 reflects the degree of approval of a standard deviation of 0.94, which indicates the homogeneity of the respondents ‘ answers to the phrase, the trends of the sample were neutral around the seventh and eighth words with an arithmetic average of 3.04 and 2.71 with a standard deviation of 1.2 and 1.04 respectively shows the dispersion in the answers of the respondents, The results have shown the social responsibility of the society to play an effective role in creating the needs that are due the first hypothesis is correct

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3.3.2 Second hypothesis test: Social responsibility achieves the advantage of environmentally safe products through the institution of study Table 9. Social Responsibility environmental direction Duplicate Gateway Number

Arithmetic mean

Standard deviation

5

3.74

0.69

61

12

3.85

0.75

12

63

12

3.93

0,63

2

10

52

26

4.13

0.69

12

21

43

11

3.52

0.98

Very unagreed

Not agreed

Neutral

Agreed

Very agreed

09 Rationalization of energy use to reduce pollution risks

1

5

15

64

10 Replacement of used substances by other less damaging to the environment

0

8

9

11 Monitoring the quality of the environment by controlling the quantity of waste

0

3

12 Recovery of materials used and recycling in the production process

0

13 Environmental report submission and suitability with environmental regulations

03

Total arithmetic average 3.83 Source: Students Numbers

The table above shows that the value of the total arithmetic mean (3.83) means a degree of approval, either at the statement level, we find the ninth term averaging arithmetic 3.74 reflects the degree of approval of the standard deviation of 0.69 reflecting the average homogeneity in the answers, whereas the tenth term averaged 3. 85 with a standard deviation of 0.75 and showing homogeneity in the answers, the eleventh term averaged 3.93 arithmetic with a standard deviation of 0, 63 reflecting the homogeneity of the respondents ‘ responses, the twelfth and thirteenth phrases averaged 4.13 and 3.52 with a standard deviation of 0.69 and 0.98 respectively Reflects the homogeneity of the answers.

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Table 10. Competitive advantage for safe products Duplicate Gateway Number

Very unagreed

Not agreed

Neutral

Very agreed

Agreed

Arithmetic mean

Standard deviation

14Ethical management of industrial waste for environmental safety

02

16

10

49

13

3.61

1.01

15 Achieving leadership by preparing an environmental report that includes conservation of the environment

3

12

21

43

11

3.52

0.98

16 Reliance on renewable energies rather than traditional sources

13

10

16

49

2

3.61

1.01

17 Adoption of the ethical model of ocean conservation

14

22

33

17

4

2.72

1.08

Total arithmetic average 3.55

Source: Students Numbers

The table above shows that the value of the total arithmetic mean (3.55) means a degree of approval, either at the statement level, we find the fourteenth term and the sixteen the average of their arithmetic 3.61 reflects the degree of approval of the standard deviation of 1.01 reflecting a dispersion in the answers, and the fifteenth term is valued The arithmetic 3.52 with a standard deviation of 0.98 and showing a significant homogeneity in the answers, the arithmetic mean of the seventeenth term of 2.72 shows the neutrality of the sample members with a standard deviation of 1.08 which shows the dispersion in the respondents ‘ answer ;The results have shown that social responsibility achieves the advantage of environmentally safe products, so the second hypothesis is correct. Table 11. Social responsibility for customer orientation Duplicate Gateway Number

Very unagreed

Not agreed

Neutral

Agreed

Very agreed

Arithmetic mean

Standard deviation

18 Suitable prices are consistent with their purchasing abilities

3

3

12

61

11

3.82

0.81

19 Provides data on product properties and the way it is used

1

16

41

28

4

3.2

0.81

20 Provision of after-sales services and warranty Commitment

2

5

26

48

9

3.63

0.82.

21 Commitment to the Declaration and genuine promotion of the product

4

15

26

31

14

3.4

1.07

22 Product design based on customers ‘ desires and expectations

0

1

16

56

17

3.98

0.64

Total arithmetic average3.60

Source: Students Numbers

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3.3.3 Third hypothesis test: Social responsibility achieves the advantage of ethical excellence of customers through the institution of study The results of the table show that the average amount of the medium-sense to me (3.60) reflects the degree of approval, the nineteenth term averaging 3.2 reflects the neutrality of the sample by a standard deviation of 0.81, which shows the homogeneity of the sample’s personnel. But the eighteenth and the eighth phrases N, twenty-one, twenty-two, averaging. 3.82, 3.63, 3.4, and 3.98, reflecting the degree of approval of standard deviation 0.81 and 0.82 1.07 and 0.64 reflect the homogeneity of the respondents ‘ answers about the circuits, except for the standard deviation of the twenty-one phrase, which reflects the fragmentation Table 12. Competitive advantage in respect of ethical excellence Duplicate Gateway Number

Very unagreed

Not agreed

Neutral

Agreed

Very agreed

Arithmetic mean

Standard deviation

23Ethical values of service provider or product to customers

0

9

8

61

12

3.85

0.75

24Voluntary initiatives towards disadvantaged groups

1

10

11

53

15

3.78

0.89

25The reputation of a good foundation for its clients.

5

1

5

64

15

3.74

0.64

26The good biography of the director and the workers in the absence of moral scandals and judicial follow up

0

10

2

52

26

4.13

0.69

Total arithmetic average 3.55

Source: Students Numbers

Showing the results of the table, the average sense of the price for You (3.55) reflects the degree of approval, we find that all of the terms correspond to their arithmetic averages degree, ok it’s standard deviation also homogenize the trends of the sample, which has already shown us that the results have contributed Social responsibility in achieving the advantage of ethical excellence for customers.

3.4 Analysis of study results after hypothesis testing we can draw the following conclusions The study concluded that social responsibility is designed to ensure that the conditions of peace and public health are respected by the performance high-quality social assistance in the event of natural disasters and disadvantaged groups, as well as a broad environmental concern in the field of substitution Substances used in 232

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others are less damaging to the environment, in addition to rationalizing the use of energy to reduce pollution risks and monitor the quality of the environment by controlling the quantity waste, not to mention that the organization based on its social responsibility the direction of customers offers a product at an appropriate price consistent with their purchasing abilities customers Where you have data about product characteristics, method and usage, and most important commitments to advertising, genuine product promotion, and product design based on on the wishes and aspirations of the customers, a competitive ethical strategy is in line with this finding 13) entitled “The Impact of business ethics and social responsibility in achieving competitive advantage”, a field study in the industrial companies listed in the Amman financial market. Which has a statistically significant influence on social responsibility (environment, consumers, community) to achieve a competitive advantage (cost reduction, innovation and renewal) in Jordanian industrial companies, where the results have shown that companies and social responsibility bind the ad Its mission and that it has programs through which it participates in environmental protection. It also agrees with the study by Dr. Abdulkader Plumch and others entitled “Intellectual capital The new competitive advantage in organizations contemporary work under the heading towards Learning organizations” 2011, the study concluded that the importance of competitive advantage in contemporary business organizations as a means of continued excellence. It also agrees with the study Marianne Rubins Tein, strategic approach to corporate social responsibility, the subject of a presentation at the conference organized by the cnam and the cepn with the assistance of aepe, France, 2008;In addressing environmental responsibility and its role in improving the image of the organization, they sold society, in addition to the Organization’s relationship with stakeholders as well as the study Hisrich Robert,business ethics and social responsibility in transition economics, journal of management development, n°1,2004 The study examines social responsibility and its leading role in a highly competitive contemporary business environment. Also consistent with the study of Jose Milton De Sousa Filho, strategy corporate social responsibility management for Competitive Advantage» (b a R) Brazilain adminitration review July * Sept 2010 ;This study considers the application of the social responsibility strategy to create a competitive advantage for the institution since the classification puts the generations of organizations that apply social responsibility at advanced levels.

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Recommendations We offer a range of suggestions to the organization and the state, the media, universities and research institutes. I _ The Organization: _ Measure social performance through the measurement systems used, including social budgeting and social auditing, in order to verify the social performance achieved _ Handing over the task of social performance to a qualified working team trained in this field. II. Universities and research institutes: the creation of research papers on the topic of social responsibility in the Algerian economic institution and ways to develop it. -Cooperation between universities and business organizations to identify joint programs. III. The media: _ Create channels of communication between business organizations and the media and display the results of the investigator. _ Coverage of events on social responsibility and publicizing the achievements of the organization of a business. IV. The state: _ Establish a governmental body to organize formative courses for businessmen to familiarize them with the two concepts. _ Develop indicators to assess performance in social responsibility. _ Awards of Excellence in the performance of social responsibility.

REFERENCES Alain., S. (2007). The legitimacy of strategic social responsibility as a marketing tool. Journal of business and public policy. N°1. P13. Azzawi, O. The motives of adopting business organizations the dimensions of social and ethical responsibility as a benchmark for measuring social performance. Third International Forum on Business organizations and social responsibility, Bashar University. P9. Burbaa, A. Q. (2012). The role of innovation in supporting the competitive advantage of the economic foundation. University of Constantine, Faculty of Economics, Management science and business. The Sciences, 70.

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Buselami, A. (2013). The role of e-innovation in achieving social responsibility in the economic institution. University of SEv, Faculty of Economics, Management science and business. The Sciences, 93. Candel., A. (2003). The pyramid of corporte social responsibility to ward the moral management of organizational stakhalders. Business horizons. August. Emilia., P (2006). Competitive strategy and competitive advantages of small and midsized manufacturing enterprise: e_leader. N°1. Slovakia. P16 Fouad, M. H. A. (2003). Marketing dimensions of organizations ‘ social responsibility and implications for consumer satisfaction. Al-Mustansiriya University (p. 289). Faculty of Economics. Hilaly, W. (2009). The general foundations for building competitive advantages and their role in creating value. LP University. Faculty of Economics, Management science and business. The Sciences, 42. Hussain., A. M.A. (2010). Social responsibility of the private sector and its role in sustainable development in Saudi Arabia. Mpra Magazine. Saudi Arabia. Issue 2. P 9. Jean., J. R. (2006). Corporate social responsibility. Edition of the university N° 1.St edition. Brussels. Belgium. P 72. Khalid, A. A. (2013). The impact of business ethics and social responsibility in achieving a competitive advantage. Second International Conference of the Faculty of Business Administration titled: “Administrative and economic opportunities in the organizational business environment”. Mu’tah University. Jordan, 23 and 25 April 2013. P15. Kinvi., L. (2013). Diversity and Unite of the concept of corporate social responsibility, Ceregmie. Center for study and Research in economics management, modeling and computer applied. N ° 9. France. P4 Ljubojevic, C. (2012). social responsibility and competitive advantage of the companies in Serbia. In Proceeding of the 13th management international conference. Academic Press. Marianne, R. T. (2008). Strategic Approach to corporate social responsibility. The subject of a presentation at the colloquium organised by the Cnam and the Fnec with the contest of Eaepe. France, P 3. Mohamed, M. (2009). Strategic management and building competitive advantage.1st edition. Algerian national library. Algeria. P 34.

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Mohammed, F. A. A. (2009). FAO mission and its impact on the achievement of competitive advantage. Middle East University of Graduate studies (p. 42). Faculty of Economics. Osama, O. (2011). The impact of social responsibility on the competitive advantage of the Palestinian telecom shatouh company from the customer’s point of view (p. 45). An-Najah National University. Palestine. Rose, J. J. (2006). Corporate social Responsibility (1st ed.). University of Oxford. Simon, Z. (2002). Corporate responsibility and the competitive advantage of nations. The compenhagen centre is international kmowledge centre. London. P 14.www. ethicalmedia.com Taher, M. M. A. (2005).Social responsibility and business ethics: “Business and Society”. 1st edition. Department and strategy of Medium and Small business organizations.Wael Publishing House. Jordan. PP: 135- 140. Taher., M.M.A.& Grace., A. A. (2008).Readings in contemporary management thought. Arabic edition. Alazouri Publishing &. Distribution House. Jordan. P 291. United Nations Economic and Social Council. (2016):ecosoc: www.org/french / United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. (2016):https//www. un. org//arabic/esa /.htmp Zuhair. G. et all. (2011). Intellectual capital the new competitive advantage in contemporary business organizations under the heading towards learning organizations. The Forum international about “intellectual capital in Arab business organizations in modern economics”. University of El Shanf. 13 and 14 December. P 2.

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Chapter 14

The Eco-Touristic Attraction for the Brand Guadalajara, Mexico:

The Case of Barranca del Rio Santiago José G. Vargas-Hernández https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0938-4197 University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara, Mexico Jovanna Nathalie Cervantes-Guzman University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara, Mexico Elba Lizbeth García Guerra University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara, Mexico

ABSTRACT The main purpose of this research is to show if the Barranca del Rio Santiago is a tourist attraction and ecotourism to be included in the Guadalajara brand, focused on national tourism. In the research, only the national indicators of the Metropolitan Area of Guadalajara were taken in reference to motivation, what they like most, means by which they arrive at the destination, etc. SECTUR establishes in the latest competitiveness agenda of tourist destinations in Mexico that Guadalajara has a large number of natural destinations, including the Barranca del Río Santiago. This destination has a high ecological, recreational, and landscaping value, which is very little known by the local population, and consequently, it can become a new product for the ecotourism sector. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2603-3.ch014 Copyright © 2020, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

The Eco-Touristic Attraction for the Brand Guadalajara, Mexico

INTRODUCTION In the following investigation, it is analyzed if the Barranca del Río Santiago can be a tourist and eco touristic attraction for the city of Guadalajara, focused on a national tourism. That is why it is talked about the terms tourism, alternative tourism, national tourism, ecotourism, which is a tourist attraction, the city or city marketing brand, the Guadalajara brand and the Barranca del Río Santiago. All these terms are based on several expert authors on the subject and official documents which are provided by the Secretary of Tourism of the State of Jalisco. Undoubtedly, city brands are something that has been raised for a long time and there are success stories, very famous, such as I Love NY or what is the CDMX brand (Aldaz, 2016). Another important aspect of the research is that the Guadalajara brand was launched by the government of Guadalajara in 2016 with the characteristic song of the composer Pepe Guízar (Social communication, events, government news 2016). Regarding tourism issues, it is commented that tourism is an economic force, which has the power to implement projects that maintain the natural attractiveness that visitors wish to see and experience. The economic benefits of tourism depend on the way in which tourist attractions are kept safe, clean and pleasant to the senses (Rebollo, 2012, p.12). Alternative tourism refers to there are other ways of doing things. For example, traveling and knowing places, more natural. (Rogel, Rojas & Ortega, 2011, p.3). However, it is necessary to define perfectly what fraction of tourists are going to be taken from national tourism, which is practiced by nationals and foreigners residing in the country within its borders, that is, tourists traveling inland. of the country they do it for vacation reasons, recreation, congresses and conventions, work and business (Portugal, 2008). Then, it can have segmented it more and reach the ecotourism sector, which is considered the direct result of global acceptance in favor of more sustainable productive practices and with less impact on the environment.

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM The city marketing is an event that has generated debates, because on the one hand it is noted that the commercialization of territories has existed for centuries, and on the other hand, it is maintained that it is a trend that arises from the seventies and eighties (Weapons, 2007). However, we have other authors who comment that “The marketing of city (city marketing) can be defined as an active policy of actions aimed, on the one hand, to identify and determine the needs of its different audiences, real

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and potential; and another part to develop a series of products and services in the city to meet those needs, creating and enhancing their demand (Rojano & Castilla, 2007). There are success stories of the brands of cities, for example, I love NY” (Marín, 2010). In Mexico there is currently the brand Visit Mexico (CPTM, 2017), however, Guadalajara wanted to make its own city brand which carries the Guadalajara slogan created in 2016 as an identity element, tool for promotion and positioning of the city de Guadalajara (Social communication, events, government, news, 2016). The creators of the brand were based on the song of Pepe Guízar, since it represents a natural symbol of the city and reinforces emotions and ideas already positioned, with the characteristic choir Guadalajara, Guadalajara. In the same way, the adaptation of the song of the aforementioned composer, in which different styles of music such as mariachi, rock, electronic, jazz and regional music was mixed, also mixed a variety of singers with the intention to integrate all of Mexico (Catellanos, 2015). An important factor is the intervention of the tourism sector. Troisi defines tourism as the set of temporary transfers of people originated by needs of rest, cure, spiritual or intellectual (Betancourt, 2008). An important factor is to take into account the national tourism which is defined as the tourists that move in the interior of the country do it for vacation reasons, recreation, congresses and conventions, work and / or business, etc. (Portugal, 2008). It is also important to point out that, according to Ipsos, the advertising tracking of the preliminary tourism promotion council, taking into account 3 indicators which mention that in 2017, 46% of people visit a place are by advertising attribution; 90% are people who intend to travel and the third indicator by brand awareness which nationally does not have any percentage. Similarly, a national survey on Pride of the Mexican in 2016 conducted by the consultancy Mitofsky mentions that 9.9% of the 1,000 respondents over 18 years old answered that Guadalajara was the first city where Mexicans felt most proud (Mitofsky Consultant, 2016). According to experts who elaborated the competitive agenda of tourist destinations in Mexico, they pointed out that Mexico has not been able to take advantage of the total benefits offered by tourism, a clear example of this is the city of Guadalajara, which is one of the most emblematic states in Mexico. This city is highlighted by its great cultural contribution, tradition and historic buildings, however, it has not been able to take advantage of the natural heritage it has to give it recreational or tourist use, since it has great potential in this sector as it is the Canyon of the Santiago River (SECTUR, 2014). After all these data provided a gap is created which becomes the purpose of the research that consists of knowing how attractive ecotourism can be so that it can be added to the Guadalajara brand and what the potential areas may be. With the intention of contributing this study to the corresponding authorities in the tourism sector and for the expansion of the labor market in a way that will enable them to 239

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carry out ecotourism activities. Taking into account that the definition of tourist attraction, the dictionary of tourist terminology of the Argentine National Tourism Direction mentions that a tourist attraction is the natural, cultural, sports or any other type that can generate enough interest to attract tourists (Navarro, 2015). In this research, it is asked if the Barranca del Río Santiago is a tourist and eco touristic attraction for the Guadalajara city brand, in order to be able to promote recreational and tourist use of the areas of the city of Guadalajara that are not well known, considering that it may have a greater attraction for national tourism, since the proximity of these areas can be very attractive for people who live in the city of Guadalajara and have the taste to enjoy natural environments near them. It is also intended that it can serve as support the development of new programs either for the Secretary of Tourism (SECTUR).

Research Objectives Determine the feasibility of the Santiago river canyon being a tourist and ecotourism attraction for the Guadalajara, Guadalajara brand, for national tourism. Expose places of tourist attraction of Guadalajara, for recreational uses. Present the profile of the ecotourism. Expose the training of qualified personnel to attend the national Eco tourists

Hypothesis Is it possible that the Santiago river canyon is a tourist attraction and ecotourism for the Guadalajara brand, with a focus on national tourism? Expose that the Barranca del Rio Santiago is a tourist and ecotourism attraction in Guadalajara. Is the ecotourism sector profitable for national tourism? Are there enough trained personnel for the ecotourism sector?

LITERATURE AND CONTEXTUAL REVIEW As it can see in the literature review, although there are several investigations that expose it to ecotourism, tourist attractions, city marketing and the ravine of the Rio de Santiago, so far there is no research that integrates the above, being the void of literature. Therefore, the research focused on integrating the variables to show if the Barranca del Rio Santiago is a tourist attraction and ecotourism is attractive to be included in the Guadalajara brand, focused on national tourism.

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Figure 1. Research model

Tourism is the sum of the phenomena and relationships that arise from the journey and the permanence of non-residents, as long as they do not establish a permanent residence and do not relate to any remunerated activity. This definition was entrusted to Professors Hunziker and Krapf, likewise Troisi defines it as the set of temporary transfers of people originated by needs of rest, cure, spiritual or intellectual (Betancourt, 2008). Later authors like Burkart and Medlik define that they are the short and temporary displacements of people towards destinations outside the place of residence and work, and the activities undertaken during the stay in those destinations (Sancho, 2008). Mathieson and Wall mentions that tourism is the temporary movement of people, for periods of less than one year, to destinations outside the place of residence and work, the activities undertaken during the stay and the facilities created to meet the needs of the tourists (Sancho, 2008). Professor Arriaga mentions it as tourism is all temporary displacement determined by causes beyond profit: The set of goods, services and organization that in each nation determine and make possible those trips, and the relationships and events between them and travelers take place (Betancourt, 2008). However, after so many definitions, the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) in 1994 is defined as tourism includes the activities carried out by people during their trips and stays in places other than their usual environment, for a period of time consecutive less than a year for leisure, business and other purposes (Sancho, 2008). In this research the UNWTO definition it is used because it is the main international organization in the tourism field with 158 countries, 6 associate members and more than 500 private members (UNWTO, 2018). Authors such as Óscar de la Torre Padilla, defines it as tourism is a social phenomenon that consists in the voluntary and temporary displacement of individuals or groups of people who, mainly for recreation, rest, culture or health, move from their place from habitual residence to 241

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another, in which they do not exercise any gainful or remunerative activity, generating multiple interrelations of social, economic and cultural importance (Betancourt, 2008). Tourism is an economic force, which has the power to implement projects that maintain the natural appeal that visitors want to see and experience. The economic benefits of tourism depend on the way in which tourist attractions are kept safe, clean and pleasant to the senses (Rebollo, 2012). As important is the tourist development has brought strong impacts on the environment such as river pollution, acoustics, aesthetics. Although the most important impacts include the loss of biological diversity and the limitation of natural resources on which tourism activity is based. This overexploitation of resources has increased in recent years to unsustainable levels. Tourism cannot work without the basic natural resources on which it is based since its own environmental degradation directly affects its supply and can endanger the tourist activity itself. For all these reasons, various organizations and conventions in recent years have become aware of the importance of conserving the natural environment to apply not only to the tourism sector but to all social areas to achieve sustainable development (Betancourt, 2008). As tourism develops, it must make the preservation of the environment a priority. The tourism industry will have to protect and preserve natural tourist attractions, the environment, fragile ecosystems and living cultures of remote regions. In this way tourists will continue to travel (Rebollo, 2012).

Alternative Tourism Alternative tourism is defined by the SEMARNAT as the trips that have the purpose of carrying out recreational activities in direct contact with nature and the cultural expressions that surround it with an attitude and commitment to know, respect, enjoy and participate in the conservation of the natural and cultural resources. Alternative tourism is the product of international policies to conserve the environment and is a response in Mexico to environmental policies that aim to conserve natural resources (Rogel, Rojas & Ortega, 2011). Like Neyra, he mentions that alternative tourism refers to there are other ways of doing things. For example, traveling and knowing places (alternative tourism), is not exempt from new alternatives, in this concept the most important thing is contact with nature and indigenous cultures, that is to say, soaking up what is specific to the region to visit (Rogel, Rojas & Ortega, 2011).

National Tourism The World Tourism Organization provides the following definition of national tourism: National tourism encompasses domestic tourism and outbound tourism, namely, the activities carried out by resident visitors inside and outside the reference 242

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country, as part of their tourist trips. inmates or issuers (UNWTO, 2008). It can also be taken as a definition that national tourism is practiced by nationals and foreigners residing in the country within its borders, that is, tourists who travel within the country do so for holiday reasons, recreation, congresses and conventions, work and / or business, etc. (Portugal, 2008).

Ecotourism Ecotourism is according to Diamantis and Ladkin the direct result of global acceptance in favor of productive practices more sustainable and with less impact on the environment. However, another author is Jost Krippendorf who is considered the pioneer in this concept making a strong criticism to the mass tourism under the argument of its destructive potential in the environment and economy within the receiving communities, recognizing the need to look for a new option (Rebollo, 2012). The function of ecotourism is to protect and care for the environment, with the intention of not manipulating nature but contemplating and admiring its beauty. To know those who have lived forever in these ecosystems, from the ancestral cultures, to their flora, the healing qualities and their fauna to respect the place. Usually ecotourism centers are found in ecologically protected areas (Rebollo, 2012). Similarly, it seeks to break with the idea that what is legitimately tourism is only in large hotel chains, entertainment centers, restaurants and finally that the natural space must be transformed at the convenience of being human (Melo, 2013).

Tourist Attraction As one of the first definitions we find Zimmermann, who defines it as the tourist attractions are tourist resources that have the necessary conditions to be visited and enjoyed by tourists, that is, they have tourist facilities, means of transport, services complementary and basic infrastructure. The tourist attractions should be considered as resources because they have generated an economic activity and represent foreign currency in a country’s economy (Castellanos, 2015). For its part, Acerenza identifies the tourist attractions as the most important component of the tourism product because they determine the selection, by the tourist, of the point of destination of their trip, and are the ones that generate, therefore, a current tourism to its location and also points out that they constitute the main reason for the tourist to visit the destination and are able to satisfy the primary motivations of tourists’ travel (Navarro, 2015). Finally, the dictionary of tourism, hospitality and transport, offers a definition of tourist attraction, which says that considers that it is an object or event capable of motivating a tourist to leave his home to move to know him (Wallingre & Toyos, 2010). 243

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City Brand or City Marketing The term City Marketing has been misunderstood on many occasions, reducing it to a mere promotion activity through which to show a city, mainly in the face of tourism, relying on more or less recurrent speeches: brochures with photos of the main monuments, regional costumes, local cuisine and party program. But what is talking about is a much broader and more powerful conception. It is about transferring the focus and marketing tools that are applied to a company or product, to the city, as an essential tool in the development of their strategies and their competitiveness (Romero, 2009). City marketing is conceived as the city in the marketing as a product, which faces a competitive market formed by thousands of municipalities and where millions of agents converge, also directs its activity towards the citizens of the municipality visitors, tourists and the investors this according to (Betancourt, 2008). However, it is known that the term of City marketing was introduced in European literature in the 80’s. The City Marketing for Kotler, Haider and Rein is constituted as a strategy of development of the city oriented to satisfy, better than other competing cities, the needs of the current and future users of all the services of the city (Heredero, 2015). Other authors mention that globalization and the extension of competition, the value creation of the local: the rapid evolution of communication tools and, finally, the evolution of marketing are factors that undoubtedly determine urban marketing city ​​(Benko, 2000). It can be also found another definition about city marketing and it is defined as City marketing can be defined as an active policy of actions oriented, on the one hand, to identify and determine the needs of its different public, real and potentials; and another part to develop a series of products and services in the city to meet those needs, creating and enhancing their demand (Rojano & Castilla, 2007).

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK It is said that tourism comes to diversify the economy providing foreign exchange necessary to boost economic development, but also the proponents of the development of tourism argue that tourism not only generates foreign exchange, but also alleviates a little the problem of unemployment and long term can provide a substitute for traditional exports whose fruit is more insecure than tourism (Portugal, 2008). But always have to take into account the tourist demand which make up tourists, travelers and visitors, after this term is a heterogeneous group of people, an aggregate of personalities with different characteristics and interests such as: social, economic, recreational (Portugal, 2008), in these demands is a group called minority tourism which are characterized by traveling individually, family and in groups, their chosen 244

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nuclei are little touristy and do it at any time of the year because their economic possibilities allow it (Portugal, 2008). While it is true that there are many types of demand, this segment prefers that the consumer of this type of service, could give a better idea of ​​the activities and products that must be offered. Not without first clarifying that, for each activity or specialty in particular, there is a market segment with its own characteristics (Rogel, Rojas & Ortega, 2011), that is, each segment has its profile well specified. Undoubtedly, the demand is important, but it is also important to say that the trips have as a purpose to perform recreational activities of appreciation and knowledge of nature through contact with it. These activities can be observation of stars, observation of flora and fauna, hiking, environmental education, biological research, observation of attractions and special phenomena of nature, and observation of natural attractions among others (Rogel, Rojas & Ortega, 2011). As natural resources, Tourism Secretary (SECTUR) in the year of 2005 mentioned that natural or cultural resources are the environment, the archaeological wealth and the historical expressions of tradition, these are considered the base of the tourist product, so that this resource becomes attractive tourist man must incorporate facilities, equipment and services, thus adding value in economic terms (Portugal, 2008). But as to know if a place has tourist attraction or not, in this sense, the CICATUR-OEA (Inter-American Center for Tourism Training of the Organization of American States) proposed in 1974 a scale of valuation of tourist resources that quickly spread in Latin America and of practically exclusive use until now, as shown in Table 1 (Navarro, 2015). Similarly, there are other ways to classify a tourist attraction, since other authors say that it should analyze tangible and intangible resources, which are amenable to tourism and consider the potential for attraction, which may motivate a non-profit movement; in the same way the accessibility of arriving; signage with tourist guides, brochures, urban signs; the level of affluence; the level of use; the elements of valuation; and the current or possible activities related to the local resource (Navarro, 2015). However, it can also be carried out with the following hierarchical criteria: first those that do not have sufficient merit but that can complement others of higher hierarchy: then those that have some striking feature and motivate those who arrive at the place by others attractive, then those that have exceptional features with the capacity to motivate national demand, either alone or together with other attractions; and finally those that have exceptional features and great significance for the international market capable of motivating the tourist displacement of that demand alone (Wallingre, 2011). Ecotourism is perhaps the word that has commercially been more successful in the development and marketing of a novel tourism activity, associated with the use of the natural and cultural resources of a region. Due to its commercial success, 245

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Table 1. Hierarchization of tourist resources

it has also been lent to an indiscriminate use that has forced the creation of new terminologies that allow the product to be differentiated and to guarantee its quality in some way (Báez & Acuña, 1998). For Latin America, some events that refer to the general background of the adoption of ecotourism in Latin American countries are presented below (Table 2). Ecotourism must be developed under the following values ​​and must be followed by both the tourist and the local people: 1) Responsible for the use and management of tourist attractions. 2) Respectful of the communities where the activities are carried out.

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Table 2. General antecedents of ecotourism in Latin America

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3) Honest with the product to preserve its authentic conditions while presenting to the tourist. 4) Educational so that the visitor acquires new knowledge of the visited place. 5) Interactive by allowing direct contact with natural and cultural resources. 6) Democratic so that the benefits obtained are shared equally (Romero, 2008). Profile of the ECOTOURIST (Báez, A. 1996) 1) Interested in having direct contact with nature 2) Interested in knowing different ways of understanding and living life (which seeks a cultural exchange) 3) Willing to learn, always active and dynamic 4) Generally educated and with some prior knowledge about the destination, the resource to visit and the possible activities to be carried out 5) Careful of your physical and emotional condition 6) Prefers direct contact with people and seeks to establish friendships • Prefers a personalized service with a quality seal 7) Is willing to collaborate with initiatives for better waste management, reduction of water and energy consumption and any other effort to reduce the negative impact. To any ecotourism activity, whether at the national, regional or local level, it is essential to build inventories of ecotourism attractions, both existing and potential, since the national inventory of ecotourism attractions is nothing more than the sum of the different regional ecotourism inventories (Lascuráin, 1998). As part of the inventory of natural resources are lakes, rivers, beaches, mountains, valleys and meadows. They not only allow to extract food and raw materials, but they are also admirable for their great beauty, therefore, these natural resources are also considered as tourist inventory (Rebollo, 2012). It is possible to identify areas and natural attractions as the most important elements of the tourist system that motivate the visit and that offer tourists experiences and unique memories, because first there are the natural resources and the components of their environment. Lakes, lagoons, mountains, valleys, deserts, jungles, plains, beaches, estuaries, hills, mountains, ravines, snowy mountains and second place is any destination is characterized mainly by its type of ecosystem, i.e. the nature and appearance of its landscape; and its climate, the type of cold conditions of heat, humidity, winds, height and specific characteristics given by its altitude and location in the hemisphere (Rebollo, 2012). The ecotourism attractions of an area can be classified into three basic categories:

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1) Focal attractions: which from a specific area or region will always refer to the distinctive elements of natural and / or cultural heritage found in that area. They are those intrinsic features of uniqueness that best characterize said site or region and the fundamental reason why Eco tourists will want to visit it. Some protected areas exist due to a very special or determined resource that they possess and therefore, also constitutes their main focal attraction. 2) Complementary attractions: they also refer to elements of natural and / or cultural heritage that are located in a certain area, but do not have the degree of importance or uniqueness in terms of the tourist attraction of the focal attractions. That is, by themselves alone they may not exercise enough attraction to motivate an ecotourist or move to that site. However, they are motivated by additional interest and added value for the ecotourist, contributing to a tourist experience of greater wealth and diversity, by indicating the visitor to stay longer in the area in question and to offer the possibility of additional activities. The complementary ecotourism attractions can also help to avoid excessive concentrations of tourists in one place and, at the same time, favor the displacement of visitors to various sites in the corresponding area. 3) Supportive attractions: These are constituted by the artificial elements already in facilities or services, which provide the visitor with different satisfactions. This includes accommodation, restaurants, interpretation center, trails and viewpoints, horseback riding or boat services, etcetera. The support attractions are always added afterwards, to support the focal and complementary attractions that already exist, by their own nature, in a given ecotourism destination (Lascuráin, 1998). 4) For the average tourist, mere contemplation in a protected area of ​​huge concentrations of waterfowl, is in itself an attraction of the highest level. Although it does not know the specific name of birds, the enormous concentration of these and the form or the different color of some of them will be enough to cause a deep impression in any visitor with a minimum of sensitivity. However, true Eco tourists, both national and foreign, will want to know more about the regions they visit: the structure of their ecosystems, their geological origin and evolution, the main ecological interrelationships that occur there, the regional cultural elements, their environment geographic and the names of the most characteristic or striking plants and animals that are found there, that is, of the focal species (Lascuráin, 1998). One of the first formal studies that were done about the ecotourism situation in Mexico was the text of Ceballos-Lascuráin in 1994 called National Ecotourism Strategy. In it, a complete diagnosis of the state that kept this activity in the Mexican context, the competitive advantages were described and the need to carry out more 249

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research about the economic impacts of this activity was indicated. An action plan is also presented which mentions different parties such as the creation of mechanisms for inter-institutional cooperation, the creation of an inventory of ecotourism products, the creation of an inclusive strategic plan, the design of manuals for the management of environmental and cultural impacts, carrying capacity, training, promotion and the establishment of self-financing mechanisms directed mainly to the conservation of the environment. Lascurain ends by concluding that ecotourism in Mexico was in its first steps and that following an action plan would ensure a well-organized and oriented development (Guerrero, 2010). However, Rodriguez in 2010 in his article concludes that ecotourism in Mexico is, just a promise. Undoubtedly ecotourism can become a powerful tool for development at any latitude. However, in the case of Mexico, the evidence suggests that this is still not the case and that the outlook is not very favorable for this situation to reverse. The political agenda of Mexico must contemplate the creation of necessary conditions to counteract the above, so that activities such as ecotourism can grow and develop in a positive manner. Ecotourism promotes the integration of the tourist with the local community through guided walks in areas of fragile ecosystems; such as rainforests or protected natural areas. In this way, possible environmental damage is monitored and it is possible to avoid or minimize it. Through ecotourism it is also possible to amend environmental damage caused previously (Rebollo, 2012).

The City Marketing The image of a city is the synthesis of its identity, which is defined by the sum of permanent attributes that make up its essence and serve to differentiate it from other cities. Therefore, the identity of the city has a double dimension: functional and cultural. The functional dimension is specified in its strategic purpose, understood as its raison d’être, and is expressed through its city model, which is nothing more than its strategy to achieve its main objective in the medium and long term, starting from of the set of functional and formal policies. The corporate culture, another dimension of the image of identity, is composed of the values ​​shared by all citizens and their presumptions about their city, the environment and everything that may influence it (Betancourt, 2008). The projection of the image of a city is based on an imaginary, which considers architectural landmarks as “tangible” referents for its inhabitants as well as for visitors, in addition to multiple cultural factors that contribute to forming an “intangible”, which significantly affects the perception and choice of products, services and tourist destinations. According to the vision of Mea Della, this is built through a complex process of influences, in which multiple factors of different order intervene: 250

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1) The Natural: Climate, geographical attractions, soil. 2) The Economic: level of development, activities, products and local brands, services, corporations, technology. 3) The Politicians: system of government, institutional development. 4) The Geopolitical: historical link with cities, departments. 5) Sociocultural: population, educational level, cultural expressions, quality of life. (Mancilla, Morales & Lugo, 2012). City marketing is focused on three basic aspects: 1) For Investors: It is the one that seeks to attract investors and foreign companies, for the creation and / or expansion of new businesses, with the intention of bringing development at the economic level and that is reflected in the increase of capital and sources of employment. 2) For Residents: This is what seeks to attract new residents to the cities, seeking to increase their productive population through attractive programs to obtain permanent resident visas. 3) For Visitors: It is the one that seeks to attract temporary visitors, to encourage tourism and at the same time attract important capital that encourages different tourist sectors. Specifically, City marketing performs four basic functions: 1) Achieve an optimal combination of the characteristics and services of the city, from the point of view of residents, visitors and investors 2) Articulate an offer of incentives that increases the attractiveness of the city for current and future users of its services 3) Ensure a fast and efficient access of the city to the markets of interest 4) Transmit the image and comparative advantages of the city to the target public. Undoubtedly, brand management has become one of the mandatory issues for governments and private and public organizations in cities and countries. As are the natural: climate, geographical attractions, soil; the economic: level of development, activities, products and local brands, services, corporations, technology; the politicians: system of government, institutional development; the geopolitical: historical link with cities, departments; the sociocultural: population, educational level, cultural expressions, quality of life. Once again, the management front becomes very important, because thanks to its planning, important achievements can be seen in the strengthening of competitiveness and the image of cities and countries (Martínez, 2007). 251

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Daniel Ivoskus tells that the brand is not a product and this affirmation must be maintained when creating a city brand, which will be recognized in a certain territory. Many authors have tried to classify the city, either by population, geography, maturity, qualitative criteria such as specialization, safety, financial flow, and so on. Marín (2010) and Pablo Lezama give some examples of the city brand as the work on the Barcelona brand, the famous I love NY, Milan or the Armani city, the Argentine Patagonia, Los Angeles and Hollywood; and in addition to places, neighborhoods such as: Tribeca and Harlem in New York; Palermo Soho, Barracas Dulce and San Telmo Gay in Buenos Aires. All these are some of the examples of the positioning that was chosen to be constructed to differentiate itself from other places in the world (Marín, 2010).

The Guadalajara Brand The government of Zapopan made a presentation of the Guadalajara brand where the former City Major if Guadalajara Enrique Alfaro mentions that the city brand is a reference to avoid the loss of his identity, likewise commented that the brand cares is an element of identity, it is a promotional and positioning tool of Guadalajara that for many years the city needed, that the private sector had requested and that now exists thanks to the will to build a policy of agreements (Government of Zapopan, 2016). In the presentation of the brand, the Governor of the state of Jalisco, Aristóteles Sandoval, also participated. He mentioned that The names of the cities are trademarks, they are reference on an identity. They have become strategic assets. Having a strong city brand serves to identify, cohesion, and reuse citizenship. It serves to project internationally, attracting projects and investors. “It should be noted that Pablo Lemus also made some comments which are we are one voice, today we show that our identity is to be a Guadalajara. It is a pride to belong to this city, a brand that will have great benefits for all. This is a historical fact that gives voice to #GuadalajaraGuadalajara congratulations to all that today its brand is presented, our brand ” (Valenzuela, 2016). The city of Guadalajara is the second most populated city in Mexico, after Mexico City, with this exercise of identity it is intended to promote and position the metropolis internationally, increase the tourist influx and continue attracting investments from abroad (García, 2016). The creators of the Guadalajara Guadalajara brand, mention that they took advantage of the great opportunity to build the first sound mark in the world, since the brand is based on the song composed by Pepe Guízar, which represents a natural symbol of the city that reinforces and provokes sensations, emotions and ideas already positioned. The song has the characteristic rhythms of the mariachi and its lyrics take up essential elements of the identity of the city and the region, condensing them into a single phrase: Guadalajara Guadalajara, which 252

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is read singing, since it is already positioned at the international level (Valenzuela, 2016). A very expressive logo has been created, with typographies that vary in size and that remind of the codes used in comics, where try to capture the musicality of this famous chorus in the logo, as mentioned earlier. The typography is the Chinese Rocks Regular, which is used to give a rustic touch that aims to add value to the heritage of a pre-industrial past, where shops or even posters displayed a more standardized and manual design. The brand also has three main and alternating colors: magenta, orange and cyan, which emphasize the colorful character of Mexican folklore (García, 2016). A reinterpretation of the song was carried out, in which mariachi was mixed with traditional music, elements of rock, electronic and jazz, also collaborated artists such as Venado Azul, a wixarika group of regional music; Telefunka, an electroacoustic music group; Cuca representing heavy, disruptive rock; Paco Padilla or the Mariachi Viva Xalisco representing the traditional of Mexican music, with; Sara Valenzuela and Abigail Vázquez, outstanding exponents of jazz; Mike Laure Jr. with popular music; in addition, Cecilia Toussaint, Celso Piña, Alfonso André, “the Vampire”, Pato Machete, Dr. Shenka with the purpose of integrating all of Mexico (Valenzuela, 2016) In the competitiveness agendas of tourist destinations in Mexico, it is mentioned that Mexico has not been able to take advantage of the total benefits offered by tourism. A clear example of this is the city of Guadalajara, which is one of the most emblematic states of Mexico. This city is highlighted by its great cultural contribution, tradition and historic buildings, however, has not known how to take advantage of the natural heritage that has to recreational use or tourism, since it has great potential in this sector. There it is entered one of the attractions which is the Santiago river canyon (SECTUR, 2014).

THE CANYON OF THE SANTIAGO RIVER The Santiago river canyon is a natural element of great value, given its level of landscaping, since it has a variety of resources with tourism potential that have not been conveniently used for recreational and tourist use. In addition to the landscape, the canyon contains an important number and variety of resources with tourist potential that until now have not been conveniently used for recreational and tourist use (SECTUR, 2014). This canyon is a resource of such importance that legal instruments have been created for its protection and conservation. The municipality of Guadalajara decreed the area as an Area Subject to Ecological Conservation,

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while the municipality of Zapopan granted it the category of Municipal Area of​​ Hydrological Protection. At the federal level, there is a proposal to decree the Barranca del Río Santiago, along the Barranca del Río Verde, as a Protected Natural Area (ANP), without formalizing its legal implementation until now (SECTUR, 2014). However, it is necessary to highlight the environmental problems present in the ravine, since it is one of the most polluted rivers in Mexico due to domestic and industrial discharges, which are mostly not treated. This situation reduces the potential of the Santiago River, which, in its natural context, could well be used for recreational purposes. Despite the condition of the river, the canyon still has a high potential for tourism and recreational use, but public policies aimed at comprehensive sanitation of the Santiago River basin need to be implemented, as well as the implementation of productive and tourist projects that detonate the local development of the area (SECTUR, 2014). A geographical fact of great magnitude is the one made by the Santiago River over what is now the Barranca that bears his name, giving rise to a depression that in its most eroded part can reach 500 meters of depth, according to the INEGI in the 2010 (SECTUR, 2014). This geological outcrop houses a gallery forest that contains various species of fauna, but especially flora, some of them are even listed as endemic, a situation that makes the Santiago River Canyon even more attractive to be studied and conserved. The problem of this geographical element is the contamination of the Santiago River, which carries all domestic and industrial waste from the LermaChapala-Santiago Basin; however, its main problem is the lack of recognition and appreciation by local inhabitants (SECTUR, 2014). The Barraca del Río Santiago is a natural scenario with great potential for tourism. In the decade of the 70’s a tourist complex was projected for the Barranca del Río Santiago, corresponding to the municipality of Zapopan, where the installation of one or more cable cars, botanical garden, restaurant, bungalows, etc., was contemplated. facilities of Mirador Park Dr. Atl. However, it was only in proposal. In 2005, Guadalajara won the headquarters to house the Guggenheim Museum, which would be located in the grounds surrounding the Mirador Independencia Park in the Santiago River Canyon. In 2009 the project was canceled due to lack of budget. In December 2009 the project “Barranca Museo de Arte Moderno” was announced, which came to replace the Guggenheim. The project has an approximate cost of 30 million dollars and for 2013 it has an advance of 80% in its structure. Currently it is planned to make a cable car possible even with Mexican technology, such as Personalized Elevated Urban Transportation (TUEP), proposed in Mexico City, with the support of the Dina Consortium. It is also proposed to rescue the existing infrastructure to install a funicular that goes from Huentitán to the bottom of the Barranca, in the town called Las Juntas in the 254

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municipality of Guadalajara and a cost of 320 million pesos is contemplated, which would be invested in an approximately three years (SECTUR, 2014). According to Martínez in 1984, the Barranca is an impressive broken wall of section in section, by the gaps that in its North slope have opened the rivers that contribute their waters to the Santiago. The panorama that is seen in front of Huentitán, La Experiencia, San Cristóbal, is that of a rock curtain whose almost horizontal folds composed fire and water millions of years ago. The Santiago, “tireless sapper of the Barranca”, looks ostentatious to the amazement of passers-by and tourists, analysis and study of geologists and headache of bridge builders, railroads, winches and roads (SECTUR, 2014). The potential resources in which they can do better and create recreational activities are presented in Table 3. There are sites for an adventure in Zapopan as it is the Huaxtla.org site official site of Adventure in Zapopan. This is a non-profit page that seeks to give visitors information about the wonderful routes in contact with nature that Jalisco has and in particular the municipality of Zapopan, to know the Huaxtla Canyon, the Spring Forest, El Cerro del Diente or any other Adventure within the municipality of Zapopan. (Huaxtla, s.f.).

METHODOLOGY The methodology of the investigation is made up of a quantitative approach, since for the resolution of contributions, statistical data from a database provided by the government of the state of Jalisco with the intention of giving annual results for the year 2016 were taken into account. The indicators to be rescued were the following: first the motivation to the tourist destinations, means by which they found out, what they liked the most, opinion about the service, as they consider the natural attraction, means by which they arrive to the destination and average cost. This in order to determine if national or domestic tourism is interested in tourism and ecotourism factors. The type of research is exploratory. Exploratory studies are usually carried out when the objective is to examine a research topic or problem little studied or that has not been addressed before. That is, when the review of the literature revealed that there are only uninvestigated guidelines and ideas vaguely related to the study problem. Exploratory studies help to increase the degree of familiarity with relatively unknown phenomena. In the case of research was found that there is little, almost nonexistent information about the Santiago river canyon. The research also uses the descriptive type. A descriptive study selects a series of questions and each of them is measured independently, in order to describe what is being investigated, along the investigation described tourist attractions, ecotourism 255

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Table 3. Resources with tourism potential in the Santiago River Canyon (ZMG)

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and city marketing. It should be noted that it is a documentary dissertation, since everything was based on information and there is no sample, no population, no surveys. Based on a study conducted by the government of the State of Jalisco, the following indicators were taken: 1) The means of information by which they learn of a destination 53.1% by recommendation, 17.2% Internet, 12.5 by which already knew the place, 5.8% travel agency, 3% by mass media and 8.5% by other means. 2) What they liked most were 28.8% tourist attractions, 25% hospitality, 13.12% destination, 8% recreational activities, 6.3% commerce, 5% tourist services, 4.1% gastronomy, 3.1% climate, 2.5% temples. 3) The opinion on the service is: personal treatment 89.9% said excellent and 10.1% said that regular, the price quality ratio, 78% said excellent, 17% said regular and 5% said bad: cleanliness 88.3% said excellent, 10.4% said regular and 1.2% said bad. 4) Different aspects as natural attractive 88.1% said excellent, 8.9% said regular and 3% said bad; Leisure activities 90.1% said excellent, 9.7 said regular and .2% said bad. The means of transport used to reach the destination is 46.1% automobile, 53.1% bus.

CONCLUSION As conclusion of the investigation, it is mentioned that the Guadalajara Guadalajara brand only has a cultural and historical focus, leaving behind the ecotourism aspect, which according to the tourism secretary there is a great potential. As it has been mentioned in the competitiveness agendas it has been known to make the most of the Santiago River Canyon. On a national level, the city of Guadalajara is positioned, thanks to the fact that it is based on a very famous song by the composer Pepe Guízar, most Mexicans have ever heard it. So broadening an approach of not only seeing the city in an architectural, cultural and religious way, it can be extended to other sectors. From a national tourism and ecotourism perspective, the answer to our research problem is whether the brand can be extended to this sector with the intention of being able to generate more tourism towards these types of places, along with an extension of work for the hotel industry, to carry out recreational activities that comply with the regulations of the corresponding institutions so as not to cause the already deteriorated ecosystem, but on the contrary to obtain support to be able to clean the area and have one more resource. However, there have been certain limitations for any improvement project to be presented since the majority must be presented to the secretary of tourism and the 257

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next elections in the country each time the strategies are changed depending on the new projects of each governor. This causes that the long-term plans are not feasible. Similarly, it is in conflict since the Guadalajara brand is in the public sector, there is still no support from the private sector, which is why it is more complicated.

PROPOSALS A. As a first proposal is the realization of a map that indicates the access and the route to reach the different destinations of the Barranca, since, due to the ignorance of many of the potential tourist attractions, access to these places is difficult, they are not marked, and do not have a structured route. B. The second proposal is the creation of different zip lines that are attractive to different audiences and ages of visitors. As it can be that of Huentitán to the Boards. C. Third proposal, that there be a control of contamination, that is, the treatment of wastewater from operation, a good management of solid and liquid waste, the planting and care of the environment or of natural resources, in order to increase the tourist attraction of the place. D. Fourth proposal to provide support to travel agencies for the preparation of advertising, where they are encouraged to make short trips to the different attractions of the Barranca del Río Santiago. In order to take advantage of the place and boost employment in the tourism sector, the training of employees in order to provide a quality service and experience for people living near the GMZ.

RECOMMENDATION AND LIMITATIONS The existing limitations are that there is not much information about the activities that can be carried out in the Santiago River Canyon, in the same way it is important to mention that some areas are not in suitable conditions, because they are contaminated or deteriorated. For this reason, it is recommended that a certain amount of money be invested for the restoration of these areas in order to gradually enable it, so that it can be a potential tourist attraction for the inhabitants of the metropolitan area of Guadalajara, and equally to generate more jobs. In the same way, more research topics can be added to cover issues of restructuring of natural developments, business plans for the ecotourism sector, etc.

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Barranca del Río Santiago: Is a long-standing nature interaction space, has constituted border, edge, meeting place. As of October 2004, it is declared Municipal Area of Hydrological Protection “Barranca del Río Santiago”. The area has a total of 17729.91 hectares. Brand Guadalajara Guadalajara: The brand “Guadalajara, Guadalajara”, which is in a stage of positioning in order to know the activities that have been done in terms of promotion and growth of cultural identity and its tourist vocation of the city. The territory is not only a place or a physical space, it is the surface where the natural and social processes are developed, because there interact the agents and interest groups, the people who create political, economic and social relations. City Brand: A city brand is the name of the city to which a series of unique and exclusive attributes are associated by which it is possible to identify, recognize and differentiate said city from others. Ecotourism: or ecological tourism is the tourist activity that develops without altering the balance of the environment and avoiding the damage to nature. It is a trend that seeks to make the tourism industry compatible with ecology. Guadalajara: Guadalajara is the name of the capital of Jalisco. It means ‘river of stones’, ‘river that runs between stones’, or ‘valley of fortresses’. It comes from the Arabic ‫( ةراجحلا يداو‬wādi al-ḥiŷara), which can be translated as ‘valley of stone’. Place Branding: Is the process of promoting images specifically selected in order to establish a favorable reputation that serves as a tourist attraction. Protected Natural Area: Protected natural area (ANP) is a portion of territory (terrestrial or aquatic) whose purpose is to conserve the representative biodiversity of the ecosystems to ensure the balance and continuity of the evolutionary and ecological processes and whose characteristics have not been essentially modified.

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About the Contributors

Debasish Batabyal has been teaching Travel and Tourism Management at the Department of Travel and Tourism, Amity University, Kolkata, West Bengal. A Post-graduate in Business Management with specialization in Tourism, Dr. Batabyal received Doctorate degree from the same University in the year 2013. His areas of research interest include eTourism, Sustainable Tourism and Social Solidarity Economy, and Destination development and planning. He has written two books and edited two more with reputed international publishing house. He has published a number of research articles in internationally reputed journals of Social Science viz., Indian Journal of Marketing, South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage, IJARBEST, Journal of Emerging Technologies and Research, and also in various edited volumes published by CRC press, (Canada), Cambridge Scholars Publishing (UK), IGI Global (USA). He has also co-authored chapter in District Human Development Report (UNDP and Govt. of West Bengal) and District Gazetteer Report (Govt. of West Bengal). In recent times, he has been awarded ILO‟s South-South Triangular Cooperation (SSTC) scholarship to participate in the 11th Social and Solidarity Economy Academy at Madrid, Spain. *** Vincenzo Asero is Assistant Professor of Economics at University of Catania, Department of Political and Social Sciences, where he currently teaches Economics, Regional Economics, and Heritage and Tourism Development. His research interests cover Tourism, Local Development, Regional Economics, and Business Networks. On these issues, he has published a number of articles, book chapters and edited books. He is a reviewer for several international journals. Moreover, he is actively involved as consultant in projects in the fields of tourism and regional development. Prem Kumar Balaraman is working with the Department of Management, Veltech Rangarajan Dr Sagunthala R & D institute of science and technology. His

About the Contributors

research interests include consumer behavior, leadership, Tourism, innovation, HR, MIS, Entrepreneurship, etc. Nadeem Ahmed Bashir is working with the Department of Management, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. His research interests include consumer behavior, leadership, Tourisms, innovation, knowledge management. Maryann Conrad is Associate Professor of Hospitality Management and the Chair of the Hospitality Management program at Nichols College in Dudley, MA. Erika Cornelius Smith, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Chair of the International Business and Political Science programs at Nichols College in Dudley, MA. Joseph Crawford has a PhD in leadership behavior, and seeks to explore solutions to growing ethical challenges in contemporary leadership. He is currently a Lecturer at the University of Tasmania, Australia, and publishes on higher education, leadership, and organisational behavior. Unathi Sonwabile Henama is a specialist in disruptive technology and teaches marketing in tourism at the Tshwane University of Technology. He has published extensively and presented paper at local and international conferences. Ruma Karmakar, Assistant Professor of College of Art and Design, Burdwan, obtained B.V.A. in History of Art from Rabindra Bharati University (Jorasankho) and M.F.A in History of Art from Kalabhavan, Visva Bharati, Santiniketan. After qualifying RET she is presently pursuing Ph.D. at the department of History of Art from Kalabhavan, Santinikeatan. Along with the successful completion of one U.G.C Minor Research Project (2016-2018), she has also published 3 research papers in the leading journals. Matthew Knox is a recent graduate of the University of Tasmania with a passion for understanding how to create a better world. His current work is focused on understanding authentic followers and their role in enabling ethical leader behaviors. As well as the effects group behavior and mindset have over psychological well-being. Pfarelo Manavhela is a committed lecturer and a PHD candidate at the Tshwane University of Technology. He has over 12 years of experience as a lecturer in tourism at leading South African higher academic institutions of learning. He has a Masters in Tourism Management from the University of Venda. His research interests include the sharing economy, Uber, surge pricing and tourism development in rural areas. 304

About the Contributors

Aroop Mukherjee is working with the Department of Aviation and Management, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. His research interests include sustainagility, agility, agribusiness, supply chain management, supply chain strategies, sustainability, innovation, and knowledge management. Abhijit Pandit has been awarded M.Sc., M.B.A., PhD, MIMA. Moreover author is a member of All India Management Association, Operational Research Society of India (lifetime), Calcutta Mathematical Society (lifetime). He has published several research papers in international journals, and published 3 books and 2 book chapters through reputed international publishers. He has attended several workshops and presented research papers in various international conferences, and chaired conference sessions and workshops. Dr. Pandit has been associated with full time teaching and research for more than 13 years. Soumyadeep Roy is an Assistant Professor in Amity University Kolkata in the school of Hotel Management. He was associated with Taj Group of Hotels before joining this university. He has more than seven years of industry and teaching experience. Partho Pratim Seal is an Assistant Professor at Welcomgroup Graduate School of Hotel Administration (WGSHA), Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal. Currently pursuing (PhD) in Hotel and Tourism Management, has published articles in reputed journals, reviewed articles and has authored three books Computers in Hotels: Concepts and Application, Food and Beverage Management and How to Succeed in Hotel Management Job Interviews. The other areas of interest include Food Anthropology & Facility Planning. Venera Tomaselli received PhD in Sociology and Methods of Social Sciences. From 1993 to 2002 she was Assistant Professor in Statistics and since 2002 Associate Professor in Social Statistics at the Department of Political and Social Sciences, University of Catania. She was research fellow at Essex University (UK) in 1992 and 1993, member of the European Research Group at Munich University (1996) and in 2015 visiting professor at University of Salford (UK). She was a member of the editorial boards of specialised editions on tourism. She is reviewer for scientific journals specialised in tourism research and Statistics. José G. Vargas-Hernández, M.B.A., Ph.D., Member of the National System of Researchers of Mexico and a research professor at University Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of Guadalajara. Professor Vargas-Hernández has a Ph. D. in Public Administration and a Ph.D. in Organizational Economics. He 305

About the Contributors

has undertaken studies in Organisational Behaviour and has a Master of Business Administration, published four books and more than 200 papers in international journals and reviews (some translated to English, French, German, Portuguese, Farsi, Chinese, etc.) and more than 300 essays in national journals and reviews. He has obtained several international Awards and recognition. Sarah Young has a PhD from the University of Tasmania, where she is now a Sessional Lecturer. She has a research focus on understanding the nature and predictors of psychological well-being and the conditions for creating positive well-being.

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Index

A Authentic Experience 91, 98, 111 Authentic Leader 84, 86, 89-91, 93-100, 111 Authentic Leadership 93-95, 97-98

B Barranca del Río Santiago 237-238, 240, 254, 263 Benchmarking 34-35, 43-44, 54-55 Book Festival 3, 11 Brand Guadalajara Guadalajara 263 Business Enablers 33-35, 47, 52, 55 Business Environment 36-37, 44, 46-47, 50, 52-55, 93, 218-219, 233 Business Organization 221-222

C Categorical Principal Components Analysis 8 City Brand 239-240, 244, 252, 263 City marketing 238, 240, 244, 250-251, 257 competitive advantage 13, 210, 217-219, 222-223, 225, 233 Confirmatory Factor Analysis 183 Content Analysis 185, 188, 209 Contribution 7, 12, 34, 55, 92, 170, 188, 194-195, 202, 204, 217, 219, 225, 239, 253 Cross Validation 183-184 Cultural Entrepreneurship 208-210, 216

Cultural Tourism 115, 131-134, 138-140, 152, 208, 210, 212, 214, 216 Cultural Tourism Entrepreneurship 208, 216

D Demand-Based Pricing 25 Disney 131-132, 134, 136-143, 145-149, 151-152 Dynamic Pricing 26

E Ecotourism 41, 84-93, 95-100, 237-240, 243, 245-246, 248-250, 255, 257258, 263 Ecotourist 84, 88, 91, 99, 248 Education 34, 50, 91-92, 118, 134-136, 169-170, 173-178, 245 Entertainment 28, 38, 116, 132, 134-136, 141, 144, 147, 149, 243 Entrepreneurs 3-4, 50, 84-86, 88, 90, 93, 95-100, 159, 163-164, 169, 171-174, 176-178, 196-198, 205, 208-209, 212, 214, 216 Entrepreneurship 8, 19, 28, 86-88, 91, 95-96, 98-100, 124, 159, 162-165, 169-178, 194-198, 202, 204-205, 208-210, 216 Ethical Competitive Advantage 217-218, 222-223, 225 Event Tourism 3 Exploratory Factor Analysis 186

Index

F

N

Features 24, 28, 133, 159, 173, 245

Nostalgia Tourism 131-132, 139, 142143, 152

G Guest Experience 134-135, 137-138, 149150, 152, 176

O Organizational Behavior 88-89

H

P

Happiness Index 183, 190 Heritage Tourism 43, 133 Hospitality 1, 3, 12, 42-43, 47-48, 51, 53, 132, 134, 139, 169-170, 172-175, 177178, 194-195, 200, 205, 209-210, 243

Perceived Value 113, 116, 119-120, 125, 130 PEST Analysis 52, 55 phenomenal change 194-195 Pilak Monastery 61, 68, 72-73, 78 Place Branding 263 Plaques 61, 65-67, 69, 71, 73-78 Protected Natural Area 254, 263

I Impacts Evaluation 3 independent tourists 19, 29 Interest 3, 12, 25, 34, 42, 50, 85, 112-114, 117, 119, 122, 125, 130, 132, 139, 171, 210, 218, 220, 240, 263 international openness 46, 54-55

L Latent variable 117-118, 120, 122, 130 Leadership 84, 86, 88, 93-98, 100, 164 Legacy 1, 3-5, 7, 10, 13, 38, 43, 115, 148-149 Local Stakeholders 1, 3, 5, 7-8, 10-13 Loyalty 21, 112-114, 134, 140, 151, 224

M Madinat Al-Zahra 113, 115, 117-120, 125 Magic Kingdom 131-132, 136-139, 145, 147, 150 Marketing Mix 24, 224 Monastery 61, 64-65, 67-69, 71-75, 7778, 83 Motivation 49, 96, 112-115, 117, 119-120, 130, 133-134, 140, 164, 170, 237, 255 Multi-Generational Travel 142 Multivariate Indicator 3, 8 308

Q Questionnaire 5, 8, 60, 113, 116-118, 120, 183-184, 186, 188, 225, 227

R rapid expansion 21, 28 RnD 99, 111 Rural Entrepreneurship 194

S Sharing Economy 18, 21-22, 28 Social Entrepreneur 86-87, 89, 91, 95100, 111 Social Entrepreneurship 86, 91, 96, 98-100 Social Innovation 95-97, 99, 111 Social Responsibility 188, 217-222, 224225, 228-233 Strategic Analysis 35, 52, 54 Structural equation model 116, 130 Structural Equation Modelling 183, 190 Successful Cooperation 13 Surge Pricing 18, 20, 25-26

Index

T

U

Terracotta 61, 65-66, 68-69, 71-72, 75, 77-78, 83 Theme Parks 132, 136, 139-143, 145, 152 Tourism Competitiveness Index 36, 54 Tourism Infrastructure 34, 43-44, 46, 48, 54, 200 Tourist behaviour 112 Tourist Destination 36-37, 87, 113, 117, 130

Uber 18-29

W World Heritage 38, 114-115, 117, 122, 125

Y Yield Management 25-26

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