Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar and The Influence of Gesenius: as Edited and Enlarged by the late E. Kautzsch 9781463212896

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GESENIUS* H E B R E W GRAMMAR A N D T H E INFLUENCE OF GESENIUS

GORGIAS H I S T O R I C A L GRAMMARS

9

GESENIUS* HEBREW GRAMMAR AND THE INFLUENCE OF GESENIUS

Edited and Enlarged by E. Kautzsch Supplemented by William Miller

GORGIAS PRESS

2008

First Gorgias Press Edition, 2008

The special contents of this edition are copyright Bleek, Binleitung.

Ed. 2, 1865, 138.

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THE

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GESENIUS

by J. G. Eichhorn in 1793, with many changes and additions, notably from the works of J. D. Michaelis. Simonis' lexicon was the only one that later threatened to disturb Gesenius' supreme position, especially at the time when it was re-edited by Winer, in 1828. This brief survey enables us to understand Gesenius' references to these lexicographers, which appear in connection with the first edition of his lexicon. In the 1810-12 Edition, Gesenius attempted to explain as many words as possible from the Hebrew usage itself. By studying the context, the parallel-passages, and the traditional knowledge, he gave to words what he considered to be their proper p r i m a r y meanings. Very often he dropped the p r i m a r y meanings which had been proposed by the leaders of the Dutch School and their followers in Germany. Gesenius dropped the p r i m a r y meanings that had been given to certain words that occur frequently in Hebrew. Such a word was, for example: "in J - Gesenius distinguished two roots: one, to meditate; the other, to separate. Schultens' etymological hypothesis, which he had expounded in connection with Prov. 25, 4, was that this root originally meant: to be in commotion, to boil up, to eject with violence. To speak was developed by saying that it is an ejection of the word from the mouth either by speaking or enunciating. Likewise Simonis, Ed., 1771, and Eichhorn, Ed., 1793, attempted to develop all the meanings from one p r i m a r y meaning. Simonis began w i t h : propulit, protrusit, as the probable fundamental meaning. Gesenius said that this development is not confirmed by either the Hebrew or Arabic usage. Schultens 4 and Michaelis" had endeavored to develop all the meanings of: DDPI from the primary meaning: to liquefy. Simonis and Eichhorn, who follow Schultens, began w i t h : to cause to liquefy, whence they derive: to flee, to disperse. Schultens said that the word in Exod. 14, 24, should literally be translated: "And he liquefied the army of Egypt," that is, either by fear or consternation he made them melt. Coccejus gave as the primary meaning: to be in agitation. Gesenius gave it the first meaning: to terrify. Gesenius altered the meanings of some of the more rare 4 Originum . . . 488 ff. « Supple., 555.

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LEXICOGRAPHY

Hebrew words. On the authority of the traditional knowledge, he translated: ninSB'K dung, dirt. Simonis, Eichhorn, and Coccejus were satisfied w i t h : sterquilinium. According to the context and versions, Gesenius translated: i n j to bow oneself, and he compared this meaning with the Arabic:

, as Schindler.

He is opposed to the primary

meaning: to cry, f r o m : T o : DJ/E he gave the primary meaning: to strike, and he translated the Niphal: to be disturbed, e. g., in spirit. Michaelis,' after considering all the conjectures begins with the primary meaning: to be full, from the Arab: ^ . Simonis, 1771, had given the p r i m a r y meaning: to agitate, whence the Niphal: to be disturbed; but Eichhorn introduced Michaelis' conjecture. Gesenius translated: Dta buffalo, not antelope, as Schultens (Job, par. 1115) and Michaelis (Supple., par. 2212). There are many hapax legomena, said Gesenius, whose meaning is universally acknowledged to be obtainable from the study of the Old Testament usage. As such he cited, for example: i>TN to depart, which is given by Coccejus; door; riD3 to long for (lit. to pine away), the analogous usage of w h i c h is found in the Arabic: ^ caligavit oculos. Eichhorn, 1793, translated the latter: to desire anxiously, i. e., to desire so vehemently that one wastes away, while Coccejus translated: contabescit. Certain difficult words, Gesenius explained by studying the traditional remains and the cognate languages. Some of _ To: these words a r e : yxn - n o " YVn Gesenius gave the meanings: to divide, intrans., to be divided. Eichhorn, 1793, following Schultens on Job 21, 21, began with celeriter progressus est, and thence derived: to divide. The latter E i c h h o r n correctly explained from the Arabic analogy as a denominative of: yn- In ancient times arrows w e r e used when making a division. Gesenius did not give this analogy, although it is a good one. To: y~® Gesenius, following Kimchi, gave the p r i m a r y meaning: to be violent, strong, and said that this fits all the passages. But he also referred to the other view that it may mean: aegrum esse, to be sick, in certain passages, a n d : to be sweet, in Job 6, • Ibidem, ' Ibidem,

274. 2031 f.

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25 f. Due to this uncertainty of meaning, Gesenius had two roots, while Eichhorn, 1793, had only one with the primary meaning: to be sick, sickly. As Eichhorn and Schultens, Gesenius did not reach a definite view on the remaining words cited here, but made mention of the different meanings that had ben proposed. Gesenius objects to meanings that had been given to words in certain passages only, contrary to their meanings elsewhere. He objected, for example, to the translation of Niax I say, by Ziegler and others, in Prov. 6, 3, according to the Arabic; but insists that it means only: now, then. Likewise: riUDIK means only palaces, not also: boundaries, in Mic. 5, 44 (Mich. Supple., 128). The niphal o f : means: to be hated, to be in bad repute, not also: to be strong, in 1 Sam. 13, 4 (Supple., 146). Gesenius appealed to the Aramaic usage for some words that had been explained from the Arabic. The following may serve as illustrations. He translated: d^j to fold; mantle; i n to gather. The latter Michaelis translated: to flee, according to the Arabic. (Supple., 394). From the later Hebrew of the Talmud, Gesenius explained, for example: n n to proceed slowly, solemnly; nilariD pits; and T p - *ip"ip to pull down a wall. In this first edition Gesenius separated by Roman numerals many roots which were formerly treated as one, and which he later joined himself after he saw some connection. He tries to avoid a merely conjectural connection. Thus he would not equate: pi' to stay over night, and: jtf to murmer; -|fiDI to hurry and I I : to buy, jbmj to be old and I I : to sleep. The dialects were compared for analogous idioms and developed meanings. Thus: p j f - f n a means: the apple of the eye, lit., the maniquin of the eye. The Aramaic has: The idiom should not be explained from the Arabic as: the gate of the eye. The development of meanings: to cleave to, to pursue, to reach is found in the roots: pm that o f : to be liberal, generous, noble is found in the P1J - 2PJ • From the primary meaning: to bore, to is developed the meaning: to determine. The Hebrew usage itself yielded modifications of ing in certain words and phrases. Of these w e D13 to cut o f f , w i t h : f> to lay up for is analogous to:

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(J*' roots: pierce meannote: ^-

ON

HEBREW

LEXICOGRAPHY

35

DU means: bone; by a comparison with o^y w e deduce that it means also: the same, the very same. Whereas his predecessors were bent on showing the relation of the Hebrew to the Arabic and studying out primary meanings, Gesenius devoted more space and time to the development of meanings. For example, Gesenius gave the meanings o f : nriK in the following order: (1) to love; (2) to rejoice over something. He makes no comparison with the cognate languages, although he is carefuly to v e r i f y each meaning with some passages. Simonis, 1793, had the primary meaning: dilexit, amavit, and made no effort to show the development of the other meanings. However, he compared the Hebrew with the Arabic and Samaritan to show that the fundamental Hebrew meaning must be: to pant after something. Eichhorn cited many more passages than are necessary. Instead of being valuable to illustrate the development of meanings, they show the different grammatical forms, many of which are perfectly regular. Besides, Gesenius also explained the use of this verb with particles, which Eichhorn failed to do. Although Gesenius often gave fewer citations than Eichhorn, his are the more unusual ones. Thus, for example, Gesenius explained that the grammatical form jecherash means only: to be silent, to be dumb; w h i l e : jacharosh means: to work with metals, plow. In general, Gesenius differed from his predecessors in this that he revised each entire article. Instead of accumulating a mass of unnecessary and often wrong material, he carefully sifted everything that his predecessors had done, freely discarded, and freely retained what he thought was necessary. The main defects in the First Edition were the discussion of the Hebrew together with the Aramaic of the Bible, instead of having two distinct sections, and the fact that the lexicographical material was not so clearly separated from the etymological material in the article, as should have been desired. But even with the retention of these defects, the lexicon is much easier to consult than its predecessors. Prof. E. Robinson gave the following estimate of the first lexicon published by Gesenius:" » Bibllotheca

Sacra, 1 8 4 3 , 361 f f .

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OF

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This work exhibited that extensive and profound research, that command of materials and sagacity in the use of them which have placed its author in the first rank of modern philologists. Many of the views and results, however, evolved in the ardour and freshness of youthful pursuit, did not stand the test of the author's own riper judgment and investigations; and in later years he was accustomed to look upon this as juvenile work. Still it opened up a new and wide field of Hebrew literature; removed from that study its repulsive aspect; and rendered it accessible to all. So great was the success of this work, that the author was immediately applied to by the publisher to construct a lexicon of the N e w Testament on like principles. An epitome for students, based on this larger work, was published in 1815." This manual is about one-half as large as the First Edition. Space was saved by omitting all the longer disquisitions, whereby particular significations had been defended or opposed. This may be seen by comparing the article on: mtTK in both lexicons. Passages that had been quoted in full to exemplify various significations of words and phrases were diminished probably by one-half their number. In many cases the smaller work suffered considerably by these omissions. References made to the dialects, old versions, and exegetical books for a better elucidation of forms or meanings of words are much abbreviated and often omitted altogether. The latter was especially the case when the material was of such a nature that it might not be available to the students. Everything was thus condensed as much as possible in order to make this a handy students' edition. The first edition was to be reissued as a thesaurus, which would take up matters more in detail. But the Epitome is not a mere abstract of the preceding edition. In it Gesenius introduced certain improvements that he had made, especially in the materials of lexicography. Thus some of the articles were shortened naturally because Gesenius had something more definite to substitute for a long discussion. This was, for example, the case in the article: trns No. 3, where he now gave the meaning: hard, disastrous (Luther: bringt Wehe), in Prov. 13, 15; and: " T h e struggle in his limbs is terrible," in Job, 33, 19. These quotations are missing in the preceding edition. Some improvements were made in the articles: ton and jnu » Hebraeisch-deutsches

Bandlexicon,

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1815.

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I. In Ezek. 5, 7, the form: DDJan is derived from the root: ton and translated: because ye rage, etc., instead of: because ye have sinned, as before. Changes in citations and meanings were made in the articles: DX - D1X - J18 ~ I1NThe article is practically doubled. The figurative use: priest, teacher, is more thoroughly explained, and the meanings: begetter and counselor are added. A new article: ax wish is inserted with its citation Job 34, 36. Many of the missing Ketib forms were supplied in this edition, but the attempt to mention all the Samaritan variants is discontinued. In this edition Gesenius began to combine many roots that he had separated in the preceding edition, and distinguished by Roman numerals. The following are some of these roots: Tin had been treated as two roots in the 1810 Edition : I. to honor; II. to swell. Now both of these meanings are derived from the general meaning: to be wide. whose meanings: I. to pierce; II. to loose, had been assigned to two different roots, is now considered one root, with the general meaning: to pierce, in spite of the fact that the Arab distinguished between two roots by means of a harder and a softer initial consonant. We note that Buhl, 16. Edition, has separated these roots again. In the edition of 1810, Gesenius had separated the meanings of: inn under two roots: I. to bind; II. to practice sorcery. Now he joined them under the one root: to bind, and developed the second meaning by referring to the magic knot. The meanings: to seek and: to dissemble, of the root: tpsn are brought together by means of the intermediate notion: to allow oneself to be sought, to hide. Thus we see Gesenius join some roots that his predecessors had already considered related; however, he does it, not by taking over a primary meaning from the Arabic, but rather by considering an inner relationship in the roots themselves. In this edition, Gesenius also established some better etymological connections. Thus i>u?B>D cavernous way is now brought into connection with: 5j/t2> hollow hand; passage for cattle, with the root: drive cattle. 1J? until, eternity and: i"ij/ age are now derived from: mi/ to pass away. On the other hand some roots that were formerly considered related were now separated. For example:

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to turn a n d : to wait had both been considered u n d e r : !>in to turn. They were now divided; and so was: ^ d I. to cover; II. to plait. Many articles were revised by having their meanings put into a better order. Some of these are: p - u j - DfiJ e>io - n n The terminology of the lexicon was brought into conformity with that of the grammar. In regard to substantives, it is now indicated whether they are primitive, from a verb (verbal), or denominative (from a noun). In the latter case the word is referred to a substantive, e. g., irrtf is referred to the substantive: ivi? wreathe, and it means: coiled animal. This, in turn, is derived f r o m : n i S With respect to adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, it was indicated whether they were originally substantives or not; and the transition from adverb to preposition and conjunction was shown where it occurs. As regards these the construction with the preterite or the future is indicated. Cf. the articles: and nnnImprovements were also made in the study of gender, but here much remained to be done. Since the manual was intended for students, a very helpful index of difficult forms was added at the end. The next edition of the German manual appeared in 1823.10 It contains about the same amount of material as the previous edition. New in this edition are: the essay on the sources of Hebrew Philology and Lexicography, which we discussed in our first chapter, and a German vocabulary with page-references to the respective Hebrew words in the lexicon proper. The following improvements were attempted in this edition: 1. An attempt was made to put the roots which occur only in derivatives into their proper alphabetical order. Now a better connection between different words derived from the same root was established. Some roots which were revised and put into a better order were: - HIS • (Oi'lN) • With respect to these roots, it should be noted also that Gesenius changed their primary meanings as he learned more about the root and its derivatives. Thus the 10 Hebraeisches 1823.

and

chaldaeisches

Handwoerterbuch,

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Zweite Auflage,

ON H E B R E W

LEXICOGRAPHY

39

difficult root: in 1815, received the primary meaning: to be strong; in 1823, to be first, according to the Arabic comparison; in 1834, to turn, according to the analogy in the Hebrew. 2. As in the preceding edition, Gesenius attempted to establish the connection between more roots, which he had separated, after a careful consideration of the relation of ideas in the Hebrew. Gesenius contended that the Hebrew usage had suffered at the hands of the later Dutch and their followers in Germany, who on the basis of absurd etymologies had given many wrong primary meanings to Hebfew words. At the same time, Gesenius admitted that he had carefully studied the works of Albert Schultens, e. g., Job and Proverbs, and those of N. W. Schroeder," and obtained much help from them. 3. In this edition, Gesenius also began to revise the articles on the particles, especially: 2 and 1 and qx- His desire was to arrange the meanings according to their Hebrew development, and not according to the German equivalents. However, he does not always begin with one primary meaning. To: 3 he gave three primary meanings: in, at. with, following the old grammarians, and he forced all the Hebrew meanings into this artificial scheme, instead of beginning with the true primary meaning: in. 4. The comparisons with the cognate languages were revised and increased. Arabic and Syriac,, the former of which was used most extensively for the comparisons, were printed in their own characters, while the Samaritan and Ethiopic were given in Hebrew transcription. Definite traces of an increased influence of the dialects may be noted. Whereas Gesenius formerly was adverse to the taking of primary meanings from the dialects, he now introduced them more freely, where he thought them necessary. This may be noted, for example, in the article: where the Arabic: to be first was in this edition substituted for: to be strong, as the primary meaning. The publication of the second edition of his M"anual Lexicon, which we have just discussed, marked an epoch in Gesenius' grammatical and lexicographical labors. As early as 1813, he had begun his grammatical labors by publishing 11

Geschichte

der hebr.

Sprache

u. Schrift,

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129.

40

THE INFLUENCE OF GESENIUS

the first edition of his small grammar. His Geschlchte der hebraeischen Sprache und Schrift had been published in 1815, and his L,etfirgebaeiide der hebraeischen Sprache, in 1817. His learned commentary on Isaiah had been published in 1820-21. During the period of time intervening between the publication of the first lexicon and the second edition of the Manual, in 1823, Gesenius' labors had touched upon all the chief branches of Hebrew philology, grammar, lexicography, and interpretation; and his efforts had been recognized the world over as those of a master mind. 17 The next years were devoted to a recasting and republishing of his former works, the collection and arrangement of materials for his Hebrew-Latin Thesaurus, and the preparation of the third edition of his Manual Lexicon. The third edition of the German Manual Lexicon was published in 1828. 13 This edition shows an increase of 98 pages of lexicographical material over the preceding one. But actually more was added, because a new and better method of abbreviation had been introduced. The essay on the sources of lexicography was also revised and augmented. The following are some of the improvements that Gesenius attempted in this edition: 1. Particular attention was paid to the etymological material. Once more Gesenius wished to supply all the roots of words which are only derivations, even if these be propernouns. These were discussed, in many instances, in connection with their roots; and through a study of the derivation, Gesenius tried to arrive at the correct primary meaning of the root. Let us note, for instance, the study of the root: 133 in connection with the derivative: 132 young camel. By giving the root: 133, according to the Arabic comparison, the primary meaning: to be early, instead of: to do early, as in the preceding edition, Gesenius arrived at an inner connection between the two. The stress in the derivative should therefore fall on the age, not on the species. Similar changes were made in the articles: 131 - m HIP ' The latter received the primary meaning: to tear, from which: tivp splinter was developed. As we noted, Gesenius in his First Edition, had been very •2 Robinson, Bibliotheca Sacra, 1843, 385. 13 Hebraeisches und chaldaeisches Handwoerterbuch,

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1828.

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cautious not to join homonymic roots that seemed to have no connection. Rather than make the mistake of his Dutch predecessors, who forced the roots together, he preferred to separate them by Roman numerals. In the 1815 and 1823 editions he had begun to recognize many of these connections. In the course of time, he established so many more relationships that the Roman numerals of the First Edition were diminished approximately by two-thirds. W e may note a f e w more instances in which Gesenius* method of combining roots is shown. T o the root: t i j he gave in this edition, the primary meaning: to press (draengen). Formerly he recognized a: " n j II, with the primary meaning: to cut in. He now made the connection between the two by comparing them with the Arabic: which he translated: to cut grape-vines, and this is properly, he said: to press in with a knife. In like manner, he established a relation between the meanings: to cut and to crowd together Other roots which he treated in (tich zusammendraengen). one article w e r e : -nj - not - Enn - DDH - There are many more between which he surmised that a connection existed, but he did not yet attempt to make it. Once more, Gesenius repeated that the fact that a Hebrew root appears in the Arabic in two forms, with a harder and a softer pronunciation, does not show that two roots must necessarily have existed in the Hebrew. It may be that the Hebrew roots developed another meaning which was never distinguished by another pronunciation, whereas the Arabic made the distinction. He therefore treated as one root: J/X2 which appears in the Arabic as and . The Hebrew means: to cut, from w h i c h : to make gain is developed. In like manner he treated: ^ n to pierce and to loosen, which appears in the Arabic as: J»- to pierce, and J* to loosen. On the other hand, Gesenius took notice of the fact that all the meanings of a root were not necessarily derived from one primary meaning. Majay meanings slipped in accidentally. Gesenius detected such a borrowed meaning in the root: ^kj which means to demand back. The meaning: to be polluted is not a development of this meaning, but is borrowed from the root: i>J/3 . The root ^nj therefore to be treated as two articles. In the determination of primary meanings Gesenius now

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paid more attention to the fundamental notions lying at the base of a group of roots. This primary notion is found, for example, in a group of roots with the strong consonants: PB - in - Dfi which always express the idea of splitting when they are lengthened to three-radical words. 2. In the Third Edition, Gesenius also made considerable change in the articles on the particles. He was now thoroughly convinced that all the particles, even those that consist of only one letter, are mutilated forms of complete words, very likely nominal forms. This necessitated a further study of their etymology. 3. An attempt was made to include all the proper-nouns which had been omitted in former editions, for example, those that occurred but once or were of little value for the elucidation of roots. Now, proper-nouns of no special historical interest were mentioned, with the citations where they occur. 4. Gesenius claimed that he went over the lexicon in detail very carefully and corrected the mistakes. He acknowledged his indebtedness to several men who had contributed corrections. Johann Ulrich Faesi wrote a very thorough and extensive review of this edition,14 in connection with his review of the new edition of Simonis' Lexicon, edited by Winer. 1 ' In this review, Faesi discussed in how far Gesenius had been able to live up to the principles which he had set out to follow. Space permits me to mention only a few details of the long review. Faesi showed that Gesenius neglected many of the verbal forms that deviated from the regular paradigm, that he did not give all of the constructions and phrases, nor all the variants of the ketib and the keri. Examples are produced in great number as evidence.16 Faesi also found many instances in which Gesenius did not approach the correct fundamental meaning of the root. For example, Gesenius derived: 3n from the root: thus making a concrete notion depend on what is purely an abstract idea, whereas: is more likely a denominative of: an • As regards: nan Gesenius entertained the curious 14 15 le

Neue Jahrbuecher fuer Philologie u. Puedagogik, I V , 1832, 155 f f . Joh. Simonis Lexicon Manuale, E d . G. B. W i n e r , 1828. F a e s i , loc. cit., 156 f .

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ON HEBREW

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LEXICOGRAPHY

notion that it is a feminine o f : i n gum, and means hook because the hook catches in the gum of a fish. Gesenius also often passed by fine distinctions in synonyms. For instance, he classified the roots: f)i>n and nay as identical in meaning, whereas there is a distinct shade of difference: one means: to go over, the other: to glide over. T h e reviewer also objected to the derivation of all the particles from nouns. For example, Gesenius derived 3 f r o m j v a " 5 D f r o m DH ; 5 f r o m ^ * 5V •'> a n d 3 f r o m fO; Gesenius based his contention on the theory that the particles had developed later in the language than the substantives and verbs. 18 Faesi showed that the arrangement of the meanings, especially of the particles, is still very faulty. For instance, the article 3 still has all its meanings arranged according to the three fundamental meanings: in, at, and with. Faesi objected, for insufficient reasons, to the placing of the phrase: 3 - Pint? under: in, because Faesi looked upon this 3 as a 3 of means: to drink by means of. He noted that the arrangement of meanings in the article: i j ; is faulty. Gesenius had only three divisions: A. substantive; B. preposition; C. conjunction. He omitted the adverbial use altogether T h e arrangement of the meanings in the article: 13 rested on the wrong notion that it was originally a relative like 15PN and not a demonstrative. Gesenius succeeded in taking in most of the propernouns, but he failed in the correction of detail. The work, as Faesi shows,19 abounded in all kinds of mistakes in citations, quotations, and references. Faesi rightly suggested that a lexicon which had won for itself the envious distinction of almost exclusive authority should be a little more exact in the details. This work was really too much for one man, and Gesenius should have had colaborators. 20 Faesi's contention on all these points was well-founded. Of the three editions of the Manual Lexicon, just compared, each was published in three thousand copies, which were sold out very rapidly. 21 At this period of time a noteworthy change occurred in Not removed till the 10. Ed. Faesi, op. cit., 177. »• Faesi, loc. cit., 205 f f . 20 Ibidem„ 206. 21 Biblioiheca Sacra, 1843, 364

15 18

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T H E I N F L U E N C E O F GESENIUS

Gesenius' lexicographical labors. So far Gesenius had been the leader of the great movement to advance the study of Hebrew. His works were considered authoritative. But now others arose who penetrated ever deeper than he into the mysteries of the language. De Sacy and his pupils had done much to put the best Arabic literature before scholars; Bopp and Grimm had made an impression on the scholars with their comparative studies in the Indo-European languages. Hebrew was also influenced by the Indo-European studies. Hupfeld and Ewald anticipated Gesenius in using these new sources for the study of Hebrew lexicography. The latter's grammar, published in 1827, was hailed with delight by many because of its philosophic studies in the history of words. This new movement did not influence the nature of the first fasciculus of Gesenius' Thesaurus, published; in 1829, but the Latin edition of the Manual Lexicon, already in preparation in 1827, was influenced by it, so that it did not appear till 1833. This new movement, also changing Gesenius' views considerably, called forth from him the motto: Dies diem docet, which now first appears on the fly-leaf of the Latin Manual; and has been on the fly-leaf of all his manual lexicons since. The Latin Manual22 was prepared at the request of many foreign students, in England, Holland, and America. Gesenius had intended that this should be little more than a translation of his German manual lexicon, of 1828, 21 but as we saw before, he had to take note of the recent philological investigations. The publication of the Thesaurus was interrupted; so that he could devote all his time to these new investigations. The Latin Manual is therefore a new work. The articles on the first three letters of the alphabeth were corrected in accordance with the material in the Thesaurus. The remainder was not a translation of the German edition, but much was added. 1. A more thorough investigation was made of the internal and native force of the Hebrew roots, begun in the Third Edition. Once more Gesenius made the statement that " Gesenius, Lexicon Manualis, 1833, ix. " Bibliotheca Sacra, 1843, 366.

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45

the Hebrew usage oftener determines the usage of the related dialects than vice versa.2* The connection between the different elements of Hebrew roots was more closely observed. Gesenius found that three-radical roots can often be traced to two-radical roots, most of which are onomatopoetical. Thus it was possible to trace words of quite diverse signification to a single primary notion. Gesenius considered the ascertainment of the primary sense one of the most difficult tasks of the lexicographer, because of the fact that the intermediate stages of the developments have often been lost. 2. New in this edition were the comparisons with the Indo-European languages. Gesenius did not think that the relationship between the two language-groups was so close as had been supposed. W e may note some of Gesenius' comparisons. The w o r d : is compared with the Sanskrit: nari and tiara, the Greek: ¿vrjp the Zend: naere, the Persian J^' . inN is compared with the Sansk. eka and the Pahlavi: advek. Gesenius made a study of the roots: i>3 - 5>0 - $£> and said that they all contain the primary meaning: to fall. They are compared with the Greek: i1K one with the meaning: to glitter, the other, to break camp. In Ges. Ed. of 1815, he had had only one root, and inclined toward the derivation to glitter, shine, in the passage Job 25, 5, by saying: the moon does not dwell there. In Ges. Ed. 4. the meaning: to shine, from this root, as well as the roots: ftn and * J » i s considered the derived meaning o f : to break up camp (lit., to tent, zelten), by bringing in the idea that the tent glitters in the distance. On p. xliv, Gesenius mentioned 24 roots that he combined in a similar manner, in this edition. Gesenius repeated his warning that all homonymic roots need not necessarily have the same primary meaning. Neither is the objection justified that two Hebrew roots are unrelated because they appear in the Arabic in different

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T H E I N F L U E N C E OF GESENIUS

pronunciations. These roots may accidentally have received a different orthography through carelessness in ordinary use. 2. T h e Indo-Germanic also found a place in this edition. The comparisons which Gesenius included here axe not so numerous as those in the Latin Manual. He believed in an historic relationship between the two language-groups, but he did not undertake a thorough treatment of it. He contented himself here, as in the Latin Manual, with certain interesting analogies. In the case o f : ? though, we find that the Indo-Germanic influenced him to give to the Hebrew what it is not known to possess, namely, a diminutive: f> Gesenius said that it is often added to three-radical words to make a diminutive of them. As examples he cited: D"D orchard; a small garden; j/aj calyx; ^jna small calyx. Gesenius based this solely on the analogies found in Greek, Latin, and German. This diminutive element was discarded soon after for lack of evidence. Although these comparisons were interesting, they consumed too much space, as may be seen, for instance, by consulting the article : T n . Gesenius compared this verb with a series of roots whose primary meaning is: to surround, fence-in. This was compared with those IndoEuropean words which have the underlying notion: to enclose. As such he mentioned the Middle Latin: cadarum; the Italian: catarata; the German: Gatter, Gitter. He found a transposition in the words: ^opros hortus, cors, Garten, Gard, e. g., in Stuttgard; Slav., gorod, etc. 3. The articles on the particles were improved considerably over the preceding edition, those of the first letters of the alphabet especially, e. g. 2 - 1JD - N1H - fit - 3 - p ~ - O - 'D - HO He made use of the new material that had been contributed to the study of particles by Winer. At the same time he did not give up his own views in every case. He, for example, still maintained that: 3 is derived from »3 or JV3 • Instead of giving it three primary meanings, he now recognized in to be the primary meaning. He did not accept Faesi's criticism of the phrase: 3 - nnti' as a 3 of means: to drink by means of; but he retained that it refers to a drinking of the contents of a vessel, and referred to the analogy in the Indo Germanic languages. Gesenius also retained the idea that the three prefixed particles are not

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original forms, but abbreviations. He considered, for example, TN to be an original substantive, likewise many of the other particles. There is a decided improvement in the primary meanings as well as in the logical arrangement of the meanings in the articles on the particles. In this brief review of Gesenius' lexicons, it was, naturally quite impossible to show fully how great were the improvements which were made from one edition to another. He made a serious attempt to interpret the language of the Old Testament, as it was handed down to us, and in this he achieved noteworthy success. In the interpretation of the inner relationship existing between the different manifestations of the Hebrew language, its usage and its etymology, he went far beyond what his predecessors had done. But it has been rightly said that neither Gesenius, nor his predecessor Michaelis, showed the philosophic ability in the study of the inner relationships which Dietrich displayed later. The main weakness in Gesenius' work, notably in the last edition of his manual, was his failure to divide the Hebrew roots according to sister languages. It seems as though all homonymic roots looked related to him, and he made desperate efforts to bring them together. The result was that he gave some roots very uncertain primary meanings, and from them made some unlikely developments. Many roots were combined, which, as far as any one can see, cannot be brought together on the basis of the knowledge that w e possess. For instance *iad been correctly divided in Ges. Ed. of 1815, into the two roots: I. to be despised; II. Niph. to be shaken. In Ges. Ed. 4. the two roots were joined. In order to join them, Gesenius began with three primary meanings: to tremble, to shake, to pour. From these he developed: (1) to shake; (2) to pour out. However, the Arabic has two roots: to slip, and J i to be low, to be despised, and therefore a separation into two roots is justified. The same may be said of the article: ^nx in which Gesenius attempted to derive the meaning: to shine f r o m : to tent, in a very unlikely manner. On the other hand, but in rarer instances, Gesenius split roots that belonged together. For example, he could not see how the w o r d : canal could be derived from the root: j^B • to divide; so he had to supply another root, with the

[49]

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THE I N F L U E N C E OF GESENIUS

meaning: to wave, to roll. But canal is very easily derived by saying that it is something that divides the land. Some of Gesenius' primary meanings were not the result of a careful comparison of the Hebrew, but were taken over directly from the cognate tongues. Thus he gave to: to lie, the primary meaning: to color the truth because the Arabic has: J& to be red. In the same manner, n f l the root f o r : n s fat, received the primary meaning: to feed. for the sake of the Arabic: O t o feed cattle. A hasty consideration of some of these fundamental meanings might induce one to suppose that Gesenius ended by doing just that which he had criticized most severely in his predecessors, that is, that he simply took over an Arabic meaning and tried to develop the Hebrew meaning from it. Closer inspection reveals that these are only isolated instances. Some of his primary meanings are, of course, little more than guesses, but many of them are the result of a very careful comparison of the Hebrew relationships, while the cognate tongues are called upon for confirmation. A wrong primary meaning quite naturally dislocated the correct order of the developed meanings. This w e saw happened in the case of the root: nnK to which Gesenius gave the primary meaning: aspiravit ad aliquid, with the result that the natural order of meanings: (1) to love; (2) to desire, had to give w a y to the reverse: (1) to desire; (2) to love. In his use of the cognate dialects Gesenius compared the Arabic and the Aramaic most of all, they being of greatest importance for Hebrew lexicography. But his Thesaurus especially, reveals that he had a very extensive knowledge of all of the other cognate languages also. He made great advances in the use of the Rabbinical literature, as time went on. Since the cuneiform literature was not available at Gesenius' time, he had to forego the rich treasures which it presents. He often gave only the Greek equivalents to Assyrian proper-nouns, and tried to explain their etymology from the Persian. It is interesting to note one etymology of an Assyrian proper-noun, which Gesenius rendered with surprising correctness. He surmised that Evil Merodach THD-^MN was originally an Assyrian or Persian name, which meant: a worshipper of Merodach; however, he believed

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51

that the Hebrew conveyed the idea of foolishness in the word: i^ix, which is impossible. That Gesenius progressed considerably in his etymologies may be seen from the fact that he diminished the number of substantives which he had considered primary to less than half of the original number. Nouns, as: 3!$ and: DX he considered primary nouns, emanating from the nursery. In his Thesaurus and in his grammatical treatment, he was forced, for the sake of convenience, to refer them to their supposed roots. Gesenius' strong point was his ability to investigate impartially. He made not only original contributions, but he had the persistence and the ability to reconsider the work done by others. He made rigorous corrections and revisions in his own work, as well as in the work of others. In his last edition he improved the articles on the particles and prepositions where Winer, ed. Simonis (1828), had showed him the way. In the grammar, beginning with the tenth edition, he applied the results of Hupfeld's work, especially in phonetics. And he also derived benefit from the work of Ewald. Of all this he made discriminate use. He was, as may be said in general, a man of no pet theories, willing to change his views, when he was convinced that he was in error, as may be noted in the Thesaurus. Very often he explained the same matter in different ways in different parts of the book. Gesenius showed the qualities necessary for a skilled lexicographer in this that he kept a sane, level balance, and usually adopted only that which was good and applicable. The value of the materials in Gesenius' lexicons was greatly enhanced by their presentation. Gesenius understood how to present his own materials as well as those of others, in a clearer and more harmonic fashion than had been done before. His explanations have the sincerity and ease which commend themselves to students. Although Faesi conceded that the materials of Winer's edition of Simonis, Lexicon were, as a whole, better than those of Ges. Ed. 3., he nevertheless preferred the latter as embodying a clearness of presentation and comprehensibility of style that was unsurpassed. 2 " JS

Faesi, op.

cit.,

236 f.

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THE INFLUENCE OF GESENIUS

The fact that Gesenius' Lexicon was in German instead of in Latin, and according to the alphabetic arrangement of words must not be underestimated in studying what contributed to its unbounded popularity. This, together with a judicious use of the work of others, as well as his own, and an attractive presentation enabled Gesenius to attain and to hold the foremost place in modern Hebrew lexicography.

[52]

CHAPTER III DIETRICH

Twenty-three years after the untimely death of Gesenius, the Manual Lexicon was re-edited by Franz E d u a r d Christoph Dietrich (1810-1883). Dietrich was a man of extensive philological training. He had spent the years 1829-33 at the universities of Leipzig and Halle, where he was primarily a student of theology and Oriental subjects. At Halle, h e must have come into contact with Gesenius, although I have no evidence to show that he actually did. Later he was instructor in the Semitic and European languages, in the University of Marburg. He lectured on Gothic, Nordic, Old Saxon, Anglo Saxon, German grammar and versification, Old High German, Middle High German, and New High German history of literature. In the sixties, he gave up his lectures on Germanics to devote himself exclusively to Oriental subjects. 1 That Dietrich was successful in his Semitic studies is vouched for by McCurdy, who called him "the most thorough Semitic etymologist of the last generation." 2 Dietrich was an ardent follower of Gesenius in this that he considered it to be of prime importance to study Hebrew from its own life and manifestations, before consulting the related tongues or the Indo-Germanic languages. We noticed that Gesenius did not make such an intense study of the relation existing between the Indo-Germanic and Semitic languages, as, for instance, Fuerst had attempted to do. He contented himself mainly with some comparisons, based on a similarity of sounds. Others had gone much further than Gesenius, and Dietrich registered strong objections to the injustice that Hebrew was receiving at the hands of those 1 !

Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, LX, 733. American Journal of Philology, 1883, 343.

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THE I N F L U E N C E OF GESENIUS

who applied the Indo-Germanic languages wrongly. trich says: 3

Die-

One of the main reasons for the identification of Semitic languages with the Indo-Germanic and for the intermingling of similar shadings of sound may be sought in the false premise that each one of the principle sounds of a language possesses an, inherent fundamental notion. If this were actually the case, it would make little difference which people made use of this sound and how they articulated it. However apparent the categories may seem to be which Plato exhibited in Cratylus, where he attributed to certain Greek sounds perceptions of their own,—the entire hypothesis is a phantastical product, of which Plato exhibited many in a half-sincere, half-jesting manner. Recent discoveries in the history of language have taught us that the oldest, simplest roots in a language are syllables, not letters of the alphabeth. When the sounds are combined, we first have the picture of a perception, a sound in nature, or a thought. Not the separate element, but the higher union of a living combination of sounds has a concrete meaning embodied in it. The assertion that the sense of words is found in these syllables, and not in the sounds as such, has gratuitously come to light in these studies. Dietrich says that the etymology of words should be obtained by studying the synonymns of the Hebrew itself, as well as those of the related tongues. When these have been classified the underlying psychological factor can often be determined. Dietrich published only three editions of the lexicon, and of these the difference between the Sixth and the Seventh Edition is very slight. The relation between the Fifth Edition 4 and the Fourth is the following: *Abhandlungen fuer semitische Wortforschung, 1844, v i i : Ein haupts ä c h l i c h e r Grund jener Identificirung des Semitischen mit dem Indogermanischen und dieser Vermischung verwandter Lautfaerbungen mag der Satz sein, dass jedem der Hauptsprachlaute fuer sich eine bestimmte Grundanschauung zukomme, in welchem Falle es allerdings zur Sache wenig taete, welches Volk diesen Laut ausgesprochen hat und mit welchem Grade von Artikulation und Haerte. Aber wie sche'inbar auch die Kategorieen sind, die Plato i m Cratylus einzelnen griechischen Lauten beigelegt hat, die ganze Hypothese ist eins der Phantasiegebilde, deren uns Plato so manche halb ernst, halb neckend ausgesponnen hat Die nun zugaenglicher gewordene Sprachgeschichte hat gelehrt, dass auch die aeltesten einfachsten Sprachwurzeln Sylben, nicht Buchstaben sind. Ihnen, den Lauten in ihrer Einigung kommt erst zu, das Bild einer Anschauung, eines Naturlautes oder eines Gedankens zu sein, nicht d a s einzelne Element, sondern die hoehere Einheit einer lebendigen Lautverbindung bedeutet etwas Konkretes. Die Behauptung, dass in diesen Sylben nicht in den Einzelnen als solchen der Wortsinn liege, hat sich ungesucht in den ersten der vorliegenden Abhandlungen ergeben. 4 Dietrich, F. D. C., Hebraeisches und chaldaeisches Handwoerterbuch Von Wilhelm Gesenius, 1857.

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LEXICOGRAPHY

In the Fifth Edition, Dietrich decided to make no changes in explanations and declarations which in any way depended upon Gesenius' dogmatic concepts. The articles mm - "DJ/ and were therefore left unaltered. In exegetical matters he allowed himself to introduce only such improvements as are found in the latter parts of the Thesaurus. Dietrich took practically nothing from the numerous commentaries which had appeared after the death of Gesenius. He wished to preserve the literary character in the book as it had been left by Gesenius. Dietrich made a thorough revision of the etymology, the meanings, and the comparisons with kindred dialects. In order that Gesenius should not be held responsible for the additions, Dietrich had inserted this new material in brackets, but he did not indicate where he had cancelled material. Changes were made in the study of the etymology of the pronouns and particles. According to Hupfeld and Ewald, pronominal forms were to be derived from original pronominal roots, and not from verbal and nominal roots. 5 Dietrich dropped, for, example, the root: xi>n removal f o r : illjtfn likewise the root: mi* for PIN and Di>n for Gesenius himself had begun these changes in the notes for a new edition of his Latin Manual.6 Likewise Dietrich diminished the number of nouns that had been considered primitives still more. With the exception of a few abstract notions and some numerals, whose root was omitted to save space, all the nouns are now derived from verbal-roots. According to Dietrich, Gesenius 1810-13 had regarded most of the nouns, and without exception the one-syllable nouns, as primitives. These were diminished by half in 1833 and 1834; and these were again diminished in the sections of the Thesaurus belonging to the years 1840 and 1842. Likewise the number of nouns considered primitives were reduced from time to time in the editions of the grammar. In Part V. of the Thesaurus, seven words for members of the body, as: pp - i>JH were derived from verbal roots. In the last fasciculus of the Thesaurus, prepared by Roediger, there are no more primitives. Dietrich attempted to find etymologies for more of 5 Hupfeld, System der Demonstrativbildung, genlandes, II, 124 ff. 427. • Published by A. Hoffmann in 1857.

[55]

in Zt. f. Kunde

des

Mor-

56

THE INFLUENCE OF

GESENIUS

the one-syllable nouns. He derived the noun: in from the Arabic y horruit; pj/ from the roots: pj/-|1$/-njy to bend, whence: eye, lit. a circle. He derived the troublesome : from the root: mK to bring forth, and DK from DDK to precede, a root found only in the Arabic, as are most of the roots which he introduced for one-syllable words. The etymology of other words, not necessarily of onesyllable, was altered because Dietrich objcted to the phonetic observations on which they were based. He objected to the misuse of the theory that many sounds undergo a softening of their original character. He derived: ^ I C K from: -|b>N II instead of from iDX- For phonetic reasons he also dropped the roots: j j j for: j j roof; o n for and others. He dropped other roots because he considered the softening of the j to 1 unlikely; for instance: }>jt and }>n - run and mn . In the section of the Thesaurus published in 1840, Gesenius retracted the equation of: "iij? and 1QJ? - Wy and piy which are found in the section published in 1835; also the equation of: pjfl and p^Q found in Gesenius Ed. 4. In the latter sections of the Thesaurus, Gesenius had attempted new equations, e. g., HP ar>d X1P As regards permutations, Dietrich made the general statement that similar or even like meaning does not justify the supposition that a permutation has occurred. The relation of the younger to the older period in the language must be considered. On the wrong principle that like meaning signifies that a permutation has occurred, a permutation of almost any two sounds could be made. Dietrich also made changes in the determination of primary meanings. His principle was: whenever a concrete primary notion cannot be ascertained from fixed verbal meanings, nor from derivations belonging to an ancient state of the language, in which this particular root still had a different meaning, only the nearest Hebrew roots and the cognate languages are to be the basis for the determination of the original meaning; not non-Semitic roots, even if they should have like sounds. Primary meanings based on a comparison of the Latin and Greek were eliminated, even where it was difficult to find something more definite to replace them, from the scattered traces of the Semitic stock. The comparison with the Indo-European languages should not

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begin before the primary meanings of the Semitic roots have been studied in their own Semitic relations. Dropped or determined otherwise were many primary meanings based solely on a similarity of sound. Gesenius, in Ed. 4. gave t o : P3K the p r i m a r y meaning: to rap (pochen). Dietrich changed this t o : to coil, to wind, w h e n c e : pnx something that winds itself. He gave to: the primary meaning: to grab, to lay hold of, related to: - nio • Ges. in Ed. 4. gave the p r i m a r y meaning: to pound, (klopfen). F o r : DOT Ges. in Ed. 4. gave the primary meaning: to be dumb (stumm sein). Dietrich changed this to: to stroke, from the Arabic: "¡-^ In this way a considerable number of primary meanings were changed. An attempt was made to trace roots to concrete p r i m a r y meanings. Dietrich, for example, referred the n o u n : [IX to which Ges. Ed. 4. gave the abstract primary meaning: non-existence (Nichtsein), to the root: JJX to breathe slowly. Words with the same radicals were treated as homonyms when it could be shown that they had originated in different ways. That certain homonymic roots are unrelated, although they have the same radicals, can be seen from the fact that the dialects distinguish them with a slight difference in pronunciation. On the basis of this, Dietrich distinguished I : to lay a snare, which he equated w i t h : E'P'* and b>ip from f|pj - ppj which are found in the Aramaic as: CPJ to thrust (stoszen). One root: "isx was derived from the root: fix the other, f r o m : i d In this manner Dietrich separated a number of roots which Gesenius had brought together. T h e development of meanings in the Hebrew, Dietrich found hard to follow due to the varied character of the Hebrew word-development, resting as it does on the peculiar psychology of the Orient. Gesenius had contributed much to make the inner relation between different meanings comprehensible. On the basis of Hebrew analogies, careful comparisons with the dialects, and due attention to the permutations, he could show the relation existing between many seemingly unrelated meanings. Dietrich found this work, which Gesenius had begun, not nearly complete. It is done thoroughly only the last two letters of the alphabet in

[57]

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the part of the Thesaurus issued by Roediger. In this edition, Dietrich included w h a t Roediger h a d added under these t w o letters. Some of the roots w h i c h Gesenius had separated by Roman numerals w e r e therefore joined after studying the inner connection more thoroughly. Gesenius, in Ed. 4., for example, h a d given two m x roots namely: I. to pluck; II. to burn, f o u n d in the Arabic. The w o r d : w a s developed f r o m No. II. Dietrich gave one root with the p r i m a r y m e a n i n g : to pierce (stechen), cf. "¡"IS w h e n c e he derived the following meanings: 1. ignite (anbrennen, (Feuer anstecken); 2. hollow-out, gouge (aushoehlen, ausstechen). In Ges. Ed. 4.: was separated into: I. to separate oneself; II. to speak foolishly. In Ges. Ed. 4. HDfl h a d been separated i n t o : I. to pass over; II. to limp, according to the Arabic. Dietrich gave one f u n d a m e n t a l m e a n i n g : to cut, and f r o m this he developed: to pass over. To limp w a s derived f r o m the passive p r i m a r y m e a n i n g : to be separated (aufgeloest sein), to be weak in one's members. In this way, Dietrich brought together many more roots. Dietrich listed the most difficult quadriliterals without explanations. He did not care to adhere to w h a t he considered an u n f o r t u n a t e theory, that these w o r d s are the combination of two triliteral roots. There w e r e a few quinqueliterals w h i c h he considered combinations, e. g., those w h i c h he says are clearly the combination of an absolute and a construct case. Thus he d e r i v e d : niO^S f r o m and niD Other w o r d s that lack a clear derivation, such as "HOD and i>D6!>n he listed without an explanation. The grammatical explanations of difficult verbal and nominal forms w e r e given in h a r m o n y w i t h Gesenius* g r a m m a r , as revised by Roediger. Here and there one explanation was substituted for the two f o r m e r ones w h i c h had been in doubt. As illustrations of w h a t Dietrich did in this respect w e may note, for example, some changes that he made in segolates ending in W a w . In Ges. Ed. 4. ketsev and katsu h a d been listed as alternate forms. Dietrich recognized only katsu to be the absolute form. Both: deraon and deraon h a d been considered absolute forms in Ges. Ed. 4. Dietrich recognized the latter to be the construct of the f o r m e r . T o : niiO in Ges. Ed. 4, the r o o t : ntO w a s given; Dietrich derived it f r o m : m j • He made many other grammatical corrections.

[58]

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The German appendix was revised by Dietrich himself. He supplied the references to some of the usual Hebrewexpressions that had been omitted in the German. Dietrich spent three years in the preparation of the fifth edition of the lexicon. The sixth edition of the Manual Lexicon was published by Dietrich, in 1863. In this edition Dietrich followed the same principles as before. He endeavored to preserve Gesenius' literary character in the lexicon. Therefore he left the most important exegetical matters unchanged.' An attempt was made to use more thoroughly the material as it is found in the latter sections of the Thesaurus, notably that which had appeared subsequently to the article: Yad, and had been published after the fourth edition of the Manual. More changes were made in etymology. We may consider a few of these here. In Ges. Ed. 4. mjN had been derived from the root: u k II according to the Persian, following Lorsbach; Dietrich surmised that there exists a relation to the Zend: hankarayemi, I announce. Ges. Ed. 4. had explained: i>D£TI as a composite noun from: tiTlJ gold and: a root with the notion: to be smooth. Dietrich derived it from the root: c o n to glow, to glitter. Other words whose etymology was altered were : ntSTIJ " 12D - 113 ii'px - D W p , etc. More changes were made in primary meanings. For example, inj/ in Ges. Ed. 4. had received the primary meaning: to be uncircumcised; Dietrich 6. Ed. gave: to be rough, unclean, cf. 5/3Q . qij/ in Ges. 4. Ed. received the meaning: to be exhausted; Dietrich gave: to be soft, according to the Arabic comparison: . To TPQ Ges. 4. Ed. had given the primary meaning: to touch, to bump against, like: yjtj and c j b . Dietrich said that the primary meaning is: to separate, like cerno, and this made it necessary for him to rearrange the developed meanings. Besides these, Dietrich changed the primary meanings of: HIS - t}>0"l - DPT The primary meaning: das Ueber, for: lay Dietrich rightly said is just based on sounds. Dietrich also devoted some attention to the materials of the explanations, especially in archaeology. A number of ' He changed it i n :

JDV.

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THE INFLUENCE OF

GESENIUS

articles on weights and measures were revised. In regard to proper-nouns, Dietrich attempted to supply those that had been omitted, together with their explanations. New material was used in the location of geographical places. T h i s was the case not only for such well-known places as S i n a j , Rafidim, Shur, Bosra, and Kadesh, but also for lesser-known cities, mountains, and wadis of Palestine. D i e t r i c h took exception to some locations that had been given to cities. He claimed, for example, that Ar Moab is not to be sought in the place of the present-day Rabba. Mere hypotheses, such as that K i r j a t h a i m was another name for the p r i n c i p a l city of Moab, w e r e given up. T h e Seventh Edition was published in 1868. It contained few changes from the former edition. More changes were made in etymology, for instance, in the a r t i c l e s : m i j ? - n Other changes were made in p r i m a r y meanings, and then many corrections were made in citations and other matters. In appraising Dietrich's w o r k in these three editions of the lexicon, due credit must be given him for the excellent contributions w h i c h he made to the study of Hebrew usage and etymology. He took up the work where Gesenius had left it, and he brought it nearer to completion. At the same time it must not be overlooked that he also made many combinations w h i c h were altogether too subtle and uncertain. He also should have allowed himself more divisions of roots, a c c o r d i n g to the comparisons of the sister tongues. Fortunately, he gave up most of the Indo-Germanic comparisons, seeing that the comparative study of these languages was still at such an undeveloped stage, that the results were far too uncertain to merit inclusion in a lexicon of this kind. A close study of them would only have harmed the more necessary study of the Hebrew and its kindred dialects. Dietrich increased the Arabic comparisons noticeably. He was a good Arabist, and as Gesenius, he realized how valuable Arabic is for the study of Hebrew lexicography. But it can hardly be denied that Dietrich quite often went too far in the use of the Arabic, and took from it some very uncertain p r i m a r y meanings for the Hebrew. In his last edition of the Manual, Gesenius had laid more emphasis on Arabic than in his first editions. It was D i e t r i c h w h o made

[60]

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SI

LEXICOGRAPHY

ail overemphasis clearly perceptible. Both Gesenius and Dietrich gave as the p r i m a r y meaning o f : to color the truth, according to the Arabic: to be red. Dietrich gave to: I I S to be fat, the p r i m a r y meaning: to be weak, to break, according to the Arabic comparison, while Ges. Ed. 4. gave: to feed, according to another Arabic comparison. From the Arabic, Dietrich introduced the p r i m a r y meaning: to wait (jammern), for the root: iox to mourn, to be mournful. Many of these p r i m a r y meanings were just as uncertain as any that had been offered by Schultens or Michaelis. The system of brackets which Dietrich used made it possible to compare his materials with those of Gesenius. This is profitable, inasmuch as frequently two opposing views stand side by side. However, the brackets hindered Dietrich from exercising the freedom that was necessary. A new etymology or p r i m a r y meaning could quite easily be added, but this often necessitated a rearrangement which could not be carried out without revising the entire article. While it is true that Dietrich contributed much to etymology, he neglected to bring in the new material w h i c h others had contributed, especially on the study of the meanings of words in special passages. It was unfortunate that the exegesis of Franz Delitzsch, based on the work of Fleischer, was practically disregarded, as was also some other important material in the commentaries of other scholars.

[61]

CHAPTER IV M U H L A U AND VOLCK

From Dietrich the editorship of the lexicon passed on to two m e n : F. Muehlau and W. Volck. The former was born in Dresden, June 20, 1839; the latter at Nueremberg. Both of them studied at the universities of Erlangen and Leipzig. And they claimed to be of the same philological school, a school that was not hostile to that of Gesenius, but in general in agreement with it. 1 The editors based their etymology on the work of Fleischer which had gone over, to a great extent, into the commentaries of Franz Delitzsch. Fleischer's method was to determine the p r i m a r y meaning of a word by going back to the original sensuous meaning. This original meaning may be found sometimes in the verb-stem, sometimes in appellatives, and sometimes only in the related stems of the cognate languages. In every case this p r i m a r y meaning is to be sought, and upon it the secondary meanings are to be built, as they developed according to the psychology of the Semitic mind. Gesenius, as we have seen, made a special effort to find these fundamental meanings, but he was quite careful not to take them too quickly from the Arabic. Dietrich's desire to retain Gesenius' literary character in the lexicon was abandoned. In the first place there was too much new material to be included, which could not well be done with the system of brackets. In the second place, the editors disagreed with Gesenius in Biblical-theological questions. In details they sometimes differed from one another. Where this was the case, both views had to be presented. In this w a y : " 135? and n n 3 were completely re3

Cf. I n t r o d u c t i o n to Ges., E d . 8.

[62]

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63

LEXICOGRAPHY

vised, and to the latter were given as many as seven different etymologies. Muehlau and Volck edited the 8.-11. editions of the Manual Lexicon. The first two of these editions still bear the old title: Wilhelm Gesenius' Hebraeisches und Chaldaeisches Handwoerterbuch ueber das Alte Testament, while the last two are entitled more exactly: Wilhelm Gesenius' Hebraeisches und Aramaeischer Handwoerterbuch. The Eighth Edition was issued in 1878. It is practically of the same size as the former edition, but, due to a better German print and a smaller Arabic type, contains much more material. As before, the verbal-stems are printed in heavy type. In this edition a further improvement was made by giving to those stems which occur only in derivations an asterisk and no vowels. This is also done to nouns which do not occur in the absolute form. The editors made the attempt, more thoroughly than had been done before, to trace all triliteral words to biliteral words whose meanings are primary. In order to avoid unnecessary repetition, they discussed all the derived roots in conjunction with the y - 5/ root, which they considered the simplest expression of the root. We may illustrate their method by several examples. The root: 13 and its derivatives were discussed under: 113; the root no under -noGes. in 4. Edition and Dietrich's discussion of this root read as follows: It means: (1) detach, separate, divide (as in Arab.). The primary meaning: to cut, to separate, divide, is found with many modifications, partly in the onesyllable root: partly in the related roots with a harder pronunciation: cf.fD - I S - JIB - iH2 - P13 - J i m - - 5ri3 - 1D3 PD3 - 1 1 3 - m a - nns - nna - i n s . Related are the roots: U3 cf. J3 - V3 ~ }*Q • Thence: 13 part, member, branch, etc. The etymological part of this article in Ges. Ed. 8. reads: root: belongs to a numerous group of related roots, which are composed of a 3 or q and a labial (t or s) (cf. Philippi, in Morg. Forsch, Lpz. 1875, 101), and have the primary meaning: to separate, divide. To the root: 13 belong besides : 113 also X13 - i>13 - P13 - 113 - 1J/3 - 13X Jj . cf. the Arab.: to spread the legs, l-y jo, .a, a» j l the insertion : n o

a. I . i n the article: n o Dietrich had related to: kid - HID -110 lit. stringere,

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THE

64

INFLUENCE

OF

GESENIUS

especially in the sense of drawing together, to twist, wind, bind, as we see in the III, VI, and IV conjugation of the Arabic w o r d :

y

to wrestle with someone, also found in:

cord, rope: TTpayyaX-q and in: l a drop, b>d not either: bmd o r : WQI He said that the latter roots are no more entitled to existence than the root: nKO is on the basis of the form: iieo in Ps. 22, 1. His next criticism of the lexicon was that the different meanings and shadings of meaning should be brought out " Noeldeke, ZDMG, 1886, 718. " Orientalistische Literaturzeitung, 20 Ibidem, 163. 31 Ibidem, 164 ff.

1916, 162 f f . ; 193 ff.

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THE

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OF

GESENIUS

more exactly in the German. T o illustrate this, he cited tun should mean: to drip (triefen), the f o l l o w i n g w o r d s , n o t : to trickle (traeufeln). K o e n i g and BDB 2 2 have b o t h : to trickle and to drip, tny I and D1Q p r o p e r l y m e a n : to break in two, divide (teilen), as BDB and not: to break (brechen). tatO means: to bury (verscharren) and not just: to hide, to conceal ( B D B ) , Ges. Ed. 16: verbergen, bes. verscharren. "|jn means o r i g i n a l l y : to cease glowing, to cool down (verglimmen), not: to be extinguished (BDB, Koenig, and Ges. Ed. 16). n$ön should be translated: cream, not: curd ( B D B ) , butter (Ges. Ed. 16.). ISK means: ashes ( B D B ) n o t : dust. HJ means: lion cub (BDB whelp), not: young lion (Ges. Ed. 16.), w h i c h i s : liDD- "HSV means: birds ( B D B ) , n o t : winged creatures (Gefluegel Ges. Ed. 16.). T h e exact meanings should not be blurred b y unnecessary synonyms. 2 ' Thus in Ges. Ed. 16., is translated both: to complain and to wail (klagen, jammern), but should p r o p e r l y be o n l y : to mourn (trauern). tnti should not m e a n : to tear to pieces, to rob (BDB, tear, rend, pluck), but o n l y : to tear to pieces. HOT should be translated: to be like, not: to be like, to be similar, Ges. Ed. 16; to be ( B D B ) . spy means: to be exhausted (erlike, resemble schoepft sein) not: to be fatigued, to be exhausted (Ges. Ed. 1 6 ) ; to be faint, weary ( B D B ) . p n j means: to tear o f f , to tear loose, not: to cut o f f . Not only w e r e the true meanings clouded by the use of synonyms, but in Ges. Ed. 16. w r o n g meanings w e r e o f t e n added to correct ones. 24 nip means: ice, not also: hail. Ice is also the correct rendering in Ps. 147, 17 and Job 38, 29. iOJ means: pitcher (Krug), not also: skin-bottle (Schlauch, Ges. Ed. 16.; B D B ) . -it3N in Judges 3, 15, means: to be left-handed, d e r i v e d f r o m : it3K to bind, Ps. 69, 16; lit., to be closed as regards the right hand. Both meanings: to be crippled and one who uses both hands equally well, w h i c h Ges. Ed. 16 gave are incorrect. BDB correctly translated i t : a man bound, restricted, as to his right hand, i. e., lefthanded. Some of these inexact and w r o n g meanings w e r e due to a

!!The references to Koenig's and Brown-Driver-Brigg's ours. Delitzsch, Frd., op. cit., 167 f f . " Ibidem, 169.

[90]

Lexicon

are

ON HEBREW

91

LEXICOGRAPHY

careless use of the German, others w e r e taken over directly f r o m a like-sounding Arabic root. In Ges. E d . 16., Delitzsch still f o u n d a strong Arabic influence, 2 0 w h i c h became pron o u n c e d f r o m the Eighth Edition o n w a r d s . " H e b r e w lexic o g r a p h y , " said Delitzsch, "has been m a d e the slave of the Arabic." 24 In his review of Ges. Ed. 9, in the Prolegomena, h e h a d called attention to some of the instances in w h i c h the Arabic h a d been wrongly applied. Since then the f u n d a mental m e a n i n g : to be red, f r o m J& for the H e b r e w : to tell a falsehood, h a d been d r o p p e d ; also: to break, f r o m the A r a b i c : f o r : n s to be fat. But Delitzsch s h o w e d that Ges. E d . 16. still gave to H e b r e w w o r d s meanings w h i c h w e r e taken over f r o m the Arabic. T h u s : w h i c h only m e a n s : dew, received the additional m e a n i n g : light-rain, for the sake of the Arabic. S'J m e a n s : valley; for the sake o f : sljj- jt received also the m e a n i n g : lowland (Niederung). t)-)i has the transitive m e a n i n g : to deliver (Ges. preisgeben, zu freier Verfuegung hingeben). F o r the sake of: >JJ to cast down, the w o r d is translated to precipitate, deliver, :no m e a n s : to melt, t h e n : to dissolve, to be discouraged. F r o m the A r a b i c : ^j* wave, the w o r d received the m e a n i n g s : to wave, to heave, to rock to and fro (Ges. E d . 16. wogen, schwanken). T h e entire root, as well as a h u n d r e d others, w e r e dealt w i t h in a w r o n g manner. 2 1 nxi> should be t r a n s l a t e d : to be powerless, to be unable, a root that is f o u n d also in the Assyrian w i t h this meaning. Ges. 16. p r e f e r r e d the secondary Arabic-Aramaic m e a n i n g : to be tired, to lose courage (BDB: to be weary, impatient), a n d developed the m e a n i n g : to be unable, by inserting the w o r d : fruitlessly; to be unable w a s to labor fruitlessly. Quite naturally a w r o n g p r i m a r y m e a n i n g upset all the developed meanings. Buhl in Ges. E d . 16. did not always bear in m i n d that the Arabic o f t e n shows s e c o n d a r y meanings w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h the older literary languages: Assyrian, Hebrew, and Aramaic. Buhl, in Ges. E d . 16. still treated as one root, w o r d s

15

"

21

Ibidem, Ibidem, Ibidem,

171. 171. 173.

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THE INFLUENCE OF

92

GESENIUS

whose meanings show that they are homonymic roots in the Hebrew. 2 " riD3 was translated: to be lame, to limp. F r o m : to hop over something, the meaning: to leave untouched was developed. Brown-Driver-Briggs correctly distinguished two roots: I. to spring over; II. to limp. From: "IJ13 were developed both the meanings: to surround a n d : to wait. The latter meaning was derived by saying: to surround expectantly (BDB. Ges. Ed. 16. harrend umgeben). The root: nJt as the Assyrian: zinu: to be angry and the Arab: r^J to stink, show, should be divided, as was done in BDB. Ges. Ed. 16. gave only one verb, with the primary meaning: to stink. Buhl derived the meaning: to reject, by saying: to spurn as loathesome. Whereas some roots should have been divided, others should have been joined. hid P r ey, for example, was developed easily from the root: to tear to pieces. The general meaning: food was developed f r o m : prey. Buhl in Ges. Ed. 16. and Koenig refer the Hiphil, in Prov. 30, 8, which is simply a denominative of: spo to another root, taken from the Arabic: > — I V , to grant good things, following Barth. Delitzsch goes on to show that the exegesis of the Bible would derive benefit from a more thorough study of the Hebrew usage. For example, h e would translate the passage, Prov. 14, 18: The wise acquire knowledge, instead of: arc crowned with knowledge, as Buhl, in Ges. Ed. 16. gave it. The force of the words according to the grammar should be brought out more exactly. For example, the Hithpael of: PST in Jud. 19, 22, should be translated: to beat violently (BDB, trommeln), not merely: to knock, Ges. Ed. 16. Thus many improvements are still in demand with regard to a clearer expression of the Hebrew in German translation. One of the chief difficulties that confronts the Hebrew lexicographer, says Friedrich Delitzsch, is the corruption of the Massoretic Text. 29 In the process of corruption two factors played a prominent p a r t : (1) Matres lectiones were inserted often where they do not belong. (2) Many letters were accidentally interchanged. Some of these a r e : "i and T n and n ; 1 and i ; T and u - o ( D ) . A list of the different 25 29

Ibidem, Ibidem,

192 f . 198 f.

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ON

HEBREW

LEXICOGRAPHY

93

kinds of corruption should be added to do a w a y w i t h the unmethodical text-emendation. T h e lexicon is overloaded w i t h untenable emendations. A n d finally Delitzsch advocated that the quoted examples be given m o r e in extenso, as was done in Latin and Greek dictionaries. W o r d s and constructions that occur in parallel passages should be cited as such. T h i s w o u l d r e m o v e the impression that all the citations are of equal value. F o r it matters whether a construction is found in three or four places, or actually only in one that has been repeated that many times. Although w e might take exception to some of the details of Delitzsch's criticism, it must be admitted that his general criticism is correct. Buhl must be praised f o r the admirable w o r k w h i c h he bestowed upon this lexicon. Nevertheless it must be admitted that Ges. Ed. 16. is not the finished product w h i c h r e v i e w e r s in general regarded it to be. It excels in r e c o r d i n g the d i f f e r e n t v i e w s of scholars on questions of exegesis, etymology, and text-criticism. It is deficient in l e x i c o g r a p h y proper. F r o m the v e r y beginning it had been Gesenius' aim to determine the H e b r e w meaning f r o m its o w n usage. He himself made some valuable contributions to this study. Buhl rescued the lexicon f r o m the disrepute into w h i c h it had fallen. But the task of the lexicographer is an enormous one, as the quotation f r o m Scaliger on the fly-leaf of the lexicon indicates, and is still unfinished. T h e fact that a n e w revision of the lexicon has not been undertaken f o r a decade is due, as so many other things, to the exigencies of the W o r l d W a r . Upon the request of the publishers, Buhl did not definitely resign as editor f o r a n e w edition. Since the w a r , the publishers have declared themselves against the publication of a n e w edition. The p r i c e of the n e w lexicon f o r students w o u l d be prohibitive. T h e publishers refused even to prepare the supplementary pamphlet w h i c h Buhl advocated. In the meantime, theological students have set to w o r k preparing glossaries f o r separate portions of the Old Testament. This, says Buhl, w o u l d make the publishers even less inclined to prepare a n e w edition. T h e edition w h i c h w e have may t h e r e f o r e be looked upon as the final one. 80 30

From a letter to me by Prof. Buhl, July 15, 1925.

[93]

CHAPTER VI HEBRIiW-ENGLISH

LEXICONS BASED ON

GESENIUS

From the beginning Gesenius' influence on Hebrew lexicography extended beyond Germany, into Denmark, Sweden, and especially into England and America. His influence in the latter countries was most profound. We shall therefore devote this final chapter to a discussion of the most important lexicons that appeared in English, and were either based on or translated from Gesenius' lexicons. As early as 1824, J. W. Gibbs, of Andover, prepared a translation of Gesenius' lexicon. 1 The basis of this translation was the abridgment of 1815. The larger w7ork was constantly consulted, and additions were made from it. Corrections w e r e also made from the Lehrgebaeude, 1817, and Gesenius' commentary on Isaiah, 1820-21. Rarely did the translator differ from the author or make a correction of his own. The 1827 and 1832 editions of this work are much smaller in size, less than one-half as thick as the first edition. The material in the lexicon was much abbreviated. The lexicon contained little more than the Hebrew words and their meanings. Most meanings were supported by only one citation, and the phrases and constructions found in the previous edition were almost all removed, as were the references to the cognate languages and the old versions. Christopher Leo's translation of the first lexicon that had left Gesenius' hands, appeared a little later. 2 This lexicon, w h i c h appeared in two parts, formed a pretentious quarto volume when finished. The translation was made as literal as possible. Leo corrected some of Gesenius' citations and 1 A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, Biblical Chaldee . . . A n d o v e r , 1824; E d i t . 2, L o n d o n , 1828; 2 A Hebrew Lexicon to the Books of the Old Testament, Geographical Names and Chaldaic Words in Daniel, Esra, h e l m Gesenius, 1824-28.

[94]

Including the E d i t . 3, 1832. Including the etc. By W i l -

ON HEBREW

LEXICOGRAPHY

95

quotations. In some articles he made additions, e. g., he added passages in the articles : - tag - t i k - m i j in o r d e r to elucidate Gesenius' meaning better. W h e n e v e r Gesenius d i f f e r e d f r o m other lexicographers in the derivation of w o r d s , L e o tried to take note of it. H e also added suggestions of his o w n . In the course of translation the shorter manual was published, and L e o made use of the corrections and additions w h i c h it contained. His lexicon was theref o r e an embodiment of the t w o editions. He included the valuable introduction and the analytical index. Gibbs had omitted both of these in his lexicon, but he had supplied a v e r y g o o d p r e f a c e of his o w n . Leo's translation did not enjoy the popularity w h i c h Gibb's received. F o r students the volume was probably too ponderous, and the price, prohibitive. Moreover, the lexicon was based on Gesenius' juvenile production w h i c h was soon after superseded by his o w n revisions. T o make his w o r k available to foreign students, Gesenius had published his Latin Manual. 3 Many of these w e r e bought by American students. E. Robinson made the Latin lexicon of 1833 the basis of an English translation. 4 Of Robinson's first edition, published in 1836, three thousand copies w e r e sold at the end of three years, and a new edition became necessary. F o r this Gesenius had proposed to send his o w n corrections, w h i c h he had made f o r a n e w edition of his Manual L e x i c o n . In A p r i l , 1842, Gesenius sent a transcript of his o w n c o p y f o r a n e w edition of his o w n lexicon, w h i c h contained material as far as the letter: nHe died b e f o r e he could finish the rest of the manuscript. T h e notes w h i c h he left behind consisted only of short hints and references w h i c h he had intended to w o r k out later. H o w e v e r , the part of the manuscript w h i c h Robinson had r e c e i v e d f r o m Gesenius was the most important, since it covered the part of the Manual w h i c h was most in need of correction. It contained roughly what was in the first t w o fasciculi of the Thesaurus w h i c h had been published in 1827 and 1835, and w e r e n o w in need of revision. The

1 Lexicon Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum in Veleria Testamenti Libros. Post Editionem Germanicam Terliam Latine Elaboravit, 1833; Edit. 2, by H o f f m a n , 1847. 4 A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, Including the Biblical Chaldee. From the Latin of Wm. Gesenius, 1836.

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96

THE INFLUENCE OF

GESENIUS

remainder of the articles Robinson conformed to the T h e saurus as far as it had appeared. Only one more fasciculus of the lexicographical material of the Thesaurus had to be published. T h e second edition of Robinson's lexicon appeared in 1844. T h i s edition was a decided improvement upon the first. T h e publisher also improved the quality of the type, and the printing was more correct. T h e third, fourth and fifth editions appeared without the aid of the concluding fasciculus of the Thesaurus. Robinson had made arrangements with the publishers in Germany to insure him of the reception of the concluding sheets, as soon as they should come f r o m the press. But the printing was delayed. In all these editions, Robinson allowed himself few additions of his own. W h e r e he did add something, he put it in brackets, with his signature. In 1853 the concluding fasciculus of the Thesaurus finally appeared. On the basis of this Robinson corrected his translation. T h e material affected was in the articles of those words w h i c h followed the r o o t : in the Thesaurus. Many of the derivatives found a place u n d e r : D in Robinson's translation. In his section of the Thesaurus, Roediger retained the leading features of Gesenius' work, but the tone of his investigations was more philosophical, and the comparisons with the Indo-Germanic were eliminated altogether. T h e last edition w h i c h Robinson edited was the sixth, 1855. It exhibits a summary of the latest labors of Gesenius in the field of Hebrew lexicography. Robinson rendered a noteworthy service to the study of Hebrew by translating Gesenius' l e x i c o n , even if his own contributions were meagre. T h e lexicon was in use much longer than it deserved to be. T h e fact that it is still in print, the most recent impression we have seen being the thirty-fourth, from rather worn plates, attests its need and its popularity. Although it contains much that is still of value, its etymological and comparative sections are sadly deficient. T h e next English Gesenius to put in its appearance was edited by S. P . Tregelles, a scholar better known for his excellent w o r k in connection with the Greek text of the New Testament. He published his translation in England, in

[96]

ON HEBREW LEXICOGRAPHY

97

1846." This translation was begun to supplant Gibb's translation, w h i c h was then out of print, and really too inadequate to be reprinted. The first edition of Robinson's lexicon was h a r d to obtain. Besides, Tregelles held that this translation showed much haste and oversight, as it actually did; and Robinson had made no comment whatever with regard to Gesenius' rationalistic interpretations in theological articles. Meanwhile Robinson's second edition was issued. Tregelles considered it to be much better than the first; however, since Robinson had again made no comments on the theological views of Gesenius, and had allowed himself to make other alterations and omissions, with which Tregelles did not agree, the latter went ahead with the publication of his edition. For the preparation of his lexicon, Tregelles u~ed the Lexicon Manualis, of 1833, as Robinson had done, and he compared it with the Thesaurus. In the course of time, Hoffmann's edition of the Latin Manual appeared, and Tregelles made use of that, together with the part of the Thesaurus that had been completed by Roediger. He verified the Scripture references and made such corrections as he thought needful. He compared every word with Lee's"" Hebrew Lexicon; and when statements of Gesenius were questioned he consulted the best authorities to be had at that time in Arabic and Hebrew, and added his own opinions in brackets. He availed himself of Robinson's translation as well as of his Biblical Researches. Tregelles allowed himself great freedom in correcting Gesenius' rationalistic views. He wanted to query every statement "in which doubt is cast upon Scripture inspiration, or in which the New and Old Testament are spoken of as discrepant, or in which mistakes and ignorance are charged upon the 'Holy men of God who wrote as they were moved by the Holy Ghost.' " A f e w illustrations will suffice. Concerning: i>NUOJf.° Gesenius had said in his Thes., 1044, and in both editions of his Latin Manual: nomen sym0 Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. Translated with Additions and Corrections from the Author's Thesaurus and Other Works. . . 1846. ®a A Lexicon Hebrew, Chaldee, and English, 1840, 1844. London. • It is to be noted that both Robinson and Dietrich who intended to preserve Gesenius' view altered it here. Robinson pruned off the objectionable feature and said: "The symbolical and prophetical name of a child."

[97]

98

THE

INFLUENCE

OF

GESENIUS

bolicum et propheticum filii Jesaiae prophetae, Jes. VII, 14; VII, 8. Tragelles reproduced this and added: "This is utterly false, it is the name of the son who should be born of the Virgin, and it designates Him as being truly 'God over all blessed forever,' Isa. 7, 14; 8, 8." In the article riD^Jf which Robinson, 1854, following Gesenius' latest v i e w ' rendered: "a bride, a youthful spouse, a w i f e recently married, Isa., 7, 14," Tregelles refers to the rendering in the LXX; the use of the word Alma in Punic, which means Virgin according to a tradition preserved in Jerome; and then he appealed to the absolute authority of the N e w Testament to settle the question for a Christian. Tregelles also made other changes. He often made a different selection of material from Gesenius' Thesaurus than Robinson had done and added more materials of his own. For instance, Robinson gave only one root: HDD following Gesenius. Tregelles distinguished t w o : I. only in Niphal, to be added; II. to pour. In his article Robinson made no attempt to show how the meaning: to adjoin oneself had been developed from the primary meaning: to pour out. Likewise: 5nJ which Robinson, 1854, had treated as one root, was divided into two by Tregelles: I. to receive; and II. to flow, the latter found in derivations only. The translation of Tregelles was excellent in many respects, and it enjoyed a great popularity. In 1857, another edition was issued. The latest edition which w e have seen was printed in 1890. The most recent, as well as the best translation based on Gesenius' lexicographical labors is the so-called Oxford Hebrew Lexicon, prepared by Brown, Driver, and Briggs. The preparation of this lexicon extended over a period of twenty-three years. The first part was issued in 1892. The lexicon appeared complete, in 1906, as: A Hebrew and Eng7 In his first two editions, Gesenius had said that this w o r d meant: a virgin, always unmarried and mature. From Gesenius 3. on he said that the stress is on the maturity not the virginity, although marriage is usually excluded. He considered the L X X rendition in Isa. 7, 14: Trapdevos to be incorrect. In his Thesaurus he weakened his latter statement when he added that both: ¡ I ^ U I S and TrapOivos were sometimes used to stress maturity, and not virginity. Buhl in Ges. Ed. 16. put the stress o n : maturity, and made no comment concerning the Greek translation, while Koenig, in his latest edition, states that the L X X translation in Isa. 7, 14 is not " i n reality w r o n g " (Edit. 3, 331). So f a r as w e know, the w o r d never meant "young married w o m a n " . Cf. W i l son, Princeton Theo. Review, X X I V , 316.

[98]

ON H E B R E W

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lish Lexicon of the Old Testament. Nominally based on Robinson's translation, this is almost an entirely new work both as to material as well as to arrangement. Since its preparation extended over the period of time which was required for the publication of the eleventh to the fourteenth editions of the German Gesenius, the editors could avail themselves of their materials. Ges. Ed. 14. was not published until the Oxford Lexicon was in type, with the exception of the appendix, and could therefore not be of much use to the editors. The division of the work was as follows: Driver wrote all the articles on the particles, including such words as were originally nouns, but whose principal use is adverbial; also entire stems whose one derivation only is adverbial. Besides these he prepared other articles. Briggs prepared the articles important to Old Testament religion, theology, and psychology, and words related to these. Brown was responsible for all the remaining articles, and supervised the general arrangement and oversight of the work. Each article was thoroughly revised, so that this dictionary was really an entirely new work. A complete revision was necessitated by the fact that the words of the lexicon were not arranged alphabetically, but according to their roots. Gesenius had used the alphabetical arrangement in his Thesaurus, but so far it had not been introduced in his Manual Lexicon. Siegfried, who reviewed the first part of this Oxford Lexicon, 8 considered this arrangement premature. Barth's and De Lagarde's works on the formation of Hebrew nouns had shown too many difficulties still obtaining in the study of the roots of Hebrew nouns. Noeldeke had warned against any premature foreclosures in this matter. Eduard Koenig, on the other hand, welcomed this arrangement.9 Both Kimchi and Buxtorf had believed it to be the most practicable scheme, and had used it for their lexicons. The alphabetical arrangement may be the more scientific, but it presents difficulties, as Siegfried showed.10 He cited a number of examples from the first letter of the alphabet only, which showed the uncertainty still prevailing with reTheo. Literaturzeitung, • Theo. Literaturblatt, " Op. cit., 102. 8

1892, 101 f. 1896, 148.

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100

THE INFLUENCE OF

GESENIUS

gard to certain roots. The w o r d : was derived from the root: ñ a s II. At the same time the editors spoke just as convincingly of the view that it is a primitive noun, emanating from the nursery. was derived f r o m : 33N but a reference has to be made to the root: 33« also. 3VKwas derived from the root: 3'!$, yet in the article the editors must admit that all is uncertain with regard to this root. and DTli>X were derived from the r o o t : nevertheless we see that the root: has just as much for it, when we read the article in which all the views are brought together. The w o r d s : - tl^N - Hi1« were derived f r o m : and 55k II» derivations against w h i c h Siegfried raised his objections. is derived f r o m : and B>1K according to Gesenius' Thesaurus; but the editors admitted that these etymologies are uncertain, and devoted a whole paragraph to the discussion of opposing views. Examples of this kind could be added to Siegfried's in great number from other parts of the lexicon. The alphabetical order may not be a great annoyance to scholars, but students are surely hindered by it in the initial stages of their studies. Words whose etymology was still uncertain had to be listed also in their alphabetical order, and crossreferences became necessary. This consumed space, and a very compact system of abbreviations had to be resorted to. For example, in the article on Ephod, under 3a, we r e a d : "acc. to Thes. al plus St. Bu RS 115 -2b;Stu. Be Ry al regard as sub 1." This means: "according to the Thesaurus of Gesenius and others, according to Stade and Budde (Judges and Samuel, p. 115) it means a gilded image; according to Studer, Bertheau, Ryssel it is to be understood of a garment of the priest." The abbreviations of the lexicon became quite complicated. The remarks which Friedrich Delitzsch made in connection with Ges. Ed. 16, applied also to this lexicon, as we have seen. The editors were influenced by the Arabic in the determination of primary meanings and their developments. These we have considered in connection with Delitzsch's review. The editors increased their difficulties in etymology by including the explanation and translation of proper-names. They understood that they were undertaking a very difficult

[100]

ON H E B R E W

LEXICOGRAPHY

101

task, and expected that exception would be taken to many of their etymologies of proper-names. In other respects the lexicon resembled Buhl's editions of the lexicon. T h e O x f o r d Lexicon is especially rich in citations and quotations. The editors also attempted to give an impartial resume of the different v i e w s held by scholars in Old Testament studies. T h e Aramaic was separated f r o m the H e b r e w lexicon proper and placed at the end of the book. T h e plan to include also an English-Hebrew vocabulary had to be given up as the lexicon grew too large. The different sections of the lexicon w e r e favorably rev i e w e d in Germany by scholars as Eduard Koenig 1 0 ' and C. Siegfried. 1 0 " The formei* praised the scholarship of the editors v e r y highly. He admired the learning and diligence which they exercised in etymology, in the comparison of the related languages, and in the archaeological, historical, and Biblical-theological materials. He said that the lexicon is remarkably complete and objective in its presentation of the divergent v i e w s of scholars. Another feature that was commended was the excellent print, and the comparative freedom f r o m errors in the text. T h e material was not so c r o w d e d as in the edition Ges. Ed. 16. In aesthetic beauty the lexicon surpasses any other Hebrew lexicon. As Gesenius, Ed. 16., the edition by Brown, Driver and Briggs is almost a Hebrew thesaurus. T h e statistical exactness in recording the citations f r o m the H e b r e w language is, of course, greater than in Gesenius' Thesaurus. For example, in Gesenius, the expression: ntn tTTTl was omitted in the article o n : fTV- T h i s phrase is found in the lexicon by Brown, Driver, and Briggs, and is important since it shows that: t l T was originally an appellative. The purely linguistical, comparative, geographical, and archaeological materials in the edition by Brown, Driver, and Briggs are more accurate than those in the Thesaurus. Nevertheless, the method in their lexicon is theoretical, that is, it is not one of investigation, but simply a compilation of results. Gesenius' Thesaurus is still valuable f o r its detailed investigations and the excerpts which it contains from the writings

"»T/ieo. Literaturzeitung,

i T h e o . Literaturblatt,

Pt. I, 1893, 101 ff.; Pt. II-IV, 1896, 2 ff.

Pt. I-IV, 1896, 147 ff.; Pt. VI, 1898, 273 ff.

[101]

102

THE

INFLUENCE

OF

GESENIUS

produced by men of Ancient Greece, Rome, and Arabia, most of them translated, which could not, and should not be taken into a manual lexicon. In the course of time, Gesenius' lexicon became the outstanding work in Hebrew lexicography, both in German and in English. The lexicons of Fuerst, Siegfried, and Eduard Koenig are also based more or less on Gesenius' lexicon. And there are other Hebrew lexicons that owe much to him. To Gesenius belongs the distinction of having begun a lexicon that maintained its supremacy for over a hundred years. Now both the German and English editions are in need of revision. It is to be hoped that a new revision may be undertaken, so that Gesenius' work may be brought to ever greater completion.

[102]

BIBLIOGRAPHY BIOGRAPHY: Gesenius, H. W., Gesenius . . . Ein Erinnerungsblatt on den hundertjaehrigen Geburtstag am 3. Feb., 1886, Halle, 1886. (Cont a i n s o b i t u a r y notices f r o m : Intelligenzblatt der Allgemeinen Literaturzeitung, 1842, 505 f f . [no a u t h o r ] ) ; Fritzsche, W. Gesenius, Das Hallische Patriotische Wochenblatt, Nov. 5, 1842; Die Leipziger Allgemeine Zeitung, Nov. 1, 1842 (no a u t h o r ) . ) Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen, 1842, II, 737 f f . (used t h e a b o v e mentioned material). Redslob, Allgemeine deutsche Biographia, IX, 89 f. K r a e t z s c h m a r R. (Reuss, E . ) , W. Gesenius, Realencyclopaedie fuer protestantische Theologie u. Kirche, 3. Ed., VI, 624 f . R o b i n s o n , E., Notices of Gesenius, Bibliotheca Sacra, 1843, 361 f f . Cheyne, Founders of Old Testament Criticism, 1893. IMPORTANT PRECURSORS OF GESENIUS: Coccejus, L-, Lexicon et Commentarius . . . Ed. II, Majus, 1689. Schultens, A., Liber Jobi . . . Leyden, 2 Vol., 1737. Schultens, A., Origines Hebraeae . . . Leyden, 1761. Michaelis, J . D., Supplementa ad Lexica Hebraeica, Goettingen, 2 Vols., 1792. Simonis, J., Lexicon Manuale Hebraeicum et Chaldaeicum, Halle, 1752; E d . II, 1771; E d . I l l , b y J . G. E i c h h o r n , 1793; Ed. IV, W i n e r , 1824. GESENIUS, HEBREW LEXICONS, SOME REVIEWS, TRANSLATIONS.

AND

Gesenius, W . , Hebraeisch-deutsches Handwoerterbuch ueber die Schriften des Alten Testaments, 1810-1812. REVIEWS: P a r t I, Allegemeine Literaturzeitung, 1810, 809 f f . ; P a r t II, ibid., 1812, 169 f f . TRANSLATION: Leo, C., A Hebrew Lexicon to the Books of the Old Testament, Cambridge, 1825-1828. Gesenius, W . , Neues hebraeisch-deutsches Handwoerterbuch ueber das Alte Testament mit Einschluss des biblischen Chaldaeismus. Ein Auszug aus dem groesseren Werke, Leipzig, 1815. R E V I E W : .Allgemeine Literaturzeitung, 1815, 449 f f . TRANSLATION: Gibbs, J . W . , A Hebrew and English Lexicon, Including the Biblical Chaldee, Andover, 1824; L o n d o n , 1828, 1832. E d . II b e a r s t h e t i t l e : A Manual Hebrew and English Lexicon, Including the Biblical Chaldee. Gesenius, W . , Hebraeisches und chaldaeisches Handwoerterbuch . . . Zweite Auflage, 1823. R E V I E W : Goettinger Gelehrten Anzeigen, 1824, 1012 f f .

[103]

104

THE

INFLUENCE

OF

GESENIUS

Gesenius, W., Hebraeisches und chaldaeisches Handwoerterbuch. . . Dritte Auflage, 1828. REVIEW: Faesi, Neue Jahrbuecher fuer Philologie und Paedagogik, IV, Hft. I, 1832, 155 f f . Gesenius, W., Thesaurus Philologicus criticus linguae Hebraeae et Chaldaeae Veteris Testamenti. Ed. altera secundum radices digesta germanica longe auctior et emendatior, 1829-1858. (Roediger furnished the two fasciculi completed after Gesenius' death, in 1853 and 1858.) REVIEW: Allgmeine Literaturzeitung, 1841, 305 f f . Gesenius, W., Lexicon Manuale Hebraeicum et Chaldaeicum in Veteris Testamenti libros post editionem germanicam tertiam. . . 1833. Review: Allgemeine Literaturzeitung, 1834, 305 f f . TBANSLATIONS : Robinson, E. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament . . . From the Latin of William Gesenius. Boston, 1836, 1844, 1849, 1850, 1854. Tregelles, S. P., Gesenius' Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures. . . London, 1846; 2 Ed. 1857. Gesenius, W., Hebraeisches und chaldaeisches Handwoerterbuch ueber das Alte Testament, 1834. Vierte Ausgabe. Dietrich, F. F. C., Hebraeisches und chaldaeisches Handwoerterbuch. Von Wilhelm Gesenius. 5. Aufl. 1857; 6. 1863; 7. 1868. Muehlau and Volck, Wilhelm Gesenius' Hebraeisches und chaldaeisches Handwoerterbuch ueber das Alte Testament. 8. Ed. 1878; 9. Ed. 1883. REVIEWS: Ed. 8, Kautzsch, Theo. Literaturzeitung, 1878, 433 f. Ed. 9, Siegfried, Theo. Literaturzeitung, 1883, 529. Noeldeke, T h „ ZDUG, 1886, 718, refers to 8. 9. 10. Eds. De Lagarde, Goettinger G. A1884, 287-288. Muehlau, F., and Volck, \V., Wilhelm Gesenius' Hebraeisches u. Aramaeisches Handwoerterbuch ueber das Alte Testament, 10. Ed.. Mit Beitraegen von Dr. D. H. Mueller, 1886; 11. Ed. 1890. Buhl, Fr., Wilhelm Gesenius' Hebraeisches u. Aramaeisches Handwoerterbuch ueber das Alte Testament, in Verbindung mit Prof. Albert Socin u. Prof. H. Zimmern. 12 Ed. 1895. REVIEWS: Bevan, A., Critical Review, 1895, 128 f f . Siegfried, C., Theo. Literaturzeitung, 1895, 302 f f . Strack, H., Theo. Literaturblatt, 1895, 385 ff., Ed. 13, published in 1899. REVIEWS: Perles, F., Jewish Quarterly Review, 1899, 688 f f . Schwally, F., Theo. Literaturzeitung, 1899, 355 f f . R. Z., Theo. Literaturblatt, 1900, 52 f f . Gesenius' Hebraeisches u. Aramaeisches HandBuhl, F., Wilhelm woerterbuch ueber das Alte Testament. In Verbindung mit H. Zimmern. 14. Ed., 1905. REVIEWS: Perles, F., JQR, 1906, 383 f f . ; Schwally, Fr., Theo. Literaturzeitung, 1905, 611 f f . ; Koenig, E., Theo. Literaturblatt, 1905, 449 f f . Brown, Driver, Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament . . . Based on the Lexicon of W. Gesenius as Translated by Edward Robinson, Cambridge, 1906. (P. I. was ready in 1892). REVIEWS: Siegfried, C., Part I, Theo. Literatur zeltung, 1893, 101 f f . ; Siegfried, Part II-IV, ibid, 1896, 2 f f . Koenig, E., P. I-IV, Theo Literaturblatt, 1896, 147 f f . Koenig, P. V I , ibid., 1898, 273 f f . Buhl, F., Wilhelm Gesenius' Hebraeisches u. Aramaeisches Handwoerterbuch ueber das Alte Testament. In Verbindung mit H. Zimmern, W. Max Mueller, und O. Weber bearbeitet. Ed. 16., 1915. REVIEWS: Schwally, Fr., Theo. Literaturzeitung, 1916, 26 f f . Caspari, W . , Theo. Literaturblatt, 1915, 488 f . ; Delitzsch, Fr., Philologische Forderungen an die hebraelsche Lexikographie, 1916, 160 f f . and 192 f f . , Orientalistische Literaturzeitung.

[104]

ON HEBREW

LEXICOGRAPHY

105

Edition 17, published in Leipzig, 1921, is an anastatic reprint of the 16. Other lexicons and books that show the influence of Gesenius on Hebrew lexicography. Fuerst, J., Hebraeisches und Chaldaeisches Handwoerterbuch ueber das Alte Testament . . . Leipzig, 1857; Ed. 2. 1863; Ed. 3, by V. Ryssel, 1876; Davidson, S., made an English translation ,New York, 1867. Siegfried, C. and Stade, B., Hebraeisches Woerterbuch zum Alten Testament, 1892-1893. REVIEW: Budde, K., Theo. Literaturzeitung, 1892, 58 f f . and 1894, 415 ff. Levy, J. L., Neuhebraeisches u. chaldaeisches Woerterbuch ueber die lalmudim u. Midraschim, 1879. Koenig, F., Hebraeisches u. Aramaeisches Woerterbuch . . . Leipzig, 1910; 2. and 3. Edit, 1922. Gesenius, W., Hebraeische Grammatik, 1813. Gesenius, W., Geschichte der hebraeischen Sprache u. Schrift, 1815. Gesenius, W., Philologisch-kritischer u. historischer Commentar ueber den Jesaia. . . 1820-1821; 2. Ed. contains translation only, 1829. Ewald, H., Kritische Grammatik der Hebraeischen Sprache, 1827. Delitzsch, Fried, The Hebrew Language Viewed in the Light of Assyrian Research, 1883. Bleek, J., and Kamphausen, Ä., Einleitung in das Alte Testament, von Fr. Bleek, 1865, p. 138 f f .

[105]

[106]

[107]

[108]

GESENIUS* H E B R E W GRAMMAR

Edited and Enlarged by E . Kautzsch

[109]

[110]

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE THE translation of the twenty-sixth German edition of this grammar, originally prepared by the Rev. G. W. Collins and revised by me, was published in 1898. Since that date a twenty-seventh German edition has appeared; and Prof. Kautzsch was already engaged on a twenty-eighth in 1908 when the English translation was becoming exhausted. He sent me the sheets as they were printed off, and I began revising the former translation in order to produce it as soon as possible after the completion of the German. The whole of the English has been carefully compared with the new edition, and, it is hoped, improved in many points, while Prof. Kautzsch's own corrections and additions have of course been incorporated. As before, the plan and arrangement of the original have been strictly followed, so that the references for sections and paragraphs correspond exactly in German and English. Dr. Driver has again most generously given up time, in the midst of other engagements, to reading the sheets, and has made numerous suggestions. To him also are chiefly due the enlargement of the index of subjects, some expansions in the new index of Hebrew words, and some additions to the index of passages, whereby we hope to have made the book more serviceable to students. I have also to thank my young friend, Mr. Godfrey R. Driver, of Winchester College, for some welcome help in correcting proofs of the Hebrew index and the index of passages. 3K r w EDn p . Many corrections have been sent to me by scholars who have used the former English edition, especially the Rev. W. E. Blomfield, the Rev. S. Holmes, Mr. P. Wilson, Prof. Witton Davies, Mr. G. H. Skipwith, and an unknown correspondent

[111]

Translator s Preface

iv

at West Croydon. These, as well as suggestions in reviews, have all been considered, and where possible, utilized. I am also much indebted to the Press-readers for the great care which they have bestowed on the work. Finally, I must pay an affectionate tribute to the memory of Prof. Kautzsch, who died in the spring of this year, shortly after finishing the last sheets of the twenty-eighth edition. For more than thirty years he was indefatigable in improving the successive editions of the Grammar. The German translation of the Old Testament first published by him in 1894, with the co-operation of other scholars, under the title Die Heilige Schrift des A Ts, and now (1910) in the third and much enlarged edition, is a valuable work which has been widely appreciated: the Apocryphen und Pseudepigraphen des A Ts, edited by him in 1900, is another important work : besides which he published his Grammatik des BiblischAramäischen in 1884, two useful brochures Bibelwissenschaft und Religionsunterricht in 1900, and Die bleibende Bedeutung des A Ts in 1903, six popular lectures on Die Poesie und die poetischen Bücher des A Ts in 1902, his article ' Religion of Israel' in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, v. (1904), pp. 612-734, not to mention minor publications. His death is a serious loss to Biblical scholarship, while to me and to many others it is the loss of a most kindly friend, remarkable alike for his simple piety and his enthusiasm for learning. A. C. MAGDALEN

COLI.EQE,

Sept.

OXFORD,

1910.

[112]

FROM THE GERMAN PREFACE THE present (twenty-eighth) edition of this Grammar, 1 like the former ones, takes account as far as possible of all important new publications on the subject, especially J. Earth's Sprachivissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Semitischen, pt. i, Lpz. 1907 ; the important works of C. Brockelmann (for the titles see the heading of § 1 ; vol. i of the Grundriss was finished in 1908); P. Kahle's Der masoretische Text des A Ts nach der Uberlieferung der babylonischen Juden, Lpz. 1902 (giving on p. 51 ff. an outline of Hebrew accidence from a Babylonian MS. at Berlin); R. Kittel' s Biblia Hebraica, Lpz. 1905 f., 2 vols, (discriminating between certain, probable, and proposed emendations ; see § 3 g, end); Th. Nöldeke's Beiträge zur semit. Sprachwissenschaft, Strassburg, 1904; Ed. Sievers' Metrische Stiddien (for the titles of these striking works see § 2 r). The important work of J. W. Rothstein, Grundzüge des hebr. Rhythmus, &c. (see also § 2 r), unfortunately appeared too late to be used. The two large commentaries edited by Nowack and Marti have been recently completed; and in P. Haupt's Polychrome Bible (SBOT.), part ix (Kings) by Stade and Schwally was published in 1904. For full reviews of the twenty-seventh edition, which of course have been considered as carefully as possible, I have to thank Max Margolis (in Hebraica, 1902, p. 159 fr.), Mayer 1 The first edition appeared at Halle in 1813 (202 pp. small 8vo) ; twelve more editions were published by W . Gesenius himself, the fourteenth to the twenty first (1845-1872) by E. EOdiger, the twenty-second to the twentyeighth (1878-1910) by E . Kautzsch. The first abridged edition appeared in J 896, the second at the same time as the present (twenty-eighth) large edition. The first edition of the ' Übungsbuch' (Exercises) to GeseniusKautzseh's Hebrew Grammar appeared in 1881, the sixth in 1908.

[113]

vi

From the German

Preface

Lambert (REJ. 1902, p. 307 ff.), and H. Oort (Theol. Tijdschrift, 1902, p. 373 ff.). For particular remarks and corrections I must thank Prof. J. Barth (Berlin), Dr. Gasser, pastor in Buch berg, Schaff hausen, B. Kirschner, of Charlottenburg, (contributions to the index of passages), Pastor Köhler, of Äugst, Dr. Liebmann, of Kuczkow, Posen, Prof. Th. Noldeke, of Strassburg, Pastor S. Preiswerk junior, of Bale, Dr. Schwarz, of Leipzig, and Prof. B. Stade, of Giessen (died in 1906). Special mention must be made of the abundant help received from three old friends of this book, Prof. P. Haupt, of Baltimore, Prof. Knudtzon, of Kristiania, and Prof. H. Strack, of Berlin, and also, in connexion with the present edition, Prof. H. Hyvernat, of the University of Washington, who has rendered great service especially in the correction and enlargement of the indexes. I take this opportunity of thanking them all again sincerely. And I am no less grateful also to my dear colleague Prof. C. Steuernagel for the unwearying care with which he has helped me from beginning to end in correcting the proof-sheets. Among material changes introduced into this edition may

be mentioned the abolition of the term Sewd medium (§10 d). In this I have adopted, not without hesitation, the views of Sievers. I find it, however, quite impossible to follow him in rejecting all distinctions of quantity in the vowels. It is no doubt possible that such matters may in the spoken language have worn a very different appearance, and especially that in the period of nearly a thousand years, over which the Old Testament writings extend, very great variations may have taken place. Our duty, however, is to represent the language in the form in which it has been handed down to us by the Masoretes; and that this form involves a distinction between unchangeable, tone-long, and short vowels, admits in my opinion of no doubt. The discussion of any earlier stage of development belongs not to Hebrew grammar but to comparative Semitic philology. The same answer may be made to Beer's desire (ThLZ. 1904,

[114]

From the German Preface

vii

col. 3T4 f.) for an ' historical Hebrew grammar describing the actual growth of the language on a basis of comparative philology, as it may still be traced within the narrow limits of the Old T e s t a m e n t S u c h material as is available for the purpose ought indeed to be honestly set forth in the new editions of Gesenius; but Beer seems to me to appraise such material much too highly when he refers to it as necessitating an ' historical grammar'. In my opinion these historical differences have for the most part been obliterated by the harmonizing activity of the Masoretes.

E. K A U T Z S C H . HALLE,

July, 1909.

[115]

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS Page 42, line 13 from below, for note 1 read note 3. Page 63, § 15 j?. [See also Wickes, Prose Accentuation, 130 f., 87 n. (who, however, regards the superlinear, Babylonian system as the earlier); and Ginsburg, Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, 76, 78. I11 Ginsburg's Hebrew Bible, ed. 2 (1908), pp. 108 f., 267 f., the two systems of division are printed in extenso, in parallel columns—the 10 verses of the superlinear (Babylonian) system consisting (in Exodus) of v. 2 s-« ? »-»12 is ».is 16.17 ( a s n u m b e r e d in ordinary texts), and the 12 verses of the sublinear (Palestinian) system, consisting of y

2 - 3 ( 5.6 7 8.9.10.11 12 13-16 17

g

J>

J^J

Page 65, note i , f o r NJN read (as § i o g a). [Editions often vary in individual passages, as regards the accentuation of the first syllable: but in the 7 occurrences of NJN, and the 6 of HJN, Baer, Ginsburg, and Kittel agree in having an accent on both syllables (as in Gn 5o 17 , Ex 32 s1 , 1¡r u 6 1 6 , and Metheg on the first syllable and an accent on the second syllable (as H3N) in 2 K 2 0 s = I s 38s, Jon 1", 4 2 , Is 498, D"ODfe> L a I 1 6 (cf. K ö n i g , ii. 109).

[117]

E z 2o\

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS The following abbreviations bave occasionally been used for works and periodicals frequently quoted :— AJSL. — American Journal of Semitic Languages. CIS. = Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum. Ed.Mant. = Bib\iiL Hebraica ex recensione Sal. Norzi edidit Raphael Hayyim Basila, Mantuae 1742-4. Jab!. = Biblia Hebraica ex recensione D. E. Jablonski, Berolini, 1699. JQR. = Jewish Quarterly Review. KATS = Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 3rd ed. by H. Zimmern and H. Winckler, 2 vols., Berlin, 1902 f. Lexicon — A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, based on the Thesaurus and Lexicon of Gesenius, by F. Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs, Oxford, 1906. NB. = J. Barth, Die Nominalbildung in den semitischen Sprachen. Lpz. 1889-94. KGGW. = Nachrichten der Göttinger Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. OLZ. = Orientalistische Literaturzeitung. Vienna, 1898 ff. PRE. = Realencyclopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, 3rd ed. by A. Hauck. Lpz. 1896 ff. FSB A = Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archseology. London, 1879 ff. REJ. = Revue des Études Juives. Paris, 1880 ff. Sam. = The (Hebrew) Pentateuch of the Samaritans. SBOT. = Sacred Books of the Old Testament, ed. by P. Haupt. Lpz. and Baltimore, 1893 if. 27iLZ. = Theologische Literaturzeitung, ed. by E. Schürer. Lpz. 1876 fif. VB. = Vorderasiatische Bibliothek, ed. by A. Jeremias and H. Winckler. Lpz. I907ff. ZA. = Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie und verwandte Gebiete, ed. by C. Bezold. Lpz. 1886 ff. ZA W. = Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, ed. by B. Stade, Giessen, 1881 ff., and since 1907 by K. Marti. ZDMG. = Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Ljz. 1846®., since 1903 ed. by A. Fischer. ZDPV. — Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästinavereins, Lpz. 1878 ff., since 1903 ed. by C. Steuernagel.

[118]

[119]

[120]

CONTENTS PAGE ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS

viii

L I S T OP A B B R E V I A T I O N S T A B L E OP E A R L Y SILOAM

x

SEMITIC

ALPHABETS

INSCRIPTION

INTRODUCTION

§ § § §

1. 2. 3. 4.

The Semitic Languages in General Sketch of t h e History of the Hebrew Language . Grammatical Treatment of the Hebrew Language . Division and Arrangement of the Grammar . . FIRST ELEMENTARY

.

I 8 17 22

. .

.

.

PART

PRINCIPLES,

OR

THE

SOUNDS

AND

CHARACTERS CHAPTER I.

§ § § § § § § § § § § § §

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

T H E I N D I V I D U A L S O U N D S AND

CHARACTERS

The Consonants : their Forms and Names . . . . Pronunciation and Division of Consonants . . . The Vowels in General, Vow el Letters and Vowel Signs . The Vowel Signs in particular . . . . . . Character of the several Vowels . . . . . The Half Vowels and the Syllable Divider (§ e wa) . . . Other Signs which affect t h e Reading Dages in general, and Dages forte in particular . . Dages lene Mappiq and Raphe The Accents Of Maqqeph and Metheg Of t h e Q e re and K e thibh. Masora marginalis and finalis

CHAPTER II.

P E C U L I A R I T I E S A N D C H A N G E S OP L E T T E R S : S Y L L A B L E AND T H E

THE

TONE

§ 18. In general § 19. Changes of Consonants § 20. The S t r e n g t h e n i n g (Sharpening) of Consonants

[121]

24 31 . 35 39 - 4 5 51 54 - 5 5 56 56 57 63 . 65

.

.

.

68 68 70

xii

Contents PAGE

§ 21. § 22. § 23. § 24. § 25. §26. § 27. § 28. § 29.

The Aspiration of the Tenues Peculiarities of the Gutturals The Feebleness of the Gutturals X and n . . . . Changes of the Weak Letters 1 and 1 Unchangeable Vowels Syllable-formation and its Influence on the Quantity of Vowels The Change of the Vowels, especially as regards Quantity . The Rise of New Vowels and Syllables The Tone, its Changes, and the Pause

75 76 79 82 84 85 88 92 94

SECOND P A R T ETYMOLOGY, OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH § 30. Stems and Roots; Biliteral, Triliteral, and Quadriliteral § 31. Grammatical Structure . CHAPTER I.

§ 32. §33. § 34. § 35. §36. §37.

THE

99 103

PRONOUN

The Personal Pronoun. The Separate Pronoun Pronominal Suffixes. . . . . . The Demonstrative Pronoun The Article The Relative Pronoun The Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns .

. .

. .

.

.

105 ¡08 109 no 112 .113

General View Ground-form and Derived Stems Tenses. Moods. Flexion Variations from the Ordinary Form of the Strong Verb .

114 114 117 . 118

CHAPTER II.

§38. §39. § 40. § 41.

.

I.

THE

.

VERB

The Strong Verb.

§ 42. In general

118 A.

The Pure Stem, or Qui.

§43. §44. § 45. § 46. § 47. § 48.

Its Form and Meaning 118 Flexion of the Perfect of Qal 119 The Infinitive 122 The Imperative 124 The Imperfect and its Inflexion 125 Shortening and Lengthening of the Imperfect and Imperative. The Jussive and Cohortative 129 § 49. The Perfect and Imperfect with Wáw Consecutive . . .132 § 50. The Participle 136

[122]

Contents B. Verba Derivativa, or Derived

xiii Conjugations. PAGE

§ § § § § §

51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56.

Niph'al Pi'el and Pu'al . Hiph'll and Hopli'al Hithpa'el Less Common Conjugations Quadriliterals

137 139 144 149 151 153

C. Strong Verb with Pronominal

Suffixes.

§ 57. § 58. § 59. § 60. §61.

In general The Pronominal Suffixes of the Verb The Perfect with Pronominal Suffixes Imperfect with Pronominal Suffixes Infinitive, Imperative and Participle with Pronominal Suffixes

§ § § §

In general Verbs First Guttural Verbs Middle Guttural Verbs Third Guttural

Verbs with 62. 63. 64. 65.

II.

Gutturals. 164 165 169 171

The "Weak Verb.

§ 66. Veibs Primae Radicalis Nún ( j ' s ) § 67. Verbs V"V § 68. § 69. § 70. § 71. § 72. § 73. § 74. § 75. § 76. § 77. § 78.

79. 80. 81. 82.

173 175

The Weakest Verbs (Verba Quiescentia). Verbs N"a Verbs i"a. First Class, or Verbs originally 1"B . . Verbs ^"a. Second Class, or Verbs properly '•"a . . Verbs''"a. Third Class, or Verbs with Yödh assimilated Verbs ry Verbs middle i (vulgo >) Verbs Verbs n"b Verbs Doubly Weak Relation of the Weak Verbs to one another . . . Verba Defectiva CHAPTER III.

§ § § §

154 155 158 160 162

THE

General View The Indication of Gender in Nouns Derivation of Nouns Primitive Nouns

[123]

184 .186 . 192 . 193 194 202 205 207 217 .219 219

NOUN

222 225 225

xiv

Contents PAGE

§ 83. Verbal Nouns in General § 84". Nouns derived from t h e Simple Stem § 8 4 \ Formation of Nouns from the Intensive Stem . . . . § 85. Nouns with Preformatives and Afformatives . . . . § 86. Denominative Nouns § 87. Of the Plural § 88. Of the Dual § 89. The Genitive and the Construct State . § 90. Real and supposed Remains of Early Case-endings. § 91. The Noun with Pronominal Suffixes § 92. Vowel Changes in the Noun . . . . . . § 93. Paradigms of Masculine Nouns § 94. Formation of Feminine Nouns § 95. Paradigms of Feminine Nouns § 9 6 . Nouns of Peculiar Formation § 97. Numerals. (a) Cardinal Numbers § 98. Numerals, (b) Ordinal Numbers CHAPTER IV.

§ § § § §

THE

226 227 233 235 239 241 244 247 . 248 254 260 262 275 276 281 286 292

PARTICLES

99. 100. 101. 102. 103.

General View Adverbs Prepositions Prefixed Prepositions Prepositions with Pionominal Suffixes and in the Pluial Form . . . . . . . . . . . § 104. Conjunctions § 105. Interjections .

THIRD

293 294 297 298 300 305 307

PART

SYNTAX C H A P T E R I.

I.

T H E P A R T S OF

SPEECH

S y n t a x of the Verb.

A. Use of the Tenses and Moods. § 106. § 107. §108. § 109. § 110. §111. § 112.

Use of the Perfect Use of the Imperfect Use of the Cohortative . Use of the Jussive The Imperative The Imperfect with Waw Consecutive The Perfect with Waw Consecutive

[124]

309 313 319 321 324 326 330

Contents B.

The Infinitire

and

xv Participle. PAGE

§ 113. The Infinitive Absolute § 114. The Infinitive Construct § 115. Construction of the Infinitive Construct with Subject and Object § 116. The Participles

33g 347

352 355

C. The Government of the Verb. §117. The Direct Subordination of the Noun to the Yerb as Accusative of the Object. The Double Accusative . . 362 § 118. The Looser Subordination of the Accusative to the Yerb . 372 §119. The Subordination of Nouns to the Verb by means of Prepositions 377 §120. Verbal Ideas under the Government of a Verb. Co-ordination of Complementary Verbal Ideas 385 387 § 121. Construction of Passive Verbs II.

Syntax of the Noun.

§ 122. Indication of the Gender of the Noun 389 § 123. The Representation of Plural Ideas by means of Collectives, and by the Repetition of "Words 394 § 124. The Various Uses of the Plural-Form 396 § 125. Determination of Nouns in general. Determination of Proper Names . . . . . . . . .401 § 126. Determination by means of the Article . . . . . 404 § 127. The Noun determined by a following Determinate Genitive . 410 § 128. The Indication of the Genitive Relation by means of the Construct State 414 § 129. Expression of the Genitive by Circumlocution . . .419 § 130. Wider Use of the Construct State 421 § 131. Apposition 423 § 132. Connexion of the Substantive with the Adjective . . . 427 § 133. The Comparison of Adjectives. (Periphrastic expression of the Comparative and Superlative) 429 § 134. Syntax of the Numerals 432 III. § § § § §

135. 136. 137. 138. 139.

Syntax of the Pronoun.

The Personal Pronoun The Demonstrative Pronoun The Interrogative Pronoun . . . . . . . The Relative Pronoun Expression of Pronominal Ideas by means of Substantives

[125]

437 442 443 444 . 447

2 b

Introduction

[§ i

b-d

2. The better known Semitic languages may be subdivided 1 as follows:— L The South Semitic or Arabic branch. To this belong, besides the classical literary language of the Arabs and the modern vulgar Arabic, the older southern Arabic preserved in the Sabaean inscriptions (less correctly called Himyaritic), and its offshoot, the Ge'ez or Ethiopic, in Abyssinia. II. The Middle Semitic or Canaanitish branch. To this belongs the Hebrew of the Old Testament with its descendants, the New Hebrew, as found especially in the Mishna (see below, § 3 a), and Rabbinic; also Phoenician, with Punic (in Carthage and its colonies), and the various remains of Canaanitish dialects preserved in names of places and persons, and in the inscription of Mesa', king of Moab.

C

I I I . The North Semitic or Aramaic branch. The subdivisions of this are—(1) The Eastern Aramaic or Syriac, the literary language of the Christian Syrians. The religious books of the Mandaeans (Nasoraeans, Sabians, also called the disciples of St. John) represent a very debased offshoot of this. A Jewish modification of Syriac is to be seen in the language of the Babylonian Talmud. (2) The Western or Palestinian Aramaic, incorrectly called also ' Chaldee \ 2 This latter dialect is represented in the Old Testament by two words in Gn 31 4 ', by the verse Jer io 1 1 , and the sections Dn 24 to 7®; Ezr 48 to 618, and 712"i6, as well as by a number of non-Jewish inscriptions and Jewish papyri (see below, under m), but especially by a considerable section of Jewish literature (Targums, Palestinian Gemara, &c.). To the same branch belongs also the Samaritan, with its admixture of Hebrew forms, and, except for the rather Arabic colouring of the proper names, the idiom of the Nabataean inscriptions in the Smaitic peninsula, in the East of Palestine, &c. F o r f u r t h e r particulars about the remains of W e s t e r n A r a m a i c ( i n c l u d i n g those i n t h e N e w Test., in the P a l m y r e n e a n d Egyptian A r a m a i c inscriptions) see K a u t z s c h , Gramm. des Biblisch-Aramaischen, Lpz. 1884, p. 6 if.

d

I V . The East Semitic branch, the language of the AssyrioBabylonian cuneiform inscriptions, the third line of the Achaemenian inscriptions. On the importance of A s s y r i a n for H e b r e w philology especially from a lexicographical point of v i e w cf. F r i e d r . Delitzsch, Prolegomena emes neuen 1 For conjectures as to the gradual d i v e r g e n c e of the dialects (first the B a b y l o n i a n , t h e n Canaanite, i n c l u d i n g H e b r e w , lastly A r a m a i c a n d A r a b i c ) from primitive Semitic, see Z i m m e r n , KAT.S, ii. p. 644 ff. a I n a w i d e r sense all J e w i s h A r a m a i c is sometimes called ' C h a l d e e ' .

[126]

§ i e,f]

The Semitic Languages in General

3

hebr.-aram. Worterbuchs zum A. T., L p z , 1886 ; P . H a u p t , ' A s s y r i a n P h o n o l o g y , &o.,' i n Hebraica, Chicago, Jan. 1885, vol. i. 3 ; D e l i t z s c h , Assyrische Grammatik, 2nd ed., B e r l i n , 1906.

I f the above division into four branches be reduced to two principal groups, No. I, as South Semitic, will be contrasted with the three North Semitic branches.1 A l l these l a n g u a g e s stand to one a n o t h e r i n m u c h t h e same r e l a t i o n as those g of t h e G e r m a n i c f a m i l y (Gothic, Old Norse, D a n i s h , S w e d i s h ; H i g h a n d L o w G e r m a n i n t h e i r earlier a n d l a t e r dialects), or as t h e S l a v o n i c l a n g u a g e s ( L i t h u a n i a n , L e t t i s h ; Old Slavonic, S e r b i a n , R u s s i a n ; Polish, B o h e m i a n ) . T h e y are n o w e i t h e r w h o l l y e x t i n c t , as t h e P h o e n i c i a n a n d A s s y r i a n , or p r e s e r v e d o n l y i n a debased form, as N e o - S y r i a c a m o n g S y r i a n C h r i s t i a n s a n d J e w s i n Mesopotamia and K u r d i s t a n , E t h i o p i e (Ge'ez) i n t h e l a t e r A b y s s i n i a n dialects (Tigré, Tigriîia, A m l i a r i c ) , a n d H e b r e w a m o n g some m o d e r n Jews, except i n so f a r as t h e y a t t e m p t a p u r e l y l i t e r a r y r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e l a n g u a g e of t h e Old T e s t a m e n t . A r a b i c alone h a s n o t only occupied to t h i s d a y its o r i g i n a l abode in A r a b i a proper, b u t has also forced its w a y m a l l d i r e c t i o n s i n t o t h e d o m a i n of other languages. T h e S e m i t i c f a m i l y of languages is bounded on t h e E a s t and N o r t h b y a n o t h e r of still w i d e r e x t e n t , w h i c h reaches f r o m I n d i a to t h e w e s t e r n l i m i t s of E u r o p e , a n d is called I n d o - G e r m a n i c 2 since it comprises, i n t h e most v a r i e d r a m i f i c a t i o n s , t h e I n d i a n (Sanskrit), Old a n d N e w P e r s i a n , G r e e k , L a t i n , S l a v o n i c , as w e l l as G o t h i c and t h e other G e r m a n i c languages. W i t h t h e Old E g y p t i a n l a n g u a g e , of w h i c h Coptic is a d e s c e n d a n t , as w e l l as w i t h t h e l a n g u a g e s of n o r t h - w e s t e r n A f r i c a , t h e S e m i t i c h a d f r o m t h e earliest t i m e s m u c h i n c o m m o n , especially i n g r a m m a t i c a l structure ; b u t on t h e other h a n d t h e r e are f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m , especially f r o m a l e x i c o g r a p h i c a l p o i n t of v i e w ; see E r m a n , ' D a s V e r h ä l t n i s des A e g y p t i s c h e n zu d e n s e m i t i s c h e n S p r a c h e n , ' i n t h e ZDMG. x l v i , 1892, p. 93 ff., a n d B r o c k e l m a n n , Grundriss, i. 3.

3. The grammatical structure of the Semitic family of languages, j as compared with that of other languages, especially the Indo-Germanic, exhibits numerous peculiarities which collectively constitute its distinctive character, although many of them are found singly in other languages. These are—(a) among the consonants, which in fact form the substance of these languages, occur peculiar gutturals of different grades ; the vowels are subject, within the same consonantal framework, to great changes in order to express various modifications of the same stem-meaning ; (ft) the word-stems are almost invariably triliteral, i.e. composed of three consonants; (c) the verb is restricted to two tense-forms, with a peculiarly regulated use ; (d) the noun has only two genders (masc. and fem.) ; and peculiar expedients are adopted for the purpose of indicating the case-relations ; (e) the 1 H o m m e l , Grundriss der Geogr. und Gesch. des alten Orients, M u n i c h , 1904, p. 75 ff., prefers to d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m as E a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n S e m i t i c b r a n c h e s . T h e i r geographical position, h o w e v e r , is of less i m p o r t a n c e t h a n t h e genealogical relation of t h e various groups of dialects, as r i g h t l y p o i n t e d out b y A . J e r e m i a s i n Th.LZ. 1906, col. 291. 2 F i r s t b y K l a p r o t h i n Asia Polyglotla, P a r i s , 1 8 2 3 ; cf. L e o M e y e r i n Nachrichten d. Gott. Gesellschaft, 1901, p. 454.

33 2

[127]

4

Introduction

[§ I 9-i

oblique cases of the personal pronoun, as well as all the possessive pronouns and the pronominal object of the verb, are denoted by forms appended directly to the governing word (suffixes); ( / ) the almost complete absence of compounds both in the noun (with the exception of many proper names) and in the verb; (g) great simplicity in the expression of syntactical relations, e. g. the small number of particles, and the prevalence of simple co-ordination of clauses without periodic structure. Classical Arabic and Syriac, however, form a not unimportant exception as regards the last-mentioned point. g 4. From a lexicographical point of view also the vocabulary of the Semites differs essentially from that of the Indo-Germanic languages, although there is apparently more agreement here than in the grammar. A considerable number of Semitic roots and stems agree in sound with synonyms in the Indo-Germanic family. But apart from expressions actually borrowed (see below, under i), the real similarity may be reduced to imitative words (onomatopoetica), and to those in which one and the same idea is represented by similar sounds in consequence of a formative instinct common to the most varied families of language. Neither of these proves any historic or generic relation, for which an agreement in grammatical structure would also be necessary. Comp Friedr. Delitzsch, Studien über indogermanisch-semitische Wurzelverwandtschaft, Lpz. 1 8 7 3 ; Nöldechen, Semit. Glossen zu Fick und Curhus, Magdeb. 1876 f ; McCurdy, Aryo-Semitic Speech, Andover, U . S. A , t 8 8 i . The phonetic relations have been thoroughly investigated by H . Möller i n Semitisch und Indogermanisch, Teil j, Konsonanten, Copenhagen and Lpz. 1907, a work w h i c h has evoked considerable criticism. h As onomatopoetic words, or as stem-sounds of a similar character, w e may compare, e. g. ppi?, ijn^ lingo, Skt. lih, Eng. to lick, Fr. lecher, Germ. lecken; (cf. biV) nv\ia>, volvo, Germ, quellen, wallen, Eng. to well; "113, "in XaP"TTa 1 Pers. khäridan, Ital. gratta.ro, Fr. gratter, Eng. to grate, to scratch, Germ, kratzen; p"1S frango. Germ, brechen, &c. ; Reusa, Gesch. der hl. Schriften A.T.'s, Braunschw. 1881, p. 38, draws attention moreover to the Semitic equivalents for earth, six, seven, horn, to sound, to measure, to mix, to smell, to place, clear, to kneel, raven, goat, ox, &c. A n example of a somewhat different kind is am, ham (sam), gam, ham, i n the sense of the German samt, zusammen, together-, i n Hebrew DÖK (whence TON people, properly assembly), Q y {with) samt, D5 also, moreover, Arab. $!D3 to collect; Pers. ham, hamah (at the same time) ; Skt. sama (with), Gk. ana (äfupai), o/jos, dfiov (o/u\os, opados), and harder KOIVOS, Lat. cum, cumulus, cunctus ; w i t h the corresponding sibilant Skt. sam, Gk. avv, (vv, (vvos = KOIVOS, Goth, sama, Germ, samt, sammeln; but m a n y of these instances are doubtful.

I

Essentially different from this internal connexion is the occurrence of the same words in different languages, where one language has borrowed directly from the other, Such loan-words are—

[128]

§ 17c]

5

The Semitic Languages in General

(а) I n Hebrew : some names of objects which were originally indigenous in Babylonia and Assyria (see a comprehensive list of AssyrioBabylonian loan-words in the Hebrew and Aramaic of the Old Testament in Zimmern and Winckler, KAT?, ii p. 648 if.), in Egypt, Persia, or India, e. g. "liO (also in the plural) river, from Egyptian yoor, generally as the name of the Nile (late Egypt, yarn, Assyr. yaru'u), although it is possible that a pure Semitic "liO has been confounded with the Egyptian name of the Nile (so Zimmern) ; (Egyptian) Nile-reed (see Lieblein, ' Mots égyptiens dans la Bible,' in PSBA. 1898, p 202 f.) ; D?nB (in Zend pairidaêza, circumvallation = TrapiSeitros) pleasure garden, park ; j t a T I X dark, Persian gold coin; D^SH peacocks, perhaps from the Malabar tôgai or tôghai. Some of these words are also found in Greek, as DB"G (Pers. karbâs, Skt. karpâsa) cotton, xipnaaos, carbarns. On the other hand it is doubtful if corresponds to the Greek nrjiros, tcijBos, Skt. kapi, ape. (б) I n Greek, &c. : some originally Semitic names of Asiatic products and articles of commerce, e. g. J*i3 ßvaaos, byssus ; ¡"Olli) Xißavos, Mßavoiröi, incense ; np|5 «an;, xâvva, canna, cane ; ¡133 KV/UVOV, cumMum, cumin ; ilJTSp xaaala, cassia ; K&iirj\os, camelus; fins? appaßwv, arrhabo, ariha, pledge. Such transitions have perhaps been brought about chiefly by Phoenician trade. Cf. A. Muller, ' Semitische Lehnworte im alteren Griechisch,' in Bezzenberger's Beiträge zur Kunde der Indo-germ. Sprachen, Gottingen, 1877, vol. i. p. 273 if. ; E . Ries, Quae res et vocabula a gentibus semiticis in Oraeciam pervenerint, Breslau, 1890; Muss-Arnolt, ' S e m i t i c words in Greek and Latin,' in the Transactions 0/ the American Philological Association, xxiii. p. 35 ff. ; H . Lewy, Die semitischen Fremdwörter im Griech., Berlin, 1895 ; J . H . Bondi, Dem hebr.-phomz. Spi achzweige angehor. Lehnworter m hieroglyph. u. hieratischen Texten, Lpz. 1886. 5 . N o s y s t e m of w r i t i n g is e v e r so p e r f e c t as to be able to r e p r o d u c e k the sounds of a l a n g u a g e i n a l l t h e i r v a r i o u s shades, a n d the of the Semites

writing

h a s one s t r i k i n g f u n d a m e n t a l defect, v i z . t h a t o n l y t h e

c o n s o n a n t s ( w h i c h i n d e e d f o r m the s u b s t a n c e of the l a n g u a g e ) a r e w r i t t e n as r e a l l e t t e r s , 1 indicated

by

certain

w h i l s t of

the v o w e l s only t h e l o n g e r

representative

consonants

are

(see b e l o w ,

§ 7).

I t w a s o n l y l a t e r t h a t s p e c i a l s m a l l m a r k s (points or s t r o k e s

below

o r a b o v e t h e c o n s o n a n t s ) w e r e i n v e n t e d to r e p r e s e n t to t h e e y e a l l the vowel-sounds the

practised

(see § 8).

reader, and

These are

are, however,

therefore

Semitic manuscripts and printed texts.

superfluous for

often wholly

omitted

in

Semitic writing, moreover,

a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y proceeds f r o m r i g h t to left. 2 1 So also originally the Etliiopic writing, which afterwards represented the vowels by small appendages to the consonants, or by some other change in their form. On the Assyrio-Babylonian cuneiform writing, which likewise indicates the vowels, see the next note, ad fin. 3 The Sabaean (Himyaritic) writing runs occasionally from left to right, and even alternately in both directions (boustrophedon), but as a rule from right to left. I n Ethiopic writing the direction from left to right has become the rule ; some few old inscriptions exhibit, however, the opposite direction. The cuneiform writing al&o runs from left to right, but this is undoubtedly •borrowed from a non-Semitic people. Cf. § 5 d, note 3.

[129]

6

Introduction

[§ I l, TO

With the exception of the Assyrio-Babylonian (cuneiform), all varieties of Semitic writing, although differing widely in some respects, are derived from one and the same original alphabet, represented on extant monuments most faithfully by the characters used on the stele of M6sa, king of Moab (see below, § 2 d), and in the old Phoenician inscriptions, of which the bronze bowls from a temple of Baal {CIS. i. 22 ff. and Plate I V ) are somewhat earlier than Mesa'. The old Hebrew writing, as it appears on the oldest monument, the Siloam inscription (see below, § 2 d), exhibits essentially the same character. The old Greek, and indirectly all European alphabets, are descended from the old Phoenician Writing (see § 5 1). I

See t h e Table of A l p h a b e t s at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e G r a m m a r , w h i c h s h o w s t h e relations of t h e older v a r i e t i e s of S e m i t i c w r i t i n g to one a n o t h e r a n d especially t h e origin of t h e present H e b r e w characters f r o m t h e i r p r i m i t i v e forms. F o r a more c o m p l e t e v i e w , see G e s e n i u s ' Scnpturae linguaeque Phoeniciae momtmenta, L i p s . 1837, 4to, pt. i. p. 15 ff., and pt. iii. tab. 1 - 5 . F r o m n u m e r o u s m o n u m e n t s since d i s c o v e r e d , our k n o w l e d g e of t h e S e m i t i c characters, especially t h e P h o e n i c i a n , h a s become c o n s i d e r a b l y e n l a r g e d a n d m o r e accurate. Cf. t h e a l l b u t e x h a u s t i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y (from 1616 to 1896) i n L i d z b a r s k i ' s Handbuch der Nordsemitischen Epigraphik, i. p. 4 ff, a n d on t h e origin of t h e S e m i t i c alphabet, i b i d . , p. 1 7 3 ® , a n d Ephemeris (see t h e h e a d i n g of § 1 a above), i. pp. 109 ff., 142, 261 ff., a n d h i s ' A l t s e m i t i s c h e T e x t e ' , pt. i, Kanaanaische Inschrtften (Moabite, O l d - H e b r e w , P h o e n i c i a n , P u n i c ) , G i e s s e n , 1 9 0 7 . — O n t h e origin a n d d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e Hebrew c h a r a c t e r s a n d t h e best tables of alphabets, see § 5 a, last n o t e , a n d e s p e c i a l l y § 5 e.

m

6. A s regards the relative age of the Semitic languages, the oldest literary remains of them are to be found in the Assyrio-Babylonian (cuneiform) inscriptions, 1 with which are to be classed the earliest Hebrew fragments occurring in the old Testament (see § 2). The earliest non-Jewish Aramaic inscriptions known to us are that of "Of king of Hamath (early eighth cent. B.C.), on which see Noldeke, ZA. 1908, p. 376, aud that found at Teima, in N. Arabia, in 1880, probably of the fifth cent. B. c., cf. E. Littmann in the Monist, xiv. 4 [and Cooke, op. cit., p. 195]. The monuments of Kalammus of Sam'al, in the reign of Shalmanezer II, 859-829 B.C. (cf. A. Sanda, Die Aramaer, Lpz. 1902, p. 26), and those found in 1888-1891 at Zenjirli in N. Syria, including the Hadad inscription of thirty-four lines (early eighth cent. B.C.) and the Panammu inscription (740 B.C.), are not in pure Aramaic. The Jewish-Aramaic writings begin about the time of Cyrus (cf. E z r 6 3 f f ) , specially important being the papyri from Assuan ed. by Sayce and Cowley, London, 1906 (and in a cheaper form by Staerk, Bonn, 1907), which are precisely dated from 471 to 411 B.C., and three others of 407 B. c. ed. by Sachau, Berlin, 1907. 1 A c c o r d i n g to H i l p r e c h t , The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsyhania, i . p. 11 ff., t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s f o u n d at N i p p u r e m b r a c e t h e p e r i o d f r o m about 4000 to 450 B C.

[130]

§ i»]

The Semitic Languages

in General

7

Monuments of the Arabic branch first appear in the earliest centuries A. D. (Sabaean inscriptions, Ethiopic translation of the Bible in the fourth or fifth century, North-Arabic literature from the sixth century A. D.). It is, however, another question which of these languages has adhered longest and most faithfully to the original character of the Semitic, and which consequently represents to us the earliest phase of its development. For the more or less rapid transformation of the sounds and forms of a language, as spoken by nations and races, is dependent on causes quite distinct from the growth of a literature, and the organic structure of a language is often considerably impaired even before it has developed a literature, especially by early contact with people of a different language. Thus in the Semitic group, the Aramaic dialects exhibit the earliest and greatest decay, next to them the Hebrew-Canaanitish, and in its own way the Assyrian. Arabic, owing to the seclusion of the desert tribes, was the longest to retain the original fullness and purity of the sounds and forms of words. 1 Even here, however, there appeared, through the revolutionary influence of Islam, an ever-increasing decay, until Arabic at length reached the stage at which we find Hebrew in the Old Testament. H e n c e t h e p h e n o m e n o n , t h a t i n its g r a m m a t i c a l structure tlie a n c i e n t n H e b r e w agrees m o r e w i t h t h e m o d e r n t h a n w i t h t h e ancient A r a b i c , a n d t h a t t h e latter, a l t h o u g h i t o n l y appears as a w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e at a l a t e r period, h a s y e t i n m a n y respects p r e s e r v e d a more complete s t r u c t u r e a n d a more o r i g i n a l v o w e l s y s t e m t h a n t h e other S e m i t i c languages, cf. Noldeke, ' D a s klassische A r a b i s c h u n d die a r a b i s c h e n D i a l e k t e , ' i n Beitrage zur semitischen Sprachwissenschaft, p. I ff. I t t h u s occupies a m o n g s t t h e m a position s i m i l a r to t h a t w h i c h S a n s k r i t holds a m o n g the Indo-Gc-rmanie l a n g u a g e s , or G o t h i c i n t h e n a r r o w e r circle of t h e G e r m a n i c . B u t e v e n t h e t o u g h e s t o r g a n i s m of a language o f t e n deteriorates, at least i n single f o r m s a n d derivatives, w h i l e on t h e c o n t r a r y , i n t h e m i d s t of w h a t is o t h e r w i s e u n i v e r s a l d e c a y , t h e r e still r e m a i n s h e r e a n d t h e r e s o m e t h i n g o r i g i n a l a n d a r c h a i c ; a n d t h i s is t h e case w i t h t h e S e m i t i c languages. F u l l e r proof of t h e above s t a t e m e n t s belongs to t h e c o m p a r a t i v e G r a m m a r of t h e S e m i t i c languages. I t follows, h o w e v e r , f r o m w h a t has been s a i d : ( i ) t h a t t h e H e b r e w l a n g u a g e , as f o u n d m t h e sacred l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e J e w s , h a s , i n respect 1 E v e n n o w t h e l a n g u a g e of some of t h e Bfedawi is m u c h p u r e r a n d m o r e a r c h a i c t h a n t h a t of t h e t o w n - A r a b s . I t m u s t , h o w e v e r , be a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e f o r m e r e x a l t e d e s t i m a t e of t h e p r i m i t i v e n e s s of A r a b i c has b e e n m o d e r a t e d i n m a n y respects b y t h e most r e c e n t school of S e m i t i c p h i l o l o g y . Much a p p a r e n t l y o r i g i n a l is to be r e g a r d e d w i t h N o l d e k e (Die semit. Spr., p. 5 [ = Encycl. Bnt., ed. 9, art. SEMITIC LANGUAGES, p. 642 ]) o n l y as a m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l . T h e assertion t h a t t h e A r a b s e x h i b i t S e m i t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e i r purest f o r m , should, a c c o r d i n g to N b l d e k e , b e r a t h e r t h a t ' t h e inh a b i t a n t s of t h e desert l a n d s of A r a b i a , u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y monotonous scenery a n d of a l i f e c o n t i n u a l l y t h e same a m i d c o n t i n u a l c h a n g e , h a v e developed most e x c l u s i v e l y some of t h e p r i n c i p a l traits of t h e S e m i t i c race

[131]

8

Introduction

[ § 2 a, b

to its organic structure, a l r e a d y suffered more considerable losses t h a n t h e A r a b i c , w h i c h appears m u c h later on the historical h o r i z o n ; (2) that, notw i t h s t a n d i n g this fact, w e cannot at once a n d i n all points concede priority to the l a t t e r ; (3) that it is a mistake to consider w i t h some t h a t the A r a m a i c , on account of its simplicity ( w h i c h is o n l y due to the decay of its organic structure), is the oldest form of Semitic speech.

§ 2. Sketch of the History of the Hebreiv

Language.

See Gesenius, Gesch. der hebr. Sprache u. Schrift, Lpz. 1815, §§ 5 - 1 8 ; T h . Noldeke's art., ' S p r a c h e , h e b r a i s c h e , ' i n Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, B d . v, Lpz. 1875; F. B u h l , ' H e b r a i s c h e Sprache,' i n H a u c k ' s Sealencycl. fur prot. Theol. undKirche, vii (1899), p. 506 ff.; A . C o w l e y , ' H e b r e w Language and L i t e r a t u r e , ' i n the forthcoming ed. of the Encycl. But.; W . R. S m i t h in the Encycl. BM., ii. London, 1901, p. 1 9 8 4 f f . ; A . L u k y n W i l l i a m s , ' H e b r e w / i n H a s t i n g s ' Vict, of the Bible, ii. p. 325 ff., E d i n b . 1899. a

1 . T h e n a m e Hebrew

Language

u s u a l l y denotes the l a n g u a g e of t h e

sacred writings of the Israelites w h i c h form the Testament.

I t is a l s o c a l l e d Ancient

Hebrew

canon of the

Old

in contradistinction to

t h e N e w H e b r e w o f J e w i s h w r i t i n g s o f t h e p o s t - b i b l i c a l p e r i o d (§ 3 a ) . T h e n a m e H e b r e w l a n g u a g e (JV^SV

yXCkrcra riov ' E / ? p a i W , ¿/3paip L X X , G n 2 2 2 4 Mcdxó). See t h e collection of the grammatical peculiarities i n Gesenius, Monumenta Phoenicia, p. 4 3 0 ff. ; Paul Schroder, Die phomz. Sprache, H a l l e , 1 8 6 9 ; B. Stade, ' E r n e u t e P r ü f u n g des zwischen d e m P h ö n i e . und H e b r . bestehenden Verwandtschaftsgrades,' in t h e Morgenland. Forschungen, L p z . 1 8 7 5 , p. 1 6 9 ff.

4. A s the Hebrew writing 011 monuments and coins mentioned I in d consists only of consonants, so also the wi iters of the Old 1

Cf. i n t e r alia : aparu, also haparu

( A s s y r . epru, ipru) = isy

; hullu = Ì>JI

( w i t h hard J? ; cf. § 6 c, and A s s y r . humri = *>~lipy, hazzatu = Hiy) ; iazkur — ibr,

zuruhu = j f n i ,

Mübi^yblI,

abadat = r n 3 X ,

sahn = "lSJK'j gate;

net • saduk = p i if ( p ^ l T ) , &c.

bafnu = J133, belly ;

[ C f . B ö h l , Die Sprache d, Amarnabnefe,

Lpz. 1909.]

[135]

12

Introduction

[§ 2 k m

T e s t a m e n t books used merely the consonant-signs (§ 1 h), and even now the w r i t t e n scrolls of the L a w used in the synagogues m u s t not, according to ancient custom, contain a n y t h i n g more.

The

present

pronunciation o f . t h i s consonantal t e x t , its vocalization and accentuation, rest on t h e tradition of the J e w i s h schools, as it w a s finally fixed b y the system of punctuation (§ 7 h) introduced by J e w i s h scholars about the seventh c e n t u r y A. d. ; cf. § 3 b. k

A n earlier stage i n the development of the

Canaanitish-Hebrew

language, i.e. a form of i t anterior t o t h e w r i t t e n documents now extant, w h e n i t must h a v e stood nearer to the common l a n g u a g e of the united Semitic features:—(1)

f a m i l y , c a n still be discerned in its

from

m a n y archaisms p r e s e r v e d in

the

principal traditional

texts, especially in t h e names of persons and places d a t i n g f r o m earlier times, as w e l l as in isolated forms chiefly occurring in poetic style;

(2) in general by an a posteriori

conclusion from traditional

forms, so f a r as a c c o r d i n g to t h e l a w s and analogies of

phonetic

change t h e y clearly point to an older phase of the l a n g u a g e ; and (3) by comparison w i t h the k i n d r e d languages, especially A r a b i c , in w h i c h this earlier stage of the language has been f r e q u e n t l y p r e s e r v e d even down t o later times (§ 1 m, n).

I n numerous instances

in

e x a m i n i n g linguistic phenomena, the s a m e — a n d consequently so much the more c e r t a i n — r e s u l t is a t t a i n e d b y each of these three methods. Although the systematic investigation of the linguistic development indicated above belongs to comparative Semitic philology, it is nevertheless indispensable for the scientific treatment of Hebrew to refer to the groundforms 1 so far as they can be ascertained and to compare the corresponding forms in Arabic. Even elementary grammar which treats of the forms of the language occurring in the Old Testament frequently requires, for their explanation, a reference to these ground-forms. I

5. E v e n i n the l a n g u a g e of the O l d T e s t a m e n t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g its g e n e r a l u n i f o r m i t y , there is noticeable a c e r t a i n progress from an

earlier

to

a

later

stage.

Two

periods,

though

with

some

reservations, m a y be d i s t i n g u i s h e d : the first, d o w n to t h e end of t h e B a b y l o n i a n exile ; and t h e second, after the exile. TH

To

the

former belongs,

apart

from

isolated

traces of

a

later

revision, the l a r g e r half of the O l d T e s t a m e n t books, viz. (a) of the prose and historical w r i t i n g s , a l a r g e p a r t of the P e n t a t e u c h and of Joshua, J u d g e s , S a m u e l , and K i n g s ; (6) of the poetical, perhaps 1 Whether these can be described simply as 'primitive Semitic' is a question which may be left undecided here.

[136]

§ 2 n-q] History of the Hebrew Language

13

a part of the Psalms and Proverbs; (c) the writings of the earlier prophets (apart from various later additions) in the following chronological order: Amos, Hosea, Isaiah I, Micah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Obadiah (1), Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah I I (ch. 40-55). T h e b e g i n n i n g of t h i s period, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y of H e b r e w l i t e r a t u r e f l g e n e r a l l y , is u n d o u b t e d l y to be placed as e a r l y as t h e t i m e of Moses, a l t h o u g h t h e P e n t a t e u c h i n its present form, i n w h i c h v e r y d i f f e r e n t s t r a t a m a y be s t i l l c l e a r l y recognized, is to be regarded as a g r a d u a l p r o d u c t i o n of t h e c e n t u r i e s a f t e r Moses. C e r t a i n l i n g u i s t i c p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e P e n t a t e u c h , w h i c h it w a s once c u s t o m a r y to r e g a r d as a r c h a i s m s , such as t h e e p i c e n e use of "iy3 hoy, youth, f o r m y j girl, a n d Kin for &5TI, are m e r e l y to be a t t r i b u t e d to a l a t e r r e d a c t o r ; cf. § 17 e. T h e l i n g u i s t i c c h a r a c t e r of t h e v a r i o u s strata of t h e P e n t a t e u c h h a s b e e n 0 e x a m i n e d b y E y s s e l , De Elohistae Pentateuchici sermone, Lpz. 1878; K o n i g , Be criticae sacrae argumento e linguae legibus repetito, Lpz. 1879 (analysis of G n 1 - 1 1 ) ; F . G i e s e b r e c h t , ' D e r S p r a c h g e b r . des h e x a t e u c h i s c h e n E l o h i s t e n , ' i n ZAW. 1881, p. 177 fif., p a r t l y modified b y D r i v e r i n t h e Journal of Philology, vol. x i . p. 201 ff. ; K r a u t l e i n , Die sprachl. Verschiedenheiten in den Hexateuchquellen, L p z . 1 9 0 8 . — A b u n d a n t m a t t e r is afforded also b y H o l z i n g e r , Einleitung m den Hexateuch, F r e i b . 1893 ; D r i v e r , Introduction to the Liteiature of the Old Testament8, E d i n b u r g h , 1908; S t r a c k , Einleitung ins A. T.6, M u n i c h , 1 9 0 6 ; Kdnig, Einleitung m das A. T., B o n n , 1893.

6. Even in the writings of this first period, which embraces p about 600 years, we meet, as might be expected, with considerable differences in linguistic form and style, which are due partly to differences in the time and place of composition, and partly to the individuality and talent of the authors. Thus Isaiah, for example, writes quite differently from the later Jeremiah, but also differently from his contemporary Micali. Amongst the historical books of this period, the texts borrowed from earlier sources have a linguistic colouring perceptibly different from those derived from later sources, or passages which belong to the latest redactor himself. Y e t the structure of the language, and, apart from isolated cases, even the vocabulary and phraseology, are on the whole the same, especially in the prose books. But the poetic language is in many ways distinguished from jj, \!?H = i>N, HJ! = ' i y 5 t h e e n d i n g s i _

)

t h e p r o n o m i n a l suffixes

D

ending p

for O*

(§ 87 «).

to

'

for Dj D

)

i i n t h e n o u n (§ 9 0 ) ; (§ 58) ; t h e p l u r a l

T o t h e syntax belongs t h e f a r more s p a r i n g

use of t h e article, of t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n , of t h e a c c u s a t i v e p a r t i c l e JIK ; t h e c o n s t r u c t state e v e n before prepositions ; t h e s h o r t e n e d i m p e r f e c t w i t h t h e same m e a n i n g as t h e ordinary f o r m (§ 109 i); the w i d e r g o v e r n i n g p o w e r of p r e p o s i t i o n s ; a n d i n g e n e r a l a forcible b r e v i t y of expression.

[139]

i6

Introduction

[§ 2 t-v

7. The second period of the Hebrew language and

t

literature,

after the return from the exile until the Maccabees (about 160 B.C.), is chiefly distinguished by a constantly closer approximation of the language to the kindred western Aramaic dialect.

This is due to the

influence of the Aramaeans, who lived in close contact with the recent and thinly-populated

colony in Jerusalem, and whose dialect was

already of importance as being the official language of the western half of the Persian empire.

Nevertheless the supplanting of Hebrew

by Aramaic proceeded only very gradually.

Writings intended for

popular use, such as the Hebrew original of Jesus the son of Sirach and the book of Daniel, not only show that Hebrew about 170 B.C. was still in use as a literary language, but also that it was still at least understood by the people. 1

W h e n it had finally ceased to exist

as a living language, it was still preserved as the language of the Schools—not

to mention the numerous Hebraisms introduced into the

Aramaic spoken by the Jews. For particulars, see Kautzsch, Gramm. des Bibl.-Aram, pp. 1-6. We may conveniently regard the relation of the languages which co-existed in this later period as similar to that of the High and Low German in North Germany, or to that of the High German and the common dialects in the south and in Switzerland. Even amongst the more educated, the common dialect prevails orally, whilst the High German serves essentially as the literary and cultured language, and is at least understood by all classes of the people. Wholly untenable is the notion, based on an erroneous interpretation of Nell 88, that the Jews immediately after the exile had completely forgotten the Hebrew language, and therefore needed a translation of the Holy Scriptures. U

The Old Testament writings belonging to this second period, in all of which the Aramaic colouring appears in various degrees, are : certain parts of the Pentateuch and of Joshua, Ruth, the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, E s t h e r ;

the prophetical books of

Haggai,

Zechariah, Isaiah 1 1 1 ( 5 6 - 6 6 ) , Malachi, Joel, Jonah, Daniel; of the poetical books, a large part of Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, and most of the Psalms.

A s literary compositions, these books are some-

times far inferior to those of the first period, although work was still produced which in purity of language and aesthetic value falls little short of the writings of the golden age. D

Later words ( A r a m a i s m s ) •V3 chalk,

= HJJ time,

a r e , e. g . ¡"WIN declaration, raise up,

D3K compel,

~|DI"t P i . reproach,

"13 son,

P i . roof over,

1 The extensive use of Hebrew in the popular religious literature which is partly preserved to us in the Midrasim, the Misna, and the Liturgy, indicates, moreover, that Hebrew was widely understood much later than this. Cf. M. H. Segal, ' MiSnaic Hebrew and its relations to Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic,' in J. Q. R., 1908, p. 641 ff. (also separately).

[140]

§§ 2 w, 3 o]

History of the Hebrew Language

nVQ stray, f|3 rock,

advise, f|iD = fi? end,

tUt? be many,

rule,

"IDX (to say) to command; a n d grammatical

=

=

take, 5)$)") = f'X"! Ireak,

be strong.—Later

njV (to a n s w e r ) to begin

and K

meanings are, e . g .

speaking.—Orthographical

p e c u l i a r i t i e s are, t h e f r e q u e n t scriptio plena of i a n d *

e . g . " I i n 1 ( e l s e w h e r e 1 W ) , e v e n EHlp for CHp, 3 h for of ¡1

17

final;

; the i n t e r c h a n g e

t h e more f r e q u e n t use of s u b s t a n t i v e s i n fl (

Fll,

&c. Cf. D a v . Strauss, Spiachl Studien zu d. hebr Sirachfragmenten, Z ü r i c h , 1900, p. 19 ff.; for t h e P s a l m s C h e y n e , Origin of the Psalter, p. 461 ff., a n d e s p e c i a l l y G i e s e b r e c h t i n ZAW. 1881, p. 276 if. ; i n g e n e r a l , K a u t z s e h , Die Aramatsmen im A. T. (i, L e x i k a l . T e i l ) , H a l l e , 1902. B u t a l l t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of these later w r i t e r s are not A r a m a i s m s . S e v e r a l do n o t occur i n A r a m a i c a n d m u s t h a v e b e l o n g e d at an e a r l i e r period to t h e H e b r e w v e r n a c u l a r , e s p e c i a l l y i t w o u l d seem i n n o r t h e r n P a l e s t i n e . T h e r e c e r t a i n p a r t s of Judges, a m o n g s t others, m a y h a v e o r i g i n a t e d , as is i n d i c a t e d , e. g. b y -B>, a c o m m o n f o r m i n P h o e n i c i a n (as w e l l as K-'K), f o r "lE'N (§ 36), w h i c h a f t e r w a r d s recurs i n J o n a h , L a m e n t a t i o n s , t h e S o n g of Songs, t h e l a t e r P s a l m s , and Ecclesiastes. R e m . 1. Of dialectical v a r i e t i e s i n t h e old H e b r e w l a n g u a g e , o n l y one W e x p r e s s m e n t i o n occurs i n t h e 0 . T . (Ju 12 6 ), according to w h i c h t h e E p l i r a i m i t e s i n c e r t a i n cases p r o n o u n c e d t h e t£* as D. (Cf. M a r q u a r t i n ZAW. 1888, p. 151 ff.) W h e t h e r i n N e h 1324 b y t h e speech of Ashdvd a H e b r e w , or a ( w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t ) P h i l i s t i n e d i a l e c t is i n t e n d e d , c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a n y p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n t h e N o r t h P a l e s t i n i a n books ( J u d g e s a n d Hosea) are p r o b a b l y to be r e g a r d e d as d i f f e r e n c e s i n dialect, a n d so also some a n o m a l i e s in t h e Moabite i n s c r i p t i o n of M6sa' (see above, d). O n l a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t s see L . M e t m a n , Die hebr. Sprache, ihre Geschichte u. lexikal. Entwickdung sett Abschluss des Kanons u. ihr Bau m d. Gegenwart, J e r u s a l e m , 1906. 2. I t is e v i d e n t t h a t , i n t h e e x t a n t r e m a i n s of old H e b r e w l i t e r a t u r e , 2 t h e e n t i r e store of t h e a n c i e n t l a n g u a g e is not p r e s e r v e d . T h e c a n o n i c a l books of t h e Old T e s t a m e n t f o r m e d c e r t a i n l y o n l y a f r a c t i o n of t h e w h o l e H e b r e w national literature.

§ 3.

Grammatical

Treatment

of the Hebreiv

Language.

G e s e n i u s , Gesch. der heir. Sprache, §§ 19-39 ; Oehler's article, ' H e b r . S p r a c h e , ' i n S c h m i d ' s Eneykl. des ges. Erziehungs- u. Unterrichtswesens, vol. i i i . p. 346 ff. ( i n t h e 2nd ed. revised b y Nestle, p. 314 if.). Cf. also t h e l i t e r a t u r e cited above i n t h e h e a d i n g s of §§ 1 and 2 ; also B ö t t c h e r , Lehrb. der hebr. Spr , i. Lpz. 1866, p 30 ff. ; L G e i g e r , Das Studium der Hebr. Spr. m Deutschi, vom Ende des jrr. bis zur Mitte des XVI. Jahrh., Breslau, 1 8 7 0 ; B . P i c k , ' T h e S t u d y of t h e H e b r e w L a n g u a g e a m o n g J e w s and C h r i s t i a n s , ' in Bibliotheca Sacra, 1884, p. 450 ff., a n d 1885, p. 470 ff. ; W . Bacher, a r t i c l e ' G r a m m a r ' m t h e Jew. Encyclopaedia, vol. v i , New Y o r k a n d L o n d o n , 1904. Cf. also t h e note on d.

1.

A t the time when the old Hebrew language was gradually a

becoming 1

extinct, and

the

formation

of

the

O. T.

canon

was

T ' n i n t h e M i n o r P r o p h e t s t h r o u g h o u t (Ho 3®, &c.) is d u e m e r e l y to

a caprice of t h e Masoretes. 2 A c c o r d i n g to t h e calculation of t h e D u t c h scholar L e u s d e n , the 0 . T . c o n t a i n s 5,642 d i f f e r e n t H e b i e w a n d A r a m a i c w o r d s ; a c c o r d i n g to r a b b i n i c a l calculations, 79,856 a l t o g e t h e r i n the P e n t a t e u c h . Cf. also E . Nestle, ZAW. 1906, p. 2P3 ; H . S t r a c k , ZAW. 1907, p. 69 ff.; B l a u , ' N e u e masoret. S t u d i e n , ' i n JQB. x v i . 357 ff., treats of the n u m b e r of l e t t e r s a n d w o r d s , a n d t h e versedivision i n t h e 0 . T .

cowlet

C [141]

*

18

Introduction

[§ 3 b

approaching completion, the Jews began to explain and critically revise their sacred text, and sometimes to translate it into the vernacular languages which in various countries had become current among them. The oldest translation is the Greek of the Seventy (more correctly Seventy-two) Interpreters (LXX), which was begun with the Pentateuch at Alexandria under Ptolemy Philadelphus, but only completed later. I t was the work of various authors, some of whom had a living knowledge of the original, and was intended for the use of Greek-speaking Jews, especially in Alexandria. Somewhat later the Aramaic translations, or Targums (D^linH i. e - interpretations), were formed by successive recensions made in Palestine and Babylonia. The explanations, derived in part from alleged tradition, refer almost exclusively to civil and ritual law and dogmatic theology, and are no more scientific in character than much of the textual tradition of that period. Both kinds of tradition are preserved in the Talmud, the first part of which, the Mima, was finally brought to its present form towards the end of the second century; of the remainder, the Gemära, one recension (the Jerusalem or Palestinian Gem.) about the middle of the fourth century, the other (the Babylonian Gem.) about the middle of the sixth century A.D. The MiSna forms the beginning of the New-Hebrew literature; the language of the Gemaras is for the most part Aramaic. b 2. To the interval between the completion of the Talmud and the earliest grammatical writers, belong mainly the vocalization and accentuation of the hitherto unpointed text of the O. T., according to the pronunciation traditional in the Synagogues and Schools (§ 7 h, i), as well as the greater part of the collection of critical notes which bears the name of Masöra (¡"HIDO traditio ?).* From this the text which has since been transmitted with rigid uniformity by the MSS., 1 On the name Masora (or Massora, as e. g. E. König, Einleitung in das A. T., p. 38 ff.; Lehrgeb. d. hebr. Sprache, ii. 358 £f.), and the great difficulty of satisfactorily explaining it, cf. De L.igarde, Mitteilungen, i. 91 ff. W . Bacher's derivation of the expression (in JQR. 1891, p. 785 ff. ; so also C. Levias in the Hebrew Union College Annual, Cincinnati, 1904, p. 147 if.) from E e 20s7 (rrnan n i b D ; ¡"HDO, i . e . r n p t o , being an equally legitimate form) is rightly rejected by König, 1. c. The correctness of the form m'DD (by the side of the equally well-attested form r n b l ? ) does not seem to us to be invalidated by his arguments, nor by Blau's proposal to read rniDtp ( JQR. xii. 241). The remark of Levias (I.e.) deserves notice, that with the earlier Masoretes m i D D is equivalent to orthography, i. e plene- and defective writing, and only later came to mean traditio.—G. Wildboer, in ZAW. 1909, p. 74, contends that as "IDD to hand on is not found in the 0. T., it must be a late denominative in this sense.

[142]

§ 3 c, tooth) a r e to be noticed, a m o n g s t others, for Daleth, Zain, Sin. C f . t h e tables i n Noldeke, Beitrage zur sem. Sprachwiss., p. 126 f. I n h i s opinion ( a n d so L i d z b a r s k i , Ephemeris, i. 134) t h e form a n d m e a n i n g of t h e n a m e s p o i n t to P h o e n i c i a as t h e original h o m e of t h e a l p h a b e t , since alf, bet, dalt, waw, taw, pei = pe, pi, m o u t h , a n d t h e v o w e l of pai = ros, h e a d , are all H e b r a e o - P h o e n i c i a n . 1 I n t h e e x c a v a t i o n s at Jericho in A p r i l , 1907, E. Sellin f o u n d a j a r - h a n d l e w i t h t h e C a n a a n i t e c h a r a c t e r s IT, w h i c h h e dates (probably too e a r l y ) a b o u t 1 £00 B c.

x >

[152]

§ 5 A] The Consonants: their Forms and Names

29

' P h o e n i c i a n ' letters r e a l l y d e n o t e t h e o r i g i n a l p i c t u r e . T h e i d e n t i t y of t h e objects m a y p e r h a p s be due s i m p l y to t h e choice of t h e c o m m o n e s t t h i n g s ( a n i m a l s , i m p l e m e n t s , l i m b s ) i n both systems. T h e d e r i v a t i o n of t h e S e m i t i c a l p h a b e t f r o m t h e s i g n s of t h e Zodiac a n d t h e i r n a m e s , first a t t e m p t e d b y S e y f f a r t h i n 1834, h a s been r e v i v e d b y W i n c k l e r , w h o r e f e r s t w e l v e f u n d a m e n t a l sounds to t h e B a b y l o n i a n Zodiac. H o m m e l connects t h e o r i g i n a l a l p h a b e t w i t h t h e m o o n a n d its phases, a n d c e r t a i n c o n s t e l l a t i o n s ; cf. L i d z b a r s k i , Ephemeris, i. 269 ff., a n d i n c o m p l e t e a g r e e m e n t w i t h h i m , B e n z i n g e r , Hebr. Archäologie', p. 173 ft'. T h i s t h e o r y is b y no m e a n s c o n v i n c i n g . (c) F r o m t h e h i e r o g l y p h i c s y s t e m of w r i t i n g discovered i n 1894 b y A . J . E v a n s i n i n s c r i p t i o n s i n Crete (esp. at Cnossus) a n d e l s e w h e r e . A c c o r d i n g to K l u g e (1897) a n d others, t h i s represents t h e ' M y c e n a e a n s c r i p t ' used about 3OOO-IOOO"B. C., a n d according to F r i e s (' D i e neuesten F o r s c h u n g e n über d. U r s p r . d e s p h o n i z . A l p h , ' in ZDPV. x x i i . 118 if.) r e a l l y supplies t h e o r i g i n a l f o r m s of t h e P h o e n i c i a n a l p h a b e t as b r o u g h t to P a l e s t i n e b y t h e P h i l i s t i n e s about 1100 B.C., b u t ' t h e P h o e n i c i a n - C a n a a n i t e - H e b r e w s g a v e to t h e M y c e n a e a n signs n a m e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e e a r l i e r c u n e i f o r m s i g n s ' . T h e h y p o t h e s i s of F r i e s is t h u s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h a t of D e l i t z s c h . But a l t h o u g h t h e d e r i v a t i o n of t h e P h o e n i c i a n f o r m s from ' M y c e n a e a n ' t y p e s appears i n some cases v e r y plausible, i n o t h e r s t h e r e are g r a v e difficulties, a n d m o r e o v e r t h e d a t e , 1100 B C., assigned for t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e a l p h a b e t is c l e a r l y too late. [See E v a n s , Scripta Mmoa, Oxf. 1909, p. 80 if.] (id) F r o m a s y s t e m , d e r i v e d f r o m A s i a M i n o r , closely related to t h e C y p r i o t e s y l l a b a r y (Praetorius, Der Urspr. des kanaan. Alphabets, B e r l i n , 1906). O n t h i s theory the Canaanites transformed the syllabic into an apparently alphabetic w r i t i n g . I n r e a l i t y , h o w e v e r , t h e y m e r e l y r e t a i n e d a single s i g n f o r t h e various s y l l a b l e s , so t h a t e. g. p LS n o t r e a l l y q, but qa, qe, qi, &c. Of t h e five C y p r i o t e v o w e l s also t h e y r e t a i n e d o n l y t h e s t a r (in C y p r i o t e = a) s i m p l i f i e d into a n 'älef (see a l p h a b e t i c a l table) to express t h e v o w e l s at the b e g i n n i n g of s y l l a b l e s , a n d i a n d u as Y o d and W a w . P r a e t o r i u s c l a i m s to e x p l a i n about h a l f t h e t w e n t y - t w o C a n a a n i t e l e t t e r s i n t h i s w a y , b u t t h e r e are v a r i o u s objections to h i s i n g e n i o u s h y p o t h e s i s . 2. A s to t h e order of t h e letters, w e possess e a r l y e v i d e n c e i n t h e a l p h a b e t i c 1 Ji p o e m s : ip 9 (N—3, cf. tp 10 1 and vv 1 2 ~ 1 7 p-]"l ; cf. G r a y i n t h e Expositor, 1906, p. 233 ff., a n d E o s e n t h a i , ZAW. 1896, p. 40, w h o s h o w s t h a t ip g 3 -' 5 - 17 3 3 e x a c t l y fit i n b e t w e e n n, D, a n d t h a t f i o 1 , 3 6 therefore h a s t h e r e v e r s e order ^ i) ; also ^ 2 5 a n d 34 (both w i t h o u t a separate 1-verse a n d w i t h B repeated at t h e e n d 2 ) ; 37, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 9 (in w h i c h e v e r y e i g h t v e r s e s b e g i n w i t h t h e same letter, each strophe, as discovered b y D. H . M ü l l e r of V i e n n a , c o n t a i n i n g t h e e i g h t l e a d i n g w o r d s of \p 19 8 ff, törä, 'edüth, &c.) ; L a 1 - 4 (in 2-4 S before V 3 , i n chap. 3 e v e r y t h r e e v e r s e s w i t h t h e same i n i t i a l , see L o h r , ZAW. 1904, p. I ff., i n chap. 5 at a n y r a t e as m a n y verses as l e t t e r s i n t h e a l p h a b e t ) ; P r 24 1 ' 3 5, 3110-si (in t h e L X X w i t h a before V s ) ; also i n N a i 2 " 1 0 P a s t o r F r o h n m e y e r of W ü r t t e m b e r g (ob. 1880) d e t e c t e d traces of an a l p h a betic a r r a n g e m e n t , b u t t h e a t t e m p t of G u n k e l , B i c k e l l , A r n o l d {ZAW. 1901, 1 On t h e supposed c o n n e x i o n of t h i s a r t i f i c i a l a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h m a g i c a l f o r m u l a e ( ' t h e o r d e r of t h e letters w a s b e l i e v e d to h a v e a sort of m a g i c p o w e r ' ) cf. L o h r , ZAW. 1905, p. 173 ff., and Klagelieder2, Gott. 1907, p. v i i ff. 2 On t h i s superfluous a cf. G r i m m e , Euphemistic liturgical appendices, L p z . 1901, p. 8 ff., a n d Nestle, ZAW. 1903, p. 340f., w h o considers it a n a p p e n d a g e to t h e Greek a l p h a b e t . 3 [ P e r h a p s also o r i g i n a l l y i n if 34.] S before V is p r o b a b l y d u e to a m a g i c

a l p h a b e t , see above, n. 1. A c c o r d i n g to B ö h m e r , ZAW. 1908, p. 53 ff., t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s 3 K , "U, i n , &c., were used i n m a g i c a l t e x t s ; DJ? w a s e x c l u d e d , b u t b y a r e a r r a n g e m e n t w e get ?|D a n d f y .

[153]

30

The Individual Sounds and Characters

[§ 5 i-m

p. 225 ff.), H a p p e l {Her Ps. Nah , Wiirzb. 1900) to discover f u r t h e r traces, h a s not been successful. [Cf. G r a y in Expositor, 1898, p. 207 if.; D r i v e r , i n t h e C e n t u r y Bible, Nahum, p.26.]—Bickell, Ztschr f . Kath. Theol.,iSS2, p. 319 ff., h a d already deduced f r o m t h e versions t h e a l p h a b e t i c a l character of Ecclus 5 i l s - s o , w i t h t h e omission of t h e 1-verse a n d w i t h B 1 a t t h e e n d . H i s c o n j e c t u r e s h a v e been b r i l l i a n t l y confirmed b y t h e discovery of t h e H e b r e w original, a l t h o u g h t h e order f r o m 3 to is p a r t l y d i s t u r b e d or obscured. If 1 before X is deleted, t e n l e t t e r s a r e in t h e i r r i g h t positions, a n d seven can be restored to t h e i r places w i t h c e r t a i n t y . Cf N. Schlogl, ZDMG. 53, 669 if. ; C. Taylor i n t h e a p p e n d i x to Schechter a n d Taylor, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, Cambr. 1899, p. lxxvi ff., a n d i n t h e Joum. of Philol., x x x (1906), p. 95 ff. ; JQB. 190?, p. 238 ff.; Ldhr, ZAW. 1905, p. 183 ff. ; I . Levy, REJ. 1907, p. 62 ff. T h e sequence of t h e t h r e e softest labial, palatal, a n d d e n t a l s o u n d s *i a n d of t h e t h r e e l i q u i d s D, i n d i c a t e s a n a t t e m p t a t classification. A t t h e same t i m e o t h e r considerations also appear to have h a d influence. T h u s i t is certainly not accidental, t h a t two letters, r e p r e s e n t i n g a h a n d {Tod, Kaph), as also two (if Qoph = back of the h e a d ) w h i c h represent t h e head, a n d i n general several f o r m s d e n o t i n g objects n a t u r a l l y connected (Mem a n d Nun, • 'Ayin a n d Pe), s t a n d n e x t to one a n o t h e r . 2 The order, n a m e s , a n d n u m e r i c a l values of t h e l e t t e r s h a v e passed over f r o m t h e P h o e n i c i a n s to t h e Greeks, i n whose a l p h a b e t t h e letters A to T a i e borrowed f r o m t h e Old Semitic. So also t h e Old I t a l i c a l p h a b e t s as well as t h e R o m a n , a n d consequently all alphabets derived either f r o m t h i s or f r o m t h e Greek, are directly or i n d i r e c t l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e P h o e n i c i a n . K 3. a. I n d e f a u l t of special a r i t h m e t i c a l figures, t h e consonants w e r e used also as n u m e r i c a l s i g n s ; cf. G. G u n d e r m a n n , Die Zahlzeichen, Giessen, 1899, p. 6 f., a n d Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, i. 106 ff. T h e earliest traces of t h i s usage are, however, first f o u n d on t h e Maccabean coins (see above, § 2 d, e n d ) . These n u m e r i c a l l e t t e r s w e r e a f t e r w a r d s c o m m o n l y employed, e.g. f o r m a r k i n g t h e n u m b e r s of c h a p t e r s a n d verses in t h e editions of t h e Bible. T h e u n i t s a r e denoted by K-t2, t h e t e n s by 1—X, 100-400 by p—J1, t h e n u m b e r s f r o m 500-900 by n ( = 400), w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e r e m a i n i n g h u n d r e d s , e . g . pfl 500. I n c o m p o u n d n u m b e r s t h e g r e a t e r precedes (on t h e right), t h u s iO 11, t O p 121. B u t 15 is expressed b y 1D 9 + 6, n o t PP ( w h i c h is a f o r m of t h e d i v i n e name, being t h e first t w o c o n s o n a n t s of ffirP).a For a s i m i l a r reason Tt3 is also m o s t l y w r i t t e n for 16, instead of V, w h i c h i n c o m p o u n d p r o p e r names, like ^ K i ' , also r e p r e s e n t s t h e n a m e of God, ffirP. T h e t h o u s a n d s a r e s o m e t i m e s denoted b y t h e u n i t s w i t h two dots placed above, e. g. X 1000. I

b. T h e r e c k o n i n g of t h e y e a r s in J e w i s h w r i t i n g s (generally PPPX^ aftei the creation) follows e i t h e r t h e full chronology

or 'J ' S ^ ) , w i t h t h e

a d d i t i o n of t h e t h o u s a n d s , or t h e abridged chronology (¡lDp 'B^), i n w h i c h t h e y a r e omitted. I n t h e dates of t h e first t h o u s a n d years a f t e r Christ, t h e Christian era is obtained by t h e a d d i t i o n of 240, in t h e second t h o u s a n d years b y t h e a d d i t i o n of 1240 (i. e. if t h e date falls between J a n . 1 a n d t h e J e w i s h n e w y e a r ; otherwise a d d 1239), t h e t h o u s a n d s of t h e Creation e r a being o m i t t e d . HI 4. Abbreviations of words are n o t f o u n d i n t h e text of t h e 0 . T., b u t t h e y occur on coins, a n d t h e i r use is e x t r e m e l y f r e q u e n t amongst t h e l a t e r Jews. 2 1

See n o t e 3 on p . 29. On t h e rise of t h i s custom (IT h a v i n g been originally used a n d a f t e r w a r d s \-|), cf. Nestle i n ZAW. 1884, p. 250, w h e r e a t r a c e of t h i s m e t h o d of w r i t i n g occurring as early as Origen is noted. ' Cf. Jo. Buxtorf, De abbreiiaturis Heir., Basel, 1613, &c. ; P i e t r o Perreau. 2

[154]

§5 n, 6 o] The Consonants:

their Forms and Names

31

A point, or later an oblique stroke, serves as the sign of abridgement in old MSS. and editions, e. g. ' E " for

' 3 for ^ S b aliquis, 'T for " D l aliqutd,

"IjI for " i p i j l el complens, i. e. and so on.

Also in the middle of what is

apparently a word, sueh strokes ndicate that it is an abbreviation or a vox memorialis (cf. e. g. § 15 d d"ND).

T w o such strokes are employed, f r o m § 41 d

onward, to mark the different classes of weak verbs.—Note also ^ or " ' n ) for n j n v

(also

T!

5. Peculiarities in the tradition of the O. T . text, which are already )/ mentioned in the Talmud, are—(1) T h e 15 puncta extraordinaria, about which the tradition (from Siphri on Nu 910 onwards) differs considerably, even as to their n u m b e r ; on particular consonants, Gn 166, 189, ic)33-35, Nu 9 1 0 ; or on whole words, Gn 33*, 37", Nu 3s9, 21s0, 2916, Dt 29s8, 2 S 192», I s 44®, Ez 412» 46s2, \p 27 13 ,—all no doubt critical marks ; cf. Strack, Prolegomena Critica, p. 88 ff.; L . Blau, Masoretische Untersuchungen, Strassburg, 1891, p. 6 if., and Einleitung in die hi Schrift, Budapest, 1894; KOnigsberger, Jud. Lit.-Blatt, 1891, nos. 29-31, and Aus Masorah u. Talmudkritik, Berlin, 1892, p. 6 ff.; Mayer-Lambert, EEJ. 30 (1895), no. 59 ; and especially Ginsburg, Introd., p. 318 ff. ; also on the ten points found i n the Pentateuch, see Butin (Baltimore, 1906), who considers that they are as old as the Christian era and probably mark a letter, &c., to be deleted. ( 2 ) T h e hterae majusculae (e.g. 2 Gn i 1 , 1 L v 1142 as the m i d d l e consonant of the Pentateuch, 1 Nu 1417), and minusculae (e. g. ¡1 Gn 2 4 ). ( 3 ) T h e literae suspensas (Ginsburg, Introd., p. 334 ff.) 3 Ju 1830 (which points to tlio reading HE'D for nt5>?0), 1? ^ 8014 (the middle of the Psalms and Jb 3813-15. ( 4 ) The ' m u t i l a t e d ' Waw in O^B» N u 2512, and p E x 3225 (dn^ttpn), and Nu y2 ( D H I p S n ) . ( 5 ) Mém clausum in m i D ^ I s 9®, and Mem apertum in C X n S t3D Neh 213. (6) Nún inversum before N u 1c35, and after ver. 36, as also before ip io7 23-28 and 40 ; according to Ginsburg, Introd., p. 341 ff., a sort of bracket to indicate that the verses are out of place; cf. Krauss, ZAW. 1902, p. 5 7 ff., w h o regards the inverted Nuns as an imitation of the Greek obelus.

§ 6. Pronunciation and Division of Consonants. P. Haupt, ' D i e Semit. Sprachlaute u. ihre Umschrift,' in Beiträge nur Assyriologie u. vergleich, semit. Sprachwissenschaft, by Delitzsch and Haupt, i, L p z . 1889, 249 ff.; E. Sievers, Metrische Studien, i, Lpz. 1 9 0 1 , p. 14 ff.

1. A n accurate knowledge of the original phonetic value of each a consonant is of the greatest importance, since very many grammatical peculiarities and changes ( § 1 8 ff.) only become intelligible from the nature and pronunciation of the sounds.

This knowledge is obtained

partly from the pronunciation of the kindred dialects, especially the still living Arabic, partly by observing the affinity and interchange Oceano delle abbreviature e sigle2, Parma, 1883 (appendix, 1884); Ph. Lederer, Hebr. u. Chald. Abbreviaturen, Frankf. 1893; Handler, Lexicon d. Abbreviaturen (annexed to G. Dalman's Aram.-neuhebr. WB., Frankf. 1897) ; Levias, art. ' Abbreviations,' in the Jew. Encycl., i. 39 ff.; F. Perles, ' Zur Gesch. der Abbrev. im H e b r . ' (Archiv f. Stenogr., 1902, p. 41 ff.). On abbreviations in biblical MSS. see Ginsburg, Introd., 165 if. 1 According to Blau, Studien sum althebr. Buchwesen, Strassburg, 1902, p. 167, properly a large J?, called t'lüyä because suspended between the t w o halves of the Psalter, and then incorrectly taken for a littera suspenso.

[155]

32

The Individual Sounds and Characters

[§ 6 b-e

of sounds on Hebrew itself (§ 19), and partly from the tradition of the Jews.1 The pronunciation of Hebrew by t h e modern German Jews, which p a r t l y resembles the Syriac and is generally called ' P o l i s h d i f f e r s considerably from t h a t of t h e Spanish and Portuguese Jews, which approaches nearer to t h e Arabic. The pronunciation of Hebrew by Christians follows t h e latter (after t h e example of Eeuchlin), in almost all cases. b The oldest tradition is presented in the transcription of H e b r e w names in Assyrian cuneiform ; a later, b u t yet in its way very important system is seen in the m a n n e r in which t h e LXX transcribe Hebrew names w i t h Greek letters.' As, however, corresponding signs for several sounds V, S, p, E*) are w a n t i n g in t h e Greek alphabet, only an approximate representation was possible in these cases. The same applies to t h e L a t i n transcription of H e b r e w words by Jerome, according to the Jewish pronunciation of h i s time. 3 On t h e pronunciation of t h e modern J e w s in North Africa, see Barges i n t h e Journ. Asiat., Nov. 1848; on t h a t of t h e South Arabian Jews, J. Derenbourg, Manuel du lecteur, &c. (from a Y e m e n MS. of t h e year 1390), Paris, 1871 (extrait 6 du Journ. Asiat. 1870).

C

2. With regard to the pronunciation of the several gutturals and sibilants, and of D and p, it may be remarked :—

1. Among t h e gutturals, t h e glottal stop X is t h e lightest, corresponding to the spiritus lems of t h e Greeks. I t may stand either at t h e beginning or end of a syllable, e. g. "IOX 'amar, DEW ya'sam. Even be/ore a vowel N is almost lost to our ear, like t h e h in hour a n d in t h e F r e n c h habit,, homme. After a vowel X generally (and at t h e end of a word, always) coalesces w i t h it, e. g. qara for an original qara', Arab, qara'a ; see further, § 23 a, 27 g. d n before a vowel corresponds exactly to our h (spiritus asper); a f t e r a vowel it is either a g u t t u r a l (so always at the e n d of a syllable which is not final, e. g. TJSni nahpakh ; at t h e end of a word t h e consonantal H has a point —Mappiq—in it, see § 14), or it stands inaudible at t h e end of a word, generally as a mere orthographic indication of a preceding vowel, e. g. nbs gala ; cf. § § 7 6 a n d 75 a. C v is related to X, but is a much stronger guttural. I t s strongest sound is a rattled, guttural g, cf. e.g. ¡HJJ, LXX Tafo, r n b j ! T6pop£a; elsewhere, a weaker sound of t h e same kind, which t h e LXX reproduce by a spiritus (Jmis or asper), e g. 'HAi, pboj? 'A/taXix.* I n t h e m o u t h of the Arabs one hears in t h e former case a sort ot guttural r, i n t h e latter a sound peculiar to t h e m selves formed in t h e back of t h e t h r o a t . — I t is as incorrect to omit t h e y 1 Cf. C. Meinhof, ' D i e Aussprache des Hebr.,' in Neue Jahrb. f . Philol. u. Pädag., 1885, Bd. 132, p. 146 ff. ; M. Schreiner, ' Z u r Gesch. der Ausspr. des Hebr.,' in ZAW. 1886, p. 213 if. 2 Cf. Frankel, Vorstudien su der Septuag., Lpz. 1841, p. go if.; C. Könneke, ' Gymn.-Progr.,' Stargard, 1885. On t h e transcription of eleven Psalms in a palimpsest fragment of t h e Hexapla at Milan, see Mercati, Atti delta R. Accad., xxxi, Turin, 1896. [Cf. B u r k i t t , Fragments of. . . Aquila, Cambr. 1897, P- I3-] 3 Numerous examples occur in Hieronymi quaestiones hebraicae in libro geneseos, edited by P. de Lagarde, Lpz. 1868; cf. t h e exhaustive and systematic discussion by Siegfried, ' D i e Aussprache des Hebr. bei Hieronymus,' in ZAW: 1884, pp. 34-83. 4 I t is, however, doubtful if t h e LXX always consciously aimed at reproducing t h e actual differences of sound.

[156]

§6/-»] Pronunciation and Division of Consonants 33 entirely, in reading and transcribing words ( ' b y Eli, p^DJJ Amalek), as to pronounce it exactly like g or like a nasal ng. T h e stronger sound might be approximately transcribed by gh or rg ; but since in H e b r e w the softer sound was the more common, it is sufficient to represent it by the sign as 3?3"1i< 'aria', TJI 'ad. n is the strongest guttural sound, a deep guttural ch, as heard generally in Swiss German, somewhat as in the German Achat, Macht, Sache, Bocht, Zucht (not as i n Licht, Knecht), and similar to the Spanish j. L i k e J? it was, however, pronounced in many words feebly, i n others strongly. A s regards 1, its pronunciation as a palatal ( w i t h a vibrating uvula) seems to have been the prevailing one. Hence in some respects it is also classed w i t h the gutturals (§ 22 q, r). On the lingual "I, cf. § 6 0.

j

2. The Hebrew language is unusually rich in sibilants. These have, at any fa rate in some cases, arisen f r o m dentals which are retained as such in A r a m a i e and Arabic (see in the Lexicon the letters T, 5? and £>). E> and < ' £> were originally represented (as is still the case in the unpointed I texts) by only one form tP ; but than the use of this one f o r m to express t w o different sounds (at least in H e b r e w ) was due only to the poverty of the alphabet, is clear f r o m the fact that they are differentiated in Arabic and Ethiopic (cf. Noldeke in Ztschr.f. wissensch. Theol., 1873, p. 121 ; Brockelmann, Grundriss, i. 133). I n the Masoretic punctuation they were distinguished b y means of the diacritical point as E> (sh) and b* (J)-1 T h e original difference between the sounds B* and D 2 sometimes marks A' a distinction in meaning, e. g. ~OD to close, "OK* to hire, be prudent, to be wise.

to be foolish,

to

Syriac always represents both sounds by 0, and i n

H e b r e w also they are sometimes interchanged; as "13D for

to hire, E z r 4 5 ;

ilii'Sb' for Tfb^D folly, Ec i 17 . T (transcribed £ by the L X X ) is a soft whizzing s, the French and English z, / altogether different f r o m the German z (fe). 3. D, p, and probably X are pronounced w i t h a strong articulation and 1)1 w i t h a compression of the larynx. The first t w o are thus essentially different from n and 3, which correspond to our t and k and also are often aspirated (see below, ri). X is distinguished f r o m every other s by its peculiar articulation, and i n no w a y corresponds to the German z or ts; w e transcribe it by ; cf. G. Hiising, ' Zum Lautwer te des iV in OLZ. x. 467 ff.

3. Six consonants, the weak and middle hard Palatals, Dentals, n and Labials

n D 3 1 ) 3 (nS31;3)

have a twofold pronunciation, ( 1 ) a harder sound, as mutes, like 1

The modern Samaritans, howe\er, in reading their Hebrew Pentateuch

pronounce C? invariably as E>. 2 The original value of D, and its relation to the original value of B* and ti}, is still undetermined, despite the valuable investigations of P . Haupt, ZDMG. 1880, p. 762 f. ; D. H . Müller, ' Zur Geschichte der semit. Zischlaute,' i n the Verhandlungen des Wiener Orient. Congresses, Vienna, 1888, Semitic section, p. 229 fr. ; De Lagarde, 'Samech,' in the NGGW. 1891, no. 5, esp. p. 173; Aug. Müller, ZAW. 1891, p. 267 ff.; Voldcko, ZDMG. 1893, p. 100 f. ; E. Glaser, Zwei Wiener Publtcattonen über Habaschi '.isch-punische Dialekte in Sudarabien, Munich, 1902, pp. 19 ff.—On the phonetic value of If see G. Hüsing, OLZ. 1907, p. 467 ff.

COWLEY

J)

[157]

*

34

The Individual Sounds and Characters

[§ 6 o, p

k, p, t, or initial b, g (hard), d; and (2) a softer sound as spirantes.1 The harder sound is the original. It is retained at the beginning of syllables, when there is no vowel immediately preceding to influence the pronunciation, and is denoted by a point, Dages lene (§ 13), placed in the consonants, viz. 3 b, 3 g, 'n d, 3 k, a p, n t. The weaker pronunciation appears as soon as a vowel sound immediately precedes. I t is occasionally denoted, esp. in MSS., by Raphe (§14 e), but in printed texts usually by the mere absence of the Dages. In the case of 3, 3, 3, n, the two sounds are clearly distinguishable even to our ear as b and v, k and German (weak) ch, p and ph, t and th (in thin). The Greeks too express this twofold pronunciation by special characters : 3 K, 3 X > B ""> s 4* 5 n T> A the same way 3 should be pronounced like the North German g in Tage, Wagen, and *1 like th in the, as distinguished from 3 and 1. For more precise information on the cases in w h i c h the one or the other pronunciation takes place, see § 21. T h e modern J e w s pronounce the aspirated 3 as v, the aspirated D as s, e.g. 3 ^ rav (or even r a f ) , J V 3 bais. The customary transcription (used also in this Grammar) of the spirants 3 3 , ¡1 by bh, kh, th is only an unsatisfactory makeshift, since it may lead (esp. in the case of bh and kh) to an erroneous conception of the sounds as real aspirates, b-h, k-h.

O

4. According to their special character the consonants are divided into— n v n N; (a) Gutturalsp 3 J; (b) Palatals n B T; (c) Dentals (d) Labials B 3; (e) Sibilants X D i ? l ? t ; ( / ) Sonants < 1 , i n , 0 3.

In the case of 1 its hardest pronunciation as a palatal (see above, g, end) is to be distinguished from its more unusual sound as a lingual, pronounced in the front of the mouth. On the twofold pronunciation of r in Tiberias, cf. Delitzsch, Physiol, und Musik, Lpz. 1868, p. 1 0 fF.; Baer and Strack, Dikduke ha-famim, Lpz. 1879, p. 5, note a, and § 7 of the Hebrew text, as well as p. 82.

p

In accordance with E. Sievers, Metrische Studien, i. 14, the following scheme of the Hebrew phonetic system is substituted for the table formerly given in this grammar :— i. Throat sounds (Gutturals) : S (1 Jl n. 1

So at any rate at the time when the present punctuation arose.

[158]

§ 6q-s. 7«] Pronunciation

and Division of Consonants 35 w.

ii. Mouth-sounds: i . Mutes and Spirants :

Palatal

3

m.

e.

3

P

Dental

1

A

D

Labial

3

0

—

2. Sibilants :

î

3. Sonants :

M

D

h

V 1

w.

m.

3 i

3 n

3

S

X DJ

Eem. 1. The meaning of the letters at t h e top is, w. = weak, m. = middle (J hard, e. = emphatic. Consonants which are produced by the same organ of speech are called homorganic (e.g. J and 3 as palatals), consonants whose sound is of t h e same nature homogeneous (e.g. 1 and 1 as semi-vowels). On their homorganic character and homogeneity depends the possibility of interchange, whether within Hebrew itself or w i t h the kindred dialects. In such cases the soft sound generally interchanges with the soft, the hard with the hard, &c. (e.g. T=T, n^E*, ¡D = X). Further transitions are not, however, excluded, as e. g. the in) erchange of D and p (fi = 3 = p). Here it is of importance to observe whether the change takes place in an initial, medial, or final letter ; since e.g. the change in a letter when medial does not always prove the possibility of the change when initial. That in certain cases the character of the consonantal sound also influences the preceding or following vowel will be noticed in the accidence as the instances occur. Eem. 2. Yery probably in course of time certain nicer distinctions of T pronunciation became more and more neglected and finally were lost. Thus e.g. the stronger JJ 'g, which was known to the LXX (see above, e), became in m a n y cases altogether lost to the later J e w s ; by the Samaritans and Galileans JJ and n were pronounced merely as X, and so in Ethiopic, J? like X, n like h, E> like s. Eem. 3. The consonants which it is usual to describe especially as weak, S are those which readily coalesce with a preceding vowel to form a long vowel, viz. X, 1, 1 (as to H, cf. § 23 h), or those which are most frequently affected by the changes described in § ig b-l, as again K, 1, and 2, and in certain cas.es H and ^ ; finally the gutturals and T for t h e reason given in § 22 b and q.

§ 7. The Vowels in General, Vowel Letters and Vowel Signs. 1 . The original vowels in Hebrew, as in the other Semitic tongues, a are a, i, u. E and o always arise from an obscuring or contraction of these three pure sounds, viz. e by modification from 2 or a ; short o from u; e by contraction fiom ai (properly ay)\ and 0 sometimes by modification (obscuring) from d, sometimes by contraction from au (properly aw).1 I n Arabic writing there are vowel signs only for a, i, u; the combined sounds ay and aw are therefore retained uncontracted and pronounced as diphthongs (ai and aw), e. g. BIB* Arab, saui, and D ^ y Arab, 'ainain. I t was 1 I n proper names t h e LXX often use the diphthongs ai and ai where t h e Hebrew form has e or 0. It is, however, very doubtful whether t h e ai and av of the LXX really represent the true pronunciation of Hebrew of that time ; see the instructive statistics given, by Kittel in Haupt's SBOT., on 1 Gh i2•20, D 2

[159]

36

The Individual

Sounds and Characters

[§ 7 b-d

only in later Arabic that they became in pronunciation e and o, at least after weaker or softer consonants; cf. Arab, bain, ben, dV Arab, yaum, yam. The same contraction appears also in other languages, e. g. in Greek and

Latin (Bav/ia, Ionic 6wpa ; plaustrum — plostrum), in the French pronunciation of ai and au, and likewise in the German popular dialects (Oge for Auge, See.). Similarly, the obscuring of the vowels plays a part in various languages (cf. e g. the a in modern Persian, Swedish, English, &C.).1

b

2. The partial expression of the vowels by certain consonants (n, 1, 8), which sufficed during the lifetime of the language, and for a still longer period afterwards (cf. § I k), must in the main have passed through the following stages 2 : — {a) The need of a written indication of the vowel first made itself felt in cases where, after the rejection of a consonant, or of an entire syllable, a long vowel formed the final sound of the word. The first step in such a case was to retain the original final consonant, at least as a vowel letter, i. e. merely as an indication of a final vowel. In point of fact we find even in the Old Testament, as already in the Mesa' inscription, a n employed in this way (see below) as an indication of a final o. From this it was only a step to the employment of the same consonant to indicate also other vowels when final (thus, e.g. in the inflection of the verbs rf'b, the vowels a,3 e, e). A f t e r the employment of 1 as a vowel letter for 6 and 4, and of * for e and i, had beeti established (see below, e) these consonants were also employed—although not consistently—for the same vowels at the end of a word.

C

According to § 91 b and d, the suffix of the 3rd sing. masc. in the noun (as in the verb) was originally pronounced i n . But in the places where this in with a preceding a is contracted into 0 (after the rejection of the ¡1), w e find the H still frequently retained as a Vowel letter, e.g. nTJJ, ilhiD Gn 49 11 , cf. § 91 e; so throughout the Mesa' inscription nS"]^ niV3 (also n n 3 ) t n j a , na, f 6 , n b n n b n ; on the other hand already in the Siloam inscription iy-i ,4 no11 Mesa', 1.8 = his days is unusual, as also ilCH 1. 20 if it is for W S H his chiefs. The verbal forms with H suffixed are to be read nS^n'l (1. 6), r o n p w (1.12 f.) and n e n r i (i. 19).

(J

A s an example of the original consonant being retained, w e might also include the < of the constr. state plur. masc. if its e (according to § 89 d) is 1 I n Sanskrit, in the Old Persian cuneiform, and in Ethiopic, short a alone of all the vowels is not represented, but the consonant by itself is pronounced with short a.

2

Cf. especially Stade, Lehrb. der hebr. Or., p. 34 ff.

According to Stade, the employment of fl for a probably took place first in the case of the locative accusatives w h i c h originally ended in 3

n— , as n rs i: s- ,• nonp. T t ''t

4 The form 1JH contradicts the v i e w of Oort, Theol. Tijds., 1902, p. 374, that the above instances from the Mesa'-inscription are to be read benhu, bahu, lahu, w h i c h were afterwards vocalized as beno, bo, lo.

[160]

§ 7 ?,/]

Vowel Letters and Vowel Signs

37

contracted from an original ay. Against this, however, it may be urged that the Phoenician inscriptions do not usually express this e, nor any other final vowel. 1 (b) T h e employment of 1 to denote 6, 4, and of i to denote e, i, may C have resulted from those cases in which a 1 w i t h a preceding a was contracted into au and further to o, or with a preceding u into

and where

11

coalesced

with a has been contracted into ai and further

to e, or w i t h a preceding i into i (cf. § 24).

In this case the previously

existing consonants were retained as vowel letters and were further applied at the end of the word to denote the respective long vowels. F i n a l l y K also will in the

first

instance

have established itself as

a vowel letter only where a consonantal K w i t h a preceding a had coalesced into d or a. The orthography of the Siloam inscription corresponds almost exactly with f the above assumptions. Here (as in the Mesa' inscr.) we find all the long ' vowels, which have not arisen from original diphthongs, without vowel letters, thus m t D3Xh, JO"1» (or ¡lp>0) ; nfeS, bp, V b p , I S . On the other hand Ni'itD (from mausa'), "liji (from 'aud) ; ¡D'tD also, if it is to be read JO'IO, is an instance of the retention of a 11 which has coalesced with i into i. Instances of the retention of an originally consonantal N as a vowel letter are DTIND, NS1D, and iOP, as also B'N"). Otherwise final a is always represented by n: TOK, , m i t r n p j . To this D5 alone would form an exception (cf. however the note on Dii, § 96), instead of DV (Arab, yaum) day, which one would expect. If the reading be correct, this is to be regarded as an argument that a consciousness of the origin of many long vowels was lost at an early period, so that (at least in the middle of the word) the vowel letters were omitted in places where they should stand, according to what has been stated above, and added where there was no case of contraction. This view is in a great measure confirmed by the orthography of the Mesa' inscription. There we find, as might be expected, ( = Daibon, as the Aaifiaiv of the L X X proves), f j i i n (0 from au), and nh'l3 (e from ai), but also even »iJB'n 2 instead of »JJJB^n (from haws-), 3t?K1 = S^IXJ, I"I3 four times, nha once, for 1V3 and niT3 (from bail) ; ni^> = rW>, ¡ N - ^ or pK. 1

Thus there occurs, e.g. in Melit. 1, 1. 3 333C =''¡p

elsewhere 3 for ''S (but

the two sons;

in the Mesa' and Siloam inscrr.), t for n j (the

latter in the Siloam inscr.), 1133 = W S (so Me§a') or TM3, &c. Cf. on the other hand in Mesa', = (unless it was actually pronounced 'anohh by the Moabites!). As final a is represented by H and K and final i by 1, so final u is almost everywhere expressed by 1 in Mciiia', and always in the Siloam inscription. It is indeed not impossible that Hebrew orthography also once passed thiough a period ip which the final vowels were left always or sometimes undenoted, and that not a few strange forms in the present text of the Bible are to be explained from the fact that subsequently the vowel letters (especially 1 and were not added in all cases. So Chwolson, ' Die Quiescentia '•in in der althebr.Orthogr.,' in Traiaux dn Congres ... des Onentahstes, Petersb. 1876 ; cf. numerous instances in Ginsburg, Introd., p. 146 FF. a i W n is the more strange since the name of king yK'in is represented as A u st' in cuneiform as late as 728 E.G.

[161]

38 g

The Individual Sounds and Characters

[§ 7 g, h

(c) I n the present state of O l d T e s t a m e n t vocalization as it appears i n the Masoretic text, the s t r i v i n g after a certain u n i f o r m i t y cannot be

mistaken, in spite of t h e inconsistencies w h i c h h a v e c r e p t

in.

T h u s the final long vowel is, w i t h v e r y f e w exceptions (cf. § 9 d, and the v e r y doubtful cases i n § 8 k), indicated b y a vowel l e t t e r — and almost a l w a y s b y the same letter i n c e r t a i n nominal and v e r b a l I n many cases the use of 1 to m a r k an o or u, arising f r o m

endings.

contraction, and of seldom

find

11

for e or %, is b y far the more common, w h i l e w e

an o r i g i n a l l y consonantal

K rejected, and the

simple

phonetic principle t a k i n g the place of the historical o r t h o g r a p h y . On the other hand the n u m b e r of exceptions is v e r y great. cases (as e.g. in the plural endings habitually

employed

to

express

In many

and ni) the v o w e l letters are do not

arise

t h r o u g h contraction, a n d w e even find short v o w e l s indicated.

long v o w e l s

which

The

conclusion is, that if there ever w a s a period of H e b r e w w r i t i n g w h e n the application of fixed l a w s to all cases w a s intended, either these l a w s w e r e not consistently c a r r i e d out in t h e f u r t h e r transmission of the t e x t , or errors and confusion a f t e r w a r d s crept into i t .

More-

over much remained uncertain even in t e x t s w h i c h w e r e p l e n t i f u l l y provided w i t h v o w e l letters.

F o r , a l t h o u g h in most cases t h e context

w a s a g u i d e to the correct reading, y e t there w e r e also cases w h e r e , of t h e many possible w a y s of p r o n o u n c i n g a word, more than one appeared h

admissible. 1

3. W h e n the l a n g u a g e had died out, the a m b i g u i t y of such a w r i t i n g must h a v e been found continually more troublesome ; and as there was thus a danger that the correct pronunciation m i g h t be

finally

lost, the vowel signs or v o w e l p o i n t s w e r e invented in order to fix it. B y means of these points e v e r y t h i n g h i t h e r t o left uncertain w a s most a c c u r a t e l y settled.

It

is true t h a t there is no historical

account

of the date of this vocalization of the 0 . T. t e x t , y e t w e m a y at least infer, f r o m a comparison of other historical facts, t h a t i t w a s g r a d u a l l y developed by J e w i s h g r a m m a r i a n s in the sixth a n d seventh centuries A.D. u n d e r the influence of different Schools, traces of which have been preserved to the present time in various differences of tradition. 2

T h e y mainly followed, though w i t h independent regard to

1 Thus e. g. can be read qatal, qatal, qutol, if tol, qofel, qittel, qattel, quttal, qetel, and several of these forms have also different senses. 2 The most important of these differences are, (a) those between the Orientals, i. e. the scholars of the Babylonian Schools, and the Occidentals, i e. the scholars of Palestine (Tiberias, &,«.); cf. Grinsburg, Introd., p. 197 f f . ; (6) amongst the Occidentals, between Ben-Naphtali and Ben-Asher, who flourished in the first half of the tenth century at Tiberias; cf. Ginsburg, Introd., p. 241 ff. Both sets of variants are given by Baer in the appendices

[162]

§§ 7*>8]

Vowel Letters and Vowel Signs

39

the peculiar nature of the Hebrew, the example and pattern of the older Syrian punctuation. 1 See Gesenius, Gesch. d. hebr. Spr., p. 182 ff. ; H u p f e l d , i n Theol. Studien u. Kritiken, 1830, pt. iii, w h o s h o w s t h a t n e i t h e r J e r o m e n o r t h e T a l m u d m e n t i o n s v o w e l s i g n s ; B e r l i n e r , Beitrage zur hebr. Gramm, im Talm. w. Midrasch, p. 26 ff. ; a n d B . P i c k , i n Hebraica, i. 3, p. 153 ff. ; A b r . Geiger, ' Z u r N a k d a n i m [ P u n c t u a t o r s - ] L i t e r a t u r , ' i n Jud. Ztschr. für Wissensch, u. Leben, x. B r e s l a u , 1872, p. 10 if. ; H . S t r a c k , Prolegomena critica m Vet. Test. Hebr., L i p s . 1873 ; ' B e i t r a g z u r G e s c h . des hebr. B i b e l t e x t e s , ' i n Theol. Stud. u. Eni., 1875, p. 736 ff., as also i n t h e Ztschr. f . die ges. luth. Theol u. K, 1875, p. 619 ff.; ' Massorah,' i n t h e Protest. Beal.-Enc?, x i i . 393 ff. (a good outline) ; A . M e r x , i n t h e Verhandlungen des Orientalistenkongresses su Berlin, i. B e r l i n , 1881, p. 164 ff. and p. 188 ff.; H . G r a e t z , ' D i e A n f a n g e d e r V o k a l z e i c h e n i m H e b r . , ' i n Monatsschr. f. Gesch. u. Wissensch, d. Judenth., 1881, pp. 348 ff. a n d 395 ff.; H e r s m a n n , Zur Gesch. des Streites über die Entstehung der hebr. Punktation, E u h r o r t , 1885; H a r r i s , ' T h e E i s e . . . of t h e Massorah,' JQB. i. 1889, p. 128 ff. a n d p. 223®.; M a y e r - L a m b e r t , BEJ. x x v i . 1893, p. 274 ff.; J . B a c h r a c h , Bas Alter d. bibl. Vocalisation u. Accentuation, 2 pts. W a r s a w , 1897, and esp. G i n s b u r g , Introd. (see § 3 c), p. 287 ff. ; B u d d e , ' Z u r Gesch. d. T i b e r i e n s . V o k a l i s a t i o n , ' m Orient. Studien su Ehren Th. Noldekes, i. 1906, 651 ff. ; B a c h e r , ' D i a k r i t . Z e i c h e n in v o r m a s o r e t . Z e i t , ' i n ZAW. 1907, p. 285 ; C. L e v i a s , art. ' V o c a l i z a t i o n , ' i n t h e Jewish Encycl — On t h e h y p o t h e s i s of t h e origin of p u n c t u a t i o n i n t h e J e w i s h schools f o r c h i l d r e n , cf. J. D ö r e n b o u r g i n t h e Bei. Crit., x i i i . 1879, no. 25.

4. To complete the historical vocalization of the consonantal text i a phonetic system was devised, so exact as to show all vowel-changes occasioned by lengthening of words, by the tone, by gutturals, &c., which in other languages are seldom indicated in writing. The pronunciation followed is in the main that of the Palestinian Jews of about the sixth century A.D., as observed in the solemn reading of the sacred writings in synagogue and school, but based on a much older tradition. That the real pronunciation of early Hebrew is consistently preserved by this tradition, has recently been seriously questioned on good grounds, especially in view of the transciiption of proper names in the L X X . Nevertheless in many cases, internal reasons, as well as the analogy of the kindred languages, testify in a high degree to the faithfulness of the tradition. A t the same recension of the text, or soon after, the various other signs for reading (§§ 1 1 - 1 4 , 16) were added, and the accents (§ 15).

§ 8. The Voivel Signs in

particular.

P . H a u p t , ' T h e n a m e s of the H e b r e w v o w e l s , ' J AOS. x x i i , and i n t h e Johns Hopkins Semitic Papers, N e w h a v e n , 1901, p. 7 ff. ; C. L e v i a s i n t h e Hebr. Union Coll. Annual, C i n c i n n a t i , 1904, p. 138 ff. to h i s c r i t i c a l e d i t i o n s . O u r p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s p r e s e n t u n i f o r m l y t h e t e x t of B e n - A s h e r , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of a f e w isolated readings of B e n - N a p h t a l i , a n d of n u m e r o u s later corruptions. 1 See Geiger, ' M a s s o r a h bei d. S y r e r n , ' i n ZDMG. 1873, p. 1 4 8 ® . ; J . P . M a r t i n , Hist, de laponctuation 0u de la Massore ches les Syriens, P a r . 1875 ; E . Nestle, i n ZDMG. 1876, p. 525 ff.; W e i n g a r t e n , Du syr. Massora nach Bar Hebraeus, H a l l e , 1887.

[163]

The Individual Sounds and Characters

40

[§ 8 «

Preliminary Remark. The next two sections (§§ 8 and 9) have been severely criticized (Philippi, ThLZ. 1897, no. 2) for assigning a definite quantity to each of the several vowels, whereas in reality ) are merely signs for a, e, 0: ' whether these are long or short is not shown by the signs themselves but must be inferred from the rules for the pause which marks the breaks in continuous narrative, or from other circumstances.' But in the twenty-fourth and subsequent German editions of this Grammar, in the last note on § 8 a [English ed. p. 38, note 4], it was stated : ' it must be mentioned that the Masoretes are not concerned with any distinction between long and short vowels, or in general with any question of quantity. Their efforts are directed to fixing the received pronunciation as faithfully as possible, by means of writing. For a long time only M b » m o t ? seven kings were reckoned (vox memor. in Elias Levita §ureq and Qibbus being counted as one vowel. The division of the vowels in respect of quantity is a later attempt at a scientific conception of the phonetic system, which was not invented but only represented by the Masoretes (Qimchi, Mikhlol, ed. Eittenb. 136 a, distinguishes the five long as mothers from their five daughters).' I have therefore long shared the opinion that 'the vowel-system represented by the ordinary punctuation (of Tiberias) was primarily intended to mark only differences of quality' (Sievers, Ketnsche Studien, i. 17). There is, however, of course a further question how far these 'later' grammarians were mistaken in assigning a particular quantity to the vowels represented by particular signs. I n Philippi's opinion they were mistaken (excluding of course i, e, 0 when written plene) in a very great number of cases, since not only does stand, according to circumstances, for a or a, and _ _ for a or a, for 0 or 0, e. g. 1 3 3 and Jt3j3 ( out of pause kabed, but also _ _ for e or e, and qa'Sn (form btDp), but in pause kabed, qaton. I readily admit, with regard to Qames and S'gol, that the account formerly given in § 8 f. was open to misconstruction. With regard to Sere and Holem, however, I can only follow Philippi so long as his view does not conflict with the (to me inviolable) law of a long vowel in an open syllable before the tone and (except Pathah) in a final syllable with the tone. To me 1 3 3 — kabed, &c , is as impossible as e. g. 33JJ = 'Inab or T]"1'3 = borakh, in spite of the analogy cited by Sievers (p. 18, note 1) that ' i n old German e.g. original i and it often pass into e and 0 dialectically, while remaining in a closed syllable. a

1- The full vowels (in contrast to the half-vowels or vowel trills, § 1 0 a-f),

classified according to the three principal vowel sounds

(§ 7 a), are as follows : — First Class. A-sound. ' i• —

1

Qames denotes either a, A, more strictly & (the obscure Swedish a) and a, 2 as

yad (hand), D ^ i O

rd'sim

(heads), or a (in future transcribed as 0), called Qames hatilph, i.e. hurried Qames.

The latter occurs almost

exclusively as a modification of u ; cf. c and § 9 u. . 2. — Pathah, d, H3 bath (daughter). 1 I n early MSS. the sign for Qames is a stroke with a point underneath, i. e. according to Nestle's discovery (ZDMG. 1892, p. 411 f.), Pathah with Mem, the latter suggesting the obscure pronunciation of Qames as a. Cf. also Ginsburg, Introd., p. 609. 2 Instead of the no doubt more accurate transcription a, a we have.

[164]

§8 J, c]

The Vowel Signs in particular

41

Also 3. S'yol, an open e, e {3 or a), as a modification of a,1 either in an untoned closed syllable, as in the first syllable of 03T yadhhem, (your hand) from yadhhem—or in a tone-syllable as in HDB pesah; cf. Trcicr^a, and on the really monosyllabic character of such formations, see § 28 e. But Segol in an open tone-syllable with a following \

as i n

gelena

(cf. § 7 5 / ) , T 1 J yadehha

(cf. § 9 1 i),

is

due

to contraction from ay. Second Class.

1

Hireq with yod, almost always i, as P^X saddiq (righteous). Jj

2. —

either 1 (see below, i), as E ^ X saddiqlm, only orthographically different from D ^ I N (DpHS),—or i, as ip"|V sidqd (his righteousness).

3.

Sert o r Sere w i t h yod=e,

— ^

I- and E-sounds.

1.

. , —

Seg6l, a, a modification of 1, e.g. ^SH Mfst

Mfs) ;

1

1.

e . g . 1)V3 betho ( h i s h o u s e ) .

either e, but rarely (see below, i), or e as sem (name). Sere can only be e. in my opinion, in few cases, such as those mentioned in § 2 9 /. (ground-form

San (ground-form sin). Third Class.

U- and O-sounds.

Sureq, usually 'A, HID math (to die), rarely u.

2. .— Qibbtis, either v, e.g. D^D sullcim (ladder), or 4, e.g. 'Op qiimu (rise up), instead of the usual ^ p . i and — Holtm, 6 and o, Mp qol (voice), 2 s ! robh (multitude).

Often also a defective — for 6; rarely 1 for o. On the question whether — under some circumstances ^ j represents o, see § 93 r. 4. __ On Qames hatuph = o, generally modified from u, as "p? hoq (statute), see above, a. retained a, a in this grammar, as being typographically simpler and not liable to a n y m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g . For Qames hatuph, in the previous G e r m a n edition expressed b y a, w e have, after careful consideration, returned to 0 T h e use of the same sign for « {a) and a, shows t h a t the Massoretes d i d not i n t e n d to d r a w a sharp distinction b e t w e e n t h e m . W e must not, however, regard the J e w i s h grammarians as m a k i n g a m e r e l y idle distinction b e t w e e n Qames rdhab, or broad Qames, a n d Qames hatuph, or light Qames. I t is quite impossible that i n the living language a n a l e n g t h e n e d from a, as i n dabar, should h a v e been indistinguishable from e . g . the last vowel i n SB^'l or the first in d * B H p . — T h e n o t a t i o n a, e, 6 expresses here t h e vowels essent i a l l y long, either n a t u r a l l y or b y c o n t r a c t i o n ; the notation a, e, 0 those lengthened o n l y b y the tone, a n d therefore c h a n g e a b l e ; a, e, 0 t h e short vowels. A s regards t h e others, the distinction into i a n d i, u and u is s u f f i c i e n t ; see § 9 . — T h e m a r k ' stands i n the following pages over the tonesyllable, w h e n e v e r this is not t h e last, as is usual, b u t t h e p e n u l t i m a t e syllable of t h e word, e. g. 355>V 1 These Segols, modified from a, are v e r y frequent in t h e language. The [165]

C

42 d

The Individual Sounds and Characters

[§ 8 d-g

The names of the vowels are mostly taken from the form and action of the mouth in producing the various sounds, as 11113 opening-, '"IS a wide parting (of the mouth), also "OB* (-i)

breaking, parting (cf. the Arab, kasr); pTtt

(also p"in) narrow opening; obiri closing, according to others fullness, i. e. of the mouth (also D1S X^D 1 fullness of the mouth).

2

also denotes a slighter,

as pTiK> and f'iSp (also DIB )*lDp) a firmer, compression or contraction of the mouth. n n p : v^v e

f

Segol (^iJD bunch of grapes) takes its name from its form.

So

(three points) is another name for Qibbus.

Moreover the names were mostly so formed (but only later), that the sound of each vowel is heard in the first syllable (J»Cp for ]»Dp( ITIS for n n s , "Hi for "Hi"); in order to carry this out consistently some even write Sagol, Qomes-hatuf, Qubbus. 2 . A s the above examples show, the v o w e l sign stands r e g u l a r l y under

the consonant, after w h i c h it is to be pronounced, 1 ra, 1 ra,

1 re,

ru, &c.

T h e Pathah

called furtivum

(§ 22 f ) alone forms an

exception to this rule, being pronounced before the consonant, n n ru'Jh (wind, spirit). consonant,

T h e Holem ( w i t h o u t warn) stands on the left above the

ro (but ^ = lr>).

I f tf, as a v o w e l letter, follows a conso-

nant w h i c h is to be pronounced with 0, the point is placed over its l i g h t arm, thus K3, K'Ni; b u t e . g . 0N3, since N here begins a syllable. g

No dot is used for the Holem when 0 (of course without waw) is pronounced after sin or befoie sin. Hence 6C3E5' idne (hating), NKO neio (to bear), HE'D mose (not b ) ; but Hit? Hmer (a watchman). When 0 precedes the im, the dot is placed over its right arm, e g. b'S-!"' yirpoi (he treads with the feet), D W S n hannop'im (those who carry). In the sign 1, the 1 may also be a consonant. The i is then either to be read ow (necessarily so when a consonant otherwise without a vowel precedes, e.g. nii> lowe, lending) or wo, when a vowel already precedes the e.g. py 'awon (iniquity) for )iyy. I n more exact printing, a distinction is at least made between i (too) and i (1. e. either 0 or, when another vowel follows the waw, 6w3). Babylonian punctuation (see § 8 3 , note 1) has only one sign for it and tonebearing Pathah ; see also Gaster, 'Die Unterschiedslosigkeit zwischen Pathach u. Segol,' in ZAW. 1894, p. 60 ff. 1 On the erroneous use of the term melo pum, only in Germany, for iüreq (hence also pronounced melu pum to indicate ü), see E. Nestle, ZDMG. 1904, p. 597 ff. ; Bacher, ibid., p. 799 ff, Melopum ; Simonsen, ibid., p. 807 ff. 2 The usual spelling ¡>£¡3 and nTIS takes the words certainly rightly as Hebrew substantives; according to De Lagarde (Gott. gel. Am. 1886, p. 873, and so previously Luzzatto), and ITIS are rather Aram, participles, like Dages, &c., and consequently to be transliterated Qdmes and Pathah. 3 Since 1846 we have become acquainted with a systc m of vocalization different i n many respects from the common method. The vowel signs, all except } are there placed aboie the consonants, and differ almost throughout in form,

[166]

§ 8 A]

The Vowel Signs in particular

43

3. The vowels of the first class are, with the exception of in h the middle and , &thibh 11», Q e r e rn$>3) always, except in D t 2 218 (but the Sam. text always has XTI, m j » ) .

T h e ordinary explanation

of this supposed archaism, on the analogy of Greek o mus and ^ irais, our child, is inadequate, since there is no trace elsewhere of this epicene use ; -Il>3 for m w is rather a survival of a system of orthography in which a final vowel was written defectively, as in n b o j j ; Other instances a r e :

cf. § 2 n . —

(Q. " W ? ) Gn 3018 &c., see the

Lexicon,

and Baer and Delitzsch, Genesis, p. 84, and below, note to § 47 6 ; (Q.

properly D ^ T

;

nirp ( Q . "riK the Lord),

or (after

i r i s ) ni'rr (Q. D ^ K ) properly nin: Yahwe (cf. § 102 m, and § 135 q, n o t e ) ; 011 D^.f, CFIB» for W , T i f , see § 97 d, end. d

4. The

masoretic

apparatus

divided into (a) Masora ginalis)

accompanying the

biblical

t e x t is

consisting of ( a ) Masora

(rnar-

magna on the upper and lower margins of M S S . ; (/3)

Masora

(marginalis)

parva

marginalis,

between and on the right and left of the columns ;

instead of "Hp Qen, which was formerly common but is properly a pa&t tense ( = ledum est), see Kautzsch, Gramm, des BtU.-Aram., p. 81, note.

[190]

Of the Qere and K'tMbh

§ i7 e] (6) Masora Kings, book.

jinalis

Minor

67

at the end of t h e several books, counting Samuel,

Prophets,

Ezra-Nehemiah,

Chronicles,

each

O n all three varieties see especially Ginsburg, Introd.,

as

one

p. 423 if.,

and the appendices containing (p. 983 if.) the masoretic treatise f r o m the S t . P e t e r s b u r g M S . of A.D. 1009, a n d (p. 1000 if.) specimens of the Masora

parva

and magna

on t w o chapters.

I l l n e a r l y all p r i n t e d editions o n l y t h e Masora finalis is found, i n d i c a t i n g G t h e n u m b e r of verses, t h e m i d d l e p o i n t of t h e book, &c., a n d a scanty selection f r o m t h e Masora parva. T h e following alphabetical list of technical expressions (some of t h e m A r a m a i c ) a n d abbreviations, m a y suffice w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e lexicon to elucidate t h e subject. F u r t h e r details will be f o u n d in t h e a p p e n d i x to Teile's edition of t h e H e b r e w 0 . T., p. 1222 if. lliN letter.

nisi, except.

Jmiddle.

f o r m u l a J]"DK i 6 a without 'Athnah Soph-pasuq is written.

or Soph-pasuq

= p1D3 f|lD nJflti in t h e i.e. although no 'Athnah

or

3 with, before n a m e s of vowels or accents, as 5]pT3 }>l2p Qames with Zaqeph used instead of P a t h a h (§ 298).—'3 as a n u m e r a l = two, as i n D*DJ?J3 ' 3 two accents. nSpDn, see niTpD. N ' 0 3 = W n n x N l l D m (Aramaic) in another copy; P1IP?' 1 3 ?-—N"D3 = t j n n K o n a p a m other books, i n n ( A r a m . ) after. t^l-H fem. HB'fcn marked with Dages (or Mappiq). TJJ1 fem. NTJJT (Aram.) small.

S]^ leaf, page.

bSn profane, not sacred, e.g. G n 192 because n o t r e f e r r i n g to God. except. I p n w r i t t e n defectively, also wanting as 'X ' n 'aleph is omitted. DJJD accent (see 3 ) ; i n H i p h i l to chant an accent, superfluous. JX3 here.

J^in

^ 3 ( A r a m ) total, as adv. in general. ( A r a m . , f r o m n^N f O non est) = t h e f o r m is not f o u n d elsewhere.

p»11p accurately corrected. C§ 15 c).

N^D full i.e. w r i t t e n plene.

¡TOD^D below = \n^O

(§

15 c). n i l i i J l S separated, t h e n a m e of t h ? s t r a n g e l y f o r m e d N u n s before ^ 107® ff. 5 ' „ ) . e^-jplO that which is read, t h e n a m e for all t h e O. T. scriptures. n s p Q part. n j fem. n n j quiescent, i. e. not sounded. concealed, i. e. o n l y r e t a i n e d orthographically. Hj-0 a point. 1?p3 pointed. see 3. JO'D crrji^iov, sign, esp. a mnemonic word or, f r e q u e n t l y , sentence. '"]D = DIOD total. 5)"D = p!IDS 5]iD (§ 1 5 / ) . litSy column of a page. pIDQ a masoretic verse. a space, esp. i n t h e p h r a s e piDS JiX0N3 'D a space within a verse, e. g. G n 35 s 2 ; cf. H . Gratz, Monatschriftfur Gesch. u. 'wiss dcs Judentums, 1878, p. 481 ff., a n d H . Strack, ibid. 1879, P- 2 6 ff. fem. HSiCp poin'ed ' p = n p , see above, c. D"Hp p r o p e r l y Q-Jj? before. with Qames. K l i p reader of t h e sacred text. NJ13"}, n n a i , ( A r a m , all fem. sing.) large. n n i n word (consisting of m o r e t h a n one l e t t e r ) . n o t e 3). n n (Aram.) two.

F 2 [191]

I T ^ n suspensa (§ 5 n. T

:

CHAPTER

II

PECULIARITIES AND CHANGES OF LETTERS : THE SYLLABLE AND THE TONE § 18. THE changes which take place in the forms of the various parts of speech, depend partly on the peculiar nature of certain classes of letters and the manner in which they affect the formation of syllables, partly on certain laws of the language in regard to syllables and the tone.

§19. Changes of

Consonants.

a

The changes which take place among consonants, owing to the formation of words, inflexion, euphony, or to influences connected with the progress of the language, are commutation, assimilation, rejection, addition, transposition, softening. 1. Commutation1 may take place between consonants which are either homorganic or homogeneous (cf. § 6 q), e.g. ybv, oby, iby to exult, nnb, Aram. Kyj> to be weary, )>nb and ¡'DJ to press, 1?? and 1?D to close, B^D and tiba to escape. In process of time, and partly under the influence of Aramaic, the harder and rougher sounds especially were changed into the softer, e.g. PDS into pnto to laugh, byj into /K3 to reject, and the sibilants into the corresponding mutes: ¡ji into n, X into 13. In many cases these mutes may be f jnt0 ^ regarded as a return to an earlier stage of the pronunciation. The interchange of consonants, however, belongs rather to the lexicographical treatment of stems 2 than to grammatical inflexion. To the latter belong the interchange (a) of n and D in Hithpdel (§ 54 &); of 1 and i in verbs primae Yod (§ 69), 1?; for &c. b 2. Assimilation usually takes place when one consonant which closes a syllable passes over into another beginning the next syllable, and forms with it a strengthened letter, as illustris for inlustris, affero for adfero, avX.Xafi/3ava for ^uvka^ava). In Hebrew this occurs, 1

Cf. Barth, Etymologische Forschungen, Lpz. 1893, p. 15 if. ('Lautversohie-

k ^ S e e in the Lexicon, the preliminary remarks on the several consonants.

[192]

§ 19 c-£]

Changes of Consona7its

( а ) most f r e q u e n t l y w i t h 3, e.g. D!^!? (for min-sam) (for min-ze)

from

this,

fR? (for yinten)

after t h e prefix !», e.g.

69 there, ¡W? C

from

3 is not

he gives.

assimilated

nor as a rule before g u t t u r a l s (except

sometimes before l"l), nor when it is t h e t h i r d consonant of t h e s t e m , e.g.

(cf. however Pinj for nathdnta)

follows, cf. § 4 4 0 ;

e x c e p t when a n o t h e r

Nun

nor in some isolated cases, as D t 33s1, I s 29 1 , 58 s ,

all i n the p r i n c i p a l p a u s e ; on fpHH and

yj/ 68 3 , see § 51 k, and

§ 66/. (б) L e s s f r e q u e n t l y and only in special cases with i>, n , *7, e . g . nj?? d ( f o r yilqah)

he takes;

for tiihUrien;

"B'TO for mithdabber;

H ^ R for NSOnn

;

Nt|>t2) for yitlitammd

J i n « for 'ahadt;

; IP.isn

but in 1 S 4 19 for r t t

read probably (c) I n isolated cases with n, 1, \ e.g.

prithee!

i f from W HX; e

1 and 1 mostly before sibilants in t h e verbal forms enumerated in § 71. I n all these cases, instead of t h e assimilated letter, a Dages appears in t h e following consonant.

Dages,

forte

J

however, is omitted when

t h e strengthened consonant would s t a n d a t t h e end of a word, since t h e strengthening would then be less audible ( § 2 0 T), e.g. ^ (from 'awp),

n n to give (from

nose

tint).

The cases are less frequent where a weak letter is lost in pronunciation, 1 and in place of it the preceding stronger sound is sharpened, i. e. takes Dagei, e.g. w l j b p from i H f f e p (§ 59 g). 3 . Complete rejection

pDK for pi?DK (§ 66 e) is an Aramaism.

t a k e s place only in t h e case of w e a k e r con- g

sonants, especially t h e sonants J and b, t h e g u t t u r a l s N and n , and t h e t w o h a l f vowels 1 and \ (a)

S u c h rejection t a k e s place,

a t the beginning of a word ( a p h a e r e s i s ) , when these weak con- h

sonants ( x , •>, b, 3) are not supported by a full vowel, but have only Sewa, e.g. « n i

we,

also

JH for VI);

np_ for npis;

m

for

"n for v o E z 2 10 . Aphaeresis of a weak consonant with a full vowel is supposed to occur in TJ I Ju 19 11 for T V ; in finn 2 S 22" for nrinj ; in

for

Je 42™; on ng

E z i 7 5 for r>\h, and on DPIp Ho n 3 for DH^, see § 66 g, end.

I n reality,

however, all these forms are to be regarded merely as old textual errors. (b) I n t h e middle of a word [syncope), weak

consonant2;

when S e w a precedes t h e

t h u s in the case of N (see f u r t h e r § 2 3 b-f

and

1 Such a suppression of a letter is sometimes inaccurately called ' backward assimilation'. 2 Syncope of a strong consonant (V) occurs in \a prithee! if this stands for

(see Lexicon), also i n nptfJI A m 88, K'thibh for HypEO! (cf. n y p f ) 95), and

[193]

-jo

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters

§ 68 b-k),

e.g. in 01» for WKB.

[§§ 19i-o,20 a

A s a rule in such cases, however,

the N is orthographically retained, e.g. J"IK!pi> for

Syncope

occurs frequently in the case of n, e . g . ^ s b for 'H^'onb (§ 23 h and § 35 » ) ,

for b*aprp (§ 53

4

Syncope of N with S e wa occurs in such cases as (cf. § 102 m);

"lE'lW Zc xi 5 . 1

for

On the cases in which N is wholly

omitted after the article, see § 35 d. Finally, the elision of 1 and

in verbs n"b (§ 75 h) is an instance of

syncope.—On the syncope of n between two vowels, see § 23 h I

(c) A t the end of a word (apocope),

e.g. n^S pr. name of a city (cf.

Gilonite); K i l l , where X though really rejected is orthographically retained, &c.

On the apocope of 1 and » in verbs n"b, see § 24 g,

and § 75 a. Bolder changes (especially by violent apocope), took place in earlier periods of the language, notably the weakening of the feminine ending n _ iith to n a, see § 44 a, and § 80/. m

4. T o avoid harshness in pionunciation a helping sound, A l e p h prosthetic 2 with its vowel, is prefixed to some words, e . g . 5?'1"']? and yilt arm, (cf.

II

French esprit).—A

> spiritus,

occurs probably in 3"lpS) scorpion; 5. Transposition

3

cf. A r a b , 'usfur

prosthetic V

bird (stem

safara).

occurs only seldom in the grammar, e. g. ipPl^n

for "i^KTin (§ 54 6) for the sake of euphony; it is more frequent in the lexicon (fc^S and 3fe>| lamb, nbcfe* and noij?' garment),

but is

mostly confined to sibilants and sonants. 0

6. Softening

occurs e.g. in 3213 star, from Jcaulcalh=kavolcabh

kubhJcabh (cf. Syriac raurab = rabrab) ; hlSQlO phylacteries tapMth;

for

for taph-

according to the common opinion, also in t^X man from 'ins,

cf. however § 96.

§ 20. The Strengthening (Sharpening) of Consonants. a

1. The strengthening of a consonant, indicated by Dages forte, necessary and essential (Dages

is

necessarium)

( a ) when the same consonant would be written twice in succession in r 6 s Jos 19s for nSya (as in 1529).

Probably, however, Hp KOI and are only clerical errors, as is undoubtedly "1K3 Am 88 for (95). 1 Frensdorff, Ochla W'ochla, p. 97 f., gives a list of forty-eight words with quiescent X. 2 This awkward term is at any rate as suitable as the name Alef protheticum proposed by Nestle, Margmalten u. Materialien, Tubingen, 1893, p. 67 ff. 3 Cf. Barth, Etymologische Studien, Lpz. 1893, p. i f f . ; Konigsberger, in Zeitschnftf. wissenschafthche Theo'ogie, 1894, P- 451 ®

[194]

§ 20 b, c]

The Strengthening

of Consonants

w i t h o u t a n i n t e r m e d i a t e vowel or Sew& mobile; 13303 nathan-nu

and W

71

t h u s w e h a v e 1303 for

for W W .

(6) in cases of assimilation ( § 1 9 b - f ) , e. g. fR? for In both these cases the Dages is called

yinten.

compensativwm.

(c) When it is characteristic of a grammatical form, e.g. he has learned,

he has taught

(Dages characteristicum).

I n a wider sense

this includes the cases in which a consonant is sharpened by Dages forte, to preserve a preceding short vowel (which in an open syllable would have to be lengthened by § 26 e), e.g. D^P? camels for

gemalvm;

cf. § 93 ee and kk, § 93 pp. This coalescing of two consonants as indicated above does not take place (} when the first has a vowel or $ewd mobile. I n the latter case, according to t h e correct Masora, a compound Sewd should be used, preceded by Metheg, e.g. D^irtHj &c. (cf. § 16). This pointing is not used before t h e suffix e.g. 'p'laPI Gn 2 J4, but the first 3 has a vocal Sewd, otherwise the second 3 would have Dages lene. Also when t h e former of the two consonants has been already strengthened by Doge's forte, it can only have a vocal Sewa, and any further contraction is therefore impossible. This applies also to cases where Dagei forte has been omitted (see below, m), e.g. properly = hal-lelu. The form n

33 nriN Gn 1i 8 1 . The Mil el may, however, also be due to a subsequent retraction of the tone (nasdg'ah5r, § 29 e), as m n a nb>y G n i 1 1 . — T h e prefixes 2, D, b and 1 alone do not take a Dages in this case, except in b, always, and ^ 193. Such forms as \;> n w ^ n Gn 21'23, "ine* n ^ D 2 61", fljjrn Jb 21 16 , and even HTipyj I a 50" (i. e. the cases where the tone is thrown back from the ultima on to the syllable which otherwise would have Metheg), are likewise regarded as mil'el. On the other hand, e. g. rnn Gn 46, not ^ since the first a of rnn could not have Metheg. When words are closely united by Maqqeph the same rules apply as above, except that in the first word Metheg, in the secondary tone, takes the place of the accent, cf. ^BTfety Gn i 1 2 ; N r n T i n Gn 3230, &c. Finally, the Dages is used when the attracted word does not begin with the principal tone, but with a syllable having Metheg, niSH I s 4421 J ^ i ? t 37s; % W » E x 2 3 29 , provided that the second word does not begin with a Begadkephath letter (hence e. g. niiirtn n^x Gn 2 4 ).

g

Rem.

S u c h cases as ijjj? D t 32«, a n d JTb>| 3 2 " , a n d nii'3 (so B a e r , b u t n o t

ed. Mant., &c.) 1 S 1 1 3 are t h e r e f o r e a n o m a l o u s ; also, because b e g i n n i n g w i t h

[196]

§ 20 h-T\ e

The Strengthening

e

11

73

of Consonants 28

a B gadk phath, D^SO E x 1 5 (cf. however above, e); ~i>n Jos 8 ; $ 1 1 3 f 77 1 6 ; J P r r j S j b 5 27 .—It is doubtful whether we should include here those eases in which Dage"s forte occurs after a word ending nil a toneless u, such as =INS iDij? Gn 19 14 , E x 1 2 s 1 ; E x 12 1 5 ("IN&), Dt 22< ; also K-> Gn 19 2 , 1 S 8 19 ! i;) J u 18 19 , Est 6 1 3 (where P. Haupt regards the Dages as due to the enclitic character of the 1^); DS)G> Ho S 1 0 ; i l l J e r 49 3 0 ; 1 S 15« When we explained the Dages in these examples not as conjunctive, but orthophonic (see above, § 13 c, and Delitzsch, Psalmen, 4th ed. on f 94 1 2 a ), we^especially had in view those cases in which the consonant with Dagei has a Sewa. The extension of the use of Dagei to consonants with a strong vowel, seems, however, to indicate that these are cases of the pVPD T ' ? ) which w a s required by some Masoretes but not consistently inserted. On the other hand, the Dagei forte in 11 after a preceding » (f 118 5 1 8 ), and even after u (ip 94 12 ), is due to an attempt to preserve its consonantal power ; see Konig,

Lehrgeb , p. 54 b.

(b) "When a consonant with Sewd is strengthened by Dages forte h dirimens to make the &eu:a more audible. In almost all cases the strengthening or sharpening can be easily explained from the character of the particular consonant, which is almost always a sonant, sibilant, or the emphatic Qoph; cf. ^ V Lv 25 s , Dt 3 2 3 2 (for W ) ; ^ f ? Is 33 1 (where, however, i s to be read); cf. Xa 3 17 , J b 918, 17 2 , Jo 117

(with »); Is 576 (with''!>); Ju 2043,1 1 S i 6 (with -)); Gn 491017 (and

isandnupy f >jf\ 8q62); Ex 1517, Dt 23", Ju 20 , 1S28 » (p) ; Ex 2 , Is 58s, Am 521, f 14i3, Pr 413 (x) ; Pr 2 f' so always in Vp]) J u 5 22 ,Ct 32

1

2

3

(b>) ; Is 528, f 3715, Jer 5156, Neh 47 (E>). Also, with 3 Ho 3 2 ; with 2 Is 93, J e r 4 7 ; with n i S io 11 . In many instances of this kind the influence of the following consonant is also observable. (c) When a vowel is to be made specially emphatic, generally in I the principal pause, by a Dages forte affectuosum in the following consonant. Thus in a following sonant, J u 57 ( i h n ) , J b 2921 0 ^ 1 ) , 22 12 (ICQ); Ez 2719 (in 3); in n Is 3 3 1 2 , 41 17 , J e r 51 s8 , perhaps also J b 2113 (inn.".). (d) When the sonants b, D, 3 are strengthened by Dagei forte firma- k tivum in the pronouns HSn, Hjn, ¡"I^K, and in HB^ why 1 cf. also i"ID3, ¡1133 whereby 1 HB3 how much ? (§ 102 k, I), to give greater firmness to the preceding tone-vowel. 3. Omission of the strengthening, or at least the loss of the Dages I forte occurs, (a) almost always at the end of a word, since here a strengthened 1

The ordinary reading infi' l T!n, where 1 is without Dages, is only in-

telligible if the "I has Dages. ' 2

Also in tp 45 10 read with Baer and Ginsburg, following Ben Asher, and in Pr 3 0 " nnj^j) (Ben Naphthali ' p ' a and '¡3^).

[197]

74

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters

consonant cannot easily be sounded. 1

[§ 20 m-o

In such cases the preceding

vowel is frequently lengthened ( § 2 7 d), e. g.

from 22T ;

multitude,

OS? "people, with a distinctive accent or after the aiticle, DV, from DBJf; but e. g. ¡3 garden, virtually sharpened.

J"I3 daughter,

with the

On the exceptions Hi? thou

final

consonant

(fern.) and Ijinj

thou (fem.) hast given E z 1633, see § 10 k. 7)1

(b) V e r y frequently in certain consonants with ¿>ewA mobile,

since

the absence of a strong vowel causes the stiengthening to be less noticeable.

This occurs principally in the case of 1 and

11

after the article, see § 35 b ; on \ after "HÖ § 37 J ) ;

(on ) and }. and in the

sonants D ,2 : and b ; also in the sibilants, especially when a guttural follows (but note Is 62°, V3DND, as ed. Mant. and Ginsb. correctly read, while Baer has

with compensatory lengthening, and others

even 'DND ; "piO^O Gn 27 s 8 3 9 ; t ^ f i ? " n ^ X i K 1920 from PW, Jon 4 11 , D'yriEXn E x 81 &c.) Of the Begadkephath

38

24

for'TO,

i K f

E z 4 o 4 3 and D ^ S f b f 104 18 ;

;

D^D

and finally in the emphatic p.3

letters, 3 occurs without Bagel

in " i ^ D J u 8 2 ;

j in nrnia?? EZ 3 2 30 ; 1 in ,|n"|3 Is 11 1 2 56 s , ^ 147 2 (not in Jer 49 s6 ), supposing that it is the Participle Niph'al of n"0 ; lastly, n in isnn Is 2210. imperf.

Examples, ^"iiy, W

(so always the preformative ? in the

of verbs), n^ifpbr?, ny?pb, 'ojn, i ^ n , wi>p, •'ND?, '"'•fPP, &c.

inp:,

In correct MSS. the omission of the Dages is indi-

cated by the Raphe stroke (§ 14) over the consonant. these cases, we must assume at least a virtual consonant (Dages forte implicitum,

However, in

strengthening of the

see § 22 c, end),

(c) In the Gutturals, see § 22 6. n

E e m . 1. C o n t r a r y to r u l e t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g is o m i t t e d (especially i n t h e later Books), o w i n g to t h e l e n g t h e n i n g of t h e p r e c e d i n g s h o r t v o w e l , g e n e r a l l y hireq (cf. mile for mille), e. g. f n T P he makes them afraid, f o r ¡ M T H b 2 17 ( w h e r e , h o w e v e r , it is p e r h a p s more correct to suppose, w i t h K ö n i g , a f o r m a t i o n on t h e a n a l o g y of v e r b s V'J>, a n d m o r e o v e r to read ^ n T ? w i t h t h e L X X ) , nip 11 ] I s 50 11 for n i p t .

0

2. V e r y d o u b t f u l are t h e instances i n w h i c h compensation f o r t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g is supposed to be m a d e b y t h e i n s e r t i o n of a f o l l o w i n g 3. T h u s for 1 So i n L a t i n fel (for fell), g e n . f e l l i s ; mel, mellis; as, ossis. I n M i d d l e H i g h G e r m a n t h e d o u b l i n g of consonants n e v e r takes place at t h e e n d of a w o r d , b u t only i n t h e m i d d l e (as m Old H i g h G e r m a n ) , e g. ml (Fall), gen. 1 alles; swam {Schu.amm\ &c , G r i m m , Deutsche Gramm , 2nd ed., i. 383. 2 Sages forte is a l m o s t a l w a y s omitted i n D w h e n it is t h e p r e f i x of t h e

p a r t i c i p l e P i ' e l or P u ' a l , h e n c e f 104 3 rn.ptDH who layeth the learns, b u t r n p Q n the roo/Ec io 1 8 (cf. ¡ " D ^ S H the wotk, &c.).' 3

A c c o r d i n g to some also i n D i n , ytpri I s 1 7 1 0 ; b u t see B a e r on t h e passage.

[198]

§ 21 a-d~]

The Strengthening

75

of Consonants

¡T3)5)0 Is 23", read ¡T?J)D (or H^lVD); and for « e n La 3ra, read ?BR

In

Nu 2313 i33|3 is not an instance of compensation (see § 67 0, end).

§ 21. The

harder

of the Tenues.1

The Aspiration

sound of the six

SegadJtfiphath

letters, indicated by &>

Dages lene, is to be regarded, according to the general analogy of languages, as their older and original pronunciation, from which the softer sound was weakened (§ 6 n and § 13).

The original hard sound

is maintained when the letter is initial, and after a consonant, but

&ewa mobile it is softened and influence, e. g. i ' l - paras, p s * yiphros, ?3 kol e e the B gadh phath take Dages lene

when it immediately follows a vowel or aspirated by their

lekhdl.

Hence

( 1 ) at the beginning of words : (a) without exception when the b preceding word ends with a vowelless consonant, e. g. 1?"^$?

(therefore), e.g.

fS 'es pert (fruit-tree);

'al-ken

(6) at the beginning of a section,

G n i 1 , or at the beginning of a sentence, or even of

a minor division of a sentence after a distinctive accent (§ 15 d), although the preceding word may end with a vowel.

The distinctive

accent in such a case prevents the vowel from influencing the following tenuis, e . g . Gn

and it was so, that when, J u

u 5 (but

i 7 ).

Rem. 1. The vowel letters ¡"1, 1, 1, X, as such, naturally do not close a C syllable. In close connexion they are therefore followed by the aspirated Begadkephath, e.g. H3 NSD?, &c. On the other hand, syllables are closed by the consonantal 1 and 1 (except WiTlp Is 3411; rQ ^ Ez23 4 2 ; £33 1p 6S 1 8 ), and by Fl with Mappiq ; hence e. g. there is Dages lene in OH^S ^ y and always after flin*, since the Q"re perpetuum of this word (§ 17) assumes the reading "OIK. 2. In a number of cases Dagei lene is inserted, although a vowel precedes in d close connexion. This almost always occurs with the prefixes 3 and 3 in the e combinations 3 3 ; 33 1 B3 (i. e. when a B?gadk phath with §"wa precedes the same or a kindred aspirate) and 0 3 (see Baer, L. Psalmorum, 1880, p. 92,2 on f 23s); cf. e. g. 1 S 251, Is io 9 , if/ 34*', Jb 192 ; 33 is uncertain ; 13, "D, and 3 3 according to David Qimhi do not take Dages, nor 33 3 3 , and S3 according to the Dikduke ha-famim, p. 30. Sometimes the Bfgadlfphatfo letters, even with a full vowel, take Dages before a spirant (and even before n in HCS'IOnS 1 K i232) ; cf. the instances mentioned above, § 20 e (mostly tenues before X). In all these cases the object is to prevent too great an accumulation of aspirates. The LXX, on the other hand, almost always represent the 3 and Cf. Delitzsch, Ztschr.f. luth. Theol. u. Ktrche, 1878, p. 585 ff. Also L. Proverbiorum, 1880, Praef. p. i x ; and Dikduke ha-famim, p. 30 (in German in Konig's Lehrgeb., i.p. 62). 1

2

[199]

76

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters [§§ 21 ej, 22 a-c

S , even at the beginning of a syllable, by \ and ; Xtpovp, XaXSaim, 3K ('akhol, t o n e l e s s on account

[202]

§§ 22 p-s, 23 a, 6]

Peculiarities

of the Gutturals

79

of Maqqeph). Cf. § 27 w. The 1st pers. sing, imperf. Pi'el regularly has Likewise _ is naturally found under X in cases -where the Hateph arises from a weakening of an original a (e.g. 'HX lion, ground-form 'ary\ and if there be a weakening of an original u (e. g. 1JX it fleet, ""JS? affliction, cf. § 93 1, s)(b) In the middle of a word after a long vowel, a JJate-ph-Pathah takes the p place of a simple Sewd mobile, e g. fttSO nbyn (see § 63 p) ; but if a short vowel precedes, the choice of the Ha'eph is generally regulated by it, e.g. Perf. Htph. TDJIH (see above, t), Infln TOJiH (regular form i^Dpn); Petf. Hoph. "layn (regular form !>t?pn); but cf. I t m ? Jb 622 (§ 64 a). 5. T h e "1, w h i c h in sound a p p r o x i m a t e s to the gutturals (§ 6 c), q shares w i t h the g u t t u r a l s proper t h e i r first, and to a certain e x t e n t t h e i r second, peculiarity, viz. (a) The exclusion of the strengthening, instead of w h i c h the preceding v o w e l is almost always lengthened, e. g.

he has blessed for

birrakh, ?p3 to bless for barrekh. (ib) T h e preference for a as a p r e c e d i n g vowel, e. g. (from

both for "ID'l and he turned

and he saw r

bach, and for 1DJ1 and

he caused lo turn baclc. The exceptions to a are fl^IO morrath, Pr 14 10 ; 0 1 3 khorrSth and iorrekh, S Ez 164 (cf. P r 38) ; "B'N^B? Ct s 2 ; HDJFin 1 S i»"; DJVtfnn 1 S io M , 1725, 2 K 632 ; insn^in Ju 2043 (of. § 20 h); t p n p 1 S 2328, 2 S 1 8 1 6 a l s o on account of pTH (§ 20 cj-Jer 2222, Pr 15 1 , 2022, 2 Gh'2610 ; and on account of pTDD TIN (§ 20/) 1 S 156, Jer 3912, Hb 313, P r u 2 1 , Jb 39s, Ez 9«. A kind of virtual strengthening (after D for JO) is found in ^JTJID Is 143. In Samaritan and Arabic this strengthening has been retained throughout, and the L X X write e. g. 'S.appa for mt£\

§ 23.

X and n.

The Feebleness of the Gutturals

1. The X, a l i g h t and scarcely audible g u t t u r a l b r e a t h i n g , as a r u l e a entirely loses its slight consonantal p o w e r w h e n e v e r it stands w i t h o u t a v o w e l at the end of a syllable.

I t t h e n remains (like the G e r m a n

h in roh, geh, nahte) merely as a sign of the preceding long vowel, e.g. X ^ i n (but w h e n a syllable is added w i t h an introductory vowel, according to b below, w e have, e . g . ^NSO, W ' j t f n , since the X then stands at the b e g i n n i n g of t h e syllable, not 'ONXO, ^N'Xin), XXD, (cf., however, § 74 a), HNSD (for masa'ta), in cases like XIpn,

nJNSOn.

Similarly

X1K>, & c . (§ 19 I), and even in K ' f f , X^Q (see

above, § 22 e), the X only retains an o r t h o g r a p h i c significance. 2. O n the other hand, X is i n general retained as a strong con- b sonant w h e n e v e r i t b e g i n s a syllable, e . g . protected b y a Hateph

1DXDJ

a f t e r a short syllable, e.g.

[203]

0r

w h e n it is and

finally,

80

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters

when i t stands in a closed syllable w i t h quiescent

S^ghM

ceding

Pathah,

or

e.g.

[§ 23 c-f

SewA a f t e r a prena'dar, l O 1 ^ ^ ya'dimu.

E v e n in such cases the consonantal power of N m a y be entirely lost, viz. C

(a)

when

a word

after

it would stand w i t h a long v o w e l in the middle of SewA mobile. T h e l o n g v o w e l is then occasionally

thrown back into the place of the & e wd, and the X is only retained orthographically, as an indication of the etymology, e.g. C E W heads re'dsim), DVIND two hundred (for mPOthdyim), ^ N t ? E z 25® for

(for

DN-jia N e h 6 s for for' m x s §

I s 10 3 3 ;

00);

75

; D1ND J b 3 i 7 , D n 1 4 for DIN»; fTIKB

hdtim,

ETtCph

1 S i 4 m for CTNDn ( c f . § 74

^ n i x i n N u 34 14 , from

1 K 14 16 , Mi i 5 , &c., for nitftan.

; so always nstsn

0r

h,

and

niXBH

Sometimes a still more violent sup-

pression of the K occurs at the b e g i n n i n g of a syllable, w h i c h then

work

causes a f u r t h e r change in the preceding syllable, e. g.

for

n ^ i p p (as in the Babylonian punctuation), b t y v f ) for ^ V ^ V - ; or i'lXtoip (I

the left hand,

(b) W h e n

ground form

it originally

sirn'dl.

closed a syllable.

I n these

generally (by § 22 TO) pronounced w i t h a Hateph,

cases K is

or — .

The

preceding short vowel is, however, sometimes lengthened and retains the following K only orthographically, e. g. Ju

941),

and mXE) J 0

26

N u 11 2 5 for

(cf.

for H I S S ; l o a h for ItoS^ ; C n V ? for D ' n ^ ^ ;

b u t the contraction does not t a k e place in

Is io11.

T h e short

v o w e l is retained, although the consonantal p o w e r of N is entirely lost, in ' f i K l , &c. (see § 102 m), cf. D t 2 e

f

410,

1K11

39

,

I s 41 25 ,

E z 28 16 for T]aK«J T ;

Isio13.

Instead of this N which has lost its consonantal value, one of the vowel letters 1 and 11 is often written according to the nature of the sound, the former with 0 and the latter with e and i, e. g. DH buffalo for . At the end of the word D also is written for fl^D* he fills for K ^ j b 8 21 (see below, 1). 3. W h e n N is only preserved orthographically or as an indication of the etymology (quiescent), it is sometimes entirely dropped (cf. § 19 A), e.g. T 1 *; J b i 2 1 for W ; tnni 2 S

209;

1S1M J e r

811

forWfW; T ®

n o i n G n 25 21 for tao^ri; "W';

B'tTI f

2222

T l f e Jb3218 f o r ^ ^ O ; 2S

natsnii 31 39 for n s s t s n s ;

for

1

for niKB-nis ( c f. I s

WONUII11;

but

f

1840;

-jnbi? i S i "

for

; H13 J b 2229 for mi?3 ; '•JTian 1 C h II 3 9

for " i x a n , and so 2 S 2 3 37 ; TVT«? 1 C h 12 s8 for

KHhtbh

2240,

3

726);

• rrttrnb

HDH J b 29" for'

nwpn. 1 '

2

K 1923 I n f^SD

I n J e r 2 2 23 , fOrtl is unquestionably a corruption of nil33 for fiFOSO .

[204]

§ 23 g-h~\ The Feebleness of the Gutturals ^ and n i K 5 23 (for

81

t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e following consonant b y

D a g e s c o m p e n s a t e s for t h e loss of t h e X; in m'DD E z 20 37 , if for "DXp ( b u t r e a d "1D1D, w i t h Cornill), t h e p r e c e d i n g vowel is l e n g t h e n e d ; cf. above, e. O n ICX for ^CNN, see § 68 g. Rem. 1. I n Aramaic t h e X is much weaker and more liable to change than ain Hebrew. I n literary Arabic, on t h e other hand, it is almost always a firm consonant. According to Arabic orthography, X serves also to indicate a long a, whereas in Hebrew it very rarely occurs as a mere vowel letter after Qames ; as in DX£ H010' 4 for Di? he rose up ; P r i o 4 , 1323 for KH poor ; but in 2 S 111 the KHhibh D'Oxi'tOT the messengers, is t h e true reading; cf. § 7 6. 2. I n some cases at the beginning of a word, the X, instead of a compound h Sewd, takes the corresponding full vowel, e. g. "I^X girdle for ; cf. § 84 a, q, and the analogous cases in § 52 n, §63 p, §76 d, §93 r (Q'^nX)." 3. An X is sometimes added at the end of t h e word to a final u, t, or 0, e. g. i KtobfJ for « b p Jo io2* (before X!), X13X Is 2812. These examples, however, are not so much instances of ' Arabic o r t h o g r a p h y a s early scribal errors, as in NltTjP Je 10s for ; and in N?BO 13920 for 1XB>3. Cf. also XHT Ec I I s (§ 75 s) ; Xi3") f o r i a n myriad,

for ^ 3 pure; N e h 7®

for & i f ; XiDX for 1SX then (enclitic) ;

O n XW a n d X>n see § 3 2 k.

4 . T h e n is s t r o n g e r a n d f i r m e r t h a n t h e X, a n d n e v e r loses i t s k consonantal s o u n d (i. e. quiesces) in t h e middle of a w o r d 1 e x c e p t i n t h e cases n o t e d below, ill w h i c h i t is completely elided by syncope. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , at t h e end of a w o r d i t is always a m e r e vowel l e t t e r , unless e x p r e s s l y m a r k e d b y Mapptq as a s t r o n g consonant ( § 1 4 a). Y e t a t times t h e c o n s o n a n t a l sound of B a t t h e end of a word is lost, a n d i t s place is t a k e n b y a simple n or more correctly n, w i t h Raphe as an i n d i c a t i o n of i t s non-consonantal c h a r a c t e r , e.g. n^? to her for Zc 5 11 , &c. (cf. § 103 g, a n d §§ 58 g, 91 e); cf. also ¡V for rlj (from ?rP) in p r o p e r n a m e s like &c.—Finally, in very many cases a complete elision of t h e c o n s o n a n t a l n t a k e s place by syncope: (a) w h e n i t s vowel is t h r o w n back to t h e place of a p r e c e d i n g S e w d mobile (see above, c, w i t h x), e.g. for Ip^L 1 ^ (the n of t h e a r t i c l e b e i n g syncopated as i t almost a l w a y s is) ; for D^n? [ b u t see § 3 5 n], D?DB>2 for t3?DB>rD; for i?31.T ; p e r h a p s also ¡3^33 for DiTn33 E z 2 732. (b) By c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e vowels p r e c e d i n g a n d following t h e ¡"1, e.g. IDiD (also w i i t t e n HD5D) f r o m susahu (a + u=6).—A violent suppression of n t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s vowel occurs in D3 ( f r o m DH3), &c. 1 Only apparent exceptions are such proper names as bxriBty, -WSiHB, which are compounded of two words and hence are sometimes even divided. Cf. forms like ^Xtn for Another exception is ¡TBilB*, t h e reading of many MSS. for the artificially divided form r^B-flB'1 in the printed texts, Je 4O2». COWLET Q *

[205]

82 I

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters [§§ 231, 24 a, &

Rem. In connexion with o and e, a H which only marks the vowel ending is occasionally changed into 1 or * ( i f O ^ n i O , , 3 n = n3n Ho 69), and with any vowel into X in the later or Aramaic orthography, but especially with a, e . g .

sleep, f 12 f

for f W ;

NSW J e r 23s9 for HBO, &c.

T h u s it is

evident that final n as a vowel letter has only an orthographical importance.

§ 24.

Changes of the Weak Letters 1 and \

Philippi, Die Aussprache der semit. Konsonanten ) und ' (mentioned above, § 5 b, note 1), a thorough investigation of their phonetic value as consonantal, i.e. non-syllabic, vowel-sounds, not palatal or labial fricatives ; cf. also E. Sievers, Metrische Studien, i. 15. a

1 and i are, as consonants, so weak, and approach so nearly to the corresponding vowels u and i, that under certain conditions they very readily merge into them. This fact is especially important in the formation of those weak stems, in which a 1 or * occurs as one of the three radical consonants (§ 69 ff., § 85, § 93). 1. The cases in which 1 and ' lose their consonantal power, i. e. merge into a vowel, belong almost exclusively to the middle and end of words; at the beginning they remain as consonants.1 The instances may be classified under two heads: b (a) When either 1 or * with quiescent stands at the end of a syllable immediately after a homogeneous vowel (w or i). I t then merges in the homogeneous vowel, or more accurately it assumes its vowel-character (l as u, 11 as i), and is then contracted with the preceding vowel into one vowel, necessarily long, but is mostly retained orthographically as a (quiescent) vowel letter. Thus for huwsab; Pi?" for yiyqas; so also at the end of the word, e. g. '"Py a Hebrew, properly 'ibrly, fem. nnny, p l . D ^ y ( a n d tinny); ivy Jb 4 , for li'^y (cf. niVe>Ji I g 2519 KHhibh). On the other hand, if the preceding vowel be heterogeneous, 1 and 11 are retained as full consonants (on the pronunciation see § 8 m), e.g. l.Vr' quiet, It the month of May, ^is nation, revealed. But with a preceding a the 1 and 11 are mostly contracted into 6 and e (see below,/), and at the end of a word they are sometimes rejected (see below, g). Complete syncope of 1 before % occurs in V? island for ^ ; ruins for "'W; watering Jb 37" for T ) ; C 3 burning Is 3 " for cf. §§ 84" c,e, 93 y]. 1 Or as consonantal vowels (see above), and are then transcribed by P. Haupt, Philippi, and others, as u, i, following the practice of Indogermanic philologists. 1 for I and, alone is a standing exception, see § 26. 1 and § 104 e. On ^ = t at the beginning of a word, cf. § 47 6, note. According to 5 19 a, end, initial 1 in Hebrew almost always becomes 1; always in verbs originally 1"B > § 69 a. Apart from a few proper names, initial 1 occurs only in 11 hook,I«» child Gn n 3 0 , 3 S6 2 3 K'lhtbh [elsewhere and the doubtful 111 Pr 218.

[206]

§ 24 c-tj]

Changes of the Weak 1 and

83

Thus an initial ? after the prefixes 1, 3, !>, which would then be C pronounced with I (see § 28 a), and also almost always after J? (see §102 b), coalesces with the 1 to i, e.g. '~nW3 in Judah (for rHW and Judah, IK"? as the Nile, rTTIiVb for Judah, ,Tf? from the hands of. (b) When 1 and * without a vowel would stand at the end of the it word after quiescent $ewd, they are either wholly rejected and only orthographically replaced by n (e.g. ¡133 from bikhy, as well as the regularly formed weeping; cf. § 03 x) or become again vowel letters. In the latter case s becomes a homogeneous Hireq, and also attracts to itself the tone, whilst the preceding vowel becomes &icd (e.g. IHB from piry, properly jjary) ; 1 is changed sometimes into a toneless u (e. g. 1HFI from tuhw). Rem. I n Syriac, where the weak letters more readily become vowel sounds, (' a simple i m a y stand even at the beginning of words instead of ^ or The LXX also, in accordance with this, write 'lov&a for PHI IT, 'I aaax for pnSP. Hence may be explained the Syriac usage in Hebrew of drawing back t h e vowel i to the preceding consonant, which properly had a simple local Sewa, e. g. (according to the reading of Ben-Naphtali x ) J")^''') J e r 25s6 for n ^ l (so Baer), ¡"niTS Ec 2 " for ji"l]T3, cf. also t h e examples in § 20 h, note 2 ; even J b 2 9 2 1 (in some editions) for l^rPl. According to Qimhi (see § 47 V) ^bp* was pronounced as iqtol, and therefore t h e 1st pers. was pointed i>bpX to avoid confusion. I n fact t h e Babylonian punctuation always h a s i for a in the 1st pers.

2. With regard to the choice of the long vowel, in which 1 and 1 f quiesce after such vocalization and contraction, the following rules may be laid down : (a) With a short homogeneous vowel 1 and ' are contracted into the corresponding long vowel (u or i), see above, b. (b) With short a they form the diphthongs 6 and e according to § 7 a, e.g. from a ^ P ; from a ^ V , &c.2 Rem. The rejection of the half vowels 1 and * (see above, 6) occurs especially g at t h e end of words after a heterogeneous vowel (a), if according to the nature of the form t h e contraction appears impossible. So especially i n 1 According to Abulwalid, Ben-Naphtali regarded the Yodh in all such cases as a vowel letter. 2 Instances in which no contraction takes place after a are, D^D^ID 1 Ch 12® ;

QTD'N Ho 712 (but cf. § 70 6) ; "IB^n i> 59 (fre; t h e locatives HITS, HoflSl?, &c.—On the suffix "L for see § 91 I.—Sometimes both forms are found,1 as fl^iy and Hpiy; cf. Tl is t h e - living, constr. state Tl. Analogous T T < contraction of HID (ground-form mawt) death, constr. Dit3 ; pJJ (ground-form 'ayn ['am]) eye, constr. fJJ. G 2

[207]

84

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters

[§ 25 a-c

verba e.g. originally since a after the rejection of the stands in an open syllable, and consequently must be lengthened to a. The H is simply an orthographic sign of the long vowel. So also r b v for salaw.1 On the origin of n^V, see § 75 e; on Cp as perf. and part, of Dip, see § 7 2 b and g ; on "IP11, &c., from •¿I , see § 69 b.—On the weakening of 1 and 1 to N, see § 93 x.

§ 25. Unchangeable d

W h a t v o w e l s in H e b r e w

Vowels.

are unchangeable, i . e . are not liable to

attenuation (to S e w a ) , modification, l e n g t h e n i n g , or shortening, can be k n o w n

with

c e r t a i n t y only from t h e n a t u r e of the g r a m m a t i c a l

forms, and i n some cases by comparison w i t h A r a b i c (cf. § 1 m). holds good especially of the essentially nature

or contraction,

as distinguished

lengthened rhythmically,

This

long vowels, i. e. those long b y from those w h i c h are

only

i. e. on account of the special laws w h i c h

i n H e b r e w r e g u l a t e the tone and the formation of syllables.

The

latter, w h e n a change takes place in the position of the tone or i n the division of syllables, readily become short again, or are reduced t o a mere vocal b

&ewd.

1. The essentially long and consequently, as a rule (but cf. §26^9, § 27 n, 0), unchangeable v o w e l s of the second a n d third class, 1, e, it, 0, can often be recognized b y means of the v o w e l letters w h i c h accomp a n y them ( " _ , boundary,

, 1, *l) ; e.g. ^tp^ he does well, i ^ i }

^ p voice.

enough, e.g.

T h e defective

and

for

^tp"

palace,

w r i t i n g (§ 8 i) is indeed common ;

h a for ^ 3 3 ; bp for ^ P , b u t this

is merely an orthographic licence and has no influence on the q u a n t i t y of t h e v o w e l ; t h e 4 in

is j u s t as necessarily long, as in As an exception, a merely t one-long vowel of both these classes is sometimes written fully, e. g. ^ItOp'' for ^bp11.

£

2. The essentially or n a t u r a l l y long d ( Q a m e s impure),2

unless i t has

become o (cf. § 9 q), has as a rule in H e b r e w no representative among the consonants, w h i l e in A r a b i c i t is r e g u l a r l y indicated b y N ; on the f e w instances of this k i n d in H e b r e w , cf. § 9 b, § 23 g.

The naturally

long A and the merely tone-long a therefore can only be distinguished by an ac-cuiate k n o w l e d g e of the foims. 1

The Arabic, in such cases, often writes etymologically ^[j, but pronounces

gala.

So the L X X ^ D ~S.iva, Yulg. Sma ; cf. Nestle, ZAW. 1905, p. 362 f.

But even in Arabic

is written for lbtJ» and pronounced said. By locales tmpurae the older grammarians meant vowels properly followed by a vowel letter. Thus 2113 Wthabh was regarded as merely by a licence for 2X113, t ; ' 4c. 2

[208]

§§ 25 d, e, 26 a-e ]

Unchangeable Vowels

85

3. Short vowels in closed syllables (§26 b), which are not final, are d as a rule unchangeable, e. g. tyabo garment, wilderness, kingdom; similarly, short vowels in sharpened syllables, i.e. befoie Dages forte, e . g . 333 thief. 4. Finally, those long vowels are unchangeable which, owing to € the omission of the strengthening in a guttural or 1 , have arisen by lengthening from the corresponding short vowels, and now stand in an open syllable, e. g.

for

mi"en;

§ 26. Syllable-formation1 Quantity

for

burrahh.

and its Influence of Vowels.

on the

A p a r t from the unchangeable vowels (§ 25), the use of short or long a vowels, i.e. their lengthening, shoitening, or change into vocal SewA, depends on the theory of syllable-formation.

The initial and final

syllables especially require consideration. 1. The initial syllable. A syllable regularly begins with a consonant, or, in the case of initial 1 and

(cf. note on § 5 b), a consonantal vowel. 2

The copula is a standing exception to this rule.

According to the

Tiberian pronunciation 1 and is resolved into the corresponding vowel ' before S e wA. and the labials, e.g. I?"]',

; the Babylonian punc-

tuation in the latter cases writes T, i. e. ) before a full vowel. 2. The final syllable.

A syllable may e n d —

b

(a) With a vowel, and is then called an open or simple syllable, e. g. in

where the first and last are open.

See below, e.

(b) With one consonant, and is then called a simple closed or com- C See below, o, p.

pound syllable, as the second in

Such are

also the syllables ending in a strengthened consonant, as the first in qat-tel.

See below, q.

(c) W i t h two consonants, a doubly closed syllable, as 'P'f'P qoit, fii'&ij. d Cf. below, r, and § 10 i-l. 3. Open or simple syllables have a long vowel, whether they have (' the tone as in in thee, ^ he goes, or are toneless as in a bunch of grapes? A long vowel (Qames, less frequently Sere) is 1 Cf. C. H . T o y , ' T h e S y l l a b l e in H e b r e w , ' Amer. Journal of Philol, 1884, p. 494 i f . ; H . S t r a c k , ' T h e S j l l a b l e s i n t h e H e b r e w L a n g u a g e , ' Bebraica, Oct. 1884, p. 73 ff. 2 W e are not t a k i n g a c c o u n t here of t h e f e w eases i n w h i c h i n i t i a l Todh is represented as s i m p l e i, b y b e i n g w r i t t e n or K , see § 24«, and e s p e c i a l l y § 47 6, note ; n o r of c e r t a i n other cases i n w h i c h N w i t h an i n i t i a l v o w e l h a s o n l y a g r a p h i c purpose, t h o u g h it is i n d i s p e n s a b l e i n an u n p o i n t e d t e x t . 3 I n opposition to t h i s f u n d a m e n t a l l a w i n H e b r e w (a long v o w e l i n a n open syllable), t h e o r i g i n a l s h o r t v o w e l is f o u n d a l w a y s i n A r a b i c , a n d s o m e t i m e s

[209]

86

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters

[§ 26 / »

especially common in an open s y l l a b l e before the tone ( p r e t o n i c vowel), e . g . D r 6 , Dip;, {>05, M.!?.» Short vowels in open syllables occur : (a) I n apparently dissyllabic words formed by means of a helping vowel from monosyllables, as

brook, TV3 house, 3T" let him increase, from nahl,

bayt, yirb ; cf. also D S _L the ending of the dual (§ 88). B u t see § 28 e. (Ji) I n the verbal suffix of the 1st pers. sing. ( ' 3 J L me), e. g. (Arab. qatalani). The uncommon form however (Gn 30 s , cf. § 5 9 / ) , proves that the tone-bearing Pathah produces a sharpening of the following sonant, and thus virtually stands in a closed syllable, even when the Nun is not expressly written with Dages. I n cases like 'j'lNl (§ 102, end) Pathah is retained in the counter-tone after the N has become quiescent. (c) Sometimes before the toneless H local (§ 90 c), e. g. n i 3 " ] D towards the wilderness-, only, however, in the constr. state (1 K 19 1 '), since the toneless suffix H does not affect the character of the form (especially when rapidly pronounced in close connexion); otherwise it is iT13~)p. I n all these cases the short vowel is also supported by the tone, either the principal tone of the word, or (as in h) by the secondary tone in the constr. st., or by the counter-tone with Metheg, as in above, g; cf. the eifect of the arsis on the short vowel in classical prosody. (d) I n the combinations e.g. his boy, "IDX* he will bind, i^VS '»s deed. I n all these cases the syllable was at first really closed, and it was only when the guttural took a Haleph that it became in eonsequence open (but cf. e. g. IDN'1 and "I'DKj1 ). The same vowel sequence arises wherever a preposition 3 3 jl or 1 copulative is prefixed to an initial syllable which has a Hateph, since the former then takes the vowel in the other Semitic languages, except of course in the case of naturally long vowels. The above examples aie pronounced in Arabic bika, qatdld, 'inab. Although it is certain therefore that in Hebrew also, at an earlier period, short vowels were pronounced in open syllables, it may still be doubted whether the present pronunciation is due merely to an artificial practice followed in the solemn recitation of the O. T. text. On this hypothesis we should have still to explain, e. g. the undoubtedly very old lengthening of i and ii in an open syllable into e and 0. 1 That these pretonic vowels are really long is shown by Brockelmann, ZA. xiv. 343 f., from the transcription of Hebrew proper names in the Nestorian (Syriac) punctuation, and e . g . from the Arabic 'Ibrahim = Di"TI3K. He regards their lengthening in the syllable before the tone as a means adopted by the Masoretes to preserve the pronunciation of the traditional vowels. This explanation of the pretonic vowels as due to a precaution against their disappearing, is certainly r i g h t ; as to whether the precaution can be ascribed to the Masoretes, see the previous note. For the pretonic vowel the Arabic regularly has a short vowel (lahiim,, yaqum, &c.), the Aramaic simply a vocal S'wd (finb, Dlp^, i'Dp, ; and even in Hebrew, when the tone is thrown forward the pretonic vowel almost always becomes S'wd, see § 27. I t would, however, be incorrect to assume from this that the pretonic vowel has taken the place of S'uid only on account of the following tone-syllable. I t always arises from an original short vowel, since such a vowel is mostly lengthened iu an open syllable before the tone, but when the tone is moved forward it becomes Seicd.

[210]

§ 26 h-p] Syllable-formation, its Influence on Vowels 87 contained in the /fateph (see § 102 d and § 104 d). To the same categorybelong also the cases where these prepositions with Hireq stand before a consonant with simple § e w a mobile, e.g. "D"13 1 5 1 ? , (e) I n forms like

yaha-sf-qu

(tliey are strong),

po'o Vkha

deed). These again are cases of the subsequent opening of closed syllables (hence, e. g. ipirP also occurs) ; ijijJJB is properlypo'Vkha ; cf. generally § 22 m, end, and § 28 c. Such cases as BHPin, DTlX (§ 96), n h n n (§ 67 w) do not come under this I head, since they all have a in a virtually sharpened syllable; nor does the tone-bearing Seghdl in suffixes (e. g. ipT 1 ]), and other cases, nor Seghol for before a guttural w i t h Qames (§ 22 c). On and Q ^ l p , see § 9 v.

(thy

a

4. The independent syllables with a firm vowel which have been in described above, are frequently preceded by a single consonant with vocal Sewa, simple or compound. Such a consonant with vocal S e wa never has the value of an independent syllable, but rather attaches itself so closely to the following syllable that it forms practically one syllable with it, e.g. ^j» (cheek) leht; ^ n (sickness) h"ll; n » ^ yil\. medk&. This concerns especially the prefixes 1, 3, p. See §102. The

S'wa mobile

is no doubt in all such cases weakened from an original

full vowel (e. g. ^Dp^ Arab,

yaqtiilu,

i]3 Arab.

Uka, &c.) ;

11

from this, however,

it cannot be inferred that the Masoretes regarded it as forming a kind of open syllable, for this would be even more directly opposed to their fundamental law (viz. that a long vowel should stand in an open syllable), than are the? exceptions cited above, f - k . Even the use of Metheg with Sevva in special cases (see § 1 6 / ) is no proof of such a view on the part of the Masoretes.

5. Closed syllables ending with one consonant, when without the 0 tone, necessarily have short vowels, whether at the beginning or at the end of words,1 e.g. na^D queen, pB^n understanding, '"10311 wisdom,

and he turned bach, Clpjl, DjJJl (wayyaqom).

A tone-bearing closed syllable may have either a long or short vowel, p but if the latter, it must as a rule be either Pathah or S e ghol. 2 The tone-bearing closed penultima admits, of the long vowels, only the tonelong a, e, o, not the longest i, e, o, u; of the short vowels, only a, e, not i, u, 0 (but on i and u, see § 29 g). Thus l^tpp? (3rd pi. masc. Imperf Hiph.) but H^Cpn 3rd pi. fem., and ICTp (2nd pi. masc. Imperat. Qal) but njDp fem. 1

I n exceptions such as \ i m t i ' Gn 4 s5 (where sat is required by the character

of the form, although the closed syllable has lost the tone owing to the following Maqqeph), Metheg is used to guard against a wrong pronunciation ; similarly e is sometimes retained before Maqqeph, e. g. "Dt? Gn 2 13 ; ' y V G n 216, a See § 9 e,f. i occurs thus only in the particles DK, b y , JD; but these usually d p always) are rendered toneless by a following Maqqeph. Cf. also such forms as 3K>®1 § 26 r and § 75 q.

[211]

Jc

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters

88

q

6. A

special k i n d of closed syllables are the

[§§26?,r, z j a - c

sharpened,

i . e . those

which end in the same (strengthened) consonant w i t h which the foll o w i n g syllable begins, e. g. ^BN 'im-mi,

kul-ld.

I f w i t h o u t the

tone, t h e y have, l i k e the rest, short v o w e l s ; but, if bearing the tone, either short vowels as

or long, as

'""^n.

On the omission of the strengthening of a consonant at the end of a word, see § 20 I. y

1.

Syllables e n d i n g w i t h two consopants occur only at the end of

words, and h a v e most n a t u r a l l y short vowels, times

Sere,

as TV),

or

Holem,

fi^ij,

¡p^P " p i n .

b u t some-

C f . , h o w e v e r , § 10

i.

U s u a l l y the harshness of pronunciation is avoided b y t h e use of a h e l p i n g vowel ( § 2 8 e).

§ 27. The Change of the Vowels, especially as regards Quantity. a

The changes in sound t h r o u g h w h i c h the H e b r e w l a n g u a g e passed, before it assumed the form in w h i c h w e k n o w i t from t h e Masoretic t e x t of t h e O . T . (see § 2 k), h a v e especially affected its vowel system. A precise k n o w l e d g e of these v o w e l changes, w h i c h is indispensable for the understanding of most of the present forms of the language, is derived p a r t l y f r o m the phenomena w h i c h the l a n g u a g e itself presents i n the laws of d e r i v a t i o n and inflexion, p a r t l y f r o m the comparison of t h e kindred dialects, principally the A r a b i c .

B y these t w o methods,

w e arrive at the f o l l o w i n g facts as regards H e b r e w : b

1. T h a t in an open syllable the l a n g u a g e has frequently retained (£ewd mobile), where there originally stood a f u l l

only a half-vowel short v o w e l , e.g. form C

(ground-form

sadaqat) righteousness,

'agalat) a waggon, (groundqataU), (Axab-juqattlM).

(Arab.

2. T h a t vowels originally short have in the tone-syllable, as also i n the open syllable p r e c e d i n g it, been generally changed into t h e corresponding tone-long vowels, a into a, % into e, u into 0 (see § 9, a-e, h, r).

If, h o w e v e r , the tone be shifted or weakened, these tone-

long vowels mostly r e v e r t to t h e i r original shortness, or, occasionally, are still f u r t h e r shortened, or reduced to mere

mobile, or,

finally,

are e n t i r e l y lost t h r o u g h a change i n the division of s y l l a b l e s ; e. g.

matar) rain, when in close dependence 011 a following g e n i t i v e construct state), becomes "IB*?; ( A r a b , 'aqib) heel, d u a l dual construct ( w i t h attenuation of the o i i g i n a l a of t h e first syllable to 1) "iipV [on the p, see § 20 K\ ; Vop; ( A r a b , yaqtul), plur. (Arab. yaqtuM). F o r instances of complete loss, as in ''BD3, cf. § 93 m.

(Arab, i n the

[212]

,

§ 27 d-i] Change of Vowels, as regards Quantity

89

According to § 26, the following details of vowel-change must be observed : 1. The original, or a kindred shoi t vowel reappears— d (а) "When a closed syllable loses the tone ( § 2 6 o). Thus, T hand, but tlie hand of Yahwe\ ¡3 son, but ili???"!?1 the son of the king; i'S the whole, but D ^ i t h e whole of the people ; so also when a tonebearing closed syllable loses the tone on taking a suffix, e.g. enemy, but thy enemy, finally, when the tone recedes, d'p^, but D^l (wayyaqom); but (б) To the same category belong cases like "®D book, but "'"ISO my book; KHp holiness, but ''EHiJ my holiness. In spite of the helping vowel, "IBD and EHp are really closed syllables with a tone-long vowel; when the syllable loses the tone, the original i or 0 (properly u) reappears. The same is true of syllables with a virtually sharpened final consonant : the lengthening of original i to e and w to o takes place only in a tone-bearing syllable; in a toneless syllable the i or 0 (or u) remains, e. g. ON mother, but 'BN my mother; pn law, plur. Q,i?n ; but tjl strength, ^ (and ,iJ?) my strength. 2. The lengthening of the short vowel to the corresponding long, takes place— (а) When a closed syllable becomes open by its final consonant being transferred to a suffix beginning with a vowel, or in general to the following syllable, e. g. he has killed him ; T^WD primarily from HDID. Similarly a mostly becomes a even before a suffix beginning with $ewd mobile-, e.g. Ir^i? from ^IjlDiD from riDID. (б) When a syllable has become open by complete loss of the strengthening of its final consonant (a guttural or Mes), e. g. for blrrakh, see § 22 c. Cf. also § 20 n. (c) When a weak consonant (x, 1, i) following the short vowel quiesces in this vowel, according to § 23 a, c, d, § 24 /, e. g. NXD for NSD, where the X, losing its consonantal value, loses also the power of closing the syllable, and the open syllable requires a long vowel. (d) Very frequently through the influence of the pause, i. e. the principal tone in the last word of a sentence or clause (§ 29 k). Sometimes also through the influence of the article ( § 3 5 0).

e

J"

g

h

3. When a word increases at the end and the tone is consequently i moved foiward, or when, in the construct state (see § 89), or otherwise in close connexion with the following word, its tone is weakened, in such cases a full vowel (short or tone-long) may, by a change in the

[213]

go

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters

[§ 271-0

division of syllables, be weakened to &wd mobile, or even be entirelylost, so that its place is taken by the mere syllable-divider (&ivd quietcens). Examples of the first case are, D«? name, pi. HICK', but my name, Onic^ their names, "I3"! word, constr. st. "O^ ; H^Jf righteousness, constr. st. np"]2T; an example of the second case is, blessing, constr. st. D313. Whether the vowel is retained or becomes &wd (EH, "OT, but Dty, n?B»), and which of the two disappears in two consecutive syllables, depends upon the character of the form in question. In general the rule is that only those vowels which stand in an open syllable can become Sewd. Thus the change into £ewd takes place in— k (a) The a and e of the first syllable, especially in the inflexion of nouns, e. g. word, plur. C ^ m ; great, fem. i"6'i"!3 ; 331? heart, my heart; but also in the verb, Sit^n she will return, plur. nyilOT, and so always, when the originally short vowel of the prefixes of the Imperfect comes to stand in an open syllable which is not pretonic. On the other hand, an a lengthened from a before the tone is retained in the Perfect consecutive of Qal even in the secondary tone, e. g. ; c f. § I

m

(b) The short, or merely tone-long, vowels a, e, 0 of the ultima, especially in verbal forms, e.g. , fem. qafla; i'bp?, ^Dp* yiqfld; but note also P'Jp^, ppSTJ^ & c ., according to § 47 to and 0. The helping vowels aie either entirely omitted, e . g . k i n g (groundform ma Ik), 'aj'P my king", or, under the influence of a guttural, are weakened to Hateph, e. g. "W boy, i"l5?3 his boy. If the tone remains unmoved, the vowel also is retained, notwithstanding the lengthening, of the word, e. g. pausal-form for Where the tone moves forward two places, the former of the two vowels of a dissyllabic word may be shortened, and the second changed into Sewd. Cf. "Of word ; in the plur. D 11 "!^ • with heavy suffix DH^TI ( c f. § 28 a) their words. On the attenuation of the a to t, see further, s, t.

11

Eem. 1. An 0 arising from aw = aw, or by an obscuring of a (see § 9 b), sometimes becomes u, when the tone is moved forward, e.g. DipJ DiDlpJ (see Paradigm Perf. Niph. of Dip); DUO flight, fem. npUD, with suffix, *D130. The not uncommon use of i in a sharpened syllable, as ipirQ Ez 2018 (for ""[p.nn, cf. also the examples in § 90), is to be regarded as an orthographic licence, although sometimes in such cases u may really have been intended by the KetMbh. O Of the vowels of the ¡7-class, it and tone-long 0 stand in a tone-bearing

[214]

§ 27 p-s] Change of Vowels, as regards Quantity

91

closed final syllable, and o in a toneless syllable, e.g. Dlp^ he will arise, D'p; jussive, let him arise, and he arose. The only instance of ü in an ultima which has lost the tone is D^'l Ex 1620 (see § 67 »). Similarly, of vowels of the I-class, é, i, and 5 stand in a tone-bearing closed final syllable, and e in a toneless syllable, e.g. D^pJ he will raise, Dp"1 let him raise, Dp'l and he raised. The only instance of % in an ultima which has lost the tone is )*"!??) •Tu 963 (see § 67 p). 2. In the place of a Pathah we not infrequently find (according to § 9 / ) p a Seghól {I, e) as a modification of a : (а) In a closed antepenúltima, e.g. in the proper names "IIV3X and fp^aX where L X X 'A/3i- = '\2K, which is certainly the better leading, cf. Ulmer, Die sem.it. Eigennamen, 1901, p. 12 ; or in a closed penúltima, e.g. PpIlT, but also D3T your hand, for yadehhem. I n all these cases the character of the surrounding consonants (see § 6 q) has no doubt had an influence. (б) Regularly before a guttural with Qames or Iíateph

Qames, q

where the strengthening has been dropped, provided that a lengthening of the Pathah for 'ahaw ; coal; and

into Qam.es be not necessary, e. g. VHK his

false,

'nri the living

for kahás;

n n s governor,

(with the article, n for n ) ;

brothers,

constr. st. n n a ; Dna BITiri'; N u 23 1 9 , &c.,

so always before n and n, as CEHnn the months, see § 3 5 h.

Before n and V Seghol

generally stands only in the second syllable

before the tone, e.g. E'Hnn the mountains', before the tone Pathah

fiVj"! the guilt;

immediately

is lengthened into a (pretonic) Qames, e. g .

nnn, DVn; but cf. also '"intsn Nu 8 7 .

B e f o r e the weak

consonants

N and 1 (cf. § 22 e, q), the lengthening of the Pathah

into Qames

almost always takes place, e. g.

; B'íí'Tn the

head, pi. D^SOn.

the father,

the tone-syllable, for hárra; Finally,

Gn 14 1 ", in

í r r a i a * (pr. name) for VPrna*.

a form of the interrogative H (l 1 ), see § 1 0 0 n ; § 37 e> /•

pi.

Exceptions, nnn towards the mountain,

On n as

on nD for HD (HO),

E x 3 3 s also comes partly under this head, in

consequence of the loss of the strengthening, for l i ^ X , and ^NplH) EzeMcl for

God

strengthens.

(c) As a modification of the original Pathah in the first class of the segholate f forms (§ 93 g), when a helping vowel (§ 28 e) is inserted after the second consonant. Thus the ground-form halb {dog), after receiving a helping 8eghól, is modified into

(also in modern Arabic pronounced keli),1 yarh {month), with a helping Pathah, ITV. The same phenomenon appears also in the formation of verbs, in cases like by (jussive of the Hiph'il of nba), with a helping S'ghól, for yagl. 3. The attenuation of a to i is very common in a toneless closed syllable. S (a) In a Tfirmly syllable); i n ! » closed syllable, rtC his measure, for VID (in a sharpened

I haie begotten thee, from with the suffix • cf. Lv 11 4 4 , Ez 38 , and § 441 d. Especially is this the case inr a large number of segholates So the L X X write f ° PIÍT?^?. s3

[215]

92

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters

[§§27 £-»,28 a

f r o m t h e g r o u n d - f o r m qatl, w h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h s i n g u l a r s u f f i x e s , e.g. ' p l X my righteousness, f o r sadqi. ' ' t

(b) I n a l o o s e l y - c l o s e d s y l l a b l e , i. e. o n e f o l l o w e d b y ari a s p i r a t e d Begadk'pkath, a s D i * ? ! your blood, f o r D D D 1 , a n d so c o m m o n l y i n t h e st. constr. plur. of s e g h o l a t e s f r o m t h e g r o u n d - f o r m qatl, e. g . H 3 3 f r o m 1 2 3 ( g r o u n d - f o r m bagd) a garment. I n m o s t c a s e s of t h i s k i n d t h e a t t e n u a t i o n i s e a s i l y i n t e l l i g i b l e f r o m t h e n a t u r e of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o n s o n a n t s . I t is e v i d e n t f r o m a c o m p a r i s o n of t h e d i a l e c t s , t h a t t h e a t t e n u a t i o n w a s c o n s i s t e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t i n a v e r y l a r g e n u m b e r o f n o u n a n d v e r b - f o r m s i n H e b r e w , as w i l l be s h o w n i n the proper places.1

11

4- 8eghol a r i s e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c a s e s m e n t i o n e d i n 0 a n d p, a l s o f r o m t h e w e a k e n i n g of a of t h e final s y l l a b l e i n t h e i s o l a t e d cases ( H — for H ) i n 1 S 2 8 " (? see § 48 d), 204 (?), I s 59 s , P r 2 4 " (see § 4 8 I ) ; f o r e x a m p l e s of L o c a t i v e f o r m s i n n _ see § 9 0 1 e n d .

X)

5. A m o n g t h e J i a f e ^ - s o u n d s sequently the vowel group

is s h o r t e r a n d l i g h t e r t h a n is s h o r t e r t h a n

, a n d con-

e.g. DilN

Edorn,

b u t ' D I X (Edamite), s h o r t e n e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g b e c a u s e t h e t o n e i s t h r o w n f o r w a r d ; DION ( ,e meth) truth, tflDK his ti uth ; tlijj)) hidden, pi. D V O ^ j n ; b u t v n a j i p l ; b u t a l s o c o n v e r s e l y n'BVJ f e m . n r i b j i J , cf. 5 63/, 3. St5

6. T o t h e c h a p t e r o n v o w e l c h a n g e s b e l o n g s l a s t l y t h e dissimilation of v o w e l s , i. e. t h e c h a n g e of o n e v o w e l i n t o a n o t h e r e n t i r e l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s , m o r d e r t o p r e v e n t t w o s i m i l a r , or closely related vowels, f r o m f o l l o w i n g one a n o t h e r in the same word.2

Hence

¡iB'iO f r o m K'tO ;

f o r lit 16 ( u n l e s s ) .

¡i3*J1 f r o m ? j i n ;

frDJ

Cf. a l s o ¡iXTl f r o m f i n •

from n?b;

DTJJ f r o m s t e m "WJi;

most probably also offspring, l i s p porcupine, f o r

, 'Bp,

see § 68 c, n o t e . —

O n t h e p r o p e r n a m e s W P P a n d J^B"'1, w h i c h w e r e f o i m e r l y e x p l a i n e d i n s a m e w a y , see n o w P r i t o r i u s , ZDMG.

§ 28. d

the

1905, p . 341 f.

The Rise of New Vowels and

Syllables.

1. According to § 26 m a half-syllable, i. e. a consonant with S e wa mobile (always weakened from a short vowel), can only occur in close dependence on a full syllable. If another half-syllable with simple S e wa follows, the first takes a full short vowel again. 3 This vowel is almost always Hireq. In most cases it is probably an attenuation of an original a, and never a mere helping vowel. In some instances analogy may have led to the choice of the 1. Thus, according to § 102 d, the prefixes 2, 3, i5 before a consonant with &'lwd mobile become 3, ? , e.g. before ? they are pointed as in rn?iT3 (from bi-yeh&da, according to § 24 c); so too with Waw copulative, e.g. nTirVl for attenuated from ''!. The first half-

1 A n a l o g o u s to t h i s a t t e n u a t i o n of a t o 1 i s t h e L a t . tango, attingo; laxus, prolixus; t o t h e t r a n s i t i o n of a t o e (see a b o v e , a ) , t h e L a t . carpo, decerpo ; spargo, conspergo. 2 Cf. B a r t h , Vie Nomtnalbildung in den semit. Spr., p. x x i x ; A . M i i l l e r , Theol. Stud. u. Krit., 1892, p. 177 f., a n d N e s t l e , i b i d . , p. 573 f. s E x c e p t 1 and, w h i c h g e n e r a l l y b e c o m e s 5 b e f o r e a s i m p l e S n v a , cf. § 104 e.

[216]

§ 28 i-e]

The Rise of New Vowels and Syllables

93

syllable, after the restoration of the short vowel, sometimes combines with the second to form a firmly closed syllable, e. g.

N u 143 for

and so almost always in the infin. constr. after b (§ 4 5 g);

linephol,

in

isolated cases also with 3, as "131? Jer 172. 2. I f a guttural with Hateph follows, the original a of the prefixes b is retained before Hateph Pathah, but before Hateph S e ghol or Hateph Qames it is modified to the short vowel contained in the Hateph. Thus arise the vowel groups -sp-p-, -—jtt, ^r-rr > e.g.

and I, ""KWj? as,

to serve, in sickness. On the Metheg with every

to eat,

such short vowel, see § 16 f , S. syllable is formed.

Sometimes here also a fully closed

In such a case, the prefix takes the short vowel,

which would have belonged to the suppressed Hateph, e. g. 3bnS for ODI^ Is 4714 for oon!? (see § 67 cc); IDN^ but also "ibíó"; and even

Jb 4a, cf. Gn 3216.

So always in the Infin. and Imperat. Qal

of the verbs ijjn to be and H^H to live, e.g. ni'ljl^ to he, ViTi and be ye; even with ¡I?, as ni'ntp, on which cf. § 102 b; and live, have e instead of 1 under the prefix.

but ¡vni. and be, fVn^ For the Metheg, cf.

§16f,e.

3. When a Hateph in the middle of a word, owing to flexional C changes, would stand before a vocal it is changed into the short vowel, with which it is compounded.

This applies especially to cases

in which the Hateph stands under a guttural instead of quiescent Éewá, as an echo of the preceding short vowel, e. g. (for I b y : ) , but plur. n o s r for yaamedhá,

he will stand

and WSHÍ for nehaphekhú

(they have turned themselves), ^5)3 thy work, cf. § 2 6 k. are to be divided yaá-medhú,

The syllables

and the second á is to be regarded

exactly as the helping Pathah in ~B?3, &C.1 4. A t the end of words, syllables occur which close with two con- d sonants ( § 1 0 i, § 26 r), but only when the latter of the two is an emphatic consonant (!3, p) or a tenuis (viz. 3 , * J , H 2 ), e.g. tSB'J let him turn aside, p ^ l and he caused to drink, PHON thou (fem.) hast said, and he wept,

and let him have dominion,

and he took captive.

3 which e This is I n J uharsh 16 1 3 r e aending d n o telsewhere ( w i t h O p i t iavoided u s , H a h n by a n d the o t h eMasora, r s ) '"JINJI.

1

2 W i t hbetween inserts two a final the the o n l y efinal x a m p l consonants e i s i^O'lD P r a 306helping , w h e r e s vowel, e v e r a l M usually SS. and

p r i n t e d e d i t i o n s i n c o r r e c t l y h a v e f] w i t h o u t D a g e s .

I n s t e a d of t h i s m a s o r e t i c

caprice w e should no doubt read fJpW. 3 A n a n a l o g y t o t h i s p r a c t i c e of t h e M a s o r a i s f o u n d a m o n g t h e m o d e r n B e d u i n , w h o p r o n o u n c e s u c h a h e l p i n g v o w e l b e f o r e h, h, ft, g; cf. S p i t t a , Giamm. des arab. Vulgardialektes ion Aegyptm, L p z . 1S80, § 43 d.

[217]

94

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters [§§ 28/, 29 a-d

e

S gh6l, but with medial or final gutturals a Pathah,1 and after i a Hireq, e. g. i w and he revealed, for wayyigl; 3 T let it multiply, for yirb; KHp holiness, ground-form quds; i'O? brook, ground-form nahl; n r 6 V 2 for nn^C' thou hast sent; house, ground-form bayt. These helping vowels are, however, to be regarded as exactly like furtive Pathah (§ 2 2 / , g); they do not alter the monosyllabic character of the forms, and they disappear before formative suffixes, e. g. my holiness, nrpi home-ward. 5. On the rise of a full vowel in place of a simple &wd, under the influence of the pause, see § 29 m ; on initial for N, see § 23 h.

§ 29.

The Tone, its Changes and the

Pause.

1. The principal tone rests, according to the Masoretic accentuation (cf. § 15 e), as a rule on the final syllable, e. g. "U"}, V i ^ , o n ^ n , Dfii>t3i?, pill?—in the last five examples on the formative additions to the stem. Less frequently it rests on the penultima, as in night, ; but a closed penultima can only have the tone n t if the ultima is open (e.g. i'i'^ij, ? ?P), whilst a closed ultima can as a rule only be without the tone if the penultima is open, e. g. Dpjl, DjJJl; see also below, e. A kind of counter-tone or secondary stress, as opposed to the principal tone, is marked by Metheg (§16 c). Words which are closely united by Maqqeph with the following word (§ 16 a) can at the most have only a secondary tone. C 2. The original tone of a word, however, frequently shifts its place in consequence either of changes in the word itself, or of its close connexion with other words. If the word is increased at the end, the tone is moved forward (descendit) one or two places according to the length of the addition, e.g. "D"J word, plur. your words; EHp holy thing, plur. with suffix with Waw consecutive ^OfJI. On the consequent vowel-changes, see § 27 d, i-m. d 3. On the other hand, the original tone is shifted from the ultima to the penultima (ascendit) : 1

On the apparent exceptions NBH, &c., cf. § 22 e ; other instances in w h i c h

N has entirely lost its consonantal value, and is only retained orthographically, are NBH sin,

valley (also

vanity

2

( J b 1 5 3 1 KHhibh IB?).

I n this form (§ 65 g) the Dages lene remains in the final Taw, although a vowel precedes, in order to point out that tiie helping Pathah is not to be regarded as a really full vowel, but merely as an orthographic indication of a v e r y slight sound, to ensure the correct pronunciation. A n analogous case is "irp yihad from il'in (§ 75 r).

[218]

§29 e,f\

The Tone, its Changes and the Pause

95

(a) In many forms of the Imperfect, under the influence of a prefixed Waw consecutive (-1 see § 49 c-e), e. g. "IDS* he will say, TJN5! and he said; he ivill go, and he went. Cf. also § 51 n on the impf. Niph'al, and § 65 g, end, on the impf. Pi'el; on these forms in Pause, when the 1 consec. does not take eifect, see below, p. (1b) For rhythmical reasons (as often in other languages), when C a monosyllable, or a word with the tone on the first syllable, follows a word with the tone on the ultima, in order to avoid the concurrence of two tone-syllables. 1 This rhythmical retraction of the tone, however p i n x JiDi receding, as it is called by the Jewish grammarians), is only admissible according to a, above, provided that the penultima, which now receives the tone, is an open syllable (with a long vowel; but see g), whilst the ultima, which loses the tone, must be either an open syllable with a long vowel, e. g. n ^ tqpT Gn i 5 , 4 1 ', 2 f \ E x 16' 5 , -f 5 11 , 104", Dn 11 13 , or a closed syllable with a short vowel, e.g. Dn^ i?3Kri Gn 319, Jb 33, 2 228. 2 The grave suffixes 03-, [3-, DH-, ¡H- are exceptions, as they never lose the tone. Moreover a fair number of instances occur in which the above conditions are fulfilled, but the tone is not retracted, e.g. esp. with njn, and before X; cf. Qimhi, Mikhlol, ed. Rittenberg (Lyck, 1862), p. 41», line 13 if. Although Sere can remain in a closed ultima which has lost the tone, it j is perhaps not to be regarded in this case (see § 8 b) as a long vowel. A t any rate it then always has, in correct editions, a retarding Metheg, no doubt in order to prevent its being pronounced as Segh&l, e.g. "PT Nu 24s2; cf. N u i f 2 3 , Ju 202, Is 663, Jer 23s9, Ez and even with a following furtive Pathah Pr I 1 9 ,11 2 6 , &c., although there is no question here of two successive tone-syllables. I n other cases the shortening into Seghdl does take place, e. g. DVB who smiteth the anvil, Is 41 7 , 2 4 for DV3 D.^in; ICB* J1KD i K16 .—The retraction of the tone even occurs when a half-syllable with a S e wa mobile precedes the original tonesyllable, e.g. i b r i D i & G n i 9 5 , and frequently; ">13 ^ i V 28 1 ; ^ WOD 1 Even Hebrew prose proceeds, according to the accentuation, in a kind of iambic rhythm. That this was intended by the marking of the tone, can be

seen from the use of Metheg.—Jos. Wijnkoop in Varche hannesigah sive leges da acoentus Rebraicae linguae ascensione, Ludg. Bat. 1881, endeavours to explain, on euphonic and syntactical grounds, the numerous cases in which the usual retraction of the tone does not occur, e. g. TJEJ^n I s 45', where the object probably is to avoid a kind of hiatus; but cf. also A m 4 " .

Prdtorius, Ueber

den ruckweich. Accent im Heir., Halle, 1897, has fully discussed the nasog 'ahor. 2

The reading

(so even Opitius and H a h n ) Ez 167 for D11"!^ is rightly

described b y B a e r as ' error t u r p i s ' . — T h a t an unchangeable vowel in a closed final syllable cannot lose the tone is shown by Pratorius from the duplication of the accent (see above, § 22/).

[219]

96

[§ 29 g-h

Peculiarities and Changes of Letters

1 5 ; 3"in '35Jbpi s 14 13 ; as also when the tone-syllable of the second word is preceded by a half-syllable, e.g. 'HB nE5>y Gn i 1 1 (on the Dag. f., cf. § 20/); g

^nn^Gni

5

7

(cf-§

200).

A c c o r d i n g to t h e above, it m u s t be r e g a r d e d as a n o m a l o u s w h e n t h e Masora t h r o w s back t h e tone of a closed u l t i m a u p o n a virtually s h a r p e n e d s y l l a b l e w i t h a short v o w e l , e.g. |3 i r i K i S io 5 , § 101 a ; i 3 E>rD1 J b 8 1 8 , cf. L v

;

u f pnsi> G n 39 1 4 1 7 , cf. H o 9 2 ; w h e r e a s it e l s e w h e r e a l l o w s a closed p e n u l t i m a to bear t h e tone o n l y w h e n t h e u l t i m a is open.

S t i l l more a n o m a l o u s is t h e

p l a c i n g of t h e tone on a really s h a r p e n e d s y l l a b l e , w h e n t h e u l t i m a is closed, as i n

DBH 2 S 2 3 1 ; y w "ID3 J b 34 1 9 ; cf. also ( ^ " D i V G n

of t h e secondary tone.

with Metheg

W e should r e a d e i t h e r D|3n> or, w i t h F r e n s d o r f f ,

Maseora Magna, p. i 6 7 , G i n s b . , K i t t e l , a f t e r B o m b . , DPH _ O t h e r a b n o r m a l f o r m s are t l p t n * 1 E x 4* (for s i m i l a r instances see § 1 5 0 , end) a n d DB" T'H'I D t io 5 .

h

(c) In pause, see i-v. T h e m e e t i n g of t w o t o n e - s y l l a b l e s (see e, f ) is avoided also b y c o n n e c t i n g the w o r d s w i t h Maqqeph, i n w h i c h case t h e first w o r d e n t i r e l y loses t h e tone, e . g . D ^ D n a ' l and he wrote there, Jos 832.

I

4 . Very important changes of the tone and Of the vowels are effected by the pause.

B y this term is meant the strong stress laid on the

tone-syllable in the last word of a sentence (verse) or clause. marked by a great distinctive centuation of the books

accent, Silluq,

I t is

'Athndh, and in the ac-

'Ole weyored ( § 1 5 h). Apart from these

principal pauses (the great pause), there are often pausal changes (the lesser pause) with the lesser distinctives, especially Segolta,

Zaqeph

qaton, BebMa', and even with Pasta, Tiphha, Gerel, and ( P r 30 4 ) Pazer.1 The changes are as follows : k

(a) When the tone-syllable naturally has a short vowel, it as a rule becomes tone-long in pause, e . g .

t>tJj?; D^IO, D^J;

r^Ojj.

An a which has been modified to Seghol usually becomes a, in pause, e. g. IS'P (ground-form qasr) in pause~&\> 2 K n 1 4 ;

J e r 22 2 9 ;

1 I n most cases, p r o b a b l y on a c c o u n t of a f o l l o w i n g g u t t u r a l or (at t h e e n d of a sentence) 1 (cf. e g. E x 21 31 , J e r 39 [ b u t G i n s b . S)3nni], E u 4*, E c 11 6 [ b u t

Ginsb.

; b e f o r e ! Jer 1 7 1 1 ) [see also § 29 w],

T I N D3B> 1 S 7 1 7 ,

pxi

I s 6 5 " , P r 253, w h e r e a has muna/i, are v e r y irregular, but t h e l e n g t h e n i n g h e r e is probably o n l y to a v o i d t h e c a c o p h o n y saphat 'it.

I n the same w a y

n b r n E z 17 16 ( w i t h M a l i p a k h before n) a n d dHp^l E z 37 s ( w i t h D a r g a before J?) are to be e x p l a i n e d . T h e f o u r i n s t a n c e s of 'OX for 13X a p p a r e n t l y r e q u i r e a d i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n ; see § 32 c . — T h e t h e o r y of Olshausen a n d o t h e r s t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n a of t h e pause are d u e entirely to l i t u r g i c a l considerations, i. e. t h a t it is ' a c o n v e n i e n t w a y of d e v e l o p i n g t h e m u s i c a l v a l u e of t h e final accents by m e a n s of f u l l e r f o r m s ' i n l i t u r g i c a l r e a d i n g (Sievers, Metr. Studien, i. 236, also e x p l a i n s pausal f o r m s l i k e r6tb|3, , as ' late f o r m a t i o n s of t h e g r a m m a r i a n s ' ) , is contradicted b y t h e f a c t t h a t s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n a are s t i l l to be observed i n m o d e r n v u l g a r A r a b i c , w h e r e t h e y can o n l y be a t t r i b u t e d to r h y t h m i c a l reasons of a g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r .

[220]

§ 29 i-o] The Tone, its Changes and the Pause

97

also in 2 K 431 read 3B9t with ed. Mant., &c. (Baer3p)!).—"B'l becomes

in pause I?11!.

Sometimes, however, the distinct and sharper & is intentionally retained I in especially if the following consonant is strengthened, e. g. W3"1 J b 420, or ought to be strengthened, e. g. J"D3 2 S 12 s , 1 3 Is 8 1 , &e.; but also in other cases as "TtipT Gn 272, because from JpJ, cf. below, q; *JJ? Gn49 2 7 ; UBMprn 2 Ch 2919 (so Baer, but Ginsb. "IpH, ed. Mant. '"Jpn); and regularly in the L v 11 2 0 , &c. In the accentuation of the three poetical numeral JJ3"!X books (§ 15 the use of with is due to the inferior pausal force especially after (§ 1 5 0 ) ; cf. 100 3 , Pr 309, and b Qimhi, ed. Rittenberg, p. 5 , line 4 from below. Compare the list of instances of pausal a and e in the appendices to Baer's editions.

pause,

four, d) of'Athna/i, Mikhlol,

Pathah

'Athnah 'die ufyored

\p

(6) When a full vowel in a tone-bearing final syllable has lost the Wi e tone before an afformative, and has become vocal S w&, it is restored in pause as tone-vowel, and, if short, is lengthened, e.g. i>t?j">, fem. (qat'la), in pause nStDiJ ; (sim^u), in pause WOt5> (from sing. 5 ; nxJ?D ; ^tppf, 6'lip:'1 (sing. bbp?). The fuller endings of the Imperfect !' and P— (§ 47 m and o) alone retain the tone even when the original vowel is restored. In segholate forms, like "HS (ground-form lahy, pary), the original a returns, though under the form of a tone-bearing S?gMl, thus , ''IB; original i becomes e, e.g. in pause 'STH; original o (u) becomes o, ^ f ] (ground-form huly),

in pause ^n (§ 93 a;, y, z).

On the analogy of such forms as "fb, &c., the shortened Imperfects 71 and "¡T become in pause T^, W , because in the full forms n^n^ he will he, and he will live, the t is^ attenuated from an original aSimilarly 032» shoulder, in pause D3K> (ground-form saJchm), and the pron. W I, in pause 'JN; cf. also the restoration of the original a as e before the suffix V . - thy, thee, e. g. thy word, in pause T}^!; T-??'! guards thee, in pause 'JTiO?5'!; but after the prepositions 3 , b, nx (nS) the suffix in pause becomes , e. g. (c) This tendency to draw back the tone in pause to the penultima O appears also in such cases as '33X I, in pause ; ¡"IFIX thou, in pause nJJIS (but in the three poetically accented books also since in those books 'Athnah, especially after 'Ole ufiyored, has only the force of a Zaqeph; hence also Pr 244 instead of ' t W ) 2 ; nny now, HW; and in other sporadic instances, like 37 s0 for but in 1 S 12 25 1 Such a pausal syllable is sometimes further emphasized by strengthening the following consonant, see § 20 i. 2 ¡6a? f 456, cf. also

i£Bn with Baer and Ginsb., is to be preferred to the reading of ed, p

n

Mant., &c. (d) Conversely all forms of imperfects consecutive, whose final syllable, when not in pause, loses the tone and is pronounced with a short vowel, take, when in pause, the tone on the ultima with a tone-long vowel, e. g. riDJI and lie died, in pause Htojl. Of other effects of the pause w e have still to mention, ( i ) the t r a n s i t i o n of an s (lengthened from t) to the more distinct d (see above, I), e.g. i n n for i n n Is 1S 5 (cf. § 67

§ 72 dd) ; ^

Cf. : b i O D I s 76 ( S i O O E z r

4

7)

I s 33s1 ; ^SN I C h 8 " (beside ;

[, see v. 37.

J e r 2214 ; "HBO Ob 20 ; : B ^ l E x 3 1 " ;

: t ^ i O l j ' s 12 16 (beiow, § 51 m ) — S . K . D.]) ; I b V G n 1 7 » ; ~lXSn 1 S 15 23 ; insri

4018 ; pnnn J b 13 21 , mostly before l i q u i d s or sibilants (but also

I s 42% and w i t h o u t the pause T i n L a 3«). becomes in pause *|J)»1 ; cf.

So also

(shortened f r o m

La 3 s ; ^Fl for J^Pl J u 19«°.

On S'gh'ol i n pause

instead of Sere, cf. § 52 n, 60 d, and especially § 75 n, on ¡Till P r 4* a n d f . f

(2) T h e transition from a to è i n t h e u l t i m a ; so a l w a y s i n t h e f o r m u l a

S

(3) T h e pausai Qames (according to § 54 ft, l e n g t h e n e d from o r i g i n a l o) i n

c b t y b (for

for ever and ever.

Hithpa'el (but not in Pi él) for Sere, e.g. ^ H l T Jb 188 for forms like I f l D ,

B u t pausai

(in the absol. st. "IflD, 133K') go back to a secondary f o r m

of the abs. st. 1T1D, DnK>. (4) T h e restoration of a final Yodh w h i c h has been dropped from t h e stem, together w i t h t h e preceding v o w e l , e.g. VJJ3, ^ n X I s 2in, f o r i y a , W S , the l a t t e r also w i t h o u t the pause I s 56®12 ; cf. J b 12«, a n d the same occurrence e v e n in the word before the pause D t 32 s7 , I s 21 12 . , _ II (5) T h e transition from ó or o to 3 in pause : as f y K B ' I s 7 " , if it be a locative I

of bitV, and not rather imperat. Qal of W ;

G 1 1 4 3 " for M ^ b t ^ ; tV

G n 49 s ; ^"¡tJi G n 49«' ; perhaps also ¡nK» 1 K 22 s4 , I s 59", a n d n ^ B ' t D I s 28", cf. 2 K 21 13 .

On the other h a n d the regular pausai form ¡'BIT

(ordinary

imperfect f S I T ) corresponds to a perfect fBII (see § 47 h). V (6) W h e n a Pathah both precedes and follows a v i r t u a l l y strengthened guttural, t h e second becomes a i n pause, and the first Seghol, according to § 22 c and § 27 q, e. g. •'TO? my brothers, i n pause ' n X , S i m i l a r l y i n cases w h e r e a n original Pathah after a guttural has been attenuated to i out of pause, a n d t h e n lengthened to e w i t h the tone (cf. § 54 ft), e.g. D l l j l T , but i n pause D t 32 s 6 ; cf. Nu 87, 2 3 '9, E z 5 , s , f 135 1 4 .—On pausai Sere, for S'tjhti, i n infin., imperat., and imperf. of verbs il"^, see § 75 hh. w>

[Other instances of the f u l l v o w e l i n lesser pause, w h e r e the voice w o u l d n a t u r a l l y rest on the word, are G n 1 5 » V ù y \ I s 8 " , 4024, H o 4 12 , 8 7 , D n 9 1 6 , a n d very often i n such cases.]

[222]

CHAPTER THE B r o c k e l m a n n , Semit

Sprachwiss.,

I

PRONOUN p. 98 ff ; Grundrisi,

i. 296 if.

L. Reinisch,

' Das personl. Fürwort u. die Verbalflexion in den chamito-semit. S p r a c h e n ' (Wiener Akad.

der Wiss.,

1909).

§ 32. The Personal Pronoun.

The Separate

Pronoun.

1. T h e p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n (as w e l l a s t h e p r o n o u n g e n e r a l l y ) b e l o n g s a t o t h e o l d e s t a n d s i m p l e s t e l e m e n t s o f t h e l a n g u a g e (§ 30 s). b e d i s c u s s e d before

I t must

t h e verb, since i t p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n v e r b a l

i n f l e x i o n (§§ 4 4 , 4 7 ) . 2. T h e i n d e p e n d e n t p r i n c i p a l f o r m s of t h e p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s e r v e b ( l i k e t h e Grk. ¿y, crv, L a t . ego, tu, a n d t h e i r p l u r a l s ) a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y to e m p h a s i z e t h e n o m i n a t i v e - s u b j e c t (see, h o w e v e r , § 1 3 5 d).

They

are as f o l l o w s : Singular.

"a' 3 ?,

I . Com.

Plural.

in pause , in pause

'm. HON (Pit?), in

^ÏN ; ) j 'JÇ

• ]/. m

j

thou.

properly i n pause

OX

fm.

Kin he

(it).

{/.

im

(it).

she


K P r 3031, commonly explained as = Arab. al-qaum, the militia, is also quite uncertain. 11 2. When the prefixes 3 (§ 102) come before the article, the n is elided, and its vowel is thrown back to the prefix, in the place of the §°wa (§ 19 ft, and § 23 k), e. g. Q^DBh in the heaten for Q^Ot^na (so f 36 s ); DJjb for Dynb to the people, D^IHS on the mountains, D'EhjTil in the months ; also in Is 41 2 , read "IDJJ3 instead of the impossible "BPS. Exceptions to this rule occur almost" exclusively in the later Books : Ez 4025, 47 s2 , Ec 8 1 , Dn 816, Neh 9 " , I2 si , 2 Ch 107, 2510, 2 9 " ; cf., however, 1 S 13s1, 2 S 2120. Elsewhere, e.g. 2 K 712, the Masora requires the elision in the (/re. A distinction in meaning is observed between Disil3 about this time (Gn 39 11 , 1 S 913, &c ) and Dis3 first of all (ßn 2531, &c.). After the copula 1 (and) elision of the H does not take place, e. g. QJini. T T : o 3. The words JOK earth, I n mountain, 3n feast, DJ) people, "13 bull, always appear after the article with a long vowel (as in pause); "inn, jnn, DJ)n, nan ; cf. also Jinx ark (so in the absol. st. in 2 K 12'°, 2 Ch 24s, but to be read (ilX), with the article always ¡iixri.
to judge,

I n other languages such formations are regarded

as new or derivative verbs, e. g. Germ, fallen (to fall), fallen (to f e l l ) ; trinken (to drink), tranken (to drench); Lat. lactere (to suck, Germ. saugen), lactare (to suckle, Germ, saugen);

iacere (to throw), iacere

(to lie down) ; yivo/iw., yevvam. In Hebrew, however, these formations are incomparably more regular and systematic than (e. g.) in Greek, Latin, or English; and, since the time of Eeuchlin, they have usually been called conjugations

of the primitive form (among the Jewish

grammarians B11?}??, i.e. formations, or more correctly species), and are always treated together in the grammar and lexicon.1 3. The changes in the primitive form consist either in internal d modification by means of vowel-change and strengthening of the middle consonant ({>»¡3, b f i P ;

fyalp,

cf. to lie, to lay;

to fall, to fell),

or

in the repetition of one or two of the stem-consonants or finally in the introduction of formative additions also be accompanied by internal change (^Bpn, iraenn).'

which may Cf. § 3 1 b.

I n Aramaic the formation of the conjugations is effected more by formative additions than by vowel-change. The vocalic distinctions have mostly become obsolete, so that, e. g. the reflexives with the prefix f i n ; JHX, ON have entirely usurped the place of the passives. On the other hand, Arabic has preserved great wealth in both methods of formation, w h i l e Hebrew iri this, as in other respects, holds the middle place (§ 1 m).

4. Grammarians differ as to the number and arrangement of these e conjugations.

The common practice, however, of calling them by the

1 The term Conjugation thus has an entirely diiferent meaning in Hebrew and Greek or L a t i n grammar.

I 2 [239]

The Ferb

n 6

[§39/.?

old grammatical terms, prevents any misunderstanding. form is called Qal others

The simple

light, because it lias no formative additions) ; the

heavy, being weighted, as it were, with the strengthening

of consonants or with formative additions) take their names from the paradigm of bvB he has done,1 which was used in the earliest J e w i s h grammatical works.

Several of these have passives which are dis-

tinguished from their actives by more obscure vowels.

The common

conjugations (including Qal and the passives) are the seven following, but very few verbs exhibit them a l l : Active. 1 . Qal

b^

2. Niph'al Piel

r

Passive.

to kill.

(Cf. § 5 2 « . )

to hill oneself (rarely passive). i>9i? to hill many, to massacre.

5. Hiph'il

to cause to kill.

7. Hithpa'el

to kill oneself.

4. P u ' a l

W

6. Hoph'al ^ p n . [ V e r y rare, Hothpa'al ^ f i n . ]

There are besides several less frequent conjugations, some of which, however, are more common in the kindred languages, and even in Hebrew (in the w e a k verb) regularly take the place of the usual conjugations (§ 55). I n Arabic there is a greater variety of conjugations, and their arrangement is more appropriate. According to the Arabic method, the Hebrew conjugations would stand t h u s : 1. Qal; 2. Pi'el and Pu'al; 3. Po'el and Po'dl (see § 5 5 b) ; 4. Hiph'il a n d Hoph'al; § 55 b) ; 7. Niph'al-, 8. Hithpa'el

5. Hithpa'el a n d Hothpa'al; 6. Htthpo'el ( s e e (see § 54 2) ! 9- P l ' m ( s e e § 55 -A- m o r e

satisfactory division would be into three classes • (1) The intensive Pi'el with t h e derived and analogous forms Pu'al and Hithpa'el. (2) The causative Hiph'il with its passive Hoph'al, and the analogous forms (J>aph'el and Tiph'el). (3) The reflexive or passive Niph'al. 1 This paradigm was borrowed from the Arabic grammarians, and, according to Bacher, probably first adopted throughout by Abulwalid. I t was, however, unsuitable on account of the guttural, and was, therefore, usually exchanged in later times for 1|?S, after t h e example of Moses Qimhi. This verb has the advantage, that all its conjugations are actually found in t h e Old Testament. On the other hand, it has the disadvantage of indistinctness in t h e pronunciation of some of its forms, e.g. FHpB, DFIIpS. The paradigm of ^Cp, commonly used since the time of Danz, avoids this defect, and is especially adapted for the comparative treatment of t h e Semitic dialects, inasmuch as it is found with slight change (Arab, and Ethiop. bnp) in all of them. I t is true that in Hebrew it occurs only three times in Qal, and even then only in poetic style (^ 13919, Jb 1315, 2 4 " ) ; yet it is worth retaining as a model which has been sanctioned by usage. More serious is the defect, that a number of forms of the paradigm of ?Cp leave the beginner in doubt as to whether or not there should be a Dagei in the Begadkephath letters, and consequently as to the correct division of the syllables.

[240]

§ 4o a-e]

Tenses. § 40.

Moods.

Tenses.

Flexion

Moods.

117

Flexion.

A. Ungnad, ' Die gegenseitigen Beziehungen der Verbalformen im Grundstamm des semit. Verbs,' in ZDMff. 59 (1905), 766 if., and his ' Z u m hebr. Verbal system in Beitrage sur Assyriologie ed. by Fr. Delitzsch and P. Haupt, J 9°1, P- 55 ff1. "While the Hebrew verb, owing to these derivative forms or CI conjugations, possesses a certain richness and copiousness, it is, on the other hand, poor in the matter of tenses and moods.

The verb has

only two ¿ewse-forms (Perfect and Imperfect, see the note on § 47 a), besides an Imperative a Participle.

(but only in the active), two Infinitives

and

A l l relations of time, absolute and relative, are expressed

either by these forms (hence a certain diversity in their meaning, § 106 ff.) or by syntactical combinations. called (besides the Imperfect

Indicative

O f moods properly so

and Imperative),

only the

Jussive and Optative are sometimes indicated by express modifications of the Imperfect-form (§ 48). 2. The inflexion

of the Perfect,

Imperfect,

and Imperative

as to b

persons, differs from that of the Western languages in having, to a great extent, distinct forms for the two genders, which correspond to the different forms of the personal

pronoun.

It is from

of the pronoun with the verbal stem that the personal

the union

inflexions of these

tenses arise. The following table will serve for the beginner as a provisional C scheme of the formative syllables (affirmatives and of the two tenses. denoted by dots.

preformatives)

The three stem-consonants of the strong verb are Cf. § 44 ff. and the Paradigms. Perfect.

Plural.

Singular. 3- m.

/• 2. m. 2. fi . c. 3-

n_ n

. .

N •

c.

'

•

2. m.

D6

«

2. /• i . c.

w «

• .

3-

*

« « *

• •

Imperfect.

Plural.

Singular. »

3- m. 3-

/•

*

*

2. m. 2.

/•

i.

c.

*

*

s

3- m.

í

•

n

3- /

¡13

.

.

.

n

2.

'

•

•

.

n

pi

2. /

ru

.

.

.

pi

K

i.

•


to that form of the pronoun which also underlies ^ j * , I. 2 In the third person (originally ft—, cf. below, / ) is the mark of the feminine, as in a great number of nouns (§ 80 c), and ' is the termination of the plural; cf., for the latter, the termination of the 3rd and 2nd pers. plur. Imperf. una in Arabic and i), (often also p) syllable. H e n c e P . H a u p t (P/'oc. Amer. Or. Soc., 1894, p. ci f.) prefers t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m as verba voltmtaria (actions w h i c h d e p e n d on t h e w i l l of t h e s u b j e c t ) a n d mvoluntaria (actions or states i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e w i l l of t h e subject). 1 C f . Noldeke, ' D i e E n d u n g e n des P e r f e c t s ' (Untersuchtmgen zur semit. G r a m m . ii.), in ZDMG. v o l . 38, p. 407 if., a n d more f u l l y i n Beitrage zur sem. Sprachwtss., Strassb. 1904, p. 1 5 if. 2 A c c o r d i n g to N o l d e k e , I.e., p. 419, t h e original S e m i t i c t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e 1st sing. Perf. w a s m o s t p r o b a b l y ku ; cf. t h e E t h i o p i c qatalku, A r a b i c qatallu.

[243]

120

The Verb

i n H e b r e w , a l s o una

[§ 44 i-f

( i n t h e c o n s t r u c t s t a t e u) a s t h e p l u r a l

termina-

tion of masc. nouns in l i t e r a r y A r a b i c . b

2 . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c Pathah

of the second syllable becomes

Sewa

before an afformative b e g i n n i n g w i t h a vowel, where it w o u l d otherwise s t a n d i n a n o p e n s y l l a b l e ( a s ""I^OfJ,

; b u t in pause

nbop,

B e f o r e a n a f f o r m a t i v e b e g i n n i n g w i t h a c o n s o n a n t t h e Pathah whether

in the tone-syllable

fl^tpij & c . ) o r before first

^¿i?,

remains,

' ^ i j ;

in

pause

I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e , h o w e v e r , t h e Qames

of t h e

s y l l a b l e , b e i n g n o l o n g e r a p r e t o n i c v o w e l , b e c o m e s v o c a l Sewd;

E^Bp, Melheg e

it.

(A^i?,

cf. § 2 7 i a n d § 4 3 6 . of t h e c o u n t e r - t o n e i n t h e Per/,

O n the retention consecutive,

as

of a

with

c f . § 4 9 i.

Rem. 1. V e r b s middle e in H e b r e w (as i n E t h i o p i c , b u t not i n A r a b i c or A r a m a i c ) g e n e r a l l y c h a n g e t h e i ' - s o u n d i n th e i r i nflexion i n t o Pathah ( f r e q u e n t l y so e v e n i n t h e 3rd sing. masc. P e r f . ) . T h i s t e n d e n c y to a s s i m i l a t e to t h e m o r e common v e r b s middle a m a y also be e x p l a i n e d f r o m t h e l a w s of vocalization of t h e tone-bearing closed p e n u l t i m a , w h i c h does not r e a d i l y a d m i t of Set e, a n d n e v e r of Hireq, of w h i c h t h e Sere is a l e n g t h e n i n g (cf. § 26 p). On t h e other h a n d , Sere is r e t a i n e d i n a n open s y l l a b l e ; r e g u l a r l y so m t h e w e a k stems

(§ 74 g), before sufljxes (§ 59 »)> a n d i n the pausal f o r m s of t h e

s t r o n g stem i n a n open t o n e - s y l l a b l e , e. g. npi'H), cf. 2 S

i2a,

Jb

4115;

f t p i ' l it cleavetk, J b 2910 (not

e v e n (contrary to § 29 q) i n a closed pausal syllable,

e. g. pE>, D t 33 12 (out of pause

I s 32 16 ) ; b u t ^Cp I s 33 s , &c., a c c o r d i n g

to § 2 9 q. & 2. I n some w e a k stems middle a, t h e Pathah u n d e r t h e second r a d i c a l somet i m e s , i n a closed toneless syllable, becomes t a n d , i n one e x a m p l e , 7

Thus from t ^ V :

and thou shalt possess it, D t 1 7 " ;

DPIBh'l D t 1 9 1 ;

DREH'I1 D t 4 1 , a n d f r e q u e n t l y ; f r o m "Ip11 to bring forth, to beget; i p r i " ! ^ ^ 2' (cf.' N u n 1 2 , J e r 2 2 1 , 1 5 1 0 ) ; f r o m

; O W ' S I Mai 3™ ; f r o m ¡5 KB»;

w W »

I have asked him, 1 S 1 20 (Ju 13 6 ), a n d t h r e e t i m e s DO^NB' 1 S I2 1 S , 25 s , J b 21 29 . Q i m h i a l r e a d y suggests t h e e x p l a n a t i o n , t h a t t h e 1 (e) of these f o r m s of a n d tJH^ is t h e o r i g i n a l vowe], since a l o n g w i t h a n d En11 (see t h e L e x i c o n ) .

b m

a n d tjn^ are also f o u n d

T h e possibility of t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n c a n n o t

be d e n i e d (especially i n t h e case of EHJ, see § 69 s) ; t h e i i n theso f o r m s m i g h t , h o w e v e r , e q u a l l y w e l l h a v e a r i s e n f r o m an a t t e n u a t i o n of a (§ 27 s), s u c h as m u s t i n a n y case be a s s u m e d i n t h e o t h e r instances.

Moreover, it is

w o r t h y of notice t h a t i n a l l t h e above cases t h e i is f a v o u r e d by t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t (a sibilant or d e n t a l ) , and i n most of t h e m also by t h e t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s assimilation of t h e v o w e l s (cf. § 54 k a n d § 6 4 / ) . e

3. I n verbs middle 0, t h e Holern is r e t a i n e d i n t h e tone-syllable, e. g. PHb^ thou didst tremble; ibb 1 i n pause for

they were able;

b u t i n a t o n e l e s s closed

s y l l a b l e t h e o r i g i n a l short v o w e l appears i n t h e f o r m of a Qames hatuph ; I hate prevailed against him, \f/ 135; f l i m (see § 49 h) then shalt thou be able, E x 1 S 2 3 ; i n a toneless open s y l l a b l e i t becomes vocal Seua, j"

4I B a r e r 1

forms1

a r e : Sing. 3rd fem. i n n _

e.g.

(as i n A r a b i c , E t h i o p i c , a n d

M a n y of these forms, w h i c h are u n c o m m o n i n H e b r e w , are usual i n t h e

[244]

§ 44 i/-»*] Aramaic), e.g.

Flexion

of

the

Perfect

of

Qal

121

it is gone, Dt 32 s "; np3K01 Is 23 15 (in the Aramaic form,

for nrDEWl); from a verb VJ), f O P l , cf. § 7 2 0 .

This original feminine

ending -ath is regularly retained before suffixes, see § 59 a ; and similarly in stems either in the form ath (which is frequent also in stems § 74g), or with the Pathak weakened to vocal Sewá before the pleonastic ending !"!__, e. g. nriitì § 75 i. I n E z 31 5 the Aramaic form XH23 occurs instead of ¡"IHDJ. 2nd maso, HO for ñ (differing only orthographically), e.g. n r n j a thou

hastg

dealt treacherously, Mal 2 14 ; cf. 1 S 15 s , G-n 3 1 2 (nKTIJ which is twice as common as fiñj, cf. §66 h ) ; Gn 2i 2 3 , 2 S 226, 2 K 9 s , I s 2«, ^ 56 s (so also in HipVil ; 2 K 9 7 " I s 37 23 , $ 604). 2nd fem. has sometimes a Y o d h at the end, as in ,,n2Í?n thou wentest, J e r 31 2 1 ; II cf. 2 s3 , 34 5 , 4 19 (but read the ptcp. njJDB>, w i t h the L X X , instead of the 2nd f e m . ) , ^ 1 1 , and so commonly in Jeremiah, and Ez (16 1 8 , &c.) ; see also MÌ4 1 3 , Ku 33 4.

''fiaHn, &c., is really intended, for the vowel signs in the text belong

to the marginal reading flD^n (without

1

as in the corresponding pronoun

"TIN (Tit?) § 32 h. The ordinary form has rejected the

final

but it regularly

reappears when pronominal suffixes are added (§ 59 a, c). 1st pers. comm. sometimes without Yodh, as riyTj

tDp, e. g. DSE* to lie, G-n 3 4 ' ;

C

to sink, E c 12*; especially w i t h v e r b s

w h i c h have a i n t h e second syllable of the I m p e r f . : h e n c e sometimes also w i t h those, w h o s e second or third radical is a g u t t u r a l ( f r e q u e n t l y besides t h e ordinary form).

A l l the examples (except

see above) occur i n t h e

closest connexion w i t h t h e following word, or w i t h suffixes (see § 61 c).

In

E z 21 33 the Masora seems to treat CQtoi) (verse 20, i n pause ("Dob) as a n I n f i n i t i v e = ráDÍ»; probably m t s b should be read. (V) i"6tpp a n d , a t t e n u a t e d from it, ¡"6tpp ; ilbtpp and !"&¡pp ( w h i c h are d f e m i n i n e f o r m s 2 of ^Dp a n d b b p , mostly f r o m i n t r a n s i t i v e verbs, and somet i m e s found along w i t h forms h a v i n g no feminine e n d i n g in use), e. g. to be guilty, L v 526, rUHK * fear;

love,

HNjK' to hate; HNTÍ), often i n Dt., to

H3p1 to he old ; HKIp to meet (in n x i p ! ? § 19 k); n i n n b to He clown, L v 20 1 6 ; to anoint, E x 2 929 ; n x m b to wash, E x 3018, &c. ; ntttDBi) (also a subst. =

uncleanness, l i k e HNDD) to he unclean, L v 15 3 2 ; ¡"D"lpÍ5 to approach, E x 36 s , &c. ; cf. L v I2 4 ' 5 , D t ii 2 2 ,' Is 3019, E z 21 16 , H a g 1«; a l s o ' i l p n n to be far off, E z 8®; to pity, E z 1 6 5 ; cf. H o 74. On the other h a n d " in n b p n G n 19 16 , t h e original á has been modified to e ; cf. Hp]n Is 8 U , &c. (c) I n t h e A r a m a i c m a n n e r (í>!iptp but cf. also A r a b , maqtal) t h e r e occur as 6 Infin. Qal: rflbt}'» to send, Est 9 " ; fcCipD to call and VDO to depart, N u i o 2 (Dt i o 1 1 ) ; ngi? to take, 2 C h 19 7 , & c . ; K f r o to carry, N u 4 s4 , &c. (cf. e v e n nÍKb»i> E z 17 9 ); also w i t h a f e m i n i n e ending flSjiO to go up, Ezr 7®, &c. ; cf. for these forms (almost a l l v e r y late) Ryssel, De Blohistae Pmtateuchici sermone, p. 50, a n d Strack on N u

4

24.

id) r t ó p i n riBO? G n 8 7 ; 2 . A k i n d o f Gerund sition ? ;

as

N u 141®; probably also fiBnn E x 31 5 , 3s 33 .

is f o r m e d b y t h e Infin.

ad interjiciendum,

bsj?

constr. w i t h t h e p r e p o -

ad cadendum

(see § 28 a ) .

1 T h e terms absolute and construct are of course not to be understood as i m p l y i n g t h a t the I n f i n . constr. ^ b p forms the construct state (see § 89) of t h e I n f i n . absol. (i>iDp ground-form qalat). I n the P a r a d i g m s the Inf. constr., as t h e principal form, is placed before the other, under the n a m e of I n f i n i t i v e simply. 2 A c c o r d i n g to t h e remark of E l i a s L e v i t a on Qimhi's Mikhlol, ed. E i t t e n b , 74 a, these f e m i n i n e forms occur almost exclusively in connexion w i t h t h e preposition

[247]

j

124 gr

The Verb

[§§ 45 u, 46 a-d

T h e b l e n d i n g of tlie b w i t h t h e Infln. lonstr. i n t o a single g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m seems to be i n d i c a t e d b y t h e firmly closed s y l l a b l e , cf. 32£>ij G n 3 4 ' ; ip Ii8 l s , w i t h Dages lene i n t h e B = hn-pol; bmephol, J b 4 1 3 ; ^353 2 S 3 s4 . Jer

1 10 ,

18*

3128;

J e r 4 7 ; nUD^l J e r 4

a c c o r d i n g to some also

h e n c e , also liq-tol, &c. ; b u t

Exceptions

N u 4®, 824 ; f i r D ^ 1119,

t^inib

&c., ^ 3 7 » ; p i n n b 2 C h 3 4 " ;

N u 2 i 4 and E Q s b 2 C h 2810 ( B a e r tJ>33^) ; on

t h e other h a n d ¡ 3 ^ 3 G n 3 5 ^ ; 1 3 1 3 J e r i f . ' F o r t h e m e a n i n g l e s s

trinnb

Ezrio16read

§ 46. The Imperative. II

1. The ground-forms of the Imperative, ^bp (properly qetul, which is for an original qutul),

and b o p (see below, c), the same in pro-

nunciation as the forms of the Infin. constr. (§ 45), are also the basis for the formation of the Imperfect (§ 47). 1

They represent the second

person, and have both fem. and plur. forms.

The third person is

supplied by the Imperfect in the Jussive (§ 109 b); and even the second person must always be expressed by the Jussive, if it be used with a negative, e. g. ^bprr^K ne occidas (not bbp'isx).

The passives have no

Imperative, but it occurs in the reflexives, as Niph'al and Hithpael. 2 b

2. The Afformatives of the 2nd sing. fem. and the 2nd plur. niasc. and fem. are identical in every case with those of the Imperfect (§47 c). I n the same way, the Imperative of the 2nd sing, rnasc., in common with the Imperfect, admits of the lengthening by the ¡1— paragogicum (4 48 i), as, on the other hand, there are certain shortened forms of this person analogous to the Jussive (§ 48. 5).

C

R e m . 1. I n s t e a d of t h e f o r m b b p ( s o m e t i m e s alsoplene, e . g . "liDE* E e 12 13 ; b e f o r e Maqqeph - b o p w i t h Qames hafuph), those verbs w h i c h h a v e a n a i n t h e final

s y l l a b l e of t h e Imperf.

I m p e r a t i v e of t h e f o r m

(i. e. e s p e c i a l l y v e r b s m i d d l e e) m a k e

their

e . g . B h j j dress! (Perf. BOb and E>3b) ; 33»" lie

ioun! in pause 33 E* 1 S 3®". d

2. T h e first s y l l a b l e of t h e sing. f e m . a n d plur. masc. are u s u a l l y to be

pronounced with S°ua mobile (qiteli, gilelu, and so ISQE*, &c., without Bagel lene, a n d e v e n =I3E>D w i t h Metheg, E x 1 2 2 1 ; b u t cf. »SDN J e r 1 0 " , a n d w i t h

the

same p h o n e t i c c o m b i n a t i o n ^ S b n I s 47^ ; see analogous cases i n § 93 m);

less

frequently we find an 0 instead of the i, e.g. ^^D rule, Jag10; }3B'D draw, E z 32 2 0 ; 1 3 i n J e r 2 12 (cf. » : n n I s 44 s7 ) ; on "«»Dp 1 S 28s Qere, i p y v J e r . 22®) (cf. 1 K 13 7 ), see § 10 g.

T h i s 0 arises (see above, a) f r o m a s i n g u l a r g r o u n d -

f o r m qutul, not f r o m a r e t r a c t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l u of t h e second s y l l a b l e . 1 T h e Infln. absol., l i k e t h e G r e e k I n f i n . , is also s o m e t i m e s used f o r t h e W o n bb). t h e vCf. i e wi n t h gaet nthe h tsemitische i n t h e first I mep m e rua st it vaeb a(§n d113 e r a lf,o rKm o cs hw, i tDer Inf.s y(lSl ac b h laef f (cf. h a u salso en, 1874). 2 I n Hoph'al a n I m p e r a t i v e is f o u n d o n l y t w i c e (Ez 32 19 , J e r . 49 s ), a n d c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t i n g i n m e a n i n g to t h e r e f l e x i v e .

[248]

§§ 46 e,f, 47 a] 1-JJ3S i-ian ' " p D

,|"PS>)

The Imperative

125

arise f r o m a w e a k e n i n g of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v o w e l o.

T h e y , or at least some of t h e m , must r a t h e r be r e g a r d e d w i t h B a r t h (ZDMG. 1889, p. 182) as analogous to t h e o r i g i n a l i-imperfects. See f u i t h e r a n a l o g i e s i n §§ 47 i a n d 48 1; 61 b, 63 n. T h e pausal f o r m of t h e 2nd plur. masc. is mfjl 1 K 3 2 6 ; f r o m

ty&f,

C

&e. ; s i m i l a r l y t h e 2nd s i n g . f e m . i n pause is n'nj) I s 2 3 1 2 ; e v e n w i t h o u t t h e pause 1 3 ^ 0 J u t ) 1 0 1 2 , KHh. ; "'»'lDi? 1 S 28«, Keth. (cf. w i t h t h i s also r o i ^ D , &e., § 48 i ) ; f r o m nDb», '•TOE' Jo 2 21 . 3. I n t h e 2nd plur. fem. ¡yiOE' occurs once, i n G n 4 ^ (for ¡"OVCE») w i t h loss of t h e H ¡yiw.

f

a n d i n s e r t i o n of a h e l p i n g v o w e l , u n l e s s it is s i m p l y to be p o i n t e d A l s o i n s t e a d of t h e a b n o r m a l fSnj? E x 220 (for !73fcHp) w e

should

p e r h a p s r e a d as i n E u i 2 ° J S n p (cf. J i i f o 1 9 and j a i ? i 1 2 ). O n t h e e x a m p l e s of a 2nd p l u r . f e m . i n I s 32 11 , see § 48 i.

§ 47. The Imperfect and its

Inflexion.

1. The persons of the Imperfect, 1 in contradistinction to those of a the Perfect, are formed by placing abbreviated forms of the personal pronoun (preformatives) before the stem, or rather before the abstract form of the stem As, however, the tone is retained on the characteristic vowel of the Stem-form, or even (as in the 2nd sing. fem. and the 3rd and 2nd, plur. masc.) passes over to the afformatives, the preformatives of the Imperfect appear in a much more abbreviated form than the afformatives of the Perfect, only one consonant (', R, N, 3) remaining in each form. But as this preformative combined with the 1 On t h e use of t h e S e m i t i c P e r f e c t a n d I m p e r f e c t cf. § 106 ff. a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d i n § 106. F o r our p r e s e n t p u r p o s e t h e f o l l o w i n g account w i l l s u f f i c e : — T h e n a m e Imp®feet is here u s e d i n direct contrast to t h e P e r f e c t , and is to be t a k e n i n a w i d e r sense t h a n i n l a t i n a n d Greek g r a m m a r . The H e b r e w ( S e m i t i c ) Per/, denotes i n g e n e r a l t h a t w h i c h is concluded, completed, a n d past, t h a t w h i c h h a s h a p p e n e d a n d h a s come i n t o e f f e c t ; b u t at t h e s a m e t i m e , also t h a t w h i c h is represented as accomplished, e v e n t h o u g h it be c o n t i n u e d i n t o present t i m e or e v e n be a c t u a l l y s t i l l f u t u r e . T h e Imperf. denotes, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e beginning, t h e unfinished, and t h e continuing, t h a t w h i c h is j u s t h a p p e n i n g , w h i c h is c o n c e i v e d as i n process of c o m i n g to pass, a n d h e n c e , also, t h a t w h i c h is y e t f u t u r e ; l i k e w i s e also t h a t w h i c h occurs r e p e a t e d l y or i n a c o n t i n u o u s s e q u e n c e i n t h e past ( L a t i n I m p e r f . ) . I t f o l l o w s f r o m t h e above t h a t t h e once c o m m o n designation of t h e I m p e r f . as a Future e m p h a s i z e s o n l y one side of its m e a n i n g . I n fact, t h e use of I n d o - G e r m a n i c t e n s e - n a m e s for t h e S e m i t i c tenses, w h i c h w a s adopted b y t h e S y r i a n s u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e G r e e k g r a m m a r i a n s , a n d a f t e r t h e i r e x a m p l e b y t h e A r a b s , a n d finally b y J e w i s h scholars, h a s i n v o l v e d m a n y m i s c o n c e p t i o n s . T h e I n d o - G e r m a n i c s c h e m e of t h r e e periods of t i m e (past, present, and f u t u r e ) is e n t i r e l y f o r e i g n to the S e m i t i c tense-idea, w h i c h regards a n occurrence o n l y f r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of completed or i n c o m p l e t e a c t i o n . — I n t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e t w o tenses t h e chief d i s t i n c t i o n is t h a t in t h e P e r f e c t t h e v e r b a l s t e m precedes a n d t h e i n d i c a t i o n of t h e person is a d d e d a f t e r w a r d s for precision, w h i l e i n t h e

I m p e r f . t h e subject, f r o m w h i c h t h e action proceeds or about w h i c h a c o n d i t i o n is predicated, is e x p r e s s e d b y a prefixed p r o n o u n .

[249]

126

The Verb

[ § 47

stem-form was not always sufficient to express at the same time differences both of gender and number, the distinction had to be further indicated, in several cases, by special afformatives. Cf. the table, § 40 c. b

2. The derivation and meaning, both of the preformatives and the afformatives, can still, in most cases, be recognized. In thefirstpers. plur. S is probably connected with and 3 with ^rn• here no indication of gender or number by a special ending was necessary. As regards the vocalization, the Arabic points to the ground-forms 'dqtul and naqtul: the I of the 1st plur. is, therefore, as in the other preformatives, attenuated from a. The Seghol of the 1st sing, is probably to be explained by the preference of the N for this sound (cf. §22 o, but also § 51 p); according to Qimhi, it arises from an endeavour to avoid the similarity of sound between bbpN (which

is the Babylonian punctuation) and which, according to this view, was likewise pronounced iqtol} C The preformative n of the second persons (bbpfl, ground-form taqtul, &c.) is, without doubt, connected with the n of ¡"ITIN, and the afformative of the 2nd fem. sing. with the i of the original feminine form 'FIN (see § 32 h). The afformative 1 of the 2nd masc. plur. i{>t?pri (in its more complete form, p, see m) is the sign of the plural, as in the 3rd pers., and also in the Perfect (§ 44 a). In the Imperfect, however, it is restricted in both persons to the masculine,2 while the afformative f j (also Tf) of the 3rd and 2nd plur. fem. is probably connected with Hjfj eae and HjilX vos (fem.). d The preformatives of the third persons (' in the masc. groundform yaqtul, plur. '^Pi?!, ground-form yaqtulu; n in the fem. plur. nji'bpfi) have not yet met with any satisfactory explanation. 1 Cf. § 24 e. I n favour of the above view of Qimhi may be urged the With n orthography might mostK>Kobviously the original feminine phonetic (in Pr 1824 be compared 2 S 1419 (unless, with Perles, 3B>N!

is to be read), Mi 6 10 , for ty1", and 1 Ch 213 for 'E" (as verse 12). Also nSJNH M i 6 n is probably for "[XH = "pn, IpSK Is Io 12 for "ipS^; -]J0mX Is 5119 for ; and conversely S s ^ is'for W S = Similarly, W 1 S 1449' is probably for i ^ K or r W K ; in 2 S 23s n3£'3 3K" is, according to the LXX, an error for = Hii'Bti'ti. I n Assyrian also the simple t corresponds to the Hebrew * as the preformative of the Impf. Qal. 2 This is also the proper gender of the plural syllable u, On. I n Hebrew, indeed, it is used in the 3rd plur. Perfect for both genders, but in the kindred languages even there only for the masculine, e.g. in Syriac tftalu, qetalun, with the feminine foim rftalen, in Western Aram, qetdlu, fem. (ftdla ; in Arab.

qatalu, fem. qatalna, Eth. qatalu, qatala.

[250]

§ 47 e-i ]

of nouns, and of the

ending

127

The Imperfect and its Inflexion 3 r d fem. sing, perfect.

For

the

afformatives ' ( P ) and ¡"0, gee c. 3. T h e characteristic v o w e l of the second syllable becomes & e w a e b e f o r e tone-bearing afformatives which begin

w i t h a v o w e l , but

is

retained (as b e i n g in the tone-syllable) before the toneless a f f o r m a t i v e nj.

Thus : \5fopn, i ^ c p i , i ^ p P I (but i n pause

^ b p n , &c.),

HjiibpPl.

Rem. 1. The 0 of the second syllable (as in the inf. constr. and imperat.), f being lengthened from an original u in the tone-syllable, is only tone-long " (§ 9 r). Hence it follows t h a t : (a) it is incorrectly, although somewhat frequently, written plene; (6) before Maqqeph the short vowel appears as Qames katuph, e.g. DBj~3Fl3Jl and he wrote there, Jos8 s2 (but cf. also Ex 2i37, Jos 18 20 ); (c) it becomes Sewa before the tone-bearing afformatives ^ and i (see above, e ; but Jerome still heard e. g. iezbuleni for ; cf. ZAW. iv. 83). g r Quite anomalous are the three examples which, instead of a shortening to Sewd, exhibit a long u : DH itD'SB" Ex i8 2e , immediately before the principal pause,but according to Qimhi (ed. Bittenb. p. 18 b ),ed. Mant.,6insb. ,Kittel against the other editions, w i t h the tone on the ultima ; likewise HID n i 3 j m - & 6 Eu 2 8 ; QUDBTl (in principal pause) Pr 14s. itjiSB»1' and ni3J?PI (for

I n the first two cases perhaps

&c.) are intended, in virtue of a retrogressive

effect of the pause ; in P r 143 DVTOK>PI is to be read, with August Miiller. 2. The 0 of the second syllable is to be found almost exclusively with transi- h tive verbs middle a, like

Intransitives middle a and s almost always take

a (Pathah) in the impf., e.g. p i f a T to couch, 332* 32B»'' id* to learn is also originally intransitive = to accustom 1

1

to he down (1d5>

to become great (but cf. pS* and pB> imperf. pB*"1 to dwell and to inhabit, 5>33 imperf. ^¡H1" to wither) ; also from verbs middle 0, as [bp to be small, the imperf. has the form [Dp\ Sometimes both forms occur together; those with o having a transitive, t and those with a an intransitive meaning, e.g. he cuts off, ISp^ he is cut off, i.e. is short; B^H impf. 0, to overcome, Ex I7 1 S ; impf. it, to be overcome, Jb 1410. More rarely both forms are used without any distinction, e. g. and he bites, f S r p and f'SIT he is inclined (but only the latter with a transitive meaning = he bends, in Jb 40"). On the a of the impf. of verbs middle and third guttural, cf. § 64 b; § 65 b. I n some verbs first guttuial (§ 63 « ) , V"V (§ 67 p), i"S (§ 69 6), and (§ 68 c), and in ¡Fl^ for yinten from fn3 to give, instead of a or 5 a movable Sere (originally») is found in the second syllable. A trace of these ¿-imperfects 2 in the ordinary strong verb is probably to be found in 2 K 7s, since Jt2D otherwise only occurs in Qal. W e call these three forms of the imperfect after their characteristic vowel impf. 0, impf. a. impf. e. • " •*

3. For the 3rd sing. fem. 5>bpPl ( = tiq-fol), Baer requires in 1 S 2520 B^SH fo 1 This a is, however, by no means restricted to intransitive strong verbs ; (but i t h ed.third Mant.,&c. tJ'SQljl). For apartread fromwverbs guttural (§ 65 b), it the is to2nd be sing. foundfem. in J"S and the $!"$!,form and in many verbs and i*a (§§ 69-71). 2

Cf. Barth, < Das ¿-Imperfekt im Nordsemitischen,' ZDMG. 1889, p. 177 ff.

[251]

128

The is f o u n d i n I s

578,

Jer

f o r m ; b u t cf. also E z 26 14 .

35,

Ez

Verb 224,

[§ 471,

23 s2 ,

m

i n e v e r y case a f t e r t h e r e g u l a r

I n I s 17 1 0 , w h e r e t h e 2nd f e m . precedes

and

f o l l o w s , p r o b a b l y '31 Pintri is to be r e a d w i t h Marti f o r y y i i n . — F o r

the

3rd plur. fem. robiapn w e find i n J e r 49 1 1 , i n pause intOIin (for n3ni3Diyi), a n d t h r i c e (as if to d i s t i n g u i s h i t f r o m t h e 2nd pers.) t h e f o r m rub'tap"1 w i t h t h e preformative Gn

30s8,

11

(as a l w a y s i n W e s t e r n A r a m . , A r a b , E t h . , a n d A s s y r . ) , i n

1 S 6 12 , D n 8 22 .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , n j b f i p n appears i n some cases

to be i n c o r r e c t l y used e v e n f o r t h e fem. of t h e 3rd pers. or for t h e masc. of t h e 2nd pers. sing, as ¡IjinbVri J u

(where, however, perhaps

is to

be read), a n d Ob 1 3 , for 2nd sing, masc., a c c o r d i n g to Olshausen a c o r r u p t i o n ° f T r t e n ; i n P r l20> 8 3 f o r read PUIR as i n J b 3y 2 3 ; i n E x 1 1 0 read titOpH w i t h t h e S a m a r i t a n . — I n I s 27 1 1 , 2S 3 , as also i n .Jb 17 1 6 (if w e read ' n a i D w i t h L X X for t h e 2nd T l l p n ) , i t is e q u a l l y possible to e x p l a i n t h e f o r m as a plural. T h i s s m a l l n u m b e r of e x a m p l e s h a r d l y justifies our finding i n t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d passages t h e r e m a i n s of a n e m p h a t i c f o r m of t h e I m p f . , analogous to t h e A r a b . Modus energicus I, w i t h t h e t e r m i n a t i o n anna. I

For

n j we frequently

find,

a f t e r waw consecutiie, s i m p l y E z 320, 1 6 5 5 ;

in

Arab,

TJ

especially

in

the Pentateuch and

mostly

na, e . g . G n 19 3 3 3 6 , 37', E x i 1 8 1 9 , 15 20 , N u 2 f 2 ,

always

na.

According

to E l i a s

Levita

(2 S 13 18 ) is t h e o n l y e x a m p l e of t h i s k i n d i n t h e s t r o n g verb.

The form

n v n n j n i (so also Q i m h i a n d ed. M a n t . ; b u t B a e r , Ginsb. njnBOTl) for n j n £ m i they were high, E z 16 50 , is i r r e g u l a r , w i t h *

inserted a f t e r t h e m a n n e r of

verbs J!"5? a n d V'Ji, § 67 d ; § 72 i; a c c o r d i n g to O l s h a u s e n i t is a n e r r o r caused by the following form.

7)1

4. Instead of the plural forms in ^ there are, especially in the older books, over 300 forms 1 with the fuller ending p (with Nun paragogicum), always bearing the tone ; cf. § 29 m and § 44 I; on its retention before suffixes, see§ 60 e; also defectively P4"!? E x 2118, 22s, &c. This usually expresses marked emphasis, and consequently occurs most commonly at the end of sentences (in the principal pause), in which case also the (pausal) vowel of the second syllable is generally retained. Thus there arise full-sounding forms such as I'B'pb* they collect, ^ 10428; Pja^ they tremble, E x 15 1 4 ; JU'C'fn ye shall hear, D t 1 1 7 ; cf. E x 3413, with Zaqeph qaton, Athnah, and Silluq; Jos 2 4'5, with Segolta; Is 138 and 17 13 with Zaqeph qaton, 17 12 with Athnah and Silluq, 41 5 after waw consec. Without the pause, e.g. ifr n2 fiijip pi-"1"!?, cf. 43, Gn i828 29 3 0 f f , 441, N u 3 2 23 , J o s 4 6 ( p W ) ; Is 812, 1 S 913, K u 29 and JQKip?) ; Ju. n 1 8 after waw consec. S o m e of these e x a m p l e s m a y b e p a r t l y d u e to e u p h o n i c reasons, e g . c e r t a i n l y E x i f , N u i6 2tl , 3220, 1 S 9 13 , 1 K y 6 , a n d o f t e n , to a v o i d a h i a t u s before X or V. I t w a s , h o w e v e r , t h e pause e s p e c i a l l y w h i c h e x e r t e d a n i n f l u e n c e on t h e restoration of t h i s older a n d f u l l e r t e r m i n a t i o n (cf. § 159 c, n o t e ) , as is m a n i 1 fest f r o m I s 2 6 1 1 : it»>£i1 they see not; may they see and become - : itn"1. 1 at iv 1 [See d e t a i l s i n F. Bottcher, Lehrb., § 930 ; a n d cf. D r i v e r o n 1 S 2 1 5 .]

[252]

§§47»-^! 48 a> 6]

The

Imperfect

and

its Inflexion

129

ashamed. A l l t h i s a p p l i e s also to t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m s in t h e I m p e r f e c t of t h e d e r i v e d c o n j u g a t i o n s . 1 I n A r a m a i c a n d A r a b i c t h i s earlier p (old A r a b i c una) is t h e regular t e r m i n a t i o n ; b u t i n some d i a l e c t s of v u l g a r A r a b i c i t has also become w. W i t h a n affixed X w e find ( i n t h e i m p e r f . N i p h ' a l )

Jer io 5 , e v i d e n t l y 11

a n error for i x ' s ^ ) caused b y t h e p r e c e d i n g KVtW.—In DVtffc'* I s 35 1 , since D follows, t h e D is no doubt o n l y due to d i t t o g r a p h y . 5. Corresponding to t h e use of p for 1 t h e r e occurs i n t h e 2nd sing, f e m . , Q a l t h o u g h m u c h less f r e q u e n t l y , t h e f u l l e r e n d i n g p__ (as in A r a m , and A r a b . ; old A r a b , ind), also a l w a y s w i t h t h e tone, for

generally again in

the

p r i n c i p a l pause, a n d a l m o s t i n a l l cases w i t h r e t e n t i o n of t h e v o w e l of t h e p e n u l t i m a ; t h u s p i » " r n E u a 8 8 1 , cf. 3 4 1 8 , 1 S i 1 4 ( H ? ^ 1 ? ) . 6. On t h e r e a p p e a r a n c e i n pause of t h e

Jer

3i 2 2 , I s 45 1 0 .

0 w h i c h h a d become Sewd i n the p

f o r m s ''btOpJI, &c., see above, e ; s i m i l a r l y , t h e i m p e r f e c t s w i t h a restore t h i s v o w e l i n pause a n d at t h e same t i m e l e n g t h e n i t (as a t o n e - v o w e l ) to a, h e n c e , e . g . ^ T j n , ¡I^Tl'.

T h i s i n f l u e n c e of t h e pause e x t e n d s e v e n to t h e f o r m s

w i t h o u t a f f o r m a t i v e s , e g.

m pause

B u t the f u l l e r f o r m s i n tin

and in h a v e t h e tone a l w a y s on t h e u l t i m a , since t h e v o w e l s w a n d % i n a closed final s y l l a b l e n e v e r a l l o w of t h e r e t r a c t i o n of t h e tone. 1. On t h e n u m e r o u s i n s t a n c e s of p a s s i v e f o r m s i n t h e i m p e r f e c t , m o s t l y q t r e a t e d as H o p h ' a l , see § 5 3 u.

§ 48.

Shortening Imperative.

and

Lengthening

The Jussive

of the Imperfect and

and

Gohortative.

1. Certain modifications which take place in the form of the a imperfect, and express invariably, or nearly so, a distinct shade of meaning, serve to some extent as a compensation for the want of special forms for the Temjxyra relativa and for certain moods of the verb. 2. Along with the usual form of the imperfect, there exists also b a lengthened form of it (the cohortative), and a shortened form (the jussive).'' The former occurs (with few exceptions) only in the 1st person, while the latter is mostly found in the 2nd and 3rd persons, and less frequently in the 1st person. The laws of the tone, however, and of the formation of syllables in Hebrew, not infrequently precluded the indication of the jussive by an actual shortening of the form; consequently it often—and, in the imperfect forms with afforcnatives, always—coincides with the ordinary imperfect (indicative) form. I n classical A r a b i c t h e difference is a l m o s t a l w a y s e v i d e n t . T h a t l a n g u a g e d i s t i n g u i s h e s , besides t h e i n d i c a t i v e yaqliilu, (a) a s u b j u n c t i v e , ydqtiila; (6) a 1 I t is to be observed t h a t t h e C h r o n i c l e s o f t e n o m i t t h e Nun, w h e r e i t is f o u n d i n t h e parallel passage i n t h e B o o k s of K i n g s ; cf. 1 K 838 43 w i t h 2 C h 24 5 w i t h 2 C h II 4 , 23 4 . 629.S3 . j k 12 , 2 K 1 1 2 T h e perfect has o n l y one f o r m , since it c a n n o t be used, l i k e t h e i m p e r f e c t , to express mood-relations (see § 106 p ) .

COWLEY

X

[253]

*

The Verb

130

[ § 4 8 e-f

jussive, yaqtiil; (c) a double 'energetic' mood of the impf., yaqtulanna and yaqtulan, in pause yaqiula, the last form thus corresponding to the Hebrew cohortative. C

3 . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e cohortative form is a n a ( n _ _ ) affixed to t h e 1st pers. sing, or plur., e . g . H^tpp« f r o m i ' b p S . 1 almost all conjugations a n d classes of t h e

I t occurs i a

strong and w e a k

verb

(except of course in t h e passives), and t h i s final n _ _ has t h e tone wherever t h e afformatives ' and endings, so also before t h e

would h a v e it.

A s before these

cohortative, the movable vowel of t h e

last syllable of t h e verbal form becomes &w&, e. g. i n Q a l I will

observe, in P i ' e l n ¡31-133 let us break asunder,

23;

on

I s 18 4 Qcrc (cf. also 27*, E z r 825, &c.), see § 10 h; w i t h t h e KHMbh

of

these passages, compare t h e analogous cases 11313^, &c., § 47 g.— O n t h e other hand, an unchangeable vowel in the final syllable is r e t a i n e d as tone-vowel before the ¡"1-—, as ( e . g . ) in H i p h

iTV3]K I will

praise.

I n pause (as before 4 and 1), the vowel which became Sewd is r e s t o r e d as t o n e - v o w e l ;

thus for t h e cohortative ¡"HBiW t h e pausal form is

rnbB>§ f 5 9 1 0 ; cf. G n 1S 2 1 , I s 41 2 6 . d

The change of H into the obtuse D seems to occur in 1 S 2816, unless, with Nestle, we are to assume a conflate reading, tOpXJ and rnpNI ; and with the 3id pers. \p 204, in a syllable sharpened by a following Dagei forte conjunct.; cf. similar cases of the change of D into the obtuse n in I and in §§ 73 d, 80 i, 90 1. I n ^ 20*, however, iipE^T—with suffix—is probably intended. A n H cohort, ia also found with the 31'd pers. in Is 5 19 (twice); Ez 2320, and again in verse 16 according to the but in both these cases without any effect on the meaning. Probably another instance occurs in Jb II 17 , although there nSJiD might also, with Qimhi, be regarded as 2nd masc. For the doubly irregular form nriXuR Dt 3316 (explained by Olshausen and Konig as a scribal error, due to a confusion with riXDH inverse 14), read n i X i i f l . For ?jnNi2n Jb 2221 the noun i j n x i s n thine increase, might be meant, but the Masora has evidently intended an imperfect with the ending ath, instead of ¡1 , before the suffix, on the analogy of the 3rd sing. fem. perfect, see § 59 a ; on TlSOm I S 25s4, see § 76 h.

6

T h e cohortative expresses t h e direction of t h e will to an action and thus

denotes

especially

self-encouragement

(in

the

1st

plur.

an

e x h o r t a t i o n t o others at the same t i m e ) , a resolution or a wish, as an optative, &c., see § 108. y

4 . T h e general characteristic of t h e jussive

form of t h e i m p e r f e c t

is r a p i d i t y of pronunciation, combined with a t e n d e n c y to

retract

1 Probably this a goes back to the syllable an, which in Arabic (see above, Rem. to b) is used for the formation of the 1 energetic' mood, and in Hebrew (see the footnote to § 58 i) often stands before suffixes.

[254]

§ 48 a-i] Shortening and Lengthening of Imperfect 131 the tone from the final syllable, in order by that means to express the urgency of

the command

in the very

first

syllable.

This

tendency has, in certain forms, even caused a material shortening of the termination of the word, so that the expression of the command appears to be concentrated on a single syllable.

In other cases,

however, the jussive is simply marked by a shortening of the vowel of the second syllable, without its losing the tone, and very frequently (see above, V) the nature of the form does not admit of any alteration. I t is not impossible, however, that even in such cases the jussive in the living language was distinguished from the indicative by a change in the place of the tone. In the strong verb the jussive differs in form from the indicative g only in Iliph'U (juss.

ind.

and similarly in the weak verb,

wherever the imperfect indicative has % in the second syllable, e. g. from 3B* impf. Hiph. 3 W , juss. 3ifP; from iflD, J W and in Qal of the verbs V'Ji and

as

ind. f W ;

also

ind.

in all

conjugations of verbs n"b, so that the rejection (apocope) of the ending f—

in Qal and Hiph.

gives rise to monosyllabic forms, with or

without a helping vowel under the second radical, e. g. Qal ind. juss. i w ;

Hiph. ind. ¡"6?!, juss. ^ ;

and in the Pi el 12P from the

indie. "IJJfJ (called apocopated imperfects).

But almost all 1 the plural

forms of the jussive coincide with those of the indicative, except that the jussive excludes the fuller ending IV

Neither do the forms of the

2nd sing, fem., as ^¿i?!?, ^ o n , ' b w , &c., admit of any change in the jussive, nor any forms, whether singular or plural, to which suffixes are attached, e. g. '^tpri as ind. Jer 3815, as jussive Jer 418. The meaning of the jussive is similar to that of the cohortative, h except that in the jussive the command or wish is limited almost exclusively to the 2nd or 3rd pers.

On special uses of the jussive,

e. g. in hypothetical sentences (even in the 1st pers.), see § 109 h. 5. The imperative, in accordance with its other points of connexion i with the imperfect in form and meaning, admits of a similar lengthening (by H—_, Arab, imper. energieus, with the ending -anna or -an, in pause -a) and shortening.

Thus in Qal of the strong verb, the lengthened

form o f f o ^ guard is rnDK»2 (ZorrfirA, cf. \b(?i? qUHt, § 46 d); 3tjj, n3$ Jer 49 1 1 ; 332', fl33B> lie down; 1

, WW

hear, in lesser pause Hi'D^

O n l y i n 1st p l u r . do w e find a f e w s h o r t e n e d forms, as

1 S 14 36 ,

p a r a l l e l w i t h c o h o r t a t i v e s ; a n d N~l3 I s 41 2 3 KHh. 2

On t h e r e a d i n g m D i ? (i. e. "sartfia, according to t h e J e w i s h g r a m m a r i a n s ) ,

r e q u i r e d b y t h e M a s o r a ' i n \p 862, 119 1 6 7 (cf. also I s 38", and 'JIIDB' $ 16 1 ), see § 9 v ; on roibo, J u 9 8 KHh,

see § 46 e.

K 2

[255]

The Verb

132

[§§ 48 fc, l, 49

a

D n 9 19 ; in Nipli'al Gn 2123. Cf., however, also n-j3t? sell, Gn 2531, notwithstanding the impf. ; nanj? Jb 33 s (cf. Jer 46s), but impf. nsDN collect, N u n 1 6 (for 'DN cf. § 63 I and the plural ?SDX), but 2nd masc. I'DK; ¡TIM ^ 141 3 . Barth (see above, § 4 7 1 note) finds in these forms a trace of old imperfects in i, cf. § 63 n. On the other hand, rn"j£ \js 6919 (also Imperat. 2"lp Lv g7, &c.), but impf. 3!P?. Without n, we have the form rf? go, NU23 13 , Ju 1913, 2 Ch 2517. The form in pause becomes '"^¿P, the form i'Bp becomes H^tbp, e. g. ncn? Dt 33s8. But also without the pause we find f O ^ b J u 98 KHh. and HSilS ^ 2 6 2 KHh., on which see § 46 e. On the other hand Hjjn, DOC'S, rnv, ¡"Hun Is 3211 are to be explained as aramaizing forms of the 2nd plur. fem.; also for Vpn v. 11 read ¡"1 Yin, and for QHBD v. 12 read rnbD, k The shortened imperative is found only in verbs , e.g. in Pi'el from n b . The shade of meaning conveyed by the imperatives with n _ is not always so perceptible as in the cohortative forms of the imperfect, but the longer form is frequently emphatic, e. g. rise up, HCAp up ! JFl give, HJljl give up! I

R e m . T h e f o r m n j n for ¡"lJH, best attested i n P r 2414 ( w h e r e i t is t a k e n b y the Masora as imperat., not as i n f i n . , n j H ) is e v i d e n t l y due to t h e i n f l u e n c e of the H w h i c h f o l l o w s it i n close c o n n e x i o n (so Strack, on t h e a n a l o g y of J b 31 2 ) ; for other examples of t h i s c h a n g e of a to S e ghol, see above, u n d e r d, § 73 d, a n d § 80 1. On t h e other h a n d , it is doubtful w h e t h e r HB"! J u 9 " ( f r o m rQ"V) is i n t e n d e d for HST, a n d not r a t h e r for t h e common f o r m of t h e i m p e r a t i v e Pi'el H3T.

I n favour of the f o r m e r explanation i t m a y be u r g e d

t h a t t h e i m p e r a t i v e HXS (from XiT) f o l l o w s i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r ; in favour of t h e latter, t h a t t h e e n d i n g n

, w i t h i m p e r a t i v e s of v e r b s

is not f o u n d

elsewhere, a n d also t h a t h e r e no g u t t u r a l f o l l o w s (as i n P r 24 14 ).

§ 49. The Perfect and Imperfect with Wdiv Consecutive. a

1. The use of the two tense-forms, as is shown more fully in the Syntax (§§ 106, 107, cf. above, § 47, note on a), is by no means restricted to the expression of the past or future. One of the most striking peculiarities in the Hebrew consecution of tenses 1 is the phenomenon that, in representing a series of past events, only the first 1 T h e other S e m i t i c languages do n o t e x h i b i t t h i s p e c u l i a r i t y , e x c e p t i n g the Phoenician, t h e most closely r e l a t e d to H e b r e w , a n d of course t h e Moabitish dialect of t h e Meia' i n s c r i p t i o n , w h i c h is p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h Old H e b r e w . I t also appears i n t h e inscription of "Ot of H a m a t h (cf. NOldeke, ZA. 1908, p. 379) w h e r e w e find T and I lifted up my hand, and he answered me, a f t e r a perfect of narration.

[256]

§ 49

Perf. and Imperf. with Waw Consecutive

133

verb stands in the perfect, and the narration is continued in the imperfect.

Conversely, the representation of a series of future events

begins w i t h the imperfect, and is continued in the perfect. 2 K 201, In

those days was Hezekiah

Thus in

sick unto death (perf.), and

Isaiah . . . came (imperf.) to Mm, and said (imperf.) to him, &c. the other hand, Is 7 17 , the Lord

On

shall bring (imperf.) upon thee . . .

days, &c., 718, and it shall come to pass (perf. i " ^ ) in that day . . . This progress in the sequence of time, is regularly indicated by Jj a pregnant and (called waw consecutive1),

which in itself is really only

a variety of the ordinary waw copulative, but which sometimes (in the imperf.) appears with a different vocalization.

Further, the tenses

connected by waw consecutive sometimes undergo a change in the tone and consequently are liable also to other variations. 2. The waw consecutive Pathuh

and a Dages fort?

of the imperfect

is (a) pronounced w i t h c

in the next letter, as i'bPH and he

killed',

before K of the 1st pers. sing, (according to § 22 c) with Qames, as and I killed. Dikduke

ha-famim,

Exceptions are, § 71;

1. E z 16 10 according to the

also innfltoiO 2 S i " according to Q i m h i ;

but in J u 69

should be read according to Baer, and

places in J u 206.

Dages forte is always omitted in the preformative

in both

in accordance w i t h § 2 0 m. (b) When a shortening of the imperfect form is possible (cf. § 48 g), d it takes effect, as a rule (but cf. § 51 n), after waw consec., e.g. in H i p h i l t>!?p»l (§ 53 n).

The tendency to retract the tone from the

final syllable is even stronger after waw consec. than in the jussive. The throwing back of the tone on to the penultima (conditional upon its being an open syllable with a long vowel, § 29 a), further involves the greatest possible shortening of the vowel of the ultima, since the vowel then comes to stand in a toneless closed syllable, e.g. CpJ, juss. 1 T h i s n a m e best e x p r e s s e s t h e p r e v a i l i n g s y n t a c t i c a l r e l a t i o n , f o r b y warn consecutive a n a c t i o n i s a l w a y s r e p r e s e n t e d as t h e d i r c c t , or a t l e a s t t e m p o r a l consequence of a p r e c e d i n g a c t i o n . M o r e o v e r , i t i s c l e a r f r o m t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e s , t h a t t h e waw consecutive c a n o n l y be t h u s u s e d i n i m m e d i a t e c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e v e r b . A s soon as waw, o w i n g t o a n i n s e r t i o n (e. g. a n e g a t i v e ) , i s s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e v e r b , t h e i m p e r f e c t f o l l o w s i n s t e a d of t h e p e r f e c t consecutive, t h e p e r f e c t i n s t e a d of t h e i m p e r f e c t consecutive. T h e f a c t t h a t w h o l e B o o k s ( L e v . , N u m . , Josh., Jud., Sam., 2 K i n g s , Ezek., E u t h , E s t h . , Neh., 2 Chron.) begin w i t h t h e i m p e r f e c t consecutive, a n d o t h e r s ( E x o d . , 1 K i n g s , E z r a ) w i t h waw copulative, i s t a k e n as a s i g n of t h e i r close c o n n e x i o n w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l B o o k s n o w or o r i g i n a l l y p r e c e d i n g t h e m . C f . , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e i n d e p e n d e n t b e g i n n i n g of J o b a n d D a n i e l . I t is a m e r e l y superficial description to c a l l t h e w a w c o n s e c u t i v e b y t h e o l d - f a s h i o n e d n a m e waw conversive. on t h e gi o u n d t h a t i t a l w a y s c o n v e r t s t h e m e a n i n g of t h e r e s p e c t i v e t e n s e s i n t o i t s o p p o s i t e , i . e . a c c o r d i n g to t h e o l d v i e w , t h e f u t u r e i n t o t h e p r e t e r i t e , a n d vice versa.

[257]

134

The

[§ 4 9 e h

Kerb

Dp;, with waw eonsec. Dtjfl and he arose (§67 n and x, § 68 c/, § 69 p, § 7 1 . § 72 t and aa, § 73 e).1 C In the first pers. sing, alone the retraction of the tone and even the reducing of the long vowel in the final syllable (A to 0, t to e, and then to 0 and e) are not usual,2 at least according to the Masoretic punctuation, and the apocope in verbs occurs more rarely ; e. g. always D^pNl (or DpXlT, a merely orthographic difference) and I arose; Iliyh. C-^pX^ (but generally written Di-W, implying the pronunciation wa'dqem, as implies wa'aqom); ¡liON^ and I saw, more frequently than , §75 On the other hand, the form with final is often used in the 1st pers. both sing, and plur., especially in the later books, e. g. nn^CW and I sent, Gn 32 s , 4i", 4321, Nu 819 ( n j ^ l , as in Ju 69, 1S 20-8, 2 S I22S, and often, probably a sort of compensation for the lost 3); Ju 610, 123, 2 S 2 224, f 3 6 , f , go1", 11953, Jb i 15 ff-, 1920, Ez f \ 825, 9 3 , Neh 213, g 7813 , 6 n , 137-1121 &c.—Sometimes, as in ^3 6 , with a certain emphasis of expression, and probably often, as in Ju io 12 , HPE'iXI before K, for euphonic reasons. In Is 82 nT^yN^ may have been originally intended; in ^ 7316 'nxi and in Jb 3026 "Wl. In Ez 33 read nbaxi or r t a x i . T V :

1 T

T

:

T

r

f

This -1 is i n m e a n i n g a s t r e n g t h e n e d waw copulative, a n d resembles i n pron u n c i a t i o n t h e f o r m w h i c h is r e t a i n e d in A r a b i c as t h e o r d i n a r y copula (u.a). s T h e close connexion of t h i s wa w i t h t h e following consonant, caused t h e l a t t e r i n H e b r e w to t a k e Dages, especially as a could not h a v e been r e t a i n e d i n a n open syllable. Cf. ffl33, TOS, DlsS' (for w h e r e t h e prepositions 3 a n d ^ a n d t h e particle 3 , are closely connected w i t h nD in t h e same w a y (§ 102 k). g T h e retraction of t h e t o n e also occurs in such combinations, as in Htsi? (for § 102 l).—The i d e n t i t y of m a n y consecutive f o r m s w i t h jussives of t h e s a m e conjugation m u s t n o t mislead us i n t o supposing a n i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n between t h e moods. I n t h e consecutive f o r m s t h e s h o r t e n i n g of t h e vowel ( a n d t h e retraction of t h e tone) seems r a t h e r to be occasioned solely b y t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e p r e f o r m a t i v e syllable, w h i l e in t h e jussives t h e s h o r t e n i n g ( a n d retraction) belongs to t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e f o r m .

h

3. The counterpart of waw consecutive of the imperfect is waw consecutive of the perfect, by means of which perfects are placed as 1 The p l u r a l f o r m s in ¡1 also occur less f r e q u e n t l y a f t e r wdio consecutive; cf., however, J u 81, 1118, A m 6s, Ez 44s, Dt 4 11 , 52«. T h e 2nd f e m . sing, i n p n e v e r occurs a f t e r waw consecutive. 2

I n t h e 1st p l u r . TDi|31 Neh

remains unreduced

4

3

is t h e only i n s t a n c e in w h i c h t h e vowel

(cf. 31801, i . e . 3"K>31,

4

9

K'th.-,

Q're 3E*ll).

On t h e

t r e a t m e n t of t h e t o n e in t h e imperfect, i m p e r a t i v e , a n d i n f i n i t i v e Niph'al, see

§ 51 n.

3 I n usage t h e H e b r e w waw does d u t y for t h e Arabic fa (waw apodosis, see § 143 d) as well as u a .

[258]

§ 49»-™]

Perf. and Iviperf. with Wdw Consecutive 135

1he sequels in the f u t u r e to p r e c e d i n g actions or events r e g a r d e d as incomplete at the time of speaking, a n d therefore in the imperfect, imperative, or even participle. copulative,

T h i s wdw is in form an ordinary waw

and t h e i e f o r e shares its various vocalization ( 1 , J , as 2 K 7 4 ,

and 1); e. g. '"T^l, a f t e r an imperfect, &c., and so it happens = and, it will

happen.

I t has, however, the effect, in certain v e i b a l forms, of

s h i f t i n g the tone f r o m the p e n u l t i m a , g e n e r a l l y on to t h e ultima, e.g. ••Jiab'n I went, consecutive form co-ordinated w i t h another perfect secutive to an imperative.

and I will go, J u i 3 , w h e r e i t is consecutive,

w h i c h again is t h e con-

See f u r t h e r on t h i s usage in § 1 1 2 .

A s the first of the above examples shows, the Qames of the first syllable is I retained in the strong perf. eonsec. Qal, as formerly before the tone, so now in the secondary tone, and therefore necessarily takes Metheg. On the other hand, the 0 of the second syllable in verbs middle 0 upon losing the tone necessarily becomes 0, e.g. Ex 18 i3 . The shifting forward of tlie tone after the waw consecuhie of the perfect is, k however, not consistently carried out. It is omitted—(as) always in the 1st pers. pi., e. g. Gn 34 16 ; (6) regularly in Hiph'il before the afformatives H

and i see §53?"; and (c) in many cases in verbs

and ¡Y'b, almost

always in the 1st sing, of (Jer 2914), and in ¡V'b if the vowel of the 2nd syllable is i, Ex 176, 264 6 7 - 1 0 f f , Ju 626, &c., except in Qal (only Lv 24s, before K) and the 2nd sing. masc. of Hiph'il-forms before X, Nu 208, Dt 2013, 1 S 15', ! K 1 3 " ; similarly in Pi'el before X, Ex 25s4, Jer 274. On the other hand the tone is generally moved forward if the second syllable has e (in «"S? Gn 2710 &c., in n"b Ex 404, Jer 336, Ez 32') ; but cf. also riSTPI L v 19 1432 and frequently, always before the counter-tone, Jo 4 21 , f 19 14 . 1 W i t h a in the penultima the form is nsctMl Is 144, and probably also J1X"lpl Jer 22, 3 12 , I S io 2 with little T e li'a, a postpositive accent. But before a following {< the ultima mostly bears the tone on phonetic I grounds, e.g. " i w HN31 Gn 6 1 ', Ex 318, Zc 6W (by the side of 0831), &c. (cf., however, HiOPl, before K, Gn 17", Jer 7 " , Ez 3629) ; VIK ITarrt Ju 6«, cf. Ex 2511, LV245 (but also VIK W S 1 Lv 2521). L'kewise, before ,1, A m 89, and 5?, e.g. Gn 26«, 2712, Lv 26® (cf., however, ity

'•flfOi?!, Ez 3821) ; on verbs V"V,

see §67 k and es. (d) The tone always keeps its place when such a perfect stands in pause, VI e.g. nya'tyi Dt 6 11 , 1 1 1 5 ; m O t O Is 144, Ju 4 8 ; sometimes even in the lesser pause, as Dt 228, Ez 326, 1 S 29® (where see Driver), with Zaqeph qaton; and frequently also immediately before a tone-syllable (according to § 29 «), as in ¡13 n m ^ l Dt 1714, Ez 1413, 1722, A m 14 7 1 0 1 2 — b u t also n i npK'pl Dt 21", 2314, 24», 1 K 846. 1 The irregularity in the tone of these perfects manifestly results from following conflicting theories, not that of Ben Aser alone.

[259]

136

The Verb §50. The

(I

[§ 50 a-f

Participle.

1 . Q a l h a s b o t h a n a c t i v e p a r t i c i p l e , c a l l e d Poel a n d a p a s s i v e , Paul

from its form

(bwa).1

Pa'ul is g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d as a s u r v i v a l of a passive of Qal, w h i c h s t i l l e x i s t s t h r o u g h o u t i n A r a b i c , b u t h a s b e e n lost i n H e b r e w (see, h o w e v e r , § 52 e), j u s t as i n A r a m a i c t h e passives of Pt'el a n d Hiph'il are lost, e x c e p t i n t h e participles. B u t instances of t h e f o r m qutlal are better 1 egarded as r e m n a n t s of t h e passive p a r t i c i p l e Qal (see § 52 s), so t h a t blJJS m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d as a n original v e r b a l n o u n ; cf. B a r t h , Nominalbildung, p. 173 ff. b

2. I n participle

the intransitive

p e r f e c t , e. g . from Niph'al,

the

v e r b s mid.

e and

mid.

0, t h e f o r m o f

the

a c t i v e o f Q a l c o i n c i d e s i n f o r m w i t h t h e 3 r d s i n g , of t h e sleeping,

from

p e r f . "¿J) fearing-, § 5 1 a.

; " W (only orthographically different cf.

the f o r m a t i o n of t h e p a r t i c i p l e

in

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p a r t i c i p l e o f v e r b s mid.

t a k e s t h e f o r m i ' B p ( s o e v e n f r o m t h e transitive

tufc' to hate,

a

p a r t . N3E5>).

T h e o o f t h e s e f o r m s h a s a r i s e n t h r o u g h a n o b s c u r i n g o f t h e d, a n d is t h e r e f o r e u n c h a n g e a b l e , c f . § 9 q. Qames

The form

in both syllables), which w o u l d

a n d l l j , is o n l y i n u s e a s a n o u n , cf. § 8 4 " / . p a r t i c i p l e i n Pi el, Hiph'tl, C

a n d Hithpael

(with a

changeable

correspond to the forms The formation of

J^ the

follows a different method.

3 . P a r t i c i p l e s f o r m t h e i r f e m i n i n e (i"^1?!? o r

ft^'p)

and their p l u i a l

l i k e o t h e r n o u n s (§ 8 0 e, § 8 4 " r, s, § 9 4 ) . d

E e m . 1. F r o m t h e above it f o l l o w s , t h a t t h e a of t h e f o r m is l e n g t h e n e d f r o m a, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y changeable (e.g fem. ; a n d t h a t t h e 0 of ^LDp on t h e other h a n d is obscured f r o m a n u n c h a n g e a b l e a. 1 I n A r a b i c t h e a d j e c t i v e of t h e f o r m qatil corresponds to t h e f o r m qatel, a n d t h e part, qotel. I n both cases, therefore, t h e e of t h e second syllable is l e n g t h e n e d a n d is consequently c h a n g e a b l e (e. g. ^tip, plur. D y t i p ; 1 3 3 , constr. pi

C

verbal qdtil to from i, '^DS).

TpDin ^ 16 5 , instead of t h e f o r m qotel, is a n a n o m n l y ; it is possible, h o w ever, t h a t TpOin ( i n c o r r e c t l y w r i t t e n f u l l y ) is i n t e n d e d (cf. e v e n t h e impelfeet Hiph'il

of

3D 2 K S 2 1 ), or

T h e f o r m S]D' i n I s 29 14 , 38° appears to

stand for S]D;, b u t most p r o b a b l y t h e Masora h e r e (as c e r t a i n l y i n ipOi* E c i I S ) i n t e n d s t h e 3rd sing, imperf. H i p l i . , for w h i c h t h e better f o r m w o u l d

be

1 C h 2730, b e i n g a proper n a m e a n d a f o r e i g n w o r d , n e e d n o t be considered — 1 3 X (constr. state of "I3K), w i t h a i n t h e second s y l l a b l e , occurs in D t 32 s8 (cf. moreover, § 65 d). f

On D^in I s 4 1 ' (for D ^ n ) ,

see § 29/. 2. A f o r m l i k e t h e pass. ptcp. Pa'ul, b u t not to be c o n f u s e d w i t h it, is s o m e t i m e s f o u n d f i o m mtransitiie verbs, to d e n o t e a n i n h e r e n t q u a l i t y , e . g . JirN faithful; desperate, J e r 15 18 , & c . ; HiD3 trustful, I s 26s, if* 112 7 ; D l y y strong; *l!l3ti> drunken, I s 5 1 2 1 ; a n d e v e n f r o m t r a n s i t i v e verbs, NIIK handling, C t 3 8 ; TI3? mindful, 103"; knowing, I s 5 3 s ; cf. § 8 4 a m. 1 T h e constr. st DNJ in t h e f o r m u l a Clin'1 ONJ, the word ( p r o p e r l y t h e whispering) of the Loid, &c., is a l w a y s w r i t t e n d e f e c t i v e l y . 2 Cf. T o l l e r s , ' D a s Q a t i l - p a r t i z i p i u m , ' i n ZA. 1903, p. 312 if.

[260]

§ 51 a-e] P.

137

Niph'al VEBBA

D E K I V A T I V A , OR D E R I V E D

CONJUGATIONS.

Niph'al.1

§ 51.

1. The essential characteristic of this conjugation consists in a a prefix 2 to the stem.

This exists in two forms : (a) the (probably

original) prepositive na,

as in the Hebrew perfect and participle,

although in the strong verb the a is always attenuated to ï : tapa for original nâ-qâtâl,

paiticiple

infinitive absolute sometimes

(6) the (later) proclitic in (as in all the forms of the corresponding Arabic conjugation VII. 'inqâtâlâ),

found in the imperfect

for yinqàtel, in the imperative and infinitive construct, with a secondary n added, (for hinqâtêl), andanalogous in the infinitive inflexion of Niph'al is perfectly to that absolute of Qal. btogn. The T h e f e a t u r e s of Niph'al are a c c o r d i n g l y i n t h e p e r f e c t a n d p a r t i c i p l e t h e b p r e f i x e d Nun, i n t h e i m p e r a t i v e , i n f i n i t i v e , a n d i m p e r f e c t , t h e Dages i n the first r a d i c a l . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h o l d good also f o r t h e w e a k v e r b . In t h e case of a n i n i t i a l g u t t u r a l , w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g to § 2 2 b, c a n n o t t a k e Dages forte, t h e omission of t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g i n v a r i a b l y c a u s e s t h e l e n g t h e n i n g of t h e p r e c e d i n g v o w e l (see § 63 h).

2. A s regards its meaning, Niph'al Gieek middle

bears some resemblance to the C

voice, in being—(«) primarily reflexive

of Qal, e.g.

to thrust oneself {against), "lE^a to take heed to oneself, tj>v\dcro-eo-0aL, "IFID3 to hide oneself, ta?? to redeem oneself ; cf. also ^aya to answer for oneself. Equally characteristic of Niph'al is its frequent use to express emotions which react upon the mind ; DO? to trovile oneself, n3K3 to sigh (to bemoan oneself, cf. ¿Svpto-ôai, lamentari, contristari) ; as well as to express actions which the subject allows to happen to himself, or to have an effect upon himself ( N i p h ' a l toleratiium), e. g. BTJ to search, to inquire, Ni ph. to allow oneself to be inquired of, I s 65 1 , E z 143, &c.; so the Niph. of NSD to find, "IDJ to warn, to correct, Jer 6s, 31 18 , &c. (b) I t expresses reciprocal to speak another ; deponent

or mutual action, e.g. IS"1! to speak, Niph. d

to one another;

KSK* to judge,

Niph. to go to law with

to counsel,

Niph. to take

counsel,

verbs /3ov\evecr0a.i

(HS3 to strive with one another) (10) I t has also, like Iiithpael

cf. the middle

/na^ecr^ai (DC^?), altercari,

one and

luctari

proeliari. (§ 5 4 / ) and the Greek middle,

meaning of the active, with the addition of to oneself (sibi), for

the C one-

1 Cf. A . E i e d e r , Be linguae Hebr. verbis, quae vocantur derivata nifal et hitpael, G u m b i n n e n (Progr. des G y m n , ) , 1884, a l i s t of a l l the s t r o n g N i p h ' a l f o r m s (81) a n d H i t h p a ' S l f o r m s (36) i n the O l d T e s t a m e n t ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y M. L a m b e r t , ' L ' e m p l o i d u N i f a l e n H é b r e u , ' BEJ. 41, 196 if. 2 See P h i l i p p ! i n ZDMtì. 1886, p. 650, a n d B a r t h , ibid. 1894, p. 8 f.

[261]

138 self,

The Verb

e. g . V ? ? to ash

atTov/xat ,f

(d)

o*€ rovro,

iv&vcrao-Oai \iTwva,

oneself to put

( i S 20

, N e h 13 6 ), cf.

on ( o n e s e l f ) a

tunic.

I n c o n s e q u e n c e of a looseness of t h o u g h t a t a n e a r l y p e r i o d of

t h e l a n g u a g e , Niph'al passive1

( s o m e t h i n g ) for

[§51/-* 628

of Qal,

e. g .

comes

finally

i n m a n y cases t o r e p r e s e n t t h e

to bear, N i p h . to be born;

to bury,

to be buried.

I n c a s e s w h e r e Qal

u s e d , Niph'al

a p p e a r s also a s t h e p a s s i v e of Pi el a n d Hiph'il,

to be in honour,

P i ' e l to honour,

1 3 3 ) ; "ins P i ' g l to conceal, I11 s u c h c a s e s Niph'al

Niph.

is i n t r a n s i t i v e i n m e a n i n g , o r is n o t N i p h . to be honoured

H i p h . to destroy,

e.g. "Q3

(as well as P u ' a l

N i p h . p a s s i v e of e i t h e r .

m a y again coincide i n m e a n i n g w i t h Qal (nbn

Q a l a n d N i p h . to be ill) a n d e v e n t a k e a n a c c u s a t i v e . gr

E x a m p l e s of d e n o m i n a t i v e s are, "1313 to be horn a male, E x 3419 ( f r o m " D t ; b u t probably

Jl

should h e r e be r e a d ) ;

33^3 cordatum fieri, J b U 1 2 ( f r o m

3 3 V cor); doubtless also 11333 to obtain children, G n 162, 30 3 . T h e older g r a m m a r i a n s were decidedly w r o n g in r e p r e s e n t i n g Niph'al s i m p l y as t h e passne of Qal; for Niph'al has (as t h e f r e q u e n t use of its imperat. shows), i n no respect t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e o t h e r passives, a n d in A r a b i c a special conjugation ('mqatala) corresponds to i t w i t h a passive of its own. Moreover, t h e forms m e n t i o n e d in § 52 e p o i n t to a d i i f e r e n t l y f o r m e d passive of Qal.— T h e f o r m ^ 8 2 3 I s 59 s , La 4 " , is n o t to be regarded as a passive of Niph'al, b u t w i t h KSnig a n d C h e y n e as a forma mixta, in t h e sense t h a t t h e p u n c t u a t o r s i n t e n d e d to combine two optional readings, perf. N i p h . , a n d perf.

P u ' a l [cf. also W r i g h t , Compar. Gramrn., p. 224]. A l t h o u g h t h e passive use of N i p h ' a l was i n t r o d u c e d a t a n e a r l y period, a n d became tolerably c o m m o n , it _ is nevertheless q u i t e secondary to t h e reflexive use. i E e m . 1. T h e infin. absol. ^It2p3 is connected i n f o r m w i t h t h e perfect, to w h i c h it bears t h e same r e l a t i o n as i>iDp to ^Dp i n Qal, t h e 0 in t h e second syllable being obscured f r o m a n original a. E x a m p l e s are, P)D33 G n 31 3 0 ; Dhi>3 J u 11 25 ; ^ 3 1 S 2o6 28, all in connexion w i t h t h e perfect. E x a m p l e s of t h e form ^tSjjn (in connexion w i t h imperfects) aie, ¡JISH J e r Lv J 1 8 ; once KH'HX Ez 143, w h e r e , perhaps, t h e s u b s e q u e n t ^H^tf h a s led to t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of X for H.—Moreover, t h e f o r m is not i n f r e q u e n t l y used also for t h e infin. absol., 2 e.g. Ex 22 s , N u 1531, Dt 4 26 , 1 K 2G39. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , Sp3H3 should s i m p l y be r e a d for t h e w h o l l y a b n o r m a l f p i i i p f 68 3 (commonly explained as being i n t e n d e d to correspond i n sound w i t h t h e s u b s e q u e n t f f n s n , but probably a ' f o r m a m i x t a c o m b i n i n g t h e readings ?)"l3n3 a n d 1133). 1 Cf. H a l f m a n n , Beitrage zur Syntaxder hebraischen Sprache, 1. Stuck, W i t t e n b . , 1888, 2. St. 1892 ( G y m n - P r o g r a m m ) , statistics of t h e N i p h ' a l (Pu'al, H o p h ' a l , a n d q a t u l ) forms at d i f f e r e n t periods of t h e language, for t h e purpose of a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e m e a n i n g of N i p h . a n d i t s relation to t h e passive ; t h e selection of periods is, however, v e r y questionable f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of l i t e r a r y criticism. . 2 But, like 7bf?n, only i n connexion w i t h imperfects, except J e r } 9 . B a r t h is therefore r i g h t i n describing (Nommalbildung, p. 74) b o t h f o r m s as l a t e r analogous f o r m a t i o n s (in a d d i t i o n to t h e original Semitic ^>iDp3), i n t e n d e d to assimilate t h e i n f i n i t i v e to t h e i m p e r f e c t w h i c h i t s t r e n g t h e n s .

[262]

§§ 5 1 i-p, 52 0 ]

139

Niph'al

Elision of the H after prepositions is required by the Masora in 1 ^ 3 3 Pr I 2 4 " (for '3H3), n r i 3 Ez 2615 and S]t2y3 l a 2 1 1 ; also in verbs T\"b Ex io 3 (niJV^) ; 3421 and I s 'i 12 ( D l i O j ' ) ; i n verbs 1"J? Jb 333(l ("lit«1?).

I t is, however,

extremely doubtful whether the infln. Qal of the Kethibh is not rather intended in all these examples ; it certainly is so in La 211, cf. tp 613. 2. Instead of the Sere in the ultima of the imperfect, Pathah often occurs JH in pause, e.g.

Gn 218; cf. Ex 31«, 2 S 1215 ( w i t h final E>) ; i f

p ) ; Jon l 5 ( w i t h O ) ; see § 29 q. dominates, e.g.

3

(with

I n the 2nd and 3rd plur. fem. Pathah pre-

I s 65 17 ; Sere occurs only in flJJJOT Ru 113, f r o m ¡JV;

and hence, w i t h loss of the doubling, for HJJJfn ; cf. even DiCKR I s 60 4 .— W i t h Nun paragogicum (see § 47 m) in the 2nd and 3rd plur. masc. are found, p r n - ) ^ Iioni-n, &c., in pause J ^ n ^ , pIDtPn, &c.; but Jb 192' (cf. 2 4 2 4 ) pan;. 3. W h e n the imperfect, the infinitive (in e), or the imperative is followed It in close connexion by a monosyllable, or by a word w i t h the tone on the first syllable, the tone is, as a rule (but cf. E^K p3K 5 l Gn 32s5), shifted back f r o m the ultima to the penultima, w h i l e the ultima, which thus loses the tone, takes Seghdl instead of Sere; e. g. H3 imperative,

13 9 .—So

Ez 3312 ; li? "W^ffl Gn 2 5 » ; in the

always

(since ijb counts as one syllable) Gn

24®, &c., cf. 1 S 19 s ; and even w i t h Pathah in the ultima, f I X DJ^FI Jb 184 (but cf. ITn$K n n p i 2 S 2114). Although in isolated cases ( e . g . Gn 3226, E z r S 23 ) the tone is not thrown back, in spite of a tone-syllable f o l l o w i n g , the retraction has become usual in certain forms, even when the next word begins w i t h a toneless syllable ; especially after 1 consec., e. g. Nu

211

25 s ;

and frequently,

Gn 7 2 3 ;

and always so in the imperative

Ex 2321, Jb 3621, and (before Metheg of the counter-tone) Dt 24s, 2 K 69. On the avoidance of pausal-forms in the imperative ( A m 212 w i t h Stlluq. Ze 211 w i t h Athnah), and imperfect ( P r 244, &e.), see § 29 0, and note ; on the other hand, always ID^OT, &c. I n the imperative, iS3p3, for

w i t h the rejection of the initial H O

occurs in Is 43s, and in j o e l 4 u in pause lYSpl (cf.

Jer 505) ; but in these

examples either the reading or the explanation is doubtful. imperat. of JGKO is always ( w i t h ¡1 Gn 2123, &c. (also "6 D ^ n

paragogicum)

njDB'n

T h e 2nd sing. swear to me,

Gn 47s1, 1 S 3016).

4. For the 1st sing, of the imperfect, the form

is as frequent as

, p

e. g. EH/IN I shall be inquired of, Ez 14 3 ; JD^N I will swear, Gn 21 24 ; cf. 162, Nu 2315, Ez 2c36, and so always in the cohortative, e. g. ffiDp3i< I will avenge me, I s 1 2 4 ; cf. 1 S 127, Ez 262, and in the impf. Niph. of V B (§ 69 t).

The

Babylonian punctuation admits only i under the preformative of the 1st person. § 52.

Pi'el

and

Pu'al.

I. The characteristic of this conjugation consists in the strengthening $ of the middle radical. From the simple stem qatal (cf. § 43 b) the form (cf. the Arabic conj. 11. qattald) would naturally follow as

[263]

140

The Verb

[§526-«

the perfect of the active (Pi el). The Pathah of the first syllable is, however, with one exception (see m), always attenuated to % in the •perfect. cases, so that the conjugation should more correctly be called Pi'al; but very frequently 1 this ä also is attenuated to i, which is then regularly lengthened to e, under the influence of the tone. Cf. in Aram, but in Biblical Aramaic almost always i'tpi?. On the three cases in which a before a final T or D has passed into &glwl, see below, I.— Hence for the 3rd sing, rnasc. perfect, there arise forms like "I2X, , Enj?; ID?, ">3?, &c.—Before atformatives beginning with a consonant, however, ä is always retained, thus flj'lli?, O^^i?, ^ t s p , &c. In the infinitives (absol. obscured from qattdl; constr. imperfect imperative and participle the original ä of the first syllable reappears throughout. The vocal SewA of the preformatives is weakened from a short vowel; cf. the Arabic imperfect yüqättil, participle muqattil. b The passive (Pu'al) is distinguished by the obscure vowel ü, or very rarely o, in the first syllable, and ä (in pause ä) always in the second. In Arabic, also, the passives are formed throughout with u in the first syllable. The inflexion of both these conjugations is analogous to that of Qal. C

Rem. 1. T h e p r e f o r m a t i v e 10, w h i c h in t h e r e m a i n i n g conjugations also is t h e prefix of t h e participle, is probably connected w i t h t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e or i n d e f i n i t e (cf. §37) pronoun ''D quis 1 quicunque (fem. i. e. neuter, HD) ; cf. § 85 e. (I 2. T h e Dages forte, w h i c h according to t h e above is characteristic of t h e w h o l e ofiVei a n d Pu'al, is o f t e n o m i t t e d ( i n d e p e n d e n t l y of verbs middle guttural, § 64 d) w h e n t h e m i d d l e radical has S'wa u n d e r it (cf. § 20 m), e. g. nnbti' f ° r nn->E> Ez 17 1 7 ; iilB'ipa 2 Ch 1515 (but in t h e imperative always i ' S 28', &c.), a n d so a l w a y s in praise. T h e vocal character of t h e S'wä u n d e r t h e litera dagessanda is s o m e t i m e s in such cases (according to § 10 h) expressly emphasized by its t a k i n g t h e f o r m of a Hateph, as in nnpi? G n 2 23 , w i t h owing to t h e influence of t h e preceding u, cf. ^5J?S3 for ^ J J E , &c.; G n 9 14 , J u 1616. I n t h e impel feet a n d participle t h e Sewä u n d e r t h e p r e f o r m a t i v e s (ffatephPathah u n d e r K in t h e ist sing, imperfect) serves a t t h e same t i m e as a characteristic of both conjugations (Gn 2 6 I 4 f ) . e 3. According to t h e convincing suggestion of B ö t t c h e r 2 (Ausführliches Lehrbuch, 904 if. a w n dh i c§h1022), n y supposed perfects ality 1 So in §all verbs e n d inm aNim, a n d in almost allofwPu'al h i c h are e n d inin r eLamed (Olsb. p. 538). B a r t h is probably r i g h t i n supposing (ZDMG. 1894, t h a t t h e vowels of t h e s t r e n g t h e n e d perfects h a v e been i n f l u e n c e d imperfect. , 2 As Mayer L a m b e r t observes, t h e same view was a l r e a d y expressed Ganäli (see above, § 3 d) in t h e Kitab el-luma', p. 161. Cf. especially ' D a s passive Qal u n d seine P a r t i c i p i e n , ' in the Festschrift sum Jubiläum heimer (Berlin, 1890), p. 145 ff.

[264]

p. 1 ff.) by t h e

by I b n Barth, Hildes-

§ 5 2 /-&] p a s s i v e s of Qal.

Pi'el

and

Pu'al

141

H e r e c k o n s a s s u c h a l l t h o s e perfects, of w h i c h t h e PSel ( w h i c h

o u g h t to e x p r e s s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a c t i v e ) is e i t h e r n o t f o u n d a t a l l , or o n l y (as i n t h e c a s e of

) w i t h a different meaning,

and which form

imperfect f r o m a n o t h e r c o n j u g a t i o n , g e n e r a l l y N i p h ' a l . quttal

f o r m of t h e s t e m s

n p b , n a y , bw,

S p E ' , -IBB».

their

S u c h perfects a r e t h e

(imperfect ¡lioND I s 1™), irSI"!, Ppt3, " 6 ' , "IX'', B a r t h (see b e l o w ) a d d s to t h e l i s t t h e a p p a r e n t

Pu'al-perfects of nDK, TD, HJT, 3Sn, ITD, PIS:,

nB»V, nsn, and of veibs

w i t h m i d d l e "1 ( h e n c e w i t h u of t h e first s y l l a b l e l e n g t h e n e d t o o),

J i n , ¡Tin

J b 3 3 [HIT, see § 67 TO], j n t , p i t , P p D , D I D , N i p , t p ' t P ; also t h e i n f i n i t i v e s a b s o l u t e fanl i l h I s 59 1 3 .

I n t h e s e c a s e s t h e r e i s n o n e e d to a s s u m e

e r r o r o n t h e p a r t o f t h e p u n c t u a t o r s ; t h e s h a r p e n i n g of t h e s e c o n d m a y have taken place in order

to r e t a i n t h e

any

radical

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w of t h e

first

s y l l a b l e (cf. A r a b , qutila as p a s s i v e of qatala), a n d t h e a of t h e s e c o n d s y l l a b l e i s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e v o c a l i z a t i o n of a l l t h e o t h e r p a s s i v e s (see § 3 9 / ) . Cf. § 5 2 s a n d § 53 u.

2. The fundamental idea of Pi'el, to which all the various shades J of meaning in this conjugation may be referred, is to busy oneself eagerly with the action indicated by the stem. This intensifying of the idea of the stem, which is outwardly expressed by the strengthening of the second radical, appears in individual cases as—(a) a strengthening and repetition of the action (cf. the intensive and iterative nouns with the middle radical strengthened, § 84 s ), 1 e. g. PD^io laugh, Pi'el to jest, to ma,he sport (to laugh repeatedly) ; to ask, Pi'el to beg ; hence when an action has reference to many, e. g. to bury (a person) Gn 2 34, Pi'el to bury (many) 1 K 11 15 , and often so in Syr. and A r a b . Other varieties of the intensive and iterative meaning are, e. g. I"IJ1S to open, Pi'el to loose; "13D to count, Pi'el to recount: [cf. a n ? , TJ^n, Nsn, 'can, e>ari; a n s p , runt?]. The eager pursuit of an action may also consist in urging and g causing others to do the same. Hence Pi'el has also—(6) a causative sense (like Hiph'U), e. g. to learn, Pi el to teach. I t may often be turned by such phrases as to permit to, to declare or hold as (the declarative Pie I), to help to, e. g. ¡"IJH to cause to live, PH? to declare innocent, to help in child-bearing. (c) Denominatives (see § 38 b) are frequently formed in this conju- h gation, and generally express a being occupied with the object expressed by the noun, either to form or to make use of it, e. g. f?i? to make a nest, to nest (from IP), ISV to throw dust, to dust (from ""®y), 1 A n a l o g o u s e x a m p l e s , i n w h i c h t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g of a l e t t e r h a s l i k e w i s e a n intensive f o r c e , a r e s u c h G e r m a n w o r d s a s reichen, recken ( E n g . to reach, to rack) ; streichen (stringo), strecken • cf. Strich (a stroke), Strecke (a stretch); wacker f r o m wachen ; o t h e r s , i n w h i c h it h a s t h e causative s e n s e , are stechen, steiken ; ivachen (watch), wecken (wake); reAAaj to bring to an end (cf. t h e s t e m t z \ o j to end, i n reAor, tcAcm); yevvdco to beget, f r o m t h e s t e m yiva to come into being ( c f . 7tVos).

[265]

142

The Verb

[§ 52

to gather the clouds together (from to divide in three parts, or to do a thing for the third time (from probably also IS15! to speak, from "Q'l a vjord. Or again, the denominative may express taking away, injuring, &c., the object denoted by the noun (privative Pi el, cf. our to shin, to behead, to bone), e. g. from to root out, to extirpate, 23] prop, to injure the tail (3JJ), hence to rout the rear of an army, to attack it) to ravish the heart; f t ^ to t0 break any remove the ashes (l'^), to free from, sin (N9D), one's bones ; cf., in the same sense, from ; f]VD to lop the houghs, Is 10s3 (from T V ? a hough). Some words are clearly denominatives, although the noun from which they are derived is no longer found, e. g. to stone, to pelt with stones (also used in this sense in Qal), and to remove stones (from a field), to clear away stones; cf. our to stone, used also in the sense of taking out the stones from fruit. The meaning of the passive (Pual) follows naturally from the above, e. g. £"¡53 Pi'el to seek, Pu'al to be sought. I

In Pi'el t h e l i t e r a l , concrete m e a n i n g of t h e v e r b h a s s o m e t i m e s b e e n

retained, w h e n Qal has a c q u i r e d a figurative sense, e.g. P i ' e l to uncover, Qal to leieal, also to emigrate, i . e . to m a k e t h e l a u d bare. K A l s o w i t h an i n t r a n s i t i v e sense Pi'el occurs as a n i n t e n s i v e f o r m , but o n l y in poetic language, e . g r i f i n i n P i ' e l to be broken m pieces, J e r 5 1 5 6 ; "HIS to tremble, Is 51 1 3 , P r 2 8 1 4 ; ¡VT\ to be drunken, I s 3 4 s 7 ; [DJJD to befew, E c 12 s ] ; b u t i n I s 48 s , 60 11 i n s t e a d of t h e P i ' e l of n f l B t h e N i p h ' a l is c e r t a i n l y to be read, with Cheyne. I R e m . 1. T h e (more f r e q u e n t ) f o r m of t h e perfect w i t h Pathah i n t h e second syllable a p p e a r s especially before Maqqeph (Ec 9 16 , 12 9 ) a n d i n t h e m i d d l e of sentences i n c o n t i n u o u s discourse, b u t at t h e e n d of t h e sentence (in pause) t h e f o r m w i t h Sere is more c o m m o n . Cf. b^S I s 49 21 w i t h ^IJ Jos 4 14 , E s t 3 1 ; tD^D E z 335 w i t h B^O Ec 9 " ; J>S£ 2 K 8 " w i t h }»Sp ^ 1 2 9 4 ; b u t Qames n e v e r appears i n t h i s pausal f o r m . T h e 3rd sing.fem. i n pause is a l w a y s of t h e f o r m nbtSp, except M i 1 7 ; t h e 3rd plur. a l w a y s as ^ f e p ; t h e 2nd a n d 1st sing. and 1 si plur. of course as

ribt£p> ^ ¡ b p (but a l w a y s ' m a i a n d Vn2B>),

I n t h e 3rd sing. per/. I l l to speak,

"IBS to pardon, a n d D33 to uash

clothes (also D 3 3 G n 49 1 1 ) t a k e Seghol, b u t b e c o m e i n pause

D 3 3 (2 S I9 25 ) ;

t h e pausal f o r m of "133 does not occur. Jtl Pathah i n t h e first s y l l a b l e (as m A r a m a i c a n d A r a b i c ) occurs o n l y once, G n 41 6 1 , he made me forget, to e m p h a s i z e more c l e a r l y t h e p l a y on t h e name nt&O. 11

2 I n t h e imperfect ( a n d jussive J u 16 25 ), infinitive, and imperative Pi'el (as also i n Hithpa'el) t h e Sere i n t h e final s y l l a b l e , w h e n f o l l o w e d b y Maqqeph, is u s u a l l y shortened i n t o Seghol, e . g . lirC'liO 1 ' he seeks for himself, I s 4020 ; ^ " B H p sanctify unto me, E x 13 2 . Pausal-forms w i t h S'ghol instead of Sere, as Pjn"^"' D t 32 1 1 , CrQN H o 26 (cf. E x 32 s i n t h e i n f i n i t i v e , and G n 21 9 i n t h e p a r t i c i p l e ) , o w e t h e i r o r i g i n to some p a r t i c u l a r school of Masoretes, and are w r o n g l y accepted by B a e r ; cf. t h e analogous cases i n § 7 5 n a n d hh. I f t h e final s y l l a b l e of t h e imperfect Pi'el h a s P a t h a h (before a g u t t u r a l or "1), i t r e m a i n s

[266]

§ o2 °~S]

Pi'el

and

Pu'al

143

even in pause ; cf. § 29 s and 65 e. I n the ist sing, imperfect the e-sound occurs in two words for Hateph-Pafhah, under the preformative N; fTTJN L v 2 633, Ez 5 12 , 12 1 4 and Ü1JJDX1 Zc 7 14 (in accordance with § 23 A).—Before the full plural ending f? (see § 47 m) the Sere is retained in pause, e. g. [VOiri 4> 58s (but Gn 32?° i n r m ) , cf. 2 K 6 " , Dt 1 2 3 ; so before Silluq 58s, J b 2 1 " 5 and even before Zaqeph qaton Dt 7 . Instead of n3i>t3pn, forms lite ¡"Iji'apil are also found, e.g. Is 3 16 , 13 1 8 , in both cases before a sibilant and in pause. Also 55 10 occurs as the 2nd sing, imperative (probably an intentional imitation of the sound of the preceding J?;>3) and 3"}p (for qarrabh) Ez 37 17 . 3. The infinite absolute of Pi'el has sometimes the special form ^'tip given in 0 the paradigm, e.g. "ID^ castigando, f 1 1 8 1 8 ; cf. E x 21 1 3 , 1 K 19 10 (from a verb N"?) ; f 4° 2 (from a verb but much more frequently the form of the infinitive construct (^tDp) i s used instead. The latter has also, in exceptional cases, the form (with ^attenuated to i as in the perfect), e.g. in 1 C h S 8 ! ! " ! ^ ; perhaps also (if not a substantive) ItSp J e r 44 2 1 ; and for the sake of assonance even for infinitive absolute in 2 S 12 1 4 (HSN3 J'XJ). On the other hand, d W Dt 32 s5 and ""lin J e r 5 1 3 are better regarded as substantives, while E x 628, 1 6 2 Nu 3 , Dt 4I (in each case after Di^), Ho i (after D^Wl), in all of which places it is considered by König (after Qimhi) to be infinitive construct, is really perfect of Pi'el. The infinitive construct Pi'el, with the fem. ending (cf. § 45 d), occurs in t3pn cf. § 2 6 p . On the return of the original a in the second syllable of the Imperat., Jussive, &c , under the influence of a guttural, cf. § 65/. b In the passive (Hoplial) the preformative is pronounced with an obscure vowel, whilst the second syllable has a (in pause a), as its characteristic, thus : — P e r f . Imperf. (syncopated from or ^¡5", Part. bapD oror (from ^Cpntp); but the infinitive absolute has the form T h u s t h e characteristics of both c o n j u g a t i o n s are t h e H p r e f o r m a t i v e i n t h e perfect, imperative, a n d infinitive ; in t h e imperfect and participle Hiph'il, P a t h a h u n d e r t h e p r e f o r m a t i v e s , i n t h e Hoph'al 0 or u.

C

2. The meaning of Hiph'il is primarily, and even more frequently than in Pi el ( § 5 2 g), causative of Qal, e.g. XX} to go forth, Hiph. to bring forth, to lead forth, to draw forth; KHiJ to be holy, Hiph. to sanctify. Under the causative is also included (as in Pi'el) the declarative sense, e. g. P^Sn to pronounce just; JH^in to make one an evil doer (to pronounce guilty); cf. B>py, in Hiph'il, Jb 920, to represent as perverse. If Qal has already a transitive meaning, Hiph'il then takes two accusatives (see § 117 cc). In some verbs, Pi el and Hiph'il occur side by side in the same sense, e. g. periit, Pi'el and Hiph'il, perdidit; as a rule, 1 T h i s i m a y h a v e been t r a n s f e r r e d o r i g i n a l l y f r o m t h e i m p e r f e c t s of v e r b s V'y, as a c o n v e n i e n t m e a n s of d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i n d i c a t i v e a n d j u s s i v e , to t h e imperfect of t h e s t r o n g v e r b a n d a f t e r w a r d s to t h e w h o l e of Hiph'il; so Stade, P h i l i p p i , Praetorius, ZAW. 1883, p. 52 f.

[268]

§ 53 d-(n

Hipliil

and Hoph'al

145

however, only one of these t w o conjugations is in use, or else they differ from one another i n meaning, e. g. 1 3 3 gravem

esse, Pi'el to

honour,

Verbs which

Hiph'il to bring to honour,

also to make heavy.

are intransitive i n Qal simply become t r a n s i t i v e in Hiph'il,

e. g. ¡IBJ

to bow oneself, H i p h . to bow, to bend. A m o n g t h e ideas expressed b y t h e causative a n d transitive are i n c l u d e d , d moreover, according t o t h e Hebfew p o i n t of v i e w (and t h a t of t h e S e m i t i c languages in general, e s p e c i a l l y Arabic), a series of actions a n d ideas, w h i c h we h a v e to e x p i e s s by periphrasis, in order to u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r b e i n g represented b y the H i p h ' i l - f o r m . To these inwardly transitive or intensive H i p h ' i l s belong : (a) H i p h ' i l s t e m s w h i c h express t h e o b t a i n i n g or r e c e i v i n g of a concrete or abstract q u a l i t y . ( I n the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s t h e Qal stems are given, for t h e sake of b r e v i t y , w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e m e a n i n g w h i c h — o f t e n together w i t h other m e a n i n g s — b e l o n g s to the Hiph'il.) T h u s JjllX, HIT, VD', p j f to be bright, to shine (to give forth b r i g h t n e s s ) ; opposed to 7]l2>n to become dark", "Q3, pfil to be strong (to develop strength), PJtJJf to be weak-, T]1N to be long (to acquire l e n g t h ) ; rD2 to be high; D1H to be in tumult, pjft to cry out, to make a noise, to exult; to sprout (to p u t f o r t h shoots), cf. n~IB to bloom, f p ] ^ plK> to overflow ; K H H , HBTI, H 2 D , JVDH to be silent ( s i l e n t i u m facere, P l i n y ) ; pflD to be sweet; to haic success; pfiC to be low; DTN to become red, to become white. (6) Stems w h i c h express i n Hiph'il t h e e n t e r i n g i n t o a certain condition and, € f u r t h e r , t h e being i n t h e same : ¡ON to become firm, to trust in ; to become stinking; Tit to become boiling, to boil over; r 6 n to become ill; "1DH to come to want; nin to become hot; to become dry, to become ashamed ; "IIV to attain superiority ; ¡3D to become familiar; "llj^ p p to become auake; Ht^p to become hard; J?;n, £3pE> to become quiet (to keep q u i e t ) ; DOB' to be astonished. T h e H i p h ' i l forms of some verbs of motion constitute a v a r i e t y of t h i s class : B>32 to diaw near; 3"lp to come near; p m to withdraw far off (all these t h r e e are besides used as c a u s a t i v e s ) ; D"lp to come before. (c) Stems w h i c h express action i n some p a r t i c u l a r direction : Nt2n to err; to flatter (to act s m o o t h l y ) ; 3D* to act well, to do good;

J"

bD to act foolishly,

to act wisely;

to act a aftily;

yji* to act submissively;

wickedly, godlessly; HIIE', 3Jin to act corruptly, abominably ;

>>^1 J?to

act

to act peacefully,

to be at peace, to be submissne. F u r t h e r , there are in Hiph'il a considerable n u m b e r of denominatives w h i c h cr express the bringing out, the producing of a t h i n g , a n d so are p r o p e r l y regarded as causatives, 1 e . g . 1 S N to set over the treasury, Neh 13 13 (unless nl¥N1 i s to be read, as i n Neh J 2 ); "122 to bung forth a firstborn; DB^ to cause to ram; J)1T to produce seed; ¡0» (Hiph'il pD*!}) to go to the right, cf. ^ N D B T I to go to the left; D"IS to get or to have hoofs; p p to get or to have horns; |j3ti> to produce abortion; become snow-white; ¡OB* to grow fat;

to

BHB' to put forth roots, & c . ; so also a c c o r d i n g

to 1 t hTeh eordinary acceptation Is 196, bthey become stinking, from same ideas are alsoilVJiXn paraphrased y t hhave e verb nfe>JJ (to make), e . g . to stinking or stench, w i t h retention of t h e prosthetic, 5 1;9 to m make (but see p). make fat, for, to produce fat upon h i sX body, J b 15 27 fruit,below, to make branches, for, to p u t f o r t h , to y i e l d , J b 14 9 , H o 8 7 , cf. t h e L a t . corpus, lobur, sobolem, divitias facere, a n d the I t a l .far corpo,far fmze,far frutto. COWLEY

Xi

[269]

*

The Verb

1 4 6

[ § 5 3 A-™

O f a d i f f e r e n t k i n d are t h e denominatives f r o m : [IX ( s c a r c e l y to prick up the ears, b u t ) to act with the ears, to hear;

cf.

to move the tongue, to slander,

t h e G e r m a n dugeln (to m a k e e y e s ) , f ü s s e l n , näseln, schwänzeln-

and

to sell corn ;

to set out early (to l o a d t h e b a c k [ o f t h e c a m e l , & e . ] ?) ; o p p o s e d t o S'HJiH.

h

3. The m e a n i n g of Hoph'al is (a) p r i m a r i l y t h a t of a passive of Hiph'il,

e . g . Tr 5 ^ 1 "! 1 j p r o i e c i t ,

or t j ^ n proiectus est; (b) sometimes equivalent to a passive of Qal, as DpJ to avenge, H o p h . to be avenged

(but see below, w). I

R e m . 1. T h e i of t h e 3rd s i n g . m a s c . p e r f . Hiph'il r e m a i n s , w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , i n t h e 3rd f e m . ( i n t h e t o n e - s y l l a b l e ) . T h a t i t w a s , h o w e v e r , o n l y l e n g t h e n e d f r o m a short v o w e l , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y is c h a n g e a b l e , is proved b y t h e f o r m s of t h e imperative a n d imperfect w h e r e e (or, u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of g u t t u r a l s , a) t a k e s its place. I n a n open s y l l a b l e t h e i is retained a l m o s t t h r o u g h o u t ; o n l y i n v e r y i s o l a t e d i n s t a n c e s h a s i t b e e n w e a k e n e d to Seioa (see n a n d 0).

K

2. T h e infinitive absolute c o m m o n l y h a s Sere w i t h o u t Yodh, e . g . K H p n J u 17 3 ; less f r e q u e n t l y it takes 23 s2 , 44 2!; , J b 34 35 , E c 10 10 .

e . g . T ' t t E ' n A m 9®; of. D t 15 1 4 , I s 59*, J e r 3 1 5 , W i t h N i n s t e a d of H ( p r o b a b l y a m e r e

e r r o r , n o t a n A r a m a i s m ) w e find Ü ^ C X J e r 25 s .

scribal

Rare exceptions, w h e r e the

f o r m w i t h Sere s t a n d s f o r t h e infinitive construct, are, e . g . D t 32 s ( S a m . i v n a r n . r e a d p e r h a p s ^HJrQ), J e r 44 1 9

25,

P r 25 s , J b 13 s ( ? ) ; o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f o r

D t 26 12 ( w h i c h l o o k s l i k e a n i n f i n i t i v e H i p h ' i l w i t h e l i s i o n of t h e ¡1, forV^pnjl) t h e r i g h t r e a d i n g is s i m p l y

since elsewhere the Pi'el alone

o c c u r s w i t h t h e m e a n i n g to tithe ; f o r "VtfJQ N e h i o 3 9 p e r h a p s t h e i n f . Qal ("YE'JO)

i n t e n d e d , as i n i S 8 1 5 1 7 ( = io take the tithe).

w a a

A t the same t i m e it

is d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r the present p u n c t u a t i o n does not arise f r o m a conflation of t w o d i f f e r e n t r e a d i n g s , t h e Q a l a n d t h e P i ' e l . I

I n s t e a d of t h e o r d i n a r y f o r m of t h e infinitive construct ^ B p n the form sometimes

occurs,

e . g . T!pC>n to destroy, D t 7 24 , 2848 ; cf. L v 14 46 , J o s 1 1 1 4 ,

J e r 50 34 , 51 3 3 a n d n i S p i l f o r JTOpn L v 14 4 3 f r o m HSp ; s c a r c e l y , L v ; 3 5 (see § 155 I), 2 S 22 1 ( 1 8 1 ) ,

however.

r K n 1 6 (after l y ) , a n d i n t h e passages

so e x p l a i n e d b y K ö n i g ( i . 276) w h e r e T'NB'n a p p e a r s a f t e r

prepositions1;

[cf. D r i v e r o n D t 3 s , 4 1 5 , 7 24 , 28 s5 ]. With

ä in

the

second

syllable

there

occurs

DD131D E z 21 2 9

(cf.

the

s u b s t a n t i v a l i n f i n . "ISBn 1 S 1 5 2 3 ) . — I n t h e A r a m , m a n n e r J"liJ!J3C'ni> i s f o u n d i n E Z 2 4 2 6 (as a c o n s t r u c t f o r m ) f o r t h e infinitive Hithpa'el, 3. I n

1)1

D n 11 2 3 ). the

according n

Hiph'il

(cf. t h e

imperative t h e i i s r e t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t i n t h e o p e n

to 1,

infinitne

O n t h e e l i s i o n of t h e H a f t e r p r e f i x e s , see q.

and

consequently

also

before

suffixes

syllable,

(see § 61 g)

and

paragogic, e . g . f n ^ p n attend to, K3 n j f B ' i n ip 118 2 5 , a s i n e d . M a n t . , J a b l . ,

B a e r , n o t N3 flJPBhn as G i n s b . a n d K i t t e l ; w i t h t h e t o n e a t t h e e n d o n l y n n ^ S n i b i d . v. 25b.

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n t h e 2nd s i n g . m a s c . t h e o r i g i n a l »

(cf. A r a b i c 'äqtil) i s l e n g t h e n e d to e, e . g . ¡DB'n make fat, a n d b e c o m e s

Seghil

b e f o r e Maqqeph, e . g . N3"f3Dn J b 2 2 2 1 . — T h e f o r m i^DpH f o r appears 1 A s to t h e d o u b t f u l n e s s , o n g e n e r a l g r o u n d s , o f t h i s f o r m of t h e I n f . H i p l i . , a n o m a l o u s l y a f e w t i m e s : ip 94 1 , I s 43 s , J e r 1 7 1 8 (cf. § 6 9 » a n d § J 2 y ) ; see R o b e r t s o n S m i t h i n t h e Journ. ofPhilol., x v i . p . 72 f . e l s e w h e r e t h e Masora has preferred t h e p u n c t u a t i o n , e. g. 2 K 8 6 ; cf. ip 1 4 2 5 . — I n L a 5 1 H D ' ä n i s r e q u i r e d b y t h e Q're f o r D ^ H ,

[270]

§ 5 3 »-2»]

Hiph'il

and

Hoph'al

147

4. I n the imperfect Hiph'il the shorter form with Sere prevails for the jussive 11 in the 3rd masc. and Jem. and 2nd masc. sing., e. g. make not great, Ob 1 2 ; m . 3 ' let Him cut o f f ! 1 2 4 ; even incorrectly i W E x 19 s and TSP E c i c 2 0 ; cf. also ""1JQ' E x 224, where the jussive form is to be explained according to § 109 h, and "OiV J b 39™ before the principal pause. Similarly, after 1 consec., e.g. h a * and He divided, Gn 1 4 . On the other hand, i is almost always retained in. the 1st sing., e.g. T'tptWI A m 2 5 (but generally without % as iriDNI Ez 3 9 ® & c . ) ; cf. § 49 e and § 74 I, but also § 7 2 aa; in 1st plur. only in Neh 4 s ; in the 3rd sing. \p 105 28 . With a in the principal pause -inini Ru 2 14 , and in the lesser pause, Gn 49 4 ; before a sibilant (see § 29 q) K ^ l J u 6 1 9 ; in the lesser pause L a 3 s . Before Maqqeph the Sere becomes S*gh6l, e.g. J u 19 4 . I n the plural again, and before suffixes, t remains in the forms li^Dp^, ^ ' ¿ p F I even in the jussive and after 1 consecutive, e.g. ip\sn s 1 J u 18 s2 . The only exceptions, where the i is weakened to SHcd, are W 1 T 1 J e r 9 2 ; i p a T I 1 S 14 22 , 31 2 , 1 Ch i o 2 ; ?-QJ£ J e r n ' 5 ; n n v i x i Neh 1 3 1 3 , if it is Hiph'il of 1 S X , but probably nWNI is to be read, as in 7 2 ; perhaps also VpnFI J b 19 s (according to others, imperfect Qal). The same weakening occurs also in the imperfect in 3rd and 2nd masc. sing, before suffixes, 1 S 17 25 , 1 K 2o ss , if 65 10 , and in J b 920, unless the form be Pi'el = iJE^pyi, since the Hiph'il is not found elsewhere. It is hardly likely that in these isolated examples we have a trace of the ground-form, yaqtil, or an Aramaism. More probably they are due partly to a misunderstanding of the defective writing, which is found, by a purely orthographic licence, in numerous other cases (even in 3rd sing, o b ^ l Is 4428), and partly are intended, as formae mixtae, to combine the forms of Qal and Hiph'il. Instead of the firmly closed syllable, the Masora requires in Gn i n NKHFl, with euphonic Ga'ya (see § 16 h). 5. I n the participle, NSilO f 135 7 appears to be traceable to the ground-form, O maqtil; yet the Sere may also possibly be explained by the retraction of^the tone. The Masora appears to require the weakening of the vowel to S e wa (see above, n) in Q ^ n p Zc 3 ' (probably, however, tw5>n» should be read), also in D^blTO J e r 29s, D^lTJJlp 2 Ch 2S23 (but as 0 precedes, and accordingly dittography may well have taken place, the participle Qal is probably to be read in both places; the reading of the text is perhaps again intended to combine Qal and Hiph'il, see above, n), and in the (fie d'HSIID 1 Oh 15 24 &c. (where the K'thibh DHSSnD is better).—The fem is ordinarily pointed as rrailD Nu 5 1b , nafe'P L v 1 4 2 1 ; in pause r b " 2 m P r 19». 6. I n the perfect there occur occasionally such forms as Moi>3n I S 2$~ cf. Gn 41 2 8 , 2 K 1 7 1 1 , J e r 29 1 , Mi 6 s , J b 1 6 ' ; with the original a in the first syllable WSTini Na 3 6 . — I n VliiNaK 1 I hate stained, I s 63 s , X stands at the Most probably, however, beginning instead of H, cf. above, k, on B'OB'N. On the other hand, irpJtxni (perfect Pi el) is to be read, and the N is only an indication of the change of the perfect into the imperfect, as also s lpreviously, 1) are made instead of past. J e D3T1N1 w i s h exegesis by future a change of punctuation, and f l applied (instead these of ' 1 XEdom1 and oracles to the Roman (i. e. Christian) empire. So G. Moore in Theol. Literatia zeitung, 1887, col. 292. 1

L 2

[271]

The Verb

148

[§ 53 ? - »

6

I s 19 (see above, g) is a m e r e e r r o r of t h e scribe, w h o h a d t h e A r a m a i c f o r m i n m i n d a n d corrected it b y p r e f i x i n g n . (J 7. I n t h e imperfect a n d paihciple t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c H is r e g u l a r l y e l i d e d after the preformatives, t h u s

b u t it is r e t a i n e d i n t h e

infinitive

T h e e x c e p t i o n s a r e i n t h e i m p e i f e e t , yEniT 1

a f t e r prepositions, e.g. i^Dpni).

He will saie for y c t y 1 S 17 47 , if, 116 6 (in pause) ; iTTliV He will praise for Hli* N e h I i 1 7 , if, 28', 45 18 (cf. t h e p r o p e r n a m e .Ter 37 s , for w h i c h 38 1 s

[ a n d CJDin* if, 81«]) ; [ l ^ f w (§ 70 d) I s 52 , ^ n n * J e r 9«, ^ f i n n J b 13 9 ] a n d n i j f s p n ö Ez 46 s 2 ; i n t h e infinitive (wliere, h o w e v e r , as i n Niph'al,

§ 5 1 I, t h e

infinitive Qal is g e n e r a l l y to be r e a d ) I D D ^ I s 29 15 for and niavb N u 5 22 ; Toy!? 2 S 19 1 9 ; p ^ J e r 3 7 « ; 6 0 D r 6 Ec 5 6 ; ¡ 3 ^ (doubly a n o m a l o u s for p a b n b ) D n 1 I s 6 ; VVpb f 2 6 ' ;

i S 2 « ; I C E ' S I s 23« ; f l ^ b l A m 8*

( c e r t a i n l y c o r r u p t ) ; "VJD for "Cyna if 73 20 ( b u t m the city is p r o b a b l y m e a n t ) ; H ^ b J e r 39' (2 C h 3 1 " ) ; JVnD^ I s 3«, if 7 8 " ; D f l i m b E x 13 2 1 ; ¡ v f a ? (see, h o w e v e r , § 20 h) I s 33 1 ; 20

J e r 27 ; on D t 26

12

Dt i 3 3 : cf. f u r t h e r , f r o m v e r b s IT'S, N u 5 22 , s9

a n d N e h 10 , see above, k ; for r r t n o S P r 31 3 r e a d

rfnbfs

or nlrrao!». T a n 8. W i t h i nr eHg iapr hd ' i to t o n et h eit t oisn et,o e bvee n observed t h a t wt iht eh auaw fform atives 1 d H l h tahvee not i n t h e perfect consecutive (except i n E x 26 s3 before ¡1, L v 1529 b e f o r e K , t o avoid a h i a t u s ) ; b u t t h e p l u r a l e n d i n g ¡1 (see § 47 m) a l w a y s h a s t h e t o n e , e. g. ¡13")pn D t 1 17 . S

9. T h e passive ( H o p h ' a l ) h a s it i n s t e a d of Qames h a t u p h i n t h e first syllable (bt?pn), i n t h e s t r o n g v e r b less f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e perfect a n d i n f i n i t i v e , b u t g e n e r a l l y i n t h e p a r t i c i p l e , t h r o u g h t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e i n i t i a l D ( b u t cf. n n a > p P r 25 2 6 ); e . g . 33K>n Ez 32 s2 (beside rD3B>n 3 2 " ) ; port. T ^ D

Hoph. without

elision of t h e

H : Diili'pntp E z 4 6 s 2 ; on t h e o t h e r

v e r b s ¡'"£5 a l w a y s h a v e « (in a s h a r p e n e d syllable) : "IJil f

impf.

2 S 20 21 (beside R D ^ n I s 1419) D n ^ b n Ez 16 4 '; i n t h e p a r t i c . hand,

1311 (cf. § 9 n).

10 T h e infinitive absolute h a s i n Hoph'al (as i n Hiph'it) Sere i n t h e last syllable, e. g. S n n n a n d r 6 t p n Ez 16* ; 13H J o s 9 24 .

A n infinitive

construct does n o t

occur i n t h e s t r o n g v e r b . 11. W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e imperative Hoph'al, see above, § 46 a, n o t e . 11 12. A c c o r d i n g t o B ö t t c h e r (Ausführliches Lehrbuch, § 906) a n d B a r t h (see above, § 52 e) a n u m b e r of supposed i m p e r f e c t s H o p h ' a l are, in fact, i m p e r f e c t s of t h e passive of Qal. A s i n t h e case of t h e p e r f e c t s p a s s i v e of Qal (see above, § 52 e) t h e q u e s t i o n is again of v e r b s of w h i c h n e i t h e r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g causative (i. e. h e r e t h e H i p h ' i l ) , n o r t h e o t h e r t e n s e of t h e s a m e c o n j u g a t i o n (i. e. h e r e t h e p e r f e c t H o p h ' a l ) is f o u n d ; so w i t h D ^ (for Dp:' t cf. yuqtälü as i m p e r f e c t Qal i n Arabic) a n d ; f r o m Dp} a n d JH3 ; l"liT f r o m n p s (cf. § 66 g); "IXV N u 22« f r o m "HX ; ¡IT f r o m ¡311 ; W

H o io 1 4 (cf. I s 33 x ) T from

TIB*; B a r t h a d d s t h e v e r b s ¡"D : E>FIF| E z 19 12 f r o m E'DJ ; fW 1 L e v n 3 5 f r o m p r o ; t h e v e r b s V"V:

^pn' J b 1953 f r o m p p n ; f l ? " &c. f r o m n r i 3 ; t h e v e r b

VJ) : BHV f r o m B«R; t h e v e r b s n'E>.

On

&c., § 7 3 / .

:

"IPV, n2>V f r o m V n , "VK' a n d

I n p o i n t of fact it w o u l d be v e r y

strange,

especially i n t h e case of ¡FP a n d f l ^ , t h a t of t h e s e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d v e r b s ,

[272]

Hiph'tt and Hoph'al

§ 54 o-e]

149

a m o n g s t a l l t h e f o r m s of H i p h ' i l a n d H o p h ' a l , o n l y t h e imperfect H o p h ' a l should h a v e been preserved. A passive of Qal is also i n d i c a t e d i n t h e Telle l - A m a r n a letters, a c c o r d i n g to K n u d t z o n , b y a n u m b e r of i m p e r f e c t forms, w h i c h are u n d o u b t e d l y d u e to C a n a a n i t e influence, cf. Beitr. sur Assyriologie, i v . 410.

§ 54. 1. T h e Hithpa'el1 to the Pi'el-stem

Hithpa'el.

is connected with Pi el, being formed by prefixing a

(qattel, qattal) the syllable

but in Biblical Aramaic nn ; Syr. 'et2). of Niph'al,

(Western Aramaic ipN,

L i k e the preformative J (3H)

fin has also a reflexive force.

2. The n of the prefix in this conjugation, as also in Ilothpa'al (see h), Hithpa'el,

Hithpa'lel

and Hithpalpel

(§ 55), under

b

certain

circumstances, suffers the following changes : (a) When the stem begins with one of the harder sibilants D, "£, or E>) the n and the sibilant change places (cf. on this metathesis, § 19 w^ and at the same time the n after a "i becomes the emphatic

corresponding

: thus "itSPl'i'il to take heed to oneself, for " W ' n r i ; ^Oflpn to

become burdensome,

for

• p^OSH to justify

oneself, from

.

T h e only exception is in Jer 49 s , rutDOiE^n}, to avoid the cacophony of three successive ¿-sounds. (b) When the stem begins with a d- or ¿-sound ( l , ¡0, n), the n of c the preformative is assimilated to it (§ 19 d), e . g . ISMD conversing; oneself,

NfHH to be crushed, IQtan to purify

OBFin to act uprightly.

speaking,

oneself NOSH to defile

( A n exception occurs in J u 19 22 .)

The assimilation of the n occurs also with J and 3 , e. g. K51C to prophesy, as well as N33nn ( c f . N u 24?, E z 5 13 , D n 1 1 1 4 ) ; fjten N u 21 27 (cf. I s 54", f 5 9 6 ) ; n s ? n p r

26

26;

with E> E c 7 1 6 ; with 1 Is 33 ,n .

R e m . Metathesis w o u l d l i k e w i s e be e x p e c t e d , as i n t h e cases u n d e r b, d w h e n D a n d t come together, as w e l l as a c h a n g e of n to 1 . I n s t e a d of this, i n t h e o n l y instance of t h e k i n d ( O t i l I s I 1 6 ) t h e f l is assimilated to t h e T, — u n l e s s indeed 13JH, imperative Niph'al of "¡at, is i n t e n d e d .

3. A s in form, so also in meaning, Hithpa'el is primarily (a) reflexive of Pi el, e. g.

to gird oneself, K^i^n to sanctify oneself.

Although

in these examples the intensive meaning is not distinctly marked, it is so in other cases, e. g.

to show oneself revengeful

(Niph.

simply to take revenge), and in the numerous instances where the Hithpa'el

expresses to make oneself that which is predicated b y the

stem, to conduct oneself as such, to show oneself, to imagine oneself, to 1 A . S t e i n , Ber Stamrn des Hithpael mi Heir. a l p h a b e t i c a l statistics of t h e 1 1 5 1 forms. 2

pt. 1, S c h w e r i n , 1893, g i v e s

So also i n H e b r e w 1 3 n n S 2 C h 20 26 ; cf. j/ 76« (v!6i>ine>K).

[273]

i5o

The Verb

[§ 54/-*

affect to be of a certain character. E . g . ^U^n to make oneself great, to act •proudly; to show oneself wise, crafty ; H^nnip to pretend to be ill; ~l$ynn to make, i.e. to feign oneself rich-, " T W n Nu ifi 11 , to make oneself a prince ; i S 1810, to act in an excited manner like a prophet, to rave. The meaning of Hithpa'el sometimes coincides with that of Qal, both forms being in use together, e. g. to mourn, in Qal only in poetic style, in Hithpa'el in prose. On the accusative after Hithpa'el (regarded as a transitive verb), see § 117 w. f (b) I t expresses reciprocal action, like Niph'al, § 51 d, e.g. '"'N-inn to look upon one another, Gn 42 1 ; cf. ^ 4 1 8 b u t (c) I t more often indicates an action less directly affecting the subject, and describes it as performed with regard to or for oneself, in one's own special interest (cf. Niph'al, § 51 e). Hithpa'el in such cases readily takes an accusative, e.g. p l E " ? E x 32 s and ^»nn E x 33s to tear off from oneself; DB'ann exuit sibi (vestem), rwsnn solvit sibi (vinculo); T B S n Jos 912, to take (something) as one's provision ; without an accusative, ^ik11?? t0 waabout for oneself (ambulare) ; ^ s n n sibi intercedes (see Delitzsch on Is i 1 5 ) ; ^[5nnn to draw a line for oneself, Job 13 27 ; on Is 142, see § 57, note. g (d) Only seldom is it passive, e.g. ^ n n n ton P r 3 i 3 0 she shall be praised; n?Fl&?n to be forgotten, Ec 810, where the reflexive sense (to bring oneself into oblivion) has altogether disappeared. Cf. Niph'al, §51/h

T h e passive f o r m Hothpa'al is f o u n d o n l y i n t h e f e w f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s : S D ! | n to be defiled, D t 24*; infinitive D 3 3 n to be washed, L v i 3 6 6

56

; flJBHn (for

n J E H n n , t h e i"!3 b e i n g t r e a t e d as if it w e r e t h e afformative of t h e fem. plur.) it is made fat, I s 34®. I

On n p B n n , see I.

D e n o m i n a t i v e s w i t h a r e f l e x i v e m e a n i n g are "inTin to emit ace f r o m H i T ( m V P ) Judah-,

Judaism,

T D S H to provision oneself for a journey, f r o m ¡ I T S

provision for a journey (see § 72 »»)• k

R e m . 1. A s i n Pi'el, so i n Hithpa'el, t h e perfect v e r y f r e q u e n t l y ( i n s t e m s ending in

p;

S) h a s r e t a i n e d t h e o r i g i n a l Pathah i n t h e

final

syllable

( w h i l e i n t h e o r d i n a r y f o r m it is a t t e n u a t e d , as i n Pi'el, to % a n d t h e n l e n g t h ened to e), e. g. E]3Xnn D t 4 21 , & c . ; cf. 2 C h 13 7 , 1 5 8 ; w i t h 1 consecutive I s S 2 1 ; so also i n t h e i m p e r f e c t a n d i m p e r a t i v e , e. g. DSnnFl Ec 7 1 6 ; cf. D t 9 8 1 8 , 1 S 3W,

2 S 10», 1 K I I s , I s 552, 58 14 , 6 4 " , 4, 5 5 a ; p j n n n I K 20», f 37 4 , E s t

S 10;

p S K n i H I S 1 3 " . — I n L v 1 1 " , 207 a n d E z 3S23, % t a k e s t h e p l a c e of a i n t h e first s y l l a b l e of t h e stem before t? (cf. § 44 d), and i n t h e last passage before b.

I n t h e peifeet, imperfect ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of E c 71«), a n d imperative of

Hithpa'el (as w e l l as of Hithpa'el, Hithpa'lel, Hithpalpel, § 55) t h e o r i g i n a l '0

Hithpa'el

y 6 , 1 6 1 0 . — L i k e t h e Pi'el

151

( § 5 2TO),f o r m s occur i n Hithpa'el l i k e n j ^ n n r i

Z c 6 7 ; cf. A m 8 13 , a n d so i n Hithpa'el, J e r 49 s , A m 9 1 3 ; w i t h 5 o n l y i n L a 4 1 . — I n t h e A r a m a i c m a n n e r an mflnitne Hithpa'el D T G n r i n occurs i n D n 11 2 3 (cf. t h e Hiph'il inf. riWDE'n i n E z 2 4 2 6 ). T : ' 1

2. A s i n s t a n c e s of t h e reflexive ptSpfin (connected w i t h Pi'el) a f e w r e f l e x i v e I f o r m s of t h e v e r b "JpS (to examine) are also p r o b a b l y to be reckoned.

Instead

of a Pathah i n a s h a r p e n e d syllable a f t e r t h e first radical, these take Qamen i n an open syllable, e. g. n p S H i l J u 20 1 6 1 7 , imperfect I p S J V 2015, 219.

T h e corre-

s p o n d i n g passive f o r m 11(?Snn also occurs four t i m e s , N u 1 4 7 , 23S, 26®, 1 K 2 0 2 7 . A c c o r d i n g to others, t h e s e f o r m s are r a t h e r r e f l e x i v e s of Qal, i n t h e sense of to present oneself for leiiew, to be reviewed, l i k e t h e A r a m a i c 'Ithpe'el

(Western

A r a m a i c ^DpflN, S y r . ^DpOK) a n d t h e E t h i o p i c taqaPta, A r a b . 'iqtatala, t h e last w i t h t h e t a l w a y s p l a c e d a f t e r t h e first radical (cf. above, &); b u t t h e y are more c o r r e c t l y e x p l a i n e d , w i t h K ö n i g , as Hithpa'el forms, t h e d o u b l i n g of t h e p b e i n g a b n o r m a l l y o m i t t e d . — S u c h a reflexive of Qal, w i t h t h e n t r a n s p o s e d , occurs i n 0 n i " 6 n (on t h e a n a l o g y of 0 . T . H e b r e w to be pronounced O n n b n ) i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n of t h e Moabite k i n g M0a', w i t h t h e m e a n i n g of t h e O. T. Dni>3 to fight, to wage war: see t h e i n s c r i p t i o n , l i n e s i t , 15, 19, a n d 32 ;

Niph'al

i n the first t w o places i n t h e imperfect w i t h wäw consecutive DPIrSsI ; i n l i n e 19 i n t h e infinitive w i t h suffix, 'U n f o r m b n a in his fighting against me.

§ 55. Less Common

Conjugations.

O f t h e l e s s c o m m o n c o n j u g a t i o n s (§ 3 9 g) s o m e m a y b e c l a s s e d w i t h Pi'el,

o t h e r s w i t h Hiph'tl.

from the lengthening

To the former belong those w h i c h

arise

o f t h e v o w e l o r t h e r e p e t i t i o n of o n e o r

even

a

t w o radicals, i n fact, from an i n t e r n a l modification or d e v e l o p m e n t of the s t e m ;

to the latter belong those which are formed by prefixing a

c o n s o n a n t , l i k e t h e PI o f H i p h ' i l . t o Pi'el

a r e i n c l u d e d t h e passive

Amongst the conjugations analogous f o r m s d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e i r v o w e l s , as

w e l l as t h e r e f l e x i v e s w i t h t h e p r e f i x rin, on t h e a n a l o g y of The

f o l l o w i n g c o n j u g a t i o n s a r e r e l a t e d t o Piel,

Hithpa'el.

as regards t h e i r b

inflexion and partly in their meaning : i . Po'el i'toip, passive Po'al

reflexive Hithpo'el ^ B i p n n ,

corresponding

to t h e A r a b i c conj. i n . qdtälä, pass, qütilä, a n d conj. v i . r e f l e x i v e imperfect

participle i>DipD, imperfect passive ^Dip^ &c.

täqätälä;

H e n c e it appears

t h a t in H e b r e w t h e 0 of t h e first syllable is i n a l l t h e forms obscured f r o m a, w h i l e t h e passive f o r m is d i s t i n g u i s h e d s i m p l y b y t h e a-sound i n the second syllable. participle

I n t h e s t r o n g v e r b these c o n j u g a t i o n s are r a t h e r rare. ,| t!Sfe'D

Examples :

mine adversary, who would contend with me, J b 9 1 5 ;

(denominative from tongue) ¡p 101 5 KHh.

'Wlta

the tongue) slandering (as if intent on injuring with the (The Qere requires W ^ ß melösni as Na i 3 " b l " ! ^ ) ;

then have poured out, if/ 77 18 (if not r a t h e r Pu'al);

lü^f

T l j n V I have appointed, 1 S 2 1 '

( u n l e s s "nin^n s h o u l d be read) ; I^D^ H o 1 3 3 ; t*hfe> to take root, passive

[275]

152

The Verb

BhiK>, denominatiie

f r o m tjhb> root ( b u t

[§ 55 c-f

to toot out) ; i n H i t h p o ' e l I B t y j r i n

they shrill be moved, J e r 2 5 1 6 ; i m p e r f . 46®; f r o m a v e r b n"1? participle

I s 52 s is p r o b a b l y a forma

W i t ? I s 10 1 3 .

The

mixta c o m b i n i n g t h e r e a d i n g s fX'OlD

and fXinip. ' C

Po'el p r o p e r (as d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n j u g a t i o n s of v e r b s V"V § 67 I a n d r y § 72 m, w h i c h t a k e t h e p l a c e of t h e o r d i n a r y c a u s a t i v e P i W e x p r e s s e s a n a i m o r e n d e a v o u r to p e r f o r m t h e a c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h h o s t i l e i n t e n t , a n d is h e n c e c a l l e d , b y E w a l d , t h e s t e m e x p r e s s i n g aim ( Z i e l s t a m m ) , endeavout ( S u e h e - s t a m m ) or attack ( A n g r i i f u - s t a m m ) ; cf. t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n a b o v e f r o m J b 9 1 5 , f 101 5 , a n d p t y 1 S i3 9 Qfre ( p r o b a b l y f o r p i j i D cf. § 52 s ; § 5 5 / :

With

seeking

to cast an evil

eye).

i s c o n n e c t e d t h e f o r m a t i o n of q u a d r i l i t e r a l s b y t h e i n s e r t i o n of

a c o n s o n a n t b e t w e e n t h e first a n d s e c o n d r a d i c a l s (§ 30 p, § 56). d

2. Pa'lel,

g e n e r a l l y w i t h t h e a a t t e n u a t e d to i = Pi'lell

(Pi'lal),

^Ep

and

; t h e e i n t h e f i n a l s y l l a b l e also a r i s e s f r o m i, a n d t h i s a g a i n f r o m a ; p a s s i v e Pu'lal ^ D p

r e f l e x i v e Hithpa'lel

¡?nn, like t h e A r a b i c conjugations

i x . 'iqtalla, a n d x i . hqtdlld, t h e f o r m e r u s e d of p e r m a n e n t , t h e l a t t e r of a c c i d e n t a l or c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s , e. g. of c o l o u r s ; cf. (JKB* to be at rest, f 3 j n to be green, passive to be withered, a l l of t h e m f o u n d o n l y i n t h e perfect a n d n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g Qal f o r m . , 3 ! int3S

; for

with

( F o r t h e b a r b a r o u s f o r m 'OinntSX $ 88 17 r e a d

E z 2 8 23 , w h i c h h a s m a n i f e s t l y a r i s e n o n l y f r o m c o n f u s i o n

w i t h the following i ^ n , read

These f o r m s are more c o m m o n i n verbs

V ' y , w h e r e t h e y t a k e t h e p l a c e of Piel a n d Hithpa'el

(§ 72 m).

Cf. a l s o § 75 kk.

w i t h r e p e t i t i o n of t h e l a s t t w o r a d i c a l s , u s e d of m o v e m e n t s r e p e a t e d i n q u i c k s u c c e s s i o n ; e. g. " i r n n D to go about quickly, to palpitate (of t h e h e a r t ) ip 38 1 1 , f r o m "iriD to go about; to be heated, to be red, J b 16 1 6 , L a 1 20 , 2 1 1 .

p a s s i v e "IDIOn to be in a ferment,

P r o b a b l y t h i s i s also t h e e x p l a n a t i o n

of I S t e n ( d e n o m . f r o m D l S i v n a trumpet, b u t o n l y i n t h e participle, & c . K'th.)

1 C h 15 2 4

f o r 1 S 1 S I 1 , b y a b s o r p t i o n of t h e first "1, l e n g t h e n i n g o f a i n t h e

o p e n s y l l a b l e , a n d s u b s e q u e n t o b s c u r i n g of a t o 0. the meaningless

On the other hand, for

H o 4 1 8 ( w h i c h c o u l d o n l y be r e f e r r e d to t h i s c o n -

j u g a t i o n if it stood for i 3 n 3 n X ) read i S H X ) a n d for t h e e q u a l l y m e a n i n g l e s s JTB^SJ ^ 45 s r e a d H ' ^ V

I n b o t h t h e s e c a s e s a s c r i b a l e r r o r {dittography)

has

b e e n p e r p e t u a t e d b y t h e p u n c t u a t i o n , w h i c h d i d n o t v e n t u r e to a l t e r

the

KHhibh.

O n t h e e m p l o y m e n t of Pe'al'al

i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of n o u n s , cf. § 8 4 ' n.

Closely related to this form i s — 4. Pilpel (pass. Polpal), w i t h a s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e t w o e s s e n t i a l r a d i c a l s i n stems

V'y,

roll oneself

down;

a n d 1»]), e . g . ^ S from

to roll, f r o m $>3 = ^ 3 ;

, passive

reflexive ^ J n n to

; cf. also N D K D (so B a e r a n d

G i n s b . a f t e r Q i m h i ; o t h e r s XONI3) I s 14 23 , a n d w i t h a i n b o t h

syllables

o w i n g to t h e i n f l u e n c e of ~\i "IfcHi? f r o m "lip N u 2 4 " (cf. h o w e v e r ,

in

the

p a r a l l e l passage, J e r 4s 4 5 l'p"!p) a n d I s 2 2?, i n t h e participle ; JBOb» I s 1 7 1 1 to hedge m , acc. to o t h e r s make to grow.

P r o b a b l y to t h i s f o r m a l s o

belongs

t h e e m e n d e d r e a d i n g of J b 39 s 0 i n s t e a d of t h e i m p o s s i b l e i y i 3 y ; a l s o Cf. W o l f e n s o h n , ' T h e P i ' l e l i n H e b r e w , ' Amer. Journ. of Or. Studies, x x v n ( 1 9 0 7 ) , p. 303 ff. 1

[276]

56]

§§ 55

Less Common Conjugations

153

s

HKDND I s 27 , if t h a t f o r m is to be r e f e r r e d to a n infinitive NDKD 5 p e r h a p s also Ez 39" for X ^ X C . T h i s f o r m also c o m m o n l y expresses r a p i d l y repeated m o v e m e n t , w h i c h all languages incline to indicate by a r e p e t i t i o n of t h e sound, 1 e . g . S)SSX to chirp-, cf. in t h e Lexicon t h e n o u n s derived f r o m 113, and As HUhpalpel w e find [iptjipriE^ Na 2 5 ; W n n m Est 4* ; T D 1 B W D n 8', g 11 . Of t h e same f o r m is ¡YJ'nK I s 3815, if contracted f r o m H l l i n X or n T i n N f r o m t h e root 11 or 11), and also VlOnBHil tarry ye, I s 29 s ( b u t r e a d p r o b a b l y IHBPin), RBHCnjl (in pause) G n 19' 6 , &c., if it is to be derived f r o m rlHD, a n d n o t H i t h p a ' e l f r o m ¡TOTO. 11

Only examples more or less doubtful can be adduced of—

h

5. Tiph'el (properly Taph'el i ) : ^ D p H , w i t h fl prefixed, cf. w b ä l l l to teach to •walk, to lead ( d e n o m i n a t i v e f r o m

afoot?)

H o 11 s ; from a s t e m n " b , t h e

imperfect Hiring to contend with, J e r 12 s ; participle, 2215 (from Dill to be hot, eager).

S i m i l a r l y i n A r a m a i c , D3TFI to interpret, w h e n c e also in H e b r e w t h e

passive participle DJiriB E z r 4 7 . 6. Saph'el: ijüpK", frequent i n S y r i a c , e . g . Dnf'B' f r o m i n H e b r e w rOn^C* flame. P e r h a p s of t h e same f o r m is

to flame ; w h e n c e % a snail (unless

it be f r o m t h e s t e m i?3tj>), a n d n i n j i p j i ' hollow strakes, cf. § 85, No. 50. T h i s c o n j u g a t i o n is p e r h a p s t h e original of Hiph'il, i n w h i c h case t h e H, b y a p h o n e t i c change w h i c h m a y be exemplified elsewhere, is w e a k e n e d f r o m a sibilant. F o r m s of w h i c h only isolated examples occur a r e : —

fe

7. B^Bp,passive t^tpp ; as DBDnp peeled o f f , like scales, E x 16 1 4 , from f p n , Sf^n to peel, to scale. i n ^M^jl ct rain-storm, f r o m Pj^t.

9- ^ g H J

(regularly in Mishnic Hebrew s ) a form compounded of Niph'al

and Hithpa'el; as VIDW for 1101/131 that they may he taught, E z 2348 ; 1Q33 probably an error for I S S n n to be forgiven, Dt 218. On n i R ^ J P r 2715, see § 75 x. "

§ 5(5- Quadriliterals.

On the origin of these altogether secondary formations cf. § 30 p. While quadriliteral nouns are tolerably numerous, only the following examples of the verb occur : 1 Cf Lat. tinnio, tintinno, our tick-tack, ding-dong, a n d t h e G e r m a n wirrwarr, klingklang. The r e p e t i t i o n of t h e radical in verbs y"y also produces t h i s effect; as in ppi) to lick, p p l to pound, S]DQ to trip along. T h e same t h i n g is expressed also by diminulhe forms, as in L a t i n by t h e t e r m i n a t i o n -illo, e. g. cantillo, i n G e r m a n by -ein, -em, e. g. flimmern, trillern, tropfein, to trickle. 2 T h e existence of a Taph'el is contested on good g r o u n d s by B a r t h , Nominalbildung, p. 279. 3 [See Segal, Munaic Hebrew, Oxf. 1909, p 30 ff.]

[277]

154

The

Verb

[§

5e


e- S"J^P (qHalekha), or when the final consonant of the verb is a guttural, , e.g. ^in^- In pause, the original short vowel (a) reappears as Seghol with the tone 1 — (also see g). On the appending of suffixes to the final p of the imperfect (§47 m), see § 60 e.

g

Kem. 1. As rare forms may be mentioned sing. 2nd pers. masc. ¡13 1 K 1844, &c, in pause also H3JL (see below, i ) ; fem. ID, Instead of the form 7] Ez 27 s6 ), 7|

Gn 2 J7,

4> 1034, 137".

, which is usual even in the perfect (e. g J u 4®

occurs as fem. Is 60 9 (as masc. Dt 6 17 , 2 845, Is 30 19 , 55 s always in

pause)-, with Munah Is 54 s , J e r 2 3 3 7 .—In the 3rd masc. ri E x 32 25 , Nu 2 3 s ; in the 3rd fem. ¡1 without Mappiq (cf. § 91 e) E x 2 s , J e r 4 4 1 9 ; Am I 11 , with 1 W e have kept the term connecting vowel, although it is rather a superficial description, and moreover these vowels are of various origin. The connective a is most probably the remains of the old verbal termination, like the t in the 2nd pers. fem. sing. Wrii'Dp. Observe e. g. the Hebrew form qetal-ani in

connexion with the Arabic qatala-ni, contrasted with Hebrew qetalat-ni and Arabic qatalat-ni. Konig accordingly prefers the expression ' vocalic ending of the stem', instead of 'connecting syllable'. The connective 5, a, as Pratorius ('¿DUG. 55, 267 if.) and Barth (ibid. p. 205 f.) show by reference to the Syriac connective at in the imperf. of the strong verb, is originally due to the analogy of verbs ( ' j n O ^ J T l D from mehmni), in which the final « was used as a connecting vowel first of the imperat., then of the impf. (besides many forms with a, § 60 d), and of the infin. and participle.

[280]

§ g8 h, i]

The Pronominal Suffixes of the Verb

157

retraction of the tone before a f o l l o w i n g tone-syllable, but l e a d c e r t a i n l y n s ) 6 "toB'.—The f o r m s toJL, to-^-, to4- occur 23 times, a l l i n p o e t r y 1 (except E x 23 s1 ) [viz. w i t h t h e perfect E x 15 10 , 2331, 73«; w i t h the i m p e r f e c t E x 15 s ( t o for to), i g " . « 1 2 i b . " « 21 1 » 1 3 , 22s, 45 1 7 , 80«, 1 4 c 1 8 ; w i t h the imperative i/< 5 1 1 , 59 1 2 1 2 , 83 12 ]. f

and |

On t h e age of these forms, see § 91 I 3 ; o n

as suffixes of the 3rd fern. plur. of t h e imperfect, § 60 d

I n Gn 48s1 K r o n p

(cf. ÖK>~Ö3,'l 1 C h 14 1 1 according to Baer),

has lost

t h e tone before Maqqeph and so is shortened to D . — I n E z 44 s Jto^BTIl is probably o n l y an error for Dto'BTIl. 2. F r o m a comparison of these verbal suffixes w i t h t h e noun-suffixes (§ 91) Jl w e find t h a t (a) t h e r e is a greater v a r i e t y of forms amongst t h e verbal t h a n amongst t h e noun-suffixes, the forms a n d relations of t h e v e r b itself b e i n g more v a r i o u s ; — ( 6 ) t h e v e r b a l suffix, w h e r e i t differs f r o m that of t h e n o u n , is l o n g e r ; cf. e . g . "O-f-, ^ ' ^ JL (me) w i t h 1 (my). T h e reason is t h a t the p r o n o m i n a l object is less closely connected w i t h t h e v e r b t h a n t h e possessive p r o n o u n (the g e n i t i v e ) is w i t h t h e n o u n ; consequently t h e f o r m e r can also be expressed b y a separate w o r d (DN i n ' f l K , &c.). 4 . A v e r b a l f o r m w i t h a s u f f i x g a i n s a d d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h , a n d some- I t i m e s i n t e n t i o n a l e m p h a s i s , w h e n , i n s t e a d of t h e m e r e c o n n e c t i n g v o w e l , a special connecting-syllable the verbal stem.

2

(an)3

is inserted b e t w e e n the suffix and

Since, however, this syllable always has the

tone,

t h e a is i n v a r i a b l y (except in the i s t pers. sing.) modified to t o n e b e a r i n g Seghdl. demonstrativum

T h i s is c a l l e d o r epentheticum),

t h e Ahm

energicumi

(less

D t 3 2 1 0 bis) i n p a u s a l f o r m s of t h e i m p e r f e c t , e. g . Mm

suitably

a n d o c c u r s p r i n c i p a l l y (see, h o w e v e r ,

(ip- 72 1 5 , cf. J e r 5 2 2 ), J p R n ? J e r 2 2 2 4 ;

he will he will

bless

honour

me

(\js go 2 3 ) i s u n u s u a l ; r a r e l y i n t h e p e r f e c t , D t 24 1 3 J!?"1-?. • O n e x a m p l e s like ' i n

G n 30 6 , c f . § 26 g, § 5 9 / .

c a s e s , h o w e v e r , t h i s Nün

I n far the greatest number

is assimilated to the f o l l o w i n g

(3, 3), o r t h e l a t t e r i s l o s t i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n consequently sharpened.

of

consonant

(so n), a n d t h e

Nun

H e n c e w e g e t the f o l l o w i n g series of suffix-

forms : — 1 T h u s in ip 2 to occurs five t i m e s [four t i m e s attached to a n o u n or preposition, § § 9 1 / , 103 c], a n d Ö__ only t w i c e . 2 I t is, h o w e v e r , a question w h e t h e r , i n s t e a d of a c o n n e c t i n g s y l l a b l e , w e should not assume a special verbal form, analogous to t h e A r a b i c energetic mood (see I, at the end) a n d probably also a p p e a r i n g i n t h e H e b r e w cohortat i v e (see t h e footnote on § 48 c ) . — A s M. L a m b e r t has s h o w n i n REJ. 1903, p. 178 ff. (' D e l ' e m p l o i des suffixes p r o n o m i n a u x . . . ' ) , t h e suffixes of t h e 3rd pers. w i t h the impf, w i t h o u t waw i n prose are a n d HilJL, but w i t h an(* H " waw consec. or ^ ; w i t h t h e j u s s i v e i n t h e 2nd a n d 3rd pers. always n • , i n t h e i s t pers. more o f t e n 4 - than W J L , and always

3 A c c o r d i n g to B a r t h ' n - h a l t i g e S u f f i x e ' i n Sprachwiss. Untersuchungen, L p z . 1907, p. 1 if., t h e c o n n e c t i n g element, as in A r a m a i c , w a s o r i g i n a l l y in, w h i c h i n H e b r e w became en i n a closed tone-syllable. 4 So K ö n i g , Lehrgeb., i. p. 226.

[281]

The Verb

158

[§§ 58 h I, 59 «> h

1 st pers. (even in pause, Jb lju, &c.), (for ). 2nd pers. i j — (Jer 2 224 in pause 4|?—) and, only orthographically different, H3JL (Is io 24 , Pr 211 in pause). yd

pers. '3-L- (for V13-I.), 1 fem.

[1 st pers. 2>lur.

H2JL for

(for U?—), see the Rem.]

In the other persons Nun energetic does not occur. k

I

Rem. The uncontracted forms with Nun are rare, and occur only in poetic or elevated style (Ex 15®, Dt 3210 [ins], Jer 5 s2 , 22 24 ); they are never found in the 3rd fern. sing, and 1 st plur. On the other hand, the contracted forms are tolerably frequent, even in prose. A n example of as 1st plur. occurs perhaps in Jb 31 15 [but read and cf. § 72 cc], hardly in Ho 12 5 ; ef. }33n behold ws, Gn 4416, 5018, Nu 1440 for (instead of ?33PI ; see § 20 m).— I n Ez 412 the Masora requires iljpyn, without DageS in the Nun. That the forms with Nun energicum are intended to give greater emphasis to the verbal form is seen from their special frequency in pause. Apart from the verb, however, Nun energicum occurs also in the union of suffixes w i t h certain particles (§ 100 0). This Nun is frequent in Western Aramaic. I n Arabic the corresponding forms are the two energetic moods (see § 48 b) ending in an and anna, which are used in connexion w i t h suffixes (e. g. yaqtulan-ka or yaqtulanna-ka) as well as without them.

§ 59. a

The Perfect with Pronominal

Suffixes.

1. The endings (afforrnatives) of the perfect occasionally vary somewhat from the ordinary form, when connected with pronominal suffixes; v i z . : — (а) In the 3 rd sing. fern, the original feminine ending or n_T is used for (б) In the 2nd sing, rnasc. besides Fl we find to which the connecting vowel is directly attached, but the only clear instances of this 2 are with (c) In the 2nd sing. fem. ^ , the original form of 0, appears; cf. , " l ? ! ^ , § 3 2 / ; § 44 g. This form can be distinguished from the 1st pers. only by the context. (J) 2nd plur. rnasc. W for BFl. The only examples are Nu 20', 215, Zc 75. The fem. ti-li'ttp never occurs with suffixes; probably it had the same form as the masculine.

b

W e exhibit first the forms of the perfect Hiph'il, as used in connexion with suffixes, since here no further changes take place in the stem itself, except as regards the tone (see c). 1 2

On fa = 13 Nu 23«, see § 67 0. On the a as an original element of the verbal form, see § 58/, note.

[282]

§ 59 c-/]

The Perfect with Pronominal Sufficees Plural,

Singular, 3. m . 3-

159

c.

i^tJijn

m.

wbopn

/•

2. m . n i r a p n , nj>opn 2.

/. ^ ^ i p n ,

1.

c.

nbttpn 1.

^apn

c.. u i r a p n

T h e b e g i n n e r s h o u l d first praotise c o n n e c t i n g the suffixes w i t h these Hiph'il forms a n d t h e n go on to u n i t e t h e m to t h e Perfect Qal (see d). 2 . T h e a d d i t i o n of t h e s u f f i x g e n e r a l l y c a u s e s t h e t o n e t o b e t h r o w n

c

f o r w a r d t o w a r d s t h e e n d of t h e w o r d , s i n c e i t w o u l d o t h e r w i s e f a l l , i n s o m e c a s e s , o n t h e a n t e - p e n u l t i m a ; w i t h t h e heavy the t o n e is e v e n transferred to t h e suffix itself. t o n e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e P e r f e c t Qal, (a) t h e Qames

s u f f i x e s (see e)

Considerations

occasion certain v o w e l

o f t h e first s y l l a b l e , n o l o n g e r s t a n d i n g before

a l w a y s b e c o m e s v o c a l &ivd; s y l l a b l e , w h i c h i n t h e 3rd

(b) t h e o r i g i n a l Pathah sing.

fem.

a n d 3 r d plur.

of

changes: the tone

of t h e

second

had become

£ew&,

r e a p p e a r s b e f o r e t h e s u f f i x , a n d , i n a n o p e n s y l l a b l e b e f o r e t h e t o n e , is l e n g t h e n e d t o Qames; without

s i m i l a r l y o r i g i n a l 1 ( a s i n t h e 3 r d sing,

rnasc.

a s u f f i x ) is l e n g t h e n e d t o e, e . g . ^J^nt? 1 g 18 2 2 , P r 19".

T h e f o r m s of t h e p e r f e c t of Q a l c o n s e q u e n t l y a p p e a r a s f o l l o w s : — Singular. 3. m . !>Bp 3.

2. 1.

3-

/• rfco? ( n ^ p ,

2. m.

Piel

6ee

/. ^p(n:i>9p,see c. V l i i C p

C.

c.

^Bp

g) m.

n ^ p p (fib»!?, see h)

The connexion Paradigm

d

Plural,

w W

h) 1.

of these forms

with

all

c. «!>Bp the suffixes is s h o w n

I t w i l l b e s e e n t h e r e also, h o w t h e Sere

c h a n g e s s o m e t i m e s i n t o Seghol,

in

in the P e r f e c t

a n d s o m e t i m e s i n t o vocal

&10&.

R e m . 1. T h e suffixes of t h e 2nd a n d 3rd pers. plur. 0 3 a n d DH, since t h e y C end in a consonant a n d also a l w a y s h a v e t h e tone, are distinguished as heavy suffixes (suffixa gravid) f r o m t h e rest, w h i c h are called light suffixes. Compare t h e c o n n e x i o n of these (and of t h e corresponding f e m i n i n e f o r m s a n d }il) w i t h t h e noun, § 91. W i t h a perfect Dp alone occurs, ^ 118 26 . T h e f o r m w l i i c h is u s u a l l y g i v e n as t h e connective f o r m of t h e 3rd sing. masc. before • 3 and p o n l y f o r m e d b y a n a l o g y , a n d is w i t h o u t e x a m p l e in t h e 0 . T . 2. I n the 3rd sing. masc. (especially i n verbs n ' v ; i n t h e strong v e r b o n l y i n Jer 2015 i n Pi'el) is m o s t l y contracted to i^tSp, according to § 23 k ; ' l i k e w i s e i n the 2nd sing. masc. W n i i C p to i n i > D p . — A s a suffix of t h e 1st sing. MJL occurs several t i m e s w i t h t h e 3rd sing. masc. perf. Qal of verbs H"^, n o t o n l y in pause (as f 1185; P r 822 w i t h De/n)t b u t e v e n w i t h a con[283]

j'

160

[§§ 59 g-i, 60 a

The Verb

junctive accent, as ^"ift J b

3019;

1335)

1

S

281S

(where, however, t h e reading

i j j y is also found). W i t h a sharpened 3 : Gn 30«, ijQD} \j/ 1 1 8 1 8 . 3. The 3rdsing.fem. I"6t3p ( = ¡ibttp) has the twofold peculiarity that (a) the ending ath always takes t h e tone, 1 and consequently is joined to those suffixes which form a syllable of themselves ('3, ^ ID, ¡1, 13), without a connecting vowel, contrary to the general rule, § 58/; (6) before the other suffixes t h e connecting vowel is indeed employed, but the tone is drawn back to t h e penultima, so that they are pronounced with shortened vowels, viz. 7] D

e . g . T j n a n x she loies thee, E u 4 1 5 , c f . I s 4 7 1 0 ; D n 3 3 3 she has stolen them,

I_

Gn

31 3 2 ;

Dn£nB> it burns them, I s 47 14 , J o s 2«, H o 214,

&c., in pause 'Sfl

is found, Jer 821,