Freud's Paranoid Quest: Psychoanalysis and Modern Suspicion 9780814728826

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FREUD'S PARANOI D QUES T

FREUD'S PARANOI D QUES T Psychoanalysis an d Moder n Suspicio n ••

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John Farrel l

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New Yor k Universit y Pres s New York and London

NEW YOR K UNIVERSIT Y PRES S New York and London Copyright © 1996 by New York University All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Farrell, John, 1957Freud's paranoid quest : psychoanalysis and modern suspicion / John Farrell. p. cm . Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: From primal father to paranoid—Paranoid logic— Paranoid psychology—Before Freud—Freudian satire—Freud as Quixote—The charismatic pararnoid. ISBN 0-8147-2649-6 (cloth : alk. paper).—ISBN 0-8147-2650-X (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Freud , Sigmund, 1856-1939. 2 . Paranoia . 3 . Psychoanalysis . I. Title. BF109.F74F37 199 6 150.19'52'092—dc20 95-5015 6 CIP New York University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. Manufactured in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 21

To Leo , Verna , and Edwar d Farrel l

I hav e succeede d wher e th e paranoia c fails . — Freud

Contents

Acknowledgments x

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Introduction 1 One • Fro m Prima l Fathe r t o Paranoi d 1

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Two • Paranoi d Logi c 2

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Three • Paranoi d Psycholog y 4

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Four • Befor e Freu d 6

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Five • Freudia n Satir e 9

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Six • Freu d a s Quixot e 13

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Seven • Th e Charismati c Paranoi d 16

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Conclusion 21

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Epilogue 21

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Notes Works Cite d Index

223 257 267

Acknowledgments

An earl y versio n o f th e epilogu e wa s publishe d i n th e Harvard Review an d is reprinte d wit h th e kin d permissio n o f Strati s Haviaris . Danie l Pau l Schreber's Memoirs of My Nervous Illness ar e quote d wit h th e permissio n o f Harvard Universit y Press . Th e Schmutze r etchin g o f Freu d i s reproduce d with th e permissio n o f Sigmun d Freu d Copyrights . My turn t o Freu d a s a subjec t wa s a n unexpecte d developmen t an d cam e at th e en d o f a muc h longe r perio d o f investigatio n tha n wen t int o th e writing o f this book . Durin g thi s perio d I acquired mor e debt s o f scholarshi p and friendshi p tha n I ca n possibl y acknowledge . I mentio n onl y a few . T o begin with , m y decade-lon g conversatio n wit h Blanfor d Parke r ha s bee n a n education i n itself . M y thinkin g abou t th e problem s o f modernit y i n recen t years ha s bee n shape d an d invigorate d b y th e influenc e o f Anthon y Kemp , Robert Faggen , an d Jeffre y Fergusson . An d i t wa s Glen n Ki m wh o pu t m e onto paranoi a (an d Thoma s Pynchon ) i n th e firs t place . Murray Schwart z provide d bibliographica l guidanc e a t a n earl y stage . Ralph Ros s provide d fruitfu l resistanc e t o m y idea s a t a tal k give n i n Claremont. Langdo n Ellsbre e suggeste d th e epilogue . Audre y Bilger , Mari a Davidis, Granvill e Henry , Mauree n McLane , Joh n Rabbinowitz , Jame s Rogers, Davi d Venturo , an d Charle s Voinovic h rea d al l o r par t o f th e manuscript a t variou s stages . Al l provide d valuabl e encouragemen t an d guidance, an d Venturo , wit h characteristi c alacrity , supplie d a n elusiv e epigraph. Yoo n Su n Le e an d Nicol e Hamo n checke d m y French . Frederic k Crews an d Loui s A . Sas s gav e excellen t counse l an d criticis m a s pee r reviewers fo r Ne w Yor k Universit y Press . Crew s an d Fagge n wer e particu larly helpfu l i n th e craftin g o f th e title . An d I hav e bee n abl y serve d b y m y editor, Ti m Bartlett . T o al l I a m mor e gratefu l tha n I ca n say .

XI

Introduction Society everywher e i s i n conspirac y agains t th e manhood o f every one of its members . —Emerson

Henry Jame s spen t hi s las t afternoon s a s Napoleon , orderin g furnitur e b y imperial fiat . Friedric h Nietzsch e lat e i n hi s caree r assume d th e title s o f Caesar an d o f "Th e Crucified. " Augus t Strindberg , exhilarate d b y a lette r from "Nietzsch e Caesar, " signe d hi s repl y "Th e On e an d Onl y God. " Strindberg believe d tha t th e persecute d heroe s i n th e play s o f Henri k Ibse n were disguise d portrait s o f him , plagiarized , infuriatingly , fro m hi s ow n paranoid self-portrayal . Ibsen , i n turn , kep t a portrai t o f Strindber g ove r his writin g desk , fo r inspiration . Hobbes wa s pathologicall y timorous , give n t o sudde n flights . Maupas sant suffere d fro m bout s o f persecution , a s di d E . T . A . Hoffmann . Scho penhauer slep t wit h a gu n besid e hi s bed . "Stendhal " kep t changin g hi s name. Imaginar y enemie s pursue d Hemingway . Jean-Jacque s Roussea u believed tha t h e wa s bein g persecute d b y th e entir e generatio n o f livin g Frenchmen, tha t hi s ever y mov e wa s bein g carefull y watched , hi s mai l an d publications controlled , t o preven t hi m fro m havin g acces s t o unprejudice d posterity. Th e secon d hal f o f hi s Confessions i s take n u p wit h th e plot s o f his enemies . H e attempte d t o plac e th e manuscrip t o f Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques, i n whic h h e minutel y weigh s th e charge s agains t hi s name , upon th e hig h alta r o f Notr e Dame . Thwarte d eve n there , h e recognize d that Go d to o was agains t him ; i n hi s las t work , Reveries of a Solitary Walker, he attempte d a final escap e int o th e arm s o f nature . The dominan t figures o f moder n cultur e exhibi t a strang e susceptibilit y to delusions o f grandeur an d fear s o f persecution upo n imaginar y grounds — in othe r words , t o paranoia . I n man y instance s th e conditio n remain s withi n the rang e o f ordinar y behavior . I t i s wha t ma y b e describe d technicall y a s a 'paranoi d slant' , a penchan t fo r over-estimatin g one' s ow n importance , a 1

2 • Introduction morbid concer n wit h autonom y an d control , an d th e rindin g o f hostil e motives i n othe r people' s behavior . Bu t i n a numbe r o f cases , suc h a s thos e of Roussea u an d Nietzsche—no t th e leas t importan t figure s i n moder n culture—the conditio n reache s th e leve l o f a full-blow n psychosis . Strind berg's diarie s revea l hi m t o b e th e maddes t o f author s wh o ca n stil l writ e with power . The eminenc e o f paranoi d figure s i n moder n philosoph y an d ar t migh t not b e significan t wer e i t confine d t o th e persona l live s o f th e writer s concerned. Bu t thi s i s hardl y th e case . Fo r bot h Roussea u an d Nietzsche , suspicion i s a drivin g motiv e o f the work , alon g wit h a hysterica l individual ism, a desperat e assertio n o f th e uniqueness , autonomy , an d powe r o f th e self. Th e suspiciou s hermeneuti c system s o f Nietzsche , Marx , an d Freu d are amon g th e mos t distinctiv e intellectua l achievement s o f advance d mo dernity. An d i n th e page s o f moder n literature , th e peculia r slan t o f th e paranoid characte r appear s eve n mor e conspicuousl y tha n i n th e live s an d writings o f th e philosophers . Th e moder n nove l begin s wit h it s greates t paranoid, Quixote . Grandiosit y an d persecutio n distinguis h th e character s of Swift' s Gulliver , Stendhal' s Julie n Sorel , Melville' s Ahab , Dostoyevsky' s Underground Man , Ibsen' s Masterbuilde r Solness , an d Joyce' s autobio graphical her o Stephe n Daedalus , wit h hi s thre e weapons , "silence , exile , and cunning. " Muc h o f th e wor k o f Kafk a i s strikingl y paranoid . Paranoi a in a n enlarge d socia l for m i s th e centra l imaginativ e concer n o f America n literature sinc e Worl d Wa r II . Th e all-encompassin g conspiracy , ver y muc h in it s origina l Rousseauisti c cast , ha s becom e almos t th e norma l wa y o f envisioning America n societ y an d it s institution s i n thi s period , givin g impetus t o heroi c plot s an d counter-plot s i n a hundre d film s an d i n th e novels o f Burroughs , Heller , Ellison , Pynchon , Kesey , Mailer , an d others . Thomas Pyncho n excel s hi s paranoi d generatio n wit h th e wholeheartednes s of hi s paranoi d vocation , whic h ha s kep t hi m hidde n fro m publi c sigh t fo r over thirt y years . N o on e who' s willin g t o tal k abou t i t o n th e recor d eve n knows wha t h e look s like. l The inquir y tha t le d t o th e writin g o f thi s boo k bega n a s a n attemp t t o understand th e paranoi d slan t o f modernity , especiall y a s i t wa s give n imaginative substanc e i n th e novel s o f Pynchon . It s historica l origin s seemed t o m e clearl y t o sprin g fro m th e seventeent h centur y an d th e transformation o f medieva l int o moder n intellectua l culture. 2 I n makin g this hypothesi s I ha d anothe r distinguishe d forerunner : Sigmun d Freu d believed tha t th e moder n susceptibilit y t o neurosi s an d paranoi a coul d b e explained a s a side-effec t o f th e proces s o f secularizatio n tha t bega n wit h

Introduction • the scientifi c discoverie s o f earl y modernity . Paranoia , i n hi s view , wa s a psychological substitut e fo r religion . Th e energie s tha t ha d onc e bee n directed int o th e grea t collectiv e ideologie s o f th e past , int o traditiona l religious an d politica l culture , ha d suffere d i n th e Enlightenmen t an d it s aftermath th e fat e o f a privat e immolation , leadin g t o neurosis , o r o f a perverted, comica l expressio n i n suspiciou s megalomania . I n Freud' s anal ysis, thi s wa s th e pric e tha t som e o f th e vulnerabl e nature s amon g u s ha d to pa y fo r bein g modern . Freud's conjectur e seeme d plausibl e enough , bu t whe n I bega n t o re examine th e detail s o f hi s theory , a peculia r difficult y arose—Freud' s ow n method o f thinkin g seem s t o fal l unambiguousl y withi n th e categor y tha t h e himself designate s a s paranoid . Fo r Freud , i n fact , w e al l participat e i n paranoid thinking : ou r ver y wa y o f makin g sens e o f thing s i s t o hi m a manifestation o f illnes s aki n t o paranoia : "Th e momen t a ma n ask s abou t the meanin g an d valu e o f life , h e i s sick , sinc e objectivel y neithe r ha s an y existence." 3 Thi s stat e o f affair s cause s Freu d n o discomfort . H e appear s to enjo y likenin g himself , an d th e res t o f humanity , t o th e paranoid . H e revels i n th e ironie s o f tha t reflection . Freud' s paranoi d ha s th e characte r of a n overl y credulou s intellectual , a religiou s zealo t wh o ca n neithe r distinguish wis h fro m realit y no r preserv e th e prope r leve l o f skepticis m toward hi s ow n thought . Freu d know s himsel f t o b e smitte n wit h th e sam e curse a s th e paranoid , t o b e a n irrationa l bein g o f th e sam e kind , onl y he , as a scientist , ha s kep t hi s credulou s tendencie s moderatel y i n check . What distinguishe s th e scientis t fro m hi s paranoi d patien t i s no t s o muc h a superior understandin g o f th e world , o r eve n o f othe r people' s motives , a s much a s i t i s a superio r awarenes s o f hi s ow n irrationall y self-aggrandizin g nature. I t i s th e differenc e betwee n naiv e an d sentimenta l paranoia . The gestur e b y mean s o f whic h Freu d establishe s hi s kinshi p wit h th e paranoid i s on e o f definition . I f w e accep t Freud' s contentio n tha t ou r wa y of questionin g existenc e fo r it s meanin g i s aki n t o a n illness , the n w e mus t accept ou r likenes s t o th e paranoid , i t bein g impossibl e fo r mos t peopl e t o avoid askin g suc h questions , whateve r th e answer s the y ma y com e to . Bu t the likenesse s betwee n Freu d an d th e paranoi d ar e no t limite d t o wha t i s implied i n thi s a prior i technica l distinction . Freu d share s wit h th e para noid characte r a n unabashedl y heroi c self-imag e tending , a s h e admits , toward megalomania ; h e see s th e socia l worl d a s bein g fundamentall y hostile an d a s threatenin g specificall y towar d him ; h e excel s a t finding hidden, malignan t significanc e i n th e behavio r o f others ; abov e all , h e i s systematically suspicious . Wherea s I originall y turne d t o Freu d fo r insigh t

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4 • Introduction into th e origin s o f modernity' s paranoi d slant , wha t I found , rather , wa s that Freu d himsel f i s on e o f th e mos t flagrant case s o f the paranoi d intellec tual. Mor e importan t still , hi s awarenes s o f hi s kinshi p wit h th e paranoi d i s not suc h a s t o mak e hi m a n authoritativ e sourc e o f illuminatio n abou t th e condition. O n th e contrary , tha t awarenes s forms , i n Freud , a n essentia l element o f th e conditio n itself , an d i s inseparabl e fro m it . Thi s bein g th e case, I hav e foun d i t possibl e t o clarif y th e relatio n betwee n paranoi a an d modernity b y takin g u p th e cas e o f Freud , alon g wit h hi s ver y persona l intellectual creation , psychoanalysis . Psychoanalysi s i s a comple x synthe sis o f th e historica l experienc e o f modernity . I t achieve s a compellin g recapitulation o f th e intellectua l substanc e o f tha t experienc e i n logic , rhetoric, an d psychology . Th e dominan t tendency , rigidifie d an d deepene d in Freudia n science , i s on e o f systemati c suspicio n bot h o f individual s an d of society , self-consciou s intellectua l excess , hostil e an d reductiv e logic , and nihilatin g satiri c iron y modifie d b y a kin d o f literar y preservatio n o f the discredite d element s o f cultur e i n th e psychologica l territor y o f th e 'unconscious'. Abov e all , ther e i s the interpretiv e syste m o f psychoanalysis , a syste m tha t rest s upo n th e paranoi d axio m tha t huma n motive s ar e almos t never wha t the y seem . Fo r th e archeologis t o f culture , al l o f modernity' s paranoid qualitie s ar e her e t o b e excavate d an d displayed . The ai m o f thi s study , then , i s t o sho w ho w Freud' s persona l paranoi a combined wit h th e resource s o f suspicio n dominan t i n modernit y t o produc e the superbl y persuasiv e intellectua l an d rhetorica l structur e tha t i s psycho analysis. M y procedur e ha s bee n t o wor k withi n an d reinterpre t Freud' s own theoretica l vocabular y a s i t applie s t o paranoi a an d modernity : wher e Freud converte d th e histor y o f cultur e int o psychology , I hav e trie d t o resolve it , i n som e measure , bac k int o history . I n chapte r 1 , I hav e attempted t o initiat e th e reade r int o Freud' s thinkin g abou t th e historica l origins o f paranoi a b y presentin g a reconstructio n o f hi s evolutionar y an d cultural accoun t o f huma n development , fro m th e formatio n o f th e earlies t human group s t o th e deliver y o f tha t homel y pai r o f twins , th e scientis t an d the paranoid . I n chapte r 2 , I analyz e th e logi c o f th e theor y itsel f an d stat e a historicizin g counter-theory . Chapte r 3 attempt s t o sho w th e result s o f paranoid logi c i n th e paranoi d psycholog y o f whic h Freu d i s bot h purveyo r and victim . I n chapte r 4 , I giv e a roug h inventor y o f th e intellectua l constituents o f moder n paranoia , wit h specia l emphasi s o n thos e mos t important fo r Freud : th e Baconia n psycholog y o f suspicion , empiricis t an d Kantian epistemology , progressiv e historicism , an d Hobbesia n politica l philosophy. I n th e followin g tw o chapter s I tur n t o th e subjec t o f Freudia n

Introduction • rhetoric, whic h i s genericall y tha t o f th e satiri c romance . Freu d believe d the romanc e t o b e a produc t o f paranoi d consciousness : I hav e sough t t o reverse tha t formula . Sinc e th e firs t depictio n o f th e paranoi d characte r belonged t o Cervantes , fo r who m Freu d ha d a cul t fro m th e tim e o f hi s adolescence, I hav e attempte d i n chapte r 5 t o sho w Freud' s dee p affinitie s with tha t author . Chapte r 6 applie s th e understandin g o f Freudia n rhetori c gained i n chapte r 5 t o Freud' s masterpiece , The Interpretation of Dreams, in whic h h e make s hi s ow n megalomaniaca l personalit y th e objec t o f a satiric spectacl e a s h e guide s th e reade r o n a paranoi d ques t fo r th e hidde n significance o f dreams . Finally , i n chapte r 7 I hav e take n u p Freud' s cas e history o f th e paranoi d Schreber , whic h i s als o hi s centra l theoretica l statement o n paranoia . I n Freud' s infatuate d relationshi p wit h Schrebe r w e can se e som e o f th e existentia l consequence s o f hi s satiric , 'paranoid ' self-conception. Since th e debat e abou t th e validit y an d valu e o f Freud' s contributio n ha s been particularl y heate d i n recen t years, 4 I migh t a s wel l stat e a t th e outse t that th e portrai t I hav e give n o f Freu d wil l no t ten d t o confir m th e view s o f those wh o admir e psychoanalysis . I hav e attempte d throughou t t o anticipat e and engag e thei r objections . A t th e sam e time , m y chie f concer n ha s no t been t o ad d t o th e alread y substantia l literatur e disprovin g o r discreditin g psychoanalysis, bu t t o understan d th e source s o f it s appea l i n a wa y tha t is revealin g abou t th e broade r intellectua l cultur e o f modernity . Freu d promulgated a psycholog y philosophicall y attune d t o th e scientifi c move ment i n it s grandes t ambitions ; bu t ove r th e lon g ter m th e proponent s o f this psycholog y hav e bee n unabl e t o demonstrat e it s scientifi c value. 5 An d yet, despit e th e absenc e o f clea r an d convincin g proof s o f it s validity , psychoanalysis ha s prove n on e o f th e mos t durabl e an d poten t force s i n modern culture . I t i s thi s phenomeno n I hav e attempte d t o explain . I f psychoanalysis i s no t a convincing , valuabl e explanatio n o f th e functionin g of th e huma n mind , the n what , exactly , i s it , an d whenc e derive s it s appeal? Wha t i s psychoanalysis ? My approac h t o Freudia n paranoi a i s no t primaril y biographical . Thoug h I hav e mad e frequen t us e o f Freud' s publishe d letters , m y chie f interes t lies i n hi s officia l writings . I hav e learne d fro m E . M . Thornton' s unjustl y neglected wor k o n Freud' s cocain e addiction , whic h sh e believe s t o hav e caused a goo d dea l o f hi s paranoi d behavior. 6 I d o no t posses s th e medica l expertise t o confirm he r judgment, an d I am cautiou s abou t medica l diagno ses mad e o n th e basi s o f historica l evidence. 7 Th e focu s o f m y scrutin y ha s been towar d th e intellectua l manifestation s o f Freud' s paranoi d slant , whic h

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6 • Introduction I se e a s resultin g fro m a dynami c interactio n o f philosophica l prejudice , cultural an d politica l circumstance , an d personality . Ordinaril y I woul d scruple t o judg e th e ma n b y th e theor y an d th e theor y b y th e man , bu t Freud mad e tha t inevitabl e whe n h e too k hi s ow n psych e a s th e chie f exhibit fo r psychoanalyti c interpretation . Indee d h e mad e a displa y o f hi s 'unconscious' megalomani a an d paranoi d potential . I n a sens e I a m actuall y confirming Freud' s paranoi d self-imag e whil e providin g a ne w understand ing o f it s motive s an d significance . On th e subjec t o f the genera l relatio n betwee n menta l illnes s an d moder n culture, I hav e bee n muc h instructe d b y Loui s Sass' s wor k o n th e affinitie s between modernis m an d schizophrenia . Sas s ha s clarifie d th e phenomeno logical characte r o f schizophreni a b y showin g th e extraordinar y likenesse s between th e product s an d explici t aspiration s o f post-Romantic , 'modernist ' culture (primaril y afte r 1800 ) an d th e self-describe d experience s o f schizo phrenics. 8 H e illustrate s thes e similaritie s i n massiv e detai l i n orde r t o show tha t schizophreni a i s no t th e produc t o f primitive o r defectiv e intellec tual functioning , bu t rathe r a kin d o f hyperintellectua l alienatio n simila r t o that courte d b y th e modernis t avant-garde . Whil e Sass' s first intentio n i n making thi s connectio n i s t o sho w tha t schizophreni a ha s bee n misunder stood, h e i s acutel y awar e o f th e iron y i n th e fac t tha t th e bes t an d mos t helpful analog s t o schizophreni c thinkin g ar e t o b e foun d amon g th e mos t prestigious example s o f moder n ar t an d thought . Thu s Sas s ha s hi s plac e among th e psycho-satirist s le d b y Freud . I find mysel f participatin g i n thi s genr e whil e attemptin g t o defin e it s limits. I t ma y b e revealin g t o dra w ou t th e likenes s betwee n th e observe d behavior o f ma d peopl e an d th e aspiration s an d assumption s o f moder n culture becaus e ther e arise s i n thi s wa y a powerfu l intimatio n tha t th e aspirations ar e unworth y an d th e assumption s doubtful . Particularly , inso far a s th e habi t o f suspicio n amon g moder n intellectual s ha s becom e s o systematic an d rigid tha t i t resemble s menta l disease , w e shoul d reconside r how wel l i t i s justified . Bu t wha t lesso n shoul d w e draw , ultimately , fro m the observatio n tha t paranoid s (o r schizophrenics ) accomplis h th e sam e things tha t norma l peopl e d o whe n the y think ? Th e lesso n I woul d dra w would no t b e Freud' s ironi c lesson—tha t though t i n genera l i s closel y aki n to paranoia , th e produc t o f 'narcissism ' an d unconsciou s 'projection'—bu t only tha t paranoid s ca n als o think . Lik e th e res t o f us , the y mus t discove r order i n th e mids t o f phenomena . I t i s th e wa y the y g o abou t this , however , that make s the m paranoid . Th e meaningfulnes s o f thei r experienc e carrie s them beyon d wha t i s eviden t t o other s int o a n exces s o f grandeur , suspi -

Introduction • cion, an d ingeniou s delusion . I t i s evidenc e o f the generally suspiciou s an d satirical characte r o f modern psychologica l though t tha t i t take s th e similar ity betwee n thinkin g pe r s e an d th e thinkin g o f th e mentall y il l a s a strik e against th e norma l operation s o f th e mind . M y inten t ha s bee n t o sugges t that importan t moder n intellectual s hav e com e t o share , b y thei r ow n efforts, th e aspects o f so-called paranoi d thinkin g tha t ar e trul y undesirabl e and aberrant . The y hav e mad e paranoi a ofte n th e mos t attractiv e an d persuasive stanc e fo r artist s an d intellectual s t o take . It i s importan t fo r m y reader s t o understan d a t th e outse t tha t I a m no t attempting simpl y t o apply a ter m fro m clinica l psycholog y t o the maker s o f culture o r t o thei r work . M y purpos e is , rather , t o illustrat e th e intellectua l and psychologica l consequence s o f the tendency amon g som e moder n intel lectuals t o erase th e difference betwee n madnes s an d th e ordinary function s of thought . I t i s thei r willingness , ou t o f profoun d suspicion , t o se e them selves a s aki n t o the mad , an d the n t o embrace thi s imag e wit h heroi c self assertion an d irony , tha t i s th e objec t o f m y concern . M y us e o f th e term 'paranoid ' ofte n intend s t o emphasiz e it s deliberatel y self-inclusiv e character, wit h th e implicatio n tha t th e descriptio n and th e conditio n are , for th e intellectual , self-impose d o r acquire d b y intellectua l sympathy ; th e same i s tru e o f th e vocabular y o f 'narcissism ' an d 'projection ' tha t suppor t Freud's conceptio n o f paranoia . Sinc e w e mus t al l suffe r th e fat e o f livin g out t o som e considerabl e degre e ou r image s o f ourselves , I tak e paranoi d self-recognition t o b e inherentl y self-fulfillin g fo r thos e wh o adop t it . Fur ther, onc e thi s heroicall y ironi c an d suspiciou s intellectua l stanc e ha s bee n established, onc e th e paranoi d ques t ha s becom e a visibl e par t o f th e public domain , i t naturall y attract s thos e wh o hav e th e temperamen t an d powers t o assum e an d sustai n it . An d s o a recursiv e dynami c come s int o force, unpredictabl y augmentin g an d elaboratin g itself . This i s a thesi s I wil l hav e t o defen d i n a muc h mor e comprehensiv e treatment o f modernity . Her e I hav e attempte d merel y t o sho w ho w th e logic, psychology , an d rhetori c o f paranoi a combin e i n th e intellectua l outlook o f a single , crucia l figure. I sketc h onl y th e broade r cultura l elements tha t psychoanalysi s call s particularl y int o play . Th e progres s o f the argumen t move s fro m th e logi c o f reductiv e suspicio n t o paranoi d psychology t o satiri c rhetori c becaus e thi s seem s t o m e t o b e th e mos t clarifying manne r o f articulation . I d o tak e logic—an d therefor e intellec tual commitment—t o be , i n som e sense , th e mos t fundamenta l determi nant. Other s ma y privileg e psycholog y o r rhetoric , o r choos e t o regar d th e three a s complementary . I hav e no t attempte d t o mak e a stron g choic e o n

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8 • Introduction this point . I n th e wor k o f Sigmun d Freud , wh o i s surel y a matur e exampl e of th e paranoi d slant , th e logic , psychology , an d rhetori c o f paranoi a see m to m e perfectl y integrated . In th e firs t chapte r I wil l as k th e reade r t o ente r wit h m e int o th e detail s o f Freud's conceptio n o f paranoi d psycholog y an d it s relatio n t o th e othe r psychological feature s o f modernity . Befor e takin g u p tha t task , however , I wish t o offe r a n anecdot e t o crystalliz e th e imag e o f Freu d tha t thi s wor k will attemp t t o sustain . I t ha s t o d o wit h a permanen t rif t tha t develope d between Freu d an d hi s collaborato r Ott o Ran k i n th e mid-1920s . Fo r man y years, Rank , a ma n o f extraordinar y talen t an d erudition , ha d serve d a s Freud's secretar y an d intellectua l majordomo . Th e frictio n betwee n the m had begu n durin g a n earlie r perio d whe n Ran k starte d t o see k ne w mean s of suppor t i n wha t turne d ou t t o b e a prematur e anticipatio n o f Freud' s death. A s Pau l Roaze n tell s th e story , th e younge r psychoanalys t Helen e Deutsch mad e a last , unsuccessfu l attemp t t o brin g th e tw o me n togethe r again: She did i t as much for Freud's sak e a s for Rank's, sinc e Freu d seeme d deepl y hurt . She explaine d tha t Rank' s closenes s t o hi m ha d put th e younge r ma n i n a stat e of extreme stress ; patienc e an d understandin g wer e i n order . Sh e reminde d Freu d o f Rank's attachmen t t o him , an d o f ho w h e ha d se t ou t o n hi s ow n i n expectatio n o f Freud's death . Bu t non e o f thi s gav e an y comfor t t o Freud . H e brushe d asid e he r intercession wit h th e final sentenc e fro m a Jewish story , "The n wh y isn't h e kissin g the ho t stove!" Freud explaine d hi s meaning: The Rabb i ha s a beautiful youn g wif e and man y youn g student s livin g i n hi s house . On e da y th e Rabb i return s hom e t o find hi s favorit e studen t kissin g hi s wife . Th e Rabb i turn s o n hi s wif e t o accus e her, but sh e plead s wit h hi m tha t th e pupi l doe s no t kno w wha t h e i s doing , h e i s sick. "The n wh y isn't h e kissin g the hot stove!" 9 This story , i t seem s t o me , epitomize s th e paranoi d slan t bot h o f Freu d and o f th e psychoanalyti c worldview . Freu d ha d a specia l lov e o f Jewis h stories o f thi s kin d an d considere d thei r wisdo m a s bein g aki n t o hi s own. 1 0 "Then wh y isn' t h e kissin g th e ho t stove! " Th e imperiou s questio n declare s that behin d th e apparen t irrationalit y an d confusio n o f huma n behavio r there i s alway s a deeper , mor e purposefu l selfis h an d hostil e intentio n t o be uncovere d b y th e on e wh o know s wher e t o look. A studen t wh o was trul y ill woul d d o somethin g arbitrar y an d meaningless , somethin g irrelevan t o r even harmfu l t o hi s interests . Bu t thi s student , i n hi s illness , find s himsel f inadvertently kissin g a beautifu l woman . Th e rabb i ha s a point—i f onl y w e could al l b e s o besotted ! Th e wif e i n th e stor y play s th e rol e o f th e censorship i n th e Freudia n theor y o f dreams , attemptin g t o distor t an d

Introduction • disguise th e tru e meanin g o f a guilt y wish . I t i s he r hypocris y tha t make s the rabbi' s repl y a joke : h e ha s show n th e pointlessnes s o f he r attemp t a t concealment. I n psychoanalyti c thought , thi s fat e alway s await s thos e wh o plead fo r th e hono r o f huma n motives . Thei r secre t wishe s giv e the m away . For Freud , suspicio n i s alway s justified . Nothin g i s accidental , ther e i s n o innocence. Inadvertenc y i s a disguis e o f th e unconscious , a for m o f hypoc risy, o f mauvais e foi . An d th e purpos e o f psychoanalysis , lik e th e purpos e of a joke, i s t o reveal al l suc h disguise s an d hypocrisies . Onl y thos e action s that overtl y displa y thei r hostil e o r libidinou s origin s ca n b e take n a t fac e value. Th e res t ar e worth y t o b e laughe d at . It i s ofte n appropriate , w e mus t recognize , t o vie w th e motive s o f our fello w huma n being s wit h suspicion . The y ar e capabl e o f a nearl y unfathomable deviousnes s involvin g thing s grea t an d small , a deviousnes s that goe s beyon d an y imperative s o f practica l interest . Thi s i s wh y th e rabbi's remar k i s funn y an d true . Bu t wha t woul d i t mea n t o liv e one' s whole lif e i n th e bitte r wisdo m o f the rabbi' s unpleasan t discover y systemat ically applie d i n th e for m o f a science ? A s Freu d employ s them , th e rabbi' s words sugges t tha t Helen e Deutsch , i n he r attemp t t o plea d th e cas e o f Rank, wa s coverin g ove r th e secre t pleasure s o f Rank' s frictio n wit h Freud , his betraya l o f th e father ; ther e i s a furthe r suggestio n o f th e insincerit y o f Rank's protest s o f pain , an d eve n o f a consciou s o r unconsciou s complicit y between th e outcas t an d hi s intercessor . I t i s implie d that , lik e th e waywar d student, bot h o f the m ar e takin g advantag e o f th e situatio n t o carr y ou t wishes w e al l woul d lik e t o gratify , givin g th e fathe r pai n bein g a s attractiv e a guilt y pleasur e a s kissin g hi s beautifu l wife ! Anyon e familia r wit h th e practice o f psychoanalysi s woul d hav e graspe d thes e implication s wit h ease. I t wa s a startlin g rebuk e t o Deutsch . Wha t chance , then , di d he r mission hav e t o succeed , wha t intellectua l resource s coul d sh e hav e draw n upon t o alleviat e Freud' s suspicion s an d convinc e hi m tha t Rank' s motive s were no t th e worst , whe n th e theor y o f psychoanalysi s leave s n o roo m fo r such a n interpretation ? It s for m o f suspicio n i s no t o f a knowing , worldl y kind, bu t systemati c an d absolute . I t leave s n o roo m fo r error . Th e uncon scious make s n o mistakes ! Here, then , w e hav e Freu d i n hi s maturity , a ma n wh o kne w ho w t o tur n a jok e t o hi s advantage , a geniu s o f satiri c rhetori c whos e persona l ben t fo r suspicion ha d evolve d int o a worldvie w expresse d b y mean s o f a distinctiv e literary sensibility , a syste m fo r decodin g th e motive s o f others , an d a n unflappable metho d o f self-justification— a chillin g figure , perhaps , bu t one, nevertheless , o f grea t persuasivenes s an d uncann y fascination , on e whose continuin g influenc e i n ou r cultur e need s t o b e understood .

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ONE From Primal Father to Paranoid For relaxatio n I a m readin g Burckhardt' s History of Greek Civilization, whic h i s providin g m e wit h unexpected parallels . M y predilectio n fo r th e pre historic i n al l it s huma n form s ha s remaine d th e same. —Freu d

The attemp t t o describ e paranoi d psycholog y bega n wit h a grea t wor k o f comic fiction: a n elderl y an d decrepi t gentleman , craze d wit h th e readin g of vulga r romances , become s suddenl y convince d tha t h e i s a knight-erran t born t o restor e a golde n ag e o f chivalry . Do n Quixote' s first adventure s lea d to a defea t s o unambiguou s a s t o def y explanatio n withi n th e fram e o f hi s delusion, an d Cervantes ' stor y seem s i n dange r o f losin g momentu m withi n its first fifty pages . Bu t the n th e hero' s niec e make s a savin g suggestion — that Quixote' s ques t fo r glor y i s bein g thwarte d b y a swar m o f maliciou s enchanters wh o persecut e hi m a t ever y step . Thes e agent s o f persecutio n immediately becom e th e ke y elemen t i n Quixote' s thinking . Th e assumptio n of thei r existenc e allow s hi m t o preserv e hi s exaggerate d ide a o f himsel f and hi s power s whil e h e suffer s innumerabl e humiliations , drubbings , an d defeats. Fo r al l o f thes e hi s imaginar y enemie s ar e responsible . And s o th e paranoi d ques t i s capabl e o f a n almos t endles s satiri c elaboration. I t i s importan t fo r ou r purpose s t o tak e account , a s well , o f th e peculiar effect s tha t Quixote' s paranoi d characte r tend s t o exercis e upo n those h e encounters . Firs t ther e ar e th e one s ignoran t enoug h t o b e take n in b y hi s impersonation , whic h i s maintaine d wit h perfec t consistency . Then ther e ar e thos e wh o becom e infatuate d wit h Quixote' s heroi c postur e even thoug h the y kno w i t t o b e grounde d i n madness . I n thi s categor y w e may plac e no t onl y certai n character s i n th e stor y bu t als o Cervantes ' Romantic an d existentialis t readers , wh o becom e enchante d wit h th e abso lute an d self-sufficien t characte r o f Quixote' s idealism ; the y admir e th e warmth, humanity , an d grandeu r o f hi s delusio n al l th e mor e fo r th e fac t

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From Primal Father to Paranoid • that i t stand s i n contradictio n t o bana l reality . Finally , ther e ar e thos e leisured an d cultivate d character s withi n th e stor y wh o becom e intoxicate d with Quixot e a s a figure o f mirt h an d giv e themselve s ove r t o th e stagin g and executio n o f hi s adventures . Thes e character s appea r largel y i n Par t Two o f th e book ; man y o f the m hav e becom e familia r wit h Quixot e b y reading Par t One . The y ar e th e audienc e pa r excellence , an d Quixot e i s fo r them virtuall y a creatur e o f thei r ow n fancy . I n thes e livin g reader s h e encounters th e tru e enchanter s whos e powe r o f manipulatio n h e ha s alway s feared. If Cervantes ' elaborat e fiction seem s to o whimsica l o r to o artificia l a source o f example s t o illustrat e th e dynamic s o f a commonl y occurrin g psychological condition , ther e i s n o shortag e o f well-know n example s fro m life exhibitin g th e identica l features . Adol f Hitler , fo r instance , experi enced th e sam e misguide d flights o f self-denyin g idealism , th e sam e mega lomania, suspicion , an d fea r o f persecutio n a s Quixote . Th e powe r t o infatuate an d impe l b y th e forc e o f heroi c delusio n ha s neve r bee n mor e strikingly demonstrate d tha n i n th e cours e o f hi s career . Sigmund Freu d i s stil l th e mos t influentia l studen t o f thi s chronicall y grandiose an d persecute d stat e o f min d t o whic h moder n psycholog y ha s given th e nam e o f paranoia . Accordin g t o Freud , paranoi a occur s whe n a n adult regresse s t o a n earl y stag e o f psychosexua l developmen t i n whic h h e has no t ye t distinguishe d th e product s o f hi s ow n thinkin g fro m externa l reality. 1 I n thi s stat e onl y h e exists , hi s eg o contain s th e whol e world , and , insofar a s h e relate s t o a sexua l object , tha t objec t ca n onl y b e himself . Freud calle d th e thinkin g characteristi c o f thi s stag e o f developmen t 'nar cissism'. Personalitie s tha t receiv e thei r decisiv e stam p a t thi s stag e wil l b e homosexual, havin g take n themselve s a s th e mode l fo r th e objec t o f love . In man y cases , however , th e homosexua l desir e wil l b e represse d fro m consciousness, an d i t i s i n suc h case s tha t th e groundwor k fo r paranoi a i s established. I f th e perso n canno t sublimat e o r repres s hi s homosexua l urges, h e ma y regres s t o th e stag e o f narcissisti c omnipotenc e an d self containment. H e obliterate s th e existin g worl d an d replace s i t wit h on e tha t in som e sens e fulfill s hi s desire . H e become s a hero , a king , o r a god . Bu t even afte r achievin g thi s regressio n th e paranoi d continue s t o struggl e against hi s homosexua l urges . Becaus e h e canno t allo w the m t o com e undisguised int o consciousness , h e experience s the m i n a negativ e for m a s part o f th e externa l world . Th e libidina l interes t originatin g i n hi s uncon scious appear s a s a hostilit y directe d towar d hi m b y others . I n Freud' s

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12 • Chapter One formula, "wha t wa s abolishe d internall y return s fro m without." 2 Th e " I lov e him" correspondin g wit h hi s forbidde n passio n come s int o consciousnes s a s "He hate s m e . " 3 Freud's theor y o f narcissis m als o suggest s a n explanatio n fo r th e wa y comparatively norma l peopl e respon d t o th e paranoid . Th e paranoid' s vie w of th e worl d i s bizarr e an d detache d fro m reality . Bu t i t ca n char m an d compel, becaus e th e narcissis m o f th e paranoi d resonate s wit h th e re pressed narcissis m activ e i n eac h on e o f us . W e hav e al l passe d throug h a narcissistic phase , an d w e al l g o o n projectin g ou r inne r fantasie s ont o outer realit y s o lon g a s w e live . Freu d believe d tha t th e subterranea n narcissism o f th e averag e perso n wa s responsibl e fo r th e attractivenes s o f artists, children , cats , grea t humorists , an d eve n criminals , al l o f whom ar e figures o f narcissisti c self-absorption . Women , i n hi s view , ten d t o b e narcissistic a s a rule , an d thi s permit s the m t o appea l t o th e represse d narcissism o f th e averag e male , a fac t tha t Freu d considere d t o b e o f th e greatest importanc e fo r th e ordinar y lif e o f th e species. 4 Freu d neve r extended hi s theor y o f narcissis m t o cove r th e attractio n tha t coul d b e exercised b y th e paranoi d character ; h e doe s no t see m t o hav e take n not e of thi s phenomeno n directly , although , a s w e shal l se e i n a late r chapter , he wa s acutel y susceptibl e t o i t himself ; bu t i t require s n o bol d extensio n of hi s theor y t o sugges t tha t th e narcissis m o f th e paranoi d woul d cal l u p the sam e surge s o f represse d heroi c fantas y a s d o othe r figures o f exemplar y self-sufficiency. The theor y o f narcissis m ca n eve n b e mad e t o yiel d a psychoanalyti c explanation fo r th e humorou s qualitie s o f paranoi d delusion . Wi t succeeds , according t o Freud , whe n a represse d wis h i s give n consciou s expressio n in a sudde n an d unexpecte d way. 5 Quixote' s improbabl e grandeu r ma y b e said t o resonat e wit h th e laten t narcissis m o f Cervantes ' readers , givin g t o their burie d heroi c longing s a surprising , pathetic , bu t stil l recognizabl e form. Furthermore , Cervantes ' comica l detachmen t an d self-sufficienc y i n presenting th e adventure s o f Quixot e ma y b e sai d t o hav e prompte d hi s readers t o identif y wit h hi m ou t o f their ow n represse d narcissisti c indepen dence. Taking al l o f thi s together , i t i s impossibl e no t t o admir e th e beautifu l economy an d completenes s o f th e theor y o f narcissis m wit h regar d t o th e phenomena o f paranoia . I t account s no t onl y fo r th e paranoi d characte r itself bu t fo r th e rang e o f response s i t evoke s i n others . Th e protea n flexibility o f th e theor y seem s a littl e uncanny , an d call s upo n u s t o admir e the min d tha t devise d it . Bu t thi s reactio n to o ca n b e accounte d fo r b y th e

From Primal Father to Paranoid • theory o f narcissis m itself . Th e sens e o f th e 'uncanny' , accordin g t o Freud , originates i n th e resonanc e o f consciou s event s wit h historicall y repressed , unconscious motives , an d th e master y o f psychologica l researcher s ove r their material s ca n b e attribute d t o suc h motive s o f a narcissisti c origin. 6 So eve n th e theor y o f narcissis m ha s a certai n narcissisti c appeal . Thi s i s plausible enoug h withi n th e logi c o f psychoanalysis : makin g theorie s abou t paranoia, a s w e shal l see , i s on e o f th e narcissisti c alternative s t o becom ing paranoid . An examinatio n o f Freud' s thinkin g abou t th e eccentri c figur e o f th e para noid ha s le d u s directl y t o hi s conceptio n o f th e ordinar y huma n character . If h e i s right , w e ar e al l swolle n wit h secre t grandeur . Ou r delusio n doe s not manifes t itsel f onl y i n th e inflate d mora l imag e w e hav e o f ourselves : we ar e eve n pron e t o suspectin g tha t th e ver y structur e o f th e worl d i n which w e liv e accord s wit h ou r desir e an d tha t th e thought s an d feeling s comprising ou r menta l univers e actuall y constitut e a par t o f th e externa l world. Althoug h mos t o f u s hol d thes e grandios e feeling s i n chec k a t th e boundaries o f th e consciou s mind , the y giv e constan t directio n t o ou r attention. The y exer t thei r influenc e i n a multitud e o f forms—i n day dreams, i n religion , i n fantasy , i n humor , an d i n love . Whe n a self-inflate d being lik e Quixot e appears , w e laugh , admire , o r becom e enthralled , an d in s o doin g w e betra y a recognitio n o f ou r essentia l selves . Th e apparen t strangeness o f th e paranoi d evoke s a deepe r recognitio n o f commo n nar cissism. Freudians o f th e late r twentiet h centur y attribut e th e stat e o f affair s I have bee n describin g t o th e fixed natur e o f th e huma n psych e an d t o th e Oedipus complex , it s signature . Fo r them , th e dialecti c o f narcissis m an d repression i s nothin g othe r tha n th e standar d operatio n o f ou r huma n equipment. 7 Freu d di d no t hol d thi s view . Fo r him , th e Oedipu s comple x had bee n brough t abou t b y specifi c event s withi n th e cours e o f huma n history. H e believe d tha t th e dramati c tensio n visibl e withi n th e psyche , the struggl e fo r powe r betwee n narcissisti c an d repressiv e impulses , wa s the residua l effec t o f conflict s tha t ha d take n plac e betwee n group s o f me n and grea t individual s i n history . Thes e conflicts , ove r th e millennia , ha d left a permanen t impressio n upo n th e huma n mind , a n impressio n pre served fro m generatio n t o generatio n throug h th e mechanism s o f biolog y and culture . A s a consequenc e o f thi s belief , Freu d observe d tha t th e heroic an d narcissisti c impulse s tha t stil l animat e th e psych e i n ou r tim e are no t entirel y lackin g i n connectio n wit h reality , fo r the y embod y th e

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14 • Chapter One memory o f a historica l realit y tha t w e continuousl y reliv e i n psychologica l terms. 8 Th e conditio n o f th e paranoid , mor e tha n tha t o f othe r neurotics , shows a n obviou s affinit y wit h th e historica l struggle s fo r dominanc e tha t produced th e Oedipu s complex . Th e paranoid' s grandiosit y an d fear , origi nating i n a disturbanc e o f th e psyche , giv e th e cleares t evidenc e o f th e memories o f primordia l herois m an d strif e tha t remai n activ e i n th e specie s as a whole . W e al l bea r withi n us , Freu d tell s us , "th e impression s lef t behind b y th e personalitie s o f grea t leaders—me n o f overwhelmin g forc e of min d o r me n i n who m on e o f th e huma n impulsion s ha d foun d it s strongest an d purest , an d therefor e ofte n it s mos t one-sided , expression." 9 The paranoid' s delusio n an d th e socia l reactio n tha t i t produce s ar e th e aftereffects o f thes e "impressions. " I n order , then , t o understan d th e deep est socia l significanc e o f paranoi a i n psychoanalyti c thinkin g an d t o se t th e theory o f paranoi a int o th e wides t perspective , i t wil l b e necessar y t o reconstruct fro m Freud' s writing s a consecutiv e accoun t o f huma n bio history. Freud present s th e stor y o f huma n origin s i n seemingl y cautiou s terms , calling i t a "scientifi c myth, " a "Just-S o Story." 1 0 A s wit h al l myth s o f origin, th e earl y part s o f th e stor y remai n fragmentar y an d obscure , whil e the late r hav e th e clarit y o f dogma . Althoug h th e event s t o whic h i t refer s are historical , th e certaint y o f th e whol e wa s grounded , Freu d thought , no t in th e evidenc e provide d b y histor y bu t upo n wha t h e ha d discovere d fro m his patient s abou t th e cours e o f individua l development. 1 1 Freu d believed , according t o a mistake n assumptio n o f Victoria n biology , tha t th e individ ual, i n th e proces s o f maturing , recapitulate s th e developmen t o f th e species. Thi s assumptio n permitte d hi m t o extrapolat e fro m clinica l obser vation t o universa l histor y an d t o fill th e gap s i n th e observatio n o f clinica l experience wit h th e Urphantasie o f th e huma n race . Wha t h e se t forth , then, wa s a doubl e history— a historica l narrativ e o f evolutio n recapitu lated i n individua l developmen t fro m childhoo d t o maturity . Freud begin s th e "scientifi c myth " o f huma n histor y b y adoptin g Dar win's suggestio n tha t th e earlies t huma n group s mus t hav e bee n dominate d by a singl e fathe r wh o suppresse d th e sexua l activitie s o f hi s mal e childre n in orde r t o monopoliz e th e suppl y o f females. 12 Thi s group , th e 'prima l horde', wa s hel d togethe r i n bond s o f simpl e power , wit h n o nee d fo r symbolic representation s o f authority . Th e fathe r wa s simpl y th e father , a figure o f absolut e self-assertion . I n hi m w e find th e origina l instanc e o f th e psychology o f narcissism :

From Primal Father to Paranoid • The fathe r o f th e prima l hord e wa s free . Hi s intellectua l act s wer e stron g an d independent eve n i n isolation , an d hi s wil l neede d n o reinforcemen t fro m others . Consistency lead s u s to assume tha t hi s ego had ver y few libidina l ties ; he loved n o one bu t himself , o r other peopl e onl y i n s o far a s the y serve d hi s needs . . . . Her e at the very beginning of the history of mankind, wa s the 'superman' whom Nietzsch e only expecte d fro m th e future . Eve n to-da y th e member s o f th e grou p [i n typica l group psychology ] stan d i n nee d o f th e illusio n tha t the y ar e equall y an d justl y loved b y th e leader ; bu t th e leade r himsel f nee d lov e n o on e else , h e ma y b e o f a masterful nature , absolutel y narcissistic , self-confiden t an d independent. 13 It ma y see m surprisin g tha t th e father , wit h hi s authenti c power , shoul d have bee n a figure o f 'absolut e narcissism' , sinc e w e normall y associat e narcissism wit h a withdrawa l o f libid o fro m th e world . Presumabl y th e primal fathe r coul d sustai n hi s narcissisti c self-fulfillmen t whil e keepin g a firm gras p upo n realit y becaus e realit y offere d n o check s t o hi s desire . Fo r him, ough t wa s identica l wit h is , hi s absolut e narcissis m coincidin g wit h absolute power . Th e fathe r experience d fe w libidina l tie s wit h hi s slav e family becaus e tie s o f this kin d ar e base d upo n a componen t o f sublimation ; such a diversio n o f libid o woul d hav e bee n quit e incompatibl e wit h th e father's privilege d state . Stil l mor e foreig n t o hi s natur e woul d hav e bee n the conversio n o f sexua l int o socia l interes t tha t sustain s th e psycholog y o f the group . Th e father' s master y la y precisel y i n no t havin g submitte d t o th e social tie s tha t giv e valu e t o other peopl e a s object s o f regard. Th e superhu man freedo m o f th e fathe r depende d upo n hi s bein g th e sol e objec t o f regard i n a worl d tha t coul d offe r n o resistanc e t o hi s desire . Suc h wa s th e perfect narcissisti c self-enclosur e an d tota l sexua l fulfillmen t o f th e prima l human consciousness . I t wa s th e onl y tru e stat e o f freedo m Freu d eve r imagined. In additio n t o th e dominan t consciousnes s o f th e father , Freud' s descrip tion o f th e prima l hord e included , a s th e quote d passag e make s clear , a second origina l psychology—th e psycholog y o f th e sons. 1 4 Th e son s dif fered fro m th e fathe r i n tw o ways . Th e first wa s i n a n absolut e disadvantag e of powe r relativ e t o him , fo r h e compelle d thei r obedienc e b y forc e an d deprived the m o f al l sexua l satisfaction . Th e secon d differenc e wa s entirel y a psychologica l one : th e son s love d th e father , an d the y love d thei r mothers , sisters, an d eac h other . The y ha d give n u p a par t o f thei r libid o t o socia l ties. Thi s psychologica l surrende r o f libid o t o th e sublimation s o f lov e an d social attachmen t mark s th e enslavemen t o f th e son s full y a s muc h a s th e sexual abstinenc e impose d upo n the m b y th e fathe r throug h th e us e o f force. I n fact , thei r psychologica l attachmen t t o other s wa s create d ou t o f

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16 • Chapter One the energ y diverte d fro m sexua l activit y b y th e interdiction s o f th e father . The experienc e o f lov e i n th e childre n o f th e prima l hord e wa s th e psychi c equivalent o f thei r disadvantag e i n power . At som e point , th e son s bande d togethe r t o kil l th e prima l father . Th e motive fo r thei r actio n wa s simple—the y wante d sexua l acces s t o thei r mothers an d sisters , hithert o kep t i n a paterna l harem . Bu t th e conse quences o f thei r revol t wer e complex , jus t a s thei r enslavemen t ha d been . In th e lon g ru n i t wa s easie r fo r the m t o destro y th e physica l migh t o f th e father tha n i t wa s t o escap e fro m th e repressio n o f th e libid o tha t h e ha d imposed b y mean s o f it . Fo r a s muc h a s th e son s hate d thei r fathe r an d hi s rule, the y ha d als o com e t o lov e him . An d so , alon g wit h th e satisfactio n o f killing hi m an d eatin g hi s body , ther e cam e a sens e o f guilt . An d thi s guil t resulted i n a stronge r investmen t tha n eve r befor e i n th e restriction s o f social life . I t gav e ris e t o prohibition s agains t th e repetitio n o f th e prima l crime o f murde r an d als o o f incest , it s fruits. 15 I n thi s manne r wa s estab lished th e Oedipu s complex , roote d i n th e repressio n o f thes e tw o funda mental wishes . Th e unit y o f th e grou p n o longe r depende d upo n th e brut e force o f th e father ; fro m thi s poin t th e grou p secure d itsel f b y mean s o f th e taboos an d totemi c ritual s establishe d i n commemoratio n o f hi s death : "Society wa s no w base d o n complicit y i n th e commo n crime " (146) . Th e primal crim e wa s no t a singl e event ; Freu d believe d tha t i t mus t hav e occurred man y time s i n orde r t o hav e lef t suc h a dee p impressio n upo n human nature . Th e Oedipu s complex , whic h resulte d fro m th e collectiv e force o f these experiences , forme d th e basi s fo r civilization : "th e beginning s of religion , morals , societ y an d ar t converg e i n th e Oedipu s complex " (156). A t th e en d o f Totem and Taboo wher e h e firs t describe d thi s se quence o f events , Freu d quote s Faust' s revisio n o f th e Gospe l o f John : "I n the beginnin g wa s th e Deed " (161) . The brother s o f th e prima l hord e kille d thei r fathe r becaus e the y wante d to b e lik e him ; the y wante d t o enjo y th e powe r t o gratif y thei r narcissisti c fantasies a s par t o f reality . Bu t th e guil t the y experience d a s a resul t o f their psychologica l enslavemen t t o th e fathe r force d the m t o suppres s thei r own narcissisti c urges . Th e pleasure-seekin g par t o f th e fathe r i n the m le d them t o kil l him , bu t thi s ac t lef t the m pre y t o th e guil t urge d b y th e punishing par t o f th e father , whic h ha d als o becom e a n ineradicabl e par t o f their nature . Thus , th e antisocia l an d narcissisti c motive s o f th e prima l crime led , paradoxically , t o th e strengthenin g o f th e socia l order . Th e structure o f th e prima l hord e gav e wa y t o a communal , democrati c societ y based upo n collectiv e guil t an d renunciation . Eac h o f th e prima l brother s

From Primal Father to Paranoid • renounced th e pleasure s enjoye d b y th e fathe r an d th e wis h t o b e lik e him . It wa s eve n possible , Freu d believed , tha t a perio d o f matriarch y inter vened. Bu t th e longin g fo r th e fathe r coul d no t b e permanentl y repressed . Communism eventuall y gav e wa y t o a ne w patriarcha l structure—th e fam ily a s w e kno w it , wit h it s singl e fathe r an d mother . Ther e wa s a grea t difference, however , betwee n thi s ne w paterna l regim e an d tha t o f th e primal horde : Oedipa l restriction s remaine d i n force , keepin g th e fathe r and th e son s fro m gratifyin g th e urg e t o commi t murde r an d incest . Th e "social achievements " o f th e fraterna l cla n wer e preserved . Furthermore , the retur n o f patriarch y t o th e famil y di d no t remov e th e nee d fo r th e totemic o r religiou s reenactment s o f th e prima l murde r tha t ha d develope d in th e wak e o f prima l father' s death : "th e gul f betwee n th e ne w father s o f a family an d th e unrestricte d prima l fathe r o f th e hord e wa s wid e enoug h t o guarantee th e continuanc e o f th e religiou s craving , th e existenc e o f a n unappeased longin g fo r th e father." 1 6 Th e existenc e o f th e ne w famil y wa s sustained b y a repressio n tha t no w include d father s a s wel l a s sons . In hi s earl y formulatio n o f th e retur n o f th e father , Freu d emphasize d the simpl e longin g create d b y hi s departur e a s th e caus e o f hi s return . Bu t in hi s late r wor k h e emphasized , a s I hav e noted , th e effect s o f th e individual herois m originatin g i n th e "personalitie s o f grea t leaders. " I n hi s work o n grou p psychology , whic h give s th e fulles t treatmen t o f thes e themes, Freu d particularl y emphasize s th e poeti c origin s o f th e fathe r myt h and th e fac t that , i n restorin g th e father , th e poe t pu t himsel f i n hi s place . In thi s version , Freu d make s emphati c us e o f th e ide a o f a transitiona l matriarchy presidin g ove r a vagu e an d wea k family , settin g th e stag e fo r the nex t decisiv e development : It wa s then , perhaps , tha t som e individual , i n th e exigenc y o f hi s longing , ma y have bee n move d t o free himsel f fro m th e grou p and tak e ove r th e father' s part . H e who did thi s wa s th e firs t epi c poet ; an d th e advanc e wa s achieve d i n hi s imagina tion. Thi s poe t disguise d th e trut h wit h lie s i n accordanc e wit h hi s longing . H e invented th e heroi c myth . Th e her o wa s a ma n wh o b y himsel f ha d slai n th e father—the fathe r wh o still appeare d i n th e myt h a s a totemic monster. 17 The heroi c myt h invente d b y th e firs t epi c poe t brough t bac k th e fathe r in a doubl e form , a s hea d o f th e famil y an d a s hero . Oedipa l desir e thu s attained satisfactio n b y tw o means : i n th e reconstitutio n o f th e famil y an d in th e ne w lif e o f imagination . Th e creativit y o f th e ne w famil y gav e multiform expressio n t o heroi c projection s o f th e 'famil y romance' . Freu d and Ran k trace d th e miraculou s birt h o f th e her o an d hi s magica l adven -

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18 • Chapter One tures i n fair y tale s an d myths , romanti c narrative s an d popula r fiction. 18 I n tragedy Freu d foun d th e reenactmen t o f his death , th e memor y o f the prima l crime. 1 9 I n religio n th e father-her o eventuall y achieve d th e statu s o f God : "The li e o f th e heroi c myt h culminate s i n th e deificatio n o f th e h e r o . " 2 0 The self-aggrandizin g imaginatio n o f th e epi c poe t thu s produce d th e entir e patriarchal cultur e tha t ha s com e dow n t o u s throug h tradition . I n th e monotheism institute d b y Mose s th e Egyptia n amon g th e ancien t Hebrews , Freud discovere d th e final symboli c retur n o f th e fathe r a s a single , domi nating force. Th e religio n o f Moses an d hi s Egyptia n predecessor , Ikhnaton , represents th e mos t concentrate d effor t o f th e narcissisti c impuls e t o rein carnate th e prima l father. 21 With th e retur n o f th e fathe r an d th e arriva l o f th e famil y an d religion , the communa l psych e o f th e fraterna l cla n wa s replace d b y a n individua l psychology base d upo n socia l inequality . Eac h perso n fel t a stron g identi fication wit h th e fathe r o f th e famil y an d wit h th e father-God ; eac h fel t a s well a stron g libidina l bon d wit h th e othe r member s o f societ y base d upo n a shared , idea l imag e o f th e father . An d th e libidina l bon d o f th e grou p operated a s a limitatio n upo n th e narcissisti c independenc e o f its individua l members. 2 2 Th e epi c poe t an d hi s religiou s imitator s exacte d i n th e nam e of th e fathe r th e mos t extraordinar y sacrifices . Thes e sacrifice s constitute d the basi s o f civilize d life , fo r ever y achievemen t o f civilization , i n Freud' s view, depend s upo n th e denia l o f instinctua l gratification . Ther e i s a paradox here , fo r wa s no t th e fathe r myt h itsel f a for m o f instinctua l gratification? S o i t was , bu t th e greates t pleasur e accrue d t o th e on e wh o created it . Fo r th e rest , th e followers , i t demande d sacrific e i n retur n for patriarcha l love . Huma n progres s actuall y depend s upo n thi s socia l inequality. Th e epi c poet , havin g free d himsel f fro m th e restraint s o f th e group, reintroduce d th e doubl e psycholog y o f dominanc e an d submissio n that ha d existe d i n th e prima l horde . H e too k fo r himsel f th e plac e o f th e father-hero: The myth , then , i s th e ste p b y whic h th e individua l emerge s fro m grou p psychol ogy. Th e firs t myt h was certainly th e psychological , th e hero myth; the explanator y nature myt h mus t hav e followe d muc h later . Th e poe t wh o had take n thi s ste p an d had i n thi s wa y se t himsel f fre e fro m th e grou p i n hi s imagination , i s nevertheles s able t o find hi s wa y bac k t o i t i n reality . Fo r h e goe s an d relate s t o th e grou p hi s hero's deed s whic h h e ha s invented . A t botto m thi s her o i s n o on e but himself . Thus h e lower s himsel f t o the leve l o f reality, an d raise s hi s hearer s t o the leve l of imagination. Bu t hi s hearers understan d th e poet, and , i n virtue o f their havin g th e same relatio n o f longin g toward s th e prima l father , the y ca n identif y themselve s with the hero. 23

From Primal Father to Paranoid • This passag e delineate s th e econom y o f socia l imaginatio n a s Freu d understood it . A repressio n ha s occurre d an d bee n accepte d b y th e group . One individual , th e poet , free s himsel f i n imaginatio n an d return s t o a narcissistic stat e o f gratificatio n tha t appeal s t o other s becaus e o f thei r ow n repressed narcissism . Bu t th e satisfactio n gaine d b y th e poe t fa r exceed s what i s give n t o hi s audience . An d whe n i t come s t o religion , th e discrep ancy betwee n th e poet-prophe t an d hi s follower s widen s immeasurably : ou t of hi s ow n sens e o f heroism , th e religiou s leade r demand s a n absolut e renunciation fro m thos e wh o believ e i n him . Al l pleasures , al l happines s must b e delaye d i n anticipatio n o f a n idea l future . Wit h th e triump h o f religious consciousness , humankin d ha d achieved , accordin g t o Freud , a truly heroi c leve l o f renunciation . In th e passag e o n th e 'firs t epi c poet ' tha t I hav e jus t discussed , Freu d mentions tha t th e heroi c for m o f mythologica l consciousnes s instigate d b y the poe t cam e lon g befor e th e 'natur e myth' . Th e 'natur e myth ' i n questio n was animism , whic h Freu d ha d earlie r place d alongsid e heroi c mytholog y as th e mos t primitiv e socia l for m o f narcissisti c thinking . Freu d linke d these tw o togethe r i n a typicall y positivis t historica l scheme , recognizin g "three grea t system s o f thought : animisti c (o r mythological) , religiou s an d scientific." 2 4 Th e precedenc e give n t o mytholog y i n Freud' s late r wor k seems t o ste m fro m th e fac t tha t mytholog y show s th e trace s o f it s origi n i n an individua l heroi c fantas y an d s o i s linke d mor e closel y wit h a heroi c founder. Animism , o n th e othe r hand , i s anonymou s an d doe s no t sugges t the inequalit y o f th e socia l order . I t expresse s th e narcissis m o f th e entir e group, thu s displayin g i n a n uninhibite d wa y th e ful l cognitiv e potentia l o f narcissistic thinkin g rathe r tha n simpl y it s heroi c tendency . Thi s make s i t for u s a n especiall y importan t objec t o f study , fo r i n animis m Freu d gives th e fulles t descriptio n o f th e unbridle d narcissis m o f primitiv e socia l imagination. O f th e thre e grea t system s o f huma n thought , Freu d writes , "animism, th e first t o b e created , i s perhap s th e on e whic h i s mos t consis tent an d exhaustiv e an d whic h give s a trul y complet e explanatio n o f th e nature o f th e universe . Th e first huma n Weltanschauung i s a psychologica l theory" (77) . The reade r shoul d no t b e misle d b y thi s unexpecte d tribut e t o th e completeness o f animis m a s a n explanator y system , fo r animis m ha s a fundamental flaw: i t fail s t o recogniz e th e psychologica l origi n o f it s materi als. I t i s supremel y guilt y o f th e si n o f 'projection' . Freu d quote s th e word s of Si r Jame s Frazer : "Me n mistoo k th e orde r o f thei r idea s fo r th e orde r o f nature, an d henc e imagine d tha t th e contro l whic h the y have , o r see m t o

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20 • Chapter One have, ove r thei r thoughts , permitte d the m t o exercis e a correspondin g control ove r things " (83) . Becaus e primitiv e me n coul d no t distinguis h th e internal experienc e o f though t fro m thei r perception s o f th e outsid e world , their manne r o f conceptualizatio n provide s Freu d wit h wha t h e consider s t o be a uniqu e exampl e o f th e mind' s ow n tendenc y o f operatio n befor e a language o f abstrac t though t ha d bee n develope d t o separat e th e oute r an d inner worlds : "Befor e that , owin g t o th e projectio n outwar d o f interna l perceptions, primitiv e me n arrive d a t a pictur e o f th e externa l worl d whic h we, wit h ou r intensifie d consciou s perception , hav e no w t o translat e bac k into psychology " (64) . There i s muc h t o instruc t u s i n thi s accoun t o f animism . Le t u s first tak e up th e questio n o f it s completeness . Animis m i s complet e becaus e i t i s based entirel y upo n psychologica l principle s o f causation , an d becaus e i t makes n o attemp t t o censo r thes e o n th e basi s o f reality . Thu s it s pictur e o f the externa l worl d i s a mirro r imag e o f th e psyche . I n thi s sens e i t i s " a psychological theory. " Bu t so , fo r Freud , ar e al l othe r non-scientifi c theo ries, whethe r the y kno w i t o r not . Th e tru e significanc e o f th e completenes s of animis m i s tha t i t i s a mirro r imag e o f psycholog y itsel f an d s o testifie s to it s power . The completenes s o f animism , it s unawarenes s o f limit , lead s t o a second poin t o f interest . Th e ver y self-enclose d qualit y o f animis m tha t leads i t t o confus e thought s wit h things , als o provide s th e animis t wit h hi s illusion o f control . Freud , elaboratin g upo n Frazer' s initia l formula , ob serves tha t i n primitiv e magic , relations whic h hol d betwee n th e idea s o f thing s ar e assume d t o hol d betwee n th e things themselves . Sinc e distanc e i s o f n o importance—sinc e wha t lie s furthes t apart bot h i n time and spac e can without difficult y b e comprehended i n a single ac t of consciousness—so, too , the world of magic has a telepathic disregar d fo r spatia l distance an d treat s pas t situation s a s thoug h the y wer e present . I n th e animisti c epoch th e reflectio n o f th e interna l worl d i s boun d t o blo t ou t th e othe r pictur e o f the world—the on e which w e seem t o perceive (85) . In animis m Freu d discover s th e tru e psychologica l caus e o f huma n megalomania, whic h lie s i n th e inabilit y t o distinguish though t fro m reality . The sam e dysfunctio n occur s i n th e thinkin g o f paranoid s an d neurotics . The "Ra t Man, " on e o f Freud' s famou s patients , gav e i t a name . H e calle d it th e 'omnipotenc e o f thoughts ' (85) . W e ca n se e tha t i n thi s magica l omnipotence th e narcissisti c fulfillmen t o f th e prima l fathe r i s partl y re tained. Fo r th e father , a s fo r th e animist , wis h i s identica l wit h act . Bu t while th e prima l father' s narcissis m wa s enacte d i n reality , magica l think -

From Primal Father to Paranoid • ing preserve s onl y th e 'omnipotenc e o f thoughts' . Thi s sam e overvaluatio n of th e intellec t i s visibl e i n religio n an d i n th e system s o f th e philosophers . In al l thes e form s o f consciousness , th e narcissis t invest s a n exces s o f libido i n th e ego , wit h th e resul t tha t h e attache s to o grea t a valu e t o himself a s a thinkin g being . Th e paranoid , w e shal l see , i s a perso n wh o has reverte d t o th e 'omnipotenc e o f thoughts ' tha t onc e belonge d t o th e whole o f humankin d bu t tha t th e majorit y hav e no w renounced . It i s probabl e tha t Freu d imagine d animis m a s alway s coexistin g wit h some typ e o f fathe r mytholog y o r totemism . H e recognize d i n it , neverthe less, a full y develope d socia l narcissism , an d considere d religio n t o b e a transformation fro m ou t o f it . I n religion , me n transferre d th e 'omnipotenc e of thoughts ' fro m themselve s t o thei r go d (88) . The y revive d th e memor y o f the fathe r i n th e for m o f a divin e imago . W e nee d no t b e concerne d whethe r this occurre d directly , a s Freu d first surmised , o r whethe r th e heroi c actio n of th e epi c poe t intervened , a s h e late r thought . I n eithe r case , th e arriva l of religio n depende d upo n a trul y extrem e repression . Th e submissio n exacted b y th e father-Go d wa s a smal l thin g compare d wit h th e renunciatio n that brough t hi m int o being . There wa s still , however , a thir d phas e o f renunciatio n t o come . Fo r a s much a s religio n ma y hav e sough t t o curtai l th e satisfactio n o f desire , it s view o f th e worl d stil l preserve d th e characte r o f it s origin s i n narcissisti c projection. Humankin d stil l live d a t th e cente r o f a cosmo s tha t th e huma n mind ha d made . Th e rac e o f being s tha t coul d d o withou t suc h narcissisti c comforts wa s a lon g tim e comin g t o birth . I t wa s le d b y a ne w kin d o f hero—the scientist . Whil e th e prima l fathe r an d th e first epi c poe t retaine d the facelessnes s o f myth , an d whil e th e tru e character s o f Mose s an d o f hi s precursor, Ikhnaton , th e founder s o f monotheism , remaine d hidde n i n th e obscurity o f earl y times , thes e ne w heroe s stoo d fort h i n th e ligh t o f modernity. Freu d identifie d Leonard o d a Vinc i a s "th e first moder n natura l scientist," th e first ma n t o free himsel f fro m narcissisti c projection s i n orde r to adop t th e stud y o f natur e o n th e basi s o f experimen t alon e an d withou t the benefi t o f 'presuppositions' . I n orde r t o understan d ho w thi s strang e mutation o f huma n natur e coul d hav e occurred , Freu d investigate d th e painter's psych e wit h specia l interest , devotin g t o hi m th e mos t detaile d o f his cas e studies . H e exerte d al l o f hi s ingenuit y an d al l o f hi s literar y gift s in th e attemp t t o explai n ho w th e accident s o f Leonardo' s childhoo d coul d have free d hi m fro m dependenc e upo n th e myth s o f th e fathe r an d actuall y allowed hi m t o channel hi s narcissisti c libid o int o th e pursui t o f knowledge . These accident s accounted , i n Freud' s mind , fo r th e myster y an d powe r

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22 • Chapter One of Leonard o an d th e incomprehensio n o f hi s motive s attribute d t o hi s contemporaries. 2 5 An d Leonard o wa s onl y th e firs t o f th e grea t an d misun derstood revolutionar y heroe s o f moder n science : In the cours e of centuries th e naive self-love o f men ha s ha d t o submit t o two majo r blows at th e hands o f science. Th e firs t wa s when the y learn t tha t ou r earth wa s not the cente r o f th e univers e but onl y a tin y fragmen t o f a cosmi c syste m o f scarcel y imaginable vastness . Thi s i s associated i n our mind s wit h th e nam e o f Copernicus , though somethin g simila r ha d alread y bee n asserte d b y Alexandria n science . Th e second blo w fel l whe n biologica l researc h destroye d man' s supposedl y privilege d place i n creatio n an d prove d hi s descent fro m th e anima l kingdo m an d hi s ineradi cable anima l nature . Thi s revaluatio n ha s bee n accomplishe d i n ou r ow n day s b y Darwin, Wallac e an d thei r predecessors , thoug h no t withou t th e mos t violen t contemporary opposition . Bu t huma n megalomani a wil l hav e suffere d it s thir d an d most woundin g blo w fro m th e psychologica l researc h o f th e presen t tim e whic h seeks t o prov e t o th e eg o tha t i t i s no t eve n maste r i n it s ow n house , bu t mus t content itsel f with scant y informatio n o f what i s going on unconsciously i n its mind . We psycho-analyst s wer e no t th e firs t an d no t th e onl y one s t o utte r thi s cal l t o introspection; but i t seem s t o be ou r fate t o give i t it s mos t forcibl e expressio n an d to suppor t i t wit h empirica l materia l whic h affect s ever y individual . Henc e arise s the genera l revol t agains t ou r science , th e disregar d o f al l consideration s o f aca demic civilit y an d th e releasin g o f th e oppositio n fro m ever y restrain t o f impartia l logic.26 In thi s reconstructio n o f Freud' s accoun t o f huma n development , th e scientific hero , an d particularl y th e psychoanalyst , naturall y fall s int o plac e as th e successo r o f th e prima l father , th e first epi c poet , th e religiou s prophets, an d th e grea t personalitie s o f history . Freu d neve r gav e hi s myt h such a systemati c expositio n an d s o avoide d puttin g himsel f i n quit e s o invidious a position . Bu t i n th e passag e I hav e jus t quoted , an d i n man y other place s i n hi s work , h e cast s th e scientis t and , indeed , th e psychoana lyst, i n thi s heroi c mold . Th e scientis t determine s th e psychologica l charac ter o f th e modern , scientifi c phas e o f socia l existence , jus t a s th e prima l father an d th e epi c poe t ha d determine d th e psychologica l characte r o f its precursors . From th e standpoin t o f th e twentiet h century , Freu d coul d loo k bac k upon wha t h e too k t o b e th e psychologica l effect s o f almos t thre e hundre d years o f scientific revolution . Wha t h e sa w wa s th e progressiv e developmen t of individua l psycholog y a t th e expens e o f th e socia l an d religiou s institu tions tha t sustaine d th e patriarcha l cultur e o f th e past . Th e scientis t ha d brought thes e institution s unde r attac k b y uncoverin g thei r delusor y under -

From Primal Father to Paranoid • pinnings, th e effec t o f scientifi c injunctio n bein g t o forc e th e educate d members o f societ y t o detac h themselve s fro m religio n an d othe r form s o f group idealization . W e ca n se e i n th e scientist' s gestur e o f separatio n fro m the grou p a recapitulatio n o f th e gestur e o f th e epi c poet , wh o withdre w from th e fraterna l clan , the n replace d it s bond s wit h thos e o f the ne w famil y and it s patriarcha l god . Th e scientis t undi d thi s secon d bon d withou t attempting t o replac e i t wit h anythin g bu t th e prid e o f repressio n an d adherence t o th e trut h o f reality . I n exactin g thi s final repression , th e culture o f scienc e remove d th e protectio n tha t religio n ha d furnishe d against neurosis . Religio n i s indeed , Freu d tell s us , th e "mos t powerfu l protection agains t th e dange r o f neurosis." 2 7 Th e reaso n fo r thi s i s tha t th e neurotic, deprive d o f religion , ha s t o creat e "hi s ow n worl d o f imagination , his ow n religion , hi s ow n syste m o f delusions." 2 8 Whe n h e doe s so , th e product show s it s origi n i n neuroti c destitution : The neurose s exhibi t o n the one han d strikin g an d far-reachin g point s of agreemen t with thos e grea t socia l institutions , art , religio n an d philosophy . Bu t o n th e othe r hand the y see m lik e distortion s o f them . I t migh t b e maintaine d tha t a cas e o f hysteria i s a caricature o f a work o f art, tha t a n obsessional neurosi s i s a caricatur e of a religion an d tha t a paranoiac delusio n i s a caricature o f a philosophical system . The divergenc e resolve s itsel f ultimatel y int o th e fac t tha t th e neurose s ar e asocia l structures; they endeavo r t o achieve b y private mean s what i s effected i n society b y collective effort . I f w e analyz e th e instinct s a t wor k i n th e neuroses , w e find tha t the determinin g influenc e i n the m i s exercise d b y instinctua l force s o f sexua l origin; th e correspondin g cultura l formations , o n th e othe r hand , ar e base d upo n social instincts , originatin g fro m th e combinatio n o f egoisti c an d eroti c elements . Sexual need s ar e no t capabl e o f unitin g me n i n th e sam e wa y a s ar e th e demand s of self-preservation. Sexua l satisfactio n i s essentially th e private affai r o f each indi vidual.29 The scientist , wit h hi s capacit y fo r heroi c repression , create d a perilou s set o f condition s fo r th e individual . H e undermine d th e emotiona l base s o f social lif e b y exposin g th e irrationa l origin s o f socia l institutions . A t th e same time , h e enjoine d a stric t adherenc e t o reality , a realit y holdin g n o attraction fo r th e libido . T o depar t fro m realit y wa s no w t o lapse int o privat e delusion, fo r th e publi c spac e o f socia l imaginatio n ha d bee n destroyed . Those wh o attemp t t o preserv e i t i n a privat e for m tak e o n a comica l character. W e ca n se e i n thei r illusio n th e outlin e o f th e nobl e form s o f culture tha t sustaine d th e meanin g an d valu e o f lif e i n th e past , bu t foolishly an d selfishl y distorted . An d th e resemblanc e work s bot h ways , fo r the pathologica l distortion s o f neurosis , displayin g thei r origin s i n sexua l

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24 • Chapter One repression, revea l th e libidina l characte r o f th e traditiona l institution s that the y mimic . Th e "Just-S o Story " ha s arrive d a t th e moder n cultur e of irony. 30 This i s th e accoun t o f huma n evolutio n Freu d contrive d ou t o f hi s experience analyzin g a fe w doze n patient s i n lat e nineteenth - an d earl y twentieth-century Vienna. 3 1 Th e movemen t ou t o f idealisti c o r 'narcissistic ' self-enclosure marks , h e thought , bot h th e progres s o f th e specie s an d o f the individual . It s dynami c elemen t i s repression . Onl y b y mean s o f repres sion ca n powe r ove r other s an d ove r th e natura l worl d b e gained . Th e heroism o f repressio n wa s peculiarl y symbolize d fo r Freu d i n th e myt h o f Prometheus. Prometheus ' conques t ove r fire wa s i n fac t a grea t sexua l repression because , a s th e work s o f Swif t an d Rabelai s suggeste d t o Freud , urinating o n fire i s a grea t megalomaniaca l fantasy , roote d i n homoeroti c pleasure. Th e myt h o f Prometheu s thu s symbolize s th e herois m o f th e first man t o captur e fire b y restrainin g hi s homoeroti c desir e t o pu t i t ou t wit h his urine , a s Gullive r di d whe n h e douse d th e burnin g chamber s o f th e Lilliputian palace . I n Prometheus ' fat e th e myt h als o reveal s th e hostilit y that greet s th e heroe s o f renunciatio n amon g thos e weake r soul s wh o woul d preserve thei r pleasures. 3 2 Before w e g o o n t o reinterpre t Freud' s bio-histor y o f th e species , i t i s important tha t w e shoul d presen t hi s accoun t o f development an d repressio n in individua l consciousness , th e objec t o f stud y fro m whic h h e originall y devised it . Freu d analyze d th e dynami c o f repressio n a s i t relate s t o th e development o f consciousnes s i n a classi c psychoanalyti c essay , "Formula tions o n th e Tw o Principle s o f Menta l Functioning, " compose d durin g th e same perio d a s hi s theoretica l analysi s o f paranoia. 3 3 I n i t h e describe s ou r early stag e o f menta l development , th e 'primar y processes' , whic h operat e according t o th e 'pleasur e principle' , 6 Lust-Unlust\ Th e pleasur e principl e expresses itsel f merel y i n th e seekin g o f pleasur e an d th e avoidanc e o f pain. "Ou r dream s a t nigh t an d ou r wakin g tendenc y t o tea r ourselve s awa y from distressin g impression s ar e remnant s o f th e dominanc e o f thi s princi ple an d proof s o f it s power " (219) . Freu d doe s no t tel l u s so , bu t th e narcissistic stag e obviousl y come s unde r th e pleasur e principle , wit h it s tendency t o b e conten t wit h idea l o r hallucinator y satisfactions . At a certai n poin t i n a n individual' s development , Freu d goe s o n t o say , the passiv e stat e o f th e pleasur e principl e ca n n o longe r satisfy , an d a second principl e emerges , th e 'principl e o f reality' . Thi s principl e admit s to consciousnes s whateve r i s real , whethe r i t produce s pleasur e o r unplea -

From Primal Father to Paranoid • sure. I t begin s t o mobiliz e th e sense-organ s towar d th e externa l worl d an d to develo p th e functio n o f attention , th e activ e seekin g o f sens e impres sions, a s wel l a s a syste m o f notation , o r memory , t o preserv e th e result s o f attention (220—21) . Th e repressio n o f unpleasurabl e idea s i s no w super seded b y a n impartia l passin g o f judgment tru e o r false base d upo n compar ison wit h th e memor y trace s o f earlie r impressions . A t thi s poin t a s well , action an d th e dela y o f actio n i n deliberatio n becom e possible , an d th e individual ha s a full y develope d capacit y t o tes t hi s o r he r idea s agains t reality (221) . The pleasur e principl e mus t sacrific e mightil y i n orde r tha t th e realit y principle ca n com e int o force . Bu t th e pleasur e principl e i s no t destroye d in th e process . I t maintain s it s stronghold s i n th e domai n o f fantas y an d also tha t o f sexuality , a functio n tha t alway s preserve s a strongl y auto-eroti c and infantil e characte r (222) . Th e purpos e o f th e realit y principl e i s no t t o supersede th e pleasur e principl e bu t t o safeguar d it , t o lea d th e organis m to sure r pleasure s tha n i t ca n achiev e a t th e promptin g o f pleasur e alone . The deman d fo r renunciation , Freu d tell s us , mad e b y th e realit y principl e with th e promis e o f futur e rewards , ha s bee n projecte d ont o externa l realit y in th e for m o f religiou s myths , which , wit h th e doctrin e o f th e afterlife , seek "absolut e renunciatio n o f pleasur e i n thi s life. " Bu t i t i s scienc e tha t comes closes t t o overcomin g th e "ancien t pleasur e principle. " Science , no t religion, furnishe s th e tru e institutiona l expressio n o f th e principl e o f reality (223) . Th e cultur e o f scienc e provide s th e standar d o f realit y fo r modern people . W e ca n see , then , th e perfec t convergenc e o f scienc e a s a historical movemen t an d th e realit y principl e a s th e outcom e o f individua l mental development . While scienc e throw s it s weigh t behin d th e realit y principle , th e plea sure principle , i t i s no t surprisin g t o discover , als o ha s a matur e expressio n in culture , on e tha t preserve s it s right s upo n th e highe r groun d o f reality : Art bring s abou t a reconciliation betwee n th e tw o principles i n a peculia r way . A n artist i s originall y a ma n wh o turn s awa y fro m realit y becaus e h e canno t com e t o terms with the renunciation o f instinctual satisfactio n whic h i t at first demands, an d who allow s hi s eroti c an d ambitiou s wishe s ful l pla y i n th e lif e o f phantasy . H e finds the wa y bac k t o reality, however , fro m thi s worl d o f phantas y b y makin g us e of special gift s t o mould hi s phantasie s int o truths o f a new kind , whic h ar e value d by me n a s preciou s reflection s o f reality . Thu s i n a certai n fashio n h e actuall y becomes th e hero , th e king , th e creator , o r th e favourit e h e desire d t o be, withou t following th e lon g roundabout pat h o f making real alteration s i n th e external world . But h e ca n onl y achiev e thi s becaus e othe r me n fee l th e sam e dissatisfactio n a s h e does wit h th e renunciatio n demande d b y reality , an d becaus e tha t dissatisfaction ,

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26 • Chapter One which result s fro m th e replacemen t o f th e pleasur e principl e b y th e realit y princi ple, i s itself a part o f reality. (224 ) In th e rol e o f th e moder n artis t w e recogniz e th e patter n establishe d b y the epi c poet s an d prophet s o f history . Al l o f thes e figure s separat e them selves fro m th e grou p i n imagination . B y mean s o f thi s separatio n the y reclaim fo r themselve s som e par t o f th e prima l father' s narcissisti c omnipo tence. An d wit h th e forc e o f thei r imaginings , the y induc e other s t o tak e a s part o f reality wha t the y hav e onl y dreamed . Other s participat e i n th e fathe r through them . Th e differenc e betwee n th e epi c an d th e moder n poe t i s tha t the epi c poe t present s hi s visio n o f th e her o a s a tru e on e whil e th e moder n poet present s i t a s a fantasy , thoug h a fantas y tha t wil l becom e a treasure d addition t o th e rea l socia l world . Freud explaine d i n anothe r classi c essa y ho w th e artis t goe s abou t making hi s fantasie s accessibl e t o others . Hi s "innermos t secret, " hi s "ar s poetica," consist s o f divestin g hi s eroti c an d ambitiou s wishe s o f al l thos e qualities tha t revea l a persona l origin . Th e artis t soften s th e egotistica l character o f hi s daydream s an d add s aestheti c enhancement , b y thi s mean s preventing other s fro m experiencin g th e sham e an d repulsio n Freu d expect s private fantasie s t o evoke. 3 4 A s th e cleares t exampl e o f th e artist' s tech nique, Freu d cite s th e popula r romances , wit h thei r indestructibl e an d irresistible mai n characters . The y ar e thinl y disguise d version s o f "Hi s Majesty th e Ego , th e her o o f al l daydream s an d al l novels " (149—50) . Wer e the artis t t o fai l i n disguisin g th e private , egotistica l source s o f hi s heroi c fantasy, th e result s woul d b e comical , a parody . W e woul d laug h t o se e heroism an d th e 'omnipotenc e o f thoughts ' expresse d i n suc h a n undis guised form . W e woul d recogniz e wit h contemptuou s pleasur e ou r ow n egotistical wishe s bein g give n a n outwar d expressio n w e woul d no t permi t to ourselves . Suc h a faile d artis t woul d see m t o b e vergin g o n paranoia , fo r it i s th e sam e narcissisti c wishe s tha t animat e th e paranoid' s delusio n an d the artist' s vision . Th e differenc e i s tha t th e artis t know s hi s herois m t o b e nothing mor e tha n a n illusion , whil e th e paranoid , lik e th e prophet s o f old , mistakes hi s fo r th e truth . Thus , unde r th e regim e o f th e realit y principle , he produce s a parod y o f romanc e o r o f speculativ e thinking , a parod y tha t displays i n a n undisguise d for m th e libidina l drive s tha t motivat e ou r heroic longings . It i s instructiv e t o not e that , i n purifyin g hi s heroi c fantasie s o f thei r egotistical character , th e artis t mus t i n som e measur e und o th e wor k o f th e scientist i n hi s previou s underminin g o f th e socia l imagination . Onc e th e culture o f th e realit y principl e ha s take n hold , sanit y demand s tha t on e

From Primal Father to Paranoid • should kee p fantas y confine d t o th e privat e recesse s o f th e psyche , wher e its libidina l origin s wil l no t embarrass . Bu t th e artis t learn s t o mimi c th e socially objectiv e qualit y o f religion , philosophy , an d romanc e and , b y a kind o f camouflage , t o produc e a n effec t tha t i s lik e their s eve n thoug h i t takes ful l accoun t o f th e realit y principle . H e thu s regain s th e leve l o f th e social i n imagination . Thi s i s th e secre t o f hi s success . Bu t give n tha t th e artist's succes s depend s upo n disguisin g th e privat e t o imitat e th e social , i t is obviou s tha t psychoanalysis , whic h unmask s thi s secret , stand s i n a somewhat hostil e relatio n t o art . The artist , th e scientist , an d th e paranoi d stan d a s th e las t thre e incarna tions o f th e father-hero , th e sol e representative s o f th e heroi c t o surviv e i n the intellectua l regim e o f moder n culture . Th e artis t play s th e her o i n a make-believe worl d disguise d t o loo k lik e th e on e i n whic h w e live , th e paranoid retreat s int o a worl d o f hi s ow n device , an d th e scientis t become s a her o b y renouncin g imagination , narcissism , pleasure , an d th e ideal . Th e scientist take s fo r hi s ai m th e master y o f th e rea l world , an d he , lik e th e heroes o f th e past , exact s grea t sacrifice s t o furthe r hi s cause . I t i s b y thi s process o f heroi c renunciatio n tha t civilizatio n ha s mature d an d grown , harnessing greate r an d greate r energ y b y mean s o f instinctua l sacrifice s exacted b y grea t leaders , unti l th e powe r o f collectiv e repressio n achieve d a master y o f th e physica l worl d tha t mad e th e moder n individua l int o a "prosthetic god, " wit h al l th e advantage s an d hazard s o f tha t position. 3 5

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TWO Paranoid Logic I a m actuall y no t a t al l a ma n o f science , no t a n observer, no t a n experimenter , no t a thinker . I am by temperamen t nothin g but a conquistador—a n adventurer, i f yo u wan t i t translated—wit h al l th e curiosity, daring , an d tenacit y characteristi c o f a man of this sort . —Freu d t o Fliess

The psychoanalyti c histor y o f th e huma n specie s tha t I hav e reconstructe d from Freud' s work s i n orde r t o expos e th e historica l dimension s o f hi s theory o f paranoia woul d no t no w b e recognize d b y mos t Freudian s a s valid . It rest s upo n scientifi c principle s tha t wer e suspec t eve n i n Freud' s da y an d have sinc e falle n int o th e antique . Freud' s speculativ e abando n i n th e domain o f the instinct s wa s alread y a sourc e o f dissen t withi n th e movemen t during hi s lifetime . Thoug h hi s theoretica l activitie s continue d int o th e fourth decad e o f th e twentiet h century , the y remaine d withi n th e framewor k of lat e nineteenth-centur y romanti c biology . Lamarckia n evolution , Fechner's law , Fliess' s theorie s o f sexua l cycles , th e 'bio-genetic ' doctrin e that 'ontogen y recapitulate s phylogeny' , thes e erran t principle s themselve s now look , eve n t o th e Freudian , lik e narcissisti c projection s o r 'secondar y revisions' impose d upo n th e dat a i n orde r t o provid e a n intellectua l contex t satisfying t o th e mind' s sens e o f coherence. 1 Freu d himsel f raise d th e possibility tha t th e myt h o f th e prima l fathe r an d it s historica l sequel s might b e take n fo r a narcissisti c fantas y o f hi s own : "I s no t a hypothesi s such a s thi s a relaps e int o th e mod e o f though t whic h le d t o myth s o f a creator an d t o th e worshi p o f heroes , int o time s i n whic h th e writin g o f history wa s nothin g mor e tha n a repor t o f th e deed s an d destinie s o f singl e individuals, o f ruler s o r conquerors?" 2 Saving Freu d fro m hi s bio-historica l hero-worshippin g projection s ha s meant havin g t o recas t hi s theor y entirel y i n psychologica l term s an d concentrating it s explanator y forc e i n tha t sphere . Th e psych e describe d b y Freud i s thu s remove d fro m th e flow o f histor y an d become s a universa l 28

Paranoid Logic • 2 9 constant. Whe n th e latter-da y psychoanalys t look s ou t fro m thi s fixed perspective ont o th e spectacl e o f huma n diversity , h e o r sh e see s culture s and segment s o f culture s stil l swaddle d i n narcissism , stil l devote d t o th e exorbitant fancie s o f animis m an d religion . An d h e o r sh e see s th e cultur e of science , grounde d i n th e realit y principl e an d makin g i t fo r th e first tim e conscious o f it s ow n operation . Bu t no w thes e difference s o f cultur e an d history appea r t o b e undergirde d b y a commo n psych e tha t goe s al l th e wa y down t o th e botto m o f huma n nature , wit h it s bedroc k i n th e Oedipu s complex. Histor y i s th e produc t o f thi s psych e an d it s need s rathe r tha n th e other wa y around . An d i f histor y seem s t o accomplis h a psychologica l development, tha t i s onl y becaus e i t can , throug h th e effort s o f science , b e brought t o achiev e i n emulatio n th e movemen t o f individua l psycholog y from th e pleasur e principl e t o th e principl e o f reality . Th e continue d force o f psychoanalyti c thinkin g rest s upo n thes e adjustments , whic h hav e severed Freud' s connection s wit h th e disreputabl e element s o f hi s theoreti cal famil y background . It i s wit h suc h genealogica l problem s i n min d tha t I hav e attempte d t o return Freud' s theor y o f paranoi a t o it s contex t i n wha t h e calle d th e 'Urzeiten, th e "primaeva l age s o f th e huma n famil y whic h ha d lon g van ished fro m men' s consciou s memory." 3 Jus t a s Freu d foun d a kerne l o f historical trut h i n th e fathe r projection s o f religion , leadin g hi m t o uneart h the prima l crime , s o i t ma y b e possibl e t o find a kerne l o f trut h i n Freud' s own theor y o f history. Th e archai c element s o f Freud' s bio-history—involv ing th e prima l father , th e brother s o f th e clan , an d th e epi c poet—canno t be reclaime d b y an y simpl e operation . Bu t whe n i t come s t o th e myt h o f the heroi c scientis t w e ar e o n soli d historica l ground . N o on e ca n doub t that scienc e ha s indee d fough t a heroi c campaig n t o achiev e it s plac e i n modern culture , o r tha t i n th e proces s i t ha s exacte d grea t renunciations . Nor ha s Freu d misle d u s whe n h e say s tha t th e scientifi c revolutio n wa s fought a s a struggl e agains t th e socia l imaginatio n an d th e authorit y o f tradition. Althoug h suc h consideration s ma y hav e bee n o f littl e o r n o importance fo r th e earl y heroe s i n th e Freudia n pantheon , figures suc h a s Leonardo an d Copernicus , the y wer e o f primar y importanc e fo r late r apolo gists o f science , an d especiall y thos e i n th e centra l empiricis t an d positivis t tradition. Freud' s portraya l o f th e scientifi c metho d a s a mean s o f overcom ing th e 'omnipotenc e o f thoughts' , th e 'narcissistic ' o r megalomaniaca l bases o f tradition , i s a direc t descendan t o f Bacon' s critiqu e o f thos e 'idol s of th e mind ' that , b y th e impetu s o f self-infatuate d speculation , stan d a s the chie f obstacle s t o knowledge . Th e positivis t tren d i n philosoph y wa s

30 • Chapter Two from Bacon' s tim e forwar d a crusad e o f repression . It s inten t wa s t o leav e the product s o f traditio n behin d an d t o establis h a mod e o f progres s bot h intellectual an d social . Thi s movemen t gathere d spectacula r momentu m i n England durin g th e perio d o f th e Restoration , makin g headwa y agains t it s special targets , Scholasti c intellectualis m an d Protestan t enthusiasm . B y the 1740s , i t ha d largel y conquere d th e pre-existin g religiou s cultur e i n England an d take n it s plac e a t th e cente r o f th e secula r orde r o f bourgeoi s capitalism, liberalism , an d individualism. 4 I n Catholi c Europe , thes e intel lectual, social , an d politica l development s wer e slower , mor e difficult , an d more violent , progressin g an d relapsin g b y revolutionar y outbursts . A s a liberal Jewis h scientis t i n imperial , Catholi c Vienna , Freu d wa s a militan t participant i n thi s anti-traditiona l movement , on e of the grea t fighters o f it s late battles. 5 Freud wa s correc t i n hi s descriptio n o f th e earl y aim s o f som e o f th e scientific reformers , an d h e di d no t overestimate th e impac t o f the scientifi c movement upo n culture . Wha t i s questionable i n his account i s the assump tion tha t thi s impac t wa s a n inevitabl e consequenc e o f th e result s o f scientific discovery . I t wa s th e knowledg e tha t th e eart h move s an d tha t species evolve , Freu d woul d hav e u s believe , tha t produce d th e isolation , frustration, an d fragilit y o f th e moder n psych e an d mad e i t th e victi m o f neurosis an d paranoia ; religio n wa s the onl y protectio n agains t thes e condi tions, an d scienc e ha d pu t th e salubriou s narcoti c ou t o f reach . I n th e personified abstractio n 'science' , Freu d aggregate s th e cultura l effect s o f scientific metho d a s an exemplar y discipline , scienc e a s an interes t embod ied i n institutions , th e knowledg e produce d an d disseminate d b y mean s o f science, an d scienc e a s a wa y o r se t o f way s o f thinkin g abou t th e world . He thu s effortlessl y obscure s th e ideologica l impulse s o f th e earl y propo nents o f scienc e an d it s politica l use s i n th e secula r orde r o f modernity ; what i s perhap s mos t important , Freud' s uncomplicate d vie w o f the agenc y of scienc e make s i t impossibl e t o recognize th e conflicte d aspec t o f moder n intellectual cultur e itself , fo r wha t h e assume s i s tha t ther e wa s onl y on e way t o interpre t th e result s o f science . Bu t thi s i s hardl y th e case . I t i s al l too clea r tha t moder n science , i n additio n t o bein g a poten t metho d o f investigating th e physica l world , ha s als o bee n a n ideologica l instrumen t or, indeed , a n ideolog y i n itself . Th e psychologica l effect s o f scientifi c discovery ca n onl y b e understoo d throug h th e mediatin g ideologica l agen cies o f culture . Freud woul d b e th e first, o f course , t o recogniz e th e selfis h an d domi -

Paranoid Logic • 3 1 nating motive s o f th e scientist . H e declare d hi s ow n natur e t o b e tha t o f a "conquistador." 6 Wha t h e woul d den y i s tha t thing s coul d b e otherwise , the employmen t o f scienc e a s a n instrumen t o f powe r followin g directl y from th e narcissisti c characte r o f th e huma n being . Bu t thi s self-suspicio n is, paradoxically , a n ideologica l stance , an d on e tha t canno t b e take n upo n faith. I t i s th e purpos e o f thi s stud y t o sugges t tha t th e emergenc e o f th e paranoid a s a centra l figure i n moder n cultur e an d th e psychi c econom y o f 'narcissism' an d suspicio n tha t seem s t o surroun d thi s figure ca n bes t b e explained i n historica l an d cultura l terms . The y ar e concomitant s o f th e scientific an d philosophica l discours e o f 'reality ' an d th e heroi c effort s o f the individual s wh o mad e i t prosper , advertisin g th e ne w scienc e a s a liberating forc e tha t woul d allo w humankin d t o leav e behin d th e childis h fancies o f it s past . Freud' s notio n tha t individual s i n menta l developmen t move fro m th e operation s o f th e 'pleasur e principle ' t o th e 'principl e o f reality' appear s t o b e a projectio n or , rather , a n injectio n o f thi s scientifi c and historica l ideolog y int o th e domai n o f th e psyche . I t i s a translatio n into psychologica l term s o f th e imperativ e t o escap e fro m th e mystification s of th e idea l int o th e real m o f th e senses , a n imperativ e b y mean s o f whic h modern cultur e originall y establishe d it s polemica l identity . ( I preserv e th e term "projection " her e no t i n it s psychoanalyti c acceptatio n bu t t o denot e false extrapolation s o f th e local , th e transitory , an d th e ideologicall y self serving ont o th e permanen t an d th e universal. ) If th e hypothesi s I hav e state d holds , a curiou s circularit y no w appear s in Freud' s historica l an d psychologica l scheme . Th e grea t an d damnin g evidence upo n whic h h e relie s fo r th e demonstratio n o f hi s theor y o f civilization i s th e identit y i n for m of , o n th e on e hand , religio n an d metaphysics and , o n th e othe r hand , menta l illness . Religio n i s fo r Freu d a psychological alternativ e t o neurosi s an d paranoia : h e understand s "neuro sis a s a n individua l religiosit y an d religio n a s a universa l obsessiona l neurosis"; 7 paranoi a ha s th e for m o f a philosophica l system . Wit h thi s pai r of doubles , religio n an d madness , i n view , modernit y coul d b e describe d with perfec t econom y i n psychoanalyti c term s a s a transitio n fro m on e for m of narcissisti c projectio n t o another . An d ye t Freu d believed , a s w e hav e seen, tha t neurosi s an d paranoi a wer e by-product s o f th e ver y theor y o f reality h e wa s seekin g t o propound . 'Science ' itsel f ha d brough t thes e form s of patholog y int o existence . S o th e evidenc e i n favo r o f Freud' s theory , indeed it s seemingl y self-eviden t quality , depended , i n fact , upo n th e activity o f previou s scientist s i n thei r struggl e t o secur e th e dominanc e o f

32 • Chapter Two what Freu d too k t o b e hi s ow n theoretica l framework . Th e circula r move ment i s evident . Scienc e succeede d i n discreditin g traditiona l form s o f thought firs t b y producin g thei r psychologica l doubl e i n th e for m o f mad ness, the n confrontin g the m wit h thi s doubl e an d conflatin g th e two . Scien tific cultur e stood , then , a s superio r t o th e cultur e o f th e pas t becaus e i t could admi t it s kinshi p wit h it s paranoi d double , whil e th e representative s of traditiona l cultur e coul d not . Freud claime d tha t hi s accoun t o f huma n bio-histor y wa s grounde d i n the observatio n o f patient s i n therapy . Th e analysi s o f Adol f Griinbau m ha s shown tha t th e viciou s circularit y I hav e identifie d i n Freud' s theor y o f modernity i s als o a t wor k i n hi s reasonin g abou t th e interpretatio n o f clinical data. 8 I t wa s i n clinica l practic e tha t Freu d place d th e burde n o f proof fo r th e claim s o f hi s metho d t o scientifi c demonstration . H e consid ered th e measur e o f the validit y o f psychoanalytic interpretation s t o b e thei r success i n producin g therapeuti c result s i n hi s patients . Her e onc e again , just a s i n Freud' s historica l narrative , th e interventio n o f th e scientis t an d the injectio n o f hi s theor y int o practic e as an explanation precede s th e evidence suppose d t o confir m it . I n fact , i t actuall y produce s tha t evidence . Given th e authorit y tha t belong s t o th e psychoanalys t an d th e suggestibilit y of th e patient , wh o ha s place d hi s o r he r trus t i n tha t authority , enterin g a highly charge d 'transference ' relationshi p base d upo n it , i t i s n o wonde r that th e analys t shoul d b e abl e t o produc e i n th e min d o f th e patien t a conviction o f th e trut h o f psychoanalyti c dogma. 9 Th e persuasivenes s o f psychoanalytic diagnose s i n th e mind s o f patient s appear s stil l les s reliabl e as evidenc e whe n w e conside r that , i n Freud' s ow n view , i t wa s scientifi c culture, construe d i n Freud' s broa d manner , tha t ha d brough t modernity' s typical form s o f menta l illnes s int o bein g i n th e firs t place . Thei r appear ance amon g moder n people , h e believed , wa s du e t o th e effort s o f th e historical forerunner s o f th e analys t i n amassin g th e formidabl e cultura l authority o f science. 1 0 Wha t i s remarkabl e i s th e scan t succes s tha t psycho analysts hav e enjoye d i n usin g thei r expertis e t o remediat e wha t the y themselves thin k o f a s th e destructiv e effect s o f th e scientifi c worldvie w upon thei r patients . At thi s poin t w e migh t expec t th e skeptica l reade r t o hav e accumulate d a numbe r o f objections . "Freud, " suc h a reade r migh t protest , "attribute d the emergenc e o f neurosi s an d paranoi a i n moder n cultur e t o th e destruc tion o f th e traditiona l ideologica l base s o f society , an d especiall y religion . Now, afte r th e discoverie s o f Copernicus , Newton , Darwin , an d thei r sue -

Paranoid Logic • 3 3 cessors, wa s i t no t necessar y t o renounc e Christia n theology , th e medieva l cosmos, biblica l chronology , and , indeed , th e entir e panopl y o f mythologi cal explanations ? An d doe s no t suc h a renunciatio n adequatel y accoun t fo r the psychologica l complaint s o f th e moder n soul? " It i s impossibl e t o disagree wit h th e reasonabl e skepti c tha t th e discover ies o f Copernicus , Newton , an d Darwin , amon g others , lef t th e medieva l cosmos an d biblica l chronolog y i n shreds . W e ca n n o mor e regre t th e los s of belie f i n thes e notion s tha n w e ca n imagin e returnin g t o animisti c spiritualism. I t i s eas y t o agre e a s wel l tha t th e result s o f scientifi c inquir y have, i n a sizabl e segmen t o f th e populatio n o f th e Wes t an d increasingl y elsewhere, undermine d religiou s belief , an d tha t ther e i s i n suc h a proces s an exorbitan t psychologica l cost . Bu t th e ideologist s o f modernit y di d no t limit themselve s t o th e exposin g o f long-cherishe d errors . The y exacte d a renunciation greate r tha n this : thei r attac k eventuall y cam e t o focu s upo n the powe r an d integrit y o f though t itself . Eve n a s the y gaine d a n immens e prestige b y makin g availabl e unprecedente d ne w knowledg e o f the working s of th e physica l world , the y cemente d thei r positio n o f authorit y wit h a ne w model o f th e psyche ; an d thi s ne w model , i n retur n fo r th e promise d gains o f empirica l science , exacte d a n unprecedente d renunciatio n fo r th e operations o f thought . Fo r th e ne w science , truth , o r 'reality ' a s Freu d would say , becam e a commodit y on e coul d acquir e onl y b y subtractin g th e contribution o f th e huma n mind , whic h i s t o say , b y repression . Th e ne w science wa s founde d upo n a suspicio n o f th e ver y facultie s tha t mad e i t possible. I t wa s t o th e codificatio n o f thi s ideolog y o f suspicion , an d no t t o science pe r se , tha t Freu d mad e suc h a signa l contribution . Freud believe d tha t th e realit y principl e demande d heroi c repression s which a t firs t onl y grea t scientist s coul d make . I n fact , thes e repression s were s o exorbitan t tha t non e o f th e theorist s o f moder n scientifi c skepticis m could possibl y accomplis h them . Fo r i n th e vie w o f Freud , th e repressio n demanded b y th e worldvie w o f scienc e i s nothin g les s tha n total . A s w e have seen , "Th e momen t a ma n ask s abou t th e meanin g an d valu e o f life , he i s sick , sinc e objectivel y neithe r ha s an y existence." 1 1 Freud' s diagnosi s condemns al l o f u s t o th e categor y o f th e mentall y ill . I n th e ligh t o f suc h a diagnosis, Freud' s defens e o f th e herois m o f scienc e i n it s struggl e agains t human megalomani a acquire s a distinctl y hollo w and , a t th e sam e time , paranoid aura . Fo r i f hi s vie w i s correct , ther e i s n o herois m tha t i s no t paranoid, n o reaso n fo r actio n mor e justifiabl e tha n a megalomaniac' s delusion. Th e herois m o f psychoanalysi s lie s i n facin g jus t thi s fact , tha t

34 • Chapter Two the product s o f reaso n ar e n o bette r tha n a paranoia . "Repression, " Freu d observed i n on e o f hi s earl y letters , "i s th e withholdin g o f belief. " Th e withholding o f al l belie f requires , i n thi s sense , a n absolut e repression . "Very well, " replie s th e skeptic , "perhap s i t i s tru e tha t scientifi c culture i n general , an d Freu d i n particular , maintai n a heroi c stanc e i n th e pursuit o f knowledge , an d tha t thi s heroi c stanc e canno t b e justifie d fro m within thei r ow n mod e o f thought . Ethica l value s hav e n o justification — this i s wha t th e scientis t believes , ye t h e goe s o n justifyin g hi s science , insisting tha t i t i s superio r i n huma n dignit y t o th e illusion s fostere d b y religion an d metaphysics . Whe n th e narcissisti c scientis t look s int o th e mirror an d see s hi s heroi c face , h e shoul d recogniz e an d acknowledg e th e paranoid. Instead , h e insist s tha t h e i s simpl y right . Al l thi s ma y b e true , but i t woul d no t d o t o mak e to o muc h o f it . Fo r th e embarrassmen t o f th e scientist itsel f fall s withi n th e spher e o f th e ethica l life—i n othe r words , into tha t ver y spher e h e ha s declare d t o b e withou t meaning . I f th e scientis t cannot fre e himsel f fro m thi s diseas e o f meanin g tha t h e call s narcissism , this show s onl y tha t h e i s human . Huma n being s hav e a wa y o f finding reasons fo r th e unreasonable . A s Nietzsch e pu t it , huma n being s woul d rather wil l nothin g tha n no t t o wil l a t all . Thi s onl y suggest s mor e evidenc e in favo r o f th e psychologist' s clai m tha t ou r irrationalit y i s fundamental. " The resistan t reade r woul d b e justified i n thi s admonitio n i f the inconsis tency o f the theoris t o f scienc e wer e limite d t o consideration s o f the ethical , the spher e o f 'meanin g an d value' . Th e heroi c advocac y o f scienc e woul d then appea r a s a for m o f paranoia , bu t s o woul d m y objectio n t o it . Eac h o f us woul d b e lookin g fo r ethica l conten t i n a domai n o f experienc e tha t th e scientist understand s t o b e mer e narcissisti c projection . Th e scientis t coul d preserve intellectua l consistenc y simpl y b y admittin g tha t th e realit y princi ple ha s n o ethica l significanc e whatever , an d that , fro m a n ethica l stand point, ther e i s n o reaso n wh y anyon e shoul d hav e bothere d t o discove r it . The inconsistenc y o f the scientist , however , i s no t limite d t o that defens e of th e valu e o f scienc e whic h show s th e narcissisti c exces s o f hi s activity . For th e pursui t o f scientifi c investigatio n itsel f fall s unde r th e descriptio n of narcissism . Withi n th e vocabular y o f hi s discipline , Freu d attempt s full y to objectif y th e activit y o f th e intellect , t o se t i t a t a distance , an d t o asses s its transformation s an d displacement s wit h a calculu s o f th e irrational : th e distribution o f 'menta l energy ' i s trace d throug h 'economic ' exchanges , charted b y mean s o f a 'topography' , an d mad e th e subjec t o f a 'dynamics' . We hav e alread y see n th e protea n flexibility o f 'narcissism ' a s a ter m o f analysis, ho w i t ca n provid e th e unifyin g elemen t i n a dram a tha t include s

Paranoid Logic • 3 5 the Quixoti c paranoid , th e ma n wh o create d him , hi s infatuate d admirers , generations o f readers , an d th e psychoanalys t himself . Wha t make s thi s 'uncanny' effec t possibl e i s tha t narcissis m i s a genera l ter m fo r intellectua l interest pe r se . I t is , therefore , a piec e o f terminolog y n o mor e precis e o r explanatory tha n a phras e lik e "th e natur e o f thought. " W e migh t a s wel l appeal t o Plato' s intellectua l Eros , a s Freud , i n fact , sometime s did . Th e difference, o f course , betwee n though t considere d i n it s eroti c vocatio n fo r truth, a s Plat o consider s it , an d Freud' s conceptio n o f narcissis m i s tha t fo r Freud th e activit y o f though t ca n b e understoo d almos t entirel y i n term s o f physical processe s interna l t o th e organism ; it s relatio n t o truth , o r th e world, i s secondar y t o thi s mor e fundamenta l determination . I t leaves , then, n o psychologica l o r intellectua l ground s fo r it s ow n analyti c activity . Under th e auspice s o f neurophysiology , whic h studie s th e instrumen t o f cognition, Freu d practice s a psychologica l reductionis m tha t abolishe s it s contents, i n th e proces s denyin g th e validit y o f al l bu t a fe w huma n motive s in relatio n t o whic h th e other s remai n mer e form s o f disguise . "Very well , then, " le t ou r skepti c no w concede , "i t ma y b e tru e tha t th e most extrem e an d rigorou s reductionist s lik e Freu d d o encounte r a difficult y putting fort h thei r argument s i n suc h a wa y a s ca n stan d u p i n th e fac e o f their ow n anti-intellectualis t assumptions . Bu t i t doe s no t see m tha t yo u yourself hav e succeede d i n escapin g th e orbi t o f Freudia n reductionism . For yo u ar e stil l usin g th e concep t o f 'repression' . Whethe r o r no t th e repression wa s cause d b y th e findings o f scienc e o r b y a particula r interpre tation pu t upo n thos e findings, th e us e o f th e ter m 'repression ' implie s a n economy o f intellectua l energy , an d suc h a n econom y ca n onl y b e physical . 'Repression' i s inseparabl e fro m reductiv e psychology. " Once agai n th e skepti c sound s a usefu l warning . An d upo n thi s poin t i t is necessar y t o b e mos t clear . I a m no t proposin g th e mechanis m o f repression, o r renunciation , a s a wa y o f explainin g th e visibilit y o f paranoi a in moder n culture . Repressio n doe s no t preced e an d produc e th e phenome non. Rather , paranoi a an d repressio n ar e constitute d togethe r a s par t o f th e discourse o f 'reality ' upo n whic h moder n philosophica l cultur e i s based . Paranoia di d no t com e int o existenc e a s a ter m unti l th e mid-nineteent h century, bu t th e attitud e towar d thinkin g tha t i t implie s wa s fundamenta l t o the discours e o f modernit y fro m th e seventeent h centur y onward . Thi s discourse treat s th e product s o f though t wit h profoun d suspicion . I t seek s to groun d al l knowledg e i n th e evidenc e o f th e senses , bu t i t believe s tha t even thos e rudimentar y instrument s o f experienc e d o no t provid e u s wit h a true objec t o f knowledge . Fo r thi s tradition , claim s t o substantia l knowl -

36 • Chapter Two edge o f physica l object s o r t o objectiv e mora l knowledg e gai n th e statu s o f what Freu d calle d 'projection' . T o believ e i n the m i s t o be , ultimately , n o different fro m th e paranoid . Thi s attitud e wa s understoo d b y som e o f it s originators—Locke an d Hum e i n particular—t o b e prejudicia l t o th e claims o f science , bu t b y th e tim e o f Freu d i t ha d becom e integrate d int o the scientifi c Weltanschauun g h e exemplifies , potentl y combined , strangel y enough, wit h a fait h i n mechanisti c explanatio n wit h whic h i t i s quit e in compatible. The concept s o f paranoi a an d projection , therefore , ar e themselve s instruments o f repression , an d tha t repressio n consist s o f nothin g othe r than th e psychologica l effect s o f acceptin g paranoi a a s a self-description . It i s no t simpl y tha t menta l object s ar e bein g lost : th e psych e i s bein g asked t o giv e u p al l objects , al l claim s t o authorit y an d truth . I n it s inevitable failur e t o d o so , i t i s submitte d t o th e logica l an d psychologica l stress o f self-contradictio n an d self-frustration . Le t u s continu e takin g Freud a s ou r exampl e o f thi s problem . Freud' s psycholog y begin s wit h a negation o f thought . H e reduce s menta l content s t o th e functionin g o f a physical Eros . Thi s allow s hi m t o produc e a n accoun t o f th e processe s o f thought tha t ca n b e accepte d a s a physica l description . Bu t i n doin g so , Freud introduce s int o hi s ow n discours e th e ver y paranoi d logi c h e attempt s to diagnose . Th e roo t o f thi s logi c i s wha t w e migh t cal l th e reductionist' s impasse. W e hav e alread y encountere d thi s phenomeno n i n th e Freudia n negation o f th e ethical ; bu t th e psychologica l implication s o f a genera l reduction o f though t ar e s o importan t tha t th e matte r i s wort h statin g mor e fully. Th e reductionis t want s t o sa y tha t th e result s o f though t ar e deter mined b y thei r relatio n t o som e othe r for m o f caus e beside s tha t o f logica l implication. Le t u s assum e i n thi s cas e tha t th e reductio n i s o f th e psycho logical, Freudia n type . Th e reductionis t argues , then , tha t th e thinkin g agent i s drive n b y motive s tha t ar e irrational , unconscious , an d uncontrolla ble, motive s tha t ca n b e altere d onl y insofa r a s th e agen t need s t o b e engaged wit h hi s o r he r surroundings . Onl y wit h referenc e t o thes e psycho logical force s ca n intellectua l discours e b e understood . Bu t onc e thi s argument ha s bee n proposed , i t too , o f course , mus t b e ascribe d t o irratio nal, unconscious , an d uncontrollabl e motives , thu s servin g a s it s ow n refutation. Th e reductionis t establishe s a for m o f inquir y tha t ca n hav e brilliant result s a s lon g a s i t i s applie d t o th e discours e o f others . Bu t i t cannot kee p fro m turnin g bac k upo n itself . I t constantl y encounter s a single stubbor n exception : lik e th e origina l Narcissus , i t canno t escap e th e reflection o f it s ow n image .

Paranoid Logic • 3 7 The psychologica l difficultie s tha t bese t th e paranoi d ar e immediatel y reflected i n th e logica l impass e o f reductionism . I t duplicate s bot h th e paranoid's excessiv e clai m t o hi s ow n wort h an d hi s hostilit y towar d other s who refus e t o accep t tha t claim . Th e reductionis t begin s wit h a n aggressiv e negation o f th e integrit y o f th e though t o f others , b y mean s o f thi s gestur e resolving th e ver y substanc e o f discours e int o element s foreig n t o itself . A t the sam e tim e h e assert s th e forc e o f hi s ow n discours e b y mean s o f thi s universal negation . Makin g a withdrawa l fro m al l intellectua l commitment , he establishe s illusio n an d erro r a s universa l structures . H e inhabits , then , a worl d deservin g o f hi s suspicion . Bu t whe n i t come s t o th e certitud e o f his ow n claim , th e reductionis t make s himsel f a n exception . Hi s discours e must preserv e it s objec t whil e deprivin g al l other s o f theirs . Reductionis m depends upo n th e preservatio n o f thi s inequality . I n orde r t o succeed , i t must appl y on e metho d o f procedure , a friendl y one , t o th e validatio n o f it s own claims , an d another , hostil e metho d t o th e claim s o f others . B y th e very structur e o f it s logic , then , i t give s ris e t o a psycholog y o f herois m an d defensiveness, privileg e an d resentment , fo r th e exceptionalis m o f th e reductionist ca n neve r b e justified , no t eve n a t th e mos t desperat e redoubt , when th e heroi c debunke r assert s hi s entitlemen t o n th e basi s o f hi s abilit y to demystif y himself . Reductiv e thinkin g divide s th e intellectua l worl d int o self an d other , an d set s the m i n hostilit y t o eac h other . Her e i s th e tru e model o f th e narcissisti c gestur e o f withdrawa l tha t Freu d describe d a s th e dynamic forc e o f progres s operatin g i n huma n history . In th e treacherou s disequilibrium , then , o f th e reductionis t positio n d o we find th e hazard s t o whic h th e theor y o f paranoi a provide s bot h a description an d a n example . Psychoanalysi s take s it s characte r fro m th e attempt t o maintai n thi s supremel y productiv e self-contradiction . I t i s no t narcissism bu t th e theor y o f narcissis m tha t create s th e paranoi d phenom ena. Freud' s paranoi d unself-consciousl y take s hi s thought s t o b e a par t o f reality. Freu d to o take s the m t o b e a par t o f reality—no t hi s own , bu t th e paranoid's. Whereve r h e looks , th e psychologis t discover s tha t narcissis m has extende d it s projections , i n form s energeti c an d menacing . Suc h pro jections mus t the n b e submitte d t o a proces s o f deflatio n an d demystifica tion equall y energeti c an d aggressive . Bu t th e distanc e th e analys t ha s opened betwee n hi s ow n though t an d tha t o f th e paranoi d permit s th e establishing o f n o stabl e difference—onl y a reflection , a n imag e o f a self image alread y i n th e negative . Fo r th e psychologis t to o i s a narcissist . H e cannot preven t himsel f fro m manifestin g projection s an d presupposition s and narcissisti c investment s o f hi s own . H e i s barel y close r tha n hi s

38 • Chapter Two patients t o havin g a n unimpede d gras p upo n 'reality' . Hi s singl e hop e i s that h e ca n brin g other s t o accep t th e realit y principle , whic h i s t o say , t o share hi s dilemm a o n hi s terms . Suc h a ventur e mus t succee d o r fai l o n th e basis o f power , prestige , an d authority . S o th e scientist , a s a las t avata r o f the prima l father , defend s hi s plac e i n history , admittin g a t th e sam e tim e that hi s clai m t o knowledg e ha s n o othe r motiv e tha n th e selfis h an d unequal competitio n fo r narcissisti c libido , th e zero-su m gam e o f Eros , which h e believe s t o hav e bee n th e stimulu s t o huma n progres s al l along . In fairnes s t o Freu d i t mus t b e state d a t thi s poin t tha t h e explicitl y disclaimed th e reductionis t position , insistin g tha t th e psychologica l mo tives tha t lea d t o th e framin g o f scientifi c proposition s hav e nothin g t o d o with whethe r the y ar e tru e o r false . H e maintaine d a researcher' s fait h i n observation, and , thoug h h e admire d Nietzsche , h e resiste d th e temptation s of Nietzsche's stil l mor e radicall y reductiv e psychology . Bu t th e psycholog y Freud constructe d ou t o f hi s observation s lef t littl e plac e fo r rationa l delib eration. Suc h reaso n a s w e ca n sustai n withi n ourselve s come s fro m a tenuous balanc e o f irrationa l elements . Ou r eg o remain s a servan t t o th e unconscious, an d huma n fat e lie s mor e i n th e determination s o f ou r inne r workings tha n i n relatio n t o th e outsid e world , whic h engage s ou r interes t largely i n respons e t o th e prompting s o f desire . W e ar e al l sick , deluded , frustrated. Th e aberration s o f th e neuroti c an d th e paranoi d merel y sho w u s our ow n tendencie s exaggerate d an d clarified . Wha t appear s t o b e carica ture i n the m i s actuall y th e trues t imag e o f th e huma n situation . Freud di d no t hesitat e t o dra w th e reductionis t implication s o f hi s findings. H e believe d tha t philosoph y woul d hav e t o recogniz e th e ne w relation betwee n min d an d bod y tha t th e discover y o f th e unconsciou s ha d brought int o relief . H e als o believe d tha t th e characte r o f philosoph y mad e it peculiarl y susceptibl e t o psychoanalyti c interpretation : Philosophical theorie s an d system s hav e bee n th e wor k o f a smal l numbe r o f me n of strikin g individuality . I n n o othe r scienc e doe s th e personalit y o f th e scientifi c worker pla y anythin g lik e s o larg e a par t a s i n philosophy . An d no w fo r th e first time psycho-analysi s enable s u s t o construc t a 'psychography ' o f a personality . I t teaches u s t o recogniz e th e affectiv e units—th e complexe s dependen t o n in stincts—whose presenc e i s t o b e presume d i n eac h individual , an d i t introduce s us t o the stud y o f the transformation s an d end-product s arisin g from thes e instinc tual forces . I t reveal s th e relation s o f a person' s constitutiona l dispositio n an d th e events of his life t o the achievements ope n t o him owing to his peculiar gifts . I t ca n conjecture wit h mor e or less certaint y fro m a n artist' s work th e intimate personalit y that lie s behin d it . I n th e sam e way , psycho-analysi s ca n indicat e th e subjectiv e and individua l motive s behind philosophica l theorie s which hav e ostensibly sprun g

Paranoid Logic • 3 9 from impartia l logica l work , an d ca n dra w a critic' s attentio n t o th e wea k spot s i n the system . I t i s no t th e busines s o f psycho-analysis , however , t o undertak e suc h criticism itself , for , a s ma y b e imagined , th e fac t tha t a theor y i s psychologicall y determined doe s no t i n the leas t invalidat e it s scientific truth. 12 This descriptio n o f 'psychography ' contain s Freud' s mos t ambitiou s claim t o th e powe r o f diagnosin g othe r intellectual s throug h thei r creations . At th e sam e time , Freu d recognize s a modes t an d judiciou s limi t whe n h e observes tha t ther e i s on e proces s b y whic h psychoanalysi s scrutinize s a philosophical syste m fo r it s symptomati c significanc e an d anothe r b y whic h the intellectua l significanc e o f th e 'system ' mus t b e assessed . Th e proble m with thi s seemingl y reasonabl e divisio n o f labor , however , i s tha t th e coherence an d self-consistenc y tha t mak e a syste m a syste m ar e th e ver y characteristics tha t signa l th e determination s o f 'narcissism' o r th e 'pleasur e principle'. I f thes e characteristic s ca n b e accounte d fo r entirel y o n a psychological basis , ther e seem s littl e nee d fo r a furthe r applicatio n t o reality: " A syste m i s bes t characterize d b y th e fac t tha t a t leas t tw o reason s can b e discovere d fo r eac h o f it s products : a reaso n base d upo n th e premises o f th e syste m (a reason, then, which may be delusional) an d a concealed reason , whic h w e mus t judg e t o b e th e trul y operativ e an d th e real one " (emphasi s added). 1 3 Suc h statement s leav e n o doub t tha t th e "truly operativ e an d real " reason s ar e th e psychologica l ones . Th e res t are pretexts . Freud ha d n o hesitatio n abou t consignin g religion , myth , metaphysics — all o f pas t culture , i n othe r words—t o th e categorie s o f unconsciou s wish fulfillment, superstition , illusion , an d paranoia : In poin t o f fac t I believ e tha t a larg e par t o f th e mythologica l vie w o f th e world , which extend s a long way into the mos t moder n religions , i s nothing but psycholog y projected int o the external world . Th e obscure recognition (th e endopsychic percep tion, a s i t were) of psychical factor s an d relation s i n the unconscious i s mirrored — it i s difficult t o express i t i n othe r terms , an d ther e th e analog y wit h paranoi a mus t come to our aid — in the constructio n o f a supernatural reality , whic h i s destined t o be change d bac k onc e mor e b y scienc e int o th e psycholog y o f th e unconscious . One could ventur e t o explain i n thi s wa y the myth s of paradise an d th e fall o f man , of God , o f goo d an d evil , o r immortality , an d s o on, an d t o transfor m metaphysic s into metapsychology . Th e ga p betwee n th e paranoic' s displacemen t an d tha t o f th e superstitious perso n i s less wide than i t appear s a t first sight. 14 Transforming metaphysic s int o metapsycholog y s o tha t it s kinshi p wit h superstition an d paranoi a ca n b e recognized—i t woul d b e har d t o achiev e a neate r formulatio n o f th e psychoanalyst' s projec t tha n that . Ther e ar e

40 • Chapter Two some qualifyin g phrases . Freu d refer s t o " a larg e par t o f th e mythologica l view o f th e world, " no t al l o f it . Bu t w e hav e alread y see n tha t h e i s willin g to dra w ver y fe w rea l limit s t o th e scop e o f psychoanalyti c power . Th e unconscious ha s a structura l integrity , a wholenes s an d completenes s o f it s own tha t mirrors, a s Freu d says , tha t o f mythologica l thought . Th e reade r will recal l tha t Freu d credite d animis m wit h havin g embodie d th e mos t complete syste m o f explanatio n becaus e i t provide d th e mos t perfec t reflec tion o f th e psychological . Par t o f hi s intentio n wa s t o mak e i t eviden t tha t there ar e n o intellectua l structure s standin g outsid e th e field o f narcissisti c projection. Al l mus t b e "transforme d int o metapsychology, " transformed , that is , i n a wa y tha t provide s th e origina l idea s wit h ne w content s whic h utterly chang e thei r meanin g an d relatio n t o reality . Th e reductiv e ambitio n of psychoanalysi s respect s n o limit s a t all. 1 5 Fo r it s 'narcissistic ' gaze , tw o complete worlds , o f min d an d reality , mirro r eac h othe r wit h a mutuall y ironizing reflection . What w e hav e i n th e theor y o f psychoanalysi s i s th e exampl e o f a discourse s o radicall y suspiciou s tha t i t admit s n o ground s fo r it s ow n authority. Ye t i t goe s on , i n grandiose , paranoi d style , assertin g it s author ity nonetheless . Psychoanalysis , then , undergoe s th e vicissitude s o f it s ow n self-negation, vicissitude s which , thoug h the y ma y b e o f a n abstrac t an d logical kind , lea d u s quickl y t o th e problem s o f socia l authority , o f ou r relations t o th e pas t an d t o eac h other . Th e socia l an d historica l implica tions rang e fa r beyon d th e issue s o f metho d i n socia l science , extendin g into th e domai n o f ou r psychologica l experienc e itself . A s I wil l sho w i n a later chapter , Freudia n scienc e coul d dra w upo n dee p reserve s o f suspicio n at th e hear t o f moder n culture , no t onl y i n th e scientifi c metho d bu t i n modern view s o f philosophy , history , an d politics . Lon g befor e Freud , modern intellectual s ha d bee n livin g ou t th e contradiction s h e articulate d in hi s theor y an d sufferin g th e consequence s o f a n excessivel y suspiciou s view o f th e world .

THREE Paranoid Psychology After all , yo u ar e psychoanalysi s i n person ! — Sandor Ferencz i t o Freu d

Recent thinkin g abou t th e psycholog y o f paranoi a ha s tende d strongl y t o discourage Freud' s contentio n tha t i t ha s a singl e caus e o r represent s a single condition . 'Paranoia ' no w accompanie s a broa d rang e o f conditions , rarely, i f ever , occurrin g i n a pur e form . Th e rang e begin s wit h peopl e wh o have rigi d an d suspiciou s personalitie s ye t functio n mor e o r les s success fully i n society , an d extend s t o psychoti c patient s wit h megalomaniaca l o r messianic delusions . Diagnosti c term s stretc h fro m mer e 'paranoi d person ality' t o 'schizophrenia , paranoi d type'. * Paranoi a i s " a syndrome: a constel lation o f symptom s whic h ten d t o occu r togethe r bu t whic h ca n b e cause d by man y differen t factor s an d ca n eve n b e see n a s a secondar y accompani ment o f othe r illnesses , suc h a s organi c diseases." 2 Paranoi a ma y develo p in relativel y norma l peopl e i n time s o f stres s o r depression . I t i s bes t understood a s a 'slant', 3 a n 'outlook' , a 'style' , a 'mod e o f thinking'. 4 I t ca n be usefull y place d i n a typolog y alongsid e othe r 'neuroti c styles' : th e 'obsessive-compulsive', th e 'hysteric' , 'th e impulsive'. 5 Mos t paranoid s manage t o hol d job s an d t o concea l thei r conditio n muc h o f th e time . The y are n o mor e likel y t o b e foun d i n a n asylu m tha n i n society , wher e the y may exer t considerabl e influence : The paranoi d individua l ma y significantl y affec t th e cours e o f histor y itself , a s di d Hitler an d [Joh n Wilkes ] Booth . H e ma y b e involve d i n man y area s o f th e community: obstreperou s citizen , cunnin g politician , delusiona l clergyma n wit h excessive religiosity . Hi s influenc e ma y b e a s calamitou s a s tha t o f th e paranoi d assassin o r a s subtl e a s tha t o f th e embittere d offic e worke r wh o feel s mistreate d and plant s seed s o f discontent i n hi s co-workers . Ther e ma y b e n o adverse effects ; the researche r wh o i s activel y delusiona l ma y b e abl e t o perform scientifi c experi ments wit h grea t skil l an d perhap s ma y eve n b e aide d b y th e withdrawa l o f socia l contact whic h give s him ampl e tim e to spend i n th e laboratory. 6 41

42 • Chapter Three Taking u p thi s flexible applicatio n o f th e ter m 'paranoia' , i t wil l no t b e necessary t o equat e Freudia n psycholog y strictl y wit h an y for m o f psycho sis, bu t merel y t o se e tha t i t represent s a n exampl e o f th e 'paranoi d slant ' in it s mos t elaborat e an d self-consciou s form . I n th e wor k o f Freud , para noia achieve s th e statu s o f a worldvie w wit h it s ow n self-generatin g logic , building upo n th e alread y well-develope d tren d o f suspicio n i n moder n culture—that cultur e which , i n proclaimin g itsel f t o b e modern , define s itself i n suspiciou s rejectio n o f th e past . I f th e argumen t o f th e foregoin g chapter i s correct , th e psychologica l descriptio n o f paranoi a i s itsel f bot h a symptom an d a caus e o f suspicion . Freud' s ow n involvemen t wit h th e theor y exceeded an y ordinar y sens e o f intellectua l commitment . I n fac t ther e i s reason t o suspect , a s E . M . Thornto n ha s argued , tha t Freud' s persona l paranoia wen t wel l beyon d a mer e 'paranoi d slant' , tha t i t involve d psy chotic distortion s o f reality . I f Thornto n i s correct , Freud' s paranoi a ha d a physical cause : hi s addictio n t o cocaine. 7 Thu s t o th e logica l vicissitude s of reductiv e thinkin g an d th e cultura l momentu m o f suspicio n w e migh t add th e somati c an d psychologica l effect s o f cocain e addiction . Whil e I emphasize primaril y th e first an d secon d o f thes e causes , th e thir d shoul d nevertheless b e kep t i n mind . Besides expandin g th e categorie s o f paranoi d behavior , late r analysi s has als o enriche d th e descriptio n o f paranoi d thinkin g an d thu s wil l b e o f help a s w e mov e fro m ou r analysi s o f the intellectua l origin s o f the paranoi d worldview t o th e manifestatio n o f it s characteristi c symptom s i n th e dis course o f psychoanalysi s an d th e scientifi c person a o f Freud . Davi d Swan son an d hi s collaborators 8 identif y seve n fundamenta l characteristics : 1. Projection. Thi s i s th e "sin e qu a no n o f th e paranoi d mode " (8) . Projection i s th e mistakin g o f one' s ow n menta l state s fo r externa l reality . The formulatio n i s essentiall y Freud's , closel y linke d wit h th e concep t o f narcissism. Swanso n give s th e favorit e Freudia n exampl e o f primitiv e ani mism, i n whic h object s ar e though t o f a s havin g "goo d souls, " t o illustrat e this tendenc y o f though t (10) . Paranoid s projec t thei r self-critica l tenden cies outwar d ont o others , seein g the m a s aggressiv e an d threatening . Un able t o accep t blame , the y prefe r t o accus e other s o f thei r ow n faults . 2. Hostility. Th e paranoi d see s th e worl d aroun d hi m a s fundamentall y hostile, an d hi s convictio n tha t thi s i s s o make s hi m sensitiv e t o ever y apparent sligh t o r trac e o f animu s directe d hi s way . Naturally , hi s attitud e ensures tha t th e worl d aroun d hi m wil l cooperat e wit h hi s delusion s b y responding negativel y t o hi s rigid , defensiv e behavior .

Paranoid Psychology • 3. Suspicion. Th e paranoi d i s hyperalert , full y mobilize d a t al l time s t o defend himsel f agains t threat . H e lose s hi s appreciatio n fo r th e norma l social contex t b y scannin g i t constantl y fo r hint s o f malice , transformin g his environmen t int o a manifol d o f signs: "Hi s interes t i s no t i n th e apparen t world, bu t i n th e worl d behin d th e apparen t world , t o whic h th e apparen t world onl y give s clues . Thus , th e subjec t matte r o f hi s interes t ha s t o d o with hidde n motives , underlyin g purposes , specia l meanings , an d th e like . He doe s no t necessaril y disagre e wit h th e norma l perso n abou t th e exis tence o f an y fact ; h e disagree s onl y abou t it s significance." 9 Paranoi a i s fundamentally, a s Freu d pu t it , a n "interpretativ e delusion." 1 0 4. Centrality. Th e paranoi d sense s tha t al l eye s ar e focuse d upo n him . He assume s tha t th e peopl e aroun d hi m ar e a s muc h preoccupie d wit h hi m as h e i s wit h them . H e frequentl y make s error s o f reference, supposin g tha t remarks innocentl y directe d elsewher e ar e actuall y abou t him . 5. Delusions. Th e delusion s o f paranoid s ten d t o hav e a stable , system atic character . The y ma y contai n a grai n o f trut h an d ofte n considerabl e plausibility, makin g thi s conditio n proverbiall y th e mos t methodica l mad ness (16) . 6. Loss of Autonomy. Th e paranoi d i s obsesse d wit h controllin g hi s ow n actions an d reactions , an d h e fear s th e interferenc e o f others . Th e sens e o f being controlle d b y force s outsid e oneself , ofte n malig n o r hostil e supernat ural powers , i s a majo r tendenc y o f paranoi d delusion. 1 1 7. Grandiosity. Th e paranoi d tend s t o exaggerat e th e sens e o f hi s ow n power an d worth . Man y observer s tak e thi s a s a for m o f compensatio n fo r a more fundamenta l sens e o f inferiority . As w e no w tak e u p th e subjec t o f Freud' s intellectua l stanc e an d person ality a s the y ar e reveale d i n hi s theory , i n hi s attitud e towar d hi s col leagues, hi s opponents , an d th e worl d a t large , w e shal l se e tha t eac h o f these symptoms , wit h th e possibl e exceptio n o f delusion , i s abundantl y evident. I t ma y see m surprising , t o begi n with , tha t th e founde r o f psycho analysis shoul d b e though t guilt y o f th e cardina l si n o f projection, fo r di d h e not exten d suspicio n eve n t o hi s ow n thought s an d motives ? Partisan s o f psychoanalysis wil l tel l u s tha t thi s wa s hi s greates t achievement . Bu t i s i t not rathe r th e cas e tha t thi s suspicion , an d th e profoun d hostilit y tha t underlies it , wa s th e ver y substanc e o f Freud' s grea t projection ? Th e fac t that Freudia n suspicio n respect s n o limit , th e fac t tha t i t i s total , betray s its projective , non-empirica l character , t o us e th e Freudia n vocabulary , or , stated mor e broadly , betray s tha t i t i s a produc t o f compulsiv e rhetori c an d

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44 • Chapter Three personal imperativ e rathe r tha n observation . Fro m thi s derive s th e nihilat ing, aprioristi c simplicit y that , i n th e though t o f others , Freu d habituall y diagnoses a s the sign o f projection an d 'secondary revision' . Fo r the psycho analytic mind , nothin g i s wha t i t seems . Ever y huma n ac t mus t b e reduce d within th e cod e o f suspicion . Employing th e theor y o f narcissism , wit h it s properl y 'uncanny ' power , Freud keep s i n pla y th e freedo m o f th e min d t o maste r th e worl d aroun d it whil e acknowledgin g nothin g beyon d it s ow n reflection . Wherea s th e narcissistic consciousnes s o f religio n o r metaphysic s see s itsel f positivel y reflected i n th e worl d tha t i t 'projects' , th e Freudia n recognize s th e reflec tion o f hi s wishe s wit h mistrust . Fo r both , nevertheless , th e pla y o f suc h wishes i s coextensiv e wit h th e psychologica l domai n itself , whic h mean s that th e psychoanalys t ca n maste r thi s domai n withou t havin g t o surrende r attention t o anythin g tha t i s foreig n t o hi s ow n sens e o f orde r an d desire . All h e ha s t o d o i s t o revers e th e significanc e o f eac h sympto m o f menta l life, unmaskin g eac h pretens e o f idealism an d bringin g t o light it s subterra nean connection s wit h Ero s an d aggression . Th e interpretiv e forc e o f suspi cion canno t b e resisted ; i t i s a holisti c 'presupposition' , a s Freu d woul d say; ther e i s nothing i n the mental lif e tha t i t cannot translat e int o it s prope r terms. I t neve r fail s t o discove r i n th e behavio r o f other s th e char m o f self delusion, th e mistakin g o f desir e fo r reality , an d th e temptatio n t o credi t the honest y o f consciou s motives . I t neve r fail s t o recogniz e itself . N o counter-evidence ca n discourag e i t becaus e ther e i s n o singl e detai l tha t can resis t bein g translate d int o it s cod e o f suspicion . Narcissis m i s univer sal. So , i n it s master y o f th e ful l rang e o f narcissisti c projections , psycho analysis create s a univers e o f suspicio n n o les s extensiv e an d satisfyin g t o the mind' s reflecte d glory , an d n o less persuasiv e fo r its internal coherence , than thos e form s o f cultur e i t credit s t o th e 'omnipotenc e o f thoughts' . Fo r good reason , Freu d recognize d th e kinshi p betwee n th e animis t an d th e psychoanalyst. Bot h capitalize d upo n th e huma n capacit y fo r self-infatu ation. The totalizin g powe r o f suspicion i s a formidabl e weapo n i n th e hand s o f a rhetoricia n lik e Freud , wh o ha s th e skil l t o evok e i n hi s reader s a n immediate sens e o f self-recognition. H e asks tha t w e reinterpret ou r action s in a n ironi c an d suspiciou s light , bu t i n retur n w e experienc e a thril l o f comprehension. W e deriv e a sens e o f master y eve n i n recognizin g th e nature o f ou r unfreedom . I t i s n o sligh t t o Freud' s rhetorica l gifts , further more, t o recognize tha t suspicio n i s the most contagiou s o f all attitudes nex t to simpl e fear , an d tha t paranoi a i s th e on e communicabl e menta l disease .

Paranoid Psychology • The triump h o f Freudia n rhetori c wa s mad e al l th e easie r becaus e psychol ogy, mor e tha n an y othe r science , admit s th e hazard s o f suggestion . I t seeks t o illuminat e th e working s o f a n instrumen t o f whic h al l o f u s ca n have bu t on e exampl e directl y i n view . O f thi s example , w e ar e th e sol e observer, whic h make s i t s o muc h th e mor e strikin g t o u s whe n anothe r ca n seem t o anticipat e ou r inne r experience . An d whe n i t come s t o judgin g whether o r no t th e theor y i n questio n adequatel y account s fo r th e function ing o f ou r menta l instrument , w e mus t us e tha t ver y sam e instrumen t t o determine th e outcome . Onl y carefu l control s mak e i t possibl e fo r scientifi c research t o succee d i n th e fac e o f thes e difficulties . Bu t psychoanalysi s relies fo r it s confirmatio n no t upo n controlle d experimen t bu t upo n succes s in th e therapeuti c situation . It s practitioner s themselve s underg o therap y before takin g u p th e wor k o f analysis , s o tha t thei r firs t confirmin g experi ences o f th e treatmen t hav e t o d o wit h thei r ow n symptoms , anxieties , an d problems. Fo r thes e reasons , i t i s b y n o mean s eviden t tha t th e peopl e wh o make thi s for m o f therap y a dail y pursui t ar e mor e likel y t o evaluat e th e theory i n a n objectiv e ligh t tha n th e genera l public . The fac t tha t Freudia n suspicio n ha s th e simplifyin g appea l o f a projec tion help s t o illuminat e on e o f th e centra l psychoanalyti c myths—th e myt h that a n intellectua l commitmen t t o psychoanalysi s demand s a libidina l sacrifice. On e o f Freud' s assumption s i s tha t th e psychoanalys t differ s fro m the paranoi d i n bein g abl e t o rechanne l hi s narcissisti c libid o int o scientifi c investigation, o r t o achiev e simpl e renunciations , wherea s th e paranoid , unable t o cope wit h hi s represse d desire , regresse s t o a primitive , narcissis tic state . Paranoid s "lov e thei r delusion s a s the y lov e themselves . Tha t i s the secret, " Freu d onc e wrote , th e implicatio n bein g that , fo r suc h natures , self-love come s befor e th e attachmen t t o reality. 12 Thi s i s wher e th e scien tist i s superior , i n hi s renunciation : thu s Freud' s strang e boas t t o Sando r Ferenczi, " I hav e succeede d wher e th e paranoia c fails." 1 3 Her e i s on e regard, then , i n whic h Freu d insist s upo n a distanc e betwee n th e scientis t and th e paranoid . Bu t histor y ha s no t born e ou t Freud' s vie w tha t embracin g psychoanalysis require s psycho-erotic , o r 'narcissistic' , renunciation . Eve n though psychoanalyti c doctrin e exact s a drasti c for m o f intellectua l repres sion, i t nevertheles s seem s t o mak e som e kin d o f satisfyin g psychologica l return. Fo r contrar y t o psychoanalyti c dogma , th e movemen t ha s com manded a n attractio n fo r th e popula r mind , a dept h o f commitmen t amon g its adherents , an d a leve l o f acceptanc e amon g intellectual s al l o f whic h exceed wha t i s justifie d b y th e scientifi c validatio n o f th e theory . Take n i n broad stroke s i t seem s t o be , fo r man y people , a compelling , almos t

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46 • Chapter Three irresistible bod y o f doctrine . Thos e wh o believ e i t vastl y outnumbe r thos e who understan d it . I t i s th e allure , th e charism a o f psychoanalysi s tha t needs t o b e explained , no t th e imaginar y resistanc e i t evokes. 1 4 An d ther e seems n o bette r wa y t o explai n thi s allur e tha n t o recogniz e it s profoun d appeal t o th e mind' s sens e o f wha t shoul d be . Freud's theor y offers , then , afte r al l o f hi s disclaimers , th e sam e plea sure an d attractio n h e impute d t o th e religiou s an d philosophica l system s he mocked ; psychoanalysi s an d metaphysic s canno t b e distinguishe d upo n psychological grounds . Bu t i t would b e negligen t o f the characte r o f psycho analysis t o portra y it s sol e appea l a s tha t o f philosophica l generality . Psychoanalysis ca n legitimatel y clai m t o hav e brough t it s gaz e t o th e leve l of everyda y life . An d her e w e se e th e full , paranoi d developmen t o f th e interpretive system of suspicion. Fo r n o aspec t o f behavio r i s to o trivia l fo r its consideration : i n th e mos t trivia l sign s i t finds th e deepes t significance . Nothing ca n b e to o small , o r to o large , fo r it s attention : dreams , jokes , works o f art , neurose s an d psychoses , totemis m an d religion , grou p psy chology, civilizatio n itself—Freu d reinterprete d th e entir e rang e o f huma n experience. Inheritin g a cultur e tha t ha d strippe d th e worl d o f significance , he discovere d a ne w kin d o f significanc e i n ever y aspec t o f lif e tha t ha d ever onc e ha d a meaning . Thi s i s wha t give s psychoanalysi s wha t Ernes t Gellner calle d it s "world-fillin g exhaustiveness." 1 5 Eve n superstitio n turn s out t o hol d a certai n psychologica l truth. 1 6 Fo r th e psycholog y o f th e unconscious, nothin g i s accidental . Th e unconsciou s i s origina l provi dence. Th e significanc e tha t i t conceal s i s no t a tru e desig n bu t th e nee d for design , no t a n idea l tha t dominate s appetit e bu t a necessar y an d pragmatic urg e t o concea l ra w appetit e an d selfishnes s fro m ou r fello w human being s an d fro m ourselves—t o patc h u p th e gap s o f th e worl d wit h the tattere d rag s o f philosoph y (t o paraphras e on e o f Freud' s favorit e line s of Heine). 1 7 I t i s ou r nee d fo r disguis e tha t justifies suspicion , psychoanaly sis tell s us , an d ou r fea r o f knowin g thi s trut h tha t make s i t profound . In a rar e momen t whe n Freu d wa s attemptin g t o restrai n hi s tendenc y toward mistrust , h e confesse d tha t "th e psychoanalyti c habi t o f drawin g important conclusion s fro m smal l sign s i s . . . difficul t t o overcome." 1 8 T o comprehend th e dept h o f Freud' s habit-formin g scienc e o f suspicion , an d with i t th e microscopi c focu s o f it s scrutiny , i t i s enoug h simpl y t o recal l the subject s treate d i n th e first te n chapter s o f The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: Th e Forgettin g o f Prope r Names ; Th e Forgettin g o f Foreig n Words; Th e Forgettin g o f Name s an d Set s o f Words ; Childhoo d Memorie s and Scree n Memories ; Slip s o f th e Tongue ; Misreading s an d Slip s o f th e

Paranoid Psychology • Pen; Th e Forgettin g o f Impression s an d Intentions ; Bungle d Actions ; Symp tomatic an d Chanc e Actions ; an d Errors . Freu d taugh t u s i n thes e chapter s to discove r th e aggressive , self-servin g motive s tha t wer e s o boldl y an d conspicuously displaye d i n th e heroi c origin s o f huma n culture , no w stil l a t work i n ever y stra y an d cover t motio n o f th e intellect . Inadvertency , igno rance, failur e i n thi s vie w ar e neve r insignifican t but , rather , sign s fo r th e adept. I t i s a stri p teas e o f th e unconscious : "Ever y chang e i n th e clothin g usually worn , ever y smal l sig n o f carelessness—suc h a s a n unfastene d button—every trac e o f exposure , i s intende d t o expres s somethin g whic h the weare r o f th e clothe s doe s no t wan t t o sa y straigh t ou t an d fo r whic h h e is fo r th e mos t par t unaware." 1 9 A sli p o f th e tongu e avoid s a shamefu l topic; a forgotte n wor d lead s bac k b y associatio n t o som e narcissisticall y wounding idea ; a broke n appointmen t conceal s a hidde n reluctanc e ou t o f vanity o r greed , a n accidenta l injur y a self-punitiv e o r superstitiousl y sacrificial wish ; eve n randoml y chose n number s hol d a secre t significance . How man y o f Freud' s mino r error s doe s h e trac e t o hi s ow n greedines s fo r fees o r scientifi c credi t (205) ! Paranoia hardl y seem s a n aberratio n i n thi s context , an d Freud , a s usual, doe s no t den y th e resemblanc e betwee n hi s ow n operation s an d those o f th e paranoid . Rather , h e give s generou s credi t t o paranoi d insight : A striking an d generall y observe d featur e o f the behaviou r o f paranoics i s that the y attach th e greates t significanc e t o th e mino r detail s o f othe r people' s behaviou r which w e ordinaril y neglect , interpre t the m an d mak e the m th e basi s o f far reaching conclusions . . . . Th e categor y o f wha t i s accidenta l an d require s n o motivation, i n whic h th e norma l perso n include s a par t o f hi s ow n psychica l performances an d parapraxes , i s thu s rejecte d b y th e paranoi c a s fa r a s th e psychical manifestation s o f other peopl e ar e concerned . Everythin g h e observe s i n other peopl e i s ful l o f significance , everythin g ca n b e interpreted . Ho w doe s h e reach thi s position? Probabl y her e a s in s o many simila r case s h e project s o n to the mental lif e o f othe r peopl e wha t i s unconsciousl y presen t i n hi s own . I n paranoi a many sort s o f thing s forc e thei r wa y throug h t o consciousnes s whos e presenc e i n the unconsciou s o f norma l an d neuroti c peopl e w e ca n demonstrat e onl y throug h psycho-analysis. I n a certai n sense , therefore , th e paranoi c i s justified i n this , fo r he recognize s somethin g tha t escape s th e norma l person : h e see s mor e clearly tha n someone o f normal intellectua l capacity , bu t th e displacement o n to other people of the stat e o f affairs whic h h e recognizes render s hi s knowledge worthless. (255—56 ) The paranoi d applie s t o other s th e suspicio n tha t he , i n hi s grandios e delusion, s o thoroughl y deserves . An d Freu d know s tha t al l o f u s actuall y deserve thi s suspicion , fo r non e o f u s i s trul y differen t fro m th e paranoid . And onc e Freu d ha s give n u s thi s insight—possesse d i n a worthles s for m

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48 • Chapter Three by th e paranoid , i n scientifi c for m b y himself—w e ar e read y t o recogniz e the commo n egocentris m o f humanit y an d t o shar e th e paranoid' s suspicio n in al l o f it s exquisitel y detaile d an d systemati c elaboration . Th e passag e I have quote d speak s fo r itself . Wha t Freu d say s o f th e paranoi d woul d b e true o f Freu d i f onl y w e wer e t o substitut e fo r th e paranoid' s projectio n of unconsciou s knowledg e th e psychoanalyst' s consciou s an d deliberatel y contrived self-conception , whic h lead s hi m t o recognize i n hi s ow n behavio r and thos e o f other s onl y tha t whic h i s worth y o f suspicion. 2 0 An d fo r th e psychoanalyst, o f course , everythin g w e d o i s worth y o f suspicion , excep t for thos e action s tha t ar e overtl y selfish , violent , o r libidinall y driven . These thing s alon e ca n b e truste d t o presen t thei r tru e aspec t t o th e ob server. With suc h a n attitud e towar d individua l huma n beings , ho w threatenin g must humankin d appea r t o Freu d i n th e mass . I n hi s ingeniou s cas e histories, lik e th e analysi s o f "Dora " o r o f th e "Wol f Man, " h e exercise d the interpretiv e instrument s o f psychoanalysi s t o decod e complexe s o f symbols an d motive s tha t coul d neve r hav e bee n uncovered , o r imagined , by th e patient s themselves . Thes e narrative s compe l b y strangenes s an d complexity. Th e unconsciou s imitate s th e movement s o f a tragi c fate , turning ever y evasio n o f the wil l t o it s ow n use , wit h result s bot h pitifu l an d fearful. Bu t whe n i t move s fro m th e Oedipa l genre , th e analysi s o f individ ual mind s an d fates , t o th e lif e o f socia l institution s an d th e emotiona l sources upo n whic h the y depend , th e Freudia n narrativ e become s a simpl e morality play . Her e th e paranoid' s hostility toward the workings of society is full y develope d an d justified . Ever y appearanc e o f goo d mus t b e expose d as unconsciou s hypocrisy , ever y commitmen t t o publi c interest s an d t o social institution s mus t b e recognize d fo r wha t i t i s — a disguis e fo r narcis sistic gratificatio n o r a painfu l instinctua l concession . T o g o beneat h th e surface o f socia l existenc e an d conver t eac h appearanc e t o it s opposite , t o demystify ever y clai m o f socia l value , haulin g i t u p fro m th e depth s o f collective delusio n ont o th e horizo n o f analysis , thi s metho d give s t o Freud ian scienc e it s simpl e an d dramati c appeal . Wit h respec t t o th e idealize d aspects o f culture , th e metho d achieve s it s mos t glamorousl y paradoxica l results. Her e i s Freud , fo r instance , o n th e psychologica l origin s o f socia l justice: What appear s late r on in societ y i n the shape of Gemeingeist, esprit de corps, 'group spirit', etc. , doe s no t beli e it s derivatio n fro m wha t wa s originall y envy . N o on e must wan t t o put himsel f forward , everyon e mus t b e th e sam e an d hav e th e same . Social justice mean s that w e deny ourselves many things so that others may have to

Paranoid Psychology • do withou t the m a s well , or , wha t i s th e sam e thing , ma y no t b e abl e t o as k fo r them. Thi s deman d fo r equalit y i s th e roo t o f socia l conscienc e an d th e sens e o f duty. I t reveal s itsel f unexpectedl y i n th e syphilitic' s drea d o f infectin g othe r people, whic h psycho-analysi s ha s taugh t u s t o understand . Th e drea d exhibite d by thes e poo r wretche s correspond s t o thei r violen t struggle s agains t th e uncon scious wis h t o sprea d thei r infectio n o n t o other people ; for wh y shoul d the y alon e be infecte d an d cu t of f fro m s o much? wh y not othe r peopl e a s well? An d th e sam e germ i s t o b e foun d i n th e ap t stor y o f th e judgemen t o f Solomon . I f on e woman' s child i s dead , th e othe r shal l no t hav e a liv e on e either . Th e bereave d woma n i s recognized b y this wish. Thus socia l feelin g i s base d upo n th e reversa l o f what wa s first a hostile feelin g into a positively-toned ti e i n th e natur e o f an identification. 21 It i s i n passage s lik e thi s tha t Freud' s programmati c intention s becom e clear. Onl y o n th e leve l o f th e individua l ca n th e tru e motive s o f huma n behavior b e understood . Adherenc e t o th e socia l i s a disguise : th e goo d fo r human being s lie s i n privat e satisfactio n alone . Socia l commitment s depen d upon paradoxica l transformation s o f selfishnes s int o harmony , gree d int o generosity, societ y bein g hel d togethe r b y illusion s o f justice an d solidarit y that benefi t th e stron g an d gratif y th e resentmen t o f th e weak . Th e portrai t of th e syphiliti c tormente d b y a n unconsciou s spit e tha t ca n mak e it s wa y into consciousnes s onl y a s a painfu l for m o f altruism , thi s i s suspicio n taken t o a leve l o f darin g tha t mus t b e considere d marvelous . Freud' s conviction tha t socia l lif e consist s o f nothin g beyon d suc h self-punishin g distortions o f aggressio n lead s t o a n outloo k identica l wit h paranoia . Th e syphilitic altruis t i s unforgettable , bu t perhap s Freud' s midras h o n th e judgment o f Solomo n stretche s credulit y eve n further ; fo r surel y i t i s b y a strange logi c that , o f th e thre e adul t character s i n th e story , th e bitte r an d resentful bereave d become s th e exampl e o f th e socia l spirit , whil e th e mother's willingnes s t o sacrific e mus t i n th e en d b e attributed , I suppose , to a narcissisti c investmen t i n he r ow n child . There i s onl y on e fac t tha t keep s psychoanalyti c suspicio n fro m reachin g the elevatio n o f paranoi d psychosis—th e fac t tha t th e psychoanalyst , un like th e full-blow n paranoid , doe s no t entirel y exemp t himsel f fro m th e domain o f suspicion . Hi s suspicio n doe s no t res t o n privat e grounds : i t ascends t o th e leve l o f the universal . Th e psychoanalys t i s thus , i n a sense , even mor e suspiciou s tha n th e paranoid , les s restricte d i n th e for m o f hi s projection, s o tha t i t return s upo n himself . H e recognize s hi s ow n narcissis tic character , hi s ow n fals e idealis m an d ambitiou s motives , a s wel l a s those o f others . H e see s himsel f a s bein g dominate d an d drive n b y a n other, a n unconscious , whic h h e recognize s a s hi s tru e self , makin g th e

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50 • Chapter Three polite, idealisti c characte r o f hi s socia l person a admittedl y a disguise . Yet , by th e peculia r logi c o f suspicion , th e analys t turn s thes e recognition s int o an advantag e fo r hi s theor y an d anothe r sourc e o f it s grandios e appeal . H e portrays huma n consciousnes s a s a n ironize d for m o f heroism , o r narcis sism, ye t th e ver y acceptanc e o f th e iron y implici t i n th e Freudia n concep t of narcissis m i s itsel f a tes t o f strength . I n th e braver y o f self-recognition , of self-suspicion , i t turn s bac k towar d th e trul y heroic . Ironi c herois m becomes heroi c irony . Psychoanalysis propose s itsel f a s a n audaciou s investigatio n tha t begin s in renouncin g an d end s i n vanquishin g al l form s o f idealizin g conscious ness. Th e spiri t o f ques t an d conques t energize s al l o f Freud' s writing . T o see i t w e nee d loo k n o furthe r tha n th e Virgilia n mott o a t th e hea d o f The Interpretation of Dreams: "I f I canno t mov e th e uppe r regions , the n I wil l move th e lower." 2 2 Freu d particularl y like d th e metapho r o f th e depths , the underworld , t o signif y th e adventurou s territor y o f psychoanalyti c re search. B y takin g u s int o th e depths , th e analys t force s u s t o a doubl e acknowledgment. First , confronte d wit h th e denizen s o f th e unconscious , we ar e force d t o acknowledg e wha t w e ar e not : w e ar e no t th e bearer s o f angelic intelligence , being s o f reason , a s ou r narcissis m prompt s u s t o believe. A t th e roo t o f menta l activit y lie s no t th e spiri t bu t th e sexua l driv e and it s instinctua l rivals . I n it s negativ e force , th e "blow s t o huma n megalomania" administere d b y psychoanalysi s sho w a likenes s i n for m t o those earlie r blow s Freu d attribute d t o Copernicu s an d Darwin . Bu t thi s i s just th e first. Psychoanalysi s bid s us , now , t o confron t wha t w e are . I t shows u s i n th e mechanis m o f th e unconsciou s th e origin s o f al l o f ou r narcissistic projections—projection s o f heroism, o f meaning , o f beauty an d divinity. Onc e w e hav e accepte d tha t the y ar e such , mer e symptom s o f self infatuation, w e mus t endur e th e furthe r humiliatio n o f realizin g tha t ther e is n o wa y t o escap e fro m them . Th e cosmo s buil t u p b y a primitiv e narcissistic imaginatio n remain s withi n us , a n interio r cosmos , stil l vita l with it s charg e o f sexua l energ y an d stil l exercisin g it s swa y ove r th e direction o f ou r efforts . I t i s th e difficult y o f thes e recognition s tha t give s heroic force , or , rather , paranoia c grandiosity, t o th e psychoanalyti c worldview. Thi s difficult y i s als o wha t give s valu e t o psychoanalysi s a s a therapy, fo r onl y wit h a guid e lik e Freu d coul d ordinar y soul s mak e th e Virgilian journe y t o th e inne r underworl d an d fac e th e privat e demon s o f that place. 2 3 It i s essentia l t o psychoanalyti c herois m tha t th e distinctio n i t claim s i s almost entirel y o f a relativ e character . A clai m t o genuin e heroism , t o hig h

Paranoid Psychology • motives an d endurin g values , would , accordin g t o it s wa y o f thinking , b e a relapse int o narcissis m an d unself-consciou s delusion . Solel y i n relatio n t o the weaknes s an d naivet e o f other s ca n th e psychoanalyti c her o fee l th e exhilaration o f hi s self-exaltin g irony . Th e ultimat e valu e o f hi s knowledg e lies i n th e superio r strengt h tha t i t demands . I t wa s hi s sens e o f th e grea t significance o f comparativ e strengt h i n th e real m o f inquir y tha t gav e opportunity fo r Freud' s constantl y grandiose , heroi c postures . Her e w e must ente r th e consideratio n o f Freud' s ow n personality . Long befor e h e brough t psychoanalysi s int o existence , Freu d struggle d with hi s nee d fo r heroi c admiration . Fro m th e perio d o f hi s engagemen t t o Martha Bernays , h e wa s lookin g forwar d t o th e attentio n o f hi s biographers , who woul d writ e th e stor y o f "Th e Developmen t o f th e H e r o . " 2 4 Th e youn g Freud foun d i t difficul t t o cop e wit h th e recognitio n tha t h e migh t no t b e a genius, an d coul d b e heartene d t o hav e hi s frien d Breue r recogniz e hi s inner resolve : "H e tol d m e h e ha d discovere d tha t hidde n unde r th e surfac e of timidit y ther e la y i n m e a n extremel y darin g an d fearles s huma n being . I had alway s though t so , bu t neve r dare d tel l anyone." 2 5 Arrivin g a t hi s theory o f th e unconscious , Freu d wa s jubilan t t o pronounc e himsel f th e "conquistador." Throug h al l o f th e struggle s wit h hi s erran t followers , hi s need t o prov e hi s heroi c natur e onl y increased ; thu s h e wrot e t o Ferencz i toward th e en d o f th e Worl d War , " I a m stil l th e giant." 2 6 A s muc h a s an y paranoid, Freu d identifie d himself , i n hi s natur e an d i n hi s intellectua l form o f daring , wit h th e mos t exalte d figures o f history : th e biblica l Jo seph, 2 7 Moses, 2 8 Oedipus, 2 9 Alexande r th e Great , Hannibal, 3 0 Willia m th e Conqueror, Columbus , Leonardo , Copernicus , Kepler , Cromwell , Danton , Napoleon, Garibaldi , Darwin , Bismarck , and , inadvertently , eve n Zeus . This wa s th e compan y i n whic h h e habituall y posed. 3 1 Yet beneat h al l o f Freud' s self-aggrandizemen t ther e wa s a powerfu l an d gnawing sens e o f inferiorit y an d o f thwarte d ambition , a sens e o f bein g resisted an d disliked . Durin g hi s studie s wit h Charco t i n Paris , h e oscil lated betwee n grandeu r an d desperation . " I conside r i t a grea t misfortune, " he wrot e t o hi s fiancee, "tha t natur e ha s no t grante d m e tha t indefinit e something whic h attract s people . I believe i t i s thi s lac k whic h ha s deprive d me o f a ros y existence . I t ha s take n m e s o lon g t o wi n m y friends . I hav e had t o struggl e s o lon g fo r m y preciou s girl , an d ever y tim e I mee t someon e I realiz e tha t a n impulse , whic h defie s analysis , lead s tha t perso n t o underestimate me . Thi s ma y b e a questio n o f expressio n o r temperament , or som e othe r secre t o f nature , bu t whateve r i t ma y b e i t affect s on e deeply." 3 2 Freu d repeate d th e sentimen t twent y year s late r t o Car l Jung :

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52 • Chapter Three "You ar e bette r fitted fo r propaganda, " h e wrot e t o hi s collaborator , "fo r I have alway s fel t tha t ther e i s somethin g abou t m y personality , m y idea s an d manner o f speaking , tha t peopl e find strang e an d repellent , wherea s al l hearts ar e ope n t o you." 3 3 Freud's defensiv e stanc e ha d a powerfu l effec t upo n psychoanalysi s a s an institution , givin g ris e t o a peculiar , hermeti c for m o f socia l organiza tion. 3 4 It s unusua l exclusivit y an d cultishnes s reflecte d Freud' s hostil e an d suspicious attitud e towar d th e worl d a t large . Psychoanalysi s becam e i n hi s hands bot h a theor y o f th e psych e an d a separat e scientifi c movement . It s dual natur e mad e i t a uniqu e developmen t i n moder n scientifi c culture : Freud an d hi s follower s repudiate d th e ecumenica l traditio n o f scienc e carried dow n fro m th e Enlightenment. 3 5 Th e Psychoanalyti c Associatio n was a throwbac k t o th e esoteri c for m o f th e ancien t philosophica l acade mies. 3 6 Almos t fro m th e beginnin g o f psychoanalysis , it s founder s ha d recourse t o a cano n o f dogm a wit h th e primac y o f th e libid o a t it s center . Adherence t o thi s dogm a separate d initiate s fro m th e opposin g professiona l community. Th e exceptionalis t an d schismati c characte r o f th e movemen t made i t susceptibl e t o schism s withi n it s ow n rank s an d le d t o th e fortifica tion o f a n eve r mor e rigi d an d defensiv e orthodoxy . I n 1913 , afte r th e defection o f Jung , Freud' s "anointe d . . . successo r an d crow n p r i n c e , " 3 7 had shattere d th e moral e o f th e movement , Freud' s Englis h discipl e Ernes t Jones propose d a secre t committe e t o b e establishe d aroun d th e perso n o f the maste r i n orde r t o eas e th e burden s o f leadership. 3 8 Freu d wa s s o muc h taken wit h th e schem e tha t h e suspecte d i t t o b e a forgotten ide a o f his own . "The Committee " wa s t o b e hel d togethe r wit h bond s o f specia l loyalty . Each o f it s member s promise d t o shar e researc h an d responsibilit y wit h th e leader; eac h promise d a s wel l no t t o depar t fro m th e centra l teaching s o f psychoanalysis withou t discussin g hi s doubt s wit h th e others . Jone s imag ined tha t suc h bond s woul d overcom e th e norma l psychologica l difficultie s that inhibi t grou p cooperation . Th e member s woul d "purg e awa y al l excres cences o f th e theor y . . . t o coordinat e ou r ow n unconsciou s aim s wit h th e demands an d interest s o f th e movement. " Th e Committe e woul d thu s hav e the unit y o f a singl e self . "Lik e th e Paladin s o f Charlemagne, " h e wrot e Freud, it s member s woul d "guar d th e kingdo m an d polic y o f thei r mas ter. "3 9 Freu d celebrate d th e first meetin g o f Th e Committe e b y givin g eac h of th e member s a Gree k intagli o fro m hi s collection , whic h the y the n ha d mounted o n ring s i n imitatio n o f the intagli o o f Jupiter wor n b y thei r leader . Both Freu d an d Jone s recognize d tha t thi s wa s a "boyish " an d "romantic " form o f behavior . Bu t thi s di d no t restrai n thei r enthusiasm . Freud' s imme -

Paranoid Psychology • diate concer n wa s tha t "Firs t o f all : Thi s committe e woul d hav e t o b e strictly secret i n it s existenc e an d i n it s actions. " 40 Th e self-glorifyin g an d suspicious attitud e tha t produce d th e Psychoanalyti c Associatio n an d Th e Committee proved , lik e other , intellectua l element s o f Freudia n paranoia , to b e self-confirmin g an d self-sustaining . Th e grandiosit y o f Freud , Jones , and th e other s ma y see m comica l an d quixotic , bu t ther e i s n o evidenc e that the y sa w i t i n tha t way . The founder s o f psychoanalysi s mad e Freud' s theor y th e basi s o f a n exclusive intellectua l an d professiona l commitmen t wit h specia l ritual s o f initiation; the y als o employe d psychoanalyti c theor y t o explai n th e world' s supposed reluctanc e t o giv e psychoanalysi s a n immediat e hero' s welcome . This reluctanc e wa s largel y imaginary. 41 I n fact , Freu d 'projected' , i n th e most uncomplicate d sens e o f th e term , hi s ow n hostilit y ont o th e sur rounding intellectua l community , imaginin g tha t i t wa s peculiarl y enrage d by hi s findings. I t i s a n obviou s exampl e o f paranoi d centrality. I n th e mythology o f psychoanalysis , th e imaginar y hostilit y o f th e medica l estab lishment wa s explaine d throug h th e doctrin e o f resistance , whic h hel d tha t the repressio n o f libid o i n th e majorit y o f huma n being s mad e th e theor y o f libido itsel f a sourc e o f anxiet y an d thu s a caus e o f resentment . Thi s doctrine gav e th e earl y Freudian s th e advantag e o f bein g abl e t o interpre t the motive s o f anyon e wh o migh t disagre e wit h them . Th e ir e o f critic s could b e cite d a s proo f o f th e intensit y o f unconsciou s repressio n applie d t o sexuality, th e incredulit y o f unbeliever s a s evidenc e o f a n unwillingnes s t o endure th e wound s t o huma n narcissis m exacte d b y th e Freudia n system . Even slip s o f th e tongu e coul d b e turne d agains t unwittin g opponents . Th e fact tha t psychoanalysi s wa s greete d wit h hostilit y i n som e quarter s wa s taken t o prov e tha t th e universa l tendenc y o f humankin d wa s t o resis t it s teachings. Th e lapsin g awa y o f prominen t disciple s illustrate d th e difficult y of livin g wit h thes e har d truths . Heretic s wer e pitie d a s weakling s unabl e to fac e u p t o th e powe r o f th e unconscious , unabl e t o kee p themselve s fro m disguising i t wit h i t som e pal e reflectio n o f th e ego. 4 2 An d s o th e embattle d internal histor y o f psychoanalysis , combine d wit h a myt h o f externa l resis tance, becam e par t o f th e empirica l evidenc e fo r th e validit y o f Freudia n thinking i n a wa y tha t coul d neve r hav e arise n wit h a theor y generate d i n the norma l researc h environment . Th e doctrin e o f resistanc e seeme d t o have bee n designe d a s muc h fo r polemica l a s fo r analyti c purposes . Psycho analysis cam e t o stan d fo r th e unconsciou s itself : th e mor e it s imperative s were repressed , th e mor e powerfu l i t seeme d t o become . Th e self-confirm ing valu e tha t coul d b e derive d fro m th e histor y o f th e movemen t a s a

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54 • Chapter Three cultural scanda l le d Freu d t o perpetuat e i n retrospec t th e myt h o f hi s earl y reception an d th e extremit y o f hi s earl y isolation . Wit h th e doctrin e o f resistance, h e ha d successfull y importe d int o scienc e th e styl e o f the avant garde, whic h feed s upo n th e appearanc e o f rejection , outrage , an d th e breach o f bourgeoi s manners . Hi s "movement " represent s th e mos t poten t and long-lastin g o f al l th e self-advertisin g cultura l provocation s o f th e earl y twentieth century. 4 3 Science wa s th e on e for m o f herois m towar d whic h Freu d neve r gav e a hint o f suspicion . H e wa s aware , o f course , o f th e treacher y tha t ca n motivate claim s o f difficulty : "Perhap s me n simpl y pronounc e tha t wha t i s more difficul t i s higher , an d thei r prid e i s merel y thei r narcissis m aug mented b y th e consciousnes s o f a difficult y overcome." 4 4 S o h e explain s the appea l o f religiou s renunciation . I t wa s a n insigh t that , uncharacteristi cally, h e refraine d fro m applyin g t o himself . Instead , h e asserte d hi s superiority ove r thos e wh o coul d no t accep t th e har d truth s o f psychoana lytic orthodoxy . It mus t b e admitted , though , tha t whateve r benefit s th e heroi c myt h of th e founde r ma y hav e provide d t o th e psychoanalyti c movement , th e renunciations tha t h e exacte d eve n fro m hi s adherent s prove d t o b e exorbi tantly great . Fo r Freud' s trul y paranoi d obsessio n wit h hi s autonom y an d originality a s a n investigato r prove d t o b e a constantl y divisiv e element . Al l signs amon g hi s follower s o f reluctanc e t o agre e wit h Freu d ha d t o b e explained b y mean s o f th e suspiciou s logi c o f th e unconscious , revealin g father complexes , narcissisti c resistance , o r Oedipa l hostility , dependin g upon th e stag e Freud' s theor y ha d reached. 4 5 O f on e o f hi s adherents , Freud remarked , " I canno t stan d th e parricida l loo k i n hi s e y e s . " 4 6 Disagreement wit h Freu d becam e a for m o f psychopathology , an d mem bers o f th e movemen t wer e adep t a t exposin g th e secre t spring s o f al l suc h transgressions. 47 Th e practic e o f self-intereste d diagnose s continue s amon g analysts t o thi s day. 4 8 No wonder , then , tha t s o man y o f th e mos t gifte d earl y psychoanalyst s found themselve s unabl e t o continu e unde r thes e humiliatin g terms . Freu d had t o b e th e master . I t wa s a n imperativ e o f hi s personality , a s h e wa s well aware , an d h e di d no t ofte n choos e t o resist it . I n The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, writte n befor e th e earlies t beginning s o f organized psycho analysis, h e reveal s tha t "ther e i s scarcel y an y grou p o f idea s t o whic h I feel s o antagonisti c a s tha t o f bein g someone' s proteg e . . . th e rol e o f th e favourite chil d i s on e whic h i s ver y littl e suite d indee d t o m y character . I have alway s fel t a n unusuall y stron g urg e 't o b e th e stron g ma n myself. ' "

Paranoid Psychology • The paranoi d require s a perfec t autonomy . O f th e episod e tha t provoke d this remar k — a n episod e i n whic h Freu d discovere d on e o f hi s ow n heroi c projections contaminatin g th e dat a o f analysis—h e goe s o n t o not e tha t i t is " a goo d illustratio n o f th e wa y i n whic h th e relatio n t o one' s ow n self , which i s normall y kep t back , bu t whic h emerge s victoriousl y i n paranoia , disturbs an d confuse s u s i n ou r objectiv e vie w o f things." 4 9 Th e paranoi d within ca n onl y b e a leader , neve r a follower . Thi s wa s ho w Freu d a t th e height o f hi s powe r though t o f hi s ow n relatio n t o others . H e ha d t o b e th e primal father , ye t h e wondere d wh y hi s disciple s ofte n coul d no t accep t hi s title. A s h e complaine d t o Abraham , "Al l m y lif e I hav e bee n lookin g fo r friends wh o woul d no t exploi t an d the n betra y m e . " 5 0 Freud ofte n deride d hi s collaborators , bu t h e di d no t wan t t o mee t hi s like amon g them . I n a lette r o f congratulatio n t o th e Viennes e write r Arthur Schnitzler , whos e for m o f psychologica l intelligenc e ha d ofte n bee n compared wit h hi s own , Freu d speculate d tha t th e reaso n the y ha d neve r met, thoug h livin g i n th e sam e city , wa s tha t Freu d wa s afrai d t o encounte r his Doppelganger. 51 I t wa s a tellin g exampl e i n th e genr e o f th e psychoana lytic compliment : Freu d flattered Schnitzle r i n a self-congratulator y wa y b y asserting th e likenes s betwee n them , whil e assumin g tha t thi s likenes s would naturall y produc e a rivalry. 52 Th e delusio n o f th e double , i t i s interesting t o note , i s a concomitan t o f paranoi a fro m whic h Freu d o n on e occasion actuall y suffere d i n hallucinator y form. 53 It i s on e o f th e greates t ironie s o f th e psychoanalyti c phenomeno n tha t Freud shoul d hav e base d hi s defens e o f th e cultura l valu e o f scienc e upon it s abilit y t o overcom e th e 'over-estimatio n o f thoughts' , ye t hi s mos t egregious failin g wa s i n hi s difficult y establishin g th e boundar y betwee n thought an d reality . Hi s absur d exaggeratio n o f hysteri a a s th e caus e o f physical symptoms , and , indeed , hi s complet e distrus t o f hi s patients ' understanding o f thei r ow n experienc e continue s t o hav e clinica l conse quences t o thi s day. 5 4 Ye t th e founde r o f psychoanalysi s wa s himsel f b y n o means fre e o f th e tendenc y t o le t hi s obsessivel y charge d preoccupation s alter hi s vie w o f th e worl d aroun d him . H e wa s th e victim , fo r instance , o f morbid superstition s an d wa s particularl y plague d b y significan t numbers. 5 5 The scientis t wh o believe d tha t i t wa s impossibl e t o pic k a numbe r a t random withou t ther e bein g som e sublimina l motiv e fo r th e choic e never theless coul d no t kee p himsel f fro m believin g tha t th e number s tha t ap peared aroun d hi m portende d som e specia l significanc e relate d t o hi s fears o f imminen t death. 5 6 Bu t i t wa s no t i n numbers , thos e "persisten t persecutors," tha t Freu d foun d th e mos t threatenin g reflection s o f hi s

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56 • Chapter Three own intellectua l activity ; i t wa s i n th e development s fro m hi s theoretica l vocabulary mad e b y hi s ow n colleagues , development s tha t frequentl y looked t o th e suspiciou s maste r lik e hostil e urge s i n th e directio n o f originality. Th e nee d t o maintai n contro l ove r th e bod y o f though t know n a s psychoanalysis presente d Freu d wit h th e greates t difficulty . Hi s entir e career wa s bese t wit h controversie s abou t plagiaris m an d originality. 57 There wa s a constan t anxiet y abou t wha t wa s hi s an d wha t wa s not . An d although Freu d claime d tha t others ' idea s wer e o f n o us e t o hi m unles s the y came a t a tim e whe n h e wa s read y fo r them , h e prove d enormousl y suscepti ble t o thei r influenc e an d eve n note d hi s ow n tendenc y t o 'cryptamnesia' , by whic h h e 'unconsciously ' contrive d t o forge t hi s intellectua l debts. 5 8 H e even cam e t o believ e tha t thought s ca n b e transferre d fro m on e min d t o another no t onl y unconsciousl y bu t b y telepathy! 5 9 Freud wa s constantl y uneas y wit h thos e wh o pursue d th e scienc e h e ha d brought int o being , an d al l o f hi s relationship s wit h hi s follower s see m t o have involve d eithe r a struggl e o r a n ope n agreemen t abou t th e prope r leve l of subordination . O f th e refractor y Car l Jung , Freu d confided : "Hi s ambi tion wa s familia r t o me , bu t I wa s hoping , throug h th e positio n tha t I ha d created an d wa s stil l preparin g fo r him , t o forc e thi s powe r int o m y ser vice." 6 0 Helen e Deutsc h report s tha t "Freud' s pupil s wer e t o b e abov e al l passive, understandin g listeners ; n o 'ye s men ' bu t projectio n object s through who m h e reviewed—sometime s t o correc t o r retrac t t h e m — h i s own ideas." 6 1 Thes e ye s men , o r "projectio n objects, " wer e spare d th e necessity o f havin g t o sa y anything ! I t wa s likewis e fo r hi s prope r leve l o f submission tha t Freu d (i n hi s slightl y shak y English ) praise d Ernes t Jone s early i n thei r association : "Le t m e ad d tha t I a m gla d yo u ar e no t on e o f those fellow s wh o wan t t o sho w themselve s origina l o r totall y independen t every tim e the y d o somethin g i n writing , bu t yo u d o no t despis e t o sho w yourself a s interprete r o f another s [sic] thoughts . I t i s a proo f tha t yo u fee l sure o f you r ow n originalit y an d subordinat e easil y you r persona l ambitio n to th e interest s o f th e cause . Indee d yo u see m t o hav e change d i n a mos t thorough an d satisfactor y manner." 6 2 It wa s i n dealin g wit h th e heretic s o f psychoanalysi s tha t Freu d showe d the depth s o f hi s contemp t fo r others ' disagreements , ofte n fallin g bac k upon hi s mos t self-vauntin g rhetoric . I n hi s History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement, writte n t o excommunicat e Adle r an d Jung , tw o arch-dissidents , Freud mock s bot h o f hi s forme r collaborator s fo r havin g succumbe d t o unconscious resistance , t o fear o f libido. Shrinkin g bac k fro m th e disciplin e of psychoanalysis , the y ha d lapse d int o th e fals e comfort s o f idealis m an d

Paranoid Psychology • system-building. Freud' s grandios e an d persecute d polemi c end s o n th e following note : Men ar e stron g s o lon g a s the y represen t a stron g idea ; the y becom e powerles s when the y oppos e it . Psycho-analysi s wil l surviv e thi s los s an d gai n ne w adherent s in plac e o f these . I n conclusion , I ca n onl y expres s a wis h tha t fortun e ma y gran t an agreeabl e upwar d journe y t o al l thos e wh o hav e foun d thei r sta y i n th e under world o f psycho-analysi s to o uncomfortabl e fo r thei r taste . Th e res t o f us , I hope , will b e permitte d withou t hindranc e t o carry throug h t o their conclusio n ou r labor s in th e depths. 63 Vast scholarl y energ y ha s bee n investe d i n clarifyin g th e relation s be tween th e worker s i n th e "underworl d o f psycho-analysis, " wit h th e purpos e of showin g ho w th e discoverer s o f th e logi c o f th e unconsciou s faile d t o us e their knowledg e i n suc h a wa y a s t o overcom e th e natura l huma n propensi ties towar d competition , selfishness , fear , an d jealousy. 6 4 Mos t o f thes e studies hav e bee n writte n i n a psychoanalyti c spirit , usin g Freud' s ow n concepts t o analyz e th e cause s o f th e division s withi n hi s movement . I n doing so , the y merel y repeat , sometime s i n a mor e even-hande d way , th e hostile gesture s o f interpretatio n tha t wer e employe d a t th e time . The y demonstrate, therefore , th e endles s capacit y o f psychoanalysi s t o generat e and the n t o capitaliz e upo n suspicion . Eve n th e maste r i s fai r gam e s o lon g as th e suspicio n i s couche d i n psychoanalyti c terms . Wha t ha s no t bee n sufficiently appreciated , however , i s th e degre e t o whic h th e theoretica l vocabulary o f psychoanalysi s create s th e peril s o f dissensio n t o whic h th e movement ha s bee n s o remarkabl y vulnerable . I n givin g credi t solel y t o selfish motive s i n th e even t o f intellectua l dissen t fro m orthodo x teaching , it mad e ever y extensio n o f th e theor y no t initiate d b y Freu d himsel f a potential occasio n fo r suspicion . N o wonde r psychoanalysis , a s Freu d com plained, brough t ou t th e wors t i n everyone. 6 5 One o f th e stranges t an d mos t absurd , indee d delusional , aspect s o f Freud's behavio r wa s hi s willingnes s t o bran d thos e wh o woul d no t submi t to hi s authorit y a s paranoids . Freu d actuall y believe d tha t th e break-u p o f his friendshi p wit h Wilhel m Flies s ha d ha d th e powe r t o induc e " a dreadfu l case o f paranoia " i n hi s forme r collaborator. 66 Th e diagnosi s o f paranoi a helped Freu d rationaliz e th e hostilit y tha t aros e betwee n th e tw o me n whe n Fliess discovere d tha t Freu d ha d carelessl y disseminate d som e o f Fliess' s ideas abou t huma n bisexuality , leadin g t o thei r publication . Fliess' s para noia wa s entirel y i n Freud' s imagination! 67 A s Fran k Sullowa y reasonabl y speculates, Freud' s cavalie r wa y o f disseminating Fliess' s intellectua l prop erty show s hi s ow n desir e fo r reveng e agains t a ma n h e fel t ha d forsake n

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58 • Chapter Three him. 6 8 I n th e mids t o f anothe r break-u p occurrin g som e year s after , Freu d wrote t o Jones o f Alfre d Adle r observing , "H e i s no t ver y fa r fro m Paranoia , his distortion s ar e gorgeous" ; a coupl e o f month s late r h e added , "A s t o th e internal dissensio n wit h Adler , i t wa s likel y t o com e an d I hav e ripene d th e crisis. I t i s th e revol t o f a n abnorma l individua l drive n ma d b y ambition , his influenc e upo n other s dependin g o n hi s stron g terroris m an d sadis m u s . " 6 9 T o Jame s Jackso n Putnam , a n America n supporte r wit h who m h e was muc h les s intimate , Freu d wa s equall y frank , denouncin g Adle r a s " a gifted thinke r bu t a maliciou s paranoiac." 7 0 Hi s innovation s wer e "para noivelties." 7 1 Th e malic e o n Freud' s par t i s apparent , bu t tha t doe s no t mean h e di d no t believ e wha t h e wa s saying . H e seem s n o les s sincer e i n making thes e charge s tha n h e wa s i n makin g hi s claim s tha t psychoanalysi s had encountere d extraordinar y cultura l resistance . By no w i t shoul d b e clea r enoug h tha t th e prima l fathe r Freu d discovere d at th e botto m o f huma n natur e wa s a thinl y disguise d versio n o f himself. 72 This fac t coul d b e th e subjec t o f uneas y joke s betwee n Freu d an d hi s inne r circle, an d o n on e occasio n the y eve n celebrate d a tote m mea l i n Freud' s honor. I n th e prima l father' s absolut e master y o f th e horde , i n hi s untram meled 'narcissism ' an d perfec t freedo m fro m libidina l bondage , Freu d wa s describing hi s ow n relatio n t o hi s followers , whos e worshi p h e enjoye d apparently withou t a n attachmen t tha t coul d b e acknowledge d i n return. 7 3 He eve n ha d hi s ow n wa y o f monopolizin g th e women—b y takin g the m into analysis! 7 4 A s w e hav e seen , i t wa s i n hi s wor k o n Group Psychology that Freu d gav e th e fulles t descriptio n o f th e psycholog y o f th e prima l father an d it s persistenc e i n th e psycholog y o f groups . A t th e tim e i t wa s written Freu d ha d bee n th e leade r o f hi s ow n hord e fo r almos t tw o decades . The experienc e ha d confirme d hi s belie f i n hi s ow n intellectua l narcissism . Late i n hi s caree r h e eve n wen t s o fa r a s t o disclai m tha t h e ha d th e temperament o f a physician : After forty-on e year s o f medica l activity , m y self-knowledg e tell s m e tha t I hav e never really bee n a doctor i n the prope r sense . . . . I have n o knowledge o f having had an y cravin g i n m y childhoo d t o hel p sufferin g humanity . M y innat e sadisti c disposition wa s no t a ver y stron g one , s o tha t I had n o need t o develop thi s on e of its derivatives. I n m y youth I felt a n overpowering nee d t o understand somethin g of the riddles o f the worl d i n which w e live and perhap s eve n t o contribute somethin g to their solution. 75 This i s a chillin g admissio n fro m th e mos t famou s o f therapists . W e might thin k t o ascrib e Freud' s postur e t o modest y wer e i t no t supporte d b y a lon g recor d o f comment s i n whic h h e expresse s distast e fo r hi s patient s

Paranoid Psychology • and fo r huma n being s a s a group : "I n m y experienc e mos t o f the m ar e trash." 7 6 I t i s furthe r t o b e note d tha t th e "overpowerin g need " t o solv e "the riddle s o f th e world " discovere d b y Freu d a t th e cor e o f hi s natur e i s hardly a poin t o f modesty . Freu d position s himsel f bravel y a s a descendan t of Oedipus. I t i s n o part o f hi s versio n o f the myt h tha t Oedipu s investigate d his origin s i n orde r t o sav e hi s people; 7 7 Freud' s Oedipu s is , lik e himself , entirely a n intellectua l hero . Ther e i s als o somethin g peculia r i n th e term s of Freud' s disclaimer . I t i s becaus e Freu d ha s n o stron g "innat e sadisti c disposition" tha t h e lack s th e qualitie s o f a physician . I n othe r words , physicianly car e ca n onl y b e a disguis e fo r a mor e fundamenta l sadism , which mus t b e hypocriticall y maske d fro m consciou s awarenes s i n th e guis e of affectionat e concern . On e mus t b e cruel , unconsciously , i n orde r t o b e kind. No w w e ca n se e tha t Freud' s lac k o f solicitud e fo r humanit y i s actually a virtue , par t o f hi s clear-sightedness , honesty , narcissisti c inde pendence, an d freedo m fro m animus . Wha t i t asserts , wit h a peculiarl y sinister for m o f self-congratulation , i s a prima l father' s notio n o f virtue . To illustrat e Freud' s performanc e i n th e rol e o f prima l father , I a m goin g to choos e th e mos t extrem e exampl e o f th e Freudia n egotistica l sublime . I t is th e exampl e o f Freud' s treatmen t o f a n adheren t wh o remaine d loya l t o him eve n i n th e ac t o f suicide , a fac t tha t di d no t mak e u p i n Freud' s vie w for hi s threatenin g endowmen t o f talent . Th e stor y o f Victo r Taus k ha s bee n insightfully reconstructe d b y Pau l Roazen . Taus k kille d himsel f shortl y after hi s retur n fro m servic e i n th e Worl d War . On e o f th e circumstance s surrounding Tausk' s dejection , apparently , wa s Freud' s refusa l t o analyz e him an d hi s subsequen t comman d tha t Tausk' s assigne d analyst , Helen e Deutsch, humiliatingl y hi s junio r i n th e movement , b e withdraw n s o tha t Tausk coul d no t interfer e i n he r analysi s wit h Freud . Freu d dislike d Taus k because Taus k ha d a wa y o f developin g Freud' s ow n idea s ver y muc h i n the wa y Freu d himsel f intende d t o develo p them . Freu d cam e t o vie w Tausk's analysi s unde r th e directio n o f hi s ow n analysan d a s a n indirec t way fo r Taus k t o ge t a t him . A prima l fathe r canno t shar e hi s women , s o Freud force d Helen e Deutsc h t o choos e betwee n himsel f an d Tausk , wit h disastrous consequences . Tausk' s farewel l not e t o Freu d show s hi s concer n to defus e an y sens e o f a grudg e agains t th e master : " I than k yo u fo r al l th e good whic h yo u hav e don e me . I t wa s muc h an d ha s give n meanin g t o th e last te n year s o f m y life . You r wor k i s genuin e an d great , I shal l tak e leav e of thi s lif e knowin g tha t I wa s on e o f thos e wh o witnesse d th e triump h o f one o f th e greates t idea s o f mankind . . . . I hav e n o accusation s agains t anyone, m y hear t i s withou t resentment . . . . " 7 8 Freu d reporte d th e suicid e

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60 • Chapter Three to Tausk' s forme r lover , hi s sycophanti c devotee , Lou-Andrea s Salome ; a s a forme r frien d o f Nietzsch e an d love r o f Rilke , he r adherenc e t o th e psychoanalytic movemen t an d attachmen t t o it s founde r wer e source s o f considerable prid e t o Freud . Th e not e o f triump h ove r a forme r riva l fo r Salome's regar d i s impossibl e t o mistake : Poor Tausk , who m yo u fo r som e tim e favoure d wit h you r friendship , committe d suicide o n 3.7 . H e returne d wor n ou t fro m th e horrors o f war , wa s face d wit h th e necessity o f building up unde r th e most unfavourable circumstance s th e practice i n Vienna which he had los t through being called u p for military service, ha d intende d to remarr y onl y a wee k later—bu t decide d otherwise . Hi s farewel l letter s t o hi s fiancee, hi s first wif e an d t o me were all equally affectionate , insiste d o n his clarit y of mind , blame d onl y hi s ow n inadequac y an d hi s failure ; the y gav e therefor e n o clue a s t o his las t act . I n hi s letter t o me he swor e undyin g loyalt y t o psychoanaly sis, thanke d m e etc. Bu t what was behind i t all we cannot guess . Afte r al l h e spen t his day s wrestlin g wit h th e fathe r ghost . I confes s tha t I d o no t reall y mis s him ; I had lon g realized tha t h e coul d b e o f no further service , indee d tha t h e constitute d a threa t t o th e future . I ha d a n opportunit y o f takin g a glanc e o r tw o a t th e foundations o n which hi s high-flown sublimation s rested; and I would have droppe d him lon g ag o i f you hadn' t raise d hi m s o i n m y estimation . O f cours e I wa s stil l ready t o do anything for hi s advancement, onl y latterl y I have been quit e powerles s myself owin g to the genera l deterioratio n o f conditions i n Vienna . I never faile d t o recognize hi s notabl e gifts ; bu t the y wer e denie d expressio n i n achievement s o f corresponding value . For my old age I have chosen th e them e of death. . . . 79 Roazen's accoun t o f thi s episod e leave s littl e doub t tha t th e "fathe r ghost" wit h who m Taus k wa s strugglin g wa s Freu d himself . Tausk' s friend s "in tha t tin y subculture " too k i t fo r grante d tha t "i f Freu d droppe d a ma n i t could lea d t o hi s self-extinction " (156) . Taus k wa s no t th e onl y exampl e (156—58). Freud' s lette r reveal s a prima l father' s superiority , whic h i s responsible t o n o one . N o religiou s leader' s "high-flow n sublimations " could hav e earne d a mor e superciliou s dismissa l tha n th e suppose d uncon scious susceptibilitie s o f thi s unfortunat e disciple . I t i s take n fo r grante d that th e futur e interest s o f th e movemen t overrid e an y individua l concer n for hi s welfare ; indeed , th e meanin g o f Tausk' s existenc e i s altogethe r identified wit h hi s contributio n t o tha t future . Freud' s sens e o f destin y justifies th e dictate s o f hi s prid e an d fea r wit h a flawless theoretica l economy. What i s stil l mor e remarkabl e abou t Freud' s assumptio n o f th e prima l father's privilege s i s th e wa y hi s follower s ofte n accepte d thei r subordina tion an d th e refusa l o f respec t i t entaile d i n th e Freudia n horde , eve n

Paranoid Psychology • while the y recognize d th e destructiv e effect s tha t coul d result . Thos e wh o remained faithfu l t o Freu d foun d way s t o blam e th e defector s i n ever y cas e of tension—thes e weakling s ha d faile d t o understan d th e dictate s o f Freud's extraordinar y nature . S o Helen e Deutsch , writin g shortl y afte r Freud's death , put s th e weigh t o f th e blam e fo r th e divisivenes s o f th e psychoanalytic movemen t upo n th e servil e character s o f Freud' s followers . Here sh e i s speakin g primaril y o f th e secon d generation , whic h surrounde d Freud nea r th e en d o f hi s life . Freu d sh e exonerate s becaus e o f hi s genius : Everybody aroun d Freu d wante d t o b e love d b y him , bu t hi s intellectua l accom plishment mean t infinitel y mor e t o him than th e peopl e aroun d him . A s an inspire d pathfinder h e fel t justifie d i n regardin g hi s co-worker s a s a mean s toward s hi s own impersonal objectiv e accomplishment ; an d wit h thi s en d i n mind , probabl y ever y impulse toward s originality , whe n i t subserve d othe r tha n objective purposes, an noyed hi m an d mad e hi m impatient . Freu d wa s to o far ahea d o f hi s tim e t o leav e much roo m for anything really ne w in hi s own generation. I t seems t o be character istic o f every discoverer o f genius tha t hi s influenc e o n contemporary though t i s not only fructifying but inhibitor y a s well. 80 This lin e o f apolog y ha s bee n carrie d t o furthe r extremes . K . R . Eissler , one o f th e leader s o f th e psychoanalyti c establishment , i n a n astonishin g book-length repl y t o Roazen' s wor k o n Tausk , take s th e cul t o f th e prima l father perhap s t o th e limi t o f servil e rationalizing . H e suggests , first , tha t Freud's harshnes s towar d Taus k i n hi s lette r t o Salom e wa s merel y a n attempt t o avoi d th e appearanc e o f weakness , an d tha t th e Englis h transla tion o f "De r arm e Tausk, " "poo r Tausk, " doe s no t d o justic e t o th e dee p sympathy imparte d b y th e Germa n phrase . Hi s ultimat e lin e o f defense , though, i s tha t Taus k wa s a mer e "talent, " an d a neuroti c on e a t that , whereas Freu d wa s a "genius, " a fac t tha t set s him , fo r Eissler , largel y above ordinar y obligations . I f Freu d ha d becom e completel y insensitiv e t o everything bu t hi s greatnes s an d th e destin y o f psychoanalysis—i n othe r words, i f al l o f hi s 'libido ' ha d bee n transferre d t o hi s 'superego'—thi s would b e n o reproac h agains t a genius : When a ma n act s i n conformit y wit h hi s biologica l state , hi s behavio r ma y shoc k us, bu t i t cannot b e criticized withi n th e biologica l fram e o f reference. Further , i f a genius's personalit y become s completel y engulfe d b y his superego—tha t i s to say , by his life's missio n (whic h ma y have occurred i n some rare instances, but certainl y not i n th e cas e o f Freud)—the n i t make s n o sens e t o cal l th e effect s o f suc h a transformation 'shocking ' an d 'ruthless ' [a s Roaze n does] , fo r suc h a transformatio n is desirable , admirable , an d advantageou s t o th e worl d a t large , whos e primar y interest i s no t i n th e genius' s psychologica l processe s but rathe r i n hi s creatio n o f the highes t possibl e values . Fro m thi s on e coul d deduc e tha t th e mor e suc h a

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62 • Chapter Three person i s engulfe d b y th e creativ e processes , t o th e poin t o f utte r absorption , th e more will posterit y profi t fro m hi s mortal days. 81 It would b e har d t o imagine a mor e strikin g exampl e o f the mora l hazard s of th e psychoanalyti c vocabulary . Eissle r compare s wha t h e take s t o b e the necessar y hardshi p create d b y Freud' s Olympia n detachmen t t o th e providential selfishness—entirel y conjectural—tha t le d th e youn g Willia m Shakespeare t o leav e hi s wif e an d childre n i n Stratfor d an d se t of f towar d London! When Shakespear e lef t Stratford , clearl y shirkin g hi s responsibilit y t o his wife an d his thre e children , h e committe d a n ac t tha t woul d hav e bee n reprehensibl e i n anyone else ; yet i t certainl y wa s an absolut e necessit y fo r hi m to do so, i n term s of the subsequen t creatio n o f th e play s tha t h e gav e th e world . T o be sure , ther e ar e talents wh o abuse thi s typ e o f behavior, whic h i s prope r fo r th e genius , i n orde r t o rationalize thei r ow n selfis h pleasure-seekin g actions . I n talents , however , suc h behavior ha s a meaning tha t i s essentially differen t fro m th e one it ha s i n the life of a genius . (100 ) The mytholog y o f psychoanalysis , wit h it s cul t o f genius , thu s gaine d fo r Freud a n extraordinar y permissivenes s towar d th e dictate s o f hi s paranoi d personality, a permissivenes s tha t lon g outlive d him . Sixtee n year s a t th e head o f th e psychoanalyti c movemen t hardene d an d confirme d hi m i n hi s role a s grandios e an d suspiciou s master , and , alon g wit h wha t h e learne d about dominanc e an d submissio n i n th e analyti c situation , becam e th e basis, a s w e hav e seen , fo r hi s theorizin g abou t th e psycholog y o f groups . During th e battle s o f hi s late r lif e Freu d comporte d himsel f wit h a n Olym pian superiorit y t o huma n feeling , refusin g t o admi t satisfactio n i n th e world's homage , whic h h e ha d s o relentlessl y pursued , refusin g t o utte r good wishe s t o hi s admirers—thi s bein g a n unacceptabl e concessio n t o th e 'omnipotence o f thoughts' 8 2 —and declarin g an y altruis m tha t migh t hav e characterized hi s lif e t o b e somethin g mysteriou s an d no t necessaril y admi rable: "Wh y I — a n d incidentall y m y si x adul t childre n a s well—hav e t o be thoroughl y decen t huma n being s i s quit e incomprehensibl e t o m e . " 8 3 Only Freu d ha d th e strength—an d th e entitlement—t o liv e ou t thi s muc h of th e wisdo m o f psychoanalysis . Hi s paranoi d suspicio n towar d th e worl d grew u p fro m a fundamenta l mistrus t o f hi s ow n nature , whic h h e learne d to conver t int o a suprem e intellectua l advantage . In th e ligh t o f th e fact s presente d here , le t u s no w revie w Freud' s ow account o f hi s discover y o f psychoanalysis : th e naiv e modest y wit h whic he se t hi s findings forth , th e hostil e response—imaginary—wit h whic they wer e received , an d th e slo w recognitio n o f th e immens e importanc

n h h e

Paranoid Psychology

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that thi s hostilit y betokene d fo r hi s achievement . No w tha t w e hav e b e c o m e familiar wit h th e suspiciou s manne r i n whic h Freu d habituall y treat s hi s own motives , hi s clai m t o th e unselfis h idealis m o f th e discovere r ring s distinctly false . Ye t ther e i s a strang e convictio n her e too , th e convictio n o f a ma n whos e s e n s e o f wort h i s powerfull y sustaine d b y a n oppositio n tha t i s the produc t o f hi s imagination : I did no t a t firs t perceiv e th e peculia r natur e o f wha t I ha d discovered . I unhesitat ingly sacrifice d m y growin g popularit y a s a doctor , an d th e increas e i n attendanc e during m y consultin g hours , b y makin g systemati c enquir y int o th e sexua l factor s involved i n th e causatio n o f m y patients ' neuroses ; an d thi s brough t m e a grea t many ne w fact s whic h finally confirme d m y convictio n o f th e practica l importanc e of th e sexua l factor . I innocentl y addresse d a meetin g o f th e Vienn a Societ y fo r Psychiatry an d Neurolog y wit h Krafft-Ebin g i n th e chair , expectin g tha t th e mate rial losse s I ha d willingl y undergon e woul d b e mad e u p fo r b y th e interes t an d recognition o f m y colleagues . I treate d m y discoverie s a s ordinar y contribution s t o science an d hope d the y woul d b e receive d i n th e sam e spirit . Bu t th e silenc e whic h my communication s me t with , th e voi d whic h forme d itsel f abou t me , th e hint s tha t were conveye d t o me , graduall y mad e m e realiz e tha t assertion s o n th e par t playe d by sexualit y i n th e aetiolog y o f th e neurose s canno t coun t upo n meetin g wit h th e same kin d o f treatmen t a s othe r communications . I understoo d tha t fro m no w onwards I wa s on e o f thos e wh o ha d 'disturbe d th e slee p o f th e world' , a s Hebbe l says, an d tha t I coul d no t recko n upo n objectivit y an d tolerance . Since , however , my convictio n o f th e genera l accurac y o f m y observation s an d conclusion s gre w even stronger , an d sinc e neithe r m y confidenc e i n m y ow n judgement no r m y mora l courage wer e precisel y small , th e outcom e o f th e situatio n coul d no t b e i n doubt . I made u p m y min d t o believ e tha t i t ha d bee n m y fortun e t o discove r som e particularly importan t fact s an d connections , an d I was prepare d t o accep t th e fat e that sometime s accompanie s suc h discoveries . I picture d th e futur e a s follows : — I shoul d probabl y succee d i n maintainin g myself b y mean s o f th e therapeuti c succes s o f th e ne w procedure , bu t scienc e would ignor e m e entirel y durin g m y lifetime ; som e decade s later , someon e els e would infallibl y com e upo n th e sam e things—fo r whic h th e tim e wa s no t no w ripe—would achiev e recognitio n fo r the m an d brin g m e honou r a s a forerunne r whose failur e ha d bee n inevitable . Meanwhile , lik e Robinso n Crusoe , I settle d down a s comfortabl y a s possibl e o n m y deser t island . Whe n I loo k bac k t o thos e lonely years , awa y fro m th e pressure s an d confusion s o f to-day , i t seem s lik e a gloriou s heroi c age . M y "splendi d isolation " wa s no t withou t it s advantage s and charms. 84 The reade r wh o ha s assente d t o th e foregoin g analysi s o f Freudia n psychology wil l hardl y nee d a commentar y upo n thi s passage . On e ca n onl y admire th e rhetori c b y whic h Freu d create s hi s grandiose , magical , almos t cosmic dram a o f unself-consciou s virtu e me t with , instea d o f applause , a n

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64 • Chapter Three unexpected an d meaningfu l silence , a "void " gatherin g roun d it , ful l o f disturbing "hints, " an d the n th e sudde n recognitio n tha t th e "world' s sleep " had bee n inadvertentl y troubled , wit h ominou s consequence s tha t woul d forever se t th e innocen t inquire r beyon d th e pal e o f huma n consideration . So wha t ca n h e d o bu t decid e t o believ e i n himself , gathe r hi s "mora l courage," whic h wa s no t "precisel y small, " an d awai t i n "splendi d isola tion" th e verdic t o f th e future ? Hostility , suspicion , strang e significance , heroic isolation , an d embattle d self-reliance—al l th e paranoi d vice s an d virtues ar e here . On e think s o f th e desperat e Roussea u puttin g hi s las t hopes i n posterit y an d resignin g himsel f t o th e compan y o f nature . Rob inson Cruso e wa s hi s favorit e book . The vie w o f Sigmun d Freu d tha t I hav e se t ou t i n thi s chapte r i s hardl y a flattering one . I t mus t b e state d though , onc e again , tha t i n it s essentia l details i t confirm s Freud' s ow n vie w o f himself . H e recognize d th e prima l father i n hi s natur e an d insiste d upo n it ; onl y i n hi s mos t straightforwardl y self-serving moment s di d h e refus e thi s recognition . Wher e I diffe r wit h psychoanalytic dogm a i s i n th e contentio n tha t Freud' s psych e wa s typica l of humanity i n general . I t seem s t o m e eviden t tha t hi s peculiarl y gran d an d violent personalit y wa s specia l t o him an d tha t hi s theor y i s a n expressio n o f that personalit y rathe r tha n a rationa l explanatio n fo r it . Ye t afte r al l i t i s important t o remembe r that , i n th e contex t o f a large r cultura l ambianc e i n which intellectua l activit y ha s a generall y suspiciou s an d hostil e character , individuals ca n b e expecte d t o tak e u p whateve r weapon s hav e bee n pro vided an d us e the m t o th e bes t advantage . Psychoanalyti c theor y show s th e typically paranoid , self-spiting , an d hostil e psychologica l dynami c create d by reductiv e thinking . Freu d di d no t shrin k fro m th e mora l hazard s o f acknowledging th e prima l father . H e gloried , rather , i n th e difficultie s o f paranoid self-recognition . Th e mor e difficul t th e achievement , th e higher ; the mor e universa l th e domai n o f suspicion , th e greate r th e powe r o f the interpreter . I t wa s thi s logic , an d th e super b rhetorica l stanc e tha t accompanied it , tha t allowe d hi m t o brav e th e reductio n o f hi s ow n motive s to narcissis m an d th e resemblanc e o f hi s ow n though t t o paranoia . H e exploited th e difficultie s arisin g fro m th e contradictory , self-underminin g logic o f hi s ow n theor y a s a tes t o f strengt h an d enduranc e i n th e mod e o f heroic irony . An d h e despise d th e straggler s wh o fel l b y th e way . Lik e th e epic poe t i n psychoanalyti c myth , Freu d gaine d i n heroi c statur e b y mean s of th e renunciation s h e exacte d fro m others . Let ther e b e n o mistak e abou t th e kin d o f explanatio n tha t I a m propos ing i n orde r t o illuminat e th e for m o f psychoanalyti c though t an d th e sourc e

Paranoid Psychology • of it s allure . I a m no t turnin g Freud' s ide a o f paranoi a bac k upo n him . Tha t would b e merel y t o repea t hi s ow n self-reduction . Wha t I a m drawin g t o attention i s th e fac t tha t hi s self-conception , hi s conceptio n o f th e huma n subject, i s give n i n th e imag e o f th e paranoid , an d tha t thi s gestur e i s inherently self-fulfilling . Th e powe r o f psychoanalysi s lie s i n th e ingeniou s manner i n whic h i t permit s reductiv e thinkin g t o exten d it s authorit y b y means o f a n absolut e psychologica l suspicion , leadin g t o th e constructio n of a mos t gratifyingl y systemati c paranoia . Freu d th e theoris t display s ever y feature o f paranoi d thinking . Ye t al l o f thes e features , s o inseparabl e fro m Freud's personality , sprin g wit h unassailabl e logi c fro m th e premise s o f hi s science. I n thi s paranoi a w e ar e no t dealin g merel y wit h a psychologicall y aberrant conditio n but , rather , wit h a self-sustainin g intellectua l dynamic . It i s th e prevalenc e o f thi s intellectua l dynami c tha t cause s moder n peopl e to se e themselve s s o movingl y reflecte d i n personalitie s lik e thos e o f Rous seau, Nietzsche , an d Freud , allowin g thes e agitate d an d frequentl y delude d intellectuals t o assum e a prominen t plac e i n histor y withou t embar rassment.

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FOUR Before Freud [Samuel] Johnson's . . . sense of the working of the human imagination probabl y provide s u s wit h th e closest anticipatio n o f Freu d t o b e foun d i n psy chology o r mora l writin g befor e th e twentiet h cen tury. —W . J . Bat e When Siegfrie d dream s unde r th e linde n tre e an d the mother-ide a flows int o th e erotic ; whe n Mim e teaches hi s pupi l th e natur e o f fear , whil e th e or chestra dow n belo w darkl y an d afa r of f introduce s the fir e motif ; al l tha t i s Freud , tha t i s analysis , nothing else. —Thoma s Man n on Wagne r

For seve n o r eigh t decade s now , i t ha s bee n impossibl e t o giv e an y write r credit fo r psychologica l insigh t withou t makin g th e clai m tha t h e o r sh e anticipated Freud . Fo r th e twentiet h centur y Freu d represent s psychologi cal insigh t itself—th e for m o f intelligenc e tha t look s beneat h th e surfac e o f mental lif e t o fin d th e hidde n duplicitie s an d depths . Al l subtlet y i n thi s area belong s t o him : h e see s trul y an d fearlessl y wha t other s hav e onl y glimpsed, an d th e insights , intimations , an d suspicion s o f other s fin d thei r true ground s i n him . Havin g com e t o symbolize th e transitio n fro m a faithfu l and metaphysica l cultur e t o a skeptical , psychologizin g one , Freu d i s no w the mos t distinc t figur e o f retrospectiv e anticipatio n sinc e Christ . A s th e practitioners o f Christia n hermeneutic s foun d i n Hebre w scriptur e th e shadowy type s o f th e Messiah , s o Freu d stand s a s th e meanin g hidde n i n previous culture . H e discovere d withi n himsel f th e secre t significanc e o f human being , an d other s too k i t for truth . Thu s w e ca n measur e th e succes s of hi s vocation . Fo r hi s adherents , an d fo r man y others , modernit y i n particular look s forwar d t o hi s arrival , whic h remains , nevertheless , a n event entirel y origina l i n it s character . Freud' s messiani c incarnation , lik e Christ's, i s double : no t ma n an d Go d bu t scientis t an d patient , analys t an d analysand, th e on e wh o suffer s an d th e on e wh o redeems . Wit h th e revela 66

Before Freud • 6 7 tion o f th e Oedipa l code , Freu d become s th e final hero , th e her o wh o coul d unmask himself , assertin g a paranoi d versio n o f psycholog y i n orde r t o display hi s ow n 'narcissistic ' characte r an d t o enjo y th e triump h o f tha t attractively disturbin g irony . Th e effec t wa s no t solel y on e o f destruction : Freud's ai m wa s t o complet e th e transitio n t o modernit y b y reintegratin g the broke n fragment s o f traditio n i n a comprehensiv e psychologica l myth , with himsel f a t th e center . Freu d thu s gav e a mos t convincin g performanc e in a rol e which , sinc e Rousseau , ha s dominate d th e scen e o f modernity : the rol e o f th e firs t hones t man . Th e divisio n betwee n heroi c analys t an d pathetic analysan d i s full y prefigure d i n Rousseau : patheti c i n th e doin g and heroi c i n th e tellin g seem s t o b e th e mott o o f th e paranoi d intellectual . Freud eve n claime d t o believ e tha t th e discover y o f psychoanalysi s ha d deprived hi m o f hi s abilit y t o lie. l With th e benefi t o f scholarshi p i n th e las t twenty-fiv e years , w e ca n no w see tha t mos t o f Freud' s apparen t originalit y derive s fro m hi s abilit y t o absorb an d eclips e hi s sources . Th e interes t i n sexualit y an d th e uncon scious, fo r instance , associate d i n th e popula r min d primaril y wit h Freud , were powerfu l intellectua l trend s o f th e time . Fe w o f th e element s o f psychoanalysis wer e trul y unique . Freud' s originalit y la y i n th e aspec t o f synthesis an d i n th e rhetorica l skill s wit h whic h h e gav e expressio n t o hi s synthesis. It s immediat e horizo n wa s post-Darwinia n scienc e an d literar y culture, o f whic h Freu d mad e brillian t use . H e ha d befor e him , also , som e great exemplar s o f suspicion : Feuerbach , th e invento r o f th e unmaskin g critique, who m th e youn g Freu d "revere[d ] an d admire[d ] abov e al l othe r philosophers"; 2 Schopenhauer , wh o proclaime d th e forc e o f sexua l impuls e as a n obstacl e t o truth ; and , o f course , Mar x an d Nietzsche. 3 Bu t t o understand th e triump h o f suspicio n i n th e for m o f psychoanalysis , i t i s necessary t o tak e accoun t o f it s abilit y t o absor b an d resonat e wit h a wide r sphere o f reductionis t an d paranoi d thinkin g i n moder n culture . Freu d capitalized upo n th e momentu m tha t intellectua l suspicio n ha d gathere d over fou r centuries , achievin g a t onc e th e mos t profoun d an d th e mos t exhilarating versio n o f paranoi d heroics . Psychoanalysi s doe s no t merel y repeat th e gesture s o f thi s cultur e o f suspicion : i t take s the m int o it s ow n fabric an d make s the m th e sustainin g ingredients , th e material s an d evi dence fo r it s ow n stil l grander , stil l mor e resolutel y suspiciou s an d mor e inclusive gesture . To delineat e th e ful l contex t o f th e moder n cultur e o f suspicio n woul d require a boo k muc h longe r tha n thi s one . I t woul d begin , perhaps , wit h the sens e o f conspiracy , officia l corruption , an d institutiona l mistrus t in -

68 • Chapter Four spired fro m th e hig h Middl e Age s b y th e internationa l organizatio n o f th e Catholic church . I t woul d tak e notic e o f the humanis t method s o f historica l criticism an d demystification , whic h wer e ofte n applie d i n suspicio n o f tha t organization an d whic h late r becam e th e staple s o f Protestan t polemic . Freud recognize d hi s kinshi p wit h th e Protestan t critique ; th e humanis t recovery o f th e origina l tex t fro m amon g th e self-servin g fabrication s o f early traditio n als o provide d hi m with a favorite metapho r fo r the activity o f the scientis t uncoverin g th e true content s o f the unconscious. (I t is surpris ing h e neve r referre d t o himself a s th e Lorenz o Vall a o f the mind. ) Moder n suspicion gre w u p als o fro m th e atmospher e o f the Renaissanc e court , wit h its shiftin g alliance s an d th e playin g of f o f favorite s on e agains t another , giving ris e eventuall y t o a politic s o f powe r mos t notabl y expresse d i n th e writings o f Machiavelli , an d a distinctiv e psycholog y a s well , chronicle d i n action i n th e Memoirs o f Sain t Simo n an d synthesize d i n Rochefoucauld' s Maxims. Psychoanalysi s ca n b e considere d a systemati c attemp t t o refut e Rochefoucauld's clai m tha t th e powe r o f suspicio n ca n neve r equa l th e power o f deception. Finall y ther e i s th e Reformatio n itself , whic h initiate d an uncontainabl e proces s o f religiou s an d politica l schism , a n ideologica l divisiveness eve r mor e comple x an d minut e i n it s manifestations , instigat ing mistrust , politica l conspiracy , an d bloodshe d ove r a centur y an d a half . The ris e o f th e nation-stat e an d o f colonialism , wit h thei r tendenc y t o se t local an d centra l authorit y agains t eac h other , als o playe d it s part . Al l of these tributarie s fe d int o th e grea t curren t o f suspicio n tha t energize d th e anti-traditional, satiri c cultur e o f the lat e seventeent h an d earl y eighteent h centuries i n Englan d an d France , an d whic h achieve d philosophica l em bodiment i n th e writing s o f Bacon , Hobbes , Locke , Hume , an d th e philo sophies. I n thi s intellectua l atmosphere , th e stag e wa s se t fo r th e grea t rebellion agains t societ y itsel f figured i n th e lif e an d writing s o f th e clini cally paranoi d Rousseau . Th e romanti c cul t o f originality , whic h s o deci sively shape d Freud' s thinkin g an d behavior , gre w u p wit h thi s suspicio n of the group an d o f tradition . In lie u o f a thoroughgoin g histor y o f suspicion , I hav e chose n her e t o explore Freud' s affinitie s wit h fou r centra l elements : th e methodologica l form o f suspicio n describe d i n th e scientifi c progra m o f Franci s Bacon ; th e epistemological suspicio n o f th e empiricist s and , especially , Kant ; th e progressivist historica l suspicio n o f Comt e an d Hegel ; an d th e politica l solipsism o f Hobbes . Freu d wa s directl y familia r wit h these , except , per haps, fo r Hegel . I n th e cas e o f Baco n ther e wa s admiratio n a t leas t fro m the ag e of twenty-one, whe n Freu d expresse d hi s enthusiasm fo r Macaulay' s

Before Freud • 6 9 essay o n Lor d Bacon , whic h h e though t "coul d no t b e mor e perfect." 4 Th e essay combine s suspicio n o f th e perso n an d admiratio n fo r th e intellectua l achievement i n a wa y trul y congenia l t o th e eventua l Freudia n outlook . Freud's devotio n t o Macaulay , w e ma y add , wa s no t th e passin g fanc y o f youth. Fift y year s later , aske d t o nam e te n "goo d books, " h e liste d th e Essays amon g them , interpretin g "goo d books " t o mea n book s "t o whic h one stand s i n rathe r th e sam e relationshi p a s t o 'good ' friends , t o who m on e owes a par t o f one' s knowledg e o f lif e an d vie w o f th e world." 5 Freud' s fluency i n Englis h an d hi s lifelon g absorptio n i n Englis h culture , wit h it s progressive, positivist , an d Baconia n outlook , "wher e huma n wort h i s mor e respected," mus t neve r b e lef t ou t o f view. 6 It i s no t t o char t influence , though , tha t I hav e single d ou t thes e figures an d thes e aspect s o f culture ; m y intentio n is , rather , t o sho w ho w psychoanalysis assimilate s th e existin g varietie s o f suspicion . The y prepar e for and , indeed , prefigur e th e maste r cod e o f paranoi d interpretation ; i t i s only i n th e contex t o f that preparatio n tha t w e ca n understan d th e messiani c impact o f Freud .

Methodological Suspicion Francis Baco n invente d th e ideolog y o f heroi c scienc e i n th e mod e prac ticed b y Sigmun d Freud . Th e first installmen t o f hi s scientifi c program , The Advancement of Learning, appeare d i n 1605 , th e sam e yea r tha t produce d Part On e o f th e Quixote. Baco n ha s acquire d preeminenc e amon g th e prophetic voice s o f modernity . H e wa s th e first t o envisio n i n a program matic wa y th e accumulativ e proces s o f investigatio n that , jus t a generatio n or tw o afte r hi s death , woul d hel p transfor m th e manne r o f scientifi c inquiry, wit h unparallele d success . H e envisione d th e mode l o f moder n science a s a n institution , an d h e provide d i t wit h a progra m o f inquir y based upo n experimen t an d th e compilatio n o f knowledge , a rudimentar y method o f induction , and , mos t importan t o f all , a mode l o f rhetorica l self justification. Th e essenc e o f thi s mode l i s a psycholog y o f suspicio n an d a vision o f th e heroi c scientist . Indeed , i t i s n o exaggeratio n t o sa y tha t th e notion o f scientifi c metho d i n it s primitiv e Baconia n for m i s no t s o muc h a methodology o f scienc e a s i t i s a heroi c psycholog y o f suspicion . Freud' s peculiar achievemen t wa s t o giv e ful l articulatio n t o thi s psychology , whic h was alread y a crucia l elemen t o f th e rhetori c o f Enlightenmen t science . Bacon looke d bac k int o th e histor y o f natura l philosoph y an d sa w tha t human progres s ha d bee n perpetuall y hindere d b y th e ver y tendenc y Freu d

70 • Chapter Four calls 'narcissism' , th e tendenc y fo r th e min d t o confus e it s ow n sens e o f order wit h th e orde r o f reality : "a s a n uneve n mirro r distort s th e ray s o f objects accordin g t o it s ow n figur e an d section , s o th e mind , whe n i t receives impression s o f object s throug h th e sense , canno t b e truste d t o report the m truly , bu t i n formin g it s notion s mixe s u p it s ow n natur e wit h the natur e o f things." 7 Th e distortion s o f th e mind , th e Idol s "adventitiou s or innate " t o whic h i t become s enslaved , wer e numerous , an d Baco n attempted a systemati c survey . I n hi s view , th e min d betray s itsel f alway s in th e sam e manner , imaginin g mor e orde r an d syste m i n natur e tha n i s there t o b e found . Th e system s o f philosophy , lik e al l fictions, gratif y no t a hunger fo r trut h bu t a desir e fo r orde r o n th e par t o f thos e wh o mak e them : "In th e play s o f thi s philosophica l theatr e yo u ma y observ e th e sam e thin g which i s foun d i n th e theatr e o f th e poets , tha t storie s invente d fo r th e stag e are mor e compac t an d elegant , an d mor e a s on e woul d wis h the m t o be , than tru e storie s ou t o f history." 8 Th e huma n vocatio n fo r knowledg e i s constantly betraye d b y th e hunge r o f th e min d t o se e it s ow n imag e printe d upon th e world . Th e lineag e o f huma n inquir y i s people d wit h a lon g succession o f pretender s t o knowledg e caugh t u p i n 'Anticipation s o f th e Mind' an d mistakin g the m fo r truth . Wha t Freu d wa s late r t o cal l th e 'overestimation' o f th e intellec t i s th e facto r tha t fo r Baco n explain s wha t h e takes t o b e th e perennia l disagreemen t an d fruitlessnes s i n th e speculation s of th e philosophers . Th e spectacl e evoke s Bacon' s trenchan t satiri c vein : Another erro r hat h proceede d fro m to o grea t a reverence , an d a kin d o f adoratio n of th e min d an d understandin g o f man ; b y mean s whereo f me n hav e withdraw n themselves to o muc h fro m th e contemplatio n o f natur e an d th e observation s o f experience, an d hav e tumbled u p and dow n in their own reason an d conceits . Upo n these intellectualists , whic h ar e notwithstandin g commonl y take n fo r th e mos t sublime an d divin e philosophers , Heraclitu s gav e a jus t censure , saying , Men sought truth in their own little worlds, and not in the great and common world; for they disdai n t o spel l an d s o b y degree s t o read i n th e volum e o f God' s works ; an d contrariwise b y continua l meditatio n an d agitatio n o f wi t d o urg e an d a s i t wer e invocate thei r ow n spirit s t o divin e an d giv e oracle s unt o them , whereb y the y ar e deservedly deluded. 9 In passage s lik e thi s on e Baco n begin s th e attac k upo n metaphysic s fro m the satiri c poin t o f vie w tha t fuele d th e rhetori c o f positivis m dow n t o th e time o f Freu d an d beyond . Fo r bot h Freu d an d Bacon , th e pretentiou s sublimity o f philosophica l reaso n i s th e ver y mar k o f it s self-enthrallment . Metaphysics, wit h it s 'intellectualism' , it s self-projectin g sens e o f order , creates fo r itsel f a nonce-worl d wher e it s adherent s ca n mee t upo n th e

Before Freud • 7 1 footing o f delusion . "Anticipations, " Baco n scoffs , "ar e a groun d suffi ciently fir m fo r consent , fo r eve n i f me n wen t ma d al l afte r th e sam e fashion, the y migh t agre e on e wit h anothe r wel l enough." 1 0 Th e onl y wa y to preserv e onesel f fro m th e glamorou s worl d o f deceptio n lies , a s Freu d would als o say , i n th e prope r submissio n t o th e facts : "Thos e . . . wh o aspire no t t o gues s an d divine , bu t t o discove r an d know ; wh o propos e no t to devis e mimi c an d fabulou s world s o f thei r own , bu t t o examin e an d dissect th e natur e o f thi s ver y worl d itself , mus t g o t o fact s themselve s fo r everything." 1 1 "T o th e fact s themselves, " "t o th e thing s themselves, " thi s is th e hop e o f positivism , tha t i t ca n effac e though t itsel f fro m th e proces s of inquiry , jus t a s the experimenter keep s hi s data fro m bein g contaminate d by anticipation s o f the result . For Bacon , a s for Freud , th e mind ca n onl y guar d itsel f fro m it s waywar d penchant b y regulatin g it s ow n workin g wit h a constan t suspicion : "Le t every studen t o f natur e tak e thi s a s a rule,—tha t whateve r hi s min d seize s and dwell s upo n wit h peculia r satisfactio n i s t o b e hel d i n suspicion." 1 2 I t is no t mer e lazines s tha t keep s th e min d enthralle d t o its anticipations ; no r is i t a simpl e restlessnes s tha t lead s th e imaginatio n t o invent fo r itsel f wha t the min d canno t properl y know . Baco n take s accoun t o f thes e factors , bu t they ar e les s essentia l tha n th e "peculia r satisfaction " o f erro r itself . Erro r appeals t o Eros, t o the bod y an d it s needs , th e 'libido ' a s Freu d woul d say , and thi s i s wha t give s t o it a "peculia r satisfaction" : The huma n understandin g i s n o dr y light , but receive s a n infusio n fro m th e wil l and affections ; whenc e procee d science s whic h ma y b e calle d 'science s a s on e would'. Fo r what a ma n ha d rathe r wer e tru e h e mor e readil y believes . Therefor e he reject s difficul t thing s fro m impatienc e o f research; sobe r things , becaus e the y narrow hope ; the deeper thing s of nature, fro m superstition ; the light of experience, from arroganc e an d pride , les t hi s min d shoul d see m t o b e occupie d wit h thing s mean an d transitory; thing s no t commonly believed , ou t of deference t o the opinion of the vulgar. Numberles s i n shor t ar e the ways, an d sometime s imperceptible , i n which th e affections colou r and infect th e understanding. 13 The anticipatio n o f Freu d i s complete . Narcissism , i n th e for m o f "arro gance an d pride, " keep s th e min d fro m recognizin g it s affinit y wit h "thing s mean an d transitory. " Th e sam e fals e idealis m tha t Baco n sa w a s a n obstacle t o clos e experimen t woul d becom e i n Freud' s vie w th e obstacl e t o the theor y o f libido . Th e "intellectualists " ar e thos e wh o cannot d o withou t the eroti c satisfaction s o f error . Bacon , lik e hi s successor , ruefull y ac knowledges i n huma n natur e a n almos t insuperabl e obstacl e t o th e discov ery o f truth—no t a mer e fallibilit y i n th e directio n o f error , bu t a "natura l

72 • Chapter Four though corrup t lov e o f th e li e itself. " I t i s thi s perfidiou s for m o f Ero s tha t gives energ y t o th e lif e o f th e mind : " A mixtur e o f a li e dot h eve r ad d pleasure. Dot h an y ma n doubt , tha t i f ther e wer e take n ou t o f men' s mind s vain opinions , flattering hopes , fals e valuations , imagination s a s on e would , and th e like , bu t i t woul d leav e th e mind s o f a numbe r o f me n poo r shrunken things , ful l o f melanchol y an d indisposition , an d unpleasin g t o themselves?" 1 4 Remov e erro r fro m th e min d an d it s ver y substanc e an d vitality see m t o hav e bee n draine d away . Baco n applie s thi s descriptio n t o a "numbe r o f men" ; bu t i t mus t includ e virtuall y al l o f th e numbe r wh o ha d lived unti l hi s time . It woul d b e impossibl e t o overloo k th e moralizin g ton e o f Baconia n self justification. Lik e Freud's , i t wa s moralizin g o f a defensiv e sort . Th e presumption o f Bacon' s ag e wa s somewha t agains t to o clos e a n inquir y int o the particular s o f physica l nature , a n activit y stil l associate d wit h alchem y and magic . Baco n defende d th e inquirin g spiri t a s bein g license d i n al l bu t those aspect s o f mora l knowledg e proscribe d i n th e biblica l episod e o f th e Fall; h e portraye d th e materia l operation s o f natur e a s containin g th e imprint o f God' s trut h n o les s tha n 'Fina l Causes' , whic h h e banishe d fro m scientific inquiry . I t wa s als o necessar y fo r Baco n t o kee p fro m th e appear ance o f hubristi c innovation , no t a n eas y tas k fo r a ma n wit h pretension s t o the overturnin g o f al l traditiona l mode s o f understandin g th e creation . Wit h the argumentativ e clevernes s o f th e brillian t lawye r tha t h e was , Baco n employed th e myt h o f th e Fal l t o hi s advantage , shiftin g th e burde n o f hubris fro m natura l philosoph y t o thos e system-makin g metaphysician s wh o would substitut e thei r ow n world s fo r th e on e create d b y God : For we create worlds , w e direct an d dominee r ove r nature , w e will hav e i t tha t al l things are as in ou r folly w e think the y shoul d be , no t as seem s fittest to the Divin e wisdom, o r as the y ar e found t o be i n fact; an d I know not whether w e more distor t the fact s o f natur e o r our ow n wits ; but w e clearly impres s th e stam p o f our imag e on th e creature s an d work s o f God, instea d o f carefully examinin g an d recognisin g in them th e stamp of the Creator himself. Wherefor e ou r dominion ove r creatures i s a secon d tim e forfeited, no t undeservedly. 15 According t o thi s view , a n addictio n t o th e delusio n o f powe r i s th e on e obstacle t o attainin g tru e power . Hubri s lead s t o impotence , humilit y t o potency. Th e knowledg e o f natur e a s i t i s ca n onl y com e wit h th e renuncia tion o f th e fals e pleasure s o f huma n creativity , th e worshi p o f self-create d Idols. Scienc e i s thu s a for m o f submissio n t o Go d a s th e make r o f th e actual world ; th e valo r o f thi s submissio n speak s i n al l o f Bacon' s writing : "Nature t o b e commande d mus t b e obeyed." 1 6 I t i s on e o f th e profoun d

Before Freud • 7 3 ironies i n th e history o f modern cultur e tha t science , beginnin g wit h Bacon , was abl e t o appropriat e th e religiou s abhorrenc e o f vanit y an d prid e an d that i t woul d eventuall y tur n Christia n humilit y bac k upo n religio n itself . So bega n th e cul t o f science-as-repression . Bacon furnishe d t o the future adherent s o f scienc e a powerfu l critiqu e o f the abuse s o f intellect . Thi s critiqu e woul d b e perenniall y usefu l i n th e struggles o f th e Enlightenmen t agains t it s cultura l enemies , religio n an d metaphysics. Ye t i t i s importan t t o remember tha t Bacon' s progra m wa s not at al l tha t o f a skeptic . Hi s intentio n i n bringin g t o ligh t th e source s o f confusion tha t frustrat e th e effort s o f intelligenc e wa s no t t o denigrat e intelligence itsel f bu t t o provid e i t wit h th e prope r "helps, " and , i n s o doing, t o establish th e practic e o f scienc e upo n a mor e perfec t basi s tha n i t had previousl y found . Suspicio n wa s for him par t o f a necessar y reignin g i n of th e forc e o f imagination ; onl y b y suc h a restrain t coul d th e min d attai n its tru e object . The positiv e aspec t o f Bacon' s progra m distinguishe s i t fro m previou s employments o f methodica l skepticism . Th e ancien t traditio n o f th e skep tics too k a s it s ai m a tranqui l withdrawa l fro m th e world. I t sough t peac e i n the futilit y o f inquiry . It s dialectica l subtletie s ende d wit h a recognitio n that nothin g coul d b e known , an d tha t th e huma n will , havin g n o tru e objects o f desire , shoul d b e satisfie d wit h a detache d self-complacency . The argument s o f thi s school , exhaustivel y summarize d b y Sextu s Empiri cus i n th e thir d centur y A.D. , could easil y b e reconcile d wit h th e Christia n spirit o f resignation . Montaigne , Bacon' s grea t literar y model , wa s on e o f the las t representative s o f thi s ancien t skepticis m i n it s Christia n for m an d perhaps th e greates t manifestatio n o f it s prope r sensibility , whic h i s on e of relaxed contemplatio n an d disorganize d curiosity . Bacon , o n th e othe r hand, i s th e invento r o f a skepticis m bot h searchin g an d productive , a skepticism no t satisfie d i n itsel f bu t destroyin g i n orde r t o create . Fo r it , the difficultie s o f knowledg e mak e necessar y a restless , anxiou s discern ment; th e mind mus t b e preoccupie d wit h itsel f i f only t o escape fro m itself . This activis t skepticis m finds itsel f alway s ami d formidabl e difficulties ; i t i s generically desperat e an d beleaguered , condemne d t o founde r i n illusio n unless i t hold s t o it s fixed goal . Lik e a her o o f romance , wanderin g i n a dark wood , th e embattle d intelligenc e ha s nee d o f a clu e i n orde r t o escap e from it s inne r an d oute r enemies : The univers e t o th e ey e o f th e huma n understandin g i s frame d lik e a labyrinth ; presenting a s i t doe s o n ever y sid e s o ma y ambiguitie s o f way , suc h deceitfu l resemblances o f object s an d signs , nature s s o irregula r i n thei r lines , an d s o

74 • Chapter Four knotted an d entangled . An d the n th e wa y i s stil l t o be mad e b y the uncertai n ligh t of the sense, sometime s shinin g out, sometime s cloude d over , throug h th e woods of experience an d particulars ; while thos e who offer themselve s fo r guides ar e (as was said) themselve s als o puzzled , an d increas e th e numbe r o f error s an d wanderers . In circumstance s s o difficul t neithe r th e natura l forc e o f man' s judgmen t no r eve n any accidenta l felicit y offer s an y chanc e o f success . N o excellenc e o f wit , n o repetition o f chanc e experiments , ca n overcom e suc h difficultie s a s these . Ou r steps mus t b e guided b y a clue, an d th e whole way from th e very first perception of the sense s mus t b e lai d ou t upo n a sure plan. 17 In thi s passage , Bacon , wit h a Freudia n militancy , splendidl y magnifie s the difficult y o f th e wa y t o trut h an d th e anxiet y o f th e search . Unlik e hi s Scholastic predecessors , h e envision s n o natura l correspondenc e betwee n the structure s o f th e min d an d thos e o f nature . Natur e itsel f i s knotte d no w and tangled , perplexe d an d askew , a thin g quit e foreig n t o th e orde r o f intellect, vexe d wit h ambiguit y an d deceitfu l resemblance . Th e on e "clue " and "sur e plan " i s th e Baconia n metho d o f induction , t o b e employe d alon g with th e regula r pursui t o f experimen t an d th e systemati c compilatio n o f results. B y thes e mean s Baco n propose d t o brin g abou t th e "tru e en d an d termination o f infinit e error " (37) . Abou t th e eas e wit h whic h thi s termina tion wa s t o b e achieved , Baco n prove d strangel y optimistic . Withou t th e Baconian method , wer e "al l th e wit s o f al l th e ages " gathere d together , an d all th e resource s o f humankin d hereafte r dedicate d t o science , n o resul t would com e o f it , while , wit h th e prope r compilatio n o f "natura l an d experimental history, " "th e investigatio n o f natur e an d o f al l sciences " would b e "th e wor k o f a fe w years." 1 8 I t i s typica l o f paranoi d logi c tha t th e multiplication o f obstacle s an d intensificatio n o f suspicio n shoul d brin g such a heightenin g o f heroi c exhilaration . The procedure s envisione d b y Baco n delivere d fe w benefit s t o th e tech nique o f scientifi c investigation . Bu t hi s progra m len t a rhetori c t o scienc e that i s stil l th e mai n componen t o f it s ideologica l self-image , a rhetori c o f organized suspicio n an d ostentatiou s self-scrutiny—abov e all , o f produc tive humility . I t wa s i n thi s tha t h e sounde d th e distinctiv e not e o f moder n intellectual culture . Baco n conjure d u p al l o f th e enemie s o f inquir y i n order t o vanquis h the m wit h heroi c suspicion . Th e fundamenta l objec t o f this suspicio n wa s th e temptatio n fro m within , an d fo r th e first tim e w e se e knowledge envisage d a s th e resul t o f a n inne r disciplin e o f repression : For m y ow n par t a t least , i n obedienc e t o th e everlastin g lov e o f truth , I hav e committed mysel f t o th e uncertaintie s an d difficultie s an d solitude s o f th e ways , and relyin g o n th e divin e assistanc e hav e uphel d m y mind bot h agains t th e shock s

Before Freud • 7 5 and embattle d rank s of opinion, an d agains t m y own private an d inwar d hesitation s and scruples , an d agains t th e fog s an d cloud s o f nature , an d th e phantom s flittin g about o n ever y side ; i n th e hop e o f providin g a t las t fo r th e presen t an d futur e generations guidanc e mor e faithfu l an d secure . Wherei n i f I hav e mad e an y progress, th e wa y ha s bee n opene d t o m e b y n o othe r mean s tha n th e tru e an d legitimate humiliatio n o f th e huma n spirit . Fo r al l thos e wh o befor e m e hav e applied themselve s t o the invention o f arts hav e but cas t a glance o r two upon fact s and example s an d experience , an d straightwa y proceeded , a s i f inventio n wer e nothing mor e tha n a n exercis e o f thought , t o invok e thei r ow n spirit s t o giv e them oracles. 19 Here w e hav e th e voic e o f th e heroi c investigato r jus t a s i t wa s t o b e assumed b y Freud . Th e scientifi c her o know s th e difficultie s o f th e wa y an d the enemie s within . H e know s tha t th e greates t enem y i s th e oracula r confidence o f the min d inflate d b y it s ow n self-intoxicatin g spirits ; he know s that i n orde r t o dispe l thes e vapor s h e mus t brav e th e underworl d i n pursui t of wha t Baco n like s t o cal l th e secrets , th e "hidde n parts " o f nature ; and , most importantly , h e know s tha t i n orde r t o se t thi s achievemen t upo n a social basi s h e mus t accomplis h " a tru e an d legitimat e humiliatio n o f th e human spirit. " Heroi c self-deflation , scienc e throug h suspicion , powe r b y means o f repression , thes e ar e th e specia l mark s o f th e ne w scientifi c sensibility an d th e one s it s adherent s single d ou t i n orde r t o distinguis h themselves fro m th e benighte d age s o f th e past . At thi s poin t th e voic e o f th e skepti c migh t b e onc e agai n incline d t o pu t in a word . "Th e poin t o f thi s discussion, " suc h a skepti c migh t say , "seem s to b e tha t Baco n introduce d a fundamentall y suspiciou s attitud e towar d th e products o f th e mind , tha t h e wante d t o se t cultur e upo n th e basi s o f suspicion. Whereve r h e sa w th e huma n min d expressin g itsel f i n a n imag e of th e world , ther e h e wa s eage r t o expos e a wis h masqueradin g a s a truth . True enoug h — bu t i s thi s no t th e essenc e o f th e metho d o f science , tha t i t excludes th e subjectiv e contributio n o f th e observe r fro m th e domai n o f th e observed i n orde r t o establis h th e natur e o f thing s i n themselves ? Her e Bacon's, an d Freud's , clai m tha t scienc e exact s a necessar y renunciatio n seems impossibl e t o deny. " Onc e agai n th e skepti c speak s wit h reason . Bacon's stricture s agains t "scienc e a s on e would " ar e necessar y protocol s for th e experimenta l observer . Bu t the y canno t serv e a s a n adequat e theor y of scientifi c inquiry . Fo r th e fact s o f natur e d o no t spea k fo r themselves . They requir e interpretation : the y canno t b e graspe d withou t theory . Knowl edge doe s no t com e simpl y b y excludin g huma n interes t and , indeed , i t i s doubtful tha t huma n interes t ca n i n practic e eve r b e entirel y excluded . Whether on e take s a Platoni c vie w o f th e scientifi c metho d a s dependin g

76 • Chapter Four upon th e form s o f mathematica l reason , o r whether on e take s th e pragmatis t view, whic h ha s becom e persuasiv e t o man y i n recen t years , i t seem s impossible t o understan d th e practic e o f scienc e withou t givin g recognitio n to th e positiv e contributio n o f th e mind . Onc e on e ha s don e this , on e must furthe r recogniz e tha t th e systemati c suspicio n o f th e experimente r protecting hi s dat a fro m contaminatio n canno t b e th e basi s fo r th e genera l outlook eve n o f a scientifi c culture . It i s unlikel y tha t Baco n intende d t o mak e suspicio n a genera l mod e o f culture. H e di d no t envisio n th e lengt h o f tim e i t woul d tak e fo r scienc e t o vanquish th e enemie s h e ha d se t i t upon . No r coul d h e hav e anticipate d that th e infinitel y flexible polemica l instrumen t h e ha d invente d woul d b e turned agains t ne w enemies . Fo r him , suspicio n wa s confine d t o a smal l area o f intellectua l endeavo r tha t ha d bee n unti l hi s tim e th e exclusiv e domain o f "grea t wits " operatin g upo n to o littl e experience , mind s o f extraordinary fertilit y sufferin g a monasti c separatio n fro m th e rea l worl d o f the senses . Suc h monasti c confinement s coul d b e comfortabl y reverse d without extendin g th e resource s o f Protestan t rhetoric . I t woul d no t b e long, however , befor e th e Baconia n critiqu e wa s turne d agains t Protestan t culture itself . Despite th e conservatis m o f Bacon' s cultura l stance , hi s materialis m wa s of a revolutionar y sort . Hi s pla n o f knowledg e depend s upo n th e reductio n of al l phenomen a t o th e operatio n o f materia l an d efficien t causes . Eve n formal cause s ar e mad e physical . A s fo r th e final causes , th e evidenc e o f God's desig n i n nature , thes e h e woul d leav e undisturbe d thoug h the y have n o explanator y value . Thi s thoroughgoin g materialis m wa s take n u p desultorily b y Hobbes , bu t it s mos t significan t developmen t belonge d t o th e French, startin g wit h Gassend i i n th e seventeent h century ; applie d t o th e human bod y i t coul d becom e a crud e mechanisti c determinism , a s i n L a Mettrie's UHomme machine. Kant' s transcendenta l revolutio n i n philoso phy, alon g wit h th e Germa n vogu e o f Pietism , prevente d th e materialis m o f the Frenc h Enlightenmen t fro m bein g full y assimilate d withi n Germa n culture unti l th e generatio n o f Feuerbac h an d Marx . Thi s generatio n an d the nex t on e produce d man y o f Freud' s universit y teacher s an d mentor s i n biology an d neurophysiology . Thei r materialis m ha d abou t i t a revolutionar y zeal ownin g t o it s comparativel y recen t victor y ove r th e Romanti c Naturphilosophie tha t ha d develope d ou t o f Kant. 2 0 Freu d share d thi s zeal , eve n while hi s psychology , roote d thoug h i t wa s i n psycho-physica l mechanics , could evok e resistance , h e believed , fro m thos e purist s wh o woul d recog nize onl y immediatel y physica l causes. 2 1 Freu d though t o f psychi c energy ,

Before Freud • 7 7 or 'libido' , a s a kin d o f free-flowin g charg e circulatin g throughou t th e bod y unless 'bound ' i n som e particula r comple x o f ideas , o r release d throug h some activity. 22 Thi s vie w o f psychi c energy , fundamenta l t o psychoanaly sis an d it s 'dynamics ' o f repression , sublimation , an d displacement , ha s long disappeare d fro m seriou s science . Bu t th e reductiv e psycholog y Freu d developed ou t o f i t continue s t o b e persuasiv e fo r thos e whos e thinkin g i s instinctively reductionist ; t o hol d suc h a position , on e need s a psycholog y of suspicio n tha t ca n articulat e th e experienc e produce d whe n reductiv e logic i s applie d t o huma n thought . Bacon articulate d a ne w an d soon-to-be-fruitfu l attitud e towar d th e in vestigation o f th e materia l world . A t th e sam e time , hi s metho d recognize d a subjectiv e residu e o f th e mind' s activity , whic h ha d t o b e exclude d fro m any investigatio n befor e i t coul d succeed . Th e "mimi c an d fabulou s worlds " of th e philosopher s coul d b e pu t dow n t o th e foible s o f th e huma n intellec t working unde r th e pressur e o f affectio n an d will . I n makin g thi s diagnosis , Bacon establishe d a kin d o f roug h justic e ove r th e "fabulou s worlds. " Bu t the ne w territor y h e ha d opened , th e hereditar y kingdo m o f Error , remaine d as a challeng e t o moder n understanding . Ou t o f thi s challeng e wa s t o com e the scienc e o f psycholog y a s w e kno w it . Our s i s th e firs t psycholog y tha t attempts t o understan d th e working s o f th e min d a s abstracte d fro m an y proper objec t o f knowledg e o r experience . I t i s th e firs t systemati c psychol ogy o f error .

Epistemological Suspicion The firs t grea t heir s o f Baconia n psycholog y wer e th e empiricists , chie f among the m Lock e an d Hume . I n thei r work , th e practica l interest s o f science wer e suddenl y pushe d t o th e rea r b y a n acces s o f suspicio n mor e formidable eve n tha n tha t o f Bacon . Fo r thes e writers , suspicio n i s n o longer th e adjunc t o f a scientifi c method . I t i s no t simpl y ou r capacit y t o gain understandin g an d contro l o f th e worl d befor e u s tha t mus t b e regu lated b y suspicion . No w thi s ver y worl d itsel f i s clos e t o bein g a n illusion . The distinctio n betwee n th e "mimi c an d fabulou s worlds " an d th e tru e on e becomes increasingl y difficul t t o establish . I n classi c empiricism , th e min d has acces s t o nothin g mor e tha n th e simpl e element s o f sensatio n an d th e combinations o f it s ow n ideas ; ther e ar e n o verifiabl e objects , n o 'sub stances' underlyin g th e dat a give n t o th e senses , onl y th e phenomen a themselves passin g lik e shadow s a s i n Plato' s cave . Th e logica l outcom e o f this for m o f thinkin g woul d b e a n absolut e repressio n o f thought , a with -

78 • Chapter Four drawal o f belie f fro m al l possibl e object s o f externa l knowledge , ther e bein g nothing fo r science , faith , o r commo n perceptio n t o b e about . I t wa s i n recognition o f the shee r unintelligibilit y o f existence i n th e empiricis t mode l that philosopher s o f thi s period—mos t famousl y Berkeley—resorte d t o God a s a coordinatin g agen t betwee n realit y an d experience . God , the y speculated, act s a t eac h momen t t o kee p th e worl d befor e u s consistentl y in p l a c e — a paranoi d solution , surely , bu t withi n thes e operatin g assump tions, th e distinctio n betwee n th e paranoi d an d th e norma l i s n o easie r t o make tha n i t wa s fo r Freud . S o Joh n Locke , wh o di d no t rel y primaril y upon thi s paranoi d resource , take s u p th e doubt s o f hi s reader s o n thi s very point : I Doub t no t bu t m y Reader , b y thi s time , ma y b e ap t t o think, tha t I have bee n al l this whil e onl y buildin g a Castl e i n th e Air ; an d b e read y t o sa y t o me , T o wha t purpose al l thi s stir ? Knowledge , sa y you , i s onl y th e perceptio n o f the agreemen t or disagreement o f our own Ideas: but who knows what those Ideas ma y be? I s ther e any thin g s o extravagant, a s th e Imagination s o f Men' s Brains ? Wher e i s th e Hea d that ha s n o Chimeras in it ? O r i f there b e a sobe r an d a wise Man , wha t differenc e will ther e be , b y you r Rules , betwee n hi s Knowledge , an d tha t o f th e mos t extravagant Fanc y i n th e World ? The y bot h hav e thei r Ideas, an d perceiv e thei r agreement an d disagreemen t on e wit h another . I f ther e b e an y differenc e betwee n them, th e advantag e wil l b e o n th e warm-heade d Man' s side , a s havin g th e mor e Ideas, an d th e mor e lively . An d so , b y your Rules , h e will b e the mor e knowing. I f it b e true , tha t al l Knowledg e lie s onl y i n th e perceptio n o f th e agreemen t o r disagreement o f our own Ideas, th e Visions of an Enthusiast, an d th e Reasoning s of a sobe r Man , wil l b e equally certain. 23 The fac t tha t suc h a n objection , strikin g t o th e hear t o f Locke' s program , should occu r wel l ove r five hundre d page s int o eve n s o maddeningl y disor ganized a wor k a s th e Essay concerning Human Understanding give s reaso n to suspec t tha t th e answe r wil l no t wholl y satisfy. 24 O n thi s point , reader s will hav e t o for m thei r ow n opinion . Fo r u s th e passag e i s interestin g i n another regard—fo r th e insigh t i t permit s int o th e practica l motive s o f Locke's system . Th e dange r o f thi s syste m seem s t o b e tha t th e criteri a fo r knowledge ar e s o subjectiv e an d privat e tha t th e "Vision s o f a n Enthusiast , and th e Reasoning s o f a sobe r Man " canno t b e distinguished . Bu t thi s danger conceal s a hidde n advantage , fo r i f th e superiorit y o f th e "sobe r Man" ove r th e "Enthusiast " ha s bee n somewha t restricted , th e "Enthusi ast," i n th e habi t o f takin g greate r liberties , suffer s a stil l mor e radica l curtailment. Th e "Enthusiast " envisione d her e i s no t a generi c madma n but on e o f a peculia r stripe : tha t o f th e inwardl y illuminate d Protestant . Along wit h th e "superstitious " Catholic , thi s figure i s on e o f th e tw o chie f

Before Freud • 7 9 targets o f Locke' s polemic . T o recogniz e th e identit y o f thes e target s i s t o understand wh y Lock e shoul d hav e bee n s o concerne d t o dra w th e limit s o f human knowledge . Th e effec t h e desire d wa s a denia l o f al l claim s t o socia l and religiou s authorit y tha t migh t distur b th e curren t establishment. 2 5 In orde r t o enforc e thei r suspicio n o f religio n an d paternalis t authority , the empiricist s wer e willin g t o reaso n th e worl d itsel f ou t o f existence . I t was lef t t o Hum e t o tak e thi s trai n o f argumen t t o it s logica l conclusion . For him , ou r knowledg e i s s o tenuou s tha t onl y whe n w e forge t ou r philo sophical selve s ca n w e engag e i n th e mos t commo n beliefs , suc h a s th e existence o f th e bod y o r th e externa l world . Belie f i s a matte r o f custo m and habit , an d i s "mor e properl y a n ac t o f th e sensitive , tha n o f th e cogitative par t o f ou r natures." 2 6 Freu d share d thi s vie w i n a les s extrem e version. Fo r him , ou r commo n belief s abou t th e world , thos e tha t g o beyon d the real m o f science , aris e whe n w e mistak e ou r ow n menta l habit s an d feelings fo r par t o f th e objectiv e world . Suc h 'projections ' o f th e empirica l subject ont o th e dat a o f experienc e are , fo r Freud , a normal , unavoidabl e part o f life : "Fo r whe n w e refe r cause s o f certai n sensation s t o th e externa l world, instea d o f lookin g fo r them , a s i n othe r cases , within , thi s norma l proceeding i s projection." 2 7 Or , a s Hum e woul d hav e it , "I f w e believe , that fir e warms , o r wate r refreshes , 'ti s onl y becaus e i t cost s u s to o muc h pains t o thin k otherwise " (270) . Whe n Freu d assert s tha t th e meanin g an d value o f lif e hav e n o objectiv e existence , i t i s th e empiricis t mod e tha t h e is drawin g on . 'Meaning ' an d 'value ' i n thi s vocabular y ar e no t simpl y errors. The y hav e a certai n concret e reality , an d are , indeed , inescapable ; but thei r realit y ha s nothin g t o d o wit h th e worl d tha t the y envision . Tha t world i s a mer e creatio n o f th e min d shadowin g fort h it s irrepressibl e sens e of orde r ont o phenomena . Accordin g t o thei r ow n descriptions , empiricis t philosophers, achievin g th e absolut e o f suspicion , ar e i n thi s respec t lik e the paranoid—that , leavin g th e stud y fo r th e rea l world , the y canno t hel p seeing mor e tha n i s really there . The grea t innovatio n o f Kan t wa s t o accep t th e inaccessibilit y o f things in-themselves, th e failur e o f th e sense s t o achiev e tru e knowledge , an d t o reestablish experienc e no t upo n th e basi s o f trut h bu t upo n th e reliabilit y and universalit y o f th e subject . Th e consistenc y o f th e worl d an d th e coherence o f ou r experienc e becom e no w attributabl e t o th e activit y o f th e mind itself—no t impose d haphazard , a s fo r Hume , bu t governe d b y a n intellectual necessity . Th e implication s o f thi s wa y o f thinkin g ar e decid edly unfavorabl e t o a reductionis m o f th e Freudia n variety , an d t o mechani cal reduction s o f an y kind , applie d t o th e proces s o f thought . Th e notio n

80 • Chapter Four that, i n spit e o f th e subjectiv e characte r o f physica l experience , i t i s th e same fo r al l o f us , provide s a somewha t genia l regulatio n o f suspicion , holding ou t th e possibilit y o f a ne w authorit y i n th e domai n o f science . Th e new, 'transcendental ' sanctio n lay s clai m t o validit y bu t withou t immediat e knowledge, demonstratio n bu t withou t a n object . Bein g remove d fro m th e realm o f things-in-themselves , i t i s immun e fro m infectio n eithe r b y meta physical o r theologica l sources , invulnerabl e t o co-optatio n eithe r fo r reli gious purpose s o r politica l ones . Kant' s philosoph y seem s t o offe r a stable , even hard y variet y o f suspicion , and , lik e Bacon's , i t i s compatibl e wit h a positive, productiv e outlook . Kant confine d th e reactionar y impuls e t o discove r th e orde r o f th e min d in natur e t o th e facult y o f th e aesthetic , or , mor e broadly , o f practica l judgment; Freu d woul d subsequentl y locat e th e source s o f th e aestheti c i n the unconscious . Attemptin g t o accoun t fo r th e inaccessibilit y o f that regio n of th e mind , Freu d explicitl y invoke s Kantia n transcendentalism : The psycho-analyti c assumptio n o f unconsciou s menta l activit y appear s t o us , o n the on e hand , a s a further expansio n o f the primitiv e animis m whic h cause d u s t o see copie s o f ou r ow n consciousnes s al l aroun d us , and , o n th e othe r hand , a s a n extension o f th e correction s undertake n b y Kan t o f ou r view s o n externa l percep tion. Jus t a s Kan t warne d u s no t t o overloo k th e fac t tha t ou r perception s ar e subjectively conditione d an d mus t no t b e regarde d a s identica l wit h wha t i s per ceived thoug h unknowable , s o psycho-analysis warn s u s no t t o equat e perception s by mean s o f consciousnes s wit h th e unconsciou s menta l processe s whic h ar e thei r object. Lik e the physical, th e psychical i s not necessaril y i n reality what i t appear s to u s t o be . W e shal l b e gla d t o learn , however , tha t th e correctio n o f interna l perception wil l tur n ou t no t t o offe r suc h grea t difficultie s a s th e correctio n o f external perception—tha t interna l object s ar e les s unknowabl e tha n th e externa l world.28 This i s a remarkabl e passage . Freu d first acknowledges—again—th e likeness betwee n psychoanalyti c an d animisti c thinking , i n tha t the y bot h seek copie s o f thei r ow n consciousnes s i n th e phenomena l world . Wha t saves th e psychoanalys t fro m a naiv e narcissis m i s hi s Kantia n suspicion : he recognize s a divid e betwee n hi s ow n sensation s an d th e externa l world . This sam e divid e no w open s within , betwee n th e consciou s an d th e uncon scious mind. 2 9 I t i s a s i f th e consciou s intelligenc e stand s i n a spac e between tw o screens : on e t o the outside , wher e i t recognize s th e projection s of th e externa l world , anothe r t o th e inside , wher e i t recognize s th e form s that th e unconsciou s min d project s upo n th e surfac e o f consciou s aware ness. O n eithe r sid e i t i s remove d fro m reality . Th e ai m o f Kant' s transcen dental tur n wa s t o sacrific e immediac y o f knowledg e o f th e externa l worl d

Before Freud • 8 1 for certaint y withi n th e domai n o f th e subject . Withi n thi s transcendenta l domain, th e subjec t give s it s ow n la w t o natur e an d t o it s ow n will . I t wa s an inwar d migratio n intende d t o establis h a n unshakabl e autonomy . Freu d upsets thi s intentio n b y introducin g withi n th e enclose d kingdo m o f th e Kantian subjec t th e sam e divisio n an d distanc e tha t separat e i t fro m th e outside world . Openin g thi s ne w an d ungovernabl e territory , th e uncon scious, Freu d establishe d a n interna l Othe r which , a s h e stated , showe d reason tha t i t wa s no t th e maste r o f it s ow n house . Freud' s descriptio n o f the unconsciou s min d leave s n o doub t abou t it s foreignnes s t o reaso n an d the 'ego' . Th e wishe s tha t appea r i n dreams , h e reports , are first an d foremos t manifestation s o f an unbridle d an d ruthles s egoism . . . . Th e ego, free d fro m al l ethica l bonds , als o finds itsel f a t on e wit h al l th e demand s o f sexual desire , eve n thos e whic h hav e lon g bee n condemne d b y ou r aestheti c upbringing an d thos e whic h contradic t al l th e requirement s o f moral restraint . Th e desire fo r pleasure—th e 'libido' , a s we call it—choose s it s objects withou t inhibi tion, an d b y preference , indeed , th e forbidde n ones : no t onl y othe r men' s wives , but abov e al l incestuou s objects , object s sanctifie d b y th e commo n agreemen t o f mankind, a man' s mothe r an d sister , a woman' s fathe r an d brother . . . . Lust s which w e think o f as remot e fro m huma n natur e sho w themselve s stron g enoug h t o provoke dreams. Hatred , too, rages without restraint . Wishe s for revenge and deat h directed agains t thos e wh o ar e neares t an d deares t i n wakin g life , agains t th e dreamer's parents , brother s an d sisters , husban d o r wife, an d hi s ow n children ar e nothing unusual . Thes e censore d wishe s appea r t o rise u p ou t o f a positiv e Hell ; after the y hav e bee n interprete d whe n w e are awake , n o censorship o f them seem s to us too severe. This "positiv e Hell " i s th e inne r life , th e lif e o f th e will , tha t stand s o n the fa r sid e o f Freud' s Kantia n subject . Fro m no w o n th e claim s o f reaso n to hav e establishe d it s dominio n ove r th e wil l coul d onl y b e expose d a s th e disguises tha t the y are , disguise s o f th e unconscious , whic h alway s give s the li e t o th e pretension s o f autonomy . Freud' s psycholog y preserve d th e defensive resource s o f Kantia n subjectivis m a s a usefu l hedg e agains t metaphysical assertion , eve n whil e h e introduce d int o th e Kantia n syste m a stil l mor e penetratin g an d destabilizin g suspicion . Freud's greates t deb t t o Kan t wa s i n th e latter' s conceptio n o f th e aesthetic, whic h becam e th e ultimat e hom e o f Bacon' s "mimi c an d fabulou s worlds." I n accomplishin g hi s transcendenta l turn , Kan t ha d manage d t o preserve thos e power s tha t ha d presume d i n metaphysica l cultur e t o gras p things i n th e worl d accordin g t o th e mind' s ow n sens e o f fitness . Whil e h e deprived the m o f th e realit y the y ha d onc e projecte d acros s th e divid e separating th e min d fro m things-in-themselves , h e establishe d fo r the m a

82 • Chapter Four domain o f thei r own—th e domai n o f aestheti c judgment . I n thi s domain , the min d coul d enjo y it s ow n sens e o f orde r realize d withi n th e element s o f the externa l worl d a s lon g a s i t recognize d tha t th e sol e purpos e o f thi s order la y i n th e pleasur e i t produced . Thi s wa s th e meanin g o f Kant' s formula fo r ar t a s th e pleasur e i n 'purposeles s purpose' , 'finalit y withou t end'. Onc e agai n Kant' s motiv e wa s t o accep t th e stricture s o f suspicio n with regar d t o th e externa l worl d i n orde r t o establis h a mor e reliable , internal dominio n fo r th e subject . Th e specia l harmlessnes s o f the aestheti c impulse i s tha t i t take s n o interes t i n things-in-themselves . I t i s immun e t o the temptation s o f epistemi c authorit y an d o f mora l acquisitiveness . I t ha s no componen t o f 'interest' . It s onl y pleasur e arise s fro m th e sens e o f harmony tha t th e object s o f beaut y ca n produc e amon g th e mind' s ow n cognitive faculties . Thu s Kan t preserve d th e dignit y o f th e projectiv e sense , the 'aestheti c judgment' , whil e containin g i t strictl y withi n bounds . Hi s analysis o f th e pleasur e o f th e aestheti c provide s withi n hi s syste m th e sense tha t th e radicall y contracte d subjectivit y h e describe s stil l embrace s a psychologica l completenes s an d contain s th e wholenes s o f menta l experi ence. Alongsid e th e aestheti c judgmen t narrowl y defined , Kan t als o recog nized th e merel y practica l use s o f th e teleologica l sens e h e ha d banishe d from transcendenta l reason . Freud imagine s th e unconsciou s mind , i n it s preferenc e fo r order , t o b e very muc h lik e th e aestheti c real m o f Kant; i t fulfill s itsel f i n thos e element s of consciousnes s tha t resonat e wit h it s teleologica l sens e o f desire . Thi s sense i s create d b y th e repressio n fro m consciousnes s o f th e narcissisti c craving fo r self-confine d orde r ver y muc h a s th e teleolog y o f Kan t wa s confined t o th e aesthetic . Onc e again , however , Freu d introduce s a ne w theme o f suspicio n withi n th e Kantia n paradigm . Th e narcissisti c impuls e that finds it s expressio n i n artisti c for m i s b y n o mean s fre e fro m th e tain t of physica l desire , a s Kan t ha d thought , bein g nothin g othe r tha n a dis guised produc t o f Eros . An d th e aestheti c judgmen t canno t i n th e Freudia n model b e considere d universa l a s i t wa s fo r Kant : a s w e hav e seen , th e artist gratifie s hi s ow n narcissisti c wishe s withi n a historicall y conditione d climate o f repression . H e i s fre e t o expres s hi s narcissisti c fantasie s i n disguised for m becaus e o f th e repression s concede d b y others . Thes e repressions ste m originall y fro m socia l inequalities , an d th e artis t reinforce s them eve n a s h e gratifie s hi s ow n libidina l drive . Freu d worshippe d ar t an d the artist ; h e considere d the m a s hi s precursors ; bu t h e di d no t spar e them th e suspicio n h e directe d towar d al l huma n behavior , including , i n principle, hi s own . Th e idealisti c o r 'narcissistic' , order-seekin g aspec t o f

Before Freud • 8 3 the unconsciou s i s no t incompatibl e wit h th e impulse s tha t mak e i t resem ble a "positiv e Hell. " In general , Freu d too k int o hi s syste m th e suspiciousnes s o f moder n epistemology, th e sens e o f th e limit s o f knowledg e whic h tha t traditio n ha s erected. Hi s vie w o f th e huma n subjec t i s on e o f radica l self-enclosure . Bu t this self-enclosur e doe s no t produc e simple , incoheren t privacy , a s i t tended t o d o fo r Hum e i n hi s mos t skeptica l moments . No r doe s i t hav e th e resources o f cognitiv e necessit y attribute d t o i t b y Kant . Wha t i t ha s i s th e regularity o f a physica l system , whic h ca n b e charted , predicted , and , sometimes, adjusted . Th e phenomen a o f consciousnes s ar e deceptive , bu t they ar e deceptiv e i n a wa y ultimatel y consisten t an d predictabl e onc e th e secret motive s o f ou r hypocris y hav e bee n unmasked . Th e integrit y o f thi s physicalizing psycholog y i s guarantee d b y th e banishin g o f al l motive s bu t those o f a tota l an d systemati c lustfulnes s an d selfishnes s t o th e real m o f mere appearances : thu s Freu d i s abl e t o achiev e a perfec t translatio n o f th e appearance o f intellectua l orde r int o th e realit y o f mora l chaos .

Historical Suspicion The thir d componen t o f Freudia n suspicio n i s perhap s th e mos t dynami c — historical suspicion . Th e moder n sens e o f histor y a s a movemen t o f progres s in knowledg e ca n b e fel t stirrin g i n Bacon , fo r i f th e Baconia n projec t succeeds i n th e agend a i t ha s se t fo r itself , befor e lon g th e advancemen t o f human knowledg e wil l rende r obsolet e al l tha t th e pas t ha s believe d abou t the natura l world . Humanity , i n tha t case , wil l mov e fro m a cultur e o f fals e intellectual glamou r t o on e o f practica l power . Th e age s o f th e pas t wil l stand condemne d i n compariso n wit h th e present . Bacon' s psychologica l distinction betwee n th e intellectualis t method , base d upo n 'Anticipation s of th e Mind' , an d th e tru e practica l science , base d upo n 'Interpretation s o f Nature', contain s th e resource s fo r a historica l ideolog y o f progres s tha t Bacon himsel f di d no t full y exploi t bu t tha t hi s successor s woul d vigorousl y deploy eve n dow n t o th e tim e o f Freud. 3 1 Fo r thi s ideology , th e pas t becomes synonymou s wit h erro r i n al l o f it s forms—superstitio n an d intol erance, enforce d b y priestcraft , enthusiasm , ignorance , prejudic e o f ever y kind, th e undiscipline d intellec t lef t pre y t o it s ow n excesse s an d t o al l th e mystifications o f privat e interest . Th e present , i n thi s model , i s b y contras t always a n ag e o f tru e submissio n t o th e evidenc e o f th e sense s an d t o th e facts themselves , free d fro m th e distraction s o f huma n desire . Th e presen t repudiates th e pas t a s a worl d o f fantasy , a worl d "a s on e would, " t o us e

84 • Chapter Four Bacon's language , whil e takin g it s stan d upo n th e hard , col d groun d o f the real . Freud's distinctio n betwee n th e 'pleasur e principle ' an d th e 'principl e o f reality', then , wa s first a historica l distinction . Perhap s th e mos t tellin g formulation o f th e ide a o f a primitiv e historica l 'narcissism ' wa s give n b y Vico i n hi s accoun t o f th e metaphysica l poetr y o f th e ag e o f giants , whic h remains fo r hi m th e imaginativ e substrat e o f huma n culture : It i s noteworth y tha t i n al l language s th e greate r par t o f the expression s relatin g t o inanimate thing s ar e forme d b y metapho r fro m th e huma n bod y an d it s part s an d from th e huma n sense s an d passions . Thus , hea d fo r to p o r beginning ; th e bro w and shoulder s o f a hill; the eyes of needles an d o f potatoes; mouth fo r any opening ; the li p o f a cu p o r pitcher ; th e gorg e o f a river ; a nec k o f land ; a n ar m o f th e sea ; the hand s o f a clock ; hear t fo r cente r (th e Latin s use d umbilicus, navel , i n thi s sense); th e bell y o f a sail . . . . Th e farmer s o f Latiu m use d t o sa y th e fields wer e thirsty, bor e fruit, wer e swolle n wit h grain ; an d ou r rustic s spea k o f plants makin g love, vine s goin g resinous , tree s weeping . Innumerabl e othe r example s coul d b e collected fro m al l languages . Al l o f which i s a consequence o f our axio m tha t ma n in hi s ignoranc e make s himsel f th e rul e o f th e universe , fo r i n th e example s cite d he ha s mad e o f himsel f a n entir e world . S o that, a s rationa l metaphysic s teache s that ma n become s al l thing s b y understandin g the m . . . , thi s imaginativ e meta physics show s tha t ma n become s al l thing s b y not understandin g the m . . . ; an d perhaps th e latte r propositio n i s true r tha n th e former , fo r whe n ma n understand s he extend s hi s min d an d take s i n th e things , bu t whe n h e doe s no t understan d he make s th e thing s ou t o f himsel f an d become s the m b y transformin g himsel f into them. 32 This i s a perfectl y Freudia n an d Baconia n formulation . I n Vico' s New Science, th e psychologica l suspicio n o f th e 'narcissistic ' intellect , whic h i s active i n Bacon' s scientifi c methodology , become s par t o f th e basi s o f a full-blown typolog y o f historica l stages , eac h stag e bein g th e embodimen t of a differen t for m o f thought an d virtuall y a differen t huma n nature . Vico' s conception o f th e origina l rac e o f giant s migh t eve n hav e provide d a n indirect inspiratio n fo r Darwin' s conceptio n o f th e prima l father. 33 Th e question o f Vico' s influence , direc t o r indirect , nee d no t concer n u s here . His thinkin g provide s a prescien t exampl e o f th e for m o f historica l suspi cion whic h woul d b e a decisiv e elemen t o f th e intellectua l climat e tha t gav e birth t o psychoanalysis . Vico tende d t o valu e th e imaginativ e qualitie s o f th e primitiv e giant s who bega n huma n culture . Th e Frenc h Enlightenmen t theorist s an d prac titioners o f history , politicall y engage d agains t wha t the y too k t o b e reac tionary element s i n th e present , regarde d th e pas t wit h suspiciou s con -

Before Freud • 8 5 tempt; ever y ste p awa y fro m it s barbarou s practice s necessaril y accomplished som e movemen t o f progress. Suc h wa s th e attitud e o f Gibbon , Voltaire, Condorcet , Kant , an d thei r descendants . Kan t struc k th e domi nant not e when , i n th e programmati c essa y "Wha t I s Enlightenment? " h e declared tha t Enlightenmen t wa s th e emergenc e o f humanit y fro m child hood. I n hi s essa y o n universa l history , Kan t make s explici t th e implica tions o f thi s vie w o f huma n progress , speculatin g tha t "man " i s th e specie s that canno t achiev e perfectio n i n a singl e lifetime , a s al l othe r creature s do ; rather, havin g departe d fro m th e guidanc e o f natur e i n orde r t o undertak e responsibility fo r himsel f throug h reason , mankin d wil l requir e a n evolutio n through man y generation s i n orde r t o becom e perfect. 34 Already i n Kant' s portraya l o f Enlightenmen t a s th e maturit y o f ma n there i s a softenin g towar d th e past , fo r maturit y mus t res t upo n it s child hood an d canno t trul y leav e i t behind . I f perfectio n i s th e historica l fulfill ment, o r telos , o f th e huma n species , the n al l o f th e phase s require d t o attain thi s perfectio n constitut e par t o f it s inne r necessity . Kan t ha d alread y been influence d t o som e degre e b y th e reversa l o f historica l sympathie s accomplished i n th e writing s o f Rousseau , wher e primitiv e natur e suddenl y emerges ou t fro m unde r th e eclips e o f progres s t o exer t a ne w clai m upo n the present . Fo r Rousseau , th e natura l elemen t o f th e huma n characte r becomes a regenerativ e forc e tha t coul d potentiall y b e calle d upo n t o reverse th e decadenc e o f civilization . Thes e consideration s exerte d a deci sive influenc e upo n Rousseau' s theor y o f education , whic h h e viewe d a s a n attempt t o preserv e a s muc h o f natur e withi n th e chil d a s wa s possibl e fo r a socially usefu l huma n being . Rousseau' s grea t polemic s o n behal f o f natura l morality initiate d th e tendency , s o pronounce d i n Freud , t o se e individua l development a s a dialecti c o f progressiv e an d reactionar y force s connecte d with th e value s o f differen t phase s o f history . A s Freu d put s it , "Mankin d never live s entirel y i n th e present . Th e past , th e traditio n o f th e rac e an d of th e people , live s o n i n th e ideologie s o f th e super-ego , an d yield s onl y slowly t o th e influence s o f th e present." 3 5 Dialectical psycho-histor y wa s take n t o it s apogee , o f course , b y Hegel . Hegel's dialecti c wa s a n ingeniou s attemp t t o recuperat e th e meanin g o f th e past fro m th e standpoin t o f th e present , t o se e i n th e intellectua l lif e o f each pas t epoc h a validit y relativ e t o it s plac e i n th e progressiv e movemen t of Mind . I n Hegel' s thought , eac h standpoin t o f intelligenc e i s limite d i n itself, ye t eac h i s necessar y t o th e eventua l freedo m o f self-consciousness . For thi s reason , i t i s essentia l fo r th e individual , i n hi s ow n Bildung , hi s own movemen t towar d self-consciousness , t o retrac e eac h o f thes e prio r

86 • Chapter Four stages, i n th e proces s recapitulatin g th e intellectua l histor y o f humanity . The ide a tha t th e individua l recapitulate s th e menta l developmen t o f th e species als o becam e par t o f August e Comte' s syste m o f positivism , wit h it s three stage s o f huma n development—th e 'theological' , th e 'metaphysical' , and th e 'positivist' , o r scientific : "Now , eac h o f u s i s aware , i f h e look s back upo n hi s ow n history , tha t h e wa s a theologia n i n hi s childhood , a metaphysician i n hi s youth , an d a natura l philosophe r i n hi s manhood . Al l men wh o ar e u p t o thei r ag e ca n verif y thi s fo r themselves." 3 6 In th e developmen t o f thes e psycho-historica l model s a n interestin g series o f transformation s ha s take n place . Bacon' s scientifi c metho d as serted a distinctio n betwee n 'intellectualist ' an d practica l science . Th e distinction bega n a s a psychologica l on e applyin g t o differen t individual s exercising thei r intellectua l facultie s i n a differen t way . Wit h th e succes s of Baconia n thinking , thi s psychologica l distinctio n becam e historica l i n character. Th e transitio n fro m on e for m o f thinkin g t o anothe r appeare d now a s a necessar y goa l fo r th e progres s o f civilization . Finally , wit h th e rise o f historicis m o f th e Hegelia n o r Comtea n kind , th e stage s o f historica l progress reente r th e intellectua l lif e o f th e individua l a s necessar y phase s of development . Wha t bega n a s a psychologica l distinctio n betwee n indi viduals usin g differen t method s o f inquir y become s i n th e late r mode l a psychological distinctio n betwee n differen t period s o f eac h person' s intel lectual an d emotiona l life. 37 I n th e Freudia n system , a s w e hav e seen , th e principle tha t th e individua l repeat s th e developmenta l histor y o f th e spe cies i s a tene t o f biology . I t entere d Darwinia n scienc e throug h th e effort s of Erns t Haeckel , propounde r o f th e la w tha t 'ontogen y recapitulate s phy logeny'. 38 Haecke l eventuall y mad e thi s on e o f th e principle s o f a cosmi c philosophy, a progressiv e historico-physica l 'monism' , whic h h e deploye d in oppositio n t o al l o f th e usua l scientifi c enemies , especiall y Jesuitica l Catholicism. 39 Haeckel' s theor y enjoye d surprisin g respectabilit y an d in fluence amon g biologist s int o th e twentiet h century . In al l o f it s forms , biologica l o r historical , th e principl e o f recapitulatio n allows th e progres s o f history , wit h it s suspiciou s overcomin g o f th e past , to mak e it s appearanc e withi n th e persona l developmen t o f th e individual . It i s a historica l ideolog y injecte d int o th e spher e o f th e psych e an d thereb y falsely universalized . I n th e Freudia n Bildungsroman , th e her o struggle s to fre e himsel f fro m th e reactionar y force s o f narcissis m masse d i n th e unconscious. Thes e force s embod y th e biologica l trace s o f th e paterna l enemies o f th e past , th e prima l father s an d thei r mythica l substitutes , Go d and hi s poet-priests . Th e psychologica l difficultie s tha t bese t th e individua l

Before Freud • 8 7 at eac h perio d o f hi s o r he r lif e ca n b e understoo d a s th e product s o f tensio n between relativel y progressiv e an d relativel y reactionar y psychologica l ele ments, jus t a s fo r Comt e o r Mar x th e tension s withi n an y particula r histori cal momen t ca n b e understoo d a s th e product s o f conflic t betwee n relativel y progressive an d relativel y reactionar y socia l o r economi c forces . Th e move ment fro m th e pleasur e principl e t o th e realit y principl e i s thu s a historica l and, indeed , a politica l achievement , a s wel l a s a persona l one . I t i s a triumph ove r fixatio n i n th e past , a triump h ove r th e temptation s o f regres sion t o th e rul e o f th e 'ancien t pleasur e principle' : The liberatio n o f an individual , a s h e grow s up , fro m th e authorit y o f his parent s i s one o f th e mos t necessar y thoug h on e o f th e mos t painfu l result s brough t abou t b y the course o f his development. I t i s quite essentia l tha t tha t liberatio n shoul d occu r and i t ma y b e presume d tha t i t ha s bee n t o some exten t achieve d b y everyon e wh o has reache d a norma l state . Indeed , th e whol e progres s o f societ y rest s upo n th e opposition betwee n successiv e generations . O n th e othe r hand , ther e i s a clas s o f neurotics whos e conditio n i s recognizabl y determine d b y thei r havin g faile d i n this task. 40 It coul d no t b e mor e clea r tha t th e "liberation " o f th e individua l i s a s much a politica l an d socia l necessit y a s i t i s a psychologica l one . Freud' s agonistic psycholog y mus t b e playe d ou t betwee n th e rank s o f eac h genera tion i n orde r fo r progres s t o continue . Thos e lik e Quixot e wh o succum b t o paranoia hav e tragicall y o r comicall y betraye d th e struggl e fo r progres s i n favor o f th e ancie n regime. 4 1 Freud identifie s wholeheartedl y wit h th e progres s o f science; bu t i t woul d be a mistak e t o conside r hi m a tru e cultura l optimist . Hi s progressivis m i s sincere, an d eve n militant , s o lon g a s i t look s backwar d towar d wha t ha s been lef t behind . Bu t fo r th e presen t an d th e future , Freu d revert s t o hi s habitual irony , ofte n take n b y hi s admirer s a s a for m o f tragi c moralism . For him , th e psychi c force s tha t dra w u s backwar d int o th e pas t ca n neve r be trul y vanquished , no t eve n i n individual s wh o hav e bee n subjecte d t o the mos t thoroughgoin g an d protracte d psychoanalyti c disciplin e an d wh o have achieve d th e mos t worth y an d admirabl e characters : There ar e nearl y alway s residua l phenomena , a partia l hangin g back . Whe n a n open-handed Maecena s surprise s u s b y som e isolate d trai t o f miserliness , o r whe n a perso n wh o i s consistentl y over-kin d suddenl y indulge s i n a hostil e action , suc h 'residual phenomena ' ar e invaluabl e fo r geneti c research . The y sho w u s tha t thes e praiseworthy an d preciou s qualitie s ar e base d o n compensation s which , a s wa s t o have bee n expected , hav e no t bee n absolutel y successful. 42

88 • Chapter Four Here th e progressivis t psycho-histor y show s it s instrumenta l aptnes s fo r suspicion: th e leas t glimme r o f imperfectio n i n a person' s characte r reveal s his o r he r tru e nature , whil e betrayin g tha t th e remainin g virtue s ar e a mor e successfully disguise d for m o f selfishness . S o th e reactionar y element s o f character betra y th e ultimat e falsenes s o f the progressiv e a s well . An d wha t is tru e o f th e individua l i s n o les s tru e o f th e mass : "O f al l th e erroneou s and superstitiou s belief s o f mankin d tha t hav e supposedl y bee n surmounte d there i s no t on e whos e residue s d o no t liv e o n amon g u s to-da y i n th e lowe r strata o f civilize d people s o r eve n i n th e highes t strat a o f cultura l society . What ha s onc e com e t o lif e cling s tenaciousl y t o it s existence . On e feel s inclined t o doub t sometime s whethe r th e dragon s o f primaeva l day s ar e really extinct " (229) . Ho w seamlessl y th e biologica l an d socia l strat a merg e in thi s elegan t mythology. 43 The bio-historica l myt h o f progres s tha t i s th e basi s o f Freud' s progres sive psycholog y ha s it s roots , w e hav e seen , i n a dubiou s evolutionar y science dubiousl y applied . Whe n w e recal l th e for m o f th e narrativ e o f bio history, however , w e find tha t i t ha s a distinctl y Hegelia n cas t t o it , a strangely rationalistic , idealizing , an d eve n dialectica l character . Freud' s thinking, tru e t o wha t w e shal l se e i s it s Cervantea n tenor , mirror s th e for m of th e pures t exampl e o f it s opposit e i n orde r t o giv e i t a satiri c turn . A s i t is lik e animism , s o i t i s lik e Hegelia n philosophy . Hegel' s dialectica l history begin s wit h a n absolut e separatio n betwee n min d an d world , subjec t and object . I t move s b y a proces s o f negation , a progressiv e unmaskin g o f error, whic h show s t o th e subjec t it s unconsciou s contribution s t o what ha d seemed a n objectiv e worl d existin g independentl y o f mind . B y thi s proces s of negatio n an d ever-widenin g suspicion , min d eventuall y come s t o recog nize tha t al l alon g i t was identica l wit h tha t oute r world , tha t th e strangenes s and alterit y whic h tha t worl d onc e presente d wer e th e by-product s o f a n insufficiently achieve d self-consciousness . Freud' s untranslatabl e maxi m describing th e masterin g o f th e i d b y th e eg o perfectl y fits Hegel' s concep t of negatio n a s self-recognition : Wo Es war, soil Ich werden ("Wher e i t [id ] was, ther e shal l I [ego ] be"). 4 4 Hege l thu s envision s th e overcomin g o f the divid e betwee n inne r an d oute r tha t ha d bee n pu t solidl y int o plac e by Kant . Freud's psycho-historica l schem e i s a perfec t inversio n o f Hegel's . Fo r Freud, histor y begin s wit h th e absolut e identit y o f subjec t an d objec t represented b y th e perfec t narcissis m o f th e prima l father . A s wit h Hegel , the progres s o f histor y come s wit h negation , o r repression . An d no w i t concludes wit h th e scientist , wh o attain s th e perfec t subtractio n o f hi s

Before Freud • 8 9 subjectivity fro m objectiv e reality , th e perfec t renunciatio n o f hi s narcissis tic confusio n o f sel f an d world . Freu d end s wher e Hege l began . Bot h me n associated th e progressiv e movemen t o f histor y wit h th e histor y o f science . For bot h o f them , th e scientifi c perspectiv e the y ha d achieve d wa s i n itsel f the goa l o f history , bein g th e on e standpoin t fro m whic h it s movemen t coul d be grasped . Bu t whil e Hege l sa w al l o f pas t histor y a s redeeme d i n th e present momen t o f knowledge , Freu d sa w th e presen t a s th e on e standpoin t from whic h th e futilit y o f th e pas t coul d b e full y appreciated . Th e presen t was superio r no t becaus e i t ha d bette r acces s t o trut h bu t onl y becaus e i t had transcende d th e error s o f wha t ha d gon e before . Th e valu e o f th e present la y i n th e renunciation s tha t ha d bee n necessar y t o achiev e i t an d the scienc e tha t coul d kee p the m i n place . Freud doe s hol d ou t on e Utopia n promise , whic h i s that , throug h educa tion, scienc e coul d eventuall y becom e a n objec t o f passionat e interes t fo r modern people , thu s savin g the m fro m th e impoverishmen t o f emotional lif e caused b y th e discreditin g o f religion . Th e "effect s o f repression " woul d b e replaced b y "th e result s o f th e rationa l operatio n o f th e intellect . I n thi s way," Freu d concludes , "ou r appointe d tas k o f reconcilin g me n t o civiliza tion wil l t o a grea t exten t b e achieved." 4 5 I t wa s on e o f th e centra l aspirations o f post-Romanti c historica l though t tha t th e unit y o f intellec t and desir e tha t i t discerne d i n th e stat e o f natura l lif e shoul d b e recovere d on th e highe r groun d o f culture . Freu d offer s thi s ra y o f hop e i n th e mos t tentative term s i n The Future of an Illusion. H e i s mor e powerful , an d mor e distinctly himself , whe n i n Civilization audits Discontents (1930 ) h e allude s to th e frustration s tha t com e wit h th e tamin g o f huma n natur e an d t o th e false satisfaction s o f technology , which , a s w e hav e seen , transfor m ma n into a melanchol y "prostheti c God. " Th e renunciation s necessar y fo r cul tural harmon y tur n th e violenc e o f huma n natur e inwar d an d lea d t o increasing guilt . Eve n b y charit y w e ar e undone . I t i s a dark , ironic , an d formidably suspiciou s conclusio n fo r th e Germa n philosoph y o f Bildung , though one , i t mus t b e acknowledged , suite d t o th e politica l current s o f the 1930s .

Political Suspicion Freud mad e trenchan t us e o f th e suspiciou s potentia l withi n th e libera l ideology o f progress . Thi s ideology , however , becam e les s an d les s persua sive t o hi m durin g hi s lifetime . Freu d alway s maintaine d hi s admiratio n fo r liberal England ; bu t th e politic s o f hi s ow n countr y di d no t engag e him :

90 • Chapter Four "Politically," h e remarke d i n 1926 , " I a m jus t nothing." 4 6 Thi s i s agai n not surprisin g give n th e discouragin g climat e o f th e time . I t i s temptin g t o say tha t Freu d wa s 'ambivalent ' towar d politic s an d towar d th e ide a o f progress; bu t th e us e o f tha t ter m woul d onl y dra w ou r attentio n bac k t o th e problems o f Freudia n logic , it s generall y 'ambivalent' , paradoxical , an d contradictory character . I t wil l b e mor e illuminating , perhaps , t o conside r that alon g wit h th e hopefu l attitud e towar d scienc e an d th e admiratio n fo r civilization tha t Freu d hold s partiall y i n commo n wit h th e Enlightenment , there i s a countervailin g elemen t i n hi s though t tha t als o touche s a majo r chord o f distinctivel y moder n culture : suspicio n a s th e basi s o f politica l authority itself . Th e sourc e i s no t har d t o locate : Freu d i s a majo r exponen t of th e dar k liberalis m o f Hobbe s cas t int o stil l deepe r shade s b y th e gloom y sciences o f Malthu s an d Darwin . Hobbesia n suspicio n o f huma n natur e i s at th e roo t o f Freud' s attitud e towar d individual s an d towar d society . Hobbes believe d tha t th e proble m o f politica l lif e stem s no t simpl y fro m human aggressivenes s bu t fro m ou r inabilit y t o agre e upo n th e basi c politi cal an d socia l realities . Hi s estimat e o f th e huma n intelligenc e recognize s the tendenc y towar d self-infatuatio n tha t Freu d wa s t o cal l 'narcissism' : For suc h i s th e natur e o f men , tha t howsoeve r the y ma y acknowledg e man y other s to b e mor e witty , o r mor e eloquent , o r mor e learned ; Ye t the y wil l hardl y believ e there b e man y s o wise a s themselves: Fo r they se e their own wit at hand, an d othe r mens a t a distance . . . . Fro m thi s equalit y o f ability , ariset h equalit y o f hop e i n the attainin g o f ou r Ends . An d therefor e i f an y tw o me n desir e th e sam e thing , which nevertheless e the y canno t bot h enjoy , the y becom e enemies ; and i n th e way to thei r End , (whic h i s principall y thei r own e conservation , an d sometime s thei r delectation only, ) endeavou r t o destroy, o r subdue on e another. 47 The inabilit y o f huma n being s t o regulat e hop e an d ambitio n b y th e dictates o f reaso n i s indee d a formidabl e obstacl e t o th e securit y o f life . I t ensures a n endless , unsettle d competition . Bu t Hobbe s finds a n eve n mor e difficult obstacl e t o huma n well-bein g prio r t o th e establishmen t o f society : human being s d o no t agre e upo n th e valu e o f th e object s fo r whic h the y compete, no r eve n upo n th e meaning s o f th e word s the y appl y i n th e judgment o f suc h objects . Th e term s 'good ' an d 'evil ' ar e i n meanin g entirely relativ e t o th e pleasur e o f th e individua l (39) . Wha t w e have , then , is a kin d o f privacy , a self-enclosur e o f thinkin g an d desire , whic h ensure s that socia l relation s ca n onl y b e base d o n force , ther e bein g n o share d ground o f reaso n upo n whic h huma n being s coul d establis h thei r relatio n t o each other . I t wa s thi s conceptio n tha t le d t o Hobbes ' impressiv e descrip -

Before Freud • 9 1 tion o f th e unimprove d huma n conditio n a s "solitary , poore , nasty , brutish , and short " (89) . The solutio n Hobbe s envisione d fo r th e dilemm a h e ha d pose d wa s a radical an d simpl e one : sinc e huma n being s coul d no t agre e upo n th e relative strength s o f thei r ow n powers , th e object s o f desire , o r th e meanin g of th e term s i n thei r mora l an d politica l vocabulary , the y woul d hav e t o cede th e powe r t o gover n themselve s t o a singl e authorit y tha t woul d provide th e unit y necessar y t o suppor t th e state . Fro m tha t moment , th e relativity o f valu e woul d giv e wa y t o a single , fixed standard . Justic e woul d for th e first tim e com e int o existence , ther e bein g n o righ t o r wron g withou t civil societ y t o establis h them . Individual s woul d enjo y a n equalit y o f powe r arising ou t o f thei r commo n submissio n t o th e state . Th e authorit y o f th e state, o r 'Leviathan ' a s Hobbe s call s it , doe s no t res t i n an y highe r justifi cation o r privilege d knowledge . It s authorit y i s practical . Bein g single , uniform, an d indefeasible , i t possesse s al l th e virtue s o f truth : endowe d with absolut e power , i t put s a n en d t o ever y argument . I t i s t o escap e fro m the 'incommodities ' o f 'civi l war ' an d t o secur e thes e advantage s tha t individual citizen s giv e thei r unconditiona l allegianc e t o th e common wealth. Th e basi s wa s a kin d o f covenant , bu t a covenan t tha t secure d onl y one side , i t bein g incompatibl e wit h th e natur e o f th e sovereig n t o submi t to a n agreemen t (112) . N o powe r coul d restric t hi s authority , fo r i t wa s sustained b y powe r alone ; i t wa s th e essenc e o f th e sovereig n t o b e fre e an d beyond obligation : hi s peopl e wer e boun d t o hi m withou t return . The powe r o f Hobbes ' argumen t i s tha t i t take s fo r th e ver y basi s o f it s understanding th e divisive , competitiv e aspect s o f huma n natur e tha t ha d come s o prominentl y int o vie w i n th e civi l war s o f th e time . Leavin g n o suspicion unacknowledged , h e seem s t o mee t th e problem s o f politic s hea d on. Hi s solution , though , i s a singularl y paranoi d one , fo r wha t i t amount s to i s tha t th e onl y remed y fo r politica l dissensio n i s tha t al l difference s b e annihilated i n th e wil l o f a single , omnipoten t person—th e sovereign . Th e sovereign canno t argu e o r mak e covenant s becaus e ther e i s n o basi s fo r overcoming difference s o f though t o r o f interest . H e canno t recogniz e an y moral, intellectual , o r politica l agenc y outsid e himself . Hi s freedo m rest s in a n incapacit y fo r differenc e or , rather , a capacit y t o repres s differenc e that canno t b e teste d b y an y othe r agent . Th e notio n i s deepl y embedde d i n the radica l strai n o f moder n politica l culture . Suc h freedo m i s th e sanctio n of Rousseau' s volonte general, which , unde r th e 'socia l contract, ' become s the wil l o f a singl e collectiv e bein g derivin g it s righ t simpl y fro m existence :

92 • Chapter Four "The sovereig n b y th e mer e fac t tha t i t is , i s alway s al l tha t i t ough t t o b e . " 4 8 Fro m th e ruling s o f thi s powe r i t i s technicall y impossibl e fo r th e individual t o dissent ; thos e wh o appea r t o d o s o mus t b e "force d t o b e free " (64). Such , also , i s th e perfec t unit y o f th e Marxia n proletariat : al l differ ences ar e reconcile d i n th e paradoxicall y universa l class , whic h wil l dis solve al l classes. 4 9 An d fo r Nietzsch e th e mos t essentia l characteristi c o f the bygon e aristocrati c class , th e mar k o f it s superio r strength , wa s tha t i t recognized n o interest s o r value s othe r tha n it s own ; withou t ressentiment, i t would b e neithe r fo r no r against. 5 0 Thi s wa s it s freedom , t o b e recovere d by th e 'overman' , o r 'superman' . No w le t u s rerea d Freud' s descriptio n o f the prima l father , tha t figure whos e retur n fro m repressio n i s paranoia : The fathe r o f th e prima l hord e wa s free . Hi s intellectua l act s wer e stron g an d independent eve n i n isolation , an d hi s wil l neede d n o reinforcemen t fro m others . Consistency lead s u s to assume tha t hi s ego had ver y few libidina l ties ; he loved n o one but himself , o r other peopl e onl y i n s o far a s the y serve d hi s needs . . . . Her e at the very beginning of the history of mankind, wa s the 'superman' whom Nietzsch e only expecte d fro m th e future . Eve n to-da y th e member s o f th e grou p [i n typica l group psychology ] stan d i n nee d o f th e illusio n tha t the y ar e equall y an d justl y loved b y th e leader ; but th e leade r himsel f nee d lov e n o one else , h e ma y b e o f a masterful nature , absolutel y narcissistic , self-confiden t an d independent. 51 Freud's prima l fathe r i s evidentl y a mythologica l repetitio n o f 'Levia than', on e o f thos e primeva l dragon s neve r wholl y vanquished . I t is , i n other words , a politica l fiction. Th e father' s freedo m come s o f mora l soli tude sustaine d b y absolut e power . H e ca n neve r b e boun d i n lov e t o hi s followers, an d thi s i s wha t mark s hi m a s th e leader . H e i s i n th e mos t literal sens e a la w unt o himself . Hobbes ' attemp t t o justif y th e authorit y o f the stat e ha s becom e fo r Freu d th e bedroc k o f huma n psychology , wit h it s origins i n primeva l history . Onc e agai n w e observ e tha t th e unconsciou s minds o f Freud' s patient s wer e curiousl y populate d wit h th e intellectua l dramatis persona e o f th e seventeent h century . In canno t b e said , however , tha t Freud' s Hobbesia n tendencie s ar e inadvertent. H e i s actuall y a self-consciou s continuato r o f Hobbes , an d hi s contribution t o th e Hobbesia n traditio n i s a n interestin g one . Hobbes ' solution t o th e dilemm a o f politica l authorit y suffer s fro m a n obviou s weakness. Havin g denie d tha t huma n being s posses s whateve r measur e o f reason i t woul d tak e t o gover n themselves , h e advise s the m reasonabl y t o abrogate thei r freedom . Bu t o f cours e i n orde r t o d o s o the y woul d nee d a t least a Hobbesia n intelligence , an d thi s i s jus t wha t h e ha s theoreticall y denied t o them : Hobbes ' ow n profoun d intelligenc e an d certaint y o f practi -

Before Freud • cal j u d g m e n t s e e m , t h e n , u n c a n n y a n d i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n wit h h i s t h e o r y . W e fin d o u r s e l v e s , o n c e a g a i n , confronte d wit h t h e reflexiv e d i l e m m a o f t h e r e d u c t i o n i s t . I n t h e ligh t o f t h i s p r o b l e m , F r e u d ' s versio n o f t h e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e wa r o f al l a g a i n s t al l t o t h e s t a t e o f civilizatio n b e a r s c l o s e e x a m i nation: Such, then , wa s th e origina l stat e o f things : dominatio n b y whoeve r ha d th e greate r might—domination b y brut e violenc e o r b y violenc e supporte d b y intellect . A s w e know, thi s regim e wa s altere d i n th e cours e o f evolution . Ther e wa s a pat h tha t le d from violenc e t o righ t o r law . Wha t wa s tha t path ? I t i s m y belie f tha t ther e wa s only one ; th e pat h whic h le d b y wa y o f th e fac t tha t th e superio r strengt h o f a singl e individual coul d b e rivalled b y th e unio n o f severa l wea k ones . 'Uunion fait la force.' Violenc e coul d b e broke n b y union , an d th e powe r o f thos e wh o wer e unite d now represente d la w i n contras t t o th e violenc e o f th e singl e individual . Thu s w e see tha t righ t i s th e migh t o f a community . I t i s stil l violence , read y t o b e directe d against an y individua l wh o resists ; i t work s b y th e sam e method s an d follow s th e same purposes . Th e onl y rea l differenc e lie s i n th e fac t tha t wha t prevail s i s n o longer th e violenc e o f a n individua l bu t tha t o f a community . Bu t i n orde r tha t th e transition fro m violenc e t o thi s ne w righ t o r justic e ma y b e effecte d on e psychologi cal conditio n mus t b e fulfilled . Th e unio n o f th e majorit y mus t b e a stabl e an d lasting one . I f i t wer e onl y brough t abou t fo r th e purpos e o f combatin g a singl e dominant individua l an d wer e dissolve d afte r hi s defeat , nothin g woul d hav e bee n accomplished. Th e nex t perso n wh o though t himsel f superio r i n strengt h woul d once mor e see k t o se t u p a dominio n b y violenc e an d th e gam e woul d b e repeate d ad infinitum. Th e communit y mus t b e maintaine d permanently , mus t b e organized , must institut e authoritie s t o se e tha t thos e regulation s — th e law s — ar e respecte d and t o superinten d th e executio n o f lega l act s o f violence . Th e recognitio n o f a community o f interest s suc h a s thes e lead s t o th e growt h o f emotiona l tie s betwee n the member s o f a unite d grou p o f people—communa l feeling s whic h ar e th e tru e source o f it s strength. 5 2 Freud ha s i n a

s e n s e solve d t h e H o b b e s i a n d i l e m m a , fo r no w t h e

t r a n s i t i o n fro m t h e s t a t e o f wa r t o civilizatio n i s e n v i s i o n e d " i n t h e c o u r s e of e v o l u t i o n . " I t i s n o longe r u p t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t e l l i g e n c e t o a c h i e v e it ; r a t h e r , e a c h o f u s form s a b o n d wit h t h e c o m m u n i t y a s a p a r t o f n o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t . Migh t h a s a l r e a d y d i s g u i s e d itsel f a s righ t a n d b e e n i n s c r i b e d in o u r n a t u r e i n t h e for m o f a c a p a c i t y fo r l i b i d i n a l l y c h a r g e d socia l t i e s . I t is e v e n p o s s i b l e , F r e u d s p e c u l a t e s , tha t t h e s c o p e o f c o m m u n a l feelin g s h o u l d e x p a n d a n d b e c o m e u n i v e r s a l , t h u s p u t t i n g a n e n d t o war . Bu t i t i s not likely . F o r politic s h e r e b e c o m e s a n entirel y irrationa l activity , e a c h one o f u s holdin g i n th e unconsciou s a Hobbesia n Leviathan , a

prima l

father stil l c r a v i n g fo r a n a b s o l u t e freedo m a n d mora l s o l i t u d e . T h e fac t that w e h a v e r e p r e s s e d thi s c r e a t u r e d o e s no t entirel y s a v e u s fro m it s

9 3

94 • Chapter Four promptings. Rather , thos e wh o hav e represse d thei r ow n narcissisti c ten dencies find themselve s al l th e mor e vulnerabl e t o th e demand s o f th e paranoids an d othe r narcissist s wh o ac t the m out . Perhap s thi s i s th e juncture a t whic h t o wonder , i f politica l discours e i s nothin g bu t a disguis e for absolut e selfis h interest , i f politica l lif e i s drive n entirel y b y irrationa l forces, an d i f ther e i s n o authorit y othe r tha n th e authorit y o f power , a s Hobbes, Rousseau , Nietzsche , Marx , Freud , an d other s believe , i n wha t sense ca n paranoi a b e calle d a distortio n o f reality ? Paranoi a seem s t o b e abundantly justified , i t seem s t o b e a natura l an d logica l developmen t ou t of thi s crucia l strai n o f politica l philosoph y o f whic h i t provide s a faithfu l psychological reflection . The partia l an d skeleta l typolog y o f suspicio n tha t I hav e se t ou t i n thes e pages ca n onl y begi n t o sugges t th e broa d scop e o f it s influenc e i n moder n culture. Psychoanalysi s hold s withi n itsel f ever y elemen t o f moder n suspi cion i n a ric h sedimentatio n o f historica l motif s an d ideologica l gestures . I t is apparentl y no t th e accoun t o f universa l huma n natur e tha t i t claim s t o be, bu t a complex , ironi c psychologica l allegor y o f th e cultura l struggle s o f modernity. W e find i n thi s allegor y th e enemie s w e woul d expect—th e models an d progenitor s o f religion , fo r instance . Bu t w e find a s wel l th e models fo r th e impuls e t o destro y religio n an d th e impuls e t o se t u p poetr y in it s place . Th e destructiv e an d creativ e figures tur n ou t t o b e ver y much alike—prima l father , poet , philosopher , scientist , paranoid—al l narcissists, al l destroyin g an d buildin g ove r th e void . An d th e psychoana lyst to o build s ove r th e void . I t i s n o longe r possibl e t o accep t th e 'bio genetic' principl e o f recapitulatio n tha t hel d thi s allegor y together . Bu t i n fact, wha t th e genealog y o f Freud' s theoretica l framewor k reveal s i s a different for m o f recapitulation. Th e detail s o f Freud' s accoun t o f individua l development recapitulat e no t bio-histor y bu t th e histor y o f moder n cultur e in a powerfu l apologeti c version . Thi s versio n i s b y n o mean s novel . Rather, i t combine s th e alread y existin g self-conception s o f modernit y i n a synthesis o f grea t rhetorica l originality . I t resonate s wit h th e historica l experience tha t modernit y ha s create d fo r itsel f i n livin g ou t it s heroi c contradictions; an d i t repeat s thes e contradiction s i n a n impressivel y scien tific mod e o f discourse . I n plac e o f th e bio-geneti c la w i t migh t b e prefera ble, whe n dealin g wit h th e interpretatio n o f psychoanalyti c concepts , t o apply instea d a psycho-historica l law . Suc h a la w woul d hol d tha t th e phases o f individua l developmen t a s the y ar e describe d b y Freu d recapitu late th e cultura l conflict s o f modernit y i n tha t sam e versio n Freu d als o transferred ont o th e primeva l past .

Before Freud • 9 5 Freud achieve d th e perfec t synthesi s o f scientific , social , epistemologi cal, an d historica l suspicion . I t i s thi s achievemen t tha t ha s mad e hi m seem t o s o man y t o b e th e fulfillmen t o f moder n self-understanding , th e author an d her o o f it s gospel . Nietzsche , cryin g i n th e wildernes s o f hi s own specia l void , looke d forwar d t o th e arriva l o f suc h a figure i n propheti c tones, calling , a t th e beginnin g o f The Gay Science, fo r a "philosophica l physician i n th e exceptiona l sens e o f tha t word"—Nietzsch e ofte n prefer s the exceptiona l sense—wh o woul d "carr y [his ] suspicio n t o it s limits" : Every philosophy tha t rank s peac e above war, ever y ethic wit h a negative definitio n of happiness , ever y metaphysic s an d physic s tha t know s som e finale, som e final state o f som e sort , ever y predominantl y aestheti c o r religiou s cravin g fo r som e Apart, Beyond , Outside , Above , permit s th e questio n whethe r i t wa s no t sicknes s that inspire d th e philosopher . Th e unconsciou s disguis e o f physiologica l need s under th e cloak s o f th e objective , ideal , purel y spiritua l goe s t o frightening lengths — and ofte n I hav e aske d mysel f whether , takin g a larg e view , philosoph y has no t bee n merel y a n interpretatio n o f th e body , an d a misunderstanding of the body} 2, Freud indee d too k thi s particula r suspicio n o f Nietzsche' s t o it s limits , and man y wh o hav e rea d Nietzsch e hav e prize d hi m becaus e o f th e wa y h e seems t o hav e anticipate d an d prefigure d Freud . Bu t afte r all , th e philo sophical for m o f suspiciou s medicin e Nietzsch e ha d i n min d wa s no t new. Afte r Cervantes , Bacon , Hobbes , Rochefoucauld , Swift , Voltaire , Rousseau, Stendhal , Marx , an d Dostoevsky , t o nam e jus t a fe w salien t examples, no t forgettin g th e suprem e achievemen t o f Nietzsch e himsel f i n the genr e o f heroi c irony , i t woul d see m tha t suspicio n ha d alread y attaine d all o f the psychologica l refinemen t an d al l o f the solipsisti c self-intoxicatio n of whic h i t wa s capable . Bu t i t i s on e o f th e characteristic s o f heroi c suspicion tha t i t require s continuou s renewal . I t i s origina l an d restles s b y nature, eve r i n searc h o f mor e certai n ground s fo r doubt , o f bolder , mor e challenging an d exhilaratin g method s o f self-demystification . I t wa s Freud' s ability t o repea t th e typica l gesture s o f moder n suspicio n i n a novel , scientific vocabular y tha t mad e hi m see m fo r s o man y t o b e th e las t wor d i n human self-understanding . Th e unconscious , whic h h e believe d himsel f the first t o explore , di d contai n mor e tha n a fe w dragons ; the y wer e no t primeval, though , i n thei r origin , merel y th e familia r dragon s o f modernit y masquerading unde r th e titl e o f universa l psycholog y an d give n a ne w space i n whic h t o pose .

FIVE Freudian Satire Don't yo u fin d i t ver y touchin g t o read ho w a grea t person, himsel f a n idealist , make s fu n o f hi s ide als? Befor e w e wer e s o fortunat e a s t o apprehen d the dee p truth s i n ou r lov e w e wer e al l nobl e knights passin g throug h th e worl d caugh t i n a dream, misinterpretin g th e simples t things , magni fying commonplaces int o something noble and rare , and thereb y cuttin g a sad figure. Therefor e w e men always rea d wit h respec t abou t wha t w e once wer e and i n part stil l remain . —Freud t o Martha Bernay s on Cervante s

Freud's abilit y t o diges t th e suspiciou s logi c o f hi s precursor s an d t o reformulate i t i n th e term s o f a scienc e mus t b e accounte d on e o f th e grea t elements o f hi s success . Bu t i t i s no t th e whol e o f it : hi s rhetorica l geniu s must als o shar e a larg e measur e o f th e credit . Freud' s literar y gift s an d sensibility hav e ofte n bee n acknowledged ; bu t w e canno t appreciat e th e true characte r eve n o f hi s literar y achievemen t withou t recognizin g tha t i n this aspec t o f hi s work , too , Freu d wa s dependin g heavil y upo n th e well established resource s o f suspicion . Satir e wa s th e dominan t for m o f imagi nation o f th e cultur e o f suspicio n fro m it s beginning s i n th e seventeent h century unti l it s transformatio n b y Romanticis m lat e i n th e eighteent h century, an d i t wa s fro m thi s strai n o f moder n cultur e tha t th e rhetori c o f psychoanalysis too k it s cast . I hav e mad e th e poin t tha t Cervante s invente d th e paranoi d characte r a s an objec t o f literar y representation . Hi s accomplishmen t betrays , n o doubt , a gif t o f psychologica l observation , bu t i t i s psychologica l observatio n a t the servic e o f a satiri c purpose . Th e Quixote i s a portrai t o f suspicio n directed, wit h suspicion , a t a distinc t objec t o f satire , th e "book s o f chivalry" popula r i n Cervantes ' day . Freud' s psycholog y ha s a strikingl y similar character . Hi s power s o f psychologica l observatio n wer e employed , in a spiri t o f mockery , towar d a fe w constan t victims—religion , metaphys -

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Freudian Satire • 9 7 ics, tradition , and , mor e ambiguously , bourgeoi s morality—al l upholders , in othe r words , o f idealism . Ther e i s always , too , i n th e Freudia n satire , a hero i n th e rol e o f th e scientist , bu t eve n h e i s no t exemp t fro m th e ironie s of th e unconscious . Markin g th e affinitie s betwee n Cervante s an d Freud , we shal l b e drawin g togethe r tw o o f th e greates t practitioner s o f th e satiri c romance. Were w e t o pla y tha t game , lon g popula r amon g literar y critics , o f looking fo r anticipation s o f Freu d i n writer s o f th e past , i t i s undoubtedl y among th e satirist s tha t w e shoul d enjo y th e highes t frequenc y o f success . In wha t othe r wor k tha n Erasmus' s Praise of Folly, fo r instance , coul d b e found a mor e thoroughgoin g an d perceptiv e portraya l o f th e self-glorifying , self-infatuated natur e o f th e huma n psyche ? Erasmus' s Foll y i s nothin g other tha n tha t aspec t o f psycholog y Freu d attempte d t o explai n unde r th e term 'Narzissmus' . Folly' s oratio n i n prais e o f hersel f show s th e emptines s of al l huma n ambition , al l glor y bein g vainglor y b y th e rul e o f illusion . Folly ca n boas t tha t i t i s sh e wh o make s u s gla d t o b e Frenc h rathe r tha n Irish (wha t Freu d calle d th e 'narcissis m o f mino r differences') , an d i t i s sh e who enthrall s u s t o th e imaginar y perfection s o f ou r objec t o f lov e (' a stat e suggestive o f neuroti c compulsions' ) a s wel l a s t o th e foolis h diversion s o f art ( a 'mil d narcosis') . I t i s th e Foll y o f infants , an d eve n o f fools , tha t makes u s lov e an d car e fo r them , fo r w e se e ou r ow n foll y ('represse d infantile narcissism' ) reflecte d i n the m (13) . Thos e wh o hav e n o lov e fo r themselves canno t b e expecte d t o besto w i t upo n others , ye t self-lov e ('Narzissmus') i s th e mos t beneficia l Folly , th e Foll y tha t keep s u s attache d to lif e itsel f (31) . Foll y lend s he r energ y t o valo r an d t o industry , an d lead s people t o d o mor e tha n the y kno w how . Th e uninhibite d reig n o f Foll y sustains a lif e o f happ y exuberanc e i n primitiv e ('unrepressed' , 'totemistic' ) societies, i n th e golde n ag e (o f th e 'omnipotenc e o f thoughts') befor e natura l philosophy coul d exer t it s repressiv e influence . Fro m th e viewpoin t o f Folly, th e rul e o f philosoph y (th e 'realit y principle' ) inhibit s al l th e perfor mances o f lif e an d drain s awa y al l o f it s charms. * T o remov e Foll y woul d b e to undermin e th e basi s o f socia l existenc e (narcissisti c 'grou p psychology') : "Briefly, n o society , n o associatio n o f peopl e i n thi s worl d ca n b e happ y o r last lon g withou t m y hel p [th e hel p o f Folly] ; n o peopl e woul d pu t u p wit h their prince , n o maste r endur e hi s servant , n o mai d stan d he r mistress , n o teacher hi s pupil , n o frien d hi s friend , n o wif e he r husband , n o landlor d his tenant , n o soldie r hi s drinkin g buddy , n o lodge r hi s fellow-lodger — unless the y wer e mistaken , bot h a t th e sam e tim e o r tur n an d tur n about , in eac h other " (22) . Erasmus' s Foll y give s a clear-sighte d accoun t bot h o f

98 • Chapter Five her privat e an d he r socia l functions , asserting , a s unambiguousl y a s Freu d ever did , tha t lif e i s drive n b y th e forc e o f self-deception , an d societ y hel d together i n th e bond s o f illusion . There i s a limit , o f course , t o Erasmus' s satiri c perspective . Th e Praise of Folly i s a grea t je u d'esprit , an d eve n withi n i t ther e i s a recognitio n tha t some follie s d o no t deserv e t o b e mocked , th e foll y o f fait h bein g on e o f them. 2 Bu t th e ultimat e difference s betwee n th e Erasmia n an d Freudia n views o f Folly/Narzissmu s mak e th e kinshi p o f thei r satiri c rhetori c al l th e more striking . Wha t wa s neede d t o narro w th e distinctio n betwee n them , and t o arriv e a t a full y evolve d psycholog y o f suspicion , wa s a mechanisti c form o f physica l reduction , an d tha t wa s ampl y supplie d b y late r psycho satirists, beginnin g wit h Cervantes . I n th e writing s o f Swift , fo r instance , we find mos t powerfull y expose d th e subjectio n o f intellectua l lif e t o emo tions, 'vita l spirits' , locate d i n th e body . Swif t i s perhap s a n eve n mor e uncanny precurso r o f th e Freudia n wa y tha n Erasmus , an d ha s enjoye d recognition a s such. 3 N o othe r write r befor e Freu d ha s give n mor e vivi d illustration t o th e way s i n whic h th e operation s o f though t ca n underg o th e vicissitudes o f physicality . Lik e Freud , Swif t i s a maste r a t presentin g moral judgment s i n psycho-physica l images , i n work s suc h a s "Th e Me chanical Operation s o f th e Spirit, " a n effor t i n th e sam e kin d a s Freud' s "Obsessive Action s an d Religiou s Practices. " English satir e als o provide d Freu d wit h th e exampl e o f Tristram Shandy, a nove l whos e comi c her o give s a histor y o f th e formatio n o f hi s characte r by ever y accidenta l influence , physica l an d psychological , fro m th e momen t of hi s birth . Tristram' s self-analysi s coul d hav e bee n th e mode l fo r Freud's , and i t i s grounde d i n th e empirica l an d associationis t psycholog y Freu d was eventuall y t o inherit . Ther e i s als o a n affinit y o f satiri c motives , Sternean laughte r bein g directe d towar d th e stapl e Freudia n enemies : tradi tion, idealis m i n an y form , and , especially , Catholicism . Ther e i s eve n a n appreciation her e fo r th e sexua l significanc e o f th e nose , whic h coul d hav e prepared Freu d fo r th e theorie s o f Wilhel m Fliess . Tristram Shandy wa s one o f Freud' s favorit e books. 4 All o f hi s life , Freud' s literar y taste s incline d distinctl y towar d th e ironical, th e humorous , an d th e satiric . Amon g hi s favorit e author s wer e Fielding, Anatol e France , Gogol , Mar k Twain, 5 Bre t Harte , an d Lichten berg. 6 Amon g novel s Tom Jones stoo d alongsid e Tristram Shandy a s a particular favorite. 7 Th e youn g Freu d als o delighte d i n th e clothe s philoso phy o f Carlyle' s Sartor Resartus, wit h it s metaphysica l sens e o f disguise. 8 And h e treasure d Heine' s sartoria l jibe s a t th e follie s o f th e philosopher :

Freudian Satire • 9 9 "With hi s nightcap s an d th e tatter s o f hi s dressing-gow n h e patche s u p th e gaps i n th e structur e o f th e universe." 9 I n The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud invoke s episode s fro m tw o satiri c works , Gargantua and Pantagruel and Gulliver's Travels, a s authoritativ e glosse s o n on e o f hi s ow n megaloma niacal dreams. 1 0 An d th e satani c mirt h o f Faus t an d Mephistophele s ar e never fa r fro m hi s mind : allusion s t o Faust ar e a runnin g subtex t throughou t the oeuvre , providin g bravel y ironica l statement s o f a multitud e o f Freud ian views. 1 1 After Goethe , i t i s t o th e autho r o f th e Quixote tha t Freu d exhibit s th e deepest attachmen t an d affinity . A s a teenage r h e learne d Spanis h i n orde r to rea d Cervantes , an d carrie d o n a ten-yea r Cervantin e correspondence , often i n Spanish , wit h hi s closes t friend , Eduar d Silberstein . "W e becam e friends," Freu d wrot e t o hi s fiancee, Marth a Bernays , "a t a tim e whe n on e doesn't loo k upo n friendshi p a s a spor t o r a n asset , bu t whe n on e need s a friend wit h who m t o shar e things . W e use d t o b e togethe r literall y ever y hour o f the da y tha t wa s no t spen t o n th e schoo l bench . W e learne d Spanis h together, ha d ou r ow n mytholog y an d secre t names , whic h w e too k fro m some dialogu e o f th e grea t Cervantes." 1 2 Th e Freud-Silberstei n correspon dence take s th e for m o f th e proceeding s o f th e Academi e Espanola , a society o f tw o members , eac h o f th e friend s signin g himsel f wit h th e nam e of on e o f th e character s i n Cervantes ' "Colloqu y o f th e Dogs " (Freu d wa s usually "Cipion") . Th e letter s wer e directe d t o "do g i n th e madhous e o f Seville," th e tw o youn g scholar s apparentl y havin g transferre d th e "Collo quy o f th e Dogs, " with it s fou r ma d projectors , t o th e settin g o f the dialogu e between th e megalomaniac s narrate d b y th e barbe r a t th e beginnin g o f Par t Two o f Don Quixote. Amids t th e seriou s rumination s o f youth , Freu d kep t up thi s mock-heroi c postur e i n th e letter s t o Silberstei n wit h remarkabl e persistence; h e wa s continuall y suggestin g ne w plan s fo r resuscitatin g th e languishing activitie s o f th e " A . E . , " whic h threatene d t o expir e "unles s w e turn writin g int o a dut y attache d t o th e sublim e nam e o f th e Ac . Espanol a and therefor e demandin g fulfillmen t a t fixed time s an d wit h unswervin g devotion." 1 3 Th e Academi e Espanol a provide d Freu d an d Silberstei n wit h a playfu l mean s o f expressin g th e unfulfille d grandiosit y o f yout h i n comi c form. I t offer s th e first evidenc e o f Freud' s preferenc e fo r secre t societie s and occul t languages . Th e Academi e Espanol a stands , therefore , a s th e precursor o f th e Psychoanalyti c Associatio n an d it s secre t "Committee, " and Freud' s Cervantin e pastich e a s a precurso r languag e t o tha t o f psycho analysis. 14 Freud's devotio n t o th e Quixote lon g outlaste d hi s friendshi p wit h Sil -

100 • Chapter Five berstein. A fe w year s later , durin g hi s engagemen t t o Marth a Bernays , w e find hi m unabl e t o writ e he r a prope r lov e letter , bein g to o involve d i n hi s reading o f Cervantes : Forgive me , dearest , i f I s o ofte n fai l t o write i n a wa y yo u deserve , especiall y i n answer t o your affectionate letter , bu t I think o f you i n suc h cal m happines s tha t i t is easie r fo r m e t o tal k abou t outsid e thing s tha n abou t ourselves . An d the n i t seems t o be a kin d o f hypocrisy no t t o write t o you wha t i s uppermos t i n m y mind : I hav e jus t spen t tw o hours—it' s no w midnight—readin g Don Quixote, an d hav e really revele d i n it . Th e storie s of the indecen t curiosit y o f Cerdenio an d Dorothea , whose fat e i s interwove n wit h Quixote' s adventures , o f th e prisone r whos e stor y contains a piec e o f Cervantes ' lif e history—al l thi s i s writte n wit h suc h finesse, color, an d intelligence , th e whol e grou p i n th e enchante d taver n i s s o attractive , that I cannot remembe r eve r having read anythin g s o satisfactory whic h a t the sam e time avoids exaggeratio n . . . : none o f this i s ver y profound , but i t is pervaded b y the mos t seren e char m imaginable . Her e Do n Quixot e i s placed i n th e prope r ligh t through bein g n o longe r ridicule d b y suc h crud e mean s a s beating s an d physica l maltreatment bu t b y the superiority o f people standing in the midst of actual life . A t the sam e tim e h e i s tragi c i n hi s helplessnes s whil e th e plo t i s bein g unraveled. I5 Freud follow s u p th e discussio n o f Quixote' s characte r wit h a n equall y sophisticated appreciatio n o f Dore' s romanticize d illustrations * Readin g these words , i t i s difficul t t o avoi d th e impressio n tha t Freu d woul d hav e found Marth a a t leas t easie r t o writ e t o i f sh e ha d bee n a membe r o f th e Academie Espanola . Tw o week s late r w e find hi m urgin g Marth a t o con tinue he r readin g int o Par t Tw o o f Cervantes ' novel , whic h h e assure s he r is les s shockin g tha n th e first (55) . I f Freud' s identificatio n wit h Cervante s seems t o b e a n interes t Marth a canno t share , i t nevertheles s sometime s furnished hi m wit h a languag e o f lov e tha t sh e mus t hav e understood : "Before w e wer e s o fortunat e a s t o apprehen d th e dee p truth s i n ou r lov e we wer e al l nobl e knight s passin g throug h th e worl d caugh t i n a dream , misinterpreting th e simples t things , magnifyin g commonplace s int o some thing nobl e an d rare , an d thereb y cuttin g a sa d figure." 16 Freud' s identifi cation wit h th e origina l paranoi d wa s a dee p on e tha t wa s t o manifes t itsel f crucially i n th e intellectua l structur e o f psychoanalysis . My attemp t t o clarif y Freud' s satiri c portraya l o f th e paranoi d figure wil l require thre e stages . Firs t I wil l attemp t a rudimentar y analysi s o f th e Quixote characte r a s a n exampl e o f paranoi d psycholog y understoo d i n Freudian terms . I shal l adop t th e commo n Freudia n practic e o f grantin g t o literary character s a multi-layere d psyche , m y ai m bein g t o poin t ou t the feature s o f paranoi a tha t a psychoanalyti c readin g woul d fix upo n a s explanatory. Ther e ha s no t bee n a sustaine d psychoanalyti c treatmen t o f

Freudian Satire • 10 1 Quixote a s paranoid. 1 7 Second , I wil l reasses s thi s readin g fro m a literar y and historica l perspective , emphasizin g th e satirica l an d socia l motive s o f Cervantes' novel . Finally , havin g integrate d th e psychoanalyti c an d satiri c dimensions o f th e Quixote t o th e advantag e o f th e latter , an d havin g deal t with som e likel y objections , I wil l return , i n th e nex t chapter , t o Freud' s own masterwork , The Interpretation of Dreams, t o evaluat e i t i n a new , somewhat Quixoti c light .

The Narcissistic Quixote Midway throug h Par t On e o f Don Quixote, confrontin g th e adventur e o f th e fulling mills , th e paranoi d knigh t finds i t necessar y onc e mor e t o explai n t o his peasan t squir e th e natur e o f hi s calling : "Friend Sancho , kno w that I by heaven's will hav e been bor n i n this our iron age to revive i n i t th e ag e o f gold , o r th e golde n a s i t i s called . I a m h e fo r who m perils , mighty achievements , an d valian t deed s ar e reserved . I am, I say again , h e who is to reviv e th e Knight s o f th e Roun d Table , th e Twelv e o f France , an d th e Nin e Worthies, an d h e wh o i s t o consig n t o oblivio n . . . th e whol e her d o f famou s knights-errant o f day s gon e by , performin g i n thes e i n whic h I liv e suc h exploits , marvels, an d feat s o f arms a s shall obscur e thei r brightes t deeds." 18 This passag e encapsulate s th e content s o f Quixote' s delusion . I t ha s three characteristic s tha t ar e fundamenta l fo r th e analysi s o f paranoia . First, i t i s heroic , an d s o aki n t o th e natur e o f romance , whic h Freu d considered t o b e a n uncensore d paranoi d constructio n embodie d i n th e communal imagination . Second , i t i s envisione d eve n b y it s psychoti c inventor a s a retur n t o a n earlie r stat e o f perfection , a golde n ag e whe n th e flower o f knighthoo d reigne d ove r a n untrouble d world . I t i s thu s a n archaizing an d regressiv e delusion . S o arises it s nobility . Takin g a Freudia n view o f th e matter , w e migh t find her e a remarkabl e recognitio n o n Cervan tes' par t o f th e archai c origin s o f 'narcissistic ' fantasy , o f it s kinshi p wit h all Utopia s an d form s o f aristocrati c dignity . Third , eve n thoug h it s victi m gives ever y evidenc e o f madness , thi s madnes s speak s wit h eloquence ; i t has coherenc e an d force . Delusio n ha s seize d upo n th e intelligenc e an d th e will o f th e suffere r an d mad e the m subjec t t o a gran d erro r consistentl y held. I t ha s no t destroye d hi s faculties . Whe n Quixote' s attentio n turn s t o subjects othe r tha n th e one s involve d i n hi s ide e fixe, h e speak s wit h wisdom an d grac e i n a wa y tha t continue s t o amaz e hi s man y interlocutors . The coherenc e o f Quixote' s delusio n point s towar d it s idealizin g charac ter. I t i s clearl y th e kin d o f menta l expressio n Freu d woul d hav e ascribe d

102 • Chapter Five to the 'omnipotenc e o f thoughts'. Quixot e continuousl y confuse s hi s megalo maniac wishe s wit h reality . H e i s besotte d wit h 'narcissism' . Thu s aris e th e famous scene s earl y i n th e nove l i n whic h h e take s windmill s t o b e giants , flocks o f shee p opposin g armies , an d s o on . Mos t sublim e an d emphati c o f all hi s follie s i s hi s devotio n t o th e non-existen t beloved , Dulcinea , tha t "being t o who m al l prais e i s appropriate , b e i t eve r s o hyperbolical " (824) . Dulcinea become s th e objec t i n Quixote' s min d o f a full-blow n erotomani a of the kin d tha t sometime s accompanie s paranoia . Sh e is , i n herself , merel y an idea l construction , an d muc h o f th e tim e Quixot e himsel f seem s t o b e aware o f this : "You shoul d know , Sancho , i f yo u d o no t know , tha t tw o thing s alon e beyon d al l others ar e incentive s t o love , an d thes e ar e grea t beaut y an d a goo d name . Thes e two things ar e t o b e foun d i n Dulcine a i n th e highes t degree , fo r i n beaut y n o on e equals he r an d i n goo d nam e fe w approac h her . T o pu t th e whol e thin g i n a nutshell, I persuad e mysel f tha t al l I sa y i s a s I say , neithe r mor e no r less , an d I picture he r i n m y imagination a s I woul d hav e he r t o be , a s wel l i n beaut y a s i n condition. Hele n approache s he r no t no r doe s Lucreti a com e u p t o her , no r an y other of the famous wome n of times past, Greek , Barbarian , o r Latin."(185 ) Dulcinea ha s bee n constructe d entirel y b y mean s o f a fantas y logic . Sh e is a pur e projectio n o f 'narcissistic ' wish , a Baconia n ido l brough t int o being b y intellectua l necessit y alone . Al l o f he r characteristic s hav e bee n strictly prescribe d b y tha t necessity. 1 9 The necessit y circumscribin g th e bein g o f Dulcine a als o encompasse s the wil l o f he r creator : al l o f hi s action s ar e strictl y boun d b y th e cod e o f chivalry. S o sacre d an d forma l ar e th e restriction s impose d b y thi s cod e that, whe n opportunitie s fo r th e practica l displa y o f herois m arise , Quixot e is ofte n to o tightl y constraine d b y th e protocol s o f courtl y servic e t o tak e advantage o f them . Befor e goin g t o th e rescu e o f a landlor d wh o i s bein g drubbed, h e mus t pompousl y as k permissio n o f hi s lad y o f th e momen t i n order t o ac t outsid e he r service . Confronte d wit h a n aggressiv e underling , he find s himsel f unabl e t o d o battl e wit h a perso n belo w th e ran k o f knight , and call s fo r hi s squir e t o take hi s plac e (352) . Quixote' s ritualize d behavio r frequently degenerate s int o th e automatis m o f wha t Freu d woul d cal l a n 'obsessive-compulsive' routine . I n Totem and Taboo, Freu d observe s tha t ritual taboo s ca n originat e i n a n aggressiv e impuls e o n th e par t o f th e rule d to restric t th e behavio r o f thei r sacre d rulers . A s a n example , h e give s th e treatment o f Sanch o Panz a mad e governo r o f a n islan d i n Quixote, Par t Two, whe n th e peasant-squire , havin g a t las t achieve d hi s dream , finds himself s o constraine d b y a comica l se t o f rule s prescribin g th e behavio r o f

Freudian Satire • 10 3 governors tha t h e scarcel y ha s a n opportunit y t o ea t o r drink. 2 0 Apparently , then, a self-punitiv e elemen t underlie s Quixote' s delusio n a s well , causin g him t o appl y t o himsel f th e restrain t o f ritua l taboo . I n behavio r an d i n thought, Quixot e ha s mad e himsel f a prisone r o f th e ideal . Quixote ma y b e hal f awar e o f th e 'projected ' qualit y o f hi s beloved , bu t this doe s no t mak e hi m skeptica l abou t th e fact s o f he r existence . H e relates t o realit y a s i f throug h th e pris m o f a n Aristotelia n poetics : h e i s willing, therefore , t o conced e th e recognitio n o f trut h t o an y aspec t o f bein g that accord s wit h hi s sens e o f what shoul d be . Th e suggestio n tha t Dulcine a does no t exis t seem s thu s fo r hi m someho w besid e th e point . Bu t Sancho' s suggestion tha t sh e i s no t th e finest lad y i n th e worl d move s hi m t o rage : "Are yo u no t aware , yo u crude , coarse , vil e creature , that , but fo r th e migh t sh e infuses int o m y arm , I shoul d no t hav e th e strengt h enoug h t o kil l a flea? Say, 0 scoffer wit h a viper' s tongue , wha t d o yo u thin k ha s wo n thi s kingdo m an d cu t of f this giant' s hea d an d mad e yo u a marquis , al l o f whic h I conside r a s alread y accomplished an d decided , bu t th e migh t o f Dulcinea , wh o use s m y ar m a s th e instrument o f he r achievements ? Sh e fights i n m e an d conquer s i n me , an d I liv e and breath e i n he r an d ow e my life an d bein g to her." (233—34 ) Dulcinea possesse s fo r Quixot e a n absolut e existenc e withi n th e orde r o f his delusor y system , an d h e i s willin g t o defen d t o th e deat h he r plac e within tha t system . Th e guarantee s o f he r excellenc e an d perfec t beaut y d o not consis t o f an y evidenc e tha t ca n b e derive d abou t th e lad y i n herself : her proof s resid e onl y i n th e integrit y o f th e syste m a s a whole . The y include Quixote' s futur e triumphs , whic h exer t a forc e o f necessit y equa l t o that o f hi s imaginar y triumph s o f th e past . I t i s par t o f th e ver y perfectio n of Dulcine a a s a 'projection ' o f 'narcissistic ' imaginatio n tha t he r perso n i s beyond experienc e an d beyon d th e inspectio n o f skeptica l eyes : "I f I wer e to sho w he r t o you , wha t meri t woul d y e hav e i n confessin g a trut h s o manifest? Th e essentia l poin t i s tha t withou t seein g he r y e mus t believe , confess, affirm , swear , an d defen d it " (42) . Lik e th e ver y existenc e o f God , belief i n Dulcine a i s a tes t o f faith , o r o f 'narcissistic ' potency . Sh e infuse s her strengt h int o th e bein g o f Quixote ; hi s exaltatio n o f min d furnishe s th e proof o f he r exalte d nature . The 'narcissistic ' characte r o f Quixote' s 'fixation ' ensure s tha t hi s wa y o f thinking an d behavin g wil l stan d i n absolut e contradictio n wit h reality . The comi c discrepanc y betwee n fantas y an d realit y becomes , then , th e fundamental interes t o f th e Quixoti c narrative . Th e narrato r begin s hi s account o f eac h o f Quixote' s episode s wit h a descriptio n o f th e scen e an d of the character s wh o wil l tak e part , thu s preparin g th e reade r t o appreciat e

104 • Chapter Five the differenc e betwee n realit y an d Quixoti c delusion. 2 1 Bu t Quixot e himsel f is no t s o severel y impaire d tha t h e canno t perceiv e th e discrepanc y betwee n his idea l visio n an d th e realit y tha t confront s him . H e oscillate s betwee n the two , bein g propelle d forwar d wit h eve r renewe d movement s o f ambition , and drive n backwar d b y eve r repeate d check s fro m th e rea l world . The dialecti c o f idea l an d rea l i s furthe r complicate d b y th e par t tha t others tak e i n th e developmen t o f Quixote' s delusion . Hi s niec e provide s the fundamenta l resourc e o f hermeneuti c suspicio n whe n sh e tell s hi m tha t a swar m o f enchanter s ar e interferin g wit h hi s adventures . Her e i s Quixot e invoking th e theor y o f th e enchanter s t o explai n ho w Dulcinea , who m h e has jus t encountered , coul d hav e seeme d t o hi m lik e a sauc y villag e lass : "Now, Sancho, " h e said , "d o yo u se e ho w I a m hate d b y enchanters ! An d se e t o what a lengt h the y g o i n thei r malic e an d spit e agains t me , whe n the y see k t o deprive m e o f th e happines s tha t woul d b e min e i n seein g m y lad y i n he r ow n proper form . Th e fac t i s I was bor n t o be a n exampl e o f misfortune, an d th e targe t and mar k a t whic h th e arrow s o f adversit y ar e aime d an d directed . Observ e too , Sancho, tha t thes e traitor s wer e no t conten t wit h changin g an d transformin g m y Dulcinea, but the y transforme d an d change d he r into a shape a s vulgar an d ugl y a s that o f the village gir l yonder , an d a t th e sam e tim e the y robbe d he r o f that whic h is such a peculiar property of ladies of distinction, tha t i s to say the sweet fragranc e that come s o f bein g alway s amon g perfume s an d flowers. Fo r I mus t tel l yo u Sancho, whe n I approache d t o put Dulcine a upo n he r palfrey—a s yo u sa y i t was , though t o m e i t appeare d a she-ass—sh e gav e m e a whif f o f raw garli c tha t mad e my head ree l an d poisone d m y very heart." (477 ) This passag e illustrate s th e marvelou s complexit y o f Cervantes ' paranoi d construction. Th e ac t o f mediating betwee n rea l worl d an d delusio n i s mad e possible fo r Quixot e b y th e suspicio n h e no w entertain s towar d th e worl d a s it appears . T o th e degre e tha t th e rea l worl d call s Quixote' s delusio n int o question, Quixote , i n orde r t o sustai n hi s tenuou s intellectua l coherence , must cal l th e rea l worl d int o question . Fo r thes e tw o world s ar e incompati ble; n o compromis e i s possibl e betwee n them . Thi s fac t i s apparen t t o Quixote. Indeed , th e incongruit y betwee n hi s sens e o f wha t shoul d b e an d his experienc e o f wha t i s terrifie s an d gall s hi m t o th e sam e degre e tha t i t amuses an d delight s th e reader . S o arise s hi s slightl y self-pityin g sens e o f persecution, a sens e which , nevertheless , confirm s hi s grandios e self image. The Freudia n reade r woul d no t understan d th e relatio n betwee n thes e two elements , grandeu r an d persecution , t o b e on e o f mere rationalizing , a s if th e fantas y o f bein g persecute d wer e merel y a wa y o f confirmin g an d sustaining a megalomania c self-image . I n psychoanalyti c terms , th e hostil -

Freudian Satire • 10 5 ity expresse d i n th e persecutor y delusio n mus t hav e a sexua l origin , and , more specifically , a homosexua l one : i t mus t b e a disguise d attraction . Th e homosexual motiv e doe s no t appea r i n thi s passage , an d i t woul d b e stretching th e merel y propaedeuti c characte r o f m y Freudia n readin g o f th e text t o ferre t i t out ; th e resource s o f th e Quixote t o sustai n a n interpretatio n of thi s kin d see m rathe r scant , Sanch o bein g virtuall y th e onl y availabl e candidate. Bu t th e genericall y sexua l componen t o f th e delusio n coul d no t be mor e eviden t o r mor e amenabl e t o psychoanalyti c interpretation . Wha t causes Quixot e sham e i n hi s meetin g wit h Dulcine a i n th e perso n o f th e "village lass " i s he r creaturel y physicality , whic h depart s radicall y fro m the idea l imag e h e hold s o f hi s belove d an d seem s t o b e th e ver y thin g hi s chivalrous attitud e wa s designe d t o suppress . W e ca n se e th e paranoi d construction, then , a s a denial , a 'repression' , o f sexua l impulse s an d a return t o a 'narcissistic ' phas e o f self-containe d omnipotence . I n th e quote d passage th e difficult y o f sustainin g 'repression ' seem s t o mak e itsel f felt . We coul d augmen t thi s lin e o f argumen t b y speculatin g abou t th e origina l libidinal incitemen t fo r Quixote' s quest . Migue l d e Unamuno , i n hi s retell ing o f th e lif e o f Quixote , point s t o Aldonz a Lorenzo , a loca l interes t o f th e character, a s th e motiv e fo r Quixote' s retrea t fro m reality ; late r Freudia n speculation ha s fixe d upo n hi s niec e an d housekeeper. 2 2 I t i s significan t i n this regar d tha t "quixote " refer s t o th e piec e o f armo r tha t cover s th e thigh , and therefor e suggest s a phalli c motivatio n an d on e o f shame. 2 3 Whatever th e emotiona l origin s o f Quixote' s suspicio n an d sens e o f persecution, the y serv e hi m wel l i n th e preservatio n o f hi s syste m o f delusion, makin g possibl e a n extraordinaril y subtl e an d flexible mod e o f rationalizing. Th e "enchanters " ca n mak e th e rea l Dulcine a loo k lik e a peasant lass , an d the y ca n mak e mer e puppet s loo k lik e historica l figures , setting th e scen e fo r a paranoi d skirmis h (575) . A t on e point , Quixot e i s mystified t o fin d tha t a magica l boa t tha t ha s appeare d i n orde r t o transpor t him t o on e o f hi s adventure s lead s hi m onl y t o a dunking , unti l h e realize s that, "I n thi s adventur e tw o might y enchanter s mus t hav e encountere d on e another, an d on e frustrate s wha t th e othe r attempts ; on e provide d th e boa t for me , an d th e othe r overturne d me . Go d hel p us ; thi s worl d i s al l machinations an d scheme s a t cros s purpose s wit h on e another " (590) . Thi s interpretation i s Quixote' s wa y o f achievin g wha t w e migh t call , i n Freudia n terms, a compromis e formation , i n whic h opposin g motive s o f desir e an d repression bot h faste n upo n a singl e se t o f symptoms . Quixote' s hermeneu tic i s a s flexible an d nimbl e a s Freud's . In Par t Tw o o f th e narrative , Quixote' s originall y simpl e idealis m an d

106 • Chapter Five sense o f heroi c oppositio n graduall y giv e wa y t o a mor e an d mor e comple x involvement i n "machination s an d schemes, " level s o f illusion , competitio n with fals e Quixotes , manipulatio n b y reader s o f Par t One , an d s o on . Bu t his paranoi d constructio n remain s intac t throug h al l o f thes e an d throug h all o f th e endles s serie s o f drubbings , dunkings , an d trampling s tha t ensue . It i s onl y whe n h e i s deal t a defea t withi n th e framewor k o f hi s delusion , b y the village r Samso n Carrasc o disguise d a s a riva l knight , tha t Quixote' s delusory vocatio n begin s t o falter . Embittere d b y thi s defeat , whic h h e recognises a s a tru e an d significan t one , no t t o b e blame d upo n enchanters , Quixote take s al l o f th e responsibilit y upo n himself : " . . . fo r ther e i s n o such thin g a s Fortun e i n th e world , no r doe s anythin g whic h take s place , be i t goo d o r bad , com e abou t b y chance , bu t b y th e specia l preordinatio n of heaven ; an d henc e th e commo n sayin g tha t 'eac h o f u s i s th e make r o f his ow n Fortune' . I hav e mad e mine , bu t no t wit h th e prope r amoun t o f prudence, an d m y presumptio n ha s therefor e mad e m e pa y dearly " (792) . Quixote ha s been , i n a sens e quit e differen t fro m th e on e h e intends , th e maker o f hi s ow n fortune . I n thi s scen e h e i s beginnin g t o recogniz e the limitation s upo n hi s heroi c powers ; bu t hi s paranoi d sens e o f th e meaningfulness o f ever y elemen t o f hi s experienc e ha s no t lef t him . H e i s still a pre y t o th e 'omnipotenc e o f thoughts' , eve n whe n n o longe r th e bearer o f omnipotence . Psychoanalyticall y speaking , w e migh t sa y tha t th e 'narcissistic cathexis ' ha s bee n transferre d fro m th e 'ego ' t o th e 'ego-ideal ' or 'superego' , s o tha t wha t wa s formerl y a tendenc y towar d absolut e freedo m from responsibility , absolut e independenc e o f th e self , become s a sens e o f absolute responsibility , shame , an d guilt . Th e self-punitiv e tren d i n Qui xote's psycholog y end s i n hi s death . There i s on e final elemen t i n Cervantes ' portraya l o f Quixot e that , though no t specificall y a sympto m o f paranoia , i s nevertheles s vita l fo r an y consideration o f th e wor k tha t ha s t o d o wit h F r e u d — t h e grea t drea m reported b y Quixot e afte r hi s descen t int o th e Cav e o f Montesinos . Quixot e descends int o th e cav e a t th e en d o f a rope , an d there , fallin g aslee p o n a ledge no t fa r fro m th e surface , h e experience s a drea m tha t i s t o hi m a s significant an d profoun d a s Dante' s visio n o f th e underworld . H e glimpse s at las t th e heroe s o f chivalr y h e ha s rea d abou t an d emulated , an d i t seem s that hi s hunge r fo r glor y an d trut h wil l finally b e satisfied , a t leas t her e i n this privat e worl d o f inspire d reveri e an d visionar y insight . Th e "castl e built o f clea r transparen t crystal, " "strangel y cool " alabaste r chambers , these detail s o f huma n constructio n fro m divin e materials , sign s o f a heavenly city , transpor t Quixot e towar d a highe r kingdo m o f bliss . Th e ver y

Freudian Satire • 10 7 existence o f thi s drea m kingdo m i s enoug h t o certif y th e visio n a s a wish fulfillment: Quixote , o n bein g wakened , lament s th e sight s tha t h e ha s lost : "God forgiv e you , friend s . . . yo u hav e take n m e awa y fro m th e sweetest , most delightfu l existenc e an d spectacl e tha t eve r huma n bein g enjoye d o r

beheld" (549). Yet, i n spit e o f thi s simpl e expressio n o f joy , Quixote' s dreamworl d i s anything bu t delightful . Powerfu l force s see m eve n her e t o b e workin g against th e ful l expressio n o f desire , preventin g Quixot e fro m imaginin g fo r himself th e stat e o f heroi c blis s h e ha s pursue d a t suc h grea t costs . Th e enchanters wh o thwar t hi s heroi c ambition s follo w hi m eve n now . The y keep th e nobl e company—Durandarte , Montesinos , th e lad y Bellerma , and Dulcine a herself—i n a stat e o f suspende d animation . Durandart e suffers i n a permanen t stat e o f agitatio n fro m th e though t that , afte r hi s death, hi s hear t wa s no t delivere d t o hi s lady , whil e hi s friend , Montesinos , reassures hi m ove r an d ove r agai n tha t hi s dyin g reques t ha s bee n fulfilled . Meanwhile th e lad y carrie s th e mummifie d hear t i n a n endles s processio n four day s ou t o f seven , makin g " a grea t outcr y an d lamentation , accompa nied b y dee p sigh s an d bitte r sobs " belongin g t o he r damsel s (553) . I t i s a super-refined, chivalri c versio n o f th e torment s o f Sisyphu s an d Tantalus , which ha s bee n aptl y compare d wit h "a n existentialis t h e l l . " 2 4 The scen e evoke s a certai n pathos , bu t thi s patho s coincide s wit h a sensation o f incongruity , a n unexpecte d lac k o f decoru m an d dignit y i n th e behavior o f th e character s an d i n th e ver y condition s o f th e dreamworl d itself. Durandarte' s heart , fo r instance , doe s no t enjo y th e magica l protec tion fro m deca y tha t ordinaril y attend s suc h relics . Afte r th e battl e o f Roncesvalles, Montesino s tell s him , " I sprinkle d a littl e sal t o n you r hear t so tha t i t woul d no t smel l an d I coul d brin g it , i f no t fresh , a t leas t pickled , into th e presenc e o f th e lad y Bellerma " (552) . Her e i s a strang e intrusio n of th e realit y principle . Similarl y strang e i s Durandarte' s reactio n t o th e news tha t Do n Quixot e ha s com e t o attemp t hi s liberation : "i f tha t ma y no t be, then , 0 cousin , I say, 'patienc e an d shuffl e th e cards ' " (553) . Th e lad y Bellerma's monthl y cycl e i s discounte d a s a caus e o f he r deteriorate d condition, i t bein g take n fo r grante d tha t thi s woul d b e Quixote' s first surmise. Mos t humiliatin g o f all , whe n Do n Quixot e see s Dulcine a i n tha t enchanted land , sh e i s stil l prevente d fro m assumin g he r tru e appearance : she greet s hi m i n th e for m o f th e peasan t las s who m Sanch o ha d passe d of f as Dulcinea . He r onl y reques t t o Quixot e i s th e loa n o f si x reales, an d h e i s ashamed t o admi t h e ca n offe r onl y four ; th e knigh t suddenl y wishe s h e were, o f al l things , a Fugger , s o tha t h e coul d reliev e he r distress . Ac -

108 • Chapter Five cepting th e fou r reales, th e damse l messenge r fro m Dulcinea , instea d o f curtsying, make s he r exi t b y cuttin g a cape r tw o yard s i n th e air . The combinatio n o f unexpecte d patho s an d incongruit y foun d i n thi s scene look s forwar d t o surrealis t art , an d indee d i t wa s a sourc e o f inspira tion fo r tha t mos t Freudia n artisti c movement . Fo r ou r purposes , wha t i s most significan t i s Cervantes ' portraya l o f th e inne r check s tha t preven t Quixote fro m realizing , eve n i n dream , th e perfec t imag e o f hi s desire . Th e motif o f suspicio n represente d b y th e enchanter s canno t b e separate d fro m his delusion s o f heroism , bot h bein g derive d fro m th e sam e 'narcissistic ' regression. Th e suspicio n itsel f emanates , Freu d woul d tel l us , fro m a repressed wis h i n disguise . Cervantes ' presentatio n o f th e inne r worl d o f fantasy bear s ou t Freud' s understandin g o f th e min d a s internall y divide d against itself , wit h opposin g function s o f censorshi p an d evasion , disguise , distortion, an d displacement . Cervantes' portrai t o f paranoia , w e ma y conclude , ha s al l o f th e feature s of th e complain t tha t Freudia n psycholog y ha s taugh t u s t o recognize . I t i s a madl y unqualifie d for m o f self-aggrandizin g idealis m tha t require s a suspicious overcomin g o f ordinar y appearance s an d a theor y o f persecutin g enemies t o kee p i t i n place . Grandiosit y an d suspicio n animat e an d sustai n each other . Th e paranoi d inhabit s a worl d i n whic h everythin g i s significan t and demand s decodin g wit h specifi c relatio n t o him . Th e delusio n include s sexual idea s suitabl y idealized . An d eve n whe n th e characte r withdraw s entirely int o th e real m o f dream , th e inne r conflict s tha t hav e give n ris e t o his delusio n preven t hi m fro m havin g acces s t o hi s heart' s desire . Th e censorship exercise d b y th e supereg o make s i t necessar y fo r th e fulfillmen t of th e mos t importan t wis h t o b e accomplishe d unde r th e disguis e o f a distortion bot h incongruou s an d comical .

The Pretentious Paranoid The congruenc e o f visio n betwee n Freu d an d Cervante s i s remarkable . I n order t o establis h it s tru e significance , though , i t wil l b e necessar y t o consider Quixote' s paranoi a i n somethin g close r t o it s origina l context . Th e central aspec t is , o f course , th e book s o f chivalr y tha t provid e th e targe t fo r Cervantes' satiri c attack . I n hi s eyes , thes e book s employe d a ridiculou s archaism o f form , subject , an d style . Thei r si n wa s t o b e no t onl y fals e bu t incapable o f disguisin g thei r falsity . An d yet , i n spit e o f al l th e critica l attacks agains t them , the y continued , infuriatingly , t o comman d a n audi ence. Th e combinatio n o f reaso n an d unreason , o f coherenc e an d madness ,

Freudian Satire • 10 9 that goe s t o mak e u p Quixote' s paranoi d stat e existe d already , fo r hi s creator, i n th e mind s o f th e reader s fo r who m th e worl d o f thes e book s could sustai n interest . S o we ca n understan d bot h th e intelligibilit y an d th e social interes t o f Quixote' s delusion : befor e a paranoi d her o ca n b e born , a paranoid tex t an d it s readershi p mus t provid e th e worl d i n whic h h e wil l pursue hi s adventures . I n th e book s o f chivalry , Quixot e reads : " 'th e reason o f th e unreaso n wit h whic h m y reaso n i s afflicte d s o weaken s m y reason tha t wit h reaso n I complai n o f you r beauty; ' o r again , 'th e hig h heavens, tha t o f you r divinit y divinel y fortif y yo u wit h th e stars , rende r yo u deserving o f th e deser t you r greatnes s deserves. ' Ove r thi s sor t o f folderol, " the narrato r goe s o n t o say , "th e poo r gentlema n los t hi s wits , an d h e use d to li e awak e strivin g t o understan d i t an d wor m ou t it s meaning , thoug h Aristotle himsel f coul d hav e mad e ou t o r extracte d nothing , ha d h e com e back t o lif e fo r tha t specia l purpose " (26) . Quixot e goe s ma d i n a deliberat e attempt t o mak e sens e o f th e madnes s tha t sustaine d th e popula r fantas y of chivalry . In orde r t o understan d th e precis e socia l significanc e o f Quixote' s delu sion, i t wil l b e necessar y t o clarif y th e specifi c natur e an d motive s o f hi s misunderstanding o f th e literar y material s tha t constitut e hi s ide e fixe, an d to d o s o i n th e contex t o f hi s ow n socia l position . Th e latter , a t least , i s no t difficult t o establish : Alons o th e Good , alia s Quixote , i s a n impoverishe d hidalgo, a gentleman , thoug h no t a knight , wh o ha s to o littl e mean s t o sustain hi s idlenes s i n anythin g abov e grindin g povert y an d ye t i s to o respectable t o wor k fo r a living . A hidalgo o f thi s sor t ha s n o meaningfu l outlet fo r ambition ; h e hold s himsel f abov e th e commo n onl y b y a n ac t o f will. 2 5 Th e fragilit y an d irrelevanc e o f suc h a life , base d upo n wha t ar e already questionabl e pretensions , mak e Alons o susceptibl e t o th e tempta tions o f grandeur . Th e for m o f thi s grandeur , however , i s no t hi s ow n bu t that o f a borrowe d grandeur . An d her e th e socia l applicatio n o f satiri c psychology become s evident . Cervantes tell s hi s reade r agai n an d agai n tha t th e objec t o f hi s wor k i s to destro y th e book s o f chivalry ; ye t th e precis e reaso n fo r thi s choic e o f a satiric objec t i s not , a t first glance , s o eas y t o discern . Thi s become s evident, a s man y critic s hav e noted , i n th e scen e o f th e auto dafe i n whic h Quixote's librar y i s subjecte d t o a hygieni c purg e b y th e curat e an d th e barber. Th e reade r i s surprised , fo r instance , t o find tha t th e Amadis de Gaul, th e boo k tha t provide s Quixot e wit h hi s mos t constan t mode l o f chivalry, i s preserve d fro m th e flames. Th e reaso n fo r thi s i s tha t th e Amadis i s th e first o f it s kind , whic h give s i t a certai n clai m t o merit .

110 • Chapter Five Quixote, i n hi s folly , take s i t fo r historica l truth , an d thi s i s a n error , bu t he als o doe s i t a n injustic e whe n h e fail s t o distinguis h th e Amadis fro m it s imitations. I t ha s a prope r clai m t o historica l originality , whil e the y mus t be condemne d t o th e flames a s derivative . Th e literary-historica l aspec t o f Quixote's erro r i s furthe r clarifie d whe n w e se e th e curat e preservin g Orlando Furioso whil e condemnin g it s translation s int o Spanish . Ariosto' s sophisticated romanc e take s int o accoun t th e historicall y archai c natur e o f its materials . I t i s a mar k o f Quixote' s insanit y tha t h e canno t distinguis h the naiv e assertio n o f Amadis an d it s successor s fro m th e suav e iron y o f Ariosto's pastiche . Fo r th e madman , the y ar e al l wove n int o th e sam e tissu e of historica l legend . At thi s point , tw o aspect s o f Quixote' s failur e o f understandin g ca n b e distinguished. H e doe s no t hav e th e historica l insigh t t o recogniz e tha t th e world o f magi c an d adventur e portraye d i n th e Amadis de Gaul neve r existed. An d h e lack s th e aestheti c judgmen t t o se e tha t Ariosto' s sophisti cated romanc e take s int o accoun t th e historica l anachronis m o f it s subjec t and therefor e make s a clai m t o validit y base d upo n a sens e o f iron y o r aesthetic distanc e tha t i s itsel f a produc t o f incipien t historica l conscious ness. A cultivate d sensibilit y i s capabl e o f reclaimin g work s lik e th e Amadis de Gaul: th e sophisticate d reade r shoul d b e abl e t o recogniz e th e aesthetic originalit y o f writin g tha t t o th e presen t ha s th e appearanc e o f naivete. Bu t th e sophisticate d reade r shoul d als o b e abl e t o detec t th e absurdity o f naiv e imitation s o f th e romance , imitation s tha t d o no t recog nize tha t th e for m i s artisticall y retrograde . Thu s th e tru e victim s o f Cervan tean satir e ar e thos e author s wh o persis t i n vulga r imitatio n o f naiv e romance. Suc h writin g i s popular , an d t o tak e i t seriously , t o enjo y i t wholeheartedly, is , fo r a perso n o f judgmen t lik e Alons o th e Good , t o b e the victi m o f a kin d o f insanity . We ca n se e openin g her e th e spli t betwee n popula r an d sophisticate d appreciation o f art , whic h i s on e o f th e signature s o f moder n culture . I t should no t b e confuse d wit h th e ver y differen t distinctio n betwee n officia l and fol k culture , bot h o f whic h ar e i n thei r sphere s mor e o r les s indepen dent. 2 6 Th e distinctio n betwee n hig h cultur e an d popula r cultur e i s base d upon a differenc e i n th e manne r o f viewin g an d appreciatin g th e sam e forms o f imagination : th e popular , o r vulgar , imaginatio n goe s o n producin g and enjoyin g form s o f officia l cultur e tha t t o a n aestheticall y self-consciou s elite hav e com e t o appea r historicall y antiquated . Quixot e i s th e livin g embodiment o f thi s vulga r error . Quixote's paranoia , then , i s mad e possibl e b y a comple x socia l dynami c

Freudian Satire • 11 1 that woul d no t hav e bee n possibl e befor e th e emergenc e o f tha t degre e o f historical awarenes s whic h make s fo r a separatio n betwee n elit e an d popu lar culture . I t involve s a failur e o f aestheti c judgmen t an d o f social discrim ination. Th e dee p socia l significanc e o f Quixote' s delusio n i s wha t mad e i t so ver y funn y t o th e reader s o f it s tim e an d le d t o 15 0 year s o f imitation s i n the original , satiri c spirit . Quixote' s comica l humiliatio n i s no t th e treat ment tha t woul d gree t th e victi m o f a n innocen t mistak e o r a meaningles s delusion: i t i s th e treatmen t give n t o a particula r kin d o f fool , a nostalgi c gentleman wh o trie s t o reviv e a for m o f aristocrati c fantas y tha t ca n no w b e taken seriousl y onl y b y th e popula r mind . Hi s ris e t o herois m i s a descen t into vulgarity . Th e combinatio n o f pretentiousnes s an d self-debasemen t i n Quixote's positio n make s fo r th e exquisite , subtle , an d crue l humo r o f hi s predicament, humo r o f a kin d tha t ou r egalitaria n cultur e ca n n o longe r wholeheartedly enjoy . Cervantes' specia l distinctio n i n th e histor y o f moder n cultur e i s t o hav e imagined th e for m o f a meaningfu l privat e delusion , a delusio n tha t a t onc e expresses a recognizabl e patter n o f desir e an d a t th e sam e tim e show s b y its imitativ e characte r a n unmistakabl e disconnectio n fro m reality . Hi s satiric metho d depend s upo n th e constan t portraya l o f discrepanc y betwee n the romanc e tha t Quixot e bear s a s a n inne r possessio n an d th e oute r worl d that resist s it . I n th e ligh t o f th e socia l motive s underlyin g th e satiri c design, th e for m o f thi s resistance , again , ca n hardl y b e describe d a s innocent. Cervantes ' inten t i s tha t th e self-idealizin g pretension s o f th e paranoid delusio n shoul d b e confronte d wit h th e vulgarit y i t falsel y denies , and thi s vulgarit y find s it s expressio n preeminentl y i n th e lif e o f the body — that aspec t o f our being , i n othe r words , whic h i t i s the natur e o f aristocrati c imagination, a t th e heigh t o f it s refinement , t o disown . I n orde r tha t th e true characte r o f Quixote' s delusio n b e revealed , it s fals e idealis m mus t b e reunited wit h al l o f th e embarrassment s o f corporea l existence ; knightl y asceticism mus t b e expose d a s a for m o f self-frustratio n tha t serve s n o othe r end tha n t o den y th e exigencie s o f physica l life . The objective , then , o f Cervantes ' portrai t o f th e paranoi d Quixot e wa s to expos e th e socia l an d literar y pretension s o f vulga r romance . Th e literar y aspect i s wort h emphasizing . I t wa s no t onl y tha t th e book s o f chivalr y wer e an affron t t o Cervantes ' sens e o f clas s privilege . A s a n author , Cervante s felt a powerfu l resentmen t towar d th e readin g an d playgoin g publi c whos e tastes fel l s o fa r beneat h wha t h e wa s willin g t o gratify . An d s o a t on e poin t in th e Quixote w e find a judiciou s characte r proposin g tha t play s shoul d b e subject t o a rigi d censorshi p i n orde r t o improv e th e publi c tast e an d giv e

112 • Chapter Five work t o men of judgment (380) . Th e appea l t o censorship shoul d aler t u s t o the facto r o f repression , and , indeed , th e Quixote itsel f ma y b e considere d a grea t gestur e o f repression, bein g a n attemp t t o undermine th e legitimac y of vulga r imagination . Thi s gesture , however , doe s no t see k t o suppress th e vulgar aspect s o f culture. O n the contrary , i t i s a revelatio n o f vulgarity, a n unmasking o f the disguise s o f vulga r pretense . I n thi s wa y it prefigure s th e psychoanalytic metho d itself . Cervantes se t ou t t o destroy th e book s o f chivalr y becaus e o f the vulgar ity the y represented ; i n creatin g Do n Quixote , h e wa s creatin g a livin g example o f thi s vulgarity . Bu t Cervantes ' attitud e towar d Quixot e an d toward th e book s o f chivalr y wa s no t entirel y destructive . H e doe s no t rag e to annihilat e i n th e manne r o f a Swift , fo r h e recognizes , a s th e wis e cano n in th e story—th e harshes t criti c o f the book s o f chivalry—put s it , ther e i s "one goo d thing " i n them: "th e opportunity the y afforde d t o a gifted intellec t for displayin g itself" : "The autho r ma y show himsel f t o be an astronomer , o r a skille d cosmographer , o r musician, o r one versed i n affairs o f state, an d sometimes h e will hav e a chance of coming forward a s a magician i f he likes. H e can set forth th e craftiness o f Ulysses, the treacher y o f Sinon, th e friendship o f Euralyus, th e generosity o f Alexander, th e boldness o f Caesar, th e clemency o f Trajan, th e fidelity of Zopyrus, th e wisdom of Cato, an d i n shor t al l th e facultie s tha t serv e t o mak e a n illustriou s ma n perfect , now uniting them in one individual, agai n distributing them among many. . . . The unrestricted rang e o f thes e book s enable s th e autho r t o sho w hi s powers , epic , lyric, tragic , o r comic, an d all the moods th e sweet an d winning art s o f poetry and oratory ar e capabl e of , fo r th e epi c ma y b e writte n i n pros e jus t a s wel l a s i n verse." (375-76 ) I hav e drasticall y truncate d thi s magnificen t passage , bu t it s exhibition istic profusio n canno t b e suppressed . I t i s eviden t tha t th e satiri c romanc e permits th e sam e displa y o f a "gifte d intellect " a s th e book s o f chivalr y i t mocks; indeed , th e satiri c intellec t comprehend s a t onc e th e book s o f chivalry an d th e worl d the y exclude . Wha t w e se e i n Cervantes ' novel , then, i s no t merel y a n ac t o f socia l destructivenes s bu t a n educativ e spectacle. Quixote' s adventure s permi t a n infinitel y elaborat e socia l dis crimination i n behavio r and , abov e all , i n speech , i n a worl d i n whic h prestige manifest s itsel f n o longe r b y martia l prowess , no r eve n simpl y by wealth , bu t b y intelligence , breeding , sophistication , knowledge , an d judgment especiall y i n th e us e o f language . A s a paranoi d knight , Quixot e is th e subjec t o f contempt, bu t a s a speake r h e i s the vehicl e fo r Cervantes ' enormous prid e o f rhetorica l facility , breadt h o f learning , an d socia l dis -

Freudian Satire • 11 3 crimination. Thi s prid e speak s o n ever y pag e o f th e Quixote. Quixote' s ma d social pretension , whic h i s th e pretensio n o f th e romance s themselves , i s thus comprehende d an d transforme d i n a highe r language , a languag e o f ar t that relieve s it s vulgarit y an d redeem s i t a s a worth y sourc e o f amusement .

Freudian Satire How, then , shal l w e relat e th e tw o reading s o f th e Quixote se t fort h i n thi s chapter—the Freudia n reading , whic h see s Quixote' s delusio n a s a dis guised for m o f sexua l expression , an d th e readin g tha t give s priorit y t o Cervantes' satiri c motives ? Perhap s i t i s alread y clea r enoug h tha t th e satiric juxtapositio n o f idealis m wit h vulga r physicalit y seem s designe d t o establish jus t tha t likenes s o f origi n betwee n repressed , o r 'narcissistic' , and unrepresse d expression s o f sexualit y tha t i s th e fundamenta l analyti c resource o f Freudia n psychology . Thi s bein g th e case , th e psychoanalyti c perspective i s i n dange r o f bein g supplante d b y a muc h mor e simpl e explanation: th e idea l an d th e bod y ar e joine d i n thi s romanc e merel y because th e wa y t o discredi t a fals e idealis m i s t o connec t i t wit h wha t cannot b e idealized , tha t i s t o say , wit h th e creaturelines s o f th e huma n body. No w w e ca n see , fo r instance , wh y Cervante s shoul d hav e name d hi s character afte r th e "quixote " tha t guard s a knight' s thigh : i t i s n o hidde n clue t o unconsciou s sexua l drive s animatin g Quixote' s delusion , bu t rather , merely, a sig n o f it s vulgarity . Thi s i s wh y Cervante s i s s o eage r t o sho w poor Quixote' s indignan t reactio n whe n h e discover s tha t hi s enchante d Dulcinea reek s o f garli c lik e a dirt y peasan t lass . Ho w wel l th e enchanter s understand hi s pretentiou s heart ! Again, i t i s Cervantes ' satiri c motivation , no t drea m censorship , tha t explains why , eve n i n hi s dreams , Quixot e canno t achiev e a tru e visio n o f his heart' s desire ; i n th e Cav e o f Montesinos , instea d o f bein g calle d t o rescue Dulcine a fro m enchantment , h e finds he r mor e acutel y i n nee d o f hard cas h tha n o f heroi c deliverance. 2 7 Wh o woul d hav e though t tha t th e knight destine d t o restor e th e golde n ag e o f chivalr y woul d eve r i n hi s lif e utter th e wis h t o becom e on e o f th e Fuggers , tha t famil y o f banker s bein g the suprem e symbo l o f th e ne w orde r tha t ha d destroye d al l Quixot e long s to regain . Bu t suc h i s th e triump h o f th e enchanters , thos e uncann y agent s who personif y th e satiri c desig n o f th e narrativ e itself . Thei r presenc e suggests n o disguise d sexua l instinc t bu t a n over t for m o f mockery. Further , the herois m an d archais m o f Quixote' s delusio n clearl y originat e no t i n psychological 'narcissism ' bu t i n th e romances , th e literar y material s tha t

114 • Chapter Five provided Cervante s wit h hi s objec t o f comi c imitation . Humo r supplie s a perfectly adequat e motive . Likewise , Quixote' s excessiv e idealis m an d ritualistic compulsivenes s serv e merel y t o sho w tha t hi s assertio n o f heroi c powers i s i n fac t a comicall y imitativ e an d slavis h for m o f subjection . No w we ca n se e that , whe n Freu d cite s th e ritualisti c torment s o f th e governo r Sancho Panz a a s a n exampl e o f th e aggressiv e motive s underlyin g ritua l prohibitions, h e i s no t trul y furnishin g legitimat e suppor t fo r psycho analytic dogm a bu t merel y returnin g t o th e satiri c origin s o f hi s ow n wa y of thinking . Having accounte d fo r th e detail s o f th e paranoi d conditio n i n satiri c rather tha n psychoanalyti c terms , wha t no w seem s remarkabl e i s ho w unerringly th e psychoanalyti c approac h ha s le d u s t o th e centra l satiri c motifs an d t o thos e alone . Bot h way s o f considerin g th e tex t direc t ou r attention t o idealisti c structure s o f though t an d t o th e element s o f physica l life tha t idealis m tend s t o deny . The y ar e s o similar , th e psychoanalyti c and satiri c modes , a s t o mak e th e latte r appea r redundant . Ther e ca n b e n o surprise i n th e discover y o f socia l animu s a s th e determinin g facto r behin d each o f th e detail s o f Cervantes ' paranoi d entertainment . Wha t i s surpris ing, however , i s tha t th e Freudia n explanatio n o f th e paranoi d conditio n merely repeat s Cervantes ' origina l satiri c gestur e i n mor e general , 'libidi nal' terms . It s ai m i s t o demystif y idealis m b y rejoinin g i t wit h tha t vulgar , creaturely realit y tha t i s it s tru e an d hidde n source . There i s on e crucia l difference , though , betwee n Freu d an d Cervante s as satirists . Th e for m o f activit y Cervante s aime d t o discourag e wa s on e that could , i n fact , b e eliminate d fro m culture : peopl e could , an d eventu ally did , ceas e t o rea d an d writ e book s o f chivalry , eve n if , t o thi s day , they hav e no t tire d o f th e popula r romance . Bu t th e 'narcissistic ' form s o f thinking satirize d b y Freu d are , accordin g t o hi s ow n view , inseparabl e from huma n natur e itself . The y are , i n a sense , normal . B y underminin g any mean s t o mak e a stron g distinctio n betwee n 'paranoid ' o r 'narcissistic ' psychology an d ordinar y thinking , b y makin g paranoi d psycholog y norma l psychology, Freu d achieve d a monumental , nearl y irresistibl e satiri c ges ture. Fo r onc e w e hav e accepte d tha t ou r though t i s nothin g mor e tha n a projection o f fantasy , an d tha t n o degre e o f intellectua l self-scrutin y ca n free u s fro m enthrallmen t t o th e force s tha t produc e suc h delusion , w e hav e accepted a n essentia l kinshi p wit h Quixot e an d hi s paranoi d descendants. 2 8 Both Freu d an d Cervante s wante d t o mak e i t unavoidabl y clea r tha t ou r intellectual pursuits , som e o f the m o r al l o f them , ar e aki n bot h t o madnes s and t o vulgarity . Th e unconsciou s i s constitute d o f a hidde n vulgarity. 29

Freudian Satire • 11 5

Some Objections At thi s poin t th e Freudia n reade r wil l again , perhaps , b e read y t o protes t at th e directio n tha t th e argumen t ha s taken . M y either/o r logi c wil l doubt less see m foreig n t o th e spiri t o f psychoanalyti c thinking ; arme d wit h th e Freudian principl e o f 'overdetermination' , psychoanalysi s generall y avoid s the kin d o f choic e betwee n cause s tha t I hav e posed. 3 0 T o th e devote e o f Freud, i t wil l undoubtedl y see m a s if , b y fixin g upo n humor , popula r romance, th e socia l repressio n o f vulgarity , an d th e literar y institutio n o f satire a s explanation s fo r Cervantes ' depictio n o f th e paranoi d character , and the n turnin g thes e categorie s bac k upo n psychoanalysi s itself , m y own analysi s ha s illegitimatel y evade d th e explanator y forc e o f availabl e psychoanalytic concepts , since , indeed , al l o f the socia l form s o f expressio n I hav e mentione d hav e bee n accounte d fo r i n Freudia n terms . "I t wil l com e as n o surprise, " suc h a reade r migh t observe , "tha t th e heroizing , idealizin g tendencies o f Cervantes ' paranoi d shoul d b e share d b y th e book s o f chivalr y attacked i n Don Quixote, for , a s Freu d understood , th e romanc e itsel f i s a narcissistic an d paranoi d structure : 'Hi s Majest y th e Ego ' i s th e her o o f al l popular novel s an d romances , th e sam e narcissisti c eg o tha t triumph s i n daydream, i n myth , an d paranoia . No r i s i t an y surpris e t o discove r tha t the ingenuitie s o f humo r an d satir e shoul d tak e paranoi a a s a fittin g specta cle. Freud' s theor y o f wi t recognize s tha t wi t give s expressio n t o represse d sexual motif s jus t a s paranoi a does . Th e reason s wh y wer e explaine d b y Freud himself : joke s allud e i n a cleve r an d unexpecte d wa y t o idea s tha t i t would b e sociall y unacceptabl e explicitl y t o mention . Th e mor e 'tenden tious' th e wit , th e mor e readil y i t make s u s laugh : s o w e understan d bot h the grea t libidina l energ y investe d i n th e Quixote b y it s creato r an d th e irrepressible respons e i t ha s evoke d fo r nearl y fou r hundre d years . Th e uncovering o f Cervantes ' tendentiou s motive s onl y confirm s Freud' s insigh t into maliciou s humor . Further, " thi s Freudia n reade r migh t observe , "Cer vantes' presentatio n o f th e idealizing , narcissisti c book s o f chivalr y unde r the stigm a o f vulgarit y show s hi m a s a participan t i n th e grea t repressio n o f human narcissis m tha t wa s bein g accomplishe d i n thi s perio d b y th e emerging cultur e o f science . Indeed , hi s satiri c onslaugh t seem s t o enac t this ver y repression , a s i t remove s th e ide a o f chivalr y an d knightl y herois m from th e legitimat e publi c domain , deprivin g al l bu t th e ma d o f thei r narcissistic comforts . Th e ver y notio n o f 'vulgarity ' i s repressiv e i n Freud' s sense o f th e word . I t i s n o accident , finally , tha t Freu d shoul d hav e chose n a literar y wor k tha t appeare d withi n fou r year s o f Don Quixote, namel y

116 • Chapter Five Hamlet, a s th e ke y tex t t o illustrat e th e consequence s o f th e fina l phas e o f Oedipal repression . Bot h Hamlet an d th e Quixote exhibi t wit h al l th e vividness o f a discover y th e ful l measur e o f repressio n tha t distinguishe s psychological modernit y fro m it s narcissisti c predecessor . Th e brillianc e with whic h thes e work s depic t th e torment s o f the represse d moder n charac ter ha s mad e the m tw o o f th e parent-text s o f postmedieva l Wester n culture." Before answerin g thi s wide-rangin g serie s o f objections , I shoul d remin d my readers tha t ther e ar e man y cause s fo r skepticis m towar d psychoanalysi s besides th e one s I hav e propose d i n th e foregoin g chapters , an d tha t m y chief interes t ha s bee n i n clarifyin g th e paranoi d characte r o f Freud' s logi c and rhetori c rathe r tha n i n mountin g a full-scal e refutatio n o f psychoana lytic theory . Fo r thi s the y shoul d refe r t o th e critica l work s alread y cited . This bein g said , i t i s a principl e o f scientific an d o f historical understandin g that, i n explainin g an y phenomenon , on e shoul d restric t one' s generaliza tions t o th e narrowes t possibl e exten t an d see k alway s th e cause s mos t proximate t o th e effect . Havin g show n tha t Cervantes ' paranoi d characte r experiences a n idealisti c for m o f delusion becaus e Cervante s wa s usin g hi m as a wa y o f brandin g a certai n typ e o f literatur e a s madness , an d tha t hi s method o f doin g thi s wa s t o lin k idealis m wit h it s opposite , th e body , i n al l of it s creaturel y manifestations , wit h th e ai m o f exposin g th e tru e vulgarit y of thi s for m o f idealisti c literar y fantasy , ther e is , then , simpl y n o nee d t o offer a furthe r explanatio n linkin g idealism , 'narcissism' , an d sexuality . I t is enoug h t o se e tha t th e paranoi d a s idealis t i s a constructio n o f satiri c fancy. B y th e sam e token , havin g observe d tha t Freud' s theor y o f paranoia , and, indeed , hi s metho d o f interpretatio n i n general , uncannil y reproduc e the satiri c structur e o f Cervantes ' novel , i t i s fa r mor e economica l a s a n explanation o f it s endurin g popularit y t o sugges t that , rathe r tha n embody ing a n insigh t int o universa l huma n natur e i n al l o f it s transformations , a decipherment o f th e grea t cod e o f th e min d an d body , psychoanalysi s i s a somewhat unwittin g bu t nevertheles s strategicall y deploye d imitatio n o f Quixotic satir e universalize d i n th e languag e o f science . In a previou s chapte r I mad e th e argumen t tha t th e logi c o f th e reduc tionist impass e suffice s t o accoun t fo r paranoi a a s a mod e o f intellectua l operation, makin g it , therefore , a self-impose d condition . No w w e ca n se e the natura l affinit y betwee n reductionis t logi c an d satire , fo r i t i s typica l o f the satiri c person a t o includ e itsel f withi n th e field o f ridicule . Freu d seamlessly integrate d hi s reductionis t mode l o f th e intellectua l function s with a n all-encompassing , self-encompassin g satiri c visio n couche d i n

Freudian Satire • 11 7 potent scientifi c rhetoric . Th e heroi c iron y o f th e psychoanalyti c stanc e combines, then , th e heroi c rhetori c o f scientifi c discover y wit h th e iron y proper t o satiri c invention . I t make s u p fo r a lac k o f tru e scientifi c valu e b y tapping int o th e powerfu l vei n o f moder n resentmen t agains t tradition . Having issue d thi s genera l repl y t o th e Freudia n reader , le t u s tak e u p in sequenc e th e fou r psychoanalyti c objection s t o th e conclusion s I hav e drawn above : 1. Th e first i s tha t romance s lik e th e book s o f chivalr y ar e themselve s paranoid, narcissisti c projections ; i n tha t cas e i t woul d d o nothin g t o discourage th e psychoanalyti c understandin g o f paranoi a t o show , a s I hav e done, tha t th e content s o f paranoi d delusio n hav e a cultura l affinit y wit h popular fantas y satiricall y depicted . Freu d believe d romanc e t o b e a heroi c projection o f th e eg o tha t give s expressio n t o th e child' s hostilit y towar d th e father; thi s hostilit y i s bor n ou t o f hi s feeling s o f sexua l rivalr y ove r th e lov e of the mother . A s I hav e mentioned , Freud' s disciple , Ott o Rank , employe d this theor y t o explai n th e commo n feature s o f a grea t rang e o f heroi c an d religious mythology , hi s analysi s embracin g figures a s divers e a s Sargon , Moses, Oedipus , Perseus , Gilgamesh , Cyrus , Tristan , Romulus , Hercules , Jesus, Siegfried , an d Lohengrin. 31 Ran k show s i n th e experienc e o f thes e figures a commo n pattern : al l o f the m encounte r oppositio n fro m thei r ver y births an d a difficult y i n establishin g a relatio n t o thei r tru e parents ; an d all o f the m find i t necessar y t o repudiat e surrogat e parent s i n orde r t o achieve thei r tru e identities , a proces s tha t invariabl y make s the m th e center o f hostilit y an d resentment ; a s Ran k put s it , wit h ironi c quotation , "A prophe t i s no t withou t honor , sav e i n hi s ow n country , an d i n hi s father' s house" (66) . Freu d contribute d t o Rank' s boo k th e centra l theoretica l formulation o f th e argumen t linkin g th e structur e o f myt h wit h th e family ; i t was late r publishe d separatel y unde r th e titl e "Famil y Romances." 3 2 Ac cording t o hi s analysis , th e 'famil y romanc e o f th e neurotic ' develop s through th e proces s o f a child' s liberatio n fro m hi s parents . A t first th e child's fantas y lif e center s upo n th e emulatio n o f hi s parents : "Bu t a s intellectual growt h increases , th e chil d canno t hel p discoverin g b y degree s the categor y t o whic h hi s parent s belong . H e get s t o kno w othe r parent s and compare s the m wit h hi s own , an d s o acquire s th e righ t t o doub t th e incomparable an d uniqu e qualit y h e ha d attribute d t o them . Smal l event s in th e child' s lif e tha t mak e hi m fee l dissatisfie d affor d hi m provocatio n fo r beginning t o criticiz e hi s parents , an d fo r using , i n orde r t o suppor t hi s critical attitude , th e knowledg e h e ha s acquire d tha t othe r parent s ar e i n some respect s preferabl e t o them " (237) . Th e intensit y o f thi s dissatisfac -

118 • Chapter Five tion, Freu d argues , i s fuele d b y ordinar y slight s receive d fro m one' s par ents, b y siblin g rivalries , an d b y th e underlyin g sexua l competitio n withi n the family . Late r i t give s ris e t o daydream s o f a heroi c characte r b y whic h the child , seekin g t o remed y th e har m tha t ha s bee n don e t o hi s ambitiou s and eroti c interests , escape s fro m hi s famil y altogether . I t i s t o suc h daydreams tha t th e neuroti c and , o f course , w e ma y add , th e paranoid , becomes especiall y enthralled : At about th e period I have mentioned . . . the child's imagination become s engage d in th e tas k o f getting fre e fro m th e parent s o f whom h e no w ha s a lo w opinion an d of replacing the m b y others , who , a s a rule , ar e o f highe r socia l standing . H e wil l make us e i n thi s connectio n o f any opportun e coincidence s fro m hi s actua l experi ence, suc h a s hi s becomin g acquainte d wit h th e Lor d o f the Mano r or som e lande d proprietor i f h e live s i n th e countr y o r wit h som e membe r o f th e aristocrac y i f h e lives i n town. Chanc e occurrence s o f this kin d arous e the child's envy , whic h find s expression i n a phantasy i n whic h bot h hi s parent s ar e replace d b y others o f bette r birth. (238-39 ) This scenario , i n whic h th e chil d i s se t adrea m b y a chanc e encounte r with th e "Lor d o f th e Manor " o r othe r aristocrat , evoke s a distinctl y bour geois sens e o f clas s aspiration . I n th e contex t o f Rank' s sweepin g mytho graphic survey , it s socia l coordinate s see m strangel y loca l an d confined . As w e shal l see , th e adul t Freu d wa s give n t o experiencin g chanc e encoun ters wit h th e grea t tha t coul d se t vibratin g wha t h e though t o f a s th e 'narcissistic' chord s o f hi s personality . Suc h brushe s wit h pett y grandeu r seem, however , lik e poo r candidate s t o explai n th e origin s an d mythi c potencies o f th e material s discusse d i n Rank' s study . I t i s har d t o imagin e Jesus an d Mose s havin g bee n se t upo n thei r paths , eve n a s children , b y such means , no r d o Gilgamesh , Sargon , Lohengrin , an d th e res t see m likely product s fro m suc h a narro w sens e o f clas s distinctio n an d parenta l comparison. Transcendin g th e bourgeoisi e doe s no t see m t o b e th e ai m o f their exertions . Freu d show s her e th e deficienc y o f hi s sens e o f history . Be tha t a s i t may , insofa r a s children , o r adults , ca n b e sometime s wounded b y th e knowledg e tha t the y belon g t o a n inferio r class , s o tha t they see k t o repudiat e thei r ow n clas s i n imagination , ther e seem s littl e need t o invok e a natura l famil y traum a o r sexua l competitio n t o accoun t fo r the meanin g o f thei r fantasies . Difference s o f clas s mor e tha n suffic e t o sti r the imagination . T o propos e a universa l sexua l mytholog y a s a wa y o f accounting fo r th e origin s o f 'famil y romance ' i s onc e agai n t o choos e th e least rathe r tha n th e mos t economica l explanation . As i t happens , Freu d ha s give n u s a n autobiographica l accoun t o f th e

Freudian Satire • 11 9 scene o f hi s ow n 'famil y romance' . I t occurre d no t whe n h e wa s a ver y small chil d bu t whe n h e wa s te n o r twelve , an d involve d no t simpl y a recognition o f socia l distinction s bu t a ver y pronounce d episod e o f ethni c hostility, wit h Freud' s fathe r a s th e object . Freu d tell s th e stor y i n The Interpretation of Dreams i n orde r t o explai n ho w h e cam e t o identif y himsel f with "th e Semiti c general " Hanniba l i n hi s faile d attemp t t o conque r Rome : I may have been te n or twelve years old, whe n m y father bega n t o take m e with hi m on his walks and revea l t o me in hi s talk hi s views upon thing s i n th e world w e live in. Thu s i t was , o n on e suc h occasion , tha t h e tol d m e a stor y t o sho w m e ho w much bette r thing s were no w than the y ha d bee n i n hi s days. "Whe n I was a young man," h e said , " I wen t fo r a walk on e Saturda y i n th e street s o f your birthplace ; I was wel l dressed , an d ha d a ne w fu r ca p o n m y head . A Christian cam e u p t o m e and wit h a singl e blo w knocke d of f m y cap int o th e mu d an d shouted : 4 Jew! get of f the pavement! ' " "An d wha t di d yo u do? " I asked . " I wen t int o th e roadwa y an d picked u p my cap," was his quiet reply . Thi s struck m e as unheroic conduc t o n th e part o f the big , stron g ma n wh o was holding the littl e bo y by the hand . I contraste d this situatio n wit h anothe r whic h fitte d m y feeling s better : th e scen e i n whic h Hannibal's father , Hamilca r Barca , mad e hi s bo y swea r befor e th e househol d alta r to take vengeanc e o n th e Romans . Eve r sinc e tha t tim e Hanniba l ha d ha d a plac e in m y phantasies. (197 ) Among al l o f Freud' s conjecture s regardin g th e psychologica l source s o f his interests , thi s on e seem s t o m e th e mos t telling . I t describe s on e o f those moment s whe n a fundamenta l fac t o f one' s lif e i s brough t hom e i n a crystallizing episod e tha t wil l neve r b e forgotten . A s th e sourc e o f Freud' s notion of'famil y romance' , though , i t serve s onl y t o confirm tha t th e concep t is a blatan t projectio n o f loca l condition s ont o universa l psychology , an d a misus e o f experience s fro m lat e childhoo d t o explai n th e earl y psycholog y of th e chil d an d o f th e huma n race . 2. O n th e questio n o f th e natur e o f wit , th e Freudia n reade r is , again , correct i n statin g tha t n o followe r o f Freu d woul d b e surprise d t o lear n tha t the presenc e o f sexua l element s coul d b e comicall y motivated : Freu d himself showe d tha t wi t exert s it s effec t b y givin g verba l expressio n t o sexual theme s tha t woul d i n norma l circumstance s b e deeme d sociall y inappropriate. Th e questio n w e migh t ask , though , i s doe s Freud' s 'sexual ity' itsel f embod y anythin g othe r tha n a satiri c conception ? Freu d neve r succeeded i n attachin g a precis e meanin g t o th e wor d 'sexual' , whic h ca n be applied , h e noted , a s broadl y a s t o includ e al l thing s havin g t o d o wit h reproduction an d th e difference s betwee n th e sexes , o r a s narrowl y a s t o the ac t o f intercours e itself . Bu t i n th e Introductory Lectures h e ingeniousl y delineates th e commo n elemen t i n th e psychologica l rang e o f th e 'sexual' :

120 • Chapter Five "First an d foremost , wha t i s sexua l i s somethin g improper , somethin g on e ought no t t o tal k abou t [da s Unanstandige , das , vo n de m ma n nich t sprechen d a r f ] . " 3 3 Th e sexua l i s wha t i s sociall y awkwar d o r repressed . Now thi s sam e definitio n woul d perfectl y circumscrib e thos e thing s tha t satiric imaginatio n call s upo n i n orde r t o discredi t b y associatio n th e thing s that can b e properl y talke d about . I f i t i s th e cas e tha t i n psychoanalyti c rhetoric th e unconsciou s i s define d b y hidde n vulgarity , the n w e ca n understand wh y th e sexua l an d th e creaturel y ar e it s primar y constituents , these bein g th e essenc e o f wha t i s 'improper' . Wit h hi s psycholog y o f th e unconscious, Freu d wa s merel y repeatin g a satiri c gestur e h e ha d learne d from Cervante s an d fro m hi s cultura l descendants . Th e ai m o f al l o f hi s writing wa s t o expos e ever y for m o f idealism a s a manifestatio n o f sexuality , or, a s w e no w ca n see , vulgarit y pretentiousl y concealed . An d th e mar k o f a thing' s bein g sexua l i n it s natur e wa s tha t on e woul d wan t t o concea l it ! Again ther e appear s th e viciou s circularit y tha t typifie s thi s mod e o f ar gument. Freud wel l understoo d an d memorabl y clarifie d wha t h e calle d th e 'tendentious' characte r o f wit . H e wa s hardl y th e first t o d o so , bu t th e model h e provide d i s a usefu l one . Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious seem s t o m e o f al l o f Freud' s writing s th e on e tha t ha s descriptiv e value. I t i s impossibl e t o disagre e wit h th e observatio n tha t joke s depen d upon th e surprisin g connectio n o f remot e ideas , tha t th e clevernes s wit h which the y achiev e thi s surpris e i s importan t t o thei r success , bu t tha t fa r more importan t i s th e wa y the y touc h upo n sociall y unacceptabl e themes . This mode l applies , however , equall y wel l a s a descriptio n o f th e for m o f psychoanalytic thinkin g itself . Wilhel m Flies s onc e remarke d t o Freu d tha t his analyse s o f dream s tende d t o mak e the m al l soun d lik e jokes . Freu d agreed tha t al l dreamers , an d al l unconsciou s processes , ar e "insufferabl y witty." 3 4 Th e necessit y o f thi s insufferabl e wi t derives , however , not , a s h e thought, fro m th e fact s o f psycholog y bu t fro m th e rhetori c o f th e uncon scious a s h e employe d it : psychoanalysi s is , amon g othe r things , a gran d system o f joke s devote d t o th e chartin g o f th e vulgarl y humorou s an d unsuspected connection s betwee n al l o f thos e element s o f menta l lif e tha t normally see m mos t distan t fro m eac h other . Freu d describe s comi c "un masking" a s "th e metho d o f degradin g th e dignit y o f individual s b y direct ing attentio n t o th e frailtie s whic h the y shar e wit h al l humanity , bu t i n particular th e dependenc e o f thei r menta l function s o n bodil y needs . . . . Here, too , ar e t o b e place d th e effort s a t layin g bar e th e monotonou s psychical automatis m tha t lie s behin d th e wealt h an d apparen t freedo m o f

Freudian Satire • 12 1 psychical functions." 3 5 On e woul d thin k tha t Freu d wa s describin g hi s own science , an d i t woul d b e har d t o imagin e a bette r description . Suc h "unmasking" o f "psychi c automatism, " "degradin g th e dignit y o f individu als," constitute s th e ver y substanc e o f hi s vocation . "Parod y an d travesty, " he writes , "achiev e th e degradatio n o f somethin g exalte d . . . b y destroyin g the unit y tha t exist s betwee n people' s character s a s w e kno w the m an d thei r speeches an d actions , b y replacin g eithe r th e exalte d figure s o r thei r utterances b y inferio r o n e s . " 3 6 I s thi s no t a perfec t accoun t o f the psychoan alytic method , whic h systematicall y undermine s th e unit y o f characte r t o reveal other , unworth y motive s an d invisibl e force s workin g beneat h an d through a character' s word s an d actions , changin g thei r ver y meaning ? It i s interestin g i n thi s connectio n t o not e that , i n Freud' s wor k o n jokes , some o f hi s ow n tendentiou s motive s appea r mos t conspicuously . Th e punch line s o f th e examples , fo r instance , ar e ofte n i n th e lower-clas s German accen t o f Yiddish-speakin g Eas t Europea n Jewr y (mauscheln). 37 Like th e pronouncement s o f Quixote , the y ar e signa l revelation s o f th e 'uncanny' coexistenc e o f wisdo m an d vulgarity . I t wa s a for m o f vulgarit y from whic h Freud , a s a Jewis h professional , specificall y desire d t o se t himself apart . Freud' s ow n discours e o n joke s becomes , then , bot h a revelation o f disguise d vulgarit y an d a masterin g o f i t i n a higher , ostenta tiously learne d professiona l vocabulary. 3 8 Th e imitatio n o f Cervante s i s again precise . Al l o f Freud' s writin g ha s thi s doubl e discursiv e quality , scientific rhetori c bravin g th e tain t o f vulgarit y whil e i t smirche s th e target s of it s rhetori c wit h th e same . Onl y i n th e analysi s o f jokes doe s psychoana lytic interpretatio n becom e a mod e o f recover y rathe r tha n on e o f demysti fication, th e joke' s inten t bein g t o sho w precisel y wha t psychoanalysi s aim s to show : th e vulgar , o r 'sexual' , intentio n hidde n beneat h th e surface . I n the for m o f th e joke , psychoanalysi s finds it s tru e reflection . In th e nex t chapte r I wil l b e providin g a broa d rang e o f example s o f Freud's satiri c practic e draw n fro m hi s Quixoti c self-portrait , The Interpretation of Dreams. Her e a singl e clarifyin g instance , take n fro m th e psycho biography o f Leonard o d a Vinci , wil l suffice—Freud' s treatmen t o f th e smile o f Mon a Lis a an d wha t i t mean s onc e w e understan d th e unconsciou s psychology o f it s creator . Th e enigmatic , ambiguou s expressio n o n th e lip s of Leonardo' s famou s subjec t ha s prove n a n irresistibl e temptatio n t o mod ern exegesis . I n Freud' s amazin g narrative , i t become s th e emble m o f Leonardo's ruefu l knowledg e tha t hi s psych e wa s permanentl y marke d b y an experienc e o f th e "highes t eroti c bliss " tha t occurre d i n earl y childhoo d when h e kep t sol e possessio n o f hi s peasan t mother' s love . Mon a Lisa' s

122 • Chapter Five seductively materna l smil e no w take s it s plac e i n a serie s o f oral-eroti c fantasies tha t giv e distinctio n t o Leonardo' s personalit y an d determin e hi s choice o f artisti c subjects . Beneat h th e childhoo d memor y o f a vultur e fluttering it s tai l upo n Leonardo' s lips , Freu d recognize s a fantasy o f fellati o that i s itsel f a substitut e fo r th e origina l fulfillmen t o f Ero s a t th e mother' s breast. Th e paintin g register s th e pai n o f Leonardo' s displacemen t fro m hi s primary objec t o f lov e an d th e stuntin g o f hi s sexua l natur e int o th e for m o f a merel y sentimenta l homosexuality . I n thi s wa y arise s th e ambiguit y o f th e image, representin g bot h th e memor y o f suprem e pleasur e an d it s loss . Leonardo painte d thi s fata l smil e ove r an d ove r again , unabl e t o escap e it s significance fo r hi s sexua l being . Thu s wha t migh t see m lik e th e mos t innocent an d idea l imag e o f aristocrati c feminin e beaut y become s a symp tom o f prima l incestuou s fantas y onc e gratifie d a t th e mother' s breas t bu t now lost , fellati o an d frustrate d homosexuality , an d a patheti c sens e o f th e sacrifice require d fo r th e makin g o f a n artisti c nature . Th e iron y o f thi s discrepancy betwee n th e apparen t an d tru e meaning s o f Mon a Lisa' s smil e was b y n o mean s los t upo n Freud , who , nea r th e en d o f hi s analysis , glancing a t wha t h e take s t o b e th e decisiv e influenc e o f Leonardo' s wor k upon subsequen t imagination , make s th e followin g observation : From tha t tim e onward , madonna s an d aristocrati c ladie s wer e depicte d i n Italia n painting humbl y bowin g thei r head s an d smilin g th e strange , blissfu l smil e o f [Leonardo's mother ] Caterina, th e poo r peasant gir l who had brough t int o the worl d the splendi d so n who was destined t o paint, t o search an d t o suffer. 39 In thi s brilliant , ironi c sentenc e w e observ e th e widenin g ou t o f Freud' s satiric perspective : th e smil e no w decipherabl e t o psychoanalyti c intelli gence a s th e sympto m o f Leonardo' s peculiarl y ambiguou s sexua l history , the registe r o f hi s primitiv e bodil y experienc e wit h hi s unwed , peasan t mother, becomes , wit h th e touc h o f Leonardo' s genius , th e ver y mode l o f distinction an d piety , th e exemplar y imag e o f th e madonna . Leonard o reveals himsel f a s on e o f thos e grea t practitioner s o f psychi c disguis e wh o can purg e th e creation s o f fantas y o f al l tha t i s individual , makin g the m accessible t o other s s o tha t the y ca n becom e th e basi s o f th e mos t idea l an d exalted form s o f culture . An d Freu d is , o f course , th e on e wh o ca n unmas k all suc h disguise s an d transformations , wh o ca n loo k behin d th e surfac e o f aristocratic dignit y an d piou s exaltatio n an d glimps e thei r vulga r origin s i n the body , wh o ca n discove r behin d th e apparen t freedo m o f artisti c creativ ity a subservienc e t o psychi c automatism . An d s o th e unit y o f characte r o f an entir e cultur e ca n b e degrade d an d undermined . Ye t eve n thi s doe s no t

Freudian Satire • 12 3 exhaust th e rhetorica l achievemen t culminate d i n thi s startlin g sentence , for w e shoul d no t fai l t o notic e tha t onc e i t ha s cas t it s ironi c glanc e upo n the Italia n madonn a an d recognize d he r 'improper' , creaturel y origins , i t manages t o reinves t tha t model , nonetheless , wit h a genuin e materna l pathos—the patho s no t o f th e mothe r o f Go d bu t o f th e mothe r o f genius , "who ha d brough t int o th e worl d th e splendi d so n wh o wa s destine d t o paint, t o searc h an d t o suffer. " Psychoanalyti c rhetori c thu s manage s t o reabsorb fo r itsel f th e origina l vulga r herois m o f th e Christia n story . I n s o doing i t demonstrate s agai n it s abilit y t o tur n ironi c herois m bac k towar d heroic iron y and , wit h beautifu l economy , make s psychologica l necessit y the basi s fo r it s ow n uncann y narrativ e o f destiny . An d s o Freu d mark s Leonardo a s on e o f hi s grea t precursors . 3. Th e thir d objectio n pose d b y ou r criti c return s t o Freud' s accoun t o f modernity t o observ e tha t w e ca n se e i n Cervantes ' tex t a n activ e repressio n of narcissis m i n th e for m o f th e book s o f chivalr y an d s o a confirmatio n o f the theor y tha t paranoi a originate s i n represse d narcissism . Thu s Don Quixote participate s i n th e destructio n o f traditiona l cultur e b y scienc e tha t produced th e moder n psyche . I hav e show n i n chapte r 2 tha t thi s mod e o f argument i s viciousl y circular . I t i s wort h pointin g ou t here , though , Don Quixote havin g bee n s o ofte n understoo d a s on e o f th e inaugura l gesture s o f modernity, tha t th e skepticis m towar d th e meaningfulnes s o f huma n experi ence tha t distinguishe s thi s nove l i s limite d i n it s applicatio n t o th e naiv e conventions o f vulga r romance . Cervante s himsel f wa s th e practitione r o f sophisticated romanc e i n a for m update d t o th e contemporar y landscap e o f Western Europe . A numbe r o f suc h romances , o f a typ e aki n t o Shake speare's, occu r interwove n wit h th e Quixote plo t i n Par t One . Cervante s has n o difficult y askin g th e reade r t o accep t th e fait h i n Providenc e tha t they require . Stil l mor e significan t i n thi s vei n i s Cervantes ' las t work , Persiles y Sigismunda, a n exampl e o f hig h romanc e tha t wa s hi s ow n favorite amon g hi s productions. 4 0 I t wa s no t romanc e pe r se , onl y vulga r romance tha t h e opposed , an d o n ground s mor e socia l tha n philosophical . Further, Cervantes ' mistrus t o f reaso n doe s no t deriv e fro m contac t wit h modern scienc e bu t rathe r fro m th e Erasmia n vei n o f skeptica l resignatio n to fait h that , a s w e hav e alread y seen , gav e ris e t o a for m o f satirica l moralizing distinctl y aki n i n it s rhetori c t o th e Freudian . Skepticis m o f thi s kind doe s dra w limit s t o religiou s knowledge , bu t it s primar y motive s ar e nevertheless religiou s ones . I f an y scienc e helpe d brin g Cervante s t o hi s anticipations o f moder n psychology , i t wa s no t th e scienc e o f Copernicu s but th e earl y version s o f moder n psycholog y itself , version s tha t bor e th e

124 • Chapter Five unmistakable psycho-satirica l stam p o f Erasmia n humo r toughene d wit h a strand o f th e ancien t skeptica l philosoph y o f Pyrrhonism , whic h wa s re vived i n Spai n i n th e lat e sixteent h century. 4 1 Cervante s i s though t t o hav e read, fo r instance , th e Examen de Ingenios (1575) , a n earl y an d influentia l classic o f moder n medicin e b y hi s countryma n Jua n Huart e d e Sa n Juan , in whic h i t i s argue d tha t eac h ma n ha s a temperamenta l mixtur e o f th e humors tha t make s hi m suite d onl y t o on e profession . I t ma y b e w e shoul d understand tha t Quixote , th e "Ingenios o Hidalgo " o f Cervantes ' title , suf fers hi s delusio n merel y ou t o f th e misfortun e o f havin g bee n bor n fo r a profession tha t could , i n hi s age , b e practice d onl y i n fantas y an d i n books. 4 2 Suc h case s wer e fo r Cervante s a persisten t sourc e o f interest : professional deliriu m appear s throughou t hi s writing , includin g i n th e hos pital war d o f th e "Colloqu y o f th e Dogs, " s o love d b y th e youn g Freud , where th e ma d poet , th e alchemist , th e mathematician , an d th e "planner " outrival eac h othe r i n th e grandeu r o f thei r thwarte d ambitions. 4 3 Huart e de Sa n Jua n himsel f ha s a strongl y satirica l bent , on e that , tru e t o th e Erasmian spiri t o f Folly , turn s bac k upo n itself . Wit h th e skeptica l reserva tion typica l o f Pyrrhonism , h e disclaim s an y certitud e tha t hi s observation s are no t governed , lik e thos e o f hi s patients , b y a privat e distortio n o f temper: " I close , inquisitiv e reader , openl y confessin g tha t I a m sic k an d 'out o f tune ' [enfermo y destemplado], an d yo u migh t b e too , fo r I wa s bor n in suc h a plac e [tha t woul d caus e this] ; an d w e migh t hav e happe n t o u s what happene d t o thos e fou r me n who , upo n seein g a blu e cloth , on e swor e it wa s red , on e swor e i t wa s white , on e sai d yellow , an d th e othe r sai d black, an d non e o f the m hi t th e mark , du e t o th e peculia r aberratio n [la lesion particular] o f each man' s vision." 44 The Examen de Ingenios wa s stil l being rea d an d translate d wel l int o th e eighteent h century . Th e popularit y of Huart e d e Sa n Jua n ha s bee n outlaste d onl y b y th e thre e greates t master s of Renaissanc e psycho-satire : Rober t Burton , autho r o f th e Anatomy of Melancholy, Franci s Bacon , an d Cervantes. 4 5 4. Finally , ther e i s th e questio n o f Hamlet, a wor k tha t i s indee d closel y contemporary wit h th e Quixote an d tha t Freu d too k t o b e a n outstandin g psychological sympto m o f modernity . Freu d accomplishe d on e o f th e deci sive gesture s o f twentieth-century intellectua l cultur e when , i n The Interpretation of Dreams, h e juxtapose d Hamlet wit h Sophocles ' Oedipus Rex i n order t o introduc e th e notio n o f Oedipa l repression . Th e stor y o f Oedipu s represents fo r Freu d th e workin g ou t o f th e fundamenta l huma n desires — incest an d murde r o f th e same-se x parent—whic h w e modern s normall y

Freudian Satire • 12 5 distrain fro m consciousness . Hamlet too , Freu d thought , derive s it s powe r from thi s theme , bu t wit h a difference : The change d treatmen t o f th e sam e material s reveal s th e whol e differenc e i n th e mental lif e o f these tw o widely separated epoch s of civilization: the secular advanc e of repression i n th e emotiona l lif e o f mankind . I n th e Oedipus, th e child' s wishfu l fantasy tha t underlie s i t i s brough t int o th e ope n an d realize d a s i t woul d b e i n a dream. I n Hamlet i t remain s repressed ; and—jus t a s i n th e cas e o f a neurosis — we only lear n o f it from it s inhibitin g consequences. 46 Freud use s Oedipus a s a kin d o f eroti c paradig m i n orde r t o plo t th e distortions an d displacement s o f desir e i n Hamlet an d i n ever y othe r psychological expressio n o f th e moder n character . H e take s th e wis h fo r revenge agains t th e fathe r a s a give n fo r th e huma n psyche , observabl e without distortio n i n pre-moder n texts , disguise d i n moder n ones . Hamlet' s inability t o act , therefore , hi s deficienc y i n heroism , manifest s th e genera l psychic repressio n o f th e moder n subject . The philosophica l contex t fo r Shakespeare' s play s ha s prove n notoriousl y difficult t o establish . Bu t on e fac t seem s clear : i t wa s no t scienc e tha t gav e rise t o melancholi a i n Hamlet , fo r th e skeptica l implication s o f th e physica l sciences ha d no t a t thi s poin t bee n realized . Hamlet' s self-absorptio n bears , perhaps, a slightl y Montaignea n tinge , an d i f s o i t share s a lin k wit h th e Pyrrhonistic tur n o f Don Quixote. Mor e certainly , Hamlet show s th e influ ence o f Renaissanc e psychology , an d a preoccupatio n wit h morbi d theme s that i s no t a s clinica l a s Cervantes ' bu t take s o n th e resonanc e o f a mor e general, cultura l discouragement . I t participate s i n th e sobriet y o f Timoth y Bright, th e preacherl y autho r o f th e Treatise on Melancholy draw n o n b y Shakespeare, rathe r tha n th e wi t o f Huart e d e Sa n Juan . Nevertheless , a s with Quixote' s paranoia , Hamlet' s melanchol y mus t b e considere d primaril y in a generic , literar y context . Freu d wa s correc t tha t ther e i s a paradigmati c text givin g for m t o th e desir e tha t remain s unfulfille d i n Hamlet. I t i s b y n o means necessary , however , t o see k i t i n th e ancien t past : w e nee d loo k n o further tha n th e reveng e tragedie s stil l popula r o n th e stag e i n Shake speare's day . Hamlet' s tendenc y t o dela y i s surprisin g no t i n compariso n with th e genera l conduc t o f huma n behavio r bu t specificall y i n th e contex t of th e Elizabetha n reveng e pla y an d it s conventions . Hamlet share s wit h Don Quixote th e aspec t o f generi c critique , an d thi s gives ris e t o th e play' s literar y self-consciousness , a s conspicuou s i n it s way a s tha t o f th e Quixote. Shakespear e doe s no t leav e Hamlet' s generi c

126 • Chapter Five inadequacies a s a her o unremarked . Rather , h e goe s s o fa r a s t o brin g th e theater int o th e action , s o tha t Hamle t himsel f ca n observ e an d eve n dramatize hi s ow n failur e o f nerve . Afte r hearin g th e playe r declai m upo n the deat h o f Priam , Hamle t reproache s himsel f bitterl y fo r hi s "pigeon liver'd" behavior : 0 wha t a rogue and peasan t slav e am I! Is it no t monstrou s tha t thi s player here , But i n a fiction, i n a dream o f passion, Could forc e hi s soul so to his own conceit That fro m he r working all hi s visage wann'd , Tears i n hi s eyes, distractio n i n his aspect , A broken voice , an d hi s whole functio n Suiting with forms t o his conceit? An d al l for nothing ! For Hecuba ! What's Hecub a t o him or he to Hecub a That h e shoul d wee p for her ? (II , ii , 544-53) 4 7 The heroi c actio n describe d b y th e playe r mus t b e a sor e stor y fo r Hamlet: th e "rugge d Pyrrhus, " "horridl y trick'd/Wit h bloo d o f fathers , mothers, daughters , sons " seem s a n exampl e chose n t o rebuk e hi s faint heartedness i n th e sheddin g o f familia l blood . Bu t tha t i s no t wha t stimu lates hi s invidiou s comparison , a t leas t fo r th e moment . I t i s th e player' s emotion, demonstrate d i n hi s wa y o f speaking , tha t shame s Hamle t an d makes hi m fee l "unpregnan t o f [his ] cause. " Yet , a s a piec e o f rhetoric , hi s self-reproachful soliloqu y i s fa r mor e natura l an d fa r mor e convincingl y demonstrative tha n th e speec h b y th e playe r tha t call s fort h hi s rebuke . That i t i s a soliloqu y prevent s thi s fac t fro m registerin g consciousl y wit h the audience : a s th e lat e Harr y Levi n point s out , th e formalit y an d theatri cality o f th e player' s speec h make s Hamlet' s performanc e al l th e mor e real. 4 8 Hamlet' s exasperatio n a t th e spectacl e o f th e player' s art , a t hi s masterly self-contro l an d th e parado x o f hi s gratuitou s emotion , builds , through typica l considerin g "to o curiously, " t o th e magnificen t chiasti c sputter o f th e final quote d lines : "What' s Hecub a t o hi m o r h e t o Hecuba / That h e shoul d wee p fo r her? " Th e rhetori c i s her e mos t perfectl y pitche d to th e situation , character , an d moment , withou t a trac e o f th e pom p an d flourish tha t Hamle t envie s i n th e player . I t exemplifie s tha t super b natural ism o f expressio n tha t Shakespear e ha d no w mastere d an d wa s t o refin e fo r a decad e more . Ho w differen t i s th e rhetori c o f th e speec h tha t call s fort h Hamlet's admiration , th e speec h tha t exhibit s hi s own , no t hi s creator's , literary values . I t is , o f course , a dramati c repor t o f tha t tal e tol d t o Did o

Freudian Satire • 12 7 by Aenea s o f th e fal l o f Tro y an d th e slaughte r o f hi s father , Priam , b y Pyrrhus th e so n o f Achilles . A s w e hav e seen , th e treatmen t o f Hecuba' s grief touche s Hamle t t o th e quick : But who—ah, woe!—ha d see n th e mobble d quee n

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Run barefoo t u p and down , threat'nin g th e flames With bisso n rheum , a clout upo n tha t hea d Where lat e the diadem stood , and , fo r a robe, About he r lank an d al l o'erteemed loin s A blanket, i n th'alarm o f fear caugh t up — Who this ha d seen , wit h tongu e i n venom steep'd , 'Gainst Fortune' s stat e would treaso n hav e pronounc'd . But i f the gods themselves di d se e he r then , When sh e sa w Pyrrhus mak e maliciou s spor t In mincin g with hi s swor d he r husband's limbs , The instan t burs t o f clamour tha t sh e made , Unless things mortal mov e them no t at all , Would hav e mad e milc h th e burnin g eye s of heaven And passio n i n the gods. (II , ii , 498 , 501-14 )

The player' s speec h ha s bee n th e subjec t o f muc h scholarl y debate . N o source fo r i t ha s eve r bee n established ; i t ma y b e a parod y but , i f so , th e object i s probabl y no t extant . Wha t ca n b e sai d abou t i t i s tha t i t ha s a style and , i n part , a vocabular y distinctl y forma l an d archaic , a n epi c rather tha n a dramati c relatio n t o it s subject , an d tha t thes e qualitie s suggest a kinshi p wit h earlie r an d mor e naiv e product s o f th e Elizabetha n stage. Lik e Quixote's , Hamlet' s tast e run s towar d th e literar y antique . H e does no t share , however , Quixote' s vulgarity , hi s inabilit y t o distinguis h the genuin e fro m th e popular , thoug h hi s "anti c disposition " i s sho t throug h with vulgarity . Rather , Hamle t i s distinctl y fastidious , a s ca n b e see n i n his warnin g t o th e player s abou t th e exaggeration s o f speec h an d gestur e that "pleas e th e groundlings" ; h e blame s th e failur e o f th e Pyrrhu s pla y o n vulgar ignorance : i t wa s "caviar e t o th e general. " Hamlet' s sens e o f heroi c rhetoric an d emotio n i s anachronisti c an d stag y relativ e t o that o f his creato r and th e audience . I t i s no t quit e t o b e mocked , bu t i t ha s a gorgeousnes s and a n other-worldlines s abou t i t tha t mak e heroi c behavio r see m unlikely . Hamlet, proverbially , ha s becom e caugh t u p mor e i n th e judgmen t o f hi s performance tha n i n th e actio n itself . H e oscillate s i n speec h betwee n th e high an d th e low , th e anti c an d sublime , envyin g no w th e player' s passio n and no w Horatio' s self-control . Hamlet's melancholy , then , lik e Quixote' s paranoia , borrow s th e for m o f

128 • Chapter Five a literar y diversion . It s socia l basi s i s no t th e stron g discrepanc y betwee n elite an d popula r audience s eviden t i n th e Quixote, bu t a tension , perhaps , within th e audience , an d eve n withi n Elizabetha n imaginatio n itself , a tension tha t ca n b e unmistakabl y fel t bu t tha t ha s no t produce d a distinctio n of elements. 4 9 Wer e w e t o as k th e Freudia n question , "Wha t i s th e mecha nism o f repression? " th e answe r woul d hav e t o b e a certai n literar y an d social sophisticatio n i n Shakespear e an d hi s audienc e tha t permitte d the m to reflect , wit h Hamle t bu t i n a slightl y different , les s conservativ e spirit , upon th e discrepanc y h e note s betwee n hi s ow n inconsequentia l behavio r and th e officiou s dispatc h an d easy , somewha t pompou s demonstrativenes s of th e conventiona l revenger . I t i s th e awarenes s o f discrepanc y betwee n naive an d sophisticate d imagination , a n awarenes s activ e i n Shakespear e and dominan t i n Cervantes , tha t permit s bot h writer s t o evok e a comple x psychological layering , conflictin g aspect s o f wil l an d desire , an d illusio n within illusion . T o measur e Hamlet' s psych e agains t th e patter n fro m which i t departs , therefore , w e nee d no t appea l t o "th e secula r proces s o f repression" goin g bac k t o Sophocles . I t i s enoug h t o observ e th e growin g sophistication o f th e Englis h stage , fro m th e boisterou s reveng e play s like Kyd' s Spanish Tragedy t o th e sickl y sophisticatio n o f Hamlet, wher e Shakespeare look s bac k upo n thi s ver y developmen t an d make s i t on e o f the source s o f hi s art . Hamlet' s melanchol y i s no t s o muc h a phenomeno n calling fo r Freudia n interpretatio n a s anothe r o f th e model s o f Freudia n rhetoric: fo r Freu d no w appear s onc e agai n a s a n imitato r o f Renaissanc e literary psychology , exploitin g th e sociall y an d artisticall y retrograd e ele ments o f literar y cultur e t o furnis h th e pattern s o f represse d desir e an d coherent delusion . Wherea s Cervante s too k th e romance s o f chivalr y an d Shakespeare th e reveng e play s t o furnis h th e material s o f th e inne r drama , Freudian satir e take s fo r it s performanc e al l o f pas t cultur e an d anythin g that migh t conceivabl y replac e it . If, finally, i n ligh t o f thes e observations , i t n o longe r seem s plausibl e t o conceive o f Hamle t a s a frustrate d Oedipus , shackle d b y th e chain s o f civilization an d s o prevente d fro m actin g o n his , an d ou r own , prima l impulses, i t remain s t o b e noted , a s hav e man y before , ho w strang e an d implausible i s th e logi c tha t woul d as k u s i n th e first plac e t o vie w th e figure o f Sophocles ' Oedipu s a s a n embodimen t o f eroti c freedom . Thi s i s difficult t o do , whe n th e premis e o f Sophocles ' pla y require s u s t o accep t from th e beginnin g tha t th e inces t an d patricid e committe d b y Oedipu s ar e not deliberat e act s o f pleasur e bu t unwittin g ones , i n whic h th e agen t fail s to recogniz e hi s ow n performance . Oedipus ' crime s ar e no t unrepresse d

Freudian Satire • 12 9 expressions o f th e libido ; rather , the y ar e unconsciou s i n th e simpl e sense : acts o f ignorance . Perhaps , a s a readin g o f Aristotl e woul d suggest , the y fi t the descriptio n o f hamartia, a 'mistake ' o r 'missin g o f the mark' , thoug h th e precise characte r o f Oedipus ' mistak e ha s prove n notoriousl y difficul t t o identify; perhap s hi s tendenc y towar d unintende d crime s ca n b e attribute d to th e predestine d consequence s o f ancestra l guilt; 5 0 o r migh t hi s responsi bility, finally, li e i n hi s insistenc e upo n bringin g hi s pas t int o th e ligh t o f day? Wha t i s mos t difficul t t o se e i s ho w th e deed s o f Oedipu s ca n b e considered occasion s o f knowin g pleasure , o r t o find jus t wher e i n th e play , as Freu d asserts , "th e child' s wishfu l fantas y tha t underlie s i t i s brough t into th e ope n an d realize d a s i t woul d b e i n a dream. " We hav e see n tha t whereve r Freu d encountere d th e appearanc e o f straightforwardness o r simplicity , ther e h e foun d disguis e an d unsuspecte d complication; perhap s w e shoul d no t b e surprise d t o discove r that , whe n h e tells u s a t las t o f simplicity , o f th e ke y lyin g behin d th e complexitie s o f human behavior , w e shoul d discove r i n thi s ke y complication s Freu d him self chos e t o ignore . I t is , then , i n fact , perfectl y i n keepin g wit h th e generally paradoxica l mod e o f Freudia n contrivanc e tha t h e shoul d giv e u s as th e ultimat e symbo l o f the undisguise d transparenc y o f desire a characte r whose stor y seem s abov e al l other s t o pos e th e questio n o f th e hidde n significance an d unpredictabl e consequence s o f huma n behavior . An d yet , in spit e o f subsequen t qualifications , i t i s a s a symbo l o f transparenc y tha t Oedipus stand s a t th e cente r o f psychoanalyti c myth , a t th e lowes t depth s of th e unconsciou s min d an d a t th e historica l origin s o f huma n conscious ness, befor e al l suc h duplicitou s refinement s a s civilization , repression , neurosis, an d paranoia . For Freud , bot h Oedipu s an d hi s creato r represen t a n uninhibite d stag e of culture . Bu t i t i s no t a s i f Sophocle s wa s unawar e o f th e distinctio n between unimprove d an d civilize d life . I n fact , i n Sophocles ' portrayal , Oedipus, fa r fro m representin g primitiv e force , stand s rathe r a s th e embodi ment o f th e intellectua l an d socia l achievement s o f Athenia n civilization , and a s a mode l o f th e activ e Athenia n describe d i n Pericles ' funera l oration. Oedipu s i s distinctl y th e produc t o f Kultur, o f al l tha t set s huma n beings abov e nature. 5 1 Hi s stor y appear s i n a perspectiv e stil l mor e remot e from Freud' s whe n w e recal l th e immediat e historica l contex t o f Sophocles ' play, se t o n th e stag e a t th e beginnin g o f th e Peloponnesia n War . A t thi s perilous moment , Sophocle s presente d hi s Athenia n audienc e wit h th e spectacle o f a leade r whos e ver y strength s an d virtue s ar e hi s undoing , a leader whos e ever y mov e ha s bee n anticipate d b y a n all-powerfu l enemy ,

130 • Chapter Five so tha t i t accomplishe s precisel y wha t h e studie d t o avoid . Oedipu s finds himself th e objec t o f calculate d manipulatio n an d incomprehensibl e jus tice. H e represent s th e failur e o f polic y i n a worl d governe d b y Olympia n irony, a worl d i n whic h th e consequence s o f huma n actio n ar e impossibl e to calculate . A mor e reasonabl e interpretation , then , o f thi s figure, chose n by Freu d a s th e centra l psychoanalyti c icon , woul d mak e hi m no t s o muc h a her o o f desir e a s a n imag e o f paranoi a justified . Freud himself , a s th e stor y goes , dreame d fro m hi s universit y day s o f achieving fam e throug h th e solvin g o f riddles , i n orde r t o become , lik e Oedipus, " a ma n mos t mighty" . H e pale d whe n hi s lifelon g fantas y o f having thes e Sophoclea n word s applie d t o himsel f cam e tru e o n hi s fiftieth birthday. 5 2 Wha t i s more , h e portraye d hi s ow n fat e i n a manne r tha t mus t remind u s o f Oedipus : a s th e bringe r o f a dangerou s for m o f knowledge , happened upo n naivel y i n th e cours e o f discovery , settin g him , fro m tha t moment, beyon d th e pal e o f huma n consideration. 5 3 Fo r Freud , th e tru e personal significanc e o f th e Oedipu s myt h la y no t i n sexua l ambitio n bu t i n the ques t t o uncove r wha t i s hidden . Th e dram a o f Oedipu s remains , therefore, a fitting emble m o f Freud' s paranoi d project , bein g on e o f it s central imaginativ e models .

SIX Freud as Quixote It canno t b e denie d tha t t o interpre t an d repor t one's dream s demand s a hig h degre e o f self-disci pline. On e i s boun d t o emerg e a s th e onl y villai n among th e crow d o f nobl e character s wh o shar e one's life . —Freu d

In The Interpretation of Dreams, th e paranoi d logic , psychology , an d rheto ric o f psychoanalysis , whic h hav e bee n th e subject s o f th e precedin g chapters, combin e i n perfec t harmony . Th e wor k take s th e for m o f a romance, a quest , on e tha t demystifie s th e objec t i t seeks , the n mystifie s i t in ne w ways . I t is , first, a grea t treatis e o f reduction , i n whic h th e content s of ordinar y thought , draw n int o th e networ k o f dreams , ar e translate d int o a new mora l an d psychologica l language , whic h know s onl y ambition , suspi cion, an d deceit . Th e positin g o f doublenes s i n ever y detai l o f experienc e makes possibl e a n agil e an d irresistibl e metho d o f decodin g an d un masking. Thi s hermeneuti c doublenes s arise s fro m th e origina l aggressive ness o f th e reductiv e method . I t permit s no t a discover y o f meanin g wher e there ha d bee n none , bu t a destructio n o f ordinar y meaning , a translatio n into somethin g else . I t i s a hermeneuti c no t o f fulfillment bu t o f deprivation , its ai m no t t o recove r bu t t o negate . Onl y whe n th e unmaskin g o f th e ordinary ha s bee n achieved , an d th e reade r ha s bee n reoriente d i n th e inverted worl d o f th e unconscious , d o ne w mysterie s an d ne w adventure s arise. With th e employmen t o f thi s method , Freu d make s hi s persona l psychol ogy a n exemplar y one . H e himsel f assume s a doubl e role , playin g bot h parts i n th e dram a o f translation : discovere r o f hidde n motive s an d victi m of interpretation . Th e glor y o f th e on e lie s i n th e exposur e o f th e other , th e heroism o f th e on e i n th e foll y o f th e other . Freud' s privat e an d contingen t foibles—the "megalomaniac " foible s o f th e doctor , th e friend , th e son , th e colleague—provide Freu d th e interprete r wit h th e material s o f a universa l science o f suspicion . An d i t i s no t onl y vanity , prima l selfishness , an d 131

132 • Chapter Six exalted egotis m tha t th e metho d o f suspicio n ca n detec t behin d th e facad e of everyda y life , strugglin g t o b e expresse d i n th e languag e o f dreams . These dream s an d thei r interpretation s ar e roote d i n impulse s o f th e rawes t physicality, th e mos t infantil e bodil y preoccupations . The y ar e a n embar rassment t o civilize d sentiment , ye t Freu d bring s the m humorousl y t o th e center o f th e huma n psyche . And i f thi s wer e no t enoug h fo r th e satirist' s purposes , th e dream s als o reveal, o r ar e mad e t o reveal , i n Freud' s psycholog y a serie s o f comi c infatuations wit h heroe s o f th e imagination . Freud' s megalomaniaca l quest , like Quixote's , expresse s itsel f a s literar y repetition . Th e tru e underpinnin g of Freudian bio-histor y appears : we repeat th e pas t experienc e o f the huma n race no t throug h biologica l memor y bu t throug h imaginativ e identificatio n and comical , 'unconscious ' reenactment . Th e satiri c for m remain s intac t from Don Quixote t o Die Traumdeutung. W e wil l eve n b e abl e t o observ e that th e ambivalenc e o f th e imag e o f Quixot e a s i t move s fro m Enlighten ment t o Romantic cultur e finds it s equivalen t i n Freud' s romanc e o f dreams . In th e foregoin g chapte r I pointe d t o a differenc e betwee n Cervante s an d Freud a s satiri c writers : Cervantes ' satir e ha s a specifi c objec t wherea s Freud's i s universal . Ther e i s a secon d differenc e tha t wil l undoubtedl y have occurre d t o th e reader : Cervante s i s funn y an d Freu d i s not . Th e tw o distinctions ar e related : i t wa s b y givin g hi s reader s a vie w o f th e foible s o f a discret e individua l representin g th e characteristi c temptation s an d follie s of a clas s tha t Cervante s furnishe d th e opportunit y fo r laughter ; th e violenc e of Freudia n scrutiny , o n th e othe r hand , i s general , an d recoil s upo n th e analyst an d hi s readers . I t doe s s o no t wit h th e amiabl e self-referenc e wit h which th e Erasmia n Foll y acknowledge s he r contradictions , bu t wit h a n alienating mechanica l reductio n applie d t o concret e persona l experienc e just a s i t i s i n th e Quixote. I f ther e i s pleasur e her e i t i s no t th e pleasur e o f laughter, whic h set s th e ridiculou s alway s a t a distance . I t woul d seem , then, a s i f th e analog y betwee n Freu d an d Cervante s wer e abou t t o brea k down a t th e first leve l o f reflection , th e abilit y t o evok e laughte r bein g a sine qu a no n o f satiri c writing. l In orde r t o overcom e thi s obstacl e w e wil l hav e t o accomplis h a certai n shift i n ou r perspectiv e o n th e Quixote, t o se e Cervantes ' nove l n o longe r i n the origina l contex t o f hi s attac k upo n th e book s o f chivalr y bu t rathe r a s Freud sa w i t a t th e tur n o f th e twentiet h century . W e wil l hav e t o brin g th e two author s int o th e sam e historica l frame . Fo r a t th e tim e tha t th e youn g Freud wa s erectin g hi s cul t o f Cervantes , th e Quixote wa s n o longe r rea d merely a s a satiri c work . Th e material s agains t whic h it s humo r wa s

Freud as Quixote • 13 3 originally directe d ha d lon g sinc e bee n forgotten , an d th e dominan t Euro pean sensibilit y ha d undergon e a grea t reversa l o f value s tha t se t th e satiri c culture o f earl y moder n Europ e o n it s head . A s w e hav e seen , th e emer gence o f historica l consciousnes s durin g thi s perio d bega n a s a gestur e o f negation. Previou s culture—th e cultur e o f "superstition, " "enthusiasm, " and fals e idealism—ha d bee n se t a t a satiri c distance , an d i t wa s o n th e basis o f thi s distanc e tha t th e progres s o f Enlightenmen t coul d b e asserted . With th e grea t chang e i n cultur e marke d b y th e phenomeno n o f Rousseau , the suspicio n an d satiri c scrutin y tha t ha d bee n directe d agains t th e ene mies o f Enlightenmen t becam e general . I t no w extende d t o cultur e pe r se , to al l tha t wa s o f huma n making . Th e condition s o f socia l existenc e wer e now viewe d a s threatening , controlling , falsifying , weakening , o r steriliz ing. Valu e migrate d int o th e natural , t o thos e thing s o r aspect s o f thing s one coul d b e certai n wer e outsid e th e influenc e o r contro l o f othe r huma n beings. Wit h Rousseau , paranoi d fea r o f othe r huma n being s becam e a kind o f intellectua l norm . From th e perspectiv e o f thi s genera l suspicio n towar d cultur e itself , tw o opposing state s o f mora l an d intellectua l bein g cam e t o b e distinguished . The first wa s a n imag e o f th e primitiv e o r rura l life—simple , unself conscious, lackin g al l th e socia l advantage s tha t th e Enlightenmen t an d bourgeois capitalis m ha d strive n t o achieve . Thi s stat e becam e a n objec t o f nostalgia, bein g imagine d a s fre e fro m th e hostil e an d selfis h motive s inculcated b y society . Th e secon d stat e wa s tha t o f th e superstitiou s delu sion o f traditiona l culture : fro m th e ne w perspective , aristocracy , chivalry , romance, eve n Catholicism , becam e attractiv e form s o f idealisti c fantasy — attractive, o f course , i n proportio n t o thei r impotence . Workin g i n thes e materials on e coul d discer n a benig n expressio n o f 'narcissism ' avant la lettre. Thei r powe r t o embod y a for m o f self-assertio n uninhibite d ye t transparently illusor y mad e the m a n exhilaratin g objec t o f aestheti c identi fication fo r th e new , universall y suspiciou s consciousness . Romanti c imagi nation als o recognize d it s kinshi p wit h madnes s jus t a s Freu d wa s t o do . I t felt th e profundit y o f ungrounde d fancy , jus t a s i t fel t th e limit s suspicio n had se t fo r it s own . I t was , again , a cas e o f naiv e an d sentimenta l paranoia . The philosophica l implication s o f Rousseau' s revolutio n i n valu e wer e developed preeminentl y i n Germany , an d i t i s her e tha t w e ca n se e th e implications fo r a readin g o f th e Quixote. I t i s no t surprisin g tha t th e madness o f Quixot e shoul d acquir e a ne w attractivenes s i n a cultur e tha t had com e mor e an d mor e t o regar d huma n though t an d huma n valu e a s individually determine d an d private , emanatin g fro m a n interna l creativ e

134 • Chapter Six agency—the self—t o b e reunite d wit h th e externa l world , i f a t all , onl y through dialectica l transformation s nearl y ungraspabl e fro m th e curren t standpoint o f history . Locke , w e hav e seen , humorousl y imagine d that , i f ideas stan d i n relatio n onl y t o each other , th e madma n migh t b e envie d fo r the superio r livelines s o f hi s interna l representations ; thi s become s a pro phetic utteranc e fulfille d i n th e ne w admiration o f Quixote' s character . Th e classic statemen t i s b y F . W . Schelling : One nee d onl y thin k o f Don Quixote t o se e th e implication s o f th e concep t o f a mythology create d b y the genius o f an individual . Do n Quixote an d Sancho Panz a are mythologica l person s extendin g acros s th e entir e cultivate d earth , jus t a s the story o f the windmill an d so on are true myth s o r mythological sagas . Wha t i n the restricted conceptio n o f an inferio r spiri t woul d hav e appeare d intende d onl y a s a satire o f a certai n foolishness , thi s poe t ha s transforme d b y the mos t fortunat e o f inventions int o th e most universal , meaningful , an d picaresque imag e o f life. . . . The theme on the whole is the struggle betwee n the real and the ideal. . . the novel of Cervante s i s base d o n an extremel y imperfect , indee d daf t protagonist , ye t one who i s simultaneously o f such nobl e nature , an d who—as lon g as the one point i s not touched—display s s o much superio r understandin g tha t n o outrage ca n actu ally disgrace him. 2 Schelling recognize s tha t Cervantes ' initia l motiv e wa s a satiri c one , bu t he canno t conside r th e Quixot e characte r a s anythin g othe r tha n a universa l myth. Quixot e i s "noble " i n hi s devotion t o the "ideal," an d thi s conceptio n of th e "ideal " doe s no t find i t discouragin g t o b e se t i n oppositio n t o wha t is "real. " The comic discrepanc y betwee n th e real worl d o f Cervantes' nove l and Quixote' s conceptio n o f it become s fo r Schellin g largel y a differenc e o f principle, an d th e self-intereste d characte r o f Quixote' s delusio n i s thereb y obscured. An d jus t a s Schellin g detache s Quixote' s aristocrati c delusio n from it s origina l socia l significance , takin g i t no w a t somethin g lik e th e value i t claim s fo r itself , s o h e detache s Cervantes ' creativ e activit y fro m its sources . I t i s no w a "mytholog y create d b y the geniu s o f an individual, " just th e statu s Freu d woul d late r ascrib e t o art an d paranoia . Fo r Schelling , the individua l characte r o f Cervantes ' myt h guarantee s it s universality . I t arises ou t o f n o loca l politica l o r socia l context , bu t furnishes , rather , "th e most universal , meaningful , an d picaresqu e imag e o f life. " For thi s Romanti c sensibility , then , th e figure o f th e paranoid , first observed fo r satiri c purposes , ha d becom e th e centra l protagonis t o f West ern Europea n imagination . Hi s quest , i n it s detache d idealism , wa s n o longer t o b e laughe d at , n o longe r a spectacl e o f pretentiousnes s mortifie d with cruelty , bu t a n emble m o f th e huma n conditio n itself . I n succeedin g

Freud as Quixote • 13 5 generations, th e admiratio n fo r Quixot e woul d onl y gro w mor e extravagant . He woul d becom e th e archetyp e o f existential revolt , assertin g th e superior ity o f inne r visio n i n th e fac e o f a n absur d reality . Th e torment s an d degradations tha t h e suffere d i n th e satiri c spiri t o f th e narrativ e woul d b e transformed int o a tru e martyrdom . Picasso' s famou s drawin g o f Quixot e captures th e Romanti c view : th e knigh t an d hi s hors e ar e conjure d ou t o f nothing wit h th e lightes t o f strokes , ye t the y dominat e th e landscape , i n scale the y approac h th e sun , whil e Sancho , th e windmills , realit y itself , dwindle t o insignificance . The mos t extrem e sanctification s o f Quixot e wer e t o occu r afte r th e period o f Freud' s encounte r wit h Cervantes . Bu t hi s admirin g attitud e toward bot h th e her o an d hi s creato r appea r unambiguousl y i n th e lette r t o Martha I hav e alread y quoted , i n whic h h e expresse s hi s pleasur e t o se e Quixote's delusor y behavio r expose d i n th e goo d compan y i t deserves . Th e young Freu d identifie s Cervante s wit h th e idealis m o f hi s hero : "Don' t yo u find i t ver y touchin g t o rea d ho w a grea t person , himsel f a n idealist , make s fun o f hi s ideals ? Befor e w e wer e s o fortunat e a s t o apprehen d th e dee p truths i n ou r lov e w e wer e al l nobl e knight s passin g throug h th e worl d caught i n a dream , misinterpretin g th e simples t things , magnifyin g com monplaces int o somethin g nobl e an d rare , an d thereb y cuttin g a sa d figure. Therefore w e me n alway s rea d wit h respec t abou t wha t w e onc e wer e an d in par t stil l remain. " Th e matur e Freu d woul d com e t o believ e tha t lov e itself wa s a s muc h o f a 'narcissistic ' delusio n a s Quixote' s dream , an d t o agree wit h th e poin t o f Shaw' s "maliciou s aphoris m t o th e effec t tha t bein g in lov e mean s greatl y exaggeratin g th e differenc e betwee n on e woma n an d another." 3 Bu t h e di d not , i n late r years , alte r hi s seriou s vie w o f Quixote : Don Quixot e i s originall y a purel y comi c figure, a bi g child ; th e phantasie s fro m his book s of chivalry hav e gone to his head . I t i s well know n tha t t o begin wit h th e author intende d nothin g else of him and tha t hi s creation graduall y gre w far beyon d its creator's firs t intentions . Bu t after th e author had equippe d thi s ridiculous figur e with th e deepes t wisdo m an d th e nobles t purpose s an d ha d mad e hi m int o th e symbolic representativ e o f an idealis m whic h believe s i n th e realizatio n o f its aim s and take s dutie s seriousl y an d take n promise s literally , thi s figure ceased t o have a comic effect. 4 Like hi s Romanti c predecessors , Freu d ca n tak e Quixot e seriousl y eve n though h e recognize s th e satiri c desig n o f th e narrativ e an d th e fac t tha t th e character's idealis m ha s th e for m o f a delusion . Th e knight' s wisdom , nobility, and , abov e all , th e sincerit y o f hi s belie f i n hi s ow n ideal s mak e him immun e t o laughter . I t i s strang e t o se e Freu d professin g admiratio n

136 • Chapter Six for thes e qualities , which , i n an y othe r form , woul d evok e hi s suspicion . Claims t o nobilit y an d idealis m b y hi s contemporarie s fille d hi m wit h scorn , for h e kne w thes e t o b e th e mos t extrem e expression s o f huma n hypocris y and cover t violence , derivative s o f unchecke d narcissism . I n th e figure o f Quixote, however , thes e sam e expression s provid e Freu d wit h a n exquisit e delight an d eve n compe l hi s admiration . Th e parado x i s no t difficul t t o unravel: Quixote' s idealis m ha s alread y bee n disinfecte d b y Cervantes ' satiric treatment ; th e paranoi d ques t ha s bee n deprive d o f al l titl e t o th e realization o f it s hopes . Th e onl y clai m i t make s i s th e clai m o f th e psychological—in othe r words , o f consciousnes s satiricall y detache d fro m reality. Freud's grea t missio n wa s t o se t al l huma n activit y a t thi s sam e satiri c distance. Onl y the n coul d it s ethica l qualities , it s patho s an d strangeness , be appreciated . An d s o w e ca n distinguis h i n psychoanalyti c rhetori c th e same tw o moment s o r tendencie s tha t mar k th e reception-histor y o f th e Quixote. Firs t ther e i s th e satiri c moment , th e revelatio n o f vulgarity preten tiously concealed . Thi s i s th e dominan t o f Freud' s register . Then , afte r th e negation, ther e come s a momen t o f recovery, o f integratio n wit h th e 'univer sal', when , withi n th e private , ofte n 'unconscious ' working s o f th e psyche , we glimps e th e integrit y o f th e grea t form s o f cultura l productio n o f th e past, th e inverte d expression s o f religion, superstition , totemism , an d myth . We migh t cal l thi s tendency , adoptin g Freud' s ow n usage , th e 'uncanny' , stipulating tha t th e represse d material s tha t retur n i n moment s o f Romanti c glamour com e no t fro m 'th e unconscious ' a s Freu d understoo d i t bu t fro m a scientifically discredite d an d satiricall y deflate d metaphysica l an d mytho logical tradition . Th e 'uncanny ' ha s goo d Romanti c credentials ; i n hi s essay o n th e subject , Freu d quote s wit h approva l Schelling' s definition : " 'Uncanny ' i s th e nam e fo r everythin g tha t ough t t o hav e remaine d . . . secret an d hidde n bu t ha s com e t o light." 5 Freud' s self-portraya l partici pates i n bot h satiri c deflatio n an d Romanti c herois m o f th e 'uncanny ' sort. 6 The first bear s th e mantl e o f scienc e whil e th e secon d emerge s a s a n aesthetic aftereffect , helpin g t o preserv e th e dignit y o f th e scientifi c de meanor. Onl y i n Freud' s masterpiece , The Interpretation of Dreams, doe s the uncann y attai n anythin g lik e a parit y wit h th e satiric ; i t i s no t surprisin g that Freu d identifie d mos t profoundl y wit h thi s wor k an d tha t i t remain s aesthetically th e mos t satisfyin g o f hi s productions . I n th e cours e o f it s lon g narrative, Freu d shift s i n a n agil e manne r fro m th e rol e o f th e suspiciou s interpreter demystifyin g th e socia l subterfug e o f individua l dreams , reveal ing thei r shamefu l an d vulga r origin s an d bein g harshes t upo n hi s own , t o

Freud as Quixote • 13 7 a mor e Romanti c persona , whos e ques t i s fo r universa l knowledge , a ques t whose en d i s eve r delaye d an d deferre d s o tha t th e final myster y o f dream s can neve r entirel y b e reduce d t o nothing .

The Romance of Dreams In Augus t o f 1899 , jus t a fe w month s befor e th e publicatio n o f th e work , Freud wa s stil l strugglin g wit h th e for m o f The Interpretation of Dreams. His corresponden t an d collaborator , Wilhel m Fliess , urge d hi m t o relegat e the lon g summar y o f previous researc h o n dream s t o the bac k o f the volume , but Freu d fel t tha t i t wa s necessar y t o pa y a n immediat e homag e t o hi s predecessors. Typically , h e wa s expectin g a negativ e reactio n fro m th e critics, an d doubtles s th e slightl y arcan e characte r o f th e topi c mad e hi m hesitate t o procee d withou t marshalin g th e precedent s fo r hi s endeavor , a s if h e ha d begu n hi s ow n labor s wit h thes e i n mind. 7 Freu d mad e a virtu e o f necessity b y givin g t o the whol e th e for m o f a "fantasy-walk " ("Spazierungs phantasie"), a s h e inform s hi s friend : The whol e thin g i s planne d o n th e mode l o f a n imaginar y walk . Firs t come s th e dark woo d o f th e authoritie s (wh o canno t se e th e trees) , wher e ther e i s n o clea r view an d i t i s eas y t o g o astray . The n ther e i s a cavernou s defil e throug h whic h I lead m y readers—m y specime n drea m wit h it s peculiarities , it s details , it s indis cretions an d it s ba d jokes—an d then , al l a t once , th e hig h groun d an d th e ope n prospect an d th e question: "Whic h wa y do you want t o go?" 8 I hav e alread y pointe d ou t th e heroi c moti f o f th e journe y t o th e under world suggeste d i n thi s volume' s motto . Th e pla n o f The Interpretation of Dreams, a s Freu d announce d i t t o Fliess , make s i t clea r tha t hi s heroi c rhetoric wa s no t merel y decorativ e bu t par t o f a deliberat e strategy , th e whole bein g cas t i n th e for m o f a romanc e wit h Freu d a s th e Virgilia n guid e leading th e reade r o n th e difficul t ques t fo r truth . Ther e ca n b e n o doub t that Freud , eve n a t thi s earl y stag e o f hi s psychoanalyti c career , too k himself seriousl y i n hi s rol e a s a scientifi c hero . Whe n h e announce s a t th e end o f th e journe y tha t "dream s ar e a roya l roa d t o knowledg e o f th e unconscious activitie s o f th e mind, " th e structur e o f hi s romanc e i s com plete, wit h a stres s o n th e valu e o f th e goa l (608) . Yet , i n spit e o f thi s seriousness o f purpose , th e manne r o f th e narrativ e i s predominantl y sa tiric. W e hea r a n ech o o f Dant e i n Freud' s descriptio n o f th e beginnin g o f the journey , i n th e "dar k woo d o f th e authorities," 9 bu t th e tur n i s comical . The "cavernou s defile " o f th e specime n drea m present s a challenge , bu t

138 • Chapter Six does s o b y th e embarrassin g trivialit y o f it s elements , "it s peculiarities , it s details, it s indiscretion s an d it s ba d jokes. " Onl y passin g throug h thes e can th e highe r groun d an d th e crossroad s b e reached . The Interpretation of Dreams i s a satiri c romanc e i n scientifi c form . Lik e th e Quixote, i t ha s th e wit o f psychologica l curiosit y applie d wit h a n effec t o f deflatio n t o th e rhetoric o f th e ideal ; i t add s t o thi s th e uncann y appea l o f th e satiricall y repressed material s returnin g t o significanc e a s the y di d fo r Cervantes ' romantic readers . The titl e o f The Interpretation of Dreams, Die Traumdeutung, give s th e first hin t o f it s tendenc y towar d th e uncanny . Traumdeutung i s t o dream s what "palm-reading " i s t o palms. 1 0 Fo r a scientifi c work , th e titl e i s provocatively vulga r an d Romantic . Freu d spend s nearl y th e first hundre d pages revelin g i n th e lor e o f nocturna l fantasy . W e rea d o f th e dream s o f Xerxes an d o f th e elde r Scaliger , o f Napoleo n an d th e Marqui s d e l'Hervey : In spite of many thousand s of years of effort, th e scientific understandin g o f dreams has mad e ver y littl e advance— a fac t s o generally admitte d i n th e literatur e tha t i t seems unnecessar y t o quote instance s i n support o f it. I n these writings, o f which a list appear s a t th e en d o f m y work, man y stimulatin g observation s ar e t o be foun d and a quantity o f interesting materia l bearin g upo n ou r theme, bu t littl e o r nothin g that touche s upo n th e essentia l natur e o f dream s o r tha t offer s a final solutio n o f any of their enigmas. (1 ) We wil l no t find scientifi c wisdom , i t seems , amon g th e experts , onl y a vast rang e o f opinion , fro m Aristotl e t o th e present , testifyin g t o th e peren nial myster y o f dreams . Freud' s approac h i s no t t o narro w th e divergenc e of received opinio n b y analysi s bu t rathe r t o accentuat e difference , wit h th e effect o f a satiri c anatom y i n th e styl e o f Burton . Th e conclusion s o f scientific researcher s lik e Maury , Delboeuf , an d Hildebrand t stan d along side th e teaching s o f ancien t authorities—Cicero , Lucretius , Macrobius , and Artemidorus—a s wel l a s th e philosophica l speculation s o f Kant , Schleiermacher, Novalis , an d Schopenhauer . W e lear n o f th e oracula r power o f dreams , o f thei r origin s i n th e divine , th e demonic , o r i n loca l sensations lik e th e desir e t o micturate . The y ca n reviv e th e mos t distan t memories o r th e mos t recent . I n the m th e mora l sens e i s mos t activ e o r completely inactive , th e expert s showin g o n thi s poin t "remarkabl e shift s and inconsistencie s i n thei r opinions " (68) . Th e mos t importan t o f al l th e conflicts concern s th e questio n o f th e valu e o f dreams : D o dream s hav e a meaning o r ar e the y th e scattere d fragment s o f menta l proces s deprive d o f the integrit y o f wakin g thought ? Dream s her e ar e mad e th e objec t o f th e same controvers y o f valu e a s th e on e tha t surround s th e raving s o f Quixote .

Freud as Quixote • 13 9 The expert s mos t drasticall y diverge , Romanti c spirit s lik e th e follower s o f Schelling settin g upo n "dream-life " th e highes t value , "clearl y a n ech o o f the divin e natur e o f dream s whic h wa s undispute d i n antiquity" ; o n th e other hand , th e member s o f th e hard-heade d materialis t cam p den y an y worth t o dream s a s menta l object s (5) . Pointin g u p th e difference , Freu d ventures upo n " a simil e fro m th e spher e o f psychiatry" : "th e firs t grou p o f theories construc t dream s o n th e mode l o f paranoia , whil e th e secon d grou p make the m resembl e menta l deficienc y o r confusiona l states " (76) . Th e issue o f valu e the n come s t o this : D o dream s betra y th e coherenc e o f paranoid delusion , ar e the y a s profoun d a s th e Quixote, o r d o the y justif y an entirel y satiri c attitude ? I f dream s ca n b e equate d wit h paranoi a the y can b e accepte d a s object s o f th e greates t interes t an d value . The satirist s o f drea m hav e som e notabl e point s o n thei r side , fo r dream s do evidenc e remarkabl e confusion . Th e cas e i s state d b y Hildebrandt : "What astonishin g leap s a dreamer ma y make , fo r instance , i n drawin g inferences ! How calml y h e i s prepare d t o se e th e mos t familia r lesson s o f experienc e turne d upside down . Wha t laughabl e contradiction s h e i s read y t o accep t i n th e law s o f nature an d societ y before , a s w e say , thing s ge t beyon d a joke an d th e excessiv e strain o f nonsens e wake s hi m up . W e calculat e withou t a qual m tha t thre e time s three mak e twenty ; w e ar e no t i n th e leas t surprise d whe n a do g quote s a lin e o f poetry, o r whe n a dea d ma n walk s t o hi s grav e o n hi s ow n legs , o r when w e se e a rock floating o n th e water ; w e procee d gravel y o n a n importan t mission t o th e Duchy o f Bernbur g o r t o th e Principalit y o f Liechtenstei n t o inspec t thei r nava l forces; o r we are persuade d t o enlist unde r Charle s XI I shortl y befor e th e battl e of Poltava." (56 ) So dream s acquir e a charmin g absurdity . I n a wor k entitle d Traumdeutung, though , i t i s t o b e expecte d tha t th e defender s o f drea m wil l hav e th e better o f th e discussion . An d s o w e find th e "sagaciou s Delboeuf " dis covering i n dream s th e ful l rang e o f what imaginatio n ca n accomplish : " 'L e songeur es t u n acteu r qu i jou e a volont e le s fou s e t le s sages , le s bourreau x et le s victimes , le s nain s e t le s geants , le s demon s an d le s anges ' " (60) . For Novalis , dream s exercis e a restorativ e power : " 'Dream s ar e a shiel d against th e humdru m monoton y o f life ; the y se t imaginatio n fre e fro m it s chains s o tha t i t ma y thro w int o confusio n al l th e picture s o f everyda y existence an d brea k int o th e unceasin g gravit y o f grow n me n wit h th e joyfu l play o f a child . Withou t dream s w e shoul d surel y gro w soo n old ; s o w e ma y look o n them—not , perhap s a s a gif t fro m o n high—bu t a s a preciou s recreation, a s friendl y companion s o n ou r pilgrimag e t o th e grave " (83) . Finally, i t i s onc e agai n lef t t o Hildebrandt , autho r o f th e wor k o n dream s

140 • Chapter Six "most perfec t i n for m an d th e riches t i n ideas " (67) , t o stat e thi s sid e o f th e argument wit h th e greates t eloquence : "There ar e fe w o f u s wh o coul d no t affirm , fro m ou r ow n experience , tha t ther e emerges fro m tim e t o tim e i n th e creation s an d fabric s o f th e geniu s o f dream s a depth an d intimac y o f emotion , a tendernes s o f feeling , a clarit y o f vision , a subtlety o f observation , an d a brillianc e o f wi t suc h a s w e shoul d neve r clai m t o have a t ou r permanen t comman d i n ou r wakin g lives . Ther e lie s i n dream s a marvellous poetry, a n apt allegory , a n incomparable humour , a rare irony. A dream looks upo n th e worl d i n a ligh t o f strang e idealis m an d ofte n enhance s th e effect s of wha t i t see s b y it s dee p understandin g o f thei r essentia l nature . I t picture s earthly beaut y t o ou r eye s i n a trul y heavenl y splendou r an d clothe s dignit y wit h the highes t majesty , i t show s u s ou r everyda y fear s i n th e ghastlies t shap e an d turns ou r amusemen t int o jokes o f indescribabl e pungency . An d sometimes , whe n we are awak e an d stil l unde r th e full impac t o f an experienc e lik e on e of these, w e cannot but fee l tha t neve r i n ou r lif e ha s th e rea l worl d offere d u s it s equal. " (62-63) Dreams hav e no w attaine d th e ful l profundit y o f Quixoti c idealism . Fliess coul d no t hav e bee n mor e wrong-heade d whe n h e advise d Freu d t o relegate hi s anatom y o f dream s t o a n appendix . Freu d use d i t ingeniousl y to conjur e u p th e fo g hi s ne w insight s woul d dispel . Keepin g th e receive d tradition a t a n ironi c distance , h e wa s ye t abl e t o initiat e hi s audienc e int o the romanc e tha t ha d gathere d aroun d th e subjec t ove r th e centuries . Freu d knew tha t th e skepticis m o f scienc e towar d th e meanin g o f dream s wa s no t entirely appealin g t o th e wide r public : "La y opinio n ha s take n a differen t attitude throughou t th e ages . I t ha s exercise d it s indefeasibl e righ t t o behave inconsistently ; and , thoug h admittin g tha t dream s ar e unintelligibl e and absur d i t canno t brin g itsel f t o declar e tha t the y hav e n o significanc e at all . Le d b y som e obscur e feeling , i t seem s t o assum e that , i n spit e o f everything, ever y drea m ha s a meaning , thoug h a hidde n one , tha t dream s are designe d t o tak e th e plac e o f som e othe r proces s o f thought , an d tha t we hav e onl y t o und o th e substitutio n correctl y i n orde r t o arriv e a t thi s hidden meaning " (96) . Onl y a t th e en d o f hi s discussio n d o w e fin d Freu d finally enlistin g himsel f i n suppor t o f th e Romanti c an d vulga r position , th e one hel d b y th e follower s o f Schellin g an d th e genera l public : " I hav e bee n driven t o realiz e tha t her e onc e mor e w e hav e on e o f thes e no t infrequen t cases i n whic h a n ancien t an d jealousl y hel d popula r belie f seem s t o b e nearer th e trut h tha n th e judgemen t o f th e prevalen t scienc e o f to-day . I must affir m tha t dream s reall y hav e a meanin g an d tha t a scientifi c proce dure fo r interpretin g the m i s possible " (100) . Dream s wil l tur n out , lik e paranoia, an d lik e th e pronouncement s o f Quixote , t o hav e no t onl y a

Freud as Quixote • 14 1 meaning bu t a distinc t value , onc e w e hav e establishe d th e prope r mean s by whic h the y ca n b e read . Th e first stag e o f Freud' s literar y journe y end s with exquisit e pois e betwee n satir e an d th e uncanny .

Innocence Disallowed Now w e com e t o th e "cavernou s defile " o f th e specime n dream . I t i s a dream o f Freud' s own , fo r onl y i n connectio n wit h on e o f hi s ow n dreams , Freud tell s us , coul d h e permi t himsel f t o revea l th e indiscree t content s o f dream-life. I n orde r t o accomplis h hi s purpose , Freu d wil l hav e t o involv e his reader s no t onl y i n th e detail s o f hi s dream s bu t als o i n th e wakin g lif e that surround s the m an d provide s thei r materials : "An d no w I mus t as k th e reader t o mak e m y interest s hi s ow n fo r quit e a while , an d t o plunge , alon g with me , int o th e minutes t detail s o f m y life ; fo r a transferenc e o f thi s kin d is peremptoril y demande d b y ou r interes t i n th e hidde n meanin g o f dreams " (105—6). I t i s alway s invitin g t o b e take n int o a n author' s confidence . Bu t before w e plung e wit h Freu d int o th e interpretatio n o f hi s dreams , i t wil l b e necessary first t o inquir e int o th e natur e o f th e metho d itself . Freud's procedur e i s t o trac e eac h elemen t o f wha t h e call s th e 'manifes t content' o f th e dream , it s surfac e materia l a s narrate d t o th e analyst , alon g a chai n o f association s leadin g bac k t o th e origina l ide a that , theoretically , gave ris e t o th e dream . Thi s ide a i s th e dream' s meaning . I t mus t b e i n th e nature o f a wish-fulfillment , som e egotistica l o r libidina l impuls e tha t coul d not appea r t o th e dreame r withou t causin g embarrassmen t an d a distur bance o f sleep . Becaus e th e wis h i s 'improper' , t o recal l Freud' s definitio n of sexuality , o r i n som e wa y no t fo r show , i t ha s bee n subjecte d t o 'censor ship' b y a separat e agenc y o f th e mind . Th e conflic t betwee n thes e tw o agencies, wis h an d censor , produce s th e discrepanc y betwee n th e 'manifest ' and 'latent ' content s o f th e dream . Th e manifes t conten t i s a disguis e permitting th e laten t wis h t o evad e th e attentio n o f th e censo r an d mak e it s way int o consciousness . The glarin g deficiencie s i n Freud' s theor y o f dream s ar e wel l know n t o specialists i n psychoanalysi s bu t stil l to o littl e know n t o th e wide r intellec tual community. 11 The y deriv e fro m th e circula r an d question-beggin g character o f psychoanalyti c logic . Firs t o f all , ther e i s th e assumptio n tha t in discoverin g th e chai n o f association s leadin g fro m th e drea m w e ar e retracing th e drea m bac k t o it s caus e i n a n unfulfilled , ofte n sexual , alway s egotistical wish . I t bein g grante d tha t ther e mus t be , a t an y give n poin t i n a person' s life , certai n centra l preoccupations , se x bein g on e o f th e mos t

142 • Chapter Six likely, i t i s no t surprisin g that , whe n th e min d i s allowe d t o wande r startin g from an y particula r idea , i t shoul d arriv e a t on e o f thes e preoccupations . This wil l especiall y b e th e cas e i f on e i s tol d deliberatel y no t t o censo r one's thoughts , whic h i s boun d t o brin g normall y censore d thought s t o th e fore. Bu t i t doe s no t mea n tha t th e preoccupation s cause d th e dream . On e could freel y associat e fro m a se t o f object s tha t someon e els e ha d place d o n a tabl e an d arriv e a t idea s o f sex , bu t thi s woul d no t mea n tha t one' s idea s of se x ha d cause d th e object s t o b e place d o n th e table. 1 2 Th e proces s o f free associatio n ma y indee d ten d t o stra y towar d th e matter s tha t ar e o f greatest interes t t o us , bu t wha t w e lear n abou t ourselve s fro m th e proces s in al l likelihoo d wil l hav e littl e t o d o wit h th e startin g point . Freud' s attempts t o deal wit h thi s objectio n sho w tha t h e neve r trul y understoo d it. 1 3 If ther e wer e an y reaso n t o expec t tha t a n analysi s o f th e association s sparked b y dreams , o r b y object s o n a table , migh t lea d u s bac k t o th e subjects o f ou r primar y concer n i n th e manne r o f a projectiv e test , i t i s unlikely tha t w e shoul d arriv e ther e b y th e psychoanalyti c metho d o f drea m interpretation. Fo r accordin g t o thi s method , i t i s u p t o th e interprete r t o fill i n th e gap s o f associatio n betwee n th e manifes t content s an d th e under lying wis h usin g a combinatio n o f detail s gathere d fro m th e dreamer' s history an d a knowledg e o f typica l symbols , mos t ofte n havin g t o d o wit h parts o f th e bod y involve d i n sex . Th e analys t decide s whic h association s are t o b e pursue d an d whic h dropped , whic h ar e symboli c an d whic h transparent, an d wha t kin d o f likenes s i s t o coun t a s a lin k betwee n on e association an d another . Th e numbe r o f step s i n th e chai n ha s n o limit , and th e analys t decide s whe n th e en d ha s bee n reached . Ther e i s s o littl e constraint upo n th e proces s tha t i t canno t fail , th e difficultie s bein g entirel y those o f narrativ e invention . Th e analys t wil l ge t wher e h e i s goin g an d find what h e i s lookin g for . In analyzin g Freud' s interpretation s o f hi s ow n dreams , then , w e wil l no t be lookin g ove r hi s shoulde r t o find a mor e thoroughgoin g psychoanalyti c interpretation o f th e master' s psyche , a s ha s s o ofte n bee n attempted. 1 4 I t is rathe r th e narrativ e o f interpretatio n itsel f tha t mus t becom e th e objec t o f scrutiny. Ho w doe s thi s s o undiscipline d an d unconstraine d proces s o f analysis succee d i n producin g coheren t an d persuasiv e interpretation s o f dreams? Th e answe r is , o f course , throug h th e resource s o f suspicion . Dreams, Freu d tell s us , ar e neve r innocent : "Al l o f the m ar e completel y egoistic: th e belove d eg o appear s i n al l o f them , eve n thoug h i t ma y b e disguised. Th e wishe s tha t ar e fulfille d i n the m ar e invariabl y th e ego' s wishes, an d i f a drea m seem s t o hav e bee n provoke d b y a n altruisti c

Freud as Quixote • 14 3 interest, w e ar e onl y bein g deceive d b y appearances " (267) . Dream s mus t always contai n somethin g wort h hiding , otherwis e the y woul d spea k thei r message plain . Thei r absurdit y guarantee s th e significanc e o f wha t i s bein g concealed; an d becaus e dream s hav e alway s somethin g scandalous , some thing 'improper ' t o hide , i t wil l alway s b e worthwhil e t o inquir e int o thei r secrets. I t i s thu s t o ou r nee d fo r concealment , undeniabl e an d insisten t a s it is , tha t th e Freudia n narrativ e appeals . Now w e ca n se e wha t i t mean s t o b e take n int o Sigmun d Freud' s confidence wit h regar d t o hi s dream s an d thos e o f others : w e wil l b e aske d to exten d ou r polit e sens e o f hypocris y t o th e seemingl y opaqu e phenomen a of dreams , s o tha t the y ca n b e subjecte d t o a hermeneutic s o f suspicion . What give s persuasivenes s t o th e metho d i s tha t th e hidde n an d secre t meanings o f the dream s ar e importe d fro m th e socia l contex t o f the dreamer . Since i t i s assume d tha t ever y drea m i s th e fulfillmen t o f a n egoisti c wish , this wis h mus t hav e a basi s i n th e reality , consciou s o r unconscious , o f th e dreamer's life . Somewher e i n hi s o r he r histor y tha t basi s mus t b e found . Accept thi s an d th e res t follows , fo r i f on e did hav e th e egoisti c thought s and feeling s Freu d impute s t o th e dream-life , on e woul d undoubtedl y wan t to hid e the m jus t i n th e wa y h e suggests . Grantin g th e basi c assumptio n o f the egotis m o f dreams , th e socia l dram a o f concealmen t an d disguis e Freu d builds aroun d the m become s a n entirel y convincin g one . Interpretations o f dream s constructe d i n thi s manne r revea l th e preoccu pations an d preconception s no t o f th e dreame r bu t th e interpreter . I n th e case o f Freud , th e interpretation s revea l th e paranoi d assumptio n tha t social lif e i s a systemati c for m o f deception . Th e syste m o f distortio n that th e hidde n wis h motivatin g a drea m mus t underg o i n orde r t o reac h consciousness seem s t o Freu d th e exac t equivalen t o f commo n socia l be havior: I wil l tr y t o seek a socia l paralle l t o this interna l even t i n th e mind . Wher e ca n w e find a simila r distortio n o f a psychica l ac t i n socia l life ? Onl y wher e tw o person s are concerned , on e o f whom possesse s a certai n degre e o f power which th e secon d is oblige d t o tak e int o account . I n suc h a cas e th e secon d perso n wil l distor t hi s psychical act s o r a s w e migh t pu t it , wil l dissimulate . Th e politenes s whic h I practice ever y da y i s t o a larg e exten t dissimulatio n o f thi s kind ; an d whe n I interpret m y dreams fo r m y readers I am obliged t o adopt simila r distortions . (142 ) The detail s o f Freud' s analog y bea r som e examination . Freu d take s i t fo r granted tha t whe n ther e ar e difference s o f powe r betwee n on e individua l and another , thi s wil l automaticall y pu t th e inferio r i n a positio n o f havin g to dissimulate , th e implicatio n bein g tha t position s o f powe r deriv e onl y

144 • Chapter Six from power . Tha t on e migh t b e justified , fo r instance , i n deferrin g t o a professional superio r i s no t imagined ; th e inferio r perso n pretend s t o re spect th e superio r solel y ou t o f practica l exigency . Th e notio n tha t on e might receiv e ordinar y recognitio n fro m a superio r i s equall y unimaginabl e to Freud . Thi s conditio n i s no t though t t o b e a n exceptio n bu t th e rul e o f social life , s o tha t ther e seem s nothin g strang e abou t puttin g i t forwar d a s the basi s fo r a scientifi c inferenc e abou t th e genera l functionin g o f th e mind. 1 5 Freud' s Hobbesia n attitud e towar d authorit y i s evidentl y instinctiv e to him . An d h e i s quic k t o mov e fro m hi s depictio n o f th e hypocris y employed b y th e wea k i n th e presenc e o f th e stron g t o a genera l admissio n that eve n hi s ordinar y politenes s i s " a dissimulatio n o f this kind. " Ordinar y social respect , i n othe r words , i s a disguise ; The Interpretation of Dreams betrays th e sam e paranoi d vie w o f socia l existenc e tha t w e hav e foun d i n Freud's late r sociologica l writings . Freu d claime d t o hav e base d hi s view s of huma n natur e an d societ y upo n hi s clinica l experienc e i n th e interpreta tion o f dreams , bu t thos e view s wer e alread y guidin g hi m whe n h e devel oped hi s approac h t o dreams . Let u s follo w Freud' s socia l analog y fo r th e distortio n i n dream s a little further : A similar difficult y confront s th e politica l write r who has disagreeable truth s t o tell to those i n authority . I f he presents the m undisguised , th e authoritie s will suppres s his words. . . . A writer must bewar e of the censorship, an d o n its account h e mus t soften an d distor t th e expressio n o f hi s opinion . Accordin g t o th e strengt h an d sensitiveness o f the censorshi p h e finds himsel f compelle d eithe r merel y t o refrai n from certai n form s o f attack, o r to spea k i n allusion s i n plac e o f direct references , or h e mus t concea l hi s objectionabl e pronouncemen t beneat h som e apparentl y innocent disguise : fo r instance , h e ma y describe a dispute betwee n tw o Mandarin s in th e Middl e Kingdom , whe n th e peopl e h e reall y ha d i n min d ar e official s i n hi s own country. Th e stricter th e censorship, th e more far-reaching wil l be the disguis e and th e mor e ingeniou s to o ma y b e th e mean s employe d fo r puttin g th e reade r o n the scent o f the true meaning . (142 ) In a late r passage , Freu d add s tha t i n dealin g wit h ou r superior s w e ar e often le d a s muc h t o disguis e ou r affect s a s ou r tru e intentions : "th e censorship bid s m e abov e al l suppres s m y affects ; and , i f I a m a maste r o f dissimulation, I shal l assum e th e opposite affect—smil e whe n I a m angr y and see m affectionat e whe n I wis h t o destroy." 1 6 With thi s analog y betwee n drea m distortio n an d socia l hypocris y Freu d was capitalizin g upo n a n etho s o f socia l theatricalit y tha t wa s highl y pro nounced i n fin-de-siecle Vienna . Freud' s analog y t o politica l censorshi p

Freud as Quixote • 14 5 made a n eve n mor e powerfu l appea l t o loca l condition s o f th e period . William Johnsto n describe s th e paranoi d atmospher e o f Freud' s Vienna : Secretiveness blankete d publi c life , promptin g a search fo r laten t meaning s behin d every event . Whateve r seeme d inexplicabl e wa s attributed t o conspirators, whethe r they b e Jews , Czechs , Socia l Democrats , Protestants , o r journalists . . . . Whe n [Freud] spok e o f supereg o censorin g id , h e kne w wha t pres s censorshi p meant : a story woul d b e missin g fro m th e fron t page , unleashin g a fres h spat e o f rumors . Helpless befor e th e bureaucracy , th e populac e indulge d fantasie s tha t belittle d th e omnipotent personage s wh o manipulated them . Mos t Austrians harbore d feeling s of paranoia towar d th e state. 17 Under suc h condition s o f pervasiv e mistrust , i t apparentl y seeme d natu ral t o exten d th e suspicion s o f th e politica l spher e int o th e inne r territor y o f the psyche . An d so , alon g wit h th e greate r paranoi d drif t o f modern culture , and alon g wit h Freud' s peculia r endowmen t o f mistrust , ther e appear s i n the compositio n o f psychoanalysi s th e specia l contributio n o f Viennes e politics. "Th e stricte r th e censorship , th e mor e far-reachin g wil l b e th e disguise an d th e mor e ingeniou s to o ma y b e th e mean s employe d fo r puttin g the reade r o n th e scen t o f th e tru e meaning. " Freu d promise s hi s reader s a method o f interpretin g dream s tha t ca n kee p u p eve n wit h th e Viennes e ingenuity o f disguis e mad e necessar y b y th e potenc y o f th e censor . Th e more difficul t th e riddle , th e mor e valuabl e th e interpretation—an d s o h e made th e censor' s powe r hi s own . Freud's assumptio n tha t n o drea m i s innocent , tha t al l ar e "wolve s i n sheep's clothing " (183) , set s hi m a n exactin g task : ever y appearanc e o f altruism i n dream s mus t b e convincingl y decode d t o revea l a n egotistica l motive. H e doe s no t shrin k fro m thi s tas k bu t confront s i t hea d on , usin g a dream o f hi s own : The drea m whic h follow s i s a n instanc e o f reall y lo w egoisti c feeling s conceale d behind affectionat e worry . My friend Otto was looking ill. His face was brown and he had protruding eyes. Otto is m y family doctor , an d I owe him mor e tha n I can eve r hop e t o repay: h e has watche d ove r m y children' s healt h fo r man y years , h e ha s treate d the m successfully whe n the y hav e bee n ill , and , i n addition , wheneve r circumstance s have give n hi m a n excuse , h e ha s give n the m presents . H e ha d visite d u s o n th e dreamday, an d m y wife ha d remarke d tha t h e looke d tire d an d strained . Tha t nigh t I ha d m y dream, whic h showe d hi m wit h som e o f the sign s o f Basedow's [Graves' ] disease. Anyon e who interprets thi s dream withou t regar d fo r my rule will conclud e that I was worrie d abou t m y friend' s healt h an d tha t thi s worr y wa s realize d i n th e dream. Thi s woul d no t onl y contradic t m y assertio n tha t dream s ar e wish-fulfill ments, but m y othe r assertion , too , tha t the y ar e accessibl e onl y t o egoisti c

146 • Chapter Six impulses. Bu t I shoul d b e gla d i f anyone interpretin g th e drea m i n thi s wa y would be good enough t o explain t o me why my fears o n Otto's behal f shoul d hav e lighte d on Basedow's disease— a diagnosi s fo r whic h hi s actua l appearanc e give s no t th e slightest ground . M y analysis, o n the other hand, brough t u p the following materia l from a n occurrence si x years earlier. A small group of us, which included Professo r A., wer e drivin g i n pitc h darknes s throug h th e forest o f N., whic h la y som e hours ' drive fro m th e plac e a t whic h w e were spendin g ou r summe r holidays . Th e coach man, wh o was no t perfectly sober , spil t us , carriag e an d all , ove r a n embankment , and i t wa s onl y b y a piec e o f luc k tha t w e al l escape d injury . W e wer e obliged , however, t o spen d th e nigh t i n a neighbourin g inn , a t whic h th e new s o f ou r accident brough t u s a lo t o f sympathy . A gentleman , wit h unmistakabl e sign s o f Basedow's disease—incidentally , jus t a s i n th e dream , onl y th e brow n discolor ation of the skin o f the face an d th e protruding eyes, but n o goitre—placed himsel f entirely a t ou r disposal an d aske d wha t h e coul d d o for us . Professo r A . replie d i n his decisiv e manner : "Nothin g excep t t o len d m e a night-shirt. " T o which th e fin e gentleman rejoined : "I' m sorry , but I can't d o that," and lef t th e room . As I continue d m y analysis , i t occurre d t o m e tha t Basedo w wa s th e nam e no t only o f a physicia n bu t als o o f a famou s educationalist . (I n m y wakin g stat e I n o longer fel t quit e s o certai n abou t this. ) Bu t m y friend Ott o was th e perso n who m I had aske d t o watch ove r m y children's physica l education , especiall y a t th e ag e of puberty (henc e th e night-shirt) , i n cas e anythin g happene d t o me . B y givin g m y friend Ott o i n th e drea m th e symptom s o f our nobl e helper , I was evidentl y sayin g that i f anything happene d t o me he would d o just a s little for th e childre n a s Baro n L. ha d don e on that occasio n i n spit e o f his kind offer s o f assistance. Thi s seem s to be sufficien t evidenc e o f th e egoisti c linin g o f th e dream . (269-70 , emphasi s in original) 18 Now thi s narrativ e ha s a n undisputabl e appeal . I t fixes , first , o n a n unusual detail , Basedow' s disease , an d trace s i t b y associatio n t o a memo rable event , th e roadwa y accident . Suc h contretemps , whe n ther e ar e friends involved , acquir e a mythologica l status , clarifyin g difference s o f character i n th e ligh t o f a n emergenc y becom e comica l i n retrospect . Freud tell s th e stor y wit h novelisti c aplom b an d som e embellishment . I t i s understandable, fo r instance , tha t h e shoul d hav e replace d th e name s o f the character s wit h initials , bu t t o se t th e stor y i n th e "fores t o f N . " seem s rather a literar y flourish, non e o f the actor s bein g presente d i n a n especiall y scandalous light . Th e coachma n "no t perfectl y sober " an d th e genia l "nigh t in a neighborin g inn " soun d lik e detail s ou t o f on e o f Freud' s favorit e novels, Don Quixote o r Tom Jones. I n th e middl e o f al l thi s bonhomie , th e perfidy o f Baro n L. , th e ma n wit h Basedow's , seem s lik e a strikin g in stance. I n Freud' s privat e associativ e register , i t woul d seem , Basedow' s disease mus t b e th e sig n o f a dubiou s characte r an d therefor e a reproac h to Otto .

Freud as Quixote • 14 7 But ha s Freu d prove d tha t th e drea m betray s a suspiciou s attitud e towar d Otto jus t becaus e i n i t Ott o i s endowe d wit h Basedow' s disease ? Le t u s accept fo r a momen t Freud' s assumptio n tha t w e ca n retrac e th e origin s o f the drea m throug h association . Th e drea m conflates , o r 'condenses' , th e identities o f thre e men : Otto , Baro n L. , an d Basedo w th e physicia n an d educator. I t i s Freud' s hostilit y towar d Baro n L . tha t become s th e ke y t o the emotiona l significanc e o f th e dream . H e i s mistrustfu l towar d Baro n L . so h e mus t als o b e secretl y mistrustfu l o f Otto . Wha t reaso n i s ther e t o prefer thi s interpretatio n othe r tha n Freud' s assumptio n tha t n o drea m ca n be innocent ? Wh y shoul d th e perfidiou s Baro n b e th e key ? If , fo r instance , as Freu d asserts , th e drea m o f Ott o le d hi m first t o remembe r th e Baron , who, lik e Ott o i n th e dream , ha d Basedow's , the n t o remembe r th e night shirt, whic h reminde d Freu d o f childre n an d Otto' s functio n wit h regar d t o his ow n children , an d the n th e fac t tha t Basedo w himsel f wa s a n educator , might w e no t rathe r conclud e tha t Freud' s melanchol y abou t hi s friend' s illness ha d cause d hi m t o identif y Otto' s characte r wit h tha t o f th e famou s physician an d educator , Ott o havin g playe d suc h a rol e i n Freud' s ow n family? Th e drea m the n woul d mea n tha t Freud' s concer n abou t hi s frien d had cause d hi m t o reflec t o n th e importanc e t o th e Freu d famil y o f Otto' s benevolence an d expertise , a s importan t a s tha t o f Basedo w t o th e genera l public. I n thi s interpretation , Basedow' s characte r woul d b e th e ke y an d not Baro n L.'s . I t appear s tha t w e hav e answere d th e question , "Wh y Basedow's?" Th e importanc e o f Baro n L . ha s bee n diminishe d now , jus t a s Basedow's importanc e wa s diminishe d i n Freud' s interpretation . Baro n L . provides onl y th e lin k t o Basedow' s doubl e rol e a s physicia n an d educator , whereas i n th e origina l interpretatio n Basedo w ha d bee n a mer e linkin g feature betwee n Ott o an d th e Baron . W e ar e limite d here , necessarily , t o the detail s Freu d chos e t o sustai n hi s suspiciou s interpretation . Bu t wer e i t necessary t o accoun t furthe r fo r th e inclusio n o f Baro n L. , i t woul d no t b e beyond Freud' s ingenuit y t o sugges t that , i f Otto' s symptom s wer e signifi cantly simila r t o thos e o f th e Baron , i t migh t b e because , i n Sigmun d Freud's associativ e register , Basedow' s diseas e doe s no t brin g abou t regret table consequences , for , i n th e firs t instanc e tha t cam e t o mind , Basedow' s was perhap s a welcom e punishmen t fo r a disagreeabl e person . On e ca n b e as ingeniou s o n behal f o f charit y a s o n behal f o f suspicion . Bu t le t i t b e remembered tha t w e hav e bee n workin g withi n Freud' s paranoi d assumptio n that everythin g i n a drea m mus t hav e a meaning . I t woul d b e fa r mor e reasonable a s a respons e t o Freud' s narrativ e simpl y t o refus e hi s questio n "Why Basedow's? " a s th e invitatio n t o paranoi a tha t i t is. 1 9

148 • Chapter Six What Freu d prove d wit h th e interpretatio n o f th e drea m o f Ott o wa s that , for an y dream , n o matte r ho w innocen t o n th e surface , one can always find a suspiciou s interpretation . Freu d too k thi s a s a confirmatio n o f hi s hypoth esis tha t al l dream s ar e egotistical : "application s o f psycho-analysi s ar e always confirmation s o f i t . " 2 0 H e ha s no t proved , however , that , fo r an y dream, on e ca n only find a suspiciou s meaning . I t seem s unlikely , i n fact , given th e freedo m o f Freud' s interpretiv e method , tha t ther e i s an y drea m for whic h on e coul d no t find a n altruisti c meanin g i f suc h a on e wer e desired. I t i s significant , nevertheless , tha t Freud' s suspiciou s interpreta tion make s a bette r stor y tha n m y altruisti c one , involving , a s i t does , embarrassing revelation s an d secrets . An d i t mor e perfectl y accord s wit h Freud's character . I n fact , onc e w e hav e discovere d hi s secre t mistrus t o f his benefacto r Otto , decode d fro m th e languag e o f dream , i t become s difficult t o believ e i n th e origina l accoun t o f hi s innocen t an d affectionat e conscious attitud e towar d th e ma n who m h e "owe[d ] mor e tha n [he ] coul d ever hop e t o repay. " I n th e ligh t o f Freud' s ow n revelations , thi s innocenc e now seem s lik e a rhetorica l foi l fo r th e underlyin g duplicit y o f dreams . There i s a certai n iron y surroundin g th e operatio n I hav e jus t attempted , which wa s t o sho w tha t Freud' s drea m doe s no t necessaril y betra y th e egotistical motivatio n tha t h e claimed . I hav e ha d t o acqui t Freu d o f necessary guil t i n orde r t o convic t hi m o f contingen t paranoia . I n doin g so , I hav e departe d fro m th e usua l practic e o f Freud' s critic s u p unti l th e mos t recent days . Tha t practic e ha s bee n t o exten d th e founder' s self-suspicio n far beyon d it s origina l bounds , showin g hi s fals e assumptions , theoretica l short cuts , therapeuti c eccentricities , persona l animus , hi s hidde n motive s of al l kinds , an d generall y t o portra y Freu d th e docto r i n a wa y mor e compatible wit h Freu d th e patient , ye t al l th e whil e remaining , o n th e las t page, faithfu l t o hi s essentia l grandeur . Freud' s reputatio n ha s a teflo n surface, an d i t i s no t har d t o understan d why . B y takin g th e reade r int o hi s confidence an d makin g a sho w o f hi s ow n egotism , h e go t th e drif t o f suspicion decisivel y o n hi s side . T o invit e suspicio n abou t hi s character , his motives , eve n hi s scientifi c achievements , wa s t o confir m hi s basi c outlook. Freu d succeede d i n makin g himsel f alway s th e issue , an d i t ha s been supremel y difficul t fo r hi s critic s t o ge t beyon d him . Eve n thos e wh o admit hi s failur e a s a scientis t insis t upo n th e greatnes s o f hi s imagination . To tak e thi s vie w o f Freu d i s t o recapitulat e th e Quixotis m o f th e Roman tics. Th e on e escap e fro m i t i s t o se e th e follie s o f Quixote/Freu d th e wa y Cervantes originall y sa w them—no t a s th e absolut e trut h o f th e huma n

Freud as Quixote • 14 9 condition bu t a s contingen t form s o f error , th e product s o f though t gon e astray. Onl y the n ca n th e absur d humo r o f paranoid concei t appea r fo r wha t it is .

The Vindication of Dreams Freud's dream s mea n wha t h e want s the m t o mean , wha t the y hav e t o mea n if hi s satiricall y suspiciou s psycholog y i s t o b e vindicated . Thi s wil l cas t the imaginar y journe y o f The Interpretation of Dreams, t o whic h w e no w return, int o a differen t light , a s it s autho r "plunges " int o th e "cavernou s defile" o f th e specime n drea m "wit h it s peculiarities , it s details , it s indis cretions an d it s ba d jokes. " Th e "Drea m o f Irma' s Injection " involve s Freud's imprompt u examinatio n o f a recalcitran t psychoanalyti c patien t beset, i n th e dream , wit h a n organi c illness . I n orde r t o decod e thi s dream , Freud treat s hi s reade r t o a serie s o f remarkabl e confession s al l havin g t o do wit h hi s career : hi s anxiet y abou t th e critica l regar d o f hi s colleague s concerning th e valu e o f psychoanalyti c treatment , hi s emotiona l prefer ences amon g hi s patients , hi s secon d thought s abou t havin g sen t a hysteri cal patien t o n a tri p t o Egyp t i n lie u o f therapy , and , mos t notable , hi s long-lingering guil t abou t tw o death s tha t h e ha d caused , bot h havin g t o d o with injections. 21 "I t seeme d a s i f I ha d bee n collectin g al l th e occasion s which I coul d brin g u p agains t mysel f a s evidenc e o f lac k o f medica l conscientiousness" (112) . Freu d th e dreame r play s th e rol e o f a comicall y self-deceptive an d resentfu l egotist . Hi s dream , onc e i t ha s bee n decoded , is nothin g bu t a n elaborat e attemp t o n th e par t o f Freud' s unconsciou s t o shift th e burde n o f responsibilit y fo r al l o f hi s mistake s ont o hi s patient s and fello w doctors , thu s disarmin g al l thei r anticipate d reproaches : The groundlessnes s o f th e reproache s wa s prove d fo r m e i n th e drea m i n th e mos t elaborate fashion . / wa s no t t o blam e fo r Irma' s pains , sinc e sh e hersel f wa s t o blame fo r the m b y refusin g t o accept m y solution. / wa s no t concerne d wit h Irma' s pains, sinc e the y wer e o f a n organi c natur e an d quit e incurabl e b y psychologica l treatment. Irma' s pain s coul d b e satisfactoril y explaine d b y he r widowhoo d . . . which / ha d n o means o f altering. Irma' s pain s ha d bee n cause d b y Otto giving he r an incautiou s injectio n o f a n unsuitabl e drug— a thin g / shoul d neve r hav e done . Irma's pain s wer e th e resul t o f a n injectio n wit h a dirt y needle , lik e m y ol d lady' s phlebitis—whereas / neve r di d an y har m wit h m y injections . I noticed , i t i s true , that thes e explanation s o f Irma' s pain s (whic h agree d i n exculpatin g me ) wer e no t entirely consisten t wit h one another, an d indee d tha t the y were mutually exclusive . The whol e plea—fo r th e drea m wa s nothin g else—reminde d on e vividl y o f th e

150 • Chapter Six defence pu t forwar d b y th e ma n wh o wa s charge d b y on e o f hi s neighbour s wit h having give n hi m bac k a borrowe d kettl e i n a damage d condition . Th e defendan t asserted first , tha t h e ha d give n i t bac k undamaged ; secondly , tha t th e kettl e ha d a hole i n i t whe n h e borrowe d it ; an d thirdly , tha t h e ha d neve r borrowe d a kettl e from hi s neighbour a t all. (119—20 , emphasis i n original ) The firs t thin g t o b e observe d abou t thi s passag e i s tha t th e comica l ingenuity o f th e analysi s i s attribute d i n som e measur e t o th e drea m itself. Th e dreame r Freu d behave s lik e a satirist , putting , fo r instance , a ridiculously far-fetche d an d ingeniou s medica l diagnosi s int o th e mout h o f a colleague , i n thi s wa y discreditin g hi s critica l vie w o f Freud . Absurdit y in dream s is , fo r Freud , usuall y satirica l an d i s th e on e par t o f th e drea m that reveal s th e laten t content s withou t distortion! 22 Al l tha t i s necessar y for th e analys t t o d o i s t o decod e th e hidde n satir e o f th e dream . Onc e tha t has occurred , however , i t i s th e dreame r wh o become s th e satiri c victim , the sequenc e o f apparentl y absur d an d unmotivate d detail s bein g no w unmasked a s th e disguis e fo r self-servin g an d derisiv e wis h fulfillments . The analyst' s satiri c gestur e i s a recovery , then , o f th e origina l animu s of th e dream . A t th e sam e tim e w e ar e abl e t o observ e th e cowardlines s o f the disguise . Th e dreame r ha s adopte d a clever , hypocritica l wa y o f doin g one thin g whil e appearin g t o d o another . I n th e drea m o f Irma' s Injection , the dreame r Freu d emerge s a s a genuin e Quixote , inventin g a n absur d bu t ingenious persona l mytholog y i n orde r t o shif t th e responsibilit y fo r hi s failure ont o others . (Freu d ha d alread y observe d th e shiftin g o f blam e a s a distinctive elemen t o f th e paranoi d character.) 2 3 Revealin g th e Quixot e i n his ow n nature , Freu d mor e tha n make s goo d al l o f hi s forme r physicianl y inadequacies b y establishin g th e valu e o f th e languag e o f dreams . Thi s language possesses , o f course , merel y a psychological , no t a communica tive value ; bu t Freu d sound s lik e Quixot e defendin g th e romance s a s h e exalts th e phenomen a o f dream s t o a coherenc e equa l wit h paranoia : When, afte r passin g throug h a narro w defile , w e suddenl y emerg e upo n a piec e of high ground , wher e th e pat h divide s an d th e fines t prospect s ope n u p o n ever y side, w e ma y paus e fo r a momen t an d conside r i n whic h directio n w e shal l firs t turn ou r steps . Suc h i s th e cas e wit h us , no w tha t w e hav e surmounte d th e first interpretation o f a dream . W e fin d ourselve s i n th e ful l dayligh t o f a sudde n discovery. Dream s ar e no t t o be likene d t o the unregulate d sound s tha t ris e from a musical instrumen t struc k b y th e blo w o f som e externa l forc e instea d o f b y a player's hand ; they ar e not meaningless, the y are not absurd; they do not imply tha t one portio n o f ou r stor e o f idea s i s aslee p whil e anothe r portio n i s beginnin g t o wake. O n th e contrary , the y ar e psychica l phenomen a o f complet e validity — fulfillments o f wishes ; the y ca n b e inserte d int o th e chai n o f intelligibl e wakin g

Freud as Quixote • 15 1 mental acts ; the y ar e constructe d b y a highl y complicate d activit y o f th e mind . (122) How easil y Freu d shift s fro m th e ironi c ton e i n whic h h e addresse s Freud th e dreame r t o th e Romanti c bravad o o f Freu d th e investigator . Dreams themselve s underg o a sudde n enhancement . Individuall y the y ar e ridiculous an d malicious , bu t a s a genr e the y strik e true r tha n th e Aeolia n harp, a typica l symbo l o f Romanti c imagination . I n a lette r t o Flies s concerning th e hous e wher e h e dreame d thi s dream , Freu d asked , "D o yo u suppose tha t som e da y on e wil l rea d o n a marbl e table t o n thi s house : Here, o n July 24, 1895 , the secre t o f the drea m revealed itsel f t o Dr. Sigm . Freud." 24 With Freu d i t wa s eve r a shor t ste p fro m th e ridiculou s t o th e sublime . What ha d onc e bee n graspe d b y psycholog y coul d sli p half-humorousl y back towar d superstitio n an d th e uncanny .

Freud as Gargantua Freud worke d o n th e interpretation s o f hi s dream s ove r a five-year perio d before thei r publication ; hi s analyse s hav e a dense , interlockin g symboli c unity. 2 5 Th e centra l them e i s ambition : Freud , th e self-professe d conquista dor, discover s wit h surpris e th e intensit y o f hi s unconsciou s desir e fo r promotion an d reward : "S o fa r a s I knew , I wa s no t a n ambitiou s man " (137). I n larg e measure , th e narrativ e o f The Interpretation of Dreams revolves aroun d Freud' s uncoverin g th e disguise s o f thi s supposedl y unsus pected ambition , thi s "absur d megalomania " (215 ) strainin g upwar d fro m beneath th e leve l o f hi s consciou s mind . An d fo r th e mos t par t thi s megalo mania, lik e Quixote's , take s th e for m o f heroi c literar y identifications . T o conduct a minut e analysi s o f Freud' s paranoi d self-portrai t a s reveale d i n his dream s i n relatio n t o th e conten t o f th e dream s themselve s woul d b e t o go beyon d th e scop e o f thi s study . I t wil l no t b e necessary , moreover , fo r as w e hav e seen , th e dream s serv e largel y a s matte r fo r Freud' s ingeniou s paranoid interpretations . Ou r method , rather , wil l b e t o expose , largel y b y quotation, th e Quixoti c dimension s o f th e Freudia n interpretiv e venture , a s Freud present s himsel f i n a bristlin g arra y o f illusor y heroi c identities . At time s Freud' s unconscious , lik e Quixote's , expresse s itsel f directl y i n the for m o f literar y images , whic h mak e thei r wa y int o Freud' s d r e a m s — and hi s interpretation s o f them—virtuall y uncensored . Sufferin g fro m 'de -

152 • Chapter Six lusions o f inferiority ' afte r a disappointin g lecture , Freu d ha d th e followin g dream, give n her e alon g wit h it s interpretation : A hill, on which there was something like an open-air closet: a very long seat with a large hole at the end of it. Its back edge was thickly covered with small heaps of faeces of all sizes and degrees of freshness. There were bushes behind the seat. I micturated on the seat; a long stream of urine washed everything clean; the lumps of faeces came away easily and fell into the opening. It was as though at the end there was still some left. Why di d I feel n o disgus t durin g thi s dream ? Because , a s th e analysi s showed , the mos t agreeabl e an d satisfyin g thought s contribute d t o bringing th e drea m about . What a t onc e occurre d t o m e i n th e analysi s wer e th e Augea n stable s whic h wer e cleansed b y Hercules . Thi s Hercule s wa s I . Th e hil l an d bushe s cam e fro m Aussee, wher e m y childre n wer e stoppin g a t the time . I had discovere d th e infantil e aetiology o f th e neurose s an d ha d thu s save d m y ow n childre n fro m fallin g ill . Th e seat (except , o f course , fo r th e hole ) wa s a n exac t cop y o f a piece o f furniture whic h had bee n give n t o m e a s a presen t b y a gratefu l woma n patient . I t thu s reminde d me o f ho w muc h m y patient s honoure d me . Indeed , eve n th e museu m o f huma n excrement coul d b e give n a n interpretatio n t o rejoic e m y heart . Howeve r muc h I might b e disguste d b y i t i n reality , i n th e drea m i t wa s a reminiscenc e o f th e fai r land o f Ital y where , a s w e al l know , th e W.C. s i n th e smal l town s are furnishe d i n precisely thi s way . Th e strea m o f urin e whic h washe d everythin g clea n wa s a n unmistakable sig n o f greatness . I t wa s i n tha t wa y tha t Gullive r extinguishe d th e great fir e i n Lilliput—thoug h incidentall y thi s brough t hi m int o disfavou r wit h it s tiny queen . Bu t Gargantua , too , Rabelais ' superman , revenge d himsel f i n th e sam e way o n th e Parisian s b y sittin g astrid e o n Notr e Dam e an d turnin g hi s strea m o f urine upo n th e city . I t was onl y o n th e previou s evenin g befor e goin g t o slee p tha t I had bee n turnin g ove r Garnier' s illustration s t o Rabelais . And , strangel y enough , here wa s anothe r piec e o f evidenc e tha t I was th e superman . Th e platfor m o f Notr e Dame wa s m y favourit e resor t i n Paris ; ever y fre e afternoo n I us e t o clambe r abou t there o n th e tower s o f th e churc h betwee n th e monster s an d th e devils . Th e fac t that al l th e faece s disappeare d s o quickl y unde r th e strea m recalle d th e motto : 'Afflavit et dissipati sunt 9 ['H e ble w an d the y wer e scattered'] , whic h I intende d on e day t o put a t th e hea d o f a chapter upo n th e therap y o f hysteria . ( 4 6 8 - 6 9 , emphasi s in original ) There i s littl e n e e d t o commen t o n thi s unusua l repor t othe r tha n t o poin t out Freud' s ow n acknowledgmen t o f th e satiri c tradition . Freu d show s himself t o b e wha t on e criti c admire s a s "th e braves t sor t o f hero , a her o o f the l u d i c r o u s , "

26

givin g a magnificentl y comica l portraya l o f vai n self -

importance. Lik e th e creation s o f Rabelai s an d Swift , i t offer s th e spectacl e of a bizarr e mixtur e o f kinds : tw o varietie s o f excrement , H e r c u l e s an d th e gratitude o f femal e patients , "th e fai r lan d o f Italy, " toile t s e a t s , th e aetiology o f th e neuroses , Gulliver s Travels, th e cathedra l o f Notr e D a m e ,

Freud as Quixote • 15 3 and th e vanquishin g o f the Grea t Armada . Instea d o f attributing it s charac ter t o th e universa l unconsciou s megalomania , though , ma y w e no t simpl y regard i t a s th e drea m o f a ma n who has bee n readin g abou t Gargantu a an d Gulliver, an d ha s adopte d th e satiri c poin t o f view ? I f thes e character s di d not inspir e th e drea m itself , the y certainl y di d inspir e th e interpretation . Freud's identificatio n wit h Hercules , i t shoul d b e added , doe s no t re quire hidde n motive s a s a n explanation , for , a s w e have seen , h e identifie d consciously wit h heroe s al l hi s life . I t i s interesting , also , t o observ e tha t Freud ha d t o attemp t t o discover a tensio n an d divisio n withi n th e affectiv e trends generate d fro m thes e literar y material s i n orde r t o produc e th e typical ambivalenc e o f the Freudian model : "Th e daytime moo d o f revulsio n and disgus t persiste d int o th e drea m i n s o fa r a s i t wa s abl e t o provid e almost th e entir e materia l o f it s manifes t content . Bu t durin g th e nigh t a contrary moo d o f powerfu l an d eve n exaggerate d self-assertivenes s aros e and displace d th e forme r one . Th e conten t o f the drea m ha d t o find a for m which woul d enabl e i t t o expres s bot h th e delusion s o f inferiorit y an d th e megalomania i n th e sam e material " (470) . Jus t a s Do n Quixote , i n hi s satiric predicament , save s th e appearance s give n t o him i n hi s delusio n b y positing a divisio n o f supernatura l agenc y betwee n warrin g enchanter s whose activitie s ca n accoun t fo r an y apparen t contradiction , s o Freu d rationalizes th e satiri c incongruit y o f dream s b y positin g a divisio n o f psychic agenc y betwee n libid o an d repression . This drea m an d it s interpretatio n sho w th e typica l characte r o f Freud' s construction o f dream s an d o f himsel f a s dreamer . Betwee n urin e an d feces h e discover s th e 'unconscious ' derivative s o f literar y megalomani a satirically imagined . Herois m ascend s fro m it s vulga r origins . Wherea s Quixote's paranoi a wa s constructed fro m idealizin g materials , Freud' s meg alomaniacal 'unconscious ' coul d b e investe d wit h th e satiri c treatmen t itself, sinc e th e unconsciou s dwell s ou t o f sigh t o f th e censo r tha t distin guishes betwee n idea l an d vulga r imagination . Freud' s unconsciou s mega lomania ca n resonate , therefore , wit h mor e o r les s genuinel y heroi c figures like Hercule s an d als o wit h comi c heroe s lik e Gargantua , ther e bein g n o difference betwee n the m i n the pre-civilized logi c o f the unconscious. Man y years later , a s we have alread y observed , Freu d inserte d th e scene o f heroi c urination int o th e bio-histor y o f the huma n specie s whe n h e designate d th e primitive achievemen t o f controlling th e impuls e t o urinate upo n fire a s one of th e Promethea n moment s o f repressio n leadin g t o th e developmen t o f civilization. Gullive r an d Gargantu a ha d no t los t thei r hol d o n Freudia n fancy.

154 • Chapter Six

Freud as Brutus In th e interpretatio n o f th e foregoin g dream , literar y material s furnis h a ke y used t o decod e th e manifes t contents . Symboli c decodin g o f thi s kind , however, doe s no t constitut e Freud' s mos t commo n us e eithe r o f literar y materials o r o f reconstruction s o f hi s ow n experience . Mor e typicall y th e literary element s ar e inserte d int o hi s narrative s a s par t o f a n event , occupying a fixed positio n i n th e trai n o f association s tha t lea d bac k t o th e cause o f th e dream . Eve n i n th e precedin g example , a referenc e t o th e Augean stable s an d a perusa l o f Rabelais , wit h pictures , ha d occurre d during th e drea m day . I t i s thei r embeddednes s i n th e associativ e substrat e of th e unconscious , fixed i n plac e a s i f b y trauma , tha t give s t o literar y influences thei r determinin g power . Whateve r Freu d discover s i n a drea m must b e traceabl e t o som e event . Fo r instance , i n seekin g th e origi n o f th e megalomaniacal tendencie s h e discovere d i n a drea m abou t hi s Uncl e Joseph, Freu d th e naivel y modes t investigato r let s hi s min d wande r t o ambition-building themes : What, then , coul d hav e bee n th e origi n o f th e ambitiousnes s whic h produce d th e dream i n me ? At that poin t I recalled a n anecdot e I had ofte n hear d repeate d i n my childhood. A t th e tim e o f m y birt h a n ol d peasant-woma n ha d prophesie d t o m y proud mothe r tha t wit h he r first-bor n chil d sh e ha d brough t a grea t ma n int o th e world. Prophecie s o f thi s kin d mus t b e ver y common : ther e ar e s o man y mother s filled wit h happ y expectation s an d s o man y ol d peasant-wome n an d other s o f th e kind wh o make u p for th e los s o f their powe r t o control thing s i n th e presen t worl d by concentrating i t o n the future. No r can th e prophetes s hav e lost anythin g b y he r words. Coul d thi s hav e bee n th e sourc e o f m y thirs t fo r grandeur ? Bu t tha t reminded m e o f anothe r experience , datin g fro m m y late r childhood , whic h pro vided a stil l bette r explanation . M y parent s ha d bee n i n th e habit , whe n I wa s a boy of eleven o r twelve, o f taking m e with them t o the Prate r [ a famous par k o n th e outskirts o f Vienna] . On e evening , whil e w e were sittin g i n a restauran t there , ou r attention ha d bee n attracte d b y a ma n wh o wa s movin g fro m on e tabl e t o anothe r and, fo r a smal l consideration , improvisin g a vers e upo n an y topi c presente d t o him. I was despatched t o bring the poe t t o our table an d h e showed hi s gratitud e t o the messenger. Befor e enquirin g what the chosen topi c was to be, h e had dedicate d a fe w line s t o myself ; an d h e ha d bee n inspire d t o declar e tha t I shoul d probabl y grow up to be a Cabinet Minister . (192—93 ) Freud goe s o n t o not e tha t "thos e wer e th e day s o f the 'Burger* Ministry, " a perio d o f libera l Jewis h politica l hopefulness , whe n "ever y industriou s Jewish school-bo y carrie d a Cabine t Minister' s portfoli o i n hi s satchel " (193). No w i t i s importan t t o recogniz e th e extraordinar y importanc e Freu d

Freud as Quixote • 15 5 ascribes t o th e episode s narrate d i n thes e charmin g vignettes . Wha t h e i s saying i s that , i f the y ha d no t occurred , hi s unconsciou s min d woul d no t now betra y th e overpoweringl y ambitiou s characte r hi s interpretatio n re veals. W e all , o f course , hav e ou r heroi c susceptibilities , w e al l shar e th e egotism an d hostilit y o f th e paranoid ; bu t Freu d th e dreame r ha s a specia l tendency i n tha t direction . Heroi c ambitio n i s th e dominan t o f his personal ity. Thi s i s wha t th e dream s revea l t o psychoanalysis . An d th e explanatio n for Freud' s tendenc y towar d ambitio n lie s partl y wit h th e activitie s o f strolling poet s an d ol d peasan t wome n wh o tel l fortunes . Thei r influenc e has worke d it s wa y deepl y int o th e substrat e o f association s i n hi s uncon scious. W e migh t thin k i t comi c tha t suc h whimsica l trifling s coul d hav e given rise , b y Shandea n misadventure , t o th e ambitio n o f th e grea t scien tist. Bu t onc e w e hav e accepte d tha t suc h ar e th e chanc e an d arbitrar y determinants o f th e personality , th e effec t i s uncanny , fo r suddenl y th e true significanc e o f poeti c heroizin g an d fortune-tellin g flattery become s apparent. Th e power s o f divinatio n t o which the y la y thei r clai m have , afte r all, a rea l basis , lyin g no t i n fat e bu t i n th e sourc e o f fate—th e uncon scious. Superstitio n i s unconsciou s psychology . It s powe r t o determin e th e future was , an d is , real . One o f th e uncann y event s t o whic h Freu d trace s th e origin s o f uncon scious ambitio n i n hi s natur e i s especiall y interestin g fo r th e purpose s o f this study , goin g t o th e heart , a s i t does , o f Freud' s tendenc y t o for m passionate friendship s tha t turne d int o bitter , paranoi d grudges . Th e pas sage i n whic h i t i s described , par t o f th e interpretatio n o f a dream , wa s written befor e th e beginning s o f organize d psychoanalysi s an d eve n befor e Freud's brea k wit h Fliess . Amon g Freud' s collaborators , onl y Breue r a t thi s point ha d suffere d fro m hi s fickleness. I n th e dream , "Flies s ha d com e t o Vienna unobtrusivel y i n July. " Durin g a n awkwar d scen e wit h hi m an d another friend , P . , Freu d utter s th e phrase , 'Non vixit\ whic h make s P . disappear. Freu d realize s tha t P . an d possibl y other s lik e hi m ar e "reve nants" wh o ca n b e wille d awa y a t an y time . Her e i s par t o f Freud' s interpretation regardin g thes e details . Afte r a lon g discussion , h e arrive s a t the cru x o f th e 'Non vixW: It the n struc k m e a s noticeabl e tha t i n th e scen e i n th e drea m ther e wa s a convergence o f a hostile an d a n affectionat e curren t o f feeling towar d m y friend P. , the forme r bein g o n th e surfac e an d th e latte r concealed , bu t bot h o f the m bein g represented i n th e singl e phras e Non vixit. A s h e ha d deserve d wel l o f scienc e I built hi m a memorial ; but a s h e wa s guilty o f an evi l wis h (whic h wa s expressed a t the en d o f th e dream ) I annihilate d him . I noticed tha t thi s las t sentenc e ha d a

156 • Chapter Six quite specia l cadence , an d I mus t hav e ha d som e mode l i n m y mind . Wher e wa s an antithesi s o f thi s sor t t o b e found , a juxtapositio n lik e thi s o f tw o opposit e reactions toward s a singl e person , bot h o f the m claimin g t o b e completel y justifie d and ye t no t incompatible ? Onl y i n on e passag e i n literature—bu t a passag e whic h makes a profoun d impressio n o n th e reader : i n Brutus' s speec h o f self-justificatio n in Shakespeare' s Julius Caesar, "A s Caesa r love d me , I wee p fo r him ; a s h e wa s fortunate, I rejoice a t it ; as h e wa s valiant , I honour him ; but , a s h e wa s ambitious , I sle w him. " Were no t th e forma l structur e o f thes e sentence s an d thei r antithetica l meaning precisel y th e sam e a s i n th e dream-though t I ha d uncovered ? Thu s I ha d been playin g th e par t o f Brutu s i n th e dream . I f only I could find on e othe r piec e o f evidence i n th e conten t o f the drea m t o confirm thi s surprisin g collatera l connectin g link. A possibl e on e occurre d t o me . "M y frien d Fl . cam e t o Vienn a i n July. " There wa s n o basi s i n realit y fo r thi s detai l o f th e dream . S o fa r a s I knew , m y friend Fl . ha d neve r bee n i n Vienn a i n July . Bu t th e mont h o f July wa s name d afte r Julius Caesa r an d migh t therefor e ver y wel l represen t th e allusio n I wante d t o th e intermediate though t o f m y playin g th e par t o f Brutus . Strange t o say , I reall y di d onc e pla y th e par t o f Brutus . I onc e acte d i n th e scene betwee n Brutu s an d Caesa r fro m Schille r befor e a n audienc e o f children . I was fourtee n year s ol d a t th e tim e an d wa s actin g wit h a nephe w wh o was a year m y senior. H e ha d com e t o u s o n a visi t fro m England ; an d he , too , wa s a revenant, fo r it wa s th e playmat e o f m y earlies t year s wh o ha d returne d i n him . Unti l th e en d o f my thir d yea r w e ha d bee n inseparable . W e ha d love d eac h othe r an d fough t wit h each other ; an d thi s childhoo d relationshi p ha d a determinin g influenc e o n al l m y subsequent relation s wit h m y contemporaries . Sinc e tha t tim e m y nephe w Joh n ha s had man y re-incarnation s whic h revive d no w on e sid e an d no w anothe r o f hi s personality, unalterabl y fixed a s i t wa s i n m y unconsciou s memory . (423—24 ) In a late r passage , Freu d complete s th e stor y o f hi s relationshi p wit h

John: I hav e alread y show n ho w m y war m friendship s a s wel l a s m y enmitie s wit h contemporaries wen t bac k t o m y relation s i n childhoo d wit h a nephe w wh o wa s a year m y senior ; ho w h e wa s m y superior , ho w I earl y learne d t o defen d mysel f against him , ho w w e wer e inseparabl e friends , an d how , accordin g t o the testimon y of ou r elders, w e sometime s fough t wit h eac h othe r and—mad e complaint s t o the m about eac h other . Al l m y friend s hav e i n a certai n sens e bee n re-incarnation s o f this first figure wh o "lon g sinc e appeare d befor e m y trouble d gaze" : the y hav e bee n revenants. M y nephe w himsel f re-appeare d i n m y boyhood , an d a t tha t tim e w e acted th e part s o f Caesa r an d Brutu s together . M y emotional lif e ha s alway s insiste d that I shoul d hav e a n intimat e frien d an d a hate d enemy . I hav e alway s bee n abl e to provid e mysel f afres h wit h both , an d i t ha s no t infrequentl y happene d tha t th e ideal situatio n o f childhoo d ha s bee n s o completel y reproduce d tha t frien d an d enemy hav e com e togethe r i n a singl e individual—thoug h not , o f course , bot h at onc e o r wit h constan t oscillations , a s ma y hav e bee n th e cas e i n m y earl y childhood. (483) 2 7

Freud as Quixote • 15 7 The 'Non vixii* drea m unquestionabl y expresse s a hostil e impulse . Freud's oneiri c gif t o f vaporizin g "revenants " wit h a wor d make s a goo d example o f th e psychologica l temptatio n t o exchang e wis h fo r reality—th e 'pleasure principle'—an d migh t hav e serve d t o illustrat e th e concep t o f th e 'omnipotence o f thoughts' . Aroun d it , though , Freu d ha s wove n a remark able privat e myth , discoverin g i n hi s unconsciou s a nee d t o reenac t th e murder o f Juliu s Caesa r wit h hi s bes t friend s a s th e victims . A t leas t Quixote's literar y repetition s wer e benevolent , howeve r vulga r an d besotte d they ma y hav e been ! Ther e i s a particularl y grandios e vainglor y i n Freud' s idea tha t h e canno t b e happ y withou t a n enemy . Ye t wha t i s th e basi s fo r this fantasti c self-portrayal ? Th e relationshi p wit h Joh n tha t Freu d de scribes seem s fo r al l w e kno w abou t i t perfectl y typica l fo r three-year-ol d children, wh o fight an d reconcil e b y th e hour . I t i s obviousl y accessibl e t o Freud's conscious mind ; ther e i s n o reaso n t o thin k tha t i t shoul d b e exercising withi n hi m a compulsiv e psychi c automatism . Ther e i s nothin g 'improper' abou t it . A s fo r Juliu s Caesar , ar e thes e trul y th e onl y line s i n literature tha t expres s ambivalen t emotion ? Th e diligenc e o f literary Freudi ans ha s show n otherwise . All o f th e material s educe d b y Freu d t o interpre t hi s dream s coul d legitimately serv e t o cas t a ligh t upo n hi s personality . I t is , indeed , im portant t o kno w abou t Freu d tha t h e gre w u p a t a tim e an d i n a plac e wher e people stil l believe d i n grea t me n an d heroes , wher e the y remembere d prophecies abou t thei r children , an d middle-clas s fol k dinin g i n publi c parks woul d willingl y pa y t o hea r compliment s extemporize d i n verse . I t i s important t o kno w tha t Freu d wa s par t o f a represse d minorit y eage r fo r it s political heroe s t o emerge , an d tha t i n preparatio n fo r adulthoo d childre n of fourtee n i n hi s famil y woul d perfor m th e play s o f Schiller , th e popula r poet o f freedom. 28 A reasonabl e biographe r migh t mentio n tha t Freu d ha d an infan t riva l an d tha t hi s sens e o f thei r rivalr y laste d throug h hi s teens . Young Sigmund' s vie w o f thi s riva l a s a n exceptiona l threa t mus t remin d u s of hi s superio r positio n i n hi s ow n household—tha t o f th e privilege d an d petted eldes t son . Al l thi s i s o f note , an d som e o f i t undoubtedl y playe d a part i n makin g Freu d th e ambitiou s an d competitiv e ma n h e was . Bu t i n retelling the m thi s way , on e immediatel y deprive s thes e detail s o f thei r uncanny interest . The y becom e par t o f a vagu e social , ethnic , an d famil y atmosphere, wherea s i n Freud' s narrativ e the y ar e decisiv e events , punc tual an d irreversible , tha t pu t u s i n touc h wit h a mos t ancien t an d be witching drama—th e predestine d cours e o f th e hero , hi s birth , growth ,

158 • Chapter Six and earl y trial s magicall y foretol d b y prophec y an d image d i n dreams . Th e archaizing characte r o f Freud' s theor y make s availabl e t o hi m ever y re source o f mythology .

Freud as Hannibal We hav e see n a numbe r o f way s i n whic h Freud' s romanc e o f dream s imitates it s satiri c models : i n th e exposur e o f hypocris y an d duplicity , i n the revelatio n o f creaturel y vulgarit y an d grandios e ambition , an d i n th e observation o f a privat e mytholog y involvin g historicall y regressiv e heroi c identifications, ofte n fro m literature , whic h determin e behavio r b y a kin d of psychi c automatism . An d w e hav e seen , a s well , tha t al l o f thes e comi c constructions ten d t o acquir e a n uncann y aur a tha t lend s romanti c appea l to th e 'retur n o f th e repressed' , th e historica l material s tha t li e waitin g t o be activate d i n th e Activ e domai n o f th e unconscious . Suc h ar e th e mean s by whic h Freu d present s th e suspiciou s ques t t o understan d th e egotis m o f his ow n nature . Th e interpretation s w e hav e reviewe d hav e bee n somewha t narrow i n focus . Th e drea m o f Irma' s Injectio n ha s t o d o largely , a s Freu d says, wit h "professiona l conscientiousness. " Th e Gargantu a drea m derive s immediately fro m literar y model s an d deal s specificall y wit h feeling s gener ated durin g th e dreamday , whil e th e drea m o f Freu d a s Brutu s finds it s determinations i n a rathe r unambiguou s childhoo d rivalry . Excep t fo r th e character o f Brutu s himself , ther e i s littl e i n thes e composition s t o direc t us towar d th e politica l an d socia l theme s tha t normall y generat e satiri c energy. Onl y i n th e predictio n tha t Freu d woul d b e a Cabine t Ministe r d o social an d politica l motif s begi n t o surface . Ye t suc h motif s appea r through out The Interpretation of Dreams. I t wa s throug h th e analysi s o f dream s o f an unambiguousl y politica l natur e tha t Freu d wa s abl e t o comprehen d hi s megalomaniacal impulse s i n psychoanalyti c terms . W e shal l tur n t o th e interpretations o f tw o o f thes e dreams , centra l t o Freud' s self-portrait , i n order t o complet e th e consideratio n o f hi s satiri c romance . In a sequenc e o f vivi d peripateti c dreams , Freu d foun d himsel f engagin g in ye t anothe r Quixoti c imitation . Analysi s reveale d tha t thi s tim e h e wa s Hannibal, glimpsin g th e conques t o f Rom e bu t neve r approachin g th e cit y walls. Hannibal , Viennes e schoolboy s knew , ha d hi s grea t chanc e t o tak e the cit y afte r th e battl e o f Canna e bu t faile d i n boldness . Freu d confesse d a lifelon g desir e t o se t foo t i n Rom e whic h h e ha d faile d t o satisf y ou t o f fears fo r hi s health . Abl e t o visi t th e cit y onl y i n hi s dreams , h e ye t di d s o

Freud as Quixote • 15 9 repeatedly. Meditatin g o n hi s frustration , a sentenc e cam e t o hi s min d tha t enlightened hi m a s t o th e meanin g o f thes e dreams : "Which o f th e two , i t ma y b e debated , walke d u p an d dow n hi s stud y wit h th e greater impatienc e afte r h e ha d forme d hi s pla n o f going to Rome—Winckelmann , the Vice-Principal , o r Hannibal , th e Commander-in-Chief? " I ha d actuall y bee n following i n Hannibal's footsteps . Lik e him, I had bee n fated no t to see Rome. . . . Like s o man y boy s o f tha t age , I ha d sympathize d i n th e Puni c War s no t wit h th e Romans bu t wit h th e Carthaginians . An d whe n i n th e highe r classe s I bega n t o understand fo r th e firs t tim e wha t i t mean t t o belon g t o a n alie n race , an d anti semitic feeling s amon g th e othe r boy s warne d m e tha t I mus t tak e u p a definit e position, th e figur e o f th e Semiti c genera l ros e stil l highe r i n m y esteem . T o m y youthful min d Hanniba l an d Rom e symbolize d th e conflic t betwee n th e tenacit y o f Jewry an d th e organizatio n o f th e Catholi c church . An d th e increasin g importanc e of the effects o f the anti-semitic movemen t upo n ou r emotional lif e helpe d t o fix th e thoughts an d feeling s o f those earl y days . Thu s th e wish t o go to Rome had becom e in my dream-life a cloak an d symbo l for a number of other passionate wishes. Thei r realization wa s t o b e pursue d wit h al l th e perseveranc e an d single-mindednes s o f the Carthaginian , thoug h thei r fulfillmen t seeme d a t th e momen t jus t a s littl e favoured b y destiny a s was Hannibal's lifelon g wis h t o enter Rome . (196—97 ) Freud i s constructin g fo r himsel f i n thi s interpretatio n a paranoi d grandi osity that , fo r once , ha s rea l politica l coordinates . Hi s desir e t o b e Hanni bal, lik e Quixote' s aspiratio n t o knight-errantry , stem s fro m a sens e o f social, no t merel y psychological , repression . Not e tha t again , a s wit h th e speech o f Brutus , a serie s o f remembere d line s introduce s th e heroicall y emulated character : a literar y delusio n i s onc e mor e sustaine d b y a hidden , controlling memor y supposedl y lyin g beneat h th e surfac e o f consciousness , betokening th e recover y o f a n uncann y event . Freud' s identificatio n wit h Hannibal i s no t a thin g t o b e viewe d wit h amusemen t lik e hi s self-justifica tions i n th e drea m o f Irma' s Injection , no r i s i t simpl y absur d lik e th e megalomaniacal compensation s o f th e Gargantu a dream . Th e force s repre sented b y Hannibal' s enemie s exerte d a menacin g influenc e i n Freud' s life . They wer e real , no t jus t paranoi d enemies . W e hav e alread y see n i n th e discussion o f 'famil y romances ' tha t Freu d trace d hi s Hanniba l infatuatio n back t o hi s father' s narrativ e o f a scen e i n whic h h e ha d bee n humiliate d by a Christia n anti-Semit e o n a stree t i n th e tow n wher e Freu d wa s born . Now i t ca n b e appreciate d jus t ho w distinctl y thi s scen e stand s ou t amon g the key s t o a Freudia n dream , bein g neithe r comica l no r uncanny . Howeve r doubtful i t ma y b e tha t Freud' s oneiri c glimpse s o f Rom e mean t tha t h e wa s Hannibal i n th e dream , howeve r doubtfu l tha t th e sens e o f bein g Hanniba l

160 • Chapter Six was actuall y keepin g Freu d fro m visitin g Rome , on e ca n wel l believ e tha t Freud's interes t i n th e "Semiti c general " gre w ou t o f th e socia l frustration s of hi s Jewis h identity . Thi s facto r make s i t othe r tha n comica l tha t th e youthful Freu d shoul d hav e dream t o f replacin g hi s ow n fathe r wit h Hamil car Barc a i n orde r t o becom e Hannibal . Tha t th e adul t Freud , however , should stil l b e sufferin g fro m a neuroti c limitatio n i n hi s trave l plan s because o f a childhoo d identificatio n wit h Hanniba l stil l workin g i n hi s unconscious an d i n hi s dreams , thi s i s a Quixoti c for m o f behavio r quit e i n keeping wit h th e genera l teno r o f Freudia n irony ; eve n th e nobles t caus e o f Freud's grandiosit y lead s i n hi s narrativ e t o a delusor y for m o f heroi c imitation. Freud' s Jewis h partisanshi p i s entirel y psychological . I t belong s to Freu d th e dreamer , no t Freu d th e analyst , an d it s resul t i s no t politica l commitment, no r eve n sympathy , bu t a neuroticall y represse d megaloma nia. 2 9 Thi s i s ho w Freud' s scienc e demand s tha t h e portra y hi s ow n psycho logical an d mora l condition . I a m no t suggestin g tha t Freu d di d no t identif y wit h Hanniba l i n hi s youth, no r a m I suggestin g tha t hi s identificatio n wa s no t energize d b y anti Catholic resentment . Suc h feeling s fal l withi n wha t i s t o b e expected , an d Freud's report s abou t the m ar e quit e believable . Wha t i s no t believabl e i s that thes e ver y understandabl e emotion s wer e determinin g hi s behavior , keeping hi m fro m visitin g th e cit y o f Rome , eve n a s a n adult , an d doin g s o in a wa y tha t wa s 'unconscious' , whe n ther e i s nothin g her e tha t i s hidde n from Freud' s memor y no r anythin g tha t on e woul d normall y wan t t o hide . For th e unconsciou s resonances , Freu d i s relyin g entirel y upo n hi s inter pretation o f th e dream . Thi s i s wher e h e get s th e clu e a s t o th e unconsciou s reasons wh y h e coul d no t visi t Rome , thoug h i t i s unlikel y tha t h e ha d eve n been aware , til l th e analysis , tha t hi s failur e t o d o s o wa s neuroticall y determined; unti l th e moti f appeare d i n hi s dream , h e ha d bee n satisfie d with hygieni c reason s a s t o wh y h e di d not , an d shoul d not , g o ther e i n th e summertime. Freud' s socia l an d politica l frustration s mad e hi m peculiarl y susceptible t o heroi c fantasy , an d h e too k advantag e o f thi s fac t b y por traying thes e fantasie s a s bein g psychicall y determine d unconsciou s repeti tions. I n hi s 'unconsciou s mind ' h e wa s playin g ou t th e role s o f figures lik e Brutus an d Hannibal , jus t a s Quixot e wa s playin g ou t th e role s o f Orland o and Amadi s d e Gaul . I t i s thi s 'unconscious ' par t o f th e stor y tha t i s a literary fiction jus t a s i t i s i n th e Quixote. Agai n w e mus t exonerat e Freu d of unconsciou s megalomani a i n orde r t o distinguis h th e consciou s factor s o f ambition, frustration , an d suspicio n operatin g i n hi s character ; onl y then , as well , ca n w e d o justic e t o th e literar y strategie s b y mean s o f whic h

Freud as Quixote • 16 1 Freud's persona l attribute s ar e deploye d i n th e constructio n o f hi s laten t megalomania.

Counter-revolutionary Paranoia The politica l interes t o f th e Freudia n unconsciou s appear s mos t vividly , and t o greates t comi c effect , i n Freud' s "Revolutionar y Drea m o f 1848. " On th e dreamday , Freu d happene d t o witnes s a proudl y contemptuou s aristocratic gestur e a t th e trai n statio n mad e b y th e Austria n hea d o f state , Count Thun , wh o wa s o n hi s wa y t o Isch l fo r a n audienc e wit h th e Empero r regarding th e divisiv e German-Czec h languag e problems . "Th e ticke t in spector a t th e gat e ha d no t recognize d [Coun t Thun ] an d ha d trie d t o tak e his ticket , bu t h e ha d wave d th e ma n asid e wit h a cur t motio n o f hi s han d and withou t givin g an y explanation. " Freu d remaine d o n th e trai n platfor m to defen d hi s right s t o a reserve d compartmen t fro m anyon e wh o migh t challenge the m "b y exercisin g som e sor t o f 'pull. ' " Meanwhil e h e wa s humming a subversiv e ari a fro m Le Nozze di Figaro. Freud' s lurkin g grandi osity ha d bee n activated : The whol e evenin g I ha d bee n i n hig h spirit s an d i n a combativ e mood . I ha d chaffed m y waiter and m y cab driver—without, I hope, hurtin g their feelings. An d now al l kind s o f insolen t an d revolutionar y idea s wer e goin g throug h m y head , i n keeping wit h Figaro' s word s an d wit h m y recollection s o f Beaumarchais ' comed y which I had see n acte d b y the Comedie francaise. I thought o f the phras e abou t th e great gentleme n wh o had take n th e trouble t o be born , an d o f the droit du Seigneur which Coun t Almaviv a trie d t o exercis e ove r Susanna . I thought , too, o f ho w ou r malicious oppositio n journalist s mad e joke s ove r Coun t Thun' s name , callin g hi m instead 'Coun t Nichtsthun ' ['Coun t Do-nothing'] . No t tha t I envied him . H e was on his wa y t o a difficul t audienc e wit h th e Emperor , whil e / wa s th e rea l Coun t Do nothing—just of f on my holidays. (208—9 ) After a n exercis e o f "pull " di d depriv e Freu d o f hi s ful l travelin g privileges, leavin g hi m i n a compartmen t withou t acces s t o a lavatory , h e dreamt hi s mos t remarkabl e an d interestin g dream , a drea m whos e content s cross th e rang e o f hi s ow n politica l interest s an d experience s and , afte r th e analysis, see m t o touc h upo n element s fro m th e entir e histor y o f moder n European politica l development . W e find her e th e Germa n languag e prob lems bein g addresse d i n a passionatel y anti-Germa n speec h b y Coun t Thu n (or Coun t Taffe ) an d als o th e histor y o f Austria n liberalis m telescope d i n the associatio n betwee n Empero r Fran z Joseph' s fiftieth yea r Jubile e an d 1848, th e yea r o f upheava l tha t brough t hi m t o power . Combine d wit h thi s

162 • Chapter Six are recollection s fro m Freud' s studen t days : a bitte r universit y debat e wit h Freud a s vitrioli c materialist , almos t gettin g himsel f int o a duel , an d a student revol t le d b y Freu d agains t a tyrannica l Germa n language-master , this them e embellishe d wit h image s o f Henr y VII I an d o f Shakespeare' s presentation o f th e War s o f th e Roses . Th e politica l novel s o f Zol a ar e present, an d Freud' s schoolmate , th e politicia n Kar l Adler , make s a veile d appearance. Mos t interestin g ar e th e aggressiv e satiri c element s o f th e dream, fo r Freu d discover s withi n i t a lon g serie s o f abusive , scatological , and lubriciou s puns . I t contains , h e jokes , "example s o f impropriet y i n al l three state s o f matter—solid , liquid , an d gaseous " (213) ; onc e mor e h e refers hi s reader s t o Rabelai s t o deciphe r th e meaning . An d her e agai n w e find Freud' s covete d mott o abou t th e destructio n o f th e Armada , bu t no w the wor d flavW i s naughtil y associate d wit h 'flatus*. Some detail s o f th e dream , w e ar e told , ar e to o sensitiv e t o b e revealed , for thei r sexua l o r politica l content : " I a m unabl e t o dea l wit h i t i n suc h detail—out o f consideratio n fo r th e censorship " (214). 3 0 Freu d leave s i t unclear whethe r thi s censorshi p i s politica l o r psychological . Bu t h e doe s at las t giv e u s th e genera l impor t o f th e dream : "th e analysi s o f thes e thre e [last] episode s o f th e drea m showe d tha t the y wer e impertinen t boastings , the issu e o f a n absur d megalomani a whic h ha d lon g bee n suppresse d i n m y waking life " (215) . Freud' s megalomania c unconsciou s ha d neve r bee n displayed wit h suc h comica l profusion , an d w e ar e mean t t o se e ho w deepl y his politica l imaginatio n i s embedde d i n childis h wishes , excrementa l exhibitionism, an d resentfu l egotism . Th e meres t brus h wit h a n arrogan t head o f stat e coul d summo n u p thi s primitive , gigantisti c nightworl d i n al l of it s absurdity , silliness , nastiness , an d riot . Ther e i s a final humiliation , too, i n Freud' s confessio n o f megalomania . It s ultimat e objec t o f referenc e is no t th e variou s politica l force s an d heroe s tha t i t evoke s bu t merel y Freud's ow n fathe r appearin g a t th e en d o f the drea m a s a n ol d ma n i n nee d of a urinal , whic h hi s so n dutifull y provides ; Freu d th e dreame r thu s gain s his unconsciou s reveng e fo r a n episod e i n childhoo d whe n hi s fathe r ha d wounded hi s sens e o f ambitio n b y predictin g th e bo y woul d remai n worth less afte r h e ha d take n th e Gargantua n libert y o f urinatin g i n th e paterna l bedroom. During hi s youth , i t i s wel l known , Freu d ha d bee n passionatel y inter ested i n politics , an d specificall y i n th e caus e o f Austria n liberalism . Hi s turn t o scienc e wa s i n par t a repudiatio n o f politica l hop e i n ligh t o f th e increasingly reactionar y drif t take n b y Austria n affair s afte r 1873. 3 1 Fo r Freud, scienc e becam e th e las t availabl e avenu e o f heroi c aspiration , an d

Freud as Quixote • 16 3 even ther e h e encountere d socia l an d politica l obstacles . Hi s failur e t o attain a universit y positio n a t th e beginnin g o f his caree r an d hi s withdrawa l into privat e practic e wa s a ste p dow n th e socia l ladde r "fro m th e uppe r medical an d academi c intelligentsi a t o whic h h e ha d gaine d acces s i n th e eighties t o a simple r stratu m o f ordinar y Jewis h doctor s an d business m e n . " 3 2 Freud' s persona l situatio n an d hi s scientifi c aspiration s bot h ha d about the m mor e tha n a touc h o f Quixoti c desperation . Bu t i t wa s a profound libera l despai r tha t pu t Freu d s o rigidl y int o th e satiri c positio n with regar d t o socia l an d politica l ambition . H e hate d Hannibal' s enemies , yet h e coul d no t envisio n a convincin g Hannibal . Eve n Theodo r Herzl , th e founder o f Zionism , evoke d hi s anxiou s mistrust . Lon g afte r Herzl' s death , Freud urge d Herzl' s so n t o eradicat e th e influenc e o f hi s fathe r fro m hi s personality b y abandonin g politics : It i s you r tas k t o rid yoursel f o f al l ambition . . . . You r ambition s ar e poisonin g your life . Yo u shoul d finall y bur y you r fathe r withi n you r ow n soul , whic h i s stil l carrying hi m alive . I t i s he , no t anyon e else , wh o is appearing t o you i n you r many dreams. I n vai n woul d yo u dismis s the m a s unimportant . You r fathe r i s on e o f those wh o has turne d dream s int o reality. Thi s i s a very rare an d dangerou s breed . It include s th e Garibaldis , th e Edisons , th e Herzls . . . . I woul d cal l the m th e sharpest opponent s o f m y scientifi c work . I t i s m y modes t professio n t o simplif y dreams, t o make them clear and ordinary . They , o n the contrary, confus e th e issue , turn i t upside down , comman d th e world whil e they themselve s remai n o n the othe r side o f the psychi c mirror . I t i s a group specializin g i n th e realizatio n o f dreams. I deal i n psychoanalysis ; the y dea l i n psychosynthesis. 33 As thi s passag e make s clear , politic s itsel f i s Freud' s enemy , politic s i n the broa d sens e tha t embrace s eve n Thoma s Edison—i n othe r words , th e attempt t o change th e world. 34 T o mak e thi s attemp t i s t o seek a n enactmen t of dreams , thos e ver y dream s o f ambitio n tha t Freu d ha d undertake n t o banalize, demystify , ridicule , an d degrad e wit h psychoanalyti c rhetoric . A paranoid urgenc y energize s Freud' s attemp t t o kil l of f th e las t vestige s o f Herzl i n th e sou l o f hi s son . Freud' s entir e achievemen t seem s t o b e a t ris k in thi s battl e wit h th e father-ghost ; w e ca n hea r th e bio-historica l echoe s o f the prima l fathe r an d th e poet-priest , th e menac e i n th e retur n o f th e repressed. Wha t Freu d feare d mos t o f al l wa s a successfu l Quixote , a paranoid leade r wh o coul d persuad e other s t o tak e hi s dream s fo r reality . In thi s h e wa s respondin g t o wha t wa s alread y a pronounce d elemen t o f th e political rhetori c an d behavio r o f th e time , th e ris e o f wha t Car l Schorsk e calls th e "politic s o f fantasy, " th e aestheticizin g o f politica l discours e eventually brough t t o it s furthes t developmen t unde r Nationa l Socialism. 35

164 • Chapter Six It wa s t o discourag e attempt s o f th e Quixoti c typ e tha t Freu d wa s willin g t o make suc h a displa y o f hi s ow n ambitiou s urges , alon g wit h thei r origin s i n the trivi a o f th e bod y an d th e delusor y megalomani a o f childhood . I n orde r to discredi t politica l activit y i n a certai n for m Freu d wa s willin g t o attemp t a tota l politica l repression , leavin g himsel f i n a positio n o f flagrant Quix otic excess. 3 6 Having identifie d th e mos t vita l targe t o f Freudia n satire , w e ar e no w i n a positio n t o appreciat e jus t ho w complet e an d ho w marvelousl y ingeniou s was Freud' s adaptatio n o f th e Cervantea n way . Lik e hi s Spanis h precursor , Freud invente d a sociall y prestigiou s an d exhibitionisti c languag e o f ridi cule i n whic h dream s an d madnes s coul d b e mad e meaningfu l an d articu late, coul d b e compelle d t o revea l th e depth s o f thei r vulgarit y and , a t th e same time , flaunt thei r kinshi p wit h th e idealisti c element s o f culture ; i t was als o a languag e lik e Cervantes ' tha t coul d a t onc e stan d abov e it s objects an d reinforc e th e censorshi p agains t them : th e exposur e o f th e vulgarity o f idealis m wa s a disclaime r an d a repressio n o f it s pretensions , a supremely aggressiv e an d defensiv e socia l gesture . Perhap s w e shoul d als o attribute t o th e legac y o f Cervante s th e eas y familiarit y wit h whic h Freud , like th e humbl e narrato r of Don Quixote, take s u s int o hi s confidence—hi s confidence game : "I t canno t b e denie d tha t t o interpre t an d repor t one' s dreams demand s a hig h degre e o f self-discipline . On e i s boun d t o emerg e as th e onl y villai n amon g th e crow d o f nobl e character s wh o shar e one' s

life."37

The Asymptotic Romance I have bee n emphasizin g th e satiri c dimensio n o f Freud's drea m psychology . There i s always , however , i n The Interpretation of Dreams, a counter-move ment, a return t o the properl y Romanti c o r uncanny aspec t o f Freudian rhet oric. I n hi s satiri c vein , Freu d relentlessl y follow s ou t th e association s o f each fragmen t o f dream-thought ; wha t seem s suggestivel y vagu e become s humorously concrete , familiar , an d vulgar . Th e attemp t a t simplificatio n an d reduction i s total , eve n thoug h "respec t fo r th e censorship " keep s Freu d from performin g a full analysi s o f any of his own dreams. Ye t i n key moment s of Freud' s romanc e ther e i s a drawin g bac k fro m th e goal , which , lik e al l Romantic goals , infinitel y recedes ; or, t o borrow out o f context on e of Freud' s own brillian t phrases , th e romanc e o f dream s mark s th e progres s o f a n 'as ymptotic desire' : "Da s Ewig-Weibliche/Zieh t un s hinan. " Th e psychoana lytic metho d ha s no t strippe d th e vei l fro m th e unconscious ; i t ha s no t fath -

Freud as Quixote • 16 5 omed th e deepes t secret s bu t merel y pu t u s o n th e "roya l road " t o tha t accomplishment. Freud' s Virgilia n promis e t o "mov e th e depths " mus t re main largel y a promise . Th e unconsciou s i s a propert y o f individuals , eac h with hi s o r he r ow n privat e mythology , eac h keepin g hi s o r he r ow n secret s from th e censor' s gaze . I t i s als o a transcendenta l reality , largel y inaccessi ble t o ou r view : "Th e unconsciou s i s th e tru e psychica l reality ; i n it s inner most natur e i t i s a s muc h unknow n t o u s a s th e realit y o f the externa l world , and i t i s a s incompletel y presente d b y th e dat a o f consciousnes s a s i s th e external worl d b y th e communication s o f our sens e organs " (613) . Agai n w e run u p agains t th e Kantia n limi t o f Freudian investigation . Since th e unconsciou s lie s a t a n unsoundabl e depth , i t i s rarel y tha t even a singl e drea m ca n yiel d u p al l it s secrets : There i s ofte n a passag e i n eve n th e mos t thoroughl y interprete d drea m whic h ha s to be lef t obscure ; thi s i s becaus e w e become awar e durin g th e wor k o f interpreta tion tha t a t tha t poin t ther e i s a tangl e o f dream-thought s whic h canno t b e unrav elled an d whic h moreove r add s nothin g t o ou r knowledg e o f th e conten t o f th e dream. Thi s is the dream's navel , th e spot where it reaches down into the unknown . The drea m thought s t o which w e are le d b y interpretatio n cannot , fro m th e natur e of things, hav e any definite endings ; they are bound to branch out in every directio n into th e intricat e networ k o f ou r worl d o f thought . I t i s a t som e poin t wher e thi s meshwork i s particularly clos e tha t th e dream-wis h grow s up , lik e a mushroom ou t of its mycelium. (525 ) This passag e combine s wit h beautifu l an d enviabl e skil l tw o essentia l Romantic tropes—th e trop e o f imaginatio n a s a portal , or , i n thi s case , "navel," int o th e unknown—brav e gestur e towar d infinity—an d th e trop e of organi c complexity , her e applie d t o th e origin s o f desir e i n conscious ness: i t grow s "lik e a mushroo m ou t o f it s mycelium, " partakin g i n th e richness an d irreducibl e diversit y o f th e ordinary . I t i s startlin g t o hea r such a n affirmativ e not e sounde d o n th e Freudia n register . Suddenl y suspi cion finds relief , an d wha t bega n a s a hostile , reductiv e inquir y int o a domain o f mer e absurdit y an d egotis m ha s foun d itsel f ultimatel y movin g i n the directio n o f a n unbounde d imaginativ e space , th e domai n o f a comfort ingly private , individua l mytholog y neve r entirel y t o b e deflated . Quixote' s historical transformatio n fro m th e lunati c t o th e sublim e i s reenacte d i n each Freudia n soundin g o f th e depth s o f unconsciou s thought . Char m an d power resid e eve n i n th e absurdit y o f dreams , an d thi s char m an d powe r are no t withou t thei r politica l equivalent s i n Freud' s analogy : Dreams, then , ar e often mos t profoun d whe n the y see m mos t crazy . I n ever y epoc h of histor y thos e wh o hav e ha d somethin g t o sa y but coul d no t sa y i t withou t peri l

166 • Chapter Six have eagerl y assume d a fool' s cap . Th e audienc e a t who m thei r forbidde n speec h was aime d tolerate d i t mor e easil y i f the y coul d a t th e sam e tim e laug h an d flatter themselves wit h th e reflectio n tha t th e unwelcom e word s wer e clearl y nonsensical . The Princ e i n th e play , wh o ha d t o disguis e himsel f a s a madman , wa s behavin g just a s dream s d o i n reality ; s o tha t w e ca n sa y o f dream s wha t Hamle t sai d o f himself, concealin g th e tru e circumstance s unde r a cloak o f wit an d unintelligibil ity: " I a m bu t ma d north-north-west : whe n th e win d i s southerly , I kno w a haw k from a hand-saw!" (444) Here th e Erasmia n Folly-as-Wisdo m make s a n unexpecte d return : onc e again, ther e i s n o trul y aimles s huma n behavior , n o "kissin g th e ho t stove. " Even Freu d th e anti-politicia n canno t resis t endowin g dream s wit h a trac e of authenti c heroism , portrayin g th e knowledg e o f dream s a s a forbidde n knowledge fe w wil l hav e th e courag e t o accept . Th e brav e wisdo m tha t would late r b e claime d b y th e analys t firs t belonge d t o dream s themselves . It wa s n o accident , then , tha t fo r hal f a centur y th e lef t avant-gard e foun d in psychoanalysi s a congenia l instrumen t an d too k u p th e Freudia n goa l o f getting i n touc h wit h an d unleashin g force s o f th e 'unconscious' ; academi c radicalism sinc e th e 1960 s ha s remaine d essentiall y faithfu l t o Freud ; an d literary critic s remai n particularl y i n hi s debt : n o on e bu t Freu d coul d hav e cured the m o f th e naggin g textua l frustratio n impose d upo n the m b y thei r own self-repressiv e skepticis m strugglin g wit h th e drive s o f th e academi c market. Non e o f thi s shoul d b e surprisin g whe n w e remembe r that , afte r all, psychoanalysi s wa s from th e outse t a scientifi c adaptatio n o f the origina l sensibility o f Romanti c revolution . I t reenact s bot h th e attac k upo n th e metaphysical, aristocratic , an d religiou s traditio n tha t se t th e stag e fo r th e Romantic movemen t an d th e uncann y retur n o f th e repressed , th e openin g up o f th e new , interna l territor y o f imagination , whic h i s th e distinctiv e an d potent elemen t o f Romanticis m itself .

SEVEN The Charismatic Paranoid If yo u argu e wit h a madma n i t i s extremel y proba ble tha t yo u wil l ge t th e wors t o f it ; fo r i n man y ways hi s min d move s al l th e quicke r fo r no t bein g delayed b y th e thing s tha t g o wit h goo d judgement . He i s no t hampere d b y a sens e o f humou r o r b y charity, o r b y th e dum b certaintie s o f experience . He i s th e mor e logica l fo r losin g certai n san e af fections. Indeed , th e commo n phras e fo r insanit y is i n thi s respec t a misleadin g one . Th e madma n i s not th e ma n wh o ha s los t hi s reason . Th e madma n is th e man wh o ha s los t everythin g else . —Chesterton

In th e firs t chapte r o f Par t Tw o o f Don Quixote, th e barbe r o f L a Manch a tells th e ma d knight , no w i n confinement , a stor y tha t bear s upo n hi s own : "In th e madhous e a t Sevill e wa s a ma n whos e relation s ha d place d hi m ther e a s being ou t o f hi s mind . H e wa s a graduat e o f Osun a i n cano n law , bu t eve n i f h e had bee n a graduat e o f Salamanca , i t wa s th e opinio n o f mos t peopl e tha t h e woul d have bee n ma d al l th e same . Thi s graduate , afte r som e year s o f confinement , too k it int o hi s hea d tha t h e wa s san e an d i n hi s ful l senses , an d unde r thi s impressio n wrote t o th e Archbishop , entreatin g hi m earnestl y an d i n ver y correc t languag e t o have hi m release d fro m th e miser y i n whic h h e wa s living . B y God' s merc y h e ha d now recovere d hi s los t reason , thoug h hi s relations , i n orde r t o enjo y hi s property , kept hi m ther e and , i n spit e o f th e truth , woul d mak e hi m ou t t o b e ma d unti l hi s dying day . Th e Archbishop , move d b y repeate d sensible , well-writte n letters , directed on e o f hi s chaplain s t o as k i n th e madhous e abou t th e trut h o f th e licentiate's statement s an d t o hav e a n intervie w wit h th e madma n himself." 1 W h e n th e chaplai n arrive s a t th e madhous e t o intervie w th e licentiate , he finds hi m s o rationa l i n hi s understanding , s o convincin g i n hi s descrip tion o f th e heartlessnes s o f hi s relative s an d th e perfid y o f hi s jailer s that , over th e protest s o f th e director , h e i s abou t t o hav e hi m released . Onl y i n saying farewel l t o hi s fello w lunatic s d o e s th e licentiat e giv e himsel f away . 167

168 • Chapter Seven One o f them , convince d tha t h e i s Jupiter , threaten s t o destro y th e tow n b y drought i f hi s riva l i s allowe d t o depart . " 'Pa y n o attentio n t o wha t thi s madman ha s said, ' " th e licentiat e replies , " 'fo r i f h e i s Jupite r an d wil l not sen d rain , I who a m Neptune , th e fathe r an d go d o f th e waters , wil l rai n as ofte n a s i t please s m e an d ma y b e needful ' " (429) . Th e poo r fello w i s stripped o f hi s travelin g clothe s an d pu t bac k i n hi s cell . Quixote know s tha t h e i s bein g teste d an d hi s hur t repl y t o th e barbe r i s a masterpiece : " 'I s i t possibl e tha t yo u d o no t kno w tha t comparison s o f wit wit h wit , valo r wit h valor , beaut y wit h beauty , birt h wit h birth , ar e always odiou s an d unwelcome? ' " H e ha s neve r claime d t o b e Neptune , only a ma n wh o want s t o restor e th e ag e o f chivalry . Wit h thi s modesty , Quixote shame s th e barbe r t o apologize . Hi s repl y i s a mora l victor y bu t i t is also , o f course , i n th e contes t o f wits , a failure . I t show s h e ha s no t succeeded i n understandin g th e poin t o f th e story . B y refusin g compariso n with Neptun e rathe r tha n wit h th e licentiate , h e actuall y admit s hi s likenes s to th e madman . Th e barber' s gambi t ha s worked . Cervantes' brillian t fabl e point s towar d a genuin e proble m fo r psychol ogy: Recognizin g tha t ther e ar e form s o f madnes s i n whic h th e power s o f reason ar e preserved , ho w doe s on e g o abou t makin g th e distinctio n be tween th e ma d an d th e sane ? Fo r Cervante s i t i s largel y a practical , no t a theoretical concern . A t th e en d o f th e novel , Alons o th e Goo d regain s hi s senses an d repudiate s th e inanitie s o f Quixot e wit h shame . Ther e ca n b e no doub t tha t h e i s a t tha t poin t virtuall y a differen t man , hi s Quixoti c idealism converte d no w int o genuin e piet y an d resignation . Thi s momen t marks Cervantes ' renunciatio n o f th e satiri c poin t o f view , a t leas t wit h regard t o hi s mai n character . Wherea s u p t o thi s poin t th e entir e narrativ e has centere d aroun d th e humo r o f madnes s an d th e fascinatio n i t produce s in others , th e nove l end s wit h a somewha t awesom e renunciatio n o f folly . There i s a satiri c turn , though , eve n here . Quixote' s renunciatio n o f hi s paranoid grandeu r put s hi m suddenl y int o a positio n o f mora l superiorit y with regar d t o thos e aroun d hi m wh o hav e mad e s o muc h o f hi s delusion : the peasan t Sanch o i n hi s credulou s ignoranc e an d greed ; th e bachelo r Samson Carrasco , eage r t o matc h arm s wit h th e ma d knight ; th e aristocrat s who, i n thei r desir e fo r entertainment , mak e a to y o f hi m an d hi s squire ; the "idl e reader " ["desoccupad o lector"] , willin g spectato r o f a n epi c o f cruelty-in-idleness; an d finall y th e autho r himself , wh o ha s mor e tha n anyone bee n give n ove r t o th e spectacl e o f madness : "Fo r m e alon e wa s Don Quixot e born , an d I fo r him ; i t wa s hi s t o act , min e t o write ; w e tw o

The Charismatic Paranoid • together mak e bu t one . . . . " (830) . Al l o f thes e hav e succumbe d t o th e infatuation exercise d b y th e paranoi d character . Alons o th e Goo d ha s a t least th e excus e tha t h e wa s mad, eve n thoug h wit h a madnes s lik e reason , whereas i n th e cas e o f th e other s reaso n ha s no t kep t the m fro m a n enchantment wit h madnes s ver y muc h lik e madnes s itself . Ma d o r sane , the effec t o f th e Quixoti c characte r i s t o evok e foll y i n others , t o sho w th e confusion o f reason an d foll y essentia l t o a satiri c poin t o f view . Freudian psycholog y neve r renounce s th e satiri c poin t o f view ; makin g the distinctio n betwee n th e ma d an d th e san e ha s bee n a t leas t a s difficul t for i t t o accomplis h i n theor y a s i n practice . A s w e hav e seen , Freu d systematically employe d th e categorie s derive d fro m hi s stud y o f menta l disease t o ordinar y behavior , distinguishin g the m onl y b y th e degre e o f neurotic investment . Thi s make s thing s particularl y awkwar d wit h regar d t o paranoia, wher e th e power s o f reasoning , an d ofte n th e sens e o f contac t with reality—'realit y testing ' a s Freu d like d t o cal l i t — a r e no t impaired . The theoreticia n i s lef t searchin g fo r othe r mean s wit h whic h t o identify th e condition o f madness . The failur e o f thi s searc h i s a logica l resul t o f Freud' s attemp t t o wiel d the labe l o f illnes s a s a n instrumen t agains t form s o f thinking an d behavio r that ar e universa l t o th e species . Havin g don e so , h e canno t us e th e sam e instrument a s a mean s o f separatin g himsel f fro m th e trul y mad . Th e dilemma is , a s w e hav e seen , a logica l proble m o f reductionism . Al l rigorous reductionist s fac e th e embarrassment o f having degrade d thei r own thinking t o a n irrationa l effect . Bu t th e psychologist , confronte d wit h th e eccentric effusion s o f paranoia , face s a peculia r embarrassment . Havin g declared th e though t o f th e paranoi d t o hav e a n essentia l kinshi p wit h hi s own, h e ma y find himsel f fac e t o fac e wit h a livin g paranoi d wh o is willin g to exploi t thi s honorar y status . Th e paranoi d turn s u p lik e a disreputabl e twin who m th e psychologis t ca n neithe r acknowledg e no r disown , th e self satirizing impuls e o f the reductionis t havin g suddenl y give n ris e t o a satiri c double i n livin g form . Th e mos t famou s exampl e o f th e spectacl e o f para noid entitlemen t i s tha t o f Judg e Schreber , th e psychoti c Germa n whos e memoirs furnishe d th e materials fo r Freud's essa y o n paranoia. Th e remark able fact s o f Schreber' s confinemen t an d releas e an d th e brillian t descrip tion tha t h e wrot e o f hi s experienc e hav e mad e hi m perhap s th e mos t discussed o f al l menta l patients . Th e stor y o f Schreber , alon g wit h Freud' s response t o it , provide s th e bes t possibl e introductio n t o th e difficultie s o f 'paranoia' a s a diagnosti c term. 2

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170 • Chapter Seven

The Pretentious Paranoid Once More Daniel Pau l Schrebe r wa s a learne d an d successfu l juris t wh o reache d th e office o f Senatsprdsident a t Dresde n i n 189 3 a t th e earl y ag e o f fifty-one . The Cour t o f Appeal s ove r whic h h e preside d wa s th e secon d highes t judicial authorit y i n Germany . Schrebe r wa s i n ever y wa y a respecte d citizen, happil y marrie d thoug h childless , a ma n o f formidabl e intellectua l gifts an d broa d interest s including , a s th e translato r o f hi s memoi r notes , "natural history , particularl y th e doctrin e o f evolution, th e natura l sciences , astronomy an d philosophy." 3 Schreber' s accoun t o f hi s illnes s display s a wide readin g i n literature , etymology , an d th e histor y o f religion, a fondnes s for music , an d fluency i n Greek , whic h allowe d hi m t o commun e wit h hallucinatory voice s i n tha t tongu e (3) . Eigh t year s befor e hi s appointmen t to th e Superio r Court , h e spen t fiv e month s i n confinemen t fo r a nervou s illness abou t whic h ther e ar e fe w details . Si x weeks afte r takin g th e positio n of Senatsprdsident h e agai n fel l il l an d thi s tim e endure d a confinemen t o f nine years . I n th e earl y phase s o f th e secon d confinemen t h e suffere d fro m hypochondriacal ideas , t o whic h quickl y succeede d delusion s o f persecu tion, the n fantasti c auditor y an d visua l hallucinations , whic h mad e hi m unresponsive t o th e worl d aroun d him . Schrebe r believe d tha t h e wa s "dea d and rotten, " a victi m o f th e plague , an d tha t hi s bod y wa s undergoin g numerous trial s an d transformations . H e frequentl y begge d fo r deat h an d attempted suicide . A s th e medica l repor t o n hi s conditio n states , "Gradu ally th e delusio n too k o n a mystica l an d religiou s character , h e communi cated directl y wit h God , devil s wer e playin g thei r game s wit h him , h e sa w 'miracles', hear d 'hol y music' , an d finall y eve n believe d tha t h e wa s livin g in anothe r world. " H e refuse d foo d i n orde r tha t 'God' s omnipotence ' shoul d not b e disturbe d b y th e attendants , an d a s a resul t ha d t o b e forcibl y fed (268) . By Novembe r 1894 , Schrebe r bega n t o emerg e fro m hi s extrem e stat e o f withdrawal an d t o revea l th e delusor y idea s tha t ha d take n possessio n o f his mind . H e believe d th e peopl e aroun d hi m wer e effectin g harmfu l changes i n th e "Orde r o f th e World " an d tha t bot h h e an d Go d wer e threatened. Unde r th e influenc e o f thes e delusions , Schrebe r woul d engag e in loud , meaningles s laughte r an d compulsiv e poundin g o n th e piano . Hi s excitement seeme d t o b e stimulate d i n par t b y a belie f tha t th e worl d ha d come t o a n en d an d tha t al l o f wha t h e sa w aroun d hi m was , a s h e say s i n his memoirs , o n a "fleetin g improvised " basis . H e woul d bello w repetitiv e curses a t th e s u n — " t h e su n i s a whore " (270)—an d accus e i t o f coward -

The Charismatic Paranoid • ice, o f hidin g fro m Senatsprasident Schreber . H e applie d t o himsel f th e name Ormuz d (269) . Durin g thi s perio d Schrebe r wa s manageabl e durin g the day , bu t a t nigh t hi s outburst s wer e s o nois y tha t h e ha d t o b e isolated . He becam e convince d h e wa s bein g transforme d int o a woman , ha d hi s mustache shave d off , an d bega n displayin g feminin e breast s (270) . In th e sprin g o f 189 7 anothe r grea t chang e cam e ove r Schreber . H e suddenly resume d contac t wit h th e outsid e worl d an d graduall y bega n t o take u p man y o f hi s ol d interests . H e wa s onc e mor e a refined , courteous , and judiciou s gentlemen , a tru e judg e wh o retaine d th e us e o f hi s formida ble intellectua l powers . H e wa s stil l subjec t t o th e sam e se t o f fixed delusions o f a cosmi c dram a involvin g himself , God , an d hi s forme r physi cian, Dr . Flechsig ; spasm s an d attack s o f bellowin g stil l impaire d hi s demeanor; bu t h e wa s largel y self-possessed . I n th e languag e o f psychiatry , his delusor y syste m ha d 'crystallized' , i t ha d becom e stabl e an d bee n integrated wit h hi s personality . H e wa s onc e agai n capabl e o f intellectua l work an d hi s curren t doctor , Dr . Weber , entertaine d hi m regularl y a s a dinner gues t a t hi s famil y tabl e i n th e asylu m a t Sonnenstein . Hi s conversa tion wa s a s edifyin g a s Quixote's . "Whateve r matter s wer e discussed, " Weber state s i n hi s report , —naturally apar t from hi s delusion—whether the y touched o n state administratio n and law , politics , ar t o r literature , socia l lif e o r anythin g else , i n al l Docto r Schreber showe d kee n interest , detaile d knowledge , goo d memor y an d correc t judgment, an d i n ethical matter s a s well an attitude which on e can onl y agree with. Equally h e was well-behaved an d amiabl e durin g ligh t conversatio n wit h the ladie s present an d hi s humo r wa s alway s tactfu l an d decent ; durin g th e harmles s tabl e talk h e never brought u p anything which shoul d no t have been introduce d ther e but during medica l visits. (279—80 ) During thi s period , Schrebe r bega n t o mak e note s abou t hi s delusor y system and , i n 1900 , undertoo k t o writ e a n accoun t o f hi s "nervou s ill ness," a ter m h e preferre d t o "menta l illness. " Hi s first purpos e i n doin g s o was t o mak e hi s behavio r comprehensibl e t o hi s famil y an d thos e aroun d him i n th e even t tha t h e shoul d retur n t o privat e life . Bu t a s h e mad e progress, h e report s i n hi s preface , th e valu e o f publicatio n impresse d itsel f upon him : " I believ e tha t exper t examinatio n o f m y bod y an d observatio n of m y fat e durin g m y lifetim e woul d b e o f valu e bot h fo r scienc e an d th e knowledge o f religiou s truths " (31) . Schreber' s Memoirs of My Nervous Illness (Denkwurdigkeiten eines Nervenkranken, 1903 ) provide s a n unparal leled exampl e o f logi c workin g i n th e servic e o f madness . I n it , Schrebe r displays remarkabl e power s o f exposition , givin g a fluid an d more-or-les s

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172 • Chapter Seven orderly accoun t o f hi s vas t an d absur d syste m o f fantasy , whic h centere d upon th e ide a tha t "sou l murder " ha d bee n committe d upo n hi m b y hi s former physician , Flechsig , perhap s wit h th e cooperatio n o f God ; thi s act , being contrar y t o th e "Orde r o f th e World, " ha d pu t th e univers e i n danger , and onl y b y mean s o f Schreber' s "unmanning, " hi s transformatio n fro m a man int o a woman , coul d i t b e preserved . Schreber's Memoirs canno t b e summarize d wit h fidelity. Coheren t sum mary i s boun d a t onc e t o impos e mor e orde r upo n hi s delusion s tha n the y justify an d a t th e sam e tim e remov e fro m the m tha t curiou s circumspectio n with whic h Schrebe r convey s hi s fracture d an d tenuou s ideas . I n hi s introduction h e appeal s t o th e reader' s patience , notin g th e generi c diffi culty hinderin g th e transmissio n o f supernatura l truths , whic h ru n u p against th e limi t o f th e huma n intellect : To mak e mysel f a t leas t somewha t comprehensibl e I shal l hav e t o spea k muc h i n images an d similes , whic h ma y at time s perhap s b e only approximately correct; fo r the only way a human bein g can mak e supernatura l matters , whic h i n their essenc e must alway s remai n incomprehensible , understandabl e t o a certai n degre e i s b y comparing the m wit h know n fact s o f human experience . Wher e intellectua l under standing ends , th e domai n o f belief begins ; ma n mus t reconcil e himsel f t o the fac t that thing s exis t whic h ar e true althoug h h e cannot understan d them . (41 ) To communicat e th e substanc e o f thing s unseen , Schrebe r resort s t o th e cautions an d indirection s tha t accompan y al l religiou s apology . I t i s har d t o doubt i n th e presenc e o f hi s carefu l explanation s tha t ther e wa s a cor e o f hallucinatory experienc e aroun d whic h thes e ha d accumulated , o r 'crystal lized', an d tha t th e proces s b y whic h thi s experienc e wa s integrate d int o the fabri c o f Schreber' s genera l outloo k resemble s t o som e degre e wha t occurs i n mystica l theology . The likenes s doe s no t mak e th e doctrin e expresse d i n th e Memoirs plausible. Thei r autho r believe s tha t fo r year s h e ha s spoke n wit h th e su n in huma n words , tha t h e ha s bee n force d t o tak e ove r God' s tas k o f controlling th e weather , an d tha t hi s "nerves " ar e i n communicatio n wit h those o f multitude s o f othe r soul s (47) . Hi s min d ha s becom e a lat e battlefield o f th e Reformation , subjec t t o Catholi c proselytizin g an d Jesui t intrigue, mixe d wit h Jewis h conspiracies . H e coul d mention , h e says , hundreds i f no t thousand s o f th e name s o f soul s wh o ha d bee n i n contac t with his : Catholic s wh o expecte d hi m t o instigat e a religiou s revival , Jesuits, bishops , monks , nuns , an d "th e Pop e himself, " wh o wa s "th e leader o f a peculia r 'scorchin g ray ' " :

The Charismatic Paranoid • On on e occasio n 24 0 Benedictin e Monk s unde r th e leadershi p o f a Fathe r whos e name sounde d lik e Starkiewicz, suddenl y move d int o my head t o perish therein . I n the cas e o f othe r souls , religiou s interest s wer e mixe d wit h nationa l motives ; amongst thes e wa s a Viennes e nerv e specialis t whos e nam e b y coincidenc e wa s identical with that of the above-named Benedictine , a baptized Je w and Slavophile , who wanted t o mak e German y Slavi c throug h m e an d a t th e sam e tim e wante d t o institute ther e th e rule of Judaism. (71 ) Schreber's delusion s maintained , i n spit e o f th e conflictin g religiou s an d national interest s warrin g withi n hi s soul , a certai n fidelity t o Germa n nationalism. 4 Th e "nerve-language, " h e tell s us , "th e so-calle d 'basi c language' " employe d b y Go d t o communicat e wit h purified , o r "tested, " souls, i s a "somewha t antiquate d bu t nevertheles s powerfu l German , char acterized particularl y b y a wealt h o f euphemism s (fo r instance , rewar d i n the revers e sens e fo r punishment , poiso n fo r food , juic e fo r venom , unhol y for holy , etc.) " (49—50) . H e consider s th e German s t o b e God' s chose n people, "possibl y sinc e th e Reformation , perhap s eve r sinc e th e migratio n of nations, " succeedin g th e "ol d Jews, " "ol d Persians, " "Greco-Romans, " and Frank s (50) . Exquisitel y sensitive , Schreber' s illnes s resonate s wit h every for m o f cultura l agon , ever y historica l resourc e o f paranoi a a s w e have trace d i t here : th e conflict s betwee n religion s an d betwee n nations , the tensio n betwee n religio n an d science , whic h i s a constan t preoccupa tion, an d als o difference s o f class , whic h expres s themselve s i n imaginar y rivalries betwee n ancestor s o f hi s "soul-murderer, " Flechsig , an d earlie r members o f th e Schrebe r family , grace d wit h th e titl e "Margrave s o f Tus cany an d Tasmania " (55) . Schrebe r eve n imagine s soul-conflict s betwee n his doctors , i n whic h "Dr . vo n W . " (presumabl y thi s i s Weber ) appear s t o get th e bes t o f Flechsi g becaus e o f th e former' s "aristocrati c traits, " whic h give hi s sou l greate r "organizin g talent " tha n tha t o f Flechsi g an d s o mak e it ofte n mor e radian t (111) . Schreber's min d i s overtaxe d wit h foreig n influence s agains t whic h h e can scarcel y defen d himself . Th e greate r hi s nerv e potency , o r "voluptuous ness," th e mor e attractiv e h e become s t o weake r souls , whic h ar e draw n t o him eve n fro m distan t stars , an d which , havin g give n hi m thei r nerv e potency, tur n int o "littl e men. " W e ar e bac k wit h Gullive r i n Lilliput . "O n some nights, " h e reports , "th e soul s finally drippe d dow n ont o m y head , i n a manne r o f speaking , i n thei r hundred s i f no t thousands , a s 'littl e men ' " (84). A t othe r times , h e make s th e conjectur e tha t on a distan t star , probabl y b y usin g par t o f m y nerves , th e attemp t wa s actuall y made t o creat e a ne w huma n worl d ("ne w huma n being s ou t o f Schreber' s spirit, "

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174 • Chapter Seven as i t ha s bee n calle d innumerabl e time s sinc e then , mostl y mean t i n a mockin g spirit). I t remain s a myster y ho w the necessar y tim e fo r thi s wa s to b e found . . . . These "ne w huma n being s ou t o f Schreber's spirit"—physicall y o f a much smalle r stature than ou r earthly huma n beings—wer e sai d t o have already achieve d a fairl y remarkable degre e o f culture , t o hav e kep t smal l cattl e proportionat e t o their ow n size etc . I mysel f wa s sai d t o hav e receive d divin e veneratio n a s thei r "Nationa l Saint" s o to speak, a s i f my physical postur e (particularl y i n the "pen " o f Pierson' s Asylum) wer e o f som e significanc e fo r thei r faith . Thos e o f thei r soul s whic h ha d ascended t o a state o f Blessednes s afte r deat h wer e sai d t o have attaine d t o rays of fairly substantia l vigor . (111—12 ) "Little men " coul d als o b e instrument s o f torture , "littl e Flechsigs , littl e von W . ' s , " constantl y interferin g wit h hi s eye s an d callin g hi m "wretch " (137). Th e multiplicit y o f forms i n whic h Schrebe r experience d interferenc e with hi s thought s b y othe r "souls " o r "rays " le d him , o r hi s voices , t o develop a colorfu l phenomenologica l vocabular y i n whic h t o describ e hi s ideational disturbances , o r "miracles." 5 I t wa s hi s inabilit y t o fre e hi s thoughts fro m th e voice s tha t Schrebe r experience d a s th e greates t torment . He use s th e clinica l ter m 'compulsiv e thinking, ' 6 Denkzwang\ t o describ e this ordeal , whic h h e understand s a s a mora l impositio n upo n hi s basi c human freedom : One ca n onl y ge t a n ide a o f th e enormous infringement of man's most primitive rights whic h compulsiv e thinkin g constitute s an d o f ho w m y patienc e wa s teste d beyond al l huma n conception , whe n on e picture s a huma n bein g behavin g t o another huma n bein g i n huma n languag e i n th e wa y tha t ray s behav e t o me to thi s day i n th e nerve-language . Imagin e a human bein g planting himsel f befor e anothe r and molestin g hi m al l da y lon g wit h unconnecte d phrase s suc h a s th e ray s us e towards m e ("I f onl y my, " "Thi s the n wa s only, " "Yo u ar e to, " etc.) . Ca n on e expect anythin g els e o f a perso n spoke n t o i n thi s manne r bu t tha t h e woul d thro w the other out of the house with a few fitting words of abuse? I also ought t o have th e right o f bein g maste r i n m y ow n hea d agains t th e intrusio n o f strangers . (275n , emphasis i n original ) These patheti c word s expres s th e essenc e o f Schreber' s difficulty — having t o b e i n hi s head , s o t o speak , withou t bein g th e maste r o f it . Al l o f Schreber's bellowin g an d poundin g upo n th e pian o wer e a wa y o f defendin g himself, a "counter-action " a s hi s physicia n states , "agains t th e hallucina tions an d disturbance s o f feeling " (270) . Quixote , too , i s sometime s re duced t o bellowin g b y th e unjus t torment s o f th e enchanter s (346—47) . "Counter-actions" suc h a s bellowin g wer e no t quit e Schreber' s onl y resource. H e di d deriv e a certai n mora l comfor t withi n hi s delusor y syste m from th e convictio n that , accordin g t o th e "Orde r o f th e World, " h e wa s i n

The Charismatic Paranoid • the righ t an d th e victi m o f a n injustic e perpetrate d b y God . Schrebe r hel d to th e ver y un-Luthera n theologica l positio n tha t th e natur e o f thing s embodies a for m o f necessit y tha t eve n Go d canno t contravene : "Whil e stil l in Flechsig' s Asylu m whe n I ha d m y firs t glimpse s o f th e miraculou s harmony o f th e Orde r o f th e World , an d als o suffere d woundin g humiliatio n and wa s dail y threatene d b y horrifyin g dangers , I coine d thi s phras e fo r th e rays: there must be an equalizing justice and it can never be tha t a morall y unblemished huma n bein g wit h fee t firmly plante d i n th e 'Orde r o f th e World' shoul d hav e t o peris h a s th e innocen t victi m o f othe r people' s sin s in th e struggl e carrie d o n agains t hi m b y hostil e powers " (214) . Schrebe r justifies himsel f i n oppositio n t o God , bu t th e fac t tha t h e mus t pu t Go d i n default cause s hi m grea t anxiety . In th e peculia r for m o f casuistr y tha t h e employ s i n exculpatio n o f God , Schreber call s upo n th e Darwinia n thinkin g whic h ha d occupie d hi s interes t before th e onse t o f hi s disease . Thi s passag e i s typica l o f hi s apologeti c

style: From the huma n poin t o f view, whic h o n the whole still dominate d m e at that time , it wa s i n consequenc e ver y natura l fo r m e t o se e m y rea l enem y onl y i n Professo r Flechsig o r hi s sou l . . . an d t o regar d a s m y natura l all y God' s omnipotence , which I imagine d onl y Professo r Flechsi g endangered ; I therefor e though t I ha d t o support i t b y al l possibl e means , eve n t o th e poin t o f self-sacrifice . I t occurre d t o me only muc h later , i n fac t onl y whil e writin g thi s essay di d i t becom e quit e clea r to me , tha t Go d Himsel f mus t hav e know n o f th e plan , i f indee d H e wa s no t th e instigator, t o commit sou l murde r o n me , an d t o hand ove r m y body i n th e manne r of a female harlot . Bu t I must a t once repeat wha t I expressed a t the end o f Chapter II, s o a s no t t o confus e othe r people' s religiou s idea s an d feelings ; howeve r abominable th e whol e pla n wa s boun d t o appea r t o me , subjectivel y speaking , I must nevertheles s acknowledg e tha t i t originate d i n tha t instinc t o f self-preserva tion, a s natura l i n Go d a s i n ever y othe r livin g being—a n instinc t whic h a s mentioned i n anothe r contex t . . . force d Go d i n specia l circumstance s t o contem plate th e destructio n no t onl y o f individua l huma n being s bu t perhap s o f whol e stars wit h al l th e create d being s upo n them . I n th e nineteent h chapte r o f th e first book o f Mose s w e ar e tol d tha t Sodo m an d Gomorra h wer e destroye d b y a rai n o f brimstone an d fire, althoug h o f their inhabitant s ther e were some, eve n thoug h ver y few, "righteous " men . Besides , i n th e whol e domai n o f th e create d world , n o on e considers i t immora l when—a s lon g a s i t doe s no t contraven e th e Orde r o f th e World—the stronge r conquer s th e weak , a peopl e o f highe r cultur e expe l fro m their abod e on e o f a lowe r culture, th e ca t eat s th e mouse , th e spide r kill s th e fly, etc. I n an y case , th e whol e ide a o f moralit y ca n aris e onl y withi n th e Orde r o f th e World, tha t i s t o sa y withi n th e natura l bon d whic h hold s Go d an d mankin d together; whereve r th e Orde r o f th e Worl d i s broken , powe r alon e counts , an d th e right o f th e stronge r i s decisive . I n m y case , mora l obliquit y la y i n Go d placin g

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176 • Chapter Seven Himself outsid e th e Orde r o f the Worl d b y which h e Himsel f mus t b e guided . . . . I am incline d t o regard th e whole development a s a matter of fate,i n which neithe r on God' s no r o n m y par t ca n ther e b e a questio n o f mora l infringement . O n th e contrary, th e Orde r o f th e Worl d reveal s it s ver y grandeu r an d magnificenc e b y denying eve n Go d Himsel f i n s o irregular a case a s min e th e mean s o f achieving a purpose contrar y t o th e Orde r o f th e World . Al l attempt s a t committin g sou l murder, a t unmanning m e for purposes contrary to the Order of the World . . . (tha t is to say for the sexua l satisfactio n o f a human being ) and late r a t destruction o f my reason, hav e failed . Fro m thi s apparentl y s o unequa l battl e betwee n on e wea k human bein g an d Go d Himself , I emerge , albei t no t withou t bitte r suffering s an d deprivations, victorious , becaus e th e Orde r of the World i s on my side. (77—79 ) Not onl y i s Schrebe r vindicate d b y th e "Orde r o f th e World, " h e i s eve n willing t o regar d al l o f th e suffering s impose d upo n hi m b y th e injustic e o f "soul murder " a s contributin g t o a n ultimat e good : "I t nee d hardl y b e sai d what incalculabl e gai n i t woul d b e fo r mankin d if , throug h m y persona l fate, particularly as it will be shaped in the future, th e foundation s o f mer e materialism an d o f haz y pantheis m woul d onc e an d fo r al l b e demolished " (79, emphasi s i n original) . Whateve r els e on e migh t wis h t o sa y abou t Schreber's delusion , i t i s superbl y mora l i n it s character . It s Quixoti c idealism ha s precisel y th e for m o f a philosophica l o r religiou s system , bu t the cor e o f delusio n i t seek s t o suppor t give s i t th e qualit y o f a parody . Indeed i t i s quit e a goo d parod y o f a familia r variet y o f moder n fait h tha t goes ou t o f it s way , a s fa r a s i t can , t o tak e int o accoun t th e result s o f the physica l an d anthropologica l science s whil e maintainin g a cor e o f religious belief . Once h e ha d regaine d th e stat e o f relativ e lucidit y i n whic h h e produce d the Memoirs, Schrebe r discovere d tha t h e ha d bee n place d unde r 'tutelage ' by th e stat e becaus e o f hi s permanen t menta l incompetence . Believin g himself full y recovered , Schrebe r petitione d t o hav e thi s tutelag e lifted , bu t to hi s surpris e i t wa s confirme d b y a decre e o f Augus t 1900 . Thi s decre e would hav e prevente d Schrebe r fro m leavin g th e asylu m an d fro m publish ing hi s Memoirs, a ste p tha t wa s oppose d b y hi s famil y fo r reason s suc cinctly state d b y Dr . Weber : When on e look s a t th e conten t o f hi s writings , an d take s int o consideratio n th e abundance o f indiscretion s relatin g t o himsel f an d other s containe d i n them , th e unembarrassed detailin g o f th e mos t doubtfu l an d aestheticall y impossibl e situa tions an d events , th e us e o f the mos t offensiv e vulga r words, etc . on e finds it quit e incomprehensible tha t a man otherwis e tactfu l an d o f fine feeling coul d propos e a n action whic h woul d compromis e hi m s o severely i n th e eyes of the public, wer e not

The Charismatic Paranoid • his whol e attitud e t o lif e pathological , an d h e unabl e t o se e thing s i n thei r prope r perspective, an d i f the tremendou s over-valuation o f his own person cause d b y lack of insigh t int o hi s illnes s ha d no t cloude d hi s appreciatio n o f th e limitation s imposed o n man b y society (283) . Such restriction s coul d no t b e accepte d b y Schrebe r whe n matter s o f th e highest seriousnes s wer e a t stake . Moreover , th e questio n o f hi s compe tency wa s t o hi m on e o f honor . Fo r thi s reaso n h e too k th e initiativ e t o appeal th e court' s decision , no t leavin g th e detail s o f th e cas e t o counse l but takin g a decisiv e par t i n th e proceeding s himself . Hi s petitio n t o th e court i s a n impassione d defens e o f hi s motives . "On e canno t miss, " h e insists, "th e mora l seriousnes s whic h pervade s m y whol e wor k an d whic h seeks n o othe r goa l bu t th e achievemen t o f truth " (308—9) . O f thi s th e cour t eventually becam e convinced , and , i n th e ligh t o f Schreber' s brillian t handling o f hi s ow n cas e agains t th e oppositio n o f th e publi c prosecutor , i t declared hi m competen t t o liv e i n societ y an d manag e hi s ow n affair s eve n though i t recognize d tha t h e wa s clearl y insane. 6 Schreber's appea l t o th e court , a documen t a s remarkabl e i n it s wa y a s the Memoirs, adopt s a doubl e strategy. 7 Schrebe r begin s b y attackin g th e problem o f his delusion s hea d on , portrayin g th e differenc e betwee n himsel f and hi s physicia n a s a typica l conflic t betwee n rationalis m an d faith . Th e medical reports , Schrebe r complains , "star t a prior i fro m th e taci t assump tion tha t everythin g I reporte d i n m y Memoir s o r otherwis e mentione d abou t the connectio n whic h ha s arise n betwee n Go d an d myself , a s wel l a s abou t divine miracle s whic h happe n t o m y person , rest s onl y o n pathologica l imaginings. I f I wante d t o giv e expressio n t o m y tru e feeling s o n thi s poin t of vie w I coul d onl y d o i t wit h Huss ' cr y t o th e wretche d peasant s wh o wer e carrying woo d t o hi s funera l pyre : 0 sancta simplicitas!" (289) . Th e sourc e of hi s assertions , h e goe s o n t o say , i s "no t persona l vanit y no r morbi d megalomania" bu t a genuin e religiou s insigh t (289) . On e canno t loc k u p al l religious believer s a s i f the y wer e mad . Schreber continue s b y offerin g a numbe r o f empirica l proof s tha t hi s body ha d bee n th e scen e o f constan t miracle s fo r whic h scienc e ca n giv e no explanation : th e remarkabl e numbe r o f broken string s t o which hi s pian o was subject , th e compulsivenes s o f hi s bellowing , whic h h e believe d t o b e unique i n huma n experience , th e compulsiv e grimace s t o whic h hi s fac e was susceptible , an d th e physica l transformatio n o f hi s bod y int o tha t o f a woman (290—95) . Finally , Schrebe r resort s t o a kin d o f credo quia absurdum wit h referenc e t o hi s delusio n itself :

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178 • Chapter Seven I would the n welcom e th e exper t opinio n o f men o f science i n th e mentione d fields so a s t o ascertai n whethe r i t i s probable , eve n psychologicall y possible , tha t a human bein g of cool and sobe r mind a s I used t o be i n the eyes of all who knew m e in m y earlier life , an d beside s a human bein g who . . . did not have a firm belief in God and the immortality of the soul before hi s illness , shoul d hav e sucked from his fingers s o to speak th e whole complicated structur e o f ideas with it s enormous mas s of factual detail. " (296, emphasi s i n original ) Schreber stand s i n wonde r a t th e extravaganc e o f hi s ow n creation . It wa s no t th e polemica l thrus t o f Schreber' s appea l tha t i s likel y t o hav e swayed th e court , bu t rathe r th e secon d par t o f hi s apology , i n whic h h e addressed th e essentia l issu e a t law—tha t o f whethe r hi s psychologica l state woul d impai r hi s handlin g o f practical affairs . Her e th e medica l exper t had cautione d tha t th e foundatio n o f Schreber' s thinkin g i n delusio n mad e him fundamentall y unpredictable . Bu t Schrebe r convince d th e cour t wit h his perfec t tac t i n mitigatin g th e practica l consequence s arisin g fro m hi s illness tha t h e wa s indee d th e maste r o f hi s affairs . A s fo r th e damag e t o his reputatio n tha t Webe r feare d fro m th e publicatio n o f th e Memoirs, Schreber countere d wit h devastatin g goo d sens e tha t th e fea r o f bein g thought ma d coul d b e n o motiv e fo r incarceratin g hi m when , a s lon g a s h e was incarcerated , peopl e woul d naturall y conside r hi m ma d i n an y case . Schreber, furthermore , demonstrate d a magisteria l confidenc e tha t hi s Memoirs woul d mak e thei r impac t withou t an y exertion s upo n hi s part : "I n this m y poin t o f vie w i s lik e Luther's : 'I f i t i s man' s wor k i t wil l perish ; i f i t is th e wor k o f Go d i t wil l last ' " (302) . The Judg e disdain s th e ide a tha t hi s religiou s conviction s coul d hav e any influenc e upo n hi s conduc t o f th e practica l affair s o f life : " I coul d eve n say wit h Jesu s Christ : 'M y kingdo m i s no t o f thi s world' ; m y so-calle d delusions ar e concerne d solel y wit h Go d an d th e beyond ; the y can therefor e never in any way influence my behavior i n an y worldl y matter " (301) . S o deft wa s Schreber' s handlin g o f hi s ow n case , showin g indee d th e lega l mind whic h ha d brough t hi m suc h remarkabl e succes s befor e th e onse t o f his illness , tha t th e cour t foun d i t necessar y t o pa y hi m tribute : Dr. Schreber' s intellectua l power s an d th e clarit y o f hi s thinkin g ha d in no way suffered b y his illness . Th e way he personall y too k u p the fight against th e tutelag e under whic h h e wa s place d an d ho w h e carrie d i t throug h accordin g t o plan , th e acuity o f the logical an d juristical operation s developed b y him, th e reasonablenes s with whic h h e conducte d himself , an d las t bu t no t leas t th e refine d measure d attitude h e showe d whe n i n opposition t o the medica l exper t an d th e Prosecutor — all this affords indisputabl e proo f that i n this field plaintiff ha s no need of protection by a guardian; rather i n conducting hi s case h e was able to preserve hi s interests t o

The Charismatic Paranoid • the ful l an d independently , bette r indee d tha n anybod y els e coul d hav e don e i t i n his place. (347 ) After thi s success , Schrebe r wa s abl e t o retur n t o privat e lif e an d t o carry throug h hi s plan s fo r th e publicatio n o f th e Memoirs i n a versio n somewhat expurgate d wit h regar d t o matter s involvin g hi s family . I t i s thanks t o Schreber' s effort s alon e tha t w e posses s tha t remarkabl e docu ment, writte n unde r condition s o f th e severes t distraction , publishe d ove r the objection s o f hi s famil y an d o f th e stat e fro m whos e custod y th e autho r had firs t t o secur e hi s ow n freedom. 8

Freud and Schreber In th e medica l repor t i n whic h h e attempt s t o establis h Judg e Schreber' s insanity an d probabl e unfitnes s t o conduc t hi s affairs , Dr . Webe r denie s Schreber's contentio n tha t th e disagreemen t betwee n the m wa s a disagree ment betwee n rationalis m an d faith : i t wa s no t th e characte r o f Schreber' s beliefs tha t mad e the m aberran t bu t th e manne r i n whic h h e ha d acquire d them, goin g precipitatel y fro m agnosti c t o savio r durin g a phas e o f extrem e psychological dysfunction . Schrebe r ha d alread y raise d an d refute d thi s argument; h e neve r denie d tha t h e ha d bee n ill , onl y insiste d tha t th e fac t of hi s illnes s di d no t discredi t th e insight s h e ha d gaine d (223—24) . Dr . Weber als o take s u p poin t b y poin t th e empirica l evidenc e supportin g Schreber's claim s tha t hi s bod y wa s acquirin g feminin e features , tha t hi s bellowings an d othe r symptom s wer e uniqu e i n huma n history , an d s o o n (319-22). Her e Webe r i s o n soli d ground ; Schreber' s theolog y wa s subjec t to refutatio n onl y t o th e degre e tha t i t appeale d t o factua l demonstration . Freud too k u p th e cas e o f Schrebe r solel y upo n th e basi s o f th e memoir . He di d no t lik e dealin g directl y wit h psychotic s an d refuse d t o trea t them. 9 This wa s hi s onl y extende d discussio n o f a cas e o f psychoti c disturbance . Unlike Dr . Weber , an d unlik e th e cour t tha t ha d give n Schrebe r hi s release, Freu d considere d tha t th e illnes s tha t afflicte d th e Judg e ha d terminated "i n somethin g approximatin g a recovery, " attributin g thi s achievement o n Schreber' s par t t o th e fac t tha t "hi s father-comple x wa s i n the mai n positivel y tone d an d tha t i n rea l lif e th e late r year s o f hi s relationship wit h a n excellen t fathe r ha d probabl y bee n unclouded " (78) . In a n essa y writte n twelv e year s afte r th e cas e histor y o f Schreber , Freu d gives a n eve n mor e remarkabl e endorsemen t o f Schreber' s menta l health , citing th e "almos t complet e recovery " tha t occurre d onc e th e Judg e wa s

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180 • Chapter Seven able t o giv e himsel f ove r t o wha t Freu d interprete d a s fantasie s o f bein g castrated an d o f becomin g a woma n i n relatio n t o hi s father : President Schreber' s recover y too k it s star t fro m hi s decisio n t o abando n al l opposition t o hi s castratio n an d t o accommodat e himsel f t o th e feminin e rol e designed fo r hi m b y God . Followin g upo n this , h e becam e cal m an d clea r i n hi s mind, wa s able himsel f t o arrange hi s dismissa l fro m th e asylum , an d le d a norma l life, wit h th e exceptio n tha t h e devote d som e hour s ever y da y t o the cultivatio n o f his womanliness , remainin g convince d tha t i t woul d graduall y matur e t o th e final achievement o f God's purpose. 10 The ton e i s whimsical , quixotic . I n Sigmun d Freud , Schrebe r ha d foun d a powerfu l champion , fo r i n al l o f Freud' s writin g abou t th e subjec t ther e speaks a n irrepressibl e admiratio n fo r "th e wonderfu l Schreber , wh o ough t to hav e bee n mad e a professo r o f psychiatr y an d directo r o f a menta l hospital." 1 1 Give n Freud' s extraordinar y respect , an d eve n affection , fo r the paranoi d memoirist , a sentimen t concurren t wit h hi s satiri c bent , i t i s not t o b e expecte d tha t w e ar e goin g t o find her e th e ke y t o th e distinctio n between paranoi d an d ordinar y thinking . Suc h a distinctio n woul d b e a relief fro m heroi c iron y an d therefor e foreig n bot h t o Freud' s personalit y and t o th e natur e o f psychoanalyti c rhetoric . Schrebe r denie d tha t h e wa s mad becaus e h e kne w tha t h e wa s righ t abou t Go d an d hi s enemies . Freu d denied tha t Schrebe r wa s entirel y ma d becaus e h e wa s no t fundamentall y more delude d tha n othe r me n an d becaus e h e coul d describ e hi s ow n delusion wit h a scientist' s precision . Freud' s essa y o n Schreber , whic h starts ou t a s a n attemp t t o defin e th e paranoi d condition , find it s distin guishing symptoms , an d diagnos e it s causes , finally evade s th e proble m o f definition i n favo r o f satiri c an d comica l identificatio n wit h th e paranoi d himself. I hav e alread y se t ou t th e basi c element s o f Freud' s psycholog y o f paranoia i n m y discussion s o f th e Quixote. Th e roo t motiv e o f th e problem , according t o Freud , lie s i n a n originall y narcissisti c homosexua l wis h tha t must b e represse d fro m consciousness . I n th e cas e o f Schreber , th e objec t of th e wis h wa s hi s ow n father , wh o appear s i n hi s delusor y syste m dis guised a s hi s forme r doctor , Flechsig , an d a s God . Th e necessit y b y whic h the "Orde r o f th e World " demand s tha t Schrebe r becom e a woma n an d tha t he shoul d preoccup y th e sexua l interes t o f Go d throug h hi s "nerv e rays " masks Schreber' s tru e wis h tha t thes e thing s shoul d b e s o wit h referenc e t o his father. 12 The presenc e o f th e represse d homosexua l motiv e ma y b e a n importan t component i n Freud' s conceptio n o f paranoi a bu t i t canno t b e th e definin g

The Charismatic Paranoid • symptom; i t occur s i n othe r illnesse s a s wel l an d als o i n th e psycholog y o f those wh o ar e no t ill . I n searc h o f th e distinguishin g mark s o f paranoia , then, Freu d first turn s hi s attentio n t o th e mechanism s b y whic h th e paranoid symptom s ar e formed . Th e mos t strikin g o f these , a s w e hav e seen, i s 'projection' : "A n interna l proces s i s suppressed , and , instead , it s content, afte r undergoin g a certai n kin d o f distortion , enter s consciousnes s in th e for m o f a n externa l perception . I n delusion s o f persecutio n th e distortion consist s i n a transformatio n o f affect ; wha t shoul d hav e bee n fel t internally a s lov e i s perceive d externall y a s hate " (66) . Projectio n seem s t o be a likel y candidat e fo r th e identifying , 'pathognomonic ' sympto m o f paranoia; i t ha d bee n Freud' s first candidat e t o pla y tha t role , a s w e ca n see fro m hi s earl y letter s t o Fliess; 1 3 bu t no w Freu d reflect s tha t i t i s no t present i n al l case s an d tha t it , too , exercise s a rol e i n norma l functioning : "For whe n w e refe r cause s o f certai n sensation s t o th e externa l world , instead o f lookin g fo r them , a s i n othe r cases , within , thi s norma l proceed ing i s projection " (66) . Projection , fa r fro m bein g a sig n o f paranoia , i s indispensable fo r everyda y life . Her e onc e agai n i s th e essentia l satiricall y reductive positivis t gesture . Faced wit h thi s obstacle , Freu d abandon s th e pat h o f th e symptoms , making a promise—unkept—t o tak e u p th e subjec t elsewhere , an d turn s to th e mechanism s b y whic h th e paranoid' s repressio n i s brough t about . H e divides th e proces s int o thre e parts : 'fixation' , th e laggin g behin d o f a n instinctual componen t a t a n earlie r stag e o f developmen t tha n th e rest ; 'repression' proper , a n activ e exclusio n fro m consciousnes s b y th e eg o o f the no w aversiv e trends ; an d finally, 'irruption' , o r th e 'retur n o f th e repressed', whic h bring s abou t a retrograd e movemen t t o th e poin t o f fixation (67—68) . Freu d suggest s tha t jus t a s ther e ar e multipl e point s o f development a t whic h th e libid o ma y becom e fixated, s o ther e ma y b e a similar multiplicit y i n th e mechanism s o f repression an d irruption . Paranoi a offers a n especiall y dramati c withdrawa l an d 'retur n o f th e repressed' , fo r the worl d o f th e paranoi d actuall y seem s t o disappear , t o b e annihilate d o r reduced t o mer e appearance . Schrebe r believe d tha t th e peopl e an d thing s around hi m wer e contrive d b y God , "miracle d u p " ("angewundert") , "fleet ingly improvised " ("fliichti g hingemachte" ) t o concea l th e "destructio n o f the world " ("Weltuntergang") . H e ha d arrive d throug h th e proces s o f delu sion a t a perfec t Berkeleya n solipsis m an d occasionalism. 14 Th e "end-of the-world phenomenon " i s cause d b y a tota l withdrawa l o f libid o int o th e ego an d a correspondin g regressio n t o the narcissisti c stag e o f development . Elsewhere Freu d compare s thi s withdrawa l t o a n amoeb a retractin g it s

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182 • Chapter Seven pseudopodia. 1 5 I t occur s "silently" : "w e receiv e n o intelligenc e o f it , bu t can onl y infe r i t fro m subsequen t events . Wha t force s itsel f s o noisil y upo n our attentio n i s th e proces s o f recovery , whic h undoe s th e wor k o f repres sion an d bring s bac k th e libid o agai n o n t o th e peopl e i t ha d abandoned " (71). Thi s i s th e 'retur n o f th e repressed' , an d i t occur s i n th e for m o f a delusion , thoug h i t i s actuall y a n attemp t a t recovery , " a proces s o f reconstruction" i n whic h th e paranoi d rebuild s ane w th e worl d tha t ha s been destroyed . By dividin g th e proces s o f repression i n it s tempora l dimension , separat ing fixation , repression , an d return , Freu d endeavore d t o distinguis h th e disruptive an d re-integrativ e aspect s o f th e disease . Thi s strateg y wa s no t without it s awkwardness , fo r i n Schreber' s cas e th e delusion s o f persecutio n had develope d befor e th e destructio n o f th e world , no t subsequentl y a s th e theory requires . Th e proces s o f rebuildin g seem s t o hav e actuall y precede d the catastrophe . Freu d save s appearance s wit h a se t o f stage s i n whic h "partial detachments " occu r i n a comple x serie s o f militar y engagement s between Schreber' s fixation s an d resistances , unti l th e "force s o f repres sion" achiev e a fina l "victory " i n th e annihilatio n o f th e world , leavin g th e self t o stan d a s th e lon e survivo r (72—73) . Wha t w e ar e lef t wit h a t th e en d of al l thi s i s tha t th e paranoi d make s a peculia r choic e o f fixation—a t th e narcissistic stage—an d tha t th e mean s o f repression an d retur n ar e equall y peculiar an d distinc t fro m thos e o f othe r neurotics . Bu t ther e i s littl e t o help u s i n distinguishin g jus t wha t i n th e paranoid' s manne r o f though t makes hi m differen t fro m thos e wh o ar e no t paranoid. 1 6 Th e syste m o f delusions b y whic h Schrebe r achieve s th e 'retur n o f th e repressed ' doe s no t itself see m t o hav e a pathologica l character . I t represent s a n attemp t t o make sens e ou t o f hi s experienc e give n th e presenc e o f certai n alie n elements i n consciousness . I t hardl y seem s differen t fro m othe r narcissisti c 'projections' o r 'secondar y revisions' . W e ar e n o close r tha n w e wer e wit h Dr. Weber' s simpl e categorica l diagnosi s i n accomplishin g th e tas k o f distinguishing wha t make s a person' s thinkin g proces s deserv e th e labe l o f paranoia. Al l w e hav e i s th e inferre d cataclysmi c event , th e 'end-of-the world phenomenon' , an d th e reconstructio n o r syste m o f delusio n tha t succeeds it , preservin g th e effect s o f th e "profoun d interna l change " i n th e form o f hostil e projections . There i s on e passag e i n Freud' s essay , however , tha t doe s hel p u s t o situate hi m a littl e mor e precisel y wit h regar d t o th e 'end-of-the-worl d phenomenon'. I n nee d o f a n illustratio n fo r th e natur e o f th e paranoid' s world-annihilating gestur e o f withdrawa l int o delusion , Freu d turn s no t t o

The Charismatic Paranoid • the annal s o f medicine bu t t o hi s favorit e wor k o f literature , Goethe' s Faust. We hav e alread y observe d Freud' s dee p affinit y wit h thi s work , whos e mai n character i s th e epitom e o f th e moder n her o an d hi s characteristicall y modern paranoi d problem—tha t o f accommodatin g heroi c urge s withi n th e banal realit y o f scientifi c an d bourgeoi s culture . W e hav e see n tha t Freu d invoked Faust' s "I n th e Beginnin g wa s th e Deed " i n orde r t o emphasize , i n the las t sentenc e o f Totem and Taboo, th e historica l authenticit y o f th e primal crime . Th e lin e i s draw n fro m a n earl y scen e i n Goethe' s drama , i n which Faust , attemptin g t o rewrit e th e Gospel , move s fro m "I n th e Begin ning wa s th e Word " t o "I n th e Beginnin g wa s th e Sense " t o "I n th e Beginning wa s th e Force " t o "I n th e Beginnin g wa s th e Deed " (1224—37) . In doin g s o h e traverse s th e pat h fro m Johanin e logos-theolog y throug h Enlightenment empiricis m an d mechanis t dynamic s t o the Romanti c philos ophy o f will . B y suc h a movement , Freu d suggests , th e prima l brother s freed themselve s fro m th e idealis m o f narcissisti c enthrallmen t i n orde r t o attain th e realit y o f action . I n hi s discussio n o f Schreber , Freu d refer s t o a similar Faustia n moment . I n Ac t On e o f Faust, jus t befor e enterin g hi s pac t with Mephistopheles , Faus t make s anothe r gestur e o f liberation , utterin g the followin g curse : My curse I hurl o n all tha t spangle s The mind with dazzling make-belief , With lie s and blandishment s entangle s The sou l within thi s cave of grief! Accursed, t o start, th e smu g delusio n Whereby th e min d itsel f ensnares ! Cursed, bras h phenomena l intrusio n That blind s the senses unawares ! Cursed, wha t i n lying dreams assure s u s Of name and glor y pas t th e grave! Cursed, prid e of ownership tha t lure s u s Through wif e an d children , plo w and slave ! Accursed b y Mammon, whe n hi s treasur e To deeds o f daring egg s us on, For idle self-indulgent leisur e Spreads a luxurious divan ! Cursed b e the balsa m o f the grape ! Cursed, highes t priz e of lovers' thrall! A curse on faith! A curse on hope! A curse on patience, abov e all ! (1587—1606) In thi s famou s passage , Faus t agai n reenact s th e Enlightenment' s anni hilation o f traditional , religious , an d metaphysica l cultur e an d a t th e sam e

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184 • Chapter Seven time curse s th e results : th e min d recognize s itsel f a s a slav e o f "make belief," o f "smug " self-delusion ; i t recognize s th e phenomen a o f the natura l world a s n o mor e tha n a sourc e o f distractio n an d confusion ; and , give n these recognitions , heroism , famil y life , love , eve n gree d an d intoxicatio n lose thei r allure , no r ca n th e Christia n virtue s offe r consolation . Suc h i s th e disenchantment o f th e moder n world . Faust' s curs e doe s no t aris e ou t o f mere psychologica l distress . I t expresse s th e cause s o f tha t distress , and , indeed, i t seek s t o maste r the m b y embracin g th e impoverishmen t o f th e world wit h a destructiv e movemen t o f th e will . It s desperat e hop e i s t o se t itself abov e destructio n b y a mor e tota l destruction . A s Faus t s o Freud . It i s th e nex t even t o f th e poe m tha t Freu d invoke s i n hi s discussio n o f the cas e o f Schreber , quotin g th e respons e o f th e choru s o f spirit s t o th e Faustian "Curse s whic h fre e hi m fro m th e world" : Woe! Woe: You have destroyed it , The beautifu l world , With might y fist; It crumbles scattered , By a demigod shattered .

............................ Mighty on e Of the earth's sons , In splendo r perfec t it , see i t re won,

In your own breast re-erec t it ! (1607—12, 1617—21 ) "And th e paranoi d build s i t again , no t mor e splendid , i t i s true, " Freu d goes o n t o say , "bu t a t leas t s o tha t h e ca n onc e mor e liv e i n it . H e build s it u p b y th e wor k o f hi s delusions " (70—71) . A s Faus t an d th e moder n psyche, s o th e paranoid . A t a late r poin t i n th e essay , Freu d note s tha t w e are constantl y detachin g libid o fro m peopl e an d object s withou t fallin g ill . Faust's curse , h e says , resulte d no t i n paranoi a no r i n neurosi s bu t "simpl y in a certai n genera l fram e o f mind " (72) . Thi s "genera l fram e o f mind " ("eine besonder e psychisch e Gesamtstimmung") 1 7 i s non e othe r tha n tha t of moder n Romanti c an d psychologica l cultur e itself . I t ha s com e abou t b y a historica l proces s o f negatio n an d reconstructio n identica l t o wha t i s described i n Freud' s accoun t o f paranoia . I t i s thi s histor y that , i n psycho analytic theory , i s recapitulate d i n th e developmen t o f th e individual . The even t o f cosmi c destructio n t o whic h th e paranoid' s withdrawa l give s testimony wa s a rea l historica l even t locate d a t th e beginnin g o f th e moder n

The Charismatic Paranoid • movement, an d th e 'system ' tha t h e project s i n orde r t o replac e tha t worl d is non e othe r tha n th e interio r reconstructio n o f th e cosmo s achieve d i n Romantic subjectivism , a reconstructio n permeate d wit h an d grounde d i n suspicion. Th e word s Freu d addresse s t o th e conditio n o f th e paranoid , then, migh t b e applie d t o th e edific e o f Romanti c cultur e a s a whole : Such a reconstructio n afte r th e catastroph e i s successfu l t o a greate r o r lesse r extent, bu t neve r wholly so; in Schreber's words , there has been a profound interna l change i n th e world . Bu t th e huma n subjec t ha s recapture d a relation, an d ofte n a very intens e one , t o the people an d thing s i n the world, eve n thoug h tha t relatio n i s a hostil e one now, wher e formerly i t was hopefully affectionate . (71 ) It woul d b e impossibl e t o demonstrate mor e vividl y m y 'psycho-historica l law' tha t th e idea s o f development i n Freudia n psycholog y involv e a recapit ulation no t o f a foundationa l huma n experienc e o f maturin g bu t o f episode s in th e histor y o f moder n culture . Freud wa s awar e tha t th e essa y o n Schrebe r wa s somewha t inconclusive , a fac t reflecte d i n th e titl e o f th e work , "Psycho-Analyti c Note s o n a n Autobiographical Accoun t o f a Cas e o f Paranoi a (Dementi a Paranoides). " Making comica l us e o f Schreberia n language , h e explaine d t o Jung , hi s close collaborato r a t th e time , tha t "th e piec e i s formall y imperfect , fleetingly improvised, I ha d neithe r tim e no r strengt h t o d o more." 1 8 Perhap s i t was thi s sens e o f incompletenes s whic h le d Freu d t o th e unusua l dramati c flourish tha t bring s th e essa y t o a clos e when , havin g describe d th e flagrant profusions o f Schreber' s paranoi d fantasy , th e psychoanalys t step s forwar d to admi t th e similaritie s betwee n paranoi d thinkin g an d hi s ow n theory. 19 One o f th e singula r feature s o f Schreber' s system , Freu d observes , i s tha t the spiritua l transaction s tha t tak e plac e betwee n Schreber , othe r souls , and Go d hav e a characte r oddl y physical , eve n sexua l (45) . The y occu r through th e mediu m o f "nerv e rays, " o r "ray s o f God, " whic h ar e o f th e same natur e i n huma n being s an d i n God . Th e powe r o f "Blessedness " o r "voluptuousness" i n th e nerve s o f th e huma n bod y exert s suc h attractio n that a t time s eve n Go d become s vulnerabl e t o them . Th e similarit y wit h psychoanalytic doctrin e give s occasio n t o th e followin g remarks : Since I neither fear th e criticism o f others no r shrink fro m criticizin g myself , I have no motiv e fo r avoidin g th e mentio n o f a similarit y whic h ma y possibl y damag e ou r libido theor y i n th e estimatio n o f man y o f m y readers . Schreber' s "ray s o f God, " which ar e mad e u p o f a condensatio n o f th e sun' s rays , o f nerve-fibers , an d o f spermatozoa, ar e i n reality nothin g else than a concrete representatio n an d externa l projection o f libidinal cathexes ; and the y thu s len d hi s delusions a striking similar ity wit h ou r theory . Hi s belie f tha t th e worl d mus t com e t o an en d becaus e hi s eg o

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186 • Chapter Seven was attracting all the rays to itself, hi s anxious concern a t a later period, durin g th e process o f reconstruction , les t Go d shoul d seve r hi s ray-connectio n wit h him, — these an d man y othe r detail s o f Schreber' s delusiona l formatio n soun d almos t lik e endopsychic perception s o f the processe s whos e existence I have assume d i n thes e pages a s th e basi s o f ou r explanatio n o f paranoia . I ca n nevertheles s cal l a frien d and fellow-specialis t t o witness that I had develope d m y theory o f paranoia befor e I became acquainte d wit h th e content s o f Schreber' s book . I t remain s fo r th e futur e to decide whethe r ther e i s mor e delusio n i n m y theory tha n I should lik e t o admit , or whether ther e i s mor e trut h i n Schreber' s delusio n tha n othe r peopl e ar e a s ye t prepared t o believe. (78—79 ) This passag e show s Freu d a t hi s witties t an d wiliest , strikin g th e attitud e of th e fearles s knigh t o f trut h wh o spare s himsel f n o embarrassmen t i n hi s scientific quest ; the n maintainin g hi s dignit y throug h th e fantasti c parad e of Schreber' s vocabulary ; offerin g a witnes s a s t o hi s priorit y o f discover y over Schreber ; an d finally, wit h a humorou s equability , leavin g i t t o th e future t o decid e matter s betwee n th e brillian t paranoi d an d himself . Freu d does no t b y an y mean s discourag e th e perceptio n tha t hi s theor y resemble s a paranoi d fantasy . H e i s concerne d onl y abou t hi s clai m t o precedence . The offe r t o summo n witnesse s i s mad e wit h som e seriousness : Freu d coul d never resis t a challeng e t o hi s originality . I n thi s case , th e fac t tha t h e rise s to th e challeng e ha s th e unusua l effec t o f certifyin g th e paranoi d a s a riva l thinker grapplin g wit h th e sam e problem s a s himself . Onc e Freu d ha d asserted th e priorit y o f hi s insights , th e fac t tha t the y resemble d Schreber' s delusory structure s onl y serve d i n hi s min d t o confir m them . I hav e mentione d tha t Freu d pai d a complimen t t o animis m a s th e mos t complete psychologica l syste m o f explanation . Th e paranoi d share s th e animist's uninhibite d projectio n o f narcissisti c structures , an d thi s give s t o his 'endopsychi c perceptions ' a n opportun e completenes s lik e tha t o f th e animist. I n makin g a poin t o f th e similarit y betwee n hi s thinkin g an d Schreber's, Freu d wa s thu s payin g himsel f a n ironi c compliment . I t wa s a s much a s t o sa y tha t h e ha d heede d th e "cal l t o introspection " t o th e degre e that h e coul d se e a s full y withi n wha t th e animis t an d th e paranoi d coul d project without ; h e ha d achieve d fo r himsel f th e translatio n o f external , narcissistic cultur e int o psychologica l terms . Freud's willingnes s t o presen t th e paranoid' s insight s o n somethin g lik e an equa l footin g wit h psychoanalysis , hi s acceptanc e o f Schrebe r a s mor e or les s cured , an d hi s wis h tha t Schrebe r coul d hav e a clini c o f hi s own , al l of thi s ha s a distinctl y humorous , fantasti c quality. 2 0 I t i s certainl y no t what i s normall y expecte d o f a scientist . Bu t th e iron y tha t run s throug h these cunnin g passage s is , indeed , wha t w e woul d no w expec t give n wha t

The Charismatic Paranoid • we hav e see n t o b e th e generall y reductiv e an d satirica l characte r o f psychoanalytic thinking . Psychoanalysi s tell s u s tha t thing s ar e no t wha t they seem , an d thi s recognitio n carrie s wit h i t alway s a n irony . Freu d explained th e geniu s o f Leonard o d a Vinc i b y purportin g t o uncove r hi s sublimated homosexualit y an d narcissisti c investments . Th e paranoi d Schreber, himsel f somethin g o f a genius , i s foun d t o exhibi t th e sam e tendencies onl y wit h a differen t outcome . An d s o to o wit h Freud . Al l o f them ar e subjec t t o th e workin g o f th e sam e hidde n forces , th e sam e unconscious pattern s an d displacements . Th e powe r o f th e psychoanalyti c model reside s i n it s conques t o f th e norma l an d th e psychoti c usin g th e very sam e terms . Schreber, lik e Quixote , i s a hero . H e i s a her o withou t a world , a her o who ha s ha d t o "miracl e u p " hi s world , bu t h e maintain s a hero' s self possession eve n amids t hi s delusions . Thi s i s wha t make s hi m a powerfu l instrument i n th e hand s o f Freud . Freud' s satiri c victor y lie s i n hi s abilit y to eras e th e psychologica l differenc e tha t separate s Schrebe r fro m ordinar y heroes. I n orde r fo r th e psychoanalyti c victor y t o b e complete , eve n Schreber's likenes s wit h Freu d mus t b e acknowledged . Bu t alon g wit h th e slightly maliciou s gle e eviden t i n Freud' s remarks , th e sens e o f triump h over officia l psychiatry , fo r instance , whic h make s Freu d wan t t o instal l Schreber a t th e hea d o f hi s ow n menta l hospital , ther e i s anothe r distinctiv e tone, a comica l grandiosit y distinctl y Quixoti c i n flavor. Th e comica l gran deur o f th e paranoi d shed s a reflecte d glor y upo n hi s psychoanalyti c student. It i s eviden t fro m Freud' s correspondenc e tha t Jun g wa s th e idea l audi ence o f th e essa y o n paranoia , an d it s autho r coul d no t hav e bee n disap pointed wit h th e enviou s reactio n o f hi s colleague : "Onl y no w tha t I hav e the galley s ca n I enjo y you r Schreber . I t i s no t onl y uproariousl y funn y bu t brilliantly writte n a s well." 2 1 Jun g wa s wel l prepare d fo r th e humorou s spirit o f thi s "fleetingl y improvised " document . Th e comica l resource s o f Schreberian herois m ha d bee n a stapl e o f hi s correspondenc e wit h Freu d for som e time . Durin g th e perio d o f Freud' s wor k o n paranoia , w e find th e two researcher s adoptin g th e "Grundsprache, " Schreber' s "basi c lan guage," a s a privat e idio m i n whic h the y coul d shar e thei r sens e o f superior ity ove r thei r critics , competitors , an d colleagues . I n Freud' s employment , the "basi c language " ca n b e cleverl y witty ; writin g t o Jung o n vacatio n fro m Lake Constance , h e confides : "Sinc e I ca n n o longe r ge t alon g wit h Bleule r at al l afte r havin g abjure d hi s fait h i n abstinence , I hav e instructe d Bins wanger t o maintai n th e necessar y nerve-contact an d soun d al l thos e conche s

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188 • Chapter Seven that migh t allur e Bleuler " (342) . Th e "basi c language " ca n b e crudel y derisive, a s applie d t o a criti c wh o ha d compare d th e Freudian s wit h Bottom i n A Midsummer Night's Dream awakin g fro m hi s drea m t o fin d himself wit h th e hea d o f a n ass : "Hi s unconsciou s a t leas t know s thi s much, tha t Puc k ha s alread y i miracled> th e ass' s hea d o n t o Ziehe n an d Oppenheim" (307) . Mos t strikingly , th e "basi c language " provide s a sly , malicious mediu m fo r adolescen t comment s o n th e romanti c lif e o f a clos e collaborator, Pfister , abou t whos e liaiso n Freu d comments : "I t s o happen s that 'a bird loaded with corpse poison ha s bee n miracled up int o existence , which a s th e rule s requir e bear s a girl' s nam e an d i s gentl y lurin g hi m int o the way s o f th e ungodly . I kno w thi s charmin g littl e bird . Bu t i t seem s tha t she onl y want s t o lur e hi m ou t o f hi s cage , no t t o marr y him . Still , th e mai n thing i s t o lur e hi m out . I f sh e succeeds , Pfiste r ca n coun t himsel f happy " (450). I t i s remarkabl e ho w adolescen t an d strang e th e behavio r o f th e founder o f psychoanalysi s an d hi s "successo r crown-prince " coul d stil l b e regarding wome n an d sex . Freud's us e o f Schreberia n resource s ha s a causti c qualit y distinctl y ou t of keeping , i t mus t b e noted , wit h Schreber' s gentl e manners . I n fact , thes e deployments o f th e "basi c language " al l hav e wha t Freu d i n hi s theor y o f wit call s a 'tendentious ' aspect : thei r impac t a s humo r i s intensifie d b y th e animus o f th e tw o scientist s agains t thei r adversarie s an d thei r sens e o f superiority towar d thei r friends . Th e "basi c language " serve s fo r Freu d an d Jung jus t th e sam e functio n a s th e Cervantin e pastich e o f th e Academi e Espanola serve d fo r th e adolescen t Freu d an d hi s frien d Silberstein , provid ing a grandios e mod e o f secre t complicity , a preciou s foli e a deux . A s th e Cervantine pastich e furnishe d a mode l fo r th e languag e o f psychoanalysis , the "basi c language " wa s it s comi c double . A t thi s poin t i n th e relationshi p of Freu d an d Jung , th e vocabular y an d theor y o f psychoanalysi s ha d be come a groun d o f struggl e betwee n th e tw o men , a comple x symboli c expression o f thei r sens e o f competition. 22 Th e "basi c language " provide d humorous relie f fro m th e aggressive , reductiv e characte r o f th e orthodo x vocabulary, which , a s Jun g himsel f cam e t o feel, wa s ofte n a cover t vehicl e of attack. 2 3 I n anothe r letter , Freud , speakin g i n a "grandfatherly " capac ity, advise s Jun g no t t o b e to o har d o n hi s pupi l Honegger : It i s unreasonable o f you, I think, t o expect hi s working methods t o be as indepen dent o f th e huma n libid o a s yours : w e agre e tha t h e belong s t o a late r generation , that h e ha s ha d littl e experienc e o f lov e thu s far , an d i s i n genera l o f softe r stuf f than you . W e woul d no t wan t hi m t o b e a cop y o f yourself . H e wil l b e fa r mor e

The Charismatic Paranoid • useful t o yo u a s h e is . H e possesse s a fine receptivity , psychologica l flair, an d a good sense o f the "basi c language. " (327, emphasi s i n original ) Jung's response s sho w a les s comica l enthusias m an d a mor e piou s infatuation wit h th e paranoi d idiom : I wa s touche d an d overjoye d t o lear n ho w muc h yo u appreciat e th e greatnes s o f Schreber's min d an d th e liberatin g Cepol \6yoi [sacre d words ] o f th e basi c language. I a m stil l ver y intrigue d b y th e fat e o f thos e unfortunat e corp s brother s who wer e miracled up to the skies an d ar e describe d a s "those suspended under Cassiopeia." Th e Manichaean s (Schreber' s godfathers? ) hi t o n th e ide a tha t a number of demons or "archons" were crucified on , o r affixed to , the vault of heaven and wer e the fathers o f human beings . (356 , emphasi s i n original ) Freud responds , " I shar e you r enthusias m fo r Schreber ; i t i s a kin d o f revelation. I pla n t o introduc e 'basi c language ' a s a seriou s technica l term—meaning th e origina l wordin g o f a delusiona l ide a whic h conscious ness . . . experience s onl y i n distorte d form " (358) . Freu d neve r carrie d out thi s intention . Bu t obviousl y h e foun d th e "hiero i logoi " o f th e basi c language n o les s "liberating " tha n di d hi s colleague . It would , o f course , b e possibl e t o interpre t Freud' s infatuatio n wit h Schreberian herois m i n psychoanalyti c terms . Freu d onc e raise d th e topi c of 'hysterica l paranoia' , a paranoi a generate d b y imitatio n o f anothe r para noid. 2 4 W e hav e see n tha t i t take s bu t a smal l extrapolatio n o f Freudia n theory t o imagin e tha t th e paranoi d woul d exer t som e o f th e sam e fascina tion a s othe r narcissisti c character s d o fo r thos e wh o hav e represse d thei r own narcissism . An d history , o f course , testifie s t o th e powe r o f paranoi d infatuation. Freu d wa s consciou s o f wha t h e too k t o b e stron g homosexua l currents workin g i n hi s psyche , discovere d throug h th e analysi s o f hi s friendship wit h Wilhel m Fliess . H e interprete d Fliess' s behavio r afte r thei r break-up a s showin g ho w a homoeroti c 'cathexis ' coul d b e converte d int o paranoia; i t taugh t Freu d th e necessit y o f sublimatin g thi s homoeroti c energy int o differen t channels , suc h a s th e pursui t o f knowledge . I n hi s essay o n Leonard o d a Vinci , whic h wa s als o a self-exploration , w e hav e seen tha t Freu d attribute d Leonardo' s superhuma n power s o f natura l inves tigation t o th e homosexua l libid o h e ha d investe d i n scientifi c curiosity. 25 As wit h Leonardo's , Freud' s ow n victor y ove r th e libid o ha d bee n wo n onl y after a difficul t struggle . I n spit e o f th e putativ e succes s o f hi s post Fliessian sublimation , i t wa s a n accepte d fac t betwee n Freu d an d th e members o f hi s inne r circl e tha t th e episod e wit h Flies s continue d t o exer t

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190 • Chapter Seven a balefu l influenc e o n Freud' s behavior , makin g hi m perenniall y mistrustfu l and war y o f intimacy. Ferencz i write s o f Freud' s "justifie d distrus t o f peopl e (even o f friends—after th e Fliess case)." 2 6 An episod e i n Freud' s relation s wit h Ferencz i durin g th e perio d whe n h e was writin g th e Schrebe r essa y cast s a n interestin g ligh t upo n hi s wa y o f understanding an d experiencin g th e temptation s o f paranoi a an d homosex ual attachmen t i n hi s ow n personality , an d give s a sens e o f th e atmospher e in whic h th e essa y an d th e letter s t o Jun g quote d abov e wer e written . Ferenczi, despit e hi s knowledg e o f th e Flies s trauma , fel t a stron g nee d fo r greater persona l intimac y wit h Freud . H e acte d ou t thi s nee d i n wha t Freu d called a n "infantile " wa y durin g a vacatio n whe n h e refuse d t o collaborat e with Freu d i n composin g th e Schrebe r essay , havin g take n umbrag e a t Freud's reques t tha t h e pla y th e par t o f the secretary. 2 7 Ferencz i wa s furthe r wounded b y Freud' s failur e t o rebuk e him , an d issue d a ple a fo r opennes s between th e tw o men , a n opennes s base d upo n psychoanalyti c understand ing: a n "apparentl y crue l bu t i n th e en d onl y useful , clear-as-da y openness , which conceal s nothing , coul d b e possibl e i n th e relation s betwee n tw o psychoanalytically-minded peopl e wh o ca n reall y understan d everythin g and, instea d o f makin g valu e judgments , ca n see k th e determinant s o f thei r psychological impulses " (218) . I n makin g thi s plea , Ferencz i disclaime d any pretens e t o idealism : "Yo u onc e tol d m e tha t psychoanalysi s wa s only a scienc e o f facts , o f indicative s tha t shoul d no t b e translate d int o imperatives—the latte r ar e paranoid . Accordin g t o thi s conceptio n ther e i s no psychoanalyti c worldview , n o psychoanalyti c ethics , n o psychoanalyti c rules o f conduct . I als o kno w o f n o ethic s othe r tha n thos e o f pur e reason ; but th e extensio n an d expansio n o f reaso n int o hithert o unconsciou s area s has als o ha d a ver y significan t influenc e o n th e worldvie w an d behavio r o f nonparanoids" (220) . An d so , o n behal f o f nonparanoids , Ferencz i plead s for th e specia l truthfulnes s psychoanalysi s shoul d permit : I believ e tha t yo u underestimat e muc h to o muc h th e ennoblin g powe r o f psycho analysis i f you don' t believ e tha t i t make s peopl e wh o have completel y graspe d it s meaning absolutel y worth y o f trust . . . . Pleas e don' t misunderstan d me . I reall y don't wan t t o 'reform ' society . I a m no t a paranoiac . I woul d onl y lik e t o se e thoughts an d speech liberated fro m th e compulsio n o f unnecessar y inhibition s i n the relations o f psychoanalytically-minded men . — Unfortunately—I can' t begin , yo u hav e to ! After all , yo u ar e psychoanalysi s i n person!" (220 ) Freud's repl y begin s rathe r frostily : "I t i s remarkabl e ho w muc h bette r you ca n presen t yoursel f i n writin g tha n i n speech." 2 8 H e the n admit s hi s

The Charismatic Paranoid • weakness i n failin g t o scol d Ferencz i fo r hi s behavior , a weaknes s h e als o feels i n correctin g hi s sons : " I a m als o no t tha t psychoanalyti c superma n whom w e hav e constructed , an d I als o haven' t overcom e th e countertrans ference. I couldn' t d o it , jus t a s I can' t d o i t wit h m y thre e sons , becaus e I like the m an d I fee l sorr y fo r the m i n th e process. " Havin g admitte d hi s failure properl y t o ac t th e par t o f th e fathe r towar d Ferenczi , Freu d no w does rebuk e hi m fo r failin g t o ac t upo n hi s psychoanalyti c understandin g o f Freud's behavior : Not onl y hav e yo u noticed tha t I n o longe r hav e an y nee d fo r tha t ful l openin g o f my personality , but yo u hav e als o understoo d i t an d correctl y returne d t o it s traumatic cause . Wh y di d yo u thu s mak e a poin t o f it ? Thi s nee d ha s bee n extinguished i n m e sinc e Fliess' s case , wit h th e overcomin g o f which yo u just sa w me occupied . A piec e o f homosexua l investmen t ha s bee n withdraw n an d utilize d for th e enlargemen t o f m y ow n ego . I hav e succeede d wher e th e paranoia c fails . (221) Freud's repl y make s i t abundantl y plai n tha t fo r hi m th e stabilit y o f hi s mind la y i n hi s succes s a t resistin g th e hidde n influenc e o f Fliess , and , furthermore, tha t h e wa s no t abou t t o allo w anyon e els e t o gai n sufficien t intimacy t o threate n hi m a s Flies s ha d done . Ferenczi' s ple a fo r opennes s smacks bot h o f paranoi d idealis m an d o f a mor e direc t expressio n o f thos e homoerotic impulse s presume d t o b e th e unconsciou s source s o f paranoia ; Freud reject s th e nee d fo r bot h o f these . B y disclaimin g th e temptatio n t o paranoia, h e reject s th e nee d fo r intimac y wit h othe r men , intimac y tha t can onl y hav e a homoeroti c basis . Whe n w e se e Freu d respondin g wit h such enthusiasm , then , t o th e humorou s extravaganc e o f th e paranoi d Schreber, ther e ca n b e n o doub t fro m th e psychoanalyti c poin t o f vie w tha t he wa s indulgin g i n a kin d o f literar y flirtation wit h th e forbidden . An d when w e conside r tha t th e them e o f the Flies s trauma , a s discusse d betwee n Freud an d hi s colleagues , wa s indee d a ver y intimat e an d privat e one , an d one wit h immediat e consequence s fo r thei r ow n relation s wit h Freud , i t becomes al l th e mor e clea r tha t th e writin g o f th e Schrebe r essay , an d th e correspondence an d discussion s surroundin g it , ma y wel l hav e evoke d i n Freud powerfu l feeling s tha t h e associate d wit h Fliess . Th e rejectio n o f Ferenczi, accordin g t o th e psychoanalyti c logic , woul d b e a natura l repudi ation o n Freud' s par t o f a homosexua l temptation . A psychoanalyti c explanatio n o f Freud' s infatuatio n wit h Schrebe r woul d also undoubtedl y emphasiz e hi s ow n admissio n t o Jung, abou t th e Schrebe r essay itself , tha t "i n workin g o n i t I hav e ha d t o fight of f complexe s within mysel f (Fliess), " (380 ) referrin g n o doub t t o tha t "piec e o f unrul y

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192 • Chapter Seven homosexual feeling, " a s h e pu t it , tha t Flies s coul d stil l evoke. 2 9 Th e Schreberian char m woul d no t hav e ha d t o rely , furthermore , upo n th e distant libidina l resonanc e o f Fliessia n grandiosit y t o inspir e Freud' s hilari ous identification , no r upo n Ferenczi' s respectfu l plea s fo r attention . Freu d was currentl y replayin g th e Fliessia n dram a wit h Jun g himself , wh o man aged t o cal l u p tha t sam e "piec e o f unrul y homosexua l feeling, " o n on e occasion eve n causin g Freu d t o fain t i n hi s presence . Freu d woul d soo n proudly b e offerin g t o "occup y [his ] unemploye d libid o elsewhere." 3 0 I t was i n vai n tha t Jun g assure d hi m "nothin g Fliess-lik e wa s goin g to happen . . . . Excep t fo r moment s o f infatuation , m y affectio n i s lastin g an d reli a b l e . " 3 1 N o doub t i t wa s withi n th e stron g stimulu s o f Jung' s prestigiou s and masculin e intellectua l presenc e tha t Freu d wa s incite d t o revisi t th e Fliessian debacle , t o achiev e th e ultimat e portraya l o f himsel f a s Leonard o and o f Flies s a s Schreber , an d t o se t th e attractivenes s o f th e paranoi d figure a t a comi c distanc e wher e i t coul d b e safel y acknowledged . W e might se t int o thi s context , too , Freud' s infatuatio n wit h th e Quixote, whic h derived it s earl y emotiona l charg e fro m hi s friendshi p wit h Silberstein ; i t should b e remembered , also , tha t Freu d subsequentl y attempte d t o enlis t his futur e wif e i n th e cul t o f Quixote , a n attemp t tha t apparentl y failed , probably becaus e hi s wif e di d no t shar e th e adolescen t intellectua l grandi osity tha t sustaine d th e emotiona l bon d betwee n th e tw o youn g men . Al l this woul d b e goo d psychoanalysis , i t seem s t o me , an d also—bu t fo r th e implications o f th e theoretica l vocabulary—perfectl y acceptabl e a s a n account o f Freud' s subjectiv e experience . W e d o no t nee d a theor y o f unconscious homoeroti c motive s t o recogniz e tha t Freud' s mos t gifte d friends excite d i n hi m powerfu l feeling s o f admiratio n an d rivalry , an d tha t these feeling s colore d hi s literar y a s wel l a s hi s scientifi c pursuits . The recognitio n tha t th e Schrebe r cas e ha d a highl y charge d persona l and possibl y sexua l significanc e fo r Freu d b y n o mean s bind s u s t o th e psychoanalytic vocabular y fo r ou r understandin g o f it . I n fact , i t i s im portant t o notic e onc e agai n ho w tha t vocabular y determine d th e shap e o f the relation s betwee n Freu d an d hi s followers . W e ca n see , fo r instance , i n Freud's exchang e o f letter s wit h Ferenczi , th e inhibitin g effec t o f th e psychoanalytic doctrin e tha t al l socia l tie s hav e a sexua l character . I n orde r for Ferencz i t o mak e a simpl e appea l fo r Freud' s confidence , h e ha d firs t t o overcome Freud' s mistrus t o f friendl y intimac y an d hi s convictio n tha t i t can aris e onl y fro m unreliabl e homosexua l impulses . W e fin d Ferenczi , therefore, advancin g a n extraordinar y clai m fo r th e "ennoblin g powe r o f psychoanalysis" an d feeling , quit e naturally , tha t i n doin g s o h e wa s i n

The Charismatic Paranoid • danger o f appearin g t o laps e int o idealism , whic h i s th e disguise d expres sion o f homosexua l libido . Psychoanalyti c theory , o f course , undermine s the legitimac y bot h o f idealisti c an d o f persona l claim s t o th e wort h o f social ties . Ferenczi' s gambit , then , wa s doome d fro m th e start . It turne d ou t o f cours e i n an y cas e tha t Freu d ha d no t th e slightes t interest i n claimin g th e specia l socia l benefit , th e capacit y fo r perfec t openness, tha t psychoanalysi s migh t b e imagine d t o confe r upo n 'nonpara noids'. H e ha d succeede d i n eradicatin g th e nee d fo r suc h opennes s i n himself. Freu d se t himsel f apar t fro m th e paranoid , then , no t b y bein g abl e to achiev e socia l tie s o n a realisti c footin g bu t b y bein g abl e largel y t o extinguish them . N o wonde r h e preferre d th e ironi c language s o f Schrebe r and Quixote—a s wel l a s hi s ow n esoteri c theoretica l code—t o ope n dem onstrations o f emotio n o r th e sharin g o f confidence . Again , th e psychoana lytic theor y o f homosexua l libid o look s no w mor e lik e a n expressio n o f Freud's subjectiv e experienc e an d persona l nee d rathe r tha n a n explanatio n for them . Freu d considere d paranoi d characters , includin g Flies s an d othe r psychoanalytic dissenters , t o b e guilt y o f projectin g thei r represse d libid o in th e for m o f persecutor y megalomania , wherea s Freud' s accusation s o f paranoia wer e evidentl y motivate d b y hi s inabilit y t o contro l hi s ow n powerful an d unrepresse d emotions ! No t lon g afte r thi s period , Freu d di d permit himsel f t o ente r int o a specia l socia l bon d wit h hi s disciples , a s th e totemistic chie f o f Th e Committee , wher e hi s positio n o f masterl y reserv e was no t t o b e breached . I hav e permitte d mysel f t o wande r her e a littl e wa y dow n th e pat h o f psychological speculatio n i n orde r t o glimps e wha t ma y hav e bee n anothe r of th e persona l motive s projecte d b y Freu d ont o universa l psycholog y through th e theor y o f paranoia . Th e motive s i n questio n wer e neithe r unconscious no r wer e the y necessaril y sexual : the y wer e Freud' s difficultie s in governin g hi s consciou s emotiona l attachments , whic h mad e hi m prefe r to interac t wit h hi s friend s throug h comple x symboli c vehicles , powerfull y expressive an d compellin g language s o f iron y an d suspicion . B y suc h means, Freu d wa s abl e t o comman d extraordinar y loyalt y an d a t th e sam e time t o preserv e hi s dominanc e an d distanc e withi n a smal l circl e o f admirers se t grandiosel y an d suspiciousl y apar t fro m th e outsid e world . W e can see , then , tha t th e vocabular y o f suspicio n ha d fo r Freu d a protectiv e as wel l a s a n aggressiv e dimension . Agai n i t i s impossibl e no t t o admir e the ingeniou s wa y i n whic h h e adapte d t o hi s ow n need s an d purpose s th e mode o f reductive , satiri c thinkin g h e acquire d fro m hi s earl y literar y pursuits. Freu d carrie d th e habi t o f intellectua l Quixotis m int o science . H e

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194 • Chapter Seven wielded i t aggressivel y agains t hi s cultura l enemies , an d use d i t t o kee p a safe distanc e fro m hi s friend s an d colleagues . H e live d i t an d applie d i t with rigorou s consistenc y t o hi s ow n experience . An d s o i t i s no t surprisin g to se e him , finally, i n hi s pas de deux wit h Schreber , participatin g i n th e same foolis h spectacl e a s th e man y admirer s o f Quixote . Lik e th e bachelo r Samson Carrasco , Freu d get s u p o n hi s hors e t o join wit h Schreber/Quixot e in a friendl y joust . Having recognize d th e vanit y o f al l heroi c ambitions , Freu d coul d aban don himsel f t o th e char m o f paranoi a i n literar y for m because , i n it s absurdity, i t seem s t o acknowledg e th e disreputabl e source s o f heroism . I t does no t nee d t o b e unmasked ; an d yet , fo r al l o f it s improbabl e preten sions, i t maintain s th e convictio n o f th e trul y heroi c finding itsel f naivel y opposed t o a n externa l realit y no t o f it s ow n making . I n fact , paranoi a offer s the trues t an d mos t complet e psychologica l spectacl e o f herois m tha t ca n be imagined . Onl y i n erro r doe s th e patter n o f th e min d revea l itsel f i n it s entirety. Trut h i s alway s complexl y involve d wit h othe r truth ; erro r stand s out lik e a shado w agains t th e backgroun d o f wha t i s know n an d show s th e form tha t cas t it . Th e psychoanalys t exhibit s a peculia r susceptibilit y t o th e glitter o f erroneou s herois m becaus e onl y ther e ca n b e foun d a coheren t and sympatheti c reflectio n o f hi s ow n satiri c grandeur ; i t i s a trai t h e inherits fro m th e empirico-romanti c cultur e tha t produce d him . Schreber i s fo r Freu d th e suprem e rhetorica l ally . Hi s conditio n display s the cunnin g involvemen t o f reaso n i n madness : th e judge' s juridica l aplomb, hi s theologica l fertility , hi s casuistica l brilliance , an d hi s power s of psychologica l observation , al l o f thes e ar e humorou s triumph s fo r th e Freudian metho d an d reflectiv e o f it s ow n qualities . Schreber , fo r al l o f hi s madness, evoke s i n Freu d a self-consciousl y comica l bu t ye t stil l enthusias tic admiration . H e alon e give s expressio n t o th e conten t o f th e heroi c consciousness withou t disguis e an d withou t irony . An d so , fo r th e psycho analytic mind , th e "basi c language " i n whic h Schrebe r speak s th e "hol y words" ha s a "liberating " forc e o f expression . Fa r fro m an y notio n t o distinguish himsel f fro m Schreber , Freu d i s mor e tha n conten t t o bas k i n the romanc e an d comica l reflectio n o f hi s glamour .

More Recent Formulations on Paranoia Perhaps i t wil l see m that , havin g conclude d m y analysi s wit h Freud' s ludicrous treatmen t o f hi s kinshi p wit h Schreber , I hav e give n a n unfai r emphasis t o wha t i s mos t eccentri c i n Freud , t o a persona l whims y rathe r

The Charismatic Paranoid • than a n essentia l aspec t o f psychoanalyti c thought . I n orde r t o remov e thi s false impression , I wis h briefl y t o sho w tha t separatin g th e paranoi d fro m the san e ha s no t prove n an y easie r fo r th e descendant s o f Freu d tha n i t wa s for Freu d himself . Le t u s tak e fo r a n instanc e th e Jesui t psychiatris t W . W . Meissner, wh o ha s investe d prodigiou s an d admirabl e car e i n th e attemp t to understan d wha t h e call s th e 'paranoi d process' , th e devian t wa y i n which paranoi d patient s g o abou t tryin g t o mak e sens e o f th e world. 32 Lik e Freud, Meissne r i s committe d t o th e significanc e o f th e fac t tha t wha t th e paranoid doe s i n constructin g a syste m o f belief s i s n o differen t fro m wha t occurs i n th e ordinar y person' s attemp t t o interpre t experience : The proble m i s tha t th e dat a tha t realit y provide s ar e neve r s o complete , s o unambiguous, o r s o definit e tha t suc h pattern s o f meanin g ar e force d upo n th e human mind . Th e evidence s ar e ofte n unavailable , thu s leavin g a certain disconti nuity i n experience . Th e evidence s tha t ar e availabl e ar e ofte n o f varyin g degree s of clarit y an d certainty , an d involv e element s tha t ca n onl y b e inferre d o r conjec tured—the thought s an d intention s o f other peopl e for example . (117 ) Because meanin g i s no t "force d upo n th e huma n mind, " a rathe r hopefu l expectation, al l o f u s find i t necessar y t o dra w certai n larg e conclusions , 'paranoid constructions' , whic h canno t b e strictl y limite d b y th e dat a o f experience. Myths , 'system s o f belief , an d 'system s o f value ' al l com e under thi s category . Fo r Meissner , suc h construction s d o no t simpl y impos e significance upo n iner t experience ; no r d o the y simpl y offe r th e mean s o f narrative. Rather , h e states , followin g Bronisla w Malinowski , tha t suc h constructions mak e possibl e a livin g interactio n wit h realit y motivate d b y an inne r need : "Th e paranoi d constructio n i s . . . a live d realit y whic h expresses an d grow s ou t o f a n inne r dynami c lif e feeling . Tha t inne r conviction i s wha t give s meanin g t o th e individual' s experience " (120) . Because Meissne r believe s tha t th e paranoid' s for m o f thinkin g doe s no t differ i n kin d fro m th e ordinary , i t i s impossibl e fo r hi m t o dra w an y har d and fas t boundarie s betwee n thos e wh o ar e pathologicall y delusiv e an d th e rest o f us . Th e fac t tha t gap s i n ou r knowledg e o f realit y leav e u s pre y t o indefensible assumption s put s us , h e believes , i n a stat e o f embarrassmen t in th e fac e o f a n authoritativ e paranoi d lik e Judg e Schreber : How i n fac t woul d on e g o about disprovin g Schreber' s delusio n tha t h e wa s bein g transformed int o a woman ? Ho w woul d on e disprov e th e Christia n assertio n o f th e real presenc e i n th e Eucharisti c sacrifice ? W e ca n recogniz e tha t a delusiona l system i s i n conflic t wit h realit y a s w e interpre t it , bu t ho w doe s on e g o abou t proving tha t ou r interpretatio n i s san e an d tha t th e delusiona l on e i s insan e an d i n contradiction t o reality ? Ultimatel y w e cannot . W e ca n resor t t o a n appea l t o

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196 • Chapter Seven consensus o r t o practica l an d adaptiv e exigencie s tha t ar e consequen t o n ou r interpretation rathe r th e delusiona l one—bu t thes e ar e no t matter s o f evidence . The delusiona l syste m a s wel l a s th e belie f syste m i s maintaine d o n th e basi s o f a prior emotiona l commitment , no t on the basis of evidences. (93—94 ) The therapist' s proble m her e i s tha t h e canno t refut e Schreber' s claim s to transcenden t knowledg e withou t assertin g th e possessio n o f a n equall y transcendent knowledge . Th e paranoi d ha s pu t hi m i n a bind . H e canno t quite dismis s th e paranoid' s syste m a s a n inadequat e on e becaus e h e ha s admitted tha t h e ha s on e jus t lik e it , "maintaine d o n th e basi s o f a prio r emotional commitment. " O n th e othe r hand , i f h e attempt s t o asser t tha t the paranoid' s claim s ar e false , h e the n seem s t o tak e o n th e kin d o f authority tha t onl y th e mos t notoriou s form s o f narcissisti c projectio n allow . In Meissner' s positio n th e ful l consequence s o f Freud' s psychologica l relativism ar e apparent . 'Paranoia ' ha s becom e a genera l ter m fo r thought ; it i s take n fo r grante d tha t intellectua l convictio n derive s primaril y fro m inner need ; ther e i s onl y on e remainin g questio n wort h asking : A t wha t point doe s th e inne r nee d becom e s o intens e tha t th e person' s functionin g is impaired ? Meissner' s problem , then , become s ho w t o separat e th e strong , pathological for m o f paranoi a fro m th e weak , norma l sor t tha t non e o f u s can escape , an d t o d o s o i n suc h a wa y tha t hi s ow n thinkin g remain s o n the wea k sid e o f th e distinction . H e need s anothe r criterio n fo r patholog y besides 'paranoia ' itself . W e d o no t find i n Meissne r th e whimsica l courtin g of th e paranoi d tha t wa s permissibl e t o Freud . H e i s no t a satirica l physi cian o f th e sou l bu t a psychiatris t wh o mus t dea l directl y an d frequentl y with paranoi d patient s i n a n institutiona l setting , a s Freu d neve r did . Issue s such a s th e prope r ground s o f confinemen t ar e rea l fo r hi m i n a wa y tha t they wer e no t fo r Freud . Meissner's first criterio n fo r distinguishin g ordinar y belie f fro m paranoi a centers upo n th e anti-socia l characte r o f stron g paranoia : "Th e mechanism s of belie f ten d t o suppor t th e individual' s participatio n an d membershi p i n the community , wherea s th e mechanism s o f paranoi a ten d t o isolat e an d exclude th e individua l fro m th e rea l communit y o f objects—th e delusiona l network o f suspiciou s an d hostil e interaction s i n a paranoi d pseudocommu nity i s a fa r cr y fro m meaningfu l sharin g i n th e communit y o f one' s fellows " (95). I t i s od d how , i n thi s sentence , th e paranoi d 'pseudocommunity ' seems actuall y t o com e int o existenc e s o tha t it s socia l advantages , o r disadvantages, ca n b e compare d wit h thos e o f a rea l community . Meissner' s attitude i s ver y clos e t o Freud's , expresse d i n remark s t o th e Vienn a Psychoanalytic Society :

The Charismatic Paranoid • The reformer , a s lon g a s h e i s alone , i s considere d a paranoia c (latel y Richar d Wagner). Th e fac t tha t h e ha s follower s protect s a n individua l agains t bein g declared ill . Thus, th e founding o f the Christian religion , fo r example, i s a paranoia of twelve men (th e vision o f resurrection, etc.) . Ha d th e religion no t found s o many adherents, i t would certainl y hav e bee n judged a morbid fantas y o f a few men. 33 It mus t b e tru e tha t th e paranoi d doe s no t shar e i n a sens e o f community , and tha t tota l intellectua l isolatio n mus t constitut e menta l dysfunction ; bu t the ide a tha t th e degre e o f socia l isolatio n correspond s t o th e degre e o f pathology seem s har d t o defend , fo r th e enduranc e o f disagreemen t an d rejection constitute s a fundamenta l intellectua l virtue . W e nee d onl y recal l in thi s regar d Freud' s accoun t o f th e earl y day s o f th e psychoanalyti c movement when , s o h e believed , al l th e worl d wa s unite d i n hostilit y t o hi s discoveries. Hi s sens e o f intellectua l isolation , threat , an d suspicio n o f betrayal becam e s o intens e afte r Adle r an d Jun g defecte d fro m th e move ment that , a s w e hav e seen , Freu d an d Jone s fel t th e nee d t o establis h a secret committe e t o protec t him. 3 4 Al l thi s i s evidenc e o f a trul y heroi c isolation. Bu t ca n th e analys t admi t tha t i t tend s i n th e directio n o f a paranoid cult ? Despit e th e man y quarrels , force d exiles , an d retreat s thi s arrangement fostered , th e member s o f th e movemen t accomplishe d a re markable amoun t o f work . Productivit y i s no t beyon d th e paranoid' s capa bility, bu t befor e w e consig n th e psychoanalyti c movemen t t o th e domai n o f pathology, w e woul d a t leas t hav e t o agre e beforehan d tha t th e theor y itsel f has n o merits . I , o f course , a m willin g t o dra w thi s conclusio n wit h regar d to psychoanalysis , bu t I a m b y n o mean s willin g t o exten d i t t o mos t other example s i n whic h intellectua l isolatio n lead s t o th e productio n o f significant advances . Meissner add s t o th e isolatio n argumen t a secon d on e havin g t o d o wit h the fixity o f belie f o r th e amoun t o f energ y investe d i n it . Eve n th e scientist , he observes , ma y verg e o n paranoi a whe n adherenc e t o a theor y prevent s him fro m respondin g t o th e corrective s o f th e evidence . W e canno t d o without th e seekin g o f "meaningfu l patterns " i n experience , ye t suc h pat terns ca n becom e object s o f to o rigi d a commitment . Thu s i t i s possibl e t o distinguish th e norma l fro m th e pathologica l i n term s o f "quantitativ e variation rathe r tha n qualitativ e difference" : A dividing lin e i s difficult t o draw. Certainl y w e are mor e likel y t o attach th e labe l of paranoi a wher e th e manifestation s occu r i n a sociall y devian t contex t o r i n association wit h othe r form s o f pathology—e.g. , schizophreni c decompensatio n i s the commones t example . Bu t th e mechanism s ca n b e i n operatio n acros s a broa d spectrum o f state s o f min d o f varyin g degree s o f adaptation . Ou r understandin g o f

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198 • Chapter Seven paranoid mechanism s an d o f the genesis of paranoid state s mus t take int o consider ation tha t th e geneti c root s of paranoid state s ar e probably widesprea d i n the socia l matrix and i n fact involv e importan t constructiv e dimension s o f social an d persona l integration. Th e sam e mechanism s tha t serv e th e end s o f development an d adapta tion als o serv e fro m anothe r perspectiv e a s th e basi s o f paranoi d form s o f adjust ment. Th e pathologica l distortio n i s ver y likely , then , a matte r o f quantitativ e variation rathe r tha n qualitativ e difference . (97—98 ) The quantitativ e argumen t raise s a s man y difficultie s a s th e argumen t from isolation . Fo r i t woul d see m tha t a s w e mov e highe r u p th e scal e o f intellectual commitmen t w e shoul d fin d 'quantitatively ' a highe r degre e o f pathology. Bu t i n orde r t o accep t this , w e mus t consig n man y o f th e influential an d productiv e member s o f society t o the spher e o f the pathologi cal. Agai n w e migh t tak e Freu d a s ou r example . Hi s commitmen t t o th e fundamental principle s o f psychoanalysi s wa s a powerfu l one . H e pursue d his logi c t o it s extremes , an d b y th e en d o f hi s caree r ther e wer e fe w wh o could follo w hi m i n hi s mos t radica l theoretica l innovations—fo r instance , that o f th e deat h instinct . I n th e eye s o f hi s colleagues , Freu d seeme d t o have cu t himsel f of f fro m th e corrective s o f th e evidence . W e hav e see n that s o convince d wa s h e o f hi s power s o f interpretatio n ove r th e thought s of other s that , confronte d wit h th e presenc e o f unaccountabl e informatio n in th e mind s o f hi s patients , h e conclude d the y mus t hav e bee n readin g hi s thoughts. Thus , i n on e o f hi s late r essays , h e postulate d th e occurrenc e o f thought transferenc e fro m on e unconsciou s min d t o another. 3 5 'Quantita tively'— if suc h thing s ca n b e quantifie d — Freu d wa s heavil y committe d t o the theoretica l framewor k o f psychoanalysis . I n th e sam e way , n o doubt , Einstein wa s heavil y committe d t o th e theor y o f relativity , and , late r i n hi s life, heavil y committe d agains t quantu m mechanics . Bu t i s no t th e powe r to follo w origina l assumption s an d intuition s t o thei r logica l conclusion s over a lon g perio d o f tim e th e sourc e o f mos t importan t theorie s i n th e firs t place? Ca n w e reall y assig n thes e symptom s t o th e domai n o f pathology ? What I hav e bee n tryin g t o sho w i s tha t whethe r w e ar e drawin g a boundary betwee n mentall y health y peopl e an d paranoid s o r betwee n healthy an d sic k paranoids , th e concep t o f 'paranoi d construction ' prove s useless, fo r i t applie s t o al l though t a t al l times . An d th e concomitant s o f thought wit h whic h Meissne r associate s i t ar e actuall y intellectua l virtues . What Meissner , lik e Freu d befor e him , i s attemptin g t o captur e unde r th e name 'paranoia ' i s simpl y though t itself , intellectua l activity . Thi s i s wh y the clinicia n mus t ultimatel y resor t t o othe r evidence s o f dysfunction , suc h as th e presenc e o f obviou s delusion , i n orde r t o diagnos e menta l illness .

The Charismatic Paranoid • We ca n tel l ther e wa s somethin g wron g wit h Schreber , i t seem s t o me , no t because h e propose d himsel f a s a n importan t spiritua l being—suc h peopl e need no t b e m a d — n o r becaus e h e ha d a theor y o f th e cosmos , bu t becaus e he spen t severa l hour s a da y bellowin g an d starin g a t himsel f i n th e mirro r while decorate d wit h feminin e adornments . H e actuall y though t h e wa s being transforme d int o a woman , clearl y a falsifiabl e an d hallucinator y claim. An d abou t certai n things , lik e th e hostil e intention s an d demoni c powers o f hi s doctor , h e wa s i n a stat e o f constan t error . I t i s difficul t t o understand wh y Meissne r canno t accep t thes e a s "matter s o f fact. " O n al l of thes e points , th e goo d sens e o f Schreber' s doctor , Dr . Weber , canno t be denied . It i s importan t t o not e a final iron y tha t arise s fro m thi s situation—tha t Meissner's identificatio n o f paranoi a wit h religiou s thinkin g i s a repetitio n of Schreber' s origina l self-defense ! Schrebe r argue d tha t i f hi s religiou s conceptions wer e evidenc e o f insanity , the n s o wer e everyon e else's . Logi cally, everyon e wh o believe s i n divin e being s shoul d b e behin d bars . Schreber i s perfectl y righ t tha t t o identif y fait h wit h madnes s i s a futil e gesture. Hi s ow n docto r wa s no t guilt y o f this , bu t Meissne r certainl y is . He ha s inherite d fro m Freu d a covertl y polemica l definitio n o f madness , one tha t woul d los e it s ideologica l forc e i f i t wer e applie d onl y t o thos e wh o actually suffe r fro m menta l disease . Schreber canno t b e understoo d a s a n overl y credulou s intellectua l o r a prophet. I t i s no t th e metho d o f hi s though t tha t mark s hi m a s mentall y il l but th e wa y h e applie s i t and , ultimately , th e result . I n thi s way , too , ca n we separat e religiou s figures lik e Chris t o r Mohamme d fro m ma d prophet s like Charle s Manso n o r Davi d Koresh . Religiou s teacher s offe r a messag e that transcend s ordinar y reality , bu t the y d o s o i n a wa y tha t comprehend s it. An d the y generall y recogniz e th e difficultie s o f belief . The y ca n b e wrong withou t bein g crazy . Paranoids , o n th e othe r hand , believ e withou t effort; an d howeve r transcenden t thei r conception s ma y be , the y misinter pret th e ordinary . Thi s surel y mark s the m a s mad . Onl y b y a kin d o f feedback d o thei r raving s com e int o correspondenc e wit h reality , a s i n cases lik e tha t o f Kores h an d hi s followers ; believin g tha t th e worl d i s conspiring agains t them , an d followin g ou t th e consequence s o f tha t belief , they mak e it , i n a sense , com e true . What make s paranoi a a n uncann y phenomeno n i s tha t i n i t w e ca n sometimes se e th e huma n power s o f logic , observation , an d verba l expres sion workin g a t thei r ful l capacitie s i n th e servic e o f nonsense . Wha t th e paranoid lacks , a s Chesterto n pu t it , i s "everythin g excep t hi s reason." 3 6

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200 • Chapter Seven Specifically, h e show s a n entir e lac k o f judgmen t an d o f commo n sense , the knowledg e o f ho w t o appl y reason . Wha t make s th e psychologists ' response t o thi s phenomeno n s o od d i s that , instea d o f askin g ho w i t i s tha t the power s o f observatio n an d logi c shoul d hav e bee n s o cu t of f fro m ordinary commo n sense , the y hav e sough t t o pu t th e blam e upo n reaso n itself. Facin g hi s paranoi d double , th e psychologis t fall s bac k upo n hi s ow n self-suspicion, an d particularl y th e positivis t suspicio n o f theory , labele d by Freu d a s 'projection' , b y Meissne r a s 'paranoi d construction' . Th e psy chologist i s willin g t o recognize hi s ow n processe s o f thought a s constitutin g a for m o f pathology , an d h e confirm s thi s diagnosi s b y finding hi s ow n intellectual self-imag e ironicall y reflecte d i n th e thinkin g o f th e mad . B y so thoroughl y underminin g th e possibilit y o f knowin g th e truth , thes e psychologists preserv e n o spac e fo r th e possibilit y o f error . Al l the y hav e left, then , i s on e 'paranoi d construction ' o r another . What ar e th e mean s o f escapin g fro m paranoia ? Fo r Meissner , an d Freud, thei r resemblanc e t o Schrebe r i s evidenc e o f a commo n natur e and , as usua l i n psychoanalysis , thi s fac t i s give n th e mos t pejorativ e an d suspicious interpretatio n possible . Bot h paranoi d an d theoris t ar e involve d in paranoia/thought . N o matte r ho w suspiciou s the y ma y becom e o f it , the y cannot escape . I n th e cas e o f Meissne r w e hav e see n th e seriou s researche r attempting t o struggl e ou t o f th e conundru m o f 'paranoi d construction ' tha t Freudian iron y ha s se t fo r him . Th e onl y tru e wa y ou t o f i t woul d b e t o distinguish paranoi a fro m norma l thought , s o tha t ther e coul d b e a for m o f thought abou t paranoi a tha t i s no t itsel f paranoid . On e woul d hav e t o escape, i n othe r words , fro m th e polemica l vocabular y o f psycholog y a s i t was employe d b y Freu d i n hi s romanc e wit h Schrebe r an d throug h th e res t of hi s work . Fro m a methodologica l perspective , thi s shoul d no t onl y b e possible bu t unavoidable , fo r th e whol e poin t o f th e term s 'madness ' an d 'sanity' i s t o establis h a differenc e tha t wil l se t the m i n a n explanator y relation t o eac h other . I f man y o f th e attribute s o f paranoi a belon g t o th e sane a s well , thi s tell s u s no t tha t sanit y i s a mil d versio n o f paranoi a bu t that paranoi a involve s a persisten t misapplicatio n o f th e facultie s tha t permit mos t o f u s t o b e san e mos t o f th e time . Thi s i s i n fac t wha t Meissne r is attemptin g t o say , bu t th e satirica l an d suspiciou s vocabular y o f Freu d compels hi m t o mak e th e categor y o f diseas e mor e fundamenta l tha n tha t o f health. Onc e w e giv e u p thi s prejudicia l interpretation , th e similaritie s between norma l an d paranoi d thinkin g nee d n o longe r caus e difficulty. 37 But here , finally, w e ma y not e tha t anothe r wa y o f situatin g onesel f i n relation t o Schrebe r ha s bee n devised ; i n considerin g i t w e wil l dra w t o a

The Charismatic Paranoid • close ou r forma l accoun t o f th e long-ter m Quixoti c effect s o f Freud' s grea t psycho-satirical romance . Th e strateg y t o whic h I a m referrin g i s th e on e o f setting a distanc e betwee n onesel f an d Schrebe r b y recognizin g hi s superi ority, th e superiorit y tha t belong s t o hi m a s a 'schizophrenic' , whic h i s t o say, a perso n wh o ha s escape d fro m th e rational , 'paranoid ' categories , divisions, an d distinction s o f thought . I f 'paranoia ' i n th e psychologist' s vocabulary represent s though t itsel f eve n i n it s ow n suspicio n towar d thought, schizophrenia , i n th e vocabular y o f th e modernis t avant-garde , represents th e escap e fro m though t int o primitiv e spontaneit y an d emo tion. 3 8 Thu s i t becomes , fo r th e paranoi d intellectual , a n objec t o f ambi tious emulation . On e exampl e wil l suffice . I n th e Anti-Oedipus o f th e French theorist s Deleuz e an d Guattari—a n urgen t attemp t t o escap e fro m the priso n o f Freudia n Oedipa l consciousness—w e rea d th e followin g eulogy o f "Schreber-the-subject, " a eulog y tha t take s Freud' s Quixoti c infatuation wit h Schrebe r t o a n unimagine d level ; i t begin s wit h th e phrase , "i/^we ar e t o believ e Judg e Schreber' s doctrine, " a n "if " tha t goe s withou t the ver y lon g pause , an d perhap s a wal k aroun d th e block , tha t i t deserves : Further, i f w e ar e t o believ e Judg e Schreber' s doctrine , attraction and repulsion produce intens e nervous states tha t fill u p th e bod y withou t organ s t o varyin g degrees—states throug h whic h Schreber-the-subjec t passes , becomin g a woma n and man y othe r thing s a s well , followin g a n endles s circl e o f eterna l return . Th e breasts o n th e judge's nake d tors o ar e neithe r deliriou s no r hallucinator y phenom ena: the y designate , first o f all, a band o f intensity, a zone of intensity o n hi s bod y without organs . Th e bod y withou t organ s i s an egg : it i s crisscrossed wit h axe s an d thresholds, wit h latitudes an d longitude s an d geodesi c lines , traverse d b y gradients marking th e transition s an d th e becomings , th e destination s o f th e subjec t devel oping along these particula r vectors . Nothin g here i s representative; rather, i t is all life an d live d experience : th e actual , live d emotio n o f havin g breast s doe s no t resemble breasts , i t doe s no t represen t them , an y mor e tha n a predestined zon e i n the eg g resemble s th e orga n tha t i t i s goin g t o b e stimulate d t o produc e withi n itself. Nothin g bu t band s o f intensity , potentials , thresholds , an d gradients . A harrowing, emotionall y overwhelmin g experience , whic h bring s th e schiz o a s clos e as possibl e t o matter , t o a burning , livin g cente r o f matter : [quotin g Antoni n Artaud] ". . . thi s emotion , situate d outsid e o f the particula r poin t wher e th e min d is searching for it . . . one's entire soul flows into this emotion tha t make s the min d aware o f th e terribl y disturbin g soun d o f matter , an d passe s throug h it s white hot flame." 39 It woul d b e fruitles s t o commen t upo n thi s passage , whic h i s no t a joke . It shoul d b e rea d mor e tha n once , t o appreciat e th e "endles s circl e o f eternal return, " th e "actua l live d emotio n o f havin g breasts, " whic h non e of th e person s involve d ca n actuall y la y clai m to , bu t i s indeed , I suppose ,

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202 • Chapter Seven different from , rathe r tha n resembling , breast s themselves . An d s o on . Th e authors ar e prestigiou s an d influentia l figures i n th e Frenc h an d America n academies, on e a philosopher , th e othe r a psychiatrist . The y hav e ha d t o choose, i t seems , betwee n Freu d an d Schrebe r an d hav e take n th e hind most, a decisio n fo r which , i t mus t b e admitted , som e goo d Freudia n precedent ca n b e given . I wil l onl y observ e that , whethe r o r no t the y hav e succeeded i n achievin g th e undifferentiated , "anti-Oedipal " consciousnes s they ascrib e t o "Schreber-the-subject " amon g othe r equall y doubtfu l mod els, the y hav e admirabl y succeede d i n capturin g hi s literar y style , tha t unique combinatio n o f bodil y exhibitionism , proliferatin g technicality , dog matic certitud e upo n th e mos t tenuou s matters , an d uninhib'te d fancy . Th e homeopathic cur e fo r paranoi a appear s t o b e schizophrenia , an d eve n Quixote wa s neve r s o desperate .

Paranoia and Modernity We bega n wit h th e questio n o f ho w i t coul d com e t o pas s tha t s o man y o f the dominan t figures o f moder n cultur e shoul d exemplif y th e paranoi d character. Attemptin g t o approach thi s questio n startin g wit h Freud' s theor y of paranoia , w e hav e foun d tha t th e concep t 'paranoia ' ha s a self-inclusiv e character: t o accep t Freud' s theor y o f thi s condition , an d al l tha t goe s wit h it, on e mus t accep t tha t on e i s onesel f aki n t o th e paranoi d i n psychology . And t o th e degre e tha t on e take s u p psychoanalysi s a s a worldview , on e tends t o resembl e th e paranoi d mor e an d more . Bu t thi s paranoi d tha t on e resembles i s nothin g othe r tha n a constructio n o f th e theor y itself . Th e question no w arises , onc e again , a s t o ho w thi s theoretica l proble m relate s to th e mentall y ill , th e real-worl d paranoids , whos e existenc e i n substantia l numbers i s beyon d dispute . They , surely , canno t b e mer e by-product s o f a self-recursive intellectua l paradigm . The issu e o f th e causa l relatio n betwee n moder n cultur e an d insanit y i s perilous. 4 0 I n orde r t o suppor t th e assertio n tha t moder n cultur e foster s paranoia, w e woul d hav e first t o ascertai n tha t paranoi a i s mor e frequen t i n modern societ y tha n i t i s i n pre-modern ; th e attempt , however , lead s t o problems o f definition , fo r w e woul d nee d t o hav e a t ou r disposa l fro m th e outset a transcultura l descriptio n o f paranoia , on e tha t coul d b e detache d from th e moder n context . Th e studie s tha t exis t sugges t tha t som e psychose s are, indeed , les s frequen t an d les s seriou s i n pre-moder n societie s tha n i n modern ones. 4 1 Wer e thi s th e cas e wit h paranoia , coul d w e ascrib e th e paranoid susceptibilitie s o f moder n peopl e t o thei r intellectua l culture ? I t

The Charismatic Paranoid • is encouragin g i n thi s regar d tha t well-educate d peopl e see m mor e suscepti ble t o th e diseas e tha n thos e wh o ar e not. 4 2 Bu t coul d paranoi a no t b e mor e substantially a resul t o f integratio n withi n th e demandin g superstructur e o f modern socia l an d economi c lif e rathe r tha n a sympto m o f intellectua l culture? Furthe r difficultie s follo w o n fro m these . I f th e intellectua l cultur e of moder n peopl e i s t o blame , wh o count s a s 'modern' ? Shal l w e includ e al l of thos e wh o liv e i n moder n societ y o r onl y thos e wh o shar e th e typica l presuppositions o f moder n thought ? Thes e difficultie s lea d u s t o th e mor e fundamental on e o f employin g th e ter m 'modern ' i n a neutral , descriptiv e way, an d o f givin g t o i t a fixed an d substantia l meaning . Th e qualit y 'modernity' seem s mos t fittingly ascribe d t o thos e element s o f cultur e tha t proclaim thei r ow n deliberat e separatio n fro m th e past , thei r ow n suspicio n and hostilit y towar d societ y an d tradition , an d thei r ow n self-consciousnes s of irrationa l excess—i n othe r words , thei r ow n paranoia . Modernit y i n thi s sense is self-consciou s paranoia . W e hav e no t escape d th e viciou s circle . If th e proble m o f etiolog y i s to o tenuou s t o pursue , perhap s w e ca n sa y something mor e positiv e abou t th e origin s o f paranoi d symptoms . Som e psychiatrists admi t a distinctio n betwee n th e 'pathogenic ' aspec t o f a dis ease, it s presumabl y biologica l cause , an d th e 'pathoplastic ' aspect , tha t which determine s it s psychologica l content. 4 3 W e could , makin g us e o f these terms , assum e tha t a certai n percentag e o f th e populatio n wil l b e predisposed t o mental illnes s i n an y culture , bu t tha t th e cultur e i n questio n determines th e characte r o f th e symptoms . I t i s a n attractiv e hypothesis , and ha s a n eviden t basis. 4 4 W e migh t no w se e paranoi a a s a successo r i n form t o earlie r menta l illnesse s tha t wer e characteristi c o f pre-moder n Western cultur e an d tha t evoke d thei r ow n mean s o f therapy . Th e mad , o f course, hav e alway s bee n recognize d an d thei r peculia r mod e o f existenc e assigned a distinc t value . Th e sublimit y o f madnes s i s a them e tha t wa s preserved fro m befor e th e tim e o f Socrate s til l Erasmu s a t th e brin k o f th e modern. Th e onse t o f modernit y brough t wit h it , b y contrast , a devaluatio n of madnes s coincidin g wit h th e genera l devaluatio n o f th e huma n being . A mad perso n become s no w n o longe r on e inspired , o r on e possessed , bu t simply on e wh o ha s a habitua l dispositiona l tendenc y radicall y t o err . I t i s a par t o f th e suspiciou s characte r o f thi s intellectua l cultur e t o insis t upo n its kinshi p wit h thi s devalue d for m o f madness , an d w e migh t wel l wonde r whether intellectua l suspicio n coul d not , b y a kin d o f feedback, hav e give n shape t o a distinc t menta l diseas e tha t take s thes e trait s t o thei r extreme . Certainly th e curren t o f paranoi d logic , psychology , an d rhetori c amon g th e makers o f moder n cultur e ha s enhance d th e prospect s o f thos e give n th e

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204 • Chapter Seven special talen t an d inclinatio n t o develo p new , stil l grander , an d mor e inspired system s o f suspicion . Whatever th e cas e ma y be , on e fac t stand s ou t clearl y fro m thi s discus sion. Moder n cultur e has , fro m it s inception , bee n advertise d a s a mean s of escapin g fro m th e irrationa l mode s o f though t tha t i t discerne d a s th e basis o f traditiona l culture . Bu t th e clai m i s false , fo r i t ha s bee n n o easie r categorically t o separat e moder n intellectualis m fro m madnes s tha n i t wa s to achieve thi s distinctio n fo r traditiona l form s o f thought . An d thi s i s a fac t that th e chie f representative s o f advance d modernity , mos t notabl y Freud , have insiste d upon . Suc h bein g th e case , i t i s a matte r almos t o f indiffer ence a s t o whethe r modernit y ha s produce d mor e tha n it s shar e o f ma d people, whethe r i t determine s th e for m o f thei r madness , o r whethe r i t simply tend s t o liste n t o the m mor e tha n i t should . Th e wa y o f thinkin g an d behaving tha t i s obviousl y undesirabl e i n th e clinicall y paranoi d goe s o n swaying an d compellin g u s i n th e writing s o f Freu d an d othe r centra l figures of moder n culture . Th e paranoi d characte r seem s almos t a requiremen t fo r great influenc e amon g moder n people . W e recogniz e th e dange r o f paranoi d consciousness bu t i n a wa y tha t doe s nothin g t o defen d u s fro m it . Freu d i n particular ha s give n u s a logic , a rhetoric , an d a psycholog y perfectl y paranoid, untrue , an d unsuccessfu l a s scientifi c explanation , ye t poten t i n its compatibilit y wit h th e suspiciou s drif t o f moder n philosophy . H e live d out th e nihilisti c implication s o f reductiv e logi c an d popularize d the m t o a degree hithert o unanticipated . H e taugh t u s t o thin k lik e th e paranoi d h e described an d t o se e ourselve s throug h th e distorte d reflectio n o f hi s ow n paranoid self-image . Some Friendly

Remonstrations

In th e cours e o f thi s stud y I hav e trie d t o grappl e wit h wha t I anticipate d t o be th e mos t obviou s Freudia n objection s t o m y arguments . Havin g com pleted th e work , I hav e b y no w ha d th e benefi t o f a variet y o f responses . I expected t o encounte r skepticis m abou t m y characterizatio n o f Freu d a s paranoid an d psychoanalysi s a s paranoi a an d o n thi s scor e I hav e no t bee n wholly disappointed , no r ha s th e for m o f this skepticis m com e a s a surprise . More interestin g t o me , however , hav e bee n thos e readers , exper t an d amateur, wh o wer e willin g t o accep t m y wa y o f understandin g Freud , ye t were no t willin g t o dra w fro m thi s understandin g th e sam e conclusion s I d o about th e valu e o f psychoanalyti c theory . Suc h reader s find i t possibl e t o agree wit h m e tha t Freud' s achievemen t wa s grounde d mor e i n rhetori c

The Charismatic Paranoid • than i n science , tha t a s a theoris t h e fit s hi s ow n descriptio n o f th e paranoid, an d tha t hi s inference s abou t huma n psycholog y ar e self-fulfillin g and self-justifying , ye t the y hesitat e t o tak e th e furthe r ste p o f acknowledg ing that , thi s bein g th e case , psychoanalysi s ca n simpl y hav e n o valu e a s a way o f thinkin g abou t th e psycholog y o f huma n beings . "Yo u hav e show n psychoanalysis t o b e one-sided , eve n monomaniacal, " goe s on e lin e o f thi s response, "i n emphasizin g th e aggressive , suspicious , an d lustfu l aspect s of huma n psychology , bu t ar e thes e no t important , eve n crucial , i n ou r mental life ? Aggressio n an d desir e ar e real . I f Freu d ha s explaine d n o mor e than these , hi s achievemen t remain s a notabl e an d valuabl e one ; i t call s for other s t o balanc e an d complet e i t whil e doin g justice t o thos e aspect s o f psychology Freu d overlooked . Doe s psychoanalysi s no t remai n persuasiv e and usefu l a s a n accoun t o f a larg e par t o f ordinar y behavior? " This objectio n woul d bea r weigh t i f w e coul d indee d credi t Freu d wit h having understoo d thos e aspect s o f psycholog y h e emphasized . Unfortu nately, Freu d i s i n a positio n rathe r lik e tha t o f th e philosophe r Thales , who declare d tha t th e worl d wa s mad e entirel y ou t o f water . Thale s misun derstood th e worl d and h e misunderstoo d water . Whe n Freu d reduce d al l of psycholog y t o th e transformation s ou t o f on e o r tw o centra l motives , o r 'drives', h e als o misunderstoo d th e behavio r h e attribute d t o th e forc e o f those drives . I n fac t th e whol e ide a o f 'drives' , o f huma n being s dischargin g themselves lik e batteries , i s b y no w a pitifu l anachronism . No t onl y di d Freud overemphasiz e aggressio n an d lustfulness , h e fatall y blurre d th e distinctions betwee n thes e an d othe r kind s o f feeling an d behavior . Makin g them th e onl y tru e motives , h e naturall y misunderstoo d eve n these , an d lef t us wit h a simplifying , rationalizin g syste m i n whic h th e psychologica l universe i s falsel y reduce d t o on e o r tw o primar y elements . Aggression an d lus t are , o f course , real , an d s o ar e man y o f th e othe r phenomena observe d b y Freud . Ou r psychologica l experienc e wa s availabl e to hi m a s i t i s t o th e res t o f us , an d wit h th e concentrate d focu s o f hi s theory h e magnifie d certai n aspect s o f huma n behavio r an d brough t the m t o the fore . M y argumen t ha s bee n tha t hi s power s o f observatio n wer e ab surdly skewe d i n th e directio n o f suspicio n an d tha t th e chie f objec t o f hi s scrutiny, th e unconscious , wa s a scientifi c fiction. W e shoul d no t forget , however, tha t th e clai m o f psychoanalysi s t o scientifi c valu e rest s no t upo n Freud's abilit y t o describ e huma n psycholog y bu t upo n hi s succes s i n explaining it . Th e poin t o f hi s observation s i s no t merel y t o illustrat e th e implications o f hi s theor y bu t t o validat e it ; an d her e h e mos t egregiousl y fails. W e mus t separate , then , th e mythologica l persuasivenes s o f th e

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206 • Chapter Seven Freudian cod e o f interpretatio n a s i t ca n b e applie d t o everyda y lif e fro m its validatio n a s a scientifi c theory . To clarif y thi s point , le t u s conside r Freud' s concep t o f 'ana l erotism' , o r 'anality', whic h ha s bee n firml y establishe d a s par t o f ou r commonsens e moral vocabulary . Freu d describe d a certai n characte r o r temperamen t exhibiting stingines s an d stubbornnes s alon g wit h obsessiv e neatnes s an d cleanliness; h e calle d thi s th e 'anal ' character . No w ther e are , n o doubt , people wh o display thi s character , an d i t i s a n almos t irresistibl e temptatio n to accep t thei r existenc e a s a confirmatio n o f psychoanalyti c theory . Bu t what, exactly , i s th e theor y here ? Freu d conjecture d tha t thes e 'anal ' characters, i n thei r relentles s an d obsessiv e nee d fo r control , wer e lik e a n anus (or , mor e properly , sphincter ) carryin g ou t it s missio n t o regulat e th e flow of huma n excrement . H e too k thi s likenes s t o b e indicativ e o f a causa l connection: 'anal ' character s exhibi t a fixatio n i n th e ana l stag e o f psycho sexual development , whe n tha t orga n i s th e primar y locu s o f eroti c plea sure, an d th e narrowin g an d tightening , th e makin g sphincter-lik e o f th e character represent s a n effor t t o sublimat e th e extraordinar y pleasur e som e people ar e suppose d t o experienc e a t tha t stage. 4 5 I t i s thi s lea p o f meta phorical imaginatio n upo n whic h w e ar e relyin g whe n w e refe r t o someon e as 'anal' , tha t a perso n shoul d com e t o resembl e a n organ . Th e explanator y value o f th e leap , though , derive s no t fro m th e mer e existenc e o f 'anal ' characters, no r fro m ou r abilit y t o discer n a likenes s betwee n character s and organs , bu t fro m th e integratio n o f thes e observation s wit h Freud' s theory o f sexua l development—th e transformation s an d displacement s o f the libido , th e dynamic s o f sublimation , repression , reactio n formation , and s o on . Detache d fro m these , Freud' s observatio n o f th e similarit y between a constrictio n o f th e characte r an d th e constricte d anu s become s a mere piec e o f whimsy , a combinatio n o f sympatheti c magi c an d satiri c wit . And onc e w e hav e recognize d th e genera l inadequac y o f Freud' s theory , neither th e wi t o f hi s magica l materialis m no r th e convenienc e o f th e ready-made armamentariu m o f derisio n furnishe d b y th e psychoanalyti c vocabulary wil l mak e u p fo r it s lac k o f explanator y value . "You criticiz e Freud, " m y friendl y criti c no w replies , "bot h fo r hi s credulity i n th e domai n o f explanatio n and , a t th e ver y sam e time , fo r hi s excessive skepticism , hi s to o suspiciou s scrutin y o f huma n attempt s t o understand an d maste r th e worl d b y mean s o f intellect . On e momen t Freu d is to o critica l an d suspicious , th e nex t momen t h e i s no t critica l enough . Freud can' t win . Wha t doe s i t mean , furthermore , give n you r generall y skeptical attitud e towar d moder n scientifi c culture , tha t Freu d fail s t o b e

The Charismatic Paranoid • 'scientific'? I s 'scientific ' mor e tha n a n empt y complimen t here ? Wha t 'science' woul d yo u pu t i n plac e o f psychoanalysis ? Freu d ha s offere d u s a powerful hermeneuti c mode l fo r interpretin g th e world , on e tha t help s u s make sens e o f thing s ever y day . Ca n yo u offe r somethin g better , somethin g stronger an d mor e compellin g tha n this? " The skeptica l reade r i s correc t t o observ e tha t Freu d i s guilt y i n m y account bot h o f excessiv e suspicio n an d o f speculativ e recklessness , bu t we ca n remed y thi s apparen t contradictio n b y distinguishin g th e object s t o which Freud' s suspicio n an d hi s credulit y apply . Freu d view s th e collectiv e achievements o f pas t cultur e an d th e motive s o f al l aroun d hi m wit h a penetrating suspicion . An d thi s suspicion , w e hav e seen , turn s back , wit h ostentatious self-scrutiny , o n hi s ow n motive s a s well . Thi s scrutiny , though, doe s no t appl y t o Freu d th e maste r o f suspicion , bu t onl y t o Freu d the dreamer , Freu d th e well-meanin g physician , comi c victi m o f slip s o f the tongue , naivel y ambitiou s professiona l an d clums y fugitiv e fro m th e censor's gaze . Lik e Dant e th e pilgri m o f th e Divine Comedy, al l o f th e dreamer Freud' s imperfection s an d susceptibilitie s ar e o n displa y fo r th e edification an d entertainmen t o f th e reader . Bu t lik e Dant e th e poet , Freu d the scientist , orchestrato r o f thi s gran d romance , stand s abov e scrutiny . Making a sho w o f caution , h e build s on e fragil e inferenc e upo n anothe r until a grea t totterin g cosmo s o f speculatio n ha s bee n erected . Freu d th e scientist neve r look s back . Hi s suspiciou s scrutin y i s no t methodologica l but disingenuousl y moral , an d hi s sin s ar e sin s o f th e unconscious , wher e none o f us , apparently , shal l 'scap e whipping . As fo r th e honorifi c titl e o f th e scientist , Freu d noisil y claime d i t fo r himself, insistin g tha t devotio n t o psychoanalysi s calle d fo r th e staunches t and mos t implacabl e scientifi c resolve . Hi s clai m t o b e scientifi c wa s first a moral claim . Whil e I hav e show n Freud' s scientifi c pos e t o b e a theatrica l effect, m y inten t ha s no t bee n t o replac e Freud' s wa y o f thinkin g abou t science wit h a bette r theor y o f science . M y complaint s abou t th e 'scientific ' failure o f psychoanalysi s rel y no t upo n a theor y o f scienc e bu t upo n wha t any theor y o f scienc e mus t accoun t for—th e fac t that , i n ordinar y scientifi c practice, bette r explanation s cas t ou t poore r ones . Thi s i s wha t scientist s attempt t o do , t o provid e bette r an d bette r description s an d explanations . Theories o f scienc e ma y disagre e abou t wha t count s a s a n explanation , ho w theory relate s t o fac t an d fac t t o theory , wha t make s on e theor y bette r tha n another, an d eve n whethe r o r no t ther e i s alway s a commo n conceptua l framework, o r 'paradigm' , withi n whic h riva l theorie s ca n confron t eac h other. Bu t n o theor y ca n seriousl y cal l int o questio n th e fac t tha t t o d o

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208 • Chapter Seven science i s t o see k th e bes t explanation , howeve r tenuousl y o r pragmaticall y that i s conceived . W e mus t gran t thi s muc h i f scienc e i s t o b e possibl e a t all. An d th e theor y o f psychoanalysi s i s simpl y not , b y an y measure , th e best explanatio n fo r th e phenomen a i t attempt s t o address . A t ever y leve l Freud's evidenc e wa s contaminate d wit h hi s ow n interpretiv e activity . W e can se e wit h hindsigh t tha t hi s grea t persuasivenes s la y i n providin g a new , hidden locu s o f meaning , th e unconscious , an d usin g i t a s a Cartesia n starting poin t fro m whic h th e psychologica l worl d coul d b e systematicall y rebuilt afte r th e demolitio n o f th e pre-existin g cultura l order . Th e potenc y of thi s maneuve r lie s no t i n explanatio n bu t interpretation , i n a n interpreta tion grounde d upo n suspicion . When i t come s t o tha t inevitabl e question , abou t psychoanalysis , whether I ca n offe r "somethin g better , somethin g stronge r an d mor e com pelling" tha n it s hermeneuti c system , I mus t admi t tha t t o compet e wit h Freud o n thi s leve l woul d b e beyon d m y powers . M y modest y mus t b e disingenuous, however , a s I d o not , o f course , believ e tha t w e shoul d replace psychoanalysi s wit h anothe r grea t hermeneuti c code . Th e ide a tha t one ca n onl y discredi t a wa y o f thinkin g b y replacin g i t wit h anothe r in the same kind i s false ; otherwis e th e doctrin e o f th e Rosicrucian s woul d b e stil l among us , o r somethin g lik e it . I t i s enoug h tha t eac h o f th e detail s brough t forward b y Freu d a s evidenc e fo r psychoanalysi s ca n b e explaine d o n other , more likel y terms . The underlyin g assumptio n fo r thos e wh o tak e u p th e 'hermeneuti c stance' i s tha t al l th e activitie s o f cultur e ca n b e understoo d a s form s o f interpretation. Interpretatio n i s fundamenta l t o experienc e itself . Ther e ar e great complexitie s here ; th e hermeneuti c philosoph y ha s bee n pu t forwar d by gifte d an d sophisticate d theorists . I ma y poin t out , however , simply , that i f al l o f ou r norma l investigativ e thinkin g i s t o b e describe d i n herme neutic terms , the n hermeneutic s wil l hav e t o accoun t fo r th e discreditin g of theorie s tha t d o no t hol d thei r weight—theories , tha t i s t o say , lik e psychoanalysis. Hermeneutics , i n thi s case , woul d b e a n attemp t t o giv e a n account o f th e proces s o f inquiry , bu t i t woul d no t alte r th e results . If , o n the othe r hand , w e ar e goin g t o us e th e hermeneuti c theor y t o introduc e a new, 'hermeneutic ' kin d o f truth , whic h stand s o r fall s merel y o n th e persuasiveness o f th e interpretation s themselves , the n w e ar e o n treacher ous ground . Tw o observation s will , I hope , suffic e t o sugges t wh y thi s i s so . First, i t shoul d discourag e u s fro m overestimatin g th e valu e o f interpreta tion t o realiz e tha t al l interpretiv e system s succee d i n producin g them . Th e reason fo r thi s i s tha t the y wor k upo n th e product s o f huma n intentionality ,

The Charismatic Paranoid • upon wha t ar e alread y meaningfu l structures ; thei r privilege d object s ar e texts. The y operat e b y choosin g certai n feature s a s th e ke y t o interpretatio n and subordinatin g al l other s t o these . Marxist s emphasiz e theme s o f class , Nietzscheans power , Freudian s th e 'drives' , an d s o on . On e coul d d o a s well as an interpreter b y choosin g th e 57t h wor d o f eac h tex t a s th e ke y t o significance. Th e astonishin g fertilit y o f medieva l religiou s hermeneutic s assures u s tha t ther e i s almos t n o limi t t o ingenuit y i n interpretation , n o limit t o th e numbe r o f level s o f meanin g o r t o th e polysemi c fecundit y o f the sign . Thi s i s wh y theorie s mus t stan d o r fal l no t b y interpretiv e succes s but b y ho w wel l th e interprete d dat a suppor t th e underlyin g explanation s when confronte d wit h riva l theories . Th e har d par t fo r th e interprete r i s explaining wh y sex , wh y class , wh y 5 7 shoul d b e th e bas s not e o f al l understanding. Freudia n readings , then , depen d upo n th e validatio n o f Freud's theory , an d not , primarily , th e othe r wa y around . Fo r thi s reason , too, psychoanalysi s canno t b e save d a s a for m o f literar y criticis m whe n i t fails a s a n accoun t o f huma n psychology : th e hermeneuti c cod e canno t liv e without th e underlyin g explanator y model . Freu d neve r admitte d th e limit s upon th e valu e o f interpretation . Believin g tha t ever y hermeneuti c deploy ment o f psychoanalysi s wa s a confirmatio n o f it , h e continue d throughou t his lif e t o dra w assuranc e fro m th e seemingl y uncann y fac t that , n o matte r how bol d an d speculativ e hi s explanator y hypotheses , th e interpretation s just kep t workin g out . The stron g hermeneuti c stanc e ha s a secon d fata l aspec t beside s th e fac t that interpretiv e system s neve r fai l t o satisf y thei r ow n requirement s fo r success: i f ther e i s nothin g availabl e t o u s bu t riva l interpretations , tha t position i s itsel f nothin g bu t a n interpretation . Ou r attention , then , move s to the nex t obviou s question : Wh o benefit s fro m th e succes s o f this interpre tation? O n wha t authorit y doe s th e hermeneuticia n certif y th e hermeneuti c stance? Whenc e derive s it s generalizin g an d universalizin g privilege ? W e are bac k t o th e paranoi d logi c w e foun d a t th e hear t o f psychoanalysis , th e logic tha t make s inquir y ultimatel y a wa r o f al l agains t all , producin g a situation i n whic h an y clai m t o authorit y look s lik e a n indefensibl e excess . The mov e t o th e hermeneuti c stanc e i n thi s stronge r versio n involve s a shif t of vocabularie s awa y fro m explanatio n towar d interpretatio n pe r se ; bu t i t remains n o les s reductiv e fo r that . "Well," m y friendl y skepti c no w replies , "ar e yo u no t bein g a bi t optimistic estimatin g th e degre e t o whic h yo u yoursel f hav e escape d fro m the Freudia n hermeneuti c stance ? Isn' t Freu d fo r yo u a kin d o f secre t sharer? H e i s suspicious , bu t yo u ar e suspiciou s o f him . Yo u unmas k th e

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210 • Chapter Seven unmasking critique , bu t th e unmaskin g eve n o f a n unmaskin g critiqu e is , itself, a n unmaskin g critique . Wouldn' t you r argumen t b e mor e persuasiv e if, instea d o f denyin g al l valu e t o psychoanalysis , yo u admitte d you r ironi c resemblance t o Freud? " Thi s objectio n wa s pu t t o m e b y a particularl y valued respondent , who , thoug h willin g t o assen t t o m y characterizatio n o f Freud's totalizin g mode , wa s nevertheles s perplexe d b y th e unqualifiedl y negative characte r o f m y assessmen t o f psychoanalysis . M y respons e mus t be tha t Freu d i s categoricall y suspiciou s o f everyone , whil e I clai m t o b e suspicious onl y wher e a particula r caus e demand s it . An d thi s lead s m e t o be suspicious , or , mor e properly , skeptical , o f him . Wha t choic e doe s on e have whe n on e i s told , "B e suspiciou s o f everyone" ? On e ca n eithe r follo w this paranoi d advic e o r reac t suspiciousl y an d skepticall y towar d th e perso n who give s it . It i s importan t t o note , also , tha t m y analysi s doe s no t tak e th e for m o f an unmaskin g critiqu e o r a "hermeneutic s o f suspicion, " t o us e Pau l Ricoeur's memorabl e phrase . Unlik e Nietzsche , Marx , an d Freud , th e paradigmatic practitioner s o f thi s mode , I hav e no t attempte d t o provid e a new ke y t o al l mythologies . Th e primar y lesso n I expec t m y reader s t o dra w from thi s wor k i s simpl y tha t the y shoul d forge t wha t the y though t the y ha d learned fro m psychoanalysi s an d becom e skeptica l abou t thos e suspiciou s aspects o f moder n cultur e develope d t o thei r maturit y i n Freud . Th e "mas ters o f suspicion, " though , hav e a differen t aim . The y wan t t o implemen t a hermeneutic system— a whol e paranoi d vie w o f life—founde d o n th e rela tion betwee n surfac e an d depth , betwee n accepte d appearanc e an d denie d reality. The y unmas k thi s relatio n o f discrepancy , o f socia l dissimulatio n and metaphysica l trumpery , but , excep t i n th e cas e o f Marx , the y d o no t expect t o overcom e it . Th e herois m o f unmaskin g lie s i n recognitio n an d stoical endurance , i n th e simpl e acceptanc e o f th e trut h o f suspicion . I n the machiner y o f th e unmaskin g critique , surfac e an d dept h hol d eac h other i n plac e an d becom e th e repositorie s o f al l opposit e qualities , leadin g to a blac k an d white , Hatfield s an d McCoy s vie w o f life . Th e dept h o f thi s vision i s th e rhetorica l foi l o f it s superficiality , it s subtlet y th e by-produc t of the intricat e an d ingeniou s casuistica l operation s necessar y t o reduce th e welter o f phenomen a i n suc h a narro w scheme . An d a t th e botto m is , of course , th e single , prima l cosmologica l constituent . I d o no t shar e this project . The antidot e t o thi s seductiv e for m o f suspicio n woul d no t b e a n exces sively trustin g optimism , I migh t add , bu t a n attemp t t o recogniz e th e actual complexit y o f huma n existence , t o avoi d reducin g i t i n th e abstract ,

The Charismatic Paranoid • rigid, an d facilel y moralizin g categorie s o f surfac e an d depth ; and , whe n there ar e depths—whic h i s t o say , complexities—o f th e mora l kind , t o confront them , a t leas t i n principle , i n thei r contradictor y appearances , and t o brin g wha t ca n b e know n ont o th e sam e plan e o f discussion , rathe r than attemptin g t o mak e deceitfulnes s an d contradictio n th e primar y rul e o f understanding. Freu d himsel f professe d a n ambitio n somethin g lik e thi s one, bu t hi s failur e a s a therapis t le d hi m ultimatel y t o b e content , lik e Captain Nemo , admirin g th e depth s o f th e underse a worl d h e claime d t o have discovered . An d thi s wa s mor e o r les s inevitabl e give n tha t fo r Freu d deceit wa s a creatur e no t merel y o f huma n fallibility , weakness , o r evi l bu t of a hidde n structur e o f th e mind . Onc e h e ha d unmaske d wha t h e too k t o be th e mer e appearance s o f conscious , ordinar y life , the y wer e no t t o b e confronted but , rather , merel y translate d i n th e cod e o f th e unconscious , made unrea l an d ridiculous , esotericized , an d reduce d t o childishness . "Your analysi s leave s Freu d wit h muc h t o answe r for, " m y friendl y skeptic properl y observes , "ye t yo u hav e gon e ou t o f you r wa y t o sho w tha t his thinkin g i s a developmen t ou t o f the centra l strai n o f modern philosophi cal an d scientifi c culture . Ca n al l o f th e grea t figures yo u cit e b e s o misguided? I f the y are , you r singlin g ou t o f Freu d seem s th e produc t o f a n extraordinary animus , surel y th e grudg e o f a n ex-believer . I s thi s wh y yo u feel th e nee d t o addres s Freu d wit h iron y an d t o den y psychoanalysi s any claim t o value ? Hasn' t i t a t leas t opene d u p fruitfu l area s o f inquiry ? Wh y pick o n Freud? " I can , first o f all , an d wit h a goo d conscience , disclai m that I hav e eve r bee n a devote e o f psychoanalysis , thoug h I hav e partici pated i n othe r form s o f paranoi d hermeneutics . M y disapprova l o f Freu d i s not tha t o f a jilte d lover . I picke d hi m fro m th e phalan x o f suspicio n a s a salient an d clea r exampl e o f th e paranoi d tren d o f moder n culture , an d because hi s treatmen t o f paranoi a naturall y stoo d i n th e wa y o f min e an d had, thus , t o b e confronted . A s fo r th e breadt h o f m y critique , whic h pertains no t t o scienc e itsel f bu t t o a suspiciou s understandin g o f th e process o f inquir y tha t stem s largel y fro m moder n philosophy , I a m b y n o means th e first t o sugges t tha t th e pat h o f speculatio n inaugurate d b y Bacon, Descartes , Hobbes , an d Locke , amon g others , need s t o b e re evaluated an d perhap s don e awa y with . Tha t ha s lon g bee n a refrai n amon g religious perennialist s an d som e conservativ e humanists , an d the y hav e been joine d i n recen t decade s b y a growin g choru s o f progressiv e an d radical intellectual s followin g th e lea d o f Willia m James , Heidegger , Witt genstein, an d others . I migh t cit e Charle s Taylor , Richar d Rorty , an d Alasdair Maclntyre , currently , a s amon g th e mos t trenchan t an d significan t

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212 • Chapter Seven of modernity' s critics ; eac h o f the m seeks , i n on e wa y o r another , t o fre e u s from th e image s o f th e knowin g subjec t an d th e mora l agen t bequeathe d t o us b y th e post-Cartesia n tradition. 46 As fo r m y decidedl y negativ e assessmen t o f psychoanalysis , it s urgen t insistence i s i n par t du e t o th e grea t currenc y thi s wa y o f thinkin g stil l enjoys amon g literar y critics , m y colleagues , wh o see m t o m e t o hav e bee n caught i n a grea t Nabokovia n je u d'espri t i n whic h literar y expertis e serve s only t o deepe n thei r enchantmen t wit h th e Kinbote' s grandios e an d perse cuted fancy . Adde d t o thi s i s m y awarenes s o f th e impac t o f psychoanalysi s upon peopl e i n thei r everyda y lives . The y g o int o analysi s whe n the y ar e most vulnerable , confused , an d i n nee d o f reassurance . Wha t the y ge t i s a system o f indoctrination tha t seek s t o detach the m fro m th e eviden t meanin g of thei r experienc e an d ask s the m t o accep t th e mos t suspicious , comical , and rebarbativ e understandin g o f themselve s an d thei r relation s wit h oth ers. Th e suppose d trut h o f thi s ingeniou s system , originall y designe d t o bolster th e self-estee m o f intellectua l heroes , become s s o deepl y embedde d through th e intens e experienc e o f analysis tha t ofte n i t i s extremel y difficul t for th e initiate s t o question . The y ar e read y t o becom e analysts ! And on e nee d no t g o int o therap y t o fee l th e touc h o f psychoanalysis . I t is indeed , a s Aude n pu t it , " a whol e climat e o f opinion." Whe n w e conside r the original , satiri c origin s o f thi s opinion , no w treate d b y it s champion s and thei r admirer s wit h suc h piet y an d wonder , a certai n iron y ca n hardl y be avoided . Livin g ou t Freud' s grea t Quixoti c adventur e ha s becom e fo r many amon g us , an d ofte n th e mos t gifted , a lifelon g quest , tiltin g a t phallic symbol s al l th e while . A s fo r myself , I woul d b e willin g t o conced e to m y friendl y critic s tha t Freu d ma y possibl y hav e opene d som e line s o f inquiry tha t hav e prove n fruitfu l t o late r investigators , an d eve n tha t th e effort o f disprovin g hi s theor y ma y hav e brough t som e ancillar y benefits . Any suc h benefits , though , i f the y exist , ca n onl y begi n t o accru e afte r Freud's initia l misunderstanding s hav e bee n cleare d away . Bu t thi s i s no t to sa y tha t hi s intellectua l misadventur e wa s anywher e nea r wort h th e trouble. Whe n Do n Quixot e cam e finall y t o hi s senses , h e use d hi s las t strength t o abando n hi s quest , despit e th e urging s o f infatuate d admirer s and would-b e therapists . Thos e wh o presentl y fin d themselve s i n hi s posi tion shoul d emulat e th e knigh t wher e h e i s a t hi s best .

Conclusion

By wa y o f conclusion , le t u s enumerat e th e mai n point s o f th e argument , along wit h a fe w mor e genera l implications : 1. Freu d wa s correc t i n hi s clai m tha t paranoi a ha s a specia l connectio n with moder n cultur e bu t wron g abou t th e characte r o f tha t connection . I t i s not o n accoun t o f th e suppressio n o f religiou s impulse s b y scienc e tha t paranoia achieve s it s forc e an d visibilit y i n moder n experience . Rather , paranoia become s a viable , eve n norma l stanc e whe n intellectua l cultur e depends fundamentall y an d withou t limi t upo n suspicio n o f th e facultie s that mak e i t possible . 2. Paranoi d psycholog y i s a natura l derivativ e fro m th e contradiction s of reductionis t logic . Amon g th e man y confluen t element s o f moder n suspi cion, psychoanalysi s develop s th e suspiciou s aspect s o f scientific methodol ogy, empiricis t an d Kantia n epistemology , historica l idealism , an d Hobbes ian politica l philosophy . Freud' s argumen t tha t th e cultur e o f scienc e ha d redirected religiou s energie s int o neurosi s an d paranoi a i s viciousl y circu lar, sinc e wha t i t point s t o a s th e supposedl y indirec t caus e o f suspicion , invisible t o consciousness , i s a wa y o f thinkin g founde d immediatel y upo n suspicion and , b y mean s o f suspicion, proclaimin g it s modernity . T o under stand th e connectio n betwee n paranoi a an d modernity , therefore , w e nee d not resor t t o 'unconsciou s repression ' an d th e like ; w e nee d onl y observ e deliberate strategie s o f psychologica l repression : deployment s o f suspiciou s logic an d rhetori c i n th e hand s o f grandios e an d suspiciou s personalitie s whose talents , unde r th e regim e o f paranoia , brin g the m t o th e fore . 3. A s th e leade r an d chie f theorist , analyst , an d analysan d o f psycho analysis, Freu d exhibit s th e ful l rang e o f paranoi d symptoms : grandiosity , centrality, th e perceptio n o f hostilit y i n th e socia l environment , irrationa l fears o f persecution , obsessiv e concer n wit h autonom y an d control , massiv e projection, an d th e mos t far-flun g possibl e interpretiv e syste m o f suspicion .

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214 • Conclusion Freud faile d precisel y wher e th e paranoia c fails , an d succeede d brilliantl y where h e succeeds . 4. Freud' s tendenc y i s no t t o obscure hi s paranoi d characteristic s bu t to emphasize the m an d t o convinc e hi s reader s tha t the y shar e th e sam e characteristics 'unconsciously' . H e make s th e bravery o f acknowledging hi s paranoid affinitie s th e basi s o f a n advantag e throug h a rhetori c o f heroi c irony. B y generatin g a full y develope d scientifi c syste m o f suspicion , Freud's psycholog y become s bot h self-fulfillin g an d self-justifying . 5. Jus t a s Freu d i s bot h analys t an d analysand , s o h e i s bot h exponen t and victi m o f paranoi d logic . H e inherite d fro m hi s intellectua l precursor s a powerfu l ideolog y o f suspicio n wit h a lon g histor y o f anti-traditional , progressivist deployments . Hi s positio n a s par t o f a sociall y represse d ethnic minorit y i n th e reactionar y an d increasingl y fascisti c environmen t o f the Habsbur g empir e contribute d specia l animu s an d energ y t o the ideolog ical applicatio n o f hi s science . Th e paranoi d qualitie s o f Freud' s intellec tual an d socia l inheritanc e enhance d th e embattle d an d suspiciou s aspec t of hi s character . 6. Th e psychoanalytic interpretiv e syste m o f suspicion work s b y makin g egotism o f a megalomaniaca l sor t th e energizin g motiv e o f huma n con sciousness. This , fo r Freud , i s th e for m i n whic h ou r repressed narcissisti c sexuality strive s t o expres s itself . Interpretatio n ca n ceas e onl y whe n i t comes upo n th e selfish , egotistica l motif . Th e interpretation s ar e self sustaining an d depen d upo n dram a an d narrativ e coherenc e rathe r tha n empirical confirmation . 7. Freudia n suspicio n doe s no t hav e th e characte r o f worldl y wisdom , but i s purel y a rationalizin g for m o f construction . I t doe s faste n upo n aspects o f experienc e tha t are , indeed , par t o f everyda y life : hypocris y an d social theatricality , self-aggrandizemen t an d self-deception , competitive ness, heroi c fantasy , suspicion , resentfulness , childishness , vainglory , lust, an d fear . Bu t thes e becom e evidenc e o f a n 'unconscious ' real m o f perfect, unqualified , cleverl y disguise d egotis m exercisin g relentles s inge nuity i n orde r t o concea l it s presenc e fro m th e consciou s mind . Th e unconscious maintain s a Cartesia n consistenc y i n it s irrational aims , ensur ing tha t nothin g w e d o i s withou t meaning . I t i s thi s assumptio n o f perfec t consistency i n the unconscious min d tha t permit s psychoanalysi s t o achiev e its systematicall y rationalizin g form . 8. Th e concept 'paranoia ' i s itsel f a hostile , satirica l invention . I t point s to th e fac t tha t th e apparatuse s o f though t ca n operat e a t th e highes t leve l of coherence , employin g th e mos t exalte d mean s o f verba l expression ,

Conclusion • while servin g nonetheles s t o sustai n a framewor k o f utte r delusion . Th e theorists o f paranoia , rathe r tha n seekin g th e faul t i n th e paranoid' s defi cient applicatio n o f intellectua l powers , tak e th e paranoid' s intellectua l performance a s a spectacl e discreditin g t o th e natur e o f thos e power s themselves. Wit h reductiv e exactitud e an d satiri c economy , the y includ e their ow n activit y i n th e spectacl e a s well . 9. I n constructin g hi s imag e o f th e modern , paranoi d character , Freu d imitated Cervantes ' depictio n o f Do n Quixote , providin g hi s subjec t wit h a n 'unconscious' tha t consist s o f vulgar an d historicall y discredite d element s o f culture. Thes e elements , lodge d i n th e unconscious , become , lik e Quixote' s favorite romances , th e model s fo r Freud' s ow n compulsive , delusory , comi c repetitions, a s describe d i n The Interpretation of Dreams. 10. Freu d ca n bes t b e understoo d a s a rhetoricia n o f geniu s wh o ha s taken a satiri c imag e o f me n an d wome n an d mad e i t th e norm , applyin g i t even t o himself . Callin g i t rhetoric , a s I hav e done , perhap s obscure s th e fact tha t i t i s no t s o muc h a wa y o f writin g a s a consistentl y hel d visio n o f life. Thi s bein g th e case , Freu d actuall y exemplifie s th e satiri c psycholog y from whic h hi s rhetori c derives . Hi s behavio r reflect s no t onl y th e symp toms o f th e paranoi d characte r mentione d i n numbe r 3 above , bu t als o th e infatuation wit h th e paranoid , an d th e hilariou s intoxicatio n wit h satiri c language tha t ar e centra l t o th e humo r o f Cervantes ' paranoi d spectacle . 11. Freu d wa s no t th e first t o mak e th e satiri c imag e o f th e paranoi d into a n exemplar y visio n o f th e huma n spirit . Th e Romanti c revaluatio n o f Cervantes' comi c her o ha d alread y achieve d thi s transformation , creatin g the idealize d Quixot e wh o enchante d Freu d i n hi s youth . Freu d achieve d a psychologizing repetitio n o f th e Romanti c 'retur n o f th e repressed ' i n whic h discredited, vulga r element s o f cultur e acquire d a ne w mora l an d imagina tive value . 12. Freudia n 'psycho-history ' ha s wha t i s ostensibl y a progressiv e cast . It imagine s tha t eac h individua l recapitulate s i n hi s o r he r psychologica l development th e developmen t o f th e species , fro m prima l fathe r t o moder n scientist. Thi s developmen t proceed s b y repression , th e mean s b y whic h we leav e th e pas t behind . Paranoid s an d othe r faile d psyche s underg o a reactionary reversio n t o mor e primitive , historicall y retrograd e state s o f consciousness. Bu t th e tru e mode l o f repressio n an d retur n a t th e hear t o f the Freudia n psych e i s no t th e evolutionar y developmen t o f the rac e bu t th e development o f moder n cultur e itself . Thi s cultur e ha s als o undergon e th e pattern o f repressio n an d return—Enlightenmen t repressio n an d Romanti c return. Th e progressiv e aspec t o f Freud' s narrativ e remain s poten t onl y

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216 • Conclusion insofar a s i t applie s t o th e developmen t o f scienc e itself . Fo r wha t Freudia n science tell s u s i s tha t w e canno t trul y leav e th e pas t behind . Th e primeva l dragons remai n i n th e unconsciou s mind , awaitin g thei r chance . 13. Freud' s accoun t o f th e developmen t o f individua l psycholog y fro m infancy an d th e 'pleasur e principle ' t o adulthoo d an d th e 'principl e o f reality' i s evidentl y a historica l ideolog y injecte d ont o th e domai n o f th e psyche. I n becomin g adults , w e ar e told , eac h o f u s strive s t o leav e behin d what i s "primitive " i n us—wha t belongs , tha t is , t o other , pre-moder n cultures—and reac h "civilization. " Politica l critique s o f psychoanalysi s that emphasiz e merel y it s privatizing , depoliticizin g characteristic s over look thi s underlyin g socia l an d politica l myth . 14. A n inventor y o f wha t Freu d calle d th e unconsciou s woul d hav e t o include th e disguise d presence s o f a numbe r o f distinguishe d emigre s fro m the moder n philosophica l bestiary . Alongsid e the m w e recogniz e a familia r gallery o f huma n foibles : ou r socia l fictitiousness , o r tendenc y towar d censorship, concealment , an d touchin g u p o f ou r tru e motives ; ou r wishe s that certai n doctrines , suc h a s thos e o f religion , shoul d b e true ; th e cultur ally define d vulgarit y o f th e bod y an d o f certai n sociall y disreputable , o r "primitive," form s o f culture , al l satiricall y envisioned . Ther e i s actuall y nothing hidde n o r mysteriou s i n an y o f these , no r an y nee d fo r a n 'uncon scious' t o explai n them , unles s on e has , o f course , a ben t fo r myster y an d suspiciousness, a vocatio n fo r thing s hidden , difficult , esoteric , an d un canny. 15. Psychoanalysi s accord s t o eac h o f u s a persona l mythology , a s w e struggle wit h th e psycho-historica l trace s o f th e conflict s o f th e past . Bu t i n essence wha t w e ar e offere d i s a repetitio n o f Freud' s ow n Quixoti c psycho mythology, hi s ow n paranoi d quest . Wha t wa s contingentl y tru e o f F r e u d — that h e wa s relentlessl y suspicious , competitive , hostile , an d heroicall y embattled—becomes, throug h th e forc e o f hi s imagination , tru e fo r thos e who ar e willin g t o accep t th e necessit y o f hi s assumptions . 16. Havin g recognize d th e charismati c appea l o f th e paranoi d figure, a n appeal deepl y grounde d i n Romanticis m an d th e cultur e o f irony , w e ca n see wh y Freu d himsel f exert s suc h peculia r charism a t o thi s day : whe n paranoia i s th e onl y availabl e for m o f heroism—al l other s havin g bee n skeptically disallowed—th e herois m o f iron y become s th e las t resourc e o f ambition an d th e las t objec t t o admire .

Epilogue "Tell me , Sanch o m y friend , wha t ar e the y sayin g about m e in the village here ? Wha t d o the commo n people thin k o f me ? Wha t d o th e hidalgos? Wha t do the caballeros? What d o they sa y of my valor, of my achievements , an d o f m y courtesy ? Ho w d o they regar d th e tas k I hav e undertake n t o reviv e and restor e t o th e worl d th e no w forgotten orde r of chivalry?" —Quixot e

In th e lat e afternoo n o f Augus t 27 , 1979 , whil e descendin g fro m th e # 1 6 trolley o n th e outskirt s o f Amsterdam , I wa s haile d i n Frenc h b y a ma n i n a tattere d jacke t leanin g o n a can e wh o introduce d himsel f a s Ric o Julie n Marie Lucien , a grea t an d persecute d write r an d a politica l an d religiou s leader o f genius . H e wa s abou t sixty , muc h th e wors e fo r wear , an d ha d th e familiar fac e an d bear d o f Solzhenitsy n excep t fo r a gas h o n th e crow n o f his nose . H e carrie d hi s possession s an d clothin g i n a bucke t tha t als o served hi m a s a stool . Ha d h e spoke n t o m e i n Englis h I would hav e know n better tha n t o answe r him . I n French , however , I wa s withou t guile . A Romantic wandere r betwee n colleg e an d gra d school , I wa s hel d immedi ately i n fascinatio n b y th e paranoid' s exalte d aura . France wa s sick , h e tol d me . "Le s communistes , le s socialistes , le s juif s capitalistes, e t Giscar d d'Estaing " ha d calumniate d him , sho t hi m i n th e back, an d take n awa y hi s tw o millio n francs . "O n m' a calomnie! " An d t o prove i t h e pulle d ou t hi s shirt-tail s an d expose d t o me hi s wound , a twiste d depression tha t wen t dee p int o th e bas e o f hi s spine . Havin g bee n s o reduced b y hi s enemies , h e wa s force d t o as k m e fo r assistance . Woul d I lend hi m 50,00 0 franc s t o b e repai d b y th e Canadia n ambassado r upo n demand? I offere d te n guilders , whic h h e too k fo r a princel y sum . H e kissed m e vehementl y o n bot h cheeks . "Viv e le s Etats-Unis ! Viv e l e Canada! Viv e l a Hollande! " h e shoute d a s i f t o a n audienc e o f admirers , pausing afte r eac h outburs t fo r m y brother , Ed , an d m e t o secon d him . 217

218 • Epilogue "Your fathe r mus t b e ver y ric h t o sen d yo u here, " h e observed . "Ma y I hav e your watch? " "M y fathe r i s a bricklayer," I told him . H e wa s delighted . "U n magon! Yo u kno w Mauric e Chevalier? " Withou t waitin g fo r a n answe r h e started a son g an d dance , shufflin g flat-footed, singin g hoarsely . B y thi s time a doze n car s ha d pulle d u p a t th e re d light , an d th e driver s wer e looking o n wit h sympatheti c amusemen t a t wha t the y too k t o b e m y predic ament. But I wa s absorbe d wit h th e fat e o f m y interlocutor , wh o wa s o n hi s wa y to th e Unite d State s t o b e give n a pensio n tha t woul d allo w hi m t o carr y o n his crusad e "comm e Jeann e d'Arc , comm e Luther! " Th e Canadia n ambas sador wa s goin g t o arrang e hi s tri p t o Americ a s o tha t h e coul d mee t wit h his grea t ally , a n extraordinar y America n woma n politicia n whos e nam e and titl e I coul d no t interpre t n o matte r ho w man y time s h e repeate d the m for me . Finall y h e offere d t o writ e i t down : "He r excellency , Shirle y Temple, celebrate d actres s o f th e America n cinema , beautifu l woma n poli tician wit h perfec t form , emble m o f virtu e an d vigilance . Shirle y Temple , I love you! " I finall y extricate d mysel f fro m Monsieu r Lucie n b y directin g hi m t o th e Bureau (TAccueil wher e I kne w h e woul d receiv e a doubtfu l welcom e even wit h hi s te n guilders , whic h wa s onl y enoug h fo r a singl e night' s accommodation. Sinc e m y reactio n t o Monsieu r Lucien' s behavio r i s a n important par t o f th e story , I a m goin g t o quot e th e en d o f m y diar y accoun t of thi s episod e writte n a t th e time : I coul d onl y giv e hi m te n guilder s ($5)—las t broken-dow n da y o f ou r trip . H e asked m e again fo r m y watch. I told hi m i t wa s th e onl y on e w e had. H e aske d fo r my silver pen . I granted it . I directed hi m t o the statio n t o find a room . H e talke d feverishly o n an d on , waitin g fo r th e tram . I t cam e thre e times . —L e prochain , l e prochain. Ar e the y talkin g abou t m e i n th e Unite d States ? —I'v e hear d you r name. —Who , th e religiou s o r th e politicians ? —Th e politicians . —Th e politi cians! Wha t d o the y say ? — I don' t remember , but the y ar e talkin g abou t you . Perhaps the y ar e awaitin g you r arrival. Ho w his eye s glowed ! —Monsieu r Lucien , I said , I kno w ver y wel l tha t yo u hav e man y enemies , but i f i t i s possible , I would like t o remember yo u wit h a photograph. —Un e photo ! Oui! Attendez! My brother focuses th e camera , Monsieu r Lucie n tuck s himsel f i n furiously , w e clas p hands , he salute s th e air . Snap . —Another . —Yes , o f m y back ! Onc e agai n th e gapin g stigma i s shown , th e shutte r flip s a s th e Dutc h onlooker s tur n awa y i n disgust . W e gave hi m a ticke t fo r th e # 1 6 , tol d hi m i t wa s onl y goo d fo r th e nex t tri p (true) , loaded hi m on . H e kisse d m e for th e thousandt h tim e o n both cheeks , disappeare d as I stood ther e wavin g hi m of f t o the uncertai n fat e I had pointe d hi m toward . H e was stil l shoutin g "Viv e le s Etats-Unis ! Viv e l e Canada! " an d eve n "Viv e l a

Epilogue • 21 9 France!" Ho w I love d thi s craz y man ! I n hi m I ha d see n tha t rar e idealis m whic h utterly subordinate s sel f t o cause . I t di d no t matte r th e caus e wa s mad . I fel t it s ennoblement an d grieve d a t the reception I knew the old ma n of soixante ans would get a t th e station . Poo r Do n Quixot e wit h n o Sancho Panz a t o look afte r him ! I had let hi m dow n an d fel t wretched . I ha d betraye d tha t magnificen t smil e o f his , th e uncontainable jo y an d Galli c exuberanc e wit h whic h h e san g Mauric e Chevalier . His acquaintanc e wit h generosit y wa s familiar, hi s self-respec t an d affectionat e regard untainte d b y posture o f need. Neve r a trace o f self-pity ! The tal e I hav e tol d i s i n it s outline s a familia r on e t o reader s o f moder n literature—the encounte r wit h th e "greybear d loon. " Ye t toda y whe n I read thes e extravagan t word s fro m m y diar y I ca n stil l remembe r th e sens e I ha d a t th e tim e tha t th e experienc e wa s indescribable , tha t I coul d no t se t its detail s i n order , fo r eac h o f the m coul d onl y b e comprehende d fro m within th e glo w o f Monsieu r Lucien' s personalit y an d non e o f the m individ ually coul d begi n t o conve y that . M y pe n tremble d befor e th e page . Readers o f thi s boo k wil l n o longe r expec t a Freudia n interpretatio n o f this episode . The y wil l no t expec t m e t o believ e tha t I wa s experiencin g a surge o f represse d narcissis m evoke d b y Monsieu r Lucien' s uninhibite d self-exaltation. I f I found mysel f admirin g an d envyin g thi s paranoid , i t wa s because I share d th e iron y towar d m y ow n thinking , th e self-consciou s suspiciousness tha t mad e i t possibl e fo r Freu d t o exal t Schrebe r t o th e leve l of a collaborator , an d whic h i n tur n ha s mad e Freu d himsel f a n objec t o f infatuation. Wel l d o I remembe r tha t summe r Eurai l tre k whe n I ransacke d the Continen t fo r trace s o f it s heroi c past , fo r th e sens e o f struggl e wit h natural an d historica l necessitie s that , i n m y mind , wa s th e sourc e o f authentic experience . I ha d alread y absorbe d th e teaching s o f psychoanaly sis, bu t Freu d wa s no t m y favorit e paranoid . I was , rather , a melanchol y Nietzschean, skeptica l o f al l dogma s an d conventions , seein g throug h ever y philosophy an d institutio n th e hidde n interest s tha t ha d thrus t the m int o existence. Th e onl y refug e fro m thi s suspiciou s nihilis m an d heroi c iron y would com e i n th e for m o f certai n vagu e epiphanies , blissfull y unaccount able vibration s o f th e atmospher e tha t coul d someho w mak e thei r wa y ont o the page , intermittences du coeur to o tenuou s an d fleeting t o b e th e object s of skepticis m o r suspicion . I ha d rea d wit h anguis h th e brillian t passag e o f Tristes Tropiques i n whic h Claud e Levi-Straus s announce s tha t th e entir e human habita t ha s bee n explore d an d it s rang e o f experienc e established . There wa s nothin g left , a s Pyncho n woul d say , bu t tourism , th e Baedeke r world, a worl d no t a t al l u p t o m y heroi c literar y vocation . I wa s read y t o

220 • Epilogue meet m y paranoi d alte r ego , a ma n whos e herois m wa s a s grotesquel y divorced fro m realit y a s m y own , bu t wh o coul d expres s i t an d embod y i t sincerely, bravely , generously , o r s o i t seemed . A numbe r o f peopl e t o who m I hav e tol d thi s stor y hav e draw n th e immediate conclusio n tha t Monsieu r Lucie n wa s gloriousl y pullin g m y leg , that h e wa s a co n man , an d i t i s har d fo r m e t o den y tha t ther e wa s a certain practica l elemen t i n hi s delirium . Coul d h e hav e "sucke d i t al l fro m his fingers," a s Schrebe r woul d say ? M y inclinatio n i s t o thin k tha t i f th e fellow ha d tha t muc h calculatin g ingenuit y a t hi s disposal , h e woul d hav e found bette r employmen t fo r it . Bu t whethe r h e wa s a naiv e o r merel y a sentimental paranoid , Monsieu r Lucien' s routin e worke d becaus e i t wa s a flawlessly update d versio n o f the Quixot e myth . I t ha d th e heroizin g megalo mania an d patheti c generosit y o f soul , calumniatin g enemie s a s numerou s as th e enchanter s wh o bedevi l Quixote , and , i n Shirle y Temple , a suitabl y idealized an d inaccessibl e feminin e objec t o f adoration . Eve n th e prais e o f the lad y wa s accomplishe d wit h Quixoticall y elevate d an d pedanti c rhetori c (and som e strang e French) : "So n excellence , Madam e Shirle y Temple , actrice celebr e d u cinem a americain , bell e femm e politiqu e ave c d u form e parfait [sic), emblem e d e l a virt u e t d e l a vigilance . Shirle y Temple , j e vou s aime bien! " I t i s t o b e note d a s wel l tha t m y deligh t i n Monsieu r Lucie n was s o grea t that , lik e man y o f Quixote' s admirers , I wa s willin g t o mislea d him i n orde r t o confir m hi s delusion . Th e paranoid' s charm s produc e th e manipulation tha t h e fears . I n th e delightfu l page s o f Cervante s ther e i s more t o b e learne d abou t paranoi a tha n fro m th e laboriou s production s o f psychology. Hi s witt y foli e a deu x ha s becom e a foli e a deu x mondes . Meeting Monsieu r Lucie n wa s a n aestheti c pleasure , bu t i t nee d no t have been . M y detachmen t fro m th e spectacl e o f hi s paranoia , grounde d a s it wa s i n m y philosophica l stance , depende d a s wel l upo n th e fac t tha t I felt n o responsibilit y fo r th e consequence s o f hi s condition . I wa s a touris t and he , i t seems , a n exile . Thing s migh t hav e bee n otherwise . B y th e sam e token, Monsieu r Lucie n ha d n o powe r t o impos e hi s ma d visio n upo n me . I did no t mee t hi m a s a membe r o f a class , par t o f a community , o r th e leade r of a n institution . Hi s powerlessnes s wa s necessar y t o m y admiration . W e might mak e th e sam e observatio n abou t Schrebe r i n relatio n t o Freud . Bu t the allur e o f paranoi a nee d no t b e innocent . Ho w muc h th e comica l Mon sieur Lucie n shares , fo r instance , wit h Adol f Hitler : th e ma d an d desperat e grandeur, th e enemies , includin g Jewis h enemies , th e fervi d eloquence , and a Quixoti c demeano r tha t coul d appea r comica l an d Chaplinesqu e o r sublime an d entrancin g dependin g upo n one' s poin t o f view . Hitle r eve n

Epilogue • 22 1 had a crus h o n a trul y inaccessibl e an d idea l objec t o f love—hi s favorit e actress, Shirle y Temple . Th e convergenc e I a m pointin g towar d ha s t o d o not wit h politica l program s an d thei r mora l valu e bu t wit h psycholog y an d imagination: Doe s a cultur e tha t revel s i n th e ironi c herois m o f Quixote , Schreber, Nietzsche , an d Freu d als o leav e itsel f vulnerabl e t o th e rhetori c and allur e o f paranoi d leaders ? O r hav e I succumbe d a t th e las t momen t t o the intellectua l an d rhetorica l temptation s o f th e uncann y coincidence , those ver y temptation s I se t ou t fro m th e beginnin g t o dispel ?

Notes

Introduction 1. O n paranoi a i n Americ a se e Richar d Hofstadter' s semina l observation s i n The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays (Ne w York : Knopf , 1966). 2. Se e Le o Braudy , "Providence , Paranoia , an d th e Novel, " English Literary History 48 (1981) : 6 1 9 - 3 7 . 3. Lette r t o Mari e Bonapart e o f Augus t 13 , 1937 . Letters of Sigmund Freud, trans. Tani a an d Jame s Stern , ed . Ernes t L . Freu d (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1961), 436 . I hav e replace d Freud' s phras e "question s th e meanin g o f life " i n th e translation wit h "ask s abou t th e meanin g o f life, " whic h i s close r t o hi s intent . 4. Th e cas e agains t Freu d develope d b y scholar s i n recen t year s ha s bee n trenchantly an d provocativel y summarize d i n a numbe r o f review s an d essay s b y Frederick Crews . Se e The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute (Ne w York : New Yor k Revie w o f Books , 1996) . Se e als o "Th e Freudia n Temptation, " Par t On e of Skeptical Engagements (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1986) , 1—111 . For tw o excellent , wide-ranging , an d highl y critica l assessment s o f th e valu e o f psychoanalytic doctrin e se e Alle n Esterson , Seductive Mirage: An Exploration of the Work of Sigmund Freud (Chicago : Ope n Court , 1993) , an d Malcol m Macmillan , Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc (Ne w York : Elsevie r Science , 1991) . Just a s thi s boo k wa s goin g t o press , Richar d Webster' s compellin g synopti c critique o f psychoanalysis , Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science, and Psychoanalysis (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1995 ) appeared . 5. Th e mos t penetratin g critiqu e o f th e method s b y whic h psychoanalyst s hav e attempted t o validat e Freud' s theorie s wit h clinica l evidenc e ha s bee n provide d i n two studie s b y Adol f Griinbaum , The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1984) , an d Validation in the Clinical Theory of Psychoanalysis: A Study in the Philosophy of Psychoanalysis, Psychological Issues 6 1 (Madison , Conn. : Internationa l Universitie s Press , 1993) . In th e forme r Griinbau m concentrate s o n th e problem s o f epistemi c contaminatio n in th e dat a gathere d i n psychoanalyti c sessions , an d i n th e latte r o n th e absenc e o f demonstrated causa l connection s betwee n thes e data , eve n i f the y coul d i n princi ple b e reliabl y gathered , an d th e phenomen a the y ar e suppose d b y th e theor y to explain . 6. E . M . Thornton , The Freudian Fallacy: An Alternative View of Freudian

223

224 • Notes to Chapter 1 Theory (Garde n City , N.Y. : Th e Dia l Press , 1984) . Th e valu e o f Thornton' s analysis o f Freud' s clinica l practic e i s repeatedl y confirme d b y th e researche s o f Webster i n Par t On e o f hi s wor k cite d above . Se e als o th e provocativ e articl e b y Peter Swales, "Freud , Fliess , an d Fratricide : The Rol e o f Fliess i n Freud' s Concep tion o f Paranoia, " i n Sigmund Freud: Critical Assessments, ed . Laurenc e Spurlin g (New York : Routledge , 1989 ) 1 : 3 0 2 - 3 0 . 7. Se e th e critica l comment s i n Macmillan , 17—18 . 8. Loui s A . Sass , Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1992) . I ten d t o locat e th e affinities betwee n cultur e an d madnes s i n it s moder n acceptatio n a s stemmin g fro m the seventeent h century , jus t a s Freu d did . Sas s i s lik e Freu d i n takin g th e cultur e of modernit y an d it s psychologica l consequence s mor e o r les s a t fac e value , objecting onl y t o th e last , mos t paradoxica l modernis t an d postmodernis t ironizin g of consciousness . Despit e thes e differences , an d despit e Sass' s phenomenologica l method, whic h contrast s wit h m y primar y emphasi s upo n th e logica l an d th e rhetorical, I believ e tha t th e result s o f thi s stud y ar e quit e compatibl e wit h his . 9. Pau l Roazen , Freud and His Followers (Ne w York : NAL , 1971) , 4 0 7 - 8 . 10. Thi s i s no t t o imply , o f course , tha t ther e i s anythin g particularl y Jewis h about paranoi a o r abou t th e suspiciou s tren d o f though t I addres s i n thi s book . Freud wa s tappin g int o a dee p vei n a t th e hear t o f moder n culture , alread y hundreds o f years ol d an d certainl y no t limite d t o Jewish intellectuals . I f Jews hav e a distinctiv e connectio n wit h paranoia , i t i s a s prim e target s o f paranoi d hostilit y and conceit . Chapter One 1. I n thi s wor k I hav e assigne d th e masculin e pronou n bot h t o th e paranoi d and, b y an d large , t o th e psychoanalys t a s well . M y reason s fo r doin g s o ar e tha t the paranoi d character , a s prominentl y represente d i n moder n cultur e bot h i n history an d literature , i s almos t exclusivel y male . Thi s i s a fact wit h interestin g an d possibly profoun d implication s fo r ou r understandin g o f th e historica l experienc e o f gender, implication s I hop e eventuall y t o trea t i n a wide r stud y o f paranoi a an d modernity. M y frequen t referenc e t o th e psychoanalys t i n masculin e term s i s no t meant t o ignor e th e contribution s o f women psychoanalyst s bu t t o focus m y scrutin y most sharpl y upo n Sigmun d Freud , mos t o f m y allusion s t o "th e psychoanalyst " being mor e o r less direc t an d particula r reference s t o him . 2. "Psycho-Analyti c Note s o n a n Autobiographica l Accoun t o f a Cas e o f Para noia (Dementi a Paranoides), " S.E. 12 : 71 . 3. Freu d posit s th e symptom s leadin g ou t o f th e fou r negativ e logica l permuta tions o f " I lov e him, " eac h a differen t for m o f denia l leadin g t o delusion s o f persecution, erotomania , delusion s o f jealousy , an d megalomani a respectively . "Notes o n a n Autobiographica l Account, " S.E. 12 : 59—65 . 4. "O n Narcissism : A n Introduction, " S.E. 14 : 8 8 - 8 9 . 5. Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious, S.E. 8 : 90—116 . 6. "Th e uncann y i s tha t clas s o f th e frightenin g whic h lead s bac k t o wha t i s

Notes to Chapter 1 • 22 5 known o f ol d an d lon g familiar. " "Th e 'Uncanny', " S.E. 17 : 220 . 'Uncanny ' experiences includ e th e imaginar y becomin g real , seein g one' s double , th e femal e genitals, buria l alive , silence , darkness , solitude , an d psychoanalysi s (243—46) . 7. Fo r a presentatio n o f Freud' s historica l thinkin g fro m thi s poin t o f vie w se e Robert A . Paul , "Freud' s Anthropology : A Readin g o f th e 'Cultura l Books, ' " i n The Cambridge Companion to Freud, ed . Jerom e Ne u (Ne w York : Cambridg e University Press , 1991) , 2 6 7 - 8 6 , an d als o "Di d th e Prima l Crim e Tak e Place? " Ethos 4 (1976) : 3 1 1 - 5 2 . 8. Moses and Monotheism, S.E. 23 : 101—2 . Se e th e editor' s footnot e (102n ) fo r a lis t o f citations o n th e concep t o f archaic memory , whic h i s give n it s mos t detaile d treatment i n thi s lat e work . 9. Freu d i s speakin g her e o f th e religiou s heroe s wh o gav e birt h t o th e super ego, bu t th e poin t extend s t o al l o f th e othe r heroi c renouncer s wh o hav e give n impetus t o huma n progress . Civilization and Its Discontents, S.E. 21 : 141 . 10. Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, S.E. 18 : 13 5 an d 12 2 re spectively. 11. "I t seem s quit e possibl e tha t al l th e thing s tha t are tol d t o u s toda y i n analysis a s phantas y . . . wer e onc e rea l occurrence s i n th e primaeva l time s o f th e human family , an d tha t childre n i n thei r phantasie s ar e simpl y fillin g th e gap s i n individual trut h wit h prehistori c truth. " Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, S.E. 16 : 3 7 1. 12. I t i s tellin g tha t Freu d doe s no t imagin e th e 'prima l horde ' a s a bisexua l unit eve n thoug h h e consider s th e fundamenta l huma n psycholog y t o b e bisexual . What w e find, rather , i s a respectable heterosexua l patriarch y i n whic h th e mother s and daughter s ar e kep t fro m th e sons . 13. Group Psychology, S.E. 18 : 1 2 3 - 2 4 . 14. Th e psycholog y o f th e mother s an d daughters , object s bot h o f dominatio n and desire , ha s i n thi s accoun t lef t n o trac e i n th e huma n constitution . 15. Totem and Taboo, S.E. 13 : 143 . Th e pag e number s cite d parentheticall y i n this an d th e nex t tw o paragraph s o f th e tex t ar e fro m thi s volume . 16. Totem and Taboo, S.E. 13 : 149 . 17. Group Psychology, S.E. 18 : 136 . 18. Ott o Rank , The Myth of the Birth of the Hero and Other Writings, ed . Phili p Freund (Ne w York : Vintag e Books , 1932) . Th e centra l theoretica l passag e o f thi s book wa s interpolate d b y Freu d an d late r publishe d separatel y unde r th e titl e "Family Romances, " S.E. 9 : 2 3 5 - 4 1 . 19. Totem and Taboo, S.E. 13 : 156 . 20. Group Psychology, S.E. 18 : 137 . 21. Christianit y was , b y contrast , a so n religion . I t represente d fo r Freu d a regression i n cultura l terms , "a s regularl y happen s whe n a ne w mas s o f people , o f a lowe r level , brea k thei r way i n o r are give n admission. " Christianit y reintroduce d a vulga r proliferatio n o f deities . Bu t i n it s doctrin e o f origina l si n Freu d foun d a recognition o f th e historica l trut h o f th e prima l crime . Moses, S.E. 23 : 111 , 88 , an d 86 respectively . 22. Group Psychology, S.E. 18 : 102 .

226 • Notes to Chapter 1 23. Group Psychology, S.E. 18 : 136—37 . Freu d attribute s thi s formulatio n t o another collaborator , Hann s Sachs . I t is , however , a n applicatio n o f Freud' s ow n model o f th e psycholog y o f ar t develope d wit h Ran k man y year s earlier . Se e th e discussion o f "Formulation s o n th e Tw o Principle s o f Menta l Functioning " below . 24. Totem and Taboo, S.E. 13 : 77 . Th e pag e number s give n parentheticall y i n this an d th e nex t thre e paragraph s o f th e tex t ar e fro m Totem and Taboo. 25. Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood, S.E. 11 : 122—23 . 26. Introductory Lectures, S.E. 15 : 284—85 . A n eve n stronge r statemen t o f thi s theme i s t o b e foun d i n Freud' s smal l paper , " A Difficult y i n th e Pat h o f Psycho Analysis," S.E. 17 : 1 3 5 - 4 4 . 27. Bot h th e quotation s i n thi s paragrap h ca n b e foun d i n Group Psychology, S.E. 18 : 142 . 28. Group Psychology, S.E. 18 : 142 . 29. Totem and Taboo, S.E. 13 : 73—74 . A t th e tim e thi s passag e wa s written , Freud ha d no t ye t formulate d th e theor y o f ego-libido . H e i s thinkin g o f th e eg o a s an instrumen t o f self-preservation . Late r i t woul d hav e a narcissisti c libidina l charge o f it s own . Se e "O n Narcissism : O n Introduction, " S.E. 14 : 75—81 . 30. Fo r a detaile d analysi s o f th e interchangeabl e characte r o f religio n an d neurosis a s form s o f behavior , se e "Obsessiv e Action s an d Religiou s Practices, " S.E. 9 : particularl y 1 2 6 - 2 7 . 31. Th e them e o f repressio n i n th e for m o f sexua l restrain t a s a caus e o f th e modern susceptibilit y t o neurosi s i s o f muc h les s importanc e i n Freud' s thinkin g than th e narrativ e o f th e successiv e form s o f intellectua l culture . Sexua l restrain t i s most pointedl y discusse d i n " 'Civilized ' Sexua l Moralit y an d Moder n Nervou s Illness," S.E. 9: 179—204 . Thi s essay , wit h it s gri m portraya l o f moder n marriag e and it s neuroti c frustrations , ha s th e tan g o f persona l experienc e an d deserve s t o be bette r know n a s a n expressio n o f Freud' s view s abou t th e psychologica l effect s of moder n culture . 32. Th e importanc e o f th e Prometheu s myt h i s firs t mentione d i n Civilization and Its Discontents, S.E. 21 : 90 n an d furthe r develope d i n "Th e Acquisitio n an d Control o f Fire, " S.E. 22 : 1 8 3 - 9 3 . 33. Editor' s Introductio n t o "Formulation s o n th e Tw o Principle s o f Menta l Functioning," S.E. 12 : 215 . Parenthetica l reference s fo r th e nex t thre e paragraph s are fro m "Tw o Principles. " 34. "Creativ e Writer s an d Day-Dreaming, " S.E. 9: 153 . 35. Freu d kne w wel l enoug h tha t thi s "prostheti c God " wa s no t necessaril y a contented creature : "Whe n h e put s o n al l hi s auxiliar y organ s h e i s trul y magnifi cent; bu t thos e organ s hav e no t grow n ont o hi m an d the y stil l giv e hi m muc h trouble a t times . Nevertheless , h e i s entitle d t o consol e himsel f wit h th e though t that thi s developmen t wil l no t com e t o a n en d precisel y wit h th e yea r 193 0 A.D . Future age s wil l brin g wit h the m ne w an d probabl y unimaginabl y grea t advance s i n this field o f civilizatio n an d wil l increas e man' s likenes s t o Go d stil l more . Bu t i n the interest s o f ou r investigations , w e wil l no t forge t tha t present-da y ma n doe s no t feel happ y i n hi s Godlik e character. " Civilization, S.E. 21 : 92 .

Notes to Chapter 2 • 22 7

Chapter Two 1. Fo r a detaile d treatmen t o f Freud' s indebtednes s t o nineteenth-centur y biol ogy se e Fran k J . Sulloway , Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1992 ; rptd . fro m Ne w York : Basic Books , 1979) . Sulloway' s vie w ha s bee n countere d b y Lucill e B . Ritv o i n Darwin s Influence on Freud: A Tale of Two Sciences (Ne w York : Yal e Universit y Press, 1990) , an d subjecte d t o critiqu e b y Pau l Robinso n i n Freud and His Critics (Berkeley: Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1993) , 1 8 - 1 0 0 . 2. Moses and Monotheism, S.E. 23 : 107 . 3. Moses, S.E. 23 : 129 . 4. Probabl y th e bes t accoun t o f th e outloo k o f th e ne w scientifi c cultur e remain s Ernst Cassirer , The Philosophy of Enlightenment, trans . Frit z C . A . Koeli n an d James Pettegrov e (Princeton : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1951) . M y ow n sens e o f the mora l an d intellectua l disadvantage s o f thi s movemen t ha s bee n sharpene d b y Alasdair Maclntyre , After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (Notr e Dame : Universit y of Notr e Dam e Press , 1981) ; Charle s Taylor , Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1989) ; an d b y Blanford Parker , The Eclipse of Analogy: The Origins and Progress of Augustanism (Cambridge: Cambridg e Universit y Press , forthcomin g i n 1997) . I a m gratefu l t o Parker fo r acces s t o hi s wor k i n manuscript . 5. I n 1923 , Freu d wrot e t o Romain Rolland , " I , o f course, belon g t o a race whic h in th e Middl e Age s wa s hel d responsibl e fo r al l epidemic s an d whic h toda y i s blame d for th e disintegratio n o f th e Austria n Empir e an d th e Germa n defeat . Suc h experi ences hav e a soberin g effec t an d ar e no t conduciv e t o mak e on e believ e i n illusions . A grea t par t o f m y life' s wor k . . . ha s bee n spen t [tryin g to ] destro y illusion s o f m y own an d o f mankind. " Lette r o f Marc h 4 , 1923 . The Letters of Sigmund Freud, ed . Ernst L . Freud , trans . Tani a an d Jame s Ster n (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1960) , 3 4 1 . Freud's persona l Viennes e Jewis h experienc e onl y intensifie d th e forc e o f hi s com mitment t o th e ideolog y o f science , wit h it s tendenc y t o defin e itsel f i n hostil e reac tion agains t wha t ha d com e before . I t remaine d militantl y Protestant, havin g buil t upon th e impetu s o f the religious revol t tha t precede d it . Whe n Freud' s friend, Oska r Pfister, th e Swis s ministe r an d psychoanalyst , venture d th e opinio n tha t "th e Refor mation wa s fundamentall y nothin g bu t a n analysi s o f Catholi c sexua l repression , un fortunately a totall y inadequat e o n e , " Freu d replie d tha t "i n th e historica l sens e o f which yo u spea k I to o ca n cal l mysel f a protestant , an d i n tha t connectio n I recal l that m y frien d Professo r vo n Ehrenfel s coine d th e ter m 'sexua l protestants ' fo r u s both." Letter s o f Februar y 1 8 an d 2 0 , 1909 . Psychoanalysis and Faith: The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Oskar Pfister, ed . Heinric h Men g an d Erns t L . Freud , trans . Eric Mosbache r (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1963) , 1 8 - 1 9 . O n th e link s betwee n Freud, "th e las t philosophe, " an d th e Enlightenmen t critiqu e o f religion , se e Pete r Gay, A Godless Jew: Freud, Atheism, and the Making of Psychoanalysis (Ne w Haven : Yale Universit y Press , 1987) , 3 5 - 6 8 . 6. Se e th e epigrap h t o thi s chapter , fro m The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess, 1887-1904, ed . Jeffre y Moussaief f Masso n (Cambridge , Mass.: Harvar d Belkna p Press , 1985) , 3 9 8 .

228 • Notes to Chapter 2 7. "Obsessiv e Action s an d Religiou s Practices, " S.E. 9 : 126—27 . 8. Adol f Griinbaum , The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique (Lo s Angeles : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1984) , 127—72 . Th e ke y tex t fo r Griinbaum's interpretatio n i s th e twenty-eight h o f th e Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, "Analyti c Therapy, " S.E. 16 : 4 4 8 - 6 3 . 9. On e o f th e persisten t difficultie s wit h Freud' s techniqu e wa s tha t symptom s could vanis h s o easil y a t th e beginnin g o f th e analysi s tha t i t becam e impossibl e t o distinguish psychoanalysi s fro m hypnosis , whic h i s t o say , mer e suggestion . Th e premature disappearanc e o f symptom s becam e a familia r hurdl e fo r analys t an d patient. Se e Griinbaum , Foundations, 130—59 . 10. A s Henr i Ellenberge r ha s shown , th e 'transference ' relationshi p b y whic h the psychoanalys t establishe s hi s o r he r powe r t o interven e i n th e depth s o f th e patient's psycholog y ha s clea r analog s i n a lon g successio n o f technique s b y whic h authorities hav e exerte d thei r influenc e t o achiev e therapeuti c effects : shamanism , Christian exorcism , fait h healing , Mesmerism , an d hypnotism . Al l o f thes e depen d upon th e powe r o f suggestio n wielde d b y respecte d representative s o f society , often, lik e th e psychoanalyst , inducin g a therapeuti c crisi s i n th e patien t i n orde r to expe l harmfu l agencies . Se e The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1970) , 1 - 1 0 9 . If Griinbaum' s critique , cite d above , i s correct , a s I believ e i t t o be , neithe r Freud no r hi s follower s hav e succeede d i n distinguishin g th e therapeuti c effect s attributed t o th e treatmen t fro m thos e o f mer e suggestion . Freud' s formulation s o n the proces s o f therap y ten d t o rais e thi s suspicion ; fo r instance , i n 191 0 h e writes : "The mechanis m o f ou r assistanc e i s eas y t o understand : w e giv e th e patien t th e anticipatory ide a an d the n h e finds th e represse d unconsciou s ide a i n himsel f o n the basi s o f th e similarit y t o th e anticipator y one. " "Th e Futur e Prospect s o f Psycho-Analytic Therapy, " S.E. 11 : 1 4 1 - 4 2 . I t i s i n th e contex t o f th e proble m o f suggestion tha t w e shoul d conside r Freud' s ow n assertio n that , a s psychoanalysi s achieved mor e cultura l authority , it s powe r t o cur e woul d increase . "Futur e Pros pects," 146—51 . Fo r th e highl y charge d politica l contex t i n whic h thi s clai m wa s made, se e Joh n Kerr , A Most Dangerous Method: The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein (Ne w York : Knopf , 1993) , 285 . 11. Letters, 436 . Translatio n slightl y altered ; se e Introduction , n3 . 12. "Th e Claim s o f Psycho-Analysi s t o Scientifi c Interest, " S.E. 13 : 163—90 . 13. Totem and Taboo, S.E. 13 : 95—96. 14. The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, S.E. 6 : 2 5 8 - 5 9 . I hav e no t pre served th e origina l italic s i n thi s passage . 15. O n th e basi s o f th e occasiona l disclaimer s o f thoroughgoin g reductionis m such a s th e on e quote d abov e i n th e passag e o n 'psychography' , Professo r Griin baum i s willin g t o acqui t Freu d o f th e 'geneti c fallacy ' b y whic h intellectua l positions ar e reduce d t o th e psychologica l cause s tha t motivat e them . Se e Validation in the Clinical Theory of Psychoanalysis: A Study in the Philosophy of Psychoanalysis, Psychological Issues 6 1 (Madison , Conn. : Internationa l Universitie s Press , 1993), 257—310 . Griinbau m i s certainl y correc t tha t Freu d knew , an d stated , th e difference betwee n th e psychologica l cause s tha t induc e on e t o believ e i n th e trut h of a propositio n an d th e reason s tha t migh t sustai n one' s belief ; Freu d understood ,

Notes to Chapter 3

• 22 9

also, tha t th e presenc e o f th e forme r d o no t discredi t th e latter , unless , o f course , the statement s i n questio n hav e t o d o wit h 'meanin g an d value' , fo r ther e Freu d made n o scrupl e abou t geneti c reduction . I t seem s t o me , though , tha t th e tru e significance o f Freud' s reductionis m lies , a s I hav e alread y emphasized , i n th e fac t that hi s wa y o f thinkin g give s s o muc h weigh t t o unconscious irrationalit y tha t i t does no t leav e sufficien t spac e fo r consciou s deliberation . I t wa s fo r thi s reaso n tha t the discover y o f th e unconsciou s itsel f becam e a n ac t o f uncann y heroism . Freu d did no t shrin k fro m th e obligation s tha t hi s reductiv e ambitio n impose d upo n him . His ow n vocatio n fo r scienc e ha d t o b e accounte d fo r withi n th e logi c o f th e unconscious. An d s o h e trace d hi s scientifi c ambitions , w e shal l see , t o "uncon scious megalomania, " an d described , i n hi s essa y o n Leonard o d a Vinc i (cite d above), th e entirel y arbitrar y an d fortuitou s event s o f childhoo d tha t produc e th e scientist, allowin g Leonardo , i n fact , t o becom e th e "firs t moder n natura l scientist, " the firs t ma n wh o coul d investigat e natur e withou t th e ai d o f narcissisti c 'presuppo sitions'. I n Freud' s syste m th e birt h o f a scientis t require s virtuall y a miracle . Chapter Three 1. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Washington : Ameri can Psychiatri c Association , 1987) , 3r d ed . rev. , 197—201 . I n th e mor e recen t DSM-IV (1994) , 'paranoia ' occur s onl y twice . Th e breadt h o f th e ter m seem s t o make i t les s an d les s usefu l t o psychiatry . 2. Davi d W . Swanson , M.D. , Phili p J . Bohnert , M.D. , an d Jackso n H . Smith , M.D., The Paranoid (Boston : Little , Brown , 1970) , 6 . 3. Thi s i s Sullivan' s ter m an d I find hi s discussio n o f th e paranoi d "dynamism, " as h e call s it , particularl y luci d an d interesting . Th e paranoid' s fundamenta l motive, h e observes , i s t o protec t th e eg o throug h th e transfe r o f blam e (89) . Se e Harry Stac k Sullivan , Clinical Studies in Psychiatry, ed . Hele n Swic k Perry , Mar y Ladd Gawel , an d Marth a Gibbo n (Ne w York : Norton , 1956) , 8 6 - 9 9 , 1 6 6 - 8 1 , and passim . 4. Swanson , 7 . 5. Davi d Shapiro , Neurotic Styles (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1965) , 5 4 - 1 0 7 . 6. Swanson , 4 . Pag e number s give n i n th e followin g paragraph s o n th e symp toms o f paranoi a ar e al l fro m thi s text . 7. E . M . Thornton , The Freudian Fallacy: An Alternative View of Freudian Theory (Garde n City , N.Y. : Th e Dia l Press , 1984) . Thornto n trace s Freud' s para noia directl y t o th e us e o f cocain e an d see s i t a s a continuin g tren d lon g afte r Freu d stopped usin g th e drug : "W e hav e goo d evidenc e tha t Freud' s paranoia c tendencie s and hi s 'bitternes s wit h th e environment ' wer e stil l stron g wel l int o th e secon d decade o f th e twentiet h century . Couple d wit h thes e traits , a s i s s o ofte n th e case , was a certai n shrewdnes s tha t enable d hi m t o tur n ever y situatio n t o hi s ow n advantage an d t o concea l hi s psychoti c tendencie s fro m others . Hi s attack s associ ated wit h los s o f consciousnes s laste d unti l abou t 1912 . Thereafte r thes e attack s were succeede d b y mino r seizure s o f th e tempora l lob e variety . A s w e hav e seen , epileptiform seizure s wer e a frequen t concomitan t o f cocain e usage . Ther e i s i n this patter n th e tentativ e suggestio n o f continue d us e o f cocain e u p unti l 1912 ,

230 • Notes to Chapter 3 after whic h th e majo r effect s o f it s us e wer e n o longe r seen , pointin g t o cessatio n about thi s time , bu t leavin g residua l brai n damag e leadin g t o mino r attack s til l wel l into hi s late r years " (242—43) . A s mentione d earlier , I d o no t hav e th e medica l expertise eithe r t o confir m o r t o questio n thi s diagnosis . 8. I hav e chose n Swanson' s formulatio n o f paranoi d symptomatolog y because , while reflectin g th e greate r flexibility o f post-Freudia n treatment s o f th e subject , i t nevertheless preserve s th e essenc e o f th e Freudia n poin t o f view , wit h it s stron g emphasis upo n 'projection' . 9. Shapiro , 66 . 10. "Furthe r Remark s o n th e Neuro-Psychose s o f Defense, " S.E. 3 : 184 . 11. Shapiro , 84 . 12. Lette r o f Januar y 24 , 1985 . The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess: 1887—1904, ed . an d trans . Jeffre y Moussaief f Masso n (Cambridge , Mass.: Harvar d Universit y Press , 1985) , 111 . 13. Lette r t o Sando r Ferencz i o f Octobe r 6 , 1910 . The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sandor Ferenczi, ed . Ev a Brabant , Erns t Falzeder , an d Patrizi a Giampieri-Deutsch; tran s Pete r T . Hoffe r (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press, 1993 ) 1 (1908-1914): 2 2 1 . 14. "Bu t why , then , finally, doe s psychoanalysi s stil l flourish i n pocket s o f ou r culture, mos t notabl y i n th e discours e o f academi c humanist s an d 'soft ' socia l scientists? A ful l answe r woul d b e complex—embracing , fo r example , suc h factor s as religiou s yearnings , env y o f mainstrea m science , a vogu e fo r 'hermeneutic ' evasion o f empirica l tests , th e indoctrinatin g effec t o f th e therapy , th e lur e o f dee p certainties an d ready-mad e interpretations , an d th e persistenc e o f th e spiri t o f unmasking tha t inform s th e work s o f Marx , Schopenhauer , Nietzsche , an d Freu d himself." Thi s cann y enumeratio n i s give n b y Frederic k Crew s i n Skeptical Engagements (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1986) , 7 1 . I n thi s study , obvi ously, I hav e give n emphasi s t o th e las t factor , whic h I believ e t o b e central , without denyin g th e importanc e o f th e others . 15. Ernes t Gellner , The Psychoanalytic Movement, or, The Coming of Unreason (London: Paladin , 1985) , 4 . 16. Psychopathology of Everyday Life, S.E. 6 : 256—65 . 17. Se e th e editor' s note , S.E. 22 : 161 . 18. Lette r t o Sando r Ferencz i o f Januar y 2 3 , 1912 . Freud/Ferenczi 1 : 333 . 19. S.E. 6 : 194 . 20. Pete r Swale s ha s observe d ho w wel l thi s descriptio n o f paranoi a applie s t o Freud himself , and , i n addition , tha t th e system s o f Freu d an d hi s frien d an d riva l Fliess shar e th e sam e self-projectiv e an d self-confirmin g character . Se e "Freud , Fliess, an d Fratricide : Th e Rol e o f Flies s i n Freud' s Conceptio n o f Paranoia, " i n Sigmund Freud: Critical Assessments, ed . Laurenc e Spurlin g (Ne w York : Routledge, 1989 ) 1 : 315 . 2 1 . Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, S.E. 18 : 120—21 . 22. "Flectere si nequeo superos, Acheronta movebo." 23. Se e "Remembering , Repeating , an d Working-Throug h (Furthe r Recom mendations o n th e Techniqu e o f Psycho-Analysi s II), " S.E. 12 : 152—56 . Mirce a Eliade observe s tha t psychoanalyti c therap y preserve s th e patter n o f ritua l initia -

Notes to Chapter 3 • 23 1 tion, wit h it s heroi c character : "Th e patien t i s aske d t o descen d deepl y int o himself, t o mak e hi s pas t live , t o confron t hi s traumati c experience s again ; and , from th e poin t o f vie w o f form , thi s dangerou s operatio n resemble s initiator y descents int o hell , th e real m o f ghosts , an d combat s wit h monsters . Jus t a s th e initiate wa s expecte d t o emerg e fro m hi s ordeal s victorious—i n short , wa s t o 4 die' and b e 'resuscitated ' i n orde r t o gai n acces s t o a full y responsibl e existence , ope n to spiritua l values—s o th e patien t undergoin g analysi s toda y mus t confron t hi s ow n 'unconscious', haunte d b y ghost s an d monsters , i n orde r t o find psychi c healt h an d integrity an d henc e th e worl d o f cultura l values. " The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion, trans . Willar d R . Tras k (Ne w York : Harcourt , Brace , Jovano vich, 1959) , 2 0 8 , quote d i n Stanle y Edga r Hyman , The Tangled Bank: Darwin, Marx, Frazer and Freud as Imaginative Writers (Ne w York : Atheneum , 1962) , 337 . See als o Henr i Ellenberger , The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1970) , 524—25 . 24. "A s fo r th e biographers , le t the m worry , w e hav e n o desir e t o mak e i t to o easy fo r them . Eac h on e o f the m wil l b e righ t i n hi s opinio n o f T h e Developmen t of th e Hero' , an d I a m alread y lookin g forwar d t o seein g the m g o astray. " Lette r t o Martha Bernays , Apri l 2 8 , 1885 . Letters ofSigmund Freud, trans . Tani a an d Jame s Stern, ed . Ernes t L . Freu d (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1961) , 140 . Th e youn g Freu d would hav e bee n gratifie d t o lear n ho w closel y hi s futur e thinkin g woul d guid e th e investigations o f hi s biographers , an d everyon e else's . Thi s passage , writte n b y a twenty-year-old, betray s t o m e nothin g mor e tha n th e typica l grandiosit y o f lat e adolescence—but Freu d neve r outgre w it . 25. Lette r t o Marth a Bernay s o f Februar y 2 , 1886 . Letters, 202 . 26. Lette r o f Decembe r 2 9 , 1917 . Phylli s Grosskurth , The Secret Ring: Freud's Inner Circle and The Politics of Psychoanalysis (Menl o Park , Calif. : Addison Wesley, 1991) , 73 . 27. "Freu d live d o n term s o f natura l intimac y wit h th e grea t figures o f th e Bible; the y wer e s o muc h par t o f hi s inne r lif e tha t h e fel t himsel f t o b e b y turn s Joseph, Jacob , an d Moses. " Marth e Robert , From Oedipus to Moses: Freud's Jewish Identity, trans . Ralp h Manhei m (Garde n City , N.Y. : Ancho r Press , 1976) , 37 . Se e also Leonar d Shengold , "Freu d an d Joseph, " i n Mar k Kanze r an d Jule s Glenn , eds., Freud and His Self-Analysis (Ne w York : Jaso n Aronson , 1979) , 67—86 . 28. Ernes t Jones , The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (Ne w York : Basi c Books, 1953 ) 2 : 3 6 4 - 6 5 . 29. Pau l Roazen , i n Freud and His Followers (Ne w York : NAL , 1971) , ha s chronicled a variet y o f heroi c Freudia n identifications : Oedipu s (437—38) , Alexan der th e Grea t (32) , Columbu s (97) , an d Bismarc k ( 3 7 - 3 8 ) . Se e als o 2 9 - 3 1 . Fo r the occasio n o n whic h Freu d positione d himsel f a s Zeu s i n relatio n t o hi s epigones , see Roazen , Brother Animal: The Story of Freud and Tausk (Ne w York : Knopf , 1969), 49 . 30. Fo r th e famou s discussio n o f Freud' s identificatio n wit h Hanniba l se e The Interpretation of Dreams, S.E. 4 : 197 . Thi s passag e wil l b e discusse d i n chapte r 6 below . 3 1 . Fo r a semina l discussio n o f Freud' s characte r a s a hero , se e Fran k J . Sulloway, Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend (Cam -

232 • Notes to Chapter 3 bridge, Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1992 ; rptd. fro m Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1979), 4 4 5 - 9 5 . 32. Lette r o f January 27 , 1886 . Letters, 199 . 33. Lette r o f Septembe r 2 , 1907 . The Freud/Jung Letters: The Correspondence between Sigmund Freud and C. G. Jung, trans . Ralp h Manhei m an d R . F . C . Hull ; ed. Willia m McGuir e (Princeton : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1974) , 82 . 34. Thornton , 240 . 35. Se e Ellenberge r o n th e repudiatio n o f secre t societie s an d scientifi c school s at th e beginnin g o f th e nineteent h century , an d th e specia l importanc e o f th e founding o f th e Universit y o f Berli n (226—27) . Freud' s sectaria n tendencie s cause d friction wit h significan t supporter s lik e th e influentia l psychiatris t Euge n Bleuler , who wrote t o hi m i n 1911 : "I n m y opinion , thi s 'wh o i s no t fo r u s i s agains t us' , thi s 'all o r nothing' , i s necessar y fo r religiou s communitie s an d usefu l fo r politica l parties. I can therefor e understan d th e principl e a s such , bu t fo r scienc e I conside r it harmful. " Lette r o f Decembe r 4 , 1911 . Quote d i n Pete r Gay , A Godless Jew: Freud, Atheism, and the Making of Psychoanalysis (Ne w Haven : Yal e Universit y Press, 1987) , 145 . 36. Ellenberger , 41—43 . Afte r hi s exhaustiv e revie w o f th e developmen t o f dynamic psychiatry , Ellenberge r conclude s tha t th e institutiona l for m o f th e psy choanalytic movemen t wa s th e mos t origina l elemen t o f Freud' s contributio n t o th e field (550) . 37. Lette r o f Freu d t o Jung, Apri l 16 , 1909 . Freud/Jung, 218 . 38. Th e initia l ide a wa s tha t Freu d woul d personall y analyz e eac h membe r o f the group : "W e al l agree d o n on e thing , tha t salvatio n coul d onl y li e i n a restles s self-analysis, carrie d t o th e farthes t possibl e limit , thu s purgin g personal reaction s away s o fa r a s ca n b e done . On e o f them , I thin k i t wa s Ferenczi , expresse d th e wish tha t a smal l grou p o f me n coul d b e thoroughl y analyse d b y you , s o tha t the y could represen t th e pur e theor y unadulterate d b y persona l complexes , an d thu s build a n officia l inne r circl e i n th e Verei n an d serv e a s centre s wher e other s (beginners) coul d com e an d lear n th e work . I f tha t wer e onl y possibl e i t woul d be a n idea l solution. " Lette r o f Jul y 30 , 1912 . The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest Jones, 1908—1939, ed . Andre w Paskauska s (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1993) , 146 . Evidentl y th e ide a o f the trainin g analysis , whic h eventuall y becam e a standar d for m o f psycho analytic initiation , aros e durin g thi s embattle d perio d immediatel y i n respons e t o the nee d fo r a mor e thoroug h indoctrinatio n o f recruit s i n orde r t o ensur e thei r fidelity. Th e stor y o f "Th e Committee " an d th e bitte r struggle s tha t eventuall y destroyed i t i s brilliantl y tol d b y Phylli s Grosskurt h i n The Secret Ring, cite d above. 39. Lette r o f Augus t 7 , 1912 . Freud/Jones, 149 . 40. "Wha t too k hol d o f m y imaginatio n immediatel y i s you r ide a o f a secre t council compose d o f th e bes t an d mos t trustworth y amon g ou r me n t o tak e car e o f the furthe r developmen t o f psycho-analysi s an d defen d th e caus e agains t personali ties an d accident s whe n I a m n o more . Yo u sa y i t wa s Ferencz i wh o expresse d thi s idea, ye t i t ma y b e min e ow n shape d i n bette r times , whe n I hope d Jun g woul d collect suc h a circl e aroun d hi m compose d o f th e officia l headme n o f th e loca l

Notes to Chapter 3 • 23 3 associations. No w I a m sorr y t o sa y suc h a unio n ha d t o b e forme d independentl y of Jun g an d o f th e electe d presidents . I dar e sa y i t woul d mak e livin g an d dyin g easier fo r m e i f I kne w o f suc h a n associatio n existin g t o watc h ove r m y creation . I know ther e i s a boyis h an d perhap s romanti c elemen t to o i n thi s conception , bu t perhaps i t coul d b e adapte d t o mee t th e necessitie s o f reality . I wil l giv e m y fanc y free pla y an d leav e t o yo u th e par t o f th e Censor. " Lette r o f Augus t 1 , 1912 . Freud/ Jones, 148 . 4 1 . Se e Ellenberger' s accoun t o f th e myt h surroundin g th e hostil e receptio n o f Freud's earl y pape r o n Charco t ( 4 3 9 - 4 2 ) , an d als o Sulloway , 4 6 2 - 6 4 . 42. Th e firs t o f thes e pitifu l heretic s wa s th e co-discovere r o f psychoanalysis , Joseph Breuer . A s Thornto n observes , Freud' s abrup t chang e i n attitud e towar d Breuer fro m long-standin g admiratio n an d friendshi p t o extrem e contemp t an d aversion represent s a typica l paranoi d episode . Thornton , 179—81 . 4 3 . A s Joh n Ker r observes , th e us e o f th e ter m "movement " carrie d th e dange r of placin g psychoanalysi s outsid e th e pal e o f scienc e an d int o th e compan y o f sexual refor m o r o f th e alread y out-mode d fa d o f hypnotism . Joh n Kerr , A Most Dangerous Method: The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein (Ne w York : Knopf, 1993) , 2 9 0 - 9 1 . 44. Moses and Monotheism, S.E. 23 : 118 . 45. Ofte n Freu d unambiguousl y equate s psychologica l maturit y wit h th e abilit y to accep t psychoanalyti c dogma , a s ca n b e see n i n thi s commen t o n a wor k o f Eugen Bleuler : "Fo r al l it s ambivalence , Bleuler' s essa y plainl y show s hi s regres sive trend . H e actuall y accept s fa r les s tha n h e di d tw o year s ago. " Lette r t o Kar l Abraham o f Ma y 13 , 1913 . A Psycho-Analytic Dialogue: The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Karl Abraham, 1907—1926, ed . Hild a C . Abraha m an d Erns t L . Freu d (New York : Basi c Books , 1965) , 139 . 46. Fran z Alexander , "Recollectio n o f Berggass e 1 9 , " Psychoanalytic Quarterly 9 (1940) : 195 , cite d i n Thornton , 239 . 47. W e find Car l Jun g a t on e poin t attemptin g t o remonstrat e wit h Freu d i n order t o ge t beyon d th e reductio n o f disagreement s t o psychologica l motives : " I a m writing t o yo u no w a s I woul d writ e to a friend—this i s our style . I therefor e hop e you wil l no t b e offende d b y m y Helveti c bluntness . On e thin g I be g o f you : tak e these statement s a s a n effort to be honest an d d o no t appl y th e depreciator y Viennese criterio n o f egotisti c strivin g fo r powe r o r heave n know s wha t othe r insinuations fro m th e worl d o f th e fathe r complex . Thi s i s jus t wha t I hav e bee n hearing o n al l side s thes e days , wit h th e resul t tha t I a m force d t o th e painfu l conclusion tha t th e majorit y o f psychoanalyst s misus e psychoanalysi s fo r th e pur pose o f devaluin g other s an d thei r progres s b y insinuation s abou t complexe s (a s though tha t explaine d anything . A wretche d theory!) . A particularl y preposterou s bit o f nonsens e no w goin g th e round s i s tha t m y libid o theor y i s th e produc t o f ana l erotism. Whe n I conside r who cooke d u p thi s 'theory ' I fea r fo r th e futur e o f analysis." Lette r o f Decembe r 3 , 1912 . Freud/Jung, 526 . 48. Fo r a wor k tha t chronicle s i n detai l ho w riva l school s o f psychoanalyst s interpret eac h other' s intellectua l an d psychologica l motives , se e Pete r L . Rudnyt sky, The Psychoanalytic Vocation: Rank, Winnicott, and the Legacy of Freud (Ne w Haven: Yal e Universit y Press , 1991) .

234 • Notes to Chapter 3 49. S.E. 6 : 1 4 9 - 5 0 n . Thi s passag e wa s suppresse d fro m al l edition s afte r 1924 , as i s mentione d i n th e not e t o the Standard Edition wher e i t no w appears . 50. "S o w e ar e a t las t rid o f them , th e brutal , sanctimoniou s Jun g an d hi s disciples. I mus t no w than k yo u fo r th e vas t amoun t o f trouble , th e exceptiona l clear-sightedness, wit h whic h yo u supporte d m e an d ou r commo n cause . Al l m y life I hav e bee n lookin g fo r friend s wh o woul d no t exploi t an d the n betra y me , an d now, no t fa r fro m it s natura l end , I hop e I hav e foun d them. " Lette r o f Jul y 26 , 1914. Freud/Abraham, 186 . A s Alle n Esterso n point s out , th e final sentenc e "sounds distinctl y paranoid. " Seductive Mirage: An Exploration of the Work of Sigmund Freud (Chicago : Ope n Court , 1993) , 88n . 51. Lette r o f Ma y 14 , 1922 . Letters, 339 . 52. Perhap s th e bes t psychoanalyti c complimen t wa s turne d b y tha t agil e courtier, Jones . Respondin g t o Freud' s recommendatio n o f hi s daughter , Anna , Jones writes : " I ha d alread y full y appreciate d wha t yo u writ e abou t her . Sh e ha s a beautiful characte r an d wil l surel y b e a remarkabl e woma n late r on , provide d tha t her sexua l repressio n doe s no t injur e her . Sh e i s o f cours e tremendousl y boun d t o you, an d i t i s on e o f thos e rar e case s wher e th e actua l fathe r correspond s t o th e father-imago." Lette r o f Jul y 27 , 1914 . Freud/'Jones, 295 . Jone s wa s mor e righ t than h e knew , fo r Freu d ha d create d th e father-imag o i n hi s ow n image . 53. Thornton , 238 . 54. Thornton , 229 . I n th e mistakin g o f neuropathi c condition s fo r hysteria , Freud ha d befor e hi m th e unfortunat e exampl e o f Charcot , whos e misunder standings h e amplifie d (47—50) . Thornto n ascribe s man y o f th e symptom s Freu d diagnosed a s hysteri a t o th e unrecognize d effect s o f epilepsy . Ther e i s als o th e example o f Freud' s rathe r willfu l insistenc e tha t Dostoevsky' s epilepti c symptom s were hysterica l i n origin , evidenc e o f hi s neuroti c character . Se e Jame s L . Rice , Freud's Russia: National Identity in the Evolution of Psychoanalysis (Ne w Bruns wick, N . J. : Transactio n Publishers , 1993) , 1 8 5 - 8 8 . 55. Thornton , 192 . 56. Th e obsessio n wit h number s i s discusse d i n Freud' s lette r t o Jun g o f Apri l 16, 1909 , i n whic h Freu d first describe s an d the n analyze s hi s earlie r attac k o f superstition: "Som e year s ag o I discovere d withi n m e th e convictio n tha t I woul d die betwee n th e age s o f 61 an d 6 2 , whic h the n struc k m e a s a long tim e away . . . . Then I wen t t o Greec e wit h m y brothe r an d i t wa s reall y uncann y ho w ofte n th e number 6 1 o r 6 2 i n connectio n wit h 1 o r 2 kep t croppin g u p i n al l sort s o f numbered objects , especiall y thos e connecte d wit h transportation . Thi s I conscien tiously noted . I t depresse d me , bu t I ha d hope s o f breathin g eas y whe n w e go t t o the hote l i n Athen s an d wer e assigne d room s o n th e first floor. Here , I wa s sure , there coul d b e n o No . 6 1 . I wa s right , bu t I wa s give n 3 1 (whic h wit h fatalisti c license coul d b e regarde d a s hal f o f 61 o r 62), an d thi s younger , mor e agil e numbe r proved t o b e a n eve n mor e persisten t persecuto r tha n th e first . Fro m th e tim e o f ou r trip hom e unti l ver y recently , 3 1 , ofte n wit h a 2 i n it s vicinity , clun g t o m e faithfully." Freud/Jung, 219 . Freu d recognize d i n thi s behavio r a morbi d obses siveness tha t look s fo r pattern s i n chanc e event s (220) . Ye t h e wen t o n t o analyz e the significanc e o f th e numbers , followin g a chai n o f association s involvin g hi s ag e when h e complete d The Interpretation of Dreams an d hi s hom e phon e number .

Notes to Chapter 3 • 23 5 "Moreover, th e hidde n influenc e o f W . Flies s wa s a t work ; th e superstitio n erupte d in th e yea r o f hi s attac k o n me " (219) . Freud' s interpretatio n o f hi s numerologica l obsession seem s t o m e a s distinctl y paranoi d a s th e attac k o f superstitio n tha t produced it . 57. Roazen , Brother Animal, 88—93 . Se e als o Roazen' s observation s o n Freud' s tendency towar d th e 'over-estimatio n o f thought' , 172 . 58. The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, S.E. 6 : 1 8 8 - 8 9 . 59. "Psycho-Analysi s an d Telepathy, " S.E. 18 : 177—92 . Though t transferenc e and experiment s wit h th e occul t ar e a runnin g them e i n Freud' s correspondenc e with Ferenczi . 60. Lette r t o Ferencz i o f Januar y 2 3 , 1912 . FreudlFerenczi, 3 3 3 . 6 1 . Helen e Deutsch , "Freu d an d Hi s Pupils : A Footnot e t o th e Histor y o f th e Psychoanalytic Movement, " i n Laurenc e Spurling , ed . Sigmund Freud: Critical Assessments (Ne w York : Routledge , 1989 ) 4 : 36 . 62. Lette r o f Ma y 22 , 1910 . Freud/J ones, 5 8 - 5 9 (emphasi s i n original) . 63. On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement, S.E. 14 : 66 . 64. Al l o f th e biographie s dea l wit h th e lon g serie s o f alliance s an d s c h i s m s — Breuer, Fliess , Adler , Jung , Rank , an d s o o n — t h a t marke d Freud' s career . An d they ar e give n specia l investigatio n i n th e work s o f Roazen , Grosskurth , an d Ken cited above . 65. Psycho-Analytic Movement, S.E. 14 : 39 . 66. Lette r o f Februar y 17 , 1908 . Freud/Jung, 121 . 67. Or , a s th e researc h o f Swale s suggests , Fliess' s resentmen t an d hostilit y toward Freu d wer e i n respons e t o Freud' s obviou s demonstration s o f hostility . Freud ha d confesse d unconsciou s deat h wishe s towar d Fliess , an d Flies s tol d members o f hi s famil y tha t Freu d ha d eve n though t o f pushin g hi m of f a cliff ! Swales rathe r impetuousl y give s credenc e t o th e allegatio n (311—15) . 68. Sulloway , 2 3 1 . 69. Letter s o f Jun e 2 5 an d Augus t 9 , 1911 . Freud/Jones, 10 7 an d 112 . 70. Lette r o f Augus t 12 , 1912 , quote d i n Kerr , Dangerous Method, 416 . 71. Freu d like d thi s jok e o f Hitschmann' s enoug h t o repea t i t t o Ferencz i i n a letter o f Octobe r 13 , 1912 . FreudlFerenczi, 4 2 3 . 72. Se e Ferenczi' s lette r o f Jun e 2 3 , 1913 , i n FreudlFerenczi 1 : 494 , an d th e discussion i n Grosskurth , 60 . 73. Thi s poin t ha s bee n mad e fro m withi n th e psychoanalyti c perspectiv e b y Francois Roustang . H e seem s t o conside r it s significanc e t o b e tha t Freu d di d no t apply th e critiqu e o f institution s develope d i n Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego t o th e psychoanalyti c movemen t itself , th e upsho t bein g tha t psychoanal ysis goe s o n sufferin g fro m th e 'transference ' problem s tha t plagu e al l institutions . Dire Mastery: Discipleship from Freud to Lacan, trans . Ne d Lukache r (Baltimore : Johns Hopkin s Universit y Press , 1982) , 1—18 . 74. Grosskurt h make s thi s observation ; Freud' s wa y o f comin g betwee n hi s followers an d thei r femal e attachment s manifeste d itsel f i n hi s relationship s wit h Jung, Ferenczi , an d Jone s (59—60) . Jone s remarke d t o Freu d afte r readin g Totem and Taboo tha t th e theor y o f th e prima l fathe r seeme d t o hav e "a n unusua l persona l significance" fo r Freud . Lette r o f Jun e 2 5 , 1913 . Freud/Jones, 206 . I se e n o

236 • Notes to Chapter 4 immediate confirmatio n o f Grosskurth' s surmis e tha t Jone s wa s referrin g t o Freud' s primally paterna l wa y wit h women , bu t Freu d wa s analyzin g Jones ' mistress , Lo e Kann, a t th e time . 75. "Th e Questio n o f La y Analysis : Postscrip t (1927), " S.E. 20 : 2 5 3 . 76. Lette r o f Novembe r 9 , 191 8 t o Oska r Pfister . Psychoanalysis and Faith: The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Oskar Pfister, ed . Heinric h Men g an d Erns t Freud, trans . Eri c Mosbache r (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1963) , 61—62 ; quote d i n Roazen, Freud and His Followers, 146 . 77. A s Car l Schorsk e point s out , Freu d ignore s th e fac t tha t Oedipu s i s a king . Carl E . Schorske , F in-de-Siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture (Ne w York : Vintage , 1981), 199 . 78. Lette r o f July 3 , 1919 , quote d i n Roazen , Brother Animal, 127 . 79. Lette r of Augus t 1 , 1919 . Sigmund Freud and Lou-Andreas Salome: Letters, ed. Erns t Pfeiffer , trans . Willia m an d Elain e Robson-Scot t (Ne w York : Norton , 1966), 98—99 . Salome' s repl y expresse s dutifu l understandin g o f Freud' s impa tience wit h Tausk ; sh e rathe r chillingly , an d disingenuously , mitigate s th e situatio n by imaginin g tha t deat h migh t hav e provide d he r forme r love r a "las t suprem e libidinal satisfaction " (99) . 80. Spurling , 4 : 38 . 81. K . R . Eissler , Talent and Genius: The Fictitious Case of Tausk contra Freud (New York : Quadrangle , 1971) , 99 . 82. Se e Freud' s lette r o f Jun e 193 5 t o Thoma s Man n o n th e latter' s sixtiet h birthday. Letters, 426 . 8 3 . Lette r t o Jame s J . Putna m o f July 8 , 1915 . Letters, 309 . 84. Psycho-Analytic Movement, S.E. 14 : 2 1 - 2 2 .

Chapter Four 1. "Perhap s . . . m y bein g scarcel y abl e t o tel l lie s anymor e i s a consequenc e of m y occupatio n wit h psychoanalysis . A s ofte n a s I tr y t o distor t somethin g I succumb t o a n erro r o r som e othe r parapraxi s tha t betray s m y insincerity. " The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, S.E. 6 : 2 2 1 . 2. Lette r of Marc h 7 , 1875 . The Letters of Sigmund Freud to Eduard Silberstein, 1871—1881, ed . Walte r Boehlich , trans . Arnol d J . Pomeran s (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvard Universit y Press , 1990) , 9 6 . 3. Al l scholar s o f Freu d an d o f dept h psycholog y ar e indebte d t o th e wid e an d deep researche s o f Henr i Ellenberger . Ellenberge r provide s a dens e an d ric h summary o f hi s exhaustiv e accoun t o f Freud' s borrowing s i n The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry (Ne w York : Basi c Books, 1970) , 5 3 4 - 4 3 . 4. Lette r o f Augus t 15 , 1877 . Freud/Silberstein, 164 . 5. "Contributio n t o a Questionnair e o n Reading, " S.E. 9 : 245—46 . 6. Freu d eve n considere d relocatin g t o Englan d durin g hi s lon g courtshi p o f Martha Bernays : "Th e though t o f Englan d surge s u p befor e me , wit h it s sobe r industriousness, it s generou s devotio n t o th e publi c weal , th e stubbornnes s an d sensitive feelin g fo r justic e o f it s inhabitants , th e runnin g fir e o f genera l interes t

Notes to Chapter 4 • 23 7 that ca n strik e spark s i n th e newspapers ; al l th e ineffaceabl e impression s o f m y journey o f seve n year s ago , on e tha t ha d a decisiv e influenc e o n m y whol e life , have bee n awakene d i n thei r ful l vividness . I a m takin g u p agai n th e histor y o f tha t island, th e work s o f th e me n wh o wer e m y rea l teachers—al l o f the m Englis h o r Scotch; an d I a m recallin g wha t i s fo r m e th e mos t interestin g historica l period , th e reign o f th e Puritan s an d Olive r Cromwel l wit h it s loft y monumen t o f tha t t i m e — Paradise Lost, wher e onl y recently , whe n I di d no t fee l sur e o f you r love , I foun d consolation an d comfort . Mus t w e sta y here , Martha ? I f w e possibl y can , le t u s seek a hom e wher e huma n wort h i s mor e respected. " Lette r o f Augus t 16 , 1882 . Ernest Jones , The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1953 ) 1: 178 . 7. The Great Instauration, i n The Works of Francis Bacon, ed . Jame s Spedding , et al . (Boston : Taggar d an d Thompson , 1863 ) 8 : 4 5 . 8. The New Organon, Works of Bacon 8 : 90 . 9. "O f th e Proficienc e an d Advancemen t o f Learnin g Divin e an d H u m a n , " Works of Bacon 6 : 132 . 10. New Organon, Works of Bacon 8 : 73 . 11. The Great Instauration, Works of Bacon 8 : 46 . 12. New Organon, Works of Bacon 8 : 86 . 13. New Organon, Works of Bacon 8 : 82 . 14. "Essay s o r Counsel s Civi l an d Moral, " Works of Bacon 12 : 81—82 . 15. "Th e Natura l an d Experimenta l Histor y fo r th e Foundatio n o f Philosophy : or, Phenomen a o f th e Universe : whic h i s th e thir d par t o f th e Instaurati o Magna, " Works of Bacon 9 : 3 7 0 - 7 1 . 16. New Organon, Works of Bacon 8 : 68 . 17. The Great Instauration, Works of Bacon 8 : 32 . 18. "Descriptio n o f a Natura l an d Experimenta l Histor y Suc h A s Ma y Serv e fo r the Foundatio n o f a Tru e Philosophy, " Works of Bacon 8 : 354—55 . 19. The Great Instauration, Works of Bacon 8 : 33—34 . 20. Jones , Life 1 : 4 2 - 4 3 . 2 1 . "Th e Resistanc e t o Psycho-Analysis, " S.E. 19 : 215 . 22. "I n menta l functionin g somethin g i s t o b e distinguished— a quot a o f affec t or su m o f excitation—whic h possesse s al l th e characteristic s o f a quantit y (thoug h we hav e n o mean s o f measurin g it) , whic h i s capabl e o f increase , diminution , displacement an d discharge , an d whic h i s sprea d ove r th e memory-trace s o f idea s somewhat a s a n electri c charg e i s sprea d ove r th e surfac e o f a body. " "Th e Neuro Psychoses o f Defense, " S.E. 3 : 60 . 23. Joh n Locke , An Essay concerning Human Understanding, ed . Pete r Nid ditch (Oxford : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1975) , 5 6 2 - 6 3 . 24. Locke' s reassurance s hing e upo n th e fac t tha t ou r simpl e idea s mus t com e from outsid e sinc e w e hav e no t th e powe r t o generat e them ; that , excep t fo r substances, o r external objects , ou r comple x ideas—fro m moral s t o mathematics — are self-constructe d an d therefor e no t subjec t t o doubt ; an d tha t suc h smal l knowl edge a s w e ma y hav e o f externa l existence , base d upo n th e regularit y o f associatio n of simpl e ideas , i s rea l knowledge , thoug h thi s seem s contradictor y t o hi s previou s teachings. Essay, 563—73 .

238 • Notes to Chapter 4 25. Her e I a m indebte d t o Blanfor d Parker , The Eclipse of Analogy: The Origins and Progress of Augustanism (Cambridge : Cambridg e Universit y Press , forthcomin g in 1997) . I n Parker' s view , th e discover y o f a neutra l standpoin t o f observatio n tha t discredits bot h Protestan t 'enthusiasm ' an d Catholi c 'superstition ' i s a centra l motive o f Augusta n culture . 26. Davi d Hume , A Treatise of Human Nature, ed . L . A . Selby-Bigge , 2n d ed . rev. wit h note s b y P . H . Nidditc h (Oxford : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1978) , 183 . 27. "Psycho-Analyti c Note s o n a n Autobiographica l Accoun t o f a Cas e o f Paranoia (Dementi a Paranoides), " S.E. 12 : 66 . Wha t Freu d mean s i s tha t ou r sensations ar e determine d relativ e t o th e huma n sensorium . W e refe r t o a n object , for instance , a s bein g blue , a s i f th e colo r w e experienc e wer e a par t o f th e objec t itself, whil e actuall y wha t w e se e i s largel y determine d b y ou r ow n faculties . I n other case s suc h a s tha t o f pai n w e recogniz e tha t th e sensatio n i s du e t o ou r contact wit h a n externa l objec t an d no t par t o f th e objec t itself . Al l valu e judgment s are 'projections' , a s fo r instanc e whe n on e refer s t o a n objec t tha t give s on e pleasure a s a 'good ' thing , a s i f th e caus e o f one' s pleasur e wer e externa l an d par t of th e thing . Valu e judgment s com e t o hav e th e sam e ghostl y aspec t a s th e 'secondary qualities ' o f th e Cartesia n an d empirica l philosophies . Fo r a n interestin g discussion o f th e attitud e towar d th e subjec t implie d i n thi s position , se e Charle s Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvard Universit y Press , 1989) , 1 6 1 - 6 2 . 28. "Th e Unconscious, " S.E. 14 : 171 . 29. Her e Freu d make s th e implausibl e clai m tha t i t wil l b e easie r t o overcom e the discrepanc y betwee n wha t appear s t o th e consciou s min d an d wha t appear s t o the unconsciou s tha n i t ha s bee n t o overcom e th e discrepanc y betwee n externa l sensation an d tru e objects . I t i s tru e o f cours e tha t Freu d considere d th e confirma tion fo r psychoanalyti c theorie s t o com e fro m patients ' acceptanc e o f th e diagnose s offered i n therapy , th e resul t bein g tha t th e crucia l divisio n t o b e crosse d wa s between th e patient' s consciou s an d unconsciou s mind . Bu t Freu d seem s t o b e forgetting tha t eve n th e consciou s min d o f th e patien t i s fo r th e observe r par t o f th e external world . 30. Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, S.E. 15 : 142—43 . 3 1 . Th e scientifi c mod e o f suspicio n coul d dra w upo n th e powerfu l momentu m of historica l suspicio n tha t gre w fro m th e polemica l controversie s o f th e Reforma tion. A s Anthon y Kem p ha s shown , th e sectaria n for m o f Protestan t historica l consciousness i s on e o f th e powerfu l confluen t source s o f moder n suspicion . It s dominant trop e i s tha t o f retur n t o a n origina l momen t o f charismati c purity , fro m which historica l tim e ca n onl y mar k a fallin g awa y int o corruption , o r th e prolonga tion o f a "dar k age. " Se e Anthon y Kemp , The Estrangement of the Past: A Study in Modern Historical Consciousness (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1991) . Enlightenment historica l thinkin g preserve s som e o f th e recours e t o primitiv e valu e that thi s paradig m typicall y employs , a s see n fo r instanc e i n Bacon' s resuscitatio n of th e Wisdom of the Ancients, th e pre-classica l philosopher s an d mythographer s unjustly eclipse d b y Plat o an d Aristotle ; b y mean s o f th e sam e rhetorica l instru ment, Gibbo n idealize s paga n Rom e i n orde r t o lamen t it s Christia n corruption . 32. Thoma s Goddar d Bergi n an d Ma x Harol d Fisch , trans. , The New Science of

Notes to Chapter 4 • 23 9 Giambattista Vico: Unabridged Translation of the Third Edition (1744) (Ithaca : Cornell Universit y Press , rev . 1968) , 1 2 9 - 3 0 . 33. I a m gratefu l fo r thi s suggestio n t o Anthon y Kemp . 34. Immanue l Kant , "Ide a fo r a Universa l Histor y wit h a Cosmopolita n Intent " (1784), i n Perpetual Peace and Other Essays on Politics, History, and Morals (Indianapolis: Hacket t Publishing , 1983) , 30 . 35. New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, S.E. 22 : 67 . 36. August e Comte , The Positive Philosophy, trans . Harrie t Martinea u (Ne w York: AMS , 1974) , 26 . 37. Freu d eve n worrie d abou t Comte' s theor y o f stage s a s a threa t t o hi s originality. Se e Ernes t Jones ' lette r o f Februar y 6 , 1914 . The Complete Correspondence ofSigmund Freud and Ernest Jones, 1908—1939, ed . R . Andre w Paskauska s (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1993) , 260 . 38. Fo r Haeckel' s influenc e o n Freu d se e Lucill e B . Ritvo , Darwin's Influence on Freud: A Tale of Two Sciences (Ne w York : Yal e Universit y Press , 1990) , 1 3 - 3 0 . 39. Se e Erns t Haeckel , "Scienc e an d Christianity, " i n The Riddle of the Universe at the Close of the Nineteenth Century (Ne w York : Harpe r an d Brothers , 1900), 3 0 8 - 3 0 . 40. "Famil y Romances, " S.E. 9 : 237 . 4 1 . A s Alasdai r Maclntyr e observes , an y attemp t t o describ e th e natura l ma n inevitably involve s th e ascriptio n o f socia l characteristics ; fo r thi s reason , thos e who attemp t t o indulg e i n thi s typ e o f fictio n alway s fal l bac k fo r thei r depictio n o f the natura l huma n bein g upo n wha t ar e actuall y th e ethica l norm s o f som e othe r culture. A Short History of Ethics: A History of Moral Philosophy from the Homeric Age to the Twentieth Century (Ne w York : Macmillan , 1966) , 17—18 . 42. "Analysi s Terminabl e an d Interminable, " S.E. 2 3 : 2 2 8 - 2 9 . 43. A s Phili p Rief f aptl y observes , "Thoug h Freu d i s commonl y though t t o hav e measured neurosi s agains t th e idea l o f a n unimpaire d sexua l efficiency , i t woul d b e more accurat e t o sa y tha t h e measure d i t agains t a n idea l contemporaneity. " Phili p Rieff, Freud: The Mind of the Moralist (Garde n City , N . Y. : Doubleday , 1959) , 46 . 44. New Introductory Lectures, S.E. 22 : 80 . Fo r Hegel' s anticipatio n o f th e Freudian unconscious , se e Lancelo t La w White , The Unconscious before Freud (New York : Basi c Books , 1960) , 240 . 45. The Future of an Illusion, S.E. 21 : 44 . 46. Ma x Eastman , Great Companions: Critical Memoirs of Some Famous Friends (London : Museu m Press , 1959) , 129 , quote d i n Willia m M . Johnston , The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848—1938 (Berkeley : Univer sity o f Californi a Press , 1972) , 240 . 47. Thoma s Hobbes , Leviathan, ed . Richar d Tuc k (Ne w York : Cambridg e University Press , 1991) , 87 . 48. Jean-Jacque s Rousseau , The Social Contract, trans . Mauric e Cransto n (Ne w York: Penguin , 1968) , 6 3 . 49. The Communist Manifesto, i n Kar l Marx , Selected Writings, ed . Davi d McLellan (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1977) , 2 3 7 - 3 8 . 50. Friedric h Nietzsche , On the Genealogy of Morals, trans . Walte r Kaufman n and R . J . Hollingdal e (Ne w York : Vintage , 1967) , 3 6 - 4 3 .

240 • Notes to Chapter 5 51. Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, S.E. 18 : 1 2 3 - 2 4 . 52. "Wh y War? " S.E. 22 : 2 0 4 - 5 . 53. Friedric h Nietzsche , The Gay Science (Ne w York : Vintage , 1974) , 35 . Chapter Five 1. Desideriu s Erasmus , The Praise of Folly and Other Writings: A New Translation with Critical Commentary, ed . an d trans . Rober t M . Adam s (Ne w York : Norton, 1989) , 33 . 2. W e shoul d not , then , exaggerat e th e tru e intellectua l affinitie s betwee n Freud an d Erasmus . I a m onl y pointin g t o th e convergenc e o f satiri c motifs . Madness itsel f doe s no t hav e fo r Erasmu s th e sam e destitutio n o f valu e tha t i t ha s for Freud . I t ca n eve n b e th e sourc e o f divin e insight . Se e M . A . Screech , "Goo d Madness i n Christendom, " i n W . F . Bynum , Ro y Porter , an d Michae l Shepherd , The Anatomy of Madness: Essays in the History of Psychiatry, 2 vols . (Ne w York : Tavistock Publications , 1985 ) 1 : 2 5 - 3 9 . 3. Fo r a n accoun t o f "Swiftia n psychoanalysis " se e Norma n 0 . Brown , Life Against Death: The Psychoanalytic Meaning of History (Middletown , Conn. : Wes leyan Universit y Press , 1959) , 179—201 . Brow n take s th e similaritie s o f perceptio n between Swif t an d Freu d t o b e evidenc e o f share d insight , particularl y abou t th e equivalent, alternativ e characte r o f bodil y expressio n an d religiou s inspiratio n recognized i n th e doctrin e o f sublimation . I , o n th e othe r hand , tak e th e conver gence betwee n thes e tw o author s t o b e a resul t o f th e direc t influenc e o f on e satiri c intelligence upo n another . 4. A lette r b y Freu d t o Wilhel m Fliess , Novembe r 14 , 1897 , announcin g th e discovery tw o day s earlie r o f wha t Freu d too k t o b e a crucia l trut h abou t morality , repression, an d th e nose , show s Freud' s capacit y fo r Shandea n wit : " 4 It wa s o n November 12 , 1897 , th e su n wa s precisel y i n th e easter n quarter ; Mercur y an d Venus wer e i n conjunction—. ' No , birt h announcement s n o longe r star t lik e that . It was o n Novembe r 12 , a day dominate d b y a left-sided migraine , o n th e afternoo n of whic h [Freud' s boy ] Marti n sa t dow n t o writ e a ne w poem , o n th e evenin g o f which Ol i los t hi s secon d tooth , that , afte r th e frightfu l labo r pain s o f th e las t fe w weeks, I gave birt h t o a ne w piec e o f knowledge. " The Complete Letters ofSigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess: 1887—1904, ed . an d trans . Jeffre y Moussaief f Masso n (Cambridge, Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1985) , 278 . 5. Jac k J . Spector , The Aesthetics of Freud (Ne w York : Praeger , 1972) , 8—9 . 6. Fo r Freud' s enthusias m abou t Harte , se e th e lette r o f Augus t 15 , 1877 , an d for Lichtenberg , th e on e date d Decembe r 2 an d 6 , 1874 . The Letters of Sigmund Freud to Eduard Silberstein, 1871—1881, ed . Walte r Boehlich , trans . Arnol d J . Pomerans (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1990) , 16 4 an d 73—76 . 7. Willia m E . Johnston , The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848-1938 (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1972) , 244 . 8. Freu d o n Sartor Resartus: "Unde r al l thes e funn y name s . . . lie s a profoun d wisdom, an d th e motle y scrap s o f foll y cove r th e ope n sore s o f mankin d an d o f th e tale's hero . Wha t w e ar e tol d abou t th e philosoph y o f clothe s i s par t parod y an d part witt y reflection , whic h start s from th e assumptio n tha t clothe s ar e a representa -

Notes to Chapter 5

• 24 1

tion o f th e manifes t an d 'physical , behin d whic h th e spiritua l hide s i n shame'. " Letter o f Augus t 13 , 1874 . FreudlSilberstein, 4 9 - 5 0 . 9. "Di e Heimkehr" : "Mi t seine n Nachtmiitze n an d Schlafrockfetzen/Stopf t e r die Liicke n de s Weltenbaus. " A s Strachey' s not e indicates , thes e line s wer e favorites wit h Freud , mentione d i n a lette r t o hi s futur e wife , Martha , i n 1883 ; the n in The Interpretation of Dreams, date d 1900 ; i n a lette r t o Jung , 1908 ; an d again , fifty year s afte r th e first , i n th e New Introductory Lectures, S.E. 22 : 161 . 10. S.E. 5 : 469 . Earl y i n The Interpretation of Dreams, Freu d suggest s a scen e from Gulliver a s a reliabl e glos s o n a patient' s dream ; i n a not e adde d twenty-fiv e years late r h e observe s tha t thi s i s a "goo d exampl e o f wha t a n interpretatio n ough t not t o be . Th e interprete r o f a drea m shoul d no t giv e fre e pla y t o hi s ow n ingenuit y and neglec t th e dreamer' s associations. " S.E. 4 : 30n . 11. Fo r example : "Da s Beste , wa s d u wisse n kannst,/Darfs t d u de n Bube n doch nich t sagen. " I quot e Strachey' s note : "Mephistopheles , i n Goethe' s Faust, Par t One , Scen e 4 : 'Afte r all , th e bes t o f wha t yo u kno w ma y no t b e tol d t o boys.'—These wer e favourit e line s o f Freud's . H e use s the m agai n o n p . 45 3 below. H e ha d alread y quote d the m i n letter s t o Flies s o f Decembe r 3 , 1897 , an d February 9 , 1898 ; and , toward s th e en d o f hi s life , o n th e occasio n o f hi s receptio n of th e Goeth e priz e i n 1930 , h e applie d the m t o Goeth e himself. " S.E. 4 : 14 2 and n . 12. Lette r o f Februar y 7 , 1883 . Letters of Sigmund Freud, ed . Erns t L . Freud , trans. Tani a an d Jame s Ster n (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1961) , 9 6 . 13. H e continues : "Henc e m y proposa l amount s t o stipulatin g tha t ever y Sun day eac h o f us , th e tw o sol e luminarie s o f th e A . E . , sen d th e othe r a lette r tha t i s nothing shor t o f a n entir e encyclopedi a o f th e pas t wee k an d tha t wit h tota l veracit y reports al l ou r doings , commission s an d omissions , an d thos e o f al l stranger s w e encounter, i n additio n t o al l outstandin g thought s an d observation s an d a t leas t a n adumbration, a s i t were , o f th e unavoidabl e emotions . I n tha t way , eac h o f u s ma y come t o kno w th e surrounding s an d conditio n o f hi s frien d mos t precisely , perhap s more precisel y tha n wa s possibl e eve n a t th e tim e whe n w e coul d mee t i n th e sam e city. Ou r letters , which , whe n th e yea r ha s passe d ma y constitut e th e ornamen t o f the A . E . archives , wil l the n b e a s divers e a s ou r ver y lives . I n ou r letter s w e shal l transmute th e si x prosai c an d unrelentin g workin g day s o f th e wee k int o th e pur e gold o f poetr y an d ma y perhap s find tha t ther e i s enoug h o f interes t withi n us , an d in wha t remain s an d change s aroun d us , i f onl y w e lear n t o pa y attention. " Lette r of Septembe r 4 , 1874 . Freud/Silberstein, 57—58 . 14. Freud' s deb t t o Cervante s th e chronicle r o f delusio n ha s bee n noted , an d the "Colloqu y o f th e Dogs " ha s bee n identifie d a s on e o f th e model s o f th e psychoanalytic session ! Th e scholar s wh o hav e mad e th e connection , however , d o not conside r Cervante s primaril y a s a satirist . Se e Leo n Grinber g an d Jua n Fran cisco Rodriguez , "Cervante s a s Cultura l Ancesto r o f Freud, " International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 6 5 (1984) : 1 5 5 - 6 8 . J . E . Ged o an d E . S . Wol f hav e give n a psychoanalytic vie w o f Freud' s powerfu l adolescen t attachmen t t o Cervantes : "I t would see m tha t Sigmun d Freu d entere d adolescenc e stil l searchin g fo r idealize d parental imagoe s an d tha t h e foun d wha t h e neede d i n th e writing s o f Cervantes . Identification wit h th e grea t novelist' s humo r an d wisdo m concernin g hi s ow n

242 • Notes to Chapter 5 grandiosity a s wel l a s th e unworkabl e idealization s o f hi s character s apparentl y permitted Freu d t o avoi d th e consequence s o f actin g ou t i n a quixoti c manner. " This i s to o sanguin e a vie w o f Freud' s late r behavior . Se e "Freud' s Novelas ejemplares," i n Freud: The Fusion of Science and Humanism: The Intellectual History of Psychoanalysis, ed . J . E . Ged o an d G . H . Polloc k (Ne w York : Interna tional Universitie s Press , 1976) , 110 . 15. Lette r o f Augus t 2 3 , 1883 . Letters, 4 5 - 6 . 16. Ernes t Jones , The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (Ne w York : Basi c Books, 1953 ) 1 : 175 . 17. I hav e bee n unabl e t o obtai n Joh n H . Kirchner , "Do n Quijot e d e l a Mancha: A Stud y i n Classica l Paranoia, " Annali [Naples ] 9 -2 (1967) : 2 7 5 - 8 2 . 18. Migue l d e Cervantes , Don Quixote: The Ormsby Translation, ed . an d rev . Joseph R . Jone s an d Kennet h Dougla s (Ne w York : Norton , 1981) , 132 . On Cervan tes, se e Jos e Orteg a y Gasset , Meditations on Quixote, trans . Evely n Rug g an d Diego Mari n (Ne w York : Norton , 1961) ; Salvado r d e Madariaga , Don Quixote: An Introductory Essay in Psychology (Oxford : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1935) ; Willia m J. Entwhistle , Cervantes (Oxford : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1940) ; Eric h Auerbach , Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature (Princeton : Princeto n University Press , 1957) , chap . 14 ; E . C . Riley , Cervantes's Theory of the Novel (Oxford: Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1964) ; Joh n Ja y Allen , Don Quixote: Hero or Fool?: A Study in Narrative Technique (Gainesville : Universit y o f Florid a Press , 1969); Rober t Alter , Partial Magic: The Novel as a Self-Conscious Genre (Berkeley : University o f Californi a Press , 1975) ; Marth e Robert , The Old and the New: from Don Quixote to Kafka, trans . Caro l Cosma n (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press, 1977) ; Americ o Castro , An Idea of History: Selected Essays of Americo Castro, ed . Stephe n Gilma n an d Edmun d L . Kin g (Columbus : Ohi o Stat e Universit y Press, 1977) , Par t One ; Alexande r Welsh , Reflections on the Hero as Quixote (Princeton: Princeto n Universit y Press , 1981) ; Walte r L . Reed , An Exemplary History of the Novel: The Quixotic versus the Picaresque (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicago Press , 1981) ; Vladimi r Nabokov , Lectures on Don Quixote, ed . Fredso n Bowers (Ne w York : Harcourt , Brace , Jovanovich , 1983) ; Joh n G . Weiger , The Substance of Cervantes (Ne w York : Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1985) ; Rut h E l Saffar, Critical Essays on Don Quixote (Boston : G . K . Hall , 1986) ; Michae l McKeon, The Origins of the English Novel, 1600—1740 (Baltimore : John s Hopkin s University Press , 1987) , chap . 7 ; Stephe n Gilman , The Novel According to Cervantes (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1989) . 19. Quixote' s occasiona l self-awarenes s abou t th e subjectiv e qualit y o f hi s delusion migh t see m a departur e fro m th e tendenc y o f hi s mania , bu t i t i s actuall y a startlingl y realisti c depictio n o f th e menta l illness , a s th e recen t wor k o f Loui s A . Sass ha s shown . Se e Chapte r On e o f The Paradoxes of Delusion: Wittgenstein, Schreber, and the Schizophrenic Mind (Ithaca : Cornel l Universit y Press , 1994) . 20. "Th e obsessiona l ac t i s ostensibly a protectio n agains t th e prohibite d act ; but actually, i n ou r view , i t i s a repetitio n o f it . Th e 'ostensibly ' applie s t o th e conscious par t o f th e mind , an d th e 'actually ' t o the unconscious part . I n exactl y th e same way , th e ceremonia l tabo o o f king s i s ostensibly th e highes t hono r an d protection fo r them , whil e actually i t i s a punishment fo r their exaltation , a reveng e

Notes to Chapter 5 • 24 3 taken o n the m b y thei r subjects . Th e experience s o f Sanch o Panz a (a s describe d b y Cervantes) whe n h e wa s Governo r o f hi s islan d convince d hi m tha t thi s vie w o f court ceremonia l wa s th e onl y on e tha t me t th e c a s e . " S.E. 13 : 50—51, emphasi s i n original. Th e episod e o f Sanch o th e governo r wa s on e o f Freud' s favorit e part s o f the Quixote, th e caus e o f a n "idylli c moment " t o th e over-burdene d medica l studen t of 187 5 a s h e reporte d t o Silberstein : "Tha t wa s a t si x o'cloc k an d I wa s sittin g alone i n m y roo m befor e a nourishin g platefu l whic h I devoure d voraciousl y whil e reading th e magnificen t scen e i n whic h th e nobl e Docto r Pedr o Resci o d e Tritea fuera, whic h mus t mea n somethin g dreadfu l i n Spanish , ha s th e foo d take n awa y from unde r poo r Sancho' s nose. " Freud/Silberstein, 87 . 2 1 . Le o Spitzer , "Linguisti c Perspectivis m i n th e Don Quijote" i n Linguistics and Literary History: Essays in Stylistics (Princeton : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1948), 62 . 22. Carrol l B . Johnston , Madness and Lust: A Psychoanalytic Approach to Don Quixote (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1983) , 7 6 - 8 0 an d passim . 23. Joh n G . Weiger , The Individuated Self: Cervantes and the Emergence of the Individual (Athens : Ohi o Universit y Press , 1970) , 3 5 . 24. Helen a Perca s d e Ponseti , "Th e Cav e o f Montesinos : Cervantes ' Ar t o f Fiction," i n Jone s an d Douglas , Don Quixote, 987 . 25. Se e Auerbach , 137 . I n a late r chapter , Auerbac h cruciall y qualifie s thi s view o f Quixot e a s a frustrate d idealist . 26. Fol k cultur e wa s ofte n patronize d b y th e uppe r classes , a s Pete r Burk e observes i n Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (Ne w York : Harpe r an d Row , 1978), 23—26 . And , a s late r histor y ha s ampl y shown , it s material s an d style s ca n be integrate d int o officia l culture . Popula r culture , a s I observ e i n th e text , i s separated fro m elit e cultur e b y a differenc e i n attitud e towar d th e sam e material s and practices , an d thi s differenc e i s preserve d eve n whe n popula r material s ar e absorbed int o sophisticate d artisti c practice s suc h a s thos e o f th e postmodernists . 27. A s Dian a d e Arma s Wilso n point s out , th e practic e o f interpretin g dream s as message s abou t mone y wa s a traditio n goin g bac k t o Hellenisti c time s an d th e Oneirocriticas o f Artemidoru s fro m whic h Freu d borrowe d th e titl e o f The Interpretation of Dreams. "Cervante s an d th e Nigh t Visitors : Drea m Wor k i n th e Cav e o f Montesinos," Quixotic Desire: Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Cervantes (Ithaca : Cornell Universit y Press , 1993) , 67—69 . Th e representatio n o f mone y i n Quixote' s dream i s no t crypti c bu t overt , a s befit s Cervantes ' satiri c purpose . 28. Sande r L . Gilma n ha s show n tha t i n presentin g hi s visio n o f neuroti c human nature , Freu d wa s universalizin g th e qualitie s o f sensuality , femininity , an d susceptibility t o illnes s tha t ha d bee n prejudiciall y applie d t o Jews . Freud' s satiri c gesture wa s a tu quoque. Gilma n make s th e tellin g poin t tha t Freud' s presentatio n of himsel f a s hi s chie f patien t wa s a reversa l o f th e usua l mode l o f th e health y physician descendin g amon g th e sick . Agai n w e find th e satirist' s self-inclusiv e irony. Se e The Case of Sigmund Freud: Medicine and Identity at the Fin de Siecle (Baltimore: John s Hopkin s Universit y Press , 1993) , 2 5 . Jame s L . Ric e finds The Interpretation of Dreams, wit h it s man y reference s t o Freud' s Judaism , an d eve n hi s criminal Jewis h relatives , t o be "a n ethni c self-affirmation , a historicall y precociou s model o f bein g (i n th e spiri t o f Joyce) , an d leas t o f al l a clinica l method. " Freud's

244 • Notes to Chapter 5 Russia: National Identity in the Evolution of Psychoanalysis (Ne w Brunswick , N. J. : Transactio n Publishers , 1993) , 6 . Yirmiyah u Yove l find s Freu d t o have dee p links wit h th e skeptica l an d anti-authoritaria n Marran o sensibilit y tha t originate d among Jewis h conversos i n fifteenth-century Spai n an d tha t finds it s paradigmati c example i n Spinoza . The Adventures of Immanence, volum e 1 o f Spinoza and Other Heretics (Princeton : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1989) , 1 3 6 - 6 6 . Cervante s himsel f may hav e bee n a Marrano . Se e The Marrano of Reason, volum e 2 o f Spinoza and Other Heretics, 129 . Freud , o f course , di d no t suspec t a n ethni c lin k wit h Cervan tes. Al l o f thes e scholar s recogniz e tha t Freu d ha d stron g ethni c an d socia l motive s working withi n hi s science . Bu t the y d o no t see m t o tak e thes e motive s a s primary , nor as a n embarrassmen t t o scientifi c objectivity . 29. I t i s interestin g t o observ e tha t Cervantes ' nove l coul d furnis h Freu d wit h examples o f severa l o f th e charismati c type s o f wha t h e call s 'narcissism' , an d that , as wit h Do n Quixote , ther e i s a vulga r socia l nostalgi a associate d wit h eac h o f them. A s w e hav e seen , Freu d believe d tha t women , artists , grea t humorists , an d criminals wer e amon g th e figures o f specia l attractivenes s du e t o thei r narcissisti c self-absorption, whic h appeal s t o th e narcissis m represse d i n norma l personalities . Cervantes himself , alon g wit h hi s narrator , ca n serv e a s a n exampl e o f th e humor ist, thoug h i t would b e anachronisti c t o call hi m a n 'artist ' i n Freud' s post-Romanti c sense; h e participate s b y th e licens e o f mirt h i n th e archai c Utopia n fantasie s o f hi s hero. I n th e rol e o f th e crimina l ther e i s Roqu e Guinart , no t a mer e crimina l bu t a kind o f Spanis h Robi n Hood , wh o bear s abou t hi m a touc h o f th e golde n ag e i n a version slightl y mor e believabl e tha n Quixote's . Th e mos t striking , however , o f th e novel's 'narcissistic ' figures—aside, o f course , fro m Quixot e himself—i s Marcela , a gir l who , i n spit e o f he r extraordinar y beaut y an d wealth , refuse s t o marry , instead takin g u p th e lif e o f a shepherdess ; thu s sh e expose s he r charm s i n a vulgar occupatio n whil e nevertheles s defendin g a n unapproachabl e chastity . Thi s combination o f beaut y an d reserv e prove s a n irresistibl e incitemen t t o masculin e admiration an d love , whic h prove s s o powerfu l a s t o b e fata l i n th e cas e o f th e "student-shepherd" Grisostomo , anothe r on e o f Cervantes ' ma d Salamanca n schol ars. A s wit h th e paranoi d knight , Marcela' s appea l depend s i n grea t measur e upo n the socia l archais m o f he r fancy , it s vulga r heroism . Nea r th e en d o f hi s day s i n Part Two, Do n Quixot e als o consider s a pastoral charad e a s a respite fro m th e mor e arduous delusion s o f knight-errantry . For Freud' s discussio n o f narcissisti c allure , se e "O n Narcissism : A n Introduc tion," S.E. 14 : 8 8 - 8 9 . 30. Fo r a discussio n o f th e us e o f 'over-determination ' se e th e entr y i n J . Laplanche an d J.-B . Pontalis , The Language of Psycho-Analysis, trans . Donal d Nicholson-Smith (Ne w York : Norton , 1973) , 2 9 2 - 9 3 . 31. Ott o Rank , The Myth of the Birth of the Hero and Other Works, ed . Phili p Freund (Ne w York : Rando m House , 1932) , 1 4 - 6 4 .

32. 5.^.9:234-41 .

33. S.E. 16 : 303 . Sigmun d Freud , Gesammelte Werke Chronologisch Geordnet (London: Imago , 1940 ) 11 : 313 . 34. Freud , writin g o n Septembe r 11 , 1899 , replied , "I t i s certainl y tru e tha t the dreame r i s to o witty , bu t i t i s neithe r m y faul t no r doe s i t contai n a reproach .

Notes to Chapter 5 • 24 5 All dreamer s ar e equall y insufferabl y witty , an d the y nee d t o b e becaus e the y ar e under pressur e an d th e direc t rout e i s barre d t o them . . . . Th e ostensibl e wi t o f al l unconscious processe s i s intimatel y relate d t o th e theor y o f th e jok e an d th e comic." Freud/FHess, 371 . 35. Jokes and Their Relation, S.E. 8 : 202 . 36. Jokes and Their Relation, S.E. 8 : 201 . 37. Se e Sande r L . Gilman' s enlightenin g discussio n o f "Freu d an d th e Jewis h Joke," i n Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca: Cornel l Universit y Press , 1985) , 175—90 . Gilma n point s ou t tha t th e bigoted notio n o f th e Ostjude curren t a t tha t tim e bot h i n th e popula r collection s o f Jewish storie s an d i n ostensibl y scientifi c work s lik e Ott o Weininger' s Sex and Character (1903 ) tende d t o ascrib e t o th e Je w a primitive , sensualistic , an d femi nine nature , al l see n a s negatives , an d t o believ e tha t thes e characteristic s wer e revealed i n th e Jew' s pretentiou s bu t fault y attempt s t o spea k German . 38. Gilman , Difference and Pathology, 189 . 39. Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood, S.E. 11 : 114 . 40. Se e th e Introductio n t o Migue l d e Cervantes , The Trials of Persiles and Sigismunda: A Northern Tale, trans . Celi a Richmon d Welle r an d Clar k A . Colaha n (Berkeley: Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1989) , 5 . A s th e titl e make s clear , Cervantes ha s dislocate d hi s tal e t o th e norther n fring e o f Europ e i n orde r t o achieve a settin g fo r romance . I f Cervantes ' effort s i n thi s genr e no w see m stilted , there remai n th e lat e romance s o f Shakespear e t o assur e u s tha t thi s kin d o f writin g could achiev e th e highes t result s eve n i n thi s perio d o f Europea n culture . 41. Richar d Henr y Popkin , The History of Skepticism from Erasmus to Spinoza, rev. an d enlarge d ed . (Lo s Angeles : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1979) . 42. Oti s H . Gree n ha s analyze d th e psycholog y o f Quixote' s conditio n systemat ically i n Huartea n terms . Spain and the Western Tradition, 4 vols . (Madison : University o f Wisconsin , 1966 ) 4 : 6 1 . 43. Migue l d e Cervante s Saavedra , Three Exemplary Novels, trans . Samue l Putnam (Ne w York : Viking , 1950) , 210—13 . Cervante s wa s probabl y writin g thes e tales aroun d th e tim e tha t Par t On e o f Don Quixote wa s bein g published . 44. Jua n Huart e d e Sa n Juan , Examen de Ingenios (1575) , cite d b y Mauree n Ihrie, Skepticism in Cervantes (London : Tamesi s Books , 1982) , 2 5 . I hav e adde d the Spanis h i n brackets . 45. Cervantes ' approac h t o madnes s reveal s a clinica l detachmen t applie d t o the onset , progress , an d eve n cur e o f th e disease . Thi s ca n b e see n no t onl y i n Don Quixote bu t als o i n th e cas e o f th e wis e studen t depicte d i n th e Exemplary Novels who, havin g bee n poisone d b y a rejecte d lover , come s t o believ e tha t hi s bod y i s made ou t o f glass . Th e ma d fantas y doe s no t alte r hi s power s o f understanding . Like th e classi c paranoid , "Th e Licentiat e o f Glass " remain s reasonabl e i n al l matters excep t thos e touchin g hi s ide e fixe. An d yet , i n spit e o f th e fragilit y conferred upo n hi m i n hi s delusion , h e take s i t upo n himsel f i n quixoti c fashio n t o go abou t criticizing , wit h justic e an d exactitude , th e me n an d wome n o f ever y profession. Onc e again , a s i n th e Quixote, Cervante s offer s paranoi a a s a satiri c spectacle.

46. S.£ . 4:264.

246 • Notes to Chapter 6 47. Harol d Jenkins , ed. , Hamlet: The Arden Shakespeare Edition (Ne w York : Methuen, 1982) . 48. Harr y Levin , The Question of Hamlet (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1959), 161 . 49. W e ma y think , fo r instance , o f th e affectionatel y toleran t vie w o f th e vulga r audience give n i n th e Englis h theatrica l spin-of f o f Quixote, Franci s Beaumont' s Knight of the Burning Pestle (c . 1610) . 50. Fo r a most persuasiv e statemen t o f this poin t o f view se e Hug h Lloyd-Jones , The Justice of Zeus (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1971) , chapte r 5 . 51. Se e th e discussio n i n Bernar d Knox' s super b introductio n t o Oedipus the King, i n Sophocles , The Theban Plays, trans . Rober t Fagle s (Ne w York : Viking , 1982), 1 2 1 - 2 6 . 52. "A t th e presentatio n o f th e medallio n [inscribe d i n Gree k wit h Sophocles ' line, translate d b y Freud' s colleagu e Hitschman n a s "H e divine d th e fame d riddl e and wa s a ma n mos t mighty" ] ther e wa s a curiou s incident . Whe n Freu d rea d th e inscription h e becam e agitate d an d i n a strangle d voic e demande d t o kno w wh o had though t o f it . . . . Freu d disclose d tha t a s a youn g studen t a t th e Universit y o f Vienna h e use d t o strol l aroun d th e grea t arcade d cour t inspectin g th e bust s o f former famou s professor s o f th e institution . H e the n ha d th e phantasy , no t merel y of seein g hi s ow n bus t ther e i n th e future , whic h woul d no t hav e bee n anythin g remarkable i n a n ambitiou s student , bu t o f i t actuall y bein g inscribe d wit h th e identical word s h e no w sa w o n th e medallion. " Jones, Life, 2 : 14 . 53. Se e Psycho-Analytic Movement, S.E. 14 : 21—22 , discusse d a t th e en d o f chapter 3 above . Chapter Six 1. Sinc e thi s chapte r wa s written , Alexande r Welsh' s elegan t study , Freud's Wishful Dream Book (Princeton : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1994) , ha s appeared , giving a subtl e treatmen t o f th e veile d humo r an d othe r narrativ e technique s employed i n The Interpretation of Dreams. Fo r Welsh , i t i s no t s o muc h Freu d himself a s i t i s th e figure o f th e drea m censo r wh o take s th e rol e o f comi c protagonist. Nevertheless , Welsh' s analysi s tend s t o confir m thi s on e i n a numbe r of ways , emphasizin g it s comi c form—"romanc e o r seria l comedy " (ix)—th e centrality o f ambition , an d Freud' s rhetorica l projectio n o f th e hypocris y o f every day lif e int o th e fictive domai n o f th e unconscious . This i s als o a n appropriat e plac e t o acknowledg e th e acut e literar y analysi s o f Freud's self-presentatio n b y Mar k Edmundso n i n Towards Reading Freud: SelfCreation in Milton, Wordsworth, Emerson, and Sigmund Freud (Princeton : Princeton Universit y Press , 1990) . 2. Friedric h Wilhel m Josep h Schelling , The Philosophy of Art, ed . an d trans . Douglas W . Stot t (Minneapolis : Universit y o f Minnesot a Press , 1989) , 234 . O n th e German Romanti c reactio n t o Don Quixote se e Lienhar d Bergel , "Cervante s i n Germany," i n Ange l Flore s an d M . J . Benardete , Cervantes across the Centuries: A Quadricentennial Volume (Ne w York : Gordia n Press , 1969 ; rptd . fro m Dryde n Press ed. , 1947) , 315—52 ; an d Anthon y Close , The Romantic Approach to 'Don

Notes to Chapter 6

• 24 7

Quixote': A Critical History of the Romantic Tradition in 'Quixote' Criticism (Ne w York: Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1977) , 2 9 - 6 6 . 3. Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, S.E. 18 : 140 . 4. Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious, S.E. 8 : 232n . 5. "Th e 'Uncanny', " S.E. 17 : 224 . I hav e translate d th e Germa n wor d 'Unheimlich\ 'uncanny' , whic h Freud' s translato r give s i n th e original . 6. A s I observe d i n not e 6 t o chapte r 1 , th e lis t o f 'uncanny ' experience s includes psychoanalysi s itself . S.E. 17 : 243—46 . 7. A s Rober t Wilcock s point s out , ther e wa s somethin g deceptiv e abou t Freud' s summa o f th e authorities . Freud' s ow n investigatio n wa s conducte d largel y withou t the benefi t o f previou s research . H e di d th e readin g fo r th e openin g surve y whe n all bu t on e o f th e chapter s presentin g hi s ow n result s ha d bee n completed . Se e MaelzeTs Chess Player: Sigmund Freud and the Rhetoric of Deceit (Lanham , Md. : Rowman an d Littlefield , 1994) , 28 1 an d 3 2 1 , n 3 . 8. Lette r o f Augus t 6 , 1899 . The Origins of Psycho-Analysis: Letters to Wilhelm Fliess, Drafts and Notes: 1887—1902, trans . Eri c Mosbache r an d Jame s Strache y (New York : Basi c Books , 1954) , 290 . I hav e preferre d i n thi s instanc e th e Mos bacher-Strachey version , slightl y corrected , t o tha t o f The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess: 1887—1904, ed . an d trans . Jeffre y Moussaief f Masson (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1985) , 3 6 5 . Her e i s th e original: "Nu n is t da s Ganz e s o au f ein e Spaziergangsphantasi e angelegt . Anfang s der dunkl e Wal d de r Autore n (di e di e Baum e nich t sehen) , aussichtslos , irrwege reich. Dan n ei n verdeckte r Hohlweg , durc h [den ] ic h de n Lese r fiihre—mei n Traummuster mi t seine n Sonderbarkeiten , Details , Indiskretionen , schlechte n Wit z e n — u n d dan n plotzlic h di e Hoh e un d di e Aussich t un d di e Anfrage : Bitte , wohi n wiinschen Si e jetz t z u gehen? " Sigmun d Freud , Briefe an Wilhelm Fliess 1887— 1904 (Frankfurt-am-Main : S . Fische r Verlag , 1986) , 400 . 9. Leonar d Shengold , "Th e Metapho r o f th e Journe y i n 'Th e Interpretatio n o f Dreams,' " American Imago 2 3 (Winte r 1966) : 3 2 0 - 2 1 . Shengol d note s Jones ' communication tha t Freu d wa s readin g Dant e durin g th e perio d i n whic h h e wrot e The Interpretation of Dreams. 10. Henr i Ellenberger , The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1970) , 52 . A s Sullowa y observes, 'Traumdeutung', a s oppose d t o th e mor e norma l 'Deutung des Traums\ i s analogous t o 'Sterndeutung*. Fran k J . Sulloway , Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic the Legend (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press, 1992 ; rptd . fro m Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1979) , 3 2 3 . 11. Th e critiqu e o f dream s i s closel y relate d t o th e problem s o f th e 'Freudia n slip', whic h hav e bee n ingeniousl y demonstrate d b y Sebastian o Timpanar o i n The Freudian Slip: Psychoanalysis and Textual Criticism, trans . Kat e Sope r (London : NLB, 1976) . O n th e interpretatio n o f dream s se e Alle n Esterson , Seductive Mirage: An Exploration of the Work of Sigmund Freud (Chicago : Ope n Court , 1993) , 160 — 66 an d 175—90 , t o whic h I a m muc h indebted , an d als o Malcol m Macmillan' s pages o n th e histor y o f th e questio n an d it s contributors , i n Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc (Ne w York : Elsevie r Science , 1991) , 2 7 2 - 7 9 . 12. Her e I a m adaptin g a remar k o f Wittgenstein's , quote d i n Esterson , 179 .

248 • Notes to Chapter 6 13. Freud' s failur e t o understan d th e poin t o f thi s objectio n t o hi s theor y o f dreams i s eviden t no t onl y i n hi s respons e t o a n imaginar y "skeptica l reader " i n the Introductory Lectures, S.E. 15 : 109 , discusse d b y Esterso n (179—80) , bu t als o in hi s repl y t o a Her r Rudol f Schneide r o f Munic h i n a not e adde d t o The Psychopathology of Everyday Life i n 1920 , S.E. 6 : 250—51n . Th e questio n raise d by th e latte r i s tha t o f significan t numbers , whic h Freu d insiste d t o b e identica l with verba l association s and , w e ma y extrapolate , wit h th e element s o f dreams . Freud remarks , "Th e fac t tha t appropriat e association s aris e t o number s (o r words ) which ar e presented tel l u s nothin g mor e abou t th e origi n o f number s (o r words ) which emerg e spontaneously tha n coul d alread y b e take n int o consideratio n befor e that fac t wa s known " (251n , emphasi s i n original) . Freu d canno t b e mad e t o appreciate, i t seems , tha t sinc e th e theor y i n favo r o f th e unconsciou s significanc e of spontaneousl y chose n number s (o r th e detail s o f a dream ) depend s upo n thei r ability t o produc e significan t associations , th e theor y fail s i f suc h association s ca n be produce d b y an y stimulu s whatever . Freud' s difficult y lies , perhaps , i n hi s peculiar conceptio n o f psychi c determinism , which , a s Macmilla n suggests , le d him t o consider th e chai n o f association betwee n idea s t o be unalterable , inaccessi ble t o contaminatio n fro m outside , an d therefor e alway s significant . Macmillan , 55-73. 14. I n additio n t o th e majo r biographies , w e ma y ad d Mar k Kanze r an d Jule s Glenn, eds. , Freud and His Self-Analysis (Ne w York : Jaso n Aronson , 1979) ; Alexander Grinstein , Sigmund Freud's Dreams (Ne w York : Internationa l Universi ties Press , 1980) ; Car l E . Schorske , "Politic s an d Patricid e i n Freud' s The Interpretation of Dreams" i n F in-de-Siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture (Ne w York : Vin tage, 1981) , 181—207 ; Willia m J . McGrath , Freud's Discovery of Psychoanalysis: The Politics of Hysteria (Ithaca : Cornel l Universit y Press , 1986) ; Didie r Anzieu , Freud's Self-Analysis, trans . Pete r Graha m (Madison , Conn. : Internationa l Univer sities Press , 1986) ; and Pau l C . Vitz , Sigmund Freud's Christian Unconscious (Ne w York: Guilfor d Press , 1988) . 15. T h e censorship ' i s offere d first a s a n analogy , an d a s lon g a s i t remaine d such Freu d woul d b e entitle d t o choos e hi s analog y fro m an y cours e o f life , s o lon g as i t serve d t o illuminat e th e subject . Bu t i n thi s cas e th e analog y quickl y become s the basi s fo r a causal o r structural link ! 'Th e fac t tha t th e phenomen a o f censorshi p and o f dream-distortio n correspon d dow n t o thei r smalles t detail s justifie s u s i n presuming tha t the y ar e similarl y determined . W e ma y therefor e suppos e tha t dreams ar e give n thei r shap e i n individua l huma n being s b y th e operatio n o f tw o psychical force s (o r w e ma y describ e the m a s current s o r systems) ; an d tha t on e o f these force s construct s th e wis h whic h i s expresse d b y th e dream , whil e th e othe r exercises a censorshi p upo n thi s dream-wis h and , b y th e us e o f tha t censorship , forcibly bring s abou t a distortion i n th e expressio n o f th e wish " (143—44) . 16. Th e entir e passag e i s wort h quoting : "I n socia l life , whic h ha s provide d u s with ou r familia r analog y wit h th e dream-censorship , w e als o mak e us e o f th e suppression an d reversa l o f affect , principall y fo r purpose s o f dissimulation . I f I am talkin g t o someon e who m I am oblige d t o treat wit h consideratio n whil e wishin g to sa y somethin g hostil e t o him , i t i s almos t mor e importan t tha t I shoul d concea l any expressio n o f m y affect fro m hi m tha n tha t I shoul d mitigat e th e verba l for m o f

Notes to Chapter 6

• 24 9

my thoughts . I f I wer e t o addres s hi m i n word s tha t wer e no t impolite , bu t accompanied the m wit h a loo k o r gestur e o f hatre d an d contempt , th e effec t whic h I shoul d produc e o n hi m woul d no t b e ver y differen t fro m wha t i t woul d hav e bee n if I ha d throw n m y contemp t openl y i n hi s face . Accordingly , th e censorshi p bid s me abov e al l suppres s m y affects ; and , i f I a m a maste r o f dissimulation , I shal l assume th e opposite affect—smil e whe n I a m angry an d see m affectionat e whe n I wish t o destroy" (471 , emphasi s i n original) . 17. Willia m M . Johnston , The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848-1938 (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1972) , 39 . 18. Freu d goe s o n t o explai n tha t th e suspiciou s treatmen t o f Ott o wa s no t th e primary wish-fulfillmen t behin d th e dream ; i t lay , rather , i n Freud' s opportunit y t o identify wit h Professo r A. , wh o ha d gotte n hi s professorship , a s Freu d hope d t o do , late i n life : "So onc e agai n I was wantin g t o b e a Professor! " (271 ) 19. Fo r a more fertile demonstratio n o f the eas e wit h whic h Freudia n interpreta tions ca n b e furnishe d wit h counter-examples , se e Timpanaro , 44—46 . 20. New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, S.E. 22 : 146 , applie d t o thi s point b y Esterson , 161 . 21. Abou t on e o f thes e case s Freu d wa s touchin g u p th e facts . Wit h regar d t o the cocain e addictio n o f hi s friend , Fleischl-Marxow , h e twic e indicate s emphati cally tha t h e ha d neve r envisione d tha t hi s frien d woul d injec t th e substanc e subcutaneously. Bu t h e wa s stil l advisin g thi s procedur e i n prin t month s afte r th e beginning o f hi s friend' s fata l addiction . Ernes t Jones , The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1953 ) 1 : 9 5 - 9 6 . 22. " A drea m i s mad e absurd , then , i f a judgemen t tha t somethin g 'i s absurd ' is amon g th e element s include d i n th e dream-thoughts—tha t i s t o say , i f an y on e of th e dreamer' s unconsciou s train s o f though t ha s criticis m o r ridicul e a s it s motive. Absurdit y i s accordingl y on e o f th e method s b y whic h th e dream-wor k represents a contradiction . . . . Absurdit y i n a dream , however , i s no t t o b e translated b y a simpl e 4 no'; i t i s intende d t o reproduc e th e mood o f th e dream thoughts, whic h combine s derisio n o r laughte r wit h th e contradiction . I t i s onl y with suc h a n ai m i n vie w tha t th e dream-wor k produce s anythin g ridiculous . Her e once agai n it is giving a manifest form to a portion of the latent content." S.E. 5 : 434—35, emphasi s i n original . 23. "Th e determinin g elemen t o f paranoi a i s th e mechanis m o f projectio n involving th e refusa l o f belie f i n th e self-reproach. " "Draf t K . Th e Neurose s o f Defense ( A Christma s Fair y Tale), " enclose d wit h th e lette r o f Januar y 1 , 1896 . Freud/Fliess, 168 . 24. Lette r o f June 12 , 1900 . Freud/Fliess, 417 . 25. Jame s L . Rice , Freud's Russia: National Identity in the Evolution of Psychoanalysis (Ne w Brunswick , N . J. : Transactio n Publishers , 1993) , 47 . 26. Stanle y Edga r Hyman , The Tangled Bank: Darwin, Marx, Frazer and Freud as Imaginative Writers (Ne w York : Atheneum , 1962) , 317 . 27. I hav e transpose d th e translatio n wit h th e origina l Germa n o f th e quotatio n from th e Dedicatio n t o Faust give n i n Strachey' s text : "frii h sic h eins t de m triibe n Blick gezeigt. " 28. "Freud' s favorit e heroes—th e Carthaginia n general , Hannibal ; Marcu s

250 • Notes to Chapter 6 Brutus, th e defende r o f th e Roma n Republic ; an d Kar l Moor , th e protagonis t o f Schiller's The Robbers —all share d a passionat e dedicatio n t o freedo m i n th e fac e of threatenin g tyranny. " McGrath , 59 . 29. I a m speakin g her e o f The Interpretation of Dreams. A s th e year s wen t by , Freud's identificatio n wit h ethni c Judais m deepene d bu t neve r too k o n a religiou s or political character . 30. Ric e ha s foun d a hos t o f bawd y an d witt y implication s i n th e drea m analysis, includin g a suggestion , turnin g o n a dialec t pla y o n words , tha t Coun t Thun ha d a numbe r o f "publi c women " serving hi m a t publi c expense . Rice , 52 . 31. Fo r a n excellen t accoun t o f th e developmen t o f Freud' s politica l interests , see th e earl y chapter s o f McGrath . 32. Schorske , 1 8 5 - 8 6 . 33. Le o Goldhammer , "Theodo r Herz l un d Sigmun d Freud : Traeume," Theodor Herzl Jahrbuch, ed . Tul o Nussenblat t (Vienna : Victo r Glanz , 1937) , 2 6 6 - 6 8 ; cite d in Avne r Falk , "Freu d an d Herzl, " Midstream 2 3 (Jan . 1977) : 3 . 34. "Havin g discovere d tha t h e wa s literall y drive n b y politica l frustration , Freud se t abou t tryin g t o fre e himsel f fro m th e neuroti c compulsion s associate d with th e worl d o f politics , an d hi s newl y deepene d understandin g o f th e huma n psyche provide d hi m wit h th e necessar y resource s fo r thi s task. " McGrath , 228 . 35. "Successfu l Quixote " woul d b e a goo d wa y t o describ e Hitler , o f course , and o n tha t basi s w e migh t tak e Freud' s intuition s t o b e prophetic . Th e grea t virtu e of Schorske' s work , though , i s i n havin g show n tha t thi s aestheticizin g wa y o f thinking abou t politic s wa s endemi c t o Viennese culture , crossin g th e ful l spectru m of rhetori c fro m anti-Semitis m t o Zionism . Se e hi s chapte r "Politic s i n a Ne w Key : An Austria n Trio. " Schorske , 116—80 . I f Hitle r wa s a successfu l Quixote , i t wa s not fo r th e reason s suggeste d b y th e psychoanalyti c critiqu e o f politics . 36. Schorske , i n th e eloquen t an d justl y admire d stud y alread y cited , ha s argued, base d o n th e analysi s o f Freud' s politica l dream s an d thei r interpretations , that, i n locatin g th e ultimat e meanin g o f politica l struggl e i n relation s wit h th e father projecte d int o socia l life , Freu d ha d "achieve d a counterpolitica l triump h o f the firs t magnitude . B y reducin g hi s ow n politica l pas t an d presen t t o a n epiphe nomenal statu s i n relatio n t o prima l conflic t betwee n fathe r an d son , Freu d gav e his fello w liberal s a n a-historica l theor y o f ma n an d societ y tha t coul d mak e bearable a politica l worl d spu n ou t o f orbi t an d beyon d control " (203) . Politic s could no w b e distinguished , i n th e languag e o f psychoanalysis , a s nothin g bu t a psycho-social for m o f patricide , an d psychoanalysi s coul d plausibl y clai m t o be th e science o f patricide . Schorske rightly emphasize s tha t fo r Freu d scienc e ha d becom e th e ne w for m o f heroism. Fo r it s politica l dimensions , I a m muc h indebte d t o hi s analysis . I n it s details, however , i t turns , unfortunately , upo n a n interpretatio n o f Freud' s dream s very muc h i n th e Freudia n spirit . Schorsk e find s i n Freu d a psychologica l struggl e between hi s Hanniba l ambition s t o destro y Catholi c Rom e an d hi s Winckelman n desire fo r assimilation . Ultimatel y Freu d surrender s hi s politica l resistanc e an d gives i n t o a visio n o f politic s a s epiphenomen a o f th e personal , th e mar k o f hi s surrender t o th e persona l bein g th e reductio n o f hi s politica l fantasie s i n th e "Revolutionary Drea m o f 1848 " to the triump h ove r hi s fathe r wit h th e urinal . Wit h

Notes to Chapter 7 • 25 1 that gesture , politic s i s displace d fro m th e cente r o f Freudia n concern . Schorske , like McGrath , give s ful l recognitio n t o th e politica l an d socia l motive s a t th e hear t of psychoanalysi s bu t fall s nevertheles s unde r th e spel l o f it s scientifi c aura . 37. S.E. 5 : 4S5 . Chapter Seven 1. Migue l d e Cervantes , Don Quixote: The Ormsby Translation, ed . an d rev . Joseph R . Jone s an d Kennet h Dougla s (Ne w York : Norton , 1981) , 4 2 7 - 2 8 . 2. Toda y Schreber' s conditio n migh t fal l unde r th e categor y o f 'paranoi d schizo phrenia'. 3. Danie l Pau l Schreber , Memoirs of My Nervous Illness, ed . an d trans . Id a MacAlpine an d Richar d A . Hunte r (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1988; rptd . fro m London : Wm . Dawson , 1955) , 3 . Thi s volum e contain s no t onl y the Memoirs themselve s bu t als o th e document s concernin g th e tria l tha t decide d the issu e o f Schreber' s menta l competence . Thes e includ e th e report s t o th e Cour t of Appeal s b y Schreber' s doctor , G . Weber , Schreber' s ow n statemen t a s plaintiff , and th e court' s decision . Th e pag e number s fo r al l o f thes e material s wil l b e supplied i n th e text . 4. Thi s aspec t o f Schreber' s delusion , lik e s o man y others , i s a n exaggeratio n of belief s h e ha d hel d i n th e past . Se e Ha n Israels , Schreber, Father and Son (Madison, Conn. : Internationa l Universitie s Press , 1989) , 161—62 . 5. Fo r instance, th e "curse d creatio n o f a false feeling " ("verfluchte Stimmungs mache"), th e "mood-falsifying-miracle " ("di e Stimmungsfalschungswunder") , an d the "not-thinking-of-anything-thought " ("de r Nichtsdenkungsgedanke") . Schreber , Memoirs, 144 , 145 , an d 16 9 respectively . 6. Se e th e "Judgemen t o f th e Roya l Superio r Countr y Cour t Dresde n o f 14t h July 1902, " translate d i n Schreber , 3 2 9 - 5 6 , which , afte r a summar y o f bot h side s of th e cas e a s presente d befor e it , begin s wit h th e statement , "Th e Cour t i s i n n o doubt tha t th e appellan t i s insane " (342) . 7. Schreber , 2 8 5 - 3 1 3 . 8. Schrebe r lef t th e asylu m i n Decembe r 190 2 an d enjoye d almos t five year s o f freedom spen t wit h hi s wif e an d adopte d daughter . Hi s attemp t t o regain hi s officia l responsibilities failed , bu t h e successfull y manage d th e famil y affair s an d too k u p his ol d positio n a t th e hea d o f famil y gatherings , fo r whic h h e wrot e poem s a s h e had i n forme r days . Nea r th e en d o f 190 7 hi s wif e ha d a mild stroke , an d Schreber , feeling th e onse t o f hi s illness , calle d fo r hi s doctor s t o tak e hi m int o custody , where h e remaine d i n a psychoti c stat e fo r fou r year s unti l hi s death . Thes e detail s were no t know n t o Freud . Israels , 187—201 , 211—19 . 9. Pau l Roazen , Freud and His Followers (Ne w York : NAL , 1971) , 141 . 10. " A Neurosi s o f Demoniaca l Possessio n i n th e Seventeent h Century, " Sigmund Freud: Collected Papers, trans . Joa n Rivier e (Ne w York : Basi c Books , 1959 ) 4: 457—58 . I n thi s cas e I hav e preferre d Riviere' s versio n t o Strachey's , S.E. 19 : 92. Her e i s th e original : "De r Senatsprasiden t Schrebe r fan d sein e Heilung , al s e r sich entschloss , de n Widerstan d gege n di e Kastratio n aufzugebe n un d sic h i n di e ihm vo n Got t zugedacht e weiblich e Roll e z u fiigen . E r wurde dan n kla r an d ruhig ,

252 • Notes to Chapter 7 konnte sein e Entlassun g au s de r Anstalt selbs t durchsetze n un d fiihrte ei n normale s Leben bi s au f de n eine n Punkt , das s e r einig e Stunde n taglic h de r Pfleg e seine r Weiblichkeit widmete , vo n dere n langsame m Fortschreite n bi s z u de m vo n Got t bestimmten Zie l e r uberzeug t blieb. " "Ein e Teufelsneuros e i m siebzehnte n Jahr hundert," Gesammelte Werke 13 : 339 . 11. The Freud/Jung Letters: The Correspondence between Sigmund Freud and C. G. Jung, ed . Willia m McGuire , trans . Ralp h Manhei m an d R . F . C . Hul l (Princeton: Princeto n Universit y Press , 1974) , 311 . 12. "Psycho-Analyti c Note s o n a n Autobiographica l Accoun t o f a Cas e o f Paranoia (Dementi a Paranoides), " S.E. 12 : 35—58 . Freu d di d no t discus s Schreber's relationshi p wit h hi s famou s father . Thi s relationshi p ha s becom e a subject o f grea t interes t i n recen t decades , sinc e i t wa s learne d tha t Schrebe r senior use d hi s childre n a s tria l subject s fo r hi s somewha t bizarr e experiment s i n child-rearing an d physica l conditioning . Thes e experience s see m t o b e a majo r theme o f Schreber' s delusions . See , t o begi n with , Willia m J . Niederland , M.D. , The Schreber Case: Psychoanalytic Profile of a Paranoid Personality, expande d ed . (Hillsdale, N . J. : Analyti c Press , 1984) ; Morto n Schatzman , Soul Murder: Persecution in the Family (Ne w York : Rando m House , 1973) ; and , mos t important , th e work b y Israel s cite d above . 13. "Th e Neurose s o f Defens e ( A Christma s Fair y Tale), " enclose d i n a lette r to Flies s o f Januar y 1 , 1896 . The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess: 1887—1904, ed . an d trans . Jeffre y Moussaief f Masso n (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvard Universit y Press , 1985) , 168 . 14. Th e philosophe r Georg e Berkeley , lik e Schreber , believe d tha t th e worl d around u s consist s o f mer e sensation s o r appearances , whic h d o no t necessaril y derive fro m object s wit h a n independen t existenc e excep t a s Go d establishe s the m upon eac h occasio n o f perception . 15. "O n Narcissism : A n Introduction, " S.E. 14 : 75 . 16. A s h e wa s preparin g thi s essay , Freu d wrot e t o Jun g suggestin g tha t th e remarks o n th e "choic e o f neurosis " problem, i.e. , th e remark s o n ho w th e mecha nisms o f repressio n relat e t o th e symptom s o f differen t conditions , seeme d t o serv e as a substitute fo r a truly clarifyin g conclusio n t o the essay : " A numbe r o f scientifi c notions I brough t wit h m e hav e combine d t o for m a pape r o n paranoia , whic h stil l lacks a n end , bu t take s quit e a ste p forwar d i n explainin g th e mechanis m o f th e choice o f neurosis. " Freud/Jung, 353 . 17. Sigmun d Freud , "Psychoanalytisch e Bemerkunge n ube r eine n autobio graphische beschriebene n Fal l vo n Paranoi a (Dementi a Paranoides) , Gesammelte Werke Chronologisch Geordnet (London : Imago , 1943 ) 8 : 309 . 18. Freud/Jung, 380 , emphasi s added . 19. Se e Le o Bersani' s interestin g discussio n o f thi s passag e an d th e paradoxe s of th e theor y of'paranoia ' tha t flow fro m i t i n "Pynchon , Paranoia , an d Literature, " Representations 2 5 (Winte r 1989) : 100—101 . Bersan i doe s no t imagin e a refusa l o f the gambi t o f paranoi d reflectio n a s i t i s offere d b y Freu d an d Pynchon , bu t onl y a living throug h o f it s consequences . Thi s i s Pynchon' s pligh t a s well . Hi s wor k seems t o m e t o offe r th e mos t perfec t workin g ou t o f th e satiri c visio n o f paranoi a originated b y Cervante s an d universalize d b y Freud .

Notes to Chapter 7 • 25 3 20. Freu d wa s eve n willin g t o se e i n Schreber' s delusio n itsel f a cover t iron y working agains t Schreber' s father , wh o wa s a doctor : "th e absur d miracle s tha t ar e performed o n hi m ar e a bitte r satir e o n hi s father' s medica l art. " Freud/Jung, 369 . 2 1 . Lette r o f Marc h 19 , 1911 . Freud/Jung, 407 . 22. Th e self-justification s an d generall y competitiv e maneuvering s o f Freu d and Jun g withi n th e theoretica l languag e o f psychoanalysi s hav e bee n describe d i n great detai l b y Joh n Ker r i n A Most Dangerous Method: The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein (Ne w York : Knopf , 1993) . 2 3 . Lette r t o Freu d o f Decembe r 12 , 1912 . Freud/Jung, 526 . 24. Lette r t o Jun g o f Februar y 12 , 1911 . Freud/Jung, 3 9 1 . 2 5 . Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood, S.E. 1 1 : 7 4 - 7 5 . 26. Lette r t o Freu d o f Octobe r 3 , 1910 . The Correspondence ofSigmund Freud and Sdndor Ferenczi, ed . Ev a Brabant , Erns t Falzeder , an d Patrizi a Giampieri Deutsch; tran s Pete r T . Hoffe r (Cambridge , Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1993) 1 : 219, emphasi s i n original . 27. Se e FreudlFerenczi 1 : 2 1 4 - 1 5 , n l . 28. Lette r o f Octobe r 6 , 1910 . FreudlFerenczi, 2 2 1 . 29. Lette r t o Ernes t Jone s o f Decembe r 8 , 1912 . The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest Jones, 1908—1939, ed . Andre w Paskauska s (Cam bridge, Mass. : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1993) , 182 . 30. Lette r o f Marc h 5 , 1912 . Freud/Jung, 492 . 3 1 . Lette r o f Marc h 1 1 , 1909 . Freud/Jung, 212 . Thi s wa s i n referenc e t o Freud's "traumati c hyperaesthesi a towar d dwindlin g correspondence"—h e woul d become upse t whe n Jun g didn' t writ e t o him—whic h h e attribute d t o hi s earlie r experience wit h Fliess . Lette r o f Marc h 9 , 1909 . Freud/Jung, 209 . 32. W . W . Meissner , The Paranoid Process (Ne w York : Jaso n Aronson , 1978) , and Psycho-Therapy and the Paranoid Process (Northvale , N . J. : Jaso n Aronson , 1986). Pag e number s t o th e first wor k wil l b e include d i n th e text . 33. Sigmun d Freud , remark s fro m Januar y 2 9 , 1908 , i n Minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, ed . Herma n Nunber g an d Erns t Federn ; trans . M . Nunber g (New York : Internationa l Universitie s Press , 1962 ) 1 : 295 . 34. Phylli s Grosskurth , The Secret Ring: Freud's Inner Circle and The Politics of Psychoanalysis (Ne w York : Addison-Wesley , 1991) . 35. "Psycho-Analysi s an d Telepathy, " S.E. 18 : 1 7 3 - 9 3 . 36. G . K . Chesterton , Orthodoxy (Ne w York : Dodd , Mead , 1927) , 32 . 37. Sinc e thi s chapte r wa s written , I hav e ha d th e benefi t o f The Paradoxes of Delusion: Wittgenstein, Schreber, and the Schizophrenic Mind (Ithaca : Cornel l University Press , 1994 ) b y Loui s A . Sass , whic h give s wha t I believ e t o b e th e most sensitiv e an d interesting , a s wel l a s significan t readin g o f th e Memoirs t o date . Sass's observation s complicate , t o som e degree , th e distinction s I hav e draw n between Meissner' s positio n an d m y own . Sas s observe s tha t eve n thoug h Schrebe r is bese t b y delusor y ideas , h e frequentl y recognize s thei r subjectivity . Hi s observa tions hav e th e 'incorrigibility ' tha t belong s t o report s o f inne r experienc e and , therefore, mak e n o clai m upo n reality ; Schrebe r als o employ s a kin d o f menta l 'double bookkeeping' , b y whic h h e set s hi s illusion s an d hi s accurat e knowledg e about hi s surrounding s i n separate , paralle l column s o f awareness ; an d hi s reac -

254 • Notes to Chapter 7 tions t o the materia l o f hi s delusion s i s no t a t al l wha t on e woul d expec t a perso n t o display whe n mistakin g suc h idea s fo r truth. Fo r these reasons , amon g others , Sas s casts doub t upo n th e notio n o f 'realit y testing ' a s th e basi s o f a distinctio n betwee n ordinary cognitio n an d madness . Instea d h e show s Schreber' s illusor y system , remarkably, t o b e a kin d o f existentia l psychologica l expressio n o f th e paradoxe s o f philosophical solipsis m a s explicate d b y Wittgenstein . Since I canno t hop e i n thi s spac e t o d o justice t o th e subtlet y o f Sass' s position , let m e b e conten t wit h observin g tha t bot h h e an d Wittgenstei n regar d solipsis m a s an erro r tha t lead s t o o r accompanie s certai n illusor y o r highl y subjectiv e form s o f attention t o th e worl d ('seein g as') . Suc h a n erro r differ s fro m a simpl e erro r o f reality testing , but , a s th e cas e o f Schrebe r make s clear , i t ca n distrac t on e fro m reality almos t t o the sam e degree . This , alon g wit h som e ordinar y failure s o f realit y testing, i s wha t distinguishe s Schrebe r fro m philosophica l solipsist s lik e Berkeley , Hume, an d Schopenhauer . 'Reality ' remains , then , a n importan t poin t o f referenc e for ou r ethical convictio n tha t h e shoul d b e considere d mad . Sass's readin g o f Schrebe r attempt s t o mov e awa y fro m th e cognitiv e distinctio n reality/illusion towar d th e logica l distinctio n truth/contradiction , an d therefor e i t i s much i n th e spiri t o f m y large r argumen t abou t psychoanalysi s an d it s contradic tions. And , unlik e Freu d an d Meissner , Sas s doe s no t leav e himsel f i n th e positio n of bein g unabl e t o distinguis h hi s ow n observation s fro m Schreber's . 38. Thi s i s th e thesi s pu t forwar d b y Loui s A . Sas s i n Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought (Ne w York : Basi c Books, 1992) . 39. Gille s Deleuz e an d Feli x Guattari , Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans . Rober t Hurley , Mar k Seem , an d Hele n R . Lan e (Minneapolis : University o f Minnesot a Press , 1983) , 19 . 40. Th e issu e als o goe s beyon d m y expertise . Th e followin g discussio n ha s been informe d b y withou t comin g t o th e sam e conclusio n a s th e treatmen t o f schizophrenia an d modernit y i n Sass , 355—73 . 41. Post-Freudia n psychiatr y ha s tende d t o regar d paranoi a a s " a specia l for m of schizophrenia , developin g i n individual s wit h a relativel y well-preserve d ego structure." Christia n Scharfetter , "Paranoia, " i n M . Shepher d an d 0 . L . Zangwill , eds., General Psycho-Pathology, Handbook of Psychiatry (Ne w York : Cambridg e University Press , 1983 ) 1 : 46 . 42. H . B . M . Murphy , "Socio-Cultura l Variation s i n Symptomatology , Inci dence an d Cours e o f Illness, " i n Shepher d an d Zangwill , General Psycho-Pathology, 162 . 43. Se e th e discussio n o f thes e term s an d th e problem s the y rais e i n Sass , 35 8 and passim . 44. "Th e conten t [o f paranoi d delusion ] i s highl y determine d b y th e culture , s o that i n Indi a on e ca n mee t relativel y man y delusion s o f marita l jealousy , i n Franc e (in th e past? ) delusion s o f hig h descent , i n th e US A delusion s o f bein g a defraude d inventor, an d messiani c delusion s amon g th e Bantu ; wherea s thes e varietie s ar e met muc h les s frequentl y i n mos t othe r societies. " Murphy , "Socio-Cultura l Varia tions," 162 . 45. "Characte r an d Ana l Erotism, " S.E. 9 : 1 6 7 - 7 5 .

Notes to Chapter 7 • 25 5 46. Maclntyr e an d Taylo r hav e alread y bee n cite d i n th e text . Fo r Rort y se e Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (Princeton : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1981) . I d o no t mea n t o impl y tha t an y o f thes e author s shar e m y vie w o f Freud . Rort y remains particularl y captivate d b y hi m and , i n m y view , b y man y aspect s o f th e epistemological traditio n h e claim s t o hav e lef t behind .

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262 • Works Cited Kant, Immanuel . "Ide a fo r a Universa l Histor y wit h a Cosmopolita n Intent. " I n Perpetual Peace and Other Essays on Politics, History, and Morals, trans . Te d Humphrey, 2 9 - 4 0 . Indianapolis : Hackett , 1983 . Kanzer, Mark , an d Jule s Glenn , eds . Freud and His Self-Analysis. Ne w York : Jason Aronson , 1979 . Kemp, Anthony . The Estrangement of the Past: A Study in Modern Historical Consciousness. Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1991 . Kerr, John . A Most Dangerous Method: The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein. Ne w York : Knopf , 1993 . Kirchner, Joh n H . "Do n Quijot e d e l a Mancha : A Stud y i n Classica l Paranoia. " Annali [Naples ] 9 - 2 (1967) : 2 7 5 - 8 2 . Knox, Bernard . Introductio n t o Oedipus the King. Sophocles . The Theban Plays. Trans. Rober t Fagles . Ne w York : Viking , 1982 , 1 1 5 - 3 5 . Laplanche, J. , an d J.-B . Pontalis . The Language of Psycho-Analysis. Trans . Don ald Nicholson-Smith . Ne w York : Norton , 1973 . Levin, Harry . The Question of Hamlet. Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1959 . Lloyd-Jones, Hugh . The Justice of Zeus. Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1971. Locke, John . An Essay concerning Human Understanding. Ed . Pete r Nidditch . Oxford: Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1975 . Maclntyre, Alasdair . A Short History of Ethics: A History of Moral Philosophy from the Homeric Age to the Twentieth Century. Ne w York : Macmillan , 1966 . . After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. Notr e Dame : Universit y o f Notr e Dame Press , 1981 . Macmillan, Malcolm . Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc. Ne w York : Elsevie r Science, 1991 . Madariaga, Salvado r de . Don Quixote: An Introductory Essay in Psychology. Ox ford: Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1935 . Mandel, Oscar . "Th e Functio n o f th e Nor m i n Don Quixote." Modern Philology 3 5 (Feb. 1956) : 1 5 4 - 6 3 . Marx, Karl . The Communist Manifesto. I n Karl Marx: Selected Writings, ed . Davi d McLellan, 2 2 1 - 4 6 . Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1977 . McGrath, Willia m J . Freud's Discovery of Psychoanalysis: The Politics of Hysteria. Ithaca: Cornel l Universit y Press , 1986 . McKeon, Michael . The Origins of the English Novel, 1600—1740. Baltimore : John s Hopkins Universit y Press , 1987 . Meissner, W . W. , The Paranoid Process. Ne w York : Jaso n Aronson , 1978 . . Psycho-Therapy and the Paranoid Process. Northvale , N . J. : Jaso n Aron son, 1986 . Murphy, H . B . M . "Socio-Cultura l Variation s i n Symptomatology , Incidenc e an d Course o f Illness. " In General Psycho-Pathology, vol . 1 of Handbook of Psychiatry, ed . M . Shepher d an d 0 . L . Zangwill , 157—71 . Ne w York : Cambridg e University Press , 1983 . Nabokov, Vladimir . Lectures on Don Quixote. Ed . Fredso n Bowers . Ne w York : Harcourt, Brace , Jovanovich , 1983 .

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Index

Abraham, Karl , 5 5 Adler, Alfred , 5 6 Adler, Karl , 162 , 19 7 Amadis de Gaul (Rodrigue z d e Montalvo) , 109-10 Aristotle, 138 ; o n Oedipus, 129 ; poetic s of , 103 Art: origin s o f myt h an d th e first epi c poet , 1 8 - 1 9 ; an d paranoia , 2 6 - 2 7 ; an d plea sure principle , 25—27 . See also Freud , Sigmund; Narcissism ; Psychoanalysis ; Romance; Satir e Artemidorus, Oneirocriticas, 138 , 2 4 3 n . 2 7 Auden, W . H . , 21 2 Bacon, Francis : The Advancement of Learning, 6 9 ; 'idol s o f th e mind' , 2 9 , 102 ; Ma caulay's essa y on , 6 8 ; modernity , 2 1 1 ; ro mance i n rhetori c of , 73—74 ; a s satirist , 124; suspicio n in , 6 9 - 7 7 , 8 0 , 8 1 , 8 3 84, 8 6 , 9 5 ; Wisdom of the Ancients, 2 3 8 n . 3 1 . See also Scienc e Beaumont, Francis , Knight of the Burning Pestle, 2 4 6 n . 4 9 Berkeley, George , 7 8 , 18 1 Bernays, Marth a (Freud' s fiancee an d wife) , 9 9 , 100 , 13 5 Bersani, Leo , 25 2 n . 1 9 Bleuler, Eugen , 1 8 7 - 8 8 , 23 2 n . 3 5 , 2 3 3 n . 45 Breuer, Joseph , 155 , 2 3 3 n . 4 2 Bright, Timothy , Treatise on Melancholy, 125 Brown, Norma n 0 . , o n Swif t an d psycho analysis, 24 0 n . 2 Burroughs, William , 2 Burton, Robert , The Anatomy of Melancholy, 124 , 13 8

Caesar, Julius , Freud' s identificatio n with , 155-57 Carlyle, Thomas , Sartor Resartus, 9 8 Censorship, theor y of , i n The Interpretation of Dreams, 1 4 1 - 4 5 , 2 4 8 - 4 9 nn . 15 , 16 . See also Realit y principle ; Repression ; Satire Cervantes, Migue l d e , 5 , 9 5 , 9 8 ; "Colloqu y of th e Dogs, " 9 9 , 124 , 2 4 1 - 4 2 n . 14 ; Freud's adolescen t cul t of , 99—100 ; "Li centiate o f Glass, " 2 4 5 n . 4 5 ; philosophi cal stanc e an d attitud e towar d romance , 123—24; Trials ofPersiles and Sigismunda, 123 , 2 4 5 n . 4 0 . Se e als o Don Quixote; Freud , Sigmund ; Satir e Charcot, Jean-Martin , 5 1 Chesterton, G . K. , 167 , 19 9 Civilization and Its Discontents, 8 9 " 'Civilized ' Sexua l Moralit y an d Moder n Nervous Illness, " 2 2 6 n . 3 1 Comte, Auguste , 6 8 ; Freu d on , 23 9 n . 3 7 ; historical recapitulatio n theor y in , 86—8 7 Condorcet, Marqui s de , 8 5 Copernicus, Nicholas , 2 2 , 2 9 , 3 2 , 5 0 , 5 1 Crews, Frederick , o n persistenc e o f psycho analysis, 23 0 n . 1 4 Dante, Divine Comedy, 137 , 20 7 Darwin, Charles , 3 2 , 9 0 ; a s Freud' s self chosen precursor , 2 2 , 5 0 , 5 1 ; on th e pri mal father , 14 , 8 4 ; an d Schreber , 17 5 da Vinci , Leonardo , 2 1 - 2 2 , 2 9 , 5 1 , 189 , 229 n . 1 5 Deleuze, Gilles , an d Feli x Guattari , AntiOedipus, 2 0 0 - 2 0 2 Descartes, Rene , 21 1 Deutsch, Helene , 8 - 9 , 56 , 5 9 , 6 1 Don Quixote: dream s in , 106—8 ; Dulcine a

267

268 • Index Don Quixote (Continued) in, 1 0 2 - 5 , 107 , 113 ; enchanters in , 153 ; Freud th e dreame r and , 1 5 0 - 5 3 ; Freud' s early lov e of , 9 9 - 1 0 0 ; an d Freud' s infatu ation wit h Schreber , 1 9 2 - 9 4 ; Freud' s Ro mantic vie w of , 135—36 ; an d Hamlet, 1 2 6 - 2 8 ; a s inspiratio n t o surrealism , 108; an d M . Lucien , 2 2 0 - 2 1 ; narcissisti c types in , 24 4 n . 2 9 ; paranoi d symptom s in, 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 0 1 - 1 4 ; proble m o f valu e in , 138; psychoanalyti c readin g of , 1 0 1 - 8 , 115—16; psychologica l accurac y of , 242 n . 19 ; Quixot e compare d wit h Schreber, 1 7 1 , 174 , 187 ; relatio n t o sci ence an d modernity , 6 9 , 123 ; repetitio n of th e myt h of , 2 2 0 - 2 1 ; romanc e internal ized in , 1 1 1 ; Romantic an d existentialis t readings of , 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 3 2 - 3 5 ; Sanch o Panza in , 1 0 2 - 3 , 114 , 2 4 3 n . 2 0 ; sanit y and madnes s in , 1 6 7 - 6 9 ; a s satiri c model o f psychoanalysis , 1 2 1 , 146 , 164 — 6 5 ; satiri c motive s of , 9 6 , 1 0 8 - 1 3 ; satiri c procedure in , 113—14 ; stage s o f discus sion of , 100—101 ; summary , 2 1 5 ; suspi cious hermeneutic s in , 104 . See also Cer vantes, Migue l de ; Psychoanalysis ; Romance; Satir e "Dora" (Freud' s patient) , 4 8 Dostoyevsky, Fyodor , 9 5 ; Freu d on , 23 4 n . 54; paranoi a o f hi s Undergroun d Man , 2 Einstein, Albert , 19 8 Eissler, K . R. , o n Freud' s righ t t o cruelty , 61-62 Eliade, Mircea , psychoanalysi s an d ritual , 230-31 n . 2 3 Ellenberger, Henri , pre-psychoanalyti c ther apies, 2 2 8 n . 1 0 Ellison, Ralph , 2 Emerson, Ralp h Waldo , o n societ y a s con spiracy, 1 Erasmus, Desiderius : an d Cervantes , 124 ; comparison o f satiri c perspectiv e wit h Freud's, 9 7 - 9 8 , 132 , 166 , 2 0 3 , 2 4 0 n . 2. See also Narcissism ; Satir e Esterson, Allen , o n Freud' s sens e o f perse cution, 2 3 4 n . 5 0 Existentialism, i n readin g o f Don Quixote, 10-11

"Family R o m a n c e s , " 1 7 - 1 8 , 1 1 7 - 1 9 ; Freud's own , 1 5 9 - 6 0 . See also Romanc e Faust (Goethe) , 16 , 9 9 , 164 , 1 8 3 - 8 5 Ferenczi, Sandor , 5 1 ; on ennoblin g powe r o f psychoanalysis, 1 9 0 - 9 1 ; an d th e occult , 235 n . 5 9 ; relation s wit h Freud , 1 9 0 - 9 3 Feuerbach, Ludwig , 6 7 , 7 6 Fielding, Henry , Tom Jones, 9 8 , 14 6 Fliess, Wilhelm , 2 8 , 5 7 - 5 8 , 9 8 , 120 , 136 , 151, 1 5 5 - 5 6 , 2 3 5 n . 6 7 ; psychologica l influence o n Freud , 1 8 9 - 9 3 , 2 3 0 n . 2 0 "Formulations o n th e Tw o Principle s o f Men tal Functioning, " 2 4 - 2 6 France, Anatole , 9 8 Frazer, Si r James , o n animis m (quote d b y Freud), 1 9 - 2 0 Freud, Sigmund : adolescen t cul t o f Cervan tes, 9 9 - 1 0 0 , 2 4 1 - 4 2 nn . 13,14 , 243 n . 2 0 ; anticipate d b y Bacon , 7 0 - 7 3 , 75; associatio n o f acceptanc e o f psycho analysis wit h maturity , 2 3 3 n . 4 4 ; atti tude towar d Jung , 2 3 4 n . 5 0 ; author' s atti tude toward , 2 1 1 ; capacity t o absor b precursors, 6 7 ; an d Carlyle , 9 8 , 2 4 0 41 n . 8 ; cocain e addiction , 5—7 , 4 2 , 2 2 9 - 3 0 n . 7 ; an d Comte , 2 3 9 n . 3 7 ; con scious idea s portraye d a s unconscious , 157—58, 160 ; contemp t fo r humanity , 59 ; correspondence wit h Jun g abou t Schreber, 1 8 7 - 8 9 ; an d Dante , 137 , 2 0 7 ; death wishe s towar d Fliess , 2 3 5 n . 6 7 ; defensive us e o f theor y o f paranoia , 190 — 9 3 ; delusions , 5 5 , 2 5 3 n . 3 1 ; denial o f own altruism , 58—59 ; i n "Drea m o f Irma's Injection, " 149—51 ; i n "Drea m o f Otto's Illness, " 1 4 5 - 4 8 ; i n "Drea m o f R o m e , " 1 5 2 - 5 3 ; duplicity , 2 4 9 n . 2 1 ; and England , 8 9 , 2 3 6 - 3 7 n . 6 ; epistemo logical suspicion , 77—83 ; an d Erasmus , 9 8 , 24 0 n . 2 ; fait h i n science , 54 ; 'famil y romance' of , 118—19 ; favorite authors , 9 8 - 9 9 ; fea r o f a successfu l Quixote , 1 6 3 - 6 4 ; an d Goethe , 9 9 , 24 1 n . 1 1 ; grandiosity an d heroi c identifications , 5 0 - 5 1 , 5 7 , 23 1 nn . 2 4 , 2 7 , 2 4 9 50 n . 2 8 ; an d Heine , 9 8 - 9 9 , 2 4 1 n . 9 ; historical suspicion , 83—89 ; an d Hobbes , 9 0 , 9 2 - 9 4 ; homoeroti c impulses , 192 ; hostile us e o f diagnosi s o f paranoia , 57 —

Index • 26 9 58; hostil e vie w o f society , 49—50 ; identi fication wit h Gulliver , Gargantua , an d Hercules, 152—53 ; identification wit h Hannibal, 158—61 ; identificatio n wit h Ju lius Caesar , 155—57 ; identificatio n wit h Oedipus, 130 , 2 4 6 n . 52 ; inabilit y t o li e because o f psychoanalysis , 6 7 ; infatua tion wit h Schrebe r an d it s sources , 180 , 1 8 9 - 9 3 , 219 ; sens e o f inferiority , 5 1 - 5 2 ; intensity o f commitmen t t o psychoanalyti c doctrine, 198 ; Jewish identity , 1 1 8 - 1 9 , 1 5 8 - 6 1 , 22 7 n . 5 , 2 5 0 n . 2 9 ; material ism o f hi s teachers , 76 ; methodologica l suspicion and , 69—77 ; misdiagnosi s o f hysteria, 23 4 n . 54 ; misreadin g o f Oedipus the King, 1 2 8 - 3 0 ; monopolizin g o f psychoanalytic women , 235—3 6 n . 74 ; myth o f discover y o f psychoanalysis , 62 — 6 4 ; i n " 'Non vixit* Dream, " 155—56 ; an d the occult , 2 3 5 n . 5 9 ; theor y o f paranoia , 2—4, 11—13 ; paranoi a an d satiri c metho d in treatmen t o f Ran k an d Deutsch , 8—9 ; permissiveness toward , withi n psychoana lytic movement , 60—62 ; persecutio n b y numbers, 5 5 - 5 6 , 2 3 4 - 3 5 n . 56 ; person ality reflecte d i n exclusivenes s o f psycho analytic movement , 52—53 , 232—3 3 n . 4 0 ; plac e i n modernity , 66—67 ; politica l imagination i n "Drea m o f 1 8 4 8 , " 161 — 6 4 ; an d politica l suspicion , 89—94 ; an d politics, 9 0 ; a s prima l father , 5 8 - 6 5 , 2 3 5 - 3 6 n . 74 ; professiona l ambition , 1 6 2 - 6 3 , 2 4 9 n . 18 ; projection s i n psy choanalysis, 43—46 ; psychologica l influ ence o f Flies s upon , 1 8 9 - 9 3 , 2 3 0 n . 2 0 ; Quixotic appeal , 2 1 6 , 2 2 1 - 2 2 ; Quixoti c megalomania in , 1 5 0 - 5 3 ; Quixotis m wit h regard t o Schreber , 192—94 ; readin g o f Macaulay, 68—69 ; relation s wit h Feren czi, 1 9 0 - 9 3 ; a s rhetorician , 4 4 - 4 5 , 1 8 6 - 8 7 ; Romanti c vie w o f Don Quixote, 1 3 5 - 3 6 ; a s satirist , 4 - 5 , 9 6 - 9 8 , 1 1 3 14, 116 , 1 2 1 - 2 3 , 1 5 0 - 5 3 , 164 ; self-por trayal, 3 - 4 , 6 4 , 1 3 1 - 3 2 ; sens e o f rivalr y with Schnitzler , 5 5 ; "sexua l protestant, " 227 n . 5 ; socia l motive s o f writin g o n wit , 121; source s o f megalomani a of , 154—58 ; and Sterne , 9 8 , 24 0 n . 4 ; subjec t fo r later analysts , 5 7 , 1 4 8 - 4 9 ; an d suicid e

of Vikto r Tausk , 5 9 - 6 1 ; summar y o f gen eral argumen t about , 2 1 3 - 1 6 ; suspicio n of colleague s an d nee d t o dominate , 54 — 57, 2 3 3 n . 4 2 ; an d Swift , 9 8 - 9 9 , 2 4 0 n . 3 , 24 1 n . 10 ; "traumati c hyperaesthesi a toward dwindlin g correspondence, " 2 5 3 n . 3 1 ; use o f colleague s a s "projec tion objects, " 56 ; us e o f ow n dream s i n The Interpretation of Dreams, 1 4 1 . Se e also Don Quixote; Esterson , Allen ; Nar cissism; Paranoia ; Psychoanalysis ; Ro mance; Satire ; and titles of individual works Future of an Illusion, 8 9 Gassendi, Pierre , 7 6 Gellner, Ernest , 4 6 Gibbon, Edward , 8 5 , 2 3 8 n . 3 1 Goethe, Johan n Wolfgan g von . Se e Faust (Goethe) Gogol, Nicholai , 9 8 Gospel o f John , quote d ironicall y i n Totem and Taboo, 1 6 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the

Ego, 5 8

Griinbaum, Adolf : o n circularit y o f clinica l validations o f psychoanalysis , 3 2 ; o n Freud's geneti c fallacy , 2 2 8 - 2 9 n . 15 Guattari, Felix , an d Gille s Deleuze , AntiOedipus, 2 0 0 - 2 0 2 Haeckel, Ernst , historica l recapitulatio n theory in , 8 6 Hamlet: literar y self-consciousnes s in , 125 — 2 8 ; a s mode l o f psychoanalyti c rhetoric , 128; philosophica l contex t of , 125 ; a s symptom o f modernity , 115—16 , 124—25 . See als o Oedipus the King Hannibal, Freud' s identificatio n with , 158 — 61 Harte, Bret , 9 8 Hegel, Geor g Wolfgan g von , 6 8 ; dialecti c of, an d psychoanalysis , 8 8 - 8 9 ; historica l recapitulation theor y in , 85—8 6 Heidegger, Martin , 21 1 Heine, Heinrich , 4 6 , 9 8 - 9 9 , 24 1 n . 9 Heller, Joseph , 2 Hemingway, Ernest , 1

270 • Index Hermeneutics o f suspicion, 208—11 ; antidote to, 210-1 1 Herzl, Theodor , 16 3 Hitler, Adolf : paranoid symptoms , 11 , 220; as a successful Quixote , 163—64 , 220— 21 Hobbes, Thomas , 1 , 68 , 76 , 95 , 211; political though t of , 90-9 4 Hoffmann, E . T . A. , delusion s o f persecu tion, 1 Huarte d e Sa n Juan, Juan , Examen de Ingenios, 12 4 Humanist historica l methodology , 6 8 Hume, David , 36 , 68 , 77 , 83 ; anticipation of Freud, 7 9 Hyman, Stanle y Edgar , 15 2 Ibsen, Henrik , 1 , 2 Interpretation of Dreams, The, 50, 99 , 101 , 119, 121 , 131-66 , 215 ; "Dream of 1848," 161-64 ; "Drea m o f Irma's Injec tion," 149-51 ; "Drea m o f Italy," 152 54; "Dream o f Otto's Illness, " 145-48 , 161-64; "Dream o f Rome," 158-61 ; ego tism o f dreams, 81 ; Freud's identificatio n with Julius Caesar , 155—57 ; Freud's liter ary megalomani a in , 150-53 ; lay opinio n about dreams , 140 ; Romantic structur e of and th e 'uncanny' , 164—65 ; satire an d the 'uncanny' in , 136—37 ; sources o f hi s megalomania accordin g t o Freud in , 154—55; theory o f dream interpretation , 141-49, 24 8 n . 13 ; title of , 138 ; value of dreams, 138—141 ; wit i n dreams, 120 , 244-45 n . 34 . Se e also Don Quixote; Psychoanalysis; Romance; Romanticism ; Satire James, Henry , Napoleoni c delusions , 1 James, William , 21 1 Jones, Ernest , 52 , 56 , 58 , 197 ; psychoanalytic compliment, 23 4 n . 5 2 Joyce, James, an d paranoi a o f Stephen Dae dalus, 2 Jung, Carl , 51—52 , 197 ; attractiveness t o Freud, 192 ; correspondence wit h Freu d about Schreber , 187-89 ; Freu d o n expul sion of, fro m psychoanalyti c movement , 234 n . 50 ; protest abou t hostil e psychoan -

alytic diagnosis , 23 3 n . 47 . See also Schreber, Danie l Pau l Kafka, Franz , 2 Kant, Immanuel , 68 , 76 , 79-83 , 85 , 88 , 138, 164 , 23 8 n . 29 ; "What I s Enlighten ment," 8 5 Kemp, Anthony , o n Protestan t historica l consciousness, 23 8 n . 3 1 Kerr, John , o n term 'movement', 23 3 n . 43 Kesey, Ken , 2 Kyd, Thomas, The Spanish Tragedy, 12 8 Lamarckian evolution , 2 8 La Mettrie, Julie n Offra y de , UHomme machine, 7 6 Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood, satiric metho d in , 121-23 . See also Freud, Sigmund ; da Vinci, Leo nardo Levin, Harry , o n Hamlet, 12 6 Levi-Strauss, Tristes Tropiques, 21 9 Lichtenberg, Geor g Christoph, 9 8 Locke, John, 36 , 68 , 134 , 211 ; An Essay concerning Human Understanding, 78 , 237 n . 24 ; philosophical an d politica l mo tives of, 77-7 9 Lucien, Ric o Julien Marie , 217-2 1 Macaulay, Thoma s Babington , essa y o n Bacon, 68-6 9 Maclntyre, Alasdair , 211 ; on "natura l man," 239 n . 4 1 Mailer, Norman , 2 Malinowski, Bronislaw , 19 5 Malthus, Thomas , 9 0 Mann, Thomas , 6 6 Marx, Karl : concept o f the proletariat , 92 ; suspicious hermeneutics , 2 , 67 , 76 , 95, 210 Maupassant, Gu y de, 1 McGrath, Willia m J. , 249-5 0 nn . 28 , 3 4 Meissner, W . W. , o n paranoia an d norma l thinking, 195-200 , 253-5 4 n . 37 ; on Schreber, 195-96 , 19 9 Melville, Herman , 2 Modernity: allegorically figured i n psycho analysis, 94 ; of Bacon, 211 ; connection

Index • 27 1 with paranoia , 1—4 , 33—36 , 4 2 , 6 5 , 2 0 2 - 4 , 2 1 3 ; critic s of , 2 1 1 - 1 2 ; Don Quixote a s sympto m of , 6 9 , 123 ; epistemolog ical suspicio n in , 7 7 - 8 3 ; Freud' s plac e in, 66—67 ; Hamlet a s sympto m of , 115 — 16, 1 2 4 - 2 5 ; historica l suspicio n in , 8 3 89; methodologica l suspicio n in , 69—77 ; political suspicio n in , 89—94 ; an d prima l father, 2 7 ; psychologica l impac t of , 6 , 2 7 , 3 1 - 3 4 , 22 6 nn . 3 1 , 3 5 . See also Re ality principle ; Repression ; Scienc e Montaigne, Miche l d e , Pyrrhonis m of , 12 5 Napoleon, 1 , 5 1 , 13 8 Narcissism: an d animism , 186 ; an d charac ter Do n Quixote , 13 , 1 0 1 - 8 , 1 1 3 - 1 7 , 128, 135—36 ; concept anticipate d b y Bacon, 69—72 ; concept a s opportunit y fo r projection, 4 3 ; concept's us e i n psycho analysis, 1 1 - 1 3 , 3 4 - 3 5 , 4 4 - 4 5 ; an d ego libido, 2 2 6 n . 2 9 ; an d Erasmia n Folly , 9 7 - 9 8 ; o f Freudia n theory , 2 8 ; Freud' s display of , 6 7 ; i n Hobbes , 9 0 ; i n huma n bio-history, 11—21 ; an d love , 135 ; i n mo dernity, 2 7 ; i n origin s o f paranoia , 6 , 1 8 0 - 8 2 ; o f prima l father , 1 4 - 1 5 ; rang e o f narcissistic type s i n Don Quixote, 24 4 n . 2 9 ; an d reductionism , 3 7 - 7 0 ; an d reli gion, 133 ; repressed, 1 1 - 1 3 , 9 3 - 9 4 ; re pression of , i n Don Quixote, 1 2 3 - 2 4 , 189; o f scientist , 49—50 ; and 'uncanny' , 1 2 - 1 3 ; an d 'unconscious' , 8 2 - 8 3 ; an d Vico, 8 4 ; an d passim . See also d a Vinci , Leonardo; Hegel , Geor g Wolfgan g von ; Pleasure principle ; Romanc e Newton, Isaac , 3 2 Nietzsche, Friedrich , 34 , 6 0 , 6 5 , 6 7 , 2 1 0 , 2 2 1 ; concep t o f th e 'superman' , 15 , 9 2 ; paranoid characteristics , 1 , 2 ; reduc tionism, 3 8 Novalis, 1 3 8 - 3 9 Nozze di Figaro, he (Mozart) , 16 1 "Obsessive Action s an d Religiou s Prac tices," 9 8 Oedipus complex , historica l origin s of , 13 — 14, 1 6 - 1 8 Oedipus the King: Freud' s identificatio n wit h hero, 5 1 , 5 9 , 130 ; an d Hamlet, 1 2 4 - 2 5 ;

motivation of , 128—30 ; an d Peloponne sian War , 1 2 9 - 3 0 On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement, 5 6 - 5 7 . Se e als o Oedipus the King; Paranoia Orlando Furioso (Ariosto) , 11 0 Paranoia: antidot e to , 2 0 0 , 2 1 0 - 1 1 ; an d art, 26—27 ; a s caricatur e o f philosophica l system, 2 3 ; i n Cervantes ' "Licentiat e o f Glass," 2 4 5 n . 4 5 ; char m of , 1 1 - 1 3 , 1 3 3 - 3 6 , 1 6 8 - 6 9 , 180 , 187 , 1 8 9 - 9 4 , 215—21, 23 0 n . 14 ; a s communicabl e disease, 4 4 ; contemporar y thinkin g on , 4 1 , 25 4 n . 4 1 ; cultural variatio n in , 254 n . 4 4 ; diagnosi s of , a s hostil e rhetori cal instrument , 5 7 - 5 8 ; i n Don Quixote, 10—11, 10 1 — 14; an d drea m interpreta tion, 141—45 ; and dreams , 139 ; an d Faust, 1 8 2 - 8 5 ; Freud' s analysi s of , a s ap plied t o Schreber , 179—87 ; Freud' s iden tification with , 5 1 , 57—59 , 130 ; homosex ual motive s in , 104—5 ; hysterica l paranoia, 189 ; insightfulnes s of , 47—48 ; and moder n politica l philosophy , 9 4 ; an d modernity, 1-4 , 3 1 , 3 3 - 3 6 , 4 2 , 6 5 , 2 0 2 - 4 , 2 1 3 ; an d Oedipus , 1 2 8 - 3 0 ; an d reductive logic , 31—40 , 169 ; relatio n t o sanity, 6 - 7 , 114 , 1 6 7 - 6 9 , 1 9 5 - 2 0 0 ; an d religion, 2 - 3 , 3 2 , 1 9 5 - 9 6 , 199 ; an d ro mance, 115 ; an d Romanticism , 134—35 ; vs. schizophrenia , 201—2 ; i n Schrebe r case, 1 7 0 - 7 9 ; summar y o f genera l argu ment about , 213—16 ; symptom s of , 11 — 13, 4 2 - 4 3 , 2 2 9 n . 3 ; tentativenes s o f Freud's essa y on , 25 2 n . 16 ; theor y of , a s defense fo r Freud , 190—93 ; use o f ter m and it s self-fulfillin g dynamic , 7 , 6 4 - 6 5 , 224 n . 3 ; i n Viennes e politica l atmo sphere, 144—45 ; and passim . Se e als o Don Quixote; Freud , Sigmund ; Herme neutics o f suspicion ; Hitler , Adolf ; Meis sner, W . W . ; Narcissism ; Nietzsche , Friedrich; Pleasur e principle ; Prima l fa ther; Psychoanalysis ; Realit y principle ; Romance; Romanticism ; Satire ; Suspicio n Parker, Blanford , motive s o f Augustanism , 238 n . 2 5 Pfister, Oskar , 188 , 22 7 n . 5

272 • Index Picasso, Pablo , 13 5 Plato, concep t o f Eros , 3 5 Pleasure principle : concep t of , 24—26 ; a s historical concept , 3 1 , 2 1 6 ; surviva l a s art i n modernity , 2 5 - 2 7 Popular an d elit e culture , 109—1 1 Primal father : Darwi n on , 14 , 8 4 ; an d hi s family, 1 4 - 1 6 ; Freu d as , 5 8 - 6 5 , 2 3 5 3 6 n . 74 ; mora l solitud e of , 9 2 ; murde r of, 1 6 - 1 7 ; narcissis m of , 1 4 - 1 5 ; respect able heterosexua l patriarch y of , 2 2 5 n . 12; surviva l i n modernity , 2 7 Projection, concep t of , 3 1 , 3 6 Prometheus, myt h o f sexua l repression , 2 4 , 153 Psychoanalysis: adaptatio n o f Kant , 8 0 - 8 3 ; as allegor y o f modernity , 9 4 ; 'ana l erot ism', 2 0 6 ; animism , 1 9 - 2 1 ; applicatio n to philosophy , 38—39 ; applie d t o Freu d by late r analysts , 1 4 8 - 4 9 ; author' s as sessment of , 2 1 2 ; an d avant-garde , 53 — 54, 166 ; censorshi p in , 1 4 1 - 4 5 , 2 4 8 4 9 nn . 15 , 16 ; circularit y o f bio-histori cal theory , 31—32 ; concep t o f projection , 2 3 8 n . 2 7 ; concep t o f psychi c energ y in , 7 6 - 7 7 ; de-historicizin g of , b y late r ana lysts, 13 , 2 8 - 2 9 ; divisivenes s of , 5 4 , 5 7 ; dream interpretatio n in , 1 4 1 - 4 9 , 2 4 8 n . 13; an d epistemologica l suspicion , 77 — 8 3 ; an d Erasmia n satire , 9 7 - 9 8 ; a s ex pression o f Freud' s paranoi d personality , 4 3 - 6 4 ; 'famil y romance ' in , 1 7 - 1 8 , 1 1 7 - 1 9 ; th e first epi c poet , 1 7 - 1 8 ; th e first epi c poe t compare d wit h th e moder n artist, 26 ; Freud' s accoun t o f discover y of, 62—64 ; grandiosit y an d heroi c stanc e of, 33—34 , 50—51 ; an d Hegelia n dialec tic, 8 8 - 8 9 ; o n heroi c fantas y an d popula r romance, 2 6 ; historica l origin s o f para noia accordin g to , 14 ; historica l recapitu lation theor y in , 8 6 - 8 8 ; an d historica l suspicion, 8 3 - 8 9 ; hostilit y in , 4 8 - 5 0 ; and hypnotism , 2 3 3 n . 4 3 ; influenc e o f Hamlet on , 128 ; influenc e o f Roussea u on, 8 5 ; institutiona l exclusivenes s of , 5 2 - 5 3 , 23 2 nn . 3 5 , 3 6 ; o n Leonard o d a Vinci, 2 1 - 2 2 , 2 2 9 n . 15 ; th e libidina l economy o f socia l imagination , 1 8 - 1 9 ; i n literary criticism , 2 0 9 , 2 1 2 ; mora l soli tude o f th e prima l father , 9 2 ; Mose s an d

Ikhnaton, 18 , 2 1 ; murder o f th e prima l fa ther, 16—17 ; myt h o f resistanc e to , 45 — 4 6 , 52—53 ; narrativ e o f huma n bio-his tory in , 13—24 ; objections fro m th e poin t of vie w of , 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 0 4 - 1 2 ; origin s o f re ligion, 2 1 ; as paranoi d cult , 197 ; on 'plea sure principle ' an d 'principl e o f reality' , 2 4 - 2 6 , 3 1 ; precursors o f psychotherapy , 2 2 8 n . 10 , 2 3 0 n . 2 3 ; prefigure d i n th e Academie Espafiola , 9 9 - 1 0 0 ; th e prima l father an d hi s family , 14—16 ; and prob lem o f suggestion , 4 5 ; a s projection , 43 — 46; 'projection ' an d th e 'omnipotenc e o f thoughts', 19—21 ; o n psycholog y o f art , 25—27; o n psycholog y o f modernity , 21 — 27; reductionis m in , 3 7 - 4 0 ; redundanc y of, applie d t o Don Quixote, 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 116 ; relation o f observatio n an d explanation , 205—6; o n relation s o f paranoia , science , and ar t i n moder n psychology , 2 6 - 2 7 ; a s romance, 5 9 , 8 6 , 96—97 ; satiri c charac ter an d metho d of , 4 - 5 , 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 116 , 1 1 9 - 2 3 , 164 , 194 , 2 1 4 - 1 5 ; satiri c in fluence o n subsequen t psychology , 196 ; and Schreber' s "basi c language, " 188 ; and Schreber' s system , 1 8 5 - 8 6 ; a s sci ence, 2 0 6 - 8 ; scienc e an d histor y in , 8 8 8 9 ; o n scientist' s plac e i n cultura l his tory, 2 2 , 29—31 ; sens e of'centrality ' in , 5 3 ; concep t o f sexuality , 1 1 9 - 2 0 ; stage s of discussio n of , 4—5 ; and stereotype s o f Jews, 2 4 3 n . 2 8 , 2 4 5 n . 3 7 ; summar y o f general argumen t about , 2 1 3 - 1 6 ; suspi cious hermeneutic s of , 8—9 , 4 0 , 44—50 , 1 3 1 - 3 2 , 2 0 8 - 1 0 ; theor y o f wi t in , 13 , 119—21; tragedy , 18 ; trainin g analysis , 232 n . 3 8 ; 'uncanny ' in , 13 , 133—36 , 1 6 4 - 6 5 , 2 2 4 - 2 5 n . 6 ; weaknes s o f evi dential claims , 5 , 3 2 . See also Freud , Sig mund; Narcissism ; Paranoia ; Pleasur e principle; Prima l father ; Realit y princi ple; Reductionism ; Satir e Psychoanalytic compliment , 5 5 , 23 4 n . 5 2 "Psycho-Analytic Note s o n a n Autobiograph ical Accoun t o f a Cas e o f Paranoi a (De mentia Paranoides), " 1 8 0 - 8 7 , 25 2 n . 1 6 The Psycho-Pathology of Everyday Life, 46 — 47, 5 4 Putnam, Jame s Jackson , 5 8 Pynchon, Thomas , 2 , 2 1 9 , 25 2 n . 1 9

Index • 27 3 Rabelais, Francois , urinatin g an d megalo mania i n Gargantua and Pantagruel, 24 , 99, 152-5 4 Rank, Otto , relation s with Freud , 8 ; theor y of'family romance' , 17-18 , 117-1 8 "Rat Man " (Freud's patient) , 2 0 Reality principle : concept of , 24-25 ; as historical concept, 31 , 216; and repression , 33-34, 97 ; and science , 25-2 7 Reductionism: logi c of , 37—38 ; and para noia, 169 ; of psychoanalysis, 34-36 , 228-29 n . 15 ; self-inclusiveness of , 116—17, 213. See also Scienc e Religion: Christianity a s son-religion , 22 5 n. 21 ; Freud a s "sexual protestant, " 227 n . 5 ; historical origin s of, 16—19 , 29, 22 5 n . 21 ; and narcissism , 133 ; as object o f Freudian satire , 96-97 , 1 2 1 23; an d origin s o f modern suspicion , 67— 68; as protection agains t neurosis , 23 ; Protestantism, 68 ; relation t o paranoia , 2 - 3 , 32 , 195-96 , 199 ; repression of , 29-30, 89 , 22 7 n . 5 ; Romantic vie w of , 133; and Schreber , 172-73 , 176-79 ; and science , 32—34 , 213; and scientifi c rhetoric, 72—73 , 76 ; as target o f Lockea n empiricism, 78—7 9 Repression: concep t of , 35—36 ; in Don Quixote, 123-24 , 189 ; heroism of , 23-24 ; and realit y principle , 33—34 ; of religio n by science, 29-30 , 33-34 ; an d sexual ity, 22 6 n . 31 ; and passim . See also Modernity; Prometheus ; Realit y principle ; Satire Ricoeur, Paul , "hermeneutic s o f suspicion, " 210 Rieff, Philip , o n Freud' s measur e o f health , 239 n . 4 3 Rilke, Raine r Maria , 6 0 Roazen, Paul , 8 , 59-6 0 Rochefoucauld, Du e de la , 9 5 Romance: in Baconia n rhetoric , 73—74 ; in books of chivalry, 114—17 ; Cervantes's attitude toward , 123-24 ; i n Dante , 137 ; in Dant e an d Freud , 207 ; in Don Quixote and psychoanalysis , 215-16 ; internalize d in Don Quixote, 111 ; naive an d sophisti cated, 109-13 ; narcissism of , 115 ; and paranoia, 4 - 5 , 7 , 26 ; psychoanalysis as , 59, 86 , 96-97 ; repression of , i n Don Qui-

xote, 123—24 ; in structure of The Interpretation of Dreams, 131-66 ; and th e 'un canny' i n structure of The Interpretation of Dreams, 133—36 , 164—65 . See also Art; Satir e Romanticism: aspec t o f the Committee , 52 , 59, 232-3 3 n . 40 ; in biology , 28 ; historicism of, 89 ; Naturphilosophie, 96; and paranoia, 134-35 , 215-16 ; i n psycho analysis, 216 ; Quixotism o f replayed to ward Freud , 148 ; in readin g of Don Quixote, 10—11 , 132—35 , 166 ; in Totem and Taboo, 183; in title Traumdeutung, 138; view of dreams, 139—41 ; view of religion , 133. Se e also Faust (Goethe) ; Rousseau , Jean-Jacques; Schelling, Friedric h Wil helm Josep h Rorty, Richard , 211 , 255 n . 4 6 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques , 65 , 68, 95; Confessions, 1 ; cultural impac t of , 132 ; as first honest man , 67 ; and freedom , 91 ; historical thinkin g of, 85 ; persecutio n complex, 1 ; Reveries of a Solitary Walker, 1; Rousseau, Judge of Jean-Jacques, 1 Roustang, Francois , 23 5 n . 7 3 Sachs, Hanns , 22 6 n . 2 3 Salome, Lou-Andreas , o n Tausk's suicide , 60, 23 6 n . 7 9 Sass, Loui s A. , o n normal vs . abnorma l thinking, 253—5 4 n . 37 ; on schizophre nia and modernism , 6 , 22 4 n . 8 Satire: in Bacon, 124 ; and concep t of sexuality, 119-20 ; i n conflatio n o f normalit y with insanity , 6—7 ; in dreams , 150 , 162— 64, 24 9 n . 22 ; in Freu d an d Cervantes , 132; in Freud' s essa y o n Schreber, 180 , 186-89, 194 ; in Freud' s treatment o f Leonardo, 121—23 ; in psychoanalysis , 4 , 116, 119-23 , 164 , 194 , 214-15 ; in Schreber's delusions , 25 3 n . 20 ; self-in clusiveness of , 116-17 , 243-4 4 n . 28 ; social motive s i n Don Quixote, 108—13; summary, 215 ; in Swift an d Freud , 98— 99, 24 0 n . 2 ; and th e 'uncanny' i n The Interpretation of Dreams, 136—37 , 139 . See also Burton, Robert ; Carlyle , Thomas ; Cervantes, Migue l de; Don Quixote; Erasmus, Desiderius ; Fielding, Henry ; France, Anatole ; Freud, Sigmund ;

274 • Index Satire (Continued) Goethe, Johan n Wolgan g von; Gogol, Ni cholai; Harte, Bret ; Heine, Heinrich ; Hu arte de Sa n Juan, Juan ; The Interpretation of Dreams; Lichtenberg, Geor g Christoph ; Rabelais, Francois ; Rochefoucauld , Du e de la ; Shaw, Georg e Bernard ; Sterne , Laurence; Swift, Jonathan ; Twain, Mark ; Voltaire; Wit Schelling, Friedric h Wilhel m Joseph , 134 , 140; on the 'uncanny' , 13 6 Schiller, Friedrich , 15 7 Schizophrenia, vs . paranoia , 201- 2 Schnitzler, Arthur , 5 5 Schopenhauer, Arthur , 1 , 67, 13 8 Schorske, Car l E. , 173 ; Freud an d libera l politics, 250-5 1 nn . 35 , 3 6 Schreber, Danie l Paul , 5 , 169 , 220-21 ; Darwinism, 175 ; Deleuze an d Guattar i on, 200—202 ; in Freud/Jun g correspon dence, 187—89 ; Freud's analysi s of , 179-87; Freud' s Quixoti c infatuatio n with, 180 , 192-94 , 219 ; an d Gulliver , 173; legal defens e of , 176—79 ; life afte r release, 25 1 n . 8 ; Meissne r on , 195-96 , 199; Memoirs of My Nervous Illness, 171— 72, 179 ; and Quixote , 171 , 174 , 187 ; relations with father, 25 1 n . 12 ; and reli gion, 172-73 ; Sass on , 253-5 4 n . 37 ; satire i n delusions, 25 3 n . 20 ; symptom s of mental illness , 170—76 . See also Freud, Sigmund ; Paranoia; Psychoanaly sis; Religion; Scienc e Science: Bacon's suspiciou s methodolog y of , 69-76; a s crusade o f repression, 29-30 ; Freud's faith in , 54 ; Freud's personifie d abstraction of , 30 ; generalization in , 116 ; heroism of , 34 ; and histor y i n psychoanal ysis, 88—89 ; materialism, 76—77 ; psychological an d cultura l impac t of , accordin g to Freud, 21-27 , 29-32 ; and realit y prin ciple, 25-27 ; relatio n o f Don Quixote to, 123-24; an d religion , 32-34 , 72-73 , 76, 213 . See also Freud, Sigmund ; Para noia; Psychoanalysi s Sexuality, concep t of , 119—20 ; and repres sion, 22 6 n . 31 , 239 n . 4 3 Shakespeare, romance s of , 12 3 Shaw, Georg e Bernard , 13 5

Silberstein, Eduard , 99-100 , 18 8 Socrates, 20 3 Stendhal (pseudony m o f Marie-Henr i Beyle), 1 , 2 , 9 5 Sterne, Laurence , Tristram Shandy, 98 , 240 n . 4 Strindberg, August , grandiosit y an d perse cution complex , 1 Sullivan, Harr y Stack , 'paranoi d slant' , 229 n . 3 Suspicion: o f Bacon, 69-77 , 80 , 81 , 8 384, 86 , 95 ; in Don Quixote, 104 ; epistemological suspicion , 77-83 ; Freud' s sus picion o f colleagues an d nee d t o dominate, 54-57 , 23 3 n . 42 ; in hermeneutic s of psychoanalysis, 8-9 , 40 , 44-50 , 131—32, 208—10; hermeneutics o f suspi cion, 208-11 ; i n historica l thinking , 8 3 89; histor y of , 67—68 ; in scientific meth odology, 69—77 Swales, Peter , o n Freu d an d Fliess , 23 0 n . 20 Swanson, David , 42-4 3 Swift, Jonathan , 95 ; and Freudia n satire , 98-99, 24 0 n . 3 , 24 1 n . 10 ; Gulliver and Schreber , 173 ; Gulliver's urinatin g and megalomania , 24 , 99 , 152-53 , 241 n . 10 ; 'The Mechanica l Operation s of the Spirit," 98; paranoia o f Gulliver, 2 Tausk, Viktor , Freu d an d hi s suicide , 5 9 61 Taylor, Charles , 21 1 Temple, Shirley , 218 , 220-2 1 Thornton, E . M. , o n diagnosis o f hysteria , 234 n . 54 ; on Freud' s cocain e addictio n as cause o f paranoia, 5-7 , 42 , 2 2 9 30 n . 7 , 23 3 n . 4 2 Totem and Taboo, 16 , 102-3 , 183 , 2 3 5 36 n . 7 4 Twain, Mark , 9 8 Unamuno, Migue l de, 10 5 'Uncanny', 13 , 224-25 n . 6; in The Interpretation of Dreams, 133-37 , 150-51 , 158 , 164-66, 224-2 5 n . 6 , 24 7 nn . 5 , 6 ; Schelling on, 136 . See also Narcissism; Romance; Romanticism; 'Unconscious' 'Unconscious': dramatis persona e of , 95 ,

Index • 27 5 216; and dreams , 141—66 ; fictitiousness of, 205 , 214; Freud's consciou s idea s por trayed as , 157—58 , 160 ; and homosexua l motives of paranoia, 191 ; and Kantia n transcendentalism, 80—83 , 164—65 ; and literary reenactmen t i n The Interpretation of Dreams, 132-66 ; mode s of expressio n in Freud' s dreams , 151 ; suspicious dis covery of, 9 , 47—50 , 54; vulgarity in , 114, 120 . See also Narcissism; Paranoia ; Pleasure principle ; Satire; Suspicion; 'Un canny'

Valla, Lorenzo , 6 8 Vico, Giambattista , The New Science, 8 4 Virgil, 50 , 137 , 16 4 Voltaire, 9 5 Wagner, Richard , 6 6 Wallace, Alfre d Russell , 2 2 Welsh, Alexander , 24 6 n . 1 Wit: in dreams, 120 , 244-45 n . 34 ; psychoanalytic theor y of , 119-2 1 Wittgenstein, Ludwig , 211 , 253-5 4 "Wolf Man " (Freud's patient) , 4 8