“Follow the Wise”: Studies in Jewish History and Culture in Honor of Lee I. Levine 9781575066257

Citation preview

“Follow the Wise”

Lee I. Levine

“Follow the Wise” Studies in Jewish History and Culture in Honor of Lee I. Levine

Edited by

Zeev Weiss, Oded Irshai, Jodi Magness, and Seth Schwartz

Published for The Jewish Theological Seminary of America and The Hebrew University of Jerusalem by

Eisenbrauns

Winona Lake, Indiana 2010

© 2010 by Eisenbrauns Inc. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America www.eisenbrauns.com

Acknowledgments The volume editors are grateful to the copy editors for their assistance: Israel Ronen (Hebrew essays), Bev McCoy (English essays; Eisenbrauns), Hani Davis (Hebrew and English essays), and Alan Cooper, provost of the Jewish Theological Seminary and editor of JTS Press, for seeing this volume through every stage of the production process. The publication of this volume was made possible thanks to the generous support of the Ruth and David Amiran Foundation at the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and the Ben Zion Dinur Center for Research in the History of the Jewish People at the Mandel Institute for Jewish Studies of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data “Follow the Wise” : studies in Jewish history and culture in honor of Lee I. Levine / edited by Zeev Weiss . . . [et al.].    p.  cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-57506-200-6 (hardback : alk. paper) 1.  Judaism—History—Post-exilic period, 586 b.c.–210 a.d.  2. Jews—History—586 b.c.–70 a.d.  3.  Rabbinical literature—History and criticism.  4.  Synagogues—Middle East—History. 5.  Palestine—Antiquities.  I.  Levine, Lee I.  II.  Weiss, Zeev, 1959– BM176.F65 2010 296.09′014—dc22 2010040186

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. †Ê

Contents Biography of Lee I. Levine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  ix Publications of Lee I. Levine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  xii Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv

Part 1 Hellenism, Christianity, and Judaism Hellenism and Judaism before and after World War II: Two Case Studies—A. D. Momigliano and E. J. Bickerman . . . . . . . .  3 Albert I. Baumgarten The Name of the Ruse: The Toss of a Ring to Save Life and Honor. . . . . . .  25 Shaye J. D. Cohen Jesus and the Galilean Am ha-Aretz: A Reconsideration of an Old Problem . .  37 Sean Freyne Hellenism and Judaism: Fluid Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  53 Erich S. Gruen Porphyry on Judaism: Some Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  71 Pieter W. van der Horst The Bishops of Sepphoris: Christianity and Synagogue Iconography in the Late Fourth and Early Fifth Centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  85 Hillel I. Newman The Humanistic Evaluation of Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 E. P. Sanders

Part 2 Art and Archaeology: Jerusalem and Galilee The Observance of Ritual Purity after 70 c.e.: A Reevaluation of the Evidence in Light of Recent Archaeological Discoveries . . . . . . . . . 121 David Amit and Yonatan Adler v

vi

Contents

The Tomb of Jason Reconsidered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Dan Barag  ‫ל‬′′‫ז‬ The Hippo-Stadium /Amphitheater in Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 Amos Kloner and Sherry Whetstone Aramaic Ostraca of the Late Second Temple Period from a Farmhouse North of Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Ronny Reich and Eli Shukron An “Encore” on the Bar Kochba Tetradrachm: A Re-vision of Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Elisheva Revel-Neher Burial Practices in Beth Sheʿarim and the Question of Dating the Patriarchal Necropolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Zeev Weiss

Part 3 The Rabbis Abbaye’s Family Origins: A Study in Rabbinic Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . .235 Aaron Demsky The Miracle of the Septuagint in Ancient Rabbinic and Christian Literature . 241 Richard Kalmin The Rabbinic Class Revisited: Rabbis as Judges in Later Roman Palestine . . . 255 Hayim Lapin Rabbis, Preachers, and Aggadists: An Aspect of Jewish Culture in Third- and Fourth-Century Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 David Levine Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi and Babylonia: Ties and Tensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Aharon Oppenheimer The Religious Orientation of Non-Rabbis in Second-Century Palestine: A Rabbinic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Adiel Schremer Martyrdom, the Middle Way, and Mediocrity (Genesis Rabbah 82:8) . . . . . . 343 Daniel R. Schwartz Sinai—Mountain and Desert: The Desert Geography and Theology of the Rabbis and Desert Fathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Joshua Schwartz Rabbinic and Roman Honor and Deference: Y. Berakot 5.1, 9a, and Y. Bikkurim 3.3, 65c–d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Seth Schwartz

Contents

vii

Part 4 The Ancient Synagogue The Dura-Europos Synagogue Wall Paintings: A Question of Origin and Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Rachel Hachlili Priests and Purity in the Dura-Europos Synagogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Jodi Magness The Problem of the Scarcity of Synagogues from 70 to ca. 250 c.e.: The Case of Synagogue 1 at Nabratein (2nd–3rd Century c.e.) . . . . . . 435 Eric M. Meyers The Synagogue as Foe in Early Christian Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Leonard V. Rutgers

Hebrew Section Part 1 Sages and Patriarchs Epistles of the Patriarchs in Talmudic Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3* Isaiah Gafni On Aggadic Midrashim: Formation, Editing, Survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11* Moshe David Herr

Part 2 Archaeology, Art, and Historical Geography Gader, Migdal Gader, Hammat Gader: Historical and Geographical Considerations in Interpreting a Talmudic Sugya in ʿErubin . . . . . . . 41* Motti Arad The Zodiac and Helios in the Synagogue: Between Paganism and Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63* Rina Talgam Was King Herod Indeed a Megalomaniac? In Light of Kasher and Witztum’s New Book, King Herod: A Persecuted Persecutor . . . . . . . . 81* Ehud Netzer Is “Bezer in the Wilderness” (Deut 4:43) Bozrah (Bostra, Roman Arabia)? On the Intricacies of a Rabbinic Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93* Oded Irshai

Biography of Lee I. Levine Lee Israel Levine was born on Feb. 1, 1939, in Bangor, Maine, to Rabbi Dr. Harry O. H. Levine and Irene R. Levine (née Ginsburgh). He attended the Akiba Academy in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and a public high school in Steubenville, Ohio, where his father served as a congregational rabbi. Summers were spent at Camp Ramah. Lee attended Columbia College in New York, majoring in philosophy. At the same time, he studied in the undergraduate program at the Jewish Theological Seminary, majoring in Talmud. He graduated from both institutions in 1961, earning a B.A. from Columbia and a B.H.L. in Talmud from JTS. In June 1961, he married Mira Karp of Buffalo, New York. Lee and Mira spent the 1959–60 academic year at Machon Greenberg (Hayyim Greenberg Institute for Teachers from the Diaspora) and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. From 1961 to 1965, Lee studied in the rabbinical program at the Jewish Theological Seminary with the distinguished rabbis and scholars Saul Lieberman, David Weiss Halivni, Moshe Zucker, and Gerson Cohen. He received his M.H.L. in Talmud in 1963 and rabbinic ordination from JTS in 1965. In 1963, Lee pursued his graduate studies in Jewish and Ancient History at Columbia University with Professors Gerson Cohen and Morton Smith. After receiving his M.A. in 1966, he continued his doctoral studies under the mentorship of Cohen and Smith and was awarded his Ph.D. in 1970. While researching his dissertation on Caesarea under Roman Rule, he spent the 1968–69 academic year at the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. During that year, Lee established close ties with members of the Institute of Archaeology and Professor Yigael Yadin, who recognized the need for an interdisciplinary approach that would give graduate archaeology students a solid base in Jewish history and rabbinic sources to supplement their archaeological training. He accepted Prof. Yadin’s invitation to return to Israel and teach at the Institute of Archaeology upon completion of his dissertation. In the summer of 1971, Lee, Mira, and their growing family made ʿaliyah to Israel. Their home is in Jerusalem to this day. Lee was granted a joint appointment in the Institute of Archaeology and the Department of Jewish History at the Hebrew University. In 1985, he was promoted to the rank of Full Professor, and since 2003, he has held the Rev. Moses Bernard Lauterman Family Chair in Classical Archaeology at the Hebrew University. Lee ix

x

Biography of Lee I. Levine

served in a number of administrative capacities at the Hebrew University, including Head of the Dinur Research Center for the Study of Jewish History (1997–2001) and Chair of the Department of Jewish History (2001–3). He received numerous fellowships as well as appointments as a visiting scholar and lecturer at the Jewish Theological Seminary, Yale University, and Harvard University. Lee was awarded honorary doctorates from JTS (1991) and Lund University, Sweden (2000). In the nonacademic sphere, Lee and Mira, together with a group of close friends, founded Ramot Zion, a Conservative/Masorti synagogue on French Hill in Jerusalem in 1973. They remain active and closely involved in the development of the synagogue to this day. Lee and his friends saw the need for an alternative public school system in Israel, a system that would instill in the young the values and practices of Judaica yet also encourage modern pluralistic education and religious inquiry. As a result, Lee was instrumental in founding and developing the TALI (an acronym for Tigbur Limudei Yahadut, Enriched Jewish Studies) track of Israel’s state school system. He was also a founding member of the Seminary of Judaic Studies in Jerusalem (now known as the Schechter Institute for Jewish Studies), which opened its doors in 1984 for studies toward rabbinic ordination and graduate studies in Judaica. In addition to teaching, Lee headed the Schechter Institute (first as dean and then as president) from 1987 to 1994. Lee was an active member of the Masorti Movement in Israel and represented it abroad as Director of the Foundation for Masorti Judaism (1986–87) and Vice-Chancellor of Israel Affairs at the Jewish Theological Seminary (1987–94). In the course of his career of teaching and research at the Hebrew University, Lee supervised graduate students in Archaeology and Jewish History. He codirected excavations at Caesarea Maritima in 1975–76 with Professor Ehud Netzer and was director of the excavations at the Horvat ʿAmmudim synagogue in 1979. Lee’s professional service includes: member of the editorial board of Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi (1978–92), member of the board of the Israel Exploration Society (1984 to present), and member of the advisory board of the World Union of Jewish Studies (1989 to present; since 2006, he has been a member of its executive committee). Lee has published 12 monographs, edited or coedited 11 volumes, and published more than 180 articles. Among Lee’s most important works are The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity (Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1989), which is the first systematic study of the social and political role of the rabbis in late antique Palestine; The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000; 2nd rev. ed., 2005), which offers a comprehensive synthesis of all available information on the diverse aspects of the ancient synagogue; and Jerusalem: Portrait of the City in the Second Temple Period (538 b.c.e.–70 c.e.) (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002), a thorough historical investigation of the city in this era. He is currently preparing a volume entitled Visual Judaism in Late Antiquity: Historical Contexts of Jewish Art. He was also commissioned by the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities to head the Onomasticon project, an exhaustive annotated compilation of geographical place-names in the land of Israel in the Second Temple,

Biography of Lee I. Levine

xi

mishnaic, and talmudic periods according to Hebrew and Aramaic sources, the first volume of which will soon be published. Lee has organized several international conferences: The Synagogue in Antiquity (1984), The Galilee in the Greco-Roman Period (1989), Jerusalem: Its Sanctity and Centrality to Judaism, Christianity and Islam (1996), Jewish Cultural Life of Late Antiquity in Its Byzantine-Christian Context (1999), and Jewish Identities in Antiquity: In Memory of Menahem Stern (2007), for each of which he has edited a volume of the proceedings. Lee often lectures on popular and academic subjects in Israel, Europe, and the United States on ancient Jewish history, archaeology, and art, as well as on issues of contemporary Judaism. His scholarship encompasses a broad range of topics relating to ancient Judaism, especially in archaeology, rabbinic studies, and Jewish history. Within these disciplines, he has dealt with a variety of subfields, including ancient synagogues and liturgy, ancient Jewish art, Galilee, Jerusalem, Hellenism and Judaism, and the historical geography of ancient Palestine. He is one of the first major scholars to draw upon and integrate data from all of these fields in order to afford a better understanding of ancient Judaism. The contributions to this volume are a tribute to his influence on this field of study and reflect the broad spectrum of his own interests. In recognition of Lee’s accomplishments and expertise, we selected a passage from the Baylonian Talmud (b. Sanhedrin 32b) as the title of this volume: . . . ‫ הלך אחר חכמים‬,‫צדק צדק תרדף‬

Publications of Lee I. Levine Books 1. Caesarea under Roman Rule. Leiden: Brill, 1975. 2. Roman Caesarea: An Archaeological-Topographical Study. Qedem 2. Jerusalem: Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University, 1975. 3. The Rabbinic Class in Palestine in the Talmudic Period. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1985. [Hebrew] 4. Excavations at Caesarea—1975, 1976, 1979: Final Report. Qedem 21. Jerusalem: Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University, 1986. [co­authored with Ehud Netzer] 5. The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity. Jerusalem: Yad BenZvi and Jewish Theological Seminary, 1989. [revised and expanded from Hebrew] 6. Jerusalem in Its Splendor: A History of the City in the Second Temple Period. Jerusalem: Ariel, 1996. [Hebrew] 7. Jerusalem in Its Splendor: A History of the City in the Second Temple Period. Rev., expanded ed. Tel-Aviv: Modan, 1997. [Hebrew] 8a. Judaism and Hellenism in Antiquity: Conflict or Confluence? Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998. b. Judaism and Hellenism in Antiquity: Conflict or Confluence? Jerusalem: Shazar Center, 1999. [Hebrew] 9a. The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000. b. La sinagoga antica. 2 vols. Brescia: Paideia, 2005. 10a. The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years. 2nd rev., expanded ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005. b. The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years. Hebrew trans. of 2nd ed. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, in preparation. 11. Jerusalem: A Portrait of the City in the Second Temple Period (538 b.c.e.–​ 70 c.e.). Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002. 12. Visual Judaism in Late Antiquity: Historical Contexts of Jewish Art. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, in press.

xii

Publications of Lee I. Levine

xiii

13. Geographical Place-Names in Eretz-Israel during the Second Temple–Talmudic Periods according to Hebrew and Aramaic Sources, vol. 1. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences, forthcoming. [Hebrew]

Books Edited 14. Ancient Synagogues Revealed. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1981. 15. The Jerusalem Cathedra: Studies in the History, Archaeology, Geography and Ethnography of the Land of Israel, vol. 1. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1981. 16. The Jerusalem Cathedra: Studies in the History, Archaeology, Geography and Ethnography of the Land of Israel, vol. 2. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1982. 17. The Jerusalem Cathedra: Studies in the History, Archaeology, Geography and Ethnography of the Land of Israel, vol. 3. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1983. 18. The Synagogue in Late Antiquity. Philadelphia: American Schools of Oriental Research and Jewish Theological Seminary, 1987. 19. The Galilee in Late Antiquity. New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1992. 20. Jerusalem: Its Sanctity and Centrality to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. New York: Continuum, 1998. 21. From Dura to Sepphoris: Studies in Jewish Art and Society in Late Antiquity. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement 40. Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2000. [co­edited with Z. Weiss] 22. The Controversy over the Historicity of the Bible. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi and Dinur Center, Hebrew University, 2001. [Hebrew; coedited with A. Mazar] 23. One Thousand Years of Jewish History (1000–2000 c.e.): Change and Upheaval. Jerusalem: Dinur Center, Hebrew University, 2002. [Hebrew] 24. Continuity and Renewal: Jews and Judaism in Byzantine-Christian Palestine. Jerusalem: Dinur Center [Hebrew University], Yad Ben-Zvi, and Jewish Theological Seminary, 2004. [Hebrew and English] 25. Jewish Identities in Antiquity: Studies in Memory of Menahem Stern. Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 130. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009. [coedited with D. R. Schwartz]

Articles 26. “Philo and the Allegorical Method.” Yavne Review (1961) 17–28. 27. “Some Observations of the Coins of Caesarea Maritima.” Israel Exploration Journal 22 (1972) 131–40. 28. “A propos de la fondation de la Tour de Straton.” Revue Biblique 80 (1973) 75–81.

xiv

Publications of Lee I. Levine

29. “The Hasmonean Conquest of Strato’s Tower.” Israel Exploration Journal 24 (1974) 62–69. 30a. “The Jewish-Greek Conflict in First Century Caesarea.” Journal of Jewish Studies 25 (1974) 381–97. b. “The Jewish-Greek Conflict in First Century Caesarea.” Pp. 173–94 in The Great Jewish Revolt, ed. A. Kasher. Jerusalem: Shazar Center, 1983. [Hebrew] 31. “Rabbi Abbahu of Caesarea.” Pp. 56–76 in Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman Cults: Studies for Morton Smith at Sixty, vol. 4, ed. J. Neusner. Leiden: Brill, 1975. 32. “La Palestine sous la loi romaine.” Les dossiers de l’archéologie 10 (May–June 1975) 17–22. 33. “Rabbi Abbahu of Caesarea.” Pp. 47–50 in Proceedings of the Sixth World Congress of Jewish Studies, vol. 2. Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies, 1976. [Hebrew] 34a. “The Zealots of the Late Second Temple Period in Modern Historiography.” Cathedra 1 (1976) 39–48, 59–60. [Hebrew] b. “The Zealots of the Late Second Temple Period in Modern Historiography.” Pp. 365–88 in The Great Jewish Revolt, ed. A. Kasher. Jerusalem: Shazar Center, 1983. [Hebrew] 35. “New Light on Caesarea.” Qadmoniot 11 (1978) 70–75. [Hebrew] 36. “Pella.” Pp. 939–43 in vol. 3 of Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, ed. M. Avi-Yonah and E. Stern. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1978. 37. “Caesarea.” Pp. 658–61 in vol. 29 of Encyclopedia Hebraica. Jerusalem: Encyclopaedia Publishing, 1978. [Hebrew] 38. “On the Political Involvement of the Pharisees under Herod and the Procurators.” Cathedra 8 (1978) 12–28. [Hebrew] 39a. “R. Simeon bar Yohai and the Purification of Tiberias.” Hebrew Union College Annual 49 (1978) 143–85. b. “R. Simeon bar Yohai and the Purification of Tiberias.” Cathedra 22 (1982) 9–42. [Hebrew] 40. “The Jewish Patriarch (Nasi) in Third Century Palestine.” Pp. 649–88 in Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II:19.2. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1979. 41a. “Toward an Appraisal of Herod as a Builder.” Cathedra 15 (1980) 52–55. [Hebrew] b. “Toward an Appraisal of Herod as a Builder.” Pp. 1–10 in The Jerusalem Cathedra, vol. 1, ed. L. I. Levine. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1981. 42. “Ancient Synagogues: A Historical Introduction.” Pp. 1–10 in Ancient Synagogues Revealed, ed. L. I. Levine. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1981. 43. “The Inscription in the ʿEn Gedi Synagogue.” Pp. 140–45 in Ancient Synagogues Revealed, ed. L. I. Levine. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1981. 44. “The Synagogue at Dura Europos.” Pp. 172–77 in Ancient Synagogues Revealed, ed. L. I. Levine. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1981.

Publications of Lee I. Levine

xv

45. “The Synagogue at Ḥorvat ʿAmmudim.” Pp. 78–81 in Ancient Synagogues Revealed, ed. L. I. Levine. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1981. 46. “The Political Struggle between Pharisees and Sadducees in the Hasmonean Period.” Pp. 61–83 in Studies in the History of Jerusalem in the Second Temple Period: Scha­lit Memorial Volume, ed. A. Oppenheimer, U. Rappaport, and M.  Stern. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1981. [Hebrew] 47. “Ḥorvat ʿAmmudim Excavations.” Qadmoniot 51–52 (1981) 107–11. [Hebrew] 48. “The History of Caesarea in the Roman and Byzantine Periods.” Qardom 18 (1981) 7–30. [Hebrew] 49. “On the History of the Study of Caesarea.” Qardom 18 (1981) 64–68. [Hebrew] 50. “Excavations at the Synagogue of Ḥorvat ʿAmmudim.” Israel Exploration Journal 32 (1982) 1–12. 51. “The Age of R. Judah the Prince.” Pp. 94–118 in Eretz-Israel from the Destruction of the Second Temple to the Muslim Conquest, vol. 1, ed. Z. Baras et al. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1982. [Hebrew] 52. “Palestine in the Third Century c.e.” Pp. 119–43 in Eretz-Israel from the Destruction of the Second Temple to the Muslim Conquest, vol. 1, ed. Z. Baras et al. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1982. [Hebrew] 53. “The Rabbinic Class of Third Century Palestine.” Pp. 5–8 in Proceedings of the Eighth World Congress of Jewish Studies, Division B. Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies, 1982. [Hebrew] 54. “Messianic Tendencies at the End of the Second Temple Period.” Pp. 135–52 in Messianism and Eschatology, ed. Z. Baras. Jerusalem: Shazar Center, 1983. [Hebrew] 55. “Archaeological Discoveries from the Greco-Roman Era.” Pp. 75–87 in Recent Archaeology in the Land of Israel, ed. H. Shanks. Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1983. 56. “Césarée et la synagogue de Ḥorvat Ha-ʿAmmudim.” Pp. 227–31 in Recherches Archéologiques en Israel, ed. E. Lipiński. Leuven: Peeters, 1984. 57. “Roman Rule in Palestine at the End of the Second Temple Period (63 b.c.e.–74 c.e.). Pp. 11–280 in The History of Eretz-Israel, vol. 4, ed. M. Stern. Jerusalem: Keter, 1984. [Hebrew] 58. “The Archaeological Finds from Beth-Shearim and Their Importance for the Study of the Talmudic Period.” Eretz-Israel 18 (Avigad volume; 1985) 277–81. [Hebrew] 59. “Herod: The Man and His Times.” Pp. 2–10 in King Herod and His Times. Idan 5. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1985. [Hebrew] 60. “An Onomasticon of Ancient Palestine in the Second Temple–Talmudic Periods according to Hebrew and Aramaic Sources: A Preliminary Report.” World Union of Jewish Studies Newsletter 25 (1985) 39–46. [Hebrew]

xvi

Publications of Lee I. Levine

61a. “The Second Temple Synagogue: The Formative Years.” Pp. 7–31 in The Synagogue in Late Antiquity, ed. L. I. Levine. Philadelphia: American Schools of Oriental Research and Jewish Theological Seminary, 1987. b. “The Second Temple Synagogue: Its Character and Development.” Pp. 11–​29 in The Synagogue in Israel and the Diaspora in Antiquity, ed. A. Oppenheimer, A. Kasher, and U. Rappaport. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1987. [Hebrew] 62a. “The Age of Hellenism: Alexander the Great and the Rise and Fall of the Hasmonean Kingdom.” Pp. 177–204, 254–57 in Ancient Israel: A Short History from Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple, ed. H. Shanks. Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1988. b. “Okres hellenistyczny.” Pp. 247–84 in Starozytny Izrael: Od czasow Abrahama do zburzenia Jerozolimy przez Rzymian. Warsaw: Czytelnik, 1994. 63. “La synagogue de Doura Europos.” Le Monde de la Bible 57 (1989) 20–27. 64. “Les fonctions de la synagogue ancienne.” Le Monde de la Bible 57 (1989) 28–31. 65. The Interior of the Ancient Synagogue and Its Furnishings: From Communal Center to ‘Lesser Sanctuary.’” Cathedra 60 (1990) 36–84. [Hebrew] 66. “The Jewish Community at Caesarea in Late Antiquity.” Pp. 268–73 in Caesarea Papers: Straton’s Tower, Herod’s Harbour, and Roman and Byzantine Caesarea, ed. R. L. Vann. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement 5. Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1992. 67. “Judaism from the Destruction of Jerusalem to the End of the Second Jewish Revolt: 70–135 c.e.” Pp. 125–49 in Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: Parallel History of Their Origins and Early Development, ed. H. Shanks. Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1992. 68. “The Sages and the Synagogue in Late Antiquity: The Evidence of the Galilee.” Pp. 201–22 in The Galilee in Late Antiquity, ed. L. I. Levine. New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1992. 69. “Herod the Great.” Pp. 161–69 in vol. 3 of Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. D. N. Freedman et al. New York: Doubleday, 1992. 70. “Jewish War (66–74 c.e.).” Pp. 839–45 in vol. 3 of Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. D. N. Freedman et al. New York: Doubleday, 1992. 71. “Synagogues.” Pp. 1421–24 in vol. 4 of The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, ed. E. Stern. Jerusalem: Carta, 1993. 72. “Synagogue Research since the 1970s.” Pp. 258–61 in vol. 1 of The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, ed. E. Stern. Jerusalem: Carta, 1993. [Hebrew] 73a. “The Synagogue of Ḥorvat ʿAmmudim.” Pp. 1242–44 in vol. 4 of The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, ed. E. Stern. Jerusalem: Carta, 1993. b. “The Synagogue of Ḥorvat ʿAmmudim.” Pp. 55–56 in vol. 1 of The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, ed. E. Stern. Jerusalem: Carta, 1993. [Hebrew]

Publications of Lee I. Levine

xvii

74a. “Excavations at Caesarea.” Pp. 280–82 in vol. 1 of The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, ed. E. Stern. Jerusalem: Carta, 1993. b. “Excavations at Caesarea.” Pp. 1379–82 in vol. 4 of The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, ed. E. Stern. Jerusalem: Carta, 1993. [Hebrew] 75. “Caesarea’s Synagogues and Some Historical Implications.” Pp. 666–78 in Biblical Archaeology Today 1990. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1993. 76. “Introduction.” Pp. 13–32 in Synagogues in Eretz Israel: From Antiquity to the Present, ed. H. Klil-Hahoresh. Tel-Aviv: Israel Defence Forces Educational Division, 1993. [Hebrew] 77. “The Relationship between Rabbinic Literature and Archaeological Finds: Remarks in Response to D. Amit.” Cathedra 68 (1993) 36–40. [Hebrew] 78. “Synagogue.” Pp. 721–24 in The Oxford Companion to the Bible, ed. B. M. Metzger and M. D. Coogan. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. 79. “The Synagogue as a Communal Institution: Who Determined Its Policy? ” Pp. 1–8 in Proceedings of the Eleventh World Congress of Jewish Studies, division B, vol. 1: The History of the Jewish People. Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies, 1994. [Hebrew] 80a. “Josephus’ Description of the Jerusalem Temple: War, Antiquities, and Other Sources.” Pp. 233–46 in Josephus and the History of the Greco-Roman Period, ed. F. Parente and J. Sievers. Leiden: Brill, 1994. b. “The Temple of Jerusalem: Josephus’ Description and Other Sources.” Cathedra 77 (1995) 3–16. [Hebrew] 81. “The Background of the Antiochan Persecutions and the Hasmonean Revolt.” Pp. 9–20 in In the Days of the Hasmonean Dynasty, ed. D. Amit and H. Eshel. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 1995. [Hebrew] 82a. “Diaspora Judaism of Late Antiquity and Its Relationship to Palestine: Evidence from the Ancient Synagogue.” Pp. 139–58 in Studies on the Jewish Diaspora in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, ed. B. Isaac and A. Oppenheimer. Teʿuda 12. Tel-Aviv: Ramot, 1996. b. “Uniformity and Diversity in Judaism of Late Antiquity: Evidence from the Diaspora Synagogues.” Pp. 379–92 in The Jews in the Hellenistic-Roman World: Studies in Memory of Menahem Stern, ed. I. Gafni, A. Oppenheimer, and D. Schwartz. Jerusalem: Shazar Center, 1996. [Hebrew] 83. “Synagogue Officials: The Evidence from Caesarea and Its Implications for Palestine and the Diaspora.” Pp. 392–400 in Caesarea Maritima: A Retrospective after Two Millennia, ed. A. Ra­ban and K. Holum. Leiden: Brill, 1996. 84a. “The Status of the Patriarchate in the Third and Fourth Centuries: Sources and Methodology.” Journal of Jewish Studies 47 (1996) 1–32. b. “The Status of the Patriarchate in the Third and Fourth Centuries: Sources and Methodology.” Pp. 103–37 in Kehal Yisrael: Jewish Self-Rule through the Ages, vol. 1, ed. I. Gafni. Jerusalem: Shazar Center, 2001. [Hebrew]

xviii

Publications of Lee I. Levine

85a. “The Nature and Origin of the Palestinian Synagogue Reconsidered.” Journal of Biblical Literature 115 (1996) 425–48. b. “The Nature and Origin of the Palestinian Synagogue Reconsidered.” Pp. 143*–62* in Tehillah le-Moshe: Biblical and Judaic Studies in Honor of Moshe Greenberg, ed. M. Cogan, B. L. Eichler, and J. H. Tigay. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997. [Hebrew] 86. “Archaeology and the Religious Ethos of Pre-70 Palestine.” Pp. 110–20 in Hillel and Jesus: Comparative Studies of Two Major Religious Leaders, ed. J. Charlesworth. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997. 87. “Beth Sheʿarim.” Pp. 309–11 in vol. 1 of The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, ed. E. M. Meyers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. 88. “The Revolutionary Effects of Archeology on the Study of Jewish History in Roman–Byzantine Palestine: The Case of the Ancient Synagogue.” Pp. 166–89 in The Archaeology of Israel: Constructing the Past, Interpreting the Present, ed. N. A. Silberman and D. Small. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement 237. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997. 89. “Hasmonean Jerusalem: A Jewish City in a Hellenistic Orbit.” Judaism 46 (1997) 140–46. 90a. “The Menorah in the Synagogue.” Pp. 99–101 in In the Light of the Menorah: The Evolution of a Symbol, ed. Y. Israeli. Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1998. [Hebrew] b. “The Menorah in the Ancient Synagogue.” Pp. 109–12 in In the Light of the Menorah: Story of a Symbol, ed. Y. Israeli. Jerusalem: Israel Museum / Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1999. 91. “Second Temple Jerusalem: A Jewish City in the Greco-Roman Orbit.” Pp. 53– 68 in Jerusalem: Its Sanctity and Centrality to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, ed. L. I. Levine. New York: Continuum, 1998. 92. “Synagogue Leadership: The Case of the Archisynagogue.” Pp. 195–213 in Jews in a Greco-Roman World, ed. M. Goodman. Oxford: Clarendon, 1998. 93. “Bilderkult IV: Judentum.” Col. 1571 in vol. 1 of Religion in Geschichte und Ge­genwart, ed. J. Persch. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1998. 94. “Synagogue.” Pp. 708–10 in Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World, ed. G. Bowersock, P. Brown, and O. Grabar. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999. 95. “The Age of Hellenism: Alexander the Great and the Rise and Fall of the Hasmonean Kingdom.” Pp. 231–64 in Ancient Israel: A Short History from Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple, rev. ed. H. Shanks. Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1999. 96. “The Development of Synagogue Liturgy in Late Antiquity.” Pp. 123–44 in Galilee through the Centuries: Confluence of Cultures, ed. E. M. Meyers. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1999.

Publications of Lee I. Levine

xix

97. “The Patriarch and the Ancient Synagogue.” Pp. 87–100 in Jews, Christians, and Polytheists in the Ancient Synagogue, ed. S. Fine. London: Routledge, 1999. 98. “The Hellenistic-Roman Diaspora ce 70 – ce 235: The Archaeological Evidence.” Pp. 991–1024 in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 3, ed. W. Hor­bury et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. 99. “Synagogues in the Judaean Desert.” Pp. 905–8 in vol. 2 of Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. L. H. Schiffman and J. C. VanderKam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. 100. “Les fonctions de la synagogue ancienne.” Pp. 48–54 in Aux origines du christianisme, ed. P. Gé­oltrain. Paris: Gallimard, 2000. 101a. “The History and Significance of the Menorah in Antiquity.” Pp. 131–53 in From Dura to Sepphoris: Studies in Jewish Art and Society in Late Antiquity, ed. L. I. Levine and Z. Weiss. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement 40. Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2000. b. “The History and Significance of the Menorah in Antiquity.” Cathedra 98 (2001) 7–32. [Hebrew] 102. “Archaeology and the Bible.” Pp. 1339–44 in Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary, ed. D. Lieber et al. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2001. 103. “Synagoge.” Pp. 499–508 in vol. 32 of Theologische Realenzyklopaedie, ed. G. Mueller et al. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2001. 104. “The First-Century Synagogue: New Perspectives” Svensk Teologisk Kvartalskrift 77 (2001) 22–30. 105. “Art, Architecture, and Archaeology.” Pp. 824–51 in The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, ed. M. Goodman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. 106. “The First Century c.e. Synagogue in Historical Perspective.” Pp. 1–25 in The Ancient Synagogue: From the Beginning to about 200 c.e.: Papers Presented at an International Conference at Lund University, October 14–17, 2001, ed. B. Olsson and M. Zetterholm. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 2003. 107. “Contextualizing Jewish Art: The Synagogues of Hammat Tiberias and Sepphoris.” Pp. 91–131 in Jewish Culture and Society in the Christian Roman Empire, ed. R. Kalmin and S. Schwartz. Leuven: Peeters, 2003. 108a. “The First-Century Synagogue: Critical Reassessments and Assessments of the Critical.” Pp. 168–94 in Studies in the History of Eretz Israel: Presented to Yehuda Ben Porat, ed. Y. Ben-Arieh and E. Reiner. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, 2003. [Hebrew] b. “The First-Century Synagogue: Critical Reassessments and Assessments of the Critical.” Pp. 70–102 in Religion and Society in Roman Palestine: Old Questions, New Approaches, ed. D. R. Edwards. London: Routledge, 2004. 109. “Between Rome and Byzantium in Jewish History: Documentation, Reality, and the Issue of Periodization.” Pp. 7–48 in Continuity and Renewal: Jews and Judaism in Byzantine-Christian Palestine, ed. L. I. Levine. Jerusalem: Dinur

Publications of Lee I. Levine

xx

110. 111. 112a. b. 113a.



b.

114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121.

122. 123.

Center [Hebrew University], Yad Ben-Zvi, and Jewish Theological Seminary, 2004. [Hebrew] “Dura Europos.” P. 133 in A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations, ed. E. Kess­ ler and N. Wen­born. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. “Sardis.” Pp. 397–98 in A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations, ed. E. Kessler and N. Wenborn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. “Figurative Art in Jewish Society.” Ars Judaica 1 (2005) 9–26. “The Use of Figural Art and Its Avoidance in Ancient Jewish Society.” Pp. 13–41 in Image and Sound: Art, Music and History, ed. R. I. Cohen. Jerusalem: Shazar Center, 2007. [Hebrew] “Bet Šeʿarim in Its Patriarchal Context.” Pp. 197–226 in “The Words of a Wise Man’s Mouth Are Gracious” (Qoh 10,12): Festschrift for Günter Stemberger on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, ed. M. Perani. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2005. “Bet Sheʿarim and Its Patriarchal Context.” Pp. 115–29 in Man near a Roman Arch: Studies Presented to Professor Yoram Tsafrir, ed. L. Di Segni et al. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2009. [Hebrew] “Jewish Archaeology in Late Antiquity: Art Architecture, and Inscriptions.” Pp. 519–55 in The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 4, ed. S. Katz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. “In Search of the Synagogue, Part I: Unearthing the Oldest Jewish Houses of Prayer.” Reform Judaism 35/4 (2007) 42–47. “In Search of the Synagogue, Part II: The Temple Destroyed: The Synagogue Takes a Turn.” Reform Judaism 36/2 (2007) 48–54, 60. “In Search of the Synagogue, Part III: A Synagogue Boom of Surprising Diversity—in Response to Christians? [4th century c.e.–7th century c.e.].” Reform Judaism 36/4 (2008) 74–80. “In Search of the Synagogue, Part IV: Diaspora Synagogues in Late Antiquity.” Reform Judaism 37/2 (2008) 38–44. “Jerusalem in Jewish History, Tradition, and Memory.” Pp. 27–46 in Jerusalem: Idea and Reality, ed. T. Mayer and S. A. Mourad. London: Routledge, 2008. “‘Common Judaism’: The Contribution of the Ancient Synagogue.” Pp. 27– 46, 232–37 in Common Judaism: Explorations in Second-Temple Judaism, ed. W. O. McCready and A. Reinhartz. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008. “Jewish Collective Memory in Late Antiquity: Issues in the Interpretation of Jewish Art.” Pp. 217–54 in Antiquity in Antiquity: Jewish and Christian Pasts in the Greco-Roman World, ed. G. Gardner and K. Osterloh. Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 123. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008. “Archisynagogos.” Cols. 675–76 in vol. 2 of Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception, ed. H.-J. Klauck et al. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2008. “In Search of the Synagogue, Part V: Women in the Synagogue.” Reform Judaism 37/3 (2009) 42–46.

Publications of Lee I. Levine

xxi

124. “Synagogues.” Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine, ed. C.  Hezser. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. 125. “The Age of Hellenism: From Alexander the Great through the Hasmonean Kingdom (332–63 b.c.e.).” In Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple. 3rd rev. and expanded ed., ed. H. Shanks. Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, in press. 126. “Judaism from the Destruction of Jerusalem to the End of the Second Jewish Revolt: 70–135 c.e.” Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: Parallel History of Their Origins and Early Development, ed. H. Shanks. Revised ed. Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, in press. 127. “The Emergence of a New Jewish Art in Late Antiquity.” In Was 70 c.e. Really a Watershed? On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple, ed. D. R. Schwartz. Leiden: Brill, in press. 128. “Patriarch, Patriarchate.” Encyclopedia of Religion. 2nd ed. Woodbridge, CT: Macmillan Reference, in press. 129. “Caesarea.” Dictionary of Early Christianity, ed. J. J. Collins and D. Harlow. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, in press. 130. “Jerusalem.” Dictionary of Early Christianity, ed. J. J. Collins and D. Harlow. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, in press. 131. “Jerusalem Temple.” In Dictionary of Early Christianity, ed. J. J. Collins and D. Harlow. Eerdmans, in press. 132. “Synagogue.” In Dictionary of Early Christianity, ed. J. J. Collins and D. Harlow. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, in press. 133. “Israelite Art.” In Rachel Hachlili Festschrift, ed. A. E. Killebrew et al. Leiden: Brill, in press. 134. “The Synagogue.” In The Jewish Annotated New Testament, ed. M. Brettler and A.-J. Levine. Oxford: Oxford University Press, in press. 135. “Caesarea.” In Encyclopedia of Ancient History, ed. Roger Bagnall et al. Oxford: Wiley, in press. 136. “Patriarchate.” In Encyclopedia of Ancient History, ed. Roger Bagnall et al. Oxford: Wiley, in press. 137. “Jerusalem in the Hellenistic Era (332–141 b.c.e.).” In Sepher Yerushalayim, ed. J. Schwartz, I. Gafni, and R. Reich. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, in press. [Hebrew] 138. “The Synagogues in Jerusalem.” In Sepher Yerushalayim, ed. J. Schwartz, I. Gafni, and R. Reich. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, in press. [Hebrew] 139. “Jerusalem in the Herodian and Early Roman Periods (63 b.c.e.–66 c.e.).” In Sepher Yerushalayim, ed. J. Schwartz, I. Gafni, and R. Reich. Jerusalem: Yad Ben-Zvi, in press. [Hebrew] 140. “Synagogue Art and the Rabbis in Late Antiquity.” Journal of Ancient Judaism (in press).

xxii

Publications of Lee I. Levine

Book Reviews 141. “The Causes of 66–70 c.e.: Review of The Roman-Jewish War (66–70 a.d.): Its Origins and Consequences, by M. Aberbach.” Judaism 20 (1971) 244–48. 142. “The Hellenistic Age: The World History of the Jewish People, ed. A. Schalit.” Jewish Social Studies 35 (1973) 161–63. 143. “Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Roman Period, by E. Goodenough.” Qadmoniot 18 (1973) 66–67. [Hebrew] 144. “Sefer Tiberias, by O. Avissar.” Qadmoniot 25–26 (1974) 62. [Hebrew] 145. “Understanding the Sacred Text: Essays in Honor of Morton S. Enslin in the Hebrew Bible and Christian Beginnings, ed. J. Reumann.” Israel Exploration Journal 25 (1975) 181–83. 146. “Césarée de Palestine: Étude historique et archéologique, by J. Ringel.” Israel Exploration Journal 26 (1976) 215–16. 147. “The Joint Expedition to Caesarea Maritima, vol. 1: Studies in the History of Caesarea Maritima, ed. C. T. Fritsch. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Supplement 19.” Israel Exploration Journal 27 (1977) 262–64. 148. “Roman Palestine 200–400: The Land, by D. Sperber.” Israel Exploration Journal 29 (1979) 128–31. 149. “The Tabernacle Menorah, by C. Meyers.” Israel Exploration Journal 30 (1980) 243–45. 150. “The Temple of Solomon, by J. Gutmann.” Israel Exploration Journal 31 (1981) 247–49. 151. “The Excavations at Dura Europos, by C. H. Kraeling.” Israel Exploration Journal 34 (1984) 61–62. 152. “Excavation at Hammath Tiberias, by M. Dothan.” Israel Exploration Journal 34 (1984) 284–88. 153. “State and Society in Roman Galilee, a.d. 132–212, by M. Goodman.” Israel Exploration Journal 36 (1986) 115–17. 154. “Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Land of Israel, by R. Hachlili.” Israel Exploration Journal 41 (1991) 212–15. 155. “Galilee in the Mishnaic Period, by A. Oppenheimer.” Zion 57 (1992) 213–16. [Hebrew] 156. “Jewish Civilization in the Hellenistic–Roman Period, ed. S. Talmon.” Scripta Classica Israelica 13 (1994) 205–7. 157. “Seeing and Hearing God with the Psalms: The Prophetic Liturgy of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, by R. J. Tournay.” Jewish Quarterly Review 86 (1995) 233–36. 158. “Jerusalem under Siege, by J. Price.” Jewish History 9/1 (1995) 114–15. 159. “Material Culture in Eretz-Israel during the Talmudic Period, by D. Sperber.” Bekhol Derakhekha Daehu: Journal of Torah and Scholarship 1 (1995) 111–14. [Hebrew]

Publications of Lee I. Levine

xxiii

160. “Ancient Synagogues: Historical Analysis and Archaeological Discovery, ed. D. Ur­ man and P. V. M. Flesher.” Ioudaios Review 5 (August, 1995). ftp://ftp.lehigh​ .edu/pub/listserv/ioudaios-review/5.1995/urman.levine.012. 161. “Die Institution des jüdischen Patriarchen, by M. Jacobs.” Religious Studies Review 23 (1997). 162. “The Monarchic Principle: Studies in Jewish Self-Government in Antiquity, by D. Goodblatt.” Jewish Quarterly Review 88 (1998) 317–24. 163. “Sacred Realm: The Emergence of the Synagogue in the Ancient World, ed. S. Fine.” Journal of Roman Studies 88 (1998) 188–89. 164. “Sepphoris in Galilee: Crosscurrents of Culture, ed. R. M. Nagy, C. Meyers, E. M. Meyers, and Z. Weiss”; “Promise and Redemption: A Synagogue Mosaic from Sepphoris, ed. E. Netzer and Z. Weiss.” Biblical Archaeology Review 25/1 (1999) 66–68. 165. “The Social Structure of the Rabbinic Movement in Roman Palestine, by C. Hez­ ser.” Jewish Quarterly Review 90 (2000) 483–88. 166. “The Holy Place: On the Sanctity of the Synagogue during the Greco-Roman Period, by S. Fine.” Hebrew Studies 41 (2000) 306–11. 167. “Into the Temple Courts: The Place of the Synagogues in the Second Temple Period, by D. Binder.” The Journal of Religion 81 (2001) 171–72. 168. “Lod and Its Sages in the Period of the Mishnah and the Talmud, by B.-Z. Rosenfeld.” Zion 66 (2001) 235–37. [Hebrew] 169. “The Sage in Jewish Society of Late Antiquity, by R. Kalmin.” Journal of Semitic Studies 46 (2001) 337–40. 170. “Hellenism in the Land of Israel, ed. J. J. Collins and G. E. Sterling.” Journal of Biblical Literature 122 (2003) 562–66. 171. “Jews and Christians in the Holy Land: Palestine in the Fourth Century, by G. Stemberger.” Journal of Religious History 28/1 (2004) 105–7. 172. “The Jews of Syria as Reflected in the Greek Inscriptions, by L. Roth-Gerson.” Zion 69 (2004) 361–63. [Hebrew] 173a. “The Menorah, the Ancient Seven-Armed Candelabrum: Origin, Form, and Significance, by R. Hachlili.” Israel Exploration Journal 57 (2007) 119–20. b. “The Menorah, the Ancient Seven-Armed Candelabrum: Origin, Form, and Significance, by R. Hach­lili.” Qadmoniot 132 (2007) 122–23. [Hebrew] 174. “Sages and Commoners in Late Antique Erẹz Israel, by Stuart S. Miller.” Cathedra 131 (2009) 129–32. [Hebrew] 175. “Jewish Literacy in Roman Palestine, by C. Hezser.” Israel Exploration Journal (in press). 176. “Reconstructing the First-Century Synagogue, by Stephen Catto.” Journal of Religion (in press). 177. “Excavations at Ancient Nabratein: Synagogue and Environs, by Eric M. Meyers and Carol Meyers” (forthcoming).

xxiv

Publications of Lee I. Levine

Internet Course 178. Jerusalem in the Second Temple Period. Jewish Theological Seminary, fall 2001–5. http://www.courses.jtsa.edu/hist/sectemp.

Articles on Contemporary Judaism 179. “The M’sorati School: A Pioneering Endeavor in Jewish Education in Israel.” The Melton Journal (Spring–Summer 1983) 5–6. 180. “Masorti Judaism in Israel: Challenge, Vision and Program.” Pp. 381–89 in The Seminary at 100: Reflections on the Jewish Theological Seminary and the Conservative Movement, ed. N. B. Cardin and D. W. Silverman. New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1987. 181. “Masorti Judaism in Israel: Challenge, Vision and Program.” Pp. 79–92 in Towards the Twenty-First Century: Judaism and the Jewish People in Israel and America, ed. R. Kronish. Hoboken, NJ: Ktav, 1988. 182. “Religious Pluralism in Israel: A Jewish State or a State for Jews? ” Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly 50 (1988) 49–69. 183. “TALI Education: Its History and Principles.” Shedemot 112 (1990) 26–33. [Hebrew] 184. “Conservative Judaism and Zionism: Toward the Twenty-First Century.” Pp. 7–14 in Deepening the Commitment: Zionism and the Conservative/Masorti Movement, ed. J. Ruskay and D. Szonyi. New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1990. 185. “Jewish Education as a Means of Dialogue between the Religious and Secularist.” Yad LʾOri (1993) 37–39. [Hebrew] 186. “The TALI Schools.” Pp. 259–77 in Origins: The Beginnings of Jewish Educational Institutions, ed. W. Ackerman. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1995. 187. “Identification.” In The Tribes of Israel Together: A Dialogue with the President of the State of Israel, ed. S. Eilati. Jerusalem: President’s House, 1996. 188. “Therefore Man Was Created Alone (M. Sanhedrin 4:6).” Pp. 25–27 in Human Dignity, ed. A. Satrikovsky. Jerusalem: Ministry of Education, 1998. [Hebrew] 189. “Professor Israel Levine.” Pp. 229–47 in Learning in Jerusalem: Dialogues with Distinguished Teachers of Judaism, ed. S. Freedman. Northvale, NJ: Aronson, 1998.



Abbreviations General b. Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) BL British Library col(s). column(s) ET English translation frag(s). fragment(s) IAA Israel Antiquities Authority LXX Septuagint m. Mishnah ms(s) manuscript(s) MT Masoretic Text n(n). note(s) nab New American Bible version no(s). number(s) nrsv New Revised Standard Version NT New Testament OT Old Testament P. papyrus R. Rabbi rsv Revised Standard Version t. Tosefta y. Yerushalmi (Jerusalem, Palestinian Talmud)

Reference Works AASOR AB ABD

Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research Anchor Bible Freedman, D. N., editor. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1992 ACW Ancient Christian Writers AGJU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums AJA American Journal of Archaeology AJSReview Association for Jewish Studies Review ALGHJ Arbeiten zur Literatur und Geschichte des hellenistischen Judentums ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt BAR Int. Series British Archaeological Reports, International Series

xxv

xxvi BASOR BIOSCS BJS BTAVO BZ CCSL CHJ

Abbreviations

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies Brown Judaic Studies Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients Biblische Zeitschrift Corpus Christianorum: Series Latina Davies, W. D., and Finkelstein, L., editors. Cambridge History of Judaism. 4 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984–2006 CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum CJZC Lüderitz, G. Corpus jüdischer Zeugnisse aus der Cyrenaika. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, Reihe B: Geisteswissenschaften 53. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1983 Coniectanea Biblica, New Testament ConBNT Tcherikover, V., editor. Corpus papyrorum judaicarum. 3 vols. Cambridge: CPJ Harvard University Press, 1957–64 Comptes rendus de l’Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres CRAIBL CSEL Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert DMOA Documenta et Monumenta Orientis Antiqui DNP Cancik, H., and Schneider, H., editors. Der neue Pauly: Enzyklopädie der Antike. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1996–2003 Dumbarton Oaks Papers DOP DSD Dead Sea Discoveries EncJud Roth, C., editor. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 16 vols. Jerusalem: Keter, 1972 ErIsr Eretz-Israel ESI Excavations and Surveys in Israel GCS Griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller GLAJJ Stern, M., editor. Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism. 3 vols. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1974–84 Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies GRBS HTR Harvard Theological Review HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual IEJ Israel Exploration Journal IJO Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis JAAR Journal of the American Academy of Religion JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JECS Journal of Early Christian Studies JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society JIGRE Horbury, W., and Noy, D., editors. Jewish Inscriptions of Graeco-Roman Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992 JJS Journal of Jewish Studies JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies JQR Jewish Quarterly Review JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology JRelS Journal of Religious Studies JRS Journal of Roman Studies

Abbreviations JSJ JSOT JSOTSup JSP JSQ JSS JTS LCL MGWJ NEAEHL

NTS OCD PAAJR PEQ PG PW RAC RB REJ SBLDS SC ScrHier SJLA StPB SNTSMS StPatr TAPA TDNT TLL TLZ TSAJ TUGAL VC VT VTSup WUNT ZDPV ZPE

xxvii

Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha Jewish Studies Quarterly Journal of Semitic Studies Journal of Theological Studies Loeb Classical Library Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums Stern, E., editor. New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. 4  vols. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society and Carta / New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. Supplement, vol. 5. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society / Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, 2008 New Testament Studies Hammond, N. G. L., and Scullard, H. H., editors. Oxford Classical Dictionary. 3rd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1999 Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research Palestine Exploration Quarterly Migne, J.-P. Patrologia graeca. 162 vols. Paris: Garnier, 1857–1886 Pauly, A. F. Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. New edition, G. Wissowa. 49 vols. Munich: Druckenmüller, 1980 Klauser, T., et al., editors. Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1950– Revue biblique Revue des études juives Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series Sources chrétiennes Scripta Hierosolymitana Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity Studia Post Biblica Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series Studia patristica Transactions of the American Philological Association Kittel, G. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Trans. and ed. G. W. Bromiley. 9 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1965–74 Thesaurus linguae latinae Theologische Literaturzeitung Texte und Studien zum antiken Judentum Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur Vigiliae christianae Vetus Testamentum Vetus Testamentum Supplements Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik

Hellenism and Judaism before and after World War II Two Case Studies— A. D. Momigliano and E. J. Bickerman Albert I. Baumgarten Bar Ilan University

Questions concerning the relationship between Hellenism and Judaism in Antiquity have been of special interest to Jewish scholars since Jews began to enter the larger cultural world of the West, learn Greek and Latin in school as one of the most prestigious parts of the curriculum, and ponder the nature of the ancient connection between Jerusalem and Athens. Like the Russian stacking dolls in which each larger one is an exact copy of the smaller ones, matters concerning Hellenism and Judaism in Antiquity had their homologues in modern issues, particularly when one is thinking about the relationship between contemporary Judaism and the surrounding Western culture. As the analogy makes explicit, changes in one of the dolls had consequences in all the others. The goal of this essay is to examine the impact of World War II on the thinking and writing of two outstanding Jewish scholars who studied the lives of ancient Jews in the Greco-Roman world, A. D. Momigliano and E. J. Bickerman.1 1.  This essay draws on research conducted as part of an intellectual biography of Elias Bickerman, underway since March 2004, now published as Elias Bickerman as a Historian of the Jews: A Twentieth Century Tale (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010). As part of this project, I have consulted numerous archives. I refer to material from the following archival sources in this paper: Bickerman Archive—Elias Bickerman Papers, Jewish Theological Seminary, New York, ARC 19. Most of the material consists of the contents of Bickerman’s office, as found after he died in Israel in August 1981. I thank Ellen Kastel, Archivist, for her untiring help and encouragement over the course of a project that has taken far longer than I originally imagined. On a formal note, I thank David Kraemer, Librarian of the Jewish Theological Seminary, for permission to refer to and cite from Jewish Theological Seminary ARC 19 archival material in this article. These archival sources appear courtesy of the Library of the Jewish Theological Seminary.

3

4

Albert I. Baumgarten

In particular, after showing the fit between changes in the experience of the historian and the history written, I would like to argue a point first made by E. H. Carr. In most cases, the impact of the time and place of the historian on the history that he or she wrote is rightly seen as deleterious. Conclusions posed that suited the ideology of the era are quickly revealed as being time bound to the next generation(s) of scholars. In rarer cases, however, Carr argued that the historian’s time, place, and life story created the possibility of conclusions that lasted, that would not have been Drancy Records—Records of the Drancy internment camp from Archives du Centre de Documentation Juive Contemporaine, Paris. Fichier (Adultes) du Camp de Drancy. I thank Diane Afoumado, Mémorial de la Shoah, Paris, for her cooperation and assistance throughout the time of my research on Bickerman. Gabba Archive—Emilio Gabba presented his entire collection of correspondence to the University Library at Pavia, Italy, where these letters are kept. Heichelheim Archive—Fritz Heichelheim (1901–68) taught ancient history at the University of Toronto, where his correspondence is on deposit. Hengel Files—Martin Hengel of Tübingen University carried on an extensive correspondence with Bickerman. He has been kind enough to make photocopies of these letters available to me for my research. HIAS/HICEM Files—Records of the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society, New York, and of HICEM, the umbrella organization based in Europe devoted to organizing Jewish emigration during World War II. Microfilmed files are on deposit at the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New York. Hans (Yohanan) Lewy Archive—Lewy (1901–45), Bickerman’s close friend from Berlin, taught classics at the Hebrew University. His correspondence is on deposit at the Jewish National and University Library of Jerusalem, Israel, ARC ms, VAR 376, folder 71. Rockefeller Foundation Archives—Records of the Rockefeller Foundation program to rescue refugee European scholars during World War II, on deposit at the Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, NY. My thanks are due to Ken Rose, Assistant Director of the Archive Center. Schoonmaker Files—Dina Schoonmaker, daughter of Jacob Bikerman, has sent me material regarding her uncle that she found among her father’s papers. Surrogates Court—Surrogates Court, New York County, New York City. Estate of Anita Suzanne Bickerman, File 2572-1998. Westermann Archive—William L. Westermann (1873–1954) was Professor of Ancient History at Columbia University. His correspondence is on deposit at the Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Manuscript and Archival Collections of Columbia University, New York. In addition, I have had the benefit of conversations with several of Bickerman’s friends and students. They include Emilio Gabba in Pavia, Italy, on March 13, 2006; Joseph Mélèze Modrzejewski in Paris on May 10, 2007; Fausto Parente in Rome on March 26–27, 2007; Burton Visotzky in New York on September 11, 2006. I met numerous times with Shaye J. D. Cohen in New York City and Jerusalem and with Hayim Tadmor (1923–2005) in Jerusalem, Israel. Because oral memories have a special character and are remarkably malleable, I have set these recollections of Bickerman in italics. In writing this paper, I have had in mind the model of the studies of Abraham Schalit by Daniel R. Schwartz, “On Abraham Schalit, Herod, Josephus, the Holocaust, Horst R. Moehring, and the Study of Ancient Jewish History,” Jewish History 2 (1987): 9–28; idem, “More on Scha­lit’s Changing Josephus: The Lost First Stage,” Jewish History 9 (1995): 9–20.

Hellenism and Judaism before and after World War II

5

possible but for the particular circumstances of the historian’s life.2 I believe that the case studies to be presented below are two examples, each in their own way, of Carr’s insight.

A. D. Momigliano (1908–87) I begin with Momigliano, because he was much more candid than Elias Bickerman about the impact of his life experience on his scholarship. For this reason, Momigliano suggests points to be investigated concerning Bickerman for comparison and contrast. Momigliano’s life story is well known from a number of essays in which he reflected on his past and its impact on his scholarship. In addition, there are many scholarly assessments, of which the most outstanding is by Peter Brown.3 Before the war, Momigliano wrote a number of studies on aspects of Judaism and Hellenism arguing, for example, that the Maccabean revolution was best understood as a civil war between Jewish factions, one group more Hellenizing and the other devoted to older values. The extreme Hellenizers, however, had gone too far, and the Maccabees had been victorious.4 This explanation anticipated the one proposed by Elias Bickerman in Der Gott der Makkabäer;5 not surprisingly, Bickerman reviewed Momigliano’s book in favorable terms.6 As Momigliano saw it at the time, No fully self-aware historian of the ancient world, that is, no person conscious of the fact of living in a civilization of Christian origin, can get away with the refusal to recognize that ancient history makes sense only when it is seen to evolve in such a way as to end naturally in the rise of Christianity.7

Later in life, reflecting on this period in a speech at Brandeis University in 1977, Momigliano noted candidly: “the need to put order between the Jewish and the Italian side of ourselves daily conditioned our life, besides filling our reading and our 2.  Edward H. Carr, What Is History? (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987). For the sake of intellectual honesty, equal attention should be paid to the well-argued attack on Carr mounted by Jack H. Hexter, “The Historian and His Society: A Sociological Inquiry, Perhaps, in Doing History (ed. J. H. Hexter; London: Allen & Unwin, 1971), 77–106. 3.  Peter Brown, “Arnaldo Dante Momigliano 1908–1987,” Proceedings of the British Academy 74 (1988): 405–42. Perhaps the most significant other study I have seen is Glen W. Bowersock, “Momigliano’s Quest for the Person,” in The Presence of the Historian: Essays in Memory of Arnaldo Momigliano (ed. Michael P. Steinberg; History and Theory: Studies in the Philosophy of History Supplement 30; Middleton, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1991), 27–36. 4.  Arnaldo D. Momigliano, Prime linee di storia della tradizione maccabaica (Turin: Chiantore, 1931). 5.  Elias Bickerman, Der Gott der Makkabäer (Berlin: Schocken, 1937). 6.  Idem, “Review of A. Momigliano, Prime linee di storia della tradizione maccabaica,” MGWJ 78 (1934): 310–12. 7.  Momigliano, as translated by and quoted in Brown, “Momigliano,” 408. I have been unable to find the source of the quotation.

6

Albert I. Baumgarten

conversation.”8 Just what sort of order it was can be inferred from his writings. As he stated explicitly, in reviewing Cecil Roth’s Gli Ebrei in Venezia: “Anyone reminding an Italian Jew of his Jewish background as opposed to his Italian one deserves the answer that, as history shows, the Hebrew tradition . . . is, indeed, what has made him Italian.”9 In practical terms, Momigliano embraced Fascism. De Sanctis had resigned his post in Rome in 1931, rather than take an oath of loyalty to the Fascist regime. Momigliano replaced De Sanctis in 1932, and then was appointed at Turin in 1936. I presume that both in Rome and in Turin, Momigliano was obligated to swear the oath that De Sanctis had refused to take, but apparently this oath of loyalty posed no bar to Momigliano at the time.10 In fact, Momigliano joined the Fascist party in November 1932. Before he made a final decision to emigrate, on November 3, 1938, Momigliano wrote to the Minister of Education stressing his loyalty (and that of his parents) to the regime and to Fascism, hoping that this would exempt him from the new racist legislation.11 As Bowersock has pointed out, in the 1930s, Momigliano thought he could accommodate the intellectual climate of the age with his own research. As a good Italian, he thought he could somehow make his peace with Fascism: the Jews would be a nation within a nation, both Italian and Jewish.12 In the end, however, Momigliano was obliged to flee Italy for England, where he arrived in April 1939.13 He had been desperate, appealing for help from M. Rostovtzeff (1870–1952) of Yale University in a letter dated October 13, 1938.14 An even more pathetic letter to William L. Westermann of Columbia, dated November 28, 1938, in which Momigliano offered to do anything possible, even teach Italian in high school just in order to get out of Italy, is in the Westermann archive at Columbia University.15 Once in England, Momigliano experienced numerous difficulties as 8.  Arnaldo D. Momigliano, “After-Dinner Speech on the Occasion of the Award of the Degree of D.H.L. H.C. at Brandeis University, 22 May 1977,” Ottavo contributo alla storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico (Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1987), 431. 9.  Idem, “Cecil Roth’s Gli Ebrei in Venezia,” in Essays on Ancient and Modern Judaism (ed. Silvia Berti; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 226. 10.  Brown, “Momigliano,” 410–11. 11.  See Giorgio Fabre, “Arnaldo Momigliano: Materiali biografici/2,” Quaderni di Storia 53 (2001): 309–20. 12.  Bowersock, “Momigliano’s Quest for the Person,” 35–36. 13.  Brown, “Momigliano,” 405. 14.  Momigliano was only one of many European scholars to turn to Rostovtzeff. For Momigliano’s letter in the framework of Rostovtzeff’s tireless efforts on behalf of refugee scholars, which likely cost Rostovtzeff his health, see Marinus A. Wes, Michael Rostovtzeff, Historian in Exile: Russian Roots in an American Context (Historia Einzelschriften 65; Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1990), 84–87. 15.  The Fascist regime openly embraced Nazi-German-style anti-Semitic racism, with the first series of laws passed in September and October 1938. A second series was passed in November 1938. The dates of Momigliano’s letters to Rostovtzeff, Westermann, and the Italian Minister of Education are therefore no accident.

Hellenism and Judaism before and after World War II

7

a refugee; he was interned;16 once released, he had to deal with the worries of living off research stipends and part-time jobs, with no real position until appointed first at Bristol in 1947, and then at University College, London, in 1951. In addition, his parents, Riccardo and Ilda Momigliano, fled to Nice in 1941, where they opened a boarding house. Presumably they chose Nice because it was in the Italian zone and felt safer there.17 Momigliano was in touch with them by letter until sometime in 1942,18 but after the war he learned that they were deported to Auschwitz, where they died at the end of 1943. Momigliano dedicated Alien Wisdom “Per mia madre/presente sempre nel suo vigile amore (Torino 1884—campo nazista di sterminio 1943) Ps. 79.2–3.”19 When one checks the verses in Psalms, they are powerful: “they have left Your servants’ corpses as food for the fowl of heaven, and the flesh of Your faithful for the wild beasts. Their blood was shed like