European Tourism Planning and Organisation Systems: The EU Member States 9781845414344

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European Tourism Planning and Organisation Systems

ASPECTS OF TOURISM Series Editors: Chris Cooper, Oxford Brookes University, UK, C. Michael Hall, University of Canterbury, New Zealand and Dallen J. Timothy, Arizona State University, USA Aspects of Tourism is an innovative, multifaceted series, which comprises authoritative reference handbooks on global tourism regions, research volumes, texts and monographs. It is designed to provide readers with the latest thinking on tourism worldwide and push back the frontiers of tourism knowledge. The volumes are authoritative, readable and user-friendly, providing accessible sources for further research. Books in the series are commissioned to probe the relationship between tourism and cognate subject areas such as strategy, development, retailing, sport and environmental studies. Full details of all the books in this series and of all our other publications can be found on http://www.channelviewpublications.com, or by writing to Channel View Publications, St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK.

ASPECTS OF TOURISM: 61

European Tourism Planning and Organisation Systems The EU Member States

Edited by Carlos Costa, Emese Panyik and Dimitrios Buhalis

CHANNEL VIEW PUBLICATIONS Bristol • Buffalo • Toronto

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data European Tourism Planning and Organisation Systems: The EU Member States/Edited by Carlos Costa, Emese Panyik and Dimitrios Buhalis. Aspects of Tourism: 61. Includes bibliographical references. 1. Tourism—European Union countries—Planning. 2. Tourism—European Union countries—Management. I. Costa, Carlos, 1964G155.E8E9755 2014 338.4'7914–dc23 2013046903 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN-13: 978-1-84541-433-7 (hbk) ISBN-13: 978-1-84541-432-0 (pbk) Channel View Publications UK: St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK. USA: UTP, 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA. Canada: UTP, 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario M3H 5T8, Canada. Copyright © 2014 Carlos Costa, Emese Panyik, Dimitrios Buhalis and the authors of individual chapters. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable forests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy, preference is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification. The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has been granted to the printer concerned. Typeset by Techset Composition India (P) Ltd., Bangalore and Chennai, India. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Short Run Press Ltd.

Contents

Figures Tables Acronyms Contributors 1

ix xvii xxiii xxvii

A Comparative Approach to European Tourism Planning and Organisation Systems: An Introduction Carlos Costa, Emese Panyik and Dimitrios Buhalis

1

Part 1: Northern Europe 2

Tourism in Denmark: From Ugly Duckling to Our Journey Janne J. Liburd and Peter Saabye Simonsen

13

3

Tourism in England: London 2012 Olympic Games and Beyond Steven Richards and Keith Wilkes

28

4

Finland Tourism Policies: From Helping to Build New State Identities to Branding a Modern Specific Destination Seppo K. Aho

44

5

Tourism Research, Policy and Practice in Ireland: Current Developments and Future Research Trajectories Denis Harrington, Anthony Foley and Tony Lenehan

61

6

Tourism in Sweden: Between a Social Project and Business Development Tommy D. Andersson

74

Part 2: Eastern Europe 7

Managing Tourism in Bulgaria: Between ‘Mission Impossible’ and New Hope Stanislav Ivanov and Miroslava Dimitrova v

87

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8 Developing Estonia as a Positively Surprising Tourist Destination Heli Tooman and Heli Müristaja 9 Tourism in Latvia: From Fragmented Resorts of the Russian Empire to a National Brand on an International Level Iveta Druva-Druvaskalne and Agita Lı¯vin¸a 10 Tourism Policy in Lithuania: Management of Permanent Transition Aušrine˙ Armaitiene˙ and Renata Bertuzyte 11 Tourism in Romania: From Centralised to Private Initiative, a Growth Path Rodica-Manuela Gogonea and Marian Zaharia

106

118 131

147

Part 3: Central Europe 12 Austria: Where Tourism Has Tradition Roman Egger, Jutta Novak and Werner Taurer

163

13 The Czech Republic: A Destination in the Heart of Europe Jarmila Indrová and Zdenka Petru°

183

14 Germany Tourism: Evolution, Structures, Challenges and Perspectives Judith Jochmann and Harald Pechlaner

198

15 Tourism Policy in Hungary: From Central Planning to Multi-Level Destination Management Emese Panyik and Tamara Rátz

225

16 Organisation of Tourism in Poland After 20 Years of Systemic Changes Grzegorz Gołembski and Agnieszka Niezgoda

243

17 Tourism in Slovakia: ‘The Best-Kept Secret in Europe’ Jana Kucˇerová and Tomáš Makovník

257

Part 4: Southern Europe 18 Strategic Planning in National Tourism Organisations: The Case of Cyprus Alexis Saveriades 19 Tourism Development and Policy in Greece Paris Tsartas, Andreas Papatheodorou and Magdalini Vasileiou

279 295

Content s

20 Tourism in Italy: ‘Work in Progress’ Mara Manente and Valeria Minghetti 21 Tourism in Malta: From the Knights of St John’s to an Independent State Heidi Pantzar and Emese Panyik 22 Tourism Planning and Organisation in Portugal Carlos Costa and Armando Luís Vieira 23 Tourism Planning and Organisation in Slovenia: From Cheap Destination Image to Sophisticated Offer Sonja Sibila Lebe 24 Spain: From the Mass Model to a New Tourism Economy Josep A. Ivars Baidal

vii

317

335 352

367 384

Part 5: Western Europe 25 Explaining Tourism Governance in Belgium: Quite a Balancing Act Anya Diekmann, Jeroen Bryon and Isabelle Cloquet

401

26 Strengths and Paradoxes of French Tourism Planning Vincent Vlès, Emmanuelle Marcelpoil and Isabelle Frochot

418

27 Luxembourg: Quality is Key Alan Clarke

432

28 Behind Windmills and Flower Bulbs: Tourism Policies in the Netherlands Jaap Lengkeek

445

29 Towards an Emerging Planning and Organisational Framework: Conclusions Carlos Costa, Emese Panyik and Dimitrios Buhalis

461

Figures

Figure 1.1 New linkages between development and governance: A procedural approach to European tourism planning and organisation

8

Figure 2.1 Regional map of Denmark

15

Figure 2.2 Bed nights 1992–2011 in millions

16

Figure 2.3 Bed nights and main nationalities 1992–2011, million

16

Figure 2.4 Development in international tourist arrivals, % change from 2000 to 2007

17

Figure 2.5 Institutional structure of Danish tourism

20

Figure 3.1 The structure of public sector tourism in Great Britain

32

Figure 4.1 Map of Finland: 20 regions (and six former state provinces, abolished in 2010)

46

Figure 4.2 Revenue from foreign tourism to Finland 2000–2009 and estimate for 2010–2020

49

Figure 4.3 Foreign tourists to Finland from the most important source countries in 2000–2009

49

Figure 5.1 Tourism: Public and private sector in the Republic of Ireland

64

Figure 5.2 Challenges for Irish tourism policy

66

Figure 6.1 The development of outgoing (import) and incoming (export) tourism in Sweden

76

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Figure 6.2 The growing importance of international incoming tourism for Swedish exports

77

Figure 7.1 Map of Bulgaria

88

Figure 7.2 Relationships, structure and levels of subordination between national, regional and local tourism organisations in Bulgaria (as of July 2012)

94

Figure 7.3 Tourist regions (destinations) in Bulgaria

98

Figure 8.1 Administrative division of Estonia

107

Figure 8.2 Foreign tourist bed-nights in Estonia and export of tourism services

109

Figure 9.1 Map of Latvia

119

Figure 9.2 Overnight travellers by type of transport used, 1998–2010 (%) 122 Figure 9.3 Tourist demand for accommodation, 1995–2011

123

Figure 9.4 Tourism planning and management in Latvia

125

Figure 10.1 Density of the population of the Republic of Lithuania

132

Figure 10.2 Priority regions of the development of tourism in Lithuania

137

Figure 10.3 Flows of visitors and tourists by year in Lithuania

138

Figure 10.4 Dynamics of the number of accommodation institutions in 1998–2009

139

Figure 10.5 Dynamics of visitors to tourist information centres in 2000–2009 (thousands)

139

Figure 10.6 Dynamics of tourist numbers in Lithuanian rural tourism homesteads

140

Figure 10.7 Tourism planning structure in the Republic of Lithuania

141

Figure 11.1 Evolution of tourist establishments

149

Figure 11.2 The structure of tourist establishments, 2000 and 2011

150

Figures

xi

Figure 11.3 Tourist arrivals and overnight stays in tourist reception establishments

150

Figure 11.4 Tourist arrivals in accommodation structure

151

Figure 11.5 Accommodation structure by types of property

152

Figure 11.6 Share of the number of tourist accommodation places by regions of interest units, 2011

152

Figure 11.7 The organisational structure of tourism management at central and regional levels

154

Figure 12.1 Map of Austria

164

Figure 12.2 Development of the number of tourism beds 1988–2009 (without extra beds, communal bunks and camping sites) 167 Figure 12.3 Development of overnight stays in Austria according to seasons (2002–2009)

168

Figure 12.4 Organisation of tourism in Austria

169

Figure 12.5 Organisation of tourism planning in Austria

170

Figure 12.6 Share of the Austrian market (Winter 2010)

173

Figure 12.7 The seven fundamental elements of an organisation

179

Figure 12.8 Tourism policy and administration

180

Figure 13.1 Map of the Czech Republic

184

Figure 13.2 Management of tourism in the Czech Republic

192

Figure 13.3 Regions of the Czech Republic

193

Figure 13.4 Tourist regions of the Czech Republic

194

Figure 14.1 Germany (including national borders, borders of federal states, coastline and low mountain ranges)

200

Figure 14.2 Source markets for inbound tourism to Germany according to number of overnight stays (2008) in millions and change compared to previous year (2007) in %

207

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Figure 14.3 Schematic illustration of the organisational structure of Germany tourism

213

Figure 14.4 Mid-term actions to be taken by the DZT

215

Figure 14.5 Tourism policy guidelines as outlined by the Federal Government

221

Figure 15.1 Map of Hungary

226

Figure 15.2 Regional distribution of guest nights in Hungary in 2010

229

Figure 15.3 Organisational structure of tourism in Hungary

233

Figure 16.1 The system of tourism organisation in Poland

253

Figure 17.1 Map of the Slovak Republic

258

Figure 17.2 Relationships among the organisations of the tourism sector in Slovakia

266

Figure 17.3 Tourism regions in Slovakia

271

Figure 18.1 Map of Cyprus

280

Figure 18.2 Cyprus tourism: Arrivals versus revenue, 1995–2010

284

Figure 18.3 Institutions and organisations that make up and/or have an effect on the Cyprus tourism system

287

Figure 19.1 Main Greek tourism products, resources and attractions

301

Figure 19.2 Levels of tourism planning and organisation at different spatial levels

306

Figure 19.3 Structure of the most important Greek tourism bodies

307

Figure 19.4 Structure of the GNTO

308

Figure 19.5 Synergies between the main tourism stakeholders in Greece at a national level

310

Figures

xiii

Figure 20.1 Map of Italy

318

Figure 20.2 Evolution of tourism arrivals in Italy, by origin, 1990–2010 (average annual % change)

321

Figure 20.3 Evolution of tourism nights in Italy, by origin, 1990–2010 (average annual % change)

322

Figure 20.4 Evolution of accommodation supply in Italy, by type, 2000–2010 (annual average % change)

324

Figure 20.5 Distribution of tourist flows and overnights stays in Italy, by origin and type of destination, 2010 (% values)

325

Figure 20.6 Organisation chart of the tourism sector in Italy

326

Figure 21.1 Map of Malta

337

Figure 21.2 The organisational structure of tourism in Malta

346

Figure 22.1 Location of Portugal in Europe

353

Figure 22.2 The tourism organisation in Portugal between the 1980s and 2000s

358

Figure 22.3 The tourism organisation in Portugal in the 2010s

360

Figure 22.4 International arrivals (thousands)

361

Figure 22.5 International arrivals: Tourists and excursionists (thousands)

362

Figure 22.6 Overnight stays by tourists in hotels and similar establishments (units)

362

Figure 22.7 Number of beds in hotels and similar establishments (units)

363

Figure 22.8 Overnight stays by tourists in hotels and similar establishments by region, 2011 (thousands)

363

Figure 23.1 Domestic and foreign tourist flows (1999–2010)

369

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European Tour ism Pl anning and Organisat ion Systems

Figure 23.2 GDP per capita (Purchasing Power Parity) in US$

371

Figure 23.3 Key strategic development documents, policies and regulations affecting Slovene tourism

374

Figure 23.4 Development of available tourist beds after entering the EU (EU funding)

377

Figure 23.5 Tourism organisation system

377

Figure 23.6 Shares of tourism arrivals and overnights by product group

378

Figure 24.1 Regional distribution of tourism demand in Spain (2010)

386

Figure 24.2 Evolution of international arrivals to Spain (in thousands)

387

Figure 24.3 Organisational chart of tourism bodies in Central Government (Spain)

392

Figure 24.4 The organisational chart of tourism bodies in the region of Valencia as an example of the regional administrative organisation of tourism

395

Figure 25.1 Map of Belgium

402

Figure 25.2 Evolution of the number of arrivals in accommodation establishments in Belgium

403

Figure 25.3 Geographical distribution of bed-spaces in hotels and similar establishments in Belgium

404

Figure 25.4 Tourism structures in Belgium

407

Figure 26.1 Proportion of stays and number of nights according to the destination visited (percentages)

420

Figure 26.2 Structure of French tourism organisation

424

Figure 26.3 The different generations of planning contracts (in billion euros)

426

Figure 28.1 Map of the Netherlands

446

Figures

xv

Figure 28.2 Holidays of the Dutch

454

Figure 28.3 Inbound tourism

454

Figure 28.4 Image of Holland as a leisure destination among visitors in 2008

456

Figure 29.1 Tourism planning and organisation: A product-based approach

466

Tables

Table 1.1 International tourist arrivals in the EU-27 (2009–2011)

4

Table 1.2 International tourism receipts in the EU-27 (2009–2011)

5

Table 1.3 Synopsis of the literature on comparative tourism policy analysis of EU member states

6

Table 2.1 Facts about Denmark

15

Table 2.2 Spending divided by nationality

16

Table 2.3 Key economic tourism figures (2006)

17

Table 2.4 Accommodation sector

18

Table 2.5 Tourism businesses in Denmark

19

Table 3.1 International visits to England: Value and volume of tourism to England

33

Table 3.2 Regional distribution of visitors to England

34

Table 3.3 Purpose of inbound visits to England

35

Table 3.4 Destination type in England

35

Table 3.5 Accommodation used in England

35

Table 3.6 Baseline forecast for England visitor economy at current prices, 2009–2020

36

Table 4.1 Tourism income in the Finnish economy

47

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Table 4.2 Total number of employees in certain sectors of the Finnish economy in 1995, 2001 and 2008 (’000s people)

48

Table 5.1 International tourism visitor numbers 2005–2011

64

Table 7.1 SWOT analysis of Bulgaria as a tourist destination (authors’ elaboration) 91 Table 7.2 Evolution of tourism management institutions in Bulgaria (1948–2012)

92

Table 7.3 Major national tourist associations in Bulgaria

97

Table 9.1 Tourist accommodation statistics, 1995–2011

121

Table 9.2 Characteristics of non-resident travellers, 2000–2011

122

Table 11.1 Gross value added (GVA) and gross domestic product (GDP) in hotels and restaurants compared with total economy (current prices)

153

Table 12.1 Local and regional matters of the Tyrolean tourist associations and cooperation at a supra-regional level

175

Table 13.1 Development of participation by the population of Czechoslovakia in outgoing tourism, 1970–1990

185

Table 13.2 Development of incoming tourism in the Czech Republic in total and in structure, 1970–1990

185

Table 13.3 Development of outgoing tourism in the Czech Republic, 1995–2011

186

Table 13.4 Development of incoming tourism in the Czech Republic, 1995–2011

186

Table 13.5 Development of foreign exchange receipts from international tourism in the Czech Republic, 1995–2011

187

Table 13.6 Development in the capacity of collective accommodation establishments in the Czech Republic, 2000–2011

188

Tables

xix

Table 13.7 Development of collective accommodation establishments by categories in 2001–2011

189

Table 13.8 Foreign guests in collective accommodation establishments in the Czech Republic by country, 2011

190

Table 14.1 Development of overnight stays for foreign guests in Germany, 1950–2008

202

Table 14.2 Balance of tourism travel in Germany, 1999–2009

204

Table 14.3 The tourism offer in Germany: A select sample

205

Table 14.4 Number of overnight stays for foreign and domestic guests in accommodation facilities (with at least nine beds, including campgrounds) and intensity of tourism according to state

206

Table 14.5 Organisational structures found in German tourism

210

Table 15.1 Key statistical figures for Hungarian tourism (2009–2010)

228

Table 17.1 Tourism development in Slovakia (2001–2011)

260

Table 17.2 Tourism incomes and expenditures in Slovakia (2001–2011)

262

Table 17.3 Organisation of the tourism sector in Slovakia

265

Table 18.1 Volume, value and characteristics of the Cyprus tourism industry

282

Table 19.1 Greece: international tourist arrivals at frontiers, 2000–2009

298

Table 19.2 International tourist arrivals at the main airports, January–June 2012/2011

298

Table 19.3 Evolution of the share of Greek tourism dynamics in the global and European market (2000–2011)

299

Table 19.4 Ranking of Greek tourism based on international tourist arrivals (2000–2011)

299

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Table 19.5 Non-residents’ arrivals by means of transport, January–December 2011

300

Table 19.6 Bednights in Greek tourism accommodation establishments, 2009–2010

300

Table 19.7 Main characteristics of inbound tourism in Greece

302

Table 19.8 Tourism employment in Greece 2000–2010

302

Table 19.9 Contribution of tourism economy to the GDP of Greece

302

Table 19.10 Hotel shares in Greece based on star classification

303

Table 19.11 Greece’s position in the international tourism market in terms of basic criteria

305

Table 19.12 Stakeholders’ analysis, 1976–2010: Level of stakeholders’ contribution and their involvement in tourism policy and development

311

Table 19.13 SWOT analysis of Greek tourism

313

Table 20.1 Evolution of tourism arrivals in Italy, by origin (absolute values)

321

Table 20.2 International tourism in Italy: Ranking of top 10 countries 2000–2010, according to 2010 ranking

323

Table 21.1 Hotels, accommodation and tourist arrivals, 1972–1987

339

Table 21.2 Total accommodation, 1976–2013

340

Table 21.3 Employment, hotel beds and arrivals, 1962–1999

341

Table 21.4 Hotels, tourist departures and cruise passengers, 2000–2013

342

Table 21.5 Tourist departures, 2008–2010

343

Table 21.6 Malta’s tourism offer

345

Table 23.1 Tourist flows in Slovenia since their best performance in 1986

369

Tables

xxi

Table 23.2 GDP per capita growth in Slovenia in the last decade (2000–2010)

370

Table 23.3 International arrivals by country (thousands): Main source markets

372

Table 23.4 Investment projects in tourism from 2004 to 2013 (financial perspective)

376

Table 23.5 SWOT analyses of Slovene tourism

382

Table 24.1 Tourism in Spain: Key figures

388

Table 24.2 Framework of tourism policy and planning in Spain

391

Table 27.1 Number of establishments and accommodation capacity, 2006–2008 (situation at 31 December 2008)

439

Table 28.1 Inbound tourism (arrivals) in the Netherlands by country of origin (thousands)

455

Table 28.2 Tourism organisations in the Netherlands

458

Acronyms

ALTA ANVV ANWB BIS BTA CAP CATPW CEN CERT CGT COCOF COCOM CSBL CTO CVB DCMS DMO DMP DNH DT DTI DTV DZT EAFG EAFRD EAS EC ECoC ECODES EDEN

Association of Latvian Tourism Agents Algemene Nederlandse Vereniging van Vreemdelingen Verkeer (General Dutch Association for Foreign Travel) Algemene Nederlandse Wielrijders Bond (General Dutch Bicycle Union) Business, Industry and Skills British Tourist Authority Common Agricultural Policy Centre d’Action Touristique des Provinces Wallonnes European Committee for Standardization The Council for Education, Recruitment and Training Commissariat général au tourisme Commission Communautaire Française Commission Communautaire Commune Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia Cyprus Tourism Organisation Convention and Visitor Bureau Department for Culture, Media and Sport Destination Management Organisation Destination Management Partnership Department of Heritage Directorate for Tourism Directorate for Tourism and Internationalisation Deutscher Tourismusverband German National Tourist Board (German: Deutsche Zentrale für Tourismus) European Agricultural Fund for Guarantee European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development Enterprise Estonia Foundation European Commission European Capitals of Culture Fundación Ecología y Desarrollo European Destinations of Excellence xxiii

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EEA EHE ENIT ERDF ESF ESPON ETB ETC ETC ETP ETS EU EURODITE EQF FDI FIT FRG FTA FTB GDP GDR GNTO GNP GRW GVA HNTO HRM ICCA ICT IGF IHI INFORGE IPO ISIT ISO IT ITIC KM LAG LEADER

European Economic Area Estonian Eco Tourism Label National Tourism Agency of Italy European Regional Development Fund European Social Fund European Observation Network for Territorial Development and Cohesion English Tourist Board English Tourism Council European Travel Commission European Transport Policy Emissions Trading Scheme European Union Regional Trajectories to the Knowledge Economy: A Dynamic Model (6th EU Framework Programme) European Qualifications Framework Foreign Direct Investment Free Independent Traveller Federal Republic of Germany Finnish Travel Association Finnish Tourism Board Gross Domestic Product German Democratic Republic Greek National Tourism Organisation Gross National Product Verbesserung der regionalen Wirtschaftsstruktur Gross Value Added Hungarian National Tourist Office Human Resources Management International Congress and Convention Association Information and Communications Technology General Inspectorate of Finance Irish Hospitality Institute Interindustry Forecasting Germany Interprovincial Arrangement (Interprovinciaal Overleg) Internet Tourist Information System International Organization for Standardization Information Technology Irish Tourism Industry Confederation Knowledge Management Local Action Group Liaison Entre Actions de Développement de l’Économie Rurale (‘Links between the Rural Economy and Development Actions’)

Acronyms

LTO MEET MI MICE MTA NATO NBT NBTC NGO NITB NTA NTC NTDP NTDS NTO/NTOM NSO NSSTD NUTS OECD OP OPT PATN PICTE PPP PPS PR PTO RDA RMD RT RTB RTC RTO RTP RTS SARS SEK SIP SIT SGR SME SPP STDL STF

xxv

Local Tourism Organisation Ministry of Economy, Energy and Tourism Ministry of Interior Meetings/Incentives/Conferences/Events Malta Tourism Authority North Atlantic Treaty Organization Nationaal Bureau voor Toerisme Netherlands Board of Tourism and Conventions Non-Governmental Organisation Northern Ireland Tourist Board National Tourism Administration National Tourism Council National Tourism Development Plan/Programme National Tourism Development Strategy National Tourism Organisation National Statistics Office National Strategy of Sustainable Tourism Development Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Operational Programme Office de promotion du tourisme Wallonie-Bruxelles National Spatial Plan Spanish Tourism Quality Plan, 2000–2006 Public Private Partnerships Purchasing Power Parities Public Relations Polish Tourist Organisation Regional Development Agency Regional Marketing Directorate Repartição de Turismo Regional Tourism Board Regional Tourism Committee Regional Tourism Organisation Regional Tourism Partnership Swedish Travel and Tourist Industry Federation Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Swedish Krona Special Interest Products Special Interest Tourism Self-government Region Small and Medium-sized Enterprises Sociedade de Propaganda de Portugal Tourism Board to State Tourism Department of Lithuania Swedish Tourist Club

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SWOT TAVA TDM TEM

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats Tourism Development State Agency Tourism Destination Management Työ- ja elinkeinoministeriö (Ministry for Labour and Industries)

TIC TPRG TRAM TRAB TRG TSA TSG TSIG UFTAA UIA UN UNESCO

Tourist Information Centre Tourism Policy Review Group Tourism Recreation Boosting Managers Tourism and Recreation Advisory Boards Tourism Renewal Group Tourism Satellite Accounts Tourism Sustainability Group Tourism Strategy Implementation Group United Federation of Travel Agents’ Association Union of International Association United Nations United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations World Tourism Organisation Verkehrsamt der Ostkantone Value Added Tax Visiting Friends and Relatives Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie World Economic Forum World Travel and Tourism Council World War I and World War II

UNWTO/WTO VAO VAT VFR VGC WEF WTTC WWI and WWII

Contributors

Seppo K. Aho is Professor of tourism at the University of Lapland, Finland where he established a new degree programme for tourism studies in 1994, the only one in this field at Finnish universities. His research interests cover the role of tourism in regional development, rural tourism, principles and practices of innovation and applications of models of experience economy in tourism. After his Masters and Licentiate degrees at the University of Helsinki Aho continued his PhD studies at University College London. He has taught as visiting professor at many foreign universities including Athens, Bologna, Florence, Gothenburg, Kaunas, Madrid, Pannonia, Petrozavodsk, Rome (La Sapienza) and San Francisco. As President of the Lapland Travel Society and Vice President of the Finnish Tourism Association he also has good contacts in practical tourism. Tommy D. Andersson is Professor in tourism and hospitality management in the School of Business, Economics and Law at Gothenburg University, Sweden, where he coordinates a master programme in tourism and hospitality management. He is also Professor II at the University of Stavanger in Norway. He received his PhD in managerial economics and has served as a professor in management accounting as well as a programme director at the European Tourism Research Institute in Sweden. His main research interests are impact analysis as well as event and festival management. Aušrine˙ Armaitiene˙ is Professor and Head of the Recreation and Tourism Department of Klaipeda University, Lithuania. Her current research interests lie in the area of tourism development in coastal territories, tourism policy, networking, sustainable tourism and local communities’ participation in tourism. She is the author and co-author of more than 40 scientific publications, dictionaries, handbooks and course books. She has been an invited expert, researcher and coordinator of 26 international EU projects, including research projects within the programmes Framework 5 and Framework 6. She is President of the Recreation and Tourism Educologists’ Association of xxvii

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Lithuania and a member of the scientific editors’ boards of international tourism journals. Renata Bertuzyte gained Bachelor and Masters degrees in recreation and tourism at Klaipeda University, Lithuania. After graduating from university she studied European business studies at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences (Germany). She has experience in tourism policy implementation, which was gained working for seven years (2003–2010) as a chief specialist in the Economic Development Department of Administration of a main resort of Lithuania – Palanga municipality. As a researcher she is interested in tourism policy and the problems of strategic planning, particularly city tourism development and management, and she delivers these courses at the Recreation and Tourism Department of Klaipeda University. Jeroen Bryon is the Chief of Strategy of Visit Flanders (Belgium) and an assistant professor at the Masters of Tourism at the University of Leuven (K.U. Leuven), Belgium, where he teaches on urban tourism and tourism policy. He also provides strategic support to the European Travel Commission. Previously, he was the CEO of the Flemish Center for Tourism Policy Studies, assistant professor in the Masters in Urban Planning (University of Brussels), visiting professor at the International Expeditions Summer School of Anthropology (Malta) and visiting professor at the Malawi Institute of Tourism. Dimitrios Buhalis is Professor of eTourism and Director of eTourism Lab at Bournemouth University. His research focuses on strategic management and marketing, tourism marketing, technology and eTourism. He has written or co-edited a total of 18 books and published more than 100 articles in scholarly journals, books, conference proceedings and consultancy reports. Professor Alan Clarke works at the Tourism Department of the University of Pannonia, Hungary. He has researched widely across Europe and the Pacific Rim, exploring the cultural aspects of and in tourism development. His interest in partnerships comes from his early experiences in community development in Sheffield and he reached tourism through the European funded DETOUR project – where he also met his co-author for the first time. Isabelle Cloquet is a Research Fellow at the Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Tourisme Territoires Sociétés at the Université Libre de Bruxelles. As such, she has contributed to several studies on urban tourism, with a particular focus on issues concerning Brussels. Her personal research interests include tourism and entrepreneurship, more particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Her PhD research seeks to develop an understanding of the dynamics of tourism development in Gabon, a country where tourism remains small

Contr ibutors

xxix

scale and is largely oriented toward domestic demand. Heritage interpretation and conservation as well as nature-based tourism are among her additional fields of interest. Carlos Costa is Full Professor of Tourism at the University of Aveiro and Editor of the Journal of Tourism & Development (Revista de Turismo e Desenvolvimento). Carlos is the leader of the Tourism Research Unit and of the PhD Tourism Programme of the University of Aveiro. His main research interests are tourism planning and management, organisations, networks, gender in tourism and education. Anya Diekmann is Assistant Professor (Chair of Cultural Tourism – Master de Gestion et Analyse du tourisme) and co-director of the research centre LIToTeS (Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire Tourisme, Territoires et Sociétés) at the Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Belgium. Her publications include work on social tourism and aspects of cultural tourism with a particular focus on heritage, urban and ethnic tourism. Miroslava Dimitrova has been Assistant Professor at International University College in Dobrich since 2009. She holds a PhD in the economics of tourism and hospitality from the University of National and World Economy, Sofia. Her working experience includes positions as an event manager, a journalist for a hospitality magazine and a technical assistant at the Ministry of Economic Development. Her research interests include conference tourism, event management, competitiveness in tourism, hotel management, international hospitality issues, destination management and marketing. She is the author of a number of articles about tourism and hospitality, one monograph dedicated to congress tourism competitiveness and is co-author of two textbooks on tourism. Iveta Druva-Druvaskalne is Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management at Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences, Latvia. She is a PhD student in environmental sciences. Roman Egger is a Professor at Salzburg University of Applied Sciences. He graduated in communications sciences and gained his doctorate from the University of Salzburg, Austria where he specialised in the fields of information and communication technologies in tourism. He then worked at the Tourism Board of Salzburg as a marketer. Roman advises on a number of national and international tourism projects and counsels several international eTourism-development activities. He has written and co-edited eight books and published a number of articles in books and journals. He is coeditor of the scientific journal Zeitschrift für Tourismuswissenschaft and is a member of the IFITT, DGOF, ÖGAF and DGT.

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Anthony Foley is Programme Director of the Fáilte Ireland BSc in Small Enterprise Management at Waterford Institute of Technology Department of Graduate Business. He has over 10 years’ management experience in tourism and has continued this interest into academic activity in a number of industry-focused initiatives. He is active in research on marketing and tourism strategy. He has published in a number of journals including the Journal of Strategic Marketing, European Journal of Marketing and Tourism and Hospitality Research, as well as writing cases, book chapters and practitioner articles. He is a member of the European Marketing Academy and the Marketing Institute of Ireland. He has also been involved in the National Tourism Learning Networks programme with Fáilte Ireland, which was recognised for an Excellence Award in Public Services in 2008. Isabelle Frochot is Maitre de Conferences at the University of Savoie, France. She completed her PhD at Manchester Metropolitan University, UK in 1999 and then worked as a lecturer in Scotland for five years. Her research interests included analysing tourists’ psychographic segmentation studies (benefit segmentation) and service quality scales in the context of historic sites. Since returning to France, Isabelle has moved her research focus to mountain tourism, conducting various studies on its image and exploring customer satisfaction dimensions. Her current interests include the study of the tourist experience, with a specific focus on flow, immersion, access conditions and satisfaction. Rodica-Manuela Gogonea is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Cybernetics, Statistics and Economic Informatics, Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania. She is a graduate of the Academy of Economic Studies (1995) and has a PhD in Economics (2006). Until 2007, she was an assistant and lecturer at the Faculty of Domestic and International Tourism, Romanian-American University, Bucharest. She is the author of five books and over 40 studies, reviewer of Economic Amphitheatre journal (ISI) and a member of the editorial board of the Journal of Tourism – Studies and Research in Tourism. Grzegorz Gołembski is Professor and Head of Tourism Chair of the Poznan ´ University of Economics, Poland. He is an author, co-author and scientific editor of such a books as Tourism Company Management – A Static and Dynamic Perspective, Tourism Company in Free Market Economy and Stimulation Methods of Tourism Development in a Special Formulation, A Tourism Compendium. He is a member of AIEST and the Tourism Research Center. Denis Harrington is Head of Graduate Business at Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland. He has extensive research and consultancy experience, having worked on research programmes with the European Commission in Eastern Europe and within the Russian Federation. He is a

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Council Member of the MBA Association of Ireland and the Irish Academy of Management. His work has been published in the International Journal of Tourism Research (Surrey Quarterly Review), European Journal of Management, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Services Industries Journal and the Thunderbird International Business Review, among others. He serves on the Editorial Board of the Services Industries Journal, the Irish Business Journal and the Irish Journal of Management. Jarmila Indrová is Head of the Tourism Department at the University of Economics, Prague, Czech Republic. She graduated from the University of Economics in Prague, where she also got her PhD. Her subject is economic sciences and she is employed as a senior lecturer in the Tourism Department. She specialises in hotel and catering management and sustainable tourism. She is also an author and co-author of many tourism textbooks and travel books. Stanislav Ivanov is Associate Professor and Vice Rector for Academic Affairs in International University College, Bulgaria. He holds a PhD in tourism economics from the University of Economics – Varna and is the editor-in-chief of the European Journal of Tourism Research. His research interests include destination marketing, tourism and economic growth, political issues in tourism, and special interest tourism. Dr Ivanov’s publications have appeared in various academic journals – Tourism Economics, Tourism Management, Tourism Today, Tourism, Journal of Economic Studies, Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans and the South-Eastern Europe Journal of Economics. Josep A. Ivars Baidal is Director of the Valencian Institute of Tourism Technologies (Invat.tur) in Spain. He is a doctor of geography and a member of the Tourism Research Institute of Alicante University, Spain. His current research focus is on tourism planning, public policies and innovation. Judith Jochmann is a Research Assistant in the Tourism Department at the Catholic University of Eichstaett-Ingolstadt, Germany. She earned her degree in geography (with an emphasis on leisure, tourism and environment), business management and journalism at the Catholic University of EichstaettIngolstadt. Before she joined academia she completed a professional training programme to work in the recreation and tourism business and worked for a tour operator in Germany for a number of years. Jana Kučerová is Associate Professor at the Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Faculty of Economics, Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica, Slovakia. She is involved in research and teaching activities in the field of tourism planning and policy and strategic planning on a regional and national level in Slovakia. She is a member of AIEST and a member of the Advisory

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Board of the Ministry of Transport, Construction and Regional Development of the Slovak Republic for the activities of the Slovak Tourism Agency. Sonja Sibila Lebe is Head of Tourism at the Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Maribor, Slovenia. She is a member of the Expert Committee of the National Tourism Organisation and head of the scientific board of the Multidisciplinary Research Institute Maribor, which delivers strategic documents to the Slovene Government (e.g. strategic papers on green tourism, the strategy of cultural tourism development, the strategy of gastronomy development, etc.). Tony Lenehan is a senior executive with Fáilte Ireland – the National Tourism Development Agency in Ireland – and has responsibilities for Education and Enterprise Development. His main areas of research interest include management competences and learning, strategic management, organisational development and change. Dr Lenehan has significant management experience within the tourism industry internationally and is an assessor with the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM). He has published his work in Irish and European journals and has contributed to a number of international tourism conferences. He holds an MSc (Trinity College), an MA from Lancaster University and a PhD from the University of Surrey. Tony is co-author of Managing Quality in Tourism and is a member of Excellence Ireland Quality Association. Jaap Lengkeek was Head of the Socio-spatial Analysis Group at the University of Wageningen from 2000 until his retirement in December 2008. He studied cultural anthropology and sociology at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. He was employed at the Faculty of Planning of the Free University of Amsterdam, the Institute for Preventive Medicine (TNO) in Leiden, the Foundation for Recreation in The Hague. Since 1985 he has worked at the University of Wageningen. In 2006 he became President of the Research Committee International Tourism (RC50) of the International Sociological Association. After his retirement in 2008 he started his own office, Jaap Lengkeek Scientific Research and Advice on Tourism, Heritage and Landscape. In 2010 he was appointed Rector Magnificus of NHTV University of Applied Sciences, Breda. Janne J. Liburd is Associate Professor and Director of the Centre for Tourism, Innovation and Culture at the University of Southern Denmark. She is a cultural anthropologist and her research interests are in the field of sustainable tourism development. She has published on epistemology, open innovation and Web 2.0, tourism education, quality of life, national park development, heritage tourism, tourism crisis communication, NGOs and accountability. Dr Liburd has conducted a number of research projects

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relating to competence development for tourism practitioners and tourism educators. She is the co-founder of the INNOTOUR platform and serves on several editorial boards. She is the past Chair of the B.E.S.T. Education Network (2005–2010). Agita Lı-vin¸a is Associate Professor in the Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management at Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences, Latvia. She holds a PhD in economics. Tomáš Makovník is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Faculty of Economics, Matej Bel University, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia. He is involved in teaching activities in the field of the technology of tourism services, congress services and designing of tourism facilities. His research focuses on the problem of regional tourism policy in Slovakia and Austria. Mara Manente is Director of CISET – Ca’ Foscari University (Venice), Italy. She has over 20 years’ experience in teaching and researching on the macroeconomics of tourism, the economic impact of tourism, tourism demand analysis and forecasting, transport and tourism and tourism statistics. She is a member of the UNWTO Steering Committee on Statistics, Macroeconomic Analysis of Tourism and Tourism Satellite Accounts and consultant for many national and international institutions (Eurostat, European Commission, etc.). Emmanuelle Marcelpoil is a researcher for IRSTEA and manages a research team specialising in the development of mountain territories. Her research works concern the tourism sector in mountainous areas, in particular the winter sports resorts. The objective is to question the productive organisation of tourism and the complexity of tourist dynamics. The first axis concerns the logic of the actors, productive as well as territorial, in which the articulation plays an essential role in understanding the dynamics of the tourist destinations, and the second axis concerns the anchoring of the resorts. The stake is to characterise the various types of trajectories for the ski resorts and their different dimensions. Valeria Minghetti is Senior Researcher at CISET – Ca’ Foscari University (Venice), Italy. She has over 15 years’ experience in teaching, researching and writing on tourism subjects and she has worked on a number of projects for national and international organisations (Eurostat, European Commission, UNWTO, etc.). Her main research interests include tourism demand analysis, the economic impact of tourism, the interconnections between tourism and transports, and the diffusion of innovation technologies in the tourism industry.

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Heli Müristaja is Lecturer in tourism management and Head of the Department of Tourism Studies at the University of Tartu – Pärnu College, Estonia. Her research focuses on tourism policy, destination planning, product development, innovation in tourism and tourism education. She has published several textbooks and articles and has contributed to many tourismrelated projects as an expert. Agnieszka Niezgoda has been Associate Professor at Uniwersytet Economiczny, Poznan, Poland since 2007. She obtained her PhD with a thesis entitled ‘New trends in marketing in hospitality’ in 1992. She finished the Habilitation in 2007 with her dissertation ‘Tourism destination in sustainable development conditions’. She is the author of several books and publications. Agnieszka has participated in scientific projects concerning the development of tourism in destinations. Her main research focus is on issues concerning sustainable development in tourism with new forms of tourism. Jutta Novak is a consultant at a global consulting agency specialising in human resource solutions. Previously, she worked as a junior consultant in the tourism and leisure industry, supporting tourism destinations while analysing the tourism and leisure market, developing strategic master plans, creating feasibility studies for touristic projects and developing quality programmes. Heidi Pantzar is an MA graduate of Bournemouth University, UK and FH Heilbronn, Germany, 2009, in European tourism management. Her research has focused on islands and tourism development and a case study of Malta. Her Bachelor dissertation focused on the seasonality problem and the English language sector and her Master dissertation was a case study of internal branding of the Maltese islands. Emese Panyik is Assistant Professor of Tourism at the Catholic University of Portugal (UCP), Braga Regional Centre. Her research interests include strategic tourism planning and management, integrated rural tourism, EU tourism policy, rural governance, local policymaking and partnerships and host community impacts of tourism. Andreas Papatheodorou is Associate Professor in industrial economics with emphasis on tourism at the School of Business Administration, University of the Aegean, Greece. He gained an MPhil in economics and a DPhil in geography at the University of Oxford and commenced his academic career at the University of Surrey. In 2009 he was recognised as an Emerging Scholar of Distinction by the International Academy for the Study of Tourism. His principal research interest is tourism, focusing on issues

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related to competition, pricing and corporate strategy in air transport and travel distribution, mostly in the Mediterranean region. Harald Pechlaner is the Chair of the Tourism Department at the Catholic University of Eichstaett-Ingolstadt, Germany. He has been president of the German Association of Tourism Research (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Tourismuswissenschaft, DGT e.V.) since November 2002. He is the author and editor of more than 40 books and approximately 140 articles in books and academic journals on tourism and strategic management in general. o

Zdenka Petru is Lecturer in the Tourism Department at the University of Economics Prague, Czech Republic. She graduated from the University of Economics in Prague. She specialises in travel agencies, the business of tour operators and social tourism. She is working as an expert of the Czech Republic in the ISO/TC228 (International Standardization Organization). She is also an author and co-author of many tourism textbooks. Tamara Rátz is Professor of Tourism and Director of the Institute of Tourism and Business Studies at the Kodolányi János University of Applied Sciences, Székesfehérvár, Hungary. She is also Visiting Professor at Karaganda University of Economic Sciences in Kazakhstan. She gained her PhD degree in Management Studies with a specialisation in Tourism from the Budapest University of Economic Sciences and Public Administration, Hungary. In addition to being Visiting Lecturer at HAMK University of Applied Sciences in Finland between 1995 and 2011, she has taught various tourism-related courses in Norway, the Netherlands, Poland, Bulgaria, the Ukraine, Romania and Turkey. She is the author or co-author of more than 150 publications on tourism, including a number of books on the impacts of tourism, attraction and visitor management, and health tourism and quality of life. She is actively involved in consultancy in tourism education and destination development, both in Hungary and abroad. Her current research interests include cultural and heritage tourism development and management, creativity and innovation in niche tourism development, and the role of tourism as a catalyst in European integration. Steven Richards is Senior Lecturer in the School of Tourism at Bournemouth University. Steve teaches across a number of units at undergraduate and masters levels, and his areas of research interest include tourism development, visitor attractions and the visitor experience. Before moving into academia, Steve worked as a travel and tourism consultant, working for both the public and private sectors. Peter Saabye Simonsen is the manager of the national Centre for Tourism and Experience Research of the Danish Business Academies, Denmark. He

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is the former CEO for the DMO of Southern Denmark, which covers the biggest tourism region in Scandinavia. He has worked as managing partner and tourism consultant for 17 years. His areas of expertise include tourism planning, destination development and competence development, MICEtourism and special interest tourism. Peter has published on MICE-tourism, fishing and cycling tourism, destination development, crisis management and innovation in clusters. His current interests are the development of human resources and competences as integrated elements of national and regional tourism planning. Alexis Saveriades is Assistant Professor of tourism policy, planning and development at the Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus. He earned his PhD, MSc and BSc degrees in the fields of tourism and hospitality from Surrey University. Furthermore, he studied in the field of strategic management at Cornell University. Since 1993 he has taught in Cyprus and Greece in undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. He currently serves on the Board of Directors of the Cyprus Tourism Organisation where he also heads the 2011–2015 strategic planning team. His research activities focus on strategic planning/policy formulation for the development of tourism, tourism impacts, and tourism carrying capacity. Werner Taurer is shareholder and partner as well as senior consultant of Kohl & Partner Tourismusberatung GesmbH and can look back on more than 25 years of experience as a consultant in the field of tourism and the leisure industry. For the past two years he has also been Head of Department for marketing of the Innovation and Management in Tourism study course at Salzburg University of Applied Sciences, Austria. Werner studied international business studies at Vienna University and is a certified organisation developer. Heli Tooman is Senior Lecturer of tourism management at the University of Tartu – Pärnu College, Estonia. Her research focuses on destination development, marketing, quality in tourism, wellness and spa service design, customer service and tourism education. She has published several tourism textbooks, chapters in international tourism books, articles and tourism dictionaries, and has contributed to many tourism-related projects as an expert. Paris Tsartas is the Rector of the University of the Aegean, Greece. He is Professor of tourism development in the Department of Business Administration, in which he served as Head during the periods 2001–2003 and 2007–2009. He holds a PhD in sociology, an MA in regional development at Pantion University, Greece and a diploma in economics at the University of Piraeus, Greece. He is Head of the Department of Tourism Economics and Management and also Director of the Laboratory for Tourism Research and Study (ETEM) at the University of the Aegean. He was Director of the

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Interdepartmental Program of Postgraduate Studies in Tourism Planning, Management and Policy (2002–2009). Magdalini Vasileiou is a PhD student at the University of the Aegean, Greece focusing on special interest tourism. She holds an MSc in tourism planning, management and policy. She is a member of the Laboratory of Tourism Research and Studies (University of the Aegean) where she participates in tourism-related projects. Since 2006 she has been lecturing on tourism development, business strategy and impacts and the ethics of tourism at private colleges. Armando Luís Vieira teaches at the University of Aveiro, Portugal, where he also serves as a director and vice-director of undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in the area of tourism management and planning. His research interests include the areas of services marketing, tourism and hospitality management, and psychology. He is the author of a range of books and articles on these and related subjects. Recent publications have appeared in the International Journal of Tourism Research, Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing and the Journal of Sexual Medicine. Before joining the academic community he worked in the banking sector, namely in the commercial area for both individual and corporate clients. Vincent Vlés born in 1956, Vincent Vles is a full professor of tourism planning at the University of Pau, France. He worked for 30 years on the development and restructuring of resorts and tourism areas. He has systematically analysed and theorised in many books and scientific articles. All his scientific research is concerned with policies dealing with economic and social impacts and development operations in the face of changes in the social field. His work confronts the trajectories of tourist places and questions of globalisation and public policy: resorts’ adaptation strategies to climate change, territorial implications of activities diversification, new modes of governance and territorialisation. Keith Wilkes currently Dean of the School of Tourism at Bournemouth University, UK, Keith Wilkes’ career has taken him from University College, Swansea to the University of Liverpool and then to BU. He is a Fellow of both the Royal Geographical Society and the Tourism Society. His research focuses on tourism development, visitor attractions, heritage management and tourism education. His PhD supervision has covered a range of topics including nature-based tourism, visitor motivation and behaviour at garden attractions and World Heritage Sites, the social impacts of the 2008 UEFA Championship, urban regeneration and the 2012 Olympics, the values of UK heritage providers and consumers and attitudes to tourism and climate change. He has been a member of the Association

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for Tourism in Higher Education (ATHE) Executive Committee since 1990 and a Quality Assurance Agency Subject Specialist Reviewer. He has endeavoured to play a significant role in the development of tourism education in the UK. Marian Zaharia is Professor in the Faculty of Economic Studies, Petroleum & Gas University, Ploiesti, Romania. He is a graduate of the Academy of Economic Studies (1981), has a PhD in Economics (1994), Dean of the Faculty of Economic Science, ‘George Baritiu’ University, Brasov (1997– 2003), Vice Dean of the Faculty of Domestic and International Tourism, Romanian-American University, Bucharest (2004–2009). He is the author of 19 books and university courses and over 95 articles and studies, as well as being a reviewer of Economic Amphitheatre journal (ISI) and a member of the editorial boards of the journals indexed in international databases.

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A Comparative Approach to European Tourism Planning and Organisation Systems: An Introduction Carlos Costa, Emese Panyik and Dimitrios Buhalis

Tourism and Economic Recovery in the European Union Europe is facing an unprecedented crisis. The challenge of bringing together different economies and creating an enlarged economic market capable of boosting social and economic growth and competing with the giant American and Asian economies has pushed Europe into crisis. The need to create a single currency in order to help sustain a single economic market has driven Europe into crisis. Nowadays, the 27 European Union (EU) economies have to work together, supported by the same common financial policy. This ‘advantage’ has taken the EU economies to a level of competition and fiscal harmonisation that they were not prepared for. However, despite the hardships of these challenging times, tourism is one of the few sectors of the world economy that continues to expand. Following a decline of 4% in 2009 suffered under the impacts of the global economic recession, international tourist arrivals grew by 6.4% in 2010 and 4.6% in 2011, reaching 983 million arrivals (UNWTO, 2012). Tourism has again confirmed its remarkable capacity for recovery, witnessed on previous occasions such as after the 9/11 attacks in 2001 and the 2003 SARS outbreak. Regional differences, however, have shown that the impacts of political crisis may be more detrimental to tourism than those of the economic crisis. In 2010, the fastest regions to recover were the Middle East (14%) and Asia and the Pacific 1

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(13%), while Europe’s recovery (+3%) was slower than in other regions (UNWTO, 2011). A year later, the opposite trend could be observed. In 2011, Europe was the fastest growing region in the world (+6.2%), with Asia and the Pacific slightly behind (6.1%), and the Middle East suffering a significant decline (−8%) together with North Africa (−9%) due to escalating political conflicts. Notably, the UNWTO identifies European growth both in relative terms (as compared to other regions) and in absolute terms (in number of visitors) as a key trend in 2011. Certainly, Europe grew above expectations, particularly in light of the fact that the EU is still struggling with the sovereign debt crisis and the subsequent uncertainties in the Eurozone. Yet, while the UNWTO includes Turkey, Russia, the post-Soviet states and the Balkans in Europe, it is the EU that accounts for the overall majority of growth in international tourist arrivals and share of international tourism receipts registered in Europe (UNWTO, 2012). Perhaps the main conclusion one can draw from the impacts of the global financial crisis on European tourism is that EU residents do not give up on prioritising holiday travel even in times of economic recession. Specifically, while the length of stay of tourism trips has shortened and the number of business trips has dropped significantly since 2008, the number of holiday trips has remained roughly the same (EUROSTAT, 2012). Also, the accommodation sector has shown a clear recovery by 2011. The number of nights spent in hotels and similar establishments by tourists in the EU was well above the previous peak registered in 2007. Furthermore, various countries with significant tourism potential wait at the EU’s door for admission. The largest expansion in its history was experienced in 2004 by the accession of 10 Central and Eastern European countries together with Malta and Cyprus. As part of the same wave of enlargement, Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007, at which time the EU reached its current number of 27 member states. Yet Croatia’s accession on 1 July 2013 may be just the overture of a potential new wave of EU expansion in the Western Balkans. Albania and most successor states of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, including Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia, have adopted EU integration as a strategic aim of their foreign policy and have recently been granted official candidate status (European Commission, 2010). Furthermore, although the accession agreement with Turkey has frequently been called into question, the country has persistently sought membership for three decades. Together with Iceland, which suffered an economic collapse in 2008, both countries have preserved their official candidate status. The current debt crisis, however, has shown the limitations of a currency union without a common fiscal policy, and has driven the EU to the crossroads of structural change. In order to be able to effectively coordinate an increased number of diverse member states, it has become evident that the EU must first settle some fundamental structural issues of European legitimacy (Heinrich Böll Foundation, 2011).

A Comparat ive Approach to European Tour ism Pl anning : Introduc t ion

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While the financial crisis has impacted most significantly on Ireland and the EU’s southern periphery (the so-called PIIGS1), it is these countries that constitute some of the main tourism destinations in Europe. In fact, at least five out of the top 10 international destinations have traditionally been, and still are, EU members (France, Spain, Italy, the UK and Germany). It is also important to mention that Turkey, one of the main aspirants, was sixth in the ranking by international tourist arrivals in 2011 (UNWTO, 2012). These five member states are also among the top 10 tourism earners and, except for Spain, the top 10 biggest tourism spenders in the world. International tourist arrivals and international tourism receipts between 2009 and 2011, broken down into the 27 member states, are presented in Tables 1.1 and 1.2. The top five European countries lead the ranking of countries in the EU-27 under both measures, but these data further indicate that the highest growth in international tourist arrivals (