English Stylistics: A Cognitive Grammar Approach 3031225554, 9783031225550

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ENGLISH STYLISTICS A Cognitive Grammar Approach

ZEKI HAMAWAND

English Stylistics

Zeki Hamawand

English Stylistics A Cognitive Grammar Approach

Zeki Hamawand University of Kirkuk Kirkuk, Iraq

ISBN 978-3-031-22555-0    ISBN 978-3-031-22556-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover illustration: Design © eStudioCalamar, image © Westend61 / Getty Images This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

To the souls of my parents

Prologue

English Stylistics: A Cognitive Grammar Approach proposes a new model for carrying out textual analysis in English, no matter whether the text is literary or non-­ literary. Theoretically, the study hinges on the central assumptions of Cognitive Linguistics and Cognitive Grammar. One assumption relates the structure of language to human cognition. Applied to stylistics, the study shows that stylistic patterns reflect fundamental properties of the human mind. Another assumption links linguistic choices with cognitive preferences. Extended to stylistics, the study shows that stylistic choices are the result of cognitive processes in the human brain. A further assumption associates linguistic expressions with dimensions of construal. Relevant to stylistics, the study shows that stylistic alternatives are not on an equal footing. Each alternative serves a different communicative purpose. So, each alternative has a special function. Practically, the study builds on actual data, linking the speaker’s knowledge of linguistic expressions to their situated instances of use. One crucial dictum in the cognitive approach to language is that knowledge of language arises out of language use and is influenced by context.

Topic Speakers and writers have thoughts and emotions. To convey them, they use language as it is the most powerful medium of communication. Language provides a well-developed means of conveying information and expressing attitudes. It is a set of symbols, spoken or written, combined into meaningful patterns to meet the growing needs of humans. When speakers and writers intend to convey a thought or emotion to a listener or reader, a mental representation underlies the intention. The intention to convey a thought or emotion is what determines the speaker’s or the writer’s choice of expressions. One wonderful trait of humans is the capacity to describe the same situation in different ways. This entails stylistic variation, that is, different ways of speaking and writing. Variation is inherent in human language. It means altering lexical items or syntactic structures to match discourse needs or to vii

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Prologue

adapt language use relative to the situation. It means making stylistic choices in language use depending on one’s purpose in communication. The alternation in patterns of language use equates with creativity, and not with ungrammaticality as some people think. An examination of some data shows that language users, speakers, and writers use a variety of stylistic structures in describing a situation, as illustrated by the following expressions: (1) a. Frank hitched a lift to Leeds from a passing car yesterday. b. A lift, Frank hitched to Leeds from a passing car yesterday. c. To Leeds, Frank hitched a lift from a passing car yesterday. d. From a passing car, Frank hitched a lift to Leeds yesterday. e. Yesterday, Frank hitched a lift to Leeds from a passing car. The expressions cited in (1) have the same content, but they differ primarily in the order in which the words appear. The information is the same, but the message is expressed in different ways. The different forms of the expressions highlight different aspects of the message. The expressions are normally used to make statements, but they take different word orders. The element which occupies the first position in each expression is different. Since the first position is important for both speaker and hearer, the element holding it becomes the focus of attention. It lays the foundation for the hearer’s mental representation of how the message will unfold. The (1a) expression has a typical word order, which is traditionally known as canonical. In this unmarked form, the first position is occupied by Frank. The (1b– e) expressions have an atypical word order, which is traditionally known as non-­ canonical. In this marked form, the first position is occupied by different elements: in (1b) it is a lift, in (1c) it is to Leeds, in (1d) it is from a passing car, and in (1e) it is yesterday. The different arrangements of the words in the expressions thus serve different needs of discourse. From a cursory reading of the expressions in (1), one can conclude that there is a difference in the message of the writer which is exhibited by different choices of word order or different stylistic structures. The expressions demonstrate the phenomenon of alternation, the case where two, or more, expressions share the same content but exhibit semantic dissimilarity. In this regard, two questions are posed. The first is: is the alternation between the expressions free or motivated? The second is: if motivated, what factors lie behind the choice of one stylistic alternative over another? To answer these questions, I propose a new approach to style that rests on the tenets of Cognitive Linguistics in general and Cognitive Grammar in particular, both of which give meaning a central position in language. The cognitive approach is chosen because it provides powerful tools to study the intricacies of stylistic structures coherently. It explains stylistic alternatives in terms of cognitive processes. Alternations in style spell alternations in meaning. Each alternative has a special discourse function.

Prologue

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Aims Stylistics enjoys prominence in modern scholarship. Stylistics is taught and researched in university departments of language, literature, and linguistics the world over. Within the broader discipline of stylistics, Cognitive Stylistics is an essential development. It takes up the mind as the basis for stylistic analysis. It views all forms of language as being rooted in human cognitive mechanisms. The current study has specific aims to attain. It improves students’ general linguistic performance and analytical skills. It increases students’ awareness of variations in style and how they are related to mental operations and employed to achieve particular effects. The study is suitable for undergraduate students taking modules in stylistics, English language, and linguistics. It provides essential reading for students in a wide range of areas within linguistics, literary studies, and cognitive science. It is suitable for postgraduates delving deeper into the field. In the same vein, stylistics enjoys particular pride of place in language teaching and language learning. Moreover, it forms a core component of many writing courses due to its emphasis on techniques of creativity in language.

Acknowledgments

This textbook represents research into Cognitive Stylistics, which is the current trend in contemporary stylistics. In the course of preparing the textbook, several people have contributed directly or indirectly to its evolution. First and foremost, I would like to thank the following linguists who have read and provided invaluable feedback on individual parts of the work: Geoffrey Nathan, Margaret Nathan, Clay Walker, Clara Neary, Billy Clark, and Mick Short. In spite of their help, I take full responsibility for any errors. A special debt of gratitude goes to Cathy Scott, the Executive Editor of Language and Linguistics, at Palgrave Macmillan, for her indispensable advice and prudent guidance, which helped to make this a better book than it would otherwise have been. Likewise, thanks are due to the staff of Macmillan India Ltd. for the attentiveness and professionalism which they showed in the production process of the work. Zeki Hamawand

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Contents

1

Key Concepts��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1

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Historical Overview ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   15

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The Cognitive Framework����������������������������������������������������������������������   31

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The Idealization Theory��������������������������������������������������������������������������   47

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The Contextualization Theory����������������������������������������������������������������   69

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The Configuration Theory����������������������������������������������������������������������   91

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The Experientialism Theory ������������������������������������������������������������������  117

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The Conceptualization Theory ��������������������������������������������������������������  143

Epilogue ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  167 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  175

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List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 2.5 Table 2.6 Table 2.7 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 8.1 Table 8.2

Expository versus persuasive writing styles����������������������������������������� 5 Narrative versus descriptive writing styles������������������������������������������� 6 Rhetoric Stylistics versus Poetic Stylistics����������������������������������������� 17 Expressive Stylistics versus Psychological Stylistics������������������������� 18 Practical Criticism versus New Criticism������������������������������������������� 20 Reader-response Stylistics versus Affective Stylistics����������������������� 21 Structural Stylistics versus Generative Stylistics������������������������������� 23 Functional Stylistics versus Cognitive Stylistics�������������������������������� 25 Stylistic trends������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 27 Realism versus Idealization���������������������������������������������������������������� 50 Cognitive models�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67 Textualism versus contextualism�������������������������������������������������������� 73 Exophora versus Endophora��������������������������������������������������������������� 88 Types of deixis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 89 Dictionary theory versus domain theory�������������������������������������������� 96 Stylistic devices�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 115 Rationalism versus experientialism�������������������������������������������������� 122 Forms of conceptual structure���������������������������������������������������������� 140 Reference theory versus construal theory����������������������������������������� 148 Dimensions of construal������������������������������������������������������������������� 164

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Chapter 1

Key Concepts

Key Objectives • Introduce students to the concept of style, touching upon its keystones, qualities, and modes. • Train students in the field of stylistics, bringing to light its axioms, goals, and levels. • Instruct students in the use of stylistic devices, covering their properties, advantages, and types.

Introduction Before dwelling on any linguistic discipline, it is important to introduce the primary key concepts related to it. It is useful to define the key concepts to understand how stylistics has emerged as an approach to the analysis of language. Each concept is subject to different definitions. There is surprisingly little consensus over definitions. The definitions apply to both literary and non-literary texts. Defining the key concepts is important for two reasons. First, it shows that the writer knows what the topic is about. Second, it ensures that the reader gets a better understanding of the topic. Both writers and readers should be aware of these key concepts. By providing concise and precise definitions, there will be no misunderstanding. The three frequently encountered key concepts pertain to style, stylistics, and stylistic devices. Style is the distinctive way of using language. A different style always yields a different effect. Stylistics is the study of style in language. It is the study of distinctive expressions in language. Stylistic devices refer to a variety of techniques used in language to create meaning. The use of these techniques is motivated by the writer or inspired by the occasion.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7_1

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1  Key Concepts

Style Communication is carried out via speaking, writing, and signing. Writing, our concern here, serves to express thoughts and emotions clearly and effectively and keep the reader attentive and interested. The quality of writing depends upon the style adopted, which measures the strength of the argument. Style is the manner of writing; how a writer uses the resources of language to convey meaning to the reader. The style involves a link between form and meaning. The form is motivated by meaning. It subsumes choices that signal distinction in meaning. It includes the choice of lexical items, grammatical structures, graphological signs, and figures of speech in a text. It is the particular form of language used in a given context or a particular situation. This implies that there are different styles in different situations or the same situation can produce a stylistic variation. So, style can be seen as a variation in language use. It is the sum of linguistic features peculiar to or characteristic of a writer. It is the voice that comes across to the reader. Every writer has a peculiar style. The writing style is then the determinant that sets one writer apart from another. The science that studies style is referred to as Stylistics.

Keystones 1. Style is the manner in which language is used, so it is related to parole rather than langue. It belongs to the plane of form and not to the plane of content. It is how the form stands for the content. It is the mode in which a writer addresses a matter. It is a product of social interactions and an outlet for the writer’s conceptualizations. The sentence I would get the operation if only I had the money expresses a wish, with emotional content. It is used to wish that something was true or something had happened. The sentence I would get the operation only if I had the money expresses a strong condition, without emotional content. It is used to state the only condition in which something can happen. 2. Style is unique to every writer. It is an individual manner of making use of language. It is a mark of individuality: the quality that makes a writer different from others. It can be used in the process of identifying a writer. It reveals a writer’s personality. It is a set of characteristics by which we distinguish one writer from another. Writers’ styles often manifest in word choice, punctuation, sentence structure, tone, sensory details, figurative language, and sound devices. Developing a unique writing style will help a writer attract new readers as well as improve the fan base. It can have a great impact on the readers. 3. Style consists of choices made from the repertoire of language. The choices serve to communicate meaning. Writers make their choices in various ways and for various reasons: based on personal preferences, discourse strategies, or constraints imposed by situations. A writer’s style is known by the choice of words, patterns, and structures. An event involving an actor, action, and patient can be coded by either an active or a passive style, as in She wrote a book and A book

Qualities

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was written, respectively. Each stylistic choice gives a different impression of the event. In the active, emphasis is placed on the actor. In the passive, it is placed on the patient. 4. Style abounds in deviation. It is the use of language which violates grammatical rules. It is a departure from what is taken as common practice. It is an intentional selection of linguistic patterns outside of the range of normal language. The writer deliberately departs from accepted norms to make a part of a text prominent. In English, a canonical clause is linguistically simple, consisting of a subject, a verb, and a complement, as in A house stood on the hill. In On the hill stood a house; however, there is a violation of a canonical clause as the complement, here the prepositional phrase, is placed at the beginning for emphasis. 5. Style contains stylistic devices which writers use to make their write-ups engaging. Stylistic devices are various techniques that writers make use of to tell their story in a very interesting way. They add variety, energy, and excitement to the story, grip the reader’s imagination, convey information, and produce a special effect in the writing. To make the meaning of a piece of writing richer, deeper, and more significant, some writers employ the stylistic device of symbolism: the use of an object, person, or situation to represent a concept, as in the word dove which is a symbol of peace and love in most cultures.

Qualities Writing has a goal that it intends to achieve. The goal might be to impart information, persuade someone, entertain people or narrate a story. Although there are no hard and fast rules about writing, there are essential qualities for a good piece of writing. The qualities may vary depending on the writer and the context. The qualities apply to all types of writing styles and are universally regarded as best practices. They make writing powerful. They fit together neatly and lead the reader inescapably toward the goal. That is, it responds to the interests and needs of its intended audience and at the same time, reflects the writer’s competence. Below are the basic qualities that are required in good writing: 1. For a piece of writing to be successful, it should focus on a central idea and avoid going off on a tangent. The idea should be relevant and interesting, being the heart of the text. This helps to maintain a sense of flow and unity in the writing. Additionally, it makes sure that the reader follows along with ease; and does not get lost in the details. 2. For a piece of writing to be considered well-crafted, it should have an elegant and neat organization. The paragraphs should be arranged in an order that is simple to follow, easy to understand, and fun to read. The paragraphs should support or expand the central idea. The text flow should be a smooth sail rather than a road full of bumps. 3. For a piece of writing to be effective, it should include accurate, appropriate, and memorable word choices, producing a graceful text that keeps the reader’s atten-

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tion. A piece of writing avoids unnecessary words and fillers because they distract the reader. A good word choice greatly contributes to the clarity and readability of a text. 4. For a piece of writing to be powerful, it should be grammatically correct. It has to obey the essential rules of grammar and conform to the conventions of standard written English. It should follow the basic standards of punctuation, capitalization, spelling, and so on. It should be edited with care to ensure that the work is error-free. 5. For a piece of writing to be well-founded, it should be readable. Readability is the ease with which a reader can understand a written text. The readability of a text depends on its content and its presentation. A readable work is grammatically sound and stylistically clear. It is the use of language in such a way as to communicate facts and ideas.

Modes A writing style is a manner of expressing thought in language characteristic of an individual, period, school, or nation. A writing style is manifested in texts. A text is the observable product of a writer’s or speaker’s discourse. A text has two meanings. One is linguistic which is conveyed by the language patterns inside the text. The other is non-linguistic which is conveyed by the world experiences outside the text. Every text is marked by a particular form, content, or style. Form refers to the structure of a text used to organize information and suit its purpose. Content refers to the topic that a text deals with. Style refers to the way a text is written. It can be seen as the distinctive manner of using language to attain a purpose. The distinctiveness resides in the motivated choice of items, along with their patterning in a text. It involves variation in language use, whether literary or non-literary. One implication of this distinctiveness is that there are different styles in different texts. Some texts may explain how something works, persuade people to agree with certain viewpoints, narrate a story, or describe a scene. There are four fundamental modes of writing style: expository, persuasive, narrative, and descriptive.

Expository In the expository mode of writing style, the writer explains, clarifies, and illustrates a particular topic to the readers. The main purpose is to provide insight and instruction that pertain to the topic. An expository text is meant to provide information. The writer informs the readers of a specific topic, using words that clearly show what the writer is talking about. It is impersonal and unbiased; the writer does not voice his or her personal opinions. An expository writing style furnishes the readers with a lucid, balanced, and fair explanation of a topic, equipped with facts and

Narrative

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figures. The writer intends to inform the readers about a topic that they know little about. It lists events in chronological order or a logical sequence. That is why it is also called an informative writing style. An expository style of writing is more formal and straightforward, so casual language is not acceptable. Common examples of expository writing include textbooks, essays, newspaper and magazine articles, how-to manuals, and assembly instructions.

Persuasive In the persuasive mode of writing style, the writer attempts to persuade the readers concerning his or her opinions. The purpose is to influence the thoughts and actions of the readers. The writer takes a stand and asks the readers to align with his or her point of view. To do so, the writer provides arguments, reasons, and justifications that support his or her stated point of view or arguments that contradict the reader’s point of view. It often asks readers to do something about the situation. This is called a call to action. A persuasive writing style must be clear and concise, but it can also be a bit more forceful to help convince the reader. It does not rely on facts but specific details. That is why it is also called an argumentative writing style. Common examples of persuasive writing include recommendation letters, complaint letters, cover letters, political speeches, advertisements or commercials, marketing brochures, newspaper opinions, and editorial pieces (Table 1.1).

Narrative In the narrative mode of writing style, the writer tells a story, having a timeline or a sequence of events. It has a plot with a setting, characters, point of view, theme, symbolism, and conflict. It has definite and logical beginnings, intervals, and endings. The purpose is to entertain the reader. The writer creates different characters and tells the readers what happens to them. In some cases, the writer adopts the viewpoint of one of the characters. This is known as first-person narration. By using imagery, the writer wants the reader to imagine the characters, scenes, and setting to become part of the story’s world. Common examples of narrative writing include short stories, novels, poetry, (auto)biographies, myths, legends, fables, sagas, and screenplays.

Table 1.1  Expository versus persuasive writing styles Expository 1. It is a mode of style in which the writer tries to communicate information. 2. It is unbiased and objective. 3. It presents facts and figures.

Persuasive 1. It is a mode of style in which the writer argues for something, supported with specific details. 2. It is biased and subjective. 3. It presents opinions, arguments, and justification.

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Descriptive In the descriptive mode of writing style, the writer describes an event, a person, a place, or a situation in great detail. The writer visualizes what he or she sees, hears, tastes, smells, and feels. The purpose is to focus on communicating the details of a character, event, or place, and so to bring the reader into the written work and experience it first-hand. Descriptive writing appeals to the senses. It involves paying close attention to the details by using the five senses. The writer portrays a person, place, or thing in such a way that the reader can form a picture about them in the mind or share the experience. This style uses figurative language such as analogies, similes, and metaphors to help the reader envision the scenery and events. Common examples of descriptive writing include prose, diary, personal journals, lyrics in music, and songwriting (Table 1.2).

Stylistics As a term, Stylistics is a combination of three parts: style + −ist (adhering to a discipline) + −ics (naming a discipline). As a theory, Stylistics is a branch of linguistics that studies style. It attempts to explore the language of a text, and explain how language creates meaning. It provides the tools needed to interpret a text and make a critical assessment. It focuses on the devices used in a text, which add diverse effects to writing. It is the study of variation in language which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and on the effect a writer wishes to communicate to a reader. Namely, it is the study of linguistic choices a writer makes to express ideas and feelings effectively. Every writer possesses his/her style of writing, and so makes specific use of the linguistic patterns to describe a situation. For example, the expressions It is important to me to wear a tie and It is important for me to wear a tie are different stylistic choices. Each expression is designed to impart a distinct meaning. The first expression is an imposition from inside. The person wears a tie because he feels comfortable or for decorative purposes. The second expression is an imposition from outside. The person wears a tie because it is a requirement, for example, at work, as a mark of respect.

Table 1.2  Narrative versus descriptive writing styles Narrative 1. It often employs the first-person point of view. 2. It includes action. 3. It narrates a series of events either real or imaginary.

Descriptive 1. It does not. 2. It does not. 3. It describes things in a highly detailed manner.

Axioms

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Axioms 1. Content can be encoded in more than one linguistic form. That is, content can be characterized in myriad forms with a different impact every time. Each form highlights a specific facet of the content, depending on the intention of the writer. Each form imparts a distinct piece of information For example, the expression on time means something is expected to happen at the planned time as in The 10.30 train left on time, whereas the expression in time means something is expected to happen before the deadline as in The 10.30 train left in time. The variation in style is reflected by the use of different prepositions. 2. No two writers have the same writing style. Nor do they have the same perspectives. Each writer has his or her unique way of doing things. Each writing style has a different purpose and characteristic features which distinguish one writer from another. Style is what distinguishes one writer from the next. It is a window to personality. Some writers may choose to write literally, as in She passed the test successfully. Others may choose to write metaphorically, as in She passed the test with flying colors. A difference in style makes a world of difference in meaning. 3. Language is abundant in linguistic choices. It provides writers with more than one choice in describing a given situation. The choices that writers make reflect their understanding of a situation and their communicative ends. The varying use of the linguistic resources made available by language is conditioned by a wide range of language-external factors. For example, in a friend of mine the possessive pronoun is chosen because the identity of the friend is not specified, whereas in my friend the possessive determiner is chosen because the identity of the friend is specified or known by the interlocutors. 4. A stylistic choice has a distinct effect on the reader. There is a causal relation between a stylistic choice and the effect it has on the reader. Effects are discovered by introspection: the examination of one’s thoughts and feelings. That is, readers discover effects by looking inside themselves, and formulating a description of what they see there. For example, a person may be described as either thrifty or stingy, both describe someone who wants to save money but differ in terms of their emotional background. The first is a compliment, whereas the second is an insult. 5. The selection of a particular choice by a writer is influenced by certain cognitive principles, which are responsible for producing different linguistic structures. Conceptualizations of the world are reflected in stylistic structures. Each structure serves a different communicative need. Stylistic options are motivated by the needs of discourse. For example, in She arrived at the factory, the writer conceptualizes an action and scans it sequentially, and so uses the verb arrive. In her arrival at the factory, the writer conceptualizes a thing and scans it in summary, and so uses the noun arrival.

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Goals 1. Stylistics assists readers to understand the very language system in a given style. It tells them about the rules of the language because it often explores texts where those rules are applied. In this way, stylistics helps readers to increase knowledge of language use, improve their literacy competence, and use language effectively in oral and written communication. For example, some writers use tautology, repeating the same thing in different words, as in They arrived one after the other in succession. This style is not acceptable because one after the other and in succession means the same. 2. Stylistics serves to explore creativity in the use of language. Creativity is characterized by the ability to perceive the world in new ways. Creativity is the act of turning novel ideas into reality. In this way, stylistics enriches ways of thinking and enhances powers of understanding. It emphasizes connections between language and conceptualization. For example, smog is a blend of smoke and fog. This is called blending: the creative process of forming a word by combining parts of two other words. The combination is based not on morpheme structure but sound structure. 3. Stylistics aids readers to appreciate the significance of a text by analyzing the interrelations between its linguistic items. It aims to identify the distinctive features in a text together with their functions. In this way, the aim of stylistics is not only to describe the formal features of a text, but it also takes into account their functional significance. For example, in The sky weeps the writer uses personification: attributing human characteristics to something non-human. It adds greater power in writing to convince the readers, or stir their emotions. 4. Stylistics encourages readers to develop their analytical skills in written discourse. In the stylistic analysis of a text, readers are required to learn the use of linguistic and non-linguistic devices, enhancing thus their ability to interpret the text. In this way, stylistics makes readers aware of the linguistic patterns and language variation. For example, the expressions I don’t care and I don’t mind are not the same. Each stylistic variant has its use. The first is a statement that signals detachment and disinterest. The second is a statement that signals consent and support. 5. Stylistics seeks to establish principles that are capable of explaining the choices made by writers in their use of language. To do so, it uses insights from other linguistic theories. One cognitive principle at work is perspective: the viewpoint taken by a writer vis-à-vis a situation. An example is the word even combined with the words though, when, and if. Even though is used when something is always done. Even when is used when something is occasionally done. Even if is used when something is rarely done or just imagined. Each expression represents a different perspective of the writer, which concerns the number of times something occurs.

Properties

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Levels Human language is a multifaceted system made up of distinct levels. Stylistic analysis involves examination of these levels. Each level plays a crucial role in the make­up of language. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced in a language. Phonology studies how speech sounds work in a language. Whereas phonetics deals with the physical properties of sounds, phonology deals with their functions. Morphology studies how word formation works: how prefixes and suffixes are added to derive words. Syntax studies how words combine to make sentences. Whereas morphology examines how morphemes are combined to form words, syntax examines how words combine to form sentences. Semantics studies how meaning is encoded in language. Pragmatics studies how context contributes to meaning. Whereas semantics focuses on the meanings of linguistic expressions, pragmatics focuses on their use in context. These levels are interrelated. They work together to conduct a thorough stylistic analysis of a text.

Stylistic Devices Stylistics is the study of how stylistic devices in a text act effectively to produce a communicable message. A stylistic device, also called a rhetorical device or figure of speech, is the use of any of a variety of techniques to give a text an additional meaning or a particular significance. It is a technique used in a text to get a message across successfully or help the reader understand it with greater depth. The primary aim is to transform an ordinary piece of writing into a memorable one and make it distinctive in some way. Stylistic devices are linguistic forms and properties that have the potential to make the text forceful and expressive. The secondary aim is to add clarity to a text to engage the reader. They not only beautify a text or provide enjoyment, but also help the reader to visualize the content more clearly. They can be found on all language levels: phonological, graphical, morphological, lexical, or syntactic.

Properties 1. Stylistic devices cover all levels of language including phonology, morphology, graphology, lexicology, and syntax. Writers have these devices at their disposal to add emphasis to the conveyed information and make readers curious. They are resources for creativity and attention-grabbing. For example, the effect behind using hypophora, a stylistic device where the writer asks a question and then immediately answers it is to create curiosity in the reader, as in Why is it better not to risk? It is safer.

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2. Stylistic devices should not be taken literally even though they help readers understand the literal world they live in. For example, the exaggerated statement I’ve walked 1000 miles today is not to be taken literally. Literally, the statement is concerned about the speaker saying it. Figuratively, the statement describes the speaker who is exhausted. So, the stylistic device of hyperbole is used for the sake of emphasizing and highlighting the writer’s emotion. It encourages the reader to recognize the exhaustion. 3. Stylistic devices cluster in sets defined by two types of relation: one is similarity vis-à-vis the overall concept of the set they form; the other is difference vis-à-vis the specific functions they perform within the set. To understand the meaning of any stylistic device, it is necessary to contrast it with its counterpart in the set. For example, flashback and foreshadowing refer to events in a story, but they have different functions. Flashback hints at events in the past, whereas foreshadowing hints at events yet to come. The two stylistic devices are used to create tension or suspense, keeping the reader hungry for more. 4. Stylistic devices signal defamiliarization or foregrounding, presenting things in an unfamiliar way to enhance the perception of the familiar. When things are familiar, they receive less attention. When things are deviant, they attract more attention. From a cognitive stance, stylistic devices are markers of construal: different ways of conceiving and expressing a situation. Examples of defamiliarization are deviation and parallelism. For example, parallelism, the repetition of grammatical elements in discourse, is used as a means of adding rhythm as in the use of the to-infinitive in To err is human, to forgive divine. 5. Stylistic devices are traditionally seen as a kind of linguistic embellishment. Seen from a cognitive standpoint, stylistic devices are linguistic manifestations of cognitive processes. They give a stamp of originality to a piece of writing. They are brought into play for the creation of novel ideas. They serve to signal emphasis, clarity, and importance. For example, allusion is an indirect reference to another person, place, or event: real or imaginary. In Thanks, Romeo, a woman alludes to a fictional romantic character in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet to describe how wonderful her husband is.

Advantages 1. Stylistic devices can be used mainly to provide clarity though on rare occasions they obfuscate things. In general, the qualities of good writing include a carefully defined purpose, clear organization, well-constructed sentences, precise word choice, and proper use of grammar. Clarity serves to keep the reader’s attention and to make sure the meaning is clear. In virtue and vice, the writer uses juxtaposition, a stylistic device that involves placing two opposing ideas side by side to highlight their differences. It creates a vivid picture of the comparison in the reader’s mind.

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2. Stylistic devices furnish connectivity, the situation in which they are used to connect with the reader. They have the reader involved in the text; visualizing the characters, setting, plot, conflict, and solution. They keep the reader passionate about the text and develop empathy for the characters. They get the reader to feel the content is real. By using imagery, a writer describes objects, actions, or scenes in such a way that it appeals to our vision. It creates a visual representation of them in the mind. In The juicy orange is very cold, the word juicy affects our sense of taste. 3. Stylistic devices create humor or provide amusement. They make writing powerful in effect, easy to understand, and fun to read. They can also help to hook the reader. Without knowing stylistic devices, the reader would not be able to detect many of the layers of meaning interwoven into the text. In Reading while sunbathing makes you well red, the writer uses a pun. A pun makes use of words that have more than one meaning, or words that sound similar but have different meanings. It has a humorous effect. The phrase well red can either mean knowledgeable or sunburnt. 4. Stylistic devices create emphasis, the careful arrangement of words to give them special weight. It refers to the placement of special attention on something to give it importance. Emphasis is used in writing to attract the reader’s attention to a particular area or object. This is typically the focal point or main subject of the writing. In Honesty, I value most, the writer uses anastrophe for emphasis. It is the deliberate change of syntactic word order used to achieve emphasis or bring attention to a specific concept. The use of honesty at the beginning has much more impact than its use at the end. 5. Stylistic devices reflect creativity, the ability to turn new ideas into reality using vivid imagination. It is the ability to perceive the world in original ways, find hidden patterns, find fresh perspectives, and come up with innovative solutions. Creative writing is any writing that goes outside the bounds of normal forms of language. In Absence makes the heart grow fonder, the writer uses aphorism. It is a short statement of general truth, wisdom, or good advice. It almost always comes from life experience. Aphorisms often use creative imagery to get their general point across.

Types As already mentioned, stylistic devices are tools that writers use to improve their writing and make it more interesting. They are means of linguistic expressiveness which carry a vast amount of information. To decipher the information, one needs to give a detailed and thorough analysis of the functions of all the linguistic means used. To become cognizant of stylistic devices helps one comprehend the work of a writer, understand the motivation behind the choices, and have a sense of the overall meaning behind the text one comes across. As shown in Chap. 6, stylistic devices can be classified into five types: phonological, graphological, morphological,

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lexical, and syntactic. The purpose of the classification is to break the subject into smaller, more manageable, more specific parts. The smaller parts help readers make sense of the world. Each device will be explored in depth. For each device, I will explain what it is, the function it performs, and the types it includes, along with illustrative examples. The function of each stylistic device is to give additional meaning to texts, allow readers to think profoundly, and produce artistic effects on their senses. In a nutshell, each stylistic device is used for something different.

Summary In this chapter, I have introduced the three key concepts in the present study, namely style, stylistics, and stylistic devices. I have defined them, underlined their tenets, and demonstrated their benefits. The term style refers to how a writer uses language peculiarly or characteristically in a text. The key assumption is that every writer has a unique style, reflected in the conscious choice of words. Style has a practical value; it aims at making and conveying meaning. The term stylistics studies the devices used in language which affect the interpretation of a text. The key assumption is that within the language system, the same content can be encoded in more than one linguistic form. Stylistics has a practical value; it examines creativity in the use of language. The term stylistic device refers to any of a variety of techniques used by a writer to convey an additional and/or supplemental meaning. The key assumption is that a stylistic device creates emphasis within a text. A stylistic device has a practical value; it is a distinct tool used to make an existing argument more compelling, and so engage the reader. A look at the two terms of style and stylistics shows that they differ in the following respects: 1. Style is the specific form of language. It refers to the perceived distinctive manner of expression in writing or speaking. By contrast, stylistics is the process of uncovering the anatomy of language. It is the skill of showing how texts project meaning and how readers interact with them. 2. Style is the characteristic use of language in a text. It is the language habit of a writer. It distinguishes one writer from another. By contrast, stylistics is a procedure for the analysis of a text. It discovers how a writer’s philosophy is shaped in a particular form. 3. Style consists in choices of linguistic devices taken from the repertoire of language. The devices help make the writing more effective and powerful. By contrast, stylistics is interested in the function and significance of the linguistic devices used in a text. 4. Style is subjective. It is based on personal feelings or opinions. By contrast, stylistics is objective. It is based on facts or evidence which supports the interpretation of a text. It studies how meaning is created through language in texts.

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5. Style is seen as a variation in language use, whether literary or non-literary. Variations in style meet the needs of communication in all its aspects. By contrast, stylistics uses linguistic frameworks as their analytical tools to account for the variations. Study Questions 1. What is meant by style? What are its keystones? 2. What ingredients of quality make writing effective? 3. What is the purpose of each mode of writing style? 4. What is stylistics? What axioms is it built on? 5. What do you consider to be the main goals of stylistics? 6. What levels of language does a stylistic analysis examine? 7. What is a stylistic device? What are its chief properties? 8. What advantages does stylistic devices offer to language? 9. What types are stylistic devices generally classified into? 10. What are the main differences between style and stylistics?

Further Reading Useful dictionaries on key terms and concepts in stylistics are Greene and Cushman (2016), Nørgaard et al. (2010), and Wales (2014). General introductions to the tools and practices of stylistic analysis include Bradford (1997), Clark (1996), Hough (1969), Haynes (1989), Jeffries and McIntyre (2010), Lambrou and Stockwell (2018), Simpson (2004), Turner (1973), Verdonk (2002), and Watson (2008). Good textbooks on stylistics as an academic discipline are Gavins (2007), Gibbons and Whiteley (2018), Giovanelli and Harrison (2018), Hope and Wright (2002), Jeffries (2010), Stockwell (2002), and Toolan (1998).

References Bradford, Richard. 1997. Stylistics. London: Routledge. Clark, Urszula. 1996. An Introduction to Stylistics. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes. Gavins, Joanna. 2007. Text World Theory: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Gibbons, Alison, and Sara Whiteley. 2018. Contemporary Stylistics: Language, Cognition, Interpretation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Giovanelli, Marcello, and Chloe Harrison. 2018. Cognitive Grammar in Stylistics: A Practical Guide. London: Bloomsbury. Greene, Roland, and Stephen Cushman, eds. 2016. The New Princeton Handbook of Poetic Terms. Princeton University Press. Haynes, John. 1989. Introducing Stylistics. London: Unwin Hyman. Hope, Jonathan, and Laura Wright. 2002. Stylistics: A Practical Coursebook. London: Routledge. Hough, Graham. 1969. Style and Stylistics. London: Routledge.

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Jeffries, Lesley. 2010. Stylistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jeffries, Lesley, and Daniel McIntyre. 2010. Stylistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lambrou, Marina, and Peter Stockwell, eds. 2018. Contemporary Stylistics. London: Continuum. Nørgaard, Nina, Beatrix Busse, and Rocío Montoro. 2010. Key Terms in Stylistics. London: Continuum. Simpson, Paul. 2004. Stylistics: A resource Book for Students. London: Routledge. Stockwell, Peter. 2002. Cognitive poetics: An introduction. London: Routledge. Toolan, Michael. 1998. Language in Literature: An Introduction to Stylistics. London: Routledge. Turner, George. 1973. Stylistics. Harmondsworth: Penguins Books. Verdonk, Peter. 2002. Stylistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wales, Katie. 2014. A Dictionary of Stylistics. Harlow: Longman. Watson, Greg, ed. 2008. The State of Stylistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Chapter 2

Historical Overview

Key Objectives • Trace the distinct phases of development through which stylistics has gone over time. • Classify the literature into diverse trends, laying stress on their assumptions, objectives, and methodology. • Compare the trends in stylistics, noting the similarity or dissimilarity between them.

Introduction As a discipline, Stylistics started in the form of work on rhetoric and came into the limelight in the second half of the twentieth century. In modern times, it is usually seen as a part of Applied Linguistics. It is an interdisciplinary approach that integrates theses and devices from literature, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and so on. It is a method of textual interpretation in which primacy of place is assigned to language use. The language used in a text acts as a gateway to its interpretation. To fully understand Stylistics, we need to survey its history. Although this survey is short, it shows how diverse trends have been developed into modern stylistics. The purpose behind the survey is twofold. First, it singles out the various theories which feed stylistics with ideas on what a text means and how it becomes distinctive. Second, it identifies the scholars who have had a major influence on the development of modern stylistics. A solid understanding of such history enriches one’s stylistic knowledge. In brief, the survey shows how ancient disciplines continue to influence modern-day stylistics. Stylistics has gone through distinct phases of development. Each phase has its assumptions, objectives, and methodology. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7_2

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Appropriacy-Centered Trends Historically speaking, the study of style can be traced back to the literary scholarships of the Greeks and Romans in the fifth century BC.  In that period, the two dominant arts were classical rhetoric and poetics. They followed a set of rules which helped speakers and writers to speak and write effectively for a particular context. The two arts are regarded as classical ancestors of modern stylistics. Reference to such ancestry makes it clear that stylistics is not a latecomer on the linguistic landscape. Classical rhetoric and poetics are built on the assertions postulated by prescriptivism, an approach that is based on a set of rules which govern how a language should or should not be used. It is characterized by a concern for proper or correct usage. The rules aim to preserve language by insisting on particular usages and decrying any violation of them. There is just one way to say things. When there appear to be two or more, the approach declares only one variant to be correct. To achieve its aim, scholars followed Greek or Latin practices. In this sense, the approach presents a rigid, subjective, and judgmental account of language.

Rhetorical Stylistics Rhetorical Stylistics deals with the practice of using language persuasively. Rhetoric is the art of using language, especially public oratory, as a means of persuasion. It is the skill of using richly worded language to arouse feelings and win the opinions of audiences. It is a tool for producing language that is intended to influence, convince, or please an audience in a specific situation. It is the talent of composing and delivering a speech that is characterized by rhetorical devices of arrangement and stylistic choices. A speech exploits figurative language and compositional techniques to make a point more compelling. It focuses on the psychological effects of speakers’ words on the audience. Persuasive discourse typically involves non-literary texts such as political, judicial, and ceremonial oratory. Rhetoric is built on five steps. These include inventing arguments, organizing arguments, presenting arguments, memorizing the speech, and delivering arguments.

Poetic Stylistics Poetic Stylistics relates to the practice of writing poetry in which special intensity is given to the expression of feelings and ideas. Poetics deals with beauty in eloquent discourse, in which literary language is seen as an aesthetic aid for the transmission of thought. It is the practice of using literary techniques in composing verse. Importance is given to figurative language as a means of decorating a given piece of

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literary work. Poetic discourse is the most creative of discourses. It is brilliant in ideas, inventive in forms, and elegant in style. It emphasized the aesthetic effects of discourse on hearers. To achieve particular expressiveness, the poet uses artful word order, distinctive model sentences, and various literary devices. Samuel Wesley sees style as the dress of thought. Since it is ornamental in approach, this practice is referred to as Aesthetic Stylistics. In Dryden’s view, the poet must possess the qualities of invention, fancy, and elocution (Table 2.1). In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, no great shift took place. In the seventeenth century, literary critics urged adherence to the refinement tendency: the tendency of refining the literary language according to classical norms modeled on Greek and Latin masterpieces. Others called for restricting literary English to colloquial language which would be understood easily by ordinary people. In the eighteenth century, scholars reiterated the belief that literary language should follow classical norms. Two scholars were the pioneers of that trend. Jonathan Swift insisted on avoiding vulgarism in literary language. He came up with his perception of style as “proper words in proper places.” Samuel Johnson called for perfection in style by emulating literary publications of great writers and by discarding colloquial words of the time. In the early nineteenth century, the sense of purism was alive. The language was made more regular, and the words chosen had to conform to good taste.

Writer-Centered Trends In the early years of the nineteenth century, the interest in the study of literary language took another direction. The use of language in literature was no longer seen as a product of an established set of rules but as an orientation toward the writer. A writer-centered trend is often based on the writer’s thoughts or emotions. In a writer-­ centered text, the writer’s purpose and concerns figure largely in the text. In that period, two trends concentrating on individuality and psychology appeared in the arena. The two trends were oriented to the writer by focusing on the writer’s spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings. They imply a view of style as revealing the personality or soul of the writer. It is basically due to personal style that a writer stands recognized. Table 2.1  Rhetoric Stylistics versus Poetic Stylistics Rhetoric Stylistics 1. It is practical and designed to promote interest. 2. The purpose of rhetorical discourse is to persuade the audience. 3. The writer is tied to the occasion and obliged to fulfill its goal.

Poetic Stylistics 1. It is primarily aesthetic and mainly disinterested. 2. The purpose of poetic discourse is to please the audience. 3. The poet is not tied to the occasion and is not obliged to fulfill his/her goal.

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Expressive Stylistics Expressive Stylistics brings the notion of style as the man to the forefront. Every writer has a unique way of expressing ideas. No two writers bear the same style. Style is the writer’s peculiar choice of language to describe a situation. It refers to the habitual choices of all language patterns to reflect his/her personality or worldview. The individual style of a writer is characterized by idiosyncratic elements or distinctive features. This is influenced by the writer’s social background, educational level, political inclination, religious belief, and geographic location. Style is seen as a mark of character. This is a revival of Cicero’s conception of style as “an expression of personality.” Based on their use of language, it is possible to differentiate between the styles of the two writers. It is associated with the works of Benedetto Croce, Karl Vossler, and Leo Spitzer. This way of examining the language of a text is known as Individual Stylistics.

Psychological Stylistics Psychological Stylistics is an approach that establishes a connection between stylistics and psychology. It studies and reveals the psychological and emotional side of a writer. It focuses on the writer’s consciousness that encompasses all mental activity. It attempts to investigate the nature of the stylistic choices which markedly appear in literary discourse. These choices reflect the desired aims of the writer and the impressions created in the mind of the reader. According to Leo Spitzer, there is a correlation between the style of a literary work and the psyche of a writer. Writing is a psychological act in which the writer encodes a message, and reading is a psychological act in which the reader decodes the conveyed message. Psychological Stylistics aims to provide detailed textual and contextual evidence in support of observations on personality. In this sense, the task of a stylistician is to analyze the psychological effect of the language used by the writer on the reader (Table 2.2). Table 2.2  Expressive Stylistics versus Psychological Stylistics Expressive Stylistics 1. It analyzes distinctive language use, including words, phrases, and structures. 2. It accounts for the habitual choices of lexical and syntactic patterns which reflect the writer’s character. 3. It underlines the correlation between the background of the writer and the style.

Psychological Stylistics 1. It analyzes the psychological effects of language use by the writer on the reader. 2. It accounts for the writer’s consciousness which encompasses mental activity or a creative mind. 3. It underlines the correlation between the psyche of the writer and the style.

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Text-Centered Trends At the beginning of the twentieth century, the main focus of stylistics was on literary texts rather than writers. A text-centered trend is based on the content and form of a text. Two movements, namely Practical Criticism and New Criticism, opposed earlier practices based on the writer. The two movements proved crucial in the historical development of stylistics because they laid more emphasis on literary texts. The readers are given a poem, for example, with no identifying information about the author or context and are asked to respond simply to what the words of the poem said. The aim was to see how readers reacted emotionally to the text of the poem. However, the objective was to move the focus of attention entirely to the text itself. The readers are supposed to appreciate a text for its plot, theme, character, impact, setting, tone, etc.

Practical Criticism Practical Criticism was a way of looking at a literary text, especially poetry, advocated in Britain in the 1930s. It is particularly associated with the works of the British critics Ivor Armstrong Richards and William Empson who reacted against the writer-based approaches to the analysis of literature in the nineteenth century. Instead, they suggested paying close attention to the literary text, its structure, and theme. They paid little attention to the social or historical contexts. Instead, they concentrated on the psychological qualities of a literary text. What matters was the effect of the work on the reader, and his/her intuitive responses. In studying texts, they were engaged in seeing how readers were psychologically affected by literary texts. That is, they were concerned with the psychological aspects of how readers interact with texts. In short, the movement strove to discover how a work of literature functions as a self-contained and self-referential object.

New Criticism New Criticism was a way of looking at a literary text, especially poetry, advocated in America in the 1930s. It is exemplified in the works of the American critics Monroe Beardsley and Cleanth Brooks who reacted against writer-based approaches to literature prevalent in the nineteenth century. Instead, they emphasized the language of literature. The meaning of a text is primarily derived from textual evidence, and not authorial fingerprints. They sought objectivity by focusing sharply on the text itself. They set out to discover the process by which linguistic elements and patterns in a text accomplish their meanings and literary effects. They concentrated on the aesthetic qualities of a literary text. They were involved in describing

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literary works as autonomous and independent aesthetic objects. However, the critics did not analyze the language of the text very much, just what a text meant and how it affected the readers (Table 2.3).

Reader-Centered Trends Reader-cantered trends, which emerged roughly in the latter half of the twentieth century, move away from addressing the text and the writer. Instead, they addressed the role of the reader in understanding meaning. The reader is not a passive recipient of what the text says but rather takes an active role. The reader was conceptualized in various ways: ideal reader (Culler 1975), informed reader (Fish 1970), super reader (Riffaterre 1959), implied reader (Booth 1961; Iser 1974), and resisting reader (Fetterley 1977). The reader is described as being capable of interacting with a text, with the psychological and emotional responses that ensue from the interaction. In any text, there are some information gaps that readers fill in from their knowledge to make the text coherent and consistent.

Reader-Response Stylistics Reader-response Stylistics examines the reader’s feedback to a text as a response to a horizon of expectations, i.e. a multiplicity of interpretations. In Culler’s (1975) view, it is what the text does to the important reader, and not the text or the writer. The reader is seen as a psychological subject whose mind relates to a text, with the unconscious drives brought to the surface by the reaction. Style is not an objective reality conveyed by a text but an impression subjectively constructed in the mind of the reader. Reader-response Stylistics is subjective, in which emphasis is placed on the attitudes, moods, and opinions of the reader. A reader’s interaction with the text gives the text its meaning. The text cannot exist without the reader. It focuses on finding meaning in the act of reading itself and examining the ways individual readers experience texts. Because each reader interacts with the text differently, the text may have more than one valid interpretation. Table 2.3  Practical Criticism versus New Criticism Practical Criticism 1. It concentrates on the psychological qualities of a text. 2. It is interpretive as it concerns itself with the mediation between the content of the text and the reader. 3. It stresses the fact that the meaning of a text is based on the reader’s response.

New Criticism 1. It concentrates on the aesthetic qualities of a text. 2. It is descriptive as it concerns itself with the internal characteristics of a text, which gives it its distinctive character. 3. It stresses the fact that the meaning of a text is based on linguistic patterns.

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Affective Stylistics Affective Stylistics, or Emotional Stylistics, has been revived by Stanley Fish in America and Riffaterre in France as part of a kinetic approach to reader-response criticism. It focuses on the reader rather than on the artifact. A literary text is not an object that exists in space. It does not have a fixed meaning independent of readers. Rather, it is an event that occurs in time or that comes into being as it is read. A text consists of the results it produces, and the results occur within the reader in the course of reading. The text is examined closely word by word, phrase by phrase, and line by line to understand how it affects the reader while reading. For Fish, Affective Stylistics is a description not only of the reader’s emotional responses but also of the mental operations involved in the process of reading, which include formulating thoughts, making judgements, and following logical sequences. In a word, the text mirrors the reader’s experience of reading (Table 2.4).

Form-Centered Trends Form-centered trends focus centrally on linguistic form at the expense of meaning, so they are referred to as formalist. Formalist stylisticians prefer purely formal criteria in identifying stylistic patterns. The form of language embodies a system that is studied in isolation from cognitive faculties and abstracted away from actual use. So, no reference is made to language-external factors. Adherents of formalist stylistics ignore the role of the speaker in shaping language and the role of the reader in identifying stylistic effects. The central task of a formalist stylistician is to describe the formal relationships among the linguistic elements in a text independently of the meanings they hold. Practitioners of formalist stylistics sharply separate knowledge of language from the use of language.

Table 2.4  Reader-response Stylistics versus Affective Stylistics Reader-response Stylistics 1. It is a description of the reader’s impressionistic responses to a text. 2. It examines the reader’s interaction with the text which gives the text its meaning. The text cannot exist without the reader. 3. It is subjective. Emphasis is placed on the attitudes, moods, and opinions of the reader.

Affective Stylistics 1. It is an analysis of the mental processes produced by specific elements in a text. 2. It examines the text’s content line by line or word by word which shows how it affects the reader in the process of reading. 3. It is objective. Emphasis is placed on a text. It is uninfluenced by emotions or personal prejudices.

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Structural Stylistics In the early decades of the twentieth century, Ferdinand de Saussure established Structural Linguistics. Structural Stylistics is based on the principles proposed by Structural Linguistics. One such principle is the absence of a one-to-one relationship between the meaning of a linguistic unit, the signified, and the form it takes the sign. The nature of the relationship is characterized as somewhat arbitrary. Because grammar is considered independent of meaning, the focus is laid on the form. Accordingly, interest centers on the structural patterns or formal properties of texts independently of their meanings. It takes the form of a text as the mere object of stylistic analysis and detaches it from contextual, functional, and interpretational considerations. Consequently, it fails to account for differences between stylistic alternatives sharing the same form. Based on structural criteria, the two stylistic alternatives He prefers to sleep and He prefers sleeping are purely coincidental and semantically similar. This sort of stylistic analysis is descriptive, investigating texts without any consideration for interpretive values. The second decade of the twentieth century witnessed the emergence of Formalist Stylistics. The two influential linguists were Roman Jakobson and Viktor Shklovsky. They focused on form at the expense of meaning and context. They treated the text as the product of artistic genius, the locus of linguistic meaning, and the source of aesthetic value. They considered only the text, ignoring pragmatic, social, and historical considerations. Within the text, they conferred attention on the observable linguistic features and explicit linguistic patterns which influence its interpretation. Viktor Shklovsky introduced the concept of defamiliarization: the technique of presenting familiar things strangely to experience them in new ways. One central means of defamiliarization is foregrounding: making patterns of language stand out in a text. Foregrounding is of two main types: parallelism and deviation. Parallelism is the use of unexpected equivalence in syntactic structure. Deviation is the departure from an accepted standard.

Generative Stylistics In the middle decades of the twentieth century, Noam Chomsky initiated Generative Linguistics. Generative Stylistics is based on the rules advocated by Transformational-­ Generative Grammar. Fundamental to this grammar is the distinction between the deep structure and surface structure of an expression. Expressions are considered the output of transformational rules operating on their deep structure. As such, they are not treated as meaningful linguistic elements. Because grammar is considered independent of meaning, the focus is laid on form and textual features. Since the meaning of an expression is determined by its deep structure, two surface expressions derived from the same deep structure are deemed equivalent in meaning. On this basis, the stylistic alternatives He prefers to sleep and He prefers sleeping are

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claimed to have the same deep structure and are hence semantically alike. They are treated as alternatives, and the choice between them, which is purely syntactic, is the result of different transformations. This transformational-generative sort of stylistic analysis is obviously of more descriptive than interpretive value (Table 2.5).

Meaning-Centered Trends Meaning-centered trends focus centrally on linguistic meaning, so they are referred to as functionalist. Functional stylisticians study the discourse functions of mental processes for syntactic forms. The function of conveying meaning has so affected grammatical form that it is senseless to compartmentalize it. Language serves many functions, among which the communication of information is paramount. The structure of language reflects what people use language for. There is a conceptual interface between syntax and semantics. The central task of a functional stylistician is to describe how the formal properties of grammar are motivated by the communicative functions that language carries out. This is due to the theoretical assumption that draws no boundaries between language components, and so its explanation is considered external.

Functional Stylistics In the later decades of the twentieth century, Michael Halliday, Simon Dik, and others founded Functional Linguistics. Functional Stylistics is based on the axioms upheld by Functional Linguistics. There is a direct correlation between the form of an expression and its function. The correlation is perceived as iconic, not arbitrary. It tries to explain not only the structure of language but also the social functions of discourse. Due to this theoretical position, the focus is laid on function. Practitioners of this approach are interested in language in use which takes place in a communicative context. It is the context that determines the linguistic choice. On this basis, the stylistic alternatives He prefers to sleep and He prefers sleeping contrast in Table 2.5  Structural Stylistics versus Generative Stylistics Structural Stylistics 1. Stylistic alternatives sharing the same form are purely coincidental and semantically similar. 2. Interest centers on the structural patterns or formal properties of texts independent of their meanings. 3. It takes the text as the mere object of stylistic analysis, detached from contextual, functional, and interpretational conclusions.

Generative Stylistics 1. Stylistic alternatives which are related by transformations are semantically equivalent or synonymous. 2. Interest centers on transformational meaning-preserving rules that relate deep and surface structures. 3. It takes the text as a closed system, separate from social and cultural context.

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meaning. Each alternative reflects a semantic distinction of its own. Every stylistic choice is seen as functional. The semantic contrast between the two alternatives is discerned along the lines of potentiality versus actuality. Accordingly, significance is attached to linguistic features in texts which have stylistic functions. Every linguistic feature contributes to the meaning of a text. Influenced by Halliday’s model, some approaches emerged on the stylistics scene in the second half of the twentieth century. These approaches have only recently entered the landscape of stylistics.

Feminist Stylistics Feminist Stylistics, as coined by Sara Mills (1995), is a method that focuses on the way gender is represented in texts. It explores critically gender bias in texts and linguistic structures which project male or female values. As such, Feminist Stylistics can be regarded as a variant of criticism: criticizing gender inequality used in different forms of literature. One form of inequality resides in the use of sexism: prejudice or discrimination, typically against women, based on sex or gender. It is women who are suffering from sexist structures in language. Therefore, Feminist Stylistics has two aims. The general aim is to develop an awareness of the way gender is handled in texts. The aim is to account for how gender concerns are properly encoded in texts. The specific aim is to modify traditional modes of language use by identifying the sexist structures in a text as well as providing alternative forms of expression.

Pragmatic Stylistics Pragmatic Stylistics or Pragmastylistics is an interaction between pragmatics and stylistics. It combines the potential of language with the contextual elements in the analysis of a text. It is concerned with how language is used in context and how it contributes to the meaning of a text. It considers the contributions made by linguistic, social, and cultural factors to the production and comprehension of texts. Most important is the focus on conversation as interpersonal meaning, and linguistic features such as speech acts, discourse markers, politeness strategies, etc. Pragmatic Stylistics has drawn attention to the need for including semiotic modes to account for the interplay between language and visual perception in films, for example. One crucial notion is defamiliarization: deviating from accepted norms. It is the opposite of automatization: using habitual language which does not attract the reader’s particular attention.

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Corpus Stylistics Corpus Stylistics developed along with Corpus Linguistics in the late 1960s. Corpus Stylistics applies computational methods to address stylistic concerns, specifically the power of computers to identify patterns in large stretches of language. Fundamental to Corpus Stylistics is a mixed methodology that is both quantitative and qualitative, which aims to reveal the crucial features of texts with the help of computational tools. A quantitative method employs numerical procedures and helps the stylistician to extract information about the frequency and significance of language structure, which is objective. A qualitative method employs non-­numerical procedures, such as concordancing and collocations, and helps the stylistician to identify language patterns, which are subjective. The stylistician describes patterns of deviation from linguistic norms, which draws attention to the role of foregrounding and accounts for the artistic effects of a particular text.

Cognitive Stylistics In the later decades of the twentieth century, Ronald Langacker, George Lakoff, Charles Fillmore, and others pioneered Cognitive Linguistics. Cognitive Stylistics is based on assumptions adopted in Cognitive Linguistics. One assumption is that human thought and language are intimately interrelated. An expression is meaningful and its form reflects a certain cognitive organization, that is to say, a particular kind of construal imposed on its structure. Since an expression is meaningful, the stylistic alternatives are not on an equal footing. They are motivated by conceptual considerations. The stylistic alternatives He prefers to sleep and He prefers sleeping represent different conceptualizations. The first refers to a situation that has not yet occurred or is about to occur. Pragmatically, the success of the action is not guaranteed. The second refers to a situation that has occurred or is occurring at the moment of speaking. Pragmatically, the success of the action is guaranteed. This shows that Cognitive Stylistics looks not only at a text but also at the mind’s contribution to meaning (Table 2.6). Table 2.6  Functional Stylistics versus Cognitive Stylistics Functional Stylistics 1. Grammar is socially motivated, so the focus is laid on function. 2. Stylistic alternatives are a reflection of communicative demands. 3. It takes the text as a link between language and social function.

Cognitive Stylistics 1. Grammar is experientially motivated, so the focus is laid on usage. 2. Stylistic alternatives are a reflection of cognitive processes. 3. It takes the text as a reflection of principles intrinsic to the human brain.

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Summary In this chapter, I have offered a historical overview of Stylistics as a linguistic discipline. I sketched the main trends of stylistics, dwelling on the scholars they involve, the principles they adopt, the objectives they have, the methods they use, and the contributions they make. Different trends of stylistics reflect different underlying theories. I showed when each stylistic trend was prevalent, and which aspects characterized its approach. The overview aims to offer a brief account of the history of stylistic ideas scholars have had about language, and introduce the particular ways they have proposed to tackle stylistic intricacies. The account described pinpoints the trends that appeared in the historical development of stylistics. Appropriacy-centered trends included Rhetoric and Poetic Stylistics. Writer-­ centered trends included Expressive and Psychological Stylistics. Text-centered trends included Practical and New Criticism. Form-centered trends included Structural and Generative Stylistics. Meaning-centered trends included Functional and Cognitive Stylistics. It is out of these trends that modern stylistics has grown. The various approaches to style can be summarized under the two frameworks of Literary Stylistics and Linguistic Stylistics. They embody two different kinds of stylistic enquiries. Literary Stylistics discusses works of art. It builds on the assumption that literature and language are not separable. Rather, they are intimately related. The focal concern is not with the construction of a text by a writer, but rather with the underlying message that a text reveals. Every literary work has a message, characterized by figurative and evocative uses of language. The general purpose of Literary Stylistics is to help the reader understand a literary text, discover new worlds within it, develop critical thinking skills, and gain insight into human nature. The specific purpose of Literary Stylistics is to conduct a close reading of a literary work, which involves analyzing its parts to see whether they create effects, evaluating its arguments to see whether they fulfill the goals, and estimating its value to see whether it is significant. Evaluations of style are subjective; depending on the writer’s intuition in the evaluation process. Linguistic Stylistics explores the linguistic devices of a text and their structural patterns to arrive at its interpretation. The use of linguistic devices helps writers to convey their messages effectively, and readers to analyze, interpret, and appreciate a literary work. Of paramount importance for Linguistic Stylistics are the form, function, and use of language and their effects on a text. Linguistic Stylistics directs attention primarily to how a piece of discourse mirrors the language system and how the language system is used to convey meaning. Because it employs objective and verifiable methods of analysis, Linguistic Stylistics tries to make the study of texts precise and definite. The main purpose of Linguistic Stylistics is to relate language use in literary texts to its artistic function. So, a language is not studied in isolation from the artistic function. Rather, it is studied to ascertain how the writer uses language to express a message. Below is a comparison between the two frameworks of literary and linguistic stylistics:

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Summary

1. Literary Stylistics directs attention to the aesthetic aspects of a text. The target is the underlying message and not the way the message is carried out. Linguistic Stylistics directs attention to the linguistic devices of a text. The target is the identification of the various linguistic choices made by a writer as well as their effects on interpretation. 2. Literary Stylistics directs attention to the aesthetic aspects of a text. The target is the underlying message and not the way the message is carried out. Linguistic Stylistics directs attention to the linguistic devices of a text. The target is the identification of the various linguistic choices made by a writer as well as their effects on interpretation. 3. Literary Stylistics is an evaluation of a text. It involves judging a piece of writing based on what is said in terms of how it is said, with the judgments being intuitive, unsubstantiated, and impressionistic. Linguistic Stylistics is a scientific assessment of a text. It involves methods, procedures, and data, with the assessment being impartial, systematic, and justifiable. 4. Literary Stylistics focuses on the subjective interpretation of a text. It is influenced by personal beliefs and feelings. The explanation of a text is independent of its linguistic form. Linguistic Stylistics focuses on the objective interpretation of a text. It is based on facts and evidence. The explanation of a text is dependent on its linguistic form. 5. The main task of a literary stylistician is to explain the message of a writer or decipher the codes used by a writer. It undertakes to find deeper meaning in a text and explain it to others. The main task of a linguistic stylistician is to explain the way the message is constructed. It undertakes to identify the patterns used in a text and explain them to others. 6. Literary Stylistics uses a vocabulary that the layman would understand. It helps the reader to delve deep into a text and experience the worlds of other people. Linguistic Stylistics uses technical vocabulary, derived from linguistics, to discuss elements of a text. It helps the reader to explore language, and more precisely to explore innovation in language use (Table 2.7). Table 2.7  Stylistic trends Trend Appropriacy-­ centered Writer-centered Text-centered Reader-centered Form-centered Meaning-centered

Representative Rhetoric Poetic Expressive Psychological Practical Criticism New Criticism Reader-response affective Structural Generative Functional Cognitive

Essence It uses language to persuade the audience. It uses language to please the audience. It analyzes the distinctive use of language. It analyzes the psychological effects of language. It focuses on the psychological qualities of a text. It focuses on the aesthetic qualities of a text. It describes the reader’s attitudinal responses. It describes the reader’s mental reactions. It concentrates on the structural patterns in a text. It concentrates on the transformational rules. It regards the text as a reflection of social functions. It regards the text as a reflection of cognitive processes.

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Study Questions 1. The origin of stylistics can be traced back to the two trends of rhetoric and poetics. What does each deal with? 2. The second decade of the twentieth century witnessed the emergence of Formalist Stylistics. What contribution did formalists make to stylistics? 3. Both Expressive and Psychological Stylistics are writer-centered trends. What is the difference between them? 4. Reader-centered trends in stylistics include Reader-response and Affective Stylistics. In what way are they different? 5. How does Structural Stylistics differ from Generative Stylistics? 6. What is the main point of dissatisfaction with form-centered trends in stylistics? 7. In what respects does Functional Stylistics differ from Cognitive Stylistics? 8. In the second half of the twentieth century, some approaches influenced by Halliday entered the stylistic landscape. What are they? 9. What do you take to be the important contributions of the cognitive school of stylistics? 10. What are the key differences between literary stylistics and linguistic stylistics?

Further Reading Studies on various aspects of stylistic evolution are found in Fowler (1966, 1986), Freeman (1971), Leech (1969), Sebeok (1960), Bradford (1993), Verdonk (1999), Widdowson (1992), Semino and Short (2004), Black (2006), Mills (2004), McMenamin (2002), Bradford (2005), Watson (2008) and Douthwaite (2000). General aspects of stylistics are presented in handbooks edited by Burke (2014), Carter (1982), Sotirova (2016), Stockwell and Whiteley (2014), and Weber (1996). Stylistics based on schools of grammar are Culler (1975), Thorne (1965), and Canning (2014).

References Black, Elizabeth. 2006. Pragmatic Stylistics. Edinburg: Edinburgh University Press. Booth, Wayne. 1961. A Rhetoric of Fiction, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Bradford, Richard. 1993. A Linguistic History of English Poetry. London: Routledge. ———. 2005. Stylistics. London: Routledge. Burke, Michael, ed. 2014. The Routledge Handbook of Stylistics. London: Routledge.

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Canning, Patricia. 2014. Functionalist stylistics. In The Routledge Handbook of Stylistics, ed. Michael Burke. London: Routledge. Carter, Ronald, ed. 1982. Language and Literature: An Introductory Reader in Stylistics. London: George Allen and Unwin. Culler, Jonathan. 1975. Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics, and the Study of Literature. Penn State University Press. Douthwaite, John. 2000. Towards a Linguistic Theory of Foregrounding. Torino: Edizioni dell’Orso. Fetterley, Judith. 1977. The Resisting Reader: A Feminist Approach to American Literature, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Fish, Stanley. 1970, Literature in the reader: affective stylistics, New Literary History 2: 123–62. Fowler, Roger, ed. 1966. Essays on Style in Language. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ———. 1986. Linguistic Criticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Freeman, Donald, ed. 1971. Linguistics and Literary Style. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Iser, Wolfgang. 1974. The Implied Reader: Patterns of Communication in Prose Fiction from Bunyan to Beckett, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Leech, Geoffrey. 1969. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. London: Longman. McMenamin, Gerald. 2002. Forensic Linguistics: Advances in Forensic Stylistics. London: Routledge. Mills, Sara. 2004. Feminist Stylistics. London: Routledge. Riffaterre, Michael. 1959. Criteria for style analysis, Word 15: 154–74. Sebeok, Thomas. 1960. Style in Language. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Semino, Elena, and Michael Short. 2004. Corpus Stylistics: Speech, Writing and Thought Presentation in a Corpus of English Writing. London: Routledge. Sotirova, Violeta, ed. 2016. The Bloomsbury Companion to Stylistics. London: Bloomsbury. Stockwell, Peter, and Sara Whiteley, eds. 2014. The Cambridge Handbook of Stylistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thorne, James Peter. 1965. Stylistics and generative grammars. Journal of Linguistics1: 49-59 Verdonk, Peter. 1999. The Liberation of the Icon: A Brief Survey from Classical Rhetoric to Cognitive Stylistics. Journal of Literary Studies 15 (3–4 Stylistics). Watson, Greg, ed. 2008. The State of Stylistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Weber, Jean, ed. 1996. The Stylistics Reader. From Roman Jakobson to the Present. London: Arnold. Widdowson, Henry. 1992. Practical Stylistics: An Approach to Poetry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chapter 3

The Cognitive Framework

Key Objectives • Make students familiar with Cognitive Linguistics, focusing on its strong commitments and fundamental assumptions. • Acquaint students with Cognitive Grammar, laying stress on its grammatical as well as semantic claims. • Inform students about Cognitive Stylistics, paying particular attention to its central tenets and ensuing benefits.

Introduction In the course of its development, stylistics has engaged different models of textual analysis and scholars of diverse theoretical persuasions. Some stylisticians display an interest in the producer of a text. Their aim is to impart the writer’s ideas and feelings and reveal his/her personality. This viewpoint stems from the fact that language is the best mirror of human character. Others devote attention to the text itself. They accord primacy to language in a text. They view the text as the locus of linguistic meaning and the source of aesthetic value. Their aim is to confer attention on the linguistic devices employed to achieve sought-after effects. Still others shed light on the reader. They describe the effects of words on the reader. The reader adopts a particular vantage point toward events and characters in the fictional world. Their aim is to find out the emotional response of the reader as s/he becomes an active participant in the interpretive process. Although the foregoing trends offer some useful hints on the topic of stylistics, they are deficient when it comes to a fuller explanation. They are one-sided in the sense that each emphasizes only one aspect of the issue. The writer-centered trend neglects the issue of creativity. Creativity is thought of merely as an intuition of the © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7_3

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writer, not more. The text-centered trend emphasizes the structural properties of texts at different levels of linguistic organization. The departure of style from an established or accepted standard of language is considered deviant. Deviation is a departure from what is taken as the common practice. The reader-centered trend considers the reader simply as a recipient of a textual product. It regards the reader merely as the place where the effects of meaning, emotion, or evaluation happen. In short, although these trends differ in scope and presentation, they are alike in inadequately dealing with the complex nature of stylistics. To remedy these deficiencies, it is reasonable to seek a new framework of stylistics, a framework that ascribes equal importance to the three essential constituents, the writer, the text, and the reader, in the construction and interpretation of meaning. The framework which I propose is Cognitive Stylistics, alternatively called Mind Stylistics. In broad terms, I build the framework on Cognitive Linguistics. In specific terms, I build the framework on Cognitive Grammar. They are chosen because they describe language as reflecting essential properties of the human mind, and place central importance on the role of meaning, conceptual structures, and embodied experience in the study of language. These principles help to convincingly account for the intricacies of stylistic data. Of special import to Cognitive Stylistics is the creativity of the writer and the reader in making and interpreting meaning, together with the content of the work.

Cognitive Linguistics Cognitive Linguistics is a modern school of linguistics that emerged in the 1970s due to dissatisfaction with formal approaches to language. It grew out of the work of several scholars who were interested in the relationship between language and mind such as Ronald Langacker, George Lakoff, Leonard Talmy, and others. It is a cluster of overlapping approaches to the study of language as a mental phenomenon. It sees language as embedded in the overall cognitive capacities of the human. The structure of language is a direct reflection of cognition in the sense that the structure of a particular linguistic expression reflects a particular way of conceptualizing a given situation. Language creation is accounted for by reference to concepts formed in the mind. It seeks, therefore, to hinge descriptions of linguistic phenomena on the mental operations in the human brain. The general aim of Cognitive Linguistics is to provide insights into aspects of the human mind and offer glimpses into patterns of thought.

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Commitments Cognitive Linguistics is characterized by two foundational commitments, as George Lakoff argues. The first is the Generalization Commitment. It constitutes a commitment to the characterization of general principles that are responsible for all aspects of human language such as phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. This commitment follows from the assumption that language reflects general cognitive processes. This commitment stands in direct opposition to the modular approach taken in Formal Linguistics. The second is the Cognitive Commitment. It constitutes a commitment to the characterization of linguistic structure as reflecting what is known about the mind and brain from other cognitive sciences such as philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence, and neuroscience. An important consequence of this is that language reflects and is informed by non-linguistic aspects of cognition. Language is not separable from general cognition, as Formal Linguistics claims.

Assumptions 1. Language is inherently symbolic, the quality of linguistic structures being associated with meaning. There is a link between the form of language and the meaning it expresses, that is, between the phonological and semantic structures of language. Form and meaning are seen as mutually interdependent. The form cannot be investigated independently of meaning. The link is motivated by how speakers interact with the world. A lexical expression like icy, for example, is regarded as an association between the phonological structure /’aisi/ and the semantic structure [ICY], which is realized by the graphic symbols. The bound morpheme -y means ‘covered with or consisting of ice.’ Any mode of style is a set of symbols used for communicating a thought. 2. Language is usage-based, the view that the language system is shaped by actual data. Knowledge of language emerges from language use. Knowledge of language is knowledge of how language is used. The language system is built up from usage by means of general cognitive processes. It is these processes which help speakers comprehend and produce utterances. In the usage-based approach, the emergent linguistic structure is fundamentally grounded in the language user’s experience with the world. In the present study, the data are not invented but authentic. They are taken from proverbs; speeches by famous speakers, writers, and authors; excerpts from literary and scientific fictions; extracts from poems, dramas, and novels; and so on. 3. Language is meaningful. Language is a system of symbols that is used for meaningful communication. Accordingly, all language elements have semantic values. Linguistic structures, be they closed-class or open-class, are inherently meaningful. Each language element has an important role to play in the linguis-

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tic system. In language, punctuation marks are meaningful. For example, in I am sorry I love you, no punctuation mark is used. The expression denotes regret. In I am sorry; I love you, a semicolon is used. The expression denotes love. This shows that the non-use of a punctuation mark can occasionally turn the core of a message into an offense, whereas the use of a punctuation mark in the right place clarifies meaning and prevents confusion. 4. Language is context-dependent. The meaning of an expression relies on context and co-text. Context is the physical environment in which an expression is used or the location where the discussion occurs. It refers to the non-linguistic situation in which an utterance is made. For example, the context for The book is now overdue is a library, and We are fully booked is a hotel. Co-text is the linguistic environment in which an expression is used, or what precedes or follows it. For example, the word plain has several meanings, but to know which meaning is being used we need to take into account the meaning of the collocating word next to it. In a plain dress, it means “simple and undecorated,” whereas in a plain fact it means “honest and direct.” 5. Language is a creative system, referring to the mental capacity to use language in a novel way to meet new situations. New expressions are created to keep up with changing times. Speakers can coin a novel expression from a conventional expression, or construe the same situation in alternate ways using different expressions. The production of these expressions is the result of basic cognitive processes or mental operations. For example, both of the verbs know of and know about involve knowledge, but construal sets them apart in usage. The expression know of implies being aware of someone or something’s existence, as in My car is making a funny noise—do you know of a good mechanic? The expression know about implies being familiar with someone or something, as in I know about plumbing, so I am able to fix the problem myself.

Cognitive Grammar Cognitive Grammar is an approach to linguistic structure which has been developed by Langacker. It views language as an integral part of cognition, focusing on language as a means whereby conceptual content is given linguistic structure. The basic function of language is to associate a conceptual structure with a linguistic form. The speaker expresses experience by mapping conceptualization into the linguistic structure. Grammar does not conceal any underlying organization. Rather, it is entirely overt and represents a means for symbolizing semantic content. It attempts, therefore, to describe the cognitive principles that motivate the formation and use of expressions of varying degrees of complexity. Cognitive Grammar is not self-contained. It takes into consideration the role of the human in providing the basic meanings coded in language. Grammar is the product of cognitive processes or mental operations in the human brain. Grammar is based on the intimate interrelationship between the worlds of language and thought.

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Grammatical Claims 1. Grammar is a structured inventory of conventional linguistic units. Structured means the units are related to one another in organized ways. Inventory is a detailed list of all the linguistic resources which speakers exploit in constructing units. A unit is any simple or composite expression that is frequently used and thoroughly mastered, thus acquiring the status of a habit. A linguistic unit consists of a semantic structure, a phonological structure, and a symbolic structure linking them. The phonological structure refers to form, which can be spoken or written. The semantic structure refers to meaning, which is related to a concept. A concept is a mental representation that is associated with a symbol in a person’s mind. The linkage between phonological and semantic structures is motivated by how the speaker interacts with the world. 2. Grammar consists of units that are organized by schema-instance relations. The units are conventional, being established in the lexicon through repeated uses. A schema is a general pattern that is extracted from actual instances. It is a mental representation with a general meaning, whose specifics are elaborated by its instances in contrasting ways. Instances are specific units that represent situations or events. They are regarded as the basis on which schemas are built. For example, based on such actual instances as classmate, flat-mate, roommate, and so on, the schema [-MATE], can be built. Once the schema is built, it acts as a pattern or template for deriving new words in the language such as playmate, team-mate, workmate, and so on. 3. Grammar focuses on surface phenomena. Grammar does not permit deep structures. It prohibits underlying representations in describing grammatical phenomena. Every surface structure has a semantic import. Expressions have overt manifestations. They embody the conventional means a language employs for the symbolization of semantic content. The expressions The museum was swarming with tourists and Tourists were swarming in the museum share the same content, but they have different conceptualizations. In the first, the subject is conceptualized as a container. The content is marked with the preposition with after the verb. In the second, the subject is conceptualized as content. The container is marked with the spatial preposition in. 4. Grammar is based on usage events. A usage event is an actual instance of language uttered in communicative interaction. It is an actual utterance that is grounded in experience and serves a particular purpose in communication. It represents the expression of a coherent idea, making use of the conventions of language. In terms of structure, an utterance may consist of a single word like disbelief, a phrase like utter disbelief, or a sentence like She shook her head in disbelief. Usage events have a double import. First, they act as the foundation of linguistic units. Usage events are bipolar, comprising both form and meaning. Second, they are the source of generalizations in grammar. Thus, language acquisition is a bottom-up process, driven by linguistic experiences.

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5. Grammar grounds the study of language in cognitive faculties. These are cognitive processes or mental operations that allow speakers to perform tasks like categorization, configuration, and conceptualization, among others. They are strategies that determine performance in mental activities. They enable speakers to create and express language. They allow the construction and communication of meaning. Cognitive processes that govern language use are in principle the same as other cognitive abilities like visual perception, motor activity, reasoning, and so on. Each of the cognitive processes is associated with a different kind of communication. For example, focusing is a mental operation that allows speakers to pay attention to one particular part of an expression.

Semantic Claims 1. A linguistic expression is characterized relative to the category theory. Given this theory, a linguistic item forms a complex category of interrelated senses. The category is structured in terms of prototype and periphery. The prototype is the most salient instance of the category. It has the key properties of the category. The periphery includes the remaining instances which are derived from the prototype via semantic extensions. They contain some, but not all, of the properties. Let us take some examples. At the lexical level, foot exhibits a category of multiple senses. Prototypically, foot is used for animate entities. In She followed them on foot, it refers to the body part on which a person, or animal, stands. Peripherally, foot is used for inanimate entities. In They built a house at the foot of a cliff, it refers to the base or bottom of something like a cliff, hill, mountain, stairs, page, and so on. In He stood at the foot of the bed, it refers to the end nearest to the feet of the person lying in it. In The room measures 30 feet by 10, it refers to a unit of length equal to one-third of a yard or 12 inches. At the clausal level, a sentence is polysemous, and so forms a category of distinct but related types. A declarative sentence type (She is careful) acts as the prototype of the sentence category. The interrogative (Is she careful?), imperative (Be careful) and exclamatory (How careful she is!) sentence types act as peripheries of the sentence category. The different sentence types differ with respect to properties of two kinds. Structural properties include word order patterns. Functional properties include specific illocutionary functions. Each sentence type, in turn, forms a category of its own, organized into prototype and periphery. The prototype of a sentence type contains the direct, primary function. The periphery of a sentence type contains other indirect functions which are derived from the prototype via the dynamic processes of semantic extensions. The remaining functions contain some, not all, of the properties of the sentence type category. The different functions of a sentence type are, therefore, not equal. They need not conform rigidly to the prototype.

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2. A linguistic expression is characterized relative to the domain theory. In light of this theory, the meaning of a stylistic item cannot be understood independently of the domain with which it is associated. A domain is a knowledge structure with respect to which the meaning of a linguistic item can be described. A domain contains a set of facets, each of which describes a certain human experience, and each of which is realized by a linguistic item. Let us take some examples. At the lexical level, the meanings of the expressions foresee, foretell, and forecast can best be understood against the domain of prediction, within which each expression profiles a certain facet. Foresee implies a prediction that comes as a result of ordinary reasoning or experience. Foretell implies a prediction that is made by using magical or religious powers. Forecast implies a prediction that is based on technical or scientific knowledge. At the clausal level, the sentences She made them go and She forced them to go evoke the domain of causation, but they have distinct meanings. In the first sentence, the main verb make is followed by the complement verb go, which is in the bare infinitive. The bare infinitive complement denotes an action that is direct in the sense of the subject’s direct involvement in the complement event. The sentence implies a direct link between the referents of the main and complement clause verbs. The main verb make signals a direct link in bringing about a certain result; therefore, it occurs with a bare infinitive. In the second sentence, the main verb force is followed by the complement verb to go, which is in the to-infinitive. The to-infinitive complement denotes an action that is indirect in the sense of the subject’s indirect involvement in the complement event. That is the subject does something which provokes the occurrence of an effect. The main verb force implies the use of indirect means in attaining the complement content; therefore, it occurs with the to-infinitive. This shows that the syntax of an expression is a reflection of its conceptual organization. It is determined by the particular way the speaker describes its scene. 3. A linguistic expression is characterized relative to the construal theory. In virtue of this theory, the meaning of an expression is identified in terms of the way its content is construed. The meaning of an expression includes both conceptual content and construal. Conceptual content is the meaning conventionally associated with an expression. Construal is the ability of a speaker to describe a situation in alternate ways and use different expressions to code them in language. Let us take some examples. At the phrasal level, the expressions a book and the book describe the same situation, but they have different meanings. The distinction relates conceptually to a shift in definiteness and linguistically to the use of different articles. The first phrase construes the book as unknown to the speech participants, whereas the second phrase construes the book as part of their common knowledge. The crux of the construal theory is that human thought and language are intimately interrelated. At the clausal level, the sentences I saw them quarreling and I saw them quarrel share the same content, but each designates an alternative construal. They are

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structural choices serving different communicative purposes. In I saw them quarreling, the speaker takes an internal view of the event, that is, sees part of the event. So, s/he puts the verb in the progressive aspect. In this construal, the speaker focuses on the minimal scope of the event, by reporting the non-­ completion of the event. This sentence implies that the quarreling wasn’t finished at the moment of speaking. In I saw them quarrel, the speaker takes an external view of the event, that is, sees the event in its entirety. So, s/he puts the verb in the non-progressive aspect. In this construal, the speaker focuses on the maximal scope of the event, by reporting the completion of the event. This sentence implies that the quarreling was finished at the moment of speaking. In the light of the foregoing claims, an expression is deemed a conventional pairing of a phonological structure with a semantic structure. An expression has its semantic content and serves a certain communicative purpose. The meaning of an expression cannot be understood without access to the background information provided by a domain. An expression stands for construal, representing the viewpoint of the speaker in describing a given situation. The existence of rivalry between two or more expressions is explained by the cognitive process of perspective: the viewpoint taken by a speaker on a situation. Compare No buses are operating today with No, buses are operating today. The two expressions are distinct. Each expression is linked with a specific perspective. It is the comma that brings about the difference in meaning. In Cognitive Grammar, a punctuation mark then is a symbolic unit that enables speakers to express thoughts in language unambiguously.

Cognitive Stylistics Cognitive Stylistics provides a new way of analyzing texts, be they literary or non-­ literary. It is an interdisciplinary discipline, borrowing insights from Cognitive Linguistics and Cognitive Grammar. What distinguishes Cognitive Stylistics from other sorts of stylistic models is that the main emphasis is on mental representation rather than on textual representation. It explores the role played by the human cognitive system in the use of language. It discovers what happens in the mind when it produces and interprets language. It captures how the mind makes sense of the world. It places three participants at the heart of its analytical space: writer, text, and reader. In contrast to other models that focus attention primarily on one or another of the participants, Cognitive Stylistics places equal emphasis on and gives due consideration to each participant. Meaning is the result of a communicative triangle: the writer in producing a text, the reader in interpreting the text, and the text in manifesting creativity.

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The Triangle The Writer The writer is a human being who is endowed with the ability to express the same situation in multiple ways. Each has its particular meaning. To achieve this, the writer makes use of different linguistic patterns made available by language. These patterns are the products of different cognitive processes: tasks that the brain does continuously. The linguistic patterns represent stylistic choices: the style a writer chooses to write in. They communicate thoughts and emotions, that is, meanings which go beyond what is strictly dictated by lexical or syntactic elements. The stylistic choices are greatly influenced by the writer’s experience in life and interaction with the world. Of paramount importance then is the way how stylistic choices are related to cognitive processes in a text. The Reader The reader is a human being who is viewed as an active participant of a text rather than as a simple recipient. This entails how the reader relies on context, knowledge, and experience in the interpretation of a text. In the course of reading, the reader brings into play stores of knowledge in understanding the overall meaning and significance of a text. To make sense of a text, the reader performs certain actions like perceiving text language, imagining the text world, keeping track of text events, analyzing text setting, monitoring text plot, and appreciating text theme. The reader is engaged in a text-to-self connection, linking ideas found in a text to his/her own experience, identifying himself/herself with a character in the text, or relating an event in a text to one in his/her own life. The Text The text is the discourse material woven out of words, phrases, and sentences. It is a product of cognitive processes. It reflects how the mind works. It subsumes the writer’s cognitive patterns. A text constitutes the mind style of a writer: the linguistic style of a writer’s perception of the world, or depiction of worldviews. A text contains triggers that stimulate aspects of the reader’s prior knowledge, which enables him/her to construct a mental representation of the world of it. The reader’s comprehension of a text is guided by the style of the writer. Style is a distinctive manner of expression. It involves motivated choices in language use. A text is abundant in figurative language which serves to signal creativity, produce impact and add intrigue to writing.

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Tenets 1. Using language involves choice. The series of choices in style are motivated, and have a profound impact on the way language is interpreted. The question of style is a question of choice. A style is a continuum of choices made in different situations with specific meanings. When they write, writers make choices in various ways and for various reasons. Based on personal preferences and discourse strategies, writers select appropriate choices amongst the resources made available by language. Managing stylistic choices is the mark of a competent writer. A clear example is the choice of mood in English. Three moods can be ­distinguished: (a) indicative mood, which is used to express a statement or question, as in He went away; (b) imperative mood, which is used to express commands, as in Go away!; and (c) subjunctive mood, which is used to express uncertainty or wishes, as in I insist that he go away. 2. Seemingly similar expressions are not synonymous. They are not free variants even when they share the same source. Variants usually display subtle differences in meaning or unequal functions in discourse. Rather than being regarded as substitutes, stylistic variants are attributed distinct meanings. Each stylistic variant is a vehicle of a certain message. Each stylistic variant corresponds to a separate meaning. The difference in meaning, I argue, is due to a difference in conceptualization. To give a concrete example, consider the sentential pair Many people did not attend the meeting and Not many people attended the meeting. Even though the expressions share the same proposition, they are not equal in use. Their inequality spells out semantic differences. The difference resides in the scope of negation. The first means many people stayed away, whereas the second means few people came. 3. Stylistic alternatives embody different dimensions of construal which writers employ to describe situations. Construal is the ability to conceive and express a situation in different ways. Stylistic alternatives differ in meaning depending not only on the entities they designate but also on the construals employed to describe the scenes. Construal allows the writer to describe the same content in different ways. Consider the expressions She walked across the meadow, and She walked through the meadow. The expressions appear similar. In actuality, they are different. The difference resides in the construal of granularity: the level of precision and detail at which a situation is characterized. The first expression offers a coarse-grained view of the meadow. Across gives the sense of on, meaning she walked on the surface of the meadow. The second expression offers a fine-grained view of the meadow. Through gives the sense of in, meaning she walked carefully in the depths of the meadow. 4. The meanings of language are embodied. It is the human’s bodily experience that triggers expressions. That is, to make sense of the world, the structure of language is determined by bodily states or extensions from bodily experience. Concepts are shaped by the physical constraints of human body. From the

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moment one is born, one’s body becomes essential to learning, growth, and relationship with others. The construal of reality can be mediated to a great extent by the nature of human bodies. Human beings build knowledge structures using motor programs and sensory experiences. Examples of embodied structures include body-part projections, image schemas, blending spaces, and mental spaces. An example of an image schema is CONTAINER. The prepositions in and out which are used to describe physical concepts can provide a structure for describing abstract concepts. In She is in/out of trouble, the noun trouble is conceptualized as a bounded space within which she is in or out. 5. Language has both literal and non-literal meanings. The literal meaning refers to the basic, original, or usual meaning of an expression. The non-literal meaning refers to meaning that goes beyond normal, everyday, and literal meaning. This is demonstrated by figurative language; when a word or phrase used does not have its normal, everyday, and literal meaning. Figurative language uses figures of speech to be more effective, persuasive, and impactful. Examples of figurative language include metaphor, metonymy, irony, idiom, simile, oxymoron, hyperbole, allusion, and pun. In the case of metaphors, the literal interpretation would often be pretty silly. For instance, the expression She has a heart of stone is an example of a metaphor, meaning she has cold, unsympathetic nature. Thus, meaning resides in the association between an expression and the indirect or implicit message that it suggests.

Benefits 1. Cognitive Stylistics pinpoints the cognitive processes which influence text production and interpretation. An example of a cognitive process is foregrounding, a mental operation that makes certain patterns of language stand out in a text. As a linguistic strategy, foregrounding calls attention to certain portions in a text to shift the reader’s attention from what is said to how it is said. One type of foregrounding in a text is deviation, which can be described as unexpected irregularity. For example, in Never have I seen such an accident the adverb never is foregrounded. The use of deviation allows important information in an expression to be highlighted. Another type of foregrounding is parallelism, which can be described as unexpected regularity. For example, in Where there is smoke, there is fire the phrase ‘there is’ is repeated. The use of parallelism serves to emphasize the phrase’s meaning. 2. Cognitive Stylistics clarifies the fact that language serves as a powerful means of prompting dynamic online constructions of meaning that go far beyond anything explicitly provided by the lexical and grammatical forms. A clear example is a mental space: a temporary packet of conceptual structure constructed for purposes specific to the ongoing discourse. The central insight is that when we think

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and speak, we set up mental spaces. The construction of a mental space begins with the formation of a base space relative to which other mental spaces are created through space builders. For example, in I wish I had a car two mental spaces are constructed. One is the base space in which the speaker does not have a car. The other is the hypothetical space in which the speaker wants to have a car. The use of the past tense after wish expresses wishes about the present. The use of the verb wish functions as a space builder. 3. Cognitive Stylistics emphasizes the fact that language demonstrates general aspects and organizational properties of the human mind. Linguistic knowledge involves not only knowledge of the language but also knowledge of our experience of the world as mediated by language. Language is a fundamental part of the human experience. A clear example is conceptual blending, a mental operation that derives meanings from blending elements from diverse scenarios. It creates new meanings out of existing ways of thinking. Insights obtained from the blends constitute the products of creative thinking. At the word level, sitcom is a blend in which the two meanings of situation and comedy are combined in its interpretation. Sitcom is a television series in which the same characters are involved in amusing situations in each show, a restaurant where the characters crack jokes from week to week. 4. Cognitive Stylistics stresses the fact that knowledge in the mind is organized into units. Within the units is stored information. There exists a strong relationship between embodied experience and language. Conceptualization of experience depends on bodily nature. A lucid example is the image schema, an abstract conceptual representation that arises from sensory and perceptual experience, and contributes to the understanding of more complex conceptual structures. It is a preconceived idea that is employed to interpret new information. Image schemas are the basis for organizing knowledge and reasoning about the world. Prepositions such as in and out reflect the CONTAINER image schema. They can be used to express metaphorical meanings. In She is in love and She let out her anger, the body is used as a container, and functions as the source domain to describe the target domain of emotion. 5. Cognitive Stylistics stresses the fact that conceptual structures exist in the human conceptual system. They contribute to how we construct new perspectives of the world. Consequently, language is deployed to investigate conceptual structure. An example of a conceptual structure is a conceptual metaphor, a mental operation in which one idea, the source domain, is understood in terms of another, the target domain. The source domain is commonly used to explain the target domain. Conceptual metaphors are not linguistic; they are matters of knowledge representation in the mind. A plain example is She is wasting my time, where the conceptual domain of time, which is the target domain, is understood in terms of the conceptual domain of money, which is the source domain. The expression means what she is doing or saying is using up my time in a useless, unhelpful, or irritating manner.

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Creativity Cognitive Stylistics places linguistic creativity on center stage. Creativity is a quality innate to all human beings, which can be manifested in all modes of discourse. In language, creativity points to the cognitive capacity of a language user to produce and interpret novel, original and unprecedented expressions. Creativity can be linked to language in three complementary ways. The first is when the language user creates a novel expression from a conventional expression. In this case, the language user has to find an already existing pattern in the language based on which the novel expression can be produced. This is manifested in new words, sentences, or texts. The second is when the language user creates unconventional expressions. In this case, the language user has to extend the language system in a motivated, but unpredictable way. This is manifested in conceptual structures such as metaphor, metonymy, image schema, mental spaces, and blending. The third is when the language user conceptualizes and expresses a situation in different ways. In this case, the language user utilizes the linguistic resources at his/her disposal to represent his/ her conceptualizations. This is manifested in mental operations evoking different dimensions of construal. Characteristics 1. Creativity is an intellectual ability. It involves communicating thoughts originally and effectively. It is a property actively possessed by all writers and readers. It involves a writer who creates or encodes a message and a reader who interprets or decodes it. 2. Creativity is a pervasive feature of language use. It does not occur in a vacuum. It is triggered by diverse communicative needs and social interaction. It arises within context. It is a function of how the form of a message interacts with the context which hosts it. 3. Creativity is viewed as a variation from an assumed norm. It refers to the capability of conceiving something original or unusual. It allows people to think outside the box and go against the norm. It involves the breaking and realigning of the existing patterns. Significance 1. Creativity evokes the cognitive domains which contain conceptually related but specifically different concepts. A domain is a knowledge structure in terms of which concepts are characterized. To understand a concept, one has to understand the domain in which it occurs and in which it highlights a specific facet. Cognitive domains embrace phonology, morphology, graphology, lexicology, and syntax. This is the task of Chap. 6.

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2. Creativity contributes to the emergence of mental constructs or conceptual structures which are responsible for constructing and interpreting meaning in unpredictable expressions. Conceptual structures are knowledge representations organized by correspondences between conceptual domains. Conceptual structures cover metaphor, metonymy, image schema, mental spaces, and blending. This is the task of Chap. 7. 3. Creativity activates the cognitive processes which language users employ to produce and interpret expressions. Expressions embody different dimensions of construal: the ability to conceive and express a situation in different ways. Construal enables the speaker to describe the same content in different ways. Dimensions of construal include prominence, focusing, and perspective. This is the task of Chap. 8.

Summary In this chapter, I have introduced the new framework of stylistic analysis, named Cognitive Stylistics: a branch of stylistics that studies the cognitive aspects of texts. The aim is to throw new light on the construction and interpretation of texts. To achieve this goal, the framework draws on insights from Cognitive Linguistics in general and Cognitive Grammar in particular. They are the foundation stones upon which the framework is built. They provide the assumptions which allow accounting for intricacies of stylistic structures and solving the puzzles surrounding their uses. They provide the tools which allow coming up with descriptions of stylistic structures as they are employed in actual usage. The general aim is to show how capable the cognitive assumptions are in tackling stylistic problems, and how stylistic data can best be explained with reference to human mental abilities. The specific aim is to introduce the cognitive mechanisms of analysis that help to handle sophisticated texts in a principled manner. The opposing approaches to style can be summarized under the two frameworks of Traditional Stylistics and Cognitive Stylistics. They embody two different kinds of stylistic enquiries: 1. Traditional Stylistics focuses primarily on linguistic features observable in the text which contribute to the overall meaning of the text. Cognitive Stylistics shifts the emphasis to the mental component of the meaning construction process. It examines the cognitive processes that are responsible for linguistic features in a text. 2. Traditional Stylistics focuses on a text as a source of meaning. It looks at what goes on within the text and what linguistic associations it reveals. Cognitive Stylistics focuses on the role of human conceptualization in the construction of meaning. It looks at what writers do when they write and what happens to readers when they read.

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3. Traditional Stylistics is a language-based approach. Its concern is solely with language. It focuses on the link between linguistic patterns and the functions they perform. Cognitive Stylistics is a mind-based approach. It explains the linguistic construction of worldviews in texts. It considers language as a reflection of a writer’s mind. 4. Traditional Stylistics investigates all types of stylistic choices at different levels of language: phonological, morphological, graphological, lexical, and grammatical. Cognitive Stylistics investigates how these stylistic choices result from mental processes, and how they are shaped by human experiences in and interactions with the world. 5. Traditional Stylistics explains speech figures under the concept of deviation: departing from an accepted standard. Cognitive Stylistics explains speech figures under the concept of construal: conceiving and expressing a situation in multiple ways. Each dimension of construal accounts for the way a stylistic alternative is structured. Study Questions 1. What is Cognitive Linguistics? What are its leading assumptions? 2. What do you mean by generalization and cognitive commitments? 3. What is Cognitive Grammar? What are its key grammatical claims? 4. What chief semantic claims make Cognitive Stylistics different? 5. Define and exemplify the linguistic terms: schema and usage event. 6. What is Cognitive Stylistics? In what way is its study beneficial? 7. What are the principal tenets on which Cognitive Stylistics is built? 8. What is a communicative triangle? Explain what each angle means? 9. Why does Cognitive Stylistics place creativity on center stage? 10. How does Traditional Stylistics differ from Cognitive Stylistics?

Further Reading The foundations of Cognitive Linguistics are laid down by Croft and Cruse (2004), Dirven and Verspoor (1998), Evans and Green (2006), Lee (2001), and Ungerer and Schmid (2006). Complete surveys of Cognitive Linguistics are Wen and Taylor (2021), Geeraerts and Cuyckens (2007), Dąbrowska and Divjak (2015), Dancygier (2017), Evans et al. (2007), and Geeraerts (2006). Cognitive Grammar is set out by Langacker (1987, 1991, 2008, 2013, 2017). Other works in Cognitive Grammar include Taylor (2003) and Radden and Dirven (2007). Cognitive approaches to stylistics are presented in Stockwell (2002), Gavins and Steen (2003), Harrison et al. (2014), Harrison (2017), Giovanelli and Harrison (2018), Semino and Culpeper (2002), Semino (2008), Nuttall (2018), and West (2013).

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References Croft, William, and Allen Cruse. 2004. Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dąbrowska, Ewa, and Dagmar Divjak, eds. 2015. Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Dancygier, Barbara, ed. 2017. The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dirven, René, and Marjolijn Verspoor, eds. 1998. Cognitive Explorations of Language and Linguistics. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Evans, Vyvyan, Benjamin Bergen, and Jörg Zinken, eds. 2007. The Cognitive Linguistics Reader. London: Equinox. Evans, Vyvyan, and Melanie Green. 2006. Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Gavins, Joanna, and Gerard Steen, eds. 2003. Cognitive Poetics in Practice. London: Routledge. Geeraerts, Dirk, ed. 2006. Cognitive Linguistics. Basic Readings. Berlin: Gruyter. Geeraerts, Dirk, and Hubert Cuyckens, eds. 2007. The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Giovanelli, Marcello, and Chloe Harrison. 2018. Cognitive Grammar in Stylistics: A Practical Guide. London: Bloomsbury. Harrison, Chloe. 2017. Cognitive Grammar in Contemporary Fiction. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Harrison, Chloe, et al. 2014. Cognitive Grammar in Literature. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Langacker, Ronald. 1987. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. 1: Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ———. 1991. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. 2: Descriptive Application. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ———. 2008. Cognitive Grammar: A Basic Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ———. 2013. Essentials of Cognitive Grammar. USA: Oxford University Press. ———. 2017. Cognitive Grammar. In The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Barbrar Dancygier, 262–283. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lee, David. 2001. Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nuttall, Louise. 2018. Mind Style and Cognitive Grammar: Language and Worldview in Speculative Fiction. London: Bloomsbury. Radden, Günter, and René Dirven. 2007. Cognitive English Grammar. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Semino, Elena. 2008. Metaphor in Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Semino, Elena, and Jonathan Culpeper. 2002. Cognitive Stylistics: Language and Cognition in Text Analysis. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Stockwell, Peter. 2002. Cognitive Poetics: An Introduction. London: Routledge. Taylor, John. 2003. Cognitive Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ungerer, Friedrich, and Hans-Jörg Schmid. 2006. An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. Harlow: Pearson Longman. Wen, Xu, and John Taylor, eds. 2021. The Routledge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. London: Routledge. West, David. 2013. I. A. Richards and the Rise of Cognitive Stylistics. London: Bloomsbury.

Chapter 4

The Idealization Theory

Key Objectives • Present the common cognitive models—packets of knowledge that reflect the world as it is experienced by humans. • List the clause forms or clausal structures whose meanings are grounded in cognitive models. • Show that meaning is based on a close relationship between language and the world.

Introduction In the traditional era, the issue of meaning was tackled in terms of realism, a theory of meaning which stipulates that the meaning of an expression relates to an object in the world, separate from the mind. Adherents of realism assign a greater role to language because it is through language that the meaning of an expression can be decided. Adherents of realism assume that meaning is embedded in linguistic knowledge. Meaning is based on the two crucial elements of truth and reference. The meaning of an expression is defined in terms of if-and-only-if conditions. The meaning of an expression can be described by specifying the entity it refers to. Meaning is thus seen as a function of an expression. Meaning captures everyday life as it happens, independent of any human understanding and empirical fact. In reaction to this theory, Cognitive Stylistics anchors meaning in terms of idealization, whereby meaning is not just an objective reflection of the outside world. Meaning goes further than mere reference. Meaning is defined in terms of an appropriate cognitive model.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7_4

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The Idealization Theory In the cognitive approach, the meaning of an expression is anchored in non-­linguistic knowledge: being a reflection of a cognitive model, which is itself the outcome of human experience. A cognitive model is a mental representation that idealizes fundamental aspects of the world. It is a conceptual structure that includes knowledge about abstract or concrete entities. The conceptual structure involves idealization: the portrayal of something as ideal. Therefore, one cannot understand the meaning of an expression without access to the detailed knowledge and underlying motivation provided by the relevant cognitive model. Meaning is encyclopedic, covering different forms of non-linguistic knowledge. The non-linguistic knowledge coupled with the linguistic knowledge gives an expression its full meaning. The meaning of any expression we construct in and through language is not an independent module of the mind. Rather, it involves other forms of knowledge of the world.

Essence The basic insight of idealization is that knowledge exists but only as concepts in the mind. Knowledge is organized by means of abstract frames called Cognitive Models. A cognitive model is a conceptual packet of knowledge that reflects the world as it is construed by humans. It is a mental representation that embodies recurrent patterns of human experience. Cognitive models are structured pre-­ conceptually reflecting the way the world is and the way humans are. They are idealized because they involve an abstraction covering a range of experiences rather than specific instances of a given experience. They illustrate the way meaning is represented in language. Meaning reflects the existence of some bodies of knowledge, which are part of cognition. For example, an expression like He kicked the ball is constructed based on a pre-existing cognitive model relating to force dynamics. When one kicks a ball, one applies force giving it speed and changing its position. This shows that the meaning of an expression is identified with the appropriate cognitive model related to it.

Premises 1. Meaning is not just a matter of truth and reference. It is not based on an exact correspondence between language and the world. Rather, meaning goes beyond what humans can see and feel. It is non-autonomous. Meaning is not separate from other forms of knowledge. It involves non-linguistic knowledge of the

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world which is integrated with linguistic knowledge. Meaning is created by humans, and not carved up objectively. The clause She must clean the room can be understood with respect to the cognitive model of force dynamics, especially deontic modality. Deontic modality represents a pattern of experience in which the writer uses the modal verb must to indicate obligation, compelling the person to execute the action of cleaning. 2. Meaning arises from underlying cognitive models of various kinds. Meaning mirrors cognitive constructs which in turn mirror aspects of the world. This entails that linguistic meaning is a direct reflection of non-linguistic conceptual structure. Form is motivated by meaning and meaning represents the cognitive model in which it is rooted. An expression pairs a cognitive model with the corresponding aspect of linguistic form. The clause She may clean the room makes sense only within the cognitive model of force dynamics, especially epistemic modality. Epistemic modality reflects a conceptualization of the world in which the writer uses the modal verb may to indicate possibility, giving rise to uncertainty due to lack of evidence.

Advantages 1. Cognitive models allow people to understand the world. They are built from personal interaction with the surrounding environment both linguistically and non-linguistically. They serve as vehicles for talking about the world and relating language with the world. This shows that in the cognitive approach to language, the basic unit of analysis is concepts and not propositions as postulated in the philosophy of language. The clause He has been trying to read more can be accounted for by resorting to the cognitive modal of transitivity, especially the intransitive pattern. This pattern shows how the writer conceptualizes the world and encodes the conceptualization in language, in which the verb requires a subject to do the action with no object to receive it. 2. Cognitive models provide the background knowledge that can be recruited to account for linguistic meaning. They underlie the meanings of expressions and relate them with the speaker’s experiences. In the production and interpretation of forms of textual discourse, cognitive models underlie their patterns. They elucidate the nuances of such patterns, especially when they compete for use in a given situation. The clause He has been trying to read more novels is based on and explained in terms of the cognitive modal of transitivity, especially the transitive pattern. This pattern shows how the writer conceptualizes the world and realizes the conceptualization in language, in which the verb requires a subject and an object receiving the action (Table 4.1).

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Table 4.1  Realism versus Idealization Realism 1. It describes meaning as an entity existing outside the mind. 2. It tends towards a more actual view of a situation. 3. It depicts reality as having an absolute existence independent of the speaker.

Idealization 1. It describes meaning as an entity existing in the mind. 2. It tends to envision a situation in an ideal manner. 3. It depicts reality as being shaped by the speaker’s thoughts and actions.

Cognitive Models Cognitive models play important roles in the characterization of clause structure. A clause is a basic unit of grammar that expresses a complete thought. A clause can be either simple or complex. A simple clause represents a single process going on through time. It contains a subject and a verb. The verb can be followed by optional elements like objects, complements, and adverbials, as in They saw a man lying on the pavement. On the other hand, a complex clause is composed of two or more simple clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so) as in He turned off the television and went to bed, or subordinating conjunctions (after, before, as soon as, when, while, since, for, till, until, although, whereas, because, if, unless, and lest), as in After I got home, I cleaned the house. As we will see, clauses can appear in different patterns. The choice of a particular pattern depends on the writer’s construal of events, rather than simply on the events in the world. The choice of different patterns mirrors the different ways the writer conceptualizes the world. The conceptualizations of the writer can be characterized relative to different cognitive models. Then, a clause is a form-meaning pairing. Its structural form reflects its semantic representation. Its meaning is the outcome of the construal imposed on its conceptual content. The clauses triggered by cognitive models embrace grounding elements. Grounding is the cognitive process by which the speaker provides information about what happened and when, and who was involved. Grounding elements are used by the speaker to turn a type concept into instances that are identified by the hearer. Grounding falls into two major categories: nominal and clausal. Nominal grounding is used by the speaker to direct the hearer’s attention to the intended discourse referent. It includes pronouns, possessives, demonstratives, articles, quantifiers, and impersonal it. Clausal grounding establishes the status of events with respect to their actual or potential occurrence. It includes tense and modals. A grounding element then specifies the ground of the thing profiled by a nominal or the process profiled by a finite clause. For example, the word car is ungrounded and represents a type. The interlocutors have no access to its specific reference. However, by adding a grounding element like the article or demonstrative, the speaker directs the hearer’s attention to the intended target, as in the/this car. A tense inflection

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added to a verb grounds a situation in present or past time, as in She goes/went home. A modal, added to a verb, depicts a situation as real or unreal, as in She may go home. Below are the basic cognitive models which influence the construction of meaning in language.

The Billiard-Ball Model The world is thought of as being populated by discrete physical objects. These objects are capable of moving about through space and making contact with one another. Their movement is driven by energy, which is drawn either from internal or from external resources. When movement results in forceful physical contact, energy is transmitted from the mover to the impacted object, which may thereby be set in motion to participate in further interactions. The conception of energy transmission takes the form of an action chain. In an action chain, the first object makes contact and thereby transfers energy into the second object. The latter in turn is driven into contact with a third, again resulting in a transmission of energy, and so on until the energy gradually dissipates and the object comes to a stop. Langacker calls this model the billiard-ball model since our understanding of a chain of action is comparable to the way we perceive the course of a billiard ball. In a nutshell, the world is contemplated in terms of energetic interactions between entities resulting in some change in their properties. Within the billiard-ball model, many experientially grounded semantic roles have been identified, referred to as role archetypes, which consist of agent, patient, instrument, mover, experiencer, and zero. These role conceptions are so fundamental and ubiquitous in our experience that they are relevant to the characterization of every language. Agent refers to a person who volitionally initiates an action, such as John in John broke the glass. A patient refers to an inanimate object that undergoes an internal change of state such as the glass in The glass broke. An instrument refers to a physical object manipulated by an agent to affect a patient such as a hammer in John broke the glass with a hammer. An experiencer refers to a person who is engaged in mental activity, be it intellectual, perceptual, or emotional, such as she in She likes flowers. A mover refers to an entity that undergoes a change of location such as postcard in She sent him a postcard. Finally, a zero refers to an entity that simply exists, occupies a location, or exhibits a static property such as she in She is there. In language, the billiard-ball model figures in the characterization of the syntactic phenomena of transitivity and resultativity.

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Transitivity Transitivity is a property of verbs, which pertains to the number of objects a verb can take. In Cognitive Stylistics, transitivity is a matter of conceptualization. Transitivity patterns represent the particular ideologies of a text. They are choices that mirror extra-linguistic experiences, and so shape a text’s meaning. They unravel how a given text constructs the world in terms of who is doing what, to whom, and with what. They show how conceptualizers encode in language their experiences of the world around them. They are the prime means of expressing internal and external experiences in textual analysis, particularly in the analysis of mind style: the authorial conceptualization of events reflected in the language used. Each transitivity pattern expresses a particular ideology: a mode of thinking characteristic of an individual, social class, or group. It is a set of ideas on which individuals base their actions. In a clause structure, transitivity refers to the way meaning is represented. It emphasizes how the choice of patterns affects the representation of events. (1) a. “Have a heart that never hardens, and a temper that never tires, and a touch that never hurts.” b. “Literary experience heals the wound, without undermining the privilege of individuality.” c. “These books gave Matilda a hopeful and comforting message: You are not alone.” The expressions cited in (1) reflect transitivity. However, each is realized stylistically differently. The distinct ways in which the situation is described are reflected in distinct transitivity patterns. The expressions show how the patterns chosen to describe the situation reflect how the conceptualizer sees or wishes to represent the world. In (1a), the quote is from the novel Hard Times by Charles Dickens. The verbs harden, tire, and hurt are intransitive. They do not take objects. Here, there is a subject that does the action, but there is no object to receive it. In (1b), the quote is from the book An Experiment in Criticism by Clive Staples Lewis. The verb heal is monotransitive. It takes an object. Here, the subject is carrying out the deliberate action of healing on the direct object wound. In (1c), the quote is from Matilda by Roald Dahl. The verb give is ditransitive. It takes two objects. Here, the direct object is the message and the indirect object is Matilda. The expressions emphasize the connection between the structure of an expression and the meaning which it expresses, which portrays the world in a specific way.

Resultativity Resultativity refers to the state of an entity that is achieved as the result of the action named by the verb. In Cognitive Stylistics, an adjectival resultative clause involves the activation of the billiard-ball model. It codes a relation between two events within a single clause: the action component and the change component. The model

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provides an example of the basic interactions that exist between the participants in the clause, just like the interactions we perceive between objects in the world. The clause can be thought of as portraying an action chain in which energy is transmitted from an energy source, that is, the agent, to the energy absorbent, that is, the patient. The grammatical roles of the entities in the clause are related to the archetypal roles of agent, patient, instrument, and so on. The participant roles are distinguished in terms of their transmission of energy, between an energy source and an energy absorbent. A prototypical adjectival clause profiles a full action chain with the agent as the subject and trajector of the clause, the patient as the object or landmark, and the energy transfer profiled by the verb. (2) a. “The banging continued, and Ernesto reluctantly unlocked the door and pushed it open a few inches.” b. “Rebus found some aspirin in one of his chaotic drawers, and crunched them to a bitter powder as he made his way downstairs.” The expressions cited in (2) represent different patterns of resultative clauses. The expression in (2a) is taken from the novel Inferno by Dan Brown. It is a property resultative, in which the object comes to have the property expressed by the adjective. The verb push is conceptualized as a force acting upon the door, causing it to become open. The agent Ernesto transfers energy through the verb push to the patient the door and ends in bringing about a change of state in the door which becomes open. The clause activates the notion of an action chain, involving the transmission of energy. Ernesto is the agent who initiates and carries out the physical act of opening. The patient the door changes as a result of being affected by the energy source. The result open indicates the state of the noun the door resulting from the completion of the event denoted by the verb push. The expression in (2b) is taken from Hide And Seek by Ian Rankin. It is a causative resultative, in which the subject causes the direct object to change. The expressions indicate how resultativity influences the way language represents the world.

The Stage Model This model concerns how people construe the outside world. People can either focus on everything on the stage, hence maximal scope, or focus on a specific thing on the stage, hence immediate scope. The maximal scope refers to our maximal field of view. The immediate scope refers to a limited area as the general focus of attention. The specific object on which attention is focused is referred to as the profile. According to this model, the set-up of constituents in a clause is similar to what happens on stage in a play. The role of a conceptualizer viewing a situation is analogous to that of a spectator watching a play. Like a spectator who focuses attention on the stage or a particular part of it, the conceptualizer focuses attention on either all or part of a clause. The setting of a scene, where the participants move around, is

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similar to the stage in a play, where the actors interact and the play develops. The setting is stable, whereas the participants are mobile and interactive. In language, the stage model is of great value in understanding the syntactic phenomena of extraposition and pronominality.

Extraposition Extraposition is a construction where a subordinate clause, acting as the subject of the main clause, is moved to the end of the main clause, and replaced by it as an initial subject. In Cognitive Stylistics, extraposition is not a matter of movement, but rather of conceptualization. The non-extraposed and extraposed versions are treated as separate styles, motivated by conceptual considerations. The choice as to which version to use is motivated by the construal of scope. A non-extraposed version takes a narrow view of a situation. The complement clause is considered the sole factor in inducing the experience in the conceptualizer. That is, the reason for the experience expressed by the main predicate is unilateral. The extraposed version takes a broad view of a situation. The conceptualizer considers all parts of a situation together in contributing to the experience, in which the complement content is the most important. That is, the reason for the experience expressed by the main predicate is multilateral. The source of the conceptualizer’s experience in the extraposed expression is therefore somewhat larger in scope than in the non-extraposed one and goes beyond mere observation. (3) a. To see the world in all its tainted glory, and still love it takes a great deal of courage. b. “It takes a great deal of courage to see the world in all its tainted glory, and still love it.” The expressions cited in (3) are different variants of the same situation. Yet, each is realized stylistically differently. The distinction between them is a matter of scope. In the non-extraposed version in (3a), the writer takes a narrow view of the complement event. The whole complement clause is coded as a subject and serves as the trajector of the predicate. Semantically, the complement content, that is, the act of seeing the world in all its tainted glory, is the only stimulus that is responsible for the evaluation made by the conceptualizer. In the extraposed version in (3b), a quote by Oscar Wilde, the writer takes a broad view of the complement event. The immediate scope of predication profiled by it is chosen as a subject and serves as a trajector. Semantically, it represents a global stimulus subsuming the general circumstances which are responsible for the evaluation made by the conceptualizer. The global stimulus embraces both the complement content and the general circumstances surrounding its occurrence.

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55

Pronominality Pronominality is related to, derived from, functioning as, or resembling a pronoun. Pronouns can be personal and impersonal. Personal pronouns make direct reference to the first speaker (I, we), second person (you), or third person (she, he, they), and their derived forms. A personal expression is one in which the subject position is occupied by a personal pronoun. An impersonal pronoun introduced by it avoids reference to human participants in discourse. An impersonal expression is one in which the subject is simply understood as indefinite or non-specified. In Cognitive Stylistics, the two expressions are analyzed as different choices, where a difference in style results from a difference in construal. A personal expression codes a subjective construal of an event judged from the vantage point of the subject, who includes the self in the event described. An impersonal expression signals an objective construal of an event judged from the vantage point of a general conceptualizer, who excludes himself/herself from the event described as if it were none of his/her concern. Recall that pronouns function as grounding elements, directing attention to a particular thing and distinguishing it from other members of its category. (4) a. “If you play with fire, you’ll get burned.” b. “It’s no use crying over spilt milk.” The expressions cited in (4) are proverbs. The proverb in (4a) is a personal expression. It is reflected by the use of the personal pronoun you. The event concerns the subject who is on stage. The person is included in the conceptual scene described. The expression gives a subjective perspective of a scene. It presents the consequences of playing with fire. The proverb means that if you get involved in something dangerous or beyond your abilities, you will probably experience negative consequences. The proverb in (4b) is an impersonal expression. It is reflected by the use of the impersonal pronoun it. The event is conceptualized from the vantage point of the speaker who is off stage. The speaker displaces himself/herself from the person engaged in the activity. An impersonal expression gives an objective perspective of a scene. The consequences do not harm the speaker. The speaker might exercise the activity but hide for the sake of face-saving. The proverb means that there is no point in staying upset over a mistake because you can’t undo what has happened.

The Canonical-Event Model This model is a combination of the above two models: the billiard-ball and the stage models. The billiard-ball model contributes to the conception of an action chain, where an entity recognized as an agent transmits energy to another entity recognized as a patient through contact. The stage model contributes to the notion of an event occurring within a setting and a viewer observing it from the outside. In sum,

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the canonical-event model represents the normal observation of a prototypical action and contributes to our understanding of the notion of participant choice. Profiling can be directed to different participants of the action chain. In Floyd broke the glass with a hammer, the three participants are in profile. In The hammer broke the glass, the agent is left unprofiled. In The glass broke, the agent and the instrument are left unprofiled. These different realizations reflect the conceptualizer’s choice of profiling different segments of the action chain depending on the communicative needs. They also show that the profiled segment is placed in the subject position irrespective of its semantic role. In language, the canonical-event model is instrumental in understanding the syntactic phenomena of raising and voice.

Raising Raising pertains to the process that allows a constituent to be moved from a subordinate clause into a main clause. In Cognitive Stylistics, raising is not a matter of movement, but rather of conceptualization. The non-raised and raised expressions are treated as distinct options, each representing its way of construing a situation. They are not derived from the same underlying structure, nor one from the other. Rather than being regarded as equivalent or synonymous, they are attributed different semantic values and are meant to serve different communicative functions. Each structure is a vehicle of a certain semantic structure. This means that alternatives available to the speaker are not on an equal footing. In the non-raised variant, there is the absence of a candidate for focal status. Instead, the whole clause is accorded the focal status. In the raised variant, the focal status is conferred on the most salient participant in the clause. This shows that the specific form and syntactic behavior of an expression are motivated by its conceptual organization, and thus inseparable from it. (5) a. It isn’t a problem to solve the mystery of life, but a reality to experience. b. “The mystery of life isn’t a problem to solve, but a reality to experience.” The expressions cited in (5) display variation in style. The distinction is a matter of two alternative construals of the same conceptual content. It is a matter of which substructure within an expression is singled out as its profile, and which participant is invoked as the subject or as the object. In the non-raised variant in (5a), there is the absence of a candidate for focal status. Instead, the whole complement clause is accorded the focal status. The whole complement clause functions as the subject of the predicate. In the raised variant in (5b), taken from the novel Dune by Frank Herbert, the focal status is conferred on the most salient participant in the complement clause the mystery of life. The raised nominal phrase alone functions as a subject. It is the subject that is held responsible for the subject’s experience of the

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event. The experience is influenced by something associated with the object. The profiled participant the mystery of life serves as a reference point that helps the conceptualizer to get access to the target elaborated by the complement clause.

Voice Voice is a quality of a verb that indicates whether its subject acts (active voice) or is acted upon (passive voice). In Cognitive Stylistics, the active and passive variants are not derived from the same underlying structure, nor one from the other. Rather than being regarded as syntactic variants, they are attributed different semantic values. The distinction between them is exclusively a property of construal which gives the speaker the flexibility to construe a situation in alternate ways. The active and passive instances are treated as two meaningful expressions, which are used in different contexts even though they evoke the same conceptual content. The choice is argued to be the consequence of the conceptual factor of profiling. In the active, the agent is the subject and in profile. In the passive, the non-agent is the subject and in profile. One part is foregrounded as its figure and another part is backgrounded as its ground. Usually, the figure is the pivotal entity and consequently receives the most prominence. Since they are different in meaning, they are considered two different styles. (6) a. Though Mr. Middleton carried his entreaties to a point of perseverance beyond civilities, they could not give offense. b. “… though his entreaties were carried to a point of perseverance beyond civility, they could not give offense.” The expressions cited in (6) are alternatives. The distinction between them is a matter of two construals of the same base, which are invoked for different purposes. The difference in meaning between the two alternatives pertains to profile assignment, that is, which participant is chosen as the clausal subject. In the active alternative in (6a), prominence is accorded to the main clause subject. That is, the subject status is conferred on the trajector. The trajector is analyzed as the primary figure within the profiled relationship. In the passive alternative in (6b), a quote from the novel Sense and Sensibility by Jane Austen, prominence is accorded to the main clause object. That is, the subject status is conferred on the landmark. The landmark is analyzed as the secondary figure within the profiled relationship. This is in line with the cognitive principle which recognizes the difference between the semantic role of an entity and its syntactic function. The assignment of the function of a subject or object to an entity arises as a result of different conceptualizations. The writer uses the passive voice to make fun of Middleton’s character and help readers understand the fun.

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The Reference-Point Model • The world is conceived as being populated by a great variety of objects of diverse character. These objects vary greatly in their salience to a given viewer. Some objects are salient, and so more easily identifiable. Other objects are less salient, so a special effort is needed to seek them out. To access less salient ones, the viewer uses salient objects as reference points. This is based on the cognitive ability of humans to invoke one entity as a reference point for establishing mental contact with another. Every reference point anchors a region called dominion. It is in the dominion where the target can be found. The dominion includes either its vicinity or the set of objects that it can be used to locate. The viewer locates an object when s/he establishes mental contact with it by following specific paths. The reference point is a metonymical phenomenon. It is a cognitive process in which one entity, the source, is invoked and functions as a reference point to identify another, the intended target. Normally, the source as a reference point is mentally easier to access than the target. In language, the reference-point model is invoked to insightfully explain the syntactic phenomena of possession and expletive.

Possession A possessive expression is a grammatical expression used to indicate ownership. In English, possession is transmitted by two formal means. One is by placing the apostrophe at the end of the noun. The use of ’s or s’ depends on the number of the noun. A singular noun takes ’s, as in the envoy’s arrival. A plural noun takes s’, as in the envoys’ arrival. Another is by adding of-phrase before the noun, as in the leg of the table. Under Cognitive Stylistics, a possessive expression is a composite structure in which its component subparts, the possessor and the possessed, are conceptually integrated. Each subpart in the composite structure designates a thing, and the two subparts form the nominal constituent. The possessor is invoked as a reference point for establishing contact with the possessed. The integration between the subparts can be described in terms of metonymy, representing a part-whole relationship. The possessed, which is the target, is conceptualized in terms of the possessor, which is the source. This is so because possessive pronouns function as grounding elements, directing attention to a particular thing in communication and distinguishing it from other members of its category. (7) a. “The winner’s edge is all in the attitude, not aptitude.” b. The edge of the winner is all in the attitude, not aptitude. The expressions in (7) contain two structures denoting possession. In the expression in (7a), a quote from Attitude is the criterion for success by Denis Waitley, the ’s is used. In the expression, the possessor the winner is naturally more salient and

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more easily accessible than the possessed the edge, and is used as a reference point for its localization. The emphasis is on the winner. In the expression in (7b), the of-­ phrase is used. The possessed the edge is naturally more salient than the possessor the winner. In language, the noun that comes first is usually the most important element in the sentence. The emphasis is on the edge. The dependent subpart the edge depends on the autonomous subpart the winner to complete its meaning. This shows that the meaning of an expression includes not only its composite structure but also the compositional path through which the structure is assembled.

Expletive Expletive is a word, like anticipatory it and existential there, which is inserted to fill a vacancy in a sentence for grammatical purposes and without adding to the sense. In Cognitive Stylistics, it is not a dummy element. It is not a mere syntactic placeholder whose only function is to satisfy the structural need for a surface subject in English. It has a meaning of its own and thereby provides a semantic contribution to the whole expression. It highlights the global field which subsumes the general circumstances surrounding the occurrence of an event. An it-expression is motivated by the construal of scope: the array of conceptual content, narrow or broad, which the speaker chooses to characterize an expression. In a narrow scope which is represented by a non-extraposed expression, the speaker considers a minimal range of content in describing the situation. In a broad scope which is represented by an extraposed expression, the speaker considers a maximal range of content in describing the situation. The speaker considers all parts of a situation together in contributing to his or her experience. It serves as a reference point for getting access to the target. (8) a. To produce a little literature takes a great deal of history. b. “It takes a great deal of history to produce a little literature.” The expressions in (8) represent two different styles. In the non-extraposed version in (8a), the complement clause is in profile and hence chosen as the subject. The speaker takes a narrow view of the complement clause event. Semantically, the complement content of the clause is considered the only stimulus that induces the evaluation. In the extraposed version in (8b), a quote by Henry James, the pronoun it is in profile, and hence chosen as a subject. It serves as a trajector, and so is coded as a subject. The speaker takes a broad view of the complement event. Semantically, it represents a global stimulus subsuming the general circumstances which are responsible for the inducement of the evaluation. The global stimulus embraces two components: the complement clause content which is central and the general circumstances surrounding its occurrence. It serves as a reference point for the localization of the complement clause. It helps the conceptualizer to get access to the target elaborated by the complement clause.

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The Reality Model Whenever we think of or talk about a state of affairs, we assess it with respect to reality, conceived as evolving through time from the past to the present into the future. Two models mirror our conception of reality: basic and dynamic. Within the basic model, there are two facets: immediate reality referring to events in progress, and non-immediate (known) reality referring to events that have occurred. Linguistically, basic reality refers to events that are currently in progress or have occurred. In basic reality, the states of affairs are factual. Within the dynamic model, there are also two facets: potential reality referring to events that are not sure to occur, and projected reality referring to events that are sure to occur. Linguistically, dynamic reality refers to the future course of events that could or could not happen. In dynamic reality, the states of affairs are not established. Imagining things belong to the world of irreality, as in the hypothetical situation I wish I could find a better job. In language, the reality model is necessary for the description of the syntactic phenomena of tense and complementation.

Tense Tense refers to the verb’s time frame which consists of the present, past, and future. In Cognitive Stylistics, tense specifies the time of a situation and, at the same time, invokes notions about its reality status. Tense relates to the way a situation is located in time from the speaker’s viewpoint. The speech moment serves as a deictic center and allows the speaker to refer to three time spheres: past, present, and future. The past time sphere refers to time as lying behind the speaker. It looks backward and locates a situation as occurring before the speech time. The present time sphere locates a situation as occurring simultaneously with speech time. The future time sphere refers to time as lying ahead of the speaker. It looks forward and locates a situation as occurring after the speech time. The tenses convey information about the reality status of a situation. The present tense indicates that the situation described belongs to the immediate reality. The past tense indicates that the situation described belongs to non-immediate reality. The future tense indicates that the situation described belongs to projected reality. Dimensions of tense function as grounding elements, profiling a grounded instance of some type. (9) a. “Music expresses that which cannot be put into words and that which cannot remain silent.” b. “I know. I was there. I saw the great void in your soul, and you saw mine.” c. “The truth will set you free. But not until it is finished with you.” The expressions cited in (9) denote different time spheres and reality facets. They show that by choosing a particular tense, the speaker informs the hearer about the

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type of reality in which the situation is grounded. In (9a) expression, a quote by Victor Hugo, the speaker anchors the situation in immediate reality. The situation is located at speech time. Linguistically, this is expressed by the use of the present tense, which is realized by the verb expresses. In (9b) expression, a quote by Sebastian Faulks, the speaker anchors the situation in non-immediate reality. The situation is located at a time earlier than the speech time. Linguistically, this is expressed by the use of the past tense, which is realized by the verb saw. In (9c) expression, a quote from Infinite Jest by David Foster Wallace, the speaker anchors the situation in projected reality. The situation is located at a time later than the speech time. Linguistically, this is expressed by the use of the future tense, which is realized by the use of the modal verb will.

Complementation Clausal complementation refers to the process of embedding a complement clause inside the verb phrase of the main clause. The complement clause is regularly introduced by a complementizer. In Cognitive Stylistics, clausal complementation is seen as the integration of two-component events to form a composite event. One component event is dependent, while the other is autonomous. The main clause represents the dependent event, while the complement clause represents the autonomous event. A dependent clause describes an event that is viewed as conceptually reliant on the autonomous clause. An autonomous clause describes an event that is viewed as conceptually subordinated to the dependent clause. It qualifies as a central element since it constitutes an inherent part of the meaning of the dependent clause. The choice of a complement type is not only a question of the semantics of the main verb but also, and to a large extent, the outcome of construal. (10) a. “They wanted to speak, but could not; tears stood in their eyes.” b. “You accept certain unlovely things about yourself and manage to live with them.” The expressions cited in (10) contain non-finite complement clauses. The to-­ infinitive represents both potential and projected facets of dynamic reality. The (10a) expression, taken from Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky, represents potential reality, denoting events that are not sure to occur. It implies subsequent potentiality, where the complement event follows the main event and could happen in the future. The to-infinitive represents potential reality in the sense that the event of speaking has not yet been fulfilled. This occurs after verbs of desire. The (10b) expression, a quote by Eric Hoffer, represents projected reality, denoting events that are almost sure to occur. It implies subsequent actualization, where the complement event follows the main event and will certainly happen in the future. The to-infinitive represents projected reality in the sense that the event of living with unlovely things has been fulfilled. This occurs after verbs of achievement.

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(11) a. “My wealth is not a subject I relish discussing.” b. “Never regret trusting someone. It proves you have a heart.” The expressions cited in (11) contain non-finite complement clauses. The -ing gerund represents both immediate and non-immediate facets of basic reality. The (11a) expression, a quote by Jean Paul Getty, represents immediate reality, denoting events in progress. Immediate reality signifies simultaneity, where there is a coincidence in time between the main and the complement events. The use of -ing gerund denotes immediate reality in the sense that the event of discussing wealth is taking place at the time of speaking. This occurs after verbs of reaction. The (11b) expression, taken from the book Beyond the Grave by Jude Watson, represents non-­immediate reality, denoting events that have occurred. Non-immediate reality signifies anteriority, where the complement event occurs prior to the main event. The -ing gerund denotes non-immediate reality in the sense that the event of trusting someone has already happened. This occurs after verbs of communication.

The Force-Dynamics Model Force dynamics is about the faculty of construing the world in terms of entities interacting through force. It relates to our experience of how entities interact with respect to force. It pertains to opposition between forces and counterforces. It assumes two entities: protagonist and antagonist. The protagonist is the entity that initiates an action, whereas the antagonist is the entity that opposes the action, either overcoming the force or failing to overcome it. The protagonist is singled out for focal attention, while the antagonist plays a subordinate role. The two forces are in steady-state opposition. Force dynamics is an approach to knowledge representation that specifies how the concept of cause is grounded in the representation of force, no matter it is concrete or abstract. It shows how abstract causation is largely the same as concrete causation. As a theory of causation, force dynamics provides a conceptual background on which the meanings of modal verbs and causal expressions are based. In language, the force-dynamics model can account for the syntactic phenomena of modality and causation.

Modality Modality is thought of as a system of linguistic devices that indicate the degree to which a proposition is possible, impossible, probable, improbable, or certain. It refers to the use of language to reflect the speaker’s or writer’s attitudinal stance toward the proposition expressed. In Cognitive Stylistics, modality is the depiction

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of a writer’s attitude toward a situation through language. Modality is expressed by modal verbs in the language. Modal verbs function as grounding elements, linking the semantic content of a linguistic expression to the ground. Ground refers to the context of a discourse event, including the participants (speaker/hearer), the immediate circumstances, and the time of interaction. Modality is grounded or marked by modal verbs. Likewise, modal verbs are described in terms of subjectivity. Subjectivity refers to the perspective taken by a conceptualizer on a given situation. It is based on the writer’s personal feelings and opinions rather than external facts. The use of a particular type of modality creates a specific effect, having a significant impact on the feel or tone of a text. Attitude subsumes deontic and epistemic modality, both of which involve force. Deontic modality is concerned with the directive attitude toward the execution of an action. It indicates how the world ought to be according to certain norms, expectations, or standards. It conveys two aspects of related knowledge: obligation and permission. Obligation is realized by modal verbs such as must, have to, need to, ought to and should. Permission is realized by modal verbs such as can, could, and may. Epistemic modality is concerned with the assessment of the potentiality of a state of affairs. It encompasses knowledge, belief, or credence in a proposition. It conveys two aspects of related knowledge: possibility and certainty. Possibility is realized by modal verbs such as may, might, and could. Certainty is realized by modal verbs such as must, can’t, and couldn’t when we expect something to be true, must when we are sure that something is true, and can’t when we are sure it isn’t true. We use will or going to for saying what we believe will happen in the future. (12) a. “We must all face the choice between what is right and what is easy.” b. “Anybody can make history. Only a great man can write it.” c. “The very reason I write is so that I might not sleepwalk through my entire life.” d. “The best and most beautiful things in the world cannot be seen or even touched—they must be felt with the heart.” In (12a), the quote is from Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire by J. K. Rowling. The modal verb must represents obligation within deontic modality. In (12b), the quote is by Oscar Wilde. The modal verb can represents permission within deontic modality. In (12c), the quote is by Zadie Smith. The modal verb might represents possibility within epistemic modality. In (12d), the quote is from Helen Keller. The modal verb cannot represents certainty within epistemic modality. As the examples show, modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express the speaker’s attitude toward a situation and the strength of that attitude. Each expresses the speaker’s stance and subjective attitude toward the proposition it expresses. In each example, the writer directly indicates his or her attitude or view by the use of a certain modal verb. So, modal verbs can be considered influential carriers of meaning in both literary and non-literary texts. They are particularly important because of their strongly interpersonal function in language.

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To grasp the difference in meaning between modal verbs, we need to compare them in pairs as shown below: (13) a. You have to take the medicine. b. You must take the medicine. The expressions cited in (13) indicate deontic modality, expressing obligation. In obligation, the compelling force resides in the speaker’s social authority, imposing his/her will on the hearer. The speaker is the source of the force. The hearer is the one who is obliged to act. Both have to and must imply that it is necessary to do something, but there is a difference in meaning between them. In the mode in (13a), have to is used to talk about rules, laws, and other people’s wishes. The expression means somebody else told me it was necessary to take the medicine. The obligation comes from outside, in the form of regulations. In the mode in (13b), must is used to talk about what the speaker wishes. The expression means I think it is necessary to take the medicine. Nobody else has told me to take it. The obligation comes from inside, from the speaker’s mind. Concisely, have to is used for external obligation, whereas must is used for the internal obligation. (14) a. The restaurant may close. b. The restaurant might close. The expressions cited in (14) mark epistemic modality, expressing possibility. In possibility, the force is a potential barrier, but it is lifted. Both may and might express possibility, but there is a slight difference in meaning between them. In the (14a) style, may deals with factual situations. The expression means it is likely that the restaurant will close. May is used to express what is expected or will probably happen. In the (14b) style, might deals with hypothetical situations, based on guesses rather than facts. The expression means there is only a possibility that the restaurant will close but no one is sure. Might is used to express what is speculative, counterfactual, or remotely possible. Hence, may is stronger than might. Could is also used to talk about possible future happenings. Its use, however, depends on something else happening. In The restaurant could close, the use of could involves a condition that must be fulfilled for the restaurant to close.

Causation Causation relates to the act of causing an action to happen by means of a causative verb. A causative verb is sometimes employed to avoid an unwanted responsibility. The main relation profiles a causal relationship between two events where one is the cause and the other its effect. A causative expression is an expression that contains a predicate of cause, referred to as the main verb, one argument of which is a predicate expressing an effect, referred to as the complement verb. The main verb profiles the relationship that exists between its agent, which is referred to as the causer, and

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the complement event being caused including the participant partaking in it. The participant in the complement event, which is referred to as the causee, is the performer of the content of the complement clause. In other words, the subject does not act but instead causes another agent to have the action done. The five most important causative verbs are: have, get, make, let, and help. Causative verbs are used to indicate that one person causes another person to do something for the first person. (15) a. “You would have me believe that causation can be completely circular.” b. “Only one thing counts in this life: Get them to sign on the line which is dotted.” The expressions cited in (15) denote causation, but there is a subtle difference in their meaning. In expression in (15a), the quote is from Astounding Science Fiction by Robert A. Heinlein. The causative verb have is used. In a sentence, it is followed by an object and the base form of the verb. Have is used to express arrangement or duty. It entails arranging for someone to do something for us. It is less forceful and less authoritative than the causative verb get. The sentence means we instructed or forced him to believe in circular causation. In short, we use have to give someone the responsibility to do something. That is, someone else has the responsibility to act. In expression in (15b), the quote is from Glengarry Glen Ross by Alec Baldwin. The causative verb get is used. In a sentence, it is followed by an object and the to-­ infinitive of the verb. Get is used to express encouragement or persuasion. It entails convincing someone to do something or tricking someone into doing something. It is less forceful than the causative verb make. The sentence means we convinced or persuaded them to sign. In short, we use get to persuade somebody to act.

Summary In this chapter, I have applied the theory of idealization to the characterization of clausal structures. Idealization is the process of grounding the meaning of a clausal structure in abstract frames called cognitive models: mental representations in which human experience and knowledge are stored. The models are used to understand and characterize the meanings of clausal expressions. The models are of great value in providing ways of understanding the semantic motivation of various types of clauses. Different cognitive models were introduced and their influences on the linguistic encodings of clauses were discussed in detail. The cognitive models are billiard ball, stage, canonical event, reference point, reality, and force dynamics. The billiard-ball model motivated transitive and resultative clauses. The stage model was manifested in extraposed and pronominal clauses. The canonical-event model was actualized in raised and passive clauses. The reference-point model shaped possessive and expletive clauses. The reality model influenced tense and complement clauses. The force-dynamics model was found to motivate the linguistic encodings of modal and causative clauses.

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A review of the discussion so far leads to some significant conclusions vis-à-vis the semantic structure of expressions: 1. Meaning is not based on truth and reference. Meaning is based on a close relationship between language and the world. The world is composed of different cultures, beliefs, and practices. A language is a tool that helps document and describes diverse world aspects. Language is the lens through which such aspects can be seen. 2. The world aspects exist in the form of cognitive models. A cognitive model is a mental representation or a packet of knowledge that is formed based on recurrent patterns of human experience. A cognitive model represents a cognitive view of the stored knowledge about a certain field. It involves a considerable degree of idealization. 3. The meaning of an expression is defined in terms of the appropriate cognitive model which stores our knowledge of the world. It provides a way of characterizing structured encyclopedic knowledge which is inextricably connected with linguistic knowledge. It influences people’s perceptions of or thoughts about events and situations (Table 4.2). Table 4.2  Cognitive models Cognitive models The billiard-ball model

Syntactic phenomena Transitivity

The stage model

Resultativity Extraposition Pronominality

The canonical event model

Raising Voice

The reference-point model

Possession Expletive

The reality model

Tense

Complementation The force-dynamics model

Modality Causation

Examples Urged by others, she sang. She sang a song at the party. She sang them a song. The blacksmith hammered the metal flat. To interfere is unwise. It is unwise to interfere. I enjoy chatting online. It is enjoyable chatting online. It appears that the suspect is innocent. The suspect appears to be innocent. Kim ate the pies. The pies were eaten by Kim. The choir’s singing was lovely. The singing of the choir was lovely. To make crude jokes is vulgar. It is vulgar to make crude jokes. He plays football. He played football. He will play football. She prefers to live in the countryside. She prefers living in the countryside. You should admit your mistake. You should admit your mistake. I had the mechanic check the brakes. I got the mechanic to check the brakes.

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Study Questions 1. Explore an anthology of literature and illustrate the function of the billiard-­ball model in the syntactic phenomenon of transitivity. 2. Take a story and identify the cognitive role played by the stage model in the syntactic phenomenon of extraposition. 3. Look at a literary text and show how the canonical -event model figure in the syntactic phenomena of voice. 4. Use an example of a literary work and explain the effect of the reference-­ point model in the syntactic phenomenon of possession. 5. Find a dramatic text and underline the necessity of the reality model in the syntactic phenomenon of tense. 6. Write examples of your own and trace the workings of the force-dynamics model in the syntactic phenomenon of modality. 7. Which cognitive model do you think can account for the meaning of the following resultative clauses? And how? “Phoebus, arise, And paint the sable skies, With azure, white, and red.”—“Phoebus Arise” by William Drummond “I laughed him out of patience, and that night I laughed him into patience.”— “Antony and Cleopatra” by William Shakespeare 8. The use of personal and impersonal constructions is influenced by the stage model. Using the examples below, show how? Cathy risks driving a car without a license. It is risky driving a car without a license. 9. Using the examples below, show how the canonical -event model helps to interpret the syntactic phenomenon of raising. It is likely to repair the machine. The machine is likely to repair. 10. The reality model seems influential in the interpretation of the syntactic phenomenon of complementation. How? “People say that life is the thing, but I prefer reading.”— “Afterthoughts” “Myself” by Logan Pearsall Smith “I suppose I prefer to live in a remarkable world.”— “Varsity” by Dave Gorman

Further Reading Good accounts of cognitive models are Lakoff (1982, 1987), Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Langacker (1991), Simpson (1993), Cienki (2007), Gibbons and Whiteley (2018), Croft and Cruse (2004), Evans (2006, 2009), Dirven et  al. (2003), Hart (2013), Geeraerts (2003), Halverson (2002), and Baicchi et al. (2005).

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References Baicchi, Annalisa, Cristiano Broccias, and Andrea Sansò. 2005. Modelling Thought and Constructing Meaning: Cognitive Models in Interaction. Milano: Franco Angeli. Cienki, Alan. 2007. Frames, Idealized Cognitive Models, and Domains. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Dirk Geeraerts and Hubert Cuyckens, 170–187. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Croft, William, and Allen Cruse. 2004. Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dirven, René, Roslyn Frank, and Martin Pütz. 2003. Cognitive Models in Language and Thought: Ideology, Metaphors and Meanings. Berlin: Gruyter. Evans, Vyvyan. 2006. Lexical Concepts, Cognitive Models, and Meaning-Construction. Cognitive Linguistics 17: 491–534. ———. 2009. How Words Mean: Lexical Concepts, Cognitive Models, and Meaning Construction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Geeraerts, Dirk. 2003. Cultural Models of Linguistic Standardization. In Cognitive Models in Language and Thought. Ideology, Metaphors, and Meanings, ed. René Dirven, Roslyn Frank, and Martin Pütz, 25–68. Berlin: Gruyter. Gibbons, Alison, and Sara Whiteley. 2018. Contemporary Stylistics: Language, Cognition, Interpretation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Halverson, Sandra. 2002. Cognitive Models, Prototype Effects and “Translation”: The Role of Cognition in Translation (Meta)theory. Across Languages and Cultures 3: 21–43. Hart, Christopher. 2013. Constructing Contexts Through Grammar: Cognitive models and Conceptualisation in British Newspaper Reports of Political Protests. In Discourse and Contexts, ed. J. Flowerdew, 159–184. London: Continuum. Lakoff, George. 1982. Categories and Cognitive Models. Cognitive Science Program. University of California, Berkeley. ———. 1987. Cognitive Models and Prototype Theory. In Concepts and Conceptual Development: Ecological and Intellectual Factors in Categorization, ed. Ulric Neisser. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Langacker, Ronald. 1991. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. 2: Descriptive Application. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Simpson, Paul. 1993. Language, Ideology, and Point of View. London: Routledge.

Chapter 5

The Contextualization Theory

Key Objectives • Emphasize the importance of contextual information in determining the meaning of expressions. • Indicate that the way language anchors meaning in context is through the process of deixis. • Demonstrate how the process of reference is realized by means of textual clues related to person, place, and time.

Introduction Formalist Stylistics adheres strictly to a text. This stance is inspired by the theory of textualism, which emerged in the second half of the 1970s and was in the spotlight in the 1980s. Textualism maintains that the interpretation of a text is primarily based on its ordinary meaning, without taking into account any external influence. It examines a text as a self-contained object—merely identifying its features without attempting to relate them to the message. Precisely, it ignores the role of context in the analysis. It reduces the importance of a text’s pragmatic, social, and situational contexts. Within the text, the focus is restricted to formal linguistic features, including phonology, lexicology, syntax, and a few literary devices which characterize imaginative writing. It does not deal with the thematic concerns and artistic significance of a text. In sum, it is a stylistic approach in which only the text is in the limelight. In contrast to this theory, Cognitive Stylistics assigns primacy to contextualization and non-textual sources such as world knowledge.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7_5

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The Contextualization Theory The contextualization theory holds on to the doctrine of contextualism, which emphasizes the importance of context in which an expression, action, or event occurs. Meaning is context-dependent. Context is the circumstances in terms of which meaning is understood. It is intimately bound up with human cognition and prior experience. It encompasses aspects of communication that go beyond the structure of a text. Contextualism is opposed to the descriptive approach to stylistic analysis. The descriptive approach seeks to understand the richness of a text through an in-depth analysis of its formal features. The knowledge constructed by the descriptive approach is, therefore, restricted. Cognitive Stylistics goes beyond textual orientation. It seeks to relate stylistic analyses to cognitive processes. There is more to language than its purely formal dimension. This stance taken by Cognitive Stylistics is readily compatible with the innovations in pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and discourse analysis in the 1980s. These disciplines offer important insights into the concepts of context, non-literal meaning, and social setting.

Essence The basic insight of the contextualization theory is that context is crucial to all textual interpretations. It looks not just at the text, but at the mind’s contribution to writing and reading. It examines the cognitive processes involved in the construction of linguistic meaning. It places construal dimensions and contextual effects at the heart of its analysis. The meaning of a text can be shaped largely from individual perspectives and partly from contextual clues. Contextual clues are hints of information that help figure out the meaning of a text. It explores how certain types of clues can only be understood using the reader’s knowledge, beliefs, and inferences. The discourse recipient activates encyclopedic knowledge from memory in the interpretation of a text. Context provides a picture of the situation, which helps to engage the reader. Without context, the reader may not see the intrinsic nature of a text and may not understand its message. Language without context lacks important reference points for meaning, and so is simply not effective in communication.

Premises 1. The meaning of an expression is determined by the linguistic environment in which it is used, referred to as co-text. It refers to that which precedes or follows an expression. For example, the word clear has several meanings, but to know which meaning is being used we need to take into account the meaning of the word next to it. In a clear glass, the word clear means “transparent and

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unclouded,” whereas in a clear message it means “obvious and comprehensible.” The verb enjoy is followed by -ing as in They enjoy visiting friends, whereas the verb want is followed by to-infinitive as in They want to visit friends. As is seen, this type of context is essentially linguistic in character. The context is provided by the linguistic system itself. 2. The meaning of an expression is determined by the non-linguistic environment in which it is used, referred to as context. It refers to the situation in which it is used or the world knowledge which surrounds its occurrence. This is referred to as the situational context in which an utterance takes place. It limits the type of discourse that can be used. For example, the context for the expression He walked along the bank is the land alongside a river or lake, whereas for He cashed a check at the bank is the building where money is saved. As is seen, this type of context is essentially extra-linguistic in character. It refers to the specific setting in which an event occurs. The context is the point at which the language and the world at large interact.

Advantages 1. Contextualization is used as the best evidence available in accounting for textual interpretation. Out of context, the expression There is a car coming signals a statement meaning that a car is coming. In context, the expression There is a car coming signals a warning on a specific occasion against stepping onto a road. This shows that Cognitive Stylistics studies the meanings of linguistic expressions in and out of context. 2. Contextualization helps in the resolution of ambiguity arising from polysemy and homonymy. For example, the meaning of loud in loud music is “noisy,” but its meaning in loud color is “too bright.” This shows that the meaning that an expression conveys is conditioned by the specific context and on the specific occasion in which it is used. Cognitive Stylistics studies not only the language system but also the language use (Table 5.1). Table 5.1  Textualism versus contextualism Textualism 1. It is text-intrinsic. It exists or operates within the text. 2. It prefers form over meaning and intent. 3. It does not inquire into what the writer intends to convey. 4. It does not take into account individual experiences and contextual clues. 5. It is literal. It is concerned with what the text states.

Contextualism 1. It is text-extrinsic. It comes or operates from outside the text. 2. It values meaning and intent over form. 3. It tries to figure out what the writer tries to accomplish. 4. It takes into account individual experiences and contextual clues. 5. It is non-literal. It is concerned with what world knowledge states.

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The close relationship between language and context is reflected in the structures of language through the phenomenon of deixis.

Deixis One indispensable key to understanding the meaning of a text lies in the context in which it is embedded. The way language anchors meaning in context is through deixis. Deixis is speaker-related. Naturally, speakers relate space, time, and persons to their subjective position and view them from their point of view. Deixis is then the process of referring that is tied to the speaker’s deictic center from which a scene is described. Deictic center, or origo, is the speaker’s location in space and time during the production of an utterance. It is the speaker (I), place (here), and time of the utterances (now). The process of reference is realized by means of deictics or deictic expressions: textual clues which point to the person, place, or time in which a speaker or writer, as a reference point, is speaking or writing. Deictic expressions are bridges between language and the world. They map our everyday experiences onto expressions. They are crucial to the interpretation of written discourse. They play a significant part in establishing the personal-spatial-temporal perspective of a text and unraveling differences in meaning. In the cognitive approach to text analysis, deictic expressions function as grounding elements. As a central notion in Cognitive Grammar, grounding is the cognitive process of linking an utterance to the ground, consisting of the participants, physical environment, and time of interaction. Grounding is a process in which a type concept is turned into instance concepts that are singled out by the interlocutors. Grounding falls into two categories: nominal grounding and clausal grounding. Nominal grounding establishes a connection between the ground and the content evoked by a nominal. It includes pronouns, possessives, demonstratives, articles, quantifiers, and impersonal it. Clausal grounding establishes a connection between the ground and the content evoked by a clause. It includes tense and modals. As grounding elements, they designate the epistemic status of profiled things or processes vis-à-vis the ground and construe them subjectively. For example, the words child, draw, and picture have no specific meaning in real life because of lacking ground. However, with grounding elements they acquire different values, as in A/The child draws/drew a/the picture, This child draws/could draw that picture, and so on. Deixis involves the relationship between the structure of language and the context in which it is used. It is an example of context-dependency, wherein understanding the meaning of deictic expressions in an utterance requires contextual information. In view of an atomistic theory, the meaning of an expression is specified independently of context, by showing that it is built up out of its semantic components. In view of a holistic theory, the meaning of an expression cannot be adequately characterized in isolation. The meaning is determined by its context, which is specified in terms of its relation to other words, or external-world knowledge. In Cognitive Stylistics, the meaning of an expression does not determine its

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truth condition. Many expressions do not seem to have truth-conditions. Rather, they are context-dependent. Speakers often speak inexplicitly, nonliterally, or indirectly, and in each case what is meant is distinct from what can be predicted. What a speaker means in uttering a certain expression and how the listener understands it depends on context. What context does is provide information that one needs to figure out an expression’s meaning. In this way, context plays a merely evidential role. In what follows, I explain with examples how deictic expressions receive part of their meaning via context. I show how contextual information is crucial to complete their meanings. Their meanings depend on the characteristics of the communicative act. This includes who is involved as a speaker and as a recipient, where and when the utterance takes place. The meanings of deictic expressions change with respect to the position of the speaker and the addressee. Deictic aspects of a text allow the reader to imagine the deictic center’s perspective and compare his or her imagined viewpoint with that. Likewise, I show how textual information is instrumental in identifying the meanings of deictic expressions. Deixis falls into two categories: exophora and endophora. The first category serves to locate items contextually, while the second category serves to locate items textually.

Exophora Exophora refers to something extra-textual, that is, not in the immediate text. It refers to a state which has not been named but is understood through an understanding of the situation. In speaking or writing, exophora is the use of an expression that refers to something outside the text but understood from the context. It refers to something external to the text, which is only fully intelligible in terms of information about the extra-linguistic situation. Exophora can be deictic, in which special words or grammatical markings are used to refer to something in the context of the utterance. Exophora covers deictic expressions. The exophoric reference occurs when an expression, an exophor, refers to something that is not directly present in the linguistic context but is rather present in the situational context. In Jim is standing over there, the adverb there is an exophor; it points to a location in the situational context. Deictic expressions function as stereotypical exophors. The meaning of a deictic expression is determined by reference outside the discourse rather than by a preceding or following expression. Exophora can be broken into five deictic fields that are pervasive in language use. Personal Deixis Personal or perceptual deixis refers to textual elements used to point to people. It is concerned with identifying the roles of the participants in an utterance: the first person, the second person, and the third person. Linguistically, personal deixis is

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expressed by means of personal pronouns. Personal pronouns comprise three main forms. The first person is a deictic reference to the speaker or the speaker and others grouped with the speaker. In language, it is coded by singular pronouns such as I, me, myself, and mine, and plural pronouns such as we, us, ourselves, our, and ours. The second person is a deictic reference to a person or persons identified as an addressee. In language, it is coded by pronouns such as you, yourself, yourselves, your, and yours. The third person is a deictic reference to a person neither the speaker nor the addressee. In language, it is coded by pronouns such as he, she, they, him, himself, her, and herself. Gender is coded by he/she, whereas neutrality is coded by it. Personal deixis can, thus, mark overlapping distinctions in number and gender. (1)  a. “I would always rather be happy than dignified.”   b. “It doesn’t matter who you are or what you look like, so long as somebody loves you.”   c. “She read books as one would breathe air, to fill up and live.”

The quotes in (1) include personal deixis, which involves the identification of the roles of participants in the speech event. Three categories of person deixis are identified. In the (1a) quote by Jane Eyre from Charlotte Brontë, the singular pronoun I is a deictic reference to the speaker. In the (1b) quote by Roald Dahl from The Witches, the singular pronoun you is a deictic reference to the addressee. In the (1c) quote by Annie Dillard from The Living, the singular pronoun she is a deictic reference to the third person. As the quote shows, each pronoun identifies the particular role of the referent in the speech act. Personal deixis deals with the grammatical persons within an utterance. The use of pronouns can be either deictic or non-deictic. A deictic expression is an expression that needs context for its interpretation. It points to an entity in particular. It is a word or phrase which serves to specify its referent in the context in which the communication occurs. In You look nice today, the use of you is deictic. It refers to the person being spoken to. So, you functions as a deictic element that derives its meaning from the context. A non-deictic expression is an expression that does not need context for its interpretation since it doesn’t refer to any entity in particular. In You have to be 18 to be allowed to drive a car, the use of you is non-­ deictic. You is not used to address a particular person. It refers to whoever is following the law. It could be replaced with “one has to ….” Spatial Deixis Spatial or place deixis refers to textual elements used to point to location. It is concerned with specifying the location of the participants at the time of communication. It refers to the location of an entity relative to the speaker’s location and his/her distance from it. Generally, three frames express location: (a) intrinsic, (b) relative, and (c) absolute. The intrinsic frame is object-based as in The bank is behind/in front of the station. The relative frame is viewpoint-based as in The bank is on the

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right/left of the station. The absolute frame is compass-based as in The bank lies to the north/south of the station. In English, spatial expressions show a two-way referential distinction. One is proximal, that is, near or closer to the speaker. The other is distal, that is, far or away from the speaker and/or closer to the addressee. The position of the speaker is the most important and then comes the addressee position. Linguistically, the most frequent words standing for spatial deixis are demonstratives, adverbs of place, and motion verbs. Demonstratives Demonstratives can be adjectives and pronouns. Demonstrative adjectives qualify nouns as in This car is mine, whereas demonstrative pronouns replace nouns and stand alone as in This is my car. Demonstratives indicate which entities are being referred to and help to distinguish them from others. Their meaning depends on a particular frame of reference and cannot be understood without context. Common demonstratives are this/these and that/those. They pick out things according to their proximity to or distance from the speaker. The first two locate things near the speaker, whereas the last two locate things far from the speaker. It is the speaker who decides on the closeness and remoteness of entities. In other words, it is the speaker who is the origin of any deictic encoding. (2)  a. “This dull product of a scoffer’s pen.” b. “Next to the day when I was almost shot by that arrow, the worst day of my life was when I was almost eaten.”

In the quotes cited in (2), two demonstratives as deictic expressions are used. As part of their meaning, they indicate how near or far something is. In the (2a) quote by William Wordsworth, the demonstrative this denotes proximity of the product to the speaker. In the (2b) quote by Jennifer Frick-Ruppert, the demonstrative that denotes distance of the arrow from the speaker. As can be viewed from the examples, this and that are singular. They precede singular nouns. They express physical orientation by pointing to where the speaker is situated relative to the other entity specified in the expression. Demonstratives can have two usages: gestural and symbolic. In the gestural usage, the referent can be identified depending on the physical aspects of the communicative situation. This is exemplified in This coffee shop is restful. In this sentence, the use of the deictic expression this is gestural. The object is pointed at and referred to as this. The speaker can establish an eye-contact with the coffee shop. In the symbolic usage, the referent can be identified depending on general knowledge of the communicative situation. This is exemplified in This city is wonderful. In this sentence, the use of the deictic expression this is symbolic. The speaker has knowledge of or information about the location. That is, no reference or pointing is involved in the interpretation.

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Adverbs of Place Adverbs of place describe where something happens. It talks about the location where the action of the verb is being carried out. Two common adverbs of place are here and there. They give a location relative to the speaker who provides the context. The adverb here points to the location near the speaker. It means “toward or with the speaker.” The adverb there points to the location away from the speaker. It means “away from, or not with the speaker.” The two adverbs of place can go at the beginning or the end of an utterance. In addition to location, adverbs of place can indicate: (i) direction as in up, down, across, north, south, and so forth; (ii) movement ending in -ward or -wards as in toward(s), homeward(s), backward(s), forward(s), onward(s), and so forth; and (iii) position in relation to another object as in below, between, above, behind, outside, and so forth. (3) “He travelled here, he travelled there—But not the value of a hair Was heart or head the better.”

This is a quote from William Wordsworth. In the quote, two adverbs of place as deictic expressions are used. The adverb here points to the location near the speaker. The adverb there points to the location away from the speaker. As can be seen from the example, the adverbs of place show the location of places relative to the location of the speaker. Here locates something that is near, whereas there locates something that is far. In Other words, here refers to something close by, whereas there shows us that something is at a distance. Like demonstratives, adverbs of place can have two usages: gestural and symbolic. In the gestural usage, the interpretation of a deictic expression requires an audio-visual monitoring of the linguistic situation. That is, the addressee must be present to be able to understand the utterance. This is exemplified in The toilets are over there, dear. The utterance requires being able to see where the toilets are. In the symbolic usage, the interpretation of a deictic expression requires a knowledge monitoring of the extra-linguistic situation. That is, the addressee has to know the basic spatio-temporal parameters of the utterance. This is exemplified in I don’t agree with you there, meaning in that respect. The utterance requires being able to know the metaphorical position of the disagreement. (4)  a. Come to bed. b. Go to bed.

The expressions cited in (4) contain motion verbs. As the name suggests, they denote movement from one place to another. These usually come in the form of pairs of verbs which help to identify the direction of the motion, either toward or away from the speaker. At this juncture, two verbs of motion as deictic expressions are used. In (4a), the verb come marks motion toward the speaker. In (4b), the verb go marks motion away from the speaker. The same applies to bring and take. In Bring the books with you, the direction of travel is toward the speaker. In Take the books with you, the direction of travel is away from the speaker.

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Temporal Deixis Temporal or time deixis refers to elements used to point to time. They receive part of their meaning via context and the orientation of the speaker. Temporal deixis deals with the various times involved in and referred to in an utterance. The time reference of an utterance serves as a reference point for temporal relations. Temporal deixis is concerned with designating the time of an event relative to the speaker’s time of speaking. It is a reference to time relative to a temporal reference point which is the moment of the utterance. It refers to the current time in which the utterance is spoken. It reveals to the listener or reader the temporal perspective of the speaker or writer with respect to the past, the present, and the future. Temporal deixis is important in communication because it helps communicators to interpret the meaning of a certain utterance based on its context. Linguistically, temporal deixis is expressed by means of time adverbs and verb tenses. Time Adverbs One basic type of temporal deixis is in the choice of time adverbs. Adverbs of time give information about when something happens. They state the time of occurrence of an action. They mainly modify verbs and describe when something happens or when the action of a verb is carried out. Some adverbs of time give us information about points of time. They place the perspective of the speaker with respect to the past (yesterday), the present (today), and the future (tomorrow). Some adverbs of time give us information about how often something happens such as hourly, daily, weekly, and monthly. Other adverbs of time are used to compare periods such as previously, lately, earlier, recently, and before. The purest temporal deictic terms are the adverbs now and then. (5) a. “I am no bird, and no net ensnares me; I am a free human being, with an independent will; which I now exert to leave you.” b. “Because you live to love and love to live/ And because of what your eardrum will give/ Now we might love to live and live to love.” c. “And now that you don’t have to be perfect, you can be good.”

In the quotes cited in (5), the adverb of time now can be used deictically to designate a proximal time or time of speaking. In the (5a) quote by Jane Eyre from Charlotte Brontë, now is used to mean “at the present time,” or “at this moment.” This meaning of now is common in the end position. In the (5b) quote by Janet Goodfriend from For the Love of Art, now is used to signal what is going to happen next, especially in a classroom or meeting. This meaning of now is common in front position or mid position. In the (5c) quote by John Steinbeck from East of Eden, now is used to express change as the result of something. This meaning of now is common in mid position (6)  a. “It is no use going back to yesterday because I was a different person then.” b. “I try not to borrow. First, you borrow. Then you beg.”

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In the quotes cited in (6), the adverb of time then can be used deictically to designate distal time, meaning “at that time,” or “at the time in question.” It refers either to the past or to the future. In the (6a) quote, taken from Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, then is used to describe an action in the past. In (6b) quote, taken from The Old Man and The Sea by Ernest Hemingway, then is used to describe an action in the future. In some uses, then denotes sequence. It describes the order in which two or more events happen. In He studied the conditions and then applied for the job, then introduces the next thing that happens. Verb Tenses Another basic type of temporal deixis is in the choice of verb tense. Tenses refer to different forms of a verb or verb phrase. Tenses locate utterances in time. Different tenses talk about different times. Linguistically, tense is expressed by the three main temporal points: past, present, and future. They report when an action takes place: in the past, present, or future. Each temporal point has a progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive aspect. Aspect supplies information like whether an action is habitual, ongoing, or completed. The temporal points are regarded as deictic because they are defined by reference to the time of the utterance. The concept of verb tenses is very important in establishing effective communication. They allow writers to describe the reality of time in their writing and help listeners or readers to understand the meaning behind a piece of writing. The past tense is used to express completed actions. The past tense is a verb tense whose function is to place an action or situation in the past. It is used to talk about something that started and finished at a definite time in the past. In other words, it is used to describe a completed activity that started in the past and ended in the past. It refers to the distal form used to describe events that are deictically distant from the speaker’s current situation. Past tense verbs can be either regular ending with a -d or an -ed or irregular having different forms. Adverbs of time and adverbial phrases of time which help to recognize the past simple tense include yesterday, formerly, previously, ago, last, in 2010, and so on. (7)  “They looked at each other, baffled, in love and hate.”

In the quote cited in (7), taken from Lord of the Flies by William Golding, the verb look is in the past simple tense. It describes the event of looking as being finished. There are several ways of talking about the past. She was running to catch the bus (past continuous), I have finished the work (present perfect simple), I have been painting the bedroom (present perfect continuous), I had gone shopping (past perfect simple), I had been waiting there for more than two hours (past perfect continuous), The kids would play in the garden in the summer evenings (modal verb would), He used to play lots of sport when he was younger (semi-modal verb used to). Also, the past tense can be used to describe extremely unlikely events, as in If I had a lot of money, I would buy a car.

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To prevent confusion in the use of past tenses, it is useful to compare them in a pair of sentences. (8)  a. The fire started when the firemen arrived. b. The fire had started when the firemen arrived.

The sentences in (8) talk about things that happened in the past. However, there is a distinct difference in meaning. In the (8a) sentence, the past simple is used to show that the fire started at the same time as the firemen arrived. In the (8b) sentence, the past perfect simple is used to sequence events in the past to show which event happened first. That is, the fire started first and then the firemen arrived. (9)  a. I had waited a few days for the reply. b. I had been waiting a few days for the reply.

The sentences in (9) describe an action that took place in the past. However, there is a clear difference in meaning. In the (9a) sentence, the past perfect simple is used to emphasize the completion of the action in the past. That is, the waiting is over. In the (9b) sentence, the past perfect continuous is used to show that an event or action in the past was continuing. That is, the event of waiting is ongoing. The present tense is used to locate an event in the present time. The present tense verb form is usually used to talk about states, events or actions that happen or are happening in the present time. It is used when an action is happening right now, or when it happens regularly. It refers to the proximal form used to describe events that are deictically close to the speaker’s current situation. Depending on the person, the present simple tense is formed in two ways. With the first, second, and third person plural, use the base form of the verb. With the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), add -s, -es, or -ies to the base form of the verb. The simple present tense is commonly used with adverbs of time such as always, frequently, generally, habitually, never, occasionally, often, once, seldom, sometimes, twice, thrice, usually, and so on. (10)  “I prefer unlucky things. Luck is vulgar. Who wants what luck would bring? I don’t.”

In the quote cited in (10), taken from Women in Love by David Herbert Lawrence, the verb prefer is in the present simple tense. It describes a regular event that happens in the present time. There are several ways of talking about the present. The earth moves around the sun (present simple), I am watching TV (present continuous), I have been talking for the last 30 minutes (present perfect continuous), and I have written ten books (present perfect simple). To avoid confusion that arises from present tenses, it is necessary to compare them in a pair of sentences. (11)  a. She lives with her parents. b. She is living with her parents.

The sentences in (11) differ in terms of meaning. In the (11a) sentence, the present simple is used to talk about permanent facts and general truths. In this example, we don’t expect the situation to change. In the (11b) sentence, the present continuous is used to talk about something temporary. In this example, we do expect the situation to change.

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The expressions in (12) differ in terms of meaning. In the (12a) expression, the present perfect simple is used to emphasize the completion of an event in the recent past. By contrast, in the (12b) expression the present perfect continuous is used to talk about ongoing events or activities which started at a time in the past and are continuing up until now. The future tense is used to talk about things that haven’t happened yet, or to a time later than now. The future tense verb form is usually used to describe a future event or state. It refers to the distal form used to describe events that are deictically distant from the speaker’s current situation. The verb in the simple future tense is formed with will or be going to plus the base form of the main verb. Both will and be going to refer to a specific time in the future. Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. Typical adverbs with simple future tense are tomorrow, tonight, later, next, soon, in a few days, in two hours/days/weeks, in 2025, and so on. (13)  “I will wear him In my heart’s core, ay, in my heart of heart.”

In the quote cited in (13), taken from Hamlet by William Shakespeare, the verb will wear is in the future simple tense. It describes an event that is expected to happen in the future. There are various ways of talking about the future. I will be studying at the library tonight (future continuous), I will have arrived at the office by 8:00 (future perfect), I will have been learning English for 20 years (future perfect continuous). The future tense can also be expressed by other means. He starts work at 10:00 on Monday (present simple), She is flying to London next week (present continuous), She is going to leave (be going to), We are just about to leave for the cinema (be about to), The dean is to give a speech tomorrow (be to), They are due to arrive early in the morning (be due to), and The system is on the point of collapse (be on the point of). Some motion verbs can be used temporally to describe events that move toward the speaker from the future as in The coming week will be really busy at work, or away from the speaker to the past as in The past week was really busy at work. To get rid of confusion pertaining to future verb forms, we need to compare them in a pair of sentences. (14)  a. She will buy a new dress. b. She is going to buy a new dress.

The expressions in (14) differ in terms of meaning. In the (14a) expression, will shows that the decision is immediate. The act of buying a new dress is decided at the moment of speaking. In the (14b) the expression, going to shows that the decision has been made before the moment of speaking. Because it is planned, the act of buying a new dress is likely to happen in the future. (15)  a. You’re not staying out all night, are you? Well, I am going to, yes. b. You’re not staying out all night, are you? Well, I was going to, yes.

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The expressions in (15) differ in terms of meaning. In the (15a) expression, the present form of be + going to is used to talk about a plan that will not change. That is, the person definitely intends to stay out at night. In the (15b) expression, the past form of be + going to is used to talk about a plan that may change. That is the person intended to stay out but may have changed his mind. Social Deixis Social or relational deixis refers to the interpersonal relationships between the participants in a speech act. It refers to the level of relationship among the participants in discourse. It shows how social rankings among people in society are realized via language. Phrased differently, it encodes via language the different social rankings of the participants in communication and the relationships existing between them within society. It deals with the coding of the social status of the speaker, the addressee, or the third person to whom reference is made. It refers to aspects of language structure that identify the social identities of participants in the speech act. It includes address conventions such as social status and social ranks. In a word, it encodes social distinctions that are relative to the participant roles. The aim is to establish various means by which information of social nature is coded and characterized in a language. Two basic forms of address are included under social deixis. They are vocatives and honorifics. Vocatives Vocatives are forms that point to the social status of the addressee. The choice of one form rather than another is governed by the status of the person addressed, which is expressed by the use of markers of politeness. By the use of deictic markers, the reader can specify the type of social relationship that exists between the participants in communication or the world of a text. Vocatives may occur in the initial, middle, or final position in a clause. The person’s name or the person’s title is set off in the sentence with commas. Vocatives are grammatically unrelated to the rest of the sentence. They don’t affect any other part of it. Instead, they are used to let the reader know who you are addressing. They serve to attract attention, identify the addressee being directly spoken to, and maintain a social relationship. Vocatives can be realized in different ways, establishing a range from the most distant to the most intimate: (16)  a.  Would you please answer the phone? b. Sweetheart, answer the phone. c. Emily, answer the phone.

In the expressions cited in (16), different vocative markers are used. In (16a), the adverb please is used as a polite way of asking for something or of asking someone to do something. In (16b), the affectionate form of address or endearment

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sweetheart is used. In (16c), the first name of the addressee Emily is used. As is seen, in each case a different deictic expression is used which serves to establish some aspect of the social relationship. Honorifics Honorifics are linguistic forms employed to show respect, especially in addressing people of superior rank. An honorific is a title that conveys honor, courtesy, or respect for position or rank when used in addressing or referring to a person. They constitute an important aspect of formality and politeness in language. The choice of one form rather than another is governed by the status of the person addressed, which is expressed by the use of markers of respect. The person’s name or the person’s title is set off in the sentence with commas. The misuse of these forms could have significant social consequences. Addressing a person inappropriately by ignoring differences in social status and dropping the correct title would seriously harm the relationship with the person. (17)  a. Excellency b. Majesty c. Prof. Dr. d. Sir, Madam e. Mr., Miss, Mrs., Ms.

In the expressions cited in (17), different respect markers are used. In (17a), His/ Her/Your Excellency is used when addressing high national officials such as the president, cabinet ministers, and foreign diplomats. In (17b), His/Her/Your Majesty is used when addressing a monarch of higher rank than a prince; that is, a king, queen, emperor, or empress. In (17c), Professor is used to address a teacher at the highest level in a university department. Doctor is used to address someone who has the highest level of degree given by a university. In (17d), Sir is used to address a man. Madam is used to address a woman. In (17e), Mr., Miss, Mrs., and Mis. are used as courtesy titles before the surname or full name of a person. Mr. is used before the name of a man. Miss, Mrs., and Ms. are used before the name of a woman. The titles portray the social relationship between the speaker and the addressee. They help the speaker establish and maintain a deictic anchoring with the addressee. Discourse Deixis Discourse or textual deixis concerns the use of phrases within an utterance to refer to parts of the ongoing discourse that contain the utterance. It refers to phrases that point the reader or hearer through the spoken or written text. The reference to a part of discourse is made relative to the current location of the speaker or writer in the discourse. Expressions that point the reader through the written text include earlier,

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previous, later, proceeding, following, next, and so on. Expressions that point the listener through the spoken text include this, that, there, last, next, and so on. These expressions, be they temporal or spatial, are deictic in character because they refer to parts of a discourse that can only be interpreted by knowing where the current point is. They indicate the relationship between the utterance and a portion of the unfolding discourse. They indicate that the utterance that contains them is a continuation of a portion of the discourse. (18)  a. In the last paragraph, b. In the next paragraph,

In the phrases cited in (18), two temporal adverbs are used as discourse markers. In (18a), the discourse marker last is used to refer to a preceding portion of the discourse. In (18b), the discourse marker next is used to refer to an upcoming portion of the discourse. The discourse markers are used as deictic expressions to signal the relationship of one text to another. (19)  a. This is a great story. b. That was a great story.

In the expressions cited in (19), two demonstratives are used as discourse markers. In (19a), the discourse marker this is used to refer to an upcoming portion of the discourse. In (19b), the discourse marker that is used to refer to a prior portion of the discourse. They provide a reference to an utterance that is either forward or backward in relation to other utterances. In such examples, demonstratives work as cohesion-making devices. They serve to establish various rhetorical relations among the propositional content of discourse.

Endophora In speech or writing, endophora is the use of an expression to refer to another expression either preceding or following it. The expressions derive their reference from something mentioned elsewhere in the text. One expression provides the information necessary to interpret the other. The act of using an expression, either earlier or later in the discourse, is to enable the reader to identify an entity known as a reference, and the expression used is known as referring expression. In Michael was a great sportsman; he won many trophies, the pronoun he refers to something that is previously mentioned in the text, Michael. The use of endophora is important in written discourse. First, it achieves cohesion. Second, it reinforces meaning. Third, it provides emphasis. In short, it indicates how discourse is constructed and maintained. Endophora can be broken into two fields: anaphora and cataphora. In both, the referent is defined by context, that is, from something within the surrounding text.

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Anaphora Anaphora is the use of a word to refer back to a word used earlier in a text. It is the use of a word that depends upon an antecedent expression. The word, typically a pronoun, maintains a reference to the entity that is mentioned earlier. The entity is called an anaphor. The expression which gives anaphor its meaning is called the antecedent. The effect is to avoid repetition in a text. This deictic use of anaphora should not be confused with its literary use which is the repetition of words at the beginning of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences used for emphasis, as in “Fool me once, shame on you. Fool me twice, shame on me.” (20) “If a man has talent and can’t use it, he’s failed.”

In the quote cited in (20), by Thomas Wolfe, the pronoun he is an anaphor; it refers back to the antecedent Carter. Man is the reference that is mentioned earlier in the discourse, on which the pronoun he specifically depends for its meaning. The pronoun he is mentioned to avoid repetition of the common noun as repetition sounds boring rather than inspiring. Cataphora Cataphora is the use of a word initially in a sentence to refer forward in a text. It is the use of a word that depends upon a postcedent expression. The word, typically a pronoun, maintains a reference to an entity that is mentioned later. The entity is called a cataphor. The expression which gives the cataphor its meaning is called a postcedent. The effect is to put the reader into a state of suspense because it is initially not known who or what the sentence is talking about. This allows the writer to surprise the reader by associating the initial characterization with an unexpected noun. (21)  “Why do we envy him, the bankrupt man?”

In the quote cited in (21), taken from Hugging the Shore by John Updike, the pronoun him is a cataphor; it refers ahead to the postcedent the bankrupt man. The bankrupt man is the reference that is mentioned later in the discourse, on which the pronoun him depends for its meaning. The pronoun him is clarified later as the reader will know who the person is toward the end of the utterance.

Deictic Shift As already noted, deixis means pointing in language. Forms used for pointing are called deictic expressions. They pertain to personal, spatial, temporal, social, and discourse fields. The interpretations of deictic expressions are dependent on the contexts in which they are used. Deictic expressions then act as a link between the

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referent and the context of an utterance, from which they gain their meanings. The position from which deictic expressions are interpreted is called the deictic center. It is the speaker’s location in space and time during the production of an utterance. The deictic center serves as a perceptual vantage point from which events are conceptualized. It is the center for conceptualizing a given situation, interpreting a text, and arriving at its meaning. It is the deictic center that controls how deictic expressions are interpreted. The deictic center is not fixed. It can shift positions depending on context. The change in the deictic center results in a change in viewpoint. Therefore, the meaning of a deictic expression changes as a result of the change in the deictic center.

Essence The deictic center belongs to the writer, but it can be shifted to the reader or other participants in the text world. This process is called deictic shift: the cognitive ability of the reader to take up the deictic center of the speaker and interpret events in the text world as if s/he were part of them. The reader can take a cognitive stance within the text world and interpret events from that perspective. The ability to do so is called deictic projection: the cognitive ability to imagine oneself in the situation of other people to take their viewpoints into account. This imaginative ability is a deictic shift that allows the reader to understand projected deictic expressions relative to the shifted deictic center. Deictic projection is what draws readers into the text world by allowing them to experience events from other viewpoints. The reader is not self-centered as s/he usually does in everyday communication, but shifts to the deictic center of specific characters in the text world. The reader can see things virtually from the perspective of the characters inside the text world. To make things clear, let us take an example. A friend is walking down a street. He stands in front of a couple of buildings. He asks me about the specific building which is his destination. I am facing the buildings. In reply, I would say: “the building on your right.” Even though the building for me is on the left, I would tell my friend it is on the right. This is because I am interpreting the spatial location of the building from the perspective of my friend to help him sense my instruction. I am shifting the deictic center from where I encounter the scene to a locus where my friend stands. A deictic shift is a process in which the speaker and reader exchange positions in the description of a scene. This is quite normal in language because one can modify one’s deictic center to accommodate the other party’s deictic center instead. I am conceptually projecting myself into my friend’s contextual location. A deictic projection is a process in which the reader puts himself in the shoes of the speaker to facilitate understanding.

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Advantages 1. Deictic shift theory ascribes a cognitive dimension to deixis. Language is grounded in human cognition. Cognition is based on bodily interactions with the environment. Language is a representation of reality that is experienced by human beings. The meanings of deictic expressions are identified and justified by embodied cognition. 2. Deictic shift theory reveals how readers are immersed in the textual world. It accounts for the way readers become part of the textual world, experience virtual events, take a cognitive stance on them, and interpret them from that stance. Humans can cognitively relocate into deictic stances other than their own. 3. Deictic shift theory allows us to understand the uses of expressions in a context such as come and go, this and that, left and right, above and below, in front of and behind, and so on. To understand them, the reader has to conceptually shift to the deictic center of the speaker and visualize things from the viewpoint of the characters inside the textual world (Table 5.2).

Summary In this chapter, I have applied the theory of contextualization to the characterization of deictic expressions. Contextualization is the process of grounding the meaning of an expression in context. Context can be either extra-linguistic or linguistic. Extra-­ linguistic context deals with the background knowledge, the speaker’s worldview, and personal experiences. Linguistic context pertains to what follows or what precedes a particular segment in an utterance. I have presented a cognitive stylistic model of the deixis system in English, a way of pointing through language. I have shown how the phenomenon of deixis serves as an example of language embeddedness in context. Deixis is a speaker-centric notion. A speaker uses deixis and deictic expressions while producing language. A deictic expression is a word or phrase that points to the person, place, or time, in which a speaker is speaking. Deixis falls into Table 5.2  Exophora versus Endophora Exophora 1. It is the phenomenon of deriving reference from something extra-linguistic. 2. It points to something outside the language of the text, which is understood in terms of context. 3. The referent does not require another expression in the text for its interpretation.

Endophora 1. It is the phenomenon of deriving reference from something linguistic. 2. It points to something inside the language of the text, which is understood in terms of co-reference. 3. The referent requires another expression in the text for its interpretation: pointing either backward or forward.

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exophora and endophora. Exophora is a reference to something extra-linguistic, that is, outside the text. Endophora is a reference to something linguistic, that is, in the same text. Exophora is expressed in English by means of personal, spatial, temporal, social, and discourse deixis. Endophora is expressed in English by means of anaphora and cataphora. A consideration of the phenomenon of deixis discussed so far leads to some significant facts about it: 1. No language is without deixis. A language without deixis cannot serve the communicative needs of its users. The presence of deixis is crucial in language. It serves the function of pointing or indicating. The linguistics forms used for pointing are called deictic expressions. 2. Deictic expressions are devices whose reference relies entirely on the circumstances of utterances. They provide personal, spatial, temporal, social, and discourse information. They are only understandable if one knows the deictic center of an utterance. 3. A deictic center is a foundation for deixis. It is a reference point in relation to which a deictic expression is to be interpreted. The deictic center consists of the speaker, the location, and the time during the production of an utterance, in addition to other contextual factors. 4. A context is a thing on which depends the interpretation of an utterance. The interpretation depends on not only linguistic but also non-linguistic knowledge. The first pertains to what precedes and follows an item. The second pertains to world knowledge surrounding an item. 5. Deixis contributes to the organization of a text. It makes discourse easier and more effective, giving us the means to pass more information in less time. It enables the writer to arrange thoughts clearly and unambiguously in textual composition. It enables the reader to draw on the information provided in textual interpretation (Table 5.3). Table 5.3  Types of deixis Deixis

Type Person Space Time

Definition Words used to point to a person Words used to point to a location Exophora Words used to point to time: the past, the present, and the future Social Words used to code the social status of the participants Discourse Words used within an utterance to refer to parts of the discourse Endophora Anaphora Refers to a word that gets its meaning from a previous word Cataphora Refers to a word that gets its meaning from a subsequent word

Example I want to see you. She is here. He goes jogging next week. His Majesty the King. At this point, I would like …. Ann plays the piano. She likes music. When she is at home, Ann plays the piano.

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Study Questions 1. Using examples from fictional and non-fictional narratives, say what the following terms mean: deixis  deictic center  deictic expression

2. What type of deixis does each of the underlined words refer to? The city has witnessed a flood. Albert believes she is beautiful. Professor George is intelligent. I attended the fashion last year. It is in the preceding paragraph.

3. How do you interpret the underlined expressions in terms of deictics? “Here lies he who neither feared nor flattered any flesh.”—“The Life of John Knox” by James Douglas “It was here that I suspended my religious inquiries (aged 17).”—“Memoirs of My Life” by Edward Gibbon

4. How do you account for the difference in usage between the underlined expressions? “Silent? Ah, he is silent! He can keep silent well. That man’s silence is wonderful to listen to.”—“Under the Greenwood Tree” by Thomas Hardy “Hateful to me as the gates of Hades is that man who hides one thing in his heart and speaks another.”—“The Iliad” by the Greek poet Homer

5. What is the difference in reference between the underlined expressions? “Oh, when I was in love with you, Then I was clean and brave.”—“A Shropshire Lad” by Alfred (Edward) Housman “The writer must be universal in sympathy and an outcast by nature: only then can he see clearly.”—“Flaubert’s Parrot” by Julian Barnes

6. Compare the difference in direction between the underlined motion verbs: Bring your notebook to the class. Take your notebook to the class.

7. The underlined verbs in the examples below refer to the future. Yet, they are dissimilar in use. What is the difference? “My life will be sour grapes and ashes without you.”—“The Young Visitors” by Daisy Ashford “The sky is darkening like a stain; Something is going to fall like rain, And it won’t be flowers.” —“The Witnesses” by Wystan Hugh Auden

8. Using examples of literary prose, show in what respects exophora differs from endophora. (continued)

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(continued) 9. What is meant by deictic shift? Based on the examples below, show how beneficial it is in the process of interpretation: Come here and look at this picture. Go there and look at that picture.

10. Based on the advertising examples below, explain what deictic projection is, and how it helps in understanding direct and indirect speech: The estate agent said: “This house is for sale now.” The estate agent said that that house was for sale then.

Further Reading Specific treatments of deixis are found in Fillmore (1982, 2015), Gibbons and Whiteley (2018), Harrison (2017), Stockwell (2002), Duchan, et al. (1995), Jarvella and Klein (1982), Rauh (1983), Green (1995), Black (2006), Levinson (2006), Perkins (1992), Diessel (2012), and Weissenborn and Klein (1982). Books on semantics with chapters devoted to deixis are Hamawand (2016), Riemer (2010), Cruse (2010), Hurford et al. (2007), and Griffiths (2006). Books on pragmatics with chapters devoted to deixis are Huang (2015, 2017), Birner (2012, 2021), and O’Keeffe et al. (2011).

References Birner, Betty. 2012. Introduction to Pragmatics. John Wiley and Sons. ———. 2021. Pragmatics: A Slim Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Black, Elizabeth. 2006. Pragmatic Stylistics. Edinburg: Edinburgh University Press. Cruse, Allen. 2010. Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Diessel, Holger. 2012. Deixis and Demonstratives. In Semantics, ed. Claudia Maienborn, Klaus von Heusinger, and Paul Portner. Berlin: Gruyter. Duchan, Judith, Gail Bruder, and Lynne Hewitt, eds. 1995. Deixis in Narrative: A Cognitive Science Perspective. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum. Fillmore, Charles. 1982. Towards a Descriptive Framework for Spatial Deixis. In Speech, Place, and Action: Studies in Deixis and Related Topics, ed. Robert Jarvella and Wolfgang Klein, 31–59. Chichester: John Wiley. ———. 2015. Lectures on Deixis. Center for the Study of Language and Information. Gibbons, Alison, and Sara Whiteley. 2018. Contemporary Stylistics: Language, Cognition, Interpretation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Green, Keith, ed. 1995. New Essays in Deixis: Discourse, Narrative, Literature. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Griffiths, Patrick. 2006. An Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Hamawand, Zeki. 2016. Semantics: A Cognitive Account of Linguistic Meaning. London: Equinox. Harrison, Chloe. 2017. Cognitive Grammar in Contemporary Fiction. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

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Huang, Yan. 2015. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ———, ed. 2017. The Oxford Handbook of Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hurford, James, Brendan Heasley, and Michael Smith. 2007. Semantics: A Coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jarvella, Robert, and Wolfgang Klein, eds. 1982. Speech, Place, and Action: Studies in Deixis and Related Topics. Chichester: John Wiley. Levinson, Stephen. 2006. Deixis. In The Handbook of Pragmatics, ed. Laurence Horn and Gregory Ward, 978–120. Blackwell Publishing. O’Keeffe, Anne, Brian Clancy, and Svenja Adolphs. 2011. Introducing Pragmatics in Use. London: Routledge. Perkins, Revere. 1992. Deixis, Grammar, and Culture. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Rauh, Gisa, ed. 1983. Essays on Deixis. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Riemer, Nick. 2010. Introducing Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stockwell, Peter. 2002. Cognitive Poetics: An Introduction. London: Routledge. Weissenborn, Jürgen, and Wolfgang Klein, eds. 1982. Here and There: Cross-linguistic Studies on Deixis and Demonstration. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Chapter 6

The Configuration Theory

Key Objectives • Explain how concepts are stored in domains, and how domains are responsible for their interpretation. • Show how stylistic devices derive their meanings from the domains in which they are embedded. • Elucidate how the structures of domains help to establish similarities and differences between stylistic devices.

Introduction In the traditional era, the issue of stylistic devices was tackled by the Dictionary theory. According to this theory, the core meaning of a word is the information contained in the word’s definition. The vocabulary of a language forms inventories of independent items rather than clusters within which the words interrelate and define each other in various ways. This theory, however, suffers some shortcomings. First, it gives only a very sketchy account of stylistic devices. It is limited to a mere listing of the various types of stylistic devices. Second, it does not treat the stylistic devices as groups. In this way, it fails to show that the stylistic devices converge and diverge in certain ways. Third, it presents some stylistic devices as being semantically interchangeable. In this way, it ignores the fact that every device has a separate function in language. In reaction to this theory, in Cognitive Stylistics the meaning of an expression is describable in terms of a configuration: the mental act of grouping together some concepts into a cognitive domain. A domain is a knowledge background with respect to which the meanings of stylistic devices can be properly described.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7_6

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The Domain Theory The cognitive domain theory, alternatively known as frame or script by others, was developed by Langacker in the 1980s. The function of a domain is to provide new insights into the question of meaning by describing conceptual units in terms of the knowledge contexts in which they are embedded. The domain theory is encyclopedia-­ based. In light of this theory, the meaning of an expression subsumes knowledge of what it means and how it is used. The meaning of an expression is a function of context. Expressions do not represent neatly pre-packaged bundles of meaning. Instead, they provide access to vast repositories of knowledge relating to a particular concept. In brief, words should not be treated as expressing separate concepts. Rather, they should be treated as tools that cause readers to activate certain areas of their knowledge network, with different areas activated to different degrees, in different contexts of use.

Essence The basic insight of the domain theory is that concepts cannot be understood independently of the domains in which they are embedded. A domain is a knowledge background with respect to which concepts can be properly described. A domain is a conceptual structure with respect to which the meaning of a lexical item can be described. A domain contains a set of facets, each of which describes a certain human experience, and each of which is realized by a different concept. A facet is a portion of a domain that is associated with a particular experience. To understand the meaning of a concept, it is necessary to associate it with the appropriate facet within a domain. The concepts which occupy different facets are not in complementary distribution. A close investigation of their behavior makes it clear they have distinct meanings. The meaning of any concept can be understood in terms of the background knowledge that underlies its usage and behavior. The employment of a domain approach is of fundamental importance to the characterization of stylistic devices. The meaning of a stylistic device cannot be understood independently of the domain with which it is associated. In the sphere of stylistics, a domain is any knowledge configuration that provides the basis for the characterization of stylistic devices. A domain subsumes several devices that are similar to each other in some respects and different in others. A domain is a context where the relevant knowledge associated with a stylistic device is coded. A stylistic device is defined by identifying which facet within the domain it belongs to and how it differs from its counterparts. The meaning of a stylistic device depends on the host domain, knowledge of which is necessary for its appropriate use. A domain allows one to describe the distribution of different devices and provide the motivation for their use in discourse.

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Adhering to the domain theory, I argue that a stylistic device does not exist in isolation in the mind of the speaker, but forms, together with other conceptually related devices, a structured set. The set has some specific facets of meaning, which are profiled by the member devices. These facets represent semantic differences that are small but important. So, to define a stylistic device it is best to compare it with the other devices that belong to the same domain. To grasp the semantic structure of any device it is necessary to understand the properties of the set in which it occurs as well as the properties of the other members of the set. To apprehend the meanings of the devices euphemism, orthophemism, and dysphemism, for example, we need to place them in a domain which is referred to as lexicology. Within the domain, each device occupies a particular facet. Euphemism represents the positive facet (bathroom). Orthophemism represents the neutral facet (toilet). Dysphemism represents the negative facet (pisser).

Premises 1. Concepts do not exist independently in the mind of the speaker but gather together with other concepts in conceptual fields, called cognitive domains. A domain refers to a body of knowledge that provides background information for understanding and interpreting a given concept. A domain has specific facets of meaning. A facet is a portion of a domain that represents a particular aspect of experience. The words assignment, chore, and task belong to the domain of job, but they are different. An assignment is a piece of work assigned by a teacher in school. A chore is a piece of work necessary for maintaining a household or farm. A task is a piece of work imposed by an employer. 2. Concepts are understood by the way they stand in a relation of contrast or affinity to each other in a domain. The meaning of any concept is established first by understanding the domain that it evokes and second by identifying the facet within the domain that it represents. The adjectives precious, (in)valuable, and priceless evoke the domain of value. Yet, each adjective profiles a different facet. Precious profiles an object that is rare and costly, as in precious jewels. (In)valuable profiles an action that is extremely useful, as in (in)valuable discovery. Priceless profiles an extremely important object, as in priceless photos.

Advantages 1. A domain serves to define the meanings of stylistic devices. To define a stylistic device, it is necessary to understand the entire domain and see which of its facets the device picks out. Although the stylistic devices unite under one domain, they move in different directions when it comes to details, marking different aspects of it. For example, the words instrument, implement, and equipment belong to

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the domain of tool, but each has a different use. An instrument is used in medicine or science. An implement is used in agriculture or building trades. An equipment is used in sports or electricity. 2. A domain serves to compare one stylistic device with another. It explicates similarities and differences among stylistic devices, and so is a convenient way of coding information about their meanings and distributions. Understanding the meaning of a device facilitates understanding the meaning of a counterpart device in the domain. For example, even though the verbs emigrate and immigrate activate the domain of migration, their meanings are different. To emigrate is to leave a native country and settle in another. To immigrate is to come and settle in a new country (Table 6.1).

Domains of Stylistic Devices Cognitive Linguistics views language as a system of signs or symbols, consisting of form (the signifier) and meaning (the signified), which are inseparable. The form serves to indicate meaning. The meaning is analyzed in terms of construal, the way a situation is perceived and described. In Cognitive Stylistics, there is also a relationship between the form and meaning of a stylistic device. Stylistic forms correlate with meaning differences. Stylistic devices are meaningful; they stand for something in the speaker’s mind. The choice of a stylistic device is motivated, whose use is a response to discourse pressure. Rival stylistic devices are distinct in meaning. Each represents a different way of construing a situation. In I have seldom seen such beautiful work, the writer places the negative adverb seldom in the normal place. This is a normal expression with no special emphasis. In Seldom have I seen such beautiful work, the writer places the negative adverb seldom at the beginning. This is an inverted expression with special emphasis on seldom. The expression means how beautiful the work is. As already mentioned, stylistic devices are tools that writers use to improve their writings and make them more interesting. They are means of linguistic expressiveness which carry a vast amount of information. To decipher the information, we Table 6.1  Dictionary theory versus domain theory Dictionary theory 1. The dictionary theory gives linguistic knowledge of a word. 2. Words can be defined in a context-­ independent way. 3. Linguistic knowledge is stored in the mental dictionary or lexicon. 4. The dictionary theory concerns sense (what words mean). 5. The procedure relates to the discipline of Lexical Semantics.

Domain theory 1. The domain theory gives encyclopedic (non-linguistic) knowledge of a word. 2. Words can be understood with respect to domains of experience. 3. Encyclopedic knowledge is governed by principles of language use. 4. The domain theory concerns reference (what speakers do with words). 5. The procedure relates to the discipline of Pragmatics.

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need to give a detailed analysis of the functions of the stylistic devices. To explore the subject in depth, I pursue two steps. In the first step, I identify the domains, define them and explain their structures. The purpose behind this is to show that domains serve to organize the lexicon. The domains evoked by stylistic devices are phonology, morphology, graphology, lexicology, and syntax. In the second step, I single out the facets within each domain and select the stylistic devices which occupy them by relying on their definitions. The purpose behind this is to show that domains can serve as interpretative aids by which we understand a stylistic device’s deployment in a given context.

The Domain of Phonology The domain of phonology is a knowledge area concerned with the patterns of speech sounds in a language, with how speech sounds are organized in writing and used to convey meaning. In the domain of phonology, certain phonological processes take place. Each process, however, represents a distinct facet of the domain, and so serves a different function. Phonological stylistic devices evoke three facets: repetition, periodicity, and imitation. Linguistically, candidates for repetition are alliteration, assonance, and rhyme. The candidate for periodicity is rhythm. The candidate for imitation is onomatopoeia. The distinction resides in the type of the repeated sound and the position where the sound is repeated. The processes serve to produce a pleasing musical effect, make writing more pleasurable to read, and provide emphasis to the utterance. The processes draw attention to a particular section of a text, create a pleasant ring in the reader’s mind and make it enjoyable and memorable. In brief, they serve to illustrate how the sound system of a language becomes an expressive language means. Facet 1: Repetition (1)  a.  “The fair breeze blew,      The white foam flew,      And the furrow followed free.      We were the first to ever burst into the silent sea.”    b.  “Here at the small field’s ending pause,      Where the chalk wall falls to the foam and its tall ledges,     Oppose the pluck.”    c.  “One, two, three, four,      Mary at the cottage door,     Five, six, seven, eight,      Eating cherries off a plate.”

The expressions cited in (1a–c) designate repetition. Nonetheless, they are distinguishable in use. The example in (1a) is that of alliteration: the repetition of initial sounds, typically consonants, at the beginning of successive words. It is an excerpt taken from the poem “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Each

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line of the excerpt uses a different letter to achieve alliteration. The use of alliteration in the poem helps to create rhythm and mood and raise the reader’s awareness of an important idea. The example in (1b) is that of assonance, the repetition of the same vowel sounds in successive words, but they start with different consonant sounds. It is an excerpt taken from the poem “Look Stranger” by Wystan Hugh Auden. The words chalk, wall, and fall are close to each other and share the same vowel sound /o:/, but they start with different consonant sounds. The use of assonance in the poem helps to create a sense of rhythm and lyrical effect. The example in (1c) is that of rhyme: the repetition of similar sounding words, occurring at the end of lines in poems or songs. This is a children’s song. As is clear, the endings in the lines rhyme. In the first two lines, the words end with the sound /o:/, whereas in the last two lines the words end with the sound /t/. The use of nursery rhymes can help children understand that words that share common sounds often share common letters. Facet 2: Periodicity (2)  “Double, Double, Toil and Trouble,    Fire burn and cauldron bubble.”

The expressions cited in (2) signify periodicity, the tendency of a syllable to recur at regular intervals. Periodicity is realized in language by rhythm: the recurrence of stressed or unstressed syllables in a pattern in speech, verse, or within the lines of a poem. The example is taken from Macbeth, where Shakespeare creates rhythm in the witches’ words by using a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is an arrangement of speech into regularly recurring units, which serves to achieve periodicity. An investigation of the example reveals that it contains rhythm, and the strategy of rhythm is employed by writers to strengthen the meaning of words and ideas in a poem. The use of rhythmical patterns creates a musical quality in poetry. It sounds pleasant to the mind as well as to the soul. It stirs up the emotions, and so captivates the reader. In prose, rhythm helps the writer control the flow of thoughts and make the writing amusing and comic. Rhythm is the main factor that brings order into utterances. Facet 3: Imitation (3)             

a. splash spray, sprinkle b. giggle, growl, gurgle c. bang, crash, clang  d. whizz, swing, swoop e. roar, buzz, hiss

The words cited in (3) denote imitation: an act or instance of imitation. Imitation is realized in language by onomatopoeia: a word that sounds like what it means. It refers to a word that is closely associated with or identical to the sound it describes. It is a word that resembles the sound it stands for. It is the process of creating a word from a sound associated with what is named. The relation between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy. In (3a), words

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imitate water. In (3b), the words imitate voice. In (3c), the words imitate collision. In (3d), the words imitate air. In (3e), the words imitate animal noise. The use of onomatopoeias makes a text more lively and interesting. Onomatopoeias enliven writing with soundscapes that amplify the reader’s experience. They are often used for dramatic or emotive effects. They help to give an accurate depiction of the situation described.

The Domain of Morphology The domain of morphology is a knowledge sphere having to do with the formation of words in a language. It is the study of the internal structure of words and parts of words such as stems, roots, and affixes. Linguistically, candidates for morphological processes are diminution, origination, and invention. These processes have one thing in common. They are used to create new words in a language. However, each process represents a distinct facet of the domain or exemplifies a distinct way of word formation. Diminution is the process of reducing something in size, importance, or value through the use of a suffix. A diminutive is a marker that conveys a slighter degree of the root meaning of a word. Origination, also called occasionalism, is the process of coining a nonce word or phrase for a single occasion, deliberately or accidentally, to solve an immediate problem of communication. Invention, also called neologism, is the process of forming a new word by coining it from existing material to represent a new development. One way to add flair to one’s writing style is to vary the pattern of word formation. Facet 1: Diminution (4)  a. maiden b. duckling c. kitchenette d. napkin e. booklet

The words cited in (4a–e) exhibit diminution, the process of making something less in size, amount, extent, or importance. A diminutive is a marker that conveys a slighter degree of the root meaning of a word. Diminutives are formed by adding suffixes to nominal roots. The suffixes -en and -ling are used mostly to form animate derivatives with diminutive sense. They are used to describe persons, animals, or plants. In (4a), a maiden is a young woman. In (4b), a duckling is a young duck. The suffixes -ette, -kin, and -let are used mostly to form inanimate derivatives with a diminutive sense. In (4c), the suffix -ette is used primarily to describe places or works of literature. A kitchenette is a small kitchen. In (4d), the suffix -kin is used commonly to describe fabric. A napkin is a small piece of cloth or paper used at a meal for wiping fingers or lips and protecting garments. In (4e), the suffix -let is used chiefly to describe things. A booklet is a small, thin book with paper covers.

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Facet 2: Origination (5)  a. webinar b. grok c. fluddle d. twi-thought e. chortle

The words cited in (5a–e) display origination, the process of coining a word, referred to as a nonce word, with a special meaning to suit a particular occasion. It is a spontaneous coining of a context-bound formation used to designate new or unknown objects or states of affairs. In (5a), the nonce word webinar means a seminar conducted over the Internet. It is a presentation, lecture, or workshop that is transmitted over the web using video conferencing software. In (5b), the nonce word grok means to grasp the meaning of something. In (5c), the nonce word fluddle means a water spillage between a puddle and a flood. In (5d), the nonce word twi-thought means an indistinct or vague thought. In (5e), the nonce word chortle is a blend of chuckle and snort. The examples show that a nonce formation is a contextual coinage that emerges to meet a particular communicative purpose. When a nonce formation is adopted by the community, it becomes neologism. Facet 3: Invention (6)  a. freelance b. workaholic c. cyberspace d. hoover e. kleenex

The words cited in (6a–e) demonstrate invention, the process of inventing a new word or phrase, referred to as neologism, in a language. Neologisms emerge as a result of opening up new areas of art, science, or technology. In (6a), the word freelance means working for different companies rather than being permanently employed by one company. In (6b), the word workaholic means someone who spends most of their time working and has little interest in other things. In (6c), the word cyberspace means the online world of computer networks and especially the Internet. In (6d), the word hoover means a vacuum cleaner, properly one made by the Hoover Company. In (6e), the word kleenex means an absorbent disposable paper tissue. As the examples show, neologism is a means of enriching language with new words naming products due to technological advancement.

The Domain of Graphology The domain of graphology is a knowledge frame related to the study of the writing system of a language. It is an analysis of the graphic aspects of language. Two important facets of graphology are punctuation marks and print types. Punctuation marks are symbols used in writing to regulate written texts and clarify their

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meanings. The proper use of a punctuation mark is not mere form for form’s sake. Rather, it reflects the writer’s ability to write clearly, and convey thoughts intelligibly. The correct use of a punctuation mark, therefore, facilitates communication and avoids misunderstanding. In Cognitive Stylistics, a punctuation mark is meaningful, having its semantic content and serving a certain communicative purpose. The use of a punctuation mark is the product of the cognitive process of construal: the way a situation is viewed and expressed in language. This is demonstrated by comparing No buses are operating today with No, buses are operating today, where the absence or presence of a comma can change the meaning of the phrases drastically. The examples show that the use of a punctuation mark expresses a specific perspective of a situation Facet 1: Punctuation marks Punctuation marks are visual signs used in writing to express emphasis, clarify meaning, and aid understanding. They can occur at a sentence or word level. At the sentence level, they express two meanings: termination and connection. Termination expresses completion, interrogation, and exclamation. Linguistically, completion is realized by the full stop, interrogation by the question mark, and exclamation by the exclamation mark. These occur externally. Connection expresses separation, anticipation, elaboration, emphasis, and enclosure. Linguistically, separation is realized by the comma, anticipation by the semicolon, elaboration by the colon, emphasis by the dash, and enclosure by the quotation mark. These occur internally. At the word level, punctuation marks express possession and combination. Linguistically, possession is realized by the apostrophe and combination by the hyphen. These occur around or between words. Sentence punctuation marks (7)  a. He went jogging. b. Did he go jogging? c. When did he go jogging? d. He went jogging? e. He went jogging!

The expressions in (7a–e) contain punctuation marks denoting termination. They share the same substance but diverge in the presence of different external punctuation marks. In (7a), the expression ends with a full stop. It is declarative. It is used to make a statement or signal the end of a complete thought. In (7b–d), the expressions end with question marks. They are interrogatives. The stylistic expression in (7b) begins with an auxiliary. In this stylistic expression, the question mark is used to ask a question, to ask for the truth or falsity of the information. The stylistic expression in (7c) begins with a wh-word. In this expression, the question mark is used to ask for information relative to the interrogative word. The expression in (7d) has the form of a declarative but the function of a question. In this expression, the question mark is used to show doubt or uncertainty. The writer sounds unsure about the action of jogging. In (7e), the expression ends with an exclamation mark. It is exclamatory. The exclamation mark is used to emphasize the writer’s excitement. The experience is wonderful or delightful.

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(8)  a. She bequeathed her jewelry to her niece, Daisy. b. I am sorry; I love you. c. There is one thing that Nancy has on her mind: work. d. The jurors reached the unanimous verdict—guilty. e. Lawrence writes “poetry” every morning.

The expressions in (8a–e) contain punctuation marks denoting connection. They differ in that they contain different internal punctuation marks. In (8a), the expression contains a comma. The function of the comma is to set off non-essential information. The woman has only one niece. The niece’s name is non-essential. That is why it is set off with a comma. In (8b), the expression contains a semicolon. The function of the semicolon is to relate two clauses in which the latter clause cannot be understood without the preceding clause; that is, there is more to come till the message becomes clear. In (8c), the expression contains a colon. The function of the colon is to introduce an explanation, conclusion, or amplification of an earlier statement. It functions as a gate, inviting the reader to go on and concentrate on what is coming next. In (8d), the expression contains a dash. The function of a dash is to set off information that interrupts the flow of an expression. A dash indicates a strong pause, emphasizing the material following the pause. In (8e), the expression contains quotation marks. The function of quotation marks is to give the expression two readings. In the first reading, the writer is sarcastic; s/he doesn’t believe that what Lawrence writes is poetry. In the second reading, the writer states that Lawrence writes the word poetry every morning. Word punctuation marks (9)  a. She cleaned the boy’s clothes. b. She cleaned the boys’ clothes.

The expressions in (9a–b) contain punctuation marks denoting possession. The apostrophe is a punctuation mark used to designate the possessive form of a noun. The placement of the apostrophe depends on whether the noun is singular or plural. If the noun is singular, the apostrophe is placed before the s. If the noun is plural, the apostrophe is placed after the s. The expressions share the same words, but they are disparate in meaning. The disparity between the stylistic expressions is coded by the different placements of the apostrophe. In (9a), the expression means she cleaned for only one boy. The singular noun boy’s has the apostrophe before the s. In (9b), the expression means she cleaned for several boys. The plural noun boys’ has the apostrophe after the s. The apostrophe is, therefore, responsible for separating the alternatives. This shows that punctuation can make writing clear. It is critical to good communication. (10)  a. twenty five-dollar bills. b. twenty-five dollar bills.

The expressions in (10a–b) contain punctuation marks denoting combination. The phrases consist of the same words. Despite this, meaning draws a line of demarcation between them. The demarcation in meaning is symbolized by the hyphen. The hyphen is a punctuation mark used primarily to combine two words to form a compound. The two words which form a single modifier are often hyphenated and

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used to modify another word. The formation creates a single idea and has a new meaning. In (10a), the expression means $100. In (10b), the expression means $25. This shows that a punctuation mark plays a pivotal role in the interpretation of an expression. The examples show how the presence or absence of a hyphen could change the meaning. The presence or absence of a specific punctuation mark reflects the particular way in which the speaker chooses to describe the situation. Facet 2: Print types Print types are typographical symbols used in writing to give the reader an understanding of the meaning of a text and the idea revealed by the writer. They are tools used by writers to impart information, signal meaning, and facilitate comprehension. (11)  a. They have never seen the movie Titanic. b. Inventing words is referred to as neologism. c. Alexander the Great died in 323 BC.

The expressions cited in (11a–c) contain examples of graphic stylistic devices denoting print types. In (11a), the expression is an example of italics: a type of print in which the letters lean to the right. Italics are used to emphasize particular words in a piece of printed writing, especially names of particular works or objects to make them stand out from the regular text. In the stylistic expression, the word Titanic is printed in italics. In (11b), the expression is an example of boldface: a type of print in which the letters are made thicker and darker than normal. Boldface or fonts are used to emphasize keywords and concepts that are important to a text’s content so that people can see them clearer than the other fonts. In the stylistic expression, the word neologism is printed in boldface. In (11c), the expression is an example of small capitals: a type of print in which the small capitals of the letters are shorter in height than the capitals in a given typeface. Certain abbreviations are commonly written in small capitals. Small caps are used in running text as a form of emphasis. In the expression, the abbreviations BC and AD are usually so written.

The Domain of Lexicology The domain of lexicology is a knowledge field that pertains to the investigation of the lexicon of a language. It involves the examination of vocabulary in all its aspects: meaning and use. The domain of lexicology falls into facets, which provide cognitive contexts for the semantic characterization of the lexical stylistic devices. The domain is used as a cognitive device that allows one to describe the distribution of different lexical stylistic devices and provide the motivation for their use in discourse. In this regard, lexical stylistic devices are argued to form a domain so that to understand the semantic structure of any device, it is necessary to understand the properties of the domain in which it occurs as well as the properties of the other members of the domain. Linguistically, lexical stylistic devices activate several facets within the domain, relative to which their meanings can be characterized. The

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establishment of a domain in discourse can shape the semantic structure of devices. These facets are replacement, redundancy, inaccuracy, contrast, comparison, exaggeration, wordplay, and reference. Facet 1: Replacement (12)  a. She passed away in her sleep. b. She died in her sleep. c. She snuffed it in her sleep.

The expressions cited in (12a–c) contain examples of lexical stylistic devices denoting replacement. Even though these lexical stylistic devices have to do with replacement, they are not alike in behavior. They differ, I argue, with reference to the degree of politeness. In (12a), the expression is an example of euphemism: a polite, mild, or indirect expression replaces an expression considered harsh, blunt, or unpleasant. In this case, the use of pass away instead of die. In (12b), the expression is an example of orthophemism: a direct, neutral expression that is not overly polite like a euphemism or disparaging like a dysphemism. In this case, the use of die is typically an orthophemism. In (12c), the expression is an example of dysphemism: a derogatory or offensive expression used instead of a pleasant or neutral one. In this case, snuff is used instead of die. Facet 2: Redundancy (13) a. “Under the impression,” said Mr. Micawber, “that your peregrinations in this metropolis have not as yet been extensive, and that you might have some difficulty in penetrating the arcana of the Modern Babylon in the direction of the City Road ….” b. “Let me tell you this, when social workers offer you, free, gratis and for nothing, something to hinder you from swooning, which with them is an obsession, it is useless to recoil ….” c. In my personal opinion, I think the boss is cooperative.

The expressions cited in (13a–c) contain examples of lexical stylistic devices denoting redundancy. Although these lexical stylistic devices are similar in symbolizing the facet of redundancy, they are not identical in use. Each stands, I argue, for a different size of redundancy. The example in (13a) is that of periphrasis: the use of several or complex words to express a thought which could have been conveyed by a few or simpler ones. This is also referred to as tautology. This is an excerpt taken from “David Copperfield” by Charles Dickens. The author uses complex words like peregrinations and metropolis in the characterization of Mr. Micawber where simpler ones would do. The use of periphrasis is to create humor. The example in (13b) is that of pleonasm: the use of an unnecessary word in a phrase or statement. This is an excerpt taken from “Molloy” by Samuel Beckett, where the words gratis and for nothing are unnecessary because the idea has already been implied by the word free. Pleonasm is used as a tool for emphasis, adding identical information in case the message is not captured the first time. In some cases, it constitutes a mechanism to obtain a poetic effect.

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The example in (13c) is that of verbosity: the use of an excess of words or a twisted or shadowy language to narrate the events. Such language may complicate the substance of a message and deviate the reader’s attention away toward linguistic details. This is also referred to as verbiage. The phrase in my personal opinion is needless. The sentence can be rewritten as I think the boss is cooperative, or In my opinion, the boss is cooperative. Facet 3: Inaccuracy (14)  a. “Our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two auspicious persons.”     b. “Three cheers for our queer old dean!” c. The song might ferment racial tension.

The expressions cited in (14a–c) contain examples of lexical stylistic devices denoting inaccuracy. These devices have one thing in common. They share a reference to the act of disowning. However, they are not interchangeable. They differ, I argue, with respect to the type of inaccuracy. The example in (14a) is that of malapropism: the use of an incorrect word, usually unintentionally, in place of a word that resembles it in sound, causing a change in meaning. Malapropism is also known as Dogberryism. This is an excerpt from “Much Ado About Nothing” by William Shakespeare. In the example, comprehend is used instead of apprehend. The use of malapropism results in a nonsensical, often humorous utterance. The example in (14b) is that of spoonerism: an error in speech in which the speaker accidentally transposes the initial sounds or letters of two or more words to get something completely different. This is said by William Archibald Spooner during one of the various episodes. In the example, queer old dean is used instead of dear old queen, which is a reference to Queen Victoria. The use of spoonerism creates nonsensical words to create a humorous setting. The example in (14c) is that of eggcorns: the use of a commonly used word in place of a more obscure one, but somehow the meaning remains the same. In the example, ferment is used instead of foment. Facet 4: Contrast (15) a. “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times … it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.” b. “I must be cruel only to be kind, Thus bad begins, and worse remains behind.” c. “Good night, good night! parting is such sweet sorrow, That I shall say good night till it be morrow.”

The expressions cited in (15a–c) contain examples of lexical stylistic devices denoting contrast. In general terms, these devices are alike in expressing the facet of contrast. In specific terms, however, they are distinct. The distinction lies, I argue, in the type of contrast. The example in (15a) is that of antithesis: the contrast between two phrases or clauses in the same statement to create a contrasting effect. The structure of the phrases is usually similar to draw the reader’s attention to the key message. The excerpt is taken from the novel A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens. The use of

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antithesis provides readers with a setting that feels divided and unstable, which are the feelings examined throughout the novel. The example in (15b) is that of paradox: the contrast between seemingly contrasting ideas that reveal a hidden truth. It is a statement that contradicts itself, yet it turns out to be interpretable in a way that makes sense. The excerpt is taken from “Hamlet” by William Shakespeare. Paradox is used for the sake of striking exposition or unexpected insight. Hamlet’s cruel act of killing Claudius could be seen as kindness to his mother. The example in (15c) is that of oxymoron: the case in which two opposite words or qualities are used next to each other to provoke thoughts. The excerpt is taken from “Romeo and Juliet” by William Shakespeare. In the example, the word sweet is associated with pleasantness, whereas the word sorrow is associated with sadness. Juliet feels sad at saying good night to Romeo, but she feels pleasant at seeing him again. Facet 5: Comparison (16) a. “He sat as still as a mouse, in the futile hope that whoever it was might go away after a single attempt. But no, the knocking was repeated. The worst thing of all would be to delay. His heart was thumping like a drum, but his face, from long habit, was probably expressionless.” b. “we are for each other: then laugh, leaning back in my arms for life’s not a paragraph and death I think is no parenthesis.” c. “I know a man that had this trick of melancholy sold a goodly manor for a song.”

The expressions cited in (16a–c) contain examples of lexical stylistic devices denoting comparison. Though the devices are associated with comparison, they are distinct in function. The distinction resides, I argue, in the type of comparison. The example in (16a) is that of simile: comparing two things of a different kind vividly. A simile draws similarity between two things directly using words such as like and as. This excerpt is taken from George Orwell’s novel 1984. This passage uses two similes. In as still as a mouse, the writer compares the fearful man to a mouse in his stillness and helplessness. In thumping like a drum, the writer compares the man’s heartbeat to a drumbeat due to fear. The example in (16b) is that of metaphor: applying an expression that literally denotes one kind of thing to a distinctly different kind of thing. A metaphor draws an indirect comparison, usually made by stating something is something else. The excerpt is taken from the poem “Since Feeling” by Edward Estlin Cummings. In this poem, life and death are concepts too monumental to be contained in writing or enclosed by punctuation. The example in (16c) is that of metonymy: replacing the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. The excerpt is taken from “All’s Well that Ends Well” by William Shakespeare. In this line, the word song is used as a metonymy referring to something cheap. It is associated with a street performer being paid small sums for singing. It means the man sold his manor for a song, that is, at a very cheap price.

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Facet 6: Exaggeration (17)  a. “I had to wait in the station for ten days—an eternity.” b. “I have to have this operation. It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain.” c. “I am no prophet—and here’s no great matter; I have seen the moment of my greatness flicker, And I have seen the eternal Footman hold my coat, and snicker, And in short, I was afraid.”

The expressions cited in (17a–c) contain examples of lexical stylistic devices denoting exaggeration. Even though, their applications are distinguishable. They represent, I argue, distinct aspects of exaggeration. The example in (17a) is that of hyperbole: describing something as being more important or more serious than it is. The aim is to emphasize a point, express strong feelings, or evoke humor. The excerpt is taken from the novel Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad. The expression describing the passing of time in the novel is a hyperbolic statement since ten days is by no means an eternity, but it felt like that. The example in (17b) is that of understatement: describing something as being much less important or much less serious than it is. The aim is to add a touch of humor, politeness, or modesty to something quite serious. The excerpt is taken from the novel The Catcher in the Rye, by J. D. Salinger. The expression is an understatement of the fact that removing a tumor in the brain is a serious issue, which has been understated. The example in (17c) is that of litotes: referring to the negation of one quality to emphasize its opposite. The aim is to render an ironic effect. The excerpt is taken from the poem “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by Thomas Stearns Eliot. The expression is an example of litotes since what the poet considers as no great matter when confronting death is, in fact, the greatest of matters, resulting thus in admission of fear. Facet 7: Wordplay (18)  a. “[H]ewas alternately cudgelling his brains and his donkey when, passing the workhouse, his eyes encountered the bill on the gate.” b. “To lose one parent, Mr. Worthing, may be regarded as a misfortune; to lose both looks like carelessness.” c. “Nobody heard him, the dead man,     But still he lay moaning:     I was much further out than you thought    And not waving but drowning.”

The expressions cited in (18a–c) contain examples of lexical stylistic devices denoting wordplay. Despite sharing the notion of wordplay, the devices are dissimilar in use. The dissimilarity is, I argue, inherent in the type of wordplay. The example in (18a) is that of zeugma: using one word to refer to two other words in two different ways. Zeugma or syllepsis is used to add flavor to literary texts as it helps produce a dramatic effect. The excerpt is taken from the novel Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens. In the example, the verb cudgel modifies both

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brain and donkey in two different ways. Cudgel the brains means thinking hard for a solution to a problem, whereas cudgel a donkey means beating with a cudgel. The example in (18b) is that of a pun: using words that sound similar but have different meanings. It is a witty use of wordplay for a comical effect. The excerpt is taken from the play “The Importance of Being Earnest” by Oscar Wilde. In the example, the word lose has a dual meaning. In its first mention, lose means suffering loss through death. In its second mention, lose means misplacing something. The example reflects dark humor. The example in (18c) is that of irony: using words in such a way that their intended meaning is different from their actual meaning. It is typically used for humorous effects. The excerpt is taken from the poem “Not Waving but Drowning” by Stevie Smith. In the example, the dead man is still alive although nobody hears him and the man signaled for help as he was drowning although people who saw him thought he was not waving. Facet 8: Reference (19)  a. “God! he said quietly. Isn’t the sea what Algy calls it: a great sweet mother?        The snot-green sea. The scrotum-tightening sea! I must teach you.       You must read them in the original. Thalatta! Thalatta! She is our great sweet mother ….”     b. “There is a working class—strong and happy—among both rich and poor; there is an idle class—weak, wicked, and miserable—among both rich and poor.”     c. “As he swung toward them holding up the hand        Half in appeal, but half as if to keep       The life from spilling ….”

The expressions cited in (19a–c) contain examples of lexical stylistic devices denoting reference. Nonetheless, they diverge, I argue, in the type of reference. The example in (19a) is that of epithet: referring to a person, a place, or a thing by using a nickname or a descriptive title. It is the use of a quality that is considered characteristic of the person, place, or thing. The excerpt is taken from the novel Ulysses by James Joyce. In the example, Joyce uses several epithets to describe the sea. These epithets include a great sweet mother, snot-green sea, and scrotum-­ tightening sea. The example in (19b) is that of merism: referring to something by using a conventional phrase that enumerates several of its constituents or traits. In other words, it refers to a whole by enumerating some of its parts. The excerpt is taken from the book The Crown of Wild Olive by John Ruskin. This is an 1866 collection of essays on work, traffic, war, and the future of England. In the example, the constituents rich and poor refer to the class. The example in (19c) is that of metalepsis: referring to something by using another thing that is remotely related to it. One word is metonymically substituted for another word which is itself a metonym. The excerpt is taken from the poem “Out, Out” by Robert Frost. In the example, the phrase keeping the life from spilling means the spilling of blood. The poet makes a connection between blood and life, whereby means loss of blood leads to loss of human life.

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The Domain of Syntax The domain of syntax is a knowledge scenario bearing on the meaningful arrangement of words in expressions. In a basic expression, no particular emphasis is expressed. However, there are ways in which elements within an expression are reordered or repeated for emphasis. Syntactic stylistic devices activate four facets: relocation, omission, reiteration, and arrangement. Linguistically, candidates for relocation are inversion, clefting, extraposition, raising, and fronting. Candidates for omission are ellipsis, aposiopesis, and asyndeton. Candidates for reiteration are anaphora, epiphora, and epanalepsis. Candidates for arrangement are parallelism, chiasmus, and antimetabole. Even though these devices aim semantically to achieve emphasis and stylistically add variety to writing, they are not alike in syntactic behavior. They differ with reference to the nature of the change in the word order, type of omission, or position of repetition. Facet 1: Relocation (20)  a. “Begun the Clone War has.”     b. “Always in motion is the future.”     c. “Truly wonderful the mind of a child is.”

The expressions cited in (20a–c) contain examples of inversion, the process of reversing the order of two clauses in an expression. It is the process by which two expressions switch their canonical order of appearance, that is, they invert. The examples in inverted syntax are uttered by Yoda, the fictional character of Star Wars series. The example in (20a) contains inversion in which the verb comes before the subject. The normal word order is The Clone War has begun. The example in (20b) contains inversion in which the sentence begins with an adverb of frequency. The normal word order is The future is always in motion. The example in (20c) contains inversion in which the sentence begins with an adverbial phrase. The normal word order is The mind of a child is truly wonderful. As is clear, inversion does not alter meaning. It gives a dramatic effect for the reader can visualize the situation better while reading. It emphasizes a particular part of the sentence and creates a rhyming pattern in poetry. In the English language, there are different patterns of inversion: (i) after a negative adverb or adverb phrase at the beginning as in Seldom have I seen such beautiful work, (ii) after an adverbial expression of place as in Round the corner came the knights, (iii) after so + adjective + that as in So delicious was the food that we ate every last bite, (iv) after if in conditionals with had, were, and should as in Had we arrived sooner, we could have prevented this tragedy, (v) after not as in Not for a moment did I think I would be offered the job, (vi) wh-words in interrogative statements as in What a beautiful picture it is!, (vii) helping verbs are placed before their subjects as in Where in the world were you!, and exclamatory sentences as in How wonderful the weather is today!. (21)  a. “Her parents never visited her in Montreal. It was her mother that always came up with excuses.”     b. “What I need is the dandelion in the spring.”

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The expressions cited in (21a–b) contain examples of clefting, the process of splitting an expression into two parts, moving one part from its normal position into a different position to give it more emphasis. Although they represent the same facet, they are certainly distinctive in use. The example in (21a) contains an it-cleft. It is taken from the novel Necessary Lies by Eva Stachniak. The clause which follows it contains new information and is in focus, whereas the other clause which comes at the end contains old information. The example in (21b) contains a wh-cleft or a pseudo-cleft. It is taken from the book Mockingjay by Suzanne Collins. The clause following the wh-word at the beginning contains old information, while the other clause at the end contains new information and is in focus. As is clear, clefting is used by writers to focus on a particular part of the expression. It allows the writer to determine what is foregrounded and what is backgrounded, which is due to the perspective taken on a situation. It-clefts foregrounds the information at the beginning of the expression, whereas pseudo-clefts foreground information at the end of the expression. (22)  a. “It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a      good fortune, must be in want of a wife.” b. “It is a strange desire to seek power and to lose liberty.” c. “‘It is very pleasant dining with a bachelor,’ said Miss Matty.”

The expressions cited in (22a–c) contain examples of extraposition, the process of moving an element from its normal place to the end of an expression and using introductory it in its place. It is a mechanism of syntax that alters word order in such a manner that a heavy constituent appears to the right of its canonical position. Even though they evoke the same facet, there is a clear distinction between them. In (22a), which is taken from Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, the expression is a transformation of a that-clause. The expression is derived from That a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife is a truth universally acknowledged. In (22b), which is taken from Essays, Of Great Place by Francis Bacon, the expression is a transformation of a to-infinitive complement clause. The expression is derived from To seek power and lose liberty is a strange desire. In (22c), which is taken from Cranford by Elizabeth Gaskell, the expression is a transformation of an ing-clause. The expression derived from Dining with a bachelor is very pleasant. As is clear, writers use extraposition to satisfy the principles of end-­ weight and end-focus, packaging the information in a way that is easier to process. (23)  a. “Movies are more likely than literature to reach deep feelings in people.”     b. “The Victorians expected every building, like every painting, to tell a story, and preferably to point to a moral as well.”     c. “Her mind was less difficult to develop. She was a woman of mean understanding, little information, and uncertain temper.”

The expressions cited in (23a–c) contain examples of raising, which involve moving an argument from a subordinate clause to a position in the main clause. Still, they are kept apart in use. In (23a), which is taken from The Spooky Art: Some Thoughts on Writing by Norman Kingsley Mailer, the expression is an example of subject-to-subject raising, which involves moving the subject of a subordinate

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clause to the subject position of the main clause. The expression is derived from It is more likely that movies will reach deep feelings in people. In (23b), which is taken from An Introduction to Victorian Architecture by Sir Hugh Maxwell Casson, the expression is an example of subject-to-object raising, which involves moving the subject of a subordinate clause to the object position of the main clause. The expression is derived from The Victorians expected that every building, like every painting, would tell a story, and preferably point to a moral as well. In (23c), which is taken from Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, the expression is an example of object-to-­ subject raining, which involves moving the direct object of a verb to the subject position of the main clause. The expression is derived from To develop her mind was less difficult. As is clear, writers employ the strategy of raising to give prominence to the raised element. (24)  a. “On the stands in nearby orchards were hard, yellow apples filled with powerful juice.” b. “In June came ponderous heat and mornings like eggshells, pale and smooth.”     c. “Some things you forget. Other things you never do.”

The expressions cited in (24a–e) contain examples of fronting, which transposes a constituent from the middle or end of a string to its initial position. Although they relate to the same facet, they are unequal in use. The example in (24a) contains a fronted prepositional phrase that denotes place. It is a quote by James Salter. The example in (24b) contains a prepositional phrase that denotes time. It is a quote by James Salter. The example in (24c) contains a fronted object. It is a quote by Toni Morrison. In English, other patterns of fronting exist: (i) fronted complements as in Bloody awful that was, (ii) fronted clauses with question words as in Why she married him I don’t know, (iii) fronted participles as in Gone were the designer glasses, and (iv) fronted adjectives as in Huge it was. As is clear, writers employ the strategy of fronting to give the fronted item extra prominence. It allows the writer to place attention at the beginning of a sentence to make a story more compelling. In particular, fronting serves as a device to make non-subject elements the theme of a sentence. Facet 2: Omission (25)  a. “Ah, well, he’s gone to a better world.”        “Did he … peacefully?” she asked.        “Oh, quite peacefully, ma’am,” said Eliza.    b. King Lear:        “I will have revenges on you both        That all the world shall … I will do such things ….        What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be        The terrors of the earth!”    c. IAGO        “Call up her father.        Rouse him. Make after him, Poison his delight,        Proclaim him in the streets. Incense her kinsmen,        And, though he in a fertile climate dwell ….”

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The expressions cited in (25a–c) contain examples of omission, the process of excluding or leaving out someone or something, either intentionally or accidentally. Although they symbolize the same facet, they are not identical in use. The example in (25a) is that of ellipsis: the omission of a word or words that can be understood from the context. It is used to get right to the point without delay or distraction. This excerpt is taken from the short story “The Sisters” by James Joyce. It is the first of a series of short stories called Dubliners. The aunt asks Eliza about the death of the priest omitting the word die. Eliza understands her meaning and responds reassuringly. The example in (25b) is that of aposiopesis: breaking off in the middle of a speech. It is used for dramatic effects, showing the writer is overwhelmed with emotion. This excerpt is taken from the play “King Lear” by William Shakespeare. King Lear gets furious against his wicked daughters. He cannot declare punishment, but he breaks down and burst into tears. This device is employed to show the moods of the characters in the play. The example in (25c) is that of asyndeton: the omission of structurally significant conjunctions and connectives between parts of an expression. It is used to shorten an expression, focus on its meaning and make it effective. This excerpt is taken from the play “Othello” by William Shakespeare. The author has left out conjunctions such as and, for, or, and but deliberately. Due to this, the feelings of anger are articulated explicitly. Facet 3: Reiteration (26)  a. “The apartment was on the top floor—a small living room, a small dining-room, a small bedroom, and a bath.” b. “Hourly joys be still upon you! Juno sings her blessings on you … Scarcity and want shall shun you, Ceres’ blessing so is On you.” c. Brutus      “Be patient till the last. Romans, countrymen, and lovers! Hear me for my cause, and be silent that you may hear. Believe me for mine honor, and have respect to mine honor that you may believe.”

The expressions cited in (26a–c) contain examples of reiteration, repeating the same words or phrases a few times, typically for emphasis or clarity. Nevertheless, they are quite different in use. In (26a), the expression is an example of anaphora: the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or expressions, thereby lending them emphasis. It is used to engage the reader in a particularly emotional experience. This excerpt is taken from the novel The Great Gatsby by Francis Scott Fitzgerald. In this excerpt, the word small is repeated in the description of the apartment that Tom Buchanan keeps as a secret location for his extramarital affair. In (26b), the expression is an example of epiphora: repetition of the final word or groups of words in several succeeding clauses or expressions. It is used to add emphasis to writing, shedding light on the word as important in the text. This excerpt is taken from the play “The Tempest” by William Shakespeare. In this excerpt, the pronoun you is repeated more than once. Through the use of epiphora, the playwright attaches importance to you.

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In (26c), the expression is an example of epanalepsis: the repetition of the initial part of a clause or an expression at the end of that same clause or expression. It is used to emphasize the word as a key point or concept by repeating it at the beginning and the end. This excerpt is taken from the play “Julius Caesar” by William Shakespeare. In this excerpt, the words hear and believe are repeated to convince the audience. Facet 4: Arrangement (27)  a. “To err is human; to forgive divine.”     b. “Do I love you because you’re beautiful?       Or are you beautiful because I love you?”     c. “Fair is foul and foul is fair.”

The expressions cited in (27a–c) contain examples denoting arrangement. Even though, they differ in use. The example in (27a) is that of parallelism: a device in which the grammatical expressions are similar in structure. Parallelism adds a sense of rhythm which helps plant the message into the mind of the reader. This excerpt is taken from An Essay on Criticism by Alexander Pope. In this excerpt, to err and to forgive are grammatically identical in structure. Both are to-infinitives. Through parallelism, the poet conveys the idea that God is forgiving whereas his creation is erring. The example in (27b) is that of chiasmus: a device in which the grammatical expressions are reversed. Chiasmus serves to get two points across but puts more emphasis on the second part. This excerpt is taken from the lyric Do I Love You Because You’re Beautiful? by Oscar Hammerstein. In this excerpt, there are two phrases. The second phrase is a reversal of the first, displaying thus inverted parallelism. The example in (27c) is that of antimetabole: a device in which the exact words in the expression are reversed. Antimetabole shows that reality is not always what it seems to be. This excerpt is taken from the play Macbeth by William Shakespeare. In this excerpt, the words appear in reverse order. It underlines people’s hypocrisy as they hide their true intentions. It serves to warn people about basing judgments on face value.

Summary In this chapter, I have applied the domain theory to the characterization of stylistic devices. I have substantiated the claim that stylistic devices can have divergent effects on style. Stylistic devices are pervasive in language. They are not used for decorative purposes. Rather, they are used to add creativity to a text, construct novel meanings, and so captivate the reader’s interest. The domain theorists believe that the meaning of a stylistic device is characterized in terms of the knowledge structure that it activates. Stylistic devices are thus not related to each other directly, but only by their links to cognitive domains, which provide a conceptual foundation for their meaning. The function of each stylistic device is to give additional meaning to texts, allow readers to think profoundly, and create images that produce artistic effects on the reader’s senses. The devices help one comprehend the work of writers, understand the motivation behind their choices, and have a sense of the overall meanings behind the texts one comes across.

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A consideration of the stylistic devices discussed so far leads to some significant conclusions vis-à-vis their behavior: 1. Stylistic devices activate different domains for their interpretation. The precise meaning of a stylistic device results from identifying the domain in which it is embedded, and from contrasting it with competing counterparts. Stylistic devices fall into various domains. They are phonology, morphology, graphology, lexicology, and syntax. 2. Each domain evoked by stylistic devices has its internal structure. It comprises particular facets, which deal with diverse features of an experience, and so have discernible characteristics. Stylistic devices keep company by representing the nuclear meaning of a domain, but part company by representing its different facets. 3. The membership of a stylistic device in a domain is determined by its genus, which is based on its definitional analysis. Stylistic devices having more or less the same genus belong to the same domain. In other words, the way stylistic devices fit into domains is determined by their meanings or by their definitional analyses (Table 6.2). Study Questions 1. In the domain of phonology, the facet of repetition is designated by alliteration, assonance, and rhyme. Nonetheless, they are distinguishable in use. Pick a poem and explain how they are distinct. 2. Diminution, origination, and invention represent distinct facets within the domain of morphology. Yet, each facet represents a different process. Find magazine articles and show how each has a different meaning. 3. Sentences can be connected by means of commas, semicolons, colons, or dashes. Nevertheless, there exist differences in their effects. Find newspaper reports and explain how they influence meaning. 4. Redundancy is a facet in the domain of lexicology. It is represented by periphrasis, pleonasm, and verbosity. Despite that, they are different in meaning. Pick passages from a novel and try to identify the differences. 5. The facet of inaccuracy in the domain of lexicology is denoted by malapropism, spoonerism, and eggcorns. Nonetheless, they are semantically different. Using examples from the main genres of literature, try to pinpoint the differences. 6. Antithesis, paradox, and oxymoron evoke the facet of contrast in the domain of lexicology. Despite that, they are semantically different. Choose different stanzas from poems and show how they are different in effect. 7. In the domain of syntax, one facet is relocation. It is realized by inversion, clefting, extraposition, raising, and fronting. However, they are distinct processes. Find extracts from a dramatic script and explain what each process is. (continued)

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(continued) 8. As a facet of syntax, omission is represented by ellipsis, aposiopesis, and asyndeton. Although they symbolize the same facet, they are not alike in use. Pick prose extracts and show in what way they are not alike. 9. What distinction would you draw between the following stylistic devices? anaphora     vs.    epiphora simile       vs.    metaphor foreshadowing   vs.    flashback anastrope     vs.    inversion synecdoche    vs.    metonymy 10. Using examples from different genres of literature, explain what effect each of the following stylistic devices has on the reader: alliteration antithesis chiasmus hyperbole parallelism

Table 6.2  Stylistic devices Domain

Facet

Phonology

Repetition     Alliteration     Assonance    Rhyme Periodicity    Rhythm

Imitation    Onomatopoeia Morphology

Diminution Origination    (Nonce words) Invention    (Neologism)

Graphology

Sentence punctuation marks Word punctuation marks Print types

Definition

Example

Repeating the first consonant in several words in the same phrase Repeating vowels to create internal rhyming. Using words that end with the same sounds.

Sally sells seashells by the seashore Hear the mellow wedding bells.

Alternating the use of weak or strong elements in a flow of speech.

A mouse is hiding in their house.

Using words that imitate the sound they refer to.

The cuckoo whizzed past the buzzing bees.

Tyger Tyger, burning bright in the forest of the night.

Making something less in size or Manikin (a little man), starlet importance. Coining a word for a particular occasion. Using new words or new senses of existing words.

Test-tube baby, space glove

Signs that express termination and connection. Signs that express possession and combination. Signs that express emphasis.

He went to the market. I was tired; I went to bed. My brother’s car Fifty-six bottles Journal of Linguistics

Software, user-friendly

(continued)

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114 Table 6.2  (continued) Domain

Facet

Definition

Example

Lexicology

Replacement    Euphemism    Orthophemism    Dysphemism

Using a mild expression. Using a neutral expression. Using a harsh word.

Poo Defecate Shit

Using more words than necessary to evoke a certain meaning. Using syntactically unnecessary words to make a point. Using more words than are needed to convey a message.

In my humble opinion, I think …. The man he said.

Usage an incorrect word instead of a word with a similar sound. Switching initial sounds between two words in a phrase. Using a word for a word that is plausible in the same context.

“Optical delusion” instead of “optical illusion” Tons of soil for sons of toil

Introducing two opposites together for contrasting effects. A statement that may seem contradictory but can be true. Combining two contradictory terms in conjunction.

Man proposes, God disposes.

Redundancy    Periphrasis   

Pleonasm

   Verbosity Inaccuracy    Malapropism   

Spoonerism

  

Eggcorns

Contrast    Antithesis   

Paradox

  

Oxymoron

Comparison    Simile      

Metaphor Metonymy

Exaggeration    Hyperbole   

Understatement

  

Litotes

Wordplay    Zeugma   

Pun

  

Irony

Reference    Epithet   

Merism

  

Metalepsis

“In spite of the fact that” instead of “although”

Free reign for free rein

This is the beginning of the end. The joke was seriously funny.

Something is said to be like She walks like an angel. something else. Something is something else. Debt is a bottomless sea. Giving a thing another name that The suits left the office. is associated with it. An exaggerated statement used to heighten the effect. Making a situation seem less important than it is. Using negative wording to express a positive assertion.

I have told you a million times to come. You win a lottery. You just say: I am delighted. I can’t disagree with your opinion.

Using a verb that governs several words, each in a different sense. Using a word that suggests two or more meanings. Saying the opposite of what you mean.

He lost his wallet and his temper.

Using a word or phrase in place of a name. Combining two contrasting parts of the whole refers to the whole. Using a word metonymically for another word that is already used metaphorically.

Man’s best friend. (Dog)

Is life worth living? That depends on the liver. What beautiful weather! (When it is pouring with rain)

Heart and soul. (Entirety) I have to get going and catch a worm this morning. (This is a reference to the statement “The early bird gets the worm.”)

(continued)

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Further Reading Table 6.2  (continued) Domain

Facet

Syntax

Relocation    Inversion   

Clefting

  

Extraposition

  

Raising

   Fronting    (Preposing) Omission    Ellipsis    Aposiopesis    Asyndeton Reiteration    Anaphora   

Epiphora

  

Epanalepsis

Arrangement    Parallelism   

Chiasmus

   Atimetabole

Definition

Example

Placing the verb before the subject. Splitting a clause into two segments, beginning with it or what. Moving subordinate clause, acting as subject, to the end of the main and putting it instead. Raising a constituent from a subordinate clause into a main clause. Placing a word that customarily follows the verb at the beginning of a sentence.

Beneath the table lies the cat.

Omitting one or more words from a sentence. Leaving a sentence deliberately unfinished, to be supplied by the imagination. Omitting a connective.

That car is older than this (car).

Repeating a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. Repeating a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses. Repeating at the end of a clause the word or phrase with which it begins.

Stay safe. Stay well. Stay happy.

Arranging sentences in such a manner that they have the same structure. Repeating clauses in reverse order. Using the same words but in reverse order.

I like fishing, swimming, and hiking.

It was Sue who bought a book. It was a pity that he failed. The riddle is difficult to solve. Never have I seen such a scene.

His behavior was … but I blush to mention that. I’m not afraid … you are. (but)

Government of the people, by the people, for the people. Next time there won’t be a next time.

You must eat to live, not live to eat. I know what I like, and I like what I know.

Further Reading An extensive discussion of the concept of domain is found in Langacker (1987, 1991), Evans and Green (2006), Taylor (2003), Hamawand (2023), Barsalou (1992), Croft (1993), Croft and Cruse (2004), Cienki (2007), Everett (2013), and Mendoza (2003). A similar but not identical concept to the domain is the concept of frame. The latter was introduced to linguistics by Fillmore (1982, 2006), Fillmore & Atkins (1992), and Ungerer and Schmid (2006).

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References Barsalou, Lawrence. 1992. Frames, Concepts, and Conceptual Fields. In Frames, Fields, and Contrasts: New Essays in Semantic and Lexical Organisation, ed. Adrienne Lehrer and Eva Feder Kittay, 21–74. London: Routledge. Cienki, Alan. 2007. Frames, Idealized Cognitive Models, and Domains. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Dirk Geeraerts and Hubert Cuyckens, 170–187. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Croft, William. 1993. The Role of Domains in the Interpretation of Metaphors and Metonymies. Cognitive Linguistics 4 (4): 335–370. Croft, William, and Allen Cruse. 2004. Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Evans, Vyvyan, and Melanie Green. 2006. Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Everett, Caleb. 2013. Linguistic Relativity: Evidence Across Languages and Cognitive Domains. Berlin: Gruyter. Fillmore, Charles. 1982. Towards a Descriptive Framework for Spatial Deixis. In Speech, Place, and Action: Studies in Deixis and Related Topics, ed. Robert Jarvella and Wolfgang Klein, 31–59. Chichester: John Wiley. ———. 2006. Frame Semantics. In Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings, ed. Dirk Geeraerts, 373–400. Mouton de Gruyter. Fillmore, Charles, and Sue Atkins. 1992. Toward a Frame-Based Lexicon: The Semantics of RISK and Its Neighbors. In Frames Fields and Contrasts: New Essays in Semantic and Lexical Organization, ed. A. Lehrer and E. Kittay, 75–102. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hamawand, Zeki. 2023. Cognitive Domains. In The Handbook of Cognitive Semantics, ed. Thomas Fuyin Li. Brill. Langacker, Ronald. 1987. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. 1: Theoretical Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ———. 1991. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. 2: Descriptive Application. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Mendoza, Francisco. 2003. The Role of Mappings and Domains in the Understanding of Metonymy. In Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A Cognitive Perspective, ed. Antonio Barcelona. Berlin: Gruyter. Taylor, John. 2003. Cognitive Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ungerer, Friedrich, and Hans-Jörg Schmid. 2006. An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. Harlow: Pearson Longman.

Chapter 7

The Experientialism Theory

Key Objectives • Underline the idea that linguistic meaning is seen as a manifestation of conceptual structure. • Illuminate that meaning construction is realized through metaphor, metonymy, image schema, mental space, and blending. • Analyze the architecture of each conceptual structure, enumerating the types and providing examples.

Introduction In the traditional era, the dominant theory concerning the source of knowledge was Rationalism. According to this theory, reason is regarded as the basis for acquiring knowledge. The criterion of truth is not sensory but intuitive and deductive. Knowledge is gained independently of sense experience. Empirical proof and physical evidence were regarded as unnecessary to ascertain the truth. Knowledge is simply part of our rational nature. In language, a similar hypothesis, known as Innateness, was coined by Hilary Putman and adhered to by Chomsky in the 1950s. In light of this, knowledge exists naturally or by heredity rather than by experience. Alternatively, this is termed nativism, which holds that certain mental abilities are innate or hard-wired into the human brain at birth. Humans are born with some knowledge of a language. The ability to learn a language is built into the human brain. The brain contains linguistic information at birth that is triggered by hearing speech. All natural languages share a set of structural rules that are innate to humans, a theory of syntax referred to as Universal Grammar. Such rules are part of an innate human capacity for learning a language. In opposition to this theory, Cognitive Stylistics believes in Experientialism, which maintains that personal experience is the most valuable source of knowledge. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7_7

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The Experientialism Theory The theory of experientialism was formulated by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in the 1980s. Language refers to concepts in the mind of the speaker rather than, directly, to entities that exist in the external world. Language reflects the human conceptual system, the repository of concepts available to a human being. The repository constitutes an organized inventory of concepts that facilitates conceptualization. A concept is a unit of cognitive experience. Each concept in the conceptual system can, in principle, be encoded and externalized via language. In the conceptual system, a concept takes the form of a conceptual structure, knowledge representation assembled for purposes of meaning construction. To be encoded in language, a conceptual structure takes the form of a semantic structure, the meaning that is conventionally associated with linguistic expressions. In language, concepts take specific formats known as lexical concepts. A lexical concept is a conventional form that conceptual structure assumes when encoded in language. The semantic structure reflects the conceptual structure. Language reflects the conceptual system. Language is used as a lens to investigate the human conceptual system. In Cognitive Grammar, the writer is seen as being actively engaged in the process of meaning construction. The construction of meaning requires imagination: the mental ability to come up with images of novel things in the mind, which are not present to the senses. Imagination is a function of the brain. It refers to the ability to constrain thinking and force it in a new direction. It is a key to innovation. It produces fresh creations that are consistent with reality. In language, imagination plays an important role. It constantly stretches the codes of language by applying them in original ways. A text, literary or non-literary, is a product of the writer’s creative imagination and the reader’s dynamic interaction. A text does not necessarily mirror the natural world. Instead, it represents it indirectly through the imagination of the writer. Imagination is a creative power that is necessary for understanding such phenomena as metaphor, metonymy, image schema, mental spaces, and blending. These can change the way in which the world is perceived. They allow new worlds to emerge. They add special meaning, emphasis, and depth to a piece of work.

Essence The basic insight of experientialism is that the primary source of knowledge comes from experiencing or observing things. In virtue of this theory, the origin of all knowledge is sense experience and sensory perception. Knowledge is derived directly from experience. All things and propositions are knowable only through experience. The theory emphasizes the role of subjective experience in the process of language acquisition. Personal experience is the principal basis of knowledge. In language, meaning is experientially grounded, that is, rooted in experience. The

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experiential nature of language can be seen through language use. The experience of language is an experience of actual language use, not of words in a dictionary or sentence patterns in grammar. That is why we say that Cognitive Linguistics is a usage-based model of grammar. In a usage-based model, knowledge of a language is experientially based on actual speech. The conceptualizations that are expressed in natural language have an experiential basis. They link up with the way in which human beings experience reality, both culturally and physiologically.

Premises 1. Experience is the source of knowledge. Language is experiential. Understanding language is grounded in human experience. Language does not describe states of affairs in the world. Rather, it reflects worldviews through the lens of experience. Language does not reflect reality directly. Instead, reality is mediated by unique human experiences and built on human perceptual faculties. The construction of meaning is the result of how humans experience the world. To see how language is shaped by human experience, let us take an example. In She entered into a depression, the abstract emotional condition is seen as a container restricting the person’s behavior. The notion of containment is an image schema related to our frequent experience of inserting objects into and removing them from bounded areas. 2. Experience is embodied. All experience registers in the body. The body we inhabit is a remarkable mechanism, which functions in complex ways. Our construal of the world is ingrained into our bodies and based on the senses. Meaning arises from our physical engagement in our environments. The conceptual system, which is composed of a set of interrelated concepts, represents a mental model of the world. For instance, human body parts can be mapped onto nonhuman objects, as in the head of a department/state/page, the face of a mountain/ building/watch, the eye of a needle/potato/hurricane, the mouth of a hole/tunnel/ cave, the lips of a cup/jug/crater, the nose of an aircraft/tool/gun, the neck of a land/shirt/bottle, the shoulder of a hill/road/jacket, the arm of a chair/coat/company, and so on and so forth.

Advantages 1. Experientialism unearths the non-conceptual aspect of language. Thought has two aspects: the conceptual and the non-conceptual. The former is the result of convention, whereas the latter has its source in experience. Linguistics focuses on the source of the conceptual aspect of language. Cognitive Stylistics discovers the source of the non-conceptual aspect of language. That is, it illuminates the conceptual structures of a piece of work. To see how one area of experience

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is conceptualized in terms of another, let us take an example. In I see what you mean, the source domain is the physical act of seeing, while the target domain is the mental act of understanding. This is a metaphor that has a source domain and a target domain. The source domain tends to be concrete, whereas the target domain tends to be abstract. 2. Experientialism is a source of making meaning. It helps to develop new ideas as a result of sensory experience. It is a relational process between an individual and the environment in which the experience is embodied. To form new ideas, one must experience language. Meaning construction becomes more effective when language is used in experiential settings. Experientialism is a useful tool that unravels how a given text constructs its world. In emotional expressions, for instance, the bodily symptoms are the outcome of the expressed emotions. This is a type of metonymy which is based on cause-effect relationships. In She was paralyzed with fear, the effect is the inability to move, whereas the cause is fear. In She was shaking with anger, the effect is agitation, whereas the cause is anger (Table 7.1).

Forms of Conceptual Structure Cognitive Stylistics studies the relationship between mind and experience. It employs language as a tool for uncovering conceptual structure: knowledge representation of concepts in the human conceptual system. Linguistic meaning is seen as a manifestation of conceptual structure. As means of meaning construction, conceptual structures are modeled in terms of mappings such as metaphor and metonymy, the establishment of image schemas, the formation of mental spaces, and the blending of spaces. Conceptual structures share some general properties: (i) They are aspects of meaning construction in language; they are central to human thought. (ii) They are grounded in experience; they are activated through human interaction with the socio-physical world. (iii) They are inherently meaningful; they reveal fundamental information about the nature of meaning. (iv) They serve to conceptualize the world; they shape the forms of linguistic expressions. (v) They are pervasive in everyday language; they are aspects of ongoing language processing. The gist is that Table 7.1  Rationalism versus experientialism Rationalism 1. Knowledge is gained a priori. 2. Belief in making valid judgment and logical analyses. 3. Reason is the source of knowledge. 4. Nothing is true unless it is logical and supported by evidence. 5. Knowledge is obtained through deduction or innateness.

Experientialism 1. Knowledge is gained a posteriori. 2. Belief in practicality, observation, and experimentation. 3. Experience is the source of knowledge. 4. Nothing is true unless it is experienced in a physical sense. 5. Knowledge is obtained through sensory experience.

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they are simply a natural part of conceptual thought and an important feature of creativity. What follows is a description of each conceptual structure. The description includes its architecture and patterns. Under the traditional view, the conceptual structures are mere figures of speech used as a kind of linguistic embellishment, or as decoration to ordinary language. Under the cognitive view, they are textual manifestations of the workings of the human mind. As contended by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980), they are natural features of language and important parts of everyday speech and writing. They are fundamental components of the thought process, symbolizing the ways humans make sense of the world. They are aspects of creativity and results of cognitive processes. They represent a writer’s artistic innovation and a reader’s interpretive faculty. Their interpretations go beyond the basic information given in a text. They are part and parcel of everyday discourse. They play pivotal roles in stylistic analysis, and so are significant landmarks in Cognitive Stylistics.

Metaphor Metaphor is a form of conceptual structure that involves mapping between two different conceptual domains, referred to as source and target. The source domain, typically concrete, refers to the concept that is drawn upon to create the metaphorical construction. The target domain, typically abstract, refers to the concept that is described through the metaphor. In the mapping, aspects of the source domain, which is a more familiar area of knowledge, are placed in comparison with aspects of the target domain, which is a less familiar area of knowledge. The purpose of the comparison is to portray the target in a way that makes it more accessible to human understanding. To exemplify this, consider an expression in English like Their relationship was on fire. This is a linguistic manifestation of a common conceptual metaphor, namely LOVE IS FIRE. There is a mapping between the source domain which is FIRE and the target domain which is LOVE. The source is the domain we draw the element from, whereas the target is the domain we transfer the element onto. The transference always happens from the source domain to the target domain and tends to be non-reversible. In literary studies, the source area of knowledge is referred to as the vehicle, the target area of knowledge as the tenor, and the mapping operation as the ground. Metaphors can be divided into three frequently used types: structural, orientational, and ontological. Structural Metaphor A structural metaphor is a kind of metaphor in which one concept, typically abstract, is understood in terms of another concept, typically concrete. The function of a structural metaphor is to enable speakers to understand a target domain using a

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source domain. In a structural metaphor, the source domain provides a framework for the target domain. The understanding takes place using a conceptual mapping between the two. It involves the transference of one sphere of experience to another. Usually, a complicated and abstract experience is presented in terms of a simple and concrete experience. In He attacked their argument, the word argument is treated as a war, evoking the ARGUMENT IS WAR metaphor. The writer conceptualizes the abstract concept of argument, which is the target domain, in terms of the concrete concept of war, which is the source domain. The experience of war which involves violence and hostility is imposed onto the experience of argument, turning it into a heated and irrational discussion. Linguistically, this metaphor motivates a wide range of stylistic realizations such as He got into an argument, He defended his argument, He won the argument, He lost the argument, He demolished their argument, and so on. Structural metaphor is important in literature as a medium of meaning construction. Consider the example below: (1)  “All the world’s a stage,   And all the men and women merely players.”

This is an example of a structural metaphor, taken from the play As You Like It by William Shakespeare. The playwright is comparing the world to a stage and the people in the world to the players on it, for rhetorical effect. He conceptualizes the abstract concept of the world, which is the target domain, in terms of the concrete concept of the stage, which is the source domain. Through the similarities between the two, Shakespeare is attempting to project the qualities of a stage onto life. Shakespeare draws readers’ attention toward the drama human beings live throughout their lives. He is really reducing the life of human beings to a performance, or an acting role, which might look ridiculous. Simply, he means that all human beings are players, who play their assigned roles every day. In this metaphor, Shakespeare is not pointing out the continuity between the world and a stage as the two are not interchangeable. Rather, Shakespeare is creating a new way of thinking about life by making a comparison between the qualities of the two. Shakespeare is seeing life as a drama acted out on a stage in a theater. Each phase of life is an act in the drama. Orientational Metaphor An orientational metaphor is a kind of metaphor in which experience is described in terms of spatial relations. It is used to express emotional states through the physical direction. It involves basic spatial oppositions such as near-far, up-down, in-out, onoff, left-right, and front-back. It arises from awareness of our bodies and the way they function within a physical environment. This relationship is normally based on our experiences of the physical space we live in. The expression He is feeling up evokes a GOOD IS UP metaphor. Here, two concepts are spatially related to each other. Up is connected with good things. It is the opposite of I am feeling down, which evokes a BAD IS DOWN metaphor. Here, DOWN is connected with bad

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things. Such metaphors are not random; they are based on the structure of human bodies, and how humans physically interact in the environment. Usually, upward orientation matches with a positive evaluation, while downward orientation matches with a negative one. Linguistically, the orientational metaphor underlies several stylistic realizations such as He has been in high spirits, Thinking about her always gives me a lift, Her spirits rose as she read the letter, Prices have gone down recently, and so on. Orientational metaphor is important in literature as a vehicle of meaning construction. Consider the example below: (2)  “Anxiety weighs down the heart, but a kind word cheers it up.”

This is an example of orientational metaphors. The example cited is a proverb. To weigh down the heart metaphorically means worrying about things burdens the heart and robs it of happiness. The speaker relates the abstract notion of anxiety with the physically down position. A downward position is always associated with a negative thing. It tends to go together with negative evaluation. To cheer up the heart metaphorically means lifting the heart up and inspire it with joy. The speaker relates the abstract notion of support with the physically up position. An upward position is always associated with a positive thing. It tends to go together with a positive evaluation. The proverb means that grief in the heart of a man brings him low, but a good word makes him glad. The cares of this world can weigh heavily on the heart and cause a person to despair or feel depressed. However, a kind word, a word of encouragement, can lift his drooping spirit and cheer him up. Anxious hearts are very heavy, but a word of encouragement does wonders. The example demonstrates that orientational metaphors have a big role in structuring our experience. Ontological Metaphor An ontological metaphor is a kind of metaphor in which something concrete is projected onto something abstract. That is, we confer entity status on abstract things such as emotions, activities, and ideas. An ontological metaphor is a metaphor that characterizes a non-physical object as a physical entity. Hence, one can refer to them, categorize them, group them and quantify them. Since the objects do not have boundaries, we set up artificial ones for them. In We need to combat inflation, the word inflation is treated as an entity, evoking the INFLATION IS AN ENTITY metaphor. The abstract concept of inflation is conceptualized as a physical entity. The property of the source domain of the entity is transferred to the target domain of inflation, and so helps to shape its structure. Linguistically, this metaphor can have several stylistic realizations such as Inflation is lowering our standard of living, Inflation is nibbling away at spending power, Inflation is the government’s main bugbear, and The government is determined to fight inflation. Inflation is currently running at 3%, and so on. One form of ontological metaphor is personification, where human qualities are given to non-human entities as in The theory explains everything.

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Ontological metaphor is important in literature as a mechanism of meaning construction. Consider the example below: (3)       

“Because I could not stop for Death, He kindly stopped for me, The carriage held but just ourselves, And Immortality.”

This is an example of an ontological metaphor. It is taken from the poem “Because I Could Not Stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson. The poet treats Death like a person, taking on the characteristics of a carriage driver. The stanza portrays the personification of death, in which Death visits the poem’s speaker and takes her on a carriage ride to the afterlife. The speaker had not necessarily planned to die, but Death made a stop to pick her up. It implies that the speaker was too busy living her life or too scared of Death’s approach. During the carriage ride, Death gives the speaker a chance to reflect on scenes of natural cycles of life. In addition to Death, immortality is personified as it was picked up by Death along the way to the speaker’s house. Death and Immortality are concepts, not people, but in the poem, Dickinson lends them human qualities by making them act like people by having them drive and/or ride in a carriage. The use of personification helps the readers connect with these complex ideas and makes them more approachable. Personification is useful because it makes big ideas easier to understand.

Metonymy Metonymy is a form of conceptual structure which involves mapping between two things within a single conceptual domain. In the mapping, the entity called the target is not called by its name, but by the name of the entity called the source with which it is associated. Metonymy is a conceptual shift from a conceptual entity, which serves as a reference point, to another conceptual entity. The reference point, the source, allows us to access another conceptual entity, the target. Typically, the source is more salient than the target. There is a contiguous relationship between the substituted entity and its referent. The purpose of the substitution is to depict the target in a way that makes it intelligible to human understanding. To exemplify this, consider an expression like The hospital is raising funds for new machines. This is a stylistic manifestation of a common metonymy, namely INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE. Here, the abstract domain of an institution is understood in terms of the concrete domain of people. The literal interpretation of the expression does not work because a place cannot raise funds. Such an interpretation results in an anomaly. The metonymic interpretation works quite well, where the word hospital refers to people. In everyday discourse practices, we normally refer to people by the place where they live or work. Metonymy can be divided into three frequently used types: relational, antonomastic, and conventional.

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Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target, within the same idealized cognitive model. Relational Metonymy Relational metonymy is a type of metonymy that holds between the constituents of an entity. In this metonymy, a part is used for a whole, or conversely a whole is used for a part. In this conceptual structure, the two things are related in such a way that either a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa. People usually take one easy-to-perceive aspect of something and use it to stand either for the thing as a whole or for the thing as a part. The function is to draw attention either to the part or to the whole. The expression She saw some new faces at the meeting is an example of a PART FOR WHOLE metonymy. In the example, the part, which is the face, stands for the whole, which is people. In processing the metonymy, we mentally access a whole (people) via the salient part (face). The expression I filled the car with petrol, is an example of a WHOLE FOR PART metonymy. In the example, the whole, which is the car, stands for the part, which is the tank. The car is the salient reference point by means of which we access the tank. In Cognitive Grammar, this is described as an active-zone discrepancy, in which the active zone of an entity is the part that participates most directly in a relationship. As is obvious, in metonymy one conceptual entity, which is the source, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, which is the target. Relational metonymy is important in literature as an instrument of meaning construction. Consider the example below: (4)  “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”

This is an example of relational metonymy. It is taken from the play Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare. The playwright uses the word ears to replace the concept of paying attention. This line cannot be read literally as the character is not asking those around him to physically hand over their ears. The character uses ears to refer to the act of listening. The character is asking the people present to listen to him attentively. The character wants to speak passionately to the people around him to convince them to agree with his point of view. Metonymy is similar to synecdoche. However, there is a subtle difference between them. Metonymy is formed by using something that is closely related in meaning to the original thing it refers to. In They showed loyalty to the Crown, the word crown, the related thing, substitutes for the Queen, the actual thing. The word crown is closely related to the word Queen. Synecdoche is formed by using a part of something to represent the whole or vice versa. In the phrase all hands on deck, the word hands refers to people. The word hands is a part of people.

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Antonomastic Metonymy Antonomastic metonymy is a type of metonymy in which a title is used in place of a proper name or a proper name is used in place of a title. In antonomasia, an epithet or a descriptive phrase is used in place of a proper name, as in The Bard of Avon for Shakespeare, The King of Pop for Michael Jackson, The Master of Suspense for Hitchcock, and so on. In some cases, a descriptive phrase is used instead of the name of a place, as in The City of Light for Paris, The Windy City for Chicago, The Eternal City for Rome, The Smoke for London, and so on. Conversely, a proper name is used as an archetype to express a personality trait, as in genius for Einstein, womanizer for Casanova, manipulator for Machiavelli, and so on. Examples of fictional characters are betrayer for Judas, handsome man for Adonis, lover for Romeo, and so on. Either way, using an antonomasia indicates that the person or the entity one is talking about shares the same attribute as the proper name referred to. In sum, antonomasia means to name differently. It serves to honor great deeds of people, highlight outstanding traits of people, mark attractive features of places, or underline undesirable attributes of things. Antonomastic metonymy is important in literature as a method of meaning construction. Consider the example below: (5)  “Wretched devil and bygone, vile insect.”

This is an example of antonomasia. It is taken from the novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley. In this line, Victor Frankenstein uses the descriptive phrase vile insect instead of the monster’s name. Frankenstein’s inability to give the monster a true name reflects his inability to accept his creation. The use of antonomasia emphasizes just how dangerous the monster is, as Frankenstein is too afraid to mention the true name. As is clear, a phrase, highlighting a negative aspect, takes the place of a proper name. In particular, the representing item usually has a close association with the represented item. Antonomasia is different from autonomasia. Antonomasia is the substitution of an epithet or title in place of a proper noun, or the use of a proper name to suggest its most obvious quality or aspect. By contrast, autonomasia is the use of a word of common or general signification for the name of a particular thing, as in He has gone to town for He has gone to London. Conventional Metonymy Conventional metonymy is a type of metonymy that is structured based on a body of knowledge that represents a culture’s conceptual system. The expression He drank the whole bottle is an example of a CONTAINER FOR CONTENT metonymy. The container which is the bottle represents the contained which is the liquid. It is the opposite of Give me water, which is an example of a CONTENT FOR CONTAINER metonymy. The content which is water represents the container which is the glass. The expression She feels seasick is an example of a CAUSE FOR EFFECT metonymy. The cause is the sea, whereas the effect is sickness. It is the

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opposite of She was shaking with anger, which is an example of an EFFECT FOR CAUSE metonymy. The effect is agitation, whereas the cause is anger. The expression He dusts the room is an example of an OBJECT FOR ACTION metonymy. The object dust replaces the action of dusting. The object dust serves as a reference point for accessing its job, dusting. It is the opposite of She had a bite, which is an example of an ACTION FOR OBJECT metonymy. The action of biting replaces the object. The expression The town showed up is an example of a PLACE FOR INHABITANTS metonymy. The word town, which refers to a place, is substituted for the word people, which refers to inhabitants. It is the opposite of The Swiss hosted the tennis tournament, which is an example of INHABITANTS FOR PLACE metonymy. The word the Swiss, which is the inhabitants is substituted for the word Switzerland, which is the place. The expression I finally got a Ford is an example of a PRODUCT FOR PRODUCER metonymy. The name of the producer Ford is used to stand for the name of the product the car. It is the opposite of She likes to read Shakespeare, which is an example of a PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT metonymy. The word Shakespeare is used instead of his works. Conventional metonymy is important in literature as a means of meaning construction. Consider the example below: (6)  “The pen is mightier than the sword.”

This is an example of conventional metonymy. The saying is coined by the English author Edward Bulwer-Lytton in 183. In this saying, the pen is used for writing, whereas the sword is used for fighting. The saying indicates that writing is more effective than fighting, namely the written word is a more effective tool for communication than violence. A pen can achieve a lot more than a sword does. Although the pen is smaller in size, it can achieve more things than a sword. The capability of writing is more significant than the power of fighting. The pen is an attribute of thoughts written down, while the sword is an attribute of acting with physical power. The saying implies that the power of writing is eternal while the power of the sword is temporary. In a nutshell, writers are more commanding than fighters. The art of writing is more significant than the sharpness of a sword. Writers invisibly exert a greater impact on people than conflicts. Writers have proven to be more powerful than mighty warriors. This is because the impact of writing remains forever, whereas that of fighting does not last forever. Ideas have a more significant impact than violence. In this type of metonymy, the representing item has a close association with the represented ones.

Image Schema An image schema is a form of conceptual structure. It is a mental pattern that facilitates understanding human experiences, encompassing perceptual, emotional, physical, and social aspects. It is a package in which conceptual knowledge based on

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experience is stored in background memory. It is the context on which someone depends to make sense of a situation. In the course of experiencing a situation, a schema is activated. The activation of a schema, namely the exact type of stored information, helps to make sense of the world. An image schema then is an organized unit of knowledge for a situation, based on a past experience and accessed to understand a new experience. Conversely, a new experience is processed in terms of and in relation to a previously encountered experience. Image schemas are important for writers and readers. They help writers to run their thoughts smoothly. They help readers to make sense of the text’s information and make inferences about aspects of a situation. Because schemas are mental representations, readers then respond differently to the same text, depending on their own experiences. Image schemas are powerful structures that help people organize their knowledge of the world and interpret new information. One of the most striking claims made by the cognitive approach to language is that experience is embodied. It registers in the body, brain, and mind. Embodied experiences give rise to image schemas within the conceptual system. Image schemas are the foundations of the conceptual system. They are abstract concepts consisting of patterns emerging from repeated instances of embodied experience. They are pre-linguistic structures that serve to shape the make-up of our linguistic expressions. They are patterns of pre-conceptual nature that enable us to mentally structure perceptions and events. They are cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information. They serve as shortcuts that offer a quick way to interpret the huge amount of information available in our environment. Image schemas are important in that they provide a concrete basis for metaphoric mappings. They structure the relationship that exists between the source and target domain of a metonymic mapping. So, they provide the semantic value of an expression. Three common image schemas can be distinguished: container, path, and scale. They contribute to the explanation of complex situations. Container Image Schema The container image schema is an image schema that involves a physical boundary or an enclosed area within which an entity is held. It consists of three parts: inside, outside, and border dividing the first from the second. The entity is either inside or outside the container. The container image schema is formed in the mind based on human body experiences, which constitute configurations of spatial perception. It is realized by the use of the prepositions in, into, out, out of, and out from. It defines the most basic distinction between IN and OUT. For example, inhaling air INTO the lungs or exhaling air OUT OF the lungs serve to show that the lungs serve as containers for air. The expression to be in love can be accounted for by the container image schema: love is seen as a container, while the person is described as being inside this container. The container schema image applies as the source domain to a number of target domains such as the visual field (in sight, out of sight), time (in two hours, in a little while), difficulty (get into difficulties, get out of difficulties), body

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(filled with anger, brimmed with rage), and personal relationships (trapped in a marriage, and get out of it). The container image schema is useful for organizing and comprehending experience. The container image schema is important in literature as an avenue of meaning construction. Consider the example below: (7)  “The second vice is lying, the first is running into debt.”

This is an example of a container image schema. It is a quote by Benjamin Franklin. In this schema, debt is a container, and the person is inside this container. Since it is a container, debt is conceptualized as having an interior, boundary, and exterior elements. The abstract concept of debt is understood by the fundamental concept of CONTAINER. The function of the spatial preposition into is containment: encompassing, locating, and limiting the activities of the contained entity. The schema shows how embodied human experience in the external world serves to structure more complex concepts. As the example reveals, a great number of everyday objects and experiences are categorized as specific instances of the schematic concept of containment. It includes not only obvious containers like a jug, a mug, and a tank but also states like love, health, and trouble. Also, the example demonstrates that the meanings of prepositions can be interpreted by means of image schemas, which embody bodily experiences. What the writer aims at is the fact that the bad habit of running into debt is considered a weakness of character or behavior. Path Image Schema The path image schema is an image schema that structures the concept of a journey, in which one moves physically along a linear path toward a destination. It consists of three components: source, path, and goal. The source is the starting point for motion. The path is the series of contiguous locations occupied by the moving object. The goal is the destination or endpoint of motion. By extension, the schema shapes our understanding of what constitutes a purposeful life like problems, actions, and solutions, or ambition, action, and achievement. The path image schema is formed in our mind based on human experiences like moving around the world from one location to another. Whenever we go, we depart from a starting point, make a journey, and in the end reach the goal. The path image schema constitutes an experiential Gestalt: it has internal structure but emerges as a coherent whole, as in She walked from the castle through the countryside to the mansion. People recruit the path image schema to make sense of life. It shapes our understanding of the purposive activity. The path image schema is important in literature as a strategy of meaning construction. Consider the example below: (8)  “Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.”

This is an example of a source-path-goal image schema. It is a quote by Benjamin Franklin. In this schema, the source is the beginning of the journey to health and

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success, the path is the way or the stages one has to go through before reaching the goal, and the goal is the end implying achievement. Literally, the schema designates a journey that has a beginning, middle, and end. By extension, it shapes our understanding of what constitutes a purposeful life, which has initial states (source), a sequence of intermediate stages (path), and a final state (destination). The expression promotes going to bed and waking up early as a contributor to success and health. It is said to emphasize that someone who gets enough sleep and starts work early in the day will have a successful life. Phrased differently, it means that sleeping well and not staying up late will help you out physically and financially. The path schema then is a conceptual representation that arises from embodied experience. The conceptual representations are prompted by constructions during language processing. The schema results from our experience of ourselves and other objects moving through space. Scale Image Schema A scale schema is a cognitive structure derived from interaction with and observation of the world. Physically, scale refers to the process of measuring the amount of something. Metaphorically, scale refers to the process of measuring the degree of something. Scale is an image schema in which an increase or decrease in one thing causes or correlates with an increase or decrease in another thing. The meaning of scale emerges from embodied experience. We can view the world around us either quantitatively or qualitatively. Concerning the first, we understand greater quantity in terms of increased height, and lesser quantity in terms of decreased height. Concerning the second, when we increase something, the level scales up where up corresponds to more. When we reduce something, the level scales down where down corresponds to less. As a pre-linguistic pattern of experience, scale then refers to a situation in which the two things compared vary together either upward or downward. Linguistically, scale can be expressed by means of the structures: more … more, less … less, more … less, less … more, adjectives in their comparative forms, or adjectives + er … more/less. To see how a scale image schema is built up in the mind, we need to analyze a proverb as an example: (9) “The more things change, the more they stay the same.”

The proverb in (9) is based on the scale image schema, which refers to the amount or degree of something. It is an organizing structure in human cognition that emerges from our bodily and social interaction with the environment. It is an experience of the world directly mediated and structured by the human body. In the proverb, the comparison involves things that change and things that stay the same. The two things compared vary together, using the structure the more … the more …. The proverb refers to a situation which witnesses a meaningful change, but many

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underlying fundamentals are still the same. The basics do not change all that much. Much of the change we see is superficial. Many things remain consistent even as changes happen. Turbulent changes do not affect reality on a deeper level other than cementing the status quo. The proverb is often said in a resigned or sarcastic tone. This image schema serves to show how human beings understand abstract phenomena in terms of concrete phenomena which pertain to sensory perception and physical embodiment.

Mental Spaces A mental space is a form of conceptual structure proposed by Fauconnier in the 1980s. A mental space is a knowledge pattern containing a specific kind of information that is constructed for interpretive purposes. It is a cognitive structure that we build up in our minds when we think and talk. It is a package of conceptual content set up to assist understanding and guide action on particular occasions. The construction of a mental space involves two spaces. One is the base space, while the other is the focus space. The base space serves to set up the discourse. The focus space is currently being added at the moment of speaking. The spaces are interrelated by the presence of space builders who serve as facilitators for setting up mappings between the spaces. For example, the word maybe in the expression Maybe she is in love with him is a space builder; it sets up a possibility space relative to the discourse base space at that point. As talk unfolds and thought proceeds, new mental spaces are formed relative to others. This gives rise to a mental spaces lattice. A mental space is built up dynamically in working memory, but it can become entrenched in long-term memory. It is an online procedure that counts on the interaction between textual information and the reader’s background knowledge. An often-cited example of mental spaces is the expression The girl with green eyes has blue eyes. In terms of its compositional meaning, the expression is a contradiction. Yet, we can easily make sense of the expression by assuming two mental spaces. Each mental space contains three entities: the girl, the eyes, and the eye color. In the mental space of reality, the girl has green eyes. In the mental space of the portrait, the girl has blue eyes. The girl in the two mental spaces is identical. The eyes in the two mental spaces are identical. The colors of the eyes in the two mental spaces do not correspond. Neither the mental spaces nor the correspondence relations between the spaces are overtly encoded in the expression. These aspects of the interpretation are beyond the scope of strict compositionality. That is, the meaning of a linguistic expression can go beyond the meanings that are contributed by its parts. Accordingly, mental spaces are partial conceptual constructs built up during discourse that keep track of entities and relations in different contexts. Mental spaces are used to explain a range of semantic phenomena mostly connected with reference and conditionality.

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Indefinite Reference Indefinite reference is made to an entity, but the identity of the referent is either not known or not relevant to the message being conveyed. It is a reference to a nonspecific entity. In indefinite reference, the indefinite article is used in front of a noun when referring to a non-specific entity. The indefinite article is a determiner and refers to an entity that the reader does not know and cannot identify. The indefinite article is the word a/an. For example, if I say that I want to buy a car, I don’t have a specific car in mind. I just need a car, and any car will do. It is worth noting that not all uses of the indefinite article involve indefinite reference. Some uses fall under generic reference, as in A dolphin is a friendly animal. A generic reference is used when referring to all the members of a class of animate or inanimate entities. Other uses are not reference at all, as in Daisy is a designer. The indefinite article typically marks new information, while the definite article marks given information. To see how indefinite reference is built up in the mind, we need to analyze an example based on a TV show: (10)  Jane wants to marry a millionaire.

This is an example of an indefinite reference. The noun phrase a millionaire is a phrase in which the noun is introduced by the indefinite article a. It merely designates an entity in some mental space. Here, we set up a wish space and a reality space. In the wish space, Jane marries a millionaire. In the reality space, the expression has two distinct interpretations. The first is called the specific interpretation. Here, a specific millionaire exists and Jane wants to marry him. The second is called the non-specific interpretation. Here, a specific millionaire does not exist. Jane merely has the desire to marry him. These interpretations may be distinguished by the manner in which the millionaire is referred to in subsequent discourse. On the specific interpretation, the millionaire can be referred to by personal pronouns like he or him, as in Jane wants to marry a millionaire. She met him at the Casino. On the non-specific interpretation, the millionaire can be referred to by indefinite pronouns like one, as in Jane wants to marry a millionaire. She hopes to meet one at the Casino. Definite Reference A definite reference is made to an entity, where the identity of the referent is known. That is, the reader can pick out the correct referent. A successful definite reference must contain enough information to allow the reader to exclude all potential referents except the correct one. It is a reference to something specific. In a definite reference, the definite article is used in front of a noun when referring to a specific entity. The definite article communicates the fact that the reader knows and can identify the specific entity. The definite article is the word the. The functions as a determiner and serves to indicate that the noun phrase it introduces refers to something that is uniquely identifiable in the shared knowledge of the writer and reader. For example,

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when the speaker says Let us meet at the Trafalgar Square, s/he uses the because there is only one Trafalgar Square. It is a specific place. To see how definite reference is built up in the mind, we need to analyze an example from politics: (11)  The minister changes every four years.

This is an example of a definite reference. The noun phrase the minister is a phrase in which the noun is introduced by the definite article the. The merely designates an entity in some mental space. The expression causes potential ambiguity. The expression contains a noun phrase with definite interpretation, but with an open reference. This means the noun phrase may or may not refer to a unique referent. The expression has, therefore, two interpretations. The first is that every four years the person who is minister changes in some way, either physiologically or psychologically. The second is that every four years the person who serves as minister changes. The two interpretations come about because of the possibility of setting up two mental spaces. One relates to value, while the other relates to the role. The value reading relates to the individual who is the minister. This mental space fits the first interpretation of the expression. The role reading relates to the position of the minister, regardless of who fills it. This mental space fits the second interpretation of the expression. Conditionality A conditional construction is a combination of the main clause and a subordinate clause introduced by if. It is used to show that the action in the main clause can only take place if a certain condition in the if-clause is fulfilled. There are three patterns of conditional constructions. The tenses play a big role in determining the meanings of the constructions. In the first pattern, the situation is real and the thing is possible to happen in the future. The tense in the if clause is simple present, whereas the tense in the main clause is will + infinitive, as in If I know the answer, I will pass the exam. In the second pattern, the situation is unreal and the thing is unlikely to happen. The tense in the if clause is simple past, whereas the tense in the main clause is would + infinitive, as in If I knew the answer, I would pass the exam. In the third pattern, the situation is imaginary and the thing is impossible to happen. The tense in the if clause is past perfect, whereas the tense in the main clause is would + have + past participle, as in If I had known the answer, I would have passed the exam. To see how a conditional space is built up in the mind, we need to analyze an example from everyday language: (12)  If I had money, I would buy a car.

This is an example of a conditional construction. It blends two mental spaces: real and unreal. The subordinate clause introduced by if represents the non-fact with its verb in the past tense. The main clause is the imaginary consequence of the if-clause with the modal verb would. The subordinator if is a mental space builder that evokes

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reference to a hypothetical condition. If serves to display the contrast between the real situation where the speaker had no money to buy a car, and the unreal situation where the speaker does not have money now, so he will not buy the car. The sentence entails that the speaker could not buy a car. This example demonstrates a case of incompatibility between the two spaces: the reality space from the hypothetical space. No correspondences exist between the elements within the two spaces. This shows that conceptualization can be realistic and imaginative. It can be a reflection of either a real situation derived from immediate bodily experiences or an unreal situation established by such devices as mental space constructions.

Blending The blending theory or conceptual integration is a form of conceptual structure brought to prominence by Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner in the 1990s. The blending theory makes use of metaphorical mappings and mental spaces. Blending is a cognitive operation in which two mental spaces are blended to create a new space; that is, two ideas are combined to create a new meaning. The two spaces, known as input spaces, represent relevant aspects of the concepts being combined. They correspond to the source and target domains of conceptual metaphor. The created space, known as the blend, is the result of the interaction of the input spaces. The blend has an emergent meaning of its own that is not contained in either of the inputs. The blend is created as a new and independent space with its internal configuration. The blend takes information from both inputs but goes further in providing additional information that cannot be attributed to either of its inputs. The input spaces come from discrete cognitive domains. There is also a generic space, which facilitates the identification of counterparts in the input spaces, and so serves as a basis for shared information. An often-cited example of blending is the expression That surgeon is a butcher. In this expression, there are two input spaces, the surgeon and the butcher. In the generic space, the speaker identifies the surgeon with the butcher. The blended space links features from the input spaces to create a new blend. The emergent feature of the blend is that the surgeon in question is incompetent, although this feature is not revealed in any of the input spaces because it is not characteristic of surgeons or butchers. This emergent feature of incompetence represents the additional meaning provided by the blend. The incompetence is inferred by comparing the surgeon operating on a human body with a butcher tackling a carcass. By conceptualizing a surgeon as a butcher, we are evaluating the surgeon as incompetent. This example is metaphorical, yet it cannot be accounted for by the Conceptual Metaphor Theory. This is so because the negative evaluation cannot be derived from the source domain butcher as butchery is a highly skilled profession. Blending is used in a variety of linguistic processes, covering a wide range of cognitive phenomena from the formation of morphological structures to the creation of grammatical constructions.

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Morphological Blends In the area of morphology, blends are represented by word formation. A word blend is formed by combining two separate words with different meanings to form a new one. The word blend is often coined to describe a new invention or a cultural phenomenon. This proves that English is a dynamic language that is constantly evolving. Morphological blends can be understood as a special kind of compounds, including in particular nominal compounds based on adjectives plus nouns or nouns plus nouns combinations. Word blends can be formed from traits of two existing words in different ways: (i) by combining morphemes of two other words to make a new one, as in brunch (breakfast + lunch); (ii) by joining a full word with a portion of another word, as in motorcade (motor + cavalcade); (iii) by adding the first syllable of a word to another word, as in Eurasia (Europe + Asia); and (iv) by combining similar-sounding phonemes of two words, as in Spanglish (Spanish + English). Let us check an example from the literature to see how and why morphological blends are conducted. (13)  “Not every disabled person uses a wheelchair. Not all disabilities are visible.”

This is an example of a morphological blend. In this saying, the word wheelchair is morphologically composed of the two input spaces wheel and chair. Semantically, certain core information from the input spaces is projected into the blended space wheelchair. The additional meaning, which goes beyond the meanings inherent in the two input spaces, is that of hospital or invalid or both. This and other blends have been so deeply established or permanently entrenched in the mental store that the language user no longer recognizes the blending background. Other examples include camcorder (camera + recorder), motel (motor + hotel), hi-tec (high + technology), heliport (helicopter + airport), workfare (work + welfare), and so on. The examples show that a word blend is formed by combining two separate words with different meanings to form a new one. That is, there are two meanings packed up into one word with a new meaning. The new word is created to describe cultural and technological trends. Word blends are popular because they allow us to condense language. Grammatical Blends In the area of grammar, blends are represented by proverbs. A proverb is a brief popular statement that tells a truth, offers advice, or presents a moral. A proverb is a gem of wisdom coined to impart practical knowledge to people. Through the use of a short proverb, it is often easier to express an idea better and more convincingly than with a long speech. As a grammatical blend, a proverb undergoes a process of conceptual composition of material from two input spaces into a blended space. That is, structure from two input spaces is projected to a new space, named the blend. The blend inherits partial structure from the input spaces, but it has an emergent structure of its own. The interpretation of the blend is larger than the semantics

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conventionally associated with its parts. That is, the interpretation is much more complex than the explicit instructions provided by grammar. Let us check an example from the literature to see how and why grammatical blends are carried out: (14)  “Children are a poor men’s riches.”

This is an example of a grammatical blend. The proverb contains two input spaces. One input space contains the elements of rich men and riches. The other input space contains the elements of poor men and children. The generic space contains the schematic information about men and possessions and sets up cross-space connections between counterparts in the input spaces. In the blend, certain elements from the input spaces are integrated into the blended space and result in an emergent structure. In neither of the input spaces does there exist a connection between the children of poor men and the riches of rich men. The proverb means that unlike a rich man who relies on his wealth a poor man finds wealth through his children. They bring him joy. They support him in old age. They are his legacy. They carry on his name. The proverb can be rephrased as Children are the richness of the poor. As is seen, grammatical blending involves the integration of conceptual elements from mental spaces to construct meaning and express an idea in the most significant way. Counterfactuality Counterfactuals are sentences that describe events or situations that are contrary to fact, hence factually false. It is a mode of thought that concerns what is not, but could or would have been. It involves the human tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred; something that is contrary to what happened. The speaker can imagine how things could have turned out differently if the antecedents that led to the event were different. Counterfactual thinking explores outcomes that did not occur, but which could have occurred under different conditions. Speakers tend to use counterfactuals when they assign blame to actions that may have caused events, when they think creatively to solve problems, or when they imagine how outcomes might have been better if events are changed. In brief, speakers depend heavily on the capacity of counterfactual thought, as it is a useful way for testing or identifying cause-and-effect relationships in the study of events. To see how a counterfactual is built up in the mind, we need to analyze an example from sports: (15)  In England, the foul would not have penalized a German player.

In this example, the blend consists of four mental spaces. This includes two input spaces. One input space relates to England where the foul in football against an opponent is not penalizable. This is a counterfactual space where an unnamed player commits a foul, which is not penalized. The reason is that in England the football refereeing system is different. The other input space relates to Germany where the foul in football against an opponent is penalizable. This is a reality space, where the foul is punishable. The third space is a generic space that represents what is

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common to the two input spaces, that is, a foul in sports. The fourth space is the blended space which represents the emergent structure into which elements from the input spaces are projected. This includes the fact that in England the player’s foul is evaluated as unpunishable. This new blend is contrary to fact concerning both of its input spaces. It is intended to highlight some differences between the English and German football refereeing. The emergent meaning in the new blend is not present in either of the input spaces.

Summary In this chapter, I have applied the theory of experientialism to the characterization of expressions. Expressions are shaped by conceptual structures, which are grounded in human experience. Five important forms of conceptual structure, which serve to construct meaning, have been identified. They are omnipresent and indispensable in everyday discourse. They indicate how mental activities take place. They are so important because they allow language users to conceptualize experiences, create new expressions, and account for their interpretations. Metaphor is a conceptual structure in which one domain, the source, is employed to describe another domain, the target, with which it shares some characteristics. Metonymy is a conceptual structure in which one element, the source, is employed to identify another element, the target, with which it is associated within the same domain. Image schema is a conceptual structure that arises directly from our physical and perceptual interaction with and observation of the world. Mental space is a mental structure in which an element in one mental space is linked to its counterpart in another based on co-reference or identity. Blending is a conceptual structure in which selected elements from input spaces are integrated to create a novel space, the blend. A revision of the aforementioned material leads to some crucial conclusions concerning linguistic meaning: 1. Language interfaces with the conceptual system in the course of meaning construction. In the conceptual system, there exist conceptual structures. These are knowledge representations that are grounded in human experiences. They provide the conceptual content for linguistic structure. Therefore, linguistic structure encodes and parallels conceptual structure. 2. The meaning of an expression arises from a cognitive structure that is unavailable in its linguistic form. It ensues from a series of cognitive processes. These processes mediate between the world of concepts and their linguistic realizations in language. The cognitive processes include metaphor, metonymy, image schema, mental spaces, and blending. 3. Meaning is experientially based. It is concerned with experience and observation. It is grounded in our everyday interaction in the environments where we live, learn, and work. The meaning of an expression arises out of the physical and social interaction with the world. This shows that concepts originate in experience and all knowledge is derived from sense experience (Table 7.2).

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138 Table 7.2  Forms of conceptual structure Conceptual structure Metaphor

Metonymy

Image schema

Mental space

Blending

Types Structural Orientational Ontological Relational Autonomastic Conventional Container Path Scale Indefinite Definite Conditionality Morphological Grammatical Counterfactuality

Examples He won the argument. Prices keep going up. They combat inflation. She met new faces at the meeting. The Bard of Avon wrote the poem. My old car broke down yesterday. They are deeply in love. She walked from A through B to C. The more the merrier. She wants to buy a book. The envoy changes every four years. If I studied, I would pass the exam. transistor (transfer + resistor) Money is the root of all evil. If I were your father, I’d smack you.

Study Questions 1. Show how the ontological metaphor in each of the following sentences treats the abstract concept: “The play’s the thing wherein I’ll catch the conscience of the king.”—“Hamlet” by William Shakespeare “Honour has come back, as a king, to earth, And paid his subjects with a royal wage; And Nobleness walks in our ways again; And we have come into our heritage.”—“The Dead” by Rupert Brooke

2. Give example sentences of ordinary language in English for the structural metaphors listed below: IDEAS ARE OBJECTS TIME IS MOTION

3. Identify the orientational metaphor that each of the following everyday linguistic expressions manifests: He woke up to find himself alone in the house. The patient has once more sunk into a coma.

4. The following are examples of relational metonymy. Show how each stands for a different type of metonymy: The kettle is boiling. I was lost in a sea of nameless faces.

5. Antonomastic metonymy involves the use of a title in place of a proper name or vice versa. Explain using the examples below: (continued)

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(continued) The Bard of Avon is known all over the world. The City of Light is attractive.

6. Give example sentences of ordinary language in English in which the conventional metonymies below are linguistically realized: PLACE FOR INHABITANTS INHABITANTS FOR PLACE

7. Identify the image schemas that serve as source domains to describe abstract entities in the following sentences: “Everybody has that point in their life where you hit a crossroads.”—Taylor Swift “You only grow by coming to the end of something and by beginning something else.”—“The World According to Garp” by John Irving

8. Using the theory of mental spaces, explain the referential opacity in each of the following underlined items: In the film, Catherine is a psycho. In 1985, my wife was a sportswoman.

9. Discuss the conceptual blends in each of the following morphological expressions: motel    brunch    moped

10. Discuss the conceptual blends in each of the following grammatical constructions, realized as proverbs: “Necessity is the mother of invention.” “Speech is the mirror of the mind.”

Further Reading The cognitive theory of metaphor is elaborated in Lakoff (2006), Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Kövecses (2010), Gibbs (2015), Grady (2007), and Sullivan (2017). Metonymy as a cognitive phenomenon is discussed in Croft (2006), Barcelona (2015), Dirven and Pörings (2002), Littlemore (2017), and Panther and Thornburg (2007). The issue of image schemas is discussed in Clausner and Croft (1999), Gibbs and Colston (2006), Hampe (2005), Johnson (1987), and Oakly (2007). The theory of mental spaces is outlined in Birdsell (2014), Dancygier and Sweetser (2005), Fauconnier (2007), Fauconnier and Sweetser (1996), and Fauconnier and Turner (2006). The concept of blending is addressed in Coulson (2000), Fauconnier and Turner (2002), Gibbs (2000), Oakley and Pascual (2017), and Turner (2015).

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References Barcelona, Antonio. 2015. Metonymy. In Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Ewa Dabrowska and Dagmar Divjak, 143–166. Mouton de Gruyter. Birdsell, Brian. 2014. Fauconnier’s Theory of Mental Spaces and Conceptual Blending. In The Bloomsbury Companion to Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Jeannette Littlemore and John Taylor, 72–90. Bloomsbury Publishing. Clausner, Timothy, and William Croft. 1999. Domains and image schemas. Cognitive Linguistics 10 (1): 1–31. Coulson, Seana. 2000. Semantic Leaps: Frame-Shifting and Conceptual Blending in Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Croft, William. 2006. Metonymy: The Role of Domains in the Interpretation of Metaphors and Metonymies. In Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings, ed. Dirk Geeraerts, 269–302. Mouton de Gruyter. Dancygier, Barbara, and Eve Sweetser. 2005. Mental Spaces in Grammar: Conditional Constructions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dirven, René, and Ralf Pörings. 2002. Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and Contrast. Berlin: Gruyter. Fauconnier, Gilles. 2007. Mental Spaces. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Dirk Geeraerts and Hubert Cuyckens, 351–376. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fauconnier, Gilles, and Eve Sweetser. 1996. Spaces, Worlds and Grammar. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fauconnier, Gilles, and Mark Turner. 2002. The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. New York: Basic Books. ———. 2006. Mental Spaces: Conceptual Integration Networks. In Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings, ed. Dirk Geeraerts, 303–372. Mouton de Gruyter. Gibbs, Raymond. 2000. Making Good Psychology Out of Blending Theory. Cognitive Linguistics 11: 347–358. ———. 2015. Metaphor. In Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Ewa Dabrowska and Dagmar Divjak, 167–189. Mouton de Gruyter. Gibbs, Raymond, and Herbert Colston. 2006. Image Schema: The Cognitive Psychological Reality of Image Schemas and Their Transformations. In Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings, ed. Dirk Geeraerts, 239–268. Mouton de Gruyter. Grady, Joseph. 2007. Metaphor. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Dirk Geeraerts and Hubert Cuyckens, 188–213. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hampe, Beate, ed. 2005. From Perception to Meaning: Image Schemas in Cognitive Linguistics. Berlin: Gruyter. Johnson, Mark. 1987. The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination and Reason. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Kövecses, Zoltan. 2010. Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lakoff, George. 2006. Conceptual Metaphor: The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor. In Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings, ed. Dirk Geeraerts, 185–238. Mouton de Gruyter. Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Littlemore, Jeanette. 2017. Metonymy. In The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Barbara Dancygier, 407–422. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oakly, Todd. 2007. Image Schemas. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Dirk Geeraerts and Hubert Cuyckens, 214–235. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oakley, Todd, and Esther Pascual. 2017. Conceptual blending theory. In The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Barbara Dancygier, 423–448. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Panther, Klaus-Uwe, and Linda L.  Thornburg. 2007. Metonymy. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Dirk Geeraerts and Hubert Cuyckens, 236–263. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sullivan, Karen. 2017. Conceptual metaphor. In The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Barbrar Dancygier, 385–406. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Turner, Mark. 2015. Blending in Language and Communication. In Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Ewa Dabrowska and Dagmar Divjak, 211–231. Mouton de Gruyter.

Chapter 8

The Conceptualization Theory

Key Objectives • Show that cognition precedes language. Cognition includes processes of thought. Language provides ways of expression. • Examine the role of construal as a basic human cognitive ability to conceive and express a situation in multiple ways. • Enumerate the dimensions of construal and pin down their representative linguistic forms in text analysis.

Introduction In the traditional era, the issue of meaning was tackled by the Reference Theory. According to this theory, meaning is regarded as objective in nature. The meaning of an expression resides in the relationship between the expression and aspects of an objective world. This theory has given rise to a more sophisticated version, referred to as truth-conditional theory. Truth-conditional theory, which is adopted in Formal Linguistics, is an approach to language that sees the meaning of an expression as being the same as, or reducible to, its truth conditions. The meaning of an expression is identified with the conditions in the world under which it is true or false. Applying this theory to the present topic shows that it has some limitations. First, it thus excludes non-propositional meaning, including descriptive, expressive, and social content. Second, it considers expressions occurring in the same position, synonymous, which can be used interchangeably with no difference in meaning. Third, it leaves abstract entities which have no truth conditions outside the scope of the investigation. In response to this theory, in Cognitive Stylistics the meaning of an expression is describable in terms of conceptualization: the mental act of

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construing a situation in alternate ways. Construal is the way the content of an expression is conceptualized.

The Construal Theory The theory of construal was formulated by Langacker in the 1980s. At the crux of Cognitive stylistics is the focus on context: the linguistic and extra-linguistic circumstances that surround an expression or a situation and in terms of which it can be fully understood. In tune with a Cognitive Grammar conception, Cognitive Stylistics considers meaning as a social phenomenon that influences and is influenced by the context in which it is embedded. Style differences or linguistic choices made by the writer are guided by contextual information and communicative intention. A single expression can have different meanings depending on the particular context of use. The expression killer can mean “a person who kills another person” when used in the context of someone who is a mindless killer. Alternatively, a killer can mean “something used to relieve something” when used in the context of medicine that reduces pain. Two similar-looking expressions can be differentiated relative to context. Each expression has an interpretation that fits a particular context. The expression wound means harm or damage as a result of intentional action. It is caused by a weapon, as in The victim suffered a severe stab wound. The expression injury means harm or damage as a result of an accident. It is caused by a crash, as in The train passenger sustained a serious injury in the crash. The examples underline the role of context in providing an expression with a semantic value.

Essence The basic insight of the construal theory is that the meaning of an expression is the function of both conceptual content and construal. Conceptual content is the property inherent in a situation. It is the meaning that is conventionally associated with an expression. Construal is the way the content is conceived relative to the communicative needs. The writer can conceptualize a situation differently and use different expressions to represent them in discourse. When two expressions share the same conceptual content, they differ semantically in terms of the alternate ways the writer construes their common content. Each alternative encodes a distinct meaning. Each alternative serves to highlight a different aspect of the content. Each alternative is realized in language differently. The expressions jealous and envious mean feeling unhappy about the advantage one has. Nevertheless, they construe the situation differently. Jealous means feeling hostile toward someone who enjoys an advantage. Envious means wishing to have the advantage that someone else has. Construal is then a matter of how a situation is conceptualized and how it is linguistically encoded.

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Premises 1. A semantic structure includes both conceptual content and a particular way of construing that content. Two expressions may invoke the same conceptual content, yet differ by virtue of the construals they represent. They are not synonymous. Each expression corresponds to a distinct meaning. The choice of each expression correlates with the particular construal imposed on the same situation. The verb forget can be followed by to-infinitive and -ing gerund, but they are different in construal. In He forgot to lock the door, the speaker speaks about something that someone did not do. In He forgot locking the door, the speaker speaks about something that someone did. 2. A difference in form always indicates a difference in meaning. Lexical or grammatical variation is not free. Variants usually display subtle differences in meaning or unequal functions in discourse, which can be observed in certain contexts. Alternation in a language is not random. Pairs of expressions are neither identical in meaning nor equal in use. According to the Principle of Contrast, every two forms contrast in meaning. The adjective concerned can be used before and after a noun, but in each, the scene is construed differently. The concerned parents means parents who are worried. The parents concerned means parents who are involved or mentioned.

Advantages 1. The construal theory annuls the theory of synonymy in language, a phenomenon whereby pairs of expressions are assumed to have similar meanings. Although pairs of expressions may share some features, they are still distinguishable in actual use. Pairs of expressions may be truth-conditionally similar, but they are subtly different. The expression I say what I mean expresses an opinion. It is used to mean I speak directly, frankly and openly. In contrast, the expression I mean what I say expresses a threat or a warning. It is used to mean I will follow through on what I say I will do 2. The construal approach allows the writer to conceptualize and express a situation in alternate ways, which result in different linguistic manifestations. Differences between pairs of expressions can be explained by the different construals imposed on their common content. The specific form of an expression reflects the particular way in which the speaker chooses to describe the situation or scene. The expression Are you up to it? is used to imply Are you physically able to do it? In contrast, the expression Are you up for it? is used to imply Do you want to do it?, or Are you willing to do it (Table 8.1)?

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Table 8.1  Reference theory versus construal theory Reference theory 1. Meaning is defined in terms of the conditions in the real world under which an expression is used to make a true statement. 2. Meaning is described via complex formalisms inspired by work in mathematics, computer science, or logic. 3. Meaning equals denotation, referring to objects in the external world.

Construal theory 1. Meaning is defined in terms of the use of the construal imposed by the writer on the conceptual content of a given situation or scene. 2. Meaning is described by means of construal dimensions imposed conceptual content of a situation. 3. Meaning equals connotation, referring to ideas in the internal world.

Dimensions of Construal As mentioned earlier, construal is a multifaceted phenomenon, consisting of various dimensions. These dimensions reflect human basic cognitive abilities and capture the experiential aspects of meaning. Langacker (1991, p. ix) points out: “There are many different ways to construe a given body of content, and each construal represents a distinct meaning; this is my intent in saying that an expression imposes a particular image on the content it evokes.” The semantic value of expressions then resides in the dimensions of construal imposed on their content. These expressions are, as Langacker (1987, p. 98) claims, the linguistic realizations of the speakers’ conceptualizations. An example is the dimension of specificity: the level of detail included in describing a scene. Following Langacker (2013, p. 55), one can describe the temperature in different ways. With less specificity, one can say it is hot, with more specificity it is about 45 degrees, or with greater specificity, it is exactly 50 degrees. In describing a situation, the speaker selects a particular dimension from a range of alternatives to structure its conceptual content. Expressions which evoke the same conceptual content can, nonetheless, be semantically distinct because they construe that content in alternate ways. In what follows, I provide a full account of the construal operations and the dimensions of which they consist.

Prominence The first construal accountable for stylistic variation is prominence, the quality of eminence conferred, often in different degrees, on the substructures of an expression relative to their importance. Describing a situation often involves making one part more prominent than another depending on the plans of the speaker and the needs of discourse. Linguistically, the substructures of the expression are placed in different positions. When two or more expressions evoke the same content, they differ semantically by the construal they impose on the base and the choice of a substructure as the most or second most important participant. The semantic contrast between them is not a matter of conceptual content, but rather one of

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prominence. Three dimensions of prominence govern stylistic variation. These are profiling, trajector-landmark alignment, and salience. By describing a situation in a specific way and imposing on it a specific linguistic structure, each dimension proves essential for justifying stylistic variation. There exist three dimensions of prominence which justify stylistic variation. They are profiling, trajector-landmark alignment, and salience.

Profiling The first dimension of prominence pertains to the speaker’s ability to select a substructure within a base, which derives the semantic value of an expression. The base is the array of conceptual content that an expression draws on for its meaning. Within its base, every expression singles out a substructure that functions as the focal point of attention and receives the highest degree of prominence. This substructure, the profile, is the one that the expression designates. Linguistically, it is most likely placed in the subject position. Semantically, it is held responsible for triggering the action or reaction expressed by the expression. To illustrate this, consider some examples in which different entities are profiled, and so occupy the subject position. In Lesley opened the tin easily with a tin-opener, the success of the action is attributed to the person who does the opening. In The tin opens easily, the success of the action is inherent in the nature of the tin, which is airtight. In The tin-­ opener opens the tin easily, the success of the action is intrinsic to the nature of the utensil, which is electric. One case in which profiling is at work relates to the syntactic phenomenon of raising: the process that allows a constituent to be raised from a subordinate clause into a main clause. Look at the following expressions in which different parts are in profile relative to the importance ascribed to their roles. Linguistically, the profiled substructure is placed in the subject position. Semantically, it is held responsible for bringing about the action expressed in the main event or the emotion denoted by the predicate: (1) a. To live forever isn’t the goal. b. “The goal isn’t to live forever, the goal is to create something that will.”

The expressions in (1) represent the syntactic phenomenon of raising. The expression in (1a), which is a rephrasing of (1a), is non-raised, an expression in which the whole complement clause functions as the subject of the main verb. The excerpt in (1b), taken from the novel Diary by Chuck Palahniuk, is raised, an expression in which a nominal argument is moved out of the complement clause and functions as the subject of the main verb. The two expressions share the same conceptual content, but they represent different construals. They represent the speaker’s choice to express what is most prominent depending on the communicative needs. In the (1a) variant, there is the absence of a particular candidate for profiling. Instead, the whole complement clause, to live forever, is in profile, and so located in

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the subject position. Semantically, it is held responsible for triggering the evaluative attitude toward the experience. In the (1b) variant, the object or the most salient participant in the complement clause, the goal, is singled out for designation. It is in profile, and so placed in the subject position. Semantically, it is held responsible for triggering the evaluative attitude. Another case in which profiling is at work relates to the syntactic phenomenon of dislocation: the process that puts a constituent out of its normal position in an expression, leaving a pronoun in place of the shifted constituent. Inspect the following expressions in which a particular constituent is transposed from its normal position to another position for a special communicative purpose: (2) I like Julie. a. Julie, I like her. b. I like her, Julie.

The expressions in (2) represent the syntactic phenomenon of dislocation. In (2a), the expression contains left dislocation, an expression in which a noun phrase occurs to the left of its normal position in an expression and its canonical position is filled by a pronoun or a full lexical noun phrase with the same reference. In this example, the word Julie is a left dislocation. In (2b), the expression contains right dislocation, an expression in which a noun phrase occurs to the right of its normal position in an expression and its canonical position is filled by a pronoun with the same reference. In this example, the word Julie is a right dislocation. The two expressions are not random stylistic variations. Each variation represents a different construal. In the (2a) variant, the speaker places Julie in profile, by transposing it from its position as a direct object to the front position as the subject for extra prominence. In the (2b) variant, the speaker relegates the substructure Julie. It is used to refer anaphorically to the pronoun her. This shows that there are many ways in which writers can present information to readers by using different word orders and sentence patterns to highlight different aspects of meaning.

Trajector-Landmark Alignment The second dimension of prominence pertains to the speaker’s ability to confer different degrees of prominence on the participants in a profiled relationship. One participant, termed the trajector, is analyzed as the primary figure within the profiled relationship. It is the most prominent participant. It is the entity construed as being located, evaluated, or described. It is often associated with the function of the subject. The other participant, termed the landmark, is analyzed as the secondary figure. It is often associated with the function of the object. The notions of trajector and landmark are very close to Talmy’s notions of figure and ground. The figure within a scene is the substructure that stands out from the ground and is accorded special prominence as the pivotal entity around which the scene is organized and for which it provides a setting. Figure/ground organization is not determined

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automatically for a given scene. The same scene can be described with alternate choices of the figure. One case in which trajector-landmark alignment is at work pertains to the syntactic phenomenon of spatial contiguity: relating to space and the positions in which the things in it occupy. Consider the following expressions in which a spatial relationship is described. In each expression, a different substructure is accorded special prominence. Linguistically, the substructure is placed in the subject position: (3) “If you are not afraid of the voices inside you, you will not fear the critics outside you.”

The excerpt in (3), taken from Writing Down the Bones by Natalie Goldberg, is based on a pattern of spatiality, in which the linguistic variation results from the spatial variation between the objects. In “the voices inside you,” the word voices acts as the subject and you as the object. In “the critics outside you,” the word critics acts as the subject and you as the object. The two expressions describe the same relationship, but they differ in meaning because they make different choices of trajector and landmark. The two expressions designate the same state of affairs but from different perspectives. The stylistic variant “the voices inside you” describes a spatial relationship between the two entities voices and you, where the word voices functions as the trajector, and so is accorded greater prominence while the word you functions as the landmark, and so is accorded less prominence. The stylistic variant “the critics outside you” describes a spatial relationship between the two entities critics and you, where the word critics functions as the trajector, and so is accorded greater prominence while the word you functions as the landmark, and so is accorded less prominence. In both, you functions only as a reference point. Another case in which trajector-landmark alignment is at work pertains to the syntactic phenomenon of temporal contiguity: relating to time and the sequence in which the events follow. Scrutinize the following expressions in which a temporal relationship is described. In each version, a different participant in the expression is accorded special prominence relative to communicative demands. Linguistically, the participant is placed in the subject position. (4) “The whole difference between construction and creation is exactly this: that a thing constructed can only be loved after it is constructed; but a thing created is loved before it exists.”

The excerpt in (4), by Charles Dickens, is based on a pattern of temporality, in which the linguistic differentiation results from the temporal differentiation between the events. In “a thing constructed can only be loved after it is constructed,” the expression contains after. In “a thing created is loved before it exists,” the expression contains before. The two expressions describe the same relationship, but they differ in meaning because they make different choices of trajector and landmark. In these expressions, before and after profile a relationship of temporal precedence between two events. In the (4a) version, the word a thing constructed is interpreted as the thing being located. It acts as the trajector of the expression and hence is coded as the subject. In the (4b) version, the word a thing created is interpreted as

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the thing being located. It acts as the trajector of the expression and hence is coded as the subject. The expressions show that trajector and landmark are defined in terms of primary and secondary focal prominence, not in terms of any specific semantic role or conceptual content.

Salience The third dimension of prominence pertains to the speaker’s ability to make salient a particular substructure within an expression. Salience is the quality of a substructure of a conception as being more significant and noticeable than the rest. As its base, an expression evokes a particular conception within which it designates some substructures by placing them on stage for prominence. These substructures are accorded the special quality of being noticeable, obvious, and conspicuous. Salience is then a mental operation that allows the speaker to give the substructures of an expression some degrees of significance, notability, and eminence. However, to describe these participants optimally and show that they differ in the degree of salience they receive, another mental operation is required. This mental operation is called initial salience, referring to the substructure within a scene which attracts attention more than others. Linguistically, the substructure, standing out from the ground, is placed in a certain position in the expression relative to its importance in the discourse. The case in which salience is functional relates to the syntactic phenomenon of ditransitivity: a pattern in which a verb takes two objects where one is called the indirect object while the other is called the direct object. Study the following expressions which have two entities in profile. In each expression, one entity is construed as initially salient, whereas another is construed as secondarily salient by the speaker: (5) a. “Ask me no questions, I’ll tell you no lies.” b. Ask no questions of me, I’ll tell no lies to you.

The verbs ask and tell in (5) are ditransitive, taking two objects. In the excerpt in (5a), taken from She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith, the two objects are indirect and direct objects. It is called a double object construction. In (5b), a rephrasing of the first, the expression contains two objects: a direct object and an indirect object which is preceded by a preposition. It is called a prepositional dative construction. The two expressions share the same conceptual content, but each expression symbolizes a different structuring of the content, with the grammatical morphemes contributing semantically to the expression. In (5a), it is the indirect objects me and you which are initially salient. In (5b), it is the direct object questions, and lies that are initially salient. Therefore, the two expressions embody different meanings. Only the first implies that the addressee has received questions. This is reflected by the structure of each expression. In (5a), the nouns me and questions and you and lies are juxtaposed. In (5b), the nouns are intercepted by the presence of the prepositions of and to.

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Focusing The second construal responsible for stylistic variation explores focusing, where an entity is made the center of focus or given special attention owing to its importance. In communication, the speaker chooses to present a conceptual representation in a particular way. This is achieved by making one or the other entity the hub or the central part of the overall relationship. This in turn has consequences for the conceptual representation that the expression evokes in the mind of the hearer. Two expressions could be used to describe the same situation, but they are different by highlighting different aspects of it through alternate choices of focus. Each expression conventionally encodes a distinct construal. Each has a distinct meaning. This means that we can access particular portions of our conceptual universe through expressions. Two dimensions of focusing that trigger stylistic variation are foreground-­ background and scope.

Foreground-Background The first dimension of focusing relates to the speaker’s ability to highlight a particular participant in an expression at the expense of the rest. Any act of perception appears to foreground some portion of a given perceptual scene (the figure) and background the rest (the ground). Attention is focused on the foregrounded entity, which consequently becomes more fully present to consciousness than the backgrounded one. Foregrounding is the act of making an entity important so that people can pay special attention to it. In an act of communication, speakers assume that some information is more important than other information. The information which is new or considered more important is foregrounded. The information which is given or considered less important is backgrounded. Foregrounding thus allows important information in an expression to be highlighted. Backgrounding is the act of making an entity less important by giving it less attention. The foregrounded part of an expression is called the focus. The first case in which foreground-background works pertains to the syntactic phenomenon of clefting: the process of splitting an expression to put the focus on one part of it. Clefting is expressed by the two linguistic devices it and what. Look at the following expressions which are divided into two parts. One part is foregrounded, while the other is backgrounded: (6) a. “It is our choices that show what we truly are, far more than our abilities.” b. “What I need is the dandelion in the spring.”

The expressions in (6) represent the phenomenon of clefting, an expression divided into two parts, each with its verb, to emphasize a particular piece of information. The excerpt in (6a), taken from Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets by

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J.K. Rowling, begins with it plus a form of the verb be, followed by the focused element, and the rest introduced by a relative pronoun, relative determiner, or relative adverb. The excerpt in (6b), taken from the science fiction novel Mockingjay by Suzanne Collins, begins with wh-word, usually what, plus a form of the verb be, followed by a noun phrase and the focused element. The two expressions have different word orders, and so different communicative messages to convey. The variants affect the distribution of focus on the substructures within the expression. The expression introduced by it is used to foreground the element choices, and background the rest of the clause. The discourse function of it-cleft marks contrastive focus: it is choices, not another thing. The expression is introduced by what is used to foreground the element dandelion. The discourse function of wh-cleft suggests inclusiveness: it’s ONLY a dandelion, nothing else. The second case in which foreground-background works relates to the syntactic phenomenon of voice: the grammatical category which involves the choice between active and passive forms of the verb phrase. It is the relationship between a verb and the noun phrases which are associated with it. In the following expressions, each time a different participant assumes importance and receives attention. In Cognitive Grammar, there is a difference between the semantic role of an entity and its syntactic function. The assignment of the function of a subject or object to an entity arises as a result of different conceptualizations. (7) a. People perform great works not by strength but by perseverance. b. “Great works are performed not by strength but by perseverance.”

The expression in (7a) is in the active voice, an expression in which the grammatical subject is typically the actor in relation to the verb. The excerpt in (7b), by Samuel Johnson, is in the passive voice, an expression in which the grammatical subject is typically the recipient of the action denoted by the verb. The two expressions involve the same words, but they differ primarily in the order in which they appear. The different arrangements of the words serve different needs of discourse. In the active expression in (7a), the word people is foregrounded, and so given the subject status. Syntactically, it is the subject. Semantically, it is the performer of the action. The position of great works shows that syntactically it is the object and semantically it is the receiver of the action. In the passive expression in (7b), the phrase great works is foregrounded, and so given the subject status. Generally, the passive is used either because the actor is unknown, and so responsibility cannot be assigned to any single individual, or because there is a motivation for leaving the actor implicit or unspecified. The attention is on the action. It is this additional meaning that the marked constituent order in the passive signals. The third case in which foreground-background works relates to the syntactic phenomenon of inversion: the process whereby two types of constituents are permuted, or the process which places the main verb before the subject. Consider the following expressions which have the same semantic content but differ in terms of emphasis:

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(8) a. Sometimes the eye of heaven shines too hot. b. “Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines.”

The expression in (8a) is a declarative, in which the order of the subject and the verb phrase is canonical. The line in (8b), taken from Sonnet 18 by William Shakespeare, involves inversion, an expression in which the order of the subject and the verb phrase is reversed. The two expressions have the same wording, but they package the content in different fashions. They are stylistic choices serving different communicative purposes. In (8a), the speaker makes the whole statement the focal point. In (8b), the speaker makes the adverb too hot within the statement the focal point. In addition to emphasis, the use of inversion creates a unique rhythm rather than following the normal syntax of the English language. When fronted, the negative adjuncts under no circumstances and never, fronted semi-negatives such as hardly, scarcely, and only + time adverbs have emphatic effects. They respond to a communicative human need to foreground the negation. When positioned before the main verb, the negatives have no emphatic effects. The fourth case in which foreground-background works relates to the syntactic phenomenon of phrasal verbs: a verbal expression consisting of a verb plus a particle (adverb or preposition). The expressions involve placement of the object either in mid-position or in post-particle position. (9) a. “I gave my whole heart up, for him to hold.” b. I gave up my whole heart, for him to hold.

The examples in (9) contain a phrasal verb, which consists of a lexical verb plus an adverb-like particle and has a unique meaning that is different from the meaning of the verb when it functions alone. The excerpt in (9a), taken from The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, contains the verb plus the object plus the particle. The expression in (9b) rephrases the idea in an alternative way. It contains the verb plus the particle plus the object. The two expressions display different word orders of the particle and object. They code different construals of a situation, which mirror semantic differences. Each expression packages the information in such a way to fit the discourse requirement. In (9a), the expression allows the focus to fall more on the particle and less on the direct object. That is, the particle is foregrounded. In (9b), the expression allows the focus to fall more on the direct object and less on the particle. That is, the object noun phrase is foregrounded. The inversion of the particle foregrounds the object noun phrase and backgrounds the verb by moving its associated partner the particle to the left.

Scope The second dimension of focusing relates to the speaker’s ability to evoke a particular range, called a scope, of conceptual content in the description of a situation. The scope contains the profile and represents the general focus of attention. An

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expression has a maximal scope, that is, the full extent of its coverage, and an immediate scope, the portion directly relevant for a particular purpose. Take the oft-cited example of old men and women. The range of the word old has a maximal scope covering both men and women, or an immediate scope covering only men. The immediate scope is focused vis-à-vis the maximal scope. The maximal scope comprises everything a speaker is aware of to assess a situation. The speaker’s scope of awareness is referred to as field, that is, everything evoked in describing a situation. The immediate scope receives the highest degree of focus. It is the general locus of viewing attention with respect to which an expression is interpreted. It is, therefore, the context necessary for the characterization of an entity. The first case in which scope is effective relates to the syntactic phenomenon of extraposition: the process of moving an element from its normal position to a position at or near the end of an expression. Consider the following examples in which the type of scope chosen by the speaker is deemed crucial for the characterization of the meaning of an expression: (10) a. To be alone is a great misfortune. b. “It is a great misfortune to be alone, my friends; and it must be believed that solitude can quickly destroy reason.”

The expression in (10a) is non-extraposed, where the subordinate clause appears in the normal clause-initial position before the main verb. The excerpt in (10b), by Jules Verne, is extraposed, an expression in which the subordinate clause appears in the final position after the main verb, and the subject position is filled by the pronoun it. The two expressions generally have the same core meaning, but they package the information differently. The (10a) takes a narrow view of a situation. The reason is ascribed to the absence of a field represented by it. In this type of construal, the complement clause is considered the sole factor in inducing the experience in the speaker. That is, the reason for the experience is unilateral. The (10b) takes a broad view of the situation. In this type of construal, the speaker relies on different kinds of knowledge in making the evaluation, in which the complement content is the most important. It is the locus of factors inducing the experience in the speaker, and so the reason for the experience is multilateral. The source of the evaluation in the extraposed expression is therefore somewhat larger in scope than in the non-extraposed one. The second case in which scope is effective relates to the syntactic phenomenon of existential there: the process of using the subject there at the beginning of an expression. Consider the following examples in which the speaker construes the situation in alternate ways: (11) a. We had no possibility of taking a walk that day. b. “There was no possibility of taking a walk that day.”

The expression in (11a) is non-existential, having the word order subject-verb-­ object. In (11b), taken from Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë, the expression is existential, an expression which begins with the unstressed word there followed by a form of the verb be as the main verb and the postponed subject. The two expressions

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in (11) have different meanings despite the fact they have the same elements. Their semantic contrast does not reside in the objective situation described but in how it is mentally accessed. In (11a), the pronoun we functions as the subject. In (11b), the word there functions as the subject. There refers to a setting that serves as an initial reference point for accessing the described situation depicted by the following clause. There is used as a subject to introduce the existence of something or the occurrence of an event. There serves to present the postponed (displaced) subject as new information in the discourse. There introduces the new information or the most informative part of the utterance conveyed by the noun group placed at the end of the clause, where it carries both end-weight and end-focus. Concerning the status of it and there, non-cognitive grammarians consider them as dummy pronouns used to fill the syntactic subject position in clauses: it is the subject in the extraposed subject expression while there is the subject of the existential clauses. Contrary to this position, cognitive grammarians consider both it and there as profiling a presentational frame, in which a situation of some sort is introduced. They pertain to the presentation of a situation rather than being part of it and show how important the situation introduced in the upcoming discourse is going to be. There is a kind of container-content relationship between it or there and the situation in which it or there serves as a container and the situation or event as its content. The frame that it or there designates is selected for focus because it serves to introduce the event and because the expression lacks a suitable participant to put in focus. It is described as profiling a setting within which a proposition or an event takes place and a field that draws attention to the facts that are directly involved in assessing an issue at hand. In this use, it represents a case of non-delimitation or vagueness in its reference. It profiles an abstract setting within which the event described in the complement clause takes place and a field that subsumes the general circumstances surrounding it. The third case in which scope is effective relates to the syntactic phenomenon of negation: the process of changing an expression into its negative form, especially by using not. Compare the difference in meaning between the following two expressions: (12) a. He intentionally didn’t disturb her. b. He didn’t disturb her intentionally.

The expressions in (12) involve scope of negation. By the scope of negation, we mean the semantic influence that a negative word has on the rest of the clause that follows it. It is about how much of the expression is negated and in what way the meaning of the expression can change. Typically, all that follows the negative form to the end of the clause will be non-assertive and within the scope of negation. In (12a), the adverb intentionally is outside the scope of the negative particle, whereas in (12b) it is within its scope. The two expressions are similar in content but different in scope. The differences have to do not with the information presented but how it is presented. The two expressions package the information differently. In the (12a) expression, the attitudinal adjunct intentionally must be interpreted as outside the scope of negation, whereas in the (12b) expression the manner adjunct intentionally

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is within the scope of negation. The second expresses the scope of negation as extending to the end of the clause. The scope of negation has a consequence for meaning. The first expression means that he did not upset her, whereas the second expression means that he upset her but not deliberately.

Perspective The third construal responsible for stylistic variation is perspective, the view that the speaker takes on a situation. As a rule, there is more than one way of viewing a particular situation and symbolizing it in language. Alternative perspectives on a situation result in alternative structures. Languages make available different options for realizing perspective linguistically. That is, languages provide different resources to encode different perspectives taken by a speaker toward activities, events, and states. Perspective is a cognitive operation that is strikingly similar to visual perception. For example, a speaker may choose to describe a situation either as Only Rita knows the address or as Rita only knows the address. The difference is not based on objective facts about the situation but on the perspective from which the speaker chooses to view the situation. In the first, the speaker describes Rita as being the only person who knows the address; nobody else does. In the second, the speaker describes Rita as knowing only the address; nothing else. The distinction between the two expressions relates to a shift in perspective. A difference in perspective, therefore, results in a difference in lexical or grammatical structure. Two dimensions of perspective accounting for stylistic variation in language are vantage point and viewing arrangement.

Vantage Point The first dimension of perspective concerns the speaker’s ability to construe an entity from a particular position, referred to as vantage point. It is the actual location of the participants in the speech situation: either the speaker or the hearer. That is, the way something is described can depend on the position of the speaker or the hearer relative to the thing being described. This is clearest in the case of spatial relations between objects. The expressions The street is behind the railway station and The railway station is behind the street describe the same objective situation but from either the speaker’s or the hearer’s perspective. The first construes the situation as being seen from the vantage point of the speaker. The second construes the situation as being seen from the vantage point of the hearer. Thus, speech participants can entertain the same proposition and apprehend it from different vantage points. Let us analyze some examples, where the same locative content is observed from different vantage points, resulting in different lexical structures and different meanings:

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(13) a. The burglar came in. b. The burglar went in.

The expressions in (13) are semantically non-equivalent. Each construes the content in a certain fashion. The non-equivalence resides in the change of vantage point. In (13a), the vantage point is located inside the house. It involves the vantage point of the speaker who is inside the place. Linguistically, this is shown by the use of the verb come in. In (13b), the vantage point is located outside the house. It involves the vantage point of the speaker who is outside the place. Linguistically, this is shown by the use of the verb go in. This shows that every written text comes from a certain person’s viewpoint. When we understand who’s speaking to us, we can better identify the message they intend. A vantage point is a position or standpoint from which something is viewed. (14) a. “So around midday, as I walked along the path from my garden to the beach, I picked up a number of dry leaves that had dropped during a heavy bout of rain, early in the morning.” b. I walked along the path from the beach to my garden.

Both sentences in (14) describe precisely the same situation but contrast semantically by highlighting different aspects of it through alternate choices of vantage points. They contrast in terms of the actual location of the speaker. The excerpt in (14a) is taken from A Flower on the Path by Hans Van Rosenberg. The expression construes the situation as being seen from a vantage point in the garden. The word order in the expression (14b) is different. The expression construes the situation as being seen from a vantage point in the beach. This shows how easily one can shift between two construals of the same situation coded by two grammatical structures with the same conceptual content. The vantage point expresses the writer’s point of view, portraying the world in different ways and describing the subject matter from different angles. Switching vantage points lets the reader see the story from a different perspective. It helps the reader look into many opinions on different situations.

Viewing Arrangement The second dimension of perspective concerns the speaker’s ability to assume a particular manner in describing an entity, referred to as a viewing arrangement. The difference relates to the scanning, direction, or presenting in which an event is viewed. The viewing arrangement refers to the relationship between the speaker and the situation being described. Two basic types of viewing arrangements exist. In the Optimal Viewing Arrangement (OVA), the speaker excludes the self from the described scene. In the Egocentric Viewing Arrangement (EVA), the speaker includes the self as part of the described scene. Speakers exercise flexibility by construing a complex scene, adopting contrasting views and so conveying different meanings. The semantic contrast is more apparent when alternate word orders embody different strategies for presenting a scene.

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Three dimensions of viewing arrangement responsible for stylistic variation are subjectivity, objectivity, and dynamicity.

Subjectivity Regarding the dimension of subjectivity, the speaker expresses involvement in the situation being described. There is a close relationship between the speaker and the content of the situation. Subjectivity represents the EVA, where the speaker includes himself or herself as part of the scene s/he describes. The scene is construed from an internal vantage point, where the attention is fully focused on the self. Subjectivity concerns a specific situation or a particular person and the private areas of his/her life. That means the judgment is influenced by the speaker’s opinions and feelings and not by facts. In the area of language, a subjectively construed expression is one in which the speaker relates the situation described exclusively to the self. The above-mentioned example Don’t lie to me! is subjectively construed. Conceptually, the mother includes herself as part of the scene she describes. Linguistically, she uses the deictic pronoun me.

Objectivity In connection with the dimension of objectivity, the speaker expresses distance from the situation being described. There is a distant relationship between the speaker and the content of the situation. Objectivity represents the OVA, where the speaker excludes himself or herself from the scene s/he describes. The scene is construed from an external vantage point, where the attention is fully focused on some external entity. Objectivity concerns a general situation shared by or affecting most people, and not only the speaker who is describing it. That means the judgment is influenced by facts and not by the speaker’s opinions and feelings. In the area of language, an objectively construed expression is one in which the speaker relates the situation described exclusively to the public. The above-mentioned example Don’t lie to your mother! is objectively construed. Conceptually, the mother displaces herself from the person speaking. Linguistically, she uses the descriptive noun phrase mother in referring to herself. Let us take an example where the dimensions of subjectivity and objectivity can be validated by comparing personal and impersonal complement clauses in English: (15) a. “I could not unlove him now, merely because I found that he had ceased to notice me.” b. “It is only with the heart that one can see rightly; what is essential is invisible to the eye.”

Dynamicity

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The excerpt in (15a) is taken from Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë. This example is a personal expression because its subject position is occupied by the first person pronoun. Therefore, the complement clause represents the perspective of the first-­ person point of view. This expression stands for EVA and gives a subjective perspective of the event, which is conceptualized from the vantage point of the main clause subject. In subjectivity, the writer is primarily concerned with conveying personal experience. The excerpt in (15b) is taken from The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. This example is an impersonal complement clause because its subject position is taken up by the pronoun it. It does not refer to a specific entity. Therefore, the expression represents the perspective of anyone. This expression represents OVA and gives an objective perspective of the event, which is conceptualized from the vantage point of the speaker. In objectivity, the writer is outside of and detached from what he is writing about.

Dynamicity The dimension of dynamicity pertains to how a conceptualization unfolds through processing time. It is about how the mind processes language. Dynamicity can be observed in three cases: mode of scanning, order of presentation, and course of direction. In the mode of scanning, the difference relates to whether the scene described is in motion or still. Speakers demonstrate flexibility by construing a complex scene either sequentially or summarily. In sequential scanning, the speaker conceives a situation successively as it evolves through time. In summary scanning, the speaker conceives the entire situation cumulatively. To clarify the point, examine some examples: (16.) a. “Perhaps it was freedom itself that choked her.” b. Perhaps it was freedom itself, choking her.

The excerpt in (16a) is taken from Patricia Highsmith. It contains a that-clause. The expression in (16b) is a repetition of the excerpt but in a different structure. It contains a present participle. The two are different in meaning. The difference resides in the mode of scanning. In (16a), the speaker scans the component states of the process of choking individually, like a motion picture. The speaker views the distinct components of the process one by one with time. Because of that, the verb has a temporal profile. In (16b), the speaker scans the component states of the process of choking collectively, like a still picture. The speaker views all the component states simultaneously. Because of that, the verb lacks a temporal profile. The contrasting modes of mental scanning are expressed lexically differently. The same applies to the expressions The roof slopes steeply upward and The roof slopes steeply downward describe precisely the same situation. They contrast semantically in the direction of mental scanning. The former suggests motion away from the speaker, whereas the latter suggests motion toward the speaker.

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In the order of presentation, the difference relates to the different order of words. The order in which events occur fits with the order in which they are conceptualized. Alternate word orders embody different construal strategies for presenting a scene, as shown below: (17) “The creatures outside looked from pig to man, and from man to pig, and from pig to man again; but already it was impossible to say which was which.”

The excerpt in (17) is taken from Animal Farm by George Orwell. The phrases “from pig to man” and “from man to pig” are semantically non-equivalent despite using the same words to characterize the same situation. The semantic non-­ equivalence resides in a different order of presentation. The order in which the presentation occurs fits with the order in which they are conceptualized. Alternate orders embody different construal strategies for presenting a scene. In “from pig to man,” the mental access starts with the word pig to the word man. In “from man to pig,” the mental access starts with the word man to the word pig. These opposing ways of building up to the full conception result in subtly different mental experiences and different linguistic meanings. In the course of the presentation, the existing difference relates to the route in which an event is viewed. This is so because writers can approach a scene in different ways. Word order can matter in language. Changing the word order changes the meaning. In the course of direction, the difference relates to the route in which an event is viewed. Speakers exercise flexibility by construing a complex scene and adopting contrasting directions, as shown below: (18) a. “I was gone, headlong, before I had sense to say a word to her.” b. Before I had sense to say a word to her, I was gone, headlong.

The excerpt in (18a) is taken from David Copperfield by Charles Dickens. The expression in (18b) is a repetition of the excerpt but in different word order. The two describe the same content but have contrasting meanings. The contrast does not lie in the order of the events. In both cases, the speaker has first gone before having the sense to say a word. The contrast lies in the course of direction in which the two events occur. In the prospective direction in (18a), the event sequence is viewed from the perspective of the temporally earlier event, namely going headlong, from which the speaker looks forward to the later event, namely having the sense to say a word. In the retrospective direction in (18b), the event sequence is viewed from the perspective of the temporally later event, namely having the sense to say a word, from which the speaker looks backward to the earlier event, namely going headlong. In the course of direction, the existing difference relates to the route in which an event is viewed. This is so because writers have the freedom of describing a complex scene, selecting contrary routes.

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Summary In this chapter, I have sought to demonstrate how construal dimensions are realized through different modes of writing and how they bear on the interpretation of texts. Precisely, I have demonstrated how language is patterned by an intricate interplay of construal and linguistic material to give a distinctive shape to experience. Construal refers to the mental ability of a writer to conceive a situation in alternate ways and express them in language by using different linguistic structures. Two expressions may have the same conceptual content but still contrast semantically. The semantic contrast is attributable to the imposition of alternate construals on their content. Each expression designates a different construal. An expression’s meaning is not just the conceptual content it has. Equally important is how that content is construed. A crucial aspect of meaning then resides in the speaker’s ability to construe a situation in more than one way. The construal employed to describe a situation amounts to a different mental experience. Construal is thus a multifaceted phenomenon, consisting of various dimensions which reflect basic human cognitive abilities. A revision of the discussion conducted so far leads to some pivotal conclusions: 1. Form and meaning are dependent on and inseparable from each other. The form refers to the style or structure of a text. It refers to the arrangement of the components of a text. The meaning is the message or theme that the text conveys. It explains what the text is about. In other words, it is the information that the text presents. 2. A difference in form produces a difference in meaning. No two textual forms have the same meaning. No two textual forms can be substituted for one another randomly. There must be some subtle difference of meaning that accounts for their use. Each textual form is used in a different context or fits a different situation. 3. The difference is meaning is accounted for by construal. Speakers can conceive and express a situation in different ways. Each dimension of construal results in a different expression. Each dimension of construal describes the conceptual content in a specific way and expresses it using a specific linguistic structure (Table 8.2).

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162 Table 8.2  Dimensions of construal Construal Dimension Prominence Profiling

Syntactic means Raising Dislocation

Trajector-landmark alignment

Spatial contiguity Temporal contiguity

Focusing

Salience

Ditransivitity

Foreground vs. background

Voice Clefting Inversion Phrasal verbs

Scope

Extraposition

Existentials Negation

Perspective Vantage point Viewing arrangement  Subjectivity  Objectivity …  Dynamicity…….  Scanning ….

Location

Example To talk to Alice is nice. Alice is nice to talk to. The dog bit this little girl. This little girl, the dog bit her. The village is beyond the river. The river is beyond the village. The boy left before the teacher came in. The teacher came in after the boy left. She knitted a sweater for Max. She knitted Max a sweater. They released him from prison. He was released from prison. It is support that he needs. What he needs is support. We have never seen such a film. Never have we seen such a film. Bring the argument up. Bring up the argument. To get more money for less work is unfair. It is unfair to get more money for less work. A storm is coming. There is a storm coming. They deliberately didn’t annoy him. They didn’t annoy him deliberately. Come in. Go in.

Personal pronouns She enjoys chatting with people. Impersonal It is enjoyable chatting with pronouns people. Prepositional phrases

 Presentation

Prepositional Phrases

 Direction

Subordination

An ugly scar runs from his elbow to his wrist. An ugly scar runs from his wrist to his elbow. He washes himself from top to bottom. He washed himself from bottom to top. I wash my hands before I cook pies. Before I cook pies, I wash my hands.

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Study Questions 1. The semantic contrast between the following pair of expressions is the result of placing different parts in profile. Discuss. That Anna will resign is likely. Anna is likely to resign. 2. The following excerpts contain the spatial prepositions in front of and behind. Discuss the semantic distinction between them in terms of trajector and landmark. “As we stand in front of the mirror, fixing our lipstick, she asks me the one question I don’t anticipate tonight.”—A Love’s Complicated Novel by Hollis Wynn “The white-washed wall, the nicely sanded floor, The varnished clock that clicked behind the door.”—“The Deserted Village” by Oliver Goldsmith 3. Structurally, the following excerpts differ in terms of active and passive voice. Semantically, they differ in terms of foreground and background. Explain. “I rushed out and found her mother’s maid and we locked the door and got her into a cold bath.”—The Great Gatsby by Francis Scott Fitzgerald “Pandora, from Greek mythology, was given a box with all the world’s evils in it.”—The Last Lecture by Randy Pausch 4. In the excerpt below, Salinger uses the phrasal verbs “kicked out” and “hung up” in two patterns. Is there a difference between the two patterns in terms of foreground and background? “They kicked me out. I wasn’t supposed to come … She hung up my coat in the hall closet.”—The Catcher in the Rye by Jerome David Salinger 5. The following excerpts use different grammatical structures: non-­ extraposed and extraposed. Show how they differ in scope. “To risk life to save a smile on a face of a woman or a child is the secret of chivalry.”—Dejan Stojanovic “It is impossible to live without failing at something.”—Joanne. K. Rowling 6. The following excerpt contains spatial expressions. If you change their positions, they will differ in terms of vantage point. How? “On the left side of the kitchen the cabinet doors are all glass and on the right they are palm.”—A Love’s Complicated Novel’ by Hollis Wynn 7. The pair of expressions below differ in terms of the alternative subjective-­ objective perspectives imposed on their content. How? He enjoys going on holiday. It is enjoyable going on holiday. 8. The following excerpts use the word collapse in two different ways. They differ in terms of scanning. How? (continued)

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(continued) “Every wave, regardless of how high and forceful it crests, must eventually collapse within itself.”—Stefan Zweig “I always like to have a glimmer of hopefulness, even in collapse.”— Gord Downie 9. The following pair of expressions differ with respect to presentation, relative to the different viewpoints of the speaker. How? I finished my studies, found a job, and got married. I got married, found a job, and finished my studies. 10. The following excerpt contains different directions, relative to the different viewpoints of the speaker. How? “From there to here, From here to there, Funny things are everywhere.”—Theodor Seuss Geisel

Further Reading The notion of construal in Cognitive Grammar is dealt with in Langacker (1993, 2015, 2019), Hamawand (2021), Taylor and MacLaury (1995), Talmy (2006), Verhagen (2007), Achard (2008), pleyer (2017), Pütz and Dirven (1996), Kochanska (2000), Forrest (1996), and Möttönen (2016). Works on individual dimensions of construal include Hamawand (2003) on atemporalization, Hamawand (2005) on salience, Hamawand (2007) on objectivity, Drożdż (2010) on scope, MacLaury (1995) on vantage point and Carroll and Von Stutterheim (2002), and Stutterheim and Nuese (2003) on perspective.

References Achard, Michel. 2008. Teaching Construal: Cognitive Pedagogical Grammar. In Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition, ed. Peter Robinson and Nick Ellis. Carroll, Mary, and Christiane Von Stutterheim. 2002. Typology and Information Organisation: Perspective Taking and Language-Specific Effects in the Construal of Events. In Typology and Second Language Acquisition, ed. Anna Ramat, 365–402. Berlin: Gruyter. Drożdż, Grzegorz. 2010. Scope as a Cognitive Tool in Tense Analysis. Linguistica Silesiana 31: 1–15. Forrest, Linda. 1996. Discourse Goals and Attentional Processes in Sentence Production: The Dynamic Construal of Events. In Conceptual Structure, Discourse, and Language, ed. Adele Goldberg, 149–162. Stanford: CSLI Publications. Hamawand, Zeki. 2003. The Construal of Atemporalisation in Complement Clauses in English. Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics 1: 59–85. ———. 2005. The Construal of Salience in Atemporal Complement Clauses in English. Language Sciences 27: 193–213.

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———. 2007. The Construal of Objectivity in Atemporal Complement Clauses in English. Word 58: 159–193. ———. 2021. Construal. In The Routledge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Xu Wen and John Taylor, 242–254. London: Routledge. Kochanska, Agata. 2000. Verbal Aspect and Construal. In Constructions in Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Ad Foolen and Frederike van der Leek, 141–166. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Langacker, Ronald W. 1993. Universals of Construal. Berkeley Linguistics Society 19: 447–463. Langacker, Ronald. 1987. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol.1: Theoretic Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ———. 1991. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. 2: Descriptive Application. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ———. 2013. Essentials of Cognitive Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ———. 2015. Construal. In Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Ewa Dabrowska and Dagmar Divjak, 120–142. ———. 2019. Construal. In Cognitive Linguistics: Foundations of Language, ed. Ewa Dąbrowska and Dagmar Divjak. Berlin: Gruyter. MacLaury, R. 1995. Vantage theory. In Language and the Cognitive Construal of the World, ed. John Taylor and R. MacLaury, 231–276. Berlin: Gruyter. Möttönen, Tapani. 2016. Construal in Expression: An Intersubjective Approach to Cognitive Grammar. Helsinki: Unigrafia. Pleyer, Michael. 2017. Protolanguage and Mechanisms of Meaning Construal in Interaction. Language Sciences 63: 69–90. Pütz, Martin, and René Dirven, eds. 1996. The Construal of Space in Language and Thought. Berlin: Gruyter. Stutterheim, Christiane, and Ralf Nuese. 2003. Processes of Conceptualisation in Language Production: Language-Specific Perspectives and Event Construal. Linguistics 41: 851–888. Talmy, Leonard. 2006. Grammatical Construal: The Relation of Grammar to Cognition. In Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings, ed. Dirk Geeraerts, 69–108. Taylor, John, and Robert Maclaury, eds. 1995. Language and the Cognitive Construal of the World. Berlin: Gruyter. Verhagen, Arie. 2007. Construal and Perspectivisation. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, ed. Dirk Geeraerts and Hubert Cuyckens, 48–81. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Epilogue

This study has dealt with a new framework named Cognitive Stylistics, a framework that views language as part and parcel of cognition and regards stylistic structures as reflecting patterns of mental activity. It relates stylistic choices to cognitive processes, which are responsible for organizing knowledge in the human mind and expressing it in linguistic form. It concentrates on the correlation between form and meaning and shows that the form of an expression is motivated by its cognitive organization. It takes into account the role of the human being in providing the basic meanings coded in language and recognizes the capacity to construe a given situation in alternate ways. In the course of the analysis, the study has invoked some pivotal cognitive assumptions, put forward some hypotheses, and attempted to demonstrate their validity through rigorous argumentation, extensive illustration, and empirical evidence. To that end, this chapter is structured as follows. The first section presents the chapter summaries. The second section lists the general conclusions. The third section enumerates the specific conclusions.

Chapter Summaries The textbook falls into six chapters. Each chapter takes a major cognitive assumption from Cognitive Linguistics and Cognitive Grammar as its focus. Each chapter explores the usefulness of the assumption for addressing a stylistic issue. The structure of each chapter is similar. First, I present a brief sketch of the cognitive assumption. Second, I apply the assumption to an area in stylistics. Third, I provide examples to support the analysis.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7

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Chapter 1 In Chap. 1, I introduced the subject matter of the study. I set the basis for the field of stylistics and its main concerns. I addressed the three fundamental terms around which the study revolves, namely style, stylistics, and stylistic devices. In this book, I defined each one of them based on principles of Cognitive Stylistics. Style is the specific form of language, which is influenced by what the human mind dictates. It is the characteristic use of language, where stylistic preferences reflect cognitive preferences. It is realized by the language resources, where structural alterations reflect meaning distinctions. Stylistics is the study of style, where an alteration in style spells out an alteration in effect. It is a methodical analysis, which establishes the principles of explaining the particular choices made by a writer. It is concerned with the identification of the cognitive processes responsible for language patterns. Stylistic devices are techniques that a writer uses to enhance writing and engage the reader. They are the repertoire of creativity used to communicate ideas beyond the literal meanings of ordinary language. Chapter 2 In Chap. 2, I presented a brief historical overview of Stylistics. The overview documents the major development phases which stylistics has witnessed. I traced the historical development of Stylistics from the fifth century when it started as rhetoric up to the twentieth century when it developed into Cognitive Stylistics. I summarized the chronological development that Stylistics has undergone, and gave a listing of the influential trends that emerged therein. This gives insight into how the past has shaped the present. Appropriacy-centered trends comprised Rhetoric and Poetic Stylistics. Writer-centered trends embraced Expressive and Psychological Stylistics. Text-centered trends involved Practical and New criticism. Readercentered trends incorporated Reader-response and Affective stylistics. Formcentered trends included Structural and Generative Stylistics. Meaning-centered trends contained Functional and Cognitive Stylistics. Chapter 3 In Chap. 3, I proposed the cognitive framework used in the study. The proposed framework was Cognitive Stylistics, a new discipline to the composition and interpretation of discourse, capturing how the mind makes sense of the world. It focuses on the link between the mind and language. The new discipline is based on some key assumptions. It relates artistic activity to human cognition. It brings creativity to the fore, coupling stylistic performance with aspects of cognition. It explores how

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the writer produces a text by conceptual mappings, and how the reader responds to a text by mental representations. It regards style as the creative choice of a writer, drawing upon the resources that language affords. It combines linguistic patterns with mental mechanisms in the construction of a text. It establishes cognitive principles which account for the particular choices made by writers in their use of language. The choices act as a gateway to the interpretation of a text. It examines how the linguistic form is connected with mental faculty in a text, and how this acts to produce a communicable message. Chapter 4 In Chap. 4, I looked into the role of idealization in the description of expressions. Given the idealization theory, the meaning of an expression exists only as a concept in the mind of the speaker. The concept is envisioned as an abstract frame called a cognitive model. This is a mental representation that reflects aspects of the world. It is formed based on recurrent patterns of human experience. In this study, cognitive models were found to play important roles in the characterization of clause structures. The billiard-ball model was found to underlie transitive and resultative clauses. The stage model was found to be of value to extraposed clauses. The canonical event model was found to be instrumental in raised and passive clauses. The reference point model was found to be useful in possessive and expletive clauses. The reality model was found to be influential in temporal and complement clauses. The force-dynamics model was found to contribute to modal and causative clauses. Chapter 5 In Chap. 5, I explored the role of context in the description of deictic expressions. I described what the contextualization theory is, exploring its essence, premises, and advantages. In virtue of the contextualization theory, the key to understanding the meaning of a deictic expression lies in the context in which it occurs. I carried out a detailed and precise textual analysis of style by relying on the notion of context. The aim was to reveal the connection between the structures of language and the contexts in which they are used. Context encompasses both linguistic and non-­linguistic circumstances. Non-linguistic context refers to the situation within which a deictic expression happens, and helps to explain its meaning. I applied this type of context to the explication of personal, spatial, temporal, social, and discourse deixis. Linguistic context refers to the text which comes immediately before or after a deictic expression and helps to explain its meaning. I applied this type of context to the elucidation of anaphoric and cataphoric deixis. All of this demonstrates the fact that Cognitive Stylistics has the potential to offer a unified account of all forms and patterns of textual structures.

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Chapter 6 In Chap. 6, I examined the role of configuration in the description of stylistic devices. I described what the theory of cognitive domain is, exploring its essence, premises, and advantages. In virtue of the domain theory, the meaning of a stylistic device can best be described relative to the domain to which it belongs. Precisely, the meaning of a stylistic device can be defined by linking it to the appropriate facet in the domain in which it is located. It is within these domains that the devices can act as rivals, where they stand for one concept but differ in the specifics. The devices are not in complementary distribution, but they have distinct meanings. Employing the domain approach, the study groups the devices into domains relative to the common features they display. Each domain refers to an area of experience or chunk of knowledge. I identified five cognitive domains: phonology, morphology, graphology, lexicology, and syntax. I named the facets of which each domain is composed. I placed each device in the appropriate facet. Chapter 7 In Chap. 7, I investigated the role of experientialism in the description of expressions. In light of the experientialist theory, the source of knowledge is sense experience. Meaning is a relationship between language and the world, which is mediated by the human mind. Meaning is based on experience that human encounters, undergoes, or lives through. It is derived from direct observation of events or personal participation in activities. It is subjective because it is gained, modified, or affected by personal backgrounds. Linguistic knowledge is constructed based on experience. I looked into five conceptual structures. Metaphor compares something to something else which has the same characteristics. Metonymy substitutes something with something else which is closely connected with it. Image schema is a mental pattern that helps to understand experiences. Mental space is a package of conceptual content which assists understanding. Blending merges elements from two mental spaces into a third space. Chapter 8 In Chap. 8, I probed the role of conceptualization in the description of expressions. The meaning of an expression cannot be derived from the sole observation of characteristics intrinsic to the entity described. Cognitive Stylistics embraces a subjectivist view of meaning in that the meaning of an expression involves the way the writer experiences our environment. Given the construal theory, the meaning of an expression resides in the way its content is conceptualized. I surveyed several dimensions of construal: prominence (profiling, trajector, and landmark and

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salience), focusing (foreground versus background and scope) and perspective (vantage point and viewing arrangement). In describing a situation, the writer selects a particular dimension to elucidate its conceptual content. Expressions which share the same conceptual content can, nonetheless, be semantically distinct because they construe that content in alternate ways. This is so because the writer can conceptualize a given situation in alternate ways, and map them onto distinct stylistic realizations.

General Conclusions The general aim of the current study is to demonstrate the existence of a significant relationship between language on the one hand and writer, text, and reader on the other. The detailed investigation of the relationship throughout the study has led to the following general conclusions: 1. Language is a mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic processing: to produce and understand expressions. Language is built on information gained from either perceptual or physical senses. In the realm of Cognitive Stylistics, the writer makes sense of things in the world and produces a text that accords with the needs. The reader responds to a text by mental representations. 2. Language is a system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to transfer meaning. The rules relate particular signs to particular meanings. In the sphere of Cognitive Stylistics, any expression is a pairing of form and meaning. Forms, whether simple or complex, express meanings. There is a motivation behind the pairing. Without pairing, the writer would not be able to convey ideas. 3. Language is a tool of communication that enables humans to exchange information. Its structures are best understood with reference to the functions they carry out. In the field of Cognitive Stylistics, the linguistic structures a writer employs are closely linked to the communicative functions they are designed to serve: thoughts and emotions which are cognitive processes originating in the brain. 4. Language is open-ended, meaning there is no limit to what can be expressed by human language. It is without fixed limits or restrictions. It meets the needs of language users. In the area of Cognitive Stylistics, the writer is capable of using the same elements in different ways to produce functionally distinct expressions. These expressions are grounded in personal experiences and social encounters. 5. Language is flexible. It can change to cope with variable circumstances. One can describe the same thing in different ways. This is due to its wide range of resources. In the arena of Cognitive Stylistics, the writer can use the resources of a language flexibly, achieving different effects. In using language, the writer not only uses habitual patterns but also exercises flexibility in creating novel patterns.

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Specific Conclusions The specific aim of the current study is to apply the theoretical assumptions proposed by the cognitive enterprise to the analysis of expressions. Below are the cognitive assumptions that the study has substantiated and the specific conclusions that the study has arrived at: 1. The meaning of an expression is anchored in terms of the idealization theory. Idealization is the mental process of attributing the interpretation of experience to certain ideals. An ideal is a conception of something in its absolute perfection. An ideal represents knowledge, which arises over time from repeated exposure to various experiences. The stores of knowledge accumulated are organized into cognitive models. These form abstract representations that writers and readers create and manipulate in the course of producing and comprehending texts. In Chap. 4, I applied the theory to the description of clausal patterns in texts. The mental representation for the billiard-ball model, for instance, idealizes the external world as being populated by an array of discrete objects. These objects, like billiard balls, can move and interact with others through the transmission of energy. They form an interactive network, in which the transmission of energy takes the form of an action chain. This process reflects our normal observation of how an event is coded in a clausal expression. 2. The meaning of an expression is rooted in terms of contextualization theory. Contextualization is the act of putting linguistic information in a context. It means placing a statement or an event within its larger setting in which it acquires its true and complete meaning. Contextualization is a tool that aids understanding the meaning of a stylistic expression as it is authentically experienced in each and every human situation. It is a necessary tool is because it impacts the way an expression is interpreted. In Chap. 5, I applied the theory to the phenomenon of deixis. The way language anchors meaning in context is through deixis. The interpretations of deictic expressions are dependent on the specific contexts in which they occur. Each deictic expression fits a specific context and matches a specific perspective that the writer imposes on a situation. Deictic expressions are textual clues that point to people, places, or times in the production of an utterance. Deictic expressions map our everyday experiences onto expressions. 3. The meaning of an expression is established in terms of the domain theory. A domain is a conceptual area in which lexical items gather, showing similarity on the surface but dissimilarity below the surface. The meaning of a lexical item can be interpreted by setting it in contrast with the other participants in the domain. A domain is a context in which many lexical items are positioned, with each having a distinctive function. In Chap. 6, I applied the theory to the description of stylistic devices. These devices gather in domains. A domain is a conceptual configuration that encodes knowledge about stylistic devices with special provisions for the roles they play in language. Stylistic devices are a collection of phonological, morphological, graphological, lexical, and syntactic items related in a way that to understand the meaning of one it is necessary to understand the

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domain in which it occurs as well as the meanings of the other participants. Thus, instead of treating them as separate concepts, it is more appropriate to think of them as participants in domains. 4. The meaning of an expression is entrenched in terms of the experientialism theory. Experientialism means that knowledge is based on experience, especially personal experience. Conversely, experience is the source of knowledge. Language is experientially based and experience is embodied. Many features of cognition are shaped by aspects of the human body. Language does not refer directly to the real world. Rather, it refers to what is represented in the human conceptual system. Embodiment allows understanding abstract concepts by relating them directly to physical experience. In Chap. 7, I applied the theory to conceptual structures. It was shown that conceptual structures, which compose the conceptual system, grow out of bodily experience. Conceptual structures are grounded in perception, body movement, and physical and social experience. Conceptual structures such as metaphors metonymies, image schemas, mental spaces, and blends are grounded in human experiences of bodies or human interaction with the socio-physical world. 5. The meaning of an expression is ingrained in terms of the construal theory. Construal is the mental act of perceiving, comprehending, and describing a given situation in alternate ways. The meaning of an expression does not refer to an entity in the real world, but to ways of viewing it. Each way represents a different perspective. Hence, the choice of a linguistic expression correlates with the particular construal imposed on its content. In Chap. 8, I applied the theory to expressions. The meaning of any expression is determined by the construal imposed on its content. A pair of expressions may at first glance appear to be synonymous. A closer look, however, reveals that they are not identical in meaning. There is a clear-cut distinction in their meanings. The pair constitutes different conceptualizations of the same content and so reflects different mental experiences of the writer. As a result, the two expressions are realized linguistically differently. Each expression has a special mission to carry out in language. Before rounding off, I would like to say that Cognitive Stylistics has proved to be a rewarding approach to stylistic description because it has provided new insights into such a thorny issue in language. It has an explanatory power; it reveals the cognitive processes by which a text is created and understood. It resolves the complex stylistic phenomena that are pervasive in language and clears up all sorts of stylistic variations. It explains linguistic structure with reference to cognitive processing and concentrates on the link between language and the non-linguistic world. The cognitive assumptions have established important parameters in terms of which expressions were characterized, showing how meanings of expressions condition structural forms. It is not grammatical rules which govern the formation of expressions, but fundamental mental operations that take place in the human brain. As demonstrated, the tools provided by Cognitive Stylistics have proved to be effective in accounting for language mysteries, and influential in grasping stylistic intricacies.

Index

A Action chain, 51 Active voice, 152 Active-zone, 125 Aesthetic Stylistics, 17 Agent, 51 Alliteration, 95 Allusion, 10 Alternation, viii Anaphor, 84 Anaphora, 110 Anastrophe, 11 Antecedent, 84 Antimetabole, 111 Antithesis, 103 Aphorism, 11 Aposiopesis, 110 Argumentative, 5 Arrangement, 111 Assonance, 96 Asyndeton, 110 Atomistic, 72 Attitude, 63 Automatization, 24 B Backgrounding, 151 Base, 147 Base space, 131 Basic model, 60 Blend, 134

Blending, 8, 137 Boldface, 101 C Cataphor, 84 Category, 36 Chiasmus, 111 Choices, 2 Clausal grounding, 72 Clause, 50 Clefting, 108, 151 Cognitive Commitment, 33 Cognitive faculties, 36 Cognitive Grammar, 44 Cognitive Linguistics, 44 Cognitive model, 48, 65, 171 Cognitive processes, 39 Cognitive Stylistics, 32, 44, 170 Concept, 35, 118 Conceptual blending, 42 Conceptual content, 37, 144 Conceptualization, 143, 172 Conceptual metaphor, 42 Conceptual structure, 118, 120 Conceptual system, 118 Configuration, 91, 172 Construal, 37, 40, 94, 144, 161, 175 Context, 34, 71, 144, 171 Context-dependent, 34 Contextualism, 70 Contextualization, 69, 171, 174

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 Z. Hamawand, English Stylistics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22556-7

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176 Co-text, 34, 70 Creative, 34 D Defamiliarization, 10, 22, 24 Deictic center, 72, 85 Deictic expressions, 72, 74 Deictic projection, 85 Deictics, 72 Deictic shift, 85 Deixis, 72 Deontic modality, 63 Deviation, 3, 22, 32, 41 Devices, 3 Dictionary theory, 91 Diminution, 97 Direction, 160 Dislocation, 148 Distal, 75 Ditransitive, 150 Ditransitivity, 150 Domain, 37, 91–93, 174 Dominion, 58 Double object construction, 150 Dynamic model, 60 Dysphemism, 102 E Eggcorns, 103 Egocentric Viewing Arrangement (EVA), 157 Ellipsis, 110 Embodied, 40 Encyclopedia, 92 Epanalepsis, 111 Epiphora, 110 Epistemic modality, 63 Epithet, 106 Euphemism, 102 Existential, 154 Existential there, 154 Exophora, 73 Experiencer, 51 Experientialism, 117, 118, 172, 175 Extraposed, 154 Extraposition, 108, 154 F Facet, 92, 93 Field, 154, 155

Index Figure, 148 Flashback, 10 Focusing, 36, 151 Focus space, 131 Foregrounding, 22, 41, 151 Foreshadowing, 10 Formalist, 21 Formalist Stylistics, 22 Fronting, 109 Functionalist, 23 Future tense, 80 G Generalization Commitment, 33 Gestural usage, 75, 76 Granularity, 40 Ground, 63, 121, 148 Grounding, 50, 72 Grounding elements, 50, 63, 72 H Holistic, 72 Hyperbole, 10, 105 Hypophora, 9 I Idealization, 47, 65, 171, 174 Ideology, 52 Imagery, 11 Image schema, 42, 137 Imagination, 118 Imitation, 96 Immediate reality, 60 Immediate scope, 53, 154 Individual Stylistics, 18 Informative, 5 Initial salience, 150 Innateness, 117 Instrument, 51 Invention, 98 Inventory, 35 Inversion, 107, 152 Irony, 106 Irreality, 60 Italics, 101 J Juxtaposition, 10

Index L Landmark, 148 Lattice, 131 Left dislocation, 148 Lexical concept, 118 Linguistic Stylistics, 26 Literal, 41 Literary Stylistics, 26 Litotes, 105 M Malapropism, 103 Manner, 2 Maximal scope, 53, 154 Meaningful, 33 Mental space, 41, 137 Merism, 106 Metalepsis, 106 Metaphor, 104, 137 Metonymy, 104, 137 Mind style, 39, 52 Mind Stylistics, 32 Morphology, 9 Mover, 51 N Nativism, 117 Negation, 155 Neologism, 98, 101 Nominal grounding, 50, 72 Nonce word, 98 Non-deictic expression, 74 Non-existential, 154 Non-extraposed, 154 Non-immediate, 60 Non-literal, 41 Non-raised, 147 O Omission, 110 Onomatopoeia, 96 Optimal Viewing Arrangement (OVA), 157 Origination, 98 Orthophemism, 102 Oxymoron, 104 P Paradox, 104 Parallelism, 10, 22, 41, 111

177 Participant choice, 56 Passive voice, 152 Past tense, 78 Patient, 51 Periodicity, 96 Periphery, 36 Periphrasis, 102 Personification, 8, 123 Perspective, 8, 38, 156 Phonetics, 9 Phonology, 9 Phrasal verbs, 153 Pleonasm, 102 Postcedent, 84 Potential reality, 60 Pragmatics, 9 Prepositional dative construction, 150 Presentation, 160 Present tense, 79 Principle of Contrast, 145 Profile, 53, 147 Projected reality, 60 Prominence, 146 Prototype, 36 Proximal, 75 Pun, 11, 106 R Raised, 147 Raising, 108, 147 Rationalism, 117 Realism, 47 Reality, 60 Reference, 83, 143 Referring expression, 83 Reiteration, 110 Repetition, 95 Rhyme, 96 Rhythm, 96 Right dislocation, 148 Role archetypes, 51 S Salience, 150 Scanning, 159 Schema, 35 Scope, 59, 153 Semantics, 9 Semantic structure, 118 Sequential scanning, 159 Setting, 155

178 Simile, 104 Situational context, 71 Small capitals, 101 Source, 121 Space builders, 131 Spatial contiguity, 149 Specificity, 146 Spoonerism, 103 Structured, 35 Style, 1, 2, 12, 170 Stylistic devices, 1, 12, 170 Stylistics, 1, 2, 12, 170 Subjectivity, 63 Summary scanning, 159 Surface, 35 Symbolic, 33 Symbolic usage, 75, 76 Symbolism, 3 Synecdoche, 125 Synonymous, 40 Syntax, 9 T Target, 121 Tautology, 8, 102 Temporal contiguity, 149 Tenor, 121

Index Textualism, 69 Traditional Stylistics, 44 Trajector, 148 Truth-conditional, 143 U Understatement, 105 Unique, 2 Unit, 35 Universal Grammar, 117 Usage-based, 33 Usage events, 35 V Vantage point, 156 Variation, 8 Vehicle, 121 Verbiage, 103 Verbosity, 103 Viewing arrangement, 157 Voice, 152 Z Zero, 51 Zeugma, 105